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UCSB  LIBRARY 


THE 


LONDON  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


VOL    XIX. 


ROME    TO    SEDUCTION. 


J.  Haddon,  Printer,  Castle  Street,'  Uodou . 


THE 


LONDON    ENCYCLOPEDIA, 


UNIVERSAL  DICTIONARY 


SCIENCE,  ART,  LITERATURE,  AND  PRACTICAL  MECHANICS, 


COMPRISING    A 


POPULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  PRESENT  STATE  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


ILLUSTRATED    BY 


NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS,  A  GENERAL  ATLAS, 

AND  APPROPRIATE  DIAGRAMS. 


Sic  oportet  a<l  librum,  presertim  miieellanei  generis,  legendum  accedere  lectorem,  »c  solet  ail  convivium  conviva 
ci»ili9.  I'oimvatiir  annititur  omnibus  tatisfacere  ;  et  tamen  si  quid  appouitur,  quod  hujus  ant  illius  palato  non 

Erarmns. 

A  reader  sboulil  sit  down  to  a  book,  especially  of  the  miscellaneous  kind,  as  a  well-behaved  visitor  does  to  a  ban- 
quet. The  master  of  the  feast  exerts  himself  to  satisfy  his  guests  ;  but  if,  after  all  his  care  and  pains,  something  should 
appear  on  the  table  that  does  not  suit  this  or  that  person's  tastr,  they  politely  pass  it  over  without  notice,  and  commend 
other  dishes,  that  they  may  not  distress  a  kind  host.  Traittlaliox. 


BY  THE  ORIGINAL  EDITOR  OF  THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  METROPOLITANA, 

ASSISTED    BY    EMINENT    PROFESSIONAL    AND    OTHER    GENTLEMEN. 

IN   TWENTY-TWO  VOLUMES. 
VOL    XIX. 


LONDON : 
PRINTED   FOR  T.   TEGG  &  SON,   73,   CHEAPSIDE; 

R.  GRIFFIN  &  Co.,  GLASGOW;    T.  T.  &  H.  TEGG,  DUBLIN;    ALSO  .T.  &  S.  A.  TEGG, 
SYDNEY  AND  HOBART  TOWN. 

1837. 


THE 


LONDON    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ROME. 


CARUS,  NIMERIAX,  AND  CAUixus. — Carus, 
who  was  praetorian  prefect  to  the  deceased  em- 
peror, was  chosen  by  the  army  to  succeed  him  ; 
and  he,  to  strengthen  his  authority,  united 
with  him  his  two  sons  Carinus  and  Numerian 
in  command ;  the  former  of  whom  was  as  re- 
markable for  his  vices,  as  the  latter  was  for 
his  virtues.  Carus  had  scarcely  time  to  punish 
the  murderers  of  the  late  monarch,  when  he  was 
alarmed  by  a  fresh  irruption  of  the  Sarmatians, 
over  whom  he  gained  a  signal  victory.  The 
Persian  monarch  also  made,  some  attempts  upon 
the  empire ;  but  Carus  assured  his  ambassadors 
that,  if  their  master  persisted  in  his  obstinacy, 
all  his  fields  should  shortly  be  as  bare  as  his  own 
bald  head:  a  dreadful  battle  ensuing,  he  once 
more  gained  a  complete  victory.  But  he  was 
shortly  after  struck  dead  by  lightning  in  his  tent, 
with  many  others  around  him.  Numerianus  was 
inconsolable  for  his  death ;  and  brought  a  dis- 
order upon  his  eyes,  we  are  told,  with  weeping. 
The  peculiarity  of  his  situation,  after  some  time, 
excited  the  ambition  of  Aper,  his  father-in- 
law,  who  supposed  that  he  could  now,  with- 
out danger,  aim  at  the  empire  himself.  He 
therefore  hired  a  villain  to  murder  the  emperor 
in  his  litter ;  and,  to  conceal  the  fact,  gave  out 
that  he  was  alive,  but  unable  to  endure  the  light. 
In  this  manner  was  the  dead  body  carried  about 
for  some  days,  Aper  continuing  to  attend  it  with 
the  utmost  respect,  and  to  take  orders  as  usual. 
However,  the  offensiveness  of  its  smell,  at  length 
discovered  the  treachery,  and  excited  a  univer- 
sal uproar.  In  the  midst  of  this  tumult,  Dio- 
clesian, one  of  the  most  noted  commanders  of 
his  time,  was  chosen  emperor,  and  with  his  own 
hand  slew  Aper,  having  thus,  as  it  is  said,  ful- 
filled a  prophecy,  that  he  should  be  emperor 
after  he  had  slain  a  boar,  alluding  to  the  name 
of  his  rival.  Carinus  did  not  long  survive  his 
father  and  brother;  for  givirig  himself  up  to  his 
vices,  and  opposing  the  new-made  emperor,  the 
competitors  led  their  forces  into  Moesia ;  where, 
Dioclesian  being  victorious,  Carinus  was  slain 
by  a  tribune  of  his  own  army,  whose  wife  he 
had  formerly  abused. 

DIOCLESIAN  AND  MAXIMIAN. — Dioclesian  re- 
ceived his  name  from  Dioclea,  the  town  in  which 
he  was  born ;  and  was  about  forty  years  old 
when  he  was  elected  emperor.  He  pardoned  all 
who  had  joined  Carinus.  Conscious  also  that 
the  weight  of  the  empire  was  too  heavy  for 
one  alone  to  sustain,  he  took  in  Maximian,  his 
general,  as  a  partner  in  the  throne.  There  never 
was  a  period  in  which  the  empire  had  more  tt*- 
inerous  or  formidable  enemies  to  oppose,  ^n 
VOL.  XIX.— PART  1. 


Gaul  the  peasants  and  laborers  made  a  dar.- 
geruus  insurrection,  under  Amandus  and  Heliz.- 
nus,  but  were  subdued  by  Maximian.  Achilleus, 
who  commanded  in  Egypt,  proclaimed  him- 
self emperor;  and  it  was  not  without  many- 
bloody  engagements  that  he  was  overcome. 
In  Africa,  the  Roman  legions,  joined  with  many 
of  the  natives,  seized  upon  the  public  revenues, 
and  plundered  those  who  continued  in  their 
duty.  These  were  also  subdued  by  Maximian. 
About  the  same  time  a  principal  commander  in 
Britain,  named  Carausius,  then  proclaimed 
himself  emperor,  and  possessed  himself  of  the 
island.  To  oppose  this  general,  Maximian  made 
choice  of  Constantius  Chlorus,  whom  he  created 
Cassar,  and  married  to  Theodora  his  daughter-in- 
law.  About  this  time  also  Narses,  king  of  Persia, 
began  a  dangerous  war,  and  invaded  Mesopota- 
mia. The  Persians,  however,  were  overcome  in 
a  decisive  engagement,  and  their  camp  plundered 
and  taken.  There  only  remained,  of  all  the  ene- 
mies of  the  empire,  those  who  lay  to  the  north- 
ward, the  Goths,  Sarmatians,  Alani,  Quadi,  &c., 
who  poured  down  in  incredible  numbers.  Du- 
ring this  period,  as  if  the  external  miseries  of  the 
empire  had  not  been  sufficient,  the  tenth  and 
last  great  persecution  raged  against  the  Chris- 
tians. It  exceeded  all  the  former  in  severity  ; 
and,  such  was  the  zeal  with  which  it  was  pursued, 
that,  in  an  ancient  inscription,  we  are  informed 
that  they  had  effaced  the  name  and  superstition 
of  the  Christians.  .Their  attempts,  however, 
were  but  the  malicious  efforts  of  an  expiring 
party ;  for  Christianity  soon  after  was  established 
by  law.  In  the  midst  of  the  troubles  raised  by 
this  persecution,  and  of  the  contests  that  struck 
at  the  internal  parts  of  the  state,  Dioclesian  and 
Maximian  surprised  the  world  by  resigning  their 
dignities  on  the  same  day,  and  both  retiring  into 
private  stations.  Historians  are  much  divided 
concerning  the  motives  that  thus  induced  them 
to  give  up  those  honors  which  they  had  pur- 
chased with  so  much  danger.  When  some  at- 
tempted to  persuade  Dioclesian  to  resume  the 
empire,  he  replied,  *  That,  if  they  knew  his  pre- 
sent happiness,  they  would  rather  endeavour  to 
imitate  than  disturb  it.'  Maximian,  his  partner 
in  the  empire  and  in  resignation,  was  by  no 
means  so  contented.  He  conducted  various  in- 
trigues for  a  return  to  power,  and  endeavouring 
to  force  his  own  daughter,  and  destroy  her  hus- 
band, he  was  detected',  and  condemned  to  die  by 
whatever  death  he  should  think  proper ;  Lac- 
tantius  tells  us  that  he  chose  hanging. 

CONSTANTIUS   CHLORUS,  AND   GALERIUS. — 
Upon  the  resignation  of  the  two  emperors  the 

B 


R     O     M     E. 


two  Caesars  \vcrc  universally  acknowledged  as 
their  successors.  They  agreed  to  divide  the  em- 
pire, Constantius  being  appointed  to  govern  the 
western  paits;  namely,  Italy,  Sicily,  the  greatest 
part  of  Africa,  together  with  Spain,  Gaul,  Bri- 
tain, and  Germany  :  Galerius  had  the  eastern 
parts;  to  wit,  lllyricum,  Pannonia, Thrace,  Ma- 
cedonia, all  the  provinces  of  Greece,  and  the 
Lesser  Asia,  with  Egypt,  Syria,  Judea,  and  all 
the  countries  eastward.  The  greatness  of  the 
division,  however,  soon  induced  the  emperors  to 
take  in  two  partners  more,  Severus  and  Maxi- 
min, who  were  made  Caesars,  and  assisted  in  the 
conducting  of  affairs :  so  that  the  empire  now 
was  under  the  guidance  of  four  persons,  all  in- 
vested with  supreme  authority.  We  are  informed 
l>ut  of  few  particulars  of  the  reign  of  Constantius, 
except  a  detail  of  his  character,  which  appears 
in  every  light  most  amiable.  In  the  second  year 
of  his  reign  he  went  over  into  Britain  ;  and, 
leaving  his  son  Constantine  as  a  kind  of  hostage 
in  the  court  of  his  partner  in  the  empire,  took 
up  his  residence  at  York.  Here,  when  ill  past 
recovery,  he  sent  for  him,  and,  raising  himself 
up  in  his  bed,  gave  him  his  dying  instructions. 
In  the  mean  time  Galerius,  Constantius's  partner, 
being  informed  of  Constantine's  advancement, 
testified  the  most  ungovernable  rage;  declar- 
ing Severus  emperor  in  opposition.  About 
this  time  also  another  pretender  to  the  empire 
started  u]>.  This  was  Maxentius,  who  was  very 
much  favored  by  the  soldiers,  whom  he  permitted 
to  pillage  at  discretion.  To  oppose  Maxentius 
Severus  led  a  numerous  army  towards  Rome; 
but  his  soldiers,  considering  against  whom  they 
were  to  fight,  immediately  abandoned  him.  To 
revenge  his  death  Galerius  marched  into  Italy, 
resolving  to  destroy  the  whole  senate.  His  sol- 
diers however,  upon  approaching  the  capital, 
began  to  waver ;  when  he  had  recourse  to  en- 
treaties, imploring  them  not  to  abandon  him ; 
and,  retiring,  made  Licinius,  the  son  of  a  poor 
laborer  in  Dacia,  Caesar,  in  the  room  of  Severus. 
Soon  after  lie  was  seized  with  a  disorder  which 
baffled  all  the  skill  of  his  physicians,  and  carried 
him  off  after  he  had  languished  in  torments  for 
nearly  a  year.  His  cruelty  to  the  Christians  was 
one  of  the  many  crimes  alleged  against  him;  but 
he  abated  much  of  his  severities  against  them 
in  his  illness. 

MAXENTIUS. — Constantine,  being  thus  deli- 
yered  from  his  greatest  opponent,  now  possessed 
more  power  than  any  of  his  rivals.  The  empire 
was  at  that  time  divided  between  him  and  three 
others :  Maxentius,  who  governed  in  Rome,  a 
person  of  a  cruel  disposition,  and  a  stedfast  sup- 
porter of  paganism;  Licinius,  who  was  adopte  I 
by  Galerius,  and  commanded  in  the  east;  ami 
Maximin,  who  had  formerly  been  declaredCaesar 
with  Severus,  and  who  also  governed  some  of 
the  eastern  provinces.  For  some  time  all  things 
seemed  to  wear  a  peaceful  appearance:  till  either 
ambition  or  the  tyrannical  conduct  of  Maxentius 
induced  Constantine  to  engage  in  an  expedition 
V>  expel  that  commander  from  Rome,  and  to 
make  the  proper  preparations  for  marching  into 
Italy.  Upon  this  occasion  he  formed  a  resolu- 
tion which  produced  a  mii>hty  change  in  tin  i.n- 
lilics  as  well  as  the  morals  of  mankind,  and  gave 


a  new  turn  to  the  councils  of  the  wise  and  the 
pursuits  of  the  ambitious.  See  in  his  life,  article 
CO.\>TAXTINK,  the  account  of  his  conversion  to 
Christianity.  After  this  he  consulted  with  several 
of  the  principal  teachers  of  Christianity,  and  made 
a  public  avowal  of  that  persuasion,  thus  attaching 
to  his  interest  his  soldiers,  who  were  mostly 
Christians.  He  lost  no  time  in  entering  Italy 
with  90,000  foot  and  8000  horse ;  and  soon  ad- 
vanced to  the  very  gates  of  Rome.  Maxentius, 
who  had  long  given  himself  up  to  ease  and  de- 
baucheries, now  began  to  make  preparations 
when  it  was  too  late.  lie  first  put  in  practice  all 
the  superstitious  rites  which  paganism  taught  to 
be  necessary  ;  and  then  consulted  the  Sibylline 
books,  whence  he  was  informed  that  on  that  day 
the  great  enemy  of  Rome  should  perish.  Tiu> 
prediction,  which  was  equivocal,  he  applied  to 
Constantino;  wherefore,  leaving  all  things  in  tin- 
best  posture,  he  advanced  from  the  city  with  an 
army  of  100,000  foot  and  18,000  horse"  The  en- 
gagement was  for  some  time  fierce  and  bloody  : 
till,  his  cavalry  being  routed,  victory  declared 
upon  the  side  of  his  opponent,  and  he  himself 
was  drowned  in  his  flight  by  the  breaking  down 
of  a  bridge,  as  he  attempted  to  cross  the  river 
Tiber.  Constantine,  in  consequence  of  this  vic- 
tory, entering  the  city,  disclaimed  all  the  praises 
which  the  senate  and  people  were  ready  to  ofler, 
ascribing  his  success  to  a  superior  power,  lie 
even  caused  the  cross,  which  he  was  said  to  have- 
seen  in  the  heavens,  to  be  placed  at  the  right  of 
all  his  statues,  with  this  inscription  :  '  That,  un- 
der the  influence  of  that  victorious  ensign,  Con- 
stantine had  delivered  the  city  from  the  yoke  of 
tyrannical  power.'  He  afterwards  ordained  that 
no  criminal  should  for  the  future  sufl'er  death  l>\ 
the  cross;  and  edicts  were  soon  after  issued,  de- 
claring that  the  Christians  should  be  eased  from 
their  grievances,  and  received  into  places  of  trust 
and  authority.  Thus  the  new  religion  soon  pre- 
vailed over  the  whole  empire. 

CONSTANTINE  AND  LiciNirs. — While  this 
great  change  was  proceeding,  Maximin,  wh  • 
governed  in  the  east,  marched  against  Licinius  with 
a  very  numerous  army  ;  but  a  general  engagement 
ensued,  in  which  Maximin  suffered  a  total  defeat. 
Maximin,  however,  having  escaped  the  carnage, 
once  more  put  himself  at  the  head  of  another  ar- 
my, resolving  to  try  the  fortune  of  the  field  ;  but 
death  anticipated  his  designs.  Conslantine  arid 
Licinius  being  now  undisputed  possessors  and  part- 
ners in  the  empire,  all  things  promised  a  peaceable 
continuance  of  their  friendship  and  power.  I'.i- 
gan  writers  ascribe  the  rupture  that  unexpectedly 
took  place  between  these  two  potentates  to  Con- 
stantine ;  while  the  Christians,  on  the  other  hand, 
impute  it  to  Licinius.  Both  sides  exerted  al1 
their  power,  as  usual,  to  prevail,  and,  at  the  head 
of  very  formidable  armies,  came  to  an  enp 
ment  near  Cybalis,  in  Pannonia.  Previous  to 
the  battle  Constantine,  in  the  midst  of  the 
Christian  bishops,  begged  the  assistance  ot 
Hi  iven;  while  Licinius,  with  equal  zeal,  called 
upon  the  pagan  priests  to  intercede  with  the  gods. 
Constantine,  after  an  obstinate  resistance  from 
the  enemy,  became  victorious  ;  took  their  camp ; 
and,  after  some  time,  compelled  Licinius  to  sue 
for  a  short  truce.  It  was  indeed  short :  but  we  hav« 


ROME. 


pursued  the  rest  of  the  history  of  the  first  of  the 
Christian  emperors  in  the  article  referred  to.  He 
conceived  and  executed  the  bold  measure  of 
transferring  the  seat  of  the  empire  from  Rome  to 
Constantinople.  The  empire  had  long  before 
been  in  the  most  declining  state;  but  this  gave 
precipitation  to  its  downfall :  it  never  after  re- 
sumed its  former  splendor.  The  inhabitants  of 
Rome,  though  with  reluctance,  submitted  to  the 
change ;  nor  was  there  for  several  years  any  dis- 
turbance in  the  state,  until  the  Goths  renewed 
their  inroads  on  the  Danube.  Constantine, 
however,  soon  repressed  their  incursions,  and  so 
straightened  them  that  nearly  100,000  of  their 
number  perisbed.  The  government  of  the  em- 
pire was  afterwards  divided  as  follows : — Con- 
stantine, the  emperor's  eldest  son,  commanded  in 
Gaul  and  the  western  provinces;  Constantius 
governed  Africa  and  Illyricum;  and  Constans 
ruled  in  Italy.  Dalmatius,  the  emperor's  brother, 
was  sent  to  defend  those  parts  that  bordered 
upon  the  Goths;  and  Annibalianus,  his  nephew, 
had  the  charge  of  Cappadocia  and  Armenia 
Minor.  The  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tine was  peaceful  and  splendid ;  ambassadors 
from  the  remotest  Indies  came  to  acknowledge 
his  authority ;  the  Persians,  who  were  ready  for 
fresh  inroads,  upon  finding  him  prepared  to  op- 
pose, sent  humbly  to  desire  his  friendship  and 
forgiveness.  He  died  at  above  sixty  years  old, 
and  had  reigned  above  thirty  years. 

COXSTANTINE'S  SONS. — After  the  death  of 
Constantine,  the  army  and  senate  proclaimed 
his  three  sons  emperors,  without  taking  any  no- 
tice of  Dalmatius,  and  Annibalianus,  who  were 
soon  after  murdered,  with  Julius  Constantinus 
the  late  emperor's  brother,  and  all  their  friends 
and  adherents.  Thus  the  family  of  Constantine 
was  reduced  to  the  three  sons  and  three  ne- 
phews ;  Gallus  and  Julian,  the  sons  of  Julius 
Constantius,  and  Nepotianus,  the  son  of  Eutro- 
pia,  Constantine's  sister.  Of  these  Gallus  owed 
his  life  to  a  malady,  from  which  no  one  thought 
he  could  recover;  and  Julian  to  his  infancy, 
boiim  then  only  seven  years  of  age.  The  three 
brothers  divided  among  themselves  the  domi- 
nions of  the  deceased  princes;  but  did  not  long 
agree.  In  340  Constantine,  having  in  vain  soli- 
cited Constans  to  yield  part  of  Italy  to  him, 
raised  a  considerable  army ;  and  under  pretence 
of  marching  to  the  assistance  of  his  brother 
Constantius,  who  was  then  at  war  with  the  Per- 
sians, made  himself  master  of  several  places  in 
Italy.  Hereupon  Constans  detached  part  of  his 
army  against  him ;  and  Constantine,  being  drawn 
into  an  ambuscade  near  Aquileia,  was  cut  off 
with  his  whole  forces.  .His  body  was  thrown 
into  the  Ansa ;  but,  being  afterwards  discovered, 
was  sent  to  Constantinople,  and  interred  near 
that  of  his  father.  By  the  defeat  and  death  of 
his  brother,  Constans  remained  sole  master  of 
all  the  western  empire,  in  the  quiet  possession 
of  which  he  continued  till  the  year  350.  This 
year  Magnentius,  the  son  of  a  native  of  Ger- 
many, finding  Constans  despised  by  the  army  on 
account  of  his  indolence  and  inactivity,  resolved 
to  murder  him,  and  set  up  for  himself,  Having 
gained  over  the  chief  officers  of  the  army,  he 
seized  on  the  Imperial  palace  at  Autun,  and  dis- 


tributed among  the  populace  what  s-uns  he 
found  ;  which  induced  not  only  the  city,  but  the 
neighbouring  country,  to  espouse  his  cause. 
Constans  being  informed  of  what  had  passed, 
and  finding  himself  unable  to  resist  the  usurper, 
fled  towards  Spain.  He  was  overtaken,  how- 
ever, by  Gaiso,  whom  Magnentius  had  sent  after 
him  with  a  body  of  troops,  and  despatched  at 
Helena,  near  the  foot  of  ihe  Pyrenees. 

CONSTANTIUS. — Constantius  had  been  engaged 
in  a  war  with  the  Persians,  in  which  little  ad- 
rantage  had  been  gained  on  either  side ;  but,  the 
Persians  now  giving  no  more  disturbance,  he 
marched  against  the  usurpers ;  for  besides  Mag- 
nentius there  were  at  this  time  two  other -pre- 
tenders to  the  western  empire.  Veteranio,  gene- 
ral of  the  foot  in  Pannonia,  had  on  the  first  news 
of  the  death  of  Constans,  caused  himself  to  be 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions  under  his 
command.  He  was  a  native  of  Upper  Moesia, 
and  advanced  in  years  when  he  usurped  the 
sovereignty ;  but  so  illiterate  that  he  then  first 
learned  to  read.  The  third  was  Flavius  Popi- 
lius  Nepotianus,  who  claimed  right  as  nephew 
of  Constantine  the  Great.  Having  assembled  a 
company  of  gladiators  and  men  of  desperate 
fortunes  he  assumed  the  purple  on  the  3d  of 
June  350,  and  in  that  attire  presented  himself 
before  the  gates  of  Rome.  The  prefect  Ani- 
cetus,  who  commanded  there  for  Magnentius, 
sallied  out  against  him  with  a  body  of  Romans  ; 
who  were  soon  driven  back  into  the  city.  Soon 
after  Nepotianus  made  himself  master  of  the 
city  itself,  which  he  filled  with  blood  and 
slaughter.  Magnentius,  being  informed  of  what 
had  happened,  sent  against  this  new  competitor 
his  chief  favorite  Marcellinus.  Nepotianus  re- 
ceived him  with  great  resolution ;  a  battle  en- 
sued between  the  soldiers  of  Magnentius  and 
the  Romans  who  had  espoused  the  cause  of 
Nepotianus  ;  but  the  latter  being  betrayed  by  a 
senator,  named  Heraclitus,  his  men  were  put  to 
flight,  and  he  himself  killed,  after  having  en- 
joyed the  sovereignty  only  twenty-eight  days. 
Marcellinus  ordered  his  head  to  be  carried  on 
the  point  of  a  lance  through  the  principal  streets 
of  the  city  ;  put  to  death  all  those  who  had  de- 
clared for  him ;  and,  under  pretence  of  prevent- 
ing disturbances,  commanded  a  general  massacre 
of  all  the  relations  of  Constantine.  Soon  after, 
Magnentius  himself  came  to  Rome  to  make  the 
necessary  preparations  for  resisting  Constantius, 
who  was  exerting  himself  to  the  utmost  to  re- 
venge the  death  of  his  brother.  In  the  city  he 
behaved  most  tyrannically:  put  to  death  many 
persons  of  distinction ;  seized  their  estates ;  and 
obliged,  the  rest  to  contribute  half  of  what  they 
were  worth  towards  the  expense  of  the  war 
Having  thus  raised  great  sums,  he  assembled  ar 
army  of  Romans,  Germans,  Gauls,  Franks,  Bri- 
tons, Spaniards,  &c. ;  but,  dreading  the  uncertain 
issues  of  war,  he  despatched  ambassadors  to 
Constantius  with  proposals  of  accommodation. 
Constantius  set  out  from  Antioch  about  the  be- 
ginning of  autumn ;  and,  passing  through  Con- 
stantinople, arrived  at  Hfraclea,  where  he  was 
met  by  the  deputies  of  Magnentius,  and  others 
from  Veteranio,  who  had  agreed  to  support  each 
other  in  case  the  emperor  would  hearken  to  no 


ROME. 


terms.  The  deputies  of  Magnentius  proposed 
a  match  between  him  and  Constantina,  the  sister 
of  Constantius,  and  widow  of  Annibaliauus ; 
offering,  at  the  same  time,  to  Constantius  the 
sister  of  Magneiitius.  T^e  emperor  would 
hearken  to  no  terms  with  Magnentius ;  but,  that 
he  might  not  have  to  oppose  two  enemies  at 
once,  concluded  a  separate  treaty  with  Veteranio, 
by  which  he  agreed  to^ake  him  for  his  partner 
in  the  empire.  But,  wnen  Veteranio  ascended 
the  tribunal  along  with  Constantius,  the  soldiers 

Eul'ed  him  down,  saying  they  would  acknow- 
idge  no  emperor  but  Constantius.  On  this 
Veteranio  threw  himself  at  the  emperor's  feet, 
and  implored  his  mercy.  Constantius  received 
him  with  great  kindness,  and  sent  him  into 
Bithynia,  where  he  allowed  him  a  maintain- 
ence  suitable  to  his  quality.  Now  master 
of  all  Illyricum,  and  of  the  army  commanded 
by  Veteranio,  Constantius  resolved  to  march 
against  Magnentius.  In  the  mean  time,  how- 
ever, on  advice  that  the  Persians  were  preparing 
to  invade  the  eastern  provinces,  he  married 
his  sister  Constantina  to  his  cousin  german 
Callus ;  created  him  Caesar  on  the  15th  of 
March ;  and  allotted  him  for  his  share  not  only 
all  the  east,  but  likewise  Thrace  and  Constanti- 
nople. 

About  the  same  time  Magnentius  gave  the  title 
of  Caesar  to  his  brother  Decentius,  whom  he  des- 
patched intoGau!  to  defend  that  country  against 
the  barbarians  who  had  invaded  it;  for  Constantius 
had  not  only  stirred  up  the  Franks  and  Saxons  to 
break  into  that  province  by  promising  to  relin- 
quish to  them  all  the  places  they  should  conquer, 
but  had  sent  him  large  supplies  of  men  and  arms 
for  that  purpose.  On  this  encouragement  the 
barbarians  invaded  Gaul  with  a  great  army,  over- 
threw Decentius  in  a  pitched  battle,  committed 
every  where  dreadful  ravages,  and  reduced  the 
country  to  a  most  deplorable  situation.  Mean 
time  Maenentius,  having  assembled  a  numerous 
army,  left  Italy,  and,  crossing  the  Alps,  advanced 
into  the  plains  of  Pannonia,  where  Constantius, 
whose  main  strength  consisted  of  cavalry,  was 
waiting  for  him.  Magnentius,  hearing  that  his 
competitor  was  encamped  at  a  small  distance, 
invited  him  by  a  messenger  to  the  extensive 
plains  of  Sciscia  on  the  Sauve,  there  to  decide 
which  of  them  had  the  best  title  to  the  empire. 
This  challenge  was  by  Constantius  received  with 
great  joy;  but,  as  his  troops  marched  towards 
Sciscia  in  disorder,  they  fell  into  an  ambuscade, 
and  were  put  to  flight.  With  this  success  Mag- 
nentius was  so  elated  that  he  rejected  all  terms 
of  peace  ;  after  some  time,  a  general  engagement 
ensued  at  Mursa,  in  which  Magnentius  was  en- 
tirely defeated,  with  the  loss  of  24,000  men. 
Constantius,  though  victor,  is  said  to  have  lost 
30,000.  All  authors  agree  that  the  battle  proved 
fatal  to  the  western  empire,  and  greatly  con- 
tributed to  its  speedy  decline.  After  his  defeat 
at  Mursa,  Magnentius  retired  into  Italy,  where 
he  recruited  his  scattered  forces  as  well  as  he 
could.  But  in  the  beginning  of  the  following 
year,  352,  Constantius,  having  assembled  his 
troops,  surprised  and  took  a  strong  castle  on  the 
Julian  Alp?,  belonging  to  Magnentius,  without 
Jlie  loss  of  a  m;m.  After  this  the  emperor  ad- 


vanced in  order  to  force  the  rest ;  upon  which 
M-uiienlius  was  struck  with  such  terror  that  he 
immediately  abandoned  Aquileia,  and  ordered 
the  troops  that  guarded  the  other  passes  of  the 
Alps  to  follow  him.  Thus  Constantius,  entering 
Italy  without  opposition,  made  himself  master 
of  Aquileia.  Thence  he  advanced  to  1'avia. 
where  Magnentius  gained  a  considerable  ad- 
vantage over  him.  Notwithstanding  this  loss, 
Constantius  reduced  the  whole  country  bordeunc 
on  the  Po,  and  Magnentius's  men  deserted  i>> 
him  in  whole  troops,  delivering  up  to  him  tlif 
places  they  had  garrisoned;  by  which  the  tyrant 
was  so  disheartened  that  he  left  Italy,  and  retired 
with  all  his  forces  into  Gaul.  Soon  after  this, 
Africa,  Sicily,  and  Spain,  declared  tor  Constan- 
tinus;  upon  which  Magnentius  sent  a  senator, 
and  after  him  some  bishops,  to  treat  of  a  j.eace; 
but  the  emperor  treated  the  senator  as  a  spv, and 
sent  back  the  bishops  without  an  answer.  Find- 
ing his  affairs  now  desperate,  and  that  there  \\  a> 
no  hopes  of  pardon,  Magnentius  recruited  his 
army  in  the  best  manner  he  could,  and  despatched 
an  assassin  into  the  east  to  murder  GallusCssar. 
The  assassin  gained  over  some  of  Gallus's  guards  ; 
but  the  plot  being  discovered  they  were  all  seized 
and  executed  as  traitors.  In  353  the  war  against 
Magnentius  was  carried  on  with  more  vigor  than 
ever,  and  at  last  happily  ended  by  a  battle  fought 
in  that  part  of  Gaul  afterwards  called  Dauphiny. 
Magnentius,  being  defeated,  took  shelter  in 
Lyons:  but  the  few  soldiers  who  attended  him, 
despairing  of  any  further  success,  resolved  to 
purchase  the  emperor's  favor  by  delivering  up  to 
him  his  rival.  Accordingly  they  surrounded  the 
house  where  he  lodged  ;  upon  which  the  tyrant, 
in  despair,  slew  with  his  own  hand  his  mother, 
hte  brother  Desiderius,  whom  he  had  created 
Caesar,  and  such  of  his  friends  and  relations  as 
were  with  him  ;  and  then,  fixing  his  sword  in  a 
wall,  threw  himself  upon  it.  After  the  death  of 
Magnentius,  his  brother  Decentius,  finding  him- 
self surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  emperor's 
forces,  chose  also  to  strangle  himself.  Thus 
Constantius  was  left  sole  master  of  the  Roman 
empire.  His  panegyrists  say  that  after  his  vic- 
tory he  behaved  with  the  greatest  humanity,  for- 
giving and  receiving  into  favor  his  greatest 
enemies,  other  historians  tell  us  that  he  now 
became  haughty,  imperious,  and  cruel,  of  which 
many  instances  are  given.  In  this  year,  353,  the 
empire  was  subject  to  very  grievous  calamities. 
Gaul  was  ravaged  by  the  barbarians  beyond  the 
Rhine,  and  the  disbanded  troops  of  Magnentius  : 
at  Rome  the  populace  rose  on  account  of  a 
scarcity  of  provisions.  In  Asia  the  Isauriau 
robbers  over-ran  Lycaonia  and  Pamphylia  and 
laid  siege  to  Seleucia.  At  the  same  time  the 
Saracens  committed  dreadful  ravages  in  Mesopo- 
tamia; the  Persians  also  invaded  the  prov, 
of  Anthemitsia  on  the  Euphrates.  But  the  Eas- 
tern provinces  were  not  so  much  harassed  by 
barbarians  as  by  Gallus  Caesar  himself,  who 
ought  to  have  protected  them.  That  prince  \\ 
naturally  of  a  cruel,  haughty,  and  tyrannical 
disposition  ;  but,  elated  with  his  successes  acamst 
the  Persians,  he  at  last  behaved  like  a  madman. 
His  cruelty  is  said  to  have  been  heiulit.Miwl  by 
the  instigations  of  his  wife  Constantinn,  who  is 


ROME. 


by  Ammianus  styled  tlie  Megwra,  or  'fury  of 
her  sex  ;'  and  lie  adds  that  her  ambition  was 
equal  to  her  cruelty.  Thus  all  the  provinces  and 
cities  in  the  east  were  filled  with  blood  and 
misery.  No  man,  however  innocent,  was  sure 
to  live  or  enjoy  his  estate  a  whole  day;  for, 
Callus's  temper  being  equally  suspicious  and 
cruel,  those  who  had  any  private  enemies  took 
care  to  accuse  them  of  crimes  against  the  state. 
At  last  the  emperor  being  informed  from  all 
quarters  of  his  conduct,  and  also  that  he  aspired 
to  the  sovereignty,  resolved  upon  his  ruin.  He 
wrote  letters  to  Gallus  and  Constantina,  inviting 
them  both  into  Italy,  and  they  durst  not  venture 
to  disobey  the  emperor's  express  command. 
Constantina,  who  was  well  acquainted  with  her 
brother's  temper,  set  out  first,  leaving  Gallus  at 
Antiocli :  but  she  hfd  scarcely  entered  the  pro- 
vince of  Bithynia,  when  she  was  seized  with  a 
fever  which  put  an  end  to  her  life.  Gallus,  now 
despairing  of  being  able  to  appease  his  sovereign, 
thought  of  openly  revolting;  but  most  of  his 
friends  deserted  him,  so  that  he  was  at  last 
obliged  to  submit  unreservedly  to  Constantius. 
He  advanced,  therefore,  according  to  his  orders; 
but  at  Pitavium  was  arrested,  and  stripped  of  all 
the  ensigns  of  dignity.  Thence  he  was  carried 
to  Flanona,  in  Dalmatia.  He  confessed  most  of 
the  crimes  laid  to  his  charge  ;  but  urged  as  an  ex- 
cuse the  evil  councils  of  his  late  wife.  The  em- 
peror, provoked  at  this  plea,  and  instigated  by  the 
enemies  of  Gallus,  signed  a  warrant  for  his  ex- 
ecution. All  this  time  the  emperor  had  been 
engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Germans;  and,  though 
he  gained  no  advantage,  the  barbarians  thought 
proper  to'  make  peace  with  him.  This,  however, 
w:is  but  short  lived.  No  sooner  was  the  Roman 
army  withdrawn,  than  they  began  to  make  new 
inroads.  Against  them  Constantius  despatched 
Arbelio  with  the  flower  of  the  army;  but  he  fell 
into  an  ambuscade,  and  was  put  to  flight  with 
great  loss.  This,  however,  was  soon  retrieved 
by  the  valor  of  Arintheus,  who  became  famous 
in  the  reign  of  Valens,  and  of  two  other  officers, 
who  falling  upon  the  enemy,  without  waiting  the 
orders  of  their  general,  put  them  to  flight,  and 
obliged  them  to  leave  the  Roman  territory.  The 
tranquillity  of  the  empire,  which  ensued  on  this 
repulse  of  the  Germans,  was  soon  interrupted 
by  a  pretended  conspiracy,  but  by  which  in  the 
end  a  true  one  was  produced.  Sylvanus,  a  lead- 
ing man  among  the  I' ranks,  commanded  in  Gaul, 
and  had  there  performed  great  exploits  against 
the  barbarians.  He  had  been  raised  to  his  post 
by  Arbetio,  only  with  a  design  to  remove  him 
from  the  emperor's  presence,  in  order  to  accom- 
plish his  ruin,  which  he  did  in  the  following 
manner :  one  Dynames,  leaving  Gaul,  begged 
of  Sylvanus  letters  of  recommendation  to  his 
friends  at  court ;  which  being  granted,  the  traitor 
erased  all  but  the  subscription.  He  then  inserted 
directions  to  the  friends  of  Sylvanns  for  the 
carrying  on  a  conspiracy  ;  and  delivering  these 
forged  letters  to  the  prefect  Lampridius,  they 
were  by  him  shown  to  the  emperor.  Thus  Syl- 
vanus was  in  a  manner  forced  into  revolt,  and 
caused  Inmself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor.  In  the 
mean  time,  Dynames  having  forged  another 
letter,  the  fraud  was  discovered,  and  an  enquiry 


set  on  foot,  which  brought  to  light  the  whole 
matter.  Sylvanus  was  declared  innocent,  and 
letters  sent  to  him  by  the  emperor  confirming 
him  in  his  post :  they  were  scarcely  despatched, 
when  the  news  arrived  of  Sylvanus  having  re- 
volted. Thunder-struck  at  this  news,  Constan- 
tius despatched  against  him  Ursicinus,  an  officer 
of  great  valor,  who,  pretending  to  be  Sylvanus's 
friend,  cut  him  off  by  treachery.  The  barba- 
rians, who  had  been  hitherto  kept  quiet  by  the 
brave  Sylvanus,  no  sooner  heard  of  his  death 
than  they  broke,  with  greater  fury  than  ever,  into 
Gaul  ;  and  took  and  pillaged  about  forty  cities, 
and  among  the  rest  Cologne,  which  they  levelled 
with  the  ground ;  while  the  Quadi  and  Sarma- 
tians,  entering  Pannonia,  destroyed  every  thing 
with  fire  and  sword.  The  Persians  overran, 
without  opposition,  Armenia  and  Mesopotamia  : 
Prosper  and  Mausonianus,  who  had  succeeded 
in  the  government  of  the  east,  being  more  in- 
tent upon  pillaging  than  defending  the  provinces 
committed  to  them.  Constantius,  not  thinking 
it  advisable  to  leave  Italy,  raised  his  cousin 
Julian  to  the  dignity  of  Caesar. 

Julian  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  extraordi- 
nary talents  ;  for  though  hitherto  entirely  buried 
in  obscurity,  and  conversant  only  with  books, 
no  sooner  was  he  placed  at  the  head  of  an  army 
than  he  behaved  with  the  greatest  bravery  and 
skill.  He  was  appointed  governor  of  Gaul;  but 
before  he  set  out  Constantius  gave  him  in  mar- 
riage his  sister  Helena.  He,  however,  limited 
his  authority  ;  gave  him  written  instructions 
how  to  behave  ;  ordered  the  generals  who  served 
under  him  to  watch  his  actions,  and  strictly  en- 
joined Julian  himself  not  to  give  any  largesses 
to  the  soldiery.  Julian  set  out  from  Milan  on 
the  1st  of  December  355,  the  emperor  himself 
accompanying  him  as  far  as  Pavia ;  whence  he 
pursued  his  journey  to  the  Alps,  attended  only 
by  360  soldiers.  On  his  arrival  at  Turin  he  was 
first  acquainted  with  the  loss  of  Cologne.  He 
arrived  at  Vienne  before  the  end  of  the  year  355. 
In  356  the  barbarians  besieged  Autun.  Julian 
marched  to  his  relief,  but  found  the  siege  raised  : 
on  which  he  pursued  the  barbarians  to  Auxerre 
and  Troies,  and  put  them  to  flight  with  a  handful 
of  men.  From  Troies  he  hastened  to  Rheims, 
where  the  main  body  of  the  army,  commanded 
by  Marcellus,  awaited  his  arrival.  Thence  he 
took  his  route  towards  Decempagi  (now  Dieuze), 
on  the  Seille  in  Lorrain,  to  oppose  the  Germans 
who  were  ravaging  that  province.  But  the  enemy 
attacking  his  rear  had  nearly  cut  off  two  legions. 
A  few  days  after  he  defeated  the  Germans, 
though  with  great  loss  to  his  own  army  :  the  vic- 
tory, however,  opened  him  a  way  to  Cologne. 
Here  he  caused  the  ancient  fortifications  to  be 
repaired,  and  the  houses  rebuilt ;  after  which  he 
took  up  his  winter  quarters  at  Sens.  Constan- 
tius entered  Germany  on  the  side  of  Rhuitia,  laid 
waste  the  country  far  and  wide ;  and  obliged  the 
barbarians  to  sue  for  peace.  He  enacted  two 
laws  :  1.  declaring  idolatry  capital  ;  and,  2. 
granting  the  effects  of  condemned  persons  to  their 
children  and  relations  within  the  third  degree. 
In  the  beginning  of  357  the  barbarians  besieged 
Julian  a  whole  month  in  Sens :  Marcellus,  the 
commander-in-c'iief,  never  once  offering  to  assist 


R    O     M     E. 


him.  Julian,  lu>-.%vver,  >o  valiantly  dr. 
himself  with  the  few  forces  he  had  that  the  bar- 
barians at  last  retired.  After  this  Constantms 
declared  Julian  commander-in-chief  of  all  the 
forces  in  Gaul ;  appointing  under  him  one  Seve- 
rus,  an  officer  of  great  experience,  and  of  a  quite 
different  disposition  from  Marcellus.  On  his 
arrival  Julian  raised  new  troops,  and  supplied 
them  with  arms  which  he  found  in  an  old  arse- 
nal. The  emperor,  resolving  to  put  a  stop  to 
the  terrihle  devastations  committed  chiefly  by 
the  Alemans,  wrote  to  Julian  to  march  directly 
against  them.  At  the  same  time  he  sent  Barbatio, 
the  successor  of  Sylvanus,  with  25,000  or  30,000 
men,  out  of  Italy,  in  order  to  enclose  the  enemy 
between  two  armies.  The  Leti,  however,  a  Ger- 
man nation,  passing  between  the  armies,  advanced 
as  far  as  Lyons,  hoping  to  surprise  that  wealthy 
city  ;  but,  meeting  with  a  warmer  reception  than 
they  expected,  contented  themselves  with  ra- 
vaging the  country  all  round  it.  On  the  first 
notice  of  this  expedition  Julian  detached  strong 
parties  to  guard  the  passages  through  which  he 
knew  the  barbarians  must  return.  Thus  they 
were  all  cut  off  except  those  who  marched  near 
the  camp  of  Barbatio ;  who  was  so  far  from  cut- 
ting off  their  retreat  that  he  complained  by  a 
letter  to  Constantius  of  some  officers  for  attempt- 
ing it.  These  officers,  among  whom  was  Valen- 
tinian,  afterwards  emperor  of  the  west,  were,  by 
the  orders  of  Constantius,  cashiered  for  their  dis- 
obedience. The  other  barbarians  either  fortified 
themselves  in  the  countries  which  they  had 
seized,  or  took  shelter  in  the  islands  formed  by 
the  Rhine.  Julian  resolved  first  to  attack  the 
latter ;  and  with  this  view  demanded  some  boats 
of  Barbatio;  but  he,  instead  of  complying  with 
his  request,  immediately  burnt  his  boats,  as  he 
did  on  another  occasion  the  provisions  which 
had  been  sent  to  both  armies,  after  he  had  plen- 
tifully supplied  his  own.  Julian,  not  in  the  least 
disheartened  with  this  unaccountable  conduct, 
persuaded  some  of  the  most  resolute  of  his  men 
to  wade  over  to  one  of  the  islands.  Here  they 
killed  all  the  Germans  who  had  taken  shelter  in 
it.  They  then  seized  their  boats,  and  pursued  the 
slaughter  in  several  other  islands,  till  the  enemy 
abandoned  them  ail,  and  retired,  with  their  wives 
and  booty,  to  their  respective  countries.  On  their 
departure  Barbatio  attempted  to  form  a  bridge 
of  boats  on  the  Rhine  ;  but  the  enemy,  apprised 
of  his  intention,  threw  a  great  number  of  huge 
'rees  into  the  river;  which,  being  carried  by  the 
stream  against  the  boats,  sunk  several  of  them. 
The  Roman  general  then  retired ;  but  the  har- 
barians,  falling  unexpectedly  upon  him,  cut  off 
numbers  of  his  men,  and  returned  loaded 
with  booty.  Elated  with  this  success  they  assem- 
bled in  great  numbers  under  the  command  of 
Cliiiodomarius,  a  prince  of  great  renown  among 
them,  and  six  oilier  kinjs.  They  encamped  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Strasburg.  Here  they 
were  encountered  by  Julian,  who  put  them  to 
flight  with  the  l«»s  «f  6000  or  8000  of  their  men 
slain  in  the  field,  ami  •mmbrr  drowned 

in  the  river;  while  Julian  himself  lost  only  243 
m*n  and  four  tribunes.  In  this  •K-II>>II  (')modo- 
marius  was  taken  and  sent  \<>  IJoiiif,  where  he 
foon  alter  died.  After  the  battle  Julian  advaniiJ 


with  all  his  army  to  Mayence,  where  he  built  a 
bridge  over  the  Rhine,  and,  having  with  difficulty 
prevailed  upon  his  army  to  follow  him,  entered 
Germany.  Here  he  ravaged  the  country,  till,  being 
prevented  by  snow  from  advancing,  he  began  to 
repair  the  fort  of  Trajan,  about  three  or  four 
leagues  from  Frankfort.     The  barbarians,  now 
alarmed,  sent  deputies  to  treat  of  a  peace  ;  but 
this  Julian  refused  to  grant  upon  any  terms.  lie 
consented,  however,  to  a  truce  of  seven  months, 
upon  their  promising  to  store  with  provisions 
the  fort  he  was  building.      In  358  he  took  the 
field  against  the  Franks,  who  were  divided  into 
several  tribes,  the  most  powerful  of  which  were 
the  Salii  and  Chamavi.      The  first  of  these  he 
soon   subdued ;  after   which    he   allotted   them 
lands  in  Gaul,  incorporating  great  numbers  into 
his  cavalry.     He  next  mardned  against  the  Cha- 
mavi, whom  he  defeated  and  obliged  to  retire 
beyond  the  Rhine.      Afterwards  he  rebuilt  three 
forts  on  the  Meuse,  which  had  been  destroyed 
by  the  barbarians ;  but,  wanting  provisions,  he 
ordered  600  or  800  vessels  to  be  built  in  Britain 
to  bring  corn   from  thence  into  Gaul.     Julian 
continued  in  the  country  of  the  Chauiavi  till  the 
expiration  of  his  truce  with  the  Alemans ,  and 
then,  laying  a  bridge  of  boats  over  the  Rhine, 
entered  their  country  with  fire  and  sword.     At 
last  two  of  their  kings  came  in  person  to  sue  for 
peace;  which  Julian  granted  on  their  promising 
to  set  at  liberty  the  captives  they  had  taken  ;  to 
supply  a  certain  quantity  of  corn  when  required  ; 
and  to  furnish  wood,  iron,  and  carriages,  for  re- 
pairing the  cities  they  had  ruined.  The  prisoners 
released  amounted  to  upwards  of  20,000.    Soon 
after  the  vernal   equinox   Constantius   marched 
against  the  Quadi  and  Sarmatians,  whose  country 
lay  beyond  the  Danube.     Having  crossed  that 
river  he  laid  waste  the  territories  of  the  Sarma- 
tians ;  who  thereupon  came  in  great  numbers, 
together  with  the  Quadi,  pretending  to  sue  for 
peace.     Their  true  design  was  to  surprise  the 
Romans;  but  the  latter,  suspecting  it,  fell  upon 
them  sword  in  hand.      This  obliged  the  rest  to 
sue  for  peace  in  earnest,  which  was  granted  on 
the  delivery  of  hostages.      The   emperor   then 
marched  against  the  Limigantes,  i.e.  the  si 
who,  in  334,  had  driven  the  Sarmatians  out  of 
their  country.     They  used  the  same  artifice  as 
the  Sarmatians  and  Quadi  had  done,  coming  in 
great  numbers  to  the  emperor  under  pretence  of 
submission,  but  prepared  to  fall  upon  him  unex- 
pectedly.  Observing  their  manner,  and  distrust- 
ing them,  he  caused  his  troops  to  surround  then* 
insensibly  while  he  was  speaking.     The  Li  mi 
gantes  then  displeased  with  the  conditions  he 
offered  them,  laid  their  hands  on  their  swords  . 
on  which  they  were  attacked  by  the  soldii 
and,  finding  it  impossible  to  escape,  made  with 
tury  towards  the  tribunal,  where  they  were 
cut  in  peices.      After  this  the  emperor  rava 
their  territories,  and  obliged   them  to  quit  the 
country,  which  was  then   restored  to  the  Samia- 
lian-.  This  yenr  a  iian-lity  eml>as>y  arrived  from 
Sapor  king  ot"  Persia, -vitii  a  letter,  in  which  that 
monarch  styled  himself  '  king  of  kings',  brother 
of  the  sun  and  moon,'  &c.,  acquainting  the  em- 
peror that,  though  he  nii^lit  insist  on   having  all 
the  countries  beym  1   t ',-.•  SiryiiH-n   i>  M.uedon 


ROME. 


delivered  up  to  him,  lie  would  be  contented  with 
Armenia  and  Mesopotamia,  which  had  been  un- 
justly taken  from  his  grandfather  Narses;  adding 
that,  unless  justice  was  done  him,  he  would 
assert  his  right  by  arms.  Constantius  wrote  in 
answer  that  as  lie  had  maintained  the  Roman 
dominions  in  their  full  extent  when  lie  was  pos- 
sessed only  of  the  east,  he  could  not  suffer  them 
to  be  curtailed  now  he  was  master  of  the  whole 
empire.  In  a  few  days,  however,  he  sent  ano- 
ther message  with  presents;  being  desirous  at 
least  to  put  off  the  war  till  he  had  secured  the 
northern  provinces.  This  embassy  proved  un- 
successful, as  did  also  another  which  was  sent 
soon  after. 

In  359  Julian  continued  his  endeavour  for  re- 
lieving Gaul  ;  erected  magazines  in  different 
places;  visited  the  cities  which  had  suffered 
most,  and  gave  orders  for  repairing  the  fortifica- 
tions. He  then  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  pursued 
the  war  in  Germany  with  such  success  that  the 
barbarians  submitted  to  his  own  terms.  in  the 
mean  time  the  emperor,  having  received  intelli- 
gence that  theLimigantes  had  quitted  the  country 
in  which  he  had  placed  them,  hastened  to  the 
banks  of  the  Danube,  in  order  to  prevent  their 
entering  Pannonia,  and  nearly  extirpated  them. 
This  year  Constantius  instituted  a  court  of  inqui- 
sition against  all  those  who  consulted  heathen 
oracles.  Paulus  Catena,  a  cruel  informer,  was 
despatched  into  the  east  to  prosecute  them ;  and 
Modestus,  equally  remarkable  for  his  cruelty, 
was  appointed  judge.  His  tribunal  was  erected 
at  Scythopolis  in  Palestine,  whither  persons  of 
botli  sexes,  and  of  every  rank  and  condition, 
were  daily  dragged  in  crowds  from  all  parts,  and 
torn  in  pieces  by  racks,  or  publicly  executed. 
In  359  Sapor  .king  of  Persia  began  hostilities. 
During  the  campaign,  however,  he  made  little 
progress ;  having  only  taken  two  Roman  forts, 
and  destroyed  the  city  of  Amida,  the  siege  of 
which  is  said  to  have  cost  him  30,000  men.  On 
the  first  news  o?  the  invasion,  Constantius  had 
sent  Ursicinus  into  the  east ;  but  his  enemies 
prevented  him  from  receiving  the  supplies  ne- 
cessary for  carrying  on  the  war.  On  his  return, 
he  was  charged  witli  the  loss  of  Amida,  and  all 
the  disasters  that  had  happened  during  the  cam- 
paign. Two  judges  were  appointed  to  enquire 
niio  his  conduct ;  but  they  left  the  matter  doubt- 
f u  .  On  this  Ursicinus  was  so  much  exasperated 
tlut  he  appealed  to  the  emperor,  and,  in  the  heat 
«>f  passion,  let  fall  some  unguarded  expressions, 
for  which  he  was  deprived  of  all  his  employ- 
ments. Constantius  resolved  to  march  next  year 
in  persou  against  the  Persians,  and  wrote  to 
Julian  to  send  him  part  of  his  forces,  without 
considering  that  by  so  doing  he  would  have  left 
Gaul  exposed.  Julian  resolved  to  comply  with 
the  emperor's  orders,  but  to  abdicate  the  dignity 
of  Ca;sar,  that  he  might  not  be  blamed  for  the 
consequences.  Accordingly  he  suffered  the 
best  soldiers  to  be  draughted:  they  were,  how- 
ever, unwilling  to  leave  him,  and  at  last  pro- 
claimed him  emperor.  Whether  this  was  done 
absolutely  against  Julian's  consent  is  uncertain  ; 
but  he  wrote  to  the  emperor,  and  persuaded  the 
whole  army  also  to  send  a  letter,  in  which  they 
acquainted  Constuntius  with  what  had  happened, 


and  entreated  him  to  acknowledge  Julian  as  his 
partner.  But  this  was  positively  refused  by  Con- 
stantius, who  began  to  prepare  for  war.  Julian, 
then,  causing  his  troops  to  take  an  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  himself,  with  surprising  expedition 
made  himself  master  of  the  whole  of  Illyricum, 
and  the  important  pass  separating  that  country 
from  Thrace.  Constantius  was  thunder-struck 
with  this  news ;  but,  hearing  that  the  Persians  had 
retired,  he  marched  with  all  his  forces  against 
his  competitor.  On  his  arrival  at  Tarsus  in  Ci- 
Ucia,  however,  he  was  seized  with  a  feverish  dis- 
temper, occasioned  chiefly  by  perplexity  of 
miud;  and,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus,  breathed 
his  last,  on  the  13th  of  November,  361,  in  the 
forty-fifth  year  of  his  age. 

JULIAN. — By  the  death  of  Constantius,  Julian 
became  master  of  the  empire  without  a  rival. 
He  had  been  educated  in  the  Christian  religion  ; 
but,  having  secretly  apostatized  long  before,  as 
soon  as  he  saw  himself  master  of  Illyricum,  he 
openly  caused  the  temples  of  the  gods  to  be  re- 
opened. When  the  messengers  arrived  at 
Naissus  in  Illyricum,  to  acquaint  him  with  Con- 
stantius's  death,  they  found  him  consulting  the 
entrails  of  victims  concerning  the  event  of  hi* 
journey :  and  he  immediately  set  out  for  Con- 
stantinople. At  Heraclea  he  was  met  by  almost 
all  the  inhabitants  of  this  metropolis,  into  whicli 
he  made  his  public  entry  on  the  llth  of  Decem- 
ber 361,  attended  by  the  senate,  magistrates,  and 
nobility.  Here  he  was  again  declared  emperor 
by  the  senate  ;  and,  as  soon  as  that  ceremony 
was  over,  caused  the  obsequies  of  Constantius 
to  be  performed  with  great  pomp.  His  first  care 
was  to  enquire  into  the  conduct  of  the  late  em- 
peror's ministers.  Several  of  these,  having  been 
found  guilty  of  enormous  crimes,  were  con- 
demned and  executed ;  particularly  a  noted  in- 
former Catena,  and  another  named  Apodamus, 
were  sentenced  to  be  burnt  alive.  Along  with 
these,  however,  was  put  to  death  Ursula,  a  man 
of  unexceptionable  character,  to  whom  Julian 
himself  was  highly  indebted.  He  next  set  about 
reforming  the  court :  reduced  the  officers  called 
agentes  in  rebus, from  10,000  to  seventeen;  and 
discharged  thousands  of  cooks,  barbers,  &c.,  who 
by  their  large  salaries  drained  the  exchequer. 
The  curiosi,  whose  office  it  was  to  inform  the 
emperor  of  what  had  passed  in  the  different  pro- 
vinces, were  all  discharged.  Thus  he  was> 
enabled  to  ease  the  people  of  the  heavy  taxes 
with  which  they  were  loaded,  by  abating  a  fifth 
part  of  them  throughout  the  empire.  Julian 
next  invited  to  court  the  philosophers,  ma- 
gicians, &c.,  from  all  parts ;  but  did  not  raise 
any  persecution  against  the  Christians.  On  the 
contrary,  he  recalled  from  banishment  the  ortho- 
dox bishops  who  had  been  exiled  during  the 
former  reign  ;  with  a  design,  however,  as  is  ob- 
served both  by  the  Christian  and  Pagan  writers, 
to  sow  dissensions  in  the  church.  As  the  Per- 
sians were  now  preparing  to  carry  on  the  war 
with  vigor,  Julian  resolved  to  march  against  them 
in  person.  But  before  he  set  out  he  formed  at 
Constantinople  a  large  harbour  to  shelter  the 
ships  from  the  south  wind,  built  a  magnificent 
porch  leading  to  it,  and  erected  a  fine  library,  in 
which  he  lodged  liis  books.  In  May  362  he  de- 


R     O     M     E. 


parted  for  Antioch ;  and  on  the  1st  of  January, 
363,  renewed  in  that  city  the  sacrifices  of  Ju- 
piter for  the  safety  of  the  empire.  Duriiiij  Ins 
stay  he  continued  his  preparations  for  the  Per- 
sian war,  consulting  the  oracles,  aruspices,  ma- 
gicians, 8tc.  Those  of  Delphi,  Delos,  and 
Dodona,  assured  him  of  victory.  The  aruspices, 
indeed,  and  most  of  his  courtiers  and  officers, 
did  all  that  by  in  their  power  to  divert  him  from 
his  expedition  ;  but  the  flattering  answers  of  the 
oracles,  and  the  desire  of  adding  the  Persian  mo- 
narch to  the  many  kings  he  had  already  seen 
humbled  at  his  feet,  prevailed.  Many  nations 
sent  deputies  offering  their  assistance;  whose 
offers  he  rejected,  telling  them  that  the  Romans 
were  to  assist  their  allies,  but  stood  in  no  need  of 
any  assistance  from  them.  He  likewise  rejected, 
and  in  a  very  stern  manner,  the  offers  of  the  Sa- 
racens ;  answering,  when  they  complained  of  his 
stopping  the  pension  paid  them  by  other  empe- 
rors, that  a  warlike  prince  had  steel,  but  no  gold. 
However,  he  wrote  to  Arsaces,  king  of  Armenia, 
enjoining  him  to  keep  his  troops  in  readiness  to 
execute  the  orders  he  should  transmit  to  him. 
Julian  now  sent  orders  to  his  troops  to  cross  the 
Euphrates,  designing  to  enter  the  enemy's  coun- 
try before  they  had  notice  of  his  march ;  and 
proceeded  himself  to  Litarba.  Thence  he  went 
to  Beraa,  where  he  halted  a  day,  and  exhorted 
the  council  to  restore  the  worship  of  the  gods  ; 
as  he  did  also  at  Batnae  ;  and  was  well  pleased 
with  the  inhabitants  for  having  before  his  arrival 
restored  that  worship.  He  now  pursued  his 
journey  to  Hierapolis,  the  capital  of  Euphrate- 
siana,  which  he  reached  on  the  9th  of  March. 
As  he  entered  this  city,  fifty  of  his  soldiers  were 
killed  by  the  fall  of  ;i  porch.  He  left  Hierapo- 
lis on  the  13th  of  March  ;  and,  having  passed 
to  Euphrates  on  a  bridge  of  boats,  came  to 
Batna  a  city  of  Osrhoene,  about  ten  leagues 
from  Hierapolis.  From  Batnae  he  proceeded  to 
Carrhat;  where,  in  the  famous  temple  of  the 
moon,  it  is  said  he  sacrificed  a  woman.  While 
he  continued  in  this  city,  he  received  advice  that 
a  party  of  the  enemy's  horse  had  broken  into  the 
Roman  territories:  on  which  he  resolved  to 
leave  an  army  in  Mesopotamia,  while  he  ad- 
vanced on  the  other  side  of  the  country  into  the 
Persian  dominions.  This  array  consisted,  ac- 
cording to  some,  of  20,000,  others  say  of 
30,000,  chosen  troops.  It  was  commanded  by 
Procopius,  and  Sebastian,  a  famous  Manichean 
who  had  been  governor  of  Egypt.  These  two 
were  to  join  Arsaces  king  of  Armenia,  to  lay 
waste  the  plains  of  Media,  and  meet  the  empe- 
ror in  Assyria.  To  Arsaces  Julian  himself  wrote, 
threatening  to  treat  him  as  a  rebel  if  he  did  not 
execute  the  orders  given  him  ;  and  telling  him 
that  the  God  he  adored  would  not  be  able  to 
•creen  him  from  his  indignation.  There  were 
two  roads  leading  from  Carrhae  to  Persia ;  the 
one  to  the  left  by  Nisibis ;  the  other  to  the  right 
through  Assyria,  along  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates. 
Julian  chose  the  latter,  but  caused  magazines  to 
be  erected  on  both  roads :  and,  after  having 
viewed  his  army,  set  out  on  the  25th  of  March. 
He  passed  the  Abora,  which  separated  the^Ro- 
nian  and  Persian  dominions,  near  its  conflux 
with  th«  Euphrates  ;  after  which  he  broke  down 


the  bridge,  that  his  troops  might  not  desert.     As 
he  proceeded  on  his  march,  a  soldier  and  two 
horses   were  struck  dead  by  lightning ;    and    a 
lion  of  an  extraordinary  size  was  despatched  by 
the   soldiers.      These   omens   occasioned   great 
disputes  among  the  aruspices.      Having  passed 
the  Abora,  Julian  entered  Assyria,  which  he  laid 
waste;  a  step  which  was  judged  very  impolitic. 
As  he  met  with  no  army  to  oppose  him,  he  ad- 
vanced to  the  walls  of  Ctesiphon,  the  metropolis 
of  the  Parthian  empire  ;  and  here,  having  caused 
the  canal  to  be  cleared,  formerly  dug  by  Trajan, 
he  conveyed  his  fleet  to  the  banks  of  the  Tigris, 
passed  that  river,  and   drove  the  enemy  into  the 
city  with  the  loss  of  a  great  number  of  men  :  he 
himself,  in  the  mean  time,  losing  only  seventy- 
five.     Julian  had  now  advanced  so  far  into  the 
enemy's  country  that  he  found  it   necessary  to 
think  of  a  retreat,  as  it  was  impossible  for  lum  to 
winter  there.     For  this  reason  he^nade  no  at- 
tempt on  Ctesiphon,  but  began  to  march  back 
along  the  banks  of  the  Tigris.     In  the  mean 
time  the  king  of  Persia  was  assembling  a  for- 
midable army ;  but,  desirous  of  putting  an  end 
to  so  destructive  a  war,  sent  very  advantageous 
proposals  of  peace  to  Julian.    These  he  impru- 
dently rejected ;    and   soon  after,    deceived    by 
treacherous  guides,  quitted  the  river,  and  entered 
into  an  unknown  country  totally  laid  waste  by 
the  enemy.     A  still  worse  step  he  was  persuaded 
to  take  by  these  guides,  viz.  to  burn  his  fleet, 
lest  it  should  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 
As  soon  as  it  was  set  on  fire,  the  whole  army 
cried  out  that  the  emperor  was  betrayed,  and 
that  the  guides  were  traitors.     Julian   ordered 
them    immediately    to    be    put    on   the   rack, 
upon   which   they  confessed    the   treason ;   but 
it  was  too  late.     The  fleet  was  in  flames,  and 
no   part   was  saved   except  twelve  vessels  de- 
signed to  be  made  use  of  in  the  building  of 
bridges.     The  emperor  thus  finding  himself  in  a 
strange  country,  and  his  army  greatly  dispirited, 
called  a  council,  in  which  it  was  resolved  to 
proceed  for  Corduene  south  of  Armenia.     But 
they  had  not  proceeded  far  when  they  were  met 
by  the  king  of  Persia,  at  the  head  of  a  very  nj- 
merous  army.      Several  sharp  encounters  took 
place;  and,  though  the  Persians  were  always  de- 
feated, the  Romans  reaped  no  advantages,  beiig 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity  for  want  of  provi- 
sions. In  one  of  these  attacks,  when  the  Romans 
were  suddenly  assailed,  the  emperor,  eager  to  re- 
pulse the  enemy,  hastened  to  the  field  without 
his  armor  when  hereceived  a  mortal  wound  by  a 
dart,  which  pierced  through  his  side  to  his  liver. 
Of  this  wound  he  died  the  same  night,  26th  of 
June,  363,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  a^u, 
after  having  reigned  scarcely  twenty  months. 

JOVIAN. — As  Julian  had  declined  naming  any 
successor,  the  army  unanimously  chose  Jovian, 
a  very  able  commander,  whose  father  had  lately 
resigned  the  post  of  comes  domesticorum.  The 
valor  and  experience  of  Jovian,  however,  were 
not  sufficient  to  extricate  the  Roman  army  from 
the  difficulties  in  which  they  had  been  plunged. 
Famine  raced  in  the  camp  to  such  a  degree  that 
not  a  sinule  man  would  have  been  left  had  not 
the  Persians  unexpectedly  sent  proposals  of 
peace,  which  were  received  with  great  joy.  The 


R    O     M     E. 


terms  were,  that  Jovian  should  restore  to  the 
Persians  the  five  provinces  which  had  heen  taken 
from  them  in  the  reign  of  Dioclesian,  with  seve- 
ral castles,  and  the  cities  of  Nisibis  and  Singara. 
After  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty,  Jovian  pur- 
sued his  march  homeward.  When  he  arrived  at 
Anlioch  he  revoked  all  the  laws  made  by  Julian 
against  Christianity ;  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
orthodox  Christians  against  the  Arians ;  and  re- 
called all  those  who  had  been  formerly  banished, 
particularly  Athanasius.  But  he  did  not  live  to 
make  any  great  alterations,  or  even  to  visit  his 
capital  as  emperor ;  for  in  his  way  to  Constan- 
tinople he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed,  on  the 
17th  of  February,  364,  in  his  thirty-third  year, 
when  he  had  reigned  only  seven  months  and 
forty  days. 

VALENTINIAN  AND  VALENS. —  Valentinian 
was  now  chosen  emperor.  Immediately  on  his 
accession,  the  soldiers  with  great  clamor  required 
him  to  choose  a  colleague.  In  a  few  days  he 
named  his  brother  Valens ;  and,  as  the  empire 
was  threatened  on  all  sides  with  an  invasion  of 
the  barbarous  nations,  he  thought  proper  to  di- 
vide it.  This  famous  partition  was  made  at 
Mediana  in  Dacia:  when  Valens  had  for  his 
share  the  whole  of  Asia,  Egypt,  and  Thrace;  and 
Valentinian  all  the  west ;  that  is,  Illyricum,  Italy, 
Gaul,  Spain,  Britain  and  Africa.  After  this 
Valens  returned  to  Constantinople,  where  the 
beginning  of  his  reign  was  disturbed  by  the  revolt 
of  Procopius,  a  relation  of  Julian.  On  the  death 
of  that  emperor,  he  had  fled  into  Taurica  Cher- 
sonesus  for  fear  of  Jovian  ;  but  returned  in  dis- 
guise, where,  having  gained  over  Eugenius,  a 
eunuch  of  great  wealth,  disgraced  by  Valens,  and 
some  officers  who  commanded  the  troops  sent 
against  the  Goths,  he  got  himself  proclaimed  em- 
peror. At  first  he  was  joined  only  by  the  lowest 
of  the  people,  but  at  length  he  was  acknowledged 
by  the  city  of  Constantinople.  On  the  news  of 
this  revolt,  Valens  despatched  some  troops 
against  the  usurper ;  but  these  were  gained  over, 
and  Procopius  continued  for  some  time  to  gain 
ground.  It  is  probable  he  would  finally  have 
succeeded,  had  he  not  become  so  much  elated 
with  his  good  fortune  that  he  grew  tyrannical. 
In  consequence  of  this  he  was  first  abandoned  by 
some  of  his  principal  officers;  and  soon  after 
defeated  in  battle,  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to 
death.  This  revolt  produced  a  war  betwixt 
Valens  and  the  Goths.  The  latter,  having  been 
solicited  by  Procopius,  had  sent  3000  men  to  his 
assistance.  On  hearing  the  news  of  the  usurper's 
death,  they  marched  back  :  but  Valens  detached 
against  them  a  body  of  troops,  who  took  them  all 
prisoners.  Athanaric,  king  of  the  Goths,  expos- 
tulated with  Valens  ;  but  that  emperor  proving 
obstinate,  both  parties  prepared  for  war.  In 
367  and  369  Valens  gained  great  advantages 
over  his  enemies :  and  obliged  them  to  sue  for 
peace.  The  rest  of  this  reign  contains  nothing 
remarkable,  except  the  cruelty  with  which  Va- 
lens  persecuted  the  orthodox  clergy.  The  latter 
sent  eighty  of  their  number  to  lay  their  com- 
plaints before  him  ;  but  he,  instead  of  giving 
them  any  relief,  determined  to  put  them  all  to 
death.  A  persecution  was  also  commenced 
against  the  magicians,  which  occasioned  the  de- 


struction of  many  innocent  persons  ;  for  books 
and  persons  of  all  ranks  were  seized  wilh  such 
terror  at  his  severity  on  this  point,  that  many  burnt 
their  libraries,  lest  books  of  magic  should  have 
been  secretly  conveyed  into  them.  In  373  the 
Goths,  whom  Valens  had  admitted  into  Thrace, 
advanced  from  that  province  to  Macedon  and 
Thessaly.  They  afterwards  blocked  up  Con- 
stantinople, plundered  the  suburbs,  and  at  last 
totally  defeated  and  killed  the  emperor.  The 
day  after  the  battle,  hearing  that  an  immense 
treasure  was  lodged  in  Adrianople,  the  barbarians 
laid  siege  to  that  place :  but  were  repulsed  with 
great  slaughter.  Great  numbers  of  them  after 
this  were  cut  in  pieces  by  the  Saracens,  whom 
Maria  their  queen  had  sent  to  the  assistance  a 
the  Romans  ;  so  that  they  were  obliged  to  aban- 
don this  design  likewise,  and  retire  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  capital  In  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Valentinian  the  province  of  Libya 
Tripolitana  was  grievously  oppressed  by  the  bar- 
barians of  the  desert,  and  almost  equally  so  by 
Romanus  its  own  governor.  His  conduct  was 
so  exceedingly  oppressive  that  the  inhabitants 
sent  a  deputation  to  Valentinian,  complaining  of 
their  unhappy  situation,  and  desiring  redress. 
Palladius  was  accordingly  sent  to  inquire  into 
the  state  of  the  province;  but  he  made  a  false 
report  to  the  emperor,  and  thus  the  unhappy 
province  was  left  a  prey  to  the  merciless  invaders 
and  rapacious  governor.  During  the  rest  of  this 
reign  the  barbarians  continued  their  inroads  into 
the  empire.  Valentinian  expired  in  the  year  375, 
the  fifty-fifth  of  his  age,  and  twelfth  of  his  reign. 
GRATIAN  AND  THEODOSIUS. — At  the  death  of 
Valens  trie  eastern  and  western  empires  again  fell 
into  the  hands  of  a  single  person.  This  was 
Gratian,  who  had  held  the  empire  of  the  west 
after  the  death  of  Valeutinian.  He  repulsed 
many  barbarous  nations  who  threatened  the  em- 
pire with  dissolution;  but,  finding  himself  press- 
ed on  all  sides,  he,  on  the  19th  of  January  379, 
declared  Theodosius  his  partner  in  the  empire, 
and  committed  to  his  care  all  the  provinces 
which  had  been  governed  by  Valens.  Theodo- 
sius is  greatly  extolled  by  historians  for  his  ex- 
traordinary valor  and  piety  ;  and  has  even  been 
honored  with  the  surname  of  the  Great.  From 
the  many  persecuting  laws,  however,  made  in  his 
time,  it  would  seem  that  his  piety  was  misguided ; 
and  that,  if  he  was  naturally  humane  and  com- 
passionate, superstition  often  obscured  these  vir- 
tues. He  certainly  was  a  man  of  great  military 
talent,  and  the  state  of  the  empire  called  for  all 
his  abilities.  The  provinces  of  Dacia,  Thrace, 
and  Illyricum,  were  already  lost ;  the  Goths, 
Taisali,  Alans,  and  Hunns,  were  masters  of  the 
greatest  part  of  these  provinces,  and  had  ravaged 
and  laid  waste  the  rest.  The  Iberians,  Arme- 
nians, and  Persians,  were  in  arms,  and  ever 
ready  to  take  advantage  of  the  distracted  state  of 
the  empire.  The  few  soldiers  who  had  survived 
the  late  defeat  kept  within  the  strong  holds  of 
Thrace.  In  the  year  379  many  victories  are 
said  to  have  been  obtained  by  Theodosius  ;  but 
the  accounts  of  these  are  so  contradictory  that 
no  stress  can  be  laid  upon  them.  In  February 
380  he  was  seized  with  a  dangerous  malady,  so 
that  Gratian  was  obliged  to  carry  on  the  war 


10 


ROME. 


alone.  Apprehending  that  the  neighbouring 
barbarians  might  break  into  some  of  the  pro- 
vinces, he  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Goths, 
which  was  confirmed  by  Theodosius  on  his  re- 
covery. But  they  had  no  sooner  heard  that 
Gratian  had  left  Illyricum,  than  they  passed  the 
Danube,  and,  breaking  into  Thrace  and  Pannonia, 
advanced  as  far  as  Macedon,  destroying  all  with 
fire  and  sword.  Theodosius,  drawing  together 
his  forces,  marched  against  them,  and  gained  a 
complete  victory.  In  381  Athanaric,  the  most 
powerful  of  all  the  Gothic  princes,  being  driven  out 
by  a  faction  at  home,  recurred  to  Theodosius,  by 
whom  he  .was  received  with  great  tokens  of 
friendship.  He  went  out  to  meet  him,  and  at- 
tended him  with  a  numerous  retinue  into  the 
city.  The  Gothic  prince  died  the  same  year ; 
and  Theodosius  caused  him  to  be  buried  after 
the  Roman  manner,  with  such  pomp  and  solem- 
nity that  the  Goths,  who  attended  him  in  his 
flight,  returned  home  with  a  resolution  never 
more  to  molest  the  Romans.  Nay,  out  of  grati- 
tude to  the  emperor,  they  took  upon  them  to 
guard  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  prevent  the 
empire  from  being  invaded.  In  383  Maximus 
revolted  against  Gratian  in  Britain ;  and  in  the 
end  murdered  him,  and  assumed  the  empire  of 
the  West  himself.  Gratian  had  now  divided  his 
dominions  with  his  brother  Valentinian  II., 
whom  he  allowed  to  reign  in  Italy  and  West  II- 
lyricum,  reserving  the  rest  to  himself.  Maximus 
therefore,  immediately  after  his  usurpation,  sent 
deputies  to  Theodosius,  assuring  him  that  he  had 
no  designs  on  the  dominions  of  Valentinian.  As 
Theodosius  at  that  time  found  himself  in  danger 
from  the  barbarians,  he  not  only  therefore  fore- 
bore  to  attack  Maximus,  but  even  acknowledged 
him  for  his  partner  in  the  empire.  It  was  not 
long,  however,  before  the  ambition  of  the  usurper 
prompted  him  to  break  his  promise.  In  387  he 
passed  the  Alps  on  a  sudden  ;  and,  meeting  with 
no  opposition,  marched  to  Milan,  where  Valen- 
tinian usually  resided.  The  young  prince  fled 
to  Aquileia ;  and  thence  to  Thessalonica,  to  im- 
plore the  protection,  of  Theodosius  ;  who,,  in 
answer,  informed  him  that  he  was  not  surprised 
at  the  usurper's  progress,  as  he  had  protected, 
and  Valentinian  had  persecuted,  the  orthodox 
C'liristians.  At  last  he  prevailed  on  the  young 
prince  to  renounce  Arianism,  and  promised  to 
assist  him  with  all  the  forces  of  the  east.  He 
first,  however,  sent  messengers  to  Maximus,  de- 
siring him  to  restore  the  provinces  he  had  taken 
from  Valentinian,  and  content  himself  with  Gaul, 
Spain,  and  Britain.  But  the  usurper  would 
hearken  to  no  terms.  This  year  he  besieged  and 
t  ok  Aquileia,  Quaderna,  Bononia,  Mutina, 
.mm,  Plncentia,  and  many  other  cities  in 
Italy.  In  388  he  was  acknowledged  in  Rome, 
and  in  all  the  provinces  of  Africa.  Theodosius, 
therefore,  finding  a  war  inevitable,  made  prepa- 
rations for  it.  His  army  consisted  chiefly  of 
Goths,  Ilunns,  Alans,  and  other  barbarians, 
whom  he  was  glad  to  take  into  the  service,  to 
prevent  their  raising  disturbances  on  the  frontiers. 
lie  defeated  Maximus  in  two  battles,  took  him 
prisoner, and  put  him  to  death;  and, the  usurper 
having  left  his  son  Victor  in  Gaul,  the  »-ni|><-r'>r 
despatched  against  him  Arbogastes.,  who  took 


him  prisoner,  dispersed  his  troops,  anil  put  him 
also  to  death.  This  victory  was  used  by  Theo- 
dosius with  great  moderation.  In  389  he  took 
a  journey  to  Rome,  and  abolished  idolatry. 
The  next  year  was  remarkable  for  the  destruction 
of  the  celebrated  temple  of  Serapis  in  Alexan- 
dria ;  which,  according  to  the  description  of 
Ammianus  Marcellinus,  surpassed  all  others  in 
the  world,  that  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  excepted. 
Not  satisfied  with  the  destruction  of  the  Alexan- 
drian temples,  the  zealous  Theophilus,  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  encouraged  the  people  to  pull  down 
all  the  other  temples,  chapels,  &c.,  set  apart  for 
the  pagan  worship,  and  the  statues  of  the  gods  to 
be  either  burnt  or  melted.  Of  the  innumerable 
statues  which  at  that  time  were  in  Egypt,  he 
spared  but  one,  viz.  that  of  an  ape,  to  expose  the 
;ii  religion  to  ridicule.  On  his  return  to 
Constantinople,  Theodosius  ordered  such  tem- 
ples as  were  yet  standing  to  be  thrown  down, 
and  the  Arians  to  be  every  where  driven  out  of 
the  cities. 

In  392  Valentinian  II.  was  treacherously 
murdered  by  Arbogastes  his  general ;  who,  in- 
stead of  seizing  on  the  sovereignty  himself,  chose 
to  confer  it  upon  Eugenius.  This  new  usurper, 
though  a  Christian,  was  greatly  favored  In  the 
Pagans,  who  were  all  apprized  that  he  only  bore 
the  title  of  emperor,  while  the  whole  power 
lodged  in  Arbogastes  who  pretended  to  be  greatly 
attached  to  their  religion.  The  aruspices  in- 
formed him  that  he  was  destined  to  the  empire 
of  the  whole  world  ;  that  he  would  soon  gain  a 
complete  victory  over  Theodosius,  who  was  as 
much  hated  as  Eugenius  was  beloved  by  the 
gods,  &c.  But,  though  Eugenius  seemed  to  fa- 
vor the  Pagans,  yet  he  wrote  to  St.  Ambrose. 
The  holy  man  did  not  answer  his  letter  till  he 
was  pressed  by  some  friends  to  recommend  them 
to  the  new  prince;  and  then  he  wrote  to  this  in- 
famous usurper  with  all  the  respect  due  to  an 
emperor.  Soon  after  his  accession,  Eugenius 
sent  deputies  to  Theodosius ;  and  they  are  said 
to  have  been  received  by  him  in  a  very  gracious 
manner.  He  did  not,  however,  enter  into  any 
alliance  with  him,  but  immediately  began  his 
military  preparations.  In  394  he  set  out  from 
Constantinople,  and  was  at  Adrianople  on  the 
15th  of  June  that  year.  He  bent  his  march 
through  Dacia,  and  the  other  provinces  between 
Thrace  and  the  Julian  Alps,  with  a  design  to 
force  the  passages  of  these  mountains,  and  break 
into  Italy  before  the  army  of  Eugenius  was  in  a 
condition  to  oppose  him.  On  his  arrival  at  the 
Alps,  he  found  these  passes  guarded  by  Flavia- 
nus,  prefect  of  Italy,  at  the  head  of  a  considerable 
body  of  Roman  troops.  These  were  utterly  de- 
feated by  Theodosius,  who  thereupon  crossed  the 
Alps  and  advanced  into  Italy.  lie  was  soon 
met  by  Eugeniits ;  and  a  bloody  battle  ensued, 
without  any  decisive  advantage  on  either  side. 
The  next  day  the  emperor  led  his  troops  in  per- 
son against  the  enemy,  utterly  defeated  them, 
and  took  their  camp.  Eugenius  was  taken  pri- 
soner by  his  own  men,  and  brought  to  Theodo- 
sius, who  reproached  him  with  the  murder  of 
\  alciitinian,  with  the  calamities  he  had  brought 
on  the  empire  by  his  unjust  usurpation,  and 
with  the  putting  his  confidence  in  Hercules,  and 


ROME. 


II 


not  in  the  true  God  ;  for  on  his  chief  standard 
he  had  displayed  the  image  of  that  fabulous  hero. 
Eugenius  begged  easnestly  for  his  life ;  but, 
while  he  lay  prostrate  at  his  feet,  his  own  sol- 
diers cut  off  his  head,  and,  carrying  it  about  on 
the  point  of  a  spear,  showed  it  to  those  in  the 
camp  who  had  not  yet  submitted.  At  this  they 
were  thunderstruck ;  but  being  informed  that 
Theodosius  was  ready  to  receive  them  into  favor 
they  threw  down  their  arms.  Arbogastes,  after 
this,  despairing  of  pardon,  fled  to  the  mountains; 
Imt  being  informed  that  diligent  search  was 
made  for  him  killed  himself.  His  children,  and 
those  of  Eugenius,  took  sanctuary  in  churches  ; 
l>ut  the  emperor  restored  to  them  their  paternal 
i  states,  and  raised  them  to  considerable  employ- 
ments. Soon  after  this,  Theodosius  appointed 
his  son  Ilonorius  emperor  of  the  west,  assigning 
him  for  his  share,  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  Africa,  and 
West  Illyricum.  The  next  year  he  was  seized 
with  a  dropsy,  and  made  his  will ;  by  which  he 
bequeathed  the  empire  of  the  East  to  Arcadius, 
and  confirmed  Honorius  in  the  possession  of  the 
West.  He  likewise  confirmed  the  pardon  he 
had  granted  to  all  those  who  had  borne  arms 
against  him,  and  remitted  a  tribute  which  had 
proved  very  buidensome  to  the  people.  He 
died  at  Milan  on  the  17th  January  395,  in  the 
sixteenth  year  of  his  reign  and  fiftieth  of  his  age. 

PART  IV. 
THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

We  now  trace,  distinctly,  the  regular  and  ra- 
pid decline  of  the  Western  Empire.  The  death 
of  Theodosius  gave  the  finishing  stroke  to  its 
prosperity ;  his  son  Ilonorius,  to  whom  he  left 
this  part  of  the  empire,  being  possessed  of  no 
abilities.  The  barbarians  appear  to  have  been 
abundantly  sensible  of  this.  Theodosius  died  in 
January ;  and  before  spring  the  GotUs  were  in 
arms.  They  were  now  headed  by  an  experienced 
commander,  their  celebrated  king  ALAIUC  (see 
that  article),  who  would  have  proved  formidable 
oven  in  better  times  of  the  empire.  He  first 
overran  Greece:  Athens,  Corinth,  Argos,  and 
Sparta,  yielding  without  resistance;  and  the  pass 
of  Thermopylae  being  betrayed  to  him.  At  last,  in 
397,  he  was  oppesed  by  Stilicho,  the  general  of 
Honorius,  a  man  of  great  experience  in  war.  who 
defeated  him  with  great  loss.  Alaric,  however, 
found  means  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  ministers 
of  Constantinople.  In  a  subsequent  conflict  in 
Italy  the  wife  of  Alaric  was  taken,  with  all  the 
wealth  which  had  been  amassed  in  plundering 
Greece.  The  victory,  however,  was  not  so  deci- 
sive but  that  Alaric  continued  still  formidable  ; 
and  Stilicho  chose  rather  to  conclude  a  treaty 
with  him.  Alaric,  who  was  not  very  scrupulous 
in  his  observance  of  this  treaty,  attempted  in  his 
retreat  to  make  himself  master  of  Verona ;  but 
Stilicho,  again  coming  up  with  him  near  that 
place, gavehim  a  third  terrible  defeat :  after  which 
he  effected  a  retreat  out  of  Italy,  but  not  without 
the  greatest  difficulty  and  danger. 

Italy  being  thus  delivered,  Honorius  entered 
Home  in  triumph,  having  Stilicho  along  with 
Mini  in  the  triumphal  chariot.  Soon  after,  how- 
CUT,  the  emperor  was  obliged  to  leave  the  me- 


tropolis and  retire  to  Ravenna,  to  secure  himself 
from  the  barbarians,  who  now  broke  in  upon  the 
empire  on  all  sides.     Gibbon  accounts  for  it  from 
a  supposed  revolution  in  the  north-east  parts  of 
China.     '  About  four  years,'  he  says   '  after  the 
victorious  Toulon  had  assumed  the  title  of  khan 
of  the  Gougen,  another  barbarian,  the  haughty 
Rhodogast,    or  Radagaisus,  marched  from  the 
northern  extremities  of  Germany  almost  to  the 
gates  of  Rome,  and  left  the  remains  of  his  army 
to  achieve  the  destruction  of  the  west.      The 
Vandals,  the  Suevi,  and  the  Burgundians,  formed 
the  strength  of  this  mighty  host :  but  the  Alani, 
who  had, found  an  hospitable  reception  in  their 
new  seats,  added  their  active  cavalry  to  the  heavy 
infantry  of  the  Germans  ;  and  the  Gothic  adven- 
turers crowded  so  eagerly  to  the  standard  of  Ra- 
dagaisus, that  by  some  historians  he  has  been 
styled  the  king  of  the  Goths  :  12,000  warriors, 
distinguished  above  the  vulgar  by  their  noble 
birth  or  their  valiant  deeds,   glittering   in   the 
van  ;  and  the  wliole  multitude,  which  was  not 
less  than  200,000  fighting  men  might  be  increased 
by  the  accession  of  women,  of  children,  and  of 
slaves  to  the  amount  of  400,000  persons.     This 
formidable   emigration    issued    from    the   same 
coast  of  the  Baltic  which  had  poured  forth  the 
myriads  of  the  Cimbfi  and  Teutones  to  assault 
Rome  and  Italy  in  the  vigour  of  the  republic. 
After  the  departure  of  those  barbarians,    their 
native  country,  which  was  marked  by  the  vestiges 
of  their  greatness,  long  ramparts,  and  gigantic 
moles,  remained  during  some  ages  a   vast  and 
dreary  solitude ;  till  the  human  species  was  re- 
newed by  the  powers  of  generation;   and  the 
vacancy  was  filled  up  by  the  influx  of  new  in- 
habitants.    The  safety  of  Rome  was  intrusted  to 
the  counsels  and  the  sword  of  Stilicho ;  but  such 
was  the  feeble  and  exhausted  state  of  the  empire 
that  it  was  impossible  to  restore  the  fortifica- 
tions of  the  Danube,  or  to  prevent,  by  a  vigorous 
effort,  the  invasion  of  the  Germans.     The  hopes 
of  the  vigilant  minister  of  Honorius  were  con- 
fined to  the  defence  of  Italy.     He  once  more 
abandoned   the  provinces ;  recalled  the  troops ; 
pressed  the  new  levies,  which  were  rigorously 
exacted,  and  pusillanrmously  eluded  ;  employed 
the  most  efficacious  means  to  arrest  or  allure  the 
deserters  ;  and  offered   the  gift  of  freedom,  and 
of  two  pieces  of   gold,  to  all   the  slaves  who 
would  enlist.     By  these  efforts  he  painfully  col- 
lected from  the  subjects  of  a  great  empire  an 
army  of  30,000  or  40,000  men  ;    which,  in  the 
days  of  Scipio  and  Camillus,  would  have  been 
instantly  furnished  by  the  free  citizens  of  the 
territory  of  Rome.      The  thirty  legions  of  Sti- 
licho were  reinforced  by  a  large  body  of  barba- 
rian auxiliaries ;  the  faithful  Alani  were  person- 
ally attached  to  his  service ;  and  the  troops  of 
Huns  and  of  Goths,  who  marched  under  the 
banners   of  their  native  princes,    Hultien   and 
Sarus,  were  animated  by  interest  and  resentment 
to  oppose   the  ambition   of  Radagaisus.     The 
king  of  the  confederate  Germans  passed,  with- 
out resistance,  the  Alps,  the  Po,  and  the  Appe- 
nines :    leaving   on  one  hand    the    inaccessible 
palace  of  Honorius,  securely  buried  among  the 
marshes  of   Ravenna;    and,  on    the   other,   the 
(amp  of  Stilicho,  who  had  fixed  his  head-quar- 


ROME. 


ters  alTicmum,  or  I'av  ia,  but  who  seems  to  have 
avoided  a  decisive  battle  till  lie  had  assembled 
his  distant  forces.  Many  cities  of  Italy  were 
pillaged,  or  destroyed  ;  and  the  sies;e  of  Florence 
by  Radagaisus  is  one  of  the  earliest  events  in  the 
history  of  that  celebrated  republic,  whose  firm- 
ness checked  and  delayed  the  unskilful  fury  of 
the  barbarians.  The  senate  and  people  trembled 
at  their  approach  within  180  miles  of  Rome; 
and  anxiously  compared  the  danger  which  they 
had  escaped  with  the  new  perils  to  which  they 
were  exposed.  Alaric  was  a  Christian,  and  a 
soldier,  the  leader  of  a  disciplined  army ;  who 
understood  the  laws  of  war,  who  respected  the 
sanctity  of  treaties,  and  who  had  familiarly 
conversed  with  the  subjects  of  the  empire 
in  the  same  camps  and  the  same  churches. 
The  savage  Iladagaisus  was  a  stranger  to  the 
manners,  the  religion,  and  even  the  language 
of  the  civilised  nations  of  the  south.  The 
fierceness  of  his  temper  was  exasperated  by 
cruel  superstition ;  and  it  was  universally  be- 
lieved that  he  had  bound  himself  by  a  solemn 
vow  to  reduce  the  city  into  a  heap  of  stones  and 
ashes,  and  to  sacrifice  the  most  illustrious  of  the 
itornan  senators  on  the  altars  of  those  gods  who 
were  appeased  by  human  blood.  Florence  was 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity.  On  a  sudden 
they  beheld  from  their  walls  the  banners  of 
Stilicho,  who  advanced  with  his  united  forces 
to  the  relief  of  the  faithful  city;  and  who  soon 
marked  that  fatal  spot  for  the  grave  of  the  bar- 
1-urian  host.  The  apparent  contradictions  of 
those  writers  who  variously  relate  the  defeat  of 
Iladagaisus  may  be  reconciled  without  offering 
much  violence  to  their  respective  testimonies. 
Their  extravagant  assertion  that  not  a  single 
soldier  of  the  Christian  army  was  killed,  or  even 
wounded,  may  be  dismissed ;  but  the  rest  of  the 
narrative  of  Augustin  and  Orosius  is  consistent 
with  the  sta»e  of  the  war  and  the  character  of 
Stilicho.  Conscious  that  he  commanded  the 
last  army  of  the  republic,  his  prudence  would 
not  expose  it  in  the  open  field  to  the  headstrong 
fury  of  the  Germans.  The  method  of  surround- 
ing the  eiiemy  with  strong  lines  of  circumvalla- 
tion,  which  he  had  twice  employed  against  the 
Gothic  king,  was  repeated  on  a  larger  scale,  and 
with  more  considerable  effect.  The  example  of 
Caesar  must  have  been  familiar  to  the  most  illi- 
terate of  the  Roman  warriors ;  and  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Dyrrhachium,  which  connected  twenty- 
four  castles  by  a  perpetual  ditch  and  rampart  of 
fifteen  miles,  afforded  the  model  of  an  intrench- 
ment,  which  might  confine  and  starve  the  most 
numerous  host  of  barbarians.  The  imprisoned 
multitude  of  horses  and  men  were  gradually  de- 
stroyed by  famine,  rather  than  by  the  sword ; 
but  the  Romans  were  exposed,  during  the  pro- 
gress of  such  an  extensive  work,  to  the  frequent 
attacks  of  an  impatient  enemy.  The  despair  of 
the  hungry  barbarians  would  precipitate  them 
against  the  fortifications  of  Stilicho ;  the  ge- 
neral might  sometimes  indulge  the  ardour  of  his 
brave  auxiliaries,  who  eagerly  pressed  to  assault 
the  camp  of  the  Germans ;  and  these  various 
incidents  might  produce  the  sharp  and  bloody 
conflicts  which  dignify  the  narrative  of  Zosimus, 
and  the  Chronicles  of  Prosper  and  Marcel) inus. 


A  seasonable  supply  of  men  and  provisions  had 
been  introduced  into  the  walls  of  Florence;  and 
the  famished  host  of  Radagaisus  was  in  its  turn 
besieged.  The  proud  monarch  of  so  many  war- 
like nations,  after  the  loss  of  his  bravest  warriors, 
was  reduced  to  confide  either  in  the  faith  of  a 
capitulation,  or  in  the  clemency  of  Stilicho.  But 
the  death  of  the  royal  captive,  who  was  igno- 
miniously  beheaded,  disgraced  the  triumph  of 
Rome  and  of  Christianity;  and  the  short  delay 
of  his  execution  was  sufficient  to  brand  the 
conqueror  with  the  guilt  of  cool  and  deliberate 
cruelty.  The  famished  Germans  who  escaped 
the  fury  of  the  auxiliaries  were  sold  as  slaves,  at 
the  contemptible  price  of  as  many  single  pieces 
of  gold :  but  the  difference  of  food  and  climate 
swept  away  great  numbers  of  those  unhappy 
strangers ;  and  it  was  observed  that  the  inhuman 
purchasers,  instead  of  reaping  the  fruit  of  their 
labors,  were  soon  obliged  to  add  to  it  the  ex- 
pense of  interring  them.  Stilicho  informed  the 
emperor  and  the  senate  of  his  success ;  and  de- 
seived  a  second  time  the  glorious  title  of  Deli- 
verer of  Italy.' 

'  The  fame  of  Stilicho's  victory,'  continues 
this  historian,  '  has  encouraged  a  vain  persuasion 
that  the  whole  army,  or  rather  nation,  of  Ger- 
mans, who  migrated  from  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic,  miserably  perished  under  the  walls  of 
Florence.  Such  indeed  was  the  fate  of  Rada- 
gaisus himself,  of  his  brave  and  faithful  com- 
panions, and  of  more  than  one-third  of  t  r 
various  multitude  of  Sueveb  and  Vandals,  of 
Alani  and  Burgundians,  who  adhered  to  the 
standard  of  their  general.  The  union  of  such 
an  army  might  excite  our  surprise,  but  the  causes 
of  separation  are  obvious  and1  forcible;  they 
were  the  pride  of  birth,  the  insolence  of  valor,  ;ho 
jealousy  of  command,  the  impatience  of  subordi- 
nation, and  the  obstinate  conflict  of  opinions,  of 
interests,  and  of  passions,  among  so  many  kings 
and  warriors,  who  were  untaught  to  yield  or  to 
obey.  After  the  defeat  of  Iladagaisus,  two  parts 
of  the  German  host,  vfhich  must  have  exceeded 
the  number  of  100,000  men,  still  remained  in 
arms  between  the  Appenines  and  the  Alps,  or 
between  the  Alps  and  the  Danube.  It  is  un- 
certain whether  they  attempted  to  revenge  the 
death  of  their  general :  but  their  irregular  fury 
was  soon  diverted  by  the  prudence  and  firmness 
of  Stilicho,  who  opposed  their  march,  and  facili- 
tated their  retreat ;  who  considered  the  safety  of 
Rome  and  Italy  as  the  great  object  of  his  care, 
and  who  sacrificed  with  too  much  indifference 
the  wealth  and  tranquillity  of  the  distant  pro- 
vinces. The  barbarians  acquired  from  the  junc- 
tion of  some  Pannonian  deserters  the  knowledge 
of  the  country  and  of  the  roads,  and  the  invasion 
of  Gaul,  which  Alaric  had  defined,  was  executed 
by  the  remains  of  the  great  army  of  Radagaisus. 
when  the  limits  of  Gaul  and  Germany  were 
shaken  by  the  northern  emigration,  the  Franks 
bravely  encountered  the  single  force  of  the  Van- 
dals ;  who  had  again  separated  their  troops  from 
the  standard  of  their  barbarian  allies.  They 
paid  the  penalty  of  their  rashness :  and  20,000 
Vandals,  with  their  king  Godegisdus,  wen' slain 
in  the  field  of  battle.  The  whole  people  must 
•have  been  extirpated,  if  the  squadrons  of  the 


ROME. 


Alani,  advancing  to  their  relief,  had  not  trampled 
down  the  infantry  of  the  V ranks  ;  who,  after  an 
honorable  resistance,  were  compelled  to  relin- 
quish the  unequal  contest.  The  victorious  con- 
federates pursued  their  march;  and  on  the  last 
•day  of  the  year,  in  a  season  when  the  waters  of 
the  Rhine  were  most  probably  frozen,  they  en- 
tered without  opposition  the  defenceless  pro- 
vinces of  Gaul.  This  memorable  passage  of  the 
Suevi,  the  Vandals,  the  Alani,  and  the  Burgun- 
dians,  who  never  afterwards  retreated,  may  be 
considered  as  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  in 
the  countries  beyond  the  Alps ;  and  the  barriers 
which  had  so  long  separated  the  savage  and  the 
civilised  nations  of  the  earth  were  from  that 
fatal  moment  levelled  with  the  ground.  While 
the  peace  of  Germany  was  secured  by  the  attach- 
ment of  the  Franks  and  the  neutrality  of  the 
Alemanni,  the  subjects  of  Rome,  unconscious  of 
their  approaching  calamities,  enjoyed  a  state  of 
quiet  and  prosperity  which  had  seldom  blessed 
the  frontiers  of  Gaul.  This  scene  of  peace  and 
plenty  was  suddenly  changed  into  a  desert,  and 
the  prospect  of  the  smoking  ruins  could  alone 
distinguish  the  solitude  of  nature  from  the  deso- 
lation of  man.  The  flourishing  city  of  Mentz 
wasp  surprised  and  destroyed ;  and  many  thou- 
sand Christians  weie  inhumanly  massacred  in 
the  church.  Worms  perished  after  a  long  and 
oostinate  siege :  Strasburg,  Spires,  Rheims,  Tour- 
nay,  Arras,  Amiens,  experienced  the  most  cruel 
oppression  of  the  German  yoke ;  and  the  con- 
suming flames  of  war  spread  from  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine  over  the  greatest  part  of  the  seventeen 
provinces  of  Gaul.  That  ri  h  and  extensive 
country,  as  far  as  the  Ocean,  the  Alps,  and  the 
Pyrenees,  was  delivered  to  the  barbarians,  who 
drove  before  them  in  a  promiscuous  crowd  the 
bishop,  the  senator,  and  the  virgin,  laden  with 
the  spoils  of  their  houses  and  altars.' 

In  the  midst  of  these  calamities,  a  revolt  hap- 
pened in  Britain,  where  one  Constantino,  a  com- 
mon soldier,  was  raised  to  the  imperial  throne, 
merely  for  the  sake  of  his  name.  He  governed 
Britain  with  great  prosperity;  passed  over  into 
Gaul  and  Spain,  the  inhabitants  of  which  submit- 
ted without  opposition,  being  glad  of  any  pro- 
tector whatever  from  the  barbarians.  Honorius, 
incapable  of  defending  the  empire,  or  repressing 
the  revolt,  was  obliged  to  acknowledge  him  for 
his  partner  in  the  empire. 

In  the  mean  time  Alaric,  with  his  Goths, 
threatened  a  new  invasion,  unless  he  was  paid  a 
certain  sum  of  money  ;  and  Stilicho,  having  ad- 
vised a  compliance  with  this  demand  was  accused, 
after  all  his  services,  of  corrupt  motives,  and  put 
to  death.  The  money,  however,  not  being  readily 
sent,  Alaric  laid  siege  to  Rome,  and  would  have 
taken  it,  had  not  the  emperor  finally  complied  with 
his  demand.  The  ransom  of  the  city  was  5000  Ibs. 
of  gold,  30,000  of  silver,  4000  silk  garments, 
3000  skins  dyed  purple,  and  3000  Ibs.  of  pepper. 
On  tliis  occasion,  the  heathen  temples  were 
stripped  of  their  remaining  ornaments,  and 
among  others  of  the  statue  of  Valor;  which  the 
Pagans  did  not  fail  to  interpret  as  a  presage  of  the 
speedy  ruin  of  the  state.  Alaric,  having  received 
this  treasure,  departed  for  a  short  time  ;  but  soon 
after  he  again  blocked  up  the  city  with  a  nume- 


rous army ;  and  again  an  accommodation  with 
Honorius  was  set  on  foot.  However,  Rome-  w.i  , 
a  third  time  besieged,  and  at  last  taken  and  plun- 
dered. Procopius  says  that  there  was  not  in  the 
whole  city  one  house  left  entire ;  and  both  St. 
Jerome  und  Philostorgius  assert  that  the  great 
metropolis  of  the  empire  was  reduced  to  a  heap 
of  ashes  and  ruins.  Though  many  of  the  Goths, 
pursuant  to  the  orders  of  their  general,  refrained 
from  shedding  the  blood  of  such  as  made  no  re- 
sistance ;  yet  others  more  cruel  and  blood-thirsty, 
massacred  all  they  met :  so  that  in  some  quarters 
the  streets  were  seen  covered  with  dead  bodies, 
and  swimming  in  blood.  However,  not  the  least 
injury  was  offered  to  those  who  fled  to  the 
churches ;  nay  the  Goths  themselves  conveyed 
thither,  as  to  places  of  safety,  such  as  they  were 
desirous  should  be  spared.  Many  of  the  statues 
of  the  gods,  that  had  been  left  entire  by  the  em- 
perors as  excellent  pieces  of  art,  were  on  this 
occasion  destroyed,  either  by  the  Goths,  who, 
though  mostly  Arians,  were  zealous  Christians, 
or  by  a  dreadful  storra  of  thunder  and  lightning 
which  fell  at  the  same  time  upon  the  city,  as  if  it 
had  been  sent  on  purpose  to  complete  with  them 
the  destruction  of  idolatry.  Some  writers,  how- 
ever, affirm  that  the  city  suffered  very  little  at  this 
time,  not  so  much  as  when  it  was  taken  by 
Charles  V.  Alaric  did  not  long  survive  the  taking 
of  Rome,  being  cut  off  by  a  violent  fit  of  sick- 
ness in  the  neighbourhood  of  Rhegium. 

After  his  death  the  affairs  of  Honorius  seemed 
a  little  to  revive  by  the  defeat  and  death  of  Con- 
stantine  and  some  other  usurpers  ;  but  the  pro- 
vinces of  Gaul,  Britain,  and  Spain,  were  now 
almost  entirely  occupied  by  barbarians,  in  which 
state  they  continued  till  the  death  of  Honorius, 
which  happened  in  the  year  423,  after  an  unfor- 
tunate reign  of  twenty-eight  years. 

VALENTIMAN  III. — After  some  usurpations 
which  took  place  on  his  death,  his  nephew  Va- 
lentinian  III.  was  declared  emperor  of  the  west, 
and  his  mother,  Placidia,  regent  during  his  mi- 
nority. He  was  scarcely  seated  on  the  throne, 
when  the  empire  was  attacked  by  the  Huns 
under  the  celebrated  Am  LA  (see  that  article). 
The  empress  then  had  two  celebrated  generals, 
Bonifacius  and  Aetius ;  who  by  their  union 
might  have  saved  the  empire ;  but,  unhappily, 
through  the  treachery  of  Aetius,  Bonifacius 
revolted,  and  a  civil  war  ensued.  Aetius, 
notwithstanding  his  treachery,  was  pardoned, 
and  put  at  the  head  of  the  forces.  He  defended 
it  against  Attila  with  great  spirit  and  success, 
notwithstanding  the  deplorable  situation  of  af- 
fairs, till  he  was  murdered  by  Valentinian  with 
his  own  hand.  In  the  mean  time,  the  provinces, 
except  Italy  itself,  were  totally  over-run  by  the 
barbarians.  Genseric,  king  of  the  Vandals,  ra- 
vaged Africa  and  Sicily ;  the  Goths,  Suevians, 
Burgundians,  &c.,  had  taken  possession  of  Gaul 
and  Spain  ;  and 'the  Britons  were  oppressed  by 
the  Scots  and  Picts,  so  that  they  were  obliged 
to  call  in  the  Saxons  to  their  assistance.  In  the 
year  455  Valentinian  was  murdered  by  one 
Maximus,  whose  wife  he  had  ravished. 

MAXIMUS  immediately  assumed  the  empire; 
hut  felt  such  violent  anxieties  that  he  designed 
to  resign  it,  and  fiy  out  of  Italy,  to  enjoy  the 


14 


ROME. 


quiet  of  a  private  life.  However,  being  dis- 
suaded from  this  by  his  friends,  and  his  own  wife 
dying  soon  after,  he  forced  the  empress  Eu- 
doxia  to  marry  him.  Kudoxia,  who  had  ten- 
derly loved  Valentinian,  provoked  beyond  mea- 
sure at  being  married  to  his  murderer,  invited 
Genseric  king  of  the  Vandals  into  Italy.  This 
proved  a  most  fatal  scheme ;  for  Genseric  im- 
mediately appeared  before  Rome ;  a  violent 
tumult  ensued,  in  which  Maximus  lost  his  life; 
and  the  city  was  taken  and  plundered  by  Gen- 
seric, who  carried  off  what  had  been  left  by  the 
Goths.  A  vessel  was  loaded  with  costly  statues ; 
half  the  covering  of  the  capitol,  which  was  of 
brass  plated  over  with  gold  ;  sacred  vessels  en- 
riched with  precious  stones  ;  and  those  which 
had  been  taken  by  Titus  out  of  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem ;  all  of  which  were  lost  with  the  ves- 
sel in  its  passage  to  Africa. 

MARJOUIA-SUS. — Nothing  could  now  be  more 
deplorable  than  the  state  of  the  Roman  affairs ; 
nevertheless,  the  Western  empire  continued  to  ex- 
ist for  some  few  years ;  and  even  seemed  to  revive 
for  a  little  under  Marjorianus,  who  was  declared 
emperor  in  458.  He  was  a  man  of  great  cou- 
rage, and  possessed  of  many  other  excellent 
qualities.  He  defeated  the  Vandals,  and  drove 
them  out  of  Italy.  With  great  labor  he  fitted 
out  a  fleet,  of  which  the  Romans  had  been  long 
destitute.  With  this  he  designed  to  pass  over 
into  Africa ;  but,  it  being  surprised  and  burnt  by 
the  enemy,  he  himself  was  soon  after  murdered 
by  one  Ilicimer,  a  Goth,  who  had  long  governed 
every  thing  with  an  absolute  sway.  After  the 
death  of  Marjorianus,  Athemius  was  raised  to 
the  empire  :  but,  beginning  to  counteract  Rici- 
iner,  the  latter  openly  revolted,  and  besieged  and 
took  Rome ;  where  be  committed  innumerable 
cruelties,  among  the  rest  putting  to  death  the 
emperor  Anthemius,  and  raising  one  Olybius  to 
the  empire. 

The  transactions  of  Olybius's  reign  were  very 
few,  as  he  died  soon  after  his  accession.  On  his 
death  Glycerius  usurped  the  empire.  He  was 
deposed  in  474,  and  Julius  Nepos  had  the  name 
of  emperor.  He  was  driven  out  the  next  year 
by  his  general  Orestes,  who  caused  his  son  Ro- 
mulus Augustulus  to  be  proclaimed  emperor. 
But  the  following  year,  476,  the  barbarians  who 
served  in  the  Roman  armies,  and  were  distin- 
guished with  the  title  of  allies,  demanded,  as  a 
reward  for  their  services,  the  third  part  of  the 
lands  in  Italy ;  pretending  that  the  whole  coun- 
try, which  they  had  so  often  defended,  belonged 
of  right  to  them.  As  Orestes  refused  to  comply 
with  this  insolent  demand,  they  resolved  to  do 
themselves  justice,  as  they  called  it ;  and,  openly 
revolting,  chose  one  Odoacer  for  their  leader. 
Odoacer  was,  according  to  Ennodius,  meanly 
born,  and  only  a  private  man  in  the  guards  of 
the  emperor  Augustulus,  when  the  barbarians, 
revolting,  chose  him  for  their  leader.  However 
he  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  uncommon 
ability.  He  marched  against  Orestes  anil  his  M,U 
Aaguttutolj  who  still  refused  to  give  them  any 
share  of  the  lands  in  Italy.  As  the  Roman 
troops  were  inferior,  both  in  number  and  valor, 
to  the  barbarians,  Orestes  took  n  fu^c  in  Pavia, 
ut  that  time  one  of  tin;  l>cst  iWtilird  cities  in 


Italy  ;  but  Odoacer,  investing  the  place  without 
loss  of  time,  took  it  soon  after  by  assault, 
gave  it  up  to  be  plundered  by  the  soldiers, 
and  then  set  fire  to  it.  Orestes  being  taken 
prisoner,  and  brought  to  Odoacer,  he  carried 
him  to  Placentia,  and  there  caused  him  to  be 
put  to  death  on  the  28th  of  August,  the  day  on 
which  he  had  driven  Nepos  out  of  Ravenna, 
and  obliged  him  to  abandon  the  empire.  From 
Placentia  Odoacer  marched  straight  to  Ravenna, 
where  he  found  Paul,  the  brother  of  Orestes, 
and  the  young  emperor  Augustulus.  The  former 
he  immediately  hut  to  death ;  but  sparing  Augus- 
tulus, in  consideration  of  his  youth,  he  stripped  him 
of  the  ensigns  of  the  imperial  dignity,  and  confined 
him  to  Lucullanum,  a  castle  in  Campania;  where 
he  was  treated  with  great  humanity,  and  al- 
lowed a  handsome  maintenance.  Rome  readily 
submitted  to  the  conqueror,  who  immediately 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king  of  Italy, 
but  would  not  assume  the  purple.  Thus 
failed  the  very  name  of  an  empire  in  the  west. 
Britain  had  been  long  abandoned  by  the  Ro- 
mans ;  Spain  was  held  by  the  Goths  and  Sue- 
vans  ;  Africa  by  the  Vandals  :  the  Burgundians, 
Goths,  Franks,  and  Alans,  had  erected  several 
tetrarchies  in  Gaul ;  at  length  Italy  itself,  with 
its  proud  metropolis,  which  for  so  many  ages 
had  given  law  to  the  rest  of  the  world,  was  en- 
slaved by  a  contemptible  barbarian,  whose  family, 
country,  and  nation,  are  not  well  known  to  this 
day. 

PART  V. 

EASTERN,  OR  COXSTA-NTINOPOLITAN 
EMPIRE. 

From  the  death  of  Theodosius  to  the  time 
when  the  Roman  empire  in  the  west  was  totally 
destroyed  by  the  Goths,  we  find  little  remarkable 
in  the  history  of  Constantinople  ;  or  during  the 
reigns  of  Theodosius  II.,  Marcian  and  Leo  I 
and  II.,  except  that  Leo  II.,  who  had  been  asso- 
ciated by  his  maternal  grandfather,  (Leo  I.)  re- 
signed in  favor  of  his  father  Zeno,  whom  lie 
crowned  with  his  own  hands.  When  the  wes- 
tern empire  ended  in  Augustulus,  the  FasU-rn 
was  usurped  by  Basiliscus,  who  had  driven  out 
Zeno  the  lawful  emperor.  Zeno  fled  into  Isauria, 
where  he  was  pursued  by  Illus  and  Treconde*, 
two  of  the  usurper's  generals  ;  who,  having  easily 
defeated  the  few  troops  he  had  with  him,  forced 
the  unhappy  prince  to  shut  himself  up  in  a  castle, 
which  they  immediately  invested.  But  in  a  short 
time  Basiliscus  having  become  obnoxious  to  the 
people  by  his  cruelty,  avarice,  and  other  bad 
qualities,  his  generals  joined  with  Zeno,  whom 
they  restored  to  the  throne.  After  his  restoration, 
Zeno  having  got  Baisliscus  into  his  power,  con- 
fined him  in  a  castle  of  Cappadocia,  together 
with  his  wife  Zenonide,  where  they  both  perished 
with  hunger  and  cold,  A.  D.  478,  after  Basilis- 
cus had  reigned  about  twenty  months.  During 
the  time  of  this  usurpation  a  fire  happened  at 
Constantinople,  which  consumed  great  part  of 
the  city,  with  the  library  containm;-'  1 '20,001)  M>- 
lumes  ;  amon,-  which  were  the  works  of  Homer, 
written,  it  is  slid,  on  ll  .;  of  -i  d; 


u    u 

120  feet  long.  Zeno  was  not  improved  by  his 
misfortunes.  He  still  continued  the  same  vicious 
courses  which  had  given  occasion  to  the  usurpa- 
tion of  Basiliscus  ;  yet,  though  other  conspiracies 
were  formed  against  him,  he  had  the  good  for- 
tune to  escape  them.  He  engaged  in  a  war 
with  the  Ostrogoths,  in  which  he  proved  unsuc- 
cessful, and  was  obliged  to  yield  the  provinces 
of  Lower  Uacia  and  Mcesia  to  them.  In  484 
Theodoric,  their  king,  made  an  irruption  into 
Thrace,  and  advanced  within  fifteen  miles  of 
Constantinople ;  but  the  following  year  they  re- 
tired in  order  to  attack  Odoacer  king  of  Italy, 
of  which  country  Theodoric  was  proclaimed 
king  in  493.  The  emperor  Zeno  died  in  491,  in 
the  sixty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  and  seventeenth 
of  his  reign.  The  Roman  empire  had  long  been 
on  the  decline,  before  it  fell  a  prey  to  the  Goths. 
The  ancient  valor  and  military  discipline,  which 
had  rendered  the  Romans  superior  to  other  na- 
tions, had  now  greatly  degenerated.  But  what 
proved  of  the  greatest  detriment  was  the  allow- 
ing vast  swarms  of  barbarians  to  settle  in  the 
different  provinces,  and  to  serve  in  the  empire 
in  separate  and  independent  bodies.  This  had 
proved  the  immediate  cause  of  the  dissolution  of 
the  western  empire;  but,  as  it  affected  the  eastern 
I 'arts  less,  the  Constantinopolitan  empire  conti- 
nued for  near  1000  years  after  the  western  was 
totally  dissolved.  The  weak  administrations  of 
Zeno,  and  Anastasius  I.,  who  succeeded  him, 
rapidly  reduced  the  eastern  empire;  and  it  might 
possibly  have  fallen  soon  after  the  western  one, 
had  not  the  wise  and  vigorous  conduct  of  Justin, 
and  his  partner  Justinian,  revived  in  some  mea- 
sure the  ancient  martial  spirit.  Justin  ascended 
the  throne  in  518.  In  521  he  engaged  in  a  war 
with  the  Persians,  who  had  long  been  very  for- 
midable enemies.  Against  them  he  employed 
the  famous  Belisarius ;  but  nothing  remarkable 
happened  till  after  the  accession  of  Justinian. 

Ji  'STIXIAX  I. — This  prince  was  the  nephew  of 
Justin,  and  was  by  him  taken  as  his  partner  in 
the  empire  in  527  ;  the  same  year  Justin  died, 
in  the  seventy-seventh  year  of  his  age,  and  ninth 
of  his  reign.  Justinian,  being  now  sole  master 
of  the  empire,  bent  his  whole  force  against  the 
Persians.  The  latter  proved  successful  in  the 
first  engagement;  but  were  soon  after  utterly 
defeated  by  Belisarius  on  the  frontiers  of  Persia, 
and  by  Dorotheus  in  Armenia.  The  war  continued 
with  various  success  during  the  first  five  years  of 
Justinian's  reisrn-  In  the  sixth  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded, stipulating,  1.  That  the  emperor  should 
pay  the  king  of  Persia  1000  IDS.  weight  of  gold. 
2.  That  both  princes  should  restore  the  places 
they  had  taken  during  the  wars.  3.  That  the 
commander  of  the  Roman  forces  should  no 
longer  reside  at  Daras,  on  the  Persian  frontiers, 
but  at  Constantma  in  Mesopotamia.  4.  That 
the  Iberians,  who  had  sided  with  the  emperor, 
should  be  at  liberty  to  return  to  their  own  coun- 
try or  stay  at  Constantinople.  This  peace,  con- 
cluded in  532,  was  styled  eternal ;  but  proved 
of  very  short  duration. 

About  this  time  happened  at  Constantinople 
one  of  the  greatest  civic  tumults  recorded  in  his- 
tory. It  began  among  the  different  factions  in 
the  circus,  but  ended  in  an  open  rebellion.  The 


K. 


15 


people,  highly  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  of 
John  the  praefectus  pratorii,  and  of  Trebonianus 
then  questor,  forced  Hypatius,  nephew  to  the 
emperor  Anastasius,  to  accept  the  empire,  and 
proclaimed  him  with  great  solemnity.  As  these 
two  ministers  were  greatly  abhorred  on  account 
of  their  avarice,  Justinian  immediately  discharged 
them,  hoping  thus  to  appease  the  tumult ;  but 
this  was  so  far  from  answering  the  purpose  that 
the  people  only  grew  more  outrageous ;  and, 
most  of  the  senators  joining  them,  the  emperor 
was  so  much  alarmed  that  he  had  thoughts  of 
abandoning  the  city.  But  the  empress  Theodora 
persuaded  him  rather  to  part  with  his  life  than 
his  empire,  and  he  resolved  to  defend  himself  to 
the  utmost.  In  the  mean  time  the  rebels,  having 
attempted  in  vain  to  force  the  gates  of  the  pa- 
lace, carried  Hypatius  in  triumph  to  the  circus, 
where,  while  he  was  beholding  the  sports  from 
the  imperial  throne,  amidst  the  shouts  and  accla- 
mations of  the  people,  Belisarius,  who  had  been 
recalled  from  Persia,  entered  the  city  with  a  con- 
siderable body  of  troops.  Being  BOW  apprised 
of  the  usurpation  of  Hypatius,  he  marched  strait 
to  the  circus  ;  fell  sword  in  hand  upon  the  dis- 
armed multitude  ;  and,  with  the  assistance  of  a 
band  of  Heruli,  headed  by  Mundus,  governor  of 
Illyricum,  cut  about  30,000  of  them  in  pieces 
Hypatius  the  usurper,  and  Pompeius,  another 
nephew  of  Anastasius,  were  taken  prisoners,  and 
carried  to  the  emperor,  by  whose  orders  they 
were  both  beheaded,  and  their  bodies  cast  into 
the  sea.  Their  estates  were  confiscated  'with 
those  of  such  senators  as  had  joined  with  them  ; 
but  the  emperor  caused  great  part  of  their  lands 
and  effects  to  be  afterwards  restored,  together 
with  their  honors  and  dignities,  to  their  children. 
Justinian,  having  now  no  other  enemy  to  contend 
with,  turned  his  arms  against  the  Vandals  in 
Africa,  and  the  Goths  in  Italy ;  both  which  pro- 
vinces he  recovered  out  of  the  hands  of  the  bar- 
barians. But  before  Belisarius  had  time  to  re- 
establish fully  the  Roman  power  in  Italy,  he  was 
recalled  to  carry  on  the  war  agahist  Cosrhoes 
king  of  Persia,  who,  regardless  of  the  late  treaty, 
entered  the  Roman  dominions  at  the  head  of  a 
powerful  army.  The  same  year  a  new  peace 
was  concluded  upon  the  following  conditions  : — 
1.  That  the  Romans  should,  within  two  months, 
pay  to  the  Persian  king  5000  Ibs.  weight  of  gold, 
and  an  annual  pension  of  500  Ibs.  2.  That  the 
latter  should  relinquish  all  claim  to  the  fortress 
of  Daras,  and  maintain  a  body  of  troops  to 
guard  the  Caspian  gates,  and  prevent  the  barba- 
rians from  breaking  into  the  empire.  3.  That 
upon  payment  of  that  sum  Cosrhoes  should  im- 
mediately withdraw  his  troops  from  the  Roman 
dominions.  The  treaty  being  signed,  and  the 
stipulated  sum  paid,  Cosrhoes  began  to  march 
back  again  ;  but  by  the  way  plundered  several 
cities.  Justinian  hereupon  resolved  to  renew  the 
war  with  vigor;  but  had  scarcely  for  that  pur- 
pose despatched  Belisarius  into  the  east  before 
he  was  obliged  to  recal  him,  in  order  to  oppose 
the  Goths,  who  had  gained  great  advantages  in 
Italy.  The  Persian  war  was  carried  on  with  in- 
different success  till  A.  D.  558,  when  a  peace 
wa>  concluded,  upon  the  emperor  again  paying 
an  immense  sum  to  the  e?:o!r.y.  The  same  year 


It) 


ROME. 


the  Huns,  passing  the  Danube  in  the  depth  of 
u  inter,  marched  in  two  bodies  for  Constantinople; 
and,  laying  waste  the  countries  through  which 
they  passed,  came,  without  opposition,  within 
150  furlongs  of  the  city.  But  Belisarius,  march- 
ing out  against  them  with  a  handful  of  men,  put 
them  to  flight ;  the  emperor,  however,  agreed  to 
pay  them  an  annual  tribute,  upon  their  promising 
to  defend  the  empire  against  all  other  barbarians. 
This  was  the  last  exploit  performed  by  Belisarius, 
who,  on  his  return  to  Constantinople,  was  dis- 
graced, stripped  of  his  employments,  and  con- 
fined to  his  house,  on  pretence  of  a  conspiracy. 
See  BELISARIUS.  In  565  a  real  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  Justinian,  which  he  happily  es- 
caped, and  the  conspirators  were  executed  ;  but 
the  emperor  did  not  long  survive,  being  carried 
off  by  a  natural  death  in  556,  in  the  thirty-ninth 
year  of  his  reign. 

JUSTINIAN'S  SUCCESSORS,  TO  THE  FIRST  TURK- 
ISH INVASION. — During  the  reign  of  Justinian  the 
majesty  of  the  Roman  empire  seemed  to  revive. 
He  recovered  the  provinces  of  Italy  and  Africa 
out  of  the  hands  of -the  barbarians,  by  whom  they 
had  been  held  for  a  number  of  years  ;  but  after 
his  death  they  were  soon  lost,  and  the  empire 
tended  fast  to  dissolution.  In  569  Italy  was 
conquered  by  the  Lombards,  who  held  it  for  the 
space  of  200  years.  Some  amends,  however, 
were  made  for  this  loss  by  the  acquisition  of  Per- 
sian Armenia,  the  inhabitants  of  which  being 
persecuted  on  account  of  the  Christian  religion, 
which  they  professed,  revolted  to  the  Romans. 
This  produced  a  war  between  the  two  nations, 
who  continued  to  weaken  each  other,  till  at  las'. 
the  Persian  monarchy  was  overthrown,  and  that 
of  the  Romans  greatly  reduced  by  the  Saracens. 
These  new  enemies  attacked  the  Romans  in  632, 
and  pursued  their  conquests  with  incredible 
rapidity.  Within  four  years  they  reduced  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  Palestine.  In  648  they  became  mas- 
ters of  Mesopotamia,  Phoenicia,  Africa,  Cyprus, 
Aradus,  and  Rhodes ;  and  having  defeated  the 
Roman  fleet,  commanded  by  the  emperor  Con- 
stans  II.  in  person,  they  concluded  a  peace  on 
condition  of  keeping  the  vast  extent  of  territory 
they  had  seized,  and  paying  for  1000  nummi 
a-year.  An  expedition  against  the  Lombards 
was  about  this  time  undertaken,  but  with  very 
little  success,  a  body  of  20,000  Romans  being 
almost  entirely  cut  off  by  one  of  the  Lombard 
generals.  In  671  the  Saracens  ravaged  several 
provinces,  made  a  descent  in  Sicily,  took  and 
plundered  the  city  of  Syracuse,  and  overran  the 
whole  island,  destroying  every  thing  with  fire 
and  sword.  In  like  manner  they  laid  waste  Ci- 
licia;  and,  having  passed  the  winter  at  Smyrna, 
entered  Thrace  in  the  winter  of  672,  and  laid 
siege  to  Constantinople  itself.  Here,  however, 
they  were  repulsed  with  great  loss :  but  next 
spring  they  renewed  their  attempt,  in  which  they 
met  with  the  same  bad  success  :  many  of  their 
ships  being  burnt  by  the  sea  fire,  as  it  was  called, 
because  it  burnt  underwater  ;  and  in  their  return 
home  their  fleet  was  wrecked  off  the  Scyllsean 
promontory.  At  last  a  peace  was  concluded  for 
thirty  years,  on  condition  that  the  Saracens 
should  retain  all  the  provinces  they  had  seized ; 
and  that  they  should  pay  to  the  emperor  and  his 


successors  3000  pounds  weight  of  gold,  fifty 
slaves,  and  as  many  choice  horses.  This  peace 
was  scarcely  concluded  when  the  empire  was  in- 
vaded by  the  Bulgarians  ;  who,  breaking  into 
Thrace,  defeated  the  Roman  army,  and  ravaged 
the  country  far  and  wide.  Constantine  IV.,  in 
678,  agreed  to  pay  them  an  annual  pension, 
rather  than  continue  a  doubtful  war ;  and  allowed 
them  to  settle  in  Lower  Mcesia,  from  them  called 
Bulgaria. 

In  687  they  were  attacked  by  Justinian  II., 
who  entered  their  country  without  provocation  ; 
but  they,  falling  suddenly  upon  him,  drove  him 
out,  and  obliged  him  to  restore  the  towns  ami 
captives  he  had  taken.  In  697  Justinian  was 
deposed;  and  in  his  exile  fled  to  Trebelis,  king 
of  the  Bulgarians,  by  whose  aid  he  was  restored 
to  his  throne ;  but,  soon  forgetting  this  favor,  he 
invaded  the  country  of  the  Bulgarians,  with  a 
design  to  wrest  from  them  those  provinces  which 
he  had  yielded  to  them.  In  this  expedition  he 
was  attended  by  no  better  success  than  his  in- 
gratitude deserved,  his  army  being  defeated,  and 
himself  obliged  to  make  his  escape  in  a  vessel 
to  Constantinople.  The  Bulgarians,  continuing 
their  inroads  and  ravages  at  different  times,  ge- 
nerally defeated  the  Romans  who  ventured  to 
oppose  them,  till  A.  D.  800,  the  seventh  of  the 
reign  of  Nicephorus  I.,  when  they  surprised  the 
city  of  Sardica,  and  put  the  whole  garrison,  con- 
sisting of  6000  men,  to  the  sword.  The  empe- 
ror marched  against  them  with  a  considerable 
army ;  but  the  enemy  retired  at  his  approach  ; 
and  he,  instead  of  pursuing  them,  returned  to 
Constantinople.  Two  years  after  he  entered  Bul- 
garia at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  destroying 
every  thing  with  fire  and  sword.  The  king  ofl'eivd 
to  conclude  a  peace  with  him  upon  honorable 
terms ;  but  Nicephorus,  rejecting  his  proposals, 
continued  to  waste  the  country,  destroying  the 
cities,  and  putting  all  the  inhabitants,  without 
distinction  of  sex  or  age,  to  the  sword.  The  kiny; 
was  so  much  affected  with  these  cruelties,  that. 
he  sent  a  second  embassy  to  Nicephorus,  offering 
to  conclude  a  peace  with  him  upon  any  terms. 
But,  Nicephorus  dismissing  the  ambassadors  with 
scorn,  the  Bulgarian  monarch  attacked  the  Roman 
camp,  forced  it,  and  cut  off  almost  the  whole 
army,  with  the  emperor  himself,  and  a  great 
number  of  patricians.  His  successor,  Michael  I., 
likewise  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Bulgarians  ; 
but,  being  utterly  defeated,  resigned  the  empire. 
After  this  the  Bulgarians  continued  to  be  very 
formidable  enemies  till  the  year  979,  when  they 
were  vigorously  attacked  by  Basilius  II.  The 
Bulgarians  were  now  governed  by  a  kir.g  named 
Samuel ;  who  having  ravaged  the  Roman  terri- 
tories, 'Basilius  sent  against  him  Nicephorus 
Uranus  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army.  Uranus, 
leaving  his  baggage  at  Larissa,  reached  by  long 
marches  the  Sperchius,  and  encamped  with  his 
whole  army  over  against  the  enemy,  who  lay  on 
the  opposite  bank.  As  the  river  was  greatly 
swelled,  with  the  heavy  rains  that  had  lately 
fallen,  Samuel,  not  imagining  the  Romans  would 
attempt  to  pass  it,  suffered  his  troops  to  roam  in 
large  parties  about  the  country.  But  Uranus, 
having  at  length  found  out  a  place  where  tho 
river  was  fordable,  passed  it  in  the  night,  fell 


R     O     M     E. 


17 


•upoi.  the  Bulgarians,  who  lay  for  the  most  part 
asleep :  cutting  great  numbers  in  pieces,  and 
making  himself  master  of  their  camp.  Samuel 
and  his  son  were  dangerously  wounded ;  and 
would  have  been  taken,  had  they  not  concealed 
themselves  among  the  dead.  The  next  night 
they  stole  away  to  the  mountains  of  ./Etolia, 
The  following  year  the  emperor  entered  Bulgaria 
at  the  head  of  a  numerous  and  well  disciplined 
army  ;  defeated  Samuel  in  a  pitched  battle,  and 
took  several  strong  cities.  The  emperor  himself, 
however,  at  last,  narrowly  escaped  being  cut  ofi 
in  a  narrow  pass.  From  this  danger  he  was 
relieved  by  the  arrival  of  Nicephorus  Xiphias, 
governor  of  Philippopolis,  with  a  body  of  troops . 
who,  falling  upon  the  enemy's  rear,  put  them  tc 
flight.  Basilius  pursued  them  close  ;  and,  having 
taken  an  incredible  number  of  captives,  caused 
their  eyes  to  be  pulled  out,  leaving  to  every  hun- 
dred a  guide  with  one  eye,  that  he  might  conduc. 
them  to  Samuel.  This  shocking  spectacle  sc 
affected  the  king  that  he  fell  into  a  deep  swoon, 
and  died  two  days  after.  The  emperor,  pursuing 
his  conquests,  in  the  space  of  two  years  made 
himself  master  of  most  of  the  enemy's  strong 
holds.  He  defeated  also  the  successor  of  Samue. 
in  several  engagements  ;  and,  having  at  last  killed 
him  in  battle,  the  Bulgarians  submitted  without 
reserve.  The  vast  treasures  of  these  princes 
were  by  Basilius  distributed  among  his  soldiers. 
Soon  after  the  royal  family  surrendered  them- 
selves to  the  emperor,  by  whom  they  were  re- 
ceived with  the  utmost  respect.  Ibatzes,  how- 
t- ver,  a  person  nearly  allied  to  the  family,  who  had 
<i  languished  himself  in  an  eminent  manner  during 
the  whole  course  of  the  war,  refused  to  submit. 
At  last  Eustathius  Daphnomelus,  whom  Basilius 
hud  lately  appointed  governor  of  Achridus,  the 
chief  city  of  Bulgaria,  undertook  to  secure  him. 
^  ithout  communicating  his  design  to  any,  he 
repaired,  with  two  persons  in  whom  he  could 
confide,  to  the  mountain  on  which  Ibatzes  had 
fortified  himself.  He  hoped  to  pass  undis- 
covered among  the  many  strangers  who  flocked 
thither  to  celebrate  the  approaching  feast  of  the 
Virgin,  for  whom  Ibatzes  had  a  great  veneration. 
In  this  he  found  himself  mistaken ;  for  he  was 
known  by  the  guards,  and  carried  before  the  prince. 
To  him  he  pretended  to  have  something  of  import- 
ance to  communicate ;  but,  as  soon  as  Ibatzes  had 
retired  with  him  into  a  remote  place,  Daphnomelus 
threw  himself  suddenly  upon  him,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  the  two  men  whom  he  had  brought 
with  him,  put  out  his  eyes ;  and  got  safe  to  an 
abandoned  castle  on  the  top  of  the  hill.  Here 
they  were  immediately  surrounded  by  the  troops 
of  Ibatzes ;  hut  Daphnomelns  exhorting  them 
now  to  submit  to  the  emperor,  by  whom  he  as- 
sured them  they  would  be  well  received,  they 
congratulated  Daphnomelus  on  his  success,  and 
suffered  him  to  conduct  the  unhappy  Ibatzes  a 
prisoner  to  Basilius.  The  emperor  was  no  less 
surprised  than  pleased  at  the  success  of  this  bold 
attempt;  and  rewarded  Daphnomelus  with  the 
government  of  Dyrrhachium,  and  all  the  rich 
moveables  of  his  prisoner.  After  this,  having 
accomplished  the  entire  reduction  of  Bulgaria, 
he  returned  to  Constantinople  with  an  incredible 
number  of  captives.  All  this  time  the  Saracens 
VOL.  XIX. 


had  at  intervals  invaded  the  Roman  dominions, 
and  even  attempted  to  make  themselves  master* 
of  the  capital.  Their  internal  divisions.,  how- 
ever, rendered  them  now  much  less  formidable 
enemies  than  they  had  formerly  been ;  so  that 
some  provinces  were  recovered  for  a  time  out  of 
their  hands.  In  1040  the  empire  was  first  in- 
vaded by  the  Turks ;  an  enemy  w  ho,  though  not 
very  powerful  at  that  time,  by  degrees  gathered 
strength  sufficient  to  overthrow  both  the  Roman 
and  Saracen  empires.  See  TURKEY.  Cutln- 
Mo<es,  nephew  to  Tangrolipix,  the  Turkish  sul- 
tan, having  been  refused  a  passage  throu<ni 
Media,  in  his  retreat  from  Arabia,  by  Stephen 
the  Roman  governor,  forced  his  passag'e  and  de- 
feated the  Roman  army  with  so  much  ease  that 
he  told  his  uncle  the  province  might  be  easily 
conquered.  Tangrolipix  accordingly  sent  Asan, 
another  nephew,  with  an  army  of  20,000  men  to 
reduce  Media.  The  young  prince  entered  that 
country,  and  committed  every  where  dreadful 
ravages  ;  but,  being  drawn  into  an  ambush  by 
the  Roman  generals,  he  was  cut  off  with  his 
whole  army.  Tangrolipix,  not  discouraged,  sent 
a  new  army  into  Media  of  nearly  100,000  men 
who,  after  having  ravaged  the  country  without 
opposition,  laid  siege  to  Artza,  a  place  of  great 
trade.  Not  being  able  to  reduce  it  by  any  other 
means  they  set  it  on  fire ;  and  150,000  of  the 
inhabitants  perished  either  by  the  flames  or  the 
sword.  After  this  Abraham  Halim,  half  brother 
to  Tangrolipix,  hearing  that  the  Romans,  rein- 
forced with  a  body  of  troops  under  Liparites 
governor  of  Iberia,  had  taken  the  field,  marched 
against  them,  and  the  two  armies  engaged  with 
incredible  fury.  The  victory  continued  Ion.: 
doubtful ;  but  at  length  inclined  to  the  Romans, 
who  nevertheless  did  not  think  proper  to  pursue 
the  fugitives,  as  their  general  Liparites  was  taken 
prisoner.  The  emperor  despatched  ambassadors 
with  rich  presents,  and  a  large  sum  of  money  to 
redeem  him,  and  at  the  same  time  to  conclude 
an  alliance  with  Tangrolipix.  The  presents  the 
sultan  received ;  but  immediately  returned  them 
together  with .  the  money  to  Liparites,  whom  he 
set  at  liberty  without  ransom.  Not  long  aftei 
Tangrolipix  sent  an  ambassador  to  Constan- 
tinople :  who  having  exhorted  the  emperor  to 
submit  to  his  master,  and  acknowledge  himself 
his  tributary,  was  ignominiously  driven  out  o' 
the  city.  Tangrolipix,  highly  affronted  at  this 
entered  Iberia,  while  the  emperor  Constantim 
Monomachus  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  the 
Patzinacae,  a  Scythian  nation.  Having  ravaged 
that  country,  he  returned  to  Media,  and  laid 
siege  for  forty  days  to  Mantzichierta,  a  place  de- 
fended by  a  numerous  garrison.  The  next 
spring  Tangrolipix  returned,  and  ravaged  Iberia 
with  the  utmost  cruelty,  sparing  neither  sex  nor 
age.  But,  on  the  approach  of  the  Roman  army, 
he  retired  to  Tauris,  leaving  30,000  men  on  the 
frontiers  of  the  empire.  Till  the  time  of  this 
emperor  the  provinces  bordering  on  the  countries 
of  the  barbarians  had  maintained,  at  their  own 
charge,  forces  to  defend  them  :  and  were  on  that 
account  exempted  from  paying  tribute ;  but,  as 
Monomachus  exacted  from  them  the  same  sums 
that  were  paid  by  others,  they  were  no  longer  in 
a  condition  to  defend  themselves. 

C 


R    O     M     E. 


From  COXSTANTINE  Drt-AS  TO  THE  CAPTURE 

<jt    CONSTANTINOPLE    BY  THE    LATINS. In  1067 

died  the  emperor  Constantine  Ducas,  having  left 
the  empire  to  his  three  sons,  Michael,  Androni- 
cus, and  Constantine ;  but,  as  they  were  all  very 
young,  he  appointed  the  empress  Eudocia  regent, 
after  having  required  of  her  an  oath  never  to 
marry.  He  likewise  obliged  the  senators  solemnly 
to  swear  that  they  would  acknowledge  none  for 
their  sovereign  but  his  three  sons.     No  sooner, 
however,  was  he  dead  than  the  Turks,  hearing 
that  the  empire  was  governed  by  a  woman,  broke 
into   Mesopotamia,    Cilicia,    and    Cappadocia. 
The  empress  was  no  way  in  a  condition  to  oppose 
them,  the  greater  part  of  the  army  having  been 
disbanded  in  her  husband's  life-time :  and  a  dis- 
contented party  existed  at  home,  who  observed 
that  the  state  of  affairs  required  a  man  of  courage 
and  address  at  the  helm,  instead  of  a  weak  wo- 
man.    Eudocia  therefore  determined  to  marry 
some  person  of  merit,  capable  of  defeating  her 
enemies :  and  when  one  Romanus  Diogenes,  a 
man  of  illustrious  birth  and  beautiful  person, 
was  brought  forth  to  receive  sentence  of  death, 
she  only  gently  upbraided  him  with  his  ambition 
and  set  him  at  liberty.    Soon  after  she  appointed 
him  commander-in-chief  of  her  forces.     In  this 
station  he  acquitted   himself  so  well   that   the 
empress   resolved   to   marry  him  if  she  could 
recover    the   writing    in   which    her    oath   was 
contained  out  of  the  hands   of  the  patriarch. 
In   order   to    this    she    applied   to   a   favorite 
eunuch ;  who  told  the  patriarch  that  the  empress 
was  so  taken  with  his  nephew  Bardas,  that  she 
was  determined  to  marry  and  raise  him  to  the 
empire,  provided  the  patriarch  absolved  her  from 
her  oath,  and  convinced  the  senate  of  the  law- 
fulness of  her  marriage.    The  patriarch,  dazzled 
with  the  prospect  of  his  nephew's  promotion, 
readily  undertook  to  perform  both.    He  first  ob- 
tained the  consent  of  the  senate,  by  representing 
to  them  the  dangerous  state  of  the  empire,  and 
exclaiming  against  the  rash  oath  which  the  jea- 
lousy of  the  late  emperor  had  extorted  from  the 
empress.    He  then  publicly  discharged  her  from 
it,  and  restored  the  writing  to  her,  exhorting  her 
to  marry  some  deserving  object,  who,  being  en- 
trusted with  an  absolute  authority,  might  be  ca- 
pable of  defending  the  empire.    Thus  discharged 
from  her  oath,  the  empress,  a  few  days  after, 
married   Romanus   Diogenes.     Being  a  man  of 
great  activity  and  military  talent,  he  took  the 
command  of  the  army,   and  passed   over  into 
Asia,  recruiting  and   inuring  his  forces  on  his 
march  to  military  discipline.     On  his  arrival, 
being  informed  that  the  Turks  had  surprised  and 
plundered  Neocaesarea,  and  were  retiring  with 
their  booty,  he  hastened  after,  and  came  up  \\ith 
them  on  the  third  day,  when  he  cut  off  great 
numbers  of  them,  and  easily  recovered  the  booty. 
After   this   he   pursued   his  inarch   to   Aleppo, 
which  he  retook,  together  with  Ilierapolis,  where 
he  built  a  strong  castle.     In  his  return,  he  was 
met  by  a  numerous  body  of  Turks,   who  at- 
tempted to  cut  off  his  retreat ;  and  he  pretended 
to  decline  an  engagement  through  fear ;  but  at- 
tacked them  afterwards  \\itli  such  vigor  that  In- 
put them  to  flight  at  the  first  onset.     After  this 
several  towns  submitted  to  him  ;  but,  ih«-  K 


l>ein_r  spent,  he  returned  to  Constantinople.  The 
following  year  lie  passed  over  into  Asia  in  the 
spring;  and,  being  informed  that  the  Turks  had 
sacked  Iconium,  marched  at  once  against  them  ; 
when  they  retired  in  great  haste.  The  Arrrenians, 
however,  encouraged  by  the  approach  of  the  em- 
peror's army,  fell  upon  them  in  the  plains  of 
Tarsus,  put  them  to  night,  and  stripped  them 
both  of  their  baggage  and  booty.  The  spring 
following  the  emperor  once  more  entered  Asia 
at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army.  When  the 
two  armies  drew  near  each  other,  Axan,  the 
Turkish  sultan,  son  of  the  famous  Tangrolipix 
sent  proposals  to  Romanus  for  a  peace.  These 
were  imprudently  rejected,  and  a  desperate  en- 
gagement ensued  ;  when,  in  spite  of  the  utmost 
efforts  of  the  emperor,  his  army  was  routed,  and 
he  himself  wounded  and  taken  prisoner.  When 
this  news  was  brought  to  Axan,  he  could  scarcely 
believe  it ;  but,  being  convinced  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  royal  captive  in  his  presence,  he 
tenderly  embraced  -and  consoled  him.  '  You 
shall  have  no  occasion,'  said  he,  '  to  complain 
of  your  captivity :  I  will  not  use  you  as  my 
prisoner,  but  as  an  emperor.'  The  Turk  wa«.  a< 
good  as  his  word.  He  lodged  Romanus  in  a 
royal  pavilion  ;  assigned  him  attendants,  with 
an  equipage  suitable  to  his  quality;  and  dis- 
charged such  prisoners  as  he  desired.  After  he 
had  for  some  days  entertained  his  captive  with 
extraordinary  magnificence,  a  perpetual  peace 
was  concluded,  and  the  emperor  dismissed  wit'i 
the  greatest  marks  of  honor.  He  then  set  out 
with  the  Turkish  ambassador  for  Constantinople, 
where  the  peace  was  to  bev  ratified  ;  but  by  the 
way  he  was  informed  that  Eudocia  had  been 
driven  from  the  throne  by  John  the  brother  ot 
Constantine  Ducas,  and  Psellus  a  leading  man 
in  the  senate,  who  had  confined  her  to  a  moins- 
tery,  and  proclaimed  Michael  Ducas,  his  eldest 
son,  emperor.  On  this  intelligence  Romanus  re- 
tired to  a  strong  castle  near  Theodosiopolis, 
where  he  hoped  soon  to  be  joined  by  his  friends 
and  adherents.  But  John,  who  had  taken  upon 
him  to  act  as  guardian  to  the  young  prince,  sent 
Andronicus  with  a  considerable  army  against 
him  ;  on  which  he  was  obliged  to  fly  to  Adana, 
in  Cilicia,  where  he  was  closely  besieged,  and  at 
last  compelled  to  surrender.  Andronicus  carried 
his  prisoner  into  Phrygia,  where  he  fell  danger- 
ously ill,  being,  as  was  suspected,  secretly 
poisoned.  Here,  at  any  rate,  John  ordered  his 
eyes  to  be  put  out ;  which  was  done  with  such 
cruelty  that  he  died  soon  after,  in  1071,  having 
reigned  three  years  and  eight  months. 

Axan  was  no  sooner  informed  of  the  tragical 
end  of  his  friend  and  ally  than  he  resolved  to 
irnade  the  empire;  and  that  not  only  with  a  di- 
si_n  to  plunder  as  formerly,  but  to  conquer,  and 
keep  what  he  conquered.  The  emperor  de- 
spatched against  him  Isaac  Comnenus,  with  a 
considerable  army  ;  but  he  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Axan.  Another  army  \\a< 
sent  off  under  John  Ducas,  the  emperor's  uncle, 
who  gained  some  advantages;  but  one  I  i>flius 
revolted  with  the  troops  under  his  command, 
•  d  himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor,  and 
reduced  several  cities  in  Phrygia  and  Cappa- 
dotia.  Against  him  John  marched  with  all  his 


R     O     M     E. 


19 


forces,  suffering  the  Turks  m  the  mean  time  to 
pursue  their  conquests ;  but,  coming  to  an  en- 
gagement with  the  rebels,  his  army  was  entirely 
defeated,  and  himself  taken  prisoner.     Notwith- 
standing  this   victory,    Urselius   was  so  much 
alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  Turks  that  he 
not  only  released  his  prisoner,  but  joined  with 
him  against  the  common  enemy,  by  whom  they 
were  both  defeated  and  taken  prisoners.     Axan, 
however,  was  now  prevented  from  pursuing  his 
conquests  by  Cutlu-Moses,  nephew  to  the  late 
Tangrolipix.     He  had  revolted  against  his  uncle ; 
but,  being  defeated  by  him  in  a  pitched  battle, 
had  taken  refuge  in  Arabia,  whence  he  returned 
at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army  to  dispute  the 
sovereignty.     But,  while  the  two  armies  were 
preparing  to  engage,  the  khalif  of  Babylon  in- 
terposed his  authority,  and,  by  his  mediation,  an 
agreement  was  concluded  that  Axan  should  en- 
joy undisturbed  the  monarchy  lately  left  him  by 
his  father,  and  that  Cutlu-Moses  should  possess 
such  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  as  he  or 
his  sons  should   conquer.      Both   the   Turkish 
princes  thus  turned  their  forces  against  the  em- 
pire; and,  before  1077,  made  themselves  masters 
of  Media,  Lycaonia,  Cappadocia,  and  Bithynia, 
fixing  their  capital  at  Nice.    During  all  this  time 
the  emperors  of  Constantinople,  as  well  as  their 
subjects,  seemed  to  be  in  a  manner  infatuated. 
They  took  no  notice  of  the  great  progress  of 
these  barbarians :  the  generals  were  ambitious 
only  of  seizing  the  tottering  empire  ;  and,  after 
it  was  obtained,  spent  their  time  in  oppressing 
their  subjects,  rather  than  in  attempting  to  re- 
pulse the  enemy.     At  last  Alexius  Comnenus, 
having  wrested  the  empire  from  Nicephorus  Bo- 
toniates,  in  1080,  began  to  prepare  for  opposing 
so   formidable  an  enemy  with  vigor ;   so   that 
Solyman,  the  Turkish  sultan,  son  and  successor 
to  Cutlu-Moses,  despatched  ambassadors  with 
proposals  of  peace.     These   were   at   first   re- 
jected ;   but   Alexius   was   at   last   glad   to  ac- 
cept them,  on  hearing  that  Robert  Guischard, 
duke  of  Puglia  and  Calabria,  was  making  great 
preparations  against  him  in  the  west.  To  this  ex- 
pedition Robert  was  incited  by  Michael  Ducas. 
That  prince  had  been  deposed   by  Nicephorus 
Botoniates,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  usurper's 
reigu  fled  into  the  West,  where  he  was  received 
by  Robert,  who  sailed  with  all  his  forces  from 
Bruudusium ;    and,    landing   at    Buthrotum    in 
Epirus,  made  himself  master  of  that  place,  while 
his  son  Bohemond  with  part  of  the  army  reduced 
Aulon,  a  celebrated   city  of  Albania.     Thence 
they  advanced  to  Dyrrhachium,  which  they  in- 
vested  both   by  sea  and  land  ;  but  met  with  a 
most  vigorous  opposition  from  GeorgePalseologus, 
whom  the  emperor  had  entrusted  with  the  de- 
fence of  it.     In  spite  of  the  utmost  efforts  of  the 
enemy,  this  commander  held  out  till  the  arrival 
of  the  Venetian   fleet,  by  whom   Robert's   navy 
commanded  by  Bohemond  was  totally  defeated, 
the  admiral   himself  having  narrowly  escaped. 
After  this  victory  the  Venetians   landed  ;    and, 
being   joined    by  Palaologus's  men,  fell   upon 
Robert's  troops  with  such  fury  that  they  destroyed 
their  works,  burnt  their  engines,  and  forced  them 
back  to  their  camp.  As  the  Venetians  were  now 
masters  at  sea,  the  besieged  were  supplied  with 


plenty  of  provisions,  while  a  famine  began  to 
rage  in  the  camp  of  the  enemy  :  a  calamity  soon 
followed  by  a  plague,  which  in  three  months  is 
said  to  have  destroyed   10,000  men.     Robert, 
however,  did  not  abandon  the  siege,  l.ut  pushed 
it  with  such  vigor  that  the  courage  of  the  besieged 
began  to   fail  ;    and   Palseologus  sent  repeated 
messages  to  the  emperor,  stating  that  he  should 
be  obliged  to  surrender.  Ou  this  Alexius  marched 
in  person  to  the  relief  of  the  city,  but  was  de- 
feated with  great  loss  by  Robert.      The  emperor 
himself  with   great  difficulty  made  his  escape, 
leaving  the  enemy  master  of  his  camp.     Soon 
after    this   defeat    the    city   surrendered  ;    and 
Alexius,  being  destitute  of  resources,  seized  on  the 
wealth  of  the  churches  and  monasteries,  which 
gave  much  offence  to  the  clergy,  and  had  nearly 
occasioned  great  disturbances  in  Constantinople. 
At  the  same  time,  entering  into  an  alliance  with 
Henry  emperor  of  Germany,  he  persuaded  him 
to  invade  the  dominions  of  Robert  in  Italy.    At 
first  Henry  met  with  great  success ;  but  was  soon 
overcome  and  driven  out  by  Robert.  Bohemond, 
in  the  mean  time,  reduced  several  places  in  Illy- 
ricura ;    and,  having   defeated  Alexius   in    two 
pitched  battles,  entered  Thessaly,  and  set  down 
before  Larissa,  till  the  emperor  came  to  its  re- 
lief.    Soon  after  his  arrival  he  drew  a  strong 
party  of  Bohemond's  men  into  an  ambuscade, 
and  cut  them  almost  all  off.     However,   in   a 
battle  which  was  fought  a  few  days  after,  Bohe- 
mond had  the  advantage ;  but  his  troops  muti- 
nying he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Italy.   Alexius 
in  his  absence  recovered  several  cities ;  and  ap- 
plied once  more  to  the  Venetians.     By  them  he 
was  assisted  with  a  powerful  fleet,  which  defeat- 
ed that  of  Robert  in  two  engagements ;  but  being 
soon  after  surprised  they  were  defeated  with  the 
'oss  of  almost  all  their  navy.    Robert  is  said  to 
have  used  his  victoiy  with  great  barbarity.     The 
Venetians  now  equipped  a  second  fleet;   and, 
joining  that  of  the  emperor,  fell   unexpectedly 
upon  Robert's  navy  in  Buthrotum,  sunk  most  of 
his  ships,  and  took  a  great  number  of  prisoners. 
Robert,  while  making  preparations  to   revenge 
this  defeat,  was  prevented  by  death ;  and  his  son 
Roger  did  not  think  proper  to  pursue  so  expen- 
sive a  war. 

This  conflict  was  scarcely  ended  when  the 
Scythians,  passing  the  Danube,  laid  waste  great 
part  of  Thrace,  committing  every  where  the 
greatest  barbarities.  Against  them  the  emperor 
despatched  an  army  under  the  command  of  Pacu- 
rianus  and  Branas.  The  latter  engaged  the  enemy 
contrary  to  the  opinion  of  his  colleague;  and  his 
rashness  caused  the  loss  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
army,  who  were  cut  off  by  the  Scythians,  toge- 
ther with  two  generals.  On  this  Talicius,  an 
officer  who  had  signalised  himseif  on  many  occa- 
sions, was  appointed  to  the  command.  He  fell 
upon  the  enemy  as  they  lay  securely  near  Philip- 
popolis,  cut  off  great  numbers  of  them,  and 
obliged  the  rest  to  retire  in  confusion.  Next 
spring,  however,  they  returned  in  such  numbers 
that  the  emperor  resolved  to  march  against  them 
in  person.  Accordingly  he  set  out  for  Adrianople, 
and  thence  to  Lardea.  Here,  contrary  to  the  ad- 
vice of  his  best  officers,  he  ventured  a  battle ;  in 
which  he  was  totally  defeated  with  the  loss  of  vast 

C2 


20 


R    O     M     E. 


numbers  of  men,  he  himself  escaping  with  diffi- 
culty. The  next  year  he  was  attended  with  no 
Wtter  success,  his  army  being  entirely  defeated 
with  the  loss  of  his  camp  and  baggage.  But  in 
1084  he  retrieved  his  credit ;  and  gave  the  Scy- 
thians such  an  overthrow  that  very  few  escaped. 
Notwithstanding  they  again  invaded  the  empire 
in  1093.  To  this  they  were  encouraged  by  an 
impostor  called  Leo,  who  pretended  to  be  the 
eldest  son  of  Ilomanus  Diogenes.  The  young 
prince  had  been  slain  in  a  battle  with  the  Turks  ; 
but  the  Scythians  only  wanted  a  pretence  to  renew 
the  war.  By  a  stratagem,  however,  Leo  was 
murdered  ;  and  the  Scythians,  being  afterwards 
overthrown  in  two  great  battles,  were  obliged  to 
submit  on  the  emperor's  own  terms.  From  1083 
the  war  had  been  carried  on  with  the  Turks  with 
various  success  ;  but  now  an  association  was 
formed  in  the  west  against  these  infidels.  This 
was  occasioned  by  the  superstition  of  the  Chris- 
tians, who  now  meditated  a  crusade  for  the  re- 
covery of  the  Holy  Land.  Had  the  western 
princes  been  assisted  by  the  emperor  of  the  east 
in  this  undertaking,  the  Turks  had  undoubtedly, 
been  unable  to  resist  them  ;  but  the  Latins  were 
looked  upon  by  them  as  no  less  enemies  than  the 
Turks ;  and  indeed  whatever  places  they  took 
from  the  infidels  they  never  thought  of  restoring 
to  the  emperors  of  Constantinople,  but  erected 
a  number  of  small  independent  principalities ; 
which  neither  having  sufficient  strength  to  de- 
fend themselves,  nor  being  properly  supported 
by  one  another,  soon  became  a  prey  to  the 
Turks.  In  1203  happened  a  dreadful  fire  at 
Constantinople,  Occasioned  by  some  Latin  sol- 
diers having  plundered  a  mosque  which  the 
Turks  had  been  suffered  to  build.  For  this  rea- 
son they  were  attacked  by  the  infidels ;  who 
being  much  superior  to  them  in  number,  the 
Latins  were  obliged  to  set  fire  to  some  houses 
to  make  their  escape.  The  rlame,  spreading  in 
an  instant  from  street  to  street,  reduced  great 
part  of  the  city  to  ashes.  The  emperor  Isaac 
Angelus,  who  had  been  restored  to  his  throne  by 
the  Latins,  died  soon  after  their  departure  from 
Constantinople,  leaving  his  son  Alexius  sole 
master  of  the  empire.  The  young  prince,  to  dis- 
charge the  large  sums  he  had  promised  to  the 
French  and  Venetians  for  their  assistance,  was 
obliged  to  lay  heavy  taxes  on  his  subjects  ;  and 
this,  with  the  great  esteem  and  friendship  he 
showed  to  his  deliverers,  raised  a  general  dis- 
content among  the  inhabitants  of  Constantinople, 
who  were  sworn  enemies  to  the  Latins.  This 
encouraged  John  Ducas  (surnamed  Murtzuphlus 
from  his  joined  and  thick  eyebrows)  to  attempt 
the  sovereignty.  Unhappily  he  found  means  to 
put  his  treacherous  designs  in  execution,  and 
strangled  the  young  prince  with  his  own  hands. 
After  this  he  presented  himself  to  the  people; 
told  them  what  he  had  done,  which  he  pretended 
was  to  secure  their  liberties ;  and  earnestly  en- 
treated them  to  choose  an  emperor  who  had 
courage  to  defend  them  against  the  Latins.  On 
this  he  was  instantly  saluted  emperor,  but  his 
usurpation  proved  the  ruin  of  the  city.  The 
Latins  resolved  immediately  to  revenge  the  death 
of  the  young  prince;  and,  as  they  had  been  so 
often  betrayed  and  retarded  in  tin  ir  exp-diiions 


to  the  Holy  Land  by  the  emperors  of  Constanti- 
nople, to  make  themselves  masters  of  that  city, 
and  seize  the  empire.  Accordingly  they  mus- 
tered all  their  forces  in  Asia,  and,  having  crossed 
the  straits,  laid  siege  to  Constantinople  by  sea 
and  land.  The  tyrant,  who  was  a  man  of  great 
courage  and  experience,  made  a  vigorous  defence. 
The  Latins,  however,  after  having  battered  the 
walls  for  several  days  together  with  an  incfedible 
number  of  engines,  made  a  general  assault  on 
the  8th  of  April  1204.  The  attack  lasted  from 
break  of  day  till  3  P.M.,  when  they  were  forced 
to  retire,  after  having  lost  some  of  their  en- 
gines, and  a  great  number  of  men.  The  assault 
was  nevertheless  renewed  four  days  after ;  when, 
after  a  warm  dispute,  the  French  planted  their 
standard  on  one  of  the  towers  ;  which  the  Vene- 
tians observing,  they  quickly  made  themselves 
masters  of  four  other  towers,  where  they  likewise 
displayed  their  ensigns.  In  the  mean  time  three 
of  the  gates  being  broke  down  by  the  battering 
rams,  and  those  who  had  scaled  the  walls  having 
killed  the  guards  and  opened  the  gates,  the 
whole  army  entered.  The  Greeks  fled  in  the 
greatest  confusion;  and  several  parties  of  the 
Latins  scouring  the  streets  put  all  they  met  to 
the  sword.  Night  put  a  stop  to  the  dreadful 
slaughter,  and  next  morning  the  Greeks  entirely 
submitted  ;  at  the  same  time  they  were  ordered 
to  retire  to  their  houses,  the  city  being  given  up 
to  be  plundered  by  the  soldiers.  The  Latins 
strictly  enjoined  their  men  to  abstain  from 
slaughter,  to  preserve  the  honor  of  the  women, 
and  to  bring  the  whole  booty  into  one  place,  that 
a  just  distribution  might  be  made  :  but  the 
Greeks  had  concealed  their  most  valuable  effects 
during  the  night  ;  and  many  persons  of  the  first 
rank  had  escaped,  and  carried  along  with  them 
immense  treasures.  Yet  the  booty,  without  the 
statues,  pictures,  and  jewels,  amounted  to  a  sum 
almost  incredible.  As  for  Murtzuphlus  he  made 
his  escape  in  the  night ;  embarking  in  a  small 
vessel  with  Euphrosyne,  the  wife  of  Alexius  An- 
gelus a  late  usurper,  and  her  daughter  Eudoxia, 
for  whose  sake  he  had  abandoned  his  wife. 

FINAL  DOWNFALL  OF  THE  EASTERN  EMPIRE. 
— Constantinople  continued  subject  to  the  Latins 
for  fifty-six  years,  from  A.  D.  1205  till  1261  : 
during  which  period  Baldwin,  earl  of  Flanders, 
Henry  his  brother,  Peter  de  Courlenay,  Robert, 
and  Baldwin  II.  reigned  successively  as  empe- 
rors. This  last  had  reigned  thirty-two  years, 
when  the  Latins  were  expelled  by  Alexius  Stra- 
tegopulus,  a  person  of  illustrious  family,  and  for 
his  eminent  services  distinguished  with  the  title 
of  Caesar.  He  had  been  sent  against  Alexius 
Angelus  despot  of  Epiius,  who  now  attempted 
to  recover  some  places  in  Thessaly  and  Greece, 
from  Michael  Palceologus,  one  of  the  Greek  em- 
perors, who,  since  the  capture  of  Constantinople, 
had  kept  their  court  at  Nice :  and  to  try  whether 
he  could  on  his  march  surprise  the  imperial  city. 
Alexius,  having  passed  the  straits,  encamped  at 
a  place  called  Rhegium,  where  he  was  informed 
by  the  natives  that  a  strong  body  of  the  Latins 
had  been  sent  to  the  siege  of  Daphuksa,  that  the 
garrison  was  in  great  want  of  provisions,  and 
that  it  would  be  easy  to  surprise  Constantinople. 
Hereupon  the  Greek  general  resolved  at  all 


K     O     M     E. 


21 


events  to  attempt  it ;  in  which  he  was  encouraged 
by  some  of  the  inhabitants,  who,  coming  privately 
to  his  camp,  ottered  to  be  his  guides.  He  ap- 
proached in  the  ni^ht,  and  some  of  his  men 
scaled  the  walls  without  being  observed  ;  when, 
killing  the  sentries,  they  opened  the  gates  to  the 
rest  of  the  army.  The  Greeks,  rushing  in,  put 
all  they  met  to  the  sword  ;  and,  to  create  more 
terror,  set  fire  to  the  city  in  four  different  places. 
The  Latins,  concluding  from  this  that  the  enemy's 
forces  were  far  more  numerous  than  they  really 
were,  did  not  so  much  as  attempt  either  to  drive 
them  out,  or  to  extinguish  the  flames.  In  this  ge- 
neral confusion  Baldwin,  quinine  the  ensigns  of 
majesty,  fled  with  Justinian  the  Latin  patriarch, 
and  some  of  his  friends,  to  the  sea-side;  where, 
embarking  in  a  small  vessel,  he  sailed  to  Eubcea, 
and  afterwards  to  Veni<?e,  leaving  the  Greeks  in 
full  possession  of  Constantinople.  When  the 
news  of  this  surprising  and  unexpected  success 
was  first  brought  to  Michael  he  could  scarcely 
credit  it ;  but,  receiving  letters  from  Alexius 
himself  with  a  particular  account  of  the  event, 
he  ordered  thanks  to  be  returned  in  all  the 
churches,  and  couriers  to  be  despatched  with  the 
agreeable  news  to  all  parts  of  the  empire.  Soon 
after  he  set  out  for  Constantinople  with  the  em- 
press, his  family,  the  senate,  and  nobility,  to 
take  possession  of  the  imperial  city.  Having 
passed  the  straits  he  advanced  to  the  golden  gate, 
and  continued  some  days  without  the  walls, 
while  the  citizens  were  making  the  necessary 
preparations  to  receive  him  with  suitable  magni- 
ficence. On  the  day  appointed  the  golden  gate, 
which  had  been  long  shut,  was  opened,  and  the 
emperor  entered  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the 
multitude  to  the  great  palace.  He  was  preceded 
by  the  bishop  of  Cyzicus,  who  carried  an  image 
of  the  Virgin,  and  followed  by  all  the  great  offi- 
cers, nobility,  and  chief  citizens,  pompously 
dressed.  Public  thanks  were  again  returned 
in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  at  which  the  empe- 
ror assisted  in  person.  After  this  the  emperor 
carefully  surveyed  the  city,  a  duty  which  greatly 
allayed  his  joy.  He  saw  the  stately  palaces  and 
other  magnificent  buildings  of  the  emperors  lying 
in  ruins ;  many  capacious  buildings  that  had 
been  erected  by  his  predecessors,  at  an  immense 
charge,  destroyed  by  fire,  and  other  accidents  of 
war ;  several  streets  abandoned  by  the  inhabit- 
ants, and  choked  up  with  rubbish,  &c.  These 
objects  only,  however,  excited  in  him  a  desire 
of  restoring  the  city.  In  the  mean  time,  looking 
upon  Alexius  as  the  restorer  of  his  country,  he 
caused  him  to  be  clad  in  magnificent  robes ; 
placed  with  his  own  hand  a  crown  on  his  head ; 
ordered  him  to  be  conducted  through  the  city 
in  triumph  ;  decreed  that,  for  a  whole  year,  his 
name  should  be  joined  in  the  public  prayers 
with  his  own ;  and  commanded  his  statue  to  be 
erected  on  a  stately  pillar  of  marble.  His  next 
care  was  to  repeople  the  city,  many  Greek  fami- 
lies having  withdrawn  while  it  was  held  by  the 
Latins.  The  former  were  recalled,  and  the  latter 
were  allowed  many  privileges  to  induce  them 
not  to  remove.  Great  privileges  were  likewise 
granted  to  the  natives  of  Venice  and  Pisa,  which 
encouraged  them  to  lay  aside  all  thoughts  of 
removing.  Michael,  however,  being  soon  after 


informed  that  the  ci-devant  emperor  Baldwin  II. 
had  married  his  daughter  to  Charles  king  of 
Sicily,  and  given  him  Constantinople  by  way  of 
dowry,  he  ordered  the  Genoese,  who  were  be- 
come very  numerous,  to  remove  first  to  llera- 
clea,  and  afterwards  to  Galata.  The  P. sans  and 
Venetians,  who  were  not  so  numerous  and 
wealthy,  were  allowed  to  continue  in  the  city. 

.Michael,  though  he  had  caused  himself  to  be 
proclaimed  emperor,  and  was  possessed  of  ab- 
solute sovereignty,  was  as  yet  only  guardian  to 
the  young  emperor  John  Lascaris,  then  about 
twelve  years  of  age.  But  having  now  settled 
the  state,  and  gained  the  affections  both  of  na- 
tives and  foreigners,  he  began  to  think  of  secur- 
ing himself  and  his  posterity  in  the  empire  ;  and 
cruelly  ordered  the  eyes  of  the  young  prince  to 
be  put  out.  This  piece  of  barbarity  involved 
him  in  great  troubles.  The  patriarch  imme- 
diately excommunicated  him ;  and  he  would 
probably  have  been  driven  from  the  throne,  had 
he  not  engaged  pope  Urban  IV.  to  espouse  his 
cause,  by  promising  to  submit  himself  and  his 
dominions  to  the  Latin  church.  Thus,  indeed, 
he  diverted  the  foreign  storm ;  but  caused  fresh 
domestic  disturbances,  not  only  in  Constanti- 
nople, but  throughout  the  empire.  In  1283 
Michael  VII.  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Andronicus  II.  His  first  step  was  to  re- 
store the  ancient  Greek  ceremonies.  But  he 
thus  involved  himself  in  greater  difficulties : 
though  Michael  had  not  been  able  fully  to  re- 
concile his  Greek  subjects  to  the  Latin  ceremo- 
nies, yet  he  had  in  some  degree  accomplished  his 
purpose.  The  Latins  had  obtained  a  considera- 
ble footing  in  the  city,  and  defended  their  cere- 
monies with  great  obstinacy;  so  that  the  empire 
was  again  thrown  into  a  ferment.  All  this  time 
the  Turks  had  been  continuing  their  encroach- 
ments on  the  empire.  They  were  now,  hew- 
ever,  very  successfully  opposed  by  Constantine 
the  emperor's  brother  :  but  his  valor  rendered 
him  suspected,  in  consequence  of  which  hewa; 
thrown  into  prison,  along  with  several  persons  of 
distinction.  On  the  removal  of  this  great  com- 
mander, the  Turks,  under  the  famous  Othomaiv 
made  themselves  masters  of  several  places  in 
Phrygia,  Caria,  and  Bithynia;  and  among  the 
rest  of  the  city  of  Nice.  To  put  a  stop  to  their 
conquests,  the  emperor  despatched  against  them 
Philanthropenus  and  Libadarius,  officers  of  great 
experience.  The  former  gained  some  advantages 
over  the  enemy ;  but,  being  elated  with  his  suc- 
cess, caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor. 
This  rebellion,  however,  was  soon  suppressed, 
Philanthropenus  being  betrayed  by  his  own  men : 
but  the  Turks,  taking  advantage  of  the  subsequent 
commotions,  not  only  extended  their  dominions 
in  Asia,  hut  conquered  most  of  the  islands  in 
the  Mediterranean ;  and  infested  the  coasts  of 
the  empire,  to  the  utter  ruin  of  commerce. 
From  this  time  the  eastern  empire  tended  fast  to 
dissolution.  After  the  revolt  of  Philanthropenus, 
the  emperor  could  no  longer  trust  his  subjects, 
and  therefore  hired  the  Massagetes:  but  they 
were  first  defeated  by  his  enemies,  and  after- 
wards turned  their  arms  against  him.  He  next 
applied  to  the  Catalans,  who  behaved  in  the  same 
manner;  and,  having  ravaged  the  few  places  he 


R     O     M     E. 


had  left  hi  Asia,  returned  into  Europe,  and  called 
the  Turks  to  their  assistance.  This  happened  in 
1292,  and  was  the  first  appearance  of  the  Turks 
in  Europe. 

This  enterprise,  however,  was  unsuccessful. 
Having  loaded  themselves  with  booty,  they 
offered  to  depart  quietly  if  they  were  allowed  a 
safe  passage,  and  ships  to  transport  them  to  Asia. 
To  this  the  emperor  readily  consented,  and  or- 
dered the  vessels  to  be  got  ready  with  all  possi- 
ble expedition.  But  the  Greek  officers,  observing 
the  immense  booty  with  which  they  were  loaded, 
resolved  to  fall  upon  them  in  the  ni^ht,  and  cut 
them  all  off.  Of  this  wretched  scheme,  however, 
the  Turks  got  notice,  and  prepared  for  their  de- 
fence. They  first  surprised  a  strong  castle  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  then  found  means  to  ac- 
quaint their  countrymen  in  Asia  with  their  dan- 
gerous situation.  Their  brethren,  having  crossed 
the  Hellespont  in  great  numbers,  ravaged  the 
adjacent  country,  making  excursions  to  the  very 
gates  of  Constantinople :  at  last  the  emperor  de- 
termined to  march  against  them  with  all  his 
forces,  the  people  docking  to  him  from  all  quar- 
ters. The  Turks  at  first  gave  themselves  over 
for  lost;  but  finding  the  Greeks  negligent  of  dis- 
cipline, they  attacked  their  army  unexpectedly, 
utterly  defeated  it,  and  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  camp.  After  this  they  continued  for  two 
years  to  ravage  Thrace  terribly ;  but  at  last  were 
defeated,  and  being  afterwards  shut  up  in  the 
Chersonesus,  were  all  cut  in  pieces  or  taken. 
Soon  after  new  commotions  took  place  in  this 
unhappy  empire,  of  which  the  Turks  did  not  fail 
to  take  the  advantage.  1327  they  made  them- 
selves masters  of  most  of  the  cities  on  the 
Maeander ;  and  among  the  rest  of  Prusa  in  Bi- 
thynia.  The  next  year,  however,  Ottoman  the 
founder  of  the  Turkish  monarchy  being  dead, 
the  emperor  recovered  Nice,  and  some  other  im- 
portant places.  But  these,  with  Abydus  and  Ni- 
comedia,  were  lost  in  1328  ;  and  in  1330  a  peace 
was  concluded  upon  condition  that  they  should 
keep  all  their  conquests.  This  peace  they  ob- 
served no  longer  than  served  their  own  pur- 
poses ;  for  new  commotions  breaking  out  in  the 
empire,  they  pursued  their  conquests,  and  in 
1357  had  reduced  all  Asia.  They  next  passed 
the  Hellespont  under  Solyman  the  son  of  ()r- 
chan,  the  successor  of  Olhoman,  and  seized  a 
strong  castle  on  the  European  side.  Soon  after 
Orchan  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Amurath  I. 
He  extended  the  conquests  of  his  predecessors, 
and  in  a  short  time  reduced  all  Thrace,  making 
Adrianople  the  seat  of  his  empire.  Amurath  was 
murdered  soon  after,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Bajazet  I.,  who  greatly  enlarged  his  domi- 
nions by  new  conquests.  In  a  short  time  he  re- 
duced Thessaly,  Macedon,  Phocis,  Peloponnesus, 
M\»ia,  and  Bulgaria,  driving  out  the  petty 
princes  who  governed  them.  Elated  with  his 
frequent  victories,  he  began  to  look  upon  the 
k  emperor,  Andronicus  IV.,  to  whom 
nothing  was  now  left  but  the  city  of  Constanti- 
nople and  the  neighbouring  country,  as  his 
vassal.  Accordingly  he  sent  him  a  haughty  mes- 
sage, commanding  him  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute, 
and  send  his  brother  Manuel  to  attend  him  in  his 
military  expeditions.  This  demand  the  emperor 


was  obliged  to  comply  with,  but  died  soon  after 
in  1387. 

Manuel  no  sooner  heard  of  his  brother's  death 
than  he  hastened  to  Constantinople,  without 
taking  leave  of  the  sultan,  or  acquainting  him 
with  the  reasons  of  his  sudden  departure.  At 
this  Bajazet  was  so  offended  that  he  passed  with 
great  expedition  from  Bithynia  into  Thrace,  ra- 
vaged the  country  adjoining  to  Constantinople, 
and  at  last  invested  the  city  both  by  sea  and  land. 
In  this  extremity  Manuel  had  recourse  to  the 
western  princes ;  who  sent  him  an  army  of 
130,000  men,  under  Sigismund  king  of  Hun- 
gary, and  John  count  of  Nevers.  But,  though 
the  western  troops  proved  at  first  successful,  they 
were  in  the  end  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by 
Bajazet.  As  he  found,  however,  that  the  citizens 
were  determined  to  hold  out  to  the  last,  he  ap- 
plied to  John,  the  son  of  Andronicus  IV.  who 
had  a  better  title  to  the  crown  than  Manuel. 
With  him  he  entered  into  a  private  agreement, 
by  which  Bajazet  was  to  place  John  upon  the 
Constantinopolitan  throne,  while  John  was  to 
deliver  up  the  city  to  the  Turks,  and  remove  the 
imperial  seat  to  the  Peloponnesus.  At  the  same 
time  he  sent  deputies  to  the  inhabitants  of  Con- 
stantinople, offering  to  withdraw  his  army,  and 
cease  from  further  hostilities,  provided  they  ex- 
pelled Manuel  and  placed  John  upon  the  throne. 
This  proposal  rent  the  city  into  factions ;  but 
Manuel  prevented  the  mischiefs  which  were  ready 
to  ensue  by  a  voluntary  resignation  ;  and,  having 
conducted  John  to  the  palace,  set  sail  for  Ve- 
nice. Thence  he  went  to  the  courts  of  all  the 
western  princes  to  solicit  their  assistance  against 
the  Turks.  He  was  every  where  received  with 
the  greatest  demonstrations  of  esteem,  and 
promised  large  supplies,  all  Christendom  being 
now  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  infidels.  In 
the  mean  time  Bajazet  did  not  fail  to  put  John 
in  mind  of  his  promise ;  but,  the  citizens  refusing 
to  comply  with  such  a  scandalous  treaty,  the  siege 
was  renewed,  and  the  city  assaulted  with  more 
fury  than  ever.  When  it  was  already  reduced  to 
the  last  extremity,  tidings  were  brought  to  the 
sultan  that  Tamerlane,  the  victorious  Tartar, 
having  over-run  all  the  east  with  incredible 
celerity,  had  now  turned  his  arms  against  the 
Turks,  and  was  preparing  to  break  into  Syria. 
Alarmed  at  the  danger  that  threatened  him, 
Bajazet  raised  the  siege  in  great  haste,  and  ad- 
vanced against  Tamerlane  with  a  numerous  and 
well  disciplined  army ;  but  the  Tartars  totally 
defeated  and  took  him  prisoner,  after  having  cut 
most  of  his  men  in  pieces.  Thus  Constantinople 
was  preserved  for  the  present.  But  this  relief 
was  of  short  duration.  In  1424,  in  the  reign  of 
John  V.,  the  son  of  Manuel,  the  city  was  be- 
sieged by  Amurath  II.  The  inhabitants  defended 
themselves  with  great  bravery  ;  but  must  in  the 
end  have  submitted,  had  not  the  emperor  pre- 
vailed upon  the  prince  of  Caramania  to  counte- 
nance an  impostor  and  pretender  to  the  Turkish 
throne.  This  obliged  Amurath  to  raise  the  siege, 
and  march  with  all  his  forces  against  the  usurper. 
Having  then  no  other  enemies,  he  entered  Ma- 
cedon at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army  ;  and, 
having  ravaged  the  country  far  and  near,  took  and 
plun  '  --ulniii-a,  and  most  of  '.ho  <  itii1* 


ROME. 


23 


of  TEtolia,  Phocis,  and  Bceotia.  From  Greece 
he  marched  into  Servia ;  reduced  the  greatest 
part  of  it ;  and  besieged  the  strong  city  of  Bel- 
grade ;  but  here  he  met  with  a  vigorous  repulse, 
no  fewer  than  15,000  Turks  being  slain  by  the 
Christians  in  one  sally.  In  his  retreat  he  was 
attacked  by  the  celebrated  John  Hunniades,  who 
cut  off  great  numbers  of  his  men.  Not  long 
after  he  gained  a  still  more  complete  victory  over 
the  enemy  in  the  plains  of  Transylvania,  with 
the  loss  of  only  3000  of  his  own  men,  whereas 
20,000  Turks  were  killed  on  the  field  of  battle, 
and  almost  an  equal  number  in  the  pursuit.  Amu- 
rath,  who  was  then  at  Adrianople,  sent  an  army 
into  Transylvania  far  more  numerous  than  the 
former ;  but  they  were  attended  with  no  better 
success,  being  cut  off  almost  to  a  man  by  the 
brave  Hungarian.  He  gained  several  other  vic- 
tories no  less  remarkable ;  but  was  at  last  en- 
tirely defeated  in  1448;  and  with  this  defeat 
ended  all  hopes  of  preserving  the  empire.  The 
unhappy  emperor  was  now  obliged  to  pay  an 
annual  tribute  of  300,000  aspers  to  the  sultan, 
and  to  yield  up  to  him  some  strong  holds  on  the 
Euxine.  However,  as  he  doubted  not  but  Amu- 
rath  would  soon  attempt  to  become  master  of 
the  capital,  he  renewed  the  union  between  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches,  hoping  that  this 
would  induce  the  western  princes  to  assist  him 
in  the  defence  of  the  city.  This  produced  great 
disturbances,  which  the  emperor  did  not  long 
survive  ;  as  he  died  in  1448,  leaving  the  empire, 
now  confined  within  the  walls  of  Constantinople, 
to  his  brother  Constantine  XIII. 

Amurath  died  in  1450,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Mohammed  II.  In  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  he  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Constan- 
tine, and  pretended  a  great  desire  to  live  in 
friendship  with  him ;  but  no  sooner  had  he  put 
an  end  to  a  war  in  which  he  was  engaged  with 
Ibrahim  king  of  Caramania,  than  he  built  a 
strong  fort  on  the  European  side  of  the  Bospho- 
rus,  opposite  to  another  in  Asia ;  in  both  of 
which  he  placed  garrisons.  These  two  castles 
commanded  the  Straits ;  and  the  former,  being 
but  five  miles  from  the  city,  kept  it  in  a  manner 
blocked  up.  This  soon  produced  a  misunder- 
standing between  him  and  the  emperor,  which 
ended  in  the  siege  of  the  city.  This  commenced 
on  the  6th  of  April,  1453  ;  Mohammed's  numer- 
ous forces  covering  the  plains  before  it  on  the 
land  side,  and  a  fleet  of  300  sail  blockading  it 
by  sea.  The  emperor,  however,  had  taken  care 
to  secure  the  haven,  in  which  were  three  large 
ships,  twenty  small  ones,  and  a  great  number  of 
galleys.  Mohammed  began  the  siege  by  plant- 
ing batteries,  and  raising  works  in  several  places 
as  high  as  the  walls,  whence  the  besieged  were 
incessantly  galled  with  arrows.  He  had  in  his 
camp  a  piece  of  ordnance  of  prodigious  size, 
which  is  said  to  have  carried  a  stone  ball  of 
100  Ib.  With  this  piece  the  enemy  made  several 
breaches  in  the  walls ;  which,  however,  were  re- 
paired with  incredible  expedition.  Mohammed, 
the  better  to  carry  on  the  siege,  caused  new  levies 
to  be  made  throughout  his  dominions,  by  which 
his  army  was  soon  increased  to  near  400,000 
men  ;  while  the  garrison  consisted  only  of  9000 
regular  troops,  viz.  6000  Greeks  and  3000  Ge- 


noese and  Venetians.  As  the  enemy  continued 
to  batter  the  walls  day  and  night,  a  great  part  of 
them  was  at  last  beaten  down  ;  while  the  Turks, 
however,  were  busy  filling  up  the  ditch,  a  new 
wall  was  built.  This  threw  the  tyrant  into  a 
prodigious  rage,  which  was  greatly  heightened 
when  he  saw  his  whole  fleet  worsted  by  five 
ships,  of  which  four  were  laden  with  corn  from 
Peloponnesus,  and  the  other  with  provisions 
from  Chios.  These  made  their  way  through  the 
Turkish  fleet ;  and,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  Chris- 
tians, got  safe  into  the  harbour.  The  Turks  at- 
tempted several  times  to  force  the  haven ;  but,  all 
their  efforts  proving  ineffectual,  Mohammed 
formed  the  design  of  conveying  eighty  galleys 
eight  miles  over  land  into  it.  This  he  accom- 
plished by  means  of  certain  engines,  the  contri- 
vance of  a  renegado;  and,  having  then  either 
taken  or  sunk  all  the  Christian  ships,  he  caused 
a  bridge  to  be  built  over  it  with  surprising  expe- 
dition. Thus  the  city  was  laid  open  on  that 
side  likewise,  and  assaulted  on  all  sides.  Con- 
stantine, now  feeling  that  he  could  not  long  hold 
oat  against  such  a  mighty  and  successful  enemy, 
sent  deputies  to  Mohammed, offering  to  acknow- 
ledge himself  his  vassal,  by  paying  him  yearly  what 
tribute  he  should  impose,  provided  he  raised 
the  siege  and  withdrew.  The  tyrant  answered 
that  he  was  determined  to  become  master  of  the 
city :  but  if  Constantine  would  deliver  it  up 
forthwith,  he  would  yield  to  him  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  other  provinces  to  his  brothers,  which 
they  should  enjoy  peaceably  :  but  if  he  held  out 
to  the  last  extremity,  and  suffered  it  to  be  taken 
by  assault,  he  would  put  him  and  the  whole  no- 
bility to  the  sword,  carry  the  inhabitants  into 
captivity,  and  give  up  the  city  to  plunder.  These 
conditions  were  rejected  by  the  emperor.  The 
siege  was  therefore  renewed  with  vigor,  and  con- 
tinued till  the  25th  of  May;  when  a  report 
being  spread  in  the  Turkish  camp  that  a  large 
army  was  advancing  to  the  relief  of  the  city  under 
the  celebrated  John  Hunniades,  the  soldiers 
began  to  mutiny,  and  pressed  Mohammed  to 
raise  it.  Mohammed  was  upon  the  point  of 
complying,  when  he  was  advised  by  Zagan,  a 
Turkish  officer  of  great  intrepidity,  and  an  irre- 
concileable  enemy  to  the  Christians,  to  attempl 
immediately  a  general  assault.  To  this  he  said 
the  soldiers  would  not  be  averse,  provided  the 
sultan  promised  to  abandon  the  city  to  be  plun- 
dered by  them.  Mohammed  accordingly  pub- 
lished a  proclamation  throughout  the  camp,  de- 
claring that  he  gave  up  to  his  soldiers  all  the  wealth 
of  the  opulent  capital  before  them,  requiring  for 
himself  only  the  empty  houses ;  and  they  unani- 
mously desired  to  be  led  to  the  attack.  Here- 
upon Constantine  was  summoned  for  the  last 
time  to  deliver  up  the  city,  with  a  promise  of  his 
life  and  liberty ;  but  to  this  he  answered  that 
he  was  unalterably  determined  to  defend  tne 
city  or  perish  with  it.  The  attack  began  at  three 
in  the  morning  on  the  29th  of  May ;  such  troops 
being  first  employed  as  the  sultan  valued  least, 
and  designed  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  tire 
the  Christians.'  After  the  carnage  had  lasted 
some  hours,  the  Janissaries  and  other  fresh  troops 
advanced  in  good  order.  The  Christians  mak- 
ing prodigious  efforts  twice  repulsed  the  enemy : 


24 


R  O  M  E. 


but  being  in  the  end  exhausted,  they  were  no 
longer  able  to  stand  their  ground ;  and  the  enemy 
broke  in  several  places  into  the  city.  In  the 
mean  time  Justiriiani,  the  commander  of  the 
Genoese  and  a  select  body  of  Greeks,  having  re- 
ceived two  wounds,  one  in  the  thigh  and  the  other 
in  the  hand,  was  so  disheartened  that  he  caused 
himself  to  be  conveyed  to  Galata.  His  men, 
dismayed  at  the  sudden  flight  of  their  general, 
immediately  quitted  their  posts  and  fled  in  the 
utmost  confusion.  The  emperor,  however,  at- 
tended with  a  few  of  the  most  resolute  of  the 
nobility,  still  kept  his  post,  striving  with  unpa- 
ralleled resolution  to  oppose  the  multitude  of 
barbarians  that  now  broke  in  from  every  quarter. 
Being  in  the  end  overpowered  with  numbers, 
and  seeing  most  of  his  friends  fallen  around  him, 
4  What !'  cried  he  aloud,  '  is  there  no  Christian 
left  alive  to  strike  off  my  head ''  Scarcely  had  he 
uttered  these  words,  when  one  of  the  enemy, 
not  knowing  him,  cut  him  across  the  face  with 
his  sabre ;  and  another  coming  behind  him  with 
a  blow  on  the  back  part  of  his  head  laid  him 
dead  on  the  ground.  The  few  Christians  now. 
left  alive  fled;  and  the  Turks,  meeting  with  no'1 
further  opposition,  entered  the  city,  and  put  all 
they  met  without  distinction  to  the  sword. 
Many  thousands  took  refuge  in  the  church  of  St. 
Sophia,  but  they  were  all  massacred  in  their 
asylum.  Most  of  the  nobility  were,  by  the  sul- 
tan's orders,  cut  off,  and  the  rest  kept  for  purposes 
more  grievous  than  death.  Many  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, among  whom  were  some  men  of  great 
learning,  escaped,  however,  while  the  Turks 
were  busied  in  plundering  the  city.  These,  em- 
barking in  the  ships  then  in  the  harbour,  arrived 
safe  in  Italy ;  where,  with  the  study  of  the 
Greek  tongue,  they  revived  the  liberal  sciences, 
which  had  long  been  neglected  in  the  west. 
After  the  expiration  of  three  days,  Mohammed 
commanded  his  soldiers  to  forbear  all  farther 
hostilities  on  pain  of  death  ;  and  thus  put  an 
end  to  as  cruel  a  pillage  and  massacre  as  any 
recorded  in  history.  XThe  next  day  he  made  his 
triumphal  entry  into  Constantinople,  and  chose 
it  for  the  seat  of  the  Turkish  empire,  which  it 
has  continued  to  be  ever  since. 

PART  VI. 
ROME,  MODERN. 

Modern  Rome  is  built  chiefly  on  the  left  or 
eastern  bank  of  the  Tiber,  there  being  only  a 
few  streets  on  its  western  side.  The  walls  are 
of  a  quadrangular  figure,  somewhat  more  than 
three  miles  each  way,  the  circuit  being  in  all 
about  thirteen  miles.  While  this  is  equal  to  the 
circumference  of  ancient  Rome  in  its  greatest 
splendor,  there  is  this  distinction  perhaps  be- 
tween the  ancient  and  modem  city,  that  of  the 
'  seven  hills'  on  which  the  former  stood,  several, 
viz.  Mons  Aventinus,  Palatinus,  Ccelius,  and  in 
some  degree  Mons  Esquilinus,  Viminalis,  and 
Quirinalis,  are  covered  with  vineyards,  corn 
fields,  or  villas,  the  clpsely  peopled  part  being 
confined  to  the  level  ground  between  the  emi- 
nences and  the  river.  The  length  of  this  part  is 
less  than  two  miles,  its  breadth  from  a  mile  to  a 
mile  and  a  half. 


The  most  regular  part  of  Modern  Rome  i? 
that  adjacent  to  the  north  gate,  or  Porta  del 
Popolo,  and  the  quarter  of  Borgo,  on  the  right 
of  the  river.  The  points  from  which  it  can  best 
be  viewed  are  the  Pincian  Hill,  Mount  Jani- 
culum,  the  tower  of  the  Capitol,  and  the  tops  of 
the  columns  of  Trajan  or  Antonine. 

The  streets  have,  seldom  any  foot  pavement ; 
and  are  in  general  not  wider  than  those  of  the 
older  parts  of  London.  Some  indeed  are 
wretchedly  narrow  and  irregular,  but  the  houses 
are  not  high  ;  and  a  number  of  the  streets  are  long 
and  straight,  and  not  unfrequently  terminated  by 
an  obelisk,  fountain,  or  church.  The  great 
drawback  on  the  beauty  of  the  city  is  the  sin- 
gular discrepancy  of  its  buildings,  a  mansion 
entitled  to  the  name  of  palace  being  often 
placed  amidst  a  group  of  hovefs  ;  and  the  mean 
appearance  of  the  shops.  Three  of  the  finest 
streets  of  the  city  diverge  from  the  Piazza  di 
Popolo,  near  the  northern  gate,  viz.  the  Corso, 
extending  to  the  foot  of  the  Capitol ;  the  Strada 
del  Babbuina,  ending  in  the  Piazza  di  Spagna, 
and  the  Strada  di  Ripetta,  leading  to  the  Tiber. 
The  Corso  is  the  great  public  walk,  and  the 
crowded  scene  of  the  carnival.  It  is  perfectly 
straight,  about  a  mile  in  length,  and  has  a  foot 
pavement  on  each  side.  Other  fine  streets  are 
i  he  Strada  Felice,  the-  Strada  Langara,  the  Strada 
Maggiore,  and  the  Strada  Pia.  The  houses  are 
partly  of  stone  and  brick,  frequently  covered 
with  stucco,  and  generally  roofed  with  shingle. 
Marble  is  less  common  here  than  in  the  north  of 
Italy. 

The  modern  squares  are  numerous,  adorned 
with  obelisks,  fountains,  &c. ;  but  also  generally 
of  small  size.  In  front  of  St.  Peter's  church  is 
a  large  oval  area  form,  surrounded  with  a  mag- 
nificent colonnade ;  and  in  the  middle  between 
two  fountains  stands  an  Egyptian  obelisk,  of  a 
single  piece  of  granite,  seventy-eight  feet  in 
height.  The  elegant  Piazza  Navona,  a  square 
in  the  centre  of  the  town,  next  in  size  to  that  of 
St.  Peter,  is  of  an  oblong  form,  and  adorned  by 
the  church  of  St.  Agnes,  but  its  chief  ornament 
is  the  fountain  in  its  centre.  It  consists  of  a 
circular  basin  of  seventy-three  feet  in  diameter, 
in  the  middle  of  which  stands  a  rock  surmount- 
ed by  an  obelisk;  on  this  rock  recline  four 
figures  representing  four  great  rivers,  from  which 
streams  of  water  issue.  -  This  is  on  the  whole 
the  most  superb  fountain  of  the  city.  The 
Piazza  di  Spagna,  occupied  largely  by  foreigners 
of  distinction,  has  also  a  fountain  ;  but  its  chief 
ornament  is  a  noble  flight  of  steps  that  ascend 
from  it  to  the  church  and  square  della  Tririita 
di  Monte;  the  latter  extending  along  the  brow 
of  the  Pincian  Hill,  and  commanding  a  delight- 
ful view.  The  Piazza  di  Monte  Cavallo,  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  city  both  for  its  situation  and 
buildings,  stands  on  Mount  Quirinal,  and  takes 
its  name  from  two  marble  horses  placed  on  its 
summit,  said  to  be  the  work  of  Phidias  and 
Praxiteles.  Between  them  stands  an  Egyptian 
obelisk  of  granite,  forty-five  feet  in  height.  Old 
liiiiTii.init iuin  now  forms  a  small  square,  deco- 
rated in  the  middle  with  a  fine  bronze  eques- 
trian statue  of  Marcus  Antoninus,  accounted  a 
master  piece  of  ancient  art.  The  Campidoglio 


ROME. 


25 


Moderno,  or  Modern  Capitol,  is  ascended  by  a 
staircase  adorned  with  statues :  but  all  the  sta- 
tues of  the  forum  have  disappeared ,  and  a  few 
scattered  porticoes,  with  here  and  there  an  insu- 
lated column,  fragments  of  marble,  capitals,  and 
cornices,  are  now  its  only  memorials.  The 
Piazza  di  Campo  Marzio,  taking  its  name  from 
the  Campus  Martius,  is  in  a  great  measure 
covered  with  buildings. 

The  ancient  wall  of  Rome  is  in  many  places 
in  good  preservation ;  and  among  the  ancient 
edifices  the  Pantheon  and  Coliseum  are  still 
conspicuous.  For  the  present  state  and  history 
of  the  latter  see  our  article  AMPHITHEATRE. 
At  a  short  distance  from  it,  near  the  Viminal 
and  Quirinal  hills,  stands  a  portion  of  the  baths 
of  Dioclesian,  converted  into  a  convent.  The 
principal  hall  forms  the  church,  retaining  its  an- 
cient walls,  pillars,  and  vaults ;  there  remains 
also  a  large  square,  supported  by  100  pillars, 
with  a  beautiful  fountain  in  the  middle.  Of 
the  triumphal  arches  the  only  one  remaining 
entire  is  the  remarkable  one  of  Constantine, 
with  its  pillars,  statues,  and  bas  reliefs.  The 
arch  of  Septimus  Severus,  also  of  marble,  has 
its  bas  reliefs  much  damaged  :  and  that  of  Titus 
has  also  suffered  severely.  Trajan's  pillar  is  still 
covered  with  admirable  bas  reliefs,  representing 
his  Dacian  expedition.  These  reliefs  contain 
2500  figures  of  men,  besides  a  number  of  ele- 
phants, horses,  and  trophies.  That  in  honor  of 
the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  is  of  equal  height, 
but  of  inferior  execution. 

Of  the  ancient  aqueducts  there  remain  the 
Fontana  Felice,  on  the  Viminal  Mountain,  sup- 
plied by  the  Aqua  Claudia,  and  discharging  itself 
through  a  rock  under  an  Ionic  arcade :  at  a 
considerable  distance,  and  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Tiber,  rises  an  arcade,  supported  by  pillars 
of  granite,  through  which  three  streams  descend 
from  the  summit  of  an  adjacent  hill.  2.  The 
Fontana  di  Treri,  an  elegant  building  of  Corin- 
thian architecture,  ornamented  with  statues,  and 
is  perhaps  the  most  finished  structure  of  the  kind 
in  Europe.  It  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate  the 
other  fountains  in  Rome.  The  sewers  of  the 
ancient  city  are  now  much  obstructed  by  stones 
and  earth ;  but  the  Cloaca  Maxima  still  merits 
attention.  As  to  public  baths,  those  great  objects 
of  Roman  luxury,  there  remain  of  those  of  Ca- 
racalla  little  but  the  walls,  and  the  baths  of  Titus, 
in  tolerable  preservation. 

The  Palatine  Mount  is  now  a  shapeless  mass 
of  rubbish.  Of  the  various  theatres  and  circuses 
of  ancient  Rome  hardly  a  vestige  remains  :  even 
the  Circus  Maximus  can  be  traced  only  by  the 
hollow  scooped  in  the  Aventine  valley  ;  and 
many  other  monuments  are  of  course  obscured 
or  demolished ;  so  that  a  stranger  is  generally 
disappointed  on  his  first  investigation  of  this 
capital.  It  has  of  late  been  proposed  to  make  a 
temporary  diversion  of  the  Tiber  for  the  purpose 
of  antiquarian  research ;  but  some  attempts,  in 
1819  and  1820,  to  discover  hidden  relics,  by 
means  of  a  small  vessel,  with  an  apparatus  for 
raising  heavy  bodies,  have  not  succeeded. 

Of  the  ancient  roads,  several,  as  the  Via  Latina, 
the  Via  Vitellia,  the  Via  Aurelia,  still  serve  to  ap- 
proach the  Capitol ;  and  the  catacombs,  originally 


excavations  made  in  digging  out  the  earth  used 
as  bricks  for  building,  are  of  great  extent,  pene- 
tratingj  it  is  said,  to  a  length  of  several  miles. 

The  oldest  church  of  modern  Rome  is  that 
of  St.  Clement.  The  church  of  St.  Piedro  di 
Vincoli  is  a  noble  hall,  supported  by  twenty 
pillars  of  Parian  marble,  and  adorned  with 
elegant  tombs.  St.  Martin's  and  St.  Silves- 
ter's are  built  of  part  of  the  materials  of  the  baths 
of  Titus.  The  church  of  St.  Andrea,  on  Monte 
Cavallo,  though  small,  is  highly  finished.  That  of 
St.  Cecilia,  in  Trastevere,  as  well  as  those  of  St. 
Maria  in  the  same  quarter,  St.  Sebastiano  and 
St.  Piedro  in  Montorio,  are  all  of  great  antiquity. 
The  last  contains  Raphael's  famous  picture  of  the 
Transfiguration.  The  churches  of  St.  Grisogono 
and  St.  Giovanni  e  Paolo  are  splendidly  adorned 
with  pillars.  Santa  Maria  Egiznea,  a  building 
of  the  Ionic  order,  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient 
temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  and  Santa  Maria  So- 
pra  Minerva  a  temple  of  that  goddess :  while  the 
church  of  Ava  Coeli  is  said  to  occupy  the  site  of 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus. 

The  Pantheon  and  seven  patriarchal  basilicae, 
or  cathedrals,  are  all  of  considerable  antiquity. 
The  pantheon,  built  in  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
and  called  from  its  form  the  rotunda,  contains 
busts  of  a  number  of  eminent  men.  Of  the 
cathedrals,  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  is  situated  on 
the  Esquiline  Mount,  and  has  two  fronts,  each 
of  modern  architecture.  St.  Giovanni,  in  Late- 
rone,  is  the  regular  cathedral  of  the  diocese  of 
Rome,  It  was  founded  by  Constantine.  Anothei 
cathedral,  that  of  Santa  Croce,  in  Gierusalemme, 
was  erected  by  Constantine  on  the  ruins  of  a 
temple  of  Venus,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  an- 
tique form,  and  beautiful  retired  situation.  A 
third  church,  begun  by  Constantine  but  much  ex- 
tended since  his  reign,  is  that  of  St  Paoli,  out 
side  of  the  city  wall.  The  cathedral  of  St 
Lorenzo  is  also  outside  of  the  city,  on  the  Via 
Tiburtina. 

The  original  St.  Peter's  was  also  erected  by 
Constantine,  but  had  been  giving  way  for  some 
time  previous  to  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
when  Nicholas  V.  conceived  the  project  of  taking 
it  down.  The  work,  however,  was  feebly  prose- 
cuted, till  the  reign  of  Julius  II..  That  prelate 
proceeded  with  it  on  a  grand  scale,  and  succeed- 
ing popes  contributed  to  its  completion.  The 
most  celebrated  architects  of  modern  times,  Bra- 
mante,  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  Vignola,  Ma- 
derno,  and  Bernini,  have  here  displayed  their 
talents.  A  circular  court,  formed  by  a  vast  co- 
lonnade, first  strikes  the  eye  of  the  spectator, 
and  leads  to  the  majestic  front  of  the  building, 
extending  400  feet  in  length,  and  rising  to  the 
height  of  180.  The  eye  is  at  the  same  time  gra- 
tified with  the  majestic  dome,  rising  from  the 
central  part  of  the  church  to  a  height  from  the 
ground  of  324  feet.  The  interior  of  the  church 
corresponds  with  its  outward  grandeur.  Five 
portals  open  into  the  portico,  a  gallery  extending 
across  the  width  of  the  edifice,  and  resembling  in 
size  a  cathedral.  This  magnificent  entrance  is 
paved  with  marble,  covered  with  a  gilded  vault, 
and  closed  at  either  end  by  statues.  Opposite  to 
the  five  portals  are  five  doors,  leading  into  the 
church.  On  entering  any  of  these  the  spectator 


26 


ROME. 


beholds  the  most  spacious  hall  ever  constructed 
by  human  art,  expanding  in  magnificent  perspec- 
tive, its  length  being  above  600  English  feet. 
The  aisles  and  altars  are  adorned  with  a  number 
of  ancient  pillars ;  the  walls  with  festoons, 
wreaths,  tiaras,  and  other  ornaments  of  marble. 
The  patriarchal  chair  of  St.  Peter  is  a  throne, 
elevated  to  the  height  of  seventy  feet.  The  high 
altar  has  below  it  what  is  called  St.  Peter's  Tomb  ; 
above  a  magnificent  canopy  of  brass,  towering  to 
the  height  of  132  feet.  A  well  lighted  staircase 
leads  to  the  roof  of  St.  Peter's,  from  which  the 
dome  can  be  viewed  with  minuteness.  The  ac- 
cess to  every  part  of  it,  and  even  the  ascent  to 
the  cupola,  is  perfectly  easy.  The  recent  part 
of  the  pile  is  the  vestry  or  sacristi,  a  structure 
connected  with  the  main  building  by  a  gallery, 
and  adorned  with  a  number  of  pillars,  statues, 
paintings,  and  mosaics.  It  forms  of  itself  a  spa- 
cious church. 

*  The  first  visit  paid  to  the  church  of  St.  Pe- 
ter's,' says  the  spirited  author  of  '  Italy,'  '  should 
not  be  made  by  the  ordinary  conveyance  to  all 
such  sights  in  Rome — a  carriage.  It  should  be 
approached  by  pilgrim-steps,  slow  and  difficult ; 
and  that  great  temple, 

. U'here  majesty, 

Power,  glory,  strength,  and  beauty,  all  are  hailed, 

should  be  reached  on  foot,  and  sought  through 
those  various  details  of  misery,  disorder,  and 
degradation,  which  distinguish  alike  all  its  ave- 
nues, and  are  the  elements  out  of  which  its  gran- 
deur sprang.  Around  the  other  great  Basilica 
of  Rome  there  reigns  a  saddening  region  of  de- 
solation ;  and  St.  Paul's  and  St.  John  de  Late- 
ran  rise  on  the  dreary  frontiers  of  the  infected 
deserts  they  denominate,  like  temples  dedicated  to 
the  genius  of  the  mal-aria.  But  the  approach 
to  St.  Peter's  has  another  character  :  every  nar- 
row avenue  is  thickly  colonised  with  a  race  of 
beings  marked  by  traits  of  indigence  or  demo- 
ralisation ;  and  every  dark  dilapidated  den 
teems  with  a  tenantry,  which  might  well  belong 
to  other  purlieus  than  those  of  the  church.  It 
is  thus  that  the  altars  of  St.  Peter's  are  approach- 
ed, 93  they  were  raised,  upon  the  necks  of  the 
people.  Here  the  streets  of  the  filthiest  city  in 
Europe  are  found  filthiest !  Here  forms,  on 
which  Love  had  set  his  seal,  are  equally  disfi- 
gured by  the  neglect  of  cleanliness,  or  by  mere- 
tricious ornament '.—and  the  young  plebeian 
beauty,  lying  on  the  threshold  of  some  ruinous 
fabric,  withdrawing  the  bodkin  from  tresses  it  is 
dangerous  to  loosen,  and  submitting  a  fine  head 
to  the  inspection  of  some  ancient  crone,  smiles 
on  the  passing  stranger  with  all  the  complacency 
of  a  Du  Barry,  when  she  made  her  toilette  for 
the  good  of  the  public,  surrounded  by  the  dig- 
nitaries of  the  church,  who  emulously  canvassed 
for  its  offices.  The  streets  leading  immediately 
to  St.  Peter's  occasionally  exhibit  a  spacious  but 
dilapidated  palace,  mingled  with  inferior  build- 
ings ;  but  many  even  of  these  have  their  facades 
of  marble  disfigured  by  washerwomen's  lines; 
and  an  atmosphere  of  soapsuds  indicates  an  at- 
tention to  cleanliness,  whose  effects  are  nowhere 
%  i-ible  in  Rome,  but  in  the  stench  which  issues 
from  the  laundresses'  windows  in  the  very  finest 


of  its  streets.  These  discouraging  avenues  at 
last  waded  through,  the  Piazza  de  St.  Pietro  in 
Vaticano  bursts  upon  the  eye,  more  striking 
from  the  contrast  that  its  beauty  and  magni- 
ficence present  to  the  images  of  poverty  and 
disgust  which  have  preceded  it. 

'  Nothing  that  art  or  judgment  can  dictate,  or 
ciiticism  or  pretension  utter,  on  this  great  object 
of  universal  wonder,  has  been  left  unsaid  or  un- 
illustrated.  The  profoundest  Virtuosi  of  the  last 
age  have  commented  on  it ;  the  greatest  poet  of 
the  present  age  has  sung  it ;  and  from  the  folios 
of  Piranesi  to  the  portefeuille  of  the  most  juve- 
nile traveller,  views  of  its  architecture  are  to  be 
found.  Little  is  now  left  to  future  visitants,  but 
to  enjoy,  in  silence,  their  own  opinion  (should 
they  have  any  they  may  call  their  own),  or  at 
most  to  express  the  impression  communicated  to 
their  own  minds,  on  their  first  view  of  this  sup- 
posed miracle  of  art.  The  first  impression  of 
the  fayade  of  St.  Peter  on  the  writer  of  these 
pages  was  one  of  utter  disappointment.  It  did 
not  strike  her  by  its  magnitude ! — and  in  its 
want  of  simplicity  and  completeness  (broken  up 
as  it  is  by  pilasters,  loggie,  niches,  balustrades, 
&c.),  it  did  not  affect  her  with  pleasurable  emo- 
tion. With  none  present  to  direct  her  judgment, 
and  shame  her  ignorance,  she  turned  involun- 
tarily away,  after  a  few  minutes'  observation,  to 
contemplate  objects  infinitely  more  attractive  to 
her  unlearned  apprehension.  These  were  its 
beautiful  semicircular  colonnades ;  its  noble 
fountains  dashing  their  pure  bright  waters  into 
mid-air,  sparkling  with  sun-beams,  and  diffusing 
freshness  as  they  fall ;  and  that  antique  obelisk, 
whose  transfer  from  Heliopolis  (where  the  son 
of  Sesostris  raised  it)  to  the  circus  of  Nero, 
where  Caligula  placed  it,  includes  the  history  of 
fallen  empires,  and  of  power  not  subdued,  but 
strangely  transmuted.  The  impression  made  by 
the  fafade  of-  St.  Peter's  was  never  effaced. 
The  original  design  of  Michael  Angelo,  shown 
in  the  library  of  the  Vatican,  served  but  to  con- 
firm it ;  and  the  opinion  of  one.  whose  judg- 
ment, next  to  that  of  Michael  Angelo's  own, 
might  be  trusted,  left  the  decision  of  ignorance 
sanctioned  by  the  dictum  of  the  presiding  genius 
of  the  art. 

'  But  the  magnitude  of  St.  Peter's  is  never 
justly  estimated  on  a  first  or  many  following  in- 
spections ;  which  is  the  fault  of  its  faultlessness  : 
for  besides  that  it  is  out  of  the  span  of  human  re- 
cognition— beyond  the  test-of  all  received  expe- 
rience— the  harmony  of  its  proportions  is  so 
perfect  as  to  leave  nothing  for  comparison  ;  there 
fluttei  colossal  doves  in  cornices  lofty  as  the 
eagle's  eyrie ;  there  frown  saints 

In  bulk  as  huge 

As  whom  the  fables  name  of  monstrous  size, 

the  Briareus's  of  the  martyrology  ! — while  che- 
rubs, tall  as  Typhons,  and  letters  to  be  read  by 
the  cubit,  diminish  the  height  of  that  cupola 
(the  Ossa  piled  on  Pelion  of  architecture),  and 
lessen  the  vastness  of  those  interminable  naves, 
whose  votive  chapels  might  serve  for  metropolitan 
churches.  But  the  temple  of  St.  Peter,  with  all 
its  unrivalled  riches,  surpassing  the  works  of 
Memphian  kings,  is  but  a  gigantic  toy,  and  the 


ROM     E. 


'2: 


wanton,  the  incalculable  profusion  of  its  gems  and 
precious  stones,  its  statues  and  pictures,  its  mo- 
saics and  gold,  its  bronzes  and  marbles,  its  spot- 
less freshness  and  unsullied  lustre,  separate  it 
from  the  imagination,  and  leave  it  without  one 
of  those  solemn  associations  which  blend  such 
edifices  with  a  remembrance  of  the  mysterious 
past,  and  give  them  an  interest  in  the  mind  be- 
yond what  the  eye  can  command/ 

'  Among  the  number  of  its  splendid  mauso- 
leums,' continues  this  writer,  '  all  raised  to  the 
memory  of  pontiffs  and  princes  of  the  church,  or 
to  enshrine  the  ashes  of  kings  and  queens,  there 
i.s  one  which  affords  a  striking  commentary  on 
the  text  of  this  mighty  edifice.  It  is  the  tomb 
of  the  famous  countess  Matilda,  the  most  pow- 
erful ally  the  church  ever  knew ;  and  her  de- 
fence of  the  popes  and  their  system,  and  the 
bequest  of  her  valuable  patrimony  to  the  church, 
have  obtained  for  her  a  monument  in  St.  Peter's, 
to  which  her  ashes  were  conveyed  from  Mantua 
by  pope  Urban  VIII.  Her  effigy  represents  a 
stern  and  dogged-looking  woman,  one  whose 
strong  volition  might  have  passed  for  genius — 
she  holds  the  papal  sceptre  and  tiara  in  one  hand, 
and  in  the  oilier  the  keys  of  the  church !  at  her 
feet  lies  her  sarcophagus  !  and  its  relievoes  form 
the  precious  part  of  the  monument.  They  re- 
present the  emperor  Henry  IV.  at  the  feet  of 
pope  Gregory  VII.,  where  Matilda  had  assisted 
to  place  him.  The  abject,  prostrate,  half-naked 
emperor,  surrounded  by  Italian  princes  and  ec- 
clesiastical barons,  the  witnesses  of  his  shame 
and  degradation,  forms  a  fine  contrast  to  the 
haughty  and  all  powerful  pope ;  who  seems 
ready  to  place  his  foot  upon  the  imperial  neck  of 
the  unfortunate  sovereign,  who,  thus  crouching 
in  the  dust,  represented  the  Roman  Caesars ! 
Such  was  the  church  in  her  great  day  ! — When 
the  emperor  Joseph  II.  visited  St.  Peter's,  and 
his  conductors  led  him  to  this  monument,  he  is 
said  to  have  turned  from  it  with  an  irouical 
smile,  and  a  crimson  blush  of  indignation  !  It 
was  then,  perhaps,  that  his  personal  feelings  prave 
new  impulse  to  his  philosophical  reformation, 
urging  him  to  decide  on  the  fate  of  cowls,  hoods, 
and  habits,  with  their  wearers ;  and  from  that 
moment  he  may  have  considered 

Relic  beads, 

Indulgences,  dispenses,  pardons,  bulls, 

The  sport  of  winds.'  Milton. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  modern  additions 
to  St.  Peter's  is  the  beautiful  mausoleum,  the 
work  of  Canova,  raised  to  the  memory  of  James 
II.,  king  of  England,  his  queen,  and  his  two 
sons.  This  monument,  and  these  titles,  were  be- 
stowed by  the  munificence  of  the  prince  regent  of 
England. 

We  shall  follow  the  writer  just  quoted  through 
the  Vatican  and  the  other  principal  palaces. 

The  Palazzo  Ponteficio  del  Vaticano,  commu- 
nicating with  St.  Peter's,  is  rather  a  congregation 
of  palaces,  than  a  single  edifice  ;  and  its  archi- 
tecture is  as  various  as  the  ages  and  talents  that 
went  to  its  completion.  The  genius  of  Bramante, 
of  Raphael,  of  San  Gullo,  of  Fontana,  of  Bernini, 
with  many  other  eminent  and  scarcely  inferior  ar- 
tists, has  been  concentrated  on  its  progressive 


erection  ;  and  the  talents  of  all  ages,  of  all  na- 
tions, have  contributed  to  lill  its  marble  laby- 
rinths. The  elevation  is  divided  into  three  lofty 
stories,  each  story  surrounded  by  a  loggia,  or  open 
corridor,  richly  painted ;  its  countless  halls,  its 
endless  galleries,  its  beautiful  chapels,  its  vener- 
able library,  its  twenty  courts  (cortili),  and  200 
stair-cases,  present  a  wilderness  of  building,  out 
of  which  the  stranger,  how  frequent  soever  his 
visits,  can  only  recal  those  particular  apartments 
more  eminently  distinguished  than  others  by 
some  miracle  or  miracles  of  art,  from  which  they 
take  their  name.  The  Carte  du  Pays  he  will 
never  master ;  but,  go  where  he  may,  he  will 
never  forget  the  loggia  of  Raphael,  the  Borgia 
suite,  the  Portico  del  Cortile,  the  Belvedere,  and 
the  successive  cabinets  dedicated  to  various  works 
of  antiquity, — the  perfection  of  all  that  genius 
ever  conceived,  or  art  and  labor  perfected.  Such 
are  the  halls  of  the  animals,  of  the  busts,  of  the 
muses,  of  the  rotunda,  the  cabinets  of  the  biga, 
of  the  candelabras,  and  that  vast  covered  space 
which  takes  the  various  names  of  corridore  of 
inscriptions  (dei  Lapidi),  of  the  belvedere,  of  the 
museo  chiaramonti,  and  clementino.  This  gal- 
lery is  divided  by  gates  and  columns,  as  if  to 
make  artificial  stages  in  its  interminable  length, 
and  afford  stations  for  the  imagination  to  repose 
on,  or  memory  to  refer  to.  The  first  portion 
(into  which  the  library  of  the  Vatican  opens)  is 
lined  on  either  side  with  the  rarest  collection  of 
inscriptions  known  in  Europe.  Those  of  the 
early  Greek  and  Latin  Christians,  which  have 
been  found  in  the  catacombs,  occupy  the  left  side; 
those  of  the  heathen  world  are  on  the  right, 
mingled  with  tombs,  monuments,  and  sarcophagi, 
each  in  itself  a  study  and  a  moral.  The  museo 
cliiaramonti  succeeds,  rich  in  monuments  of  an- 
tiquity, statues,  busts,  and  basso-relievoes — the 
work  of  the  Phidias's  of  other  ages,  arranged  by 
the  Phidias  of  the  present.  Here  the  living 
make  their  personal  acquaintance  with  the  dead, 
and  the  features  of  aCommodus,  a  Tiberius,  and 
a  Lucius  Verus,  become  as  familiar  to  the  mind 
as  their  deeds  and  reigns.  The  Museo  Pio-Cle- 
mentino,  the  collection  of  the  treasures  accumu- 
lated by  the  late  pope,  changes  the  scene,  and 
belongs  to  the  edifices  occupied  by  the  deities 
and  priestesses  and  emperors  of  the  preceding 
gallery.  Here  are  hung  the  appropriate  orna- 
ments of  temples,  theatres,  basilicas,  forums,  cir- 
cuses, baths,  and  palaces,  all  beautiful  in  design 
and  perfect  in  execution  ;  and  to  these  naturally 
follows  the  vestibule  of  the  tombs — with  the 
sarcophagus  of  a  Scipio  and  the  sepulchral  effi- 
gies of  some  fair  Roman  dame,  over  whose  death- 
couch  love  still  hovers.  In  moving  among  these 
consecrated  images  of  art  and  time,  the  mind  of 
the  spectator  catches  something  of  their  calm 
and  dignity;  for  there  is  in  ancient  sculpture  a 
quietude  of  grandeur,  a  solemnity  of  grace,  not 
found  in  the  works  of  modern  genius,  and  which 
belong,  perhaps,  to  the  originals  they  copied. 
This  majesty  of  expression  and  tranquillity  of 
form,  so  well  known  to  the  Egyptians,  lost  some- 
thing of  its  monumental  sobriety  under  the 
Greeks.  It  is  frequently  found  among  savages, 
but  rarely  appears  amidst  the  artificial  exaggera- 
tion of  corrupt  civilisation.  The  French,  who, 


ROME. 


up  to  the  Revolution,  were  a  nation  of  dancing- 
masters,  were  the  least  graceful  people  of  Europe; 
and  tne  Apollo  of  Belvidere  could  never  have 
been  imagined  in  the  court  of  a  Louis  XV. 

This  gallery  so  rich  and  beautiful,  through  the 
munificence  of  the  late  and  present  pope,  was 
but  'of  bare  walls'  when  Evelyn  visited  it  in 
1 643 ;  and  he  observes  that,  as  he  passed 
through  it  on  his  way  to  the  Vatican  library,  it 
was  full  of  poor  people,  to  the  number  of  1500 
or  2000,  '  to  each  of  whom,  in  his  passage  to  St. 
Peter's,  the  pope  gave  a  mezzo-grosso'  (half  a 
farthing).  This  is  a  curious  episode  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  palace  of  the  Vatican — of  that  palace 
whose  uses  and  magnificence  furnished  Milton 
with  his  splendid  imagery  alike  of  hell  and  hea- 
ven— his' palace  of  Pandemonium,  and  that 

'  Where  sceptred  angels  held  their  residence.' 
The  library  of  the  Vatican,  described  as  it  me- 
rits, would  fill  the  pages  of  an  ample  volume. 
The  locale  is  a  palace  in  itself;  and  its  galleries 
and  various  chambers  might  be  visited  as  a 
splendid  museum,  had  they  no  other  attraction. 
One  of  the  most  striking  circumstances  in  the 
greatest  library  of  Europe  is,  that  not  a  book  is 
to  be  seen,  although  of  MSS.  alone  there  are 
said  to  be  30,000  volumes.  The  cases  in  which 
the  collection  is  preserved  give  no  indication  of 
their  contents ;  and  the  whole  edifice,  all  campo 
d'ore  and  ultra-marine,  looks  rather  like  some 
Gothic  hall  of  grotesque  festivity  than  the  re- 
treat of  learning.  The  principal  gallery,  317 
palmi  in  length,  is  divided  into  naves,  separated 
by  pillars  ;  and  the  walls  are  painted  with  re- 
presentations  of  the  most  celebrated  ancient  li- 
braries, of  general  councils,  and  of  the  inventors 
of  the  characters  of  various  languages.  Low 
cabinets,  richly  and  fantastically  painted,  sur- 
round this  superb  saloon,  and  contain  the  most 
precious  of  the  MSS.  ;  and  tables  of  Egyptian 
granite,  marble  sarcophagi,  and  other  fragments 
of  antiquity,  are  scattered  over  its  centre.  Two 
vast  corridors  to  the  right  and  left,  divided  into 
various  apartments,  open  out  of  this  main  gallery. 
Here  are  modern  book  cases  filled  with  choice 
works ;  and  objects  of  art,  of  great  value  and 
antiquity,  are  profusely  scattered.  In  one  of 
these  is  a  picture  of  the  design  of  the  Facade  of 
St.  Peter's  by  Michael  Angelo,  far  superior  to 
that  which  has  been  adopted.  From  the  hall  of 
the  papyrus,  painted  by  Mengs,  opens  another 
spacious  gallery,  ornamented  with  gold  and 
mirrors,  and  containing  the  most  precious  books 
in  the  collection  ;  and  cabinets  devoted  to  me- 
dals, engravings,  inscriptions,  succeed,  and  termi- 
nate this  wing.  On  the  other  side  a  suite  of  beau- 
tiful rooms,  with  columns  of  porphyry,  are  filled 
with  book  cases,  decorated  with  Etruscan  vases  ; 
and  the  wall  is  decorated  with  a  series  of  paint- 
ings illustrating  the  trials  of  the  late  and  present 
po'pes,  during  the  Revolution  :— the  crowning 
and  restoration  of  Pius  VII.,  closes  these  fasti  of 
papal  sensibility  and  endurance. 

The  Quirinal  is  a  stupendous  fabric,  only  less 
vast  than  the  Vatican,  and  crowns  the  Quirinal 
hill,  which  commands  a  noble  view  of  the  city. 
Tope  Pius  VI.  dul  much  to  adorn  both  the 
palace  and  the  Piazza  del  Monte  Cavullo  on 


which  it  stands.  He  removed  the  obelisk  which* 
stood  near  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  to  the 
front  of  the  palace;  and,  not  being  able  to  dis- 
place the  Coliseum,  he  carried  off  all  that  was 
moveable  from  the  forum,  and  transported  that 
gigantic  vase  of  oriental  granite  to  the  Monte 
Cavallo,  which  now  receives  the  waters  of  its 
beautiful  fountain.  The  state  apartments  of  the 
Quirinal  are  sufficiently  noble ;  they  were  inha- 
bited by  the  emperor  of  Austria  and  his  family 
on  his  visit  to  Rome ;  and  in  their  gaudy  dress 
when  we  saw  them,  bore  testimony  to  the 
still  unpaid-for  honors  offered  to  the  imperial 
guests.  The  gardens  of  the  Quirinal  are  spaci- 
ous and  delightful,  but  encumbered  with  stones 
and  marbles,  as  usual,  disputing  the  soilNvith 
nature  and  vegetation.  But  all  that  is  bright 
and  fair  in  the  Quirinal  is  brightest  and  fairest 
in  that  chapel  in  which  the  pope  himself  ponti- 
ficates on  Sundays  and  other  holydays.  When 
lighted  by  the  mid-day  beams,  it  looks  like  the 
temple  of  the  sun,  which  once  occupied  its  site. 
'  Here,'  says  lady  Morgan,  '  pictured  saints  ap- 
pear as  demi-gods ;  and  the  high  altar  exhibits  a 
cross,  brilliant  and  beautiful  as  that  which  lies 
on  a  lady's  bosom.  Here  sounds  that  enchant, 
and  odors  that  intoxicate,  fill  the  air ;  and  mys- 
teries are  consummated  with  forms  so  beautiful, 
and  amidst  objects  so  alluring,  that  the  rigid 
or  the  ignorant  might  doubt  whether  he  wit- 
nesses Christian  ceremonies  or  heathen  rites, 
and  whether  this  is  the  temple  of  Apollo  or  the 
chapel  of  the  pope.'  The  chapel  of  the  Quirinal 
is  on  Sundays  filled  to  suffocation.  The  tribunes 
on  either  side  are  occupied  by  the  elegantes  of 
London  and  Paris,  Petersburgh  and  Vienna, 
Cracow  or  New  York.  In  the  central  nave  the* 
throng  is  composed  of  abbots,  priors,  and  digni- 
taries in  grand  costume — the  mamelukes  of  the 
church !  Roman  generals,  all  armed  for  the 
military  service  of  the  altar,  the  only  service 
they  have  ever  seen ;  monks,  guards,  friars, 
Swiss  soldiers,  and  officers  of  state  !  Outside  a 
cordon,  drawn  round  the  choir,  are  placed  the 
foreign  gentlemen.  The  choir,  the  scene  of 
action,  all  brilliant  and  beautiful,  is  still  a  void. 
When  the  signal  is  given,  the  crowd  divides ! 
and  the  procession  begins  !  Mutes  and  others 
form  the  avant-garde  of  the  pageant,  and  lead  the 
way. 

'  Then  comes  personified  infallibility  !  feeble  as 
womanhood !  helpless  as  infancy !  withered  by  time 
and  bent  by  infirmity ;  but  borne  aloft,  like  some 
idol  of  Pagan  worship,  on  the  necks  of  men,  above 
all  human  contact.  The  conclave  follows,  each  of 
its  pririces  robed  like  an  eastern  sultan  !  Habits 
of  silk  and  brocade,  glittering  with  gold  and  sil- 
ver, succeeded  by  robes  of  velvet,  and  vestments 
of  point  lace,  the  envy  of  reigning  empresses.* 

*  We  must  find  room  for  the  note  of  our  spirited 
guide.  '  The  details  of  the  cardinal's  toilette,  which, 
at  my  own  very  womanish  desire,  weie  exhibited  to 
me,  are  minute,  splendid,  and  numerous,  beyond 
description  ;  for  every  ceremony  has  its  dress.  On 
some  days  the  cardinals  dress  and  undress  as  often 
as  the  three  Mr.  Singletons  in  the  farce.  The  ctolc. 
or  scarf,  is  now  ;i  sush  superbly  tissued  :  it  is  a  sym- 
bol ol  the  lost  innocence  of  man — not  of  the  cardi 


ROME. 


29 


The  toilette  of  these  church  exquisites  is  perfect ; 
not  a  hair  displaced,  not  a  point  neglected, 
from  the  powdered  toupee  to 'the  diamond  shoe- 
buckle.  The  pope  is  at  last  deposited  on  his 
golden  throne  :  his  ecclesiastical  attendants  fold 
round  him  his  ample  caftan,  white  and  brilliant 
as  the  nuptial  dress  of  bridal  queens !  they 
arrange  his  dazzling  mitre :  they  blow  his  nose ; 
they  wipe  his  mouth,  and  exhibit  the  represen- 
tation of  Divinity  in  all  the  disgusting  helpless- 
ness of  driveling  caducity.  His  holiness  being 
thus  cradled  on  a  throne  to  which  emperors 
once  knelt,  the  conservators  of  Rome,  the  ca- 
ryatides of  the  church,  place  themselves  meekly 
at  its  steps;  and  the  manikin,  who  represents 
the  Roman  senate,  takes  his  humble  station 
near  that  imperial  seat,  more  gorgeous  than  any 
the  Ca-'sars  ever  mounted.  Meantime  the  demi- 
gods of  the  conclave  repose  their  eminences  in 
their  stalls  on  velvet  cushions,  and  their  cau- 
datorj  (or  tail-bearers)  place  themselves  at  their 
feet.  In  the  centre  stand,  or  sit,  on  the  steps 
of  the  high  altar,  the  bishops  with  their  superb 
mitres  and  tissued  vestments.  Then  the  choir 
raises  the  high  hosannahs,  the  pope  pontificates ; 
and  the  temple  of  Jupiter  never  witnessed  rites 
so  imposing  or  so  splendid.  Golden  censers 
fling  their  odors  on  the  air !  harmony  the  most 
perfect,  and  movements  the  most  gracious, 
delight  the  ear  and  eye !  At  the  elevation  of 
the  host,  a  silence  more  impressive  than  even 
this  '  solemn  concord  of  sweet  sounds'  succeeds; 
all  fall  prostrate  to  the  earth ;  and  the  military, 
falling  lower  than  all,  lay  their  arms  of  destruc- 
tion at  the  feet  of  that  mystery,  operated  in 
memory  of  the  salvation  of  mankind.'  When 
the  ceremony  is  concluded,  the  procession  re- 
turns as  it  entered.  The  congregation  rush  after; 
and  the  next  moment  the  ante-room  of  this  reli- 
gious temple  resembles  the  saloon  of  the  opera. 
The  abbots  and  priors  mingle  among  the  lay 

nal's.  The  piviale  is  a  mantle,  like  the  ancient 
Irish  cloak  :  it  is  of  massive  gold  tissue,  insupporta- 
bly  heavy.  This  represents  the  pastoral  robe  of  the 
patriarchs  (for  all  in  the  church,  Catholic  or  Protes- 
tant, is  borrowed  from  the  Jews — Christ  haying  left 
nothing  to  copy  but  virtue  and  self-denial).  This 
piviale  was  originally  pluviale,  and  worn  (as  its 
name  imports)  to  keep  out  the  weather,  before  gold 
brocades  were  invented.  The  Soutane  is  a  truly 
eastern  habit  :  it  is  of  violet  velvet  or  silk,  and  its 
long  and  flowing  train  is  held  up  by  the  caudatori. 
This  was  surely  not  '  the  cloak'  which  St.  Paul  left 
behind  him  '  at  Troas.'  Next  comes  the  golden  pi- 
anelli,  and  the  manipolo,  of  embroidered  satin, 
which  hangs  on  the  arm,  like  a  fine  lady's  reticule, 
and  is  the  scrip  of  the  patriarchal  herdsman,  in  which 
he  carried  his  bread  and  cheese.  Then  comes  the 
camicia,  a  dress  of  the  richest  point  lace.  I  saw 
three  of  these  dresses  belonging  to  one  cardinal, 
said  to  be  worth  £2000  ;  and  1  know  it  for  a  fact, 
that  more  than  one  petty  reigning  sovereign  has  en- 
deavoured to  wheedle  his  eminence  out  of  a  camicia 
worn  upon  state  days.  The  mitres  are  of  gold  and 
silver,  upon  white  or  red  grounds,  according  to  the 
cardinal's  various  ranks.  In  private  society  their 
dress  is  a  suit  of  black,  edged  with  scarlet ;  scarlet 
stockings,  and  a  little  patch  of  red,  called  the  calotte, 
on  the  crown  of  their  heads,  with  their  cardinal  hat 
'"uler  the  arm." 


crowd,  and  the  cardinals  chat  with  pretty 
women,  sport  their  red  .stockings,  and  ask  their 
opinions  of  the  pope's  pontification,  as  a  mar- 
veilleux  of  the  opera  at  Paris  takes  snuff,  and 
demands  of  his  chere-belle,  '  Comment  trouvez 
vous  ca,  comtesse?' 

The  palace  of  the  Lateran,  though  now  un- 
inhabited, is  vast  and  imposing;  and,  though 
little  of  the  original  building  remains,  it  is  suf- 
ficiently antiquated  to  recal  its  ancient  destina- 
tion as  the  scene  of  much  of  the  licentious  dis- 
sipation and  fierce  feuds  of  popes  and  anti-popes 
in  the  dark  ages.  It  commands  a  sublime  view 
of  the  waste  its  lords  have  made ; — of  the  Cam- 
pagna,  stretching  to  the  base  of  the  blue  Alba- 
nian hills ;  its  desert,  here  and  there  spotted  with 
ancient  ruins  of  the  tombs  of  heroes,  or  imperial 
aqueducts,  with  the  walls  of  villas,  and  wreaks 
of  monuments  which  skirted  the  road  from  the 
gates  of  the  Lateran  to  the  suburbs  of  Naples. 
The  church,  or  basilica,  of  San  Giovanni  Late- 
rano,  is  the  principal,  and  one  of  the  oldest,  ais 
we  have  seen,  in  Rome. 

In  the  baptistery  (Battisterio  Lateranense) 
adjoining  the  church,  built  by  Constantine,  he 
is  said  to  have  been  baptised  by  St.  Sylvester. 
It  was  ravaged  by  frequent  invaders,  and  long 
remained  in  the  lower  ages  in  a  state  of  absolute 
ruin  and  spoliation  ;  until,  attracting  the  notice 
of  successive  pontiffs,  and  particularly  that  of 
Gregory  XIII.  and  Urban  VIII.,  it  took  that 
character  of  richness  which  now  distinguishes  it. 
The  baptismal  font  is  an  ancient  urn  of  basalt, 
ornamented  with  gold  and  bronze.  From  its 
bosom  the  waters  of  life  are  still  dispensed  to 
the  Jews,  who  annually  seek  regeneration  at  so 
much  per  head.  This  edifice  (its  great  anti- 
quity, its  superb  columns  of  porphyry,  and  fine 
cornices,  all  plunder  from  the  ancient  monu- 
ments of  Rome,  excepted)  has  but  little  to 
excite  admiration.  Two  of  its  pictures,  how- 
ever, afford  a  curious  historical  evidence,  worth 
noticing.  One  represents  the  council  of  Nice 
burning  books  written  against  the  bishops.  The 
other  the  breaking  of  the  statues  in  the  Roman 
temples  (probably  the  rivals  of  the  Apollo  and 
the  Antinous)  :  a  bishop,  with  the  air  of  a  con- 
jurer, stands  by,  tossing  his  golden  censer,  and 
.purifying  the  spot  defiled  by  the  works  of  Praxi- 
teles and  Phidias  This  was  before  a  bull  was 
fulminated  to  prevent  (but  too  late)  the  convert- 
ing of  marble  statues  into  lime,  to  build  dwel- 
ling houses. 

Opposite  to  the  great  entrance  of  the  palace 
stands  the  venerable  chapel  of  the  Scala  Santa 
(holy  steps),  once  a  part  of  the  ancient  building. 
This  chapel  is  the  shrine  of  daily  pilgrimage  to 
the  peasantry,  many  of  whom  were  ascending 
its  holy  steps  on  their  knees,  on  the  several  days 
that  we  passed  by  it.  The  veneration  paid  to 
this  flight  of  stairs  arises  from  the  five  centre 
steps,  said  to  be  part  of  the  staircase  of  Pontius 
Pilate's  house,  which  were  sanctified  by  the 
blood  of  Christ.  None  can  ascend  it  but  on 
their  knees ;  and  lateral  steps  are  provided  for 
those  whose  piety  may  not  lead  them  to  genu- 
flexion. 

There  are  family  mansions,  here  terraed  pa- 
lace?, in  great  numbers;  but  the  far  greater  part 


30 


II     O     M 


are  less  remarkable  for  their  architecture,  tlr.ui 
for  their  size  and  decorations  :  their  spacious 
courts  and  porticos,  their  halls  and  lofty  apart- 
ments, with  the  pillars,  the  marble,  the  statues, 
and  the  paintings,  that  place  them  on  a  level 
with  royal  residences  in  the  north  of  Europe. 
The  Palazzo  Doria  is  one  of  the  finest,  presenting 
three  large  fronts,  enclosing  a  spacious  court. 
Its  stair-case,  supported  by  light  pillars  of  orien- 
tal granite,  leads  to  a  magnificent  picture  gallery. 
The  Palazzo  Ruspoli  has  a  still  finer  staircase, 
consisting  of  four  flights,  of  thirty  steps  each, 
each  step  being  composed  of  a  single  piece  of 
marble,  nearly  ten  feet  long  and  two  broad. 
The  Corsini  palace  is  also  remarkable  for  its 
size,  its  furniture,  and  its  gardens.  The  Palazzo 
Farnese  occupies  one  side  of  a  handsome  square. 
Twelve  massive  pillars  of  Egyptian  granite  sup- 
port the  vestibule ;  three  ranges  of  arcades  rise 
one  above  the  other  around  a  spacious  court ; 
and  noble  apartments  follow.  The  Palazzo 
Costaguti  and  Palazzo  Mattei  are  chiefly  rich  in 
paintings.  The  Borghese  palace  is  remarkable 
for  its  porticoes,  its  columns,  and  its  antiques. 
In  the  Palazzo  Spada  stands  the  celebrated  sta- 
tue of  Pompey,  at  the  foot  of  which  Caesar  is 
supposed  to  have  fallen.  The  Barberini  palace 
has  been  much  improved  by  the  present  prince, 
but  serves  chiefly  to  remind  the  reflecting  Pro- 
testant of  the  wretched  policy  by  which  the 
illegitimate  children  and  nephews  of  the  popes 
have  been  formerly  enriched.  Here  once  reigned 
the  famous  beauty  and  humorist,  Cecca  Buffbna, 
the  mistress  of  cardinal  Francisco  Barberini, 
whose  impudicity  caused  her  to  be  publicly 
whipped  in  the  streets  of  Rome. 

Rome,  like  most  other  Catholic  cities,  is  well 
supplied  with  inferior  and  antiquated  hospitals. 
The  largest,  the  Spedale  di  St.  Spihto,  is  open  in- 
discriminately to  the  poor  of  both  sexes,  the  in- 
sane, and  to  foundlings.  That  of  St.  Michele 
is  appropriated  to  the  education  of  the  children 
of  the  poor,  but  it  receives  likewise  the  sick  and 
the  aged.  Here  is  also  a  house  of  correction. 

The  most  splendid  villas  of  Rome,  as  that  of 
the  Borghese,  Farnesina,  &c.,are  situated  within 
the  walls.  The  first  was  built  by  cardinal  Scipio 
Borghese,  the  nephew  of  Paul  V. ;  and,  with  its 
gardens  and  lake,  occupies  a  space  of  nearly  three 
miles  in  circumference.  The  interior  is  filled 
with  antique  and  modern  sculpture,  pictures, 
and  mosaics — without,  its  grounds  are  covered 
with  casinos,  temples,  citadels,  aviaries,  and  all 
that  a  gorgeous  and  false  taste,  with  wealth  be- 
yond calculation,  could  crowd  together :  Mont- 
faucon  says  '  there  is  nothing  better  worth  seeing 
in  Rome.' 

The  villa  Pamfili-Doria,  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Rome,  was  erected  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  by  the  nephew  of  the  Pamfili 
pope  Innocent  X.,  whose  extravagant  passion 
for  his  sister-in-law,  Donna  OlimpiaMaldachini, 
u  one  of  the  most  notable  traits  in  his  life.  The 
grounds,  woods,  and  gardens  are  truly  delicious : 
the  palace  itself  has  all  the  generic  features  of 
such  edifices,  and  is  filled  with  oictures  and 
statues,  dreary  and  neglected. 

The  Villa  Albani,  raised  in  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  by  the  late  cardinal,  and  belonging 


to  the  present  cardinal  Albani,  is,  according  to 
lady  Morgan,  the  most  perfect  and  freshest  of  all 
Roman  villas.  '  It  looks  like  some  pure  and 
elegant  Grecian  temple-^ a  little  Pantheon  !  de- 
dicated to  all  the  rural  gods,  with  whose  statues 
(the  most  perfect  specimens  of  antiquities)  its 
marble  colonnades  and  galleries  are  filled.  It 
ini^ht  be  deemed  too  ideal  for  a  human  habita- 
tion ;  yet  is  sufficiently  commodious  to  be  on  • ; 
and,  of  all  other  villas,  this  alone  realizes  th  • 
preconceived  image  of  fervid  fancies  of  a  true 
Italian  villa.  Its  walls  are  encrusted  with  bas-o- 
relievoes — its  corridors  grouped  with  fauns  ami 
nymphs — its  ceilings  all  azure  and  gold — its  sa- 
loons perfumed  by  breezes,  loaded  with  the 
odors  of  orange-flowers.  Its  gardens,  studded 
with  temples,  command  a  view,  terminated  by  a 
waving  line  of  acclivities,  whose  very  names  are 
poetry.  When  I  visited  it,  a  distant  blue  mist 
veiled  the  intervening  wastes  of  the  Campagna, 
and  the  dews  and  lights  of  morning  lent  their 
freshness  and  lustre  to  a  scene  and  fabric  such 
as  Love  might  have  chosen  for  his  Psyche 
when  he  bore  her  from  the  wrath  of  Venus. 
But,  when  the  first  glimpse  of  this  vision  faded, 
the  true  character  of  the  Roman  villa  came  fortli ; 
for  artichokes  and  cabbages  were  flourishing 
amidst  fauns  and  satyrs,  that  seemed  chiselled 
by  a  Praxiteles  !  The  eminentissimo  padrone  of 
this  splendid  villa  rarely  visits  its  wonders  but 
in  the  course  of  a  morning  drive :  and  his  gar- 
dens are  hired  out  to  a  Roman  marketman,  to 
raise  vegetables  during  the  spring  and  winter. 
In  summer  even  the  custode  vacates  his  hovel, 
and  the  Villa  Albani  is  left  in  the  undisputed 
possession  of  that  terrible  scourge  of  Roman 
policy  and  Roman  crimes — the  Mai-aria ;  th»> 
causes  and  effects  all  morally  connected,  and 
the  strictest  poetical  justice  every  where  visible.' 

Rome  contains,  beside  its  celebrated  Propa- 
ganda Fide,  several  literary  associations,  as  the 
Arcadian  academy,  the  archaeological,  the  acade- 
mia  Tiberiana,  the  academy  of  the  fine  arts.  A 
monthly  publication,  partaking  of  the  nature  of 
a  review  and  magazine,  appears  under  the  title 
of  Giornale  Arcadico  de  Scienze,  letere,  ed  arti; 
and,  since  1819,  there  has  been  published  weekly 
a  Giornale  encyclopedico,  containing  chiefly 
translations  on  scientific  subjects,  along  with 
some  pieces  of  poetry.  Of  the  libraries  of  Rome, 
the  largest,  after  the  Vatican,  are  the  Augustines', 
the  Dominicans',  and  those  of  the  Barberini, 
Chigi,  Colonna,  and  Corsini  families ;  that  of 
Collegio  Romano  has  a  museum  of  antiquities 
and  cabinet  of  natural  history.  The  university 
library  is  called,  from  its  founder,  pope  Alex- 
ander VII.,  the  Alexandrine  library;  and  the 
library  del  Erao  contains  a  collection  of  medals 
and  mathematical  instruments,  together  with  a 
museum. 

In  1835  the  inhabitants  of  Rome  amounted 
to  13fi,000,  a  number  which  seems  to  have 
formed,  with  little  variation,  its  population  for 
about  a  century.  Of  these,  no  fewer  than  9000 
are  said  to  be  Jews,  who  are  restricted  to  a  par- 
ticular quarter,  the  gates  of  which  are  closed 
every  night.  This  place  is  very  dirty,  but  a 
similar  charge  may  be  made  against  all  modern 
Rome.  The  number  of  inhabitants  connect'-  1 


R     O     M     E. 


31 


with  the  church,  as  priests,  monks,  or  nuns,  is 
computed  at  another  8000.  The  manufacturing 
establishments,  though  small,  are  in  considerable 
variety,  viz.  -woollens,  silks,  velvets,  hats,  gloves, 
stockings,  liquors,  pommade,  and  artificial  flowers. 
Rome  has  a  bank,  and  Monte  di  Pieta,  or  house 
for  advancing  money  on  deposited  goods.  Its 
foreign  trade  is  limited  to  imports  of  colonial  ar- 
ticles, and  a  few  manufactured  goods :  its  exports 
consist  of  the  produce  of  the  adjacent  country, 
viz.  olive  oil,  alum,  vitriol,  puzzuolano  sand, 
anise,  &c. 

No  part  pf  the  world  has  been  more  agitated 
by  the  French  revolution  and  its  consequences — 
none  perhaps  so  much  improved — as  modern 
Rome.  Its  nobles  were,  at  the  latter  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  a  race  of  banditti  :  laying 
waste  their  native  city,  and  carrying  desolation 
and  ruin  into  the  bosom  of  domestic  life.  The 
people,  always  insurgents  or  slaves,  were  the 
most  demoralised  of  Italy  ;  and  though  the  dark 
and  cruel  despotism  of  the  clever  Sixtus  V., 
whose  love  of  blood  induced  him  to  envy  Eliza- 
beth the  cutting  off  of  Mary's  head,  stemmed  for 
a  time  the  torrent  of  iniquities,  and  broke  for 
ever  the  spirit  of  the  Roman  barons,  yet  at  his 
death  the  people  were  but  the  more  debased  by 
the  loss  of  their  ferocity.  During  succeeding 
periods,  on  the  testimony  of  all  travellers,  the 
civil  and  religious  state  of  Rome  was  an  anomaly 
in  human  society.  The  court  of  the  Quirinal, 
like  that  of  France  under  Louis  XIII.  and  XIV., 
was  directed  by  the  intrigues  of  priests  and 
courtiers  :  the  cardinals  governed  by  cabal,  and 
all  places  were  disposed  of  through  their  mis- 
tresses and  their  laquais.  The  princes  or  pa- 
tricians, rich,  idle,  ignorant,  and  avaricious,  were 
surrounded  by  dependents  and  parasites,  the  in- 
digent followers  of  rank  and  opulence  :  the  peo- 
ple, without  domestic  habits,  lived  like  the 
commoners  of  nature,  satisfied  if  bread  and 
church  ceremonies  sustained  life  and  amused  it. 
The  parasite  came  after  the  prince,  and  the  beg- 
gar after  the  saint.  The  women  of  all  ranks, 
divided  into  vestals  and  concubines,  were  either 
shut  up  in  a  convent,  or  let  loose  upon  society, 
the  mistresses  of  authorised  paramours,  and  the 
wives  of  other  women's  lovers.  The  passions  of 
all  classes  were  unsubdued  by  education,  unre- 
strained by  law.  Murder  had  its  price,  from  a 
basket  of  figs  to  a  purse  of  gold  ;  and  the  mur- 
derer his  asylum,  from  the  high  altar  of  the 
church  to  the  cabinet  of  the  palace.  Assassina- 
tion was  a  deed  of  nightly  occurrence.  In  the 
midst  of  all  this  conuption  of  private  manners, 
the  inquisition  placed  its  sbirri  upon  the  intellect 
of  the  whole  population.  The  capital  punish- 
ments were  barbarous,  but  rarely  inflicted  ;  and 
if  the  people  sometimes  suffered  the  torture,  or 
submitted  to  the  estrapado,  they,  in  their  turn, 
occasionally  hung  up  a  cardinal,  or  derided  the 
vices  of  the  conclave  and  the  pontiff,  through  the 
medium  of  Pasquino.  In  1786  cardinal  Tor- 
tona  so  exasperated  the  people  by  his  cruelties, 
in  his  office  of  grand  inquisitor,  that  they  dragged 
him  from  his  carriage,  and  hung  him  on  a  gibbet 
in  the  street. 

As  there  was  no  internal  police,  the  public 
depended  on  the  works  of  the  Tarquins  and  the 


Caesars  for  their  few  accommodations :  and  the 
conduits  for  water,  miraculously  constructed 
during  the  darkest  ignorance  on  the  subject  oi 
hydraulics,  were  at  the  end  of  twenty  centuries, 
and  are  still,  the  principal  means  of  purification 
afforded  for  cleansing  a  city,  which  seems  to 
have  benefited  but  little  by  the  advantages  lent 
it  by  antiquity.  The  Cloacae  Maxima;  obtrude 
their  neglected  openings  in  vain ;  and  streets 
lined  with  palaces,  and  palaces  walled  with  mar- 
bles, have  even  now  few  sewers  to  carry  off  their 
accumulated  filth. 

Before  Italy  was  conquered,  Rome  entered 
into  the  revolutionary  projects  of  France.  Hugo 
de  Basseville,  a  man  of  letters  and  talent,  was 
chosen  by  the  national  convention  to  sound  the 
disposition  of  those  who  were  no  longer  the  po- 
pulation worked  on  by  the  eloquence  of  the 
monk  Arnoldo,  or  the  tribune  Rienzi.  Pius  VI., 
who  had  refused  to  acknowledge  the  French 
republic,  watched  with  jealous  vigilance  the 
motions  of  this  emissary ;  and  de  Basseville 
affected  to  be  occupied  with  the  interests  of  the 
French  academy  at  Rome.  At  length  an  impru- 
dence on  the  part  of  de  Basseville  called  forth 
the  public  opinion.  After  a  dinner,  given  by 
him  to  the  young  men  of  the  French  academy, 
de  Basseville  drove  with  his  wife  and  son  to  the 
Corso,  permitting  his  footmen  to  mount  the  tri- 
colored  cockade.  This  was  the  signal  of  tumult. 
The  street  was  accidentally  or  designedly  filled 
with  the  common  people  and  Trasteveriui !  A 
dreadful  riot  arose  :  de  Basseville  in  vain  sought 
to  save  himself  by  taking  shelter  at  his  banker's; 
he  was  pursued  by  the  mob,  and  murdered.  The 
first  stab  was  given  by  a  soldier  of  the  pontifical 
guard.  The  French  academy  was  next  attacked 
and  pillaged ;  the  houses  of  foreigners  were 
plundered ;  and,  during  the  tumult,  the  virgin, 
whose  name  was  the  mot  d'ordre,  was  seen  in 
several  of  the  churches  to  open  her  eyes  (lest  the 
people  should  open  theirs),  and  to  give  testimony 
of  the  part  she  took  in  this  crusade  to  her  honor. 
But  if,  in  1793,  an  emissary  of  the  convention 
was  assassinated  in  Rome,  in  1797  the  Gauls  of 
the  eighteenth  century  had  passed  the  Rubicon, 
conquered  Romagna,  the  duchy  of  Urbino,  and 
tin  Marsh  of  Ancona.  The  murder  of  general 
Duphot  at  Rome,  under  the  eyes  of  the  accredited 
ambassador  of  France,  urged  on  the  fate  of  the 
'  Niobe  of  Nations.*  The  military  occupation  of 
Rome  followed,  and  the  proud  capital  of  the 
world  became  a  French  province,  by  the  name 
of  the  department  of  the  Tiber ! 

Whatever  reform,  or  feature  of  change,  may 
be  found  in  the  circles  of  Roman  society,  be- 
longs almost  exclusively  to  the  Cittadini  of  the  best 
description,  including  persons  of  liberal  profes- 
sion, artists,  some  of  the  employes,  and  the  mer- 
canti  di  campagna,  or  gentlemen  farmers  or 
agriculturists,  whose  landed  property  has  grown 
out  of  the  sales  of  the  church  estates  during  the 
Revolution ;  and  who,  though  chiefly  resident  at 
Rome,  live  by  the  produce  of  their  farms.  If 
something  of  cleanliness  and  order  is  visible  in 
a  Roman  menage,  if  stairs  are  found  .lighted  at 
night,  and  rooms  look  not  dirty  by  day,  the 
innovation  on  ancient  manners  is  only  to  be 
found  in  the  dwellings  of  this  respectable  class. 


ROM  I 

It  is  in  this  class  also  that  what  little  social  in- 
uirse  is  kept  up  at  Rome  is  most  frequent. 
It  was  this  class  that  chiefly  participated  in  the 
lu'tiunts  of  the  recent  changes;  and  they  look 
back  to  the  past  with  a  regret  in  which  personal 
interests  and  self-love  may  have  no  inconsider- 
able influence.  While  the  Roman  shopkeeper 
(who  lolls  and  lounges  in  his  bulk  all  day,  and 
asks  a  price  a  capriccio  for  his  French  and  British 
wares),  seeks  his  recreation  at  the  pulicorda  or 
the  comic  opera ;  while  the  inferior  dealer  knows 
no  enjoyment  beyond  stuffing,  with  twenty 
others,  into  a  hired  calesh,  on  Sunday  noons,  and 
driving  through  the  hot  and  dirty  streets,  '  per 
fare  il  pizzacarolo,'  the  cittadini  have  more  re- 
fined sources  of  recreation ;  they  hold  a  musical 
academia  in  each  other's  houses,  or  assemble  to 
assist  at  a  '  tragedia  alia  tavola'  (the  reading 
round  a  table  some  favorite  tragedy  of  Alfieri  or 
Monti) ;  or,  if  the  higher  order,  they  attend  the 
conversazione  of  some  mezza  dama,  or  half  lady; 
a  class  of  provincial  nobility,  who  come  from 
the  cities  of  La  Marca,  or  the  legations,  to  pass 
the  winter  at  Rome,  and  who,  if  permitted  by 
courtesy  to  visit  a  signora  principessa,  are  never 
presumed  to  be  of  her  circle,  nor  admitted  to 
the  house  of  such  ambassadors  as  rightly  under- 
stand the  true  Roman  '  dignita  ! ' 

'  Apart  from  the  great  mass  of  the  population, 
separated  by  the  distinctions  of  ages,  foul  and 


2  ROM 

fatuous  as  an  Indian  fakeer,  and  sunk  in  th* 
dusky  niche  of  its  splendid  sty,  vegetates  the 
Roman  patrician,  or  prince  of  the  empire  !  The 
morning  is  lounged  away  by  the  heir  of  the 
Gregories  and  the  Clements  in  a  dusty  t;reat 
coat  (the  modern  Roman  toga),  rarely  changed  at 
any  season  of  the  day  for  a  better  garb.  An 
early,  but  not  a  princely  dinner,  follows ;  suc- 
ceeded by  the  siesta  and  the  Corso,  a  funereal 
drive  in  a  long  narrow  street,  relieved  in  sum- 
mer by  a  splashy  course  in  the  Piazza  Navona. 
The  prima  sera  is  passed  in  some  noble  palace, 
where,  at  the  end  of  a  long  suite  of  unlighted 
rooms,  sits  the  signora  principessa,  twinkling 
her  eyes  before  a  solitary  lamp,  or  pair  of  can- 
dles, whose  glimmer  is  scarce  visible  in  the 
gloomy  space,  which  a  fire  never  cheers ;  while 
the  caldanini,  whose  embers  have  expired  in  the 
atmosphere  of  her  petticoat,  is  presented  to  the 
most  distinguished  of  her  visitors;  and  such  a 
conversation  ensues  as  minds  without  activity  or 
resource  may  be  supposed  to  supply  :  a  sermon 
of  the  popular  preacher,  Padre  Pacifico,  if  it  be 
Lent ;  a  cecisbio  faithless  or  betrayed,  if  at  the 
carnival,  fill  up  the  time  till  the  opera  com- 
mences, or  until  the  only  two  genuine  Roman 
houses  open  to  society  in  Rome  light  up  their 
Rouge  et  noir  tables,  the  sole  object  for  which 
company  is  received  or  for  which  company  go.' 


ROMFORD,  a  market  town  of  Essex,  si- 
tuated on  the  road  from  London  to  Colchester ; 
seventeen  miles  south-west  of  Chelmsford,  and 
twelve  E.  N.  E.  of  London.  This  town  is  sup- 
posed by  Stukeley  to  occupy  the  site  of  the 
Roman  station  Durolitum,  and  he  conjectures 
that  its  present  name  is  a  contraction  for  Roman- 
ford,  in  which  opinion  he  is  supported  by  Mr. 
Lethieullier.  Lysons,  however,  derives  it  from 
the  Saxon  words  Rom  and  Ford  (the  Broad- 
Ford),  in  allusion  to  an  ancient  ford  over  a 
rivulet  which  flows  past  the  western  extremity 
of  the  town.  Romford  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
red  book  of  the  exchequer ;  where  it  is  said  that, 
in  1166,  Roger  Bigod,  duke  of  Norfolk,  held 
'  the  wood  of  Romford  by  serjeancy,  and  pay- 
ment of  5s.  a-year.'  It  is  next  noticed  in  1277, 
at  which  time  the  manor  formed  part  of  the  pos- 
sessions of  Adam  de  Cretingy.  It  afterwards 
passed  to  Thomas  de  Brotherton,  earl  of  Norfolk, 
from  whom  it  descended  by  marriage  to  the 
Mowbrays,  dukes  of  Norfolk ;  but  on  the  death 
of  John,  the  fourth  duke,  without  male  issue,  in 
1477,  it  became  vested  in  James  lord  Berkeley. 
The  town  of  Romford  consists  chiefly  of  one 
long  street  running  along  the  high  road.  Near 
the  middle  of  the  town  stands  the  market-house 
and  town-hall  which  were  repaired  in  1768,  at 
the  expense  of  the  crown.  The  church,  which  is 
a  chapel  of  Hornchurch,  is  an  ancient  structure, 
probably  erected  about  the  commencement  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  the  inhabitants  obtained 
a  bull  from  the  pope,  authorising  them  to  con- 
secrate a  cemetery  adjoining  the  town,  for  the 
burial  of  their  dead,  who  had  previously  been 
carried  to  Ilornchurch  burying-ground.  It  is 
dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  I '.d  ward  the 


Confessor,  and  consists  of  a  nave,  chancel,  and 
north  aisle,  with  a  tower  at  the  west  end.     In 
the  east  window  of  the  chancel  is  a  whole  length 
on  glass  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Not  far  from 
the  church  is  a  charity-school  for  forty  boys,  and 
another  for  twenty  girls,  founded   and  endowed 
in  1728;  and  at  a  short  distance  from  the  western 
end  of  the  town  are  barracks  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  a  regiment  of  cavalry,  erected  in  1795. 
Romford  is  governed  by  a  bailiff  and  wardens, 
who,  though  forming  no  corporation,  are  em- 
powered by  letters  patent  to  hold  a  weekly  court 
for  the  trial  of  all  causes,  whether  civil  or  cri- 
minal, high  treason  itself  not  excepted.     The 
privilege  of  holding  a  weekly  market  was  first 
granted  to  the  inhabitants  by  king  Henry  III. 
To  the  westward,  about  two  miles,  lies  Hainauh 
Forest,  in  which  is  a  very  remarkable  tree,  called 
Fairlop-oak,  which  Gilpin  informs  us,  in   his 
Remarks  on  Forest   Scenery,  is  traced  by  tra- 
dition '  half  way  up  the  Christian  era.'     It  is 
thirty-six  feet  in  girt  near  the  base  or  root,  and 
spreads   its    branches  over  a  circumference  of 
300  feet.     Round  the  Fairlop-oak,  on  the  first 
Friday  in  July,  is  held  an  annual  fair.     Markets 
on  Monday  for  hogs,  Tuesday  for  calves,  sheep, 
and    lambs,  and  Wednesday   for  corn,   cattle, 
poultry,  butchers'  meat,  &c. 

ROMILLY  (Sir  Samuel),  K.  C.,  an  eminent 
modern  chancery  advocate,  was  the  son  of  a  jewel- 
ler, of  French  extraction,  who  carried  on  business 
in  Frith  Street,  Soho.  Here  he  was  born,  March 
1st,  1757,  and,  receiving  a  private  education, 
was  placed  in  the  office  of  a  solicitor,  which  he 
quilted  to  study  for  the  bar,  to  which  he  was 
called  in  1783.  His  chief  practice  was  loner 
confined  to  draughts  in  equity,  but  he  gradually 


ROM 


33 


RON 


rose  to  distinction  in  court,  and  agreeing  in  his 
general  politics  with  the  whigs,  during  the  ad- 
ministration of  Mr.  Fox  and  lord  Grenville,  he 
was  appointed  solicitor-general.  In  parliament 
he  was  highly  distinguished  by  his  talent  in  de- 
bate, and  particularly  by  the  eloquence  with 
which  he  pleaded  for  a  revision  of  the  criminal 
code,  with  a  view  to  the  limitation  of  capital 
punishment.  On  this  subject  he  also  composed 
a  very  able  pamphlet.  Sir  Samuel  also  pub- 
lished a  remonstrance  against  the  creation  of 
the  office  of  vice-chancellor ;  and  was  in  the 
height  of  his  popularity,  when  a  nervous  disorder, 
produced  by  grief  at  the  death  of  his  lady,  seems 
to  have  deprived  him  of  reason,  and  in  a  fit  of 
temporary  frenzy  he  terminated  his  existence, 
November  2d,  1818. 

ROMNEY,  OLD,  a  Post  town  of  Kent, 
once  a  place  of  note,  and  a  sea-port  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Rother,  but  the  river  having  changed  its 
course  to  Rye,  and  the  sea  having  receded,  it 
has  long  since  fallen  to  decay.  Here  is  an  old 
church  in  the  massive  circular  style. 

ROMNEY,  NEW,  a  borough  and  market  town 
of  Kent,  seven  miles  south-west  from  Hithe,  and 
seventy-one  and  a  half  south-east  from  London. 
This  place,  though  not  so  ancient  as  Old  Rom- 
ney,  is  recorded  to  have  been  a  flourishing  town 
at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  having  had  five  pa- 
rishes. The  town  consists  chiefly  of  one  broad, 
well-paved  street,  intersected  by  another  smaller 
one.  St.  Nicholas'  church  is  an  ancient  struc- 
ture, consisting  of  three  aisles  and  three  chancels, 
with  a  square  tower  at  the  western  extremity. 
The  charitable  institutions  of  the  town  are 
an  hospital  and  a  school-house.  The  market- 
house  is  a  modern  building,  standing  in  the  main 
street.  The  chief  trade  of  this  place  is  grazing 
cattle  on  Romney  Marsh.  This  marsh  is  a  rich 
tract  of  land  of  about  50,000  acres,  defended 
from  the  encroachments  of  the  sea,  by  an  em- 
bankment three  miles  in  length,  twenty  feet  high, 
twenty  feet  broad  at  the  top,  and  nearly  300  at  the 
bottom.  Towards  the  sea  it  is  defended  by  piles 
and  stakes,  at  an  expense  of  about  £4000  per 
annum,  which  is  raised  by  an  assessment  on  the 
proprietors  of  the  marsh.  This  is  called  Dym- 
church  Wall,  along  which  theie  is  a  good  road 
for  carriages.  The  corporation  consists  of  a 
mayor,  twelve  jurats,  chamberlain,  recorder, 
town-clerk,  &c.,  and  is  one  of  the  cinque-ports, 
though  its  harbour  has  long  been  destroyed;  the 
hall,  where  the  courts  of  the  Cinque-Ports  are 
held,  is  near  the  church.  It  sent  two  members 
to  parliament,  the  right  of  election  being  in  the 
mayor,  but  was  enfranchised  by  the  Reform  bill 
in  1832  Market-day,  Thursday. 

ROMNEY  (George),  a  modern  painter,  was  born 
in  Lancashire,  in  1734.  After  an  attempt  of 
his  father  to  settle  him  in  trade,  he  was  placed 
with  an  artist,  and  in  1762  came  to  London.  In 
1765  he  gained  a  prize  from  the  Society  for  the 
Encouragement  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  for  a  pic- 
ture of  the  Death  of  King  Kdmund,  and  in 
1773  went  to  Italy  for  two  years.  On  his  return 
he  enjoyed  the  most  uninterrupted  success  in  his 
profession,  painting  in  one  year  portraits  to  the 
aniount  of  ^£3635.  He  also  gave  illustrations 
•a*'  tioydeli's  Shakspeare.  Romnev  died  in  1802. 
VOL.  XIX. 


He  is  not  always  happy  in  blending  his  shades 
particularly  in  his  back-grounds,  but  his  style 
of  coloring  is  broad  and  simple,  and  in  his  flesh 
he  was  very  successful. 

ROMP,  n.  s.  FT.  ramper.  To  gambol ;  a 
rude,  boisterous,  playful  girl :  to  play  rudely  or 
boisterously. 

She  was  in  the  due  mean  between  one  of  your  af- 
fected courtesy  ing  pieces  of  formality,  and  your 
romps,  that  have  no  regard  to  the  common  rules  of 
civility.  Arbuthnot. 

In  the  kitchen,  as  in  your  proper  element,  you  can 
laugh,  squall,  and  romp  in  full  security.  *  Swift. 

Romp  loving  miss 
Is  hauled  about  in  gallantry  robust.  Thomson. 

Men  presume  on  the  liberties  taken  in  romping. 

Clarissa. 

ROMSEY,  or  RUMSEY,  a  market  town  and 
parish  of  Hampshire,  eight  miles  N.N.W.  of 
Southampton,  and  seventy-four  west  by  south  of 
London.  It  is  situated  on  the  little  river  Test, 
which  falls  into  Southampton  Bay,  and  was  for- 
merly noted  for  its  monastery  of  Benedictines, 
founded  by  king  Edgar,  and  of  which  the  daugh- 
ter of  king  Stephen  was  an  abbess.  The  church, 
formerly  belonging  to  the  monastery,  is  a  noble 
edifice,  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  arched 
with  stone  in  the  Saxon  style ;  it  contains  several 
curious  monuments.  Besides  the  church,  there 
is  a  meeting  house  for  Presbyterians  ;  an  alms- 
house  for  six  widows ;  a  charity-school,  and  a 
free-school.  There  is  also  a  town-hall,  and  an 
audit-house,  below  which  are  accommodations 
for  the  market  people.  The  corporation  consists 
of  a  mayor,  recorder,  six  aldermen,  and  twelve 
capital  burgesses.  The  principal  trade  of  the 
town  is  in  shalloons,  sacking,  and  paper,  and  it 
has  been  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  ale. 
The  market,  on  Satu  rday,  is  a  good  com  market. 

ROMULUS,  the  son  of  Rhea  Silvia,  the 
founder  and  first  king  of  Rome.  See  ROME. 
On  a  medal  of  Antoninus  Pius,  he  appears  like 
Mars  Gradivus,  with  a  spear  in  one  hand,  and  a 
trophy  on  the  opposite  shoulder.  It  is  very  pro- 
bable that  several  of  the  supposed  figures  of 
Mars,  with  a  trophy  so  placed,  belong  rather  to 
Romulus,  who  was  the  inventor  of  trophies 
among  the  Romans. 

The  whole  story  of  the  birth  of  this  hero  is 
represented  in  a  relievo  at  the  villa  Mellini  in 
Rome.  It  is  divided  into  four  compartments. 
In  the  first  Mars  is  going  to  Rhea  as  she  sleeps 
by  the  Tiber.  In  the  second  she  is  sitting  with 
her  twins  in  her  lap,  whilst  Amulius  seems  to 
be  upbraiding  her.  In  the  third  the  two  infants, 
Romulus  and  Remus,  are  exposed  on  the  banks 
of  the  river ;  and  the  fourth  represents  them  as 
cherished  by  the  wolf,  whilst  Faustulus  stands 
surprised  at  their  strange  situation.  This  work 
is  but  indifferent ;  however,  the  particulars  of  it 
are  to  be  met  with  in  other  works  of  better  ages. 
The  descent  of  Mars  to  Rhea  is  not  uncommon ; 
and  the  circumstance  of  Romulus  and  Remus 
being  suckled  by  the  wolf  is  very  common  on 
medals,  gems,  and  statues. 

RONALDSEY,  NORTH,  the  most  northern 
isl.md  of  Orkney,  two  miles  long,  and  one 
1'ioiid  ;  six  miles  north  of  Sanely.  The  smfice 
is  run,  the  soil  sand,  and  clay.  The  coasts  af- 

l) 


RON 


34 


ROO 


ford  sea  waic,  from  wliicli  many  tons  of  kelp  are 
made  annually. 

RONALDSEY,  SOUTH,  tiie  most  southern  island 
of  Orkney,  about  six  miles  long,  and  three 
broad;  bounded  by  the  German  Ocean  on  the 
east,  by  the  Pentland  Frith  on  the  south  and 
west,  and  by  the  Ferry  of  Water  Sound,  which 
separates  it  from  Burray,on  the  north.  The  cli- 
mate is  excellent ;  the  surface  is  pnetty  level ;  the 
soil  various,  but  fertile.  It  has  several  good 
harbours,  which  will  admit  ships  of  600  tons,  as 
Widevvall  Bay  on  the  west,  and  St.  Margaret's 
Hope  on  the  north.  It  is  much  frequented  by 
lobster  smacks.  This  island  has  three  head- 
lands ;  viz.  Barsick,  Halero,  and  Stoic's  Head. 

RONCESVALLES,  a  valley  in  the  province  ot 
Navarre,  Spain,  between  Fampeluna  and  St.  Jean 
Pied  du  Port,  surrounded  by  mountains,  one  of 
which,  the  Ronceval,  is  among  the  highest  of  the 
Pyrenees.  This  valley  is  celebrated  for  the  defeat 
of  Charlemagne  by  Loup,  duke  of  Gasoony, 
assisted  by  the  Saracens.  A  pillar  erected  on 
the  spot,  in  commemoration  of  the  victory,  was 
destroyed  by  the  French  in  1794.  The  small 
town  of  this  name  is  fourteen  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
Pampeluna. 

RONDA,  a  large  but  uninteresting  town  of 
Granada,  Spain,  except  in  respect  to  its  situa- 
tion. This  is  most  romantic,  arid  its  natural 
curiosities  are  not  few.  It  stands  on  the  summit 
of  a  rocky  mountain,  divided  by  a  deep  ravine 
or  fissure,  which  winds  around  the  town,  the 
river  rushing  along  its  bottom.  This  ravine  is 
full  of  abrupt  cliffs  and  crags,  lightly  covered 
with  earth :  over  the  fissure  there  are  two  bridges, 
each  of  a  single  arch :  one  is  at  the  height  of  1 20 
feet  above  the  water,  the  other  at  that  of  280 
feet!  This  arch  is  110  feet  in  span,  and  sup- 
ported by  pillars  of  masonry  from  the  bottom  of 
the  river.  Seen  from  this  elevation,  the  Gua- 
diaro  is  dwindled  to  a  brook.  Hardly  any  scene 
can  he  more  striking  than  the  view  from  below 
this  bridge,  of  part  of  the  houses  and  spires  of 
the  town,  which  seem  to  overhang  the  spectator. 
The  public  walk  is  paved  with  marble,  and  bor- 
dered with  vine  branches  in  trellises,  which  in 
hot  weather  afford  an  agreeable  shade.  Leather, 
and  silk  stuffs  are  manufactured  here,  and  the 
environs  are  well  cultivated,  and  fertile  in  corn, 
wine,  and  oil.  Inhabitants  20,000.  The  plain 
abounds  in  cattle,  and  the  hills  in  game.  The 
Sierra  de  Honda,  a  chain  of  mountains  which 
takes  its  name  from  this  town,  is  of  considerable 
height,  and  extends  all  the  way  to  Gibraltar. 
About  a  league  south-east  of  the  town  is  the 
Cresta  de  Gallo,  so  called  from  the  supposed 
resemblance  to  a  cock's  comb.  It  is  frequently 
the  first  land  discerned  at  sea,  on  approaching 
Cadiz,  and  contains  mines  of  iron,  tin,  and  lead. 

RONDELETIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
raonogynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants  ; 
COR.  funnel-shaped  :  CAPS,  bilocular,  inferior, 
and  polyspermous,  roundish,  and  crowned.  Spe- 
cies eleven,  natives  of  the  West  Indies. 

RONDE,  RHONDE  ISLAND,  or  REDONDA,  one 
of  the  Grenadines,  or  dependencies  of  the 
island  of  Grenada,  in  the  West  Indies ;  situate 
about  mid-way  between  Cariacou  or  Cariovacou, 
and  the  north  end  of  Grenada,  about  six  miles 


north  of  Grenada,  .and  eleven  south-west  of 
t'uriovacou.  It  contains  about  500  acres  of  land 
applied  to  pasturage,  and  the  cultivation  of  cot- 
ton. Lon?.  61°  39'  W.,  lat.  12°  19'  N. 

RON'DLE,  n.  s.  From  round.  A  round  mass. 

RONDO  (Italian),  or  Rondeau  (French  )  A 
musical  composition  consisting  of  three  stiains  ; 
the  first  closing  in  the  original  key,  while  each 
of  the  others  gradually  conducts  the  ear  in  a 
natural  easy  manner  back  to  the  first  strain. 
The  term  Rondo,  or  going  round,  implies  that 
the  melody  goes  round  after  the  second  and  third 
strain  to  the  first,  with  which  it  concludes. 

RON'ION,  n.  s.  Fr.  rognon,  the  loins.  A 
fat  bulky  woman. 

Give  me,  quoth  I ; 
Aroint  thee,  witch,  the  rump  fed  ronyon  cries. 

Shakspeare. 

RONSARD  (Peter)  de,  a  French  poet,  born 
in  Vendomois,  in  1524.  He  was  descended  of 
a  noble  family,  and  was  educated  in  Paris  in 
the  college  of  Navarre.  He  then  became  page 
to  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  afterwards  to  king 
James  V.  Ronsard  continued  in  Scotland  with 
king  James  upwards  of  two  years,  and  afterwards 
went  to  France,  where  he  was  employed  by  the 
duke  of  Orleans  in  several  negociations.  He 
accompanied  Lazarus  de  Baif  to  the  diet  of 
Spires,  and  studied  the  Greek  language  with  his 
son  under  Dorat.  He  cultivated  poetry  with 
such  success  that  he  acquired  the  appellation  of 
the  Prince  of  the  Poets  of  his  time.  Henry  II., 
Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  III.  loaded 
him  with  favors.  Having  gained  the  first  prize 
of  the  Jeux  Floraux,  the  city  of  Thoulouse 
caused  a  Minerva  of  massy  silver  of  consider- 
able value  to  be  made  and  sent  to  him.  This 
present  was  accompanied  with  a  decree  declar- 
ing him  The  French  Poet,  by  way  of  distinction. 
Ronsard  afterwards  made  a  present  of  his  Mi- 
nerva to  Henry  II.  Mary  queen  of  Scots  gave 
him  a  very  rich  set  of  table  plate.  He  wrote 
hymns,  odes,  a  poem  called  the  Franciad,  ec- 
logues, epigrams,  sonnets,  &c.  Ronsard,  though 
it  is  doubtful  whether  he  ever  was  in  orders, 
held  several  benefices  in  commendam  ;  and  he 
died  at  one  of  these,  Saint-Cosme-les-Tours,  in 
LOSS,  being  then  sixty-one  years  of  age.  Ron- 
sard's  poems  appeared  in  Paris  in  1567,  in  six 
vols.,  4to.,  and  in  1604,  in  ten  vols,,  12mo. 

RONT,  or  {      Goth,  rian    nant.     An  animal 

RUNT,  n.s.  $  stinted  in  the  growth. 

My  ragged  rants  all  shiver  and  shake, 
As  done  high  towers  in  an  earthquake  ; 
They  wont  in  the  wind,  wag  their  wriggle  tails, 
Peark  as  a  peacock,  but  nought  it  avails. 

Spenser. 

ROOD,  n.  s.  From  rod.  the  fourth  part  of 
an  acre  in  square  measure. 

I've  often  wished  that  I  had  clear, 
For  life,  six  hundred  pounds  a-year, 
A  terras-walk,  and  half  a  rood 
Of   land,  set  out  to  plant  a  wood.  Swift. 

No  stately  larch-tree  there  expands  a  shade 
O'er  half  a  rood  of  Lariss6an  glade.  Harte. 

ROOD,  n.  s.     Sax.   jio&e;    Goth.    roda.     The 
cross;  sometimes  an  image  of  a  saint. 
By  the  holy  rood, 

1  do  not  like  these  several  councils. 


ROOFS. 


35 


ROOF,  ;i.  s.&  v.  a.  >      Sax.  hjiop ;  Goth.  reef. 

ROOI'Y,  adj.  \  In  the  plural  Sidney  has 

rooves :  now  obsolete.     The  cover  of  a  house ; 
any  covering :  to  cover  with  a  roof. 

Her  shoulders  be  like  two  white  doves, 

Perching  within  square  royal  rooves.  Sidney. 

From  the  magnanimity  of  the  Jews,  in  causes  of 
most  extreme  hazard,  those  strange  and  unwonted 
resolutions  have  grown,  which,  for  all  circumstances, 
no  people  under  the  roof  of  heaven  did  ever  match. 

Hooker. 

Return  to  her,  and  fifty  men  dismissed ! 
No,  rather  I  abjure  all  roof*,  and  chuse 
To  wage  against  the  enmity  o'  the'  air.  Shakspeare. 

Swearing  till  my  very  roc/"  was  dry 
With  oaths  of  love.  Id.  Merchant  of  Venice. 

Here  had  we  now  our  country's  honour  roofed, 
Were  the  graced  person  of  our  Banquo  present. 

Shakspeare. 

Some  fishes  have  rows  of  teeth  in  the  roofs  of  their 
mouths;  as  pike,  salmons,  and  trouts. 

Bacon's  Natural  History.    . 
I'll  tell  all  strictly  true, 

If  time,  and  foode,  and  wine  enough  accrue 

Within  your  roofe  to  us ;  that  freely  we 

May  sit  and  banquet.  Chapman. 

Large  foundations  may  be  safely  laid ; 
Or  houses  roofed,  if  friendly  planets  aid.        Creech. 

He  entered  soon  the  shade 

High  rooft,  and  walks  beneath,  and  alleys  brown. 

Milton. 

In  thy  fane,  the  dusty  spoils  among, 
High  on  the  burnished  root',  thy  banner  shall  be  hung. 

Dry  den. 
Snakes. 

Whether  to  roo/y  houses  they  repair, 
Or  sun  themselves  abroad  in  open  air, 
In  all  abodes  of  pestilential  kind 
To  sheep.  Id.  Georgickt. 

I  have  not  seen  the  remains  of  any  Roman  build- 
ings that  have  not  been  roofed  with  vaults  or  arches. 

Addison. 

A  ROOF  is  the  covering  of  a  building,  by  which 
its  inhabitants  or  contents  are  protected  from  the 
injuries  of  the  weather.  It  is  the  essential  part 
of  a  house,  and  is  often  used  to  express  the 
whole.  To  come  under  a  person's  roof  is  to 
enjoy  his  protection  and  society,  to  dwell  with 
him.  Tectum  was  used  in  the  same  sense  by 
the  Romans.  To  be  within  our  walls  rather  ex- 
presses the  being  in  our  possession :  a  roof 
therefore  is  not  only  an  essential  part  of  a 
house,  but  it  even  seems  to  be  its  characteristic 
feature.  See  ARCHITECTURE  &  CARPENTRY. 

The  Greeks,  who  have  perhaps  excelled  all 
nations  in  taste,  and  who  have  given  the  most 
perfect  model  of  architectonic  ordonnance  with- 
in a  certain  limit,  never  erected  a  building  which 
did  not  exhibit  this  part  in  the  most  distinct 
manner ;  and  though  they  borrowed  much  of 
their  model  from  the  orientals,  as  is  evident  to 
any  who  compares  their  architecture  with  the 
ruins  of  Persepolis,  and  of  the  tombs  in  the 
mountains  of  Sciraz,  they  added  that  form  of 
roof  which  their  own  climate  taught  them  was 
necessary  for  sheltering  them  from  the  rains. 
The  roofs  in  Persia  and  Arabia  are  flat,  but  tbose 
of  Greece  are  without  exception  sloping.  It 
seems  therefore  a  gross  violation  of  the  true 
principles  of  taste  in  architecture  (at  least  in 
the  regions  of  Europe),  to  take  away  or  to  hide 
the  roof  of  a  house ;  and  it  must  be  ascribed 


to  that  rage  for  novelty  which  is  so  powerful  in 
the  minds  of  the  rich.  Our  ancestors  seemed  to 
be  of  a  very  different  opinion,  and  turned  their 
attention  to  the  ornamenting  of  their  roofs  as 
much  as  any  other  part  of  a  building.  T'iey 
showed  them  in  the  most  conspicuous  manner, 
running  them  up  to  a  great  height,  broke  them 
into  a  thousand  fanciful  shapes,  and  stuck  them 
full  of  highly  dressed  windows.  We  laugh  at 
this,  and  call  it  Gothic  and  clumsy ;  and  our 
great  architects,  not  to  offend  any  more  in  this 
way,  conceal  the  roof  altogether  by  parapets, 
balustrades,  and  other  contrivances.  Our 
forefathers  certainly  did  offend  against  the 
maxims  of  true  taste,  when  they  enriched  a  part 
of  a  house  with  marks  of  elegant  habitation, 
which  every  spectator  must  know  to  be  a  cum- 
bersome garret :  but  their  successors  no  less 
ofiVnd,  who  take  off  the  cover  of  the  house  alto- 
gether, ana  make  it  impossible  to  know  whether 
it  is  not  a  mere  skreen  or  colonnade.  The 
architect  is  anxious  to  present  a  fine  object, 
and  a  very  simple  outline  discusses  all  his  con- 
cerns with  the  roof.  He  leaves  it  to  the  car- 
penter, whom  he  frequently  puzzles  (by  his 
arrangements)  with  coverings  almost  impossible 
to  execute.  Indeed  it  is  seldom  that  the  idea  of 
i  roof  is  admitted  by  him  into  his  great  compo- 
sitions. A  pediment  is  often  stuck  up  in  the 
middle  of  a  grand  front,  in  a  situation  where  a 
roof  cannot  perform  its  office ;  for  the  rain  which 
is  supposed  to  flow  down  its  sides  must  be  re- 
ceived on  the  top  of  the  level  buildings  which 
flank  it.  This  is  a  manifest  incongruity.  The 
tops  of  dressed  windows,  trifling  porches,  and 
sometimes  a  projecting  portico,  are  the  only 
situations  in  which  we  see  the  figure  of  a  roof 
correspond  with  its  office.  Having  thus  lost 
sight  of  the  principle,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
the  draughtsman  (for  he  should  not  be  called 
architect)  runs  into  every  whim  :  and  we  see 
pediment  within  pediment,  a  round  pediment,  a 
hollow  pediment,  and,  the  greatest  of  all  absurdi- 
ties, a  broken  pediment,  which  is  as  ridiculous 
as  a  hat  without  its  crown.  But,  when  one 
builds  a  house,  ornament  alone  will  not  do.  Wf 
must  have  a  cover ;  and  the  enormous  expense 
and  other  inconveniences  which  attend  the  con- 
cealment of  this  cover  by  parapets,  balustrades, 
and  screens,  have  obliged  architects  to  consider 
the  pent  roof  as  proper,  and  to  regulate  its  form. 
A  high  pitched  roof  will  undoubtedly  shoot  off 
the  rains  and  snows  better  than  one  of  a  lower 
pitch.  The  wind  will  not  so  easily  blow  the 
dropping  rain  in  between  the  slates,  nor  will  it 
have  so  much  power  to  strip  them  off.  It  will 
exert  a  smaller  thrust  on  the  walls,  both  because 
its  strain  is  less  horizontal,  and  because  it  will 
admit  of  lighter  covering.  But  it  is  more  ex- 
pensive, because  there  is  more  of  it.  It  requires 
a  greater  size  of  timber  to  make  it  equally  strong, 
and  it  exposes  a  greater  surface  to  the  wind. 
There  have  been  great  changes  in  the  pitch 
of  roofs  :  our  forefathers  made  them  very  high, 
and  we  make  them  very  low.  It  does  not,  however, 
appear  that  this  change  has  been  altogether 
the  effect  of  principle.  In  the  simple  un- 
adorned habitations  of  private  persons,  every 
thing  comes  to  be  adjusted  by  an  expen- 

D  2 


ROOFS. 


encc  of  Inconveniences  which  have  resulted  from 
too  low  pitched  roofs ;  and  their  pitch  will 
always  be  nearly  such  as  suits  the  climate  and 
covering.  Our  architects,  however,  go  to  work 
on  different  principles.  Their  professed  aim  is 
to  make  a  beautiful  object.  The  sources  of  the 
pleasures  arising  from  what  we  call  taste  are  so 
various,  so  complicated,  and  so  whimsical,  that 
it  is  almost  in  vain  to  look  for  principle  in  the 
rules  adopted  by  our  professed  architects.  Much 
of  their  practice  results  from  a  pedantic  venera- 
tion for  the  beautiful  productions  of  Grecian 
architecture.  Such  architects  as  have  written  on 
the  principles  of  the  art  in  respect  of  proportions, 
or  what  they  call  the  ordonnance,  are  much 
puzzled  to  make  a  chain  of  reasoning ;  and  the 
most  that  they  have  made  of  the  Greek  architec- 
ture is,  that  it  exhibits  a  nice  adjustment  of 
strength  and  strain.  But,  when  we  consider  the 
extent  of  this  adjustment,  we  find  that  it  is 
wonderfully  limited.  The  whole  of  it  consists 
of  a  basement,  a  column,  and  an  entablature ; 
the  entablature  exhibits  .something  of  a  connexion 
with  the  frame-work  and  roof  of  a  wooden 
building;  and  it  originated  from  this  in  the 
hands  of  the  orientals,  from  whom  the  Greeks 
borrowed  their  forms  and  their  combinations. 
We  could  easily  show  in  the  ruins  of  Persepolis, 
and  among  the  tombs  in  the  mountains  (which 
were  Ion::  prior  to  the  Greek  architecture),  the 
fluted  column,  the  base,  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
capital,  and  the  Doric  arrangement  of  lintels, 
beams,  and  rafters,  all  derived  from  unquestion- 
able principle.  The  only  addition  made  by  tlie 
Greeks  was  the  pent  roof;  and  the  changes  made 
by  them  in  the  subordinate  forms  of  things  are 
such  as  might  be  expected  from  the  exquisite 
judgment  of  beauty.  But  the  whole  of  this  is 
very  limited  ;  and  the  Greeks,  after  making  the 
roof  a  chief  feature  of  a  house,  went  no  further, 
and  contented  themselves  with  giving  it  a  slope 
suited  to  their  climate.  This  we  have  followed, 
because  in  the  milder  parts  of  Europe  we  have 
no  cogent  reason  for  deviating  from  it ;  and  if 
any  architect  should  deviate  greatly,  in  a  build- 
ing where  the  outline  is  exhibited  as  beautiful, 
we  should  be  disgusted  :  but  the  disgust,  though 
felt  by  almost  every  spectator,  has  its  origin  in 
nothing  but  habit.  In  the  professed  architect  or 
man  of  education  the  disgust  arises  from  pedantry ; 
for  there  is  not  such  a  close  connexion  between 
the  form  and  uses  of  a  roof  as  shall  give  precise 
determinations ;  and  the  mere  form  is  a  matter 
of  indifference.  We  should  not  therefore  repro- 
bate the  high-pitched  roofs  of  our  ancestors,  par- 
ticularly on  the  continent.  It  is  there  where  we 
see  them  in  all  the  extremity  of  the  fashion,  and 
the  taste  is  by  no  means  exploded  as  it  is  with  us. 
A  baronial  castle  in  Germany  and  France  is  sel- 
dom rebuilt  in  the  pure  Greek  style,  or  even  like 
the  modern  houses  in  Britain ;  the  high  pitched 
roofs  are  retained.  We  should  not  call  them 
Gothic,  and  ugly  because  Gothic,  till  we  show 
iheir  principle  to  be  false  or  tasteless.  It  will  be 
found  quite  the  reverse ;  and  that,  though  we  can- 
not bring  ourselves  to  think  them  beautiful,  we 
ought  to  think  them  so.  The  construction  of  the 
Greek  architecture  is  a  transference  of  the  prac- 
tices that  are  rtecessary  in  a  wooden  building  to  a 


building  of  stone.  To  this  the  Greeks  have 
adhered,  in  spite  of  innumerable  difficulties. 
Their  marble  quarries,  however,  put  it  in  their 
power  to  retain  the  proportions  which  habit  had 
rendered  agreeable.  But  it  is  next  to  impossible 
to  adhere  to  these  proportions  with  free-stone  or 
brick,  when  the  order  is  of  magnificent  dimen- 
sions. Sir  Christopher  Wren  saw  this  ;  for  his 
mechanical  genius  was  equal  to  his  taste.  He 
composed  the  front  of  St.  Paul's  church  in  Lon- 
don of  two  orders,  and  he  coupled  his  columns  ; 
and  still  the  lintels  which  form  the  architrave 
are  of  such  length  that  they  could  carry  no  ad- 
ditional weight,  and  he  was  obliged  to  truss  them 
behind.  Had  he  made  but  one  order,  the  archi- 
trave could  not  have  carried  its  own  weight.  It 
is  impossible  to  execute  a  Doric  entablature  of 
this  size  in  brick.  It  is  attempted  in  a  very  no- 
ble front,  the  Academy  of  Arts  in  St.  Petersburg!). 
But  the  architect  was  obliged  to  make  the  mu- 
tules  and  other  projecting  members  of  the  cor- 
niche  of  granite,  and  many  of  them  broke  down 
by  their  own  weight.  Here  is  surely  an  error 
in  principle.  Since  stone  is  the  chief  material  of 
our  buildings,  ought  not  the  members  of  orna- 
mented architecture  to  be  refinements  on  the 
essential  and  unaffected  parts  of  a  simple  stone 
building  ?  There  is  almost  as  much  propriety 
in  the  architecture  of  India,  where  a  dome  is 
made  in  imitation  of  a  lily  or  of  some  other 
flower  inverted,  as  in  the  Greek  imitation  of  a 
wooden  building.  The  principles  of  masonry, 
and  not  of  carpentry,  should  be  seen  in  our 
architecture,  if  we  would  have  it  according  to 
the  rules  of  just  taste.  Now  this  is  the  charac- 
teristic feature  of  what  is  called  the  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. In  this  no  dependence  is  had  on  the 
transverse  strength  of  stone.  No  lintels  are  to 
be  seen ;  no  extravagant  projections.  Every 
stone  is  pressed  to  its  neighbours,  and  none  is 
exposed  to  a  trassverse  strain.  The  Greeks  were 
enabled  to  execute  their  colossal  buildings  only 
by  using  immense  blocks  of  the  hardest  materials. 
The  Norraan  mason  could  raise  a  building  to 
the  skies  without  using  a  stone  which  a  laborer 
could  not  carry  to  the  top  on  his  back.  The 
architects  studied  the  principles  of  equilibrium  ; 
and,  having  attained  a  wonderful  knowledge  of  it, 
they  indulged  themselves  in  exhibiting  remark- 
able instances.  \Ve  call  this  false  taste,  and 
say  that  the  appearance  of  insecurity  is  the 
greatest  fault.  But  this  is  owing  to  our  habits; 
our  thoughts  may  be  said  to  run  in  a  wooden 
train,  and  certain  simple  maxims  of  carpentry 
are  familiar  to  our  imagination ;  and  in  the 
careful  adherence  to  these  consists  the  beauty 
and  symmetry  of  the  Greek  architecture.  Had 
we  been  as  much  habituated  to  the  equilibrium 
of  pressure,  this  apparent  insecurity  would  not 
have  met  our  eye  :  we  should  have  observed  the 
strength,  and  we  should  have  relished  the  inge- 
nuity. The  Gothic  architecture  is  perhaps  en- 
titled to  the  name  of  rational  architecture,  and  its 
beauty  is  founded  on  the  characteristic  distinc- 
tion of  our  species.  It  deserves  cultivation  ;  not 
the  pitiful,  servile,  and  unskilled  copying  of  the 
monuments;  this  will  produce  incongruities  and 
absurdities  equal  to  any  that  have  crept  into  the 
Greek  architecture;  but  let  us  examine  with 


ROOFS. 


37 


attention  the  nice  disposition  of  the  groins  and 
spandrels ;  let  us  study  the  tracery  and  knots, 
not  as  ornaments,  but  as  useful  members;  let  us 
observe   how  they   have   made  their  walls  like 
honey-combs,  and  admire  their  ingenuity  as  we 
pretend  to  admire  the  instinct   infused  by  the 
Great  Architect  into  the  bee.     All  this  cannot  be 
understood   without   mechanical   knowledge ;  a 
thing  which  few  of  our  professional  architects 
have  any  share  of.     Thus   would   architectonic 
taste  be  a  mark  of  skill ;  and  the  person  who 
presents  the  design  of  a  building  would  know  how 
to  execute  it  without  committing  it  entirely  to 
the  mason  and  carpenter.     The  same  principles 
of  mutual  pressure  and  equilibrium  have  a  place 
in  roofs  and  many  wooden  edifices ;  and  if  they 
had  been  as  much  studied  as  the  Normans  and 
Saracens  seem   to  have  studied   such  of  them 
as  were  applicable  to  their  purposes,  we  might 
have  produced  wooden  buildings  as  far  superior 
to  what  we  are  familiarly  acquainted  with,  as  the 
bold  and  wonderful  churches  still  remaining  in 
Europe  are  still  superior  to  the  timid  productions 
of  our  stone  architecture.     The  centres  used  in 
building  the  bridge  of  Orleans   and  the   corn- 
market  of  Paris  are  instances  of  what  may  be 
done  in  this  way.     The  last-mentioned  is  a  dome 
of  200  feet  diameter,   built  of  fir  planks;  and 
there  is  not  a  piece  of  timber  in  it  more  than  nine 
feet  long,  a  foot  broad,   and  three  inches  thick. 
The    Norman  architects  frequently  roofed  with 
stone.     Their  wooden  roofs  were  in  general  very 
simple,  and  their  professed  aim  was  to  dispense 
witli  them  altogether.  Fond  of  their  own  science, 
they  copied  nothing  from  a  wooden  building,  and 
ran  into  a  similar  fault  with  the  ancient  Greeks. 
The  parts  of  their  buildings  which  were  necessa- 
rily of  timber,  were  made  to  imitate  stone-build- 
ings ;  and  Gothic  ornament  consists  in  cramming 
every  thing  full  of  arches  and  spandrels.    Nothing 
else  is  to  be  seen  in  their  timber  works,  nay  even 
in  their  sculpture.     Look  at  any  of  the  maces  or 
sceptres  still  to  be  found  about  the  old  cathedrals ; 
they  are  all  silver  steeples.     But  there  appears 
to  have  been  a  rivalship  in  old  times  between 
the  masons  and   the  carpenters.     Many  of  the 
baronial  halls  are  of  prodigious  width,  and  are 
roofed  with  timber :  and  the  carpenters  appeared 
to  have  borrowed  much   knowledge   from   the 
masons  of  those  times,  and  their  wide  roofs  are 
frequently    constructed   with    great    ingenuity. 
Their  aim,  like  the  masons,  was  to  throw  a  roof 
over  a  very  wide  builaing  without  employing 
great  logs  of  timber.     We  have  seen  roofs  sixty 
feet  wide  without  having  a  piece  of  timber  in 
them  above  ten  feet  long  and  four  inches  square. 
They  are  very  numerous  on  the  continent.  Indeed 
Britain  retains  few  monuments  of  private  mag- 
nificence.    Aristocratic  state  never  was  so  great 
with   us  ;  and  the  rancor  of  our  civil  wars  gave 
most  of  the  performances  of  the  carpenter  to  the 
flames.     Westminster  Hall  exhibits  a  specimen 
of  the  false  taste  of  the  Norman  roofs.     It  con- 
tains the  essential  parts   indeed,  very  properly 
disposed  ;  but  they  are  hidden,  or  intentionally 
covered,  with  n'hat  is  conceived  to  be  ornamen- 
tal;   and   this  is  an   imitation  of  stone  arches, 
crammed  in  bet  veen  Siender  pillars,  which  hang 
down    from    the    principal    frames,    trusses,   or 


rafters.     In  a  pure  Norman  roof,  such  as  Tarna- 
way  Hall,  the  essential   parts  are  exhibited  as 
things  understood,  and  therefore  relished.    They 
are  refined  and  ornamented ;  and  it  is  here  that 
the  inferior  kind  of  taste,  or  the  want  of  it,  may 
appear.     We   do  not   mean   to  defend  all  the 
whims  of  our  ancestors,  but  we  assert  that  it  is 
no  more  necessary  to  consider  the  members  of  a 
roof  as  things  to  be  concealed  like  a  garret  or 
privy,    than  the  members  of  a  ceiling,   which 
form  the  most  beautiful  part  of  the  Greek  archi- 
tecture.    Should  it  be  said  that  a  roof  is  only  a 
thing  to  keep  off  the  rain,  it  may  be  answered, 
that  a  ceijing  is  only  to  keep  oft'  th^  dust,  or  the 
floor  to  be  trodden   under  foot,   and   that  we 
should  have  neither  compartments  in  the  one,  nor 
inlaid  work  or  carpets  on  the  other.     The  struc- 
ture of  a  roof  may  therefore  be  exhibited  with 
propriety,    and    made   an   ornamental   feature. 
This  has  been  done  even  in  Italy.     The  church 
of  St.  Maria  Maagiore  in   Rome,  and   several 
others,   are   specimens ;    but   the  forms  of  the 
principal  frames  of  these  roofs,  which  resemble 
those  of  our  modern  buildings,  are  very  unfit  for 
agreeable  ornament.    Our  imaginations  have  not 
been  made  sufficiently  familiar  with  the  princi- 
ples, and  we  are  rather  alarmed  than  pleased 
with  the  appearance  of  the  immense  logs  of  tim- 
bei  which  form  the  couples  of  these  roofs,  and 
hang  over  our  heads  with  eve»y  appearance  of 
weight  and  danger.     It  is  quite  otherwise  with 
the  ingenious  roofs  of  the  German  and  Norman 
architects.   Slender  timbers,  interlaced  with  great 
symmetry,  and  thrown  by  necessity  into  figures 
which  are  naturally  pretty,  form  altogether  an 
object   which   no   carpenter   can   view  without 
pleasure.    And  why  should  the  gentleman  refuse 
himself  the  same  pleasure  of  beholding  scientific 
ingenuity?     The  roof  is  in  fact  the  part  of  the 
building  which  requires  the  greatest  degree  of 
skill,  and  where  science  will  be  of  more  service 
than  in  any  other  part.    The  architect  seldom 
knows  much  of  the  matter,  and  leaves  the  task 
to  the  carpenter.     The  carpenter  considers  the 
framing  of  a  great  roof  as  the  touchstone  of  his 
art ;  and  nothing  indeed  tends  so  much  to  show 
his  judgment  and  his  fertility  of  resource.     It 
must  therefore  be  very  acceptable  to  the  artist 
to  have  a  clear  view  of  the  principles  by  which 
this  difficult  problem  may  be  solved  in  the  best 
manner,  so  that  the  roof  may  have  all  the  strength 
and  security  that  can  be  wished  for,  without  an 
extravagant  expense  of  timber  and  iron.     Me- 
chanical science  can  give  great  assistance  in  this 
matter.     The  framing  of  carpentry,  whether  for 
roofs,  floors,  or  any  other  purpose,  affords  one  of 
the  most  elegant  and  most  satisfactory  applica- 
tions which  can  be  made  of  mechanical  science 
to  the  arts  of  common  life.     But  the  practical 
artist  is  seldom  possessed  even  of  the  small  por- 
tion of  science  which  would  almost  insure  his 
practice  from  all  risk  of  failure ;  and  even  our 
most  experienced  carpenters  Jiave  seldom  any 
more  knowledge  than  what  arises  from  tneir  ex- 
perienc*    and  natural  sagacity.     The  most  ap- 
proved author  in  our  language  is  Price,  in  his 
British  Carpenter.     Mathurin  Jousse  is  in  like 
manner  the  author  most  in  repute  in  France  : 
and  the  puM'oations  of  both  these  authors  are 


38 


ROOF     S. 


void  of  every  appearance  of  principle.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  see  the  works  of  carpenters  of  the 
greatest  reputation  tumble  down,  in  consequence 
of  mistakes  from  which  elementary  knowledge 
would  have  saved  them.  See  ARCHITECTURE. 

In  the  .Middlesex  Report  on  Architecture,  it 
is  observed,  in  speaking  of  the  roofs  of  houses, 
that  pantiles  are  so  easily  heated  through  by  the 
sun,  during  the  summer  months,  that  the  rooms 
underneath  are  as  hot  as  an  oven  ;  while,  in  the 
winter  season,  in  every  common  frost,  these  tiles 
are  so  completely  frozen  through  as  to  become 
as  cold  as  a  covering  of  ice.  These  extremes 
must  consequently  have  a  very  bad  effect  on  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants.  The  blue  slates  are  so 
very  thin  as  to  be  equally  liable  to  the  same 
objection,  particularly  as  they  are  now  laid  on 
most  of  our  fashionable  houses,  under  Wyatt's 
patent.  They  are  rather  better  when  laid  on  in 
the  common  manner,  that  is,  on  double  laths, 
but  much  better  on  boards.  Plain  tiles  make  a 
considerably  more  temperate  covering  for  houses 
than  either  pantiles  or  slates,  by  reason  of  their 
being  laid  double  and  in  mortar,  and  thereby 
forming  a  much  thicker  and  closer  roof.  In  this 
they  are  nearly  equalled  by  the  thick  or  stone 
slating  of  the  midland  counties;  they  might  also 
be  glazed  of  a  slate  color ;  in  which  case  they 
would  make  a  roof  more  hancwome,  temperate, 
and  durable,  than  any  other  covering  material 
now  known. 

Other  substances  have  been  had  recourse  to 
with  this  intention.  In  different  parts  of  the 
country,  cements  of  various  kinds,  and  coarse 
paper  laid  over  with  resin,  tar,  &c.,  and  other 
similar  matters,  have  been  tried,  but  with  no  very 
promising  success  as  to  their  application.  In 
some  parts  of  Devonshire,  though  slate  is  by  no 
means  difficult  to  be  procured,  a  substitute  for 
that  sort  of  covering  is,  Mr.  Vancouver  asserts, 
getting  very  much  into  use,  which  is  prepared 
in  the  following  manner  : — Three  parts  of  whit- 
ing, five  of  sand,  one  of  pounded  charcoal,  and 
one  of  bone-ashes,  to  a  barrel  of  common  tar,  to 
which  are  added  four  pounds  of  black  resin  ;  the 
two  last  materials  are  to  be  melted  together,  and, 
when  boiling,  the  other  ingredients  are  to  be 
added  in  small  quantities,  keeping  them  con- 
stantly stirred  and  in  motion  over  the  fire,  until  the 
whole  mass  becomes  of  a  consistence  fit  for  use. 
Then  the  roof,  being  previously  covered  over 
with  sheathing-paper  securely  nailed  dowp,  is  to 
be  carefully  and  evenly  spread  with  the  liquid 
hot  from  the  copper,  to  the  thickness  of  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch;  which  will  cost,  at 
the  cauldron,  about  thirty-five  shillings  for  each 
square  of  ten  feet.  The  same  measure  of  the 
common  slate  roof  will  cost  about  thirty-two 
shillings.  The  roofs  for  this  sort  of  composition 
are  pitched  very  flat,  and,  from  the  lightness  of 
the  scantling  which  is  necessary  in  their  con- 
struction, come  considerably  cheaper  than  those 
required  for  carrying  slate  or  tiles.  Materials 
of  the  reed  and  heath  kinds  have  also  been  tried 
as  coverings  for  the  roofs  of  farm-houses  and 
cottages,  in  places  where  they  are  capable  of 
being  procured  in  sufficient  quantities  for  such 
purposes ;  and,  though  they  are  considerably 
more  durable  than  common  straw  thatch,  they 


are  subject  to  all  the  inconveniencies  and  ob- 
jections of  that  sort  of  covering. 

Thatch  was  formerly  in  general  use  for  cover- 
ing the  roofs  of  all  farm-buildings ;  but  it  is  ob- 
jectionable on  many  accounts,  particularly  as  a 
hid;ng-place  for  insects,  birds,  and  vermin  ;  and 
as  extremely  perishable  in  its  nature,  subject  to 
be  much  damaged  by  high  winds,  and  of  course 
liable  to  frequent  repairs;  and,  above  all,  hishly 
dangerous  from  its  combustible  nature.  But 
Mr.  Middleton  thinks  that  it  keeps  out  the  sum- 
mer's heat  and  winter's  cold  more  effectually 
than  any  other  material  now  in  use  ;  while,  as 
it  is  not  quite  'so  compact  and  sightly  as  slates 
or  tiles,  and  the  straw  being  of  such  value  for 
other  purposes,  it  will  probably  be  superseded 
by  them.  Tiles,  though  little  exposed  to  danger 
from  fire,  do  not,  by  any  means,  constitute  a 
good  roof,  being  ill  calculated  for  preserving 
grain  or  other  farm  produce.  In  summer,  they 
admit  a  heat  very  unfriendly  to  hay,  corn,  or 
straw  ;  while,  in  winter,  they  are  equally  objec- 
tionable, on  the  ground  of  transmitting  moisture 
in  a  high  degree,  while  slates,  though  more  ex- 
pensi»e  at  first,  are  liable  to  none  of  these  objec- 
tions, especially  when  of  the  more  thick  kind. 
A  roof  covered  with  them,  therefore,  answers 
every  useful  purpose,  and  is  very  durable.  Tor 
the  construction  of  modern  roofs,  generally,  see 
our  article  ARCHITECTURE,  and  more  on  the 
subject  of  farm-buildings  under  RURAL  ARCHI- 
TECTURE. 

ROOK,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.  ~\      Sax.  pnoc ;  Goth.  rack. 

ROOK'ERY,  >  A  bird  resemblinga crow. 

ROOK'Y,  adj.  j  and    feeding   on   grain  ; 

hence  a  robber  or  cheat :  also  a  common  man  of 
chess :  rookery  is  a  nursery  of  rooks  :  rooky,  in- 
habited by  rooks. 

Augurs,  that  understood  relations,  have, 
By  magpies,  and  by  choughs,  and  rooks,  brought  forth 
The  secretest  man  of  blood.      Shakspeare.  Macbeth. 

Light  thickens,  and  the  crow 
Makes  wing  to  the  rooky  wood.    Shuhspeare. 

They  rooked  upon  us  with  design, 
To  out-reform  and  undermine.        Hudibras. 

Huge  flocks  of  rising  rook*  forsake  their  food, 
And,  crying,  seek  the  shelter  of  the  wood.  Dryttr*. 
So  have  I  seen  a  knight  at  chess, 

His  rooks  and  knights  withdrawn, 
His  queen  and  bishops  in  distress, 
Shifting  about  grow  less  and  less. 

With  here  and  there  a  pawn.  Id.  Songs. 

How  any  one's  being  put  into  a  mixed  herd  of  un- 
ruly boys,  and  there  learning  to  rouk  at  span-farthing, 
fits  him  for  conversation,  I  do  not  see. 

Locke  on  Kdiicati'ii. 

I  am,  like  an  old  rook,  who  is  ruined  by  gaming, 
forced  to  live  on  the  good  fortune  of  the  pushing 
young  men.  Wueherleii. 

No  lone  house  in  Wales,  with  a  mountain  and  a 
rookery,  is  more  contemplative  than  this  court. 

Pope. 

The  jay,  the  rook,  the  daw. 
Aid  the  full  concert.       Thomson's  Spring. 

ROOK,  in  ornithology.     See  CORVUS.     Rooks 
are  very  destructive  of  corn,  especially  of  wheat. 
They  search  out  the  lands   where  it  is    sown, 
and   watching   them   more   carefully    than    the 
owners,  they  perceive  when  the  seed  first  1 
to   shoot   up   its  blade  ;  and,   as  soon  a< 
h\M\-.  them  directed  t. 


ROO 

p'.7.ces  where  the  grains  lie ;  and  in  three  or  four 
days  they  will  root  up  such  vast  quantities  that 
a  good  crop  is  often  thus  destroyed  in  embryo. 
After  a  few  days,  the  wheat  continuing  to  jrrow, 
its  blades  appear  green  above  ground ;  and  then 
the  time  of  danger  from  these  birds  is  over  :  for 
then  the  seeds  are  so  far  robbed  ot  their  mealy 
matter  that  they  are  of  no  value  to  that  bird. 
The  farmers,  to  drive  away  these  mischievous 
birds,  dig  holes  in  the  ground,  and  stick  up  the 
feathers  of  rooks  in  them,  and  hang  up  dead 
rooks  on  sticks  in  several  parts  of  the  fields ; 
but  all  this  is  of  little  use,  for  the  living  rooks 
will  tear  up  the  ground  about  the  leathers,  and 
under  the  dead  ones  to  steal  the  seeds.  The 
best  remedy  is,  to  watch  well  the  time  of  the 
corn  being  in  the  condition  in  which  they  feed 
upon  it ;  and  as  this  lasts  only  a  few  days,  a  boy 
should  constantly  watch  the  field  from  day-break 
till  the  dusk  of  the  evening.  Every  time  they 
settle  upon  the  ground  the  boy  should  holloa, 
and  throw  up  a  dead  rook  into  the  air :  this  will 
always  make  them  rise,  and  they  will  soon  be  so 
tired  of  this  constant  disturbance  that  they  will 
seek  out  other  places  of  preying,  and  will  leave 
the  ground  even  before  the  corn  becomes  unfit 
for  them.  The  reason  of  their  rising  at  the 
tossing  up  of  the  dead  bird  is,  that  they  are 
extremely  apprehensive  of  danger,  and  are  al- 
v  ays  alarmed  when  one  of  them  rises,  and  all 
fly  off  at  the  signal. 

ROOKE  (Lawrence),  an  eminent  English 
astronomer,  born  at  Deptford  in  Kent,  in  1623  ; 
and  educated  at  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
at  Oxford.  In  1652  he  was  appointed  Gresham 
professor  of  astronomy;  and  was  also  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  wrote  as- 
tronomical tracts.  He  died  in  1662. 

ROOKE  (Sir  George),  a  naval  commander,  de- 
scended of  an  ancient  and  honorable  family  ir» 
Kent,  was  born  in  1650.  His  merit  raised  him 
to  be  vice-admiral  of  the  blue;  in  which  station 
he  served  in  the  battle  of  La  Hogue  May  1692, 
and  the  next  day  he  obtained  still  more  glory  by 
going  into  La  llogue,  and  burning  the  enemy's 
fleet,  which  he  completely  destroyed,  together 
with  most  of  the  transports  and  ammunition 
vessels ;  and  this  under  the  fire  of  all  the  French 
batteries,  and  in  sight  of  all  the  French  and  Irish 
troops ;  yet  this  bold  action  cost  the  lives  of 
only  ten  men.  The  vice-admiral's  behaviour  on 
this  occasion  so  pleased  king  V>  illiam  that, 
having  no  opportunity  at  that  time  of  promoting 
him,  he  settled  a  pension  of  £1000  per  annum 
on  him  for  life ;  and  afterwards,  going  to  Ports- 
mouth to  view  the  fleet,  went  on  board  Rooke's 
ship,  dined  with  him,  and  then  conferred  on 
him  the  honor  of  knighthood,  he  having  a  little 
before  made  him  vice-admiral  of  the  red.  In 
consequence  of  other  services  he  was  in  1694 
raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral  of  the  blue ;  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  next  year  he  was  made 
admiral  of  the  white;  and  was  also  appointed 
admiral  and  commander-in-chief  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. During  king  William's  reign,  Sir 
George  was  twice  elected  M.  P.  for  Portsmouth; 
and  upon  the  accession  of  queen  Anne,  in  1702, 
he  was  constituted  vice-admiral  and  lieutenant 
of  the  admiralty  of  England,  as  also  lieutenant 


39  ROO 

of  the  fleets  and  seas  of  this  kingdom.  Upon 
the  declaration  of  war  against  France,  he  was 
ordered  to  command  a  fleet  sent  against  Cadiz, 
the  duke  of  Ormond  having  the  command  of 
the  land  forces.  On  his  passage  home,  receiving 
an  account  that  the  galleons,  under  the  escort 
of  a  strong  French  squadron,  were  in  the  har- 
bour of  Vigo,  he  resolved  to  attack  them  :  and 
on  the  llth  October  came  before  the  harbour  of 
Kondondello,  which  the  French  commander  had 
put  into  the  best  posture  of  defence.  But,  not- 
withstanding this,  a  detachment  of  fifteen  En°-- 
hsh  and  ten  Dutch  ships  of  the  line,  with  all  the 
fire-ships  were  ordered  in,  and  the  army  landed 
near  Rondondello.  The  whole  service  was  per- 
formed under  Sir  George's  directions ;  all  the 
ships  were  destroyed  or  taken,  prodigious 
damage  was  done  to  the  enemy,  and  great  wealth 
acquired  by  the  allies.  For  this  action  Sir 
George  received  the  thanks  of  the  house  of 
commons,  a  day  of  thanksgiving  was  appointed 
both  by  the  queen  and  the  states  general,  and 
Sir  George  was  promoted  to  a  seat  in  the  privy- 
council  ;  yet,  notwithstanding  this,  the  house  of 
lords  resolved  to  enquire  into  his  conduct  at 
Cadiz.  But  he  so  fully  justified  himself  that  a 
vote  was  passed,  approving  his  behaviour.  In 
spring  1704  Sir  George  commanded  the  ships  of 
war  which  conveyed  king  Charles  III.  of  Spain 
to  Lisbon.  In  July  he  attacked  Gibraltar; 
when,  by  the  bravery  of  the  English  seamen, 
the  place  was  taken  on  the  24th,  though  the 
town  was  extremely  strong,  and  well  furnished 
with  ammunition.  The  capture  of  this  place 
was  conceived  and  executed  in  less  than  a  week, 
yet  was  then  very  little  thought  of;  though  it  has 
since  endured  sieges  of  many  months'  continu- 
ance, and  more  than  once  baffled  the  united 
forces  of  France  and  Spain.  Sir  George  soon 
after  retired  to  his  seat  in  Kea£  He  was  thrice 
married  ;  and  by  his  second  lady  left  one  son. 
He  died  in  1709  in  his  fifty-eighth  year,  and 
was  buried  in  Canterbury  cathedral,  where  a 
monument  is  erected  to  his  memory. 

ROOM,  n.s. }    Sax.  nutn ;  Goth.  rum.  Space; 
ROOM'AGE,     ^  extent  of  place  great  or  small ; 
ROO'MY,  adj.  t  unoccupied  space;  way  :  room- 
age  is  an  obsolete  synonyme. 

In  evils  that  cannot  be  removed  without  the  mani- 
fest danger  of  greater  to  succeed  in  their  room,  wis- 
dom, of  necessity,  must  give  place  to  necessity. 

Hooker. 
Make  room,  and  let  him  stand  before  our  face. 

Shaktpeare. 

If  you  will  have  a  young  man  to  put  his  travels  in 
a  little  room,  and  in  short  time  gather  much,  this  he 
must  do.  Bacon. 

Man,  of  all  sensible  creatures,  has  the  fullest  brain 
to  his  proportion,  for  the  lodging  of  the  intellective 
faculties  :  it  must  be  a  silent  character  of  hope,  when 
there  is  good  store  of  roomagc  and  receipt  where  those 
powers  are  stowed.  Wotton. 

If  when  she  appears  in  the  room, 
Thou  dost  not  quake,  and  art  struck  dumb, 
Know  this, 
Thou  lovest  amiss  ; 
And,  to  love  true, 
Thou  must  begin  again,  and  love  anew.     Suckling 


40 


ROO 


What  train  of  servants,  what  extent  of  field, 
Shall  aid  the  birth,  or  give  him  room  to  build? 

Creech. 

With  new  wonder  now  he  views, 
To  all  delight  of  human  sense  exposed 
In  narrow  room,  nature's  whole  wealth.         Milton. 

For  better  ends  our  kind  Redeemer  died, 
Or  the  fallen  angels  rooms  will  be  but  ill  supplied. 

Roscommon. 

In  a  prince's  court,  the  only  question  a  man  is  to 
ask  is,  whether  it  be  the  custom  of  the  court,  or  will 
of  the  prince,  to  be  uncovered  in  some  rooms  and  not 
in  others'?  Still  ing  fleet. 

With  roomy  decks,  her  guns  of  mighty  strength, 
Deep  in  her  draught,  and  warlike  in  her  length. 

Dry  den. 

This  paternal  regal  power,  being  by  divine  right, 
leaves  no  room  for  human  prudence  to  place  it  any 
where.  Locke. 

When  this  princess  was  in  her  father's  court,  she 
was  so  celebrated  that  there  was  no  prince  in  the 
empire,  who  had  room  for  such  an  alliance,  that  was 
not  ambitious  of  gaining  her  into  his  family. 

Atldison's  Freeholder. 

t  puts  us  upon  so  eager  a  pursuit  of  the  advan- 
tages of  life,  as  leaves  no  mum  to  reflect  on  the  greaf 
author  of  them.  Atterbury. 

By  contributing  to  the  contentment  of  other  men, 
and  rendering  them  as  happy  as  lies  in  our  power, 
we  do  God's  work,  are  in  his  place  ana  room. 

Calamu's  Sermon*. 

The  dry  land  is  much  too  big  for  its  inhabitants ; 
and  that  before  they  shall  want  room  by  encreasing 
and  multiplying,  there  may  be  new  heavens  and  a 
new  eartli  lientley. 

It  will  afford  me  a  few  pleasant  room*,  for  such  a 
friend  as  yourself.  Pope. 

Will  you  not  look  with  pity  on  me  1 
Is  there  no  hope  1  is  there  no  room  for  pardon  1 

A.  Philips. 

ROOME  (Edward),  an  English  writer,  the 
son  of  an  undertaker  in  Fleet  Street.  He  was 
bred  to  the  law,  and  became  a  violent  party 
writer.  He  wrote  some  papers  entitled  Pasquin, 
wherein  he  offended  Mr.  Pope,  who  placed  him 
in  the  Dunciad.  lie  succeeded  Mr.  Hornecks, 
as  solicitor  to  the  treasury,  October  18th  1728, 
and  died  December  10th  1729.  His  Jovial 
Crew  was  first  acted  in  1731. 

ROOS  (John  Hendrick),  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Orteburgh  in  1631.  His  landscapes 
have  uncommon  beauty.  He  also  painted  port- 
raits. He  died  in  1685. 

Roos  (Philip),  his  son,  was  born  in  1665,  and 
excelled  his  father  greatly.  His  brother,  John 
Mclchior,  was  also  eminent  in  painting,  and  died 
in  1731,  aged  seventy-two 

ROOST,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.  Sax.  pru>rr.  That  on 
which  a  bird  sits  to  sleep  ;  the  act  of  sleeping ; 
to  sleep  as  a  bird  ;  lodge. 

Sooner  than  the  mattin-bell  was  rung, 
He  clapped  his  wings  upon  his  roost  and  sung. 

Dryden. 

A  fox  spied  out  a  cock  at  roost  upon  a  tree. 

L'Ettranee. 

The  cock  roasted  at  night  upon  the  boughs.      Id. 

Large  and  strong  muscles  move  the  wings,  and 
support  the  body  at  roott.  Derham'i  Phys.  Theology. 

ROOT,  n.  s.,  v.  a.,  &  v.  n. )        Goth.       and 

ROOT'ED,  £  Swed.  rot ;  Belg. 

ROOT'EDLY,  adv.  J  rocd.    That  part 

of  the  plant  which  rests  in  the  ground,  and  sup- 


plies it  with  nourishment ;  the  original ;  first  an- 
cestor :  to  fix  the  root ;  strike  deep ;  fix  deep  : 
the  adjective  and  adverb  corresponding. 

The  multiplying  brood  of  the  ungodly  shall  not 
take  deep  roonng  from  bastard  slips,  nor  lay  any  fast 
foundation.  Wisdom. 

Having  this  way  eased  the  church,  as  they  thought, 
of  superfluity,  they  went  on  till  they  had  plucked  up 
even  those  things  also  which  had  taken  a  great  deal 
stronger  and  deeper  7-oof.  Hooker. 

It  -vas  said, 

That  myself  should  be  the  root,  and  father 
Of  many  kings.  Slmkspeare.  Macbeth. 

Underneath  the  grove  of  sycamour, 
That  westward  rooteth,  did  1  see  your  son. 

Shakspeure. 

Pluck  from  the  memory  a  rooted  sorrow, 
Raze  out  the  written  troubles  of  the  brain.          Id. 

They  all  do  hate  him  as  rootedly  as  I.  Id. 

He's  a  rank  weed, 
And  we  musf  rcot  him  out.  Id.  Henry  Vlll. 

The  Egyptians  think  it  sin  to  root  up  or  to  bite 
Their  leeks  or  onions,  which  they  serve  with  holy 
rite.  Raleigh's  History  of  the   World. 

When  you  would  have  many  new  roofs  of  fruit 
trees,  take  a  low  tree,  and  bow  it,  and  lay  all  his 
branches  aflat  upon  the  ground,  and  cast  earth  upon 
them,  and  every  twig  will  take  roof.  Bacon. 

After  a  yeat's  rooting,  then  shaking  doth  the  tree 
good,  by  loosening  of  the  earth.  Id. 

Why  did  my  parents  send  me  to  the  schools, 
That  1  with  knowledge  might  enrich  my  mind  ? 
S4nce  the  desire  to  know  first  made  men  fools, 
And  did  corrupt  the  root  of  all  mankind.       Daviet. 

The  danger  is  great  to  them,  who,  on  a  weaker 
foundation,  do  yet  stand  firmly  rooted,  and  grounded 
in  the  love  of  Christ.  Hammond's  Fundamentals. 

Deep  to  the  roots  of  hell  the  gathered  breach 
They  fastened.  Milton. 

Whence, 

But  from  the  author  of  all  ill,  could  spring 

So  deep  a  malice,  to  confound  the  race 

Of  mankind  in  one  root?    Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

Not  to  destroy,  but  root  them  out  of  heaven. 

Milton. 

If  any  irregularity  chanced  to  intervene,  and 
cause  misapprehensions,  ne  gave  them  not  leave  to 
root  and  fasten  by  concealment.  Fell. 

That  the  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil  is  a 
truth  universally  agreed  in.  Temple. 

A  flower  in  meadow  ground,  amellus  called  ; 
And  from  one  root  the  rising  stem  bestows 
A  wood  of  leaves.  Dryden's  Virgil'*  Georgicks. 

That  love  took  deepest  root  which  first  did  grow. 

Dryden. 

When  ocean,  air,  and  earth,  at  once  engage, 
And  rooted  forests  fly  before  their  rage, 
At  once  the  clashing  clouds  to  battle  move.         Id. 

Root  up  wild  olives  from  thy  laboured  lands.  Id. 

They  were  the  roots,  out  of  which  sprang  two 
distinct  people,  under  two  distinct  governments. 

Lor  he. 

In  October,  the  hops  will  settle  and  strike  root 
against  spring.  Mortimer's  Huibandry. 

The  coulter  must  be  proportioned  to  the  soil,  be- 
cause, in  deep  grounds,  the  weeds  root  the  deeper. 

Mortimer. 

The  layers  will  in  a  month  strike  rout,  being 
planted  in  a  light  loamy  earth.  Evelyn'*  Kalendnr. 

These  subterraneous  vaults  would  be  found  espe- 
cially about  the  root*  of  the  mountains.        Burnet. 
The  great  important  end  that  God  designs  it  for. 
the  government  of  mankind,  sufficiently  shows  the 
necessity  of  its  being  rooted  deeply  in  the  heart,  an-i 


ROPE-MAKING. 


41 


put  beyond  the  danger  of  being  torn  up  by  anyordi-. 
nary  violence.  St>uth. 

In  vain  we  plant,  we  build,  our  stores  increase, 
If  conscience  roots  up  all  our  inward  peace. 

Granville. 

You  always  joined  a  violent  desire  of  perpetually 
changing  places  with  a  rooted  laziness. 

Swift  to  Gay. 

Those  plants,  whose  roott  are  eaten,  are  carrots, 
turnips,  and  radishes.  Watts. 

They  have  so  rooted  themselves  in  the  opinions  of 
their  party,  that  they  cannot  hear  an  objection  with 
patience.  Id. 

Nor  were  the  cole-worts  wanting,  nor  the  root, 
Which  after-ages  call  Hibernian  fruit.  Harte. 

ROOT.     See  BOTANY. 

ROOT,  in  algebra  and  arithmetic,  denotes  any 
number  which,  multiplied  by  itself  once  or 
oftener,  produces  any  other  number ;  and  is 
called  the  square,  cube,  biquadrate,  &c.,  root, 
according  to  the  number  of  multiplications. 
Thus  2  is  the  square-root  of  4,  the  cube-root 
of  8,  the  biquadrate-root  of  16,  &c. 

ROOT,  SNAKE.     See  ARISTOLOCIIIA. 

ROPE,  B.  s.  &  u.  a.  ^       Sax.  jiaj> ;  Goth,  rep  ; 

ROPE'DANCER,  Swed.  reep  ;  Belg.  reip, 

ROPE'MAKER,  I  roop.     A  thick  cord  or 

RO'PERY,  n.s.  >string;  halter;   cluster: 

ROPE'TRICK,  to    range;    draw    out: 

RO'PIXESS,  «.  s.         I  ropery  is  usedbyShaks- 

RO'PY,  adj.  J  peare  for  roguery :  rope- 

trick  for  a  rogue's  trick ;  or,  as  Johnson  thinks, 
for  tricks  that  deserve  a  halter :  ropiness  is  vis- 
cosity ;  stringiness :  ropy,  glutinous  ;  viscous  : 
the  other  compounds  the  extracts  will  explain. 

Thou  drunken  slave,  I  sent  thee  for  a  rope, 
And  told  thee  to  what  purpose.  Shakspeare. 

The  ropemaker  bears  me  witness, 
That  I  was  sent  for  nothing  but  a  ropf.  Id. 

What  saucy  merchant  was  this,  that  was  so  full 
of  his  ropery  ?  Id.  Merchant  of  Venice . 

She  may  perhaps  call  him  half  a  score  knaves  or 
so  :  an'  he  begin  once,  he'll  rail  in  his  ropetrickt. 

Shakspeare. 

An  anchor  let  down  by  a  rope,  maketh  a  sound  ; 
and  yet  the  rope  is  no  solid  body,  whereby  the  sound 
can  ascend.  Bacon. 

Such  bodies  partly  follow  the  touch  of  another 
body,  and  partly  stick  to  themselves  :  and  therefore 
rope  and  draw  themselves  into  threads  ;  as  pitch, 
glue,  and  birdlime.  Id. 

Salvian,  amongst  public  shews,  mentions  the  Peta- 
menarii  ;  probably  derived  from  the  Greek  rtraiSai, 
to  fly,  and  may  refer  to  such  kind  of  ropedancers. 

Wilkins. 
Who  would,  not  guess  there  might  be  hopes, 

The  fear  of  gallowses  and  ropes 

Before  their  eyes,  might  reconcile 

Their  animosities  a  while.  Hudibrtu. 

In  this  close  vessel  place  the  earth  accursed, 
But  filled  brimful  with  wholesome  water  first, 
Then  run  it  through,  the  drops  will  ro;>«  around. 

Drijden. 

Ask  for  what  price  thy  venal  tongue  was  sold  ; 
Tough,  withered  truffles,  ropy  wine,  a  dish 
Of  shotten  herrings,  or  stale  stinking  fish.          Id. 

I  cannot  but  confess  myself  mightily  surprized, 
that,  in  a  book  which  was  to  provide  chains  for  all 
mankind,  1  should  find  nothing  but  a  rope  of  sand. 

Locke. 
Take  care 

Thy  muddy  bev'rage  to  serene,  and  drive 
Precipitant  the  baser  ropy  lees.  Philips. 


Statius,  posted  on  the  highest  of  the  two  summits, 
the  people  regarded  >  with  terror,  as  they  look  upon  a 
daring  ropedancer,  whom  they  expect  to  fall  every 
moment.  Addison. 

Hang  yourself  up  in  a  true  rope,  that  there  may 
appear  no  trick  in  it.  Arbuthnol. 

The  contents  separated  from  it  are  sometimes  ropu, 
and  sometimes  only  a  grey  and  mealy,  light  sub- 
stance. BUtckmore. 

ROPE-MAKING  is  an  art  of  great  importance, 
and  there  are  few  that  better  deserve  the  atten- 
tion of  the  intelligent  observer.  Hardly  any 
trade  can  be  carried  on  without  the  assistance  of 
the  rope-maker.  Cordage  makes  the  very  sinews 
and  muscles  of  a  ship ;  and  every  improvement 
which  can  be  made  in  its  preparation,  either  in 
respect  to  strength  or  pliableness,  must  be  of  im- 
mense service  to  the  mariner,  and  to  the  com- 
merce and  defence  of  nations. 

Rope-making  has  been  denned  the  art  of 
uniting  animal  or  vegetable  fibres  into  an  aggre- 
gate line,  so  that  the  whole  may  concur  in  one 
joint  action,  and  be  employed  under  the  forms  of 
string,  cord,  cable,  &c.  Animal  fibres,  on  ac- 
count of  their  expense,  are  but  seldom  used,  but 
those  that  are  introduced  into  the  employment 
are  obtained  either  from  the  intestines  or  the 
hair.  The  intestines  of  sheep  and  lambs  are 
manufactured  into  what  is  called  cat-gut,  of  dif- 
ferent sizes,  for  the  use  of  musical-instrument- 
makers,  for  watch-makers,  opticians,  cutlers, 
turners,  and  a  variety  of  other  artificers.  The 
tendrils  of  the  ovary  of  the  squalus  canicula,  or 
dog-fish,  are  chiefly  employed  in  angling,  more 
frequently  single  than  in  the  combined  state, 
known  in  the  trade  by  the  name  of  Indian -grass. 
Animal  hair,  as  that  from  horses,  is  had  recourse 
to  where  there  is  no  great  friction,  and  it  forms  a 
rope  or  cord  much  more  durable  than  any  that 
can  be  obtained  from  vegetables;  it  is  impervious 
to  moisture  is  capable  of  resisting  all  weathers, 
and  is  extremely  elastic.  Hence  it  is  obvious  that 
the  rope-maker  must  derive  his  chief  material 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom ;  which  he  does  from 
the  inner  bark  of  the  hemp,  or  cannabis  sativa ; 
or  from  that  of  some  of  the  species  of  flax,  or 
linum ;  that  of  the  L.  usitassimum  is  the  most 
important.  The  treatment  of  both  these  plants 
being  nearly  the  same,  we  shall  describe,  as 
nearly  as  we  can,  that  relating  to  flax.  The  plant 
is  rather  common  in  most  of  the  temperate  parts 
of  Europe,  flowering  in  July.  The  root  is  an- 
nual, fibrous,  and  small;  the  stem  is  erect,  round, 
smooth,  and  leafy ;  the  flowers  on  stalks  erect, 
and  of  a  sky-blue  color.  About  the  end  of  Au- 
gust, when  the  flowers  have  attained  their  full 
growth,  and  begin  to  turn  yellow  at  bottom,  and 
brown  at  the  top,  and  their  seeds  to  ripen,  it  is  a 
proper  time  to  pull  the  plants  up.  They  are 
dried  and  threshed  ;  they  are  then  to  be  put  in 
water  till  the  bark  readily  separates  from  the 
stalk,  when  they  are  taken  out  and  dried,  after 
which  they  are  in  a  proper  state  for  the  purpose 
of  being  converted  into  flax  by  the  hackler.  We 
may  observe,  though  not  strictly  connected  with 
the  subject  in  hand,  thnt,  as  from  the  bark  of  the 
stalks  is  manufactured  flax  or  Hnt,  for  making  of 
all  sorts  of  linen  cloth  ; — from  cloth,  when  worn 
out,  we  make  our  paper ;  from  the  seeds  of  the 


42 


ROPE-MAKING. 


plant  linseed  oil  is  expressed  ;  and  even  the  re- 
fuse, after  the  oil  is  extracted,  forms  oil-cakes,  so 
valuable  in  fattening  cattle,  sheep,  and  other 
live  stock.  From  hemp,  however,  treated  in  a 
similar  way,  we  have  the  materials  for  cordage, 
ropes,  and  cables.  Russian  hemp  is  most  used, 
but  English  hemp,  when  properly  manufactured, 
is  superior  to  that  introduced  from  the  north. 

The  aim  of  the  rope-maker  is  to  unite  the 
strength  of  a  great  number  of  fibres,  and  the  first 
part  of  his  process  is  spinning  of  rope-yarns  ; 
that  is,  twisting  the  hemp  in  the  first  instance. 
This  is  done  in  various  ways,  and  with  different 
machinery,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  in- 
tended cordage.  We  shall  confine  our  descrip- 
tion to  the  manufacture  of  the  larger  kinds,  such 
as  are  used  for  the  standing  and  running  rigging 
of  ships.  An  alley,  or  walk,  is  enclosed  for  the 
purpose,  about  200  fathoms  long,  and  of  a 
breadth  suited  to  the  extent  of  the  manufacture. 
It  is  sometimes  covered  above.  At  the  upper 
end  of  this  rope-walk  is  set  up  the  spinning- 
wheel.  The  band  of  the  wheel  goes  over  several 
rollers,  called  whirls,  turning  on  pivots  in  brass 
holes.  The  pivots  at  one  end  come  through  the 
frame,  and  terminate  in  little  hooks.  The  wheel, 
being  turned  by  a  winch,  gives  motion  in  one  di- 
rection to  all  the  whirls.  The  spinner  has  a 
bundle  of  dressed  hemp  round  his  waist,  with 
the  two  ends  meeting  before  him.  The  hemp  is 
laid  in  this  bundle  in  the  same  way  that  women 
spread  the  flax  on  the  distaff.  There  is  great  va- 
riety in  this ;  but  the  general  aim  is  to  lay  the 
fibres  in  such  a  manner,  that,  as  long  as  the 
bundle  lasts,  Ihere  may  be  an  equal  number  of 
the  ends  at  the  extremity,  and  that  a  fibre  may 
never  offer  itself  double,  or  in  a  bight.  The 
spinner  draws  out  a  proper  number  of  fibres, 
twists  them  with  his  fingers,  and,  having  got  a 
sufficient  length  detached,  he  fixes  to  the  hook  of 
a  whirl.  The  wheel  is  now  turned,  and  the  skein 
is  twisted,  becoming  what  is  called  rope-yarn, 
and  the  spinner  walks  backwards  down  the  rope- 
walk.  The  part  already  twisted  draws  along 
with  it  more  fibres  out  of  the  bundle.  The 
spinner  aids  this  with  his  fingers,  supplying 
hemp  in  due  proportion,  as  he  walks  away  from 
the  wheel,  and  taking  care  that  the  fibres  come 
in  equally  from  both  sides  of  his  bundle,  and 
that  they  enter  always  with  their  ends,  and  not 
by  the  middle,  which  would  double  them.  He 
should  also  endeavour  to  enter  every  fibre  at  the 
heart  of  the  yarn.  This  will  cause  all  the  fibres 
to  mix  equally  in  making  it  up,  and  will  make 
the  work  smooth,  because  one  end  of  each  fibre 
is,  by  this  means,  buried  among  the  rest,  and 
the  other  end  only  lies  outward ;  and  this,  in 
passing  through  the  grasp  of  the  spinner,  who 
presses  it  tight  with  his  thumb  and  palm,  is  also 
made  to  lie  smooth.  A  good  spinner  endeavours 
always  to  supply  the  hemp  in  the  form  of  a  thin 
fiat  skein,  with  his  left  hand,  while  his  right 
hand  is  employed  in  grasping  firmly  the  yarn 
that  is  twining  off,  and  in  holding  it  tight  from 
the  whirl,  that  it  may  not  run  into  loops  or  kinks. 
It  is  evident  that  both  the  arrangement  of  the 
fibres,  and  the  degree  of  twisting,  depend  on  the 
skill  and  dexterity  of  the  spinner,  and  that  he 
must  be  instructed,  not  by  a  book,  but  by  a 


master.  The  degree  of  twist  depends  on  the  rate 
of  the  wheel's  motion,  combined  with  the  retro- 
grade walk  of  the  spinner.  We  may  suppose 
him  arrived  at  the  lower  end  of  the  walk,  or  as 
far  as  is  necessary  for  the  intended  length  of  his 
yarn.  He  calls  out,  and  another  spinner  imme- 
diately detaches  the  yarn  from  the  hook  of  the 
whirl,  and  gives  it  to  another,  who  carries  it 
aside  to  the  reel ;  and  this  second  spinner  at- 
taches his  own  hemp  to  the  whirl-hook.  In  the 
mean  time,  the  first  spinner  keeps  fast  hold  of 
the  end  of  his  yarn  ;  for  the  hemp,  being  dry, 
is  very  elastic,  and,  if  he  were  to  let  it  go  out  of 
his  hand,  it  would  instantly  untwist,  and  become 
little  better  than  loose  hemp.  He  waits,  there- 
fore, till  he  sees  the  reeler  begin  to  turn  the  reel, 
and  he  goes  slowly  up  the  walk,  keeping  the 
yarn  of  an  equal  tightness  all  the  way,  till  he 
arrives  at  the  wheel,  where  he  waits  with  his 
yarn  in  his  hand  till  another  spinner  has  finished 
his  yarn.  The  first  spinner  takes  it  off  the  whirl- 
hook,  joins  it  to  his  own,  that  it  may  follow  it  on 
the  reel,  and  begins  a  new  yarn.  The  second 
part  of  the  process  is  the  conversion  of  the  yarns 
into  what  may  with  propriety  be  called  a  rope, 
cord,  or  line.  That  we  may  have  a  clear  concep- 
tion of  the  principle  which  regulates  this  part 
of  the  process,  we  shall  begin  with  the  simplest 
possible  case — the  union  of  two  yarns  into  one 
line. 

When  hemp  has  been  split  into  very  fine 
fibres  by  the  hatchet,  it  becomes  exceedingly 
soft  and  pliant,  and,  after  it  has  lain  for  some 
time  in  the  form  of  fine  yarn,  it  may  be  unreeled 
and  thrown  like  flaxen  yarn,  so  as  to  make 
sewing-thread.  It  is  in  this  way,  indeed,  that 
the  sail-makers'  sewing-thread  is  manufactured, 
and  when  it  has  been  kept  on  the  reel,  or  on 
balls  or  bobbins,  for  some  time,  it  retains  its 
twist  as  well  as  its  uses  require.  But  this  is  by 
no  means  the  case  with  yarns  spun  for  great 
cordage.  The  hemp  is  so  elastic,  the  number 
of  fibres  twisted  together  is  so  great,  and  the 
diameter  of  the  yarn  (which  is  a  sort  of  lever  on 
which  the  elasticity  of  the  fibre  exerts  itself)  is 
so  considerable,  that  no  keeping  will  make  the 
fibres  retain  this  constrained  position. 

The  end  of  a  rope-yarn  being  thrown  loose,  it 
will  immediately  untwist,  and  this  with  consi- 
derable force  and  speed.  It  would,  therefore, 
be  a  fruitless  attempt  to  twist  two  such  yarns 
together ;  yet  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  contrived 
to  make  use  of  this  very  tendency  to  untwist, 
not  only  to  counteract  itself,  but  even  to  pro- 
duce another  and  a  permanent  twist,  which  re- 
quires force  to  undo  it,  and  which  will  recover 
itself  when  this  force  is  removed.  Every  person 
must  recollect  that,  when  he  has  twisted  a  pack- 
thread very  hard  with  his  fingers  between  his 
two  hands,  if  he  slackens  the  thread  by  bringing 
his  hands  nearer  together,  the  packthread  will 
immediately  curl  up,  running  into  loops  or  kinks, 
and  -will  even  twist  itself  into  a  neat  and  firm 
cord.  The  component  parts  of  a  rope  are  called 
strands,  and  the  operation  of  uniting  them  with 
a  permanent  twist  is  called  laying  or  closing, 
the  latter  term  being  chiefly  appropriated  to 
cables  and  other  very  large  cordage. 

The  process  of  laying  or  closing  large  cordage 


ROPE- MAKING. 


43 


is  thus  conducted  :  the  strands  of  which  the  rope 
is  composed  consist  of  many  yarns,  and  require 
a  considerable  degree  of  hardening.  This  cannot 
be  done  by  a  whirl  driven  by  a  wheel-band ;  it 
requires  the  power  of  a  crank  turned  by  the  hand. 
The  strands,  when  properly  hardened,  become 
very  stiff,  and,  when  bent  round  the  top,  are  not 
able  to  transmit  force  enough  for  laying  the 
heavy  and  unpliant  rope  which  forms  beyond  it. 
The  elastic  twist  of  the  hardened  strands  must 
therefore  be  assisted  by  an  external  force.  All 
this  requires  a  different  machinery  and  a  different 
process.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  walk  is  there- 
fore fixed  a  tackle-board :  this  consists  of  a 
strong  oaken  plank,  called  a  breast-board,  having 
three  or  more  holes  in  it  and  fitted  with  brass  or 
iron  plates.  Into  these  are  put  iron  cranks  called 
heavers,  which  have  hooks  or  forelocks,  and  keys 
on  the  ends  of  their  spindles.  They  are  placed 
at  such  a  distance  from  each  other  that  the  work- 
men do  not  interfere  while  turning  them  round. 
This  breast-board  is  fixed  to  the  top  of  strong 
posts,  well  secured  by  struts  or  braces  facing 
the  lower  end  of  the  walk.  At  the  lower  end  is 
another  breast-board  fixed  to  the  upright  post  of 
a  sledge,  which  may  be  loaded  with  stones  or 
other  weights.  Similar  cranks  are  placed  in  the 
holes  of  this  breast-board;  the  whole  goes  by 
the  name  of  the  sledge. 

The  top  necessary  for  closing  large  cordage  is 
too  heavy  to  be  held  in  the  hand,  it  therefore  has 
a  long  staff,  which  has  a  truck  on  the  end.  This 
rests  on  the  ground,  but  even  this  is  not  enough 
in  laying  great  cables.  The  top  must  be  sup- 
ported on  a  carriage,  where  it  must  lie  very 
steady,  and  it  needs  attendance,  because  thp 
master  workman  has  sufficient  employment  in 
attending  to  the  manner  in  which  the  strands 
close  behind  the  top,  and  in  helping  them  by 
various  methods.  The  top  is  therefore  fixed  to 
the  carriage  by  lashing  its  staff  to  the  two  up- 
right posts.  A  piece  of  soft  rope  or  strap  is 
attached  to  the  handle  of  the  top  by  the  middle, 
and  its  two  ends  are  brought  back  and  wrapped 
several  times  tight  round  the  rope  in  the  direc- 
tion of  its  twist,  and  bound  down.  This  greatly 
assists  the  laying  of  the  rope  by  its  friction, 
which  both  keeps  the  top  from  flying  too  far 
from  the  point  of  union  of  the  strands,  and 
brings  the  strands  more  regularly  into  their 
places.  The  first  operation  is  warping  the  yarns. 
At  each  end  of  the  walk  are  frames  called  warp- 
ing frames,  which  carry  a  great  number  of  reels, 
or  winches,  filled  with  rope-yarn.  The  foreman 
of  the  walk  takes  off  a  yarn  end  from  each,  till 
he  has  made  up  the  number  necessary  for  his 
rope  or  strand,  and,  bringing  the  ends  together, 
he  passes  the  whole  through  an  iron  ring  fixed 
to  the  top  of  a  stake  driven  into  the  ground,  and 
draws  them  through ;  then  a  knot  is  tied  on  the 
end  of  the  bundle,  and  a  workman  pulls  it 
through  this  ring  till  the  intended  length  is 
drawn  off  the  reels.  The  end  is  made  fast  at 
the  bottom  of  the  walk,  or  at  the  sledge,  and 
the  foreman  comes  back  along  the  skein  of  yarns, 
to  see  that  none  are  hanging  slacker  than  the 
vest.  He  takes  up  in  his  hand  such  as  are  slack 
and  draws  them  tight,  keeping  them  so  till  he 
ivuches  the  upper  end,  where  he  cuts  the  yarns 


to  a  length,  again  adjusts  then-  tightness,  and 
joins  them  all  together  in  a  knot,  to  which  he 
fixes  the  hook  of  a  tackle,  the  other  block  of 
which  is  fixed  to  a  firm  post,  called  the  warping- 
post.  The  skein  is  well  stretched  by  the  tackle, 
and  then  separated  into  its  different  strands. 
Each  of  these  is  knotted  apart  at  both  ends. 
The  knots  at  their  upper  ends  are  made  fast  to 
the  hooks  of  the  cranks  in  the  tackle-board,  and 
those  at  the  lower  ends  are  fastened  to  the  cranks 
in  the  sledge.  The  sledge  itself  is  kept  in  its 
place  by  a  tackle,  by  which  the  strands  are 
again  stretched  in  their  places  and  every  thing 
adjusted,  so  that  the  sledge  stands  square  on  the 
walk,  and  then  a  proper  weight  is  laid  on  it.  The 
tackle  is  now  cast  off,  and  the  cranks  are  turned 
at  both  ends  in  the  contrary  direction  to  the 
twist  of  the  yarns  (in  some  kinds  of  cordage  the 
cranks  are  turned  the  same  way  with  the  spin- 
ning twist).  By  this  the  strands  are  twisted  and 
hardened  up,  and  as  they  contract  by  this  ope- 
ration the  sledge  is  dragged  up  the  walk.  When 
the  foreman  thinks  the  strands  sufficiently 
hardened,  which  he  estimates  by  the  motion  of 
the  sledge,  he  orders  the  heavers  at  the  cranks 
to  stop.  The  middle  strand  at  the  sledge  is 
taken  off  from  the  crank ;  this  crank  is  taken 
out,  and  a  stronger  one  put  in  its  place.  The 
other  strands  are  taken  off  from  their  cranks, 
and  all  are  joined  on  the  hook  which  is  now  in 
the  middle  hole;  the  top  is  then  placed  between 
the  strands,  and,  being  pressed  home  to  the  point 
of  their  union,  the  carriage  is  placed  under  it, 
and  it  is  firmly  fixed  down ;  some  weight  is 
taken  off  the  sledge.  The  heavers  now  begin  to 
turn  at  both  ends;  those  at  the  tackle-board 
continue  to  turn  as  they  did  before,  but  the 
heavers  at  the  sledge  turn  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion to  their  former  motion,  so  that  the  cranks 
at  both  ends  are  now  turning  one  way.  By  the 
motion  of  the  sledge-crank  the  top  is  forced 
away  from  the  knot,  and  the  rope  begins  to 
close.  The  heaving  at  the  upper  end  restores  lo 
the  strands  the  twist  which  they  are  constantly 
losing  by  the  laying  of  the  rope.  The  workmen 
judge  of  this  by  making  a  chalk  mark  on  the  in- 
termediate points  of  the  strands,  where  they  lie 
on  the  stakes  which  are  set  up  along  the  walk 
for  their  support.  If  the  twist  of  the  strands  is 
diminished  by  the  motion  of  closing  they  will 
lengthen,  and  the  chalk  mark  will  move  away 
from  the  tackle-board  ;  but,  if  the  twist  increases 
by  turning  the  cranks  at  the  tackle-board,  the 
strands  will  shorten  and  the  mark  will  come 
nearer  to  it.  As  the  closing  of  the  rope  ad- 
vances the  whole  shortens,  and  the  sledge  is 
dragged  up  the  walk.  The  top  moves  faster, 
and  at  last  reaches  the  upper  end  of  the  walk, 
the  rope  being  now  laid. 

In  the  mean  time  the  sledge  has  moved  several 
fathoms  from  the  place  where  it  was  when  the 
laying  began.  These  motions  of  the  sledge  and 
top  must  be  exactly  adjusted  to  each  other.  The 
rope  must  lie  of  a  .certain  length,  therefore  the 
sledge  must  stop  at  a  certain  place.  At  that  mo- 
ment the  rope  should  be  laid ;  that  is,  the  top 
should  be  at  the  tackle-board.  In  this  consists 
the  address  of  the  foreman.  He  has  his  attention 
directed  both  ways.  He  looks  at  the  strands, 


44 


ROPE-MAKING. 


and,  when  he  sees  any  hanging  slacker  between 
the  stakes  than  the  others,  he  calls  to  the  heavers 
at  the  tackle-board  to  heave  more  upon  that 
strand.  He  finds  it  more  difficult  to  regulate  the 
motion  of  the  top.  It  requires  a  considerable 
force  to  keep  it  in  the  angle  of  the  strands,  and 
it  is  always  disposed  to  start  forward.  To  pre- 
rent  or  check  this,  some  straps  of  soft  rope  are 
brought  round  the  staff  of  the  top,  and  then 
wrapped  several  times  round  the  rope  behind 
the  top,  and  kept  firmly  down  by  a  lanyard  or 
bandage.  This  both  holds  back  the  top  and 
greatly  assists  the  laying  of  the  rope,  causing  the 
strands  to  fall  into  their  places,  and  keep  close 
to  each  other,  which  is  sometimes  very  difficult, 
especially  in  ropes  composed  of  more  than  three 
strands.  It  will  greatly  improve  the  laying  the 
rope,  if  the  top  has  a  sharp,  smooth,  tapering 
pin  of  hard  wood,  pointed  at  the  end,  projecting 
so  far  from  the  middle  of  its  smaller  end  that  it 
gets  in  between  the  strands  which  are  closing. 
This  supports  them,  and  makes  their  closing 
more  gradual  and  regular.  The  top,  its  notches, 
the  pin,  and  the  warp  or  strap,  which  is  lapped 
round  the  rope,  are  all  smeared  with  grease  or 
soap,  to  assist  the  closing.  The  foreman  judges 
of  the  progress  of  closing  chiefly  by  his  acquaint- 
ance with  the  walk,  knowing  that  when  the 
sledge  is  a-breast  of  a  certain  stake  the  top  should 
be  a-breast  of  a  certain  other  stake.  When  he 
finds  the  top  too  far  down  the  walk  he  slackens 
the  motion  at  the  tackle-board,  and  makes  the 
men  turn  briskly  at  the  sledge.  By  this  the  top 
is  forced  up  the  walk,  and  the  laying  of  the  rope 
accelerates,  while  the  sledge  remains  in  the 
same  place,  because  the  strands  are  losing  their 
twist,  and  are  lengthening,  while  the  closed  rope 
is  shortening.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
thinks  the  top  too  far  advanced,  and  fears  that  it 
will  be  at  the  head  of  the  walk  before  the  sledge 
has  got  to  its  proper  place,  he  makes  the  men 
heave  briskly  on  the  strands,  and  the  heavers  at 
the  sledge  crank  work  softly.  This  quickens  the 
motion  of  the  sledge  by  shortening  the  strands  ; 
and,  by  thus  compensating  what  has  been  over- 
done, the  sledge  and  top  come  to  their  places  at 
once,  and  the  work  appears  to  answer  the  inten- 
tion. When  the  top  approaches  the  tackle-board 
the  heaving  at  the  sledge  could  not  cause  the 
strands  immediately  behind  the  top  to  close  well, 
without  having  previously  produced  an  extrava- 
gant degree  of  twist  in  the  intermediate  rope. 
The  effort  of  the  crank  must,  therefore,  be  assist- 
ed by  men  stationed  along  the  rope,  each  fur- 
nished with  a  tool  called  a  woolder.  This  is  a 
stout  oaken  stick,  about  three  feet  long,  having  a 
strap  of  soft  rope-yarn  or  cordage,  fastened  on 
its  middle  or  end.  The  strap  is  wrapped  round 
the  laid  rope,  and  the  workman  works  with  the 
stick  as  a  lever,  twisting  the  rope  round  in  the 
direction  of  the  crank's  motion.  The  woolders 
should  keep  their  eye  on  the  man  at  the  crank, 
and  make  their  motion  correspond  with  his. 
Thus  they  send  forward  the  twist  produced 
by  the  crank,  without  either  increasing  or  dimi- 
nishing it,  in  that  part  of  the  rope  which  lies 
between  them  and  the  sledge.  Such  is  the 
general  and  essential  process  of  rope  making. 


The  fibres  of  hemp  are  twisted  into  yarns,  that 
they  vnay  make  a  line  of  any  length,  and  stick, 
among  each  other  with  a  force  equal  to  their 
own  cohesion.  The  yarns  are  made  into  cords 
of  permanent  twist  by  laying  them  ;  and  that  we 
may  have  a  rope  of  any  degree  of  strength  many 
yarns  are  united  in  one  strand,  for  the  same  rea- 
son that  many  fibres  were  united  in  one  yarn  ; 
and  in  the  course  of  this  process  it  is  in  our 
power  to  give  the  rope  a  solidity  and  hardness 
which  make  it  less  penetrable  by  water,  which 
would  rot  it  in  a  short  while.  Some  of  these 
purposes  are  inconsistent  with  others :  and  the 
skill  of  a  rope-maker  lies  in  making  the  best 
compensation,  so  that  the  rope  may,  on  the 
whole,  be  the  best  in  point  of  strength,  pliancy, 
and  duration,  that  the  quantity  of  hemp  in  it  can 
produce.  The  following  rule  for  judging  of  the 
weight  which  a  rope  will  bear  is  not  far  from  the 
truth.  It  supposes  them  rather  too  strong  ;  but 
it  is  so  easily  remembered  that  it  may  be  of  use. 
Multiply  the  circumference  in  inches  by  itself, 
and  take  the  fifth  part  of  the  product,  it  will  ex- 
press the  tons  which  the  rope  will  carry.  Thus, 
if  the  rope  ha*  six  inches  circumference,  six 
times  six  is  thirty-six,  the  fifth  of  which  is  seven 
tons  and  one-fifth. 

It  is  usual  in  coWes,and  in  other  cases,  to  have 
recourse  to  the  operation  of  tarring.  This  is  often 
done  in  the  state  of  twine  or  yarn,  as  being  t  he  best 
mode  by  which  the  hemp  can  be  uniformly  pene- 
trated. The  yarn  is  made  to  wind  off  from  one  reel,, 
and,  having  passed  through  a  vessel  of  liquid  hot 
tar,  is  wound  on  another  reel ;  the  superfluous  tar 
is  taken  off  by  passing  through  a  hole  surround- 
ed with  oakum  :  or  it  is  sometimes-  tarred  in 
skeins,  %vhich  are  drawn  by  a  capstern  through  a 
tar-kettle,  and  a  hole  formed  by  two  plates  of 
metal,  held  together  by  a  lever,  loaded  with  a 
weight.  There  is  this  peculiarity  to  be  noticed 
— tarred  cordage  is  weaker,  when  new,  than 
white,  and  the  difference  increases  by  the  keep- 
ing. From  some  very  accurate  experiments  made 
more  than  half  a  century  ago,  it  was  found  that, 
on  newly-made  cordage,  the  white  was  one-eighth 
stronger  than  that  which  was  tarred  ;  that,  at  the 
expiration  of  three  months,  the  difference  in 
favor  of  the  new  was  almost  one-fourth  ;  and,  in 
about  three  years  and  a  half,  the  difference  was 
as  twenty-nine  to  eighteen.  From  these,  and 
other  experiments,  it  was  ascertained,  1.  That 
white  cordage  in  continual  service  is  one-third 
more  durable  than  that  which  is  subjected  to  the 
operation  of  tarring.  2.  That  H  retains  its 
strength  much  longer  while  kept  in  t^e  ware- 
house. 3.  That  it  resists  the  ordinary  injuries 
of  the  weather  one*fourth  longer.  It  may  then  be 
asked,  Why  is  tar  ever  used  by  the  rope-maker  ? 
Because  white  cordage,  when  exposed  to  be  alter- 
nately very  wet  and  dry,  is  weaker  than  that 
which  is  tarred,  and  to  this  cables  and  ground- 
tackle  are  continually  subjected.  It  has  also  been 
pretty  well  ascertained  that  cordage  which  is 
only  superficially  tarred  is  constantly  stronger 
than  that  which  is  tarred  throughout. 

Before  we  conclude  this  article  we  may  notice 
Mr.  Chapman's  method  of  making  ropes  and 
cordage,  for  which  he  obtained,  some  years  since, 


ROP  4 

his  majesty's  letters  patent.  The  specifications 
may  be  found  in  the  ninth  volume  of  the  First 
Series  of  the  Repertory.  It  is  too  long  to  be 
admitted  in  our  work ;  the  following  is,  however, 
an  outline  of  the  whole  : — 

Rope-yams  are  spun  either  by  hand,  or  by 
machinery  :  in  the  practice  of  the  first  method 
rope-walks  are  necessary,  and  the  fibres  of  the 
hemp  are  drawn  into  the  yarn  of  different  lengths 
proportionate  in  a  given  degree  to  their  position 
on  the  outside  or  inside  of  the  yarn;  accordingly, 
when  this  yarn  is  strained,  and  its  diameter  col- 
lapses, the  inside  fibres  of  hemp  bear  the  greatest 
•strain,  and  thus  they  break  progressively  from  the 
inside.  In  the  spinning  by  a  mill  the  fibres  are 
all  brought  forward  in  a  position  parallel  to  each 
other,  previously  to  their  receiving  their  twist. 
They  are  consequently  all  of  one  length ;  and, 
when  twisted,  the  outside  fibres  are  most  short- 
ened by  forming  the  same  number  of  spirals 
round  a  greater  axis  than  the  interior,  and  thus 
they  must  consequently  break  the -first,  on  the 
same  principle  that  the  outside  yarns  of  strands 
of  ropes  manufactured  in  the  old  method  break 
before  the  interior  yarns ;  and  consequently  with 
less  strain  than  ropes  of  the  improved  principle, 
where  the  strands  (or  immediate  component 
parts  of  the  rope)  have  been  formed  in  such  a 
manner  as  that  all  the  yarns  shall  bear  equally 
at  the  time  of  the  rope's  breaking.  Nevertheless 
yarns  spun  by  a  mill  have  been  found  stronger 
than  common  yarns,  on  account  of  the  great 
evenness  with  which  they  are  spun ;  the  manual 
labor  in  manufacturing  is  much  less  than  in  the 
common  method  :  but  on  the  other  hand  there  is 
the  expense  of  machinery,  and  the  greater  waste 
of  hemp  in  preparing  it  for  being  drawn  out  in  the 
progressive  stages  of  its  advance  to  the  spindle. 

The  method  invented  by  Mr.  Chapman  differs 
from  both  the  preceding,  in  causing,  by  an  easy 
and  simple  contrivance,  the  fibres  of  the  hemp  to 
be  laid  in  the  yarn  in  such  a  manner  as  the  yarns 
themselves  are  laid  in  the  strands  of  the  rope 
manufactured  on  the  new  principle.  The  ma- 
chinery consists  only  of  a  spindle  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  upper  containing  apparatus  to 
draw  forward  the  hemp  from  the  spinner  with 
zwist  sufficient  to  combine  the  fibres ;  which 
enables  him  to  employ  women,  children,  and  in- 
valids, and  also  to  appropriate  the  rope-ground 
solely  to  the  purpose  of  laying  ropes.  The  re- 
maining parts  of  the  invention  consist  chiefly 
in  giving  from  a  stationary  power  internal  mo- 
tion to  a  loco-motive  machine,  viz.  to  the  roper's 
sledge,  on  which  the  strands  and  the  rope  itself 
are  twisted,  by  which  contrivance  they  are  ena- 
bled to  apply  a  water-wheel  or  steam-engine  to 
the  whole  process  of  making  ropes  of  all  kinds 
whatevec. 

Mr.  Hudclart  likewise  obtained  a  patent  for 
an  improved  method  of  registering  or  forming 
strands  in  the  machinery  for  manufacturing 
of  cordage  ;  which  he  effects  in  the  following 
manner  : — 1.  By  keeping  the  yarns  separate 
from  each  other,  and  drawing  them  from  bobbins 
which  revolve  to  keep  up  the  twist  whilst  the 
strand  is  forming.  2.  By  passing  them  through 
a  register,  which  divides  them  by  circular  shells 
of  holes ;  the  number  in  each  shell  being  agree- 


5  ROS 

able  to  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  strand, 
and  the  angle  which  the  yarns  make  with  a  line 
parallel  to  it,  and  which  gives  them  a  proper  po- 
sition to  enter.  3.  A  cylindrical  tube  which  com- 
presses the  strand,  and  maintains  a  cylindrical 
figure  to  its  surface.  4.  A  gauge  to  determine 
the  angle  which  the  yarns  in  the  outside  shall 
make  with  a  line  parallel  to  the  centre  of  the 
strand  when  registering ;  and,  according  to  the 
angle  made  by  the  yarns  in  this  shell,  the  length 
of  all  the  yarns  in  the  strand  will  be  determined. 
5.  By  hardening  up  the  strand,  and  thereby  in- 
creasing the  angle  in  the  outside  shell,  which 
compensates  for  the  stretching  of  the  yarns  and 
the  compression  of  the  strand. 

ROPE-YARN,  among  sailors,  is  the  yarn  of 
any  rope  untwisted,  but  commonly  made  up  of 
junk  :  its  use  is  to  make  sinnet,  mats,  &c. 

ROQ'UELAURE,  n.  s.  Fr.  roqueluure.  A 
cloak  for  men. 

Within  the  roquelaure's  clasp  thy  bands  are  pent. 

Gay. 

RORAAS,  an  inland  town  of  Norway,  in  the 
bishopric  of  Drontheim.  It  stands  on  a  high 
mountain  the  most  elevated  inhabited  situation 
in  the  country.  Frost  and  snow  prevail  during 
almost  the  whole  year.  It  contains  3000  inhab- 
itants, principally  occupied  in  the  copper  mines 
of  the  neighbourhood.  Sixty-seven  miles  S.  S.  E. 
of  Drontheim. 

RO'RID,  adj.     Lat.  roridus.     Dewy. 

A  vehicle  conveys  it  through  less  accessible  cavi- 
ties into  the  liver,  from  thence  into  the  veins  and  so 
in  a  rorid  substance  through  the  capillary  cavities. 
Browns  Vulgar  Errours.* 

RORIDULA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants : 
COR.  pentapetalous :  CAL.  pentaphyllous  :  CAPS. 
bivalved ;  the  antherae  scrotiform  at  the  base. 
Species  one  only,  a  Cape  shrub. 

ROSA  (Salvator),  a  celebrated  painter,  born 
in  Naples  in  1614.  He  was  first  instructed  by 
Francis  Francazano,  a  kinsman  :  but  the  death  of 
his  father  reduced  him  to  sell  drawings  sketched 
upon  paper,  one  of  which  falling  into  the  hands 
of  Lanfranc,  he  took  him  under  his  protection, 
and  enabled  him  to  enter  the  school  of  Spagno- 
letto,  where  he  was  taught  by  Daniel  Falcone,  a 
distinguished  painter  of  battles  at  Naples.  Sal- 
vator had  a  fertile  imagination.  He  studied  na- 
ture with  attention  and  judgment;  and  always 
represented  her  to  the  greatest  advantage.  He. 
was  equally  eminent  for  painting  battles,  ani- 
mals, sea  or  land  storms  ;  and  he  executed  these 
different  subjects  in  a  Style  altogether,  unequalled. 
His  pieces  are  exceedingly  scarce  and  valuable  ; 
one  of  the  finest  is  that  representing  Saul  and 
the  witch  of  Endor,  which  was  preserved  at 
Versailles.  He  died  in  1673  ;  and,  as  his  paint- 
ings are  in  few  hands,  he  is  more  generally 
known  by  his  prints ;  of  which  he  etched  a  great 
number.  They  are  chiefly  historical.  He  is 
said  to  have  spent  the  early  part  of  his  life  among 
a  troop  of  banditti ;  and  that  the  rocky  desolate 
scenes  in  which  he  was  accustomed  to  take  re- 
fuge furnished  him  with  those  romantic  ideas  in 
landscape,  in  the  representation  of  which  he  so 
greatly  excels.  His  robbers,  as  his  detached 
figures  are  commonly  called,  are  supposed  also 


ROSA. 


to  have  been  taken  from  the  life.  He  was  also 
a  musician  ;  as  appears  from  his  musical  MSS. 
purchased  at  Rome  by  Dr.  Burney. 

ROSA,  in  botany,  the  rose,  a  genus  of  the  po- 
lygamia  order,  and  icosandria  class  of  plants  ; 
natural  order  thirty-fifth,  senticosae :  CAL.  ur- 
ceolated,  quinquend,  corneous,  and  straightened 
at  the  neck  ;  petals  five.  The  SEEDS  are  nume- 
rous, hispid,  and  affixed  to  the  inside  of  the 
calyx.  The  different  kinds  of  roses  are  very 
numerous  ;  and  botanists  find  it  very  difficult  to 
determine  with  accuracy  which  are  species  and 
which  are  varieties.  On  this  account  Linnc,and 
some  other  eminent  authors,  are  inclined  to 
think  that  there  is  only  one  real  species  of  rose, 
which  is  the  rosa  cauina,  or  dog-rose  of  the 
hedges,  &c.,  and  that  all  the  other  sorts  are  ac- 
cidental varieties  of  it.  However,  accordins  to 
the  Linnaean  arrangement,  they  stand  divided 
into  fourteen  species,  each  comprehending  va- 
rieties, which  in  some  sorts  are  bat  few,  in  others 
numerous.  The  supposed  species  and  their 
varieties,  according  to  the  arrangement  of  Gme- 
lin,  are  as  follow  : — 

1.  R.  alba,  the  common  white  rose,  grows  five 
or  six   feet   high,    having    a  green   stem  and 
branches,  armed  with  prickles,  hispid  peduncull, 
oval  smooth  germina,  and  large  white  flowers. 
The  varieties  are,  large  double  white  rose,  dwarf 
single  white  rose,  maiden's-blush  white  rose,  being 
large,  produced  in  clusters,  and  of  a  white  and 
blush  red  color. 

2.  R.  alpma,  the  alpine  inermous  rose,  grows 
five  or  eight  feet  high,  having  smooth  or  un- 
armed reddish  branches,  pinnated  seven-lobed 
smooth  leaves,  somewhat  hispid  pedunculi,  oval 
germina,  and  deep-red  single  flowers ;  appearing 
in  May.    This  species,  as  being  free  from  all 
kind  of  armature  common  to  the  other  sorts  of 
roses,  is  esteemed  as  a  singularity ;  and   from 
this  property  is  often  called  the  virgin  or  thorn- 
less  rose. 

3.  R.  canina,  the  canine  rose,  wild  dog-rose 
of  the  hedges,  or  hep-tree,  grows  five  or  six  feet 
high,  having  prickly  stalks  and  branches,  pin- 
nated, five  or  seven-lobed  leaves,  with  aculeated 
foot-stalks,  smooth  pedunculi,  oval  smooth  ger- 
mina,.and  small  single  flowers.     There  are  two 
varieties,  red-flowered  and  white-flowered.  They 
grow  wild  in  hedges  abundantly  all  over  the 
kingdom ;    and  are  sometimes    admitted    into 
gardens,  to  increase  the  variety  of  the  shrubbery 
collection. 

4.  R.  Carolinensis,  the  Carolina  and  Virginia 
rose,  &c.,  grows  six  or  eight  feet  high,  or  more, 
having   smooth   reddish    branches,  very  thinly 
aculeated  ;  pinnated  seven-lcbed  smooth  leaves, 
with  prickly  foot-stalks;   somewhat  hispid  pe- 
dunculi, globose  hispid  germen,  and  single  red 
flowers  in   clusters,  appearing  mostly  in  August 
and  September.     The  varieties  are,  dwarf  Penn- 
sylvanian    rose,    with    single  and   double   red 
flowers,  and  American  pale-red  rose.    This  spe- 
cies grows  naturally  in  different  parts  of  North 
America,  and  often  continues  in  blow  from  Au- 
gust until  October;  and   the  flowers   are   suc- 
ceeded   by   numerous   red    berry-like   heps   in 
autumn,  causing  a  variety  all  winter. 

5.  R.  centifolia,  the  hundred-leaved  red  rose, 


&c.,  grows  from  about  three  or  four  to  six  o 
eight  feet  high,  with  pinnated  three  and  five- 
lobed  leaves  ;  and  large  very  double  red  flowers, 
having  very  numerous  petals,  and  of  different 
shades  in  the  varieties.  The  varieties  are,  com- 
mon Dutch  hundred-leaved  rose,  grows  three  or 
four  feet  high,  with  erect  greenish  branches,  but 
moderately  armed  with  prickles ;  and  large 
remarkably  double  red  flowers,  with  short  regu- 
larly arranged  petals.  Blush  hundred-leaved 
rose,  grows  like  the  other,  with  large  very  double 
pale-red  flowers.  Provence  rose  grows  five  or 
six  feet  with  greenish-brown  prickly  branches, 
and  very  large  double  globular  red  flowers,  with 
large  petals  folding  over  one  another,  more  or 
less  in  the  varieties.  The  varieties  are,  common 
red  Provence  rose,  and  pale  Provence  rose ; 
both  of  which  having  larger  and  somewhat 
looser  petals  than  the  following  sort : — cabbage 
Provence  rose;  having  the  petals  closely  folded 
over  one  another  like  cabbages.  Dutch  cabbage 
rose,  very  large.  Childing  Provence  rose.  Great 
royal  rose,  grows  six  or  eight  feet  high,  pro- 
ducing remarkably  large,  somewhat  loose,  but 
very  elegant  flowers.  All  these  are  large  double 
red  flowers,  somewhat  globular  at  first  blowing, 
becoming  gradually  a  little  spreading  at  top,  and 
are  very  ornamental  fragrant  roses.  Moss  Pro- 
vence rose,  supposed  a  variety  of  the  common 
rose  ;  grows  erectly  four  or  five  feet  high,  having 
brownish  stalks  and  branches,  very  closely  armed 
with  short  prickles,  and  double  crimson-red 
flowers  ;  having  the  calyx  and  upper  part  of 
the  peduncle  surrounded  with  a  rough  mossy- 
like  substance,  effecting  a  curious  singularity. 
This  is  a  fine  delicate  rose,  of  a  high  fragrance, 
which,  together  with  its  mossy  calyx,  renders  it 
a  most  beautiful  flower. 

6.  R.  cinnamonea,  the  cinnamon  rose,  grows 
five   or   six  feet  high,  or  more,  with  purplish 
branches  thinly  aculeated;  pinnated  five  or  seven 
lobed  leaves,  having  almost  inermous  petioles, 
smooth  pedunculi,  and  smooth  globular  germina; 
with  small  purplish  red  cinnamon-scented  flowers 
early  in  May.    There  are  varieties  with  double 
flowers. 

7.  R.  eglanteria,  the  eglantine  rose  or  sweet 
briar,  grows  five  or  six  feet  high,  having  green 
branches,  armed  with  strong  spines  sparsedly ; 
pinnated   seven-lobed  odoriferous  leaves,  with 
acute  folioles  and  rough  foot-stalks,  smooth  pe- 
dunculi, globular   smooth  germina,  and   small 
pale-red   flowers.    The   varieties  are,  common 
single  flowered,  semi-double  flowered,  double- 
flowered,  blush  double-flowered,    and  yellow- 
flowered.     This  species  grows  naturally  in  some 
parts  of  England,  and  in  Switzerland.     It  claims 
culture  in  every  garden  for  the  odoriferous  pro- 
perty of  its  leaves  :  and  should  be  planted  in  the 
borders,  and  other  compartments  contiguous  to 
walks,  or  near  the  habitation,  where  the  plants 
will  impart  their  refreshing  fragrance  very  pro- 
fusely around  ;  and  the  young  branches  are  ex- 
cellent for  improving  the  odor  of  nosegays  and 
bow-pots. 

8.  R.  gallica,  the  gallican   rose,  &c.,  grows 
from  about   three  or  four  to  eight  or  ten  feet 
high,  in  different  varieties;  with  pinnated, three, 
five,  or  seven-lobed  leaves,  and  large  red   ami 


ROSA. 


47 


other  colored   flowers  in  different  sorts.     This 
species  is  very  extensive  in  supposed  varieties, 
bearing  the  above  specific  distinction,  several  of 
which  have  been  formerly  considered  as  distinct 
species,  but  are  now  ranged  among  the  varieties 
of  the  Galician  rose,  consisting  of  the  following 
noted  varieties:  common  red  officinal  rose,  grows 
erect,  about  three  or  four  feet  high,  having  small 
branches,  with  but  few  prickles,  and  large  spread- 
ing half-double  deep  red  flowers.     Rosa  mundi 
(rose  of  the  world)  or  striped  red  rose  is  a  va- 
riety of  the  common  red  rose,  growing  but  three 
or  four  feet  high,  having  large  spreading  semi- 
double   red     flowers,    beautifully   striped   with 
white   and    deep    red.      York    and    Lancaster 
variegated   rose   grows    five,  six,  or  eight  feet 
high,  or  more;  bearing  variegated  red  flowers, 
consisting  of  a  mixture  of  red  and  white;  also 
frequently  disposed  in  elegant  stripes,  sometimes 
in  half  of  the  flower,  and  sometimes  in  some  of 
the  petals.     Monthly  rose  grows  about  four  or 
five  feet  high,  with  green  very  prickly  shoots; 
producing  middle-fixed,  moderately  double,  de- 
licate flowers,  of  different  colors  in  the  varieties. 
The  varieties  are,  common  red-flowered  monthly 
rose,  blush-flowered,  white-flowered,  and  stripe- 
flowered.     All  of  which  blow  both   early  and 
late,  and  often  produce  flowers  several  months 
in  the  year,  as  May,  June,  and  July  ;  and   fre- 
quently   again    in   August   or   September,   and 
sometimes,  in  fine  mild   seasons,  continue   till 
November    or    December :     hence    the    name 
monthly   rose.     Double-virgin   rose  grows   five 
or  six  feet  high,  having  greenish  branches  with 
scarcely  any  spines ;  and  with  large  double  pale- 
red  and  very  fragrant  flowers.     Red  damask-rose 
K'rows  eight  or  ten   feet  high,  having  greenish 
branches,  armed  with  short  aculea ;  and  mode- 
rately double,  fine  soft  red,  very  fragrant  flowers. 
White  damask-rose  grows  eight  or  ten  feet  high, 
with  greenish  very  prickly  branches,  and  whitish- 
red  flowers,  becoming  gradually  of  a  whiter  color. 
Blush    Belgic   rose   grows    three   or    four    feet 
high,  or  more ;  having  greenish  prickly  branches, 
five  or  seven-lobed  leaves,  and  numerous,  very 
double,   blush-red   flowers,   with    short    petals, 
evenly   arranged.      Red    Belgic    rose,    having 
greenish   and  red  shoots   and    leaves,    and  fine 
double   deep-red  flowers.      Velvet  rose  grows 
three  or  four  feet  high,   armed    with  but   few 
prickles,  producing  large  velvet-red  flowers  com- 
prising semi-double  and  double  varieties,  all  very 
beautiful  roses.    Marbled  rose  grows  four  or  five 
feet  high,  having  brownish  branches,   with  but 
few  prickles ;  and  large,  double,  finely-marbled, 
red    flowers.      Red-and-yellow   Austrian     rose 
grows  five  or  six  feet  high,  having  slender  reddish 
branches,   armed   with  short   brownish   aculea; 
and  with  flowers  of  a  reddish  copper-color  on 
one  side,  the  other  side  yellow.  Yellow  Austrian 
rose   grows  five  or  six  feet  high,  having  reddish 
very  prickly  shoots,  and  numerous  bright-yellow 
flowers.     Double  yellow  rose  grows  six  or  seven 
fpet  high ;  with  brownish  branches,  armed  with 
numerous  large  and   small  yellowish  prickles; 
and  large  very  double  yellow  flowers.    Francfort 
rose   grows  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  is  a  vigorous 
shooter,   with  brownish  branches  thinly   armed 
with  strong  prickles,  and  produces  largish  double 


purplish-red  flowers,  that  blow  irregularly,  and 
have  but  little  fragrance. 

9.  R.  moschata,  the  musk-rose,  supposed  to  be 
a  variety  only  of  the  ever-green  musk-rose,  has 
weak  smooth  green  stalks  and  branches,  rising 
by  support  from  six  to  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  or 
more  thinly  armed  with  strong  spines,  pinnated 
seven-lobed   smooth   leaves,  with    prickly  foot- 
stalks,  hispid   peduncles,   oval  hispid  germen ; 
and  all  the  branches  terminated   by   large  um- 
bellated    clusters   of   pure-white    musk-scented 
flowers,  in  August,  &c. 

10.  R.  pim pinellifolia,  the  burnet-leaved  rose, 
grows  about  a  yard  high,  aculeated  sparsedly ; 
small  neatly  pinnated  seven  lobed  leaves,  having 
obtuse  folioles  and  rough   petioles,  smooth   pe- 
duncles, a  globular  smooth  germen,  and  small 
single  flowers.      There   are   varieties   with   red 
flowers,  and    with   white   flowers.     They  grow 
wild  in  England,  &c.,  and  are  cultivated  in  shrub- 
beries for  variety. 

11.  R.   sempervirens,   the   ever-green    musk 
rose,  has  a  somewhat  trailing  stalk  and  branches, 
rising  by  support  five  or  six  feet  high  or  more, 
having   a   smooth   bark   armed   with   prickles ; 
pinnated   five-lobed  smooth  shining  ever-green 
leaves,  with  prickly  petioles,  hispid  pedunculi, 
oval  hispid  germen ;  and  all  the  branches  termi- 
nated  by   clusters   of  pure    while-flowers    of  a 
musky  fragrance  ;  appearing  in  the  end  of  July, 
and  in  August.     The  ever-green  property  of  this 
elegant  species   renders   it  a  curiosity  ;  it  also 
makes  a  fine  appearance  as  a  flowering  shrub. 
There  is  one  variety,  the  deciduous  musk-rose. 
This  species  and  variety  flower  in  August,  and 
are  remarkable  for  producing  in  numerous  clus- 
ters,  continuing   in   succession  till  October  or 
November. 

12.  R.  spinosissima,  the  most  spinous,  dwarf 
burnet-leaved  rose,  commonly  called  Scotch  rose, 
grows  but  two  or  three  feet  high,  very  closely 
armed  with  spines;  small  neatly  pinnated  seven- 
lobed  leaves,  with    prickly   foot-stalks,  prickly 
pedunculi,  oval  smooth   germen,  and  numerous 
small  single  flowers,  succeeded  by  round  dark- 
purple  heps.      The  varieties  are  common  white- 
flowered,    red-flowered,    striped-flowered,    and 
marble-flowered.     They  grow  naturally  in  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  &c.  The  first  variety  rises  nearly 
a  yard  high,  the  others  about  one  or  two  feet,  all 
of  which  are  single-flowered  ;  but  the  flowers, 
being  numerous  all  over  the  branches,  make  a 
pretty  appearance  in  the  collection. 

13.  R.  villosa,  the  villose  apple-bearing  rose, 
grows  six  or  eight  feet  high,  having  strong  erect 
brownish-smooth  branches,  aculeated  sparsedly 
pinnated    seven-lobed    villose   or   hairy   leaves 
downy    underneath,    with    prickly    foot-stalks, 
hispid    peduncles,  a  globular  prickly  germen; 
and  large  single  red  flowers,  succeeded  by  large 
round  prickly  heps,  as  big  as  little  apples.    This 
species  merits  admittance  into  every  collection 
as  a  curiosity  for  the  singularity  of  its  fruit, 
both  for  variety  and  use ;  for  it,  having  a  thick 
pulp  of  an  agreeable  acid  relish,  is  often  made 
into  a  tolerably   good  sweetmeat.     The   above 
thirteen  species  of  rosa,  and  their  respective  va- 
rieties, are  of  the  shrub  kind ;  all  deciduous  ex- 
cept R.  sempervirens,  and  of  hardy  growth,  sue- 


ROS 


48 


ROS 


ceeding  in  any  common  soil  and  situation,  and 
flowering  annually  in  great  abundance  from  May 
till  October,  in  different  sorts,  though  the  general 
flowering  season  for  the  principal  part  of  them 
is  June  and  July  ;  but  in  a  full  collection  of  the 
different  species  the  blow  is  continued  in  con- 
stant succession  several  months,  even  sometimes 
from  May  till  nearly  Christmas ;  producing  their 
flowers  universally  on  the  same  year's  shoots, 
rising  from  those  the  year  before,  generally  on 
long  pedunculi,  each  terminated  by  one  or  more 
roses,  which  in  their  characteristic  state  consist 
each  of  five  large  petals  and  many  stamina  ;  but 
in  the  doubles  the  petals  are  very  numerous; 
and  in  some  sorts  the  flowers  are  succeeded  by 
fruit  ripening  to  a  red  color  in  autumn  and 
winter,  from  the  seed  of  which  the  plants  may  be 
raised :  but  the  most  certain  and  eligible  mode  of 
propagating  most  of  the  sorts  is  by  suckers  and 
layers ;  and  by  which  methods  they  may  be  in- 
creased very  expeditiously.  The  white  and  red 
roses  are  used  in  medicine.  The  former  dis- 
tilled with  water  yields  a  small  portion  of  a 
Lutyraceous  oil,  whose  flavor  exactly  resembles 
that  of  the  roses  themselves.  This  oil  and  the 
distilled  water  are  very  useful  and  agreeable  cor- 
dials. These  roses  also,  besides  the  cordial  and 
aromatic  virtues  which  reside  in  the  volatile 
parts,  have  a  mild  purgative  one,  which  remains 
entire  in  the  decoction  left  after  distillation.  The 
red  rose,  on  the  contrary,  has  an  astringent  and 
corroborating  virtue. 

ROSA,  MOUNT,  one  of  the  Alpine  heights,  and 
next  to  Mont  Blanc,  the  highest  mountain  in 
Europe.  It  stands  between  the  canton  of  the  Va- 
lais  and  Piedmont,  to  the  east  of  Mont  Cervin, 
Switzerland.  Saussure  calculated  it  to  be  15,600 
feet  above  the  sea,  or  only  seventy  feet  lower 
than  Mont  Blanc ;  Sir  George  Shuckburgh  calls 
it  15,240  feet  above  the  Mediterranean.  It  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  lofty  peaks,  all  rising  from 
a  centre  somewhat  like  the  leaves  of  a  rose. 

11OSALBA  (Cariera),  a  Venetian  lady,  born 
in  1675,  who  became  an  eminent  paintress.  She 
painted  portaits  in  crayons  and  miniatures,  and 
was  greatly  employed  by  the  English  nobility. 
She  died  in  1755,  aged  eighty. 

ROSAMOND,  the  daughter  of  Walter  lord 
Clifford,  and  concubine  of  Henry  II.,  was  a  lady 
of  exquisite  beauty,  educated  in  the  nunnery  of 
Godstow.  The  popular  story  of  her  is  as  follows  : 
— Henry  II.  loved  her,  and  triumphed  over  her 
honor.  To  avoid  the  jealousy  of  his  queen  Eleanor 
he  kept  her  in  a  labyrinth  at  Woodstock,  and 
by  his  connexion  with  her  had  William  Long- 
sword  earl  of  Salisbury,  and  Geoffrey  bishop  of 
Lincoln.  On  Henry's  absence  in  France,  how- 
ever, tke  queen  discovered  and  poisoned  her. 
The  queen,  it  is  said,  discovered  her  apartment 
by  a  thread  of  silk.  Some  assert  that  she  died 
a  natural  death  ;  and  the  story  of  her  being  poi- 
soned is  by  them  said  to  have  arisen  from  the 
figure  of  a  cup  on  her  tomb.  She  was  buried 
in  the  church  of  Godstow,  opposite  to  the  high 
altar,  where  her  body  remained  till  it  was  ordered 
to  be  removed  with  every  mark  of  indignity  by 
Hugh  bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1191.  She  was,  how- 
ever, by  many  considered  as  a  saint  after  her 
death,  and  fabuloyus  legends  were  invented  about 
her. 


RO'SARY,  n.  s.  Lat.  rosarium.  A  bunch  of 
beads,  on  which  the  Romanists  number  their 
prayers. 

No  rosary  this  votress  needs, 

Her  very  syllables  are  beads.  Cleave  land, 

Every  day  propound  to  yourself  a  rotary  or  a 
chaplet  of  good  works,  to  present  to  God  at  night. 

Taylor. 

ROS'CID,  adj.  Lat.  roscidus.  Dewy; 
abounding  with  dew ;  consisting  of  dew. 

\V  ine  is  to  be  forborn  in  consumptions,  for  the 
spirits  of  wine  prey  upon  the  roscid  juice  of  the  body. 

Bacon. 

The  ends  of  rainbows  fall  more  upon  one  kind  of 
earth  than  upon  another;  for  that  earth  is  most 
roscid.  Jdt 

ROSCIUS  (Quintus),  an  eminent  Roman 
actor,  so  highly  celebrated  in  comedy  that  his 
name  is  applied  as  the  best  encomium  to  all 
modern  comedians  of  great  merit.  He  was  inti- 
mate with  Cicero  and  ./Esop  the  comedian  ;  and 
was  so  much  admired  by  the  Romans  that  they 
gave  him  a  pension  for  life.  His  eyes  being 
distorted  he  wore  a  mask  at  first  on  the  stage ; 
but  the  Romans  caused  him  to  lay  it  aside,  that 
they  might  enjoy  his  oratory  more  fully.  Being 
calumniated  by  his  enemies,  Cicero,  who  had 
been  his  pupil,  defended  him  in  an  elegant  ora- 
tion, which  is  still  extant.  Roscius  wrote  a 
treatise,  in  which  he  compared,  with  great  talent, 
the  profession  of  the  orator  with  that  of  the  come- 
dian ;  of  both  which  he  was  a  competent  judge. 
He  died  about  A.  A.  C.  60. 

ROSCOMMON  (Wentworth  Dillon),  earl  of, 
a  celebrated  poet  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
born  in  Ireland,  under  the  administration  of  the 
first  earl  of  Strafford,  who  was  his  uncle,  and 
from  whom  he  received  the  name  of  Wentworth 
at  his  baptism.      He  passed  his  infancy  in  Ire- 
land ;  after  which  the  earl  of  Strafford  sent  for 
him  into  England,  and  placed  him  at  his  own 
seat  in  Yorkshire,  under  the  tuition  of  Dr.  Hall, 
afterwards  bishop  of  Norwich,  who  instructed 
him  in  Latin.     On  the  earl  of  Stafford's  im- 
peachment he  went  to  complete  his  education  at 
Caen  in  Normandy ;  and  after  some  years  tra- 
velled to  Rome.      He  returned  to  England  soon 
after  the  Restoration,  and  was  made  captain  of 
the  band  of  pensioners  ;  but  a  dispute  with  the 
lord  privy-seal  obliged  him  to  resign  his  post, 
and  revisit  Ireland,  where  the  duke  of  Ormond 
appointed  him  captain  of  the  guards.     Being  at- 
tacked one  night  when  coming  out  of  a  gaming 
house  by  three  ruffians,  he  had  despatched  one  of 
them,  when  a  disbanded  officer  coming  past  gene- 
rously took  his  part  and  disarmed  the  other,  on 
which  the  third  fled.    The  earl  next  day  reward- 
ed his  brave  assistant  by  resigning  to  him  his 
post  of  captain  of  the  guards.      He  returned  to 
London,  was  made  master  of  the  horse  to  the 
dutchess  of  York,  and  married  the  lady  Frances, 
eldest  daughter  of  Richard  earl  of  Burlington. 
He  here  distinguished  himself  by  his  writings. 
In  1683 he  was  seized  with  the  gout;  and,  being 
too  impatient  of  pain,  he  permitted  a  French 
empiric  to  apply  a  repelling  medicine  to  give 
him  relief;  which  drove  the  distemper  into  his 
bowels,  and  put.  a  period  to  his  life  in  January 
1684.     He  was  buried  with  great  pomp  in  West- 


ROS 


49 


ROS 


minster-abbey.  His  poems,  which  are  not  nume- 
-ous,  are  in  the  body  of  English  poetry  collected 
by  Dr.  Johnson.  His  Essay  on  Translated  Verse, 
and  his  translation  of  Horace's  Art  of  Poetry, 
have  great  merit. 

ROSCOMMOS,  a  county  of  Ireland,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Connaught,  hounded  on  the  east  by  the 
counties  of  Leitrim,  Longford,  and  Meath ;  on 
the  north  by  Sligo  and  Leitrim  ;  on  the  south  by 
Galway  ;  and  on  the  west  by  part  of  Galway  and 
Mayo,  being  about  forty-seven  miles  in  length, 
and  nine  to  twenty-nine  in  breadth.  It  is  very 
fruitful,  and  in  general  level,  having  but  few 
hills.  It  yields  excellent  corn,  as  well  as  pastu- 
rage ;  but  there  are  some  extensive  bogs.  The 
chief  town  is  Athlone,  but  the  assizes  are  held  at 
Roscommon,  the  shire  town,  situated  sixty-nine 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Dublin. 

ROSCOE,  William,  was  born  in  1752.  His 
parents  were  in  an  humble  sphere  of  life,  and 
could  only  afford  him  a  common  school  educa- 
tion ;  and  even  this  was  interrupted.  At  an  early 
age,  he  was  articled  to  an  attorney  in  Liverpool ; 
and  this  obliged  him  to  study  the  Latin  lan- 
guage ;  but  he  did  not  confine  himself  to  what 
was  necessary  to  his  profession,  and  by  dint  of 
hard  study,  he  read  and  made  himself  master  of 
the  most  distinguished  Latin  classics.  In  this 
he  was  assisted  by  a  friend.  He  next  studied 
the  Italian  and  French  languages,  and  in  the  for- 
mer he  became  uncommonly  proficient.  He  still 
found  time  to  attend  to  his  business,  and  to 
peruse  the  English  poets.  At  the  age  of  sixteen, 
he  commenced  poet,  and  composed  Mount 
Pleasant,  a  descriptive  poem.  H  iving  finished 
his  clerkship,  he  was  taken  into  partnership,  by 
Mr.  Aspinall,  an  attorney  of  considerable  prac- 
tice ;  and  he  carried  on  the  whole  of  the  busi- 
ness, to  which  he  paid  a  strict  attention.  Dur- 
ing this  period  he  contracted  a  friendship  with 
doctor  Enfield  and  doctor  Aikin.  Painting  and 
statuary  were  also  objects  of  his  attention,  and, 
in  1773,  he  read,  at  the  society  in  Liverpool,  an 
ode  on  those  subjects,  and  also  sometimes  read 
lectures  there.  When  the  question  of  the  slave- 
trade  was  brought  before  the  public,  Mr.  Roscoe 
took  a  warm  part  in  favor  of  the  abolition,  and 
most  cordially  joined  Mr.  Clarkson  in  his  en- 
deavors. He  wrote  a  reply  to  a  Spanish  Jesuit  on 
that  subject.  His  Scriptural  Refutation  of  a  Pam- 
phlet on  the  Licitness  of  the  Slave-Trade,  and 
his  Wrongs  of  Africa,  appeared  in  1788  ;  and, 
in  1795,  he  brought  out  the  work  which  has 
gained  him  so  much  celebrity — the  Life  of  Lo- 
renzo de*  Medici.  About  the  year  1797,  Mr. 
Roscoe  retired  from  the  practice  of  an  attorney, 
and  entered  himself  as  a  student  of  Gray's  Inn, 
with  a  view  to  the  bar.  During  this  period,  he 
had  leisure  for  other  studies,  and  published  the 
Nurse,  a  poem,  from  the  Italian,  and  wrote  the 
Life  and  Pontificate  of  Leo  X.  Though  the 
Life  of  Leo  is  not  equal  to  his  Lorenzo,  it  is  a 
composition  which  displays  talent  and  extensive 
research.  Mr.  Roscoe  oeipg  attached  to  the 
whig  party,  they  supported  him  as  a  candidate 
to  represent  Liverpool,  and  he  was  successful, 
but  at  the  next  election  was  thrown  out.  lie 
had.  some  time  before,  entered  into  business  at 
Liverpool  as  a  banker,  but  in  this  was  vmfor- 
VOL.  XIX. 


tunate.  He  died  in  June,  1831.  Mr.  Roscoe 
was  the  author  of  several  political  pamphlets, 
and  the  great  mover  and  supporter  of  several 
public  works  in  Liverpool.  To  the  botanic  gar- 
den and  to  the  Atheneum  he  lent  much  effective 
assistance.  His  Life  and  Correspondence  has 
been  published  by  his  son. 

ROSE,  n.  s.          ~\     Fr.   Dan.   Swed.     and 

RO'SEATE,  adj.          ITeut.  rose ;  Lat.  Ital.  and 

ROSED',  fSpan.rosa.  A  flower.  For 

ROSE'MA  RY,  n.  s.     I  the  phrase  'to  speak  under 

ROSENO'BLE,  \>the  rose,'  see  the  extract 

ROSE' WATER,          /  from  Browne :  roseate  and 

RO'SET,  I  rosed   mean  rosy  ;   red  ; 

RO'SIER,  I  blooming:  rosemary  (Lat. 

RO'SY,  adj.  j  ros  marina],  a  weed ;    a 

herb  :    rosenoble,  an  ancient  English  gold  coin 

stamped  with  a  rose  :  rose-water,  water  distilled 

from   the  rose :    roset,  a  red  color :   rosier  (Fr. 

rosier),  a  rose-bush:  rosy,  resembling  the  bloom, 

color,  or  fragrance  of  the  rose. 

By  desiring  a  secrecy  to  words  spoke  under  the  rote, 
we  mean,  in  society  and  compotation,>from  the  an- 
cient custom  in  symposiack  meetings,  to  wear  chaplets 
of  rotes  about  their  heads.  Browne. 

Attend  him  with  a  silver  basin 
Full  of.rosewater.  Shakipeare 

Around  their  cell 
Set  rows  of  roi&nary  with  flowering  stem.       Dryden. 

While  blooming  youth  and  gay  delight 
Sit  on  thy  rety  cheeks  confest, 

Thou  hast,  my  dear,  undoubted  right 
To  triumph  o'er  this  destined  breast.  Prior. 

ROSE,  in  botany.     See  ROSA. 

ROSE,  CHINA.    See  HIBISCUS. 

ROSE,  DOG.     See  ROSA. 

ROSE,  GUELDER.     See  VIBURNUM. 

ROSE,  ROCK.     See  SISTUS. 

ROSE  ROOT.     See  RHODIOLA. 

ROSEMARY.     See  ROSMARINI:S. 

ROSEMARY,  WILD.     See  LEDUM. 

ROSES,  CONSERVE  OF.     See  PHARMACY. 

ROSES,  ESSESTIAL  OIL  OF,  or  OTTO  OF  ROSES, 
an  essential  oil  obtained  from  roses.  It  may  be 
made  in  the  following  manner: — A  quantity  of 
fresh  roses,  for  example  forty  pound.*,  are  put  in 
a  still  with  sixty  pounds  of  water,  the  roses  being 
left  as  they  are  with  their  calyxes,  but  with  th* 
stems  cut  close.  The  mass  is  then  well  mixed 
together  with  the  hands,  and  a  gentle  fire  is  made 
under  the  still ;  when  the  water  begins  to  grow 
hot,  and  fumes  to  rise,  the  cap  of  the  still  is  put 
on,  and  the  pipe  fixed ;  the  chinks  are  then  well 
luted  with  paste,  and  cold  water  put  on  the  re- 
frigeratory at  top  :  the  receiver  is  also  adapted  at 
the  end  of  the  pipe ;  and  the  fire  is  continued 
under  the  still,  neither  too  violent  nor  too  weak. 
When  the  impregnated  water  begins  to  come 
over,  and  the  still  is  very  hot,  the  fire  is  lessened 
by  gentle  degrees,  and  the  distillation  continued 
till  thirty  pounds  of  water  are  come  over,  which 
is  generally  done  in  about  four  or  five  hours ; 
this  rose-water  is  to  be  poured  again  on  a  fresh 
quantity  (forty  pounds)  of  roses,  and  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  pounds  of  water  are  to  be  drawn  by 
distillation,  following  the  same  process  as  before. 
The  rose-water  thus  made  and  cohobated  will  be 
found,  if  the  roses  were  fresh  and  good,  and  the 
distillation  carefully  performed  highly  scented 


ROS 


50 


ROS 


with  the  ro>os.  It  is  then  poured  into  pans 
either  of  earthenware  or  of  tinned  metal,  and  left 
exposed  to  the  fresh  air  for  the  night.  The  otto 
or  essence  will  be  found  in  the  morning  con- 
sealed,  and  swimming  on  the  top  of  the  water; 
this  is  to  be  carefully  separated  and  collected 
either  with  a  thin  shell  or  a  skimmer,  and  poured 
into  a  vial.  When  a  certain  quantity  has  thus 
been  obtained  the  water  and  faeces  must  be 
separated  from  the  clear  essence,  which,  with 
respect  to  the  first,  will  not  be  difficult  to  do,  as 
the  essence  congeals  with  a  slight  cold,  and  the 
water  may  then  be  made  to  run  off.  If,  after 
that,  the  essence  is  kept  fluid  by  heat,  the  fceces 
will  subside,  and  may  be  separated;  but  if  the 
operation  has  been  neatly  performed  these  will 
be  few.  The  remaining  water  should  be  used 
for  fresh  distillations  instead  of  common  water, 
at  least  as  far  as  it  will  go. 

The  following  is  the  method  commonly  pur- 
sued in  India,  whence  great  quantities  have  been 
exported : — '  Take  a  very  large  glazed  earthen 
or  stone  jar,  or  a  large  clean  wooden  cask  ;  fill  it 
with  the  leaves  of  the  flowers  of  roses,  very  well 
picked,  and  freed  from  all  seeds  and  stalks ; 
pour  on  them  as  much  pure  spring  water  as  will 
cover  them,  and  set  the  vessel  in  the  sun  in  the 
morning  at  sun-rise,  and  let  it  stand  till  the 
evening  ;  then  take  it  into  the  house  for  the  night; 
expose  it,  in  this  manner,  for  six  or  seven  suc- 
cessive days,  and  at  the  end  of  the  third  or 
fourth  day  a  number  of  particles,  of  a  fine  yellow 
oily  matter,  will  float  on  the  surface,  which,  in 
two  or  three  days  more,  will  gather  into  a  scum, 
which  is  the  otto  of  roses.  This  is  taken  up  by 
some  cotton,  tied  to  the  end  of  a  piece  of  stick, 
and  squeezed  with  the  finger  and  thumb  into  a 
small  phial,  which  is  immediately  well  stopped ; 
and  this  is  repeated  for  some  successive  evenings, 
or  while  any  of  this  fine  essential  oil  rises  to  the 
surface  of  the  water.'  Dr.  Donald  Monro,  who 
communicated  this  receipt  to  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh,  says,  that  he  has  been  informed, 
that  some  few  drops  of  this  essential  oil  have 
more  than  once  been  collected  by  distillation  in 
London,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  essential  oils 
of  other  plants. 

The  ROSE-NOBLE  was  first  struck  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.  It  was  formerly  current  at  6s.  8J., 
and  so  called  because  stamped  with  a  rose.  See 
COINS. 

ROSEAU,  or  Charlotte  Town,  the  capital  of 
Dominica,  in  the  West  Indies,  about  seven 
leagues  from  Prince  Rupert's  Bay.  It  stands  on 
a  point  of  land  on  the  south-west  side  of  the 
island,  which  here  forms  Woodbridge's  Bay  on 
the  north,  and  Charlotteville  Bay  to  the  south. 
Roseau  contains  more  than  500  houses,  besides 
negro  cottages.  It  was  once  a  much  larger  place. 
Long.  61°  27'  W.,  lat.  15°  25'  N. 

ROS  ETTA,  a  town  of  Egypt,  on  that  branch 
of  the  Nile  called  by  the  ancients  the  Bolbitine, 
and  which  forms  now  one  of  the  two  great  chan- 
nels by  which  it  enters  the  sea.  It  is  called  the 
canal  of  Rosetta.  This  city  appears  to  have 
been  built  by  one  of  the  caliphs.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  it  was  an  inconsiderable  place  ;  but,  as 
the  canal  of  Alexandria  became  impassable, 
Rosetta  rose  into  importance  as  a  depot,  and  now 


forms  the  medium  point  of  communication  be 
tween  that  city  and  Cairo.  The  streets  are  nar- 
row ;  and  each  story  projects  over  that  beneath 
till  at  the  top  the  opposite  houses  nearly  meet  ; 
but  the  houses  are  not,  as  in  most  other  parts  of 
Egypt,  composed  of  mud,  but  of  a  dingy  red 
brick,  often  plastered  over  and  while-washed. 
Upon  the  whole,  however,  Rosetta  has  a  neat 
compact  appearance  for  an  eastern  town,  and  its 
environs  are  delightful,  being  completely  embo- 
somed in  a  grove  of  date,  banana,  and  sycamore 
trees.  The  orange,  pomegranate,  and  henne,  here 
also  blend  their  perfumes ;  and  the  palm  towers 
over  all,  adding  magnificence  to  luxuriance.  The 
intervals  are  filled  with  esculent  plants.  Nume- 
rous birds  inhabit  these  groves,  particularly  the 
turtle-dove,  which  is  held  sacred,  aud  approaches 
the  habitations  of  mankind  without  dread.  The 
opposite  side  of  the  Nile  exhibits  the  richest  part 
of  the  Delta.  The  inhabitants  of  Rosetta  and 
the  neighbourhood  are  milder  and  more  civilised 
than  those  of  other  parts  of  Egypt :  they  are  chiefly 
employed  in  agriculture,  and  contain  a  smaller 
proportion  of  the  Bedouin  tribes.  Though  less 
turbulent,  however,  than  the  inhabitants  of  Alex- 
andria or  Cairo,  yet,  being  less  accustomed  to 
Christians,  they  view  them  with  more  hatred.  Ro- 
setta manufactures  red  cotton  yarn,  flax,  linen, 
and  silk  dyes,  for  the  oriental  dresses  :  and  here 
is  an  extensive  exportation  of  rice.  The  quay 
is  large  and  well  built;  the  merchants  being 
chiefly  Turks,  and  natives  of  Syria.  Copts  form 
a  considerable  proportion  of  the  population. 
Long.  30°  2ff  35  E.,  lat.  31°  24'  31'  N 

ROSICRUCIANS,  a  name  assumed  by  a 
sect  of  hermetical  philosophers,  who  arose  in 
Germany  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  They  bound  themselves  together  by 
some  solemn  secret,  which  they  all  swore  in- 
violably to  preserve;  and  obliged  themselves,  at 
their  admission  intp  the  order,  to  a  strict  observ 
ance  of  certain  established  rules.  They  pre 
tended  to  a  superior  acquaintance  with  alt 
sciences,  and  chiefly  medicine.  They  pretended 
to  be  masters  of  many  important  secrets ;  and, 
among  others,  of  the  philosopher's  stone ;  al) 
which  they  affirmed  to  have  received  by  trad* 
tion  from  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  the 
Magi,  and  GymnosophisU.  The  denomination 
appears  to  be  derived  from  chemistry.  It  is  not 
compounded,  says  Mosheim,  as  many  imagine, 
of  the  words  rosa  and  crux,  rose  and  cross,  but 
of  ros,  dew,  and  crux.  Of  all  natural  bodies 
dew  was  deemed  the  most  powerful  solvent  of 
gold  ;  and  the  cross,  in  the  chemical  language,  is 
equivalent  to  light,  because  the  figure  of  a  cross 
+  exhibits  at  the  fame  time  three  letters,  of 
which  the  word  LVX,  or  light,  is  compounded. 
Hence  a  rosicrucian  philosopher  is  x:e  who,  by 
the  assistance  of  the  dew,  seeks  for  light,  or  the 
philosopher's  stone.  See  Gassend's  Examen 
1'hilosophiae  Fluddanae,  sect.  15,  torn.  iii.  p.  261 ; 
and  Renaudot's  Conferences  1'ubliques,  torn.  iv. 
p.  87.  At  the  head  of  these  fanatics  were 
Robert  Fludd,  an  English  physician,  Jacob 
Behmen,  a  mystic  writer,  and ,  Michael  Mayer. 
The  principles  which  serve  as  a  kind  of  centre 
of  union  to  -the  rosicrucian  society  are  the  fol- 
lowing:— Thev  all  maintained  that  the 


ROS 


51 


ROS 


tion  of  bodies  by  fire  is  the  only  way  by  which 
men  arrive  at  the  first  principles  of  things. 
They  alt  acknowledged  a  certain  analogy  and 
harmony  between  the  powers  of  nature  and  the 
doctrines  of  religion,  and  believed  that  the 
deity  governed  the  kingdom  of  grace  by  the 
same  laws  with  which  he  ruled  the  kingdom  of 
nature ;  and  hence  they  used  chemical  denomi- 
nations to  express  the  truths  of  religion.  They 
all  held  that  there  is  a  sort  of  divine  energy  or 
soul,  diffused  through  the  frame  of  the  universe, 
which  some-call  the  archeus,  others  the  universal 
spirit,  &c.  They  all  speak  in  the  most  super- 
stitious manner  of  what  they  call  the  signatures 
of  things,  of  the  power  of  the  stars  over  all 
corporeal  beings,  and  their  particular  influence 
upon  the  human  race,  of  the  efficacy  of  magic, 
and  the  various  ranks  and  orders  of  demons. 
These  demons  they  divided  into  two  orders, 
sylphs  and  gnomes ;  from  which  system  Pope 
borrowed  his  beautiful  machinery  of  the  Rape 
of  the  Lock.  In  fine,  the  rosicrucians  and  all 
their  fanatical  followers  agreed  in  throwing  out 
the  most  crude  incomprehensible  notions  and 
ideas,  in  the  most  obscure,  quaint,  and  unusual 
expressions. — Mosh.  Eccl.  Hist. 

ROS'IN,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  »      Properly  resin.    Fr. 

ROS'INY,  adj.  S  resine  ;  Lat.  resina. 

Inspissated  turpentine ;  a  juice  of  the  pine  :  the 
adjective  corresponding. 

The  best  soil  is  that  upon  a  sandy  gravel  or  rosiny 
sand.  Temple. 

The  billows  from  the  kindling  prow  retire, 
Pitch,  rosin,  searwood  on  red  wings  aspire.    Garth. 

Bouzebeus  who  could  sweetly  sing, 
Or  with  the  rosined  bow  torment  the  string.      Gay. 

Tea  contains  little  of  a  volatile  spirit ;  its  rosin  or 
fixed  oil,  which  is  bitter  and  astringent,  cannot  be 
extracted  but  by  rectified  spirits.  Arbuthnot. 

ROSINUS  (John),  a  learned  German  anti- 
quary, born  at  Eisenach,  in  Thuringia,  about 
1550.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
Jena ;  became  rector  of  a  school  at  Ratisbon,  in 
1579;  and  afterwards  minister  of  a  Lutheran 
church  at  Wickerstadt,  in  Weimar.  In  1592 
he  was  called  to  Naumburgh  cathedral,  in  Sax- 
ony, and  died  there  of  the  plague  in  1626.  He 
published  several  works,  the  chief  of  which  is 
his  Antiquitatum  Romanarum,  libri  x.  ;  Basil, 
1583;  folio. 

ROSMARINUS,  rosemary,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  diandria 
class  of  plants ;  natural  order  forty-second,  ver- 
ticillatae :  COR.  unequal,  with  its  upper  lip  bi- 
partite ;  the  filaments  are  long,  curved,  and 
simple,  each  having  a  small  dent.  There  are 
two  species,  viz. : — 

1.  R.   angustifolia,   the   narrow-leaved    rose- 
mary ;  and, 

2.  R.   latifolia,   the   broad-leaved    rosemary. 
This  last  has  larger  flowers  and  a  stronger  scent 
than  the  other.     There  are  two  varieties  ;  one  of 
the  first  sort  with  striped  leaves,  called  the  silver 
rosemary  ;  and  the  other  with  yellow,  called  the 
gold-striped  rosemary.    These  plants  grow  na- 
turally in  the  south  of  France,  Spain,  and  Italy ; 
where,  upon  dry  rocky  soils  near  the  sea,  they 
thrive  prodigiously,  and  perfume  the  air  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  be  smelt  at  a  great  distance  from 


the  land.  However,  they  are  hardy  enough  to 
bear  the  cold  of  our  ordinary  winters,  provided 
they  be  planted  upon  a  poor,  dry,  gravelly  soil, 
on  which  they  will  endure  the  cold  much  bettc; 
than  in  a  richer  ground,  where,  growing  more 
vigorously  in  summer,  they  are  more  apt  to  be 
injured  by  frost  in  winter ;  nor  will  they  have 
such  a  strong  aromatic  scent  on  a  dry  and  bar- 
ren soil.  They  are  propagated  either  by  slips 
or  cuttings.  Rosemary  has  a  fragrant  smell, 
and  a  warm  pungent  bitterish  taste,  approaching 
to  that  of  lavender ;  the  leaves  and  tender  tops 
are  strongest ;  next  to  these  the  cup  of  the 
flower;  the  flowers  themselves  are  considerably 
the  weakest,  but  most  pleasant.  Aqueous 
liquors  extract  a  great  share  of  the  virtues  of 
rosemary  leaves  by  infusion,  and  elevate  them 
in  distillation;  along  with  the  water  arises  a 
considerable  quantity  of  essential  oil,  of  an 
agreeable  penetrating  smell.  Pure  spirit  ex- 
tracts in  great  perfection  the  whole  aromatic 
flayor  of  the  rosemary,  and  elevates  very  little 
of  it  in  distillation;  hence  the  resinous  mass 
left  upon  extracting  the  spirit  proves  an  elegant 
aromatic,  very  rich  in  the  peculiar  qualities  of 
the  plant.  The  flowers  of  rosemary  give  over 
great  part  of  their  flavor  in  distillation  with  pure 
spirit ;  by  watery  liquors  their  fragrance  is 
much  injured  ;  by  beating  destroyed. 

ROSS,  or  ROSS-SHIRE,  a  county  of  Scotland, 
including  Tayne  and  Cromarty,  stretching  eighty 
miles  in  length,  and  seventy-eight  in  breadth, 
bounded  on  the  north  and  north-east  by  Strath- 
naver  and  Sutherland ;  on  the  east  by  Cromarty 
and  the  Murray  Frith  ;  on  the  south  by  Inverness ; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
county  of  Ross  takes  up  the  whole  breadth  of 
the  island  ;  and,  being  much  indented  with  bays 
and  inlets  from  both  seas,  appears  of  a  very  ir- 
regular form.  These  bays  afford  safe  harbouis 
for  shipping,  especially  that  of  Cromarty.  The 
valleys  are  fertilised  by  several  rivers,  among 
which  are  the  Beauly,  the  Conon,  the  Ockel, 
the  Charron,  and  the  Braan;  besides  a  number 
of  fresh  water  lakes,  which  abound  in  this 
county.  The  valleys  are  generally  covered  with 
wood ;  and  near  Alfrag  there  are  forests  of  fir, 
well  stocked  with  game.  Great  numbers  of 
black  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  goats,  are  fed 
upon  the  mountains ;  and  the  sea,  rivers,  and 
lakes,  abound  with  fish  and  fowl.  The  lakes  on 
the  west  coast  abound  with  herrings,  particularly 
Loch  £u,  about'  nine  miles  long  and  three 
broad;  one  part  of  this  is  formed  by  a  bay  or 
inlet  of  the  sea ;  and  the  other  is  a  lake  of  fresh 
water.  Though  the  middle  part  of  Ross,  called 
Ardross,  is  mountainous  and  barren,  the  north- 
east part  on  the  river  Charron,  and  Frith  of 
Tayne,  are  fruitful  and  abound  with  villages. 
Ardmeanach,  part  of  the  peninsula,  betwixt  the 
bays  of  Cromarty  and  Murray,  is  a  barony, 
which  of  old  bestowed  a  title  on  the  king  of 
Scotland's  second  son.  The  district  of  Glen- 
elchaig,  on  the  south-west,  belonged  to  the  earl 
of  Seaforth,  chief  of  the  Mackenzies ;  but  the 
last  earl,  having  joined  in  the  rebellion,  was  in 
1719  defeated  at  Glenshiel  in  this  quarter,  with 
a  small  body  of  Spaniarde.  His  auxiliaries  were 
taken  ;  he  escaped  to  the  continent ;  but  his 

E2 


ROS  5' 

estate  and  honors  were  forfeited.  The  king's 
troop*  dismantled  the  castle  of  Yion-donnen, 
situated  on  an  island  in  a  bay  that  fronts  the 
Isle  of  Sky,  where  he  had  erected  his  magazine. 
Uoss  was  chiefly  peopled  by  the  Mackenzies 
and  Frasers,  two  warlike  Highland  clans.  There 
are  fisheries  carried  on  along  the  coast ;  but 
their  chief  traffic  is  in  sheep  and  black  cattle. 
The  county  sends  a  member  to  the  imperial 
parliament ;  and  Tayne  and  Dingwall  join  with 
Dornock,  Wick,  and  Kirkwall,  in  electing  a 
representative  for  these  boroughs. 

Ross,  an  ancient  and  populous  town  of  Here- 
fordshire, 115  miles  from  London,  with  a  good 
trade,  on  the  river  Wye.  It  was  made  a  free 
borough  by  Henry  III.  It  is  famous  for  cyder. 
Its  market  and  fairs  are  well  stored  with  cattle 
and  other  provisions.  At  the  west  end  of  it 
there  is  a  fine  broad  causeway,  constructed  by 
Mr.  John  Kyrle,  the  celebrated  Man  of  Ross, 
who  also  raised  the  spire  100  feet,  and  enclosed 
a  piece  of  ground  with  a  stone  wall,  and  sunk  a 
reservoir  in  its  centre,  for  the  use  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  town.  He  died  in  1714,  aged 
ninety,  with  the  blessing  of  all  who  knew  him, 
both  rich  and  poor. 

Ross,  NEW,  a  borough  town  of  Ireland,  in 
the  county  of  Wexford,  and  province  of  Lein- 
ster,  on  the  side  of  a  hill  sixty-seven  miles  from 
Dublin.  It  was  formerly  walled,  and  some  of 
the  gates  still  remain.  It  lies  on  the  Barrow, 
which  is  here '  very  deep,  and  ships  of  burden 
can  come  up  to  the  quay.  The  church  is  large, 
but  the  custom-house  and  quay  are  both  small. 
It  is  one  of  the  staple  ports  for  exporting  wool ; 
beef  and  butter  are  the  principal  articles  export- 
ed. It  has  a  barrack  for  a  troop  of  horse,  and  a 
ferry  into  the  county  of  Kilkenny.  Near  this 
town  is  a  charter-school.  It  was  formerly  forti- 
fied, and  adorned  with  many  religious  nouses, 
among  which  was  a  crowded  friary,  built  on  the 
summit  of  a  hill  in  the  town ;  but,  one  of  the 
friars  having  killed  a  principal  inhabitant,  the 
people  rose,  put  the  friars  to  death  and  destroy- 
ed the  friary ;  on  the  site  of  which  the  monas- 
tery of  St.  Saviour,  for  conventual  Franciscans, 
was  afterwards  erected  by  Sir  John  Devereux  ; 
and  the  east  end  of  this  last  building  is  now  the 
parish  church.  A  friary  for  Eremites,  following 
the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  was  also  founded  here 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  This  town  was  the 
scene  of  a  very  bloody  battle,  between  the  Irish 
rebels  and  the  king's  troops,  on  the  5th  of  June, 
1798.  Each  party  was- alternately  in  possession 
of  the  town,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  was 
burnt  down  during  the  contest.  About  3000  of 
the  rebels  were  killed,  but  each  party  boasted  of 
victory.  New  Ross  lies  eleven  miles  north  by 
east  of  Waterford,  and  nineteen  south  of  Wex- 
ford. 

Ross  (Alexander),  a  very  voluminous  writer, 
who  has  been  often  confounded  with  the  bishop 
of  Edinburgh.  His  best  work  is  his  Uavatfitia, 
or,  A  View  of  all  Religions.  Butler,  in  his 
Hudibras,  refers  to  the  number  and  extent  of  his 
writings, 

1  here  was  an  ancient  sage  philosopher, 
'fho  had  read  Alexander  Ross  over. 


!  ROS 

Uo>s  (David),  a  celebrated  English  actor, 
Iwrn  in  1728,  he  was  disinherited  by  his  father 
for  going  upon  the  stage.  He  had  been%ducuU'il 
at  Westminster  school ;  and  made  his  first  ap  • 
pearance  upon  Covent  Garden  Theatre  in  1753, 
where  he  continued  till  1778,  when  he  was  left 
out  of  the  engagement  by  the  managers,  and 
reduced  to  great  distress;  though  he  still  had  a 
small  annuity  from  a  mortgage  on  the  Edinburgh 
Theatre,  of  which  he  was  previously  patentee. 
But  one  day  he  was  agreeably  surprised  by 
receiving  a  bank  note  for  £60,  with  an  anony- 
mous line,  mentioning  that  it  came  from  an  old 
school-fellow,  and  directing  him  to  a  banker  from 
whom  he  would  receive  the  same  sum  annually. 
This  was  continued  for  life,  but  the  generous 
donor  was  still  unknown,  till  the  banker's  clerk 
inadvertently  blundered  out  the  name  of  admi- 
ral Barrington.  In  1788  he  was  laid  aside  from 
the  stage  by  breaking  his  leg.  He  liad  married 
the  celebrated  Fanny  Murray.  He  died  at 
London,  September  14th,  1790. 

ROSSO,  or  MAIKE  Rofx,  an  eminent  Italian 
painter,  born  at  Florence  in  1496.  He  was 
entirely  self  taught,  and  acquired  great  skill, 
both  in  history  and  portrait  painting.  In  the 
church  of  St.  Salvator,  at  Rome,  is  a  fine  picture 
by  him  of  the  beheading  of  John  the  Baptist. 
He  died  in  1541,  aged  forty-five. 

ROSSANO,  a  town  of  Naples,  in  Calabria 
Citra,  situated  on  a  rocky  eminence.  It  is  the 
see  of  an  archbishop,  and  the  environs  are  fertile 
in  olives,  capers,  and  saffron.  It  is  said  that,  so 
lately  as  the  sixteenth  century,  the  inhabitants  of 
this  town  (about  70,000)  spoke  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, and  followed  the  rites  of  the  Greek  church, 
i  hirty  miles  north-east  of  Cosenza,  and  110 
N.N.  E.  of  Regio. 

ROS  SOLIS,  a  spirituous  liquor,  composed  of 
burnt  brandy,  sugar,  cinnamon,  and  milk ;  and 
sometimes  perfumed  with  a  little  musk.  It  had 
its  name  from  being  at  first  prepared  from  the 
juice  of  the  plant  ros  solis,  or  drosera. 

ROSTOV,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Jaroslav,  on  the  lake  Nero.  It 
is  divided  into  the  town  and  suburb,  and  is  above 
five  miles  in  circumference.  It  contains  an  an- 
cient cathedral,  an  archieptscopal  palace,  a  semi- 
nary, and  five  churches ;  and  carries  on  a'i 
intercourse  with  Astracan,  Moscow,  and  St.  Pe- 
tersburg. Of  the  lower  classes  a  number  are 
gardeners,  and  some  of  them  go  to  Poland  for 
employment.  Inhabitants  5000.  Forty  miles 
S.  S.  W.  of  Jaroslav. 

ROSTOV,  a  fortified  town  of  the  south-east  of 
European  Russia,  on  the  Don,  between  Azov 
and  Tscherkask. 

ROSTRATED,  adj.  Lat.  rottralta.  Adorned 
with  beaks  of  ships. 

He  brought  to  Italy  an  hundred  and  ten  rostrated 
galleys  of  the  fleet  of  Mithridates.  Arbuthiwt. 

ROSTRUM,  TJ.J.  Lat.  rostrum.  The  scaf- 
fold whence  orators  anciently  harangued. 

Vespasian  erected  a  column  in  Rome,  upon  whose 
top  was  the  prow  of  a  ship,  in  Latin  rostrum,  which 
gave  name  to  the  common  pleading  place  in  Rome, 
where  orations  were  made,  being  built  of  the  prows 
of  those  ships  of  Antium  which  the  Romans  over- 
threw. Peacham  on  Driiiring. 


ROT 


53 


ROT 


Myself  shall  mount  the  rostrum  in  his  favour, 
And  strive  to  gain  his  pardon  from  the  people. 

Addison. 

ROSTRUM,  the  beak,  an  important  part  of 
the  ancient  ships  of  war,  called  by  the  Greeks 
«/i/3o\ov,  made  of  wood,  fortified  with  brass,  and 
fastened  to  the  prow  so  as  to  strike  the  enemy's 
vessels  and  sink  them.  The  first  rostra  were 
long  and  high,  but  afterwards  they  were  made 
short  and  strong  by  the  contrivance  of  Aristo,  a 
Corinthian  :  and  placed  so  low  that  they  could 
pierce  the  enemy  s  ships  under  water.  Also  a 
part  of  the  Roman  forum,  wherein  orations, 
pleadings,  funeral  harangues,  &c.,  were  delivered. 
The  rostrum  was  a  kind  of  chapel,  furnished 
with  a  suggestum,  or  eminence,  where  the  orator 
stood  to  speak.  It  was  so  called  because  at  first 
adorned  with  the  rostra  or  beaks  of  the  ships 
taken  from  the  Antialae  in  the  first  naval  victory 
obtained  by  the  Romans. 

ROT,  v.  7i.,  v.  a.,  &  n.  s.  ^       Saxon,   noran  ; 
ROT'TEN,  adj.  >  Belg.   and    Swed. 

ROT'TENNESS,  n.  x.  j  rotten.  To  putrefy  ; 

lose  the  cohesion  of  parts  :  make  putrid  :  putri- 
dity ;  a  disease  among  sheep  :  rotten  and  rotten- 
ness corresponding  in  sense. 

Who  brass  as  rotten  wood  ;  and  steel  no  more 
Regards  than  weeds.  Sandi/s's  Paraphrase. 

They  were  left  moiled  with  dirt  and  mire,  by  rea- 
son of  the  deepness  of  the  rotten  way. 

Knolles's  History  of  the  Turks. 
A  man  may  rot  even  here.  Shahspeare. 

From  hour  to  hour  we  ripe  and  ripe, 
And  then  from  hour  to  hour  we  rot  and  rot.         Id. 
Trust  not  to  ratten  planks.  Id. 

O  blus-breeding  sun,  drawn  from  the  earth 
Rotten  humidity  ;  below  thy  sister's  orb 
Infect  the  air.  Id.  Timon. 

Diseased  ventures, 

That  play  with  all  infirmities  for  gold, 
VVhich  rottenness  lends  nature !  Shakspeare. 

No  wood  shone  that  was  cut  down  alive,  but  such 
as  was  rotted  in  stock  and  root  while  it  grew. 

Bacon . 

There  is  by  invitation  or  excitation ;  as  when  a 
-otten  apple  lieth  close  to  another  apple  that  is 
sound ;  or  when  dung,  which  is  already  putrefied,  is 
added  to  other  bodies.  Id. 

In  an  unlucky  grange,  the  sheep  died  of  the  rot, 
the  swine  of  the  mange,  and  not  a  goose  or  duckling 
throve.  Ben  Jonson. 

They  overwhelm  their  panch  daily  with  a  kind  of 
flat  rotgut,  we  with  a  bitter  dreggish  small  liquor. 

Harvey. 

The  cattle  must  of  rot  and  murrain  die.     Milton. 
The  wool  of  Ireland  suffers  under  no  defect,  the 
country  being  generally  full-stocked  with  sheep,  and 
the  soil  little  subject  to  other  rot*  than  of  hunger. 

Temple. 

Frowning  Auster  seeks  the  southern  sphere, 
And  rot*,  with  endless  rain,  the'  unwholesome  year. 

Dryden. 

They  serewood  from  the  rotten  hedges  took, 
And  seeds  of  latent  fire  from  flints  provoke.         Id. 

Brandy  scarce  prevents  the  sudden  rot 
Of  freezing  nose  and  quick  decaying  feet.      Philips. 

Being  more  nearly  exposed  to  the  air  and  weather, 
the  bodies  of  the  animals  would  suddenly  corrupt  and 
rot ;  the  bones  would  likewise  all  rot  in  time,  except 
those  which  were  secured  by  the  extraordinary 
strength  of  their  parts.  Woodward. 

If  the  matter  stiik  and  be  oily,  it  is  a  certain  sign 
of  rottenness.  tl'i*rmaii'i,  Surgery. 


Ror,  a  well  known  disease  in  the  liver  of  sheep, 
and  other  domestic  animals,  producing  general 
marasmus,  and  generally  evinced  by  the  existence 
of  large  quantities  of  the  liver  fluke,  or  fasciola 
hepatica,  in  this  organ.  It  has  been  ascribed  tc 
a  variety  of  causes :  yet  the  real  cause  is  still 
doubtful.  See  SHEEP. 

ROTA,  a  town  in  Andalusia,  Spain,  situated 
on  the  north  side  of  Cadiz  Bay.  It  has  a 
castle  and  monastery,  but  is  most  remarkable  for 
the  wine  which  is  produced  on  the  hills  around. 
It  is  called  in  England  tent,  and  is  considered 
one  of  the  best  kinds  produced  in  the  peninsula. 
Inhabitants  6000.  Seven  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Cadiz. 

ROTA   ARISTOTEUCA,    or  Aristotle's    Wheel, 
a  name  given  to  a  celebrated  problem  in  me- 
chanics concerning  the  motion  or  rotation  of  a 
wheel   about  its  axis ;    so  called  because   first 
noticed   by  Aristotle.      The  difficulty  is   this : 
while  a  circle  makes  a  revolution  on  its  centre, 
advancing  at  the  same  time  in  a  right  line  along 
a  plane,  it  describes,  on  that  plane,  a  right  line 
which  is  equal  to  its  circumference.     Now,  if 
this  circle,  which  may  be  called  the  deferent, 
carry  with  it  another  smaller  circle,  concentric 
with  it,  like  the  nave  of  a  coach  wheel ;  then  thi> 
little  circle,  or  nave,  will  describe  a  line  in  the 
time  of  the  revolution  which  shall  be  equal  to 
that  of  the  large  wheel  or  circumference  itself; 
because  its  centre  advances  in  a  right  line  as  fast 
as  that  of  the  wheel  does,  being  in  reality  the 
same  with  it.     The  solution  given  by  Aristotle 
is  no  more  than  a  good  explication  of  the  diffi- 
culty.    The  great  Galileo  next  attempted  it,  but 
failed,  as  did  also  Tacquet,  with  no  better  suc- 
cess.    After  the  fruitless  attempts  of  so  many 
great  men,  M.  Dortous  de  Meyran,  a  French 
gentleman,  sent  a  solution  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences ;  which  being  examined  by  Messrs  de 
Louville  and  Soulmon  appointed  for  that  pur- 
pose, they  made  their  report  that  it  was  satisfac- 
tory.    The  solution,  is  to  this  effect :  the  wheel 
of  a  coach  is  only  acted  on,  or  drawn  in  a  right 
line;  its  rotation  or  circular  motion  arises  purely 
from  the  resistance  of  the  ground  upon  which  it 
is  applied.     Now  this  resistance  is  equal  to  the 
force  which  draws  the  wheel  in  the  right  line, 
inasmuch  as  it  defeats  that  direction ;  of  conse- 
quence the  causes  of  the  two  motions,  the  one 
right  and    the  other  circular,  are  equal.     And 
hence  the  wheel  describes  a  right  line  on  the 
ground  equal  to  its  circumference.     As  for  the 
nave  of  the  wheel,  the  case  is  otherwise.     It  is 
drawn  in  a  right  line  by  the  same  force  as  the 
wheel  ;   but   it  only  turns   round  because   the 
wheel  does  so,  and  can  only  turn  in  the  same 
time  with  it.     Hence  it  follows,  that  its  circular 
velocity  is  less  than  that  of  the  wheel,  in  the 
ratio  of  the  two  circumferences ;  and,  therefore, 
its  circular  motion  is  less  than  the  rectilinear  one. 
Since  then  it  necessarily  describes  a  right  line 
eq.ual  to  that  of  the  wheel,  it  can  only  do  it  partly 
by  sliding,  and  partly  by  revolving,  the  sliding 
part   being   more   or  less  as  the  nave   itself  is 
smaller  or  larger. 

ROTA  LA,  in  botany;  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order  and  triandria  class  of  plants  :  TAI 
tridentate:  COR.  none:  CAPS,  trilocular  and  poly 


ROT 


54 


ROT 


spermous.     Species  one  only ;  an  annual  of  the 
East  Indies. 

ROTARI  (Peter),  an  eminent  Italian  painter 
of  history  and  portraits,  born  at  Verona  about 
1727.  In  1756  he  went  to  Petersburg,  where  he 
painted  the  empress  Catharine  II.  and  others  of 
the  imperial  family. 

ROTARY,  adj.  }     Lat.  rota.     Whirling  as 

ROTA'TION,  n.  s.    >  a  wheel  :  the  act  or  state 

ROTA'TOR.  J  of    whirling :    that    which 

gives  a  circular  motion. 

Of  this  kind  is  some  disposition  of  bodies  to  rota- 
tion from  east  to  west ;  as  the  main  float  and  re- 
float of  the  sea,  by  consent  of  the  universe  as  part  of 
the  diurnal  motion.  Bacon. 

By  a  kind  of  circulation  or  rotation,  arts  have  their 
successive  invention,  perfection,  and  traduction  from 
one  people  to  another.  Hale. 

The  axle-trees  of  chariots  take  fire  by  the  rapid  ro- 
tation of  the  wheels.  Newton'i  Optics. 

This  articulation  is  strengthened  by  strong  mus- 
cles ;  on  the  inside  by  the  triceps  and  the  four  little 
rotators.  Wiseman. 

In  fond  rotation  spread  the  spotted  wing, 
And  shiver  every  feather  with  desire.          Thomson. 

ROTATION  is  a  term  which  expresses  the  mo- 
tion of  the  different  parts  of  a  solid  body  round 
an  axis,  and  distinct  from  the  progressive  motion 
which  it  may  have  in  its  revolution  round  a  dis- 
tant point.  The  earth  has  a  rotation  round  its 
axis,  which  produces  the  vicissitudes  of  day  and 
night;  while  its  revolution  round  the  sun,  com- 
bined with  the  obliquity  of  the  equator,  produces 
the  varieties  of  summer  and  winter.  The  me- 
chanism of  this  kind  of  motion,  or  the  relation 
which  subsists  between  the  intensity  of  the  mov- 
ing forces,  modified  as  it  may  be  by  the  manner 
of  application  and  the  velocity  of  rotation,  is 
highly  interesting,  both  to  the  speculative  philo- 
sopher and  to  the  practical  engineer.  The  pre- 
cession of  the  equinoxes,  and  many  other  astro- 
nomical problems  of  great  importance  and  diffi- 
culty, receive  their  solutions  from  this  quarter: 
and  the  actual  performance  of  our  most  valuable 
machines  cannot  be  ascertained  by  the  mere 
principles  of  equilibrium,  but  require  a  previous 
acquaintance  with  certain  general  propositions  of 
rotatory  motion.  When  a  solid  body  turns 
round  an  axis,  retaining  its  shape  and  dimen- 
sions, every  particle  is  actually  describing 
a  circle  round  this  axis,  and  the  axis  passes 
through  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  is  perpendi- 
cular to  its  plane.  In  any  instant  of  the  motion, 
the  particle  is  moving  at  right  angles  with  the 
radius  vector,  or  line  joining  it  with  its  centre 
of  rotation.  This  subject  is  by  no  means  a 
speculation  of  mere  curiosity,  interesting  to  none 
but  mathematicians  :  one  of  the  noblest  arts  prac- 
tised by  man  is  capable  of  receiving  very  great 
improvement  from  a  complete  knowledge  of  it ; 
we  mean  the  art  of  Seamanship.  The  conside- 
ration of  it,  therefore,  might  be  pursued  to  a 
considerable  extent — but  few  professional  seamen 
have  the  preparatory  knowledge  accessary  for  the 
purpose.  m 

i.'<  )TK,  n.  a.     Sax.  not,  merry;  old   Fr.  ;<•/<•. 
A  harp  ;  a  lyre.     Obsolete  :    Fr.  roulim 
to  bo  the  origin  of  rote,  mere  memory. 
\Vcle  routli  he  :  in;_',  and  |'l;iycn  on  a  n.u. 

('Auurcr. 


Worthy  of  great  Phoebus'  role, 
The  triumphs  of  Phlegrasan  Jove  he  wrote, 
That  all  the  gods  admired  his  lofty  note.      Spenser. 

First  rehearse  this  song  by  role, 
To  each  word  a  warbling  note.  Shakspeare. 

Speak  to  the  people- 
Words  rated  in  your  tongue  ;  bastards  and  syllables 
Of  no  allowance  to  your  bosom's  truth.  Id. 

He  rather  saith  it  by  rote  to  himself,  than  that  he 
can  thoroughly  believe  it.  Bacon's  Essays. 

All  this  he  understood  by  rote, 
And  as  occasion  served  would  quote.         Hvdibras. 

Learn  Aristotle's  rules  by  rate, 
And  at  all  hazards  boldly  quote.  Swift. 

ROTHENBURG  ON  THE  TAUBER,  an  old 
town  of  Bavarian  Franconia,  on  a  mountain  near 
the  Tauber.  It  has  a  high  school  and  a  public 
library,  said  to  contain  valuable  manuscripts. 
It  .contains,  also,  a  square  and  several  public 
buildings :  the  water  in  the  fountains  is  raised 
by  machinery  from  the  river.  Population  5700. 
Twenty-eight  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Wurzburg. 

ROTHERAM,  or  ROTHERHAM,  a  market- 
town  and  parish  of  the  West  Riding  of  York, 
situated  near  the  conflux  of  the  Rotherand  Don, 
six  miles  north-east  of  Sheffield  and  158  from 
London.  The  principal  manufactures  are  those 
of  iron  and  steel,  and  there  is  a  very  extensive 
brewery.  At  the  village  of  Masborough,  sepa- 
pated  from  this  town  by  a  bridge,  there  are  very 
extensive  manufactories  of  all  kinds  of  cast  and 
wrought  iron,  and  also  of  tinned  plates  and 
steel  goods.  The  coal  and  iron  are  chiefly  sup- 
plied from  mines  in  the  neighbourhood.  The 
trade  of  Rotherham  is  materially  assisted  by  the 
navigation  of  the  Don.  The  streets  are  narrow 
and  irregular  and  the  church  is  a  large  building 
in  the  form  of  a  cross.  It  had  formerly  an  ancient 
chapel  on  the  bridge  over  the  Don.  In  the  town 
are  also  two  chapels  for  dissenters,  a  charity- 
school,  and  the  Rotherham  Independent  Aca- 
demy, for  the  education  of  young  men  proposing 
to  become  independent  clergymen.  Rotherham 
market  is  one  of  the  most  considerable  in  York- 
shire for  fat  cattle  and  sheep.  Here  is  a  com- 
mercial bank.  Market  on  Monday. 

ROTHERAM,  or  ROTHERHAM  (John),  M.  I)., 
a  celebrated  English  physician,  the  son  of  a  dis- 
senting clergyman,  tutor  of  an  academy  at  Ren- 
da!,  where  he  was  born  in  1719.  Under  his 
father's  instructions  he  acquired  classical  learn- 
ing, and  a  very  general  knowledge  of  the  sciences. 
In  1740  he  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, where  professor  M'Laurin,  observing  his 
talents,  advised  him  to  give  a  course  of  lectures 
on  experimental  philosophy.  These  lectures 
were  well  attended  ;  and  the  profits  were  devoted 
to  the  Royal  Infirmary,  then  building  in  that 
city.  After  this  he  went  to  London,  studied 
under  Dr.  Smellie ;  and  then  began  practice  at 
Hexham;  but  soon  after  settled  at  Newcastle, 
where  he  was  highly  respected.  In  1770  he 
published  a  work,  entitled  A  Philosophical  En- 
quiry into  the  Nature  and  Properties  of  Water, 
wherein  he  gave  an  analysis  of  the  Newcastle 
and  many  other  waters.  Ho  married  Catharine, 
daughter  of  Nicholas  Huberts,  F.sq.,  of  Hexliam, 
whom  he  left  a  widow  with  seven  children, 
dying  on  the  18th  of  March,  17»7,  aged  •>ixly- 


ROT  & 

ROTH ES AY,  or  ROTHSAY,  formerly  a  borough 
of  Scotland,  capital  of  the  island  and  county 
of  Bute.  It  is  well  built,  and  excellently 
situated  for  commerce,  having  a  good  har- 
bour with  a  safe  anchorage  at  the  bottom  of 
an  extensive  bay,  on  the  north-west  side  of  the 
island ;  opposite  to  Loch  Steven  in  Cowal.  It 
was  erected  into  a  royal  borough  in  1400,  by 
king  Robert  III.,  when  its  castle  was  the  royal 
residence.  It  was  then  a  considerable  town,  but 
afterwards  declined  greatly;  so  that  in  1762 
many  of  the  houses  were  in  ruins,  and  it  had 
only  one  decked  vessel,  of  no  great  burden.  But 
under  the  auspices  of  the  earls  of  Bute  it  has 
rapidly  improved.  A  large  cotton  mill  was 
erected  in  1778.  This  borough  united  with  Ayr, 
Irvine,  Inverary,&c.,  in  electing  a  representative, 
but  is  now  deemed  part  of  Bute.  Duke  of 
Rothesay  was  anciently  a  title  of  the  prince  of 
Scotland,  and  was  accompanied  with  suitable 
revenues,  powers,  and  privileges;  and  is  stilJ 
one  of  the  titles  of  the  prince  of  Wales.  The 
only  relic  of  antiquity  in  this  place  is  the 
castle,  the  remains  of  \vhich  are  so  completely 
covered  with  ivy  that  its  walls  are  hardly  visi- 
ble. The  natives  still  point  out  the  banqueting 
rooms,  and  bed-chambers  of  king  Robert  II. 
and  III.  who  inhabited  it.  It  afterwards  became 
the  chief  residence  of  the  Stuarts  till  1685,  when 
it  was  ournt  by  the  duke  of  Argyle.  It  lies 
seventy  miles  west  of  Edinburgh. 

ROTH  MAN  (Christopher),  a  learned  German 
astronomer  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  became 
astronomer  to  the  landgrave  of  Hesse.  He  wrote 
A  Treatise  on  Comets ;  and  Letters  on  Astro- 
nomy to  Tycho  Brahe.  He  died  in  1592. 

ROTSCHEN-SALM.  a  sea-port  of  the  Gulf 
of  Finland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kymmene,  ele- 
ven miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Fredericksham.  It  has 
a  harbour  capable  of  containing  the  whole  fleet 
of  Russian  galleys,  and  forty  ships  of  the  line, 
and  is  defended  by  two  forts. 

ROTTENSTONE,  a  mineral  found  in  Der- 
byshire and  used  by  mechanics  for  all  sorts  of 
finer  grinding  and  polishing,  and  sometimes  for 
cutting  of  stones.  It  is  a  species  of  tripoli. 

ROTTERDAM,  an  important  commercial 
city  of  Holland,  on  the  Maese,  which  here  re- 
sembles an  arm  of  the  sea.  Its  plan  is  triangu- 
lar, the  longest  side  (above  a  mile  and  a  half  in 
extent),  stretching  along  the  bank  of  the  Maese, 
at  about  twenty  miles  from  its  mouth.  The 
town  is  surrounded  by  a  moat,  and  entered  by 
six  gates  towards  the  land,  and  four  towards  the 
water,  but  has  no  fortifications.  It  is  also  tra- 
versed from  north  to  west  by  the  Rotte,  a  river, 
or  broad  canal,  which  here  joins  the  Maese, 
and  which  seems  to  give  name  to  the  city.  It 
is  further  intersected  more  than  most  other  towns 
in  Holland,  by  canals,  which  divide  the  half  of 
the  town  near  the  river  into  several  insulated 
spots  connected  by  bridges.  Thus,  the  first 
stately  row  of  houses  facing  the  Maese,  and 
called  the  Bootntjes,  has  behind  it  a  broad  and 
deep  canal,  parallel  to  the  river.  This  section  is 
succeeded  by  a  triangular,  and  next  by  an  ob- 
ong  division,  each  containing  several  streets  and 
quays.  Large  vessels  unload  in  two  great  inlets 
from  the  Maese,  one  stretching  to  the  west,  and 


)  ROT 

the  other  to  the  north.  South-east  of  the  town 
are  two  canals,  with  a  basin  and  dock  for  the  re- 
pair of  shipping. 

The  canals  are  almost  all  bordered  with  trees. 
Next  to  the  Boomtjes  comes  the  Haring-vliet 
The  other  streets  are  in  general  long  and  narrow, 
and  several  of  them  so  similar  that  a  stranger 
has  much  difficulty  in  distinguishing  them.  The 
houses  are  convenient,  and  the  peculiar  style  of 
Dutch  architecture  is  here  usually  prevalent. 
In  many  the  ground  floor  is  not  inhabited,  but 
serves  with  its  gate  and  arched  passage  as  an 
entrance  to  the  warehouses.  The  principal 
public  buildings  are  the  exchange  (finished  in 
1736),  the  church  of  St.  Lawrence,  from  the  top 
of  which  may  be  seen  the  Hague  to  the  north- 
west, Leyden  to  the  north,  and  Dort  to  the 
south-east;  the  old  town-house,  the  admiralty, 
the ,  academy,  the  theatre,  and  the  extensive 
buildings  of  the  East  India  Company.  Rotter- 
dam contains  also  several  commodious  market- 
places, an  English  Episcopal  and  a  Scotch  Pres- 
byterian church.  Of  scientific  collections,  it 
has  a  cabinet  of  antiquities,  a  cabinet  of  natural 
history,  and  a  public  library.  It  has  also  an 
academy  of  sciences,  instituted  in  1771.  Rot- 
terdam, as  a  commercial  city,  has  superior 
accommodation  to  Amsterdam,  the  Maese  being 
open,  and  the  passage  free  from  ice,  earlier  than 
in  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  a  single  tide  sufficing  to 
carry  vessels  to  the  German  Ocean.  It  became 
a  privileged  town,  and  was  surrounded  with 
walls,  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century,  owing, 
like  other  towns  in  Holland  and,  Flanders,  its 
increase  to  the  facility  of  communicating  by  water 
not  only  with  the  sea,  but  with  the  interior.  The 
time  of  its  greatest  prosperity  was  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  ;  but  after  1 795 
the  invasion  of  the  French,  and  the  war  with 
England  suspended  the  commerce  of  Holland. 
It  had  begun  to  recover  in  1802,  when  it  was 
again  rapidly  depressed  by  the  renewal  of  war ; 
but  has  recently  revived  once  more.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  ports  from  which  most  of 
the  vessels  arrived  in  1817  : — 


Riga  .  . 
London 
Harwich  . 
Petersburgh 
Libau  .  . 
Newcastle  , 
Bergen  .  . 


272 

253 

110 

90 

73 

62 

45 


Dantzic  . 
Hull  .     . 
Kiel  .     . 
Archangel 
Lisbon    . 
Bourdeaux 
Hamburgh 


31 

28 
22 
20 
16 
15 
10 


Here,  as  at  Amsterdam,  the  far  greater  pro- 
portion of  tonnage  is  employed  in  transporting 
the  commodities  of  the  Baltic,  viz.  corn,  timber, 
flax,  and  hemp.  In  value,  however,  the  mer- 
chandise from  England,  consisting  of  hardware, 
cottons,  woollens,  and  other  manufactures, 
exceeds  the  imports  of  any  other  country. 
From  France  the  chief  imports  are  wine  and 
brandy ;  and  the  trade  with  Brasil,  as  well  as 
with  Spanish  America,  is  becoming  more  and 
more  considerable.  Population  about  63,000. 
Fourteen  miles  south-east  of  the  Hague,  and 
thirty-six  south  by  west  of  Amsterdam. 

ROTUND',  adj.    )      FT.  rotonde ;  Lat.  rotun- 
ROTIN'DITY,  TI. s.  S  dits.      Round  ;    circular; 
spherical :  the  noun  substantive  corresponding. 


ROU 

Thou,  all-shaking  thunder, 
Strike  flat  the  thick  rotundity  o'  the*  world. 


With  the  rotundity  common  to  the  atoms  of  all 
fluids  there  is  some  difference  in  bulk,  else  all  fluids 
would  be  alike  in  weiffht.  Grew. 

Who  would  part  with  these  solid  blessings  for  the 
Jittle  fantastical  pleasantness  of  a  smooth  convexity 
and  rotundity  of  a  globe  ?  Rentiers  Sermons. 

The  cross  figure  of  the  Christian  temples  is  more 
proper  for  spacious  buildings  than  the  rotund  of  the 
heathen  :  the  eye  is  much  better  tilled  at  first  enter- 
ing the  refund,  but  such  as  are  built  in  the  form  of 
a  cross  give  us  a  greater  variety.  Additon. 

Rotundity  is  an  emblem  of  eternity,  that  has 
neither  beginning  nor  end.  Id.  on  Medalt. 

ROVE,  v.  n.  &,  v.  a.  t       Danish   rtiffver,   to 

RO'VER,  n.  s.  ]  range  for  plunder.    To 

ramble  ;  range  ;  wander  :  wander  over  :  a  rover  is, 
a  wanderer  ;  a  robber  ;  pirate  :  at  rover  is  an  obso- 
lete phrase  for  at  random,  without  particular  aim. 

Thou'st  years  upon  thee,  and  thou  art  too  full 
Of  the  wars  surfeits,  to  go  rave  with  one 
That's  yet  unbruised.  Shakspeare.  Coriolanus. 

This  is  the  case  of  rovers  by  land,  as  some  cantons 
in  Arabia.  Bacon's  Holy  War. 

Roving  the  field,  I  chanced 
A  goodly  tree  far  distant  to  behold, 
Loaden  with  fruit  of  fairest  colors.  Milton. 

Nature  shoots  not  at  roiert;  even  inanimates, 
though  they  know  not  their  perfection,  yet  are  they 
not  carried  on  by  a  blind  unguided  impetus  ;  but 
that  which  directs  them  knows  it.  Glanville't  Scepsis. 

^rovidence  never  shoots  at  rovers  :  there  is  an  ar- 
row that  flies  by  night  as  well  as  by  day,  and  God 
is  the  person  that  shoots  it.  South  s  Sermons. 

Men  of  great  reading  shew  their  talents  on  the 
meanest  subjects  ;  this  is  a  kind  of  shooting  at  rovert. 

Additon. 

Cloacina,  as  the  town  she  roved 
A  mortal  scavenger  she  saw,  she  loved.  Gay. 

Faultless  thou  dropt  from  his  unerring  skill, 
With  the  bare  power  to  sin,  since  free  of  will  ; 
Yet  charge  not  with  thy  guilt  his  bounteous  love, 
For  who  has  power  to  walk  has  power  to  rooe. 

Arbuthnot. 

I  viewed  the'  effects  of  that  disastrous  flame, 
Which,  kindled  by  the'  imperious  queen  of  love, 
Constrained  me  from  my  native  realms  to  rove. 

Pope. 

If  we  indulge  the  frequent  rise  and  roving  of  pas- 
sions, we  thereby  procure  an  unattentive  habit. 

Watts. 

ROUBILLIAC  (Louis  Francis),  an  eminent 
modern  sculptor,  a  native  of  France,  who  settled 
in  England  in  the  reign  of  George  I.  ;  and  long 
stood  at  the  head  of  his  profession.  He  executed 
a  statue  of  Handel  for  Vauxhall,  and  another  of 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  for  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge; but  was  chiefly  employed  on  sepulchral 
monuments,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
that  of  John  duke  of  Argyle  in  Westminster- 
abbey  ;  of  George  I.,  and  of  the  duke  of  Somer- 
set, in  the  senate-house  at  Cambridge  ;  and  his 
monuments  for  the  duke  and  duchess  of  Mon- 
tagu, at  Warkton,  in  Northamptonshire.  Lord 
Chesterfield  said,  '  Roubilliac  was  our  only 
statuary,  and  that  otbor  artists  were  mere  stone- 
cutters.' He  had  some  talent  for  poetry,  and 
wrote  some  tolerable  French  satires.  His  death 
took  place  January  1  1,  1762,  at  his  residence  in 
iSt.  Martin's  Lane. 


.o  ROV 

ROUEN,  a  large  and  populous  city  in  the 
north  of  France,  once  the  capital  of  Normandy, 
at  present  of  the  department  of  the  Lower 
Seine  (see  NORMANDY),  is  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Seine,  in  a  fertile  and  pleasant 
country.  Its  form  is  an  irregular  oval,  two  miles 
in  length  and  in  one  breadth.  The  streets,  though 
in  general  straight,  are  very  narrow,  so  that  here 
is  no  room  for  foot  pavement ;  and,  as  the  French 
have  not  yet  adopted  the  plan  of  underground 
sewers,  the  eye  is  constantly  offended  with  a 
stream  of  filth  running  along  the  middle  of  the 
street.  A  number  of  houses  are  of  wood,  built 
in  an  antiquated  style,  the  walls  often  projecting 
as  they  ascend.  The  most  agreeable  part  of  the 
town  is  that  which  adjoins  the  Seine,  the  quays 
being  spacious,  and  bordered  with  good  houses, 
while  the  river  and  its  islands,  with  the  beautiful 
'  Cours,'  a  walk  extending  along  the  opposite 
bank,  the  esplanade,  and  the  neighbouring  hill  of 
St.  Catherine,  about  400  feet  high,  form  an  as- 
semblage of  pleasant  objects.  The  squares  arc 
small  and  insignificant;  the  one  called  the 
Marche  aux  Veaux  contains  the  statue  of  the 
warlike  maid  of  Orleans,  who  was  burned  here 
by  the  English,  as  a  sorceress,  in  1430.  The 
ramparts,  being  levelled  and  lined  with  trees,  con- 
tain pleasant  walks ;  and  the  public  roads  lead- 
ing to  Paris,  Havre,  and  other  places,  are  bordered 
with  trees.  The  objects  of  antiquarian  research 
in  this  city  have  engaged  our  attention  in  th« 
article  already  referred  to.  The  town-house,  or 
municipality,  is  the  chief  civil  edifice  worth  no- 
tice ;  and  the  barracks  are  large  and  commodious. 
The  great  hospital  is  a  handsome  modern  build- 
ing ;  and  in  public  markets  Rouen  is  not  in- 
ferior to  any  city  of  France.  Of  the  curiosities 
of  the  place,  the  most  interesting,  perhaps,  is 
the  bridge  of  boats  over  the  Seine.  Rouen  is 
celebrated  for  its  cotton  manufactures,  but 
here,  as  in  other  parts  of  France,  the  goods  are 
less  remarkable  for  taste  in  the  pattern  than  du- 
rability. Rouen  has  likewise  manufactures  of 
woollens,  linens,  and,  to  a  smaller  extent,  of 
paper,  iron  ware,  hats,  pottery,  wax  cloth ;  also 
sugar  refineries.  Dyeing  both  of  woollen  and 
cotton  is  also  conducted  with  care  and  success. 
The  whole  of  its  manufacturing  industry  is  com- 
puted to  give  employment  to  50,000  persons, 
young  and  old.  The  great  disadvantages  of 
Rouen  are  the  want  of  fuel,  and  the  dearness  of 
provisions:  at  the  distance  of  100  miles  to  the 
westward  the  family  of  a  workman  can  be  sup- 
ported at  a  reduction  of  thirty  per  cent.  But, 
during  the  exclusion  of  British  commerce  under 
Buonaparte,  it  flourished  largely  ;  particularly 
considering  its  further  disadvantage  in  point  of 
navigation.  It  is  forty-five  miles  east  of  Havre, 
and  eighty  W.  N.  W.  of  Paris. 

ROVEREDO,  a  large  and  fine  town  of  the 
Tyrol,  Austria,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adige,  was 
once  subject  to  Venice;  but  since  1509  it  lias 
been  under  the  protection  of  the  empire,  and 
enjoyed  privileges  which  soon  made  it  a  staple 
for  the  silk  manufacture.  This  branch  of  in- 
dustry was  at  its  height  about  the  middle  o 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  environs  produce 
tobacco,  which,  as  well  as  the  leather  of  t'  • 
town,  forms  an  article  of  export.  There  are  n« 


ROU 


57 


ROU 


public  edifices  of  consequence,  hut  Roveredo  is 
a  well  built  town,  and  Uie  marble  found  in  the 
vicinity  has  been  much  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  houses.  Twenty-eight  miles  north  of  Ve- 
mna,  and  twelve  south  by  west  of  Trent. 

ROUGE',  n.n.     1  r.  rouge.     Red  paint. 

ROUGH,  adj.  ~]     Saxon,  pnupse ; 

ROUGH'CAST,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.      Swed.  rugg ;  Goth. 

ROI'GH'DUAI r,  n. s.        .       hrock.       Rugged; 

ROUGII'DRAW,  v.  n.  of    unequal     sur- 

ROUGH'EN,  v.  a.  &  v.  n.      1    face  ;      coarse  ; 

ROIGH'HEW,  v.  a.  I    hairy;       hence 

ROUGH'HEWX,  part.  adj.         harsh;    severe; 

ROIGH'LY,  adv.  rude;    terrible; 

Roioii'xESS,  n.s.  stormy:  roughcast 

ROUGH'WORK.  J  is,  a  rude  model, 

or  a  kind  of  rough  plaster  mixed  with  pebbles  : 
to  roughcast  is,  to  mould  or  form  in  a  rough  way : 
rough-draft,  rough-draw,  and  roughwork,  are  of 
similar  signification:  to  roughen  is,  to*  make  or 
grow  rough :  the  adverb  and  noun  substantive 
corresponding. 

\<;  .Mammon  would  there  let  him  long  remain, 
Vor  terror  of  the  torments  manifold, 
In  which  the  damned  souls  he  did  behold, 
Jiut  rouyhly  him  bespake.  Spenser. 

A  tiend,  a  fury,  pitiless  and  rough, 
A  wolf :  nay  worse,  a  fellow  all  in  buff. 

Shakspeare. 

Come  what  come  may, 

Time  and  the  hour  run  through  the  roughest  day. 

Id. 

Some  man  must  present  a  wall  ;  and  let  him  have 
some  plaster,  lome,  or  roughcast  about  him  to  signify 
wall.  Id. 

There's  a  divinity  that  shapes  our  ends, 
R,>ughhew  them  how  we  will.  Id.  Hamlet. 

Rebuked,  and  roughlu  sent  to  prison, 
The  immediate  heir  of  England  !  was  this  easy  ? 

bhaltspeare. 

A  rouyhhewn  seaman,  being  brought  before  a  jus- 
tice for  some  misdemeanour,  was  by  him  ordered 
away  to  prison  ;  and  would  not  stir  ;  saying,  it  Was 
better  to  stand  where  he  was,  than  to  go  to  a  worse 
place.  Bacon's  Apopbtkegau. 

Roughness  is  a  needless  cause  of  discontent ;  se- 
verity breedcth  fear  ;  but  roughness  breedeth  hate  ; 
even  reproofs  from  authority  ought  to  be  grave  and 
not  taunting.  Bacon. 

Nor  bodily,  nor  ghostly  negro  could 
Roughcast  thy  figure  in  a  sadder  mould.  Cleaceland. 

The  whole  piece  seems  rather  a  loose  model  and 
roughcast  of  what  I  design  to  do,  than  a  complete 
work.  Digby. 

I  hope  to  obtain  a  candid  construction  of  this 
roiishheicn  ill  timbered  discourse.  Howel. 

Strait  with  a  band  of  soldiers  tall  and  rough 
On  him  he  seizes.  Cuu-leu't  Davideii. 

When  our  minds'  eyes  are  disengaged, 
They  quicken  sloth,  perplexities  unty, 
Make  roughness  smooth,  and  hardness  mollify. 

Denham. 

He  gave  not  the  king  time  to  prosecute  that 
gracious  method,  but  forced  him  to  a  quicker  and 
rougher  remedy.  Clarendon. 

The  fiend 
O'er  bog,  or  steep,  through  strait,  rough,  dense,  pr 

rare, 

Pursues  his  way.  Milton. 

Before  the  cloudy  van, 

In  the  rough  edge  of  battle  ere  it  joined, 

.    i an  advanced.  Id. 


The  whole  world,  without  art  and  dress, 
'Would  be  but  one  great  yvilderness, 
And  mankind  but  a  savage  herd, 
For  all  that  nature  has  conferred  • 
This  does  but  roughhew  and  design, 
Leaves  art  to  polish  and  refine,  Hudibrai. 

Divers  plants  contain  a  grateful  sharpness  ;  as 
lemons  ;  or  an  austere  and  inconcocted  nwyhnesi,  as 
sloes.  Browne. 

The  little  roughness**  or  other  inequalities  of  the 
leather  agains*  the  cavity  of  the  cylinder,  now  and 
then  put  a  stop  to  the  descent  or  ascent  of  the 
sucker.  Boyle. 

A  ropy  chain  of  rheums,  a  visage  rough, 
Deformed,  unfeatured,  and  a  skin  of  buff.  Dryden. 

In  merriment  they  weie  first  practised,  and  this 
r<mghcast  unhewn  poetry  was  instead  of  stage  plays 
for  one  hundred  and  twenty  years.  Id. 

.Mv  elder  brothers  came 

Roughilrauglita  of  nature,  ill  designed  and  lame, 
Blown  off,  like  blossoms  never  made  to  bear; 
Till  I  came  finished,  her  last  laboured  care.         Id. 

His  victories  we  scarce  could  keep  in  view, 
Or  polish  them  so  fast  as  he  rovghdrew.  Id. 

Such  difference  there  is  in  tongues,  that  the  same 
figure,  which  roughens  one,  gives  majesty  to  another  ; 
and  that  was  it  which  Virgil  studied  in  his  verses. 

When  the  diamond  is  not  only  found,  but  the 
roughness  smoothed,  cut  into  a  form,  and  set  in  gold, 
then  we  cannot  but  acknowledge  that  it  is  the  per- 
fect work  of  art  and  nature.  Id. 

Kind  words  prevent  a  good  deal  of  that  perverse- 
ness  which  rough  and  imperious  usage  often  produces 
in  generous  minds.  '  """•' 

Thus  you  must  continue,  till  you  have  rough- 
wnntght  all  your  work  from  end  to  end. 

MOIOH'S  Mecliuinctil  Exercises. 

A  tobacco-pipe  broke  in  my  mouth,  and  the  spit- 
ting out  the  pieces  left  such  a  delicious  roughness  on 
my  tongue,  that  I  champed  up  the  remaining  part. 

Spectator. 

Roughness  of  temper  is  apt  to  discountenance  the 
timorous  or  modest.  Addison. 

Were  the  mountains  taken  all  away,  the  remaining 
parts  would  be  more  unequal  than  the  roughest  sea  ; 
whereas  the  face  of  the  earth  should  resemble  that  of 
the  calmest  sea,  if  still  in  the  form  of  its  first  mass. 

Burnet's  Theory. 

The  booby  Phaon  only  was  unkind, 
A  surly  boatman  rough  as  sea  and  wind.         Prior. 

Such  a  persuasion  as  this  well  fixed,  will  smooth 
all  the  roughness  of  the  way  that  leads  to  happiness, 
and  render  all  the  conflicts  with  our  lusts  pleasing. 

Atterbury. 

Hippocrates  seldom  mentiofls  the  doses  of  his  me- 
dicines, which  is  somewhat  surprising,  because  his 
purgatives  are  generally  very  rough  and  strong. 

Arbuthnot  on  Coint 

Most  by  the  numbers  judge  a  poet's  song, 
And  smooth  or  rough  with  them  is  right  or  wrong. 

Pope. 

Ah  !  where  must  needy  poet  seek  for  aid, 
When  dust  and  rain  at  once  his  coat  invade  1 
His  only  coat ;  when  dust  confused  with  rain, 
Roughens  the  nap,  and  leaves  a  mingled  stain. 

Stcift. 

The  Swedes,  Danes,  Germans,  and  Dutch  attain 
to  the  pronunciation  of  our  words  with  ease  because 
our  syllables  resemble  theirs  in  roughnets  and  fre- 
quency of  consonants.  Id. 
The  broken  landskip, 

Ascending,  roughens  into  rigid  hills.       Thomson. 

Then  what  was  left  of  roughnes*  in  the  grain 
Of  British  natures,  wanting  its  excuse 


ROU 


58 


That  it  belongs  to  freemen,  would  disgust 

And  shock  me.  Camper. 

ROVIGNO,  a  maritime  town  of  Austrian 
Illyria,  on  the  coast  of  Istria.  It  is  built  on  a 
rock,  which  forms  two  good  harbours ;  but  that 
nearest  the  town  is  not  considered  secure,  and 
is  resorted  to  chiefly  by  boats  and  barges.  Ro- 
vigno  is  only  a  mile  in  circumference,  but  very 
populous,  containing  10,000  inhabitants,  whose 
chief  employments  are  the  pilchard  fishery, 
ship-building,  and  the  sale  of  wood.  The  envi- 
rons produce  olive  oil  and  wine,  and  beautiful 
marble.  Forty  miles  south  of  Trieste,  and 
thirty-seven  south-west  of  Fiume. 

ROVIGO,  a  district  of  Austrian  Italy, 
bounded  by  the  delegations  of  Venice,  Padua, 
Verona  and  Mantua,  and  separated  by  the  Po 
from  the  States  of  the  Church.  Its  superficial 
extent  is  about  550  square  miles,  traversed  by 
a  number  of  rivers ;  and  in  many  places  marshy 
and  unhealthy.  It  is,  however,  fertile  through- 
out, the  marshes  producing  fine  crops  of  rice  ; 
maize,  flax,  hemp,  and  silk,  are  the  other  ob- 
jects of  culture.  The  number  of  black  cattle 
and  horses  reared  is  also  large.  This  district 
was  formerly  called  Polesino  di  Rovigo,  from 
the  number  of  canals  by  which  it  is  intersected. 
In  1806  the  title  of  duke  of  Rovigo  was  given 
by  Buonaparte  to  Savary,  his  minister  of  police. 
Population  63,000. 

ROVIGO,  the  capital  of  the  above  district,  is 
situated  on  the  Adigetto,  a  branch  of  the  Adige, 
and  surrounded  with  a  wall  and  moat :  to  the 
east  is  a  fortified  castle.  The  Palazzo  del  Po- 
desta,  the  former  residence  of  the  chief  magis- 
trate, is  situated  in  a  large  square,  the  principal 
ornament  of  which  is  a  pillar  of  stone.  The 
churches  here  are  not  worthy  of  notice.  The 
town  is  the  residence  of  the  bishop  of  Adria. 
Population  9000.  Eighteen  miles  N.  N.E.  of 
Ferrara,  and  thirty-five  S.S.W.  of  Venice. 

ROUILLE  (Peter  Julian),  a  learned  French 
Jesuit,  born  at  Tours,  in  1681.  He  assisted 
father  Catrou  in  writing  the  Roman  History,  in 
21  vols.  4to.,  and  died  in  Paris  in  1740,  aged 
fifty-nine. 

ROULERS,  a  considerable  town  of  the  Ne- 
therlands, in  West  Flanders,  situated  on  the 
Mandel.  It  has  a  linen  manufacture,  the  prin- 
cipal product  of  the  surrounding  district  being 
flax.  The  adjacent  pastures  are  rich,  and  the 
breed  of  cattle  good :  butter  is  a  large  article  of 
export.  There  is  here  a  central  school,  with  eight 
teachers.  Twelve  miles  N.N.  E.  of  Ypres,  and 
eighteen  south  of  Bruges. 

ROUN'CEVAL,  n.  s.  From  Roncesval.  a 
town  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees.  A  species  of 
pea. 

Dig  garden, 

And  set  as  a  daintie  thy  runcival  pease.      Tuuer. 

ROUND,  adj.,  n.  ».,  v.  a.,  v.  n.,^\     Yr.rande; 

RouND'-ABOUT,od;.  \udv. Siprep.     Ital. rondo; 

ROUND'EL,  n.  s.  Teut.    Sw. 

ROUND'ER,  and    Dan. 

ROUND'-HEAD,  n.  *.  \~rund;    Sp. 

ROUND'HOUSE,  redondo. 

ROUMMSH,  </(/'/.  Circular; 

It'n  M.'I  v,  adv.  \   spherical; 

Ror.M>'xi>s 'i.  s.  J     without 


angles  ;  smooth  :  hence  unbroken  ;  plain ;  clear ; 
candid ;  free ;  quick  ;  brisk  :  a  round  is  a  circle 
or  circular  body ;  a  revolution ;  rotation  ;  step  of 
a  ladder ;  the  rotary  walk  of  an  officer,  or  soldier, 
on  guard  :  to  round  is  to  make  circular  or  spheri- 
cal;  to  divest  of  angles ;  mould  to  smoothness; 
raise  into  relief;  move  around ;  surround ;  encir- 
cle: as  a  verb  neuter,  to  grow  or  become  round 
in  form;  go  round  :  round,  as  an  adverb,  signi- 
fies every  way  ;  in  a  revolution  or  rotation ;  cir- 
cuitously  :  as  a  preposition,  about;  on  every  side 
of;  all  over:  roundel  is  a  round  form  or  figure: 
rounder,  an  enclosure  ;  circumvallation  :  round- 
head, the  old  nick-name  of  the  Puritans,  from 
their  practice  of  cropping  the  hair :  round-house, 
a  kind  of  watch-house :  roundish,  roundly,  and 
roundness,  follow  the  senses  of  round,  adjective. 

The  terror  of  God  was  upon  the  cities  round  about. 

Genesis. 

The  whole  period  and  compass  of  this  speech  was 
delightsome  for  the  roundness,  and  grave  for  the 
strangeness.  Spenser. 

She  called  for  a  round  sum  out  of  the  privy  purse. 

Hooker. 

Inioin  gainsayers,  giving  them  roundly  to  under- 
stand that  where  our  duty  is  submission,  weak  oppo- 
sitions betoken  pride.  Id. 
Three  thousand  ducats!  'tis  a  good  round  sum. 

Shakspeare. 

Let  his  queen  mother  all  alone  intreat  him 
To  shew  his  griefs  ;  let  her  be  round  with  him.    Id. 

Hie  thee  hither, 

That  I  may  pour  my  spirits  in  thine  ear, 
And  chastise  with  the  valour  of  my  tongue 
All  that  impedes  thee  from  the  golden  round, 
Which  fate  and  metaphysick  aid  doth  seem 
To  have  crowned  thee  withal.  Id. 

I'll  charm  the  air  to  give  a  sound, 
While  you  perform  your  antick  round.          Id. 
Whence  he  once  attains  the  upmost  round, 
He  then  unto  the  ladder  turns  his  back, 
Looks  in  the  clouds,  scorning  the  base  degrees 
By  which  he  did  ascend.  -  Id. 

We  are  such  stuff 

As  dreams  are  made  on,  and  our  little  life 
Is  rmtnded  with  a  sleep.  Id.  Tempest. 

This  distempered  messenger  of  wet, 
The  many-coloured  Iris,  rounds  thine  eyes. 

Shakspeare. 

If  you  fondly  pass  our  proffered  offer, 
'Tis  not  the  runnier  of  your  old  faced  walls 
Can  hide  you  from  our  messengers  of  war.       Id. 
I  was  called  any  thing,  and  I  would  have  done 
any  thing  indeed  too,  and  roundly  too.  Id. 

You'll  prove  a  jolly  surly  groom, 
That  take  it  on  you  at  the  first  so  roundly.       Id. 
The  queen,  your  mother,  rounds  apace  ;  we  shall 
Present  our  services  to  a  fine  new  prince.  Id. 

Round  dealing  is  the  honour  of  man's  nature  ;  and 
a  mixture  of  falsehood  is  alike  allay  in  gold  and 
silver,  which  may  make  the  metal  work  the  better, 
but  it  embaseth  it.  Racon. 

Worms  with  many  feet,  which  round  themselves 
into  balls,  are  bred  chiefly  under  logs  of  timber.  Id. 

The  Spaniards,  casting  themselves  into  roundels, 
and  their  strongest  ships  walling  in  the  rest,  made  a 
flying  march  to  Calais.  Id. 

Hirsute  roots  are  a  middle  sort  between  the  bul- 
bous and  fibrous ;  that,  besides  the  putting  forth  sap 
upwards  and  downwards,  putteth  forth  in  round. 

Id. 
All  sounds  whatsoever  move  round;  that  is,  on 


ROU  t 

ail  sides,  upwards,  downwards,  forwards,  and  back- 
wards. Id. 

This  lord  justice  caused  the  earl  of  Kildare  to  be 
arrested,  and  cancelled  such  charters  as  were  lately 
resumed,  and  proceeded  every  way  so  roundly  and 
severely  as  the  nobility  did  much  distaste  him. 

Daviet  on  Ireland. 

Mr.  de  Mortier  roundly  said  that,  to  cut  off  all 
contentions  of  words,  he  would  propose  two  means 
for  peace.  .  Hayu-ard. 

In  his  satyrs  Horace  is  quick,  round,  and  pleasant, 
and  has  nothing  so  bitter,  so  not  so  good  as  Juvenal. 

Peuchum. 

A  gentle  round  filled  to  the  brink, 
To  this  and  t'other  friend  I  drink.       Suckling. 


3  ROU 

When  the  mind  has  brought  itself  to  attention,  it 
will  be  able  to  cope  with  difficulties,  and  master 
them,  and  then  it  may  go  on  roundly.  Id. 

With  the  cleaving-knife  and  mawl  split  the  stuff 
into  a  square  piece  near  the  size,  and  with  the  draw- 
knife  round  off  the  edges  to  make  it  fit  for  the  lathe. 

Mo.riw  . 

How  then  to  drag  a  wretched  life  beneath 
An  endless  round  of  still  returning  woes, 
And  all  the  gnawing  pangs  of  vain  remorse'! 
What  torment's  this!  Smith. 

This  is  the  last  stage  of  human  perfection,  the  ut- 
most round  of  the  ladder  whereby  we  ascend  to  hea- 
ven. Norru. 


Your  petitioner  always  kept  hospitality,  and  drank 

Such  new  Utopians  would  have  a  round  of  govern-     confusion  to  the  roundhead*.  Spectator. 

ment,  as  some  the  like  in  the  church,  in  which  every 
spoak  becomes  uppermost  in  his  turn.         Holyday. 

No  end  can  to  this  be  found, 
Tis  nought  but  a  perpetual  fruitless  round.  Cowley. 

He  did  foretel  and  prophesy  of  him, 
Who  to  his  realms  that  azure  round  hath  joined. 

Denharn. 

Hollow  engines,  long  and  round,  thick  rammed. 

Milton. 
The  outside  bare  of  this  round  world.  Id. 

Knit  your  hands,  and  beat  the  ground 
In  a  light  fantastick  round.  Id. 

In  darkness  and  with  dangers  compassed  round.  Id. 

One  foot  he  centered,  and  the  other  turned 
Round  through  the  vast  profundity  obscure.         Id. 

To  those  beyond  the  polar  circle,  day 
Had  unbenighted  shone,  while  the  low  sun, 
To  recompence  his  distance,  in  your  sight 
Had  rounded  still  the'  horizon,  and  not  known 
The  east  or  west.  Id.  Paradise  Lost. 

They  keep  watch,  or  nightly  rounding  walk. 


The  queen  of  night, 

In  her  increasing  homes,  doth  rounder  grow, 
Till  full  and  perfect  she  appeare  in  show.    Browne. 

His  style,  though  round  and  comprehensive,  was 
incumbered  sometimes  by  parentheses,  and  became 
difficult  to  vulgar  understandings.  Fell. 

From  a  world  of  phenomena,  there  is  a  principle 
that  acts  out  of  wisdom  and  counsel,  as  was  abun- 
dantly evidenced,  and  as  roundly  acknowledged. 

Afi) re's  Divine  Dialogues. 

It  is  not  every  small  crack  that  can  make  such  a 
receiver,  as  is  of  a  roundish  figure,  useless  to  our  ex- 
periment. Boyle. 

Painting  is  a  long  pilgrimage ;  if  we  do  not  actually 
begin  the  journey,  and  travel  at  a  round  rate,  we 
shall  never  arrive  at  the  end  of  it.  Dryden. 

They  meet,  they  wheel,  they  throw  their  darts  afar ; 
Then  in  a  round  the  mingled  bodies  run  ; 
Hying  they  follow,  and  pursuing  shun.  Id. 

All  the  rounds  like  Jacob's  ladder  rise  ; 
i  he  lowest  hid  in  earth,  the  topmost  in  the  skies. 

Id. 

Round  the  world  we  roam, 
Forced  frpm  our  pleasing  fields  and  native  home. 

Id. 

If  nothing  will  please  people,  unless  they  be 
greater  than  nature  intended,  what  can  they  ex- 
pect, but  the  ass's  round  of  vexatious  changes  1 

L'Estrange. 

Those  sincerely  follow  reason,  but  for  want  of 
having  large,  sound,  roundabout  sense,  have  not  a  full 
view  of  all  that  relates  to  the  question. 

Locke  mi  Understanding. 

When  silver  has  been  lessened  in  any  piece  carry- 
ing the  public  stamp,  by  clipping,  washing,  or  rnund- 
the  laws  have  dcclaicd  it  not  to  be  lawful  money. 

'        I^cke. 


They  set  a  round  price  upon  your  head. 

It  is  not  easy  to  foresee  what  a  round  sum  of  money 
may  do  among  a  people  who  have  tamely  suffered 
the  Franche  Compte  to  be  seized  on. 

Id.  Remarks  on  Italy. 

Sir  Roger  heard  them  upon  a  round  trot. 

Addison. 

The  mouth  of  Vesuvius  has  four  hundred  yards  in 
diameter  ;  for  it  seems  a  perfect  round.  Id. 

Some  preachers,  prepared  only  upon  two  or  three 
points,  run  the  same  round  from  one  end  of  the  year 
to  another.  Id. 

The  figures  on  our  modern  medals  are  raised  and 
rounded  to  a  very  great  perfection.  Id. 

He  affirms  every  thing  roundly,  without  any  art, 
rhetorick,  or  circumlocution.  Id.  C.  Tariff. 

Many  are  kicked  down  ere  they  have  climbed  the 
two  or  three  first  rounds  of  the  ladder. 

(jovernmeiit  uf  the  Tongue. 

At  the  best  'tis  but  cunning  ;  and,  if  he  can  in  his 
own  fancy  raise  that  to  the  opinion  of  true  wisdom, 
he  comes  round  to  practise  his  deceits  upon  himself. 

Till  by  one  countless  sum  of  woes  opprest, 
Hoary  with  cares,  and  ignorant  of  rest, 
We  find  the  vital  springs  relaxed  and  worn  ; 
Compelled  our  common  impotence  to  mourn. 
Thus  through  the  round  of  age  to  childhood  we  re- 
turn. Prior. 
The  vilest  cockle  gaping  on  the  coast, 
That  rounds  the  ample  sea.  Id. 

Bracelets  of  pearl  gave  roundness  to  her  arm, 
And  every  gem  augmented  every  charm.  Id. 

Pliny  put  a  round  number  near  the  truth,  rather 
than  a  fraction.  Arbuthnot  on  Coins. 

Women  to  cards  may  be  compared  ;  we  play 
A  round  or  two  ;  when  used,  we  throw  away. 

Granville. 

Paraphrase  is  a  roundabout  way  of  translating,  in- 
vented to  help  the  barrenness,  which  translators, 
overlooking  in  themselves,  have  apprehended  in  our 
tongue.  Felton. 

Can  any  one  tell  how  the  sun,  planets,  and  satel- 
lites were  rounded  into  their  particular  spheroidical 
orbs  i.  Cheyne. 

If  merely  to  come  in,  Sir,  they  go  out ; 
The  way  they  take  is  strangely  rou/idaoout.      Pope. 
They  marched  to  some  famed  roundhouse.         Id. 
These  accomplishments,  applied  in  the  pulpit,  ap- 
pear by  a  quaint,  terse,  florid  style,  rounded  into  pe- 
riods and  cadences,  without  propriety  or  meaning. 

Swift's  Miscellanies. 

Roundness  is  the  primary  essential  mode  or  differ- 
ence of  a  bowl.  Wattis  I^gick. 

ROUND,  v.  n.  Sax.  rtuman  ;  Germ,  runtn  , 
whence  Chaucer  writes  it  roun  To  whisper 
Obsolete 


ROU  60 

Being  come  to  the  supping  place,  one  of  Kalen- 
der's  servants  rounded  in  his  ear  ;  at  which  he  re- 
tired. Sidney. 

They're  here  with  me  already  ;  whispering,  round- 
ing, 
Sicilia  is  a  so  forth  ;  'tis  far  gone.  Shaktpeare. 

Cicero  was  at  dinner,  where  an  ancient  lady 
said  she  was  but  forty  :  one  that  sat  by  rounded  him 
in  the  ear,  she  is  far  more  out  of  the  question : 
Cicero  answered,  I  must  believe  her,  for  I  heard  her 
say  so  any  time  these  ten  years.  .Bacon. 

The  fox  rounds  the  new  elect  in  the  ear,  with  a 
piece  of  secret  service  that  he  could  do  him. 

L'  Estrange* 

ROUN'DEL,  n.  s.  (      Fr.  rondelet.      A  kind 

ROUN'DELAY.  J  of    poetry   which    com- 

monly consists  of  thirteen  verses,  of  which 
eight  are  of  one  kind  of  rhyme  and  five  of  ano- 
ther. 

Siker,  sike  a  roundle  never  heard  I  none, 
Little  lacket  Perigot  of  the  best, 

And  Willie  is  not  greatly  over-gone, 
So  weren  his  under-songs  well  addrest.        Spenser. 

To  hear  thy  rimes  and  roundelayt, 
Which  thou  wert  wont  in  wasteful  hills  to  sing, 

I  more  delight  than  lark  in  summer  days, 
Whose  echo  made  the  neighbouring  groves  to  ring. 

Id. 

Come  now,  a  roundel  and  a  fairy  song. 

Shakspeare. 

The  muses  and  graces  made  festivals  ;  the  fawns, 
satyrs,  and  nymphs  did  dance  their  roundelays. 

Howel. 

They  listening  heard  him,  while  he  searched  the 

grove, 

And  loudly  sung  his  roundelay  of  love, 
But  on  the  sudden  stopped.  Dryden's  Knight't  Tale. 

ROUNDS,  in  military  matters,  a  detachment 
from  the  main  guard,  of  an  officer  or  a  non-com- 
missioned officer  and  six  men,  who  go  round  the 
rampart  of  a  garrison  to  listen  if  any  thing  be 
stirring  without  the  place,  and  to  see  the  senti- 
nels be  diligent  upon  their  duty,  and  all  in  order. 
In  strict  garrisons  the  rounds  go  every  half  hour. 
The  sentinels  are  to  challenge  at  a  distance,  and 
to  rest  their  armfc  as  the  round  passes.  All 
guards  turn  out,  challenge,  exchange  the  parole, 
and  rest  their  arms,  &c. 

ROUSE,  n.s.  Teut.rtwcA,  half  drunk.  Hence 
our  word  carouse.  A  dose  of  liquor  rather  too 
large.  Not  in  use. 

They  have  given  me  a  rouse  already, 
— Not  past  a  pint  as  I  am  a  soldier.        Shakspeare. 

No  jocund  health  that  Denmark  drinks  to-day, 
>5ut  the  great  cannon  to  the  clouds  shall  tell ; 
A  nd  the  king's  rouse  shall  bruit  it  back  again, 
Bespeaking  earthly  thunder.  Id. 

RousV,  v.  a.,  v.  n.,&n.  s.  >       Gothic     reisa; 

ROL'SER,  n.  t.  {  Swed.   resa.     See 

RAISE.  To  wake  up;  wake  from  rest;  excite 
to  action  ;  drive  from  a  covert :  as  a  verb  neuter 
to  awake  from  slumber  or  inaction  ;  be  excited : 
a  rouser  is  the  agent  or  instrument  of  rousing. 

He  stooped  down,  he  couched  as  a  lion,  and  as  an 
old  lion  ;  who  shall  ronse  him  up  '  Gen.  xlix.  9. 

As  an  eagle,  seeing  prey  appear, 
His  hairy  plumes  doth  route  full  rudely  dight ; 
So  shaked  he,  that  horror  was  to  hear. 

Faerie  Queene. 
The  blood  more  >tirs, 
To  route  a  lion,  than  to  start  a  hare.        Shakspeare. 


ROU 


Then  rouse  that  heart  of  thine, 
And  whatsoever  heretofore  thou  hast  assumed  to  be, 
This  day  be  greater.  Chapman.  ' 

The  unexpected  sound 

Of  dogs  and  men  his  wakeful  ear  does  wound  ; 
Roused  with  the  noise,  he  scarce  believes  his  ear, 
Willing  to  think  the  illusions  of  his  fear 
Had  given  this  false  alarm.  Denham. 

Men,  sleeping  found  by  whom  they  dread, 
Rouse  and  bestir  themselves  ere  well  awake.  Milton. 

Blustering  winds  had  roused  the  sea.  Id. 

At  once  the  crowd  arose,  confused,  and  high  ; 
For  Mars  was  early  up,  and  roused  the  sky. 

Dry  den. 

I'll  thunder  in  their  ears  their  country's  cause, 
And  try  to  rouse  up  all  that's  Roman  in  them. 

Addlson. 

Richard,  who  now  was  half  asleep, 
Routed  ;  nor  would  longer  silenoe  keep.  Prior. 

The  heat  with  which  Luther  treated  bis  adversa- 
ries, though  strained  too  far,  was  extremely  well 
fitted  by  the  providence  of  God  to  route  up  a  people, 
the  most  phlegmatick  of  any  in  Christendom. 

Atterbury. 

Now  Cancer  glows  with  Phoebus'  fiery  car, 
The  youth  rush  eager  to  the  sylvan  war  ; 
Swarm  o'er  the  lawns,  the  forest  walks  surround, 
Rouse  the  fleet  bait,  and  cheer  the  opening  hound. 

ftp*. 

Melancholy  lifts  her  head  ; 
Morpheus  rouses  from  his  bed.  Id.  St.  Cecilia. 

And  when  they  .smiled  because  he  deemed  it  near, 
His  heart  more  truly  knew  that  peal  too  well 
Which  stretched  his  father  on  a  bloody  bier, 
And  routed  the  vengeance  blood  alone  could  quell 
He  rushed  into  the  field,  and,  foremost  fighting,  fell 

Byron. 

ROUSE  (John),  an  English  antiquary  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  who  was  born  in  Warwick- 
shire; and  lived  at  Guy's  Cliff,  near  Warwick. 
.He  wrote,  1.  A  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  2.  The  Antiquities  of  Warwick.  lie 
died  in  1491. 

ROUSSEAU  (James),  an  eminent  painter,  born 
in  Paris  in  1630.  He  studied  first  under  Swane- 
velt,  after  which  he  travelled  into  Italy,  practising 
in  perspective,  architecture,  and  landscape.  On 
his  return  home  he  was  employed  at  Marly.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  painting  buildings,  and, 
from  his  knowledge  of  perspective,  Louis  XIV. 
employed  him  to  decorate  his  hall  at  St.  Ger- 
mame-en-Laie,  where  he  represented  the  operas 
of  Lulli.  Being  a  Protestant,  he  quitted  France 
on  the  persecution  of  his  brethren,  and  retired 
to  Switzerland.  Louis  invited  him  back :  he 
refused,  but  sent  his  designs,  and  recommended 
a  proper  person  to  execute  them.  After  a  short 
stay  in  Switzerland,  he  went  to  Holland  ;  whence 
he  was  invited  to  England  by  Ralph  duke  of 
Montagu,  to  adorn  his  new  house  in  Blooms- 
bury.  Some  of  his  pictures,  both  in  landscape 
and  architecture,  are  at  Hampton  Court ;  and  he 
etched  some  of  his  own  designs.  He  died  in 
Soho  Square,  London,  in  1693. 

ROUSSEAU  (Jean  Baptistc),  a  celebrated  French 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  April,  1671.  His  fa- 
ther, who  was  a  shoemaker,  in  good  circum- 
stances, had  him  educated  in  the  first  colleges  of 
Paris.  He  distinguished  himself  while  young 
by  several  short  poetical  pieces,  ami  was  admitted 
as  an  eleve,  into  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 


ROUSSEAU. 


61 


and  Belles  Lettres,  in  1701.  He  attended  mar- 
shal Tallard  into  England  as  his  secretary,  and 
contracted  a  friendship  with  St.  Evremond.  On 
his  retum  to  Paris  he  was  admitted  at  court,  till 
in  1708,  he  was  prosecuted  as  the  author  of 
some  couplets,  in  which  the  characters  of  several 
persons  were  calumniated,  in  consequence  of 
which  he  was  banished  in  1712  by  a  decree  of 
the  parliament  of  Paris.  After  this  sentence  he 
lived  in  foreign  countries,  where  he  found  illus,- 
trious  protectors.  The  count  de  Luc,  ambassador 
of  France  in  Switzerland,  took  him  with  him  to 
Baden  in  1714,  and  presented  him  to  prince 
Eugene,  who  took  him  to  Vienna,  and  introduced 
him  to  the  emperor.  Rousseau  lived  about 
three  years  with  prince  Eugene  ;  but  having  lost 
his  favor,  by  satirising  one  of  his  mistresses,  he 
retired  to  Brussels,  where  he  afterwards  usually 
resided.  It  was  here  that  he  became  acquainted 
with  Voltaire,  who  admired  his  poetry,  and  made 
him  a  present  of  all  his  works.  He  came  over, 
in  1721,  to  England,  where  he  printed  a  collec- 
tion of  his  works,  in  2  vols.  12mo.,  London. 
This  edition,  published  in  1723,  brought  him 
tiearly  10,000  crowns,  which  he  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  Ostend  company,  where  he  soon 
lost  the  whole  of  it.  He  now  found  an  asylum 
in  the  establishment  of  the  duke  of  Aremberg, 
whose  table  was  open  to  him  at  all  times,  and 
who,  being  obliged,  in  1733,  to  go  to  the  army 
in  Germany,  settled  on  him  a  pension  of  1500 
livres.  But,  having  been  imprudent  enough  to 
publish  in  a  journal  that  the  duke  d'Aremberg 
was  the  author  of  those  verses  for  which  he  him- 
self had  been  banished  France,  he  was  dismissed 
from  his  table,  and  his  pride  would  not  allow 
him  to  accept  the  pension  after  this  rupture. 
The  count  de  Luc  and  M.  de  Senozan,  receiver- 
general  of  the  church  revenue,  now  invited  him 
to  come  privately  to  Paris,  in  the  hopes  of  pro- 
curing a  diminution  of  the  period  of  his  banish- 
ment, but  all  th,eir  attempts  proved  abortive; 
and  after  having  staid  three  months  at  Paris,  here- 
turned  to  Brussels  in  February,  1740,  where  he 
died  1741.  M.  Seguy,  in  concert  with  the  prince 
of  la  Tour  Tassis,  published  a  very  beautiful 
edition  of  his  works,  in  3  vols.  4to.,  agreeable 
to  the  poet's  last  corrections.  There  is  a  larger 
collection  in  five  volumes,  which  did  both  injury 
and  honor  to  his  memory,  as  he  in  it  speaks  both 
in  favor  of  and  against  the  very  same  persons. 

ROUSSEAU  (Jean  Jacques),  a  celebrated  French 
writer,  born  at  Geneva  in  1712.  His  father  was 
a  watchmaker.  His  education  was  but  scanty, 
but  he  made  up  for  this  by  self-application.  His 
friends  put  him  apprentice  to  an  engraver,  from 
whom  he  says  he  learnt  to  be  idle,  and  even  to 
steal ;  at  length  he  eloped  from  him.  Bornex, 
bishop  of  Anneci,  from  whom  he  solicited  an 
asylum,  committed  the  care  of  his  education  to 
madamede  Warrens,  a  lady  who  had  in  1725  left 
part  of  her  wealth,  and  the  Protestant  religion,  to 
throw  herself  into  the  church.  By  her  assistance 
he  went  to  Turin  with  letters  of  recommendation, 
and  was  admitted  into  a  seminary  there,  having 
been  first  made  a  proselyte  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
tholic  religion  by  his  benefactress.  He  was  soon 
disgusted  with  his  new  life,  which  he  quitted 
almost  pennyless,  and  was  obliged  to  engage 


himself  as  a  footman  to  a  lady  of  quality. 
She  dying  in  three  months,  her  nephew  pro- 
cured him  another  place  out  of  livery.  He  next 
commenced  teaching  music  at  Chamberi,  where 
he  remained  till  1741,  when  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  long  in  very  destitute  circumstances. 
Meanwhile  he  began  to  emerge  fiom  obscuiity, 
and  the  place  of  deputy  under  M.  Dupin,  farmer 
general,  a  man  of  parts,  afforded  him  temporary 
relief,  and  enabled  him  to  be  of  some  benefit  to 
Mad.  de  Warrens.  The  year  1750  was  the  com- 
mencement of  his  literary  career.  The  academy 
of  Dijon  had  proposed  the  question  :  '  Whether 
the  revival  of  the  arts  and  sciences  has  con- 
tributed to  the  refinement  of  manners  ?'  He 
supported  the  negative  side  of  the  question,  and 
the  academy  crowned  his  work.  From  that 
period  he  increased  in  celebrity.  His  next  work 
was  A  Discourse  on  the  Causes  of  Inequality 
among  Mankind,  and  on  the  Origin  of  Social 
Compacts,  a  work  written  with  a  view  to  prove 
that  mankind  are  equal ;  that  they  were  born  to 
live  apart  from  each  other ;  and  that  they  have 
perverted  the  order  of  nature  in  forming  societies. 
He  bestows  the  highest  praise  on  the  state  of  na- 
ture, and  depreciates  the  idea  of  every  social 
compact.  By  presenting  this  performance  to  the 
magistrates,  he  was  received  again  into  his  na- 
tive country,  and  reinstated  in  all  the  privileges 
and  rights  of  a  citizen,  after  having  abjured  the 
Catholic  religion.  He  soon  however  returnevl, 
and  lived  for  some  time  in  Paris,  and  afterwards 
retired  into  the  country.  His  Letter  to  M.  de 
Alembert  on  the  design  of  erecting  a  theatre  ;it 
Geneva,  in  1757,  first  drew  down  upon  him  the 
envy  of  Voltaire,  and  was  the  cause  of  those  in- 
dignities with  which  that  author  never  ceased  to 
load  him.  In  1752  he  gave  to  the  theatre  a  pas- 
toral, The  Village  Conjuror,  of  which  he  com- 
posed both  the  poetry  and  music.  His  Dictionary 
of  Music  affords  several  excellent  articles  ;  some 
of  them,  however,  are  very  inaccurate.  Rousseau, 
soon  after  his  Village  Conjuror,  published  A 
Letter  on,  or  rather  against,  French  Music,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  insulted,  menaced, 
and  lampooned.  Harmonic  fanaticism  went  even 
to  hang  him  up  in  effigy.  He  next  published 
the  New  Heloisa,  an  epistolary  romance,  in  six 
parts,  1761,  12mo.  His  Emilius  afterwards  ob- 
tained him  more  fame  than  the  New  Heloisa. 
This  moral  romance,  which  was  published  in 
1762,,  in  4  vols.  12mo.,  treats  chiefly  of  educa- 
tion. See  EDUCATION.  He  dwelt  from  1754  in 
a  small  house  in  the  country  near  Montmorenci ; 
a  retreat  which  he  owed  to  the  generosity  cf  a 
farmer  general.  The  French  parliament  con- 
demned his  Emilius  in  1762,  and  entered  a 
criminal  prosecution  against  the  author,  which 
forced  him  to  make  a  precipitate  retreat ;  and  he 
found  an  asylum  in  Neufchatel.  His  first  care 
was  to  defend  his  Emilius  against  the  archbishop 
of  Paris,  by  whom  it  had  been  anathematised 
The  Letters  of  La  Montaigne  appeared  soon 
after  ;  but  this  work,  far  less  eloquent,  and  full 
of  envious  discussions  on  the  magistrates  and 
clergy  of  Geneva,  irritated  the  Protestant  minis- 
ters without  effecting  a  reconciliation  with  the 
Romish  clergy.  The  protection  of  the  king  of 
Prussia,  to  whom  Nrufrhatel  belonged,  was  not 


ROU 


62 


sufficient  to  rescue  him  from  that  obloquy  which 
the  minister  of  Montiers  Travers,  the  village  to 
which  he  had  retired,  had  excited  against  him. 
On  the  night  between  the  6th  and  7th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1765,  some  fanatics  attacked  his  house, 
and,  fearing  new  insults,  he  in  vain  sought  an 
asylum  in  Bern.  As  this  canton  was  connected 
with  Geneva  they  did  not  allow  him  to  remain 
in  the  city.  Obliged  to  set  out  on  a  journey, 
in  a  very  inclement  season,  he  reached  Strasburg 
in  a  destitute  situation.  He  waited  there  till  the 
weather  was  milder,  when  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  Mr.  Hume  then  was,  who  proposed  taking 
him  with  him  to  England.  After  some  stay  in 
Paris,  in  the  disguise  of  an  Armenian,  Rousseau 
set  out  for  London  in  17fi6.  Hume,  much  affected 
with  his  situation  and  his  misfortunes,  procured 
for  him  a  very  agreeable  settlement.  He  did 
not  however  make  such  an  impression  on  the 
minds  of  the  English  as  he  had  done  on  the 
French.  The  periodical  prints  were  filled  with 
satires  against  him ;  and  they  published  a  forged 
letter  from  the  king  of  Prussia,  ridiculing  the 
principles  and  conduct  of  this  new  Diogenes. 
Rousseau  from  this  time  treated  Hume  as  an 
enemy,  who  he  said  had  brought  him  to  England 
with  no  other  view  than  to  expose  him  to  public 
ridicule;  and  he  therefore  returned  to  France. 
On  the  1st  of  July,  1770,  Rousseau  appeared 
for  the  first  time  at  the  Regency  coffee-house, 
dressed  in  ordinary  clothing,  having  for  some 
time  previous  to  this  worn  ,an  Armenian  habit. 
His  friends  procured  for  him  liberty  of  staying, 
on  condition  that  he  should  neither  write  on  re- 
ligion or  politics.  He  died  of  an  apoplexy  at 
Ermenon-ville,  belonging  to  the  marquis  de  Gi- 
rardin,  about  ten  leagues  from  Paris,  July  2d, 
1778,  aged  sixty-six.  This  nobleman  has  erected 
to  his  memory  a  very  plain  monument,  in  a 
grove  of  poplars,  which  constitutes  part  of  his 
beautiful  gardens.  On  his  tomb  is  inscribed  in 
French — '  Here  reposes  the  man  of  Nature  and 
of  Truth.'  Rousseau,  during  his  stay  near  Lyons, 
married  madame  le  Vasseur,  his  governess,  a 
woman  who,  without  beauty  or  talents,  had 
gained  over  him  a  great  ascendancy.  There  are 
several  small  pieces  written  by  him,  to  be  found 
in  a  collection  of  his  works  published  in  25  vols. 
8vo.  and  12mo,  to  which  there  is  appehded  a 
very  insignificant  supplement  in  6  vols.  The 
most  important  parts  in  this  collection  are  se- 
lected from  his  Thoughts ;  in  which  the  confi- 
dent sophist  and  the  impious  author  disappear, 
and  nothing  is  offered  to  the  reader  but  the  elo- 
quent writer  and  the  contemplative  moralist. 
There  were  found  in  his  portfolio  after  his  death, 
Confessions,  in  twelve  books,  which  were  after- 
wards published.  His  other  works  are,  1.  The 
Reveries  of  a  Solitary  Wanderer,  being  a  journal 
of  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  2.  Considerations 
upon  the  Government  of  Poland.  3.  The  Ad- 
ventures of  Lord  Edward,  a  novel,  being  a  kind 
of  supplement  to  the  Nouvelle  Heloise.  4.  Va- 
rious Memoirs  and  Fugitive  Pieces,  with  a  great 
number  of  letters.  5.  Emilia  and  Sophia.  6. 
'Hie  Levite  of  Ephraim,  a  poem.  7.  Letters  to 
Sara.  8.  An  Opera  and  a  Comedy.  9.  Trans- 
lations of  the  first  book  of  Tacitus's  History  of 
the  Episode  of  Olinda  and  Sophronia,  taken 
from  lasso,  &c.  &c. 


ROW 

ROUT,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.     Goth,  and  Swed.  rote 
Belg.  rot.     A  clamorous  multitude  ;  a  rabble ; 
a  tumultuous  crowd  ;  confusion  :  to  put  to  con- 
fusion ;  to  assemble  in  tumultuous  crowds. 

The  next  way  to  end  the  wars  with  him,  and  to 
rout  him  quite,  should  be,  to  keep  him  from  invading 
of  those  countries  adjoining.  Spenser. 

A  rout  of  people  there  assembled  were, 
Of  every  sort  and  nation  under  sky.  Id. 

If  that  rebellion 

Came  like  itself  in  base  and  abject  routs, 
Led  on  by  bloody  youth,  goaded  with  rage, 
And  countenanced  by  boys  and  beggary, 
You,  reverend  father,  then  had  not  been  there. 

Shakspeare. 

Farmers  were  to  forfeit  their  holds  in  case  of  un- 
lawful retainer,  or  partaking  in  routs  and  unlawful 
assemblies.  Bacon. 

The  meaner  sort  routed  together,  and  suddenly  as- 
sailing the  earl,  in  his  house,  slew  him. 

Id.  Henry  VII. 
Thy  army, 

As  if  they  could  not  stand  when  nhou  wer't  down, 
Dispersed  in  rout,  betook  them  all  to  fly.      Daniel. 

Fancy,  wild  dame,  with  much  lascivious  pride, 
By  twin  chameleons  drawn,  does  gaily  ride, 
Her  coach  there  follows,  and  throngs  round  about. 
Of  shapes  and  airy  forms  an  endless  rout.     Cowley. 

That  party  of  the  king's  horse  that  charged  the 
Scots,  so  totally  routed  and  defeated  their  whole 
army  that  they  fled.  Clarendon. 

Nor  do  I  name  of  men  the  common  rout, 
That  wandering  loose  about, 
Grow  up  and  perish,  as  the  summer  fly.        Milton. 

Their  mightiest  quelled,  the  battle  swerved, 
With  many  an  inrode  gored  ;  deformed  rout 
Entered  and  foul  disorder.  Id.  Paradise  Lost. 

The  mad  ungovernable  roitf, 
Full  of  confusion,  and  the  fumes  of  wine, 
Loved  such  variety  and  antick  tricks.     Roscommon, 
Harley  spies 

The  doctor  fastened  by  the  eyes 

At  Charing-cross  among  the  rout, 

Where  painted  monsters  are  hung  out.        Su-ift. 

ROUTE,  ra.  s.    Fr.  route.     Road ;  way. 
Wide  through  the  furzy  field  their  route  they  take, 
Their  bleeding  bosoms  force  the  thorny  brake.  Gu\t. 

ROW,  n.  s.  Sax.  na;  Goth,  and  Swed.  ra; 
Teut.  reih.  A  rank  or  file;  a  number  of  tilings 
ranged  in  a  line. 

Lips  never  part  but  that  they  show 
Of  precious  pearl  the  double  row.  Sidney 

After  them  all  dancing  on  a  row, 
The  comely  virgins  came  with  garlands  dight, 
As  fresh  as  flowres.  Spenser. 

A  new  born  wood  of  various  lines  there  grows, 
And  all  the  flourishing  letters  stand  in  rows. 

Cowley. 

Where  any  row 

Of  fruit  trees,  overwoody  reached  too  far 
Their  pampered  boughs,  and  needed  hands  to  check 
Fruitless  embraces.  Milton' t  Paradise  Lost. 

Where  the  bright  seraphim  in  burning  row, 
Their  loud  uplifted  angel  trumpets  blow.       Milton. 

The  victor  honoured  with  a  nobler  vest, 
Where  gold  and  purple  strive  in  equal  row*. 

Dry  den. 
Why  round  our  coaches  crowd  the  white-gloved 

beaux, 
Why  bows  the  side  box  from  its  inmost  rows  ? 

Pope. 

Row,  ?;.  n.  &,  v. a.  )      Sax.  nopari ;  Goth,  nm. 
ROW'ER,  n.  s.         $  To    impel     a    vessel     m 


ROW  63 


ROW 


water  by  oars ;  to  drive  by  oars ;  a  rower  is  one 
who  manages  oars. 

He  saw  them  toiling  in  rowing  •  for  the  wind  was 
contrary.  Murk  vi.  48. 

Some  of  these  troughs  or  canoes  were  so  great 
that  above  twenty  men  have  been  found  rowing  in 
one.  Abbot. 

The  swan  rows  her  state  with  oary  feet.     Milton. 

The  bold  Britons  then  securely  row'd  ; 
Charles  and  his  virtue  was  their  sacred  load. 

Waller. 

The  watermen  turned  their  barge,  and  rowed 
softly,  that  they  might  take  the  cool  of  the  evening. 

Dryden. 

Four  gallies  first,  which  equal  rowers  bear, 
Advancing  in  the  watery  lists  appear.  Id. 

The  bishop  of  Salisbury  ran  down  with  the  stream 
thirty  miles  in  an  hour,  by  the  help  of  but  one  rower. 

Addison. 

ROWE  (Nicholas),  an  eminent  English  poet, 
the  son  of  John  Rowe,  esq.,  serjeant  at  law, 
was  born  at  Little  Barford,  Bedfordshire,  in 
1673.  He  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  classic 
authors  under  Dr.  Busby  in  Westminster  school ; 
but  poetry  was  his  early  and  darling  study. 
His  father,  who  designed  him  for  his  own  pro- 
fession, entered  him  a  student  in  the  Middle 
Ten:  pie.  He  made  considerable  advances  in  the 
law  ;  but  the  love  of  the  belles  lettres  and  poe- 
try stopped  him  in  his  career.  His  first  tragedy, 
The  Ambitious  Stepmother,  meeting  %vith  uni- 
versal applause,  he  laid  aside  all  thoughts  of  the 
law.  He  afterwards  composed  several  tragedies; 
but  he  valued  himself  most  upon  his  Tamerlane. 
The  others  are  the  Fair  Penitent,  Ulysses,  The 
Royal  Convert,  Jane  Shore,  and  Lady  Jane 
Gray.  He  also  wrote  a  poem  called  The  Biter, 
and  several  poems  upon  different  subjects, 
which  have  been  published  under  the  title  of 
Miscellaneous  Works,  in  one  volume,  as  his 
dramatic  works  have  been  in  two.  '  Rowe  is 
chiefly  to  be  considered,'  says  Dr.  Johnson,  '  in 
the  light  of  a  tragic  writer  and  a  translator.  In 
his  attempt  at  comedy,  he  failed  so  ignominiously, 
that  his  Biter  is  not  inserted  in  his  works ;  and 
his  occasional  poems  are  rarely  worthy  of  either 
praise  or  censure.  In  the  construction  of  his 
dramas  there  is  not  much  art.  He  is  not  a  nice 
observer  of  the  unities;  nor  does  he  much  affect 
the  auditor,  except  in  Jane  Shore,  who  is  always 
seen  and  heard  with  pity.  Whence  then  has 
Rowe  his  reputation  ?  From  the  reasonableness 
and  propriety  of  some  of  his  scenes,  from  the 
elegance  of  his  diction,  and  the  suavity  of  his 
verse.  He  seldom  moves  either  pity  or  terror, 
but  he  often  elevates  the  sentiment ;  he  seldom 
pierces  the  breast,  but  he  always  delights  the  ear, 
and  often  improves  the  understanding.'  Being  a 
great  admirer  of  Shakspeare,  he  gave  the  public 
an  edition  of  his  plays.  But  the  most  consider- 
able of  Mr.  Rowe's  performances  was  a  transla- 
tion of  Lucan's  Pharsalia,  which  he  just  lived  to 
finish,  but  it  did  not  appear  in  print  till  1728, 
ten  years  after  his  death.  The  duke  of  Queens- 
berry,  when  secretary,  made  him  under-secretarv. 
After  the  duke's  death  all  avenues  were  sto^psd 
to  his  farther  preferment ;  and  during  the  rest  of 
queen  Anne's  reign  he  passed  his  time  in  study. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.  he  was  made  poet 
laureat,  and  one  of  the  land-surveyors  of  the 


customs  in  the  port  of  London.  The  prince  of 
Wales  conferred  on  him  the  clerkship  of  his 
council ;  and  the  lord  chancellor  Parker  made 
him  his  secretary  for  the  presentations.  He  did 
not  enjoy  these  promotions  long ;  for  he  died 
December  6,  1718,  aged  forty-five.  He  was 
twice  married,  and  had  a  son  by  his  first  wife, 
and  a  daughter  by  his  second.  He  was  interred 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  in  the  Poet's  Corner, 
opposite  to  Chaucer. 

ROWE  (Elizabeth),  an  English  lady,  eminent 
for  her  writings,  born  at  Ilchester,  in  Somerset- 
shire, in  1674.  She  had  a  taste  for  both  paint- 
ing and  poetry,  and  was  very  fond  of  music. 
In  1696  a  collection  of  her  poems  was  published. 
Her  paraphrase  on  the  thirty-eighth  chapter  of  Job 
was  written  at  the  request  of  bishop  Ken.  She 
married,  in  1710,  Mr.  Thomas  Rowe,  the  translator 
of  Plutarch's  Lives ;  but  intense  study  soon 
threw  him  into  a  consumption,  which  put  a  pe- 
riod to  his  life  in  May,  1715,  when  he  was  but 
just  twenty-eight.  Mrs.  Rowe  wrote  an  elegy 
on  his  death  ;  and  continued  to  the  last  moments 
of  her  life  to  express  the  highest  veneration  and 
affection  for  his  memory.  Soon  after  his  decease, 
she  retired  to  Frome,  in  Somersetshire.  In  this 
recess  she  composed  the  most  celebrated  of  her 
works,  Friendship  in  Death,  and  Letters  Moral 
and  Entertaining.  In  1736  she  published  The 
History  of  Joseph;  a  poem  written  in  her 
younger  years.  She  died  of  an  apoplexy,  Fe- 
bruary 20,  1736-7.  In  her  cabinet  were  found 
letters  to  several  of  her  friends,  which  she  had 
ordered  to  be  delivered  after  her  decease.  The 
Rev.  Dr.  Isaac  Watts,  agreeably  to  her  request, 
revised  and  published,  in  1737,  her  Devout  Ex- 
ercises of  the  Heart  in  Meditation  and  Soliloquy, 
Praise  and  Prayer;  and,  in  1739,  her  Miscella- 
neous Works,  in  prose  and  verse,  were  published 
in  2  vols.  8vo.,  with  an  account  of  her  life  and 
writings  prefixed. 

ROW'EL,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Fr.  rouelle.  The 
points  of  a  spur  turning  on  an  axis  :  to  pierce 
the  skin  and  keep  the  wound  open. 

A  rider  like  myself,  who  ne'er  wore  rowel 
Nor  iron  on  his  heel.  Shahtpeare.   Cymbeline. 

A  mullet  is  the  rowel  of  a  spur,  and  hath  never  but 
five  points  ;  a  star  hath  six.  Peacham. 

He  spurred  his  fiery  steed 
With  gory  rowels  to  provoke  his  speed.         Dryden. 

Rowel  the  horse  in  the  chest.  Mortimer. 

ROW'EN,  n.  s.  Teut.  rauke,  grass.  After 
grass. 

Then  spare  it  for  rowen,  till  Michel  be  past, 
To  lengthen  thy  dairie  no  better  thou  hast.    Tusser. 

Rowen  is  a  field  kept  up  till  after  Michaelmas,  that 
the  corn  left  on  the  ground  may  sprout  into  green. 

Notes  on  Tusser. 

Turn  your  cows,  that  give  milk,  into  your  rmcent, 
till  snow  comes.  Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

ROWLEY  (William),  a  dramatic  writer  who 
lived  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  Cambridge.  Wood 
styles  him  '  the  ornament,  for  wit  and  ingenuity, 
of  Pembroke  Hall,  in  Cambridge.'  He  was  a 
great  benefactor  to  the  English  stage,  having 
left  us  five  plays  of  his  own  composing,  and 
one  in  which  Shakspeare  afforded  him  some  as- 
sistance. 


ROX 


64 


ROY 


ROYSNIXG  (John),  an  ingenious  English 
mathematician,  born  in  1699.  lie  was  fellow  of 
Magdalen  College,  Cambridge,  and  afterwards 
rector  of  Anderby,  in  Lincolnshire.  In  1738  he 
printed,  at  Cambridge,  A  Compendious  System 
of  Natural  Philosophy,  in  2  vols.  8vo. ;  reprinted 
in  1745.  He  wrote  also  two  pieces  in  the  Phi- 
losophical Transactions,  viz.  1.  A  Description  of 
a  Barometer,  wherein  the  Scale  of  Variation  may 
be  increased  at  pleasure ;  vol.  xxxviii.  p.  39. 
And,  2.  Directions  for  making  a  Machine  for 
finding  the  Roots  of  Equations  universally,  with 
the  manner  of  using  it ;  vol.  Ix.  p.  240.  He 
died  in  London,  November  1771. 

ROXANA,  a  Persian  princess,  daughter  of 
Darius,  who,  being  taken  prisoner  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  captivated  her  conqueror,  who  mar- 
ried her.  After  his  death  she  behaved  with  great 
cruelty,  for  which  she  was  put  to  death  by  Cas- 
sander.  SeeMACEDox. 

ROXBURGH,  an  ancient  city  of  Roxburgh- 
shire, once  famed  for  opulence  and  magnificence, 
of  which  very  few  relics  now  remain.  It  stood 
on  a  rising  ground,  opposite  Kelso,  at  the  west 
end  of  a  fertile  plain,  peninsulated  by  the  Tweed 
and  the  Tiviot,  near  a  magnificent  Cistertian 
monastery  founded  by  David  I.  It  was  totally 
destroyed  by  king  James  II.  and  never  after- 
wards rebuilt ;  and,  as  its  site  is  now  converted 
into  arable  fields,  the  plough  has  nearly  oblite- 
rated all  traces  of  its  existence.  At  the  point  of 
the  peninsula  stood  the  castle,  memorable  in  the 
Scottish  history,  as  an  object  of  frequent  mortal 
contention  between  the  Scots  and  English ;  and 
before  which  king  James  II.  was  killed  By  the 
bursting  of  a  cannon.  This  castle  is  now  en- 
tirely in  ruins. 

ROXBURGH,  or  ROXBURGHSHIRE,  a  county  of 
Scotland,  so  named  from  the  above  ancient  city, 
called  also  Teviotdale,  from  the  Teviot  which 
runs  through  it:  extending  about  thirty  miles 
from  east  to  west,  and  fifteen  in  breadth  from 
the  English  border  to  the  Blue  Cairn  in  Lauder- 
dale  Moor;  but  of  an  irregular  figure.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Lauderdale  and  Ber- 
wickshire; on  the  east  and  south-east  by  Nor- 
thumberland and  Cumberland  ;  on  the  south  and 
south-west  by  Annandale ;  and  on  the  west  by 
Dumfries  and  Selkirk  shires.  It  is  divided  into 
three  districts,  called  Teviotdale,  Liddesdale, 
and  Eskdale,  from  their  chief  rivers,  the  Teviot, 
Liddal,  and  Esk.  On  the  north  and  west  the 
county  is  mountainous,  and  chiefly  appropriated 
to  pasture;  but  on  the  south  and  east  consider- 
ably level  and  fertile.  The  whole  abounds  with 
the  most  romantic  scenery,  exhibiting  the  rough 
appearance  of  hills,  mosses,  rocks,  and  moun- 
tains, interspersed  with  delightful  fertile  valleys, 
through  which  run  numerous  rivers  and  rivulets. 
The  chief  mountains  are  the  Cheviot  and  Cock- 
raw  Hills,  which  are  situated  in  what  was  called 
the  Debateable  Lands  :  from  the  property  of 
them  being  often  the  subject  of  debate  between 
the  two  kingdoms,  but  finally  adjudged  to  Scot- 
land at  the  Union.  This  county  contains  one 
royal  borough,  viz.  Jedburgh ;  and  several  con- 
siderable towns,  as  Kelso,  Hawick,  Melrose, 
and  Castletown.  Before  the  union  of  the  crowns, 
while  predatory  wars  xere  frequent  between  the 


two  kingdoms,  10,000  horsemen,  well  armed 
and  accoutred,  could  have  been  raised  in  twenty 
four  hours-  Even  after  that  period,  and  before 
the  union  of  the  kingdoms,  the  profits  of  a  very 
lucrative  contraband  trade  enriched  the  people 
and  kept  up  the  population.  The  recent  im- 
provements, however,  in  cultivation,  manufac- 
tures, improvements  in  the  breed  of  sheep  and 
wool,  and  other  arts  of  peace,  are  now  making 
up  for  these  deficiencies,  and  increasing  the 
population  and  prosperity  of  the  borders  of  both 
kingdoms,  without  danger  of  interruption  and 
depredations  from  predatory  inroads  on  either 
side.  This  county  sends  one  member- to  the 
imperial  parliament.  There  are  many  ancient 
forts  and  castles  ;  and  the  ancient  Roman  road, 
called  the  Rugged  Causeway,  can  be  traced 
from  Hounam  to  the  Tweed. 

ROXBURY,  a  township  of  the  United  States, 
in  Norfolk  county,  Massachusetts,  two  miles 
S.  S.W.  of  Boston.  It  contains  many  handsome 
houses  and  country  seats.  The  soil  is  in  a  high 
state  of  cultivation,  and  the  inhabitants  supply 
Boston  with  great  quantities  of  vegetables  and 
fniit.  Population  3669. 

ROY'AL,  adj.    ~\        Fr.    row/;     Ital.     and 

ROY'ALIST,  n.  s. /Span,  real,  reale,  of  Lat. 

ROY'ALIZE,  v.  a.  \regalis.  Kingly;  belonging 

ROY'ALLY,  adv.  I  to   or    becoming    a   king 

ROY'ALTY,  n.  s.  J  regal ;  all  the  derivatives 
corresponding. 

What  news  from  Venice 
How  doth  that  royal  merchant,  good  Anthonio? 

ShaJupeare. 

Ere  you  were  queen,  ay,  or  your  husband  king, 
To  royalise  his  blood,  I  spilt  mine  own.  Id. 

It  shall  be  my  care, 
To  have  you  royally  appointed.  Id. 

Draw,  you  rascal ;  you  come  with  letters  against 
the  king,  and  take  vanity  the  puppet's  part  against 
the  royalty  of  her  father.  Id.  King  Lear. 

Royalty  by  birth  was  the  sweetest  way  of  majesty : 
a  king  and  a  father  compounded  into  one,  being  of  a 
temper  like  unto  God,  justice  and  mercy.  Holyday. 
Wherefore  do  I  assume 

These  royaltiei,  and  not  refuse  to  reign  ?    Milton. 

The  royal  stock  of  David.  Id. 

Where  Candish  fought  the  royalists  prevailed, 
Neither  his  courage  nor  his  judgment  failed. 

Waller. 

His  body  shall  be  royally  interred, 
And  the  last  funeral  pomp  adorn  his  hearse. 

Dry  den. 

If  they  had  held  their  royalties  by  this  title,  either 
there  must  have  been  but  one  sovereign,  or  else  every 
father  of  a  family  had  as  good  a  claim  to  royalty  as 
these.  Locke. 

The  old  church  of  England  royalists,  another  name 
for  a  man  who  prefers  his  conscience  before  his  in- 
terests, are  the  most  meritorious  subjects  in  the  world, 
as  having  passed  all  those  terrible  tests  which  domi- 
neering malice  could  put  them  to,  and  carried  their 
credit  and  their  conscience  clear.  South. 

1  will,  alas !  be  wretched  to  the  great, 
And  sigh  in  rnyultu,  and  grieve  in  state.          Prior. 

Thrice  happy  they,  who  thus  in  woods  and  groves 
From  courts  retired,  possess  their  peaceful  loves  : 
Of  royal  maids  how  wretched  is  the  fate  !  Granville. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY.     See  SOCIETY. 
ROYENA,  in  botany,  African  bladdernut ;  a 
genus  of  the  digynia  order,  and  detandria  class 


RUB 


65 


RUB 


of  plants;  natural  order  eighteenth,  bicornes: 
CAL.  urceolated  ;  COR.  monopetalous,  with  the 
limb  revoluted :  CAPS,  unilocular  and  quadri- 
valved.  Species  seven,  all  Cape  herbs. 

ROY'NISH,  adj.  Fr.  rogneux,  mangy,  paltry. 
Paltry ;  sorry ;  mean  ;  rude. 

The  roynish  clown,  at  whom  so  oft 
Your  grace  was  wont  to  laugh,  is  also  missing. 

Shakspeare. 

ROYSE  (George),  D.  D.,  an  English  divine, 
born  at  Martock,  in  Somersetshire,  about  1655  ; 
and  educated  at  St.  Edmund  Hall,  Oxford.  He 
became  chaplain  to  king  William  III.,  and  at- 
tended him  to  Ireland  in  1690.  He  was  made 
dean  of  Bristol,  and  died  in  1708. 

ROYSTON,  a  market  town  in  Hertfordshire. 
The  name  of  the  town  is  derived  from  a  cross  ' 
erected  in  the  commencement  of  the  twelfth 
century  by  a  lady  lloise,  and  hence  called  Roise's 
Cross.  A  monastery  was  afterwards  built  near 
it,  and  largely  endowed.  Houses  gradually  arose 
round  the  monastery,  and  the  name  was  changed 
to  Royse's  Town,  or  Royston.  The  town  is  now 
noted  chiefly  for  its  corn  trade.  The  church  is 
an  ancient  edifice,  consisting  of  a  nave,  chancel, 
and  aisles.  The  market  is  on  Wednesday,  and 
it  has  five  annual  fairs.  Thirty-seven  miles  north 
of  London. 

ROY'TELET,  n.  s.  fr.roytelet.  A  little  petty 

king- 
Causing  the  American  roytelets  to  turn  all  ho- 
magers  to  that  king  and  the  crown  of  England. 

Heylin. 

ROZEE  (Madame),  an  extraordinary  paintress, 
born  at  Leyden  in  16,32.  She  neither  used  oil 
nor  water  colors,  but  wrought  on  the  rough  side 
of  the  pannel,  with  a  preparation  of  silk  floss, 
disposed  in  different  boxes,  according  to  the 
different  degrees  of  bright  and  dark  tints,  out  of 
which  she  applied  the  colors  requisite,  and 
blended,  softened,  and  united  the  tints  with 
surprising  beauty.  In  this  singular  manner  she 
executed  portraits,  landscapes,  and  historical 
subjects.  She  died  in  1682,  aged  fifty. 

RUATAN,  an  island  of  the  bay  of  Honduras, 
thirty  miles  long,  and  nine  wide;  fortified  by 
rocks  and  shoals,  which  defend  the  fort,  and  also 
by  the  narrowness  of  the  port,  into  which  only 
one  vessel  can  enter  at  a  time.  Yet  it  is  capable 
of  containing  500  vessels  in  perfect  safety. 
From  the  sea  this  island  appears  singularly 
beautiful.  It  is  entirely  covered  with  the  cocoa- 
nut  and  other  trees  ;  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  It 
abounds  with  deer,  wild  hogs,  Indian  rabbits, 
and  birds  of  many  species  :  parrots  are  innume- 
rable. The  Spaniards  have  a  kind  of  military 
station  or  look-out  post  here.  The  small  ad- 
joining islands  of  Helene,  Moratte,  and  Borbu- 
rette,  are  separated  from  this  by  a  narrow 
channel,  and  seem  like  detached  parts  of  it.  In 
the  south  are  some  ports,  and  besides  these, 
some  little  channels  fit  for  small  vessels.  In 
the  west  part  of  the  island  are  meadows,  in 
which  mules  are  bred. 

RUB,  v.  a.,  v.  n.  &t,n.s.^       Welsh,   rhubco  ; 

RUB'BER,  n.  s.  >  Teut.  reiber ;   Swed. 

RUB'STONE.  j  rubba.  To  scour  or 

smooth  by  friction  ;  pass  one  body  over  another ; 
to  wipe  ;  cleanse ;  polish  ;  '  to  rub  up'  is  to 
VOL.  XIX. 


excite  or  to  polish  ;  '  rub  down,'  curry  a  horse ; 
as  a  verb  neuter,  to  rub  is  to  fret;  make  a 
friction  ;  pass  or  force  a  way  through  difficulty  : 
a  rub,  the  act  of  rubbing;  collision;  hence 
difficulty ;  hindrance  :  rubber,  the  instrument 
or  agent  in  rubbing ;  a  game  ;  a  courtesy  :  rub- 
stone,  a  whetstone. 

A  cradle  for  barhe,  with  rub-stone  and  sand. 

Tusser. 

He,  who  before  he  was  espied,  was  afraid,  after 
being  perceived,  was  ashamed,  now  being  hardly 
rubbed  upon,  left  both  fear  and  shame,  and  was 
moved  to  anger.  Sidney. 

Look,  how  she  rubi  her  hands, 
— It  is  an  accustomed  action  with  her,  to  seem  thus 
washing  her  hands.  Shakspeare.  Macbeth. 

We'll  play  at  bowls, 

— 'Twill  make  me  think  the  world  is  full  of  rubs, 
And  that  my  foitune  runs  against  the  bias. 

Shakspeare. 

To  sleep  !    perchance  to  dream ;    ay,  there's  the 
rub.  Id. 

Upon  this  rub,  the  English  ambassadors  thought 
fit  to  demur,  and  sent  to  receive  directions. 

Hay  ward. 

No  hunters,  that  the  tops  of  mountains  scale, 
And  rub  through  woods  with  toile  seek  them  all. 

Chapman. 
He  expounds  the  giddy  wonder 

Of  my  weary  steps,  and  under 

Spreads  a  path  clear  as  the  day, 

Where  no  churlish  rub  says  nay.  Crashaw. 

The  government  at  that  time  was  by  kings,  before 
whom  the  people  in  the  most  formal  expressions  of 
duty  and  reverence  used  to  rub  their  noses,  6r  stroke 
their  foreheads.  Heylin. 

Their  straw-built  citadel  now  rubbed  with  balm. 

Milton. 

When  his  fellow  beasts  are  weary  grown, 
He'll  play  the  groom,  give  oats,  and  rub  'em  down. 

Dry  den. 

He  that  once  sins,  like  him  that  slides  on  ice, 
Goes  swiftly  down  the  slippery  ways  of  vice ; 
Though  conscience  checks  him,  yet,  those  rubs  gone 

o'er, 
He  slides  on  smoothly,  and  looks  back  no  more.  Id. 

Servants  blow  the  fire  with  puffing  cheeks,  and  lay 
The  rubbers,  and  the  bathing  sheets  display.  Id. 

'Tis  as  much  as  one  can  do  to  rub  through  the 
world,  though  perpetually  a  doing.  L'Estrange. 

The  ass  was  to  stand  by,  to  see  two  boobies  try 
their  title  to  him  by  a  rubber  of  cuffs.  Id. 

The  bare  rubbing  of  two  bodies  violently  produces 
heat,  and  often  fire.  Locke. 

If  their  minds  are  well  principled  with  inward 
civility,  a  great  part  of  the  roughness,  which  sticks 
to  the  outside  for  want  of  better  teaching,  time  and 
observation  will  rub  of;  but  if  ill,  all  the  rules  in 
the  world  will  not  polish  them.  Id. 

The  rough'or  coarse  file,  if  large,  is  called  a  rubber, 
and  takes  off  the  unevenness  which  the  hammer 
made  in  the  forging.  Moion. 

The  whole  business  of  our  redemption  is  to  rub 
over  the  defaced  copy  of  the  creation,  to  reprint  God's 
image  upon  the  soul.  South. 

You  will  find  me  not  to  have  rubbed  up  the  me- 
mory of  what  some  heretofore  in  the  city  did.  Id. 

In  narrow  clefts,  in  the  monument  that  stands  over 
him,  catholics  rub  their  beads,  and  smell  his  bones, 
which  they  say  have  in  them  a  natural  perfume, 
though  very  like  apopleclick  balsam  ;  and  what  would 
make  one  suspect  that  they  rub  the  marble  with  it,  it 
is  obseived  that  the  scent  is  stronger  in  the  morning 
than  at  night.  Addism  on  7fn/i/. 

•    F 


RUB 


66 


RUB 


A  forcible  object  will  rub  out  the  freshest  colours 
at  a  stroke,  and  paint  others.  Collier  of  the  Aspect. 

If  butchers  had  but  the  manners  to  go  to  sharps, 
gentlemen  would  be  contented  with  a  rubber  at  cuffs. 

Id.  on  Duelling. 

Two  bones,  rubbed  hard  against  one  another,  pro- 
duce a  fetid  smell.  Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 

An  hereditary  right  is  to  be  preferred  before  elec- 
tion ;  because  the  jgovernment  is  so  disposed  that  it 
almost  executes  itself;  and,  upon  the  death  of  a 
prince,  the  administration  goes  on  without  any  rub 
or  interruption.  Swift. 

Rub  the  dirty  tables  with  the  napkins,  for  it  will 
save  your  wearing  out  the  common  rubbers.         Id. 
RUBBER,  INDIA.     See  CAOUTCHOUC. 
RUB'BAGE,  TI.  s.  )       From  rub  ;    meaning, 
RUB'BISH.  }  at   first,   dust    made   by 

rubbing.  Rubbage  is  not  now  used.  Ruins 
of  a  building ;  fragments  of  matter  used  in 
building. 

What  trash  is  Rome  ! 

What  rubbish,  and  what  offal !  when  it  serves 
For  the  base  matter  to  illuminate 
So  vile  a  thing  as  Caesar.  Shakspeare. 

Such  conceits  seem  too  fine  among  this  rubbage. 

Wotton . 

A  fabric,  though  high  and  beautiful,  if  founded 
on  rubbish,  is  easily  made  the  triumph  of  the  winds. 
Glanmlle's  Scepsis. 
The  Almighty  cast  a  pitying  eye, 
He  saw  the  town's  one  half  in  rubbish  lie.   Dryden. 

When  the  foundation  of  a  state  is  once  loosened, 
the  least  commotion  lays  the  whole  in  rubbish. 

L' Estrange. 

Knowledge  lying  under  abundance  of  rubbish,  his 
scope  has  been  to  remove  this  rubbish,  and  to  dress 
up  crabbed  matters  as  agreeably  as  they  can.  Daven. 

That  noble  art  of  political  lying  ought  not  to  lie 
any  longer  in  rubbish  and  confusion. 

Arbuthnot's  History  of  John  Bull. 
The  enemy  hath  avoided  a  battle,  and  taken  a  surer 
way  to  consume  us,  by  letting  our  courage  evaporate 
against  stones  and  rubbish.  Swift. 

RUBBLE-STONE,  n.s.     From  rub. 
Rubble-stones  owe  their  name  to  their  being  rubbed 
and  worn  by  the  water,  at  the  latter  end  of  the  de- 
luge, departing  in  hurry  and  with  great  precipitation. 

Woodward. 

RUBENS  (Sir  Peter  Paul),  the  most  eminent 
of  the  Flemish  painters,  was  born  in  1577,  at 
Cologne.  His  father,  who  was  a  counsellor  in 
the  senate  at  Antwerp,  had  been  compelled  by 
the  civil  wars  to  seek  refuge  in  Cologne,  and, 
during  his  residence  there,  Rubens  was  born. 
He  soon  discovered  a  strong  inclination  for  de- 
signing, and  his  mother,  perceiving  her  son's  bias, 
permitted  him  to  attend  the  instructions  of  To- 
bias Verhaecht,  a  painter  of  architecture  and 
landscape.  He  next  became  the  pupil  of  Adam 
Van  Ort,  but  his  surly  temper  quickly  disgusted 
Rubens,  whose  natural  disposition  was  amiable. 
He  then  became  the  disciple  of  Octavio  Van 
Vien,  or  Otho  Venius,  a  painter  of  singular  me- 
rit, and  who  was  not  only  skilled  in  the  princi- 
•ples  of  his  art  but  also  distinguished  for  critical 
learning.  Rubens  now  gave  up  his  whole  mind 
to  painting,  and  soon  equalled  his  master.  To 
arrive  at  that  perfection  which  he  already  beheld 
in  idea,  he  travelled  through  Italy,  visiting  the 
most  valuable  collections  of  -paintings  and  an- 
tique statues  witli  which  that  country  abounds. 
Having  finished  some  fine  paintings  for  the  arch- 


duke Albert's  palace,  he  was  recommended  by 
him  to  the  duke  of  Mantua,  by  whom  he  was 
received  with  the  most  flattering  marks  of  dis- 
tinction, and  where  he  studied  the  works  of 
Julio  Romano.  He  next  visited  Rome,  where 
he  examined  the  productions  of  Raphael,  and 
the  pointings  of  Titian  and  Paul  Veronese  called 
him  to  Venice.  He  continued  in  Italy  seven 
years.  At  length  hearing  that  his  mother  was  ill 
he  hastened  to  Antwerp,  but  she  died  before  his 
arrival.  He  married  soon  after,  but,  his  wife  dy- 
ing in  four  years,  he  retired  from  Antwerp,  and 
endeavoured  to  sooth  his  melancholy  by  a  jour- 
ney into  Holland.  His  fame  now  spread  over 
Europe.  He  was  invited  by  Mary  of  Medicis 
queen  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  to  Paris,  where 
he  painted  the  galleries  in  the  palace  of  Luxem- 
burg. These  form  a  series  of  paintings  which 
delineate  the  history  of  that  princess ;  and  afford 
a  decisive  proof  of  his  superiority  in  such  com- 
positions. At  Paris  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  duke  of  Buckingham,  who  employed  him  to 
explain  to  Isabella,  the  wife  of  Albert  the  arch- 
duke, the  cause  of  the  misunderstanding  between 
the  courts  of  England  and  Spain.  In  this  employ- 
ment Rubens  acquitted  himself  so  well,  that 
Isabella  appointed  him  envoy  to  the  king  of 
Spain,  to  propose  terms  of  peace.  Philip  con- 
ferred on  him  the  honor  of  knighthood,  and  made 
him  secretary  to  his  privy  council.  Rubens  re- 
turned to  Brussels,  and  thence  passed  over  into 
England  in  1630  with  a  commission  from  the 
Catholic  king  to  negociate  a  peace.  He  was 
successful,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded,  and 
Charles  I.  treated  him  with  every  mark  of  respect. 
Having  engaged  him  to  paint  some  of  the  apart- 
ments of  Whitehall,  he  not  only  gave  him  a 
handsome  sum  of  money,  but,  as  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  merit,  created  him  a  knight ;  and  the 
duke  of  Buckingham  purchased  of  him  a  collec- 
tion of  pictures,  statues,  medals,  and  antiques, 
to  the  value  of  £10,000.  He  returned  to  Spain, 
where  he  was  highly  honored  and  rewarded  for 
his  services.  He  was  made  a  gentleman  of  the 
king's  bed-chamber,  and  secretary  to  the  council 
of  state  in  the  Netherlands.  Rubens,  however, 
did  not  lay  aside  his  profession.  He  returned  to 
Antwerp,  where  he  married  a  second  wife  called 
Helena  Forment,  a  celebrated  beauty.  He  died 
on  the  30th  of  May  1640,  aged  sixty-three,  leav- 
ing a  large  fortune  to  his  children.  The  figure 
of  Rubens  was  noble,  his  manners  engaging,  and 
his  conversation  lively.  He  spoke  several  lan- 
guages perfectly,  and  was  an  excellent  statesman. 
His  house  at  Antwerp  contained  one  spacious 
apartment,  in  imitation  of  the  rotunda  at  Rome, 
adorned  with  a  choice  collection  of  pictures 
which  he  had  purchased  in  Italy;  part  of  which 
he  sold  to  the  duke  of  Buckingham.  His  inven- 
tion was  so  fertile  that,  when  he  painted  the  same 
subject  several  times,  he  always  supplied  some- 
thing new.  The  attitudes  of  his  figures  are  natu- 
ral and  varied,  the  carriage  of  the  head  is  pecu- 
liarly graceful,  and  his  expression  noble  and 
animated.  He  carried  the  art  of  coloring  to  its 
highest  pitch.  The  great  excellence  of  Rubens 
appears  in  his  grander  historical  compositions  ; 
he  touched  them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give 
them  a  lasting  force,  beauty,  and  harmony.  Yet, 


RUB 


67 


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with  all  his  merits,  Rubens  is  accused  of  want  of 
correctness  in  designing.  Though  he  had  spent 
seven  years  in  Italy  in  studying  those  antiques 
by  which  other  celebrated  artists  had  modelled 
their  taste;  though  he  had  examined  them  with 
such  minute  attention  as  not  only  to  perceive 
their  beauties,  but  to  be  qualified  to  describe 
them  in  a  Dissertation  which  he  wrote  on  that 
subject ;  yet  he  seems  never  to  have  divested 
himself  of  that  heavy  style  of  painting,  which, 
being  peculiar  to  his  native  country,  he  had  in- 
sensibly acquired.  The  astonishing  rapidity, 
too,  with  which  he  painted,  made  him  fall  into 
inaccuracies,  from  which  those  works  that  he 
finished  with  care  arc  entirely  exempted. 
Among  his  finished  pieces  is  the  Crucifixion, 
lately  to  be  seen  at  Antwerp ;  but  of  all  his 
works  the  paintings  in  the  palace  of  Luxemburg 
best  display  his  genius  and  his  style.  Algarotti 
says,  that  he  was  more  moderate  in  his  move- 
ments than  Tintoretto,  and  more  soft  in  his  chiaro- 
scuro than  Caravaggio  ;  but  not  so  rich  in  his 
compositions,  nor  so  light  in  his  touches  as  Paul 
Veronese ;  in  his  carnations  less  true  than  Titian, 
and  less  delicate  than  Vandyck.  Yet  he  gave 
his  colors  the  utmost  transparency  and  harmony, 
notwithstanding  their  extraordinary  deepness ; 
and  he  had  a  strength  and  grandeur  of  style  en- 
tirely his  own. 

RUBIA,  in  botany,  madder,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  and  tetrandria  class  of  plants  ; 
natural  order  forty-seventh,  stellatae :  COR.  is 
monopetalous  and  campanulated  ;  and  there  are 
two  monospermous  berries.  There  are  seven 
species,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  the 

R.  tinctorum,  or  dyer's  madder,  so  much  used 
by  the  dyers  and  calico-printers.  This  has  a 
perennial  root  and  annual  stalk  ;  the  root  is 
composed  of  many  long,  thick,  succulent  fibres, 
almost  as  large  as  a  man's  little  finger ;  these  are 
joined  at  the  top  in  a  head  like  asparagus,  and 
run  very  deep  into  the  ground.  From  the  upper 
part  or  head  of  the  root  come  out  many  side 
roots,  which  extend  just  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground  to  a  great  distance,  whereby  it  propagates 
very  fast ;  for  these  send  up  a  great  number  of 
shoots,  which  if  carefully  taken  off  in  the  spring, 
soon  after  they  are  above  ground,  become  so 
many  plants.  These  roots  are  of  a  reddish  color, 
somewhat  transparent ;  and  have  a  yellowish  pith 
in  the  middle,  which  is  tough  and  of  a  bitter 
taste.  From  this  root  arise  many  large  four  cor- 
nered jointed  stalks,  which  in  good  land  will 
grow  five  or  six  feet  long,  and,  if  supported, 
sometimes  seven  or  eight ;  they  are  armed  with 
short  herbaceous  prickles  ;  and  at  each  joint  are 
placed  five  or  six  spear-shaped  leaves  ;  their  up- 
per surfaces  are  smooth ;  but  their  mid  rib  on 
the  under  side  is  armed  with  rough  herbaceous 
spines,  and  the  leaves  sit  close  to  the  branches  in 
whorls.  From  the  joints  of  the  stalk  come  out 
the  branches,  which  sustain  the  flowers :  they 
are  placed  by  pairs  opposite  ;  each  pair  crossing 
the  other ;  these  have  a  few  small  leaves  towards 
the  bottom,  which  are  by  threes,  and  upwards 
by  pairs  opposite :  the  branches  are  terminated 
by  loose  branching  spikes  of  yellow  flowers, 
which  are  cut  into  four  parts  resembling  stars. 
These  appear  in  June,  and  are  sometimes  suc- 


ceeded by  seeds  which  seldom  ripen  in  Eng- 
land for  any  useful  purpose  connected  with 
dyeing  or  manufactures.  Madder  root  is  used 
in  medicine.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  the 
icteric  decoction  of  the  Edinburgh  pharma- 
copeia. Madder  colors  the  bones  of  animals 
wiio  have  it  mixed  with  their  food  :  all  the  bones, 
particularly  the  more  solid  ones,  are  changed 
both  externally  aud  internally,  to  a  deep  red ;  but 
neither  the  fleshy  nor  cartilaginous  parts  suffer- 
ed any  alterations  :  some  of  these  bones  mace- 
rated in  water  for  many  weeks  together,  and 
afterwards  steeped  and  boiled  in  spirit  of  wine, 
lost  none  of  their  color,  nor  communicated  any 
tinge  to  the  liquors. 

RUBICON,  a  river  of  Italy,  anciently  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  Italy  and  Gaul.  Cre- 
sar,  by  passing  this  river  with  his  legions,  and 
thus  quitting  the  province  assigned  him,  was 
deemed  to  have  made  war  on  the  republic. 

RUBIF1C,  adj.  -\     Lat.    ruber    and    facto. 

RU'BIFORM,  adj.    (Making  red  :  having  a  red 

RU'BIFY,  v.  a.       ^appearance  :  to  make  red  : 

RUBIF'IOUS,  adi.  J  red. 

While  the  several  species  of  rays,  as  the  rubific, 
are  by  refraction  separated  one  from  another,  they 
retain  those  motions  proper  to  each.  Grew. 

Of  those  rays,  which  pass  close  by  the  snow,  the 
rubiform  'will  be  the  least  refracted  ;  and  so  come  to 
the  eye  in  the  directest  lines.  Newton's  Opticks. 

RU'BRIC,  n.  s.  &  adj.  Fr.  rubrique  ;  Lat. 
rubrica.  Directions  printed  in  books  of  law 
and  prayer-books  ;  so  termed,  because  originally 
distinguished  by  being  in  red  ink  :  red. 

No  date  prefixed, 
Directs  me  in  the  starry  rubricks  set.  Milton. 

They  had  their  particular  prayers  according  to  the 
several  days  and  months  ;  and  their  tables  or  rvbrickt , 
to  instruct  them.  Stillingfleet. 

The  rubrick  and  the  rules  relating  to  the  liturgy 
are  established  by  royal  authority,  as  well  as  the 
liturgy  itself.  Nelson. 

The  light  and  rays  which  appear  red,  or  rather 
make  objects  appear  so,  I  call  rvirick  or  red  making. 

Newton. 

What  though  my  name  stood  rubrick  on  the  walls. 

Pope. 

RUBUS,  the  bramble,  a  genus  of  the  poly- 
gamia  order  and  icosandria  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  thirty-fifth,  senticosae  :  CAL.  quin- 
quefid,  petals  five  ;  the  berry  consisting  of  mono- 
spermous acini  or  pulpy  grains.  The  principal 
species  is  the  common  raspberry,  which,  with  its 
varieties,  demands  culture  in  every  garden  for 
the  fruit;  particularly  the  common  red  kind, 
white,  and  twice  bearing  raspberry  ;  all  of  which 
are  great  bearers :  but,  for  the  general  planta- 
tions, the  common  red  and  the  white  kind  are 
chiefly  preferred ;  planting  also  a  share  of  the 
twice  bearing  sort,  both  as  a  curiosity  and  for 
the  sake  of  its  autumnal  crops  of  fruit,  which  in 
favorable  seasons  ripen  in  tolerable  perfection ; 
observing  to  allow  all  the  sorts  some  open  expo- 
sure in  the  kitchen  garden,  though  they  will 
prosper  in  almost  any  situation.  The  other  spe- 
cies are  considered  as^lants  of  variety,  for  hardy 
plantations  in  the  shrubbery.  Some  of  them  are 
also  very  ornamental  flowering  plants  ;  particu- 
larly the  Virginian  flowering  raspberry,  and  the 
double  blossomed  bramble,  which  have  great 

F2 


RUB 


merit  as  furniture  for  ornamental  compartments; 
and  the  white  berried  bramble,  which  is  a  great 
curiosity.  All  the  other  species  and  varieties 
serve  to  diversify  large  collections. 

RU'BY,  n.  s.  Fr.  rubis ;  Span,  rubi,  from  Lat. 
ruber.  A  precious  stone  of  a  red  color. 

Up,  up  fair  bride  and  call 
Thy  stars  from  out  their  several  boxes,  take 
Thy  rubies,  pearls,  and  diamonds  forth,  and  make 
Thyself  a  constellation  of  them  all.  Donne. 

You  can  behold  such  sights, 
And  keep  the  natural  ruby  of  your  cheeks, 
When  mine  is  blanched  with  fear.  Shalupebre. 

Wounds,    like  dumb   mouths,  do  ope  their  ruby 
lips.  Id. 

Melpomene  would  be  represented  like  a  manly 
lady,  upon  her  head  a  dressing  of  pearl,  diamonds, 
and  rubies.  Peacham. 

Thrice  upon  thy  finger's  tip, 
Thrice  upon  thy  rubied  lip.  Milton. 

Desire  of  wine 

Thou  could'st  repress,  nor  did  the  dancing  ruby 
Sparkling,  out-poured,  the  flavour,  or  the  smell, 
Or  taste,  that  cheers  the  hearts  of  Gods  and  men, 
Allure  thee  from  the  cool  crystalline  stream.       Id. 

Crowns  were  on  thy  royal  scutcheons  placed, 
With  saphires,  diamonds,  and  with  rubies  graced. 

Drfjden . 

HeVsaid  to  have  a  rich  face  and  rubies  about  his 
nose.  Captain  Jones. 

RUBY,  a  precious  stone,  ranked  by  Jameson 
under  the  head  of  the  spinell,  of  the  color  of  a 
bright  corn  poppy  flower.  The  balass,  or  pale 
red  inclining  to  violet;  a  species  of  sapphire. 
There  are  rubies  of  different  shades  of  color,  but 
that  the  most  sought  after  should  be  scarlet,  or 
fire  color ;  it  should  be  soft  and  velvety  in  ap- 
pearance, and  throw  forth  a  glow  lively  and  ar- 
dent. When  these  qualities  are  eminently  dis- 
played, no  stone  is  comparable  thereto,  and  its 
value  surpasses  even  that  of  the  diamond.  The 
spinell  rubies  are  about  half  the  value  of  dia- 
monds of  the  same  weight ;  the  balass  is  valued 
at  30s.  per  carat ;  a  perfect  ruby,  if  it  weigh 
more  than  three  carats  and  a  half,  is  of  greater 
value  than  a  diamond  of  the  same  weight.  It  is 
most  frequently  found  very  small  ;  its  common 
size  being  that  of  a  large  pin-head  ;  and  is  then 
very  cheap  ;  but  it  is  also  found  of  four,  six,  or 
ten  carats;  and  sometimes,  though  but  very 
rarely,  up  to  twenty,  thirty,  or  forty.  It  is  never 
found  of  an  angular  or  crystalliform  shape,  but 
always  of  a  pebble-like  figure,  often  roundish, 
sometimes  oblong,  and  much  larger  at  one  end 
than  the  other,  and  resembling  a  pear,  usually 
more  or  less  flattened  on  one  side.  It  is  com- 
monly so  naturally  bright  and  pure  on  the  sur- 
face as  to  need  no  polishing  ;  it  is  worn  in  rings, 
and  in  the  crowns  of  princes,  in  its  native  state. 
It  is  fusible  with  borax  in  a  strong  and  long- 
continued  heat,  running  into  a  transparent  glass 
of  a  pale  green  color :  the  same  effect  is  pro- 
duced by  microcosmic  salt;  but  with  potassa 
the  glass  is  opaque  and  differently  colored.  In 
the  course  of  experiments  made  on  precious 
stones,  by  order  of  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany, 
rubies,  in  the  heat  which  dissipated  diamonds, 
were  softened,  and  lost  some  of  their  color,  but 
preserved  their  form  and  weight.  By  addition 
of  a  third  lens,  a  further  degree  of  fusion  was 


68  RUD 

given  to  rubies.  Even  then  rubies  could  not  be 
made  to  unite  with  glass.  By  having  been  ex- 
posed to  this  heat,  the  surface  of  the  rubies 
which  had  suffered  fusion  lost  much  of  their  ori- 
ginal hardness,  and  were  nearly  as  soft  as  crystal. 
But  their  internal  parts,  which  had  not  been 
fused,  retained  their  hardness.  Rubies  become 
electric  by  being  rubbed.  They  are  met  with  in 
the  mountains  of  Pegu  in  the  East  Indies  ;  and 
at  Ava,  Calicut,  and  Brasil.  They  are  found  in 
the  sands  of  rivers,  in  an  argillaceous  earth  of  a 
hard  texture  and  greenish  color  ;  sometimes  they 
adhere  to  red  rocks.  The  spinell  rubies  are 
met  with  in  Hungary,  Silesia,  Bohemia,  and 
Brasil.  The  balass  comes  principally  from  Bra- 
sil, though  some  are  also  brought  from  the  East 
Indies.  The  largest  ruby  known  was  brought 
from  China  to  prince  Gargarin,  governor  of  Si- 
beria. It  came  afterwards  into  the  hands  of  prince 
Mentchikof,  and  is  at  present  one  of  the  orna- 
ments of  the  imperial  crown  of  Russia.  Accord- 
ing to  Pliny,  the  ancients  found  considerable 
difficulty  in  engraving  on  this  stone  :  many  mo- 
dern artists  have  essayed  upon  it,  and  among 
them  one  of  the  most  successful  is  a  German 
named  Haefler. 

RUD,  v.  a.  Sax.  rui^u,  redness.  To  make 
red.  Obsolete. 

Her  cheeks,  like  apples,  which  the  sun  had  rud- 
ded.  Spenser. 

RUDBECK  (Olaus),  a  learned  Swedish  phy- 
sician, of  an  ancient  and  noble  family,  born  in 
1630.  He  became  professor  of  medicine  at 
Upsal,  where  he  acquired  great  applause  by  his 
extensive  knowledge;  and  died  in  1702.  His 
principal  works  are,  1.  Exercitatio  Anatomica, 
exhibens  ductus  novos  hepaticos  Aquosos,  et 
vasa  glandularum  serosa,  in  4to.  He  there  claims 
the  discovery  of  the  lymphatic  vessels.  2.  Ath- 
lantica,  sive  Manheim,  vera  Japheti  posterorum 
sedes  ac  patria,  3  vols.  folio ;  in  which  he  en- 
deavours to  prove  that  Sweden  was  the  country 
whence  all  the  ancient  Pagan  divinities  and  our 
first  parents  were  derived ;  and  that  the  Ger- 
mans, English,  French,  Danes,  Greeks,  and  Ro- 
mans, with  all  other  nations,  originally  came 
from  thence. 

RUDBECKIA,  in  botany,  dwarf  sunflower, 
a  genus  of  the  polygamia  frustranea  order,  and 
syngenesia  class  of  plants ;  natural  order  forty- 
ninth,  composita ;  receptacle  paleaceous  and 
conical ;  pappus  consisting  of  a  quadridentate 
margin  :  CAL.  a  double  series  of  scaly  leaves. 
Species  nine,  natives  of  America. 

RUD'DER,  n.  s.  Sax.  rioSep;  Belg.  roeder. 
The  instrument  of  steering  a  vessel ;  any  thing 
that  guides  or  governs. 

They  loosed  the  rudder  bands,  and  hoisted  up  the 
main-sail,  and  made  towards  shore.  Acts  xxvii.  40. 

My  heart  was  to  thy  rudder  tied  by  the  string, 
And  thou  shouldst  towe  me  after.  Sliakspeare. 

Those  that  attribute  unto  the  faculty  any  first  or 
sole  power  have  therein  no  other  understanding,  than 
such  a  one  hath,  who,  looking  into  the  stern  of  a 
ship,  and  finding  it  guided  by  the  helm  and  rudder, 
doth  ascribe  some  absolute  virtue  to  the  piece  of 
wood,  without  all  consideration  of  the  hand  that 
guides  it.  Raleigh's  Hiitory  «J'  the  l\'»rtd. 


RUD 


69 


RUD 


For  rhyme  the  rudder  is  of  verses.  Hitdibras. 

Thou  held'st  the  rudder  with  a  steady  hand, 
Till  safely  on  the  shore  the  bark  did  land.   Dryden. 

The  RUDDER,  in  navigation,  is  a  piece  of 
timber  turning  on  hinges  in  the  stern  of  the  ship, 
and  which,  opposing  sometimes  one  side  in  the 
water  and  sometimes  another,  turns  or  directs 
the  vessel  this  way  or  that.  See  SHIP  BUILDING, 
and  NAVIGATION. 

RUDDIMAN  (Thomas),  M.  A.,  the  gramma- 
rian of  Scotland,  was  born  in  1674,  at  Raggel, 
in  Banff.  His  father,  James  Ruddiman,  was  a 
farmer,  and  strongly  attached  to  the  house  of 
Stuart.  His  son  was  instructed  in  the  principles 
of  Latin  grammar  at  the  parish  school  of  Boyn- 
die.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  became  anxious  to 
pursue  his  studies  at  the  university  ;  but  his 
father,  thinking  him  too  young,  opposed  his  in- 
clination. Hearing  of  the  competition  trial  an- 
nually held  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  for  a 
certain  number  of  bursaries,  Ruddiman,  without 
the  knowledge  of  his  father,  set  out  for  that  city, 
where  he  presented  himself  as  a  candidate,  and, 
though  he  had  neither  clothes  to  give  him  a  de- 
cent appearance,  nor  friends  to  recommend  him, 
he  gained  the  first  prize.  After  attending  the 
university  four  years  he  obtained  the  degree  of 
M.  A.  He  soon  after  engaged  as  a  private  tutor ; 
and  within  a  year  accepted  the  office  of  school- 
master of  Laurencekirk.  When  Ruddiman  had 
spent  three  years  and  a  half  in  this  employment, 
Dr.  Pitcairne  invited  him  to  Edinburgh,  and 
promised  him  his  patronage.  When  Ruddiman 
arrived  in  Edinburgh,  the  advocates'  library, 
which  had  been  founded  eighteen  years  before 
by  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  attracted  his  attention  ; 
and  he  was  soon  after  appointed  assistant  keeper, 
under  Mr.  Spottiswoode  the  librarian.  His 
salary  for  executing  this  laborious  office  was  £8 
6s.  \d. ;  and  he  received  a  present  of  £o  Scots, 
£4  3s.  4d.  sterling,  as  a  mark  of  respect  from 
the  faculty  !  When  Ruddiman's  merit  became 
better  known  his  assistance  was  anxiously  soli- 
cited by  those  engaged  in  literary  publications. 
Freebairne,  a  respectable  bookseller  of  that 
period,  prevailed  upon  him  to  correct  and  pre- 
pare for  the  press  Sir  Robert  Sibbald's  Introduc- 
tio  ad  historiam  rerum  a  Romanis  gestarurn  in 
ea  Borealis  Britanniae  parte  quae  ultra  murum 
Picticuin  est.  He  received  for  his  labor  £3 
sterling.  At  the  request  of  Mr.  Spottiswoode, 
librarian,  for  £5  sterling,  he  contributed  his  aid 
to  the  publication  of  Sir  Robert  Spottiswoode's 
Practiques  of  the  Laws  of  Scotland.  In  1707 
h,e  commenced  auctioneer,  an  employment  not 
very  suitable  to  the  dignified  character  of  a  man 
of  letters  ;  and  published  an  edition  of  Voluseni 
de  Animi  Tranquillitate  Dialogus,  to  which  he 
prefixed  the  life  of  Volusenus.  In  1709  he  pub- 
lished Johnstoni  Cantici  Solomonis  Paraphrasis 
Poetica,  and  Johnstoni  Cantica  with  notes,  which 
he  dedicated  in  Latin  verse  to  Dr.  Pitcairne. 
The  philological  talents  of  Ruddiman  were  next 
directed  to  a  more  important  object.  Freebairne 
proposed  to  publish  a  new  edition  of  the  Scottish 
translation  of  Virgil's  #lneid  by  Gawin  Douglas, 
bishop  of  Dunkeld.  Ruddiman  corrected  the 
work  and  wrote  the  glossary.  Ruddiman  was 
now  invited  by  the  magistrates  of  Dundee  to  be 


rector  of  the  grammar  school  of  that  town  ;  but 
the  faculty  of  advocates,  anxious  to  retain  him, 
augmented  his  salary  to  £30  6s.  Qd.  sterling,  and 
he  declined  the  offer.  In  1711  he  assisted  bishop 
Sage  in  publishing  Drummond  of  Hawthorn- 
den's  Works.  In  1713  Dr.  Pitcairne  died,  and 
Ruddiman  conducted  the  sale  of  his  library, 
which  was  disposed  of  to  Peter  the  Great.  In 
1714  he  published  the  Rudiments  of  the  Latin 
Tongue,  which  soon  superseded  all  other  books 
on  the  subject,  and  is  still  taught  in  all  the  gram- 
mar-schools in  Scotland.  It  has  also  been  trans- 
lated into  other  languages.  He  was  next  called 
upon  to  publish  the  works  of  Buchanan.  The 
value  of  these  he  enhanced  much  by  his  elaborate 
preface,  his  Tabula  Regum  Scotiae  Chronologica, 
and  Propriorum  Nominum  Interpretatio.  Rud- 
diman also  added  a  learned  dissertation,  entitled 
De  Metris  Buchanauaeis  Libellus,  and  subjoined 
annotations,  critical  and  political,  on  the  History 
of  Scotland.  He  had  now  been  so  long  accus- 
tomed to  superintend  the  press  that  he  was  led 
to  erect  a  printing-office  himself.  In  1715  he 
commenced  printer,  in  partnership  with  his  bro- 
ther Walter,  who  had  been  brought  up  to  the 
business.  Some  years  after  he  was  appointed 
printer  to  the  university,  with  James  Davidson, 
bookseller.  In  1725  the  first  part  of  his  Gram- 
maticae  Latinae  Institutiones  was  published.  The 
second  part  appeared  in  1731.  Ruddiman  nex 
engaged  in  the  management  of  a  newspaper,  the 
Caledonian  Mercury.  Mr.  Ruddiman,  after  the 
death  of  Mr.  Spottiswoode,  librarian,  remained 
for  some  time  in  his  former  station ;  but  was  at 
length  appointed  keeper  of  the  library,  though 
without  any  increase  of  salary.  In  1 739  he  pub- 
lished Selectus  Diplomatum  et  Numismatum 
Scotiae  Thesaurus.  This  work  was  projected 
and  begun  by  Anderson  (hence  called  Anderson's 
Diplomata),  but  was  finished  by  Ruddiman. 
As  Ruddiman  had  imbibed  from  his  father  his 
political  prejudices  in  favor  of  the  house  of 
Stuart,  he  was  not  an  unconcerned  spectator  of 
the  civil  commotions  in  1745.  He  did  not,  how- 
ever, take  any  active  part  in  the  Rebellion.  He 
retired  to  the  country  ;  and  was  engaged  in 
writing  Critical  Observations  on  Burman's  Com- 
mentaries on  Lucan's  Pharsalia.  During  the  last 
seventeen  years  of  his  life  Ruddiman  was  almost 
incessantly  engaged  in  controversy.  He  died  in 
Edinburgh  on  the  12th  January,  1757,  in  his 
eighty-third  year.  He  was  three  times  married, 
but  left  behind  him  only  one  daughter,  Alison, 
who  was  married,  in  1747,  to  James  Stewart,  esq. 

RUD'DLE,  n.s.     Isl.  rudul.     Red  earth. 

Ruddle  owes  its  color  to  an  admixture  of  iron  ; 
and,  as  that  is  in  greater  or  less  proportion,  it  is  of  a 
greater  or  less  specific  gravity,  consistence,  or  hard- 
ness. Woodward. 

RUD'DOCK,  n.  s.  Lat.  rubecula.  A  kind 
of  bird.  The  red-breast. 

Of  singing  birds,  they  have  linnets  and  ruddocks. 

Carew. 

RUDDY,  adj.  Sax.  nu'&u.  Approaching  to 
redness ;  pale  red. 

The  ruddiness  upon  her  lip  is  wet ; 
You'll  mar  it,  if  you  kiss  it.  ShaJuveare. 

We  may  see  the  old  man  in  a  morning, 
Lusty  as  health,  come  ruddy  to  the  field, 


RUD  70 

And  there  pursue  the  chase,  as  if  he  meant 
To  o'ertake  time,  and  bring  back  youth  again. 

Otway. 

New  leaves  on  every  bough  were  seen  ; 
Some  ruddy  coloured,  some  of  lighter  green. 

Dryden. 

A  ciown  of  ruddy  gold  enclosed  her  brow, 
Plain  without  pomp.  Id. 

Ceres,  in  her  prime, 
Seems  fertile,  and  with  ruddiest  freight  bedeckt. 

Philip*. 

If  the  flesh  lose  its  ruddiness,  and  look  pale  and 
withered,  you  may  suspect  it  corrupting. 

II  iMm'l  Surgery. 

If  physic,  or  issues,  will  keep  the  complexion  from 
inclining  to  coarse,  or  ruddy,  she  thinks  them  well 
employed.  Law. 

R,\JDE,adj.         *      Sax.    jieT>e ;    Fr.   rude; 

RCUF/LY,  adv.      [-  Ital.  rudu;  Lat.  rudis.    Un- 

HUDE'NESS,  n.  s.  j  taught ;  barbarous  ;  rough  ; 
harsh :  the  adverb  and  noun  substantive  corre- 
sponding. 

Though  I  be  rude  in  speech,  yet  not  in  knowledge. 

2  CormUutau. 

I  would  know  what  ancient  ground  of  authority  he 
hath  for  such  a  senseless  fable  ;  and  if  he  have  any 
of  the  rutle  Irish  books.  S/w;iser. 

With  his  truncheon  he  so  rudely  stroke 
Cynocles  twice,  that  twice  him  forced  his  foot  re- 
voke. Id. 

Let  be  thy  bitter  scorn, 
And  leave  the  rudeness  of  that  antique  age 
To  them  that  lived  therein  in  state  forlorn.  Id. 

Ruffian  let  go  that  rude  uncivil  touch ; 
Thou  friend  of  an  ill-fashion.  Shaltspeare. 

I  that  am  not  shaped  for  sportive  tricks, 
I  that  am  rudely  stampt,  and  want  love's  majesty 
To  strut  before  a  wanton  ambling  nymph.  Id. 

This  rudeness  is  a  sauce  to  his  good  wit, 
Which  gives  men  stomach  to  digest  his  words 
With  better  appetite.  Id.  Julius  C&sar. 

Vane's  bold  answers,  termed  rude  and  ruffian- 
like,  furthered  his  condemnation.  Hay  ward. 

What  he  did  amiss  was  rather  through  nulem:^ 
and  want  of  judgment,  than  any  malicious  meaning. 

Id. 

In  their  so  rude  abode, 
Not  the  poore  swineherd  would  forget  the  gods. 

Chapman* 

He  was  yet  but  rude  in  the  profession  of  arms, 
though  greedy  of  honour.  Wet  ton's  Buckingham. 

Nor  is  there  any  nation  in  the  world,  now  ac- 
counted civil,  but,  within  the  memory  of  books,  were 
utterly  rude  and  barbarous.  Wilkint. 

Clouds  pushed  with  wings  rude  in  their  shock. 

Milton. 

Such  tools  as  art  yet  rude  hath  formed.  Id. 

Spring  does  to  flowery  meadows  bring, 
What  the  rude  winter  from  them  tore.  \\'aller. 

You  can  with  single  look  inflame 
The  coldest  breast,  the  rudest  tame.  Id. 

The  water  appears  white  near  the  shore,  and  a 
ship  ;  because  the  rude  agitation  breaks  it  into  foam. 

Bnyle. 

It  was  the  custom  to  worship  rude  and  unpolished 
stones.  Stillingjleet. 

To  his  country  farm  the  fool  confined  ; 
llude  work  well  suited  with  a  rustic  mind.  Dryden. 

My  muse,  though  rudely,  has  resigned' 
Some  faint  resemblance  of  his  godlike  mind.        Id. 

The  public  will  in  triumphs  rudely  share, 
And  kings  the  rtidenes.1  ot  their  joy  must  b«ar.     Id. 

It  has  been  so  usual  to  wiite  preface j,  that  a  man 
is  thought  rude  to  his  reader  who  does  not  give  him 
some  account  beforehand. 


RUD 


You  can  hardly  be  too  sparing  of  water  to  your 
housed  plants  ;  the  not  observing  of  this  destroys 
more  plants  than  all  the  rudenesses  of  the  season. 

Evelyn's  Kalendar. 

The  rudeness,  tyranny,  the  oppression  and  ingra- 
titude of  the  late  favorites  towards  their  mistress, 
were  no  longer  to  be  born.  Swift. 

The  rudeness,  ill- nature,  or  perverse  behaviour  of 
any  of  his  flock,  used  at  first  to  betray  him  into  im- 
patience ;  but  it  now  raises  no  other  passion  in  him 
than  a  desire  of  being  upon  his  knees  in  prayer  to 
God  for  them.  Law. 

To  win  no  praise  when  well-wrought  plans  pre- 
vail, 

But  to  be  rudely  censured  when  they  fail ; 
To  doubt  the  love  his  favorites  may  pretend, 
And  in  reality  to  find  no  friend.  Cowper. 

RUDES'BY,  n.  s.  From  rude.  An  uncivil 
turbulent  fellow.  A  low  and  deservedly  obso- 
lete word. 

I  must  be  forced 

To  give  my  hand,  opposed  against  my  heait, 
Unto  a  mad-brain  rudesby,  full  of  spleen. 

Shakspeare. 
Out  of  my  sight,  rudesby,  be  gone.  Id. 

RU'DIMENT,  n.  s.  }      Fr.    rudiment;    Lat. 

RUDIMEN'TAL,  adj.  $  rudimentum.  The  first 
principles ;  first  elements  of  a  science ;  beginning 
of  any  thing :  the  adjective  corresponding. 

Such  as  were  trained  up  in  the  rudiments,  and  were 
so  made  fit  to  be  by  baptism  received  into  the  church, 
the  fathers  usually  term  hearers.  Hooker. 

To  learn  the  order  of  my  fingering, 

I  must  begin  with  rudiments  of  art.      Shukspeare. 

Moss  is  but  the  rudiment  of  a  plant,  and  the  mould 
of  earth  or  bark.  Bacon's  Natural  Histinry. 

He  was  nurtured  where  he  was  born  in  his  first 
rudiments,  till  the  years  of  ten,  and  then  taught  the 
principles  of  musick.  Wotton's  Life  of  Villiers. 

Thou  soon  shall  quit 

Those  rudiments,  and  see  before  thine  eyes 
The  monarchies  of  the'  earth,  their  pomp,  and  state, 
Sufficient  introduction  to  inform 
Thee,  of  thyself  so  apt,  in  regal  arts.  Milton . 

The  rudiments  of  nature  are  very  unlike  the  grosser 
appearances'.  Glanvitle's  Scepsis. 

So  looks  our  monarch  on  this  early  fight, 

The'  essay  and  rudiments  of  great  success, 

Which  all-maturing  time  must  bring  to  light. 

Dryden. 

Could  it  be  believed  that  a  child  should  be  forced 
to  learn  the  rudiments  of  a  language  which  he  is 
never  to  use,  and  neglect  the  writing  a  good  hand, 
and  casting  accounts?  Locke. 

The  sappy  boughs 

Attire  themselves  with  blossoms,  sweet  rudiment* 
Of  future  harvest.  Philips. 

Shall  that  man  pretend  to  religious  attainments 
who  is  defective  and  short  in  moral'!  which  are  but 
the  rudiments,  the  beginnings,  and  first  draught  of 
religion ;  as  religion  is  the  perfection,  refinement, 
and  sublimation  of  morality.  South. 

(ioil  beholds  the  first  imperfect  rudiments  of  virtue 
in  the  soul,  and  keeps  a  watchful  eye  over  it,  till  it 
has  received  every  grace  it  is  capable  of. 

Addison't  Sfjectator. 

Your  first  nnHiiiental  essays  in  spectatorship  were 
made  in  my  shop,  where  you  often  practised  for  hours 

Spectatot . 

O  come  not  ye  near  innocence  and  truth, 
Ye  worms  that  eat  into  the  bud  of  youth  ! 
InlVriintis  ;is  impure,  your  Ijlijjlitiii'^  power 

in  i'^  riol-m-  nil  llio  pi  |1  i<t~. 


RUE 


Such  as  the  halteres,  or  rudiments  of  wings,  of 
some  two-winged  insects.  Darwin. 

RUE,  v.  a.  ~\    Sax.neopj-ian.   To  grieve 

RUE'FUL, adj.  f  for;  regret;  lament:  the 
RUE'FTJLLY,  adv.  £  derivatives  all  correspond- 
RuE'FULNESS,n.s.  3  ing. 

Thou  temptest  me  in  vain  ; 
To  tempt  the  thing  which  daily  yet  I  rue, 

And  the  old  cause  of  my  continued  pain, 
With  like  attempts  to  like  end  to  renew.      Spenser. 

You'll  rue  the  time 

That  clogs  me  with  this  answer.       Shakspeare. 
When  we  have  our  armour  buckled  on, 
The  venomed  vengeance  ride  upon  our  swords, 
Spur  them  to  rueful  work,  rein  them  from  ruth.  Id 

Oh !  treacherous  was  that  breast  to  whom  you 
Didst  trust  our  counsels,  and  we  both  may  rue 
Having  his  falsehood  found  too  late,  'twas  he 
That  made  me  cast  you  guilty,  and  you  me.  Donne. 

Thy  will 
Chose  freely  what  it  now  so  justly  rues.     Milton. 

Cocytus,  named  of  lamentation  loud, 
Heard  on  the  rueful  stream.      Id.   Paradise  Lost. 
Why  should  an  ape  run  away  from  a  snail,  and 
very  ruefully  and  frightfully  look  back,    as   being 
afraid  1  More. 

He  sighed,  and  cast  a  rueful  eye  , 
Our  pity  kindles,  and  our  passions  die.        Dryden. 
I  gaed  a  waefu'  gate  yestreen, 

A  gate,  I  fear,  I'll  dearly  rue; 
I  gat  my  death  frae  twa  sweet  een, 

Twa  lovely  een  o'  bonnie  blue.        Bums. 
RUE,  n.  s.     Fr.  rue ;  Lat.  ruta.     A  herb,  for- 
merly called  herb  of  grace,  because  holy  water 
was  sprinkled  with  it. 

What  savor  is  better, 
For  places  infected,  than  wormwood  and  rue  1 

Tusser. 

Here  did  she  drop  a  tear ;  here,  in  this  place, 
I'll  set  a  bank  of  rue,  sour  herb  of  grace  ; 
Rue,  even  for  Ruth,  here  shortly  shall  be  seen, 
In  the  remembrance  of  a  weeping  queen. 

Shakspeare.  Richard' II. 

The  weasel,  to  encounter  the  serpent,  arms  herself 
with  eating  of  rue.  More. 

RUE,  in  botany.     See  RUTA. 

RUE,  DOG'S.     See  SCROPHULARTA. 

RUE  (Charles  de  la),  a  French  orator  and 
poet,  born  in  Paris  in  1643.  He  was  educated 
at  the  college  of  the  Jesuits,  where  he  became  a 
professor  of  humanity  and  rhetoric.  In  1667 
he  composed  a  Latin  poem  on  the  conquests  of 
Louis  XIV.,  which  was  so  much  esteemed  by 
Corneille  that  he  translated  it  into  French,  pre- 
sented it  to  the  king,  and  passed  such  high 
encomiums  on  the  superior  merit  of  the  original 
that  the  author  was  received  into  the  favor  of 
that  monarch.  De  la  Rue  became  one  of  the 
most  eminent  preachers  of  his  age.  He  died  in 
Paris  on  the  27th  of  May,  1725,  aged  eighty- 
two.  He  published  Panegyrics,  Funeral  Ora- 
tions, and  Sermons.  His  best  sermon  is  entitled 
Des  Calamities  Publiques,  and  his  most  admired 
funeral  oration  was  composed  on  the  prince  of 
Luxemburg.  There  are  also  tragedies  of  his 
writing,  both  in  Latin  and  French,  which  were 
approved  by  Corneille.  He  was  one  of  those 
learned  men  who  published  editions  of  the 
classics  for  the  use  of  the  Dauphin.  Virgil, 
which  fell  to  his  share,  was  published  with  notes, 
and  a  life  of  the  poet,  in  1675,  4to. 


71  RUF 

RUELLE',  n.  s.  Fr.  ruelle.  A  circle;  an  as- 
sembly at  a  private  house.  Not  used. 

The  poet,  who  flourished  in  the  scene,  is  con- 
demned in  the  ruelle.  Dryden's  Preface  to  JEneis. 

RUELLIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  angio- 
spermia  order,  and  didynamia  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  fortieth,  personatae :  CAL.  quinque- 
partite :  COR.  sub-campanulated ;  the  stamina 
approaching  together  in  pairs :  CAPS,  springing 
asunder  by  means  of  its  elastic  segments.  Spe- 
cies forty-six  ;  shrubs  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Ame- 
rica. 

RUFF,  n.  s.  1     Both  from  rough. 

RUF'FLE,  r.«.,t-.n.&n.  s.  $  A  puckered  linen 
ornament  for  the  neck  or  wrists:  to  wrinkle; 
disorder ;  roughen ;  discompose ;  to  grow  rough 
or  turbulent :  disturbance  :  ruff  is  also  a  river 
fish. 

We'll  revel  it 
With  ruffs,  and  cuffs,  and  fardingals.      Shakspeare. 

Naughty  lady, 

These  hairs,  which  thou  dost  ravish  from  my  chin, 
Will  quicken  and  accuse  thee  :  I'm  your  host ; 
With  robbers'  hands,  my  hospitable  favours 
You  should  not  ruffle  thus.  Id. 

Were  I  Brutus, 

And  Brutus  Antony,  there  were  an  Antony 
Would  ruffle  up  your  spirits,  and  put  a  tongue 
In  every  wound  of  Caesar,  that  should  move 
The  stones  of  Rome  to  rise  and  mutiny.  Id. 

The  night  comes  on,  and  the  high  winds 
Do  sorely  ruffle ;  for  many  miles  about 
There's  scarce  a  bush.  Id. 

A  valiant  son-in-law  thou  shalt  enjoy  ; 
One  fit  to  bandy  with  thy  lawless  sons, 
To  ruffle  in  the  commonwealth  of  Rome.         Id. 
They  would  ruffle  with  jurors,  and  inforce  them  to 
find  as  they  would  direct.          Bacon's  Henry  VII. 

Like  an  uproar  in  the  town, 
Before  them  every  thing  went  down, 
Some  tore  a  ruff,  and  some  a  gown.    Dray  ton. 
Sooner  may  a  gulling  weather  spy, 
By  drawing  forth  heaven's  scheme,  tell  certainly, 
What  fashioned  hats,  or  ruffs,  or  suits  next  year, 
Our  giddy-headed  antick  youth  will  wear.     Donne. 

Within  a  thicket  I  reposed,  when  round 
I  ruffled  up  fallen  leaves  in  heap,  and  found, 
Let  fall  from  heaven,  a  sleep  interminate. 

Chapman. 

The  knight  found  out 
The'  advantage  of  the  ground,  where  best 
He  might  the  ruffled  foe  infest.  Hudibrat. 

We  are  transported  by  passions,  and  our  minds 
ruffled  by  the  disorders  of  the  body  ;  nor  yet  can  we 
telt  how  ^he  soul  should  be  affected  by  such  kind  of 
agitations.  CUtnville. 

A  ruff  or  pope  is  much  like  the  pearch  for  shape, 
and  taken  to  be  better  ;  but  will  not  grow  bigger  than 
a  gudgeon  :  he  is  an  excellent  fish,  and  of  a  pleasant 
taste.  Walton. 

In  changeable  taffeties,  differing  colours  emerge 
and  vanish  upon  the  ruffling  of  the  same  piece  of  silk. 

Boyle. 

As  she  first  began  to  rise, 
She  smoothed  the  ruffled  seas,  and  cleared  the  skies. 

Dry  den. 

The  rising  winds  a  ruffling  gate  afford.  Id. 

The  fiery  courser,  when  he  hears  from  far 
The  sprightly  trumpets  and  the  shouts  of  war, 
On  his  right  shoulder  his  thick  mane  reef  ned, 
Ruffles  at  speed,  and  dances  in  the  wind.  Id. 

How  many  prince?  that,  in  the  ruff  of  all  their 


RUF 


glory,  have  been  taken  down  from  the  head  of  a  con- 
quering army  to  the  wheel  of  the  victor's  chariot ! 

L'Ettrange. 

The  ladies  freed  the  neck  from  those  yokes,  those 
linen  rufft,  in  which  the  simplicity  of  their  grand- 
mothers had  enclosed  it.  Addison's  Guardian. 

A  small  skirt  of  fine  ruffed,  linen,  running  along 
the  upper  part  of  tht  stays  before,  is  called  the 
modesty -piece.  Addison. 

The  tucker  is  a  slip  of  fine  linen,  run  in  a  small 
ruffle  round  the  uppermost  verge  of  the  women's  stays. 

Id. 

I  reared  this  flower. 
Soft  on  the  paper  ruff  its  leaves  I  spread.        Pope. 

Bear  me.  some  god !  oh  quickly  bear  me  hence 
To  wholesome  solitude,  the  nurse  of  sense  : 
Where  contemplation  prunes  her  ruffled  wings, 
And  the  free  soul  looks  down  to  pity  kings.        Id. 

Conceive  the  mind's  perception  of  some  object,  and 
the  consequent  ruffle  or  commotion  of  the  blood. 

Watts. 

RUFFHEAD  (Dr.  Owen),  was  the  son  of  a 
baker  in  Piccadilly,  who  educated  him  for  the 
law.  He  entered  in  the  Middle  Temple  ;  and, 
while  be  was  waiting  for  opportunities  to  dis- 
tinguish himself  in  his  profession,  he  wrote  a 
variety  of  pamphlets  on  temporary  politics ;  and 
was  afterwards  distinguished  by  his  accurate 
edition  of  The  Statutes  at  Large,  in  4to.  He 
now  obtained  good  business,  though  more  as  a 
chamber  counsellor  in  framing  bills  for  parlia- 
ment than  as  a  pleader ;  but  his  close  applica- 
tion to  study,  with  the  variety  of  works  he  en- 
gaged in  as  an  author,  impaired  his  constitution. 
He  died  in  1769,  aged  forty-six.  Some  time 
before  his  death  bishop  Warburton  engaged  him 
to  write  his  long  promised  Life  of  Alexander 
Pope ;  which,  however,  when  executed,  was 
very  far  from  giving  general  satisfaction. 

RUFFIAN,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.  Teut.  ruffian; 
Ital.  ruffiuno;  Fr.  ruffien,  a  bawd.  Perhaps, 
says  Dr.  Johnson,  it  may  be  best  derived  from 
the  old  Teutonic  word  which  we  now  write 
rough.  A  brutal,  boisterous  fellow;  a  cut- 
throat; a  robber:  to  play  the  ruffian. 

Have  you  a  ruffian  that  will  swear  ?  drink  ?  dance  ? 
Revel  the  night  ?  rob  1  murder  ?  Shakspeare. 

A  fuller  blast  ne'er  shook  our  battlements ; 
If  it  hath  ruffianed  so  upon  the  sea, 
\\hat  ribs  of  oak  when  mountains  melt  on  them. 
Can  hold  the  mortise  ?  Id.  Othello. 

Sir  Ralph  Vane's  bold  answers,  termed  rude  and 
r«/frjrt-like,  falling  into  ears  apt  to  take  offence, 
furthered  his  condemnation.  Hmyward. 

The  boasted  ancestors  of  these  great  men. 
Whose  virtues  you  admire,  were  all  such  ruffiant ; 
This  dread  of  nations,  this  almighty  Rome, 
That  comprehends  in  her  wide  empire's  bounds 
All  under  heaven,  was  founded  on  a  rape. 

Additon't  Cato. 
Experienced  age 

May  timely  intercept  the  ruffian  lage  ; 
•Jonvene  the  tribes.  Pope'$  Odyuey- 

RUFINUS,  a  celebrated  Italian,  born  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  at  Concordia. 
He  applied  himself  to  the  belles  lettres,  and 
studied  eloquence  at  Aquileia.  He  then  devoted 
himself  to  theology.  St.  Jerome  happening  to 
pass  through  Aquileia,  Rufinus  formed  aa  inti- 
mate friendship  with  him ;  but  was  soon  de- 
prived of  his  company,  as  he  continued  his 
travels  through  France  and  Germany,  and  then 


72  RUG 

set  out  for  the  east.  Rufinus  resolved  to  follow 
him ;  embarked  for  Egypt ;  and,  having  visited 
the  hermits  in  the  deserts,  repaired  to  Alexan- 
dria to  hear  the  renowned  Didymus.  The 
Arians,  who  ruled  in  the  reiun  of  Valens,  per- 
secuted Rufinus :  threw  him  into  a  dungeon, 
loaded  him  with  chains,  and,  finally,  banished 
him  to  the  deserts  of  Palestine.  From  this 
exile  he  was  relieved  by  St.  Melania,  who  em- 
ployed her  wealth  in  ransoming  those  confessors 
who  had  been  imprisoned  or  banished.  He 
went  next  to  Jerusalem ;  and  having  built  a 
monastery  on  Mount  Olivet  he  there  assembled 
a  great  number  of  hermits.  He  converted  many 
to  the  Christian  faith,  and  persuaded  above  400 
hermits  who  had  joined  in  the  schism  of  Antioch 
to  return  to  the  Catholic  church.  Rufinus, 
having  published  a  translation  of  the  principles 
of  Origen,  was  summoned  to  appear  before  pope 
Anastasius,  at  Rome.  But  he  sent  an  apology 
for  not  appearing,  with  a  vindication  of  his 
work,  in  which  he  attempted  to  prove  that  cer- 
tain errors,  of  which  Origen  had  been  accused, 
were  consistent  with  the  opinions  of  the  ortho- 
dox. St.  Jerome  attacked  Rufinus's  translation. 
Rufinus  composed  an  elegant  reply,  in  which  he 
said  that,  being  only  the  translator  of  Origen,  he 
was  not  bound  to  sanction  his  errors.  In  407 
he  returned  to  Rome  ;  but  in  408,  that  city  being 
threatened  by  Alaric,  he  retired  to  Sicily,  where 
he  died  in  410.  His  works  are,  1.  A  Transla- 
tion of  Josephus.  2.  A  Translation  of  several 
works  of  Origen.  3.  A  Latin  Version  of  Ten 
Discourses  of  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Eight  of 
Basil.  4.  A  Translation  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Eusebius,  which  engaged  him  nearly 
ten  years.  He  made  many  additions  to  the 
work,  and  continued  the  history  from  the  twen- 
tieth year  of  Constantine  to  the  death  of  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great.  5.  A  Vindication  of  Origen. 

6.  Two   Apologies,  addressed   to   St.   Jerome. 

7.  Commentaries  on  the  prophets  Hosea,  Joel, 
arfd  Amos.     8.  Lives  of  the    Hermits.     9.  An 
Explanation  of  the  Creed. 

RUFUS,  the  surname  of  William  II.  king  of 
England.  See  ENGLAND. 

RUG,  n.  s.  Swed.  rugget,  rough.  A  rough, 
nappy,  woollen  cloth :  a  rough  dog. 

Mongrels,  spaniels,  curs, 

Shoughes,  water  nigs,  and  demy  wolves  are  cleped 
All  by  the  name  of  dogs.         Shakspeare.  Macbeth. 

January  must  be  expressed  with  a  horrid  and  fear- 
ful aspect,  clad  in  Irish  rug  or  coarse  freeze. 

Peacham  on  Drawing. 

The  vungus  resembleth  a  goat,  but  greater  and 
more  profitable  ;  of  the  fleece  whereof  they  make  rug*, 
covenngs,  and  stuffs.  Heylin. 

A  rug  was  o'er  his  shoulders  thrown  ; 
A  rug  ;  for  nightgown  he  had  none.  Su-ift. 

RUGBY,  a  market  town  and  parish  of  War- 
wickshire, eighty-five  miles  from  London,  is 
pleasantly  situated  near  the  Avon.  Rugby  is 
chiefly  remarkable  for  its  celebrated  grammar- 
school,  founded  in  1567.  The  church  is  a  com- 
modious structure,  and  there  are  places  of  wor- 
ship for  dissenters.  Market  on  Saturday ;  there 
are  also  some  annual  fairs. 

RUG  EN,  an  island  of  the  Baltic,  separated 
from  Pomerania  by  the  strait  of  Gellen.  Its 
shape  is  so  very  irregular  that  no  determinate 


RUG 


73 


RUG 


length  or  breadth  would  give  any  idea  of  its 
size,  but  it  is  calculated  to  contain  142,000 
acres.  It  consists  of  the  island  Proper  and  three 
peninsulas,  Jasmund  on  the  north-east,  Wittow 
on  the  north,  and  Monguth  on  the  south-east. 
These  different  parts  have  several  elevations, 
called  mountains  by  the  natives.  The  peninsula 
of  Jasmund  is  terminated  by  a  promontory  of 
chalky  cliffs,  resembling  the  ruins  of  an  immense 
building,  interspersed  with  trees,  and  from  which 
a  torrent  tumbles  with  impetuosity  into  the  sea, 
above  which  the  highest  part  of  the  promontory 
is  430  feet.  The  peninsula  of  Wittow  fcalso 
terminates  in  a  similar  but  less  elevated  pro- 
montory, named  Arcona.  Chalk  predominates 
in  these  two  peninsulas ;  the  general  soil  of  the 
other  parts  is  sand  and  clay  mixed  with  shells; 
blocks  of  granite  are  also  met  with,  and  the 
north  coast,  in  particular,  is  covered  with  pyrites, 
fragments  of  coral  and  jasper,  and  porphyry. 
It  also  affords  china  earth  and  clays  for  pottery. 

The  island  is  well  watered  by  lakes  and  rivu- 
lets, and  produces  all  kinds  of  grain  and  vege- 
tables in  the  greatest  abundance.  It  has  good 
horses  and  excellent  horned  cattle,  but  the  sheep 
are  inferior.  The  wild  animals  are  deer,  hares, 
and  foxes.  The  Rugeners  breed  great  quantities 
of  geese,  which  they  smoke  for  exportation.  In 
the  middle  of  the  peninsula  of  Jasmund,  400 
feet  above  the  sea,  is  a  large  lake,  near  which 
are  several  ancient  mounds  and  ramparts  of 
earth,  supposed  by  the  natives  to  be  the  burying 
places  of  the  Huns,  a  number  of  earthen  vases 
being  found  in  the  mounds.  These  mounds,  of 
which  there  are  others  in  various  parts  of  the 
island,  are  called  Hunengraebre,  which  properly 
signifies  giant's  grave  :  they  are  usually  between 
forty  and  sixty  feet  long.  Rudely  cut  large 
square  stones  are  also  met  with  in  several  parts 
of  the  island,  which  are  supposed  to  have  served 
as  altars.  The  Rugeners  are  extremely  indus- 
trious, the  produce  of  the  soil,  their  cattle, 
geese,  and  the  herring  fishery,  supplying  them 
with  objects  of  foreign  commerce,  and  which 
they  export  from  some  roads  (the  island  having 
no  port),  and  particularly  from  the  village  of 
Schaprode  on  the  west.  The  annual  export  of 
corn  from  the  island  is  1600  lasts.  The  island 
has  two  towns  and  several  villages.  Bergen, 
the  chief  place,  is  near  the  north-east  part  of  the 
island  of  Rugen  Proper,  and  situated  on  an 
eminence  that  commands  a  view  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  island.  It  has  from  1500  to  1600 
inhabitants.  Saagard,  the  second  town,  is  on 
the  interior  of  the  peninsula  of  Jasmund,  has 
800  inhabitants,  and  near  it  is  a  mineral  spring, 
resorted  to  both  by  the  natives  and  strangers. 
The  population  of  the  island  is  25,000. 

Rugen  belonged  to  Denmark  from  the  twelfth 
to  the  fourteenth  century,  when  it  passed  by  con- 
vention to  the  dukes  of  Pomerania,  whose 
house  becoming  extinct,  Sweden  got  possession 
of  its  territories  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  in 
1648,  when  Rugen  was  etected  into  a  princi- 
pality, to  which  was  attached  the  office  of  grand 
huntsman  of  the  empire.  The  language  of  the 
inhabitants  is  German,  with  a  partial  mixture  of 
Swedish  and  Danish,  and  the  manners  and 
usages  are  the  same  as 'those  of  the  north  of 


Germany.  The  peasants,  however,  were  not 
emancipated  from  a  state  of  vassalage  till  1806. 
This  island  was  acquired  by  Prussia,  with  the 
rest  of  Pomerania,  in  1814.  The  neighbouring 
parts  of  the  continent  being  a  monotonous  level, 
the  island  of  Rugen  is  visited  for  its  picturesque 
beauties  by  many  Germans,  one  of  whom  has 
elegantly  celebrated  the  promontory  of  Arcona, 
the  rocks  of  Jasmund,  and  its  sacred  woods 
and  tumuli.  The  coasts  are  celebrated  in  the 
annals  of  shipwreck,  scarcely  a  year  passing 
without  several  vessels  being  stranded  on  the 
shores  of  the  peninsulas  and  on  Hidensee.  Se- 
veral ancient  regulations  are  still  in  force  re- 
specting shipwrecks.  When  a  vessel  makes  the 
signal  of  distress,  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast 
are  bound  to  hasten  to  her  assistance,  and  first 
to  endeavour  to  save  the  crew.  The  persons 
who  arrive  first  are  entitled  to  a  preference  for 
salvage,  but  none  is  to  enfbrce  his  services  if  the 
crew  is  alone  able  to  save  the  cargo.  The  small 
islands  dependent  on  Rugen  are  numerous ;  the 
principal  is  Hidensee  on  the  west,  whose  inha- 
bitants have  little  external  communications ; 
they  speak  a  rude  dialect  of  the  high  German, 
mixed  with  many  Danish,  Swedish,  and  obso- 
lete Teutonic  words.  Their  occupations  are 
rearing  a  few  cattle,  whose  dung  is  their  princi- 
pal fuel,  the  island  having  no  wood  ;  fishing  for 
their  subsistence,  and  collecting  the  amber  which 
is  occasionally  driven  on  the  shores.  Unmantz 
island,  also  on  the  west,  is  next  in  consideration ; 
and  all  the  others,  amounting  to  upwards  of  a 
dozen,  are  insignificant. 

RUG'GED,  adj.  Swed.  rugget.  Rough;  full 
of  unevenness  or  asperity. 

His  hair  is  sticking  ; 

His  well-proportioned  beard  made  rough  and  rugged 
Like  to  the  summer's  corn  by  tempest  lodged. 

Shahspeare. 

Now  bind  my  brows  with  iron,  and  approach 
The  rugged'st  hour  that  time  and  spite  dare  bring. 
To  frown  upon  the  enraged  Northumberland.      Id. 
Hardness  and  ruggedness  is  unpleasant  to  the  touch. 

Baciin. 

Through  forests  wild, 
To  chase  the  lion,  boar,  or  rugged  bear.       Fairfax. 

Nature,  like  a  weak  and  weary  traveller, 
Tired  with  a  tedious  and  rugged  way.         Denham. 

Fierce  Talgol,  gathering  might, 
With  nigged  truncheon  charged  the  knight. 

Hudibras. 

Syrups  immediately  abate  and  demulce  the  hoarse- 
ness and  violence  of  a  cough,  by  mollifying  the 
ruggedness  of  the  intern  tunick  of  the  gullet. 

Harvey. 

A  monosyllable  line  turns  verse  to  prose,  and 
even  that  prose  is  rugged  and  unhaimonious. 

Dry  den. 

This  softness  of  the  foot,  which  yields  and  fits 
itself  to  the  ruggedness  and  unevenness  of  the  roads, 
does  render  it  less  capable  of  being  worn.  Ray. 

The  greatest  favours  to  such  an  one  neither  soften 
nor  win  upon  him  ;  neither  melt  nor  endear  him,  but 
leave  him  as  hard,  rugged,  and  unconcerned  as  ever. 

South. 

Since  the  earth  revolves  not  upon  a  material  and 
rugged,  but  a  geometrical  plane,  their  proportions 
may  be  varied  in  innumerable  degrees.  Benttey. 

RUGENDAS  (George  Philip),  a  celebrated 
painter,  born  at  Augsburg,  in  1666.  He  excelled 


RUI 


in  painting  sieges,  battles,  &c.,  though  he  painted 
with  the  left  hand.  He  died  1742. 

RUGGLES  (George),  M.  A.,  a  dramatic 
writer,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  king 
James  I.  He  wrote  a  humorous  Latin  play, 
entitled  Ignoramus,  which  was  acted  before  the 
king  on  the  8th  of  March,  1615,  at  the  university 
of  Cambridge. 

RUG'IN,  n.  s.     From  RUG.     A  nappy  cloth. 

The  lips  grew  so  painful  that  she  could  not  endure 
the  wiping  the  ichor  from  it  with  a  soft  ru^in  with 
her  own  hand.  Wiseman's  Surgery. 

RU'GINE,  n.s.  Fr.  ruginc.  A  chirurgeon's 
rasp. 

If  new  flesh  should  not  generate,  bore  little  ori- 
fices  into  the  bone,  or  rasp  it  with  the  rugine. 

Sharp. 

RUGOSE',  adj.  Lat.  rugosus.  Full  of 
wrinkles. 

It  is  a  relaxation  of  the  sphincter  to  such  a  de- 
gree that  the  internal  rugose  coat  of  the  intestine 
turneth  out,  and  beareth  down.  Wiseman's  Surgery. 

RU'IN,  n.  *.,  v.  a., &  v.n.^1       Fr.  mine;  Lat. 

RTJ'INATE,  v.  a.  j  ruina.       The    fall 

RUINA'TION,  n.  s.  I  or   destruction   of 

RU'INER,  \  edifices ;    the    re- 

RU'INOUS,  adj.  I  mains  of  such  edi- 

Ru'fNOUSLY,  adv\  j  fices  ;  destruction  ; 

mischief:  to  ruin  and  ruinate  (the  latter  disused) 
both  mean  to  subvert ;  destroy :  ruin,  verb  neuter, 
to  fall  into  destruction :  the  other  derivatives 
correspond  in  sense. 

Though  he  his  house  of  polished  marble  build, 
Yet  shall  it  ruin  like  the  moth's  frail  cell, 
Or  sheds  of  reeds,  which  summer's  heat  repel. 

Sandys. 
So  shall  the  great  revenger  ruinate 

Him  and  his  issue  by  a  dreadful  fate.  Id. 

He  parted  frowning  from  me,  as  if  ruin 
Leant  from  his  eyes.  Shatepeare.  Henry  VIII. 

Roman  coins  were  overcovered  in  the  ground,  in 
the  sudden  ruination  of  towns  by  the  Saxons. 

Camden's  llemains. 

The  errors  of  young  men  are  the  ruin  of  business. 

Bacon. 

The  Romans  came  to  pull  down  kingdoms  ;  Philip 
and  Nabis  were  already  ruinated,  and  now  was  his 
turn  to  be  assailed.  Id. 

It  is  less  dangerous,  when  divers  parts  of  a  tower 
are  decayed,  and  the  foundation  firm,  than  when  the 
foundation  is  ruinous.  Huyward. 

What  offence  of  such  impietie 
Hath  Priam  or  his  sonnes  done  thee?  that  with  so 

high  a  hate 
Thou  shouldst  thus  ceaselessly  desire  to  raze  and 

ruinate 

So  well  a  builded  town  as  Troy  ?  Chapman. 

This  Ulysses,  old  Laertes'  sonne, 

That  dwells  in  Ithaca  ;  and  name  hath  wonne 

Of  citie  ruiner.  Id. 

If  real  uneasinesses  may  be  admitted  to  be  as  de- 
terring as  imaginary  ones,  his  own  decree  will  retort 
the  most  ruinously  on  himself.  Decay  of  Piety. 

Havock,  and  soil,  and  min  are  my  gain.  Milton. 

Hell  heard  the  unsufFerablc  noise  ;  hell  saw 
Heaven  ruining  from  heaven,  and  would  have  fled 
Affrighted,  but  strict  fate  had  fixed  too  deep 
Her  dark  foundations,  and  too  fast  had  bound.    Id. 

The  birds, 

After  a  night  of  storm  so  ruinous, 
Cleared  up  their  choicest  notes  in  bush  and  spray, 
To  gratulate  the  sweet  return  of  morn.  Id. 


74  RUL 

Loud  rung  the  ruin,  and,  with  boistrous  fear, 
Strait  revelled  in  the  queen's  amazed  ear. 

Beaumont. 

Those  whom  God  to  ruin  has  designed, 
He  fits  their  fate,  and  first  destroys  their  mind. 

Dry  den. 

A  nation  loving  gold  must  rule  this  place, 
Our  temples  ruin,  and  our  rites  deface.  Id. 

If  we  are  idle,  and  disturb  the  industrious  in  their 
business,  we  shall  ruin  the  faster.  Locke, 

The  Veian  and  the  Gabian  towers  shall  fall, 
And  one  promiscuous  ruin  cover  all ; 
Nor,  after  length  of  years,  a  stone  betray 
The^jHace  where  once  the  very  ruins  lay.      Additon. 

She  would  ruin  me  in  silks,  were  not  the  quantity 
that  goes  to  a  large  pincushion  sufficient  to  make  her 
a  gown  and  petticoat.  Id. 

Judah  shall  fall  oppressed  by  grief  and  shame, 
And  men  shall  from  her  ruins  know  her  fame. 

Prior. 

Those  successes  are  more  glorious  which  bring  be- 
nefit to  the  world,  than  such  ruinous  ones  as  are 
dyed  in  human  blood.  Granville'i  Preface. 

A  confident  dependence  ill  grounded  creates  such 
a  negligence  as  will  certainly  ruin  us  in  the  end. 

Wake. 

Such  a  fool  was  never  found, 
Who  pulled  a  palace  to  the  ground, 
Only  to  have  the  ruins  made 
Materials  for  a  house  decayed.  Swift. 

A  stop  might  be  put  to  that  ruinous  practice  of 
gaming.  Id. 

RUINART  (Thierry,  or  Theodoric),  a  learned 
French  divine,  born  at  Rheims  in  1657.  He 
became  a  Benedictine  monk  in  1674.  Mabillon 
chose  him  for  his  assistant  in  his  literary  labors. 
In  1689  he  published  ActaPrimorum  Martyrum 
Sincera,  &c.,  4to.  He  also  published  several 
other  learned  works.  When  Mabillon  died,  in 
1707,  he  was  appointed  to  continue  his  work; 
but  died  in  travelling  to  Champagne,  in  quest  of 
new  memoirs,  in  1709. 

RUIZIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  polyandria 
order,  and  monadelphia  class  of  plants ;  natural 
order  thirty-seventh,  columniferae :  CAL.  double; 
external  triphyllous ;  internal  parted  into  five : 
COR.  consisting  of  five  petals,  inclining  to  the 
right  hand  side,  and  adhering  to  the  stamina, 
which  are  from  thirty  to  forty.  It  has  ten  styli, 
and  as  many  capsulffi.  These  are  compressed 
and  membranous.  In  each  capsule  are  two 
seeds.  There  are  four  species,  viz. — 

1.  R.  cordata.  2.  R.  laciniata.  3.  R.  loba- 
ta;  and  4.  R.  palmata;  all  of  which  are  natives 
of  Asia,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

RULE,  n.  s.,  v.  a.,  &  )      Sax.  nejjole ;  Teut. 

RU'LER,  n.  s.  [v.  n.  ]  and  Belg.  regel;  Ital. 
regola;  Span,  regla ;  Lat.  regula.  Government; 
sway;  empire  ;  any  thing  by  which  other  things 
are  regulated ;  canon;  precept;  and,  in  an  ob- 
solete sense,  regularity  :  as  a  verb  active,  to 
control ;  govern ;  manage  ;  or  settle  :  as  a  verb 
neuter  to  have  power  or  command,  taking  over 
before  the  object :  a  ruler  is  one  who  possesses 
superior  power  or  command  :  any  instrument  of 
rule  or  guidance. 

A  wise  servant  shall  have  rule  over  a  son  that 
causeth  shame.  Proverbs  xvii.  2. 

Judah  yet  ruleth  with  God,  and  is  faithful  with 
the  saints.  llosea  xi.  12. 

He  sought  to  take  unto  him  the  ruling  of  the  af- 
fairs. 1  Mac. 


RUL 


75 


RUM 


Soon  rulers  grow  proud,  and  in  their  pride  foolish. 

Sidney. 

I  am  ashamed,  that  women 
Should  seek  for  rule,  supremacy,  or  sway, 
When  they  are  bound  to  serve,  love,  and  obey. 

Shukxpeare. 

Some  say  he's  mad  ;  others,%that  lesser  hate  him, 
Do  call  it  valiant  fury ;  but,  for  certain, 
He  cannot  buckle  his  distempered  cause 
Within  the  belt  of  rule.  Id. 

It  is  a  purposed  thing 
To  curb  the  will  of  the  nobility  ; 
Suffer't,  and  live  with  such  as  cannot  rule, 
Nor  ever  will  be  ruled.  Id.  Coriolanvs. 

God,  by  his  eternal  providence,  has  ordained 
kings  ;  and  the  law  of  nature,  leaders  and  rulers 
over  others.  Raleigh. 

Adam's  sin  did  not  deprive  him  of  his  rule,  but 
left  the  creatures  to  a  reluctation.  Bacon. 

How  easily  have  these  rulers  discouraged  a  faint- 
hearted people*  Bp.  Hall's  Contemplations. 

If  your  influence  be  quite  dammed  up 
With  black  usurping  mists,  some  gentle  taper, 
Though  a  rush  candle  from  the  wicker  hole 
Of  some  clay  habitation,  visit  us 
With  thy  long  levelled  rule  of  streaming  light. 

Milton. 

Thrice   happy   men !  whom  God   hath   thus  ad- 
vanced ! 

Created  in  his  image,  there  to  dwell, 
And  worship  him  ;  and  in  reward  to  rule 
Over  his  works.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

He  laid  this  rule  before  him,  which  proved  of 
great  use ;  never  to  trouble  himself  with  the  fore- 
sight of  future  events.  Fell. 

We  profess  to  have  embraced  a  religion  which 
contains  the  most  exact  rules  for  the  government  of 
our  lives.  Tillotson. 

Know'st  with  an  equal  hand  to  hold  the  scale  ; 
See'st  where  the  reasons  pinch,  and  where  they  fail, 
•Vnd  where  exceptions  o'er  the  general  rule  prevail. 

Dryden. 

Rome !  'tis  thine  alone  with  awful  sway, 
1  o  rule  mankind,  and  make  the  world  obey, 
Disposing  peace  and  war  thy  own  majestic  way. 

Id. 

There  being  no  law  of  nature,  nor  positive  law  of 
God.  that  determines  which  is  the  positive  heir,  the 
right  of  succession,  and  consequently  of  bearing  rule, 
could  not  have  been  determined.  Locke. 

We  subdue  and  rule  over  all  other  creatures  ;  and 
use  for  our  own  behoof  those  qualities  wherein  they 
excel.  Bay. 

They  know  how  to  draw  a  straight  line  between 
two  points  by  the  side  of  a  ruler.  Moxon. 

A  judicious  artist  will  use  his  eye,  but  he  will 
trust  only  to  his  rule.  South's  Sermon*. 

This  makes  them  apprehensive  of  every  tendency 
to  endanger  that  form  of  rule  established  by  the  law 
of  their  country.  Addison. 

The  pompous  mansion  was  designed 
To  please  the  mighty  rulers  of  mankind  ; 
Inferior  temples  use  on  either  hand.  Id. 

Had  he  done  it  with  the  pope's  license,  his  adver- 
saries must  have  been  silent ;  for  that's  a  ruled  case 
with  the  schoolmen.  Atterbury. 

Seven  years  the  traitor  rich  Mycena;  swayed  ; 
And  his  stern  rule  the  groaning  land  obeyed.  Pope. 

Instruct  me  whence  this  uproar  ; 
And  wherefore  Vanoe,  the  sworn  friend  to  Rome, 
Should  spurn  against  our  rule  and  stir 
The  tributary  provinces  to  war?  A.  Philips  Briton. 

A  rule  that  relates  even  to  the  smallest  oart  of  our 
life  is  of  great  benefit  to  as,  merely  as  it  is  a  rule. 

law. 


It  was  not  easy  to  determine  by  what  rule  of  dis- 
tinction the  words  of  this  dictionary  were  to  be 
chosen.  Johnson.  Plan  of  Dictionary. 

B.  I  grant  that  men  continuing  what  they  are, 
Fierce,  avaricious,  proud,  there  must  be  war  ; 
And  never  meant  the  rule  should  be  applied 
To  him  that  fights  with  justice  on  his  side.  Coieper. 

RULE,  in  a  monastic  sense,  a  system  of  laws 
or  regulations,  whereby  religious  houses  are  go 
verned,  and  which  the  religious  make  a  vow  at 
their  entrance  to  observe.  Such  are  the  rules  of 
the  Augustins,  Benedictins,  Carthusians,  Fran- 
ciscans, &c. 

RULES  OF  COURT,  in  law,  are  certain  orders 
made  from  time  to  time  in  the  courts  of  law, 
which  attorneys  are  bound  to  observe,  in  order 
to  avoid  confusion ;  and  both  the  plaintiff  and 
defendant  are  at  their  peril  also  bound  to  pay 
obedience  to  rules  made  in  court  relating  to  the 
cause  depending  between  them.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  no  court  will  make  a  rule  for  any 
thing  that  may  be  done  in  the  ordinary  course ; 
and  that  if  a  rule  be  made,  grounded  upon  an 
affidavit,  the  other  side  may  move  the  court  against 
it,  in  order  to  vacate  the  same,  and  thereupon 
shall  bring  into  court  a  copy  of  the  affidavit  and 
rule.  On  the  breach  and  contempt  of  a  rule  of 
court  an  attachment  lies ;  but  it  is  not  granted 
for  disobedience  to  a  rule,  when  the  party  has  not 
been  personally  served ;  nor  for  disobeying  a 
rule  made  by  a  judge  in  his  chamber,  which  is 
not  of  force  to  ground  a  motion  upon,  unless  the 
same  be  entered. 

RUM,  n.s.  From  the  liquor;  often  vulgarly 
called  kill-devil.  A  country  parson.  A  cant 
word,  worthy  the  dean  of  St.  Patrick's. 

I'm  grown  a  mere  mopus  ;  no  company  comes, 
But  a  rabble  of  tenants  and  rusty  dull  nans.  Swift. 

RUM,  a  species  of  vinous  spirit,  distilled 
from  sugar-canes.  Rum,  according  to  Dr.  Shaw, 
differs  from  simple  sugar  spirit,  in  that  it  con- 
tains more  of  the  natural  flavor  or  essential  oil 
of  the  sugar-cane  ;  a  great  deal  of  raw  juice  and 
parts  of  the  cane  itself  being  fermented  in  the 
liquor  or  solution  of  which  the  rum  is  prepared. 
The  unctuous  or  oily  flavor  of  rum  is  often  sup- 
posed to  proceed  from  the  large  quantity  of  fat 
used  in  boiling  the  sugar;  which  fat,  indeed,  if 
coarse,  will  usually  give  a  stinking  flavor  to  the 
spirit  in  our  distillations  of  the  sugar  liquor  or 
wash,  from  our  refining  sugar-houses ;  but  this 
is  nothing  of  kin  to  the  flavor  of  the  rum,  which 
is  really  the  effect  of  the  natural  flavor  of  the 
cane.  The  method  of  making  rum  is  this  : — When 
a  sufficient  stock  of  the  materials  is  gathered  to- 
gether, they  add  water  to  them,  and  ferment 
them  in  the  common  method,  though  the  fer- 
mentation is  always  carried  on  very  slowly  at 
first ;  because,  at  the  beginning  of  the  season  for 
making  rum  in  the  islands,  they  want  yeast  or 
some  other  ferment  to  make  it  work  ;  but  by  de- 
grees, after  this,  they  procure  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  the  ferment,  which  rises  up  as  a  head  to 
the  liquor  in  the  operation ;  and  thus  they  are 
able  afterwards  to  ferment  and  make  their  rum 
with  a  great  deal  of  expedition,  and  in  large 
quantities.  When  the  wash  is  fully  fermented, 
or  to  a  due  degree  of  acidity,  the  distillation  is 
carried  on  in  the  common  way,  and  the  spirit  is 


RUM  76 

made  up  proof :  though  sometimes  it  is  raised 
10  a  much  greater  strength,  nearly  approaching 
to  that  of  alcohol  or  spirit  of  wine ;  and  it  is 
then  called  double  distilled  rum.  It  might  be 
easy  to  rectify  the  spirit,  and  bring  it  to  much 
greater  purity  than  we  usually  find  it  to  be  of; 
for  it  brings  over  in  the  distillation  a  very  large 
quantity  of  the  oil ;  and  this  often  so  disagree- 
able that  the  rum  must  be  suffered  to  lie  by  a 
long  time  to  mellow  before  it  can  be  used  ; 
whereas,  if  well  rectified,  it  would  grow  mellow 
much  sooner,  and  would  have  a  much  less  potent 
flavor.  The  best  state  to  keep  rum  in,  both  for 
exportation  and  other  uses,  is  that  of  alcohol  or 
rectified  spirit.  In  this  form  it  might  be  trans- 
ported in  one-half  the  bulk  it  usually  is,  and 
might  be  let  down  to  the  common  proof  strength 
with  water  when  necessary :  for  the  common  use, 
of-  making  punch,  it  would  likewise  serve  much 
better  in  the  state  of  alcohol ;  as  the  taste  would 
be  cleaner,  and  the  strength  might  always  be 
regulated  to  a  much  greater  exactness  than  in 
the  ordinary  way.  The  only  use  to  which  it 
•would  not  so  well  serve,  in  this  state,  would  be 
the  common  practice  of  adulteration  among  our 
distillers ;  for,  when  they  want  to  mix  a  large 
portion  of  cheaper  spirit  with  the  rum,  their 
business  is  to  have  it  of  the  proof  strength,  and 
as  full  of  the  flavoring  oil  as  they  can,  that  may 
drown  the  flavor  of  the  spirits  they  mix  with  it, 
and  extend  its  own.  If  the  business  of  rectify- 
ing rum  were  more  nicely  managed,  it  seems  a 
very  practicable  scheme  to  throw  out  so  much 
of  the  oil  as  to  have  it  in  the  fine  light  state  of 
a  clear  spirit,  but  lightly  impregnated  with  it : 
in  this  case  it  would  very  nearly  resemble  arrack, 
as  is  proved  by  the  mixing  a  very  small  quan- 
tity of  it  with  a  tasteless  spirit,  in  which  case 
the  whole  bears  a  very  near  resemblance  to  ar- 
rack in  flavor.  Rum  is  usually  very  much  adul- 
terated in  Britain  :  some  are  so  barefaced  'as  to 
do  it  with  malt  spirit ;  but,  when  it  is  done  with 
molasses  spirit,  the  tastes  of  both  are  so  nearly 
allied  that  it  is  not  easily  discovered.  The  best 
method  of  judging  of  it  is  by  setting  fire  to  a 
little  of  it ;  and,  when  it  has  burnt  away  all  the 
inflammable  part,  examining  the  phlegm  both  by 
the  taste  and  smell. 

RUM,  an  island  of  Scotland,  one  of  the  He- 
brides, seven  miles  west  of  Eigg,  and  included 
in  the  county  of  Argyll.  It  is  about  eight  miles 
long,  and  nearly  as  broad,  containing  a  surface 
of  above  22,000  square  acres  of  hilly,  rocky, 
and  mountainous  ground,  chiefly  fitted  for  pas- 
ture. Great  numbers  of  small  Shetland  sheep 
are  fed  upon  it,  whose  wool  is  remarkably  fine. 
This  island  formerly  abounded  with  wood  and 
deer;  but,  the  woods  being  destroyed,  the  deer 
have  disappeared.  The  only  harbour  is  Loch 
Serefort,  which  is  spacious,  and  has  good  anchor- 
age, from  five  to  seven  fathoms  water. 

RUM  KEY,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  situated 
about  eight  or  nine  leagues  east  from  the  north 
end  of  Long  Island,  and  ten  north  from  Great 
Harbour.  It  is  under  cultivation  at  present, 
and  the  acres  of  patented  estates  granted  by  the 
crown  for  this  purpose,  previously  to  May  1803, 
amounted  to  11,738. 

II use  RIVER,  a  river  of  North  America,  having 


RUM 


its  source  in  Le  Mille  Lac,  thirty-five  miles 
south  of  Lower  Red  Cedar  Lake,  and  falling 
into  .the  Mississippi.  It  is  about  fifty  yards 
wide  at  its  mouth,  and  the  small  Indian  canoes 
ascend  quite  to  the  lake. 

RUM'BLE,  v.  n.      Teut.    rummelen ;    Belg. 
rommelen.     To  make  a  hoarse  low  noise. 

.  At  the  rushing  of  his  chariots,  and  at  the  rumbling 
of  his  wheels,  the  fathers  shall  not  look,  back  to  their 


children  for  feebleness. 


Jeremiah  xlvii.  3. 


The  trembling  streams,  which  wont  in  channels 

clear 

To  rumble  gently  down  with  murmur  soft, 
And  were  by  them  right  tuneful  taught  to  bear 
A  base's  part  amongst  their  consorts  oft, 
Now  forced  to  overflow  with  brackish  tears, 
With,  troublous  noise  did  dull  their  dainty  ears. 

Spemer. 

Rumble  thy  belly  fujl  ;  spit  fire,  spout  rain  ; 
Nor  rain  wind  thunder  are  my  daughters  ; 
I  tax  not  you,  you  elements,  with  unkindness. 

Shahtpeare 
Our  courtier  thinks  that  he's  preferred  whom  every 

man  envies  ; 
When  love  so  rumbles  in  his  pate,  no  sleep  comes  in 

his  eyes.  Suckling. 

Apollo  starts,  and  all  Parnassus  shakes 
At  the  rude  rumbling  Baralipton  makes. 

Rvscommon. 

The  fire  she  fanned,  with  greater  fury  burned 
Rumbling  within.  Dryden. 

On  a  sudden  there  was  heard  a  most  dreadful 
rumbling  noise  within  the  entrails  of  the  machine, 
after  which  the  mountain  burst.  Add'ucn. 

Seve.ral  monarchs  have  acquainted  me,  how  often 
they  have  been  shook  from  their  respective  thrones  by 
the  rumbling  of  a  wheel-barrow.  Spectatur. 

RUMELIA,  or  ROMELIA,  a  province  of  Eu- 
ropean Turkey,  containing  all  the  north  parts  of 
Greece  and  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire, 
Constantinople.  It  is  one  of  the  best  peopled 
parts  of  Turkey  :  but  so  deficient  are  the  Turks 
in  statistical  information,  even  in  immediate  re- 
ference to  their  own  country,  that  the  distribution 
of  the  inhabitants  over  its  widely  extended  sur- 
face, and  the  comparative  population  of  the  dif- 
ferent provinces,  cannot  be  stated  with  precision. 
See  TURKEY,  for  the  best  accounts  we  are  able 
to  obtain. 

RUMEX,  dock,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  tri- 
gynia  order,  and  hexandria  class  of  plants  ;  natural 
order  twelfth,  holoraceffi :  CAL.  triphyllous;  there 
are  three  connivent  petals,  and  one  quetrous  seed. 
There  are  thirty-seven  species,  of  which  the  most 
remarkable  are  these : 

1.  R.  acutus,  or  sharp  pointed  dock  (the  oxyla- 
pathum  of  the  shops).     The  roots  of  this  are 
slender,  and  »run  straight  down,  sending  out  a. 
few  small  fibres  ;  the  stalks  rise  about  two  feet 
high,  garnished  at  bottom  with  leaves  four  inches 
long,  and  one 'and  a  half  broad  in  the  middle. 
They  are  rounded  at  their  base,  where  they  are 
slightly  indented,  but  end  in  acute  points.  From 
the  joints  of  the  stalks  cpme  out  alternately  long  • 
foot-stalks,  which  sustain  the  spikes  of  flowers, 
which  grow  in  small  whorls  round  the  stalks,  at 
about  an  inch  distant. 

2.  R.  alpinus,  monk's  rhubarb,  grows  natu- 
rally on  the  Alps,  but  has  long  been  cultivated 
in  the  gardens  of  this  country.      It  has   large 


RUM 


77 


RUM 


roots,  which  spread  and  multiply  by  their  offsets  : 
they  are  shorter  and  thicker  than  the  patientia, 
are  of  a  very  dark  brown  on  the  outside,  and 
yellow  within.  The  leaves  are  of  the  round 
heart-shape,  standing  upon  long  foot-stalks.  The 
stalks  rise  from  two  to  three  feet  high;  they  are 
thick,  and,  have  a  few  small  roundish  leaves  on 
the  lower  part,  but  the  upper  part  is  closely  gar- 
nished with  spikes  of  white  flowers  standing 
erect  close  to  the  stalks.  These  appear  in  the 
end  of  May,  and  are  succeeded  by  large  trian- 
gular seeds,  which  ripen  in  August. 

3.  R.  aquaticus,  the  water-dock,  grows  natu- 
rally in  ponds,  ditches,  and  standing  waters,  in 
many  parts   of   Britain.     It  is  supposed  to  be 
the  herba  Britannica  of    the  ancients.     It  has 
large  roots,  which  strike  deep  into  the  loose  mud, 
sending  out  leaves  about  two  feet  long.      The 
stalks  rise  five  or  six  feet  high,  when  the  plants 
grow  in  water, but  in  dryland  seldom  more  than 
three  ;  these  are  garnished  wkh  narrow  leaves 
among  the  spikes  of  flowers  to  the  top.     The 
flowers  stand  upon  slender  foot-stalks,  which  are 
reflexed  ;  they  are  of  an  herbaceous  color,  ap- 
pear in  June,  and  the  seeds  ripen  in  autumn. 

4.  R.   patientia,  patience   rhubarb,  was   for- 
merly much  more  cultivated  in  the  British  gar- 
dens than  at  present.     The  root  is  large,  and 
divides  into  many  thick  fibres;  their  outer  coyer 
is  brown,  but  yellow  within,  with  some  reddish 
veins ;   the  leaves  are  broad,  long,  and  acute- 
pointed  ;  their  foot-stalks  are  of  a  reddish  color ; 
the  stalks  rise  six  or  seven  feet  high,  and  divide 
towards  the  top  into  several  erect  branches,  gar- 
nished with  a  few  narrow  leaves,  terminating 
with  loose  spikes  of    large  staminous  flowers. 
These  appear  in  June,  and  are  succeeded  by 
pretty  large  three-cornered  seeds,  whose  cover- 
ings are  entire,  which  ripen  in  autumn.    These 
plants  are  but  seldom  cultivated ;  and  so  easily 
multiply  by  their  numerous  seeds  that  they  soon 
become  troublesome  weeds  where  they  once  get 
an  entrance. 

RUMFORD.    See  ROMFORD. 

RUMFORD,  COUNT,  so  called  from  the  title 
conferred  on  him  by  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  was 
born  in  Woburn,  New  England,  in  1752.  His 
name  was  Benjamin  Thompson.  He  acquired, 
when  young,  a  knowledge  of  natural  philosophy, 
by  the  aid  of  the  professor  of  that  science  in  the 
college  of  Cambridge.  He  then  employed  him- 
self as  a  teacher,  till  he  was  raised  to  inde- 
pendence by  an  advantageous  marriage,  when  he 
became  a  major  in  the  militia  of  his  native  pro- 
vince ;  and  when  the  war  took  place  between 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  his  local  know- 
ledge  enabled  him  to  render  services  of  import- 
ance to  the  English  commanders.  He  went  to 
England,  and,  as  the  reward  of  his  services,  ob- 
tained a  situation  in  the  foreign  office,  under 
lord.  George  Germaine.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  war,  he  was  sent  to  New  York,  where  he 
raised  a  regiment  of  dragoons,  "of  which  he  was 
appointed  colonel,  and  thus  became  entitled  to 
half-pay.  Returning  to  England  in  1784,  he 
received  the  honor  of  knighthood,  and  was  for 
some  time  one  of  the  under  secretaries  of  state. 
Soon  after,  he  went  to  the  continent,  and,  through 
the  recommendation  of  the  prince  of  Deux- 
Ponts  (afterwards  king  of  Bavaria),  entered  into 


the  service  of  the  reigning  elector-palatine  and 
duke  of  Bavaria,  when  he  effected  many  impor- 
tant and  useful  reforms  in  both  the  civil  and 
military  departments  of  the  state.  Among  these 
was  a  scheme  for  the  suppression  of  mendicity, 
which  he  carried  into  execution  at  Munich  and 
other  parts  of  the  Bavarian  territories,  providing 
labor  for  able-bodied  paupers,  and  exciting  a 
spirit  of  industry  among  the  lower  orders  of  the 
people  in  general.  As  the  re\vard  of  his  suc- 
cess in  this  and  other  undertakings,  he  received 
from  the  sovereign  of  Bavaria  various  orders  of 
knighthood,  was  made  a  lieutenant-general,  and 
created  count  Rumford.  He  left  Bavaria  in 
1799,  and  returned  to  England,  where  he  em- 
ployed himself  in  making  experiments  on  the 
nature  and  application  of  heat,  and  on  other 
subjects  of  economical  and  philosophical  re- 
search. He  likewise  suggested  the  plan,  and 
assisted  in  the  foundation,  of  the  royal  institu- 
tion, which  led  to  other  establishments  of  a 
similar  description.  In  1802,  he  removed  to 
Paris,  where  he  took  up  his  residence ;  and,  his 
wife  being  dead,  he  married  the  widow  of  the 
celebrated  Lavoisier;  but  the  union  proved  un- 
fortunate, and  a  separation  ere  long  took  place. 
Count  Kumford  then  retired  to  a  country  house 
at  Auteuil,  about  four  miles  from  Fans,  and 
there  devoted  his  time  to  the  embellishment  of 
his  domain,  and  to  the  cultivation  of  chemistry 
and  experimental  philosophy.  Though  he  dis- 
liked both  the  character  and  politics  of  the 
French,  he  preferred  the  climate  of  their  country 
to  every  other ;  and  he  therefore  procured  per- 
mission from  the  king  of  Bavaria  to  continue  in 
France,  and  retain  the  pension  of  1200  pounds 
a  year,  granted  him  by  that  prince.  He  died  in 
August,  1814,  leaving  by  his  first  wife  a  daugh- 
ter, who  resided  at  Boston,  in  the  United  States. 
Count  Rumford  was  by  no  means  a  man  of 
learning,  his  literary  acquirements  being  con- 
fined to  the  English,  French  and  German  lan- 
guages ;  but  he  was  familiar  with  the  discoveries 
and  improvements  of  modern  science,  and  the 
industry  and  perseverance  with  which  he  pur- 
sued his  inquiries  enabled  him  to  make  con- 
siderable additions  to  our  knowledge  of  chemistry 
and  practical  philosophy.  Besides  a  great  num- 
ber of  papers  in  various  scientific  journals,  he 
published  four  volumes  of  Essays,  experimental, 
political,  economical,  and  philosophical. 

RU'MINANT,  adj:         }      French iruminer; 

RU'MINATE,  v.  n,  &  v.  a.  >  Lat.  rumino.     Hav- 

RUMINA'TION,  n.  *.  )  ing  the  power  of 
chewing  the  cud  :  to  chew  the  cud  :  hence  to 
muse;  reflect:  as  a  verb  active,  to  chew  over 
again ;  muse  on  :  the  noun  substantive  corre- 
sponding. 

The  condemned  English 

Sit  patiently,  and  inly  ruminate 

The  morning's  danger.  Shalupeart. 

Mad  with  desire  she  ruminates  her  sin, 
And  wishes  all  her  wishes  o'er  again  ; 
Now  she  despairs,  and  now  resolves  to  try, 
Would  not,  and  would  again,  she  knows  not  why. 

Dry  den. 

Ruminant  creatures  have  a  power  of  directing 
this  perisialtick  motion  upwards  and  downwards. 

Ray. 


RUN 


78 


RUN 


RUMINANT,  in  natural  history,  is  applied  to 
an  animal  which  chews  over  again  what  it  has 
eaten  before.  Peyer,  in  a  Treatise  De  Rumi- 
nantibus  et  Ruminatione,  shows  that  there  are 
some  animals  \vhich  really  ruminate,  as  oxen, 
sheep,  deer,  goats,  camels,  hares,  and  squirrels ; 
and  that  there  are  others  which  only  appear  to  do 
so,  as  moles,  crickets,  beetles,  crabs,  mullets, 
&c.  The  latter  class,  he  observes,  have  their 
stomachs  composed  of  muscular  fibres,  by  which 
the  food  is  ground  up  and  down  as  in  those 
which  really  ruminate.  Mr.  Ray  observes  that 
ruminants  are  all  four-footed,  hairy,  and  vivi- 
parous ;  some  with  hollow  and  perpetual  horns, 
others  with  deciduous  ones. 

RUM'MAGE,  v.  a.  Fr.  remuage  ;  Germ. 
ranmen,  to  empty, — Skinner.  To  search  ;  plun- 
der ;  evacuate. 

I   have  often  rummaged  for   old  books  in  Little- 
Britain  and  Duck-lane.  Swift. 
RUM'MER,  n.  s.     Sax.  riumoji;    Dan.  and 
Belg.  roemer.     A  large  glass ;  a  drinking  cup. 
RUMNEY.     See  ROMNEY. 
RU'MOR,  n.  *.  &,t;.  a.  >      Fr.  rumeur ;   Lat. 
RU'MORER.                      $  rumor.      Flying    or 
popular  report ;  fame  :  to  report  or  bruit  abroad  : 
the  noun  substantive  corresponding. 

'Twas  rumoured, 

My  father  'scaped  from  out  the  citadel.       Dryden. 
RUMP,  n.  g.     Belg.   romp ;    Teut.   rumpff. 
The  end  of  the  back  bone ;  used  of  beasts,  and 
contemptuously  of  human  bemgs. 

He  charged  him  first  to  bind, 

Crowdero's  hands  on  rump  behind.  Hudibras. 

RUMPHIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  triandria  class  of  plants  :  CAL. 
trifid ;  the  petals  three ;  the  fruit  a  trilocular 
plum.  Soecies  one  only,  a  tree  of  the  East 
Indies. 

RUM'PLE,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.  Sax.  ppym|>elle  ; 
Belg.  rompelen ;  Teut.  rumpsel.  To  crush  or 
contract  into  wrinkles  :  the  wrinkle  or  fold 
made. 

RUMSEY.     See  ROMSEY. 
RUN,  v.  n.,  v.  a.  &  n.  *.^\    Sax.  ninnan ;  Goth. 
RUN'AGATE,  n.  *.  (and    Swed.     rinna  ; 

RUJN'AWAY,  4  Teut.  and  Belg.  ren- 

.     RUN'NER.  J  nen.  To  move  swiftly, 

or  at  a  quick  pace ;  pass  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground;  have  course;  rush;  emit;  flow; 
stream;  be  liquid,  fluid,  or  fusible;  melt; 
vanish  :  hence  to  pass  in  thought  or  word ;  be 
mentioned  cursorily ;  be  known  popularly  ;  go 
on  ;  proceed ;  tend ;  go  on  violently  or  irregu- 
larly ;  taking  after,  away,  away  with,  on,  over, 
and  out  before  the  object :  as  a  verb  active,  to 
drive ;  force  ;  stab  ;  pierce  ;  trace ;  melt ;  pro- 
secute ;  venture ;  venture  against  law ;  taking 
down  before  the  object.  This  verb,  as  Johnson 
says,  may  be  observed  always  to  retain  much  of 
its  primitive  idea,  and  to  imply  progression,  and, 
for  the  most  part,  progressive  violence ;  a  run  is 
a  course  of  motion  ;  the  act  of  running  :  flow  ; 
cadence;  general  reception  ;  modish  clamor  :  'at 
the  long  run,'  in  fine,  in  the  result :  a  runagate 
and  runaway  alike  signify  a  fugitive ;  a  rebel ; 
apostate  ;  one  who  flies  from  danger  :  runner,  a 
racer  or  messenger;  a  shooting  sprig;  the  mov- 
ing stone  of  a  mill. 


Laban  raw  out  unto  the  man  unto  the  well. 

Genesis  xxiv.  29. 

Joseph  is  a  fruitful  bough,  whose  branches  run 
over  the  wall.  Id.  xlix.  22. 

The  Lord  sent  thunder,  and  the  fire  rare  along  upon 
the  ground.  Exodus  ix.  25. 

Whether  his  flesh  run  with  his  issue,  or  be  stop- 
ped, it  is  his  uncleanness.  Leviticus  xiii.  3. 

God  bringeth  the  prisoners  out  of  captivity;  hut 
letteth  the  runagates  continue  in  scarceness. 

Psalm  Ixviii.  6. 

Their  feet  rim  to  evil,  and  make  haste  to  shed 
blood.  Proverbs. 

Running  under  the  island  Clauda,  we  had  much 
work  to  come  by  the  boat.  Acts  xxvii.  16. 

They  run  the  ship  aground.  Id.  xxvii.  41. 

Many  have  run  out  of  their  wits  for  women. 

1  Esdras  iv. 

The  wretch" compell'd,  a  runagate  became, 
And  learned  what  ill  a  miser  state  doth  breed. 

Sidney. 

If,  through  our  too  much  security,  the  same  should 
run  on,  soon  might  we  feel  our  estate  brought  to 
those  lamentable  terms,  whereof  this  hard  and  heavy 
sentence  was  by  one  of  the  ancients  uttered. 

'Hooker. 

This  proud  Turk  offered  scornfully  to  pass  liy 
without  vailing,  which  the  Venetian  captains  not 
enduring,  set  upon  him  with  such  fury  that  the 
Turks  were  enforced  to  run  both  their  gallies  on 
shore.  hnolles't  Hitter y. 

Neither  was,  he  ignorant  what  report  run  of  liim- 
self,  and  how  he  had  lost  the  hearts  of  his  subjects. 

h  iwtle*. 

My  conscience  will  serve  me  to  run  from  this  Je»v, 
my  master.  Shakspeare.  Ulerchunt  of  Venice. 

My  statues, 

Like  a  fountain,  with  a  hundred  spouts, 
Did  run  pure  blood.  Id.  Julius  Caesar. 

A  hound  runs  counter,  and  yet  draws  dry  food  well. 

Shakspeare. 

If  you  suspend  your  indignation  against  my 
brother,  till  you  can  derive  from  him  better  testi- 
mony of  his  intent,  you  should  run  a  certain  course. 

Id.   Kuiy  Lear. 

If  thou  rememberest  not  the  slightest  folly 
That  ever  love  did  make  thee  run  into, 
Thou  hast  not  loved.  Id.  As  You  Like  It. 

Fore-spent  with  toil,  as  runners  with  a  race, 
I  lay  me  down  a  little  while  to  breathe.  Shahtpeare 

From  growing  riches  with  good  cheer, 
To  running  out  by  starving  here.  Id. 

Poor  Romeo  is  already  dead,  run  through  the  ear 
with  a  love  song.  Id.  Itomeo  and  Juliet. 

Thou  runaway,  thou  coward,  art  thou  fled  ? 
Speak  in  some  bush ;  where  dost  thou  hide  thy  head  1 

Shakipeare. 

As  Cain,  after  he  had  slain  Abel,  had  no  certain 
abiding ;  so  the  Jews,  after  they  had  crucified  the 
Son  of  God,  became  runagates.  RiMyk. 

The  difference  between  the  valour  of  the  Irish 
rebels  and  the  Spaniards  was,  that  the  one  nm  innni 
before  they  were  charged,  and  the  other  straight 
after.  Eacim. 

In  some  houses  wainscots  will  sweat,  so  that  they 
will  almost  run  with  water.  Id. 

The  owner  hath  incurred  the  forfeiture  of  eight 
years'  profits  of  his  lands,  before  he  cometh  to  tlie 
knowledge  of  the  process  that  runneth  against  him. 

1<I. 

A  man's  nature  runs  either  to  herbs  or  weeds ; 
therefore  let  him  seasonably  water  the  one,  and. 
destroy  the  other.  '<'• 

Hunning  on  with  vain  prolixity.  Drinjton. 


RUN 

The  priest  and  people  run  about, 
And  at  the  ports  all  thronging  out, 
As  if  their  safety  were  to  quit 
Their  mother.  Ben  Jonson. 

He  hath  run  out  himself,  and  led  forth 
His  desperate  party  with  him ;  blown  together 
Aids  of  all  kinds.  Id.   Catiline. 

Discourses  ran  thus  among  the  clearest  observers : 
it  was  said  that  the  prince,  without  any  imaginable 
stain  of  his  religion,  had,  by  the  sight  of  foreign 
courts,  much  corroborated  his  judgment. 

Wotton's  Buckingham. 

Thirst  of  fame  makes  them  seek  to  climb  to  heaven  ; 
it  makes  them  not  fear  to  run  down  headlong  to  hell. 

Bp.  Hall. 

The  rest  dispersed  run,  some  disguised, 
To  unknown  coasts  :  some  to  the  shores  to  fly. 

Daniel. 

Insectile  animals,  for  want  of  blood,  run  all  out 
into  legs.  Hammond. 

The  king's  ordinary  style  runneth,  our  sovereign 
lord  the  king.  Saunderson. 

We  have  many  evils  to  prevent,  and  much  danger 
to  run  through.  Taylor. 

The  zeal  of  love  runs  out  into  suckers,  like  a  fruit- 
ful tree.  Id.  Rule  of  Holy  Living. 

Take  here  her  reliques  and  her  gods,  to  run 
With  them  thy  fate,  with  them  new  walls  expect. 

Denham. 

He  would  himself  be  in  the  Highlands  to  receive 
them,  and  run  his  fortune  with  them.       Clarendon. 
Rivers  run  potable  gold.  Milton. 

Day  yet  wants  much  of  his  race  to  run.  Id. 

Hath  publick  faith,  like  a  young  heir, 
For  this  taken  up  all  sorts  of  ware, 
And  run  into  every  tradesman's  book, 
Till  both  turned  bankrupts  ?  Hudibras. 

They,  when  they're  out  of  hopes  of  flying, 
Will  run  away  from  death  by  dying.  Id. 

Customs  run  only  upon  our  goods  imported  or  ex- 
ported, and  that  but  once  for  all ;  whereas  interest 
runs  as  well  upon  our  ships  as  goods,  and  must  be 
yearly  paid.  Child. 

Hath  falsehood  proved  at  the  long  run  more  for 
the  advancement  of  his  estate  than  truth  1  Tillotson. 

The  greatest  vessel,  when  full,  if  you  pour  in 
still,  it  must  run  out  some  way,  and  the  more  it 
runs  out  at  one  side,  the  less  it  runs  out  at  the  other. 

Temple. 

Since  death's  near,  and  runs  with  so  much  force, 
We  must  meet  first,  and  intercept  his  course. 

Dry  den. 

He  ran  up  the  ridges  of  the  rocks  amain.         Id. 
Her  form  glides  through  me,  and  my  heart  gives 

way; 

This  iron  heart,  which  no  impression  took 
From  wars,  melts  down,  and  runs,  if  she  but  look. 

Id. 

Could  you  hear  the  annals  of  our  fate  ; 
Through  such  a  train  of  woes  if  I  should  run, 
The  day  would  sooner  than  the  tale  be  done    Id. 
His  grisly  beard  his  pensive  bosom  sought, 
And  all  on  Lausus  ran  his  restless  thought.        Id. 

The  estate  run*  out,  and  mortgages  are  made, 
Their  fortune  rui-ned,  and  their  fame  betrayed.    Id. 

The  common  cry 
Then  ran  you  down  for  your  rank  loyalty.  Id. 

Here  those  that  in  the  rapid  course  delight, 
The  rival  runners  without  order  stand.  Id. 

They  ran  down  a  stag,  and  the  ass  divided  the  prey 
very  honestly.  L'Estrange. 

Wickedness  may  prosper  for  a  while,  but,  at  the 
long  run,  he  that  sets  all  knaves  at  work,  will  pay 
them.  Id. 


79 


RUN 


The  ass  sets  up  a  hideous  bray,  and  fetches  a  rttn 
at  them  open  mouth.  Id. 

If  there  remains  an  eternity  to  us,  after  the  short 
revolution  of  time  we  so  swiftly  run  over  here,  'tis 
clear  that  all  the  happiness  that  can  be  imagined, 
in  this  fleeting  state,  is  not  valuable  in  respect  of  the 
future.  Locke. 

That  punishment  follows  not  in  this  life  the  breach 
of  this  rule,  and  consequently  has  not  the  force  of  a 
law,  in  countries  where  the  generally  allowed  prac- 
tice runs  counter  to  it,  is  evident.  Id. 

Thoughts  will  not  be  directed  what  objects  to  pur- 
sue, but  run  away  with  a  man  in  pursuit  of  those 
ideas  they  have  in  view.  Id. 

Though  putting  the  mind  unprepared  upon  an  un- 
usual stress  may  discourage  it,  yet  this  must  not  run 
it,  by  an  overgreat  shyness  of  difficulties,  into  a  lazy 
sauntering  about  ordinary  things.  Id. 

I  shall  run  the  danger  of  being  suspected  to  have 
forgot  what  I  am  about.  Id. 

A  talkative  person  runs  himself  upon  great  incon- 
veniences, by  blabbing  out  his  own  or  others'  secrets. 

Bay. 

If  the  richness  of  the  ground  cause  turnips  to  run 
to  leaves,  treading  down  the  leaves  will  help  their 
rooting.  Mortimer. 

In  every  root  there  will  be  one  runner,  which  hath 
little  buds  on  it,  which  may  be  cut  into.  Id. 

The  mill  goes  much  heavier,  by  the  stone  they  call 
the  runner  being  so  large.  Id. 

Your  iron  must  not  burn  in  the  fire  ;  that  is,  run 
or  melt ;  for  then  it  will  be  brittle.  Moxon. 

Study  your  race,  or  the  soil  of  your  family  will 
dwindle  into  cits,  or  run  into  wits.  Tatler. 

The  world  had  not  stood  so  long,  but  we  can  still 
run  it  up  to  artless  ages  when  mortals  lived  by  plain 
nature.  Burnet. 

It  is  no  such  hard  matter  to  convince  or  r?.m  down 
a  drunkard,  and  to  answer  any  pretences  he  can  allege 
for  his  sin.  South. 

See  daisies  open,  rivers  run.  Parnel. 

Some  papers  are  written  with  regularity ;  others 
run  out  into  the  wildness  of  essays.  Spectator. 

Hipparchus,  going  to  marry,  consulted  Philander 
upon  the  occasion  ;  Philander  represented  his  mis- 
tress in  such  strong  colours,  that  the  next  morning 
he  received  a  challenge,  and  before  twelve  he  was  run 
through  the  body.  Id. 

The  dire  example  ran  through  all  the  field, 
Till  heaps  of  brothers  were  by  brothers  killed. 

Addison. 

As  wax  dissolves,  as  ice  begins  to  run, 
And  trickle  into  drops  before  the  sun, 
So  melts  the  youth.  Id.  Ovid. 

As  fast  as  our  time  rum,  we  should  be  very  glad 
in  most  parts  of  our  lives  that  it  ran  much  faster. 

Addison. 

Virgil,  in  his  first  Georgick,  has  run  into  a  set  of 
precepts  foreign  to  his  subject.  Id. 

This  church  is  very  rich  in  relicks,  which  run  up 
as  high  as  Daniel  and  Abraham.  Id. 

If  we  run  over  the  other  nations  of  Europe,  we 
shall  only  pass  through  so  many  different  scenes  of 
poverty.  Id. 

Some  English  speakers  run  their  hands  into  their 
pockets,  others  look  with  great^attention  on  a  piece  of 
blank  paper.  Id. 

It  is  impossible  for  detached  papers  to  have  a  ge- 
neral run  of  long  continuance,  if  not  diversified  with 
humour.  Id. 

The  time  of  instance  shall  not  commence  or  run 
till  after  contestation  of  suit.  Ayliffe's  Parergon. 

I  would  gladly  understand  .the  formation  of  a  soul, 
and  run  it  up  to  its  punctum  saliens.  Collier. 

This  run  in  the  head,  of  a  late  writer  of  natural 


RUN  80 

history,  who  is  not  wont  to  have  the  most  .ucky  hits 
in  the  conduct  of  his  thoughts.  Woodward. 

I  have  known  several  instances,  where  the  lungs 
run  through  with  a  sword  have  been  consolidated  and 
healed.  Blackmore. 

It  is  a  confederating  with  him,  to  whom  the  sacri- 
fice is  offered ;  for  upon  that  the  apostle's  argument 
-uns.  Atterburii. 

O  that  I  could  now  prevail  with  any  one  to  count 
up  what  he  hath  got  by  his  most  beloved  sins,  what 
a  dreadful  danger  he  runs.  Colamy. 

On  all  occasions,  she  run  out  extravagantly  in 
praise  of  Hocus.  Arbuthnot. 

The  whole  runs  on  short,  like  articles  |in  an  ac- 
count, whereas,  if  the  subject  were  fully  explained, 
each  of  them  might  take  up  half  a  page. 

Id.  on  Coins. 

Searching  the  ulcer  with  my  probe,  the  sinus  run 
np  above  the  orifice.  Wiseman  >  Surgery. 

Our  king  returned, 

The  muse  ran  mad  to  see  her  exil'd  lord  ; 
On  the  cracked  stage  the  bedlam  heroes  roared. 

Granville. 

Raw  and  injudicious  writers  propose  one  thing  for 
their  subject,  and  run  off  to  another.  Felton. 

The  purest  gold  must  be  run  and  washed.        Id. 
What  is  raised  in  the  day,  settles  in  the  night,  and 
"ts  cold  runs  the  thin  juices  into  thick  sizy  substances. 

Cheyne. 

She  saw  with  joy  the  line  immortal  run, 
Each  sire  imprest,  and  glaring  in  his  son.        Pope. 

Magnanimity  may  run  up  to  profusion  or  extrava- 
gance. Id. 
Run  in  trust,  and  pay  for  it  out  of  your  wages. 

Swift. 

A  horse-boy,  being  lighter  than  you,  may  be 
trusted  to  run  races  with  less  damage  to  the  horses. 

Id. 

When  we  desire  any  thing,  our  minds  run  wholly 
on  the  good  circumstances  of  it ;  when  'tis  obtained, 
our  minds  run  wholly  on  the  bad  ones.  Id. 

To  Tonson  or  Lintot  his  lodgings  are  better 
known  than  to  the  runners  of  the  post-office. 

Id.  to  Pope. 

Heavy  impositions  lessen  the  import,  and  are  a 
strong  temptation  of  running  goods.  Swift. 

You  cannot  but  have  observed  what  a  violent  run 
there  is  among  too  many  weak  people  against  uni- 
versity education.  Id. 

He  shows  his  judgment,  in  not  letting  his  fancy 
run  out  into  long  descriptions.  Broome  on  Odystey. 

He  no  where  uses  any  softness,  or  any  run  of  verses 
to  please  the  ear.  Id. 

In  the  middle  of  a  rainbow  the  colors  are  suffi- 
ciently distinguished  ;  but  near  the  borders  they  run 
into  one  another,  so  that  you  hardly  know  how  to 
limit  the  colors.  Watts. 

Religion  is  run  down  by  the  licence  of  these  times. 

Berkeley. 

He  will  no  more  complain  of  the  frowns  of  the 
world,  or  a  small  cure,  or  the  want  of  a  patron,  than 
he  will  complain  of  the  want  of  a  laced  coat,  or  a 
running-horse.  Law. 

Though  Ramus  run  in  with  the  first  reformers  of 
learning  in  his  opposition  to  Aristotle  ;  yet  he  has 
given  us  a  plausible  system.  Baker. 

RON,  an  extensive  salt  morass  of  Hindostan, 
which  bounds  the  western  frontier  of  Gujerat, 
and  communicates  with  the  gulf  of  Cutch,  seve- 
ral hundred  miles  in  length.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  been  formerly  covered  by  the  sea,  but  af- 
fords excellent  pasture,  and  some  fine  horses.  It 
belongs  to  several  petty  chiefs. 


RU.N 

RUND'LET,  n.  s.  Perhaps  runlet  or  round- 
let.  A  small  barrel. 

Set  a  rundlft  of  verjuice  over  against  the  sun  in 
summer,  to  see  whether  it  will  sweeten.  Bacon 

The  angels  did  not  fly,  but  mounted  the  ladder  by 
degrees  ;  we  are  to  consider  the  several  steps  and 
rundles  we  are  to  ascend  by.  Duppa. 

The  third  mechanical  faculty,  styled,  axis  in  peri- 
trochio,  consists  of  an  axis  or  cylinder,  having  a  run- 
die  about  it,  wherein  are  fastened  divers  spokes,  by 
which  the  whole  may  be  turned  round. 

Wilkins't  Mathematical  Afagick. 

RUNGS,  in  a  ship,  the  same  with  the  ground 
timbers  ;  being  the  timbers  which  constitute  her 
floor ;  and  are  bolted  to  the  keel,  whose  ends  are 
rung-heads. 

RUNGPOOR,  or  Takhut  Koondy,  is  an 
extensive  district  of  Bengal,  situated  about 
26°  N.  lat.,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Bootan  mountains,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Brahmapootra.  It  produces  rice,  sugar,  silk, 
indigo,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  The  glandular 
swellings  of  the  throat  are  very  prevalent  here. 
Besides  the  Brahmapootra,  it  is  watered  by  the 
Teestah  and  Durlah.  Its  chief  towns  are  Rung- 
pore,  Guzgotta,  and  Mungulhaut.  This  district 
was  taken  possession  of,  and  colonised  by  the 
Mahometans  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  was 
always  governed  by  a  foujedar  or  military  col- 
lector. Between  1730aud  1740  it  was  ruled  by 
Sayed  Ahmed,  nephew  of  Aly  Verdy  Khan,  who 
is  accused  of  having  been  very  oppressive,  and 
compelling  the  rajahs  of  Dinagepore  and  Couch 
Behar  to  pay  him  tribute.  It  is  now  governed 
by  a  civil  establishment  of  judge,  collector,  &c., 
and  is  subservient  to  the  court  of  circuit  and 
appeal  of  Dacca.  Couch  Behar  is  included  in 
this  collectorship. 

RUNGPORE,  the  capital  of  the  above  dis- 
trict, is  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Gog- 
got,  is  a  very  regular  built  town,  and  carries  on 
a  considerable  trade  with  Bootan,  Assam,  and 
Calcutta.  The  judge  and  collector  reside  at 
Nuwalgunge,  about  a  mile  from  the  town.  Long. 
89°  5'  E.,  lat.  25°  47'  N. 

RUKGPORE,  an  extensive  fortress  of  Gergong, 
the  ancient  capital  of  Assam.  It  is  situated  on 
an  island,  and  can  only  be  approached  by  a 
bridge,  which  was  built  some  centuries  ago. 

RUN'NEL,  n.  s.  From  run.  A  rivulet ;  a 
small  brook. 

With  murmur  loud,  down  from  the  mountain's 

side, 
A  little  runnel  tumbled  neere  the  place.      Fairfax. 

RUNNER,  in  the  sea  language,  a  rope  belong- 
ing to  the  garnet  and  the  two  bolt  tackles.  It 
is  reeved  in  a  single  block  joined  to  the  end  of  a 
pendant :  it  has  at  one  end  a  hook  to  hit'h  into 
any  thing  ;  and  at  the  other  a  double  block,  into 
which  is  reeved  the  fall  of  the  tackle,  or  the  gar-- 
net, by  which  means  it  purchases  more  than  the 
tackle  would  without  it. 

RUN'NET,  n.  s.  Sax.  jenunnen,  coagulated. 
A  liquor  made  by  steeping  the  stomach  of  a  calf 
in  hot  water,  and  used  to  coagulate  milk  tor 
curds  and  cheese.  It  is  also  written  llENM.r, 
which  see. 

The  milk  of  the  fig  hath  the  quality  of  a  runner  to 
gather  cheese.  Baan\':  Natural  History. 


HUP 

It  coagulates  the  blood,  as  ruitnet  turns  milk. 


.  Tlie  milk  in  the  stomach  of  calves,  coagulated  by 
the  runnet,  is  rendered  fluid  by  the  gall  in  the  duo- 
denum. Arbtithnot. 

RUNNET,  or  RENNET.  See  RENNET. 
RUNNINGTON  (Charles),  serjeant-at-law, 
Itorn  in  Hertfordshire  in  1751.  He  was  in  1768 
placed  with  a  special  pleader,  who  employed 
him  in  a  digest  of  the  law  of  England.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1778,  and  in  1787  to  the  degree 
of  Serjeant  In  1815  he  was  appointed  commis- 
sioner for  the  relief  of  insolvent  debtors,  which 
office  he  resigned  in  1819,  and  died  at  Brighton, 
January  18,  1821.  Mr.  Runnington  published 
Hale's  History  of  the  Common  Law,  2  vols. ; 
Gilbert's  Law  of  Ejectments,  8vo.  ;  Ruffhead's 
Statutes  at  Large,  4  vols.  4to.;  History  of  the 
Legal  Remedy  by  Ejectment,  and  the  Resulting 
Action  or  Mesne  Process,  8vo. 

RUNMON,n.  *.  Fr.  rognant,  scrubbing.  A 
paltry  wretch. 

You  witch  !  you  polecat !  you  nmnion  '. 

Shukspeare. 

RUNNYMEAD,a  celebrated  mead,  near  Eg- 
ham,  in  Surrey,  where  king  John  was  compelled 
to  sign  Magna  Charta,  the  great  charter  of  Eng- 
lish liberty,  and  the  Charta  de  Foresta.  See 
ENGLAND. 

RUNT,  n.  s.  Runte,  in  the  Teutonic  dia- 
lects, signifies  a  bull  or  cow,  and  is  used  in  con- 
tempt by  us  for  small  cattle ;  as  the  Welsh  term 
kefyl,  a  horse,  is  used  for  a  worthless  horse. 
Johnson. — Goth,  rian,  rant,  Thomson.  Any 
small  animal ;  below  the  natural  growth  of  the 
kind. 

Reforming  Tweed 
Hath  sent  us  runts  even  of  her  churches  breed. 

Cleaveland. 
Of  tame  pigeons,  are  croppers,  carriers,  and  runts. 

Walton. 

This  overgrown  runt  has  struck  off  his  heels, 
lowered  his  foretop,  and  contracted  his  figure. 

Adduon. 

RUPEE,  a  silver  coin  current  in  the  East  In- 
dies, worth  about  2s.  fid.  See  COINS. 

RUPERT,  prince  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  and 
grandson  of  king  James  I.  of  England,  was  born 
in  1619.  In  1642  he  came  over  into  England, 
and  offered  his  services  to  king  Charles  I.,  his 
uncle,  who  gave  him  a  command  in  his  army. 
At  Edgehill  he  charged  with  incredible  bravery, 
and  made  a  great  slaughter  of  the  parliamen- 
tarians. In  1643  he  seized  the  town  of  Ciren- 
cester ;  obliged  the  governor  of  Litchfield  to  sur- 
render; and,  having  joined  his  brother  prince 
Maurice,  reduced  Bristol  in  three  days,  and 
passed  to  the  relief  of  Newark.  In  1644  he 
marched  to  relieve  York,  where  he  gave  the  par- 
liamentarians battle,  and  entirely  defeated  their 
right  wing;  but  Cromwell  charged  the  marquis 
of  Newcastle  with  such  an  irresistible  force  that 
the  royalists  were  at  length  entirely  defeated. 
After  this  the  prince  retired  to  Bristol,  which 
surrendered  to  Fairfax  after  a  gallant  resistance. 
The  king  was  so  enraged  at  the  loss  of  this  city, 
so  contrary  to  his  expectation,  that  he  recalled 
all  prince  Rupert's  commissions,  and  sent  him  u 
pass  to  go  out  of  the  kingdom.  In  1648  he 
VOL.  XIX. 


81  RUP 

went  to  France,  was  highly  complimented  by 
that  court,  and  kindly  received  by  king  Charles 
II.,  who  was  there  at  the  time.  Afterward  he 
was  constituted  admiral  of  the  king's  navy  :  in- 
fested the  Dutch  ships,  many  of  which  he  took; 
and,  having  engaged  with  De  Ruyter,  obliged 
him  to  fly.  He  died  in  1682,  and  was  interred 
in  king  Henry  VII.'s  chapel,  Westminster,  witli 
great  magnificence.  He  seldom  engaged  but  he 
gained  the  advantage,  which  he  generally  lost  by 
pursuing  it  too  far.  He  was  better  qualified  to 
storm  a  citadel,  or  even  to  mount  a  breach,  than 
patiently  to  sustain  a  siege.  He  took  the  hint  of 
his  discovery  of  mezzotinto,  it  is  said,  from  a  sol- 
dier scraping  his  rusty  fusil.  The  first  mezzo- 
tinto print  ever  published  was  the  work  of  his 
hands,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  first  edition  of 
Evelyn's  Sculptra.  The  secret  is  said  to  have  been 
soon  after  discovered  by  Sherwin,  an  engraver, 
who  made  use  of  a  loaded  file  for  laying  the 
ground.  The  prince,  upon  seeing  one  of  his 
prints,  suspected  that  his  servant  had  lent  him 
his  tool,  which  was  a  channeled  roller ;  but,  upon 
receiving  full  satisfaction  to  the  contrary,  he 
made  him  a  present  of  it.  The  roller  was  after- 
wards laid  aside ;  and  an  instrument  with  a  cre- 
nelled  edge,  shaped  like  a  shoemaker's  cutting 
knife,  was  used  instead  of  it.  He  also  invented 
a  metal  called  by  his  name,  of  which  guns  were 
cast. 

RUPERT'S  DROPS,  a  sort  of  glass  drops  with 
long  and  slender  tails,  which  burst  to  pieces  on 
the  breaking  off  those  tails  in  any  part ;  invented 
by  prince  Rupert.  Their  explosion  is  attended 
in  the  dark  with  a  flash  of  light ;  and,  by  being 
boiled  in  oil,  the  drops  are  deprived  of  their  ex- 
plosive quality. 

RUPPIN,  NEW,  a  town  of  Brandenburg, 
Prussia,  in  the  government  of  Potsdam,  on  a 
lake  of  the  same  name.  It  is  regularly  built,  the 
streets  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles,  and 
has  a  high  church,  high  school,  council-house, 
barracks,  hospital,  a  workhouse,  and  a  very  large 
building  for  exercising  the  troops.  It  contains 
4600  inhabitants,  besides  a  garrison.  The  prin- 
cipal employments,  are  weaving  woollen,  tan- 
ning, and  making  gloves.  Old  Ruppin  is  a 
small  town  a  little  farther  to  the  north,  with 
1000  inhabitants.  Thirty-five  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Berlin. 

RUP'TION,  7i.  s.  }      Latruptus. 

RUP'TURE,  n.  s.,  v.  a.,  8c  v.  n.  j  Breach;  so- 
lution of  continuity  :  the  act  of  breaking;  hernia  : 
to  break  ;  suffer  disruption. 

The  egg, 

Bursting  with  kindly  rupture,  forth  disclosed 

Their  callow  young.  Hilton. 

A  lute  string  will  bear  a  hundred  weight  without 
rupture,  but  at  the  same  time  cannot  exert  its  elasti- 
city. Arbuthnot. 

'I  he  plenitude  of  vessels  or  plethora  causes  an 
extravasation  of  blood  by  ruption  or  apertion. 

Wiseman. 

The  rupture  of  the  groin  or  scrotum  is  the  most 
common  species  of  hernia.  Sharp's  Surgery. 

The  vessels  of  the  brain  and  membranes,  if  rup- 
tured, absorb  the  extravasated  blood.  Sharp. 

When  the  parties,  that  divide  the  commonwealth, 
come  to  &  rupture,  it  seems  every  man's  duty  to  chuse 
a  side.  Swift. 

G 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE. 


RU  RAL,  adj.  Yr.  rural;  Lat.  rwra,  ruralis. 
Country ;  existing  in  the  country,  not  in  cities ; 
suiting  or  resembling  the  country. 

Lady,  reserved  to  do  pastor  company  honour, 
Joining  your  sweet  voice  to  the  rural  uiusick  of  desert. 

Sidney. 

Here  is  a  rural  fellow, 

That  will  not  be  denied  your  highness'  presence; 
He  brings  you  figs.  Shaktpeare.   Cymbetine. 

We  turn 
To  where  the  silver  Thames  first  rural  grows. 

Thomson. 

The  summit  gained  behold  the  proud  alcove 
That  crowns  it !  yet  not  all  its  pride  secures 
The  grand  retreat  from  injuries  impressed 
By  rural  carvers,  who  with  knives  deface 
The  pannels,  leaving  an  obscure  rude  name, 
In  characters  uncouth,  and  spelled  amiss.    Cowper, 

RURAL  ARCHITECTURE.  The  application  of 
such  architectural  science  as  was  then  in  prac- 
tice, to  the  accommodation  of  the  agriculturist, 
must  have  taken  place  at  a  very  early  period  of 
human  history.  We  have  already  (see  the  ar- 
ticle AGRICULTURE)  endeavoured  to  trace  the  his- 
tory of  agricultural  improvements  generally — 
our  business  in  this  and  the  succeeding  article 
is  strictly  practical ;  and  will  relate  to  the  most 
expedient  methods  which  have  been  suggested 
•n  modern  times  for  farm  buildings,  and  the  ge- 
neral economy  of  a  farm. 

On  the  first  of  these  subjects  the  reader  may 
further  consult  the  article  FARM,  where  the  laying 
out  of  farm  lands,  and  the  construction  of  the 
principal  farm  erections,  are  dwelt  upon.  In  the 
present  article,  the  smallest  farm-house  and 
farm-cottages  will  engage  our  attention ;  farm- 
stables,  buildings  for  the  accommodation  of 
stock,  poultry-houses,  barns,  straw-houses,  cart- 
sheds,  &c. 

1.  Of  the  smaller  farm-house  and  farm-cot- 
tages.— The  smallest  farm-house  will  be  that  in 
•which  the  farmer  keeps  no  servant,  and  culti- 
vates a  few  acres.  Such  a  house  should  consist 
of  an  entry  or  porch  at  the  end,  and  ranging  by 
the  side  of  a  dairy  and  pantry ;  a  kitchen  of 
good  size,  say  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  square ;  a 
parlour  of  equal  size  ;  a  light  closet  off  the  parlour 
and  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  house  to  the 
dairy  ;  tool-house  adjoining  it ;  staircase  and 
cellar  under;  poultry-house,  and  three  bed-rooms 
up  stairs.  The  ground  plan  of  such  a  house  is 
given  in  Plate  RURAL  ARCHITECTURE,  fig.  1. 

A  farm-house  forming  a  medium  between  this 
and  that  of  what  may  be  called  a  professional 
farmer  is  given  in  figs.  2  and  3.  Here  the 
farmer  is  supposed  to  keep  a  servant,  who  is 
domesticated  with  him,  and  the  poultry  and 
tool-house  are  in  the  yard.  It  contains  an  en- 
trance and  stair  (a) ;  kitchen,  closet,  and  oven 
(6) ;  back  kitchen  (c)  ;  dairy  (rf) ;  parlour  (r) ; 
bedroom  (/);  with  three  bedrooms  and  a  garret 
up  stairs,  and  a  cellar  under. 

In  larger  farm-houses  the  servants'  rooms 
have  been  recommended  to  be  quite  distinct 
from  the  house.  Where  farms  are  large,  and 
consequently  a  great  number  of  servants  wanted, 
particularly  where  they  are  unmarried,  suitable 
and  convenient  rooms  for  sleeping  in,  and, 
where  they  find  their  own  provisions,  for  pre- 
paring and  dressing  them  in,  are  not  merely 


requisite,  but  of  considerable  advantage  to  t!>e 
farmer,  as  well  as  the  men,  as  they  save  mucK 
time,  which  would  otherwise  be  lost,  in  going 
to  their  meals ;  besides  keeping  them  together 
in  a  sober,  steady  state,  ready  for  their  different 
employments.  In  this  way,  too,  the  servants 
are  a  great  deal  more  comfortable,  and  live  far 
more  cheaply  than  when  they  go  to  the  public- 
houses  to  eat  their  meals,  as  is  much  the  case  in 
the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom.  But  incon- 
veniences of  this  kind  are  probably  the  best 
guarded  against  by  having  such  servants,  when 
it  can  be  done,  in  the  houses  of  the  farmers,  in 
which  cases  the  eating-rooms  for  them  should 
be  so  placed  as  that  a  facility  may  be  given  ot 
overlooking  them.  But  the  rooms  for  lodging 
in  should,  at  the  same  time,  be  quite  detached 
and  distinct,  such  persons  being  frequently  care- 
less and  negligent  of  their  candles  and  fires,  be- 
sides being  irregular  in  other  parts  of  their  con- 
duct. In  whatever  situations  such  rooms  may 
be  erected,  the  ground-floors  should  be  formed 
of  stone,  brick,  or  some  other  incombustible 
material,  while  the  upper  ones  are  laid  with 
plaster,  as  in  some  of  the'  midland  districts. 

Mr.  J.  Wood,  of  Bath,  has  suggested  cottages 
of  four  classes,  for  laborers,  having  from  one  to 
four  rooms  each.  .  See  his  Series  of  Plans  for 
Cottages.  They  chould  be  constructed,  he  says, 
on  the  following  principles  : 

'  The  cottage  should  be  dry  and  healthy ; 
this  is  effected  by  keeping  the  floor  sixteen  or 
eighteen  inches  above  the  natural  ground ;  by 
building  it  clear  of  banks,  on  an  open  spot  of 
ground,  that  has  a  declivity  or  fail  from  the 
building ;  by  having  the  rooms  not  less  than  eight 
feet  high — a  height  that  will  keep  them  airy  and 
healthy ;  and  by  avoiding  having  chambers  in 
the  roof. 

*  They  should  be  warm,  cheerful,  and  com- 
fortable. In  order  to  attain  these  points,  the 
walls  should  be  of  a  sufficient  thickness  (if  of 
stone,  not  less  than  sixteen  inches ;  if  of  brick, 
at  least  a  brick  and  a  half)  to  keep  out  the  col  J 
of  the  winter,  or  the  excessive  heat  of  the  sum- 
mer. The  entrance  should  be  screened,  that 
the  room,  on  opening  the  door,  may  not  be  ex- 
posed to  the  open  air;  the  rooms  should  receive 
their  light  from  the  east  or  the  south,  or  from  any 
point  betwixt  the  east  and  the  south ;  for,  if  they 
receive  their  light  from  the  north,  they  will  be 
cold  and  cheerless;  if  from  the  west,  they  will 
be  so  heated  by  the  summer's  afternoon  sun,  as 
to  become  comfortless  to  the  poor  laborer,  after 
a  hard  day's  w  ork ;  whereas,  on  the  contrary 
receiving  the  light  from  the  east  or  the  south, 
they  will  be  always  warm  and  cheerful.  So  like 
the  feelings  of  men  in  a  higher  sphere  are  those 
of  the  poor  cottager,  that  if  his  habitation  be 
warm,  cheerful,  and  comfortable,  he  will  return 
to  it  with  gladness,  and  abide  m  it  with  pleasure 

'  They  should  be  rendered  convenient,  by 
having  a  porch  or  shed  to  screen  the  entrance, 
and  to  hold  the  laborer's  tools  ;  by  having  a  shed 
to  serve  as  a  pantry,  and  store-place  for  fuel; 
by  having  a  privy  for  cleanliness  and  decency's 
sake ;  by  a  proper  disposition  of  the  windows, 
doors,  and  chimneys ;  by  having  the  stairs, 
where  there  is  an  upper  floor,  not  less  than  three 


I-U'  UA  L    AKCM  LIT  ECTU  WE, 


/v  .//•/:  /. 


M  HI 


'  '  '  i  i  j  i 

r  •  •  B  a  a  •  •••••••••• 


\-  71>»nia.f7f</,/.  7.'i.i'/ 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE. 


feet  wide,  the  rise  or  height  not  more  than  eight 
.tiches,  and  the  tread  or  breadth  not  less  than 
nine  inches ;  and,  lastly,  by  proportioning  the 
size  of  the  cottage  to  the  family  that  is  to  inhabit 
it;  there  should  be  one  lodging-room  for  the 
parents,  another  for  the  female,  and  a  third  for 
the  male  children  ;  it  is  melancholy,  he  says,  to 
see  a  man  and  his  wife,  and  sometimes  half  a 
dozen  children,  crowded  together  in  the  same 
room ;  nay,  often  in  the  same  bed ;  the  horror 
is  still  heightened,  and  the  inconveniency  in- 
creased, at  the  time  the  woman  is  in  child-bed, 
•or  in  case  of  illness,  or  of  death  ;  indeed,  whilst 
the  children  are  young,  under  nine  years  of  age, 
there  is  not  that  offence  to  decency,  if  they  sleep 
in  the  same  room  with  their  parents,  or  if  the 
boys  and  girls  sleep  together,  but  after  that  age 
they  should  be  kept  apart. 

'  Cottages  should  not  be  more  than  twelve 
feet  wide  in  the  clear,  that  being  the  greatest 
width  that  it  would  be  prudent  to  venture  the 
rafters  of  the  roof,  with  the  collar-pieces  only, 
without  danger  of  spreading  the  walls  ;  and,  by 
using  collar-pieces,  there  can  be  fifteen  inches 
in  height  of  the  roof  thrown  into  the  upper 
chambers,  which  will  render  dormer-windows 
useless. 

Cottages  should  be  always  built  in  pairs, 
either  at  a  little  distance  from  one  another,  or 
close  adjoining,  so  as  to  appear  one  building, 
that  the  inhabitants  may  be  of  assistance  to  each 
other,  in  case  of  sickness  or  any  other  accident. 

'  For  economy,  cottages  should  be  built  strong, 
and  with  the  best  of  materials,  and  these  mate- 
rials well  put  together ;  the  mortar  must  be  well 
tempered  and  mixed,  and  lime  not  spared  :  hol- 
low walls  bring  on  decay,  and  harbour  vermin ; 
and  bad  sappy  timber  soon  reduces  the  cottage 
to  a  ruinous  state.  Although  cottages  need  not 
be  fine,  yet  they  should  be  regular ;  regularity 
will  render  them  ornaments  to  the  country,  in- 
stead of  their  being,  as  at  present,  disagreeable 
objects. 

'  A  piece  of  ground  should  be  allotted  to  every 
cottage,  proportionable  to  its  size ;  the  cottage 
should  be  built  in  the  vicinity  of  a  spring  of 
water — a  circumstance  to  be  attended  to ;  and, 
if  there  be  no  spring,  let  there  be  a  well.' 

'  Humanity,'  Beatson  well  observes,  'shudders 
at  the  idea  of  an  industrious  laborer,  with  a  wife, 
and  perhaps  five  or  six  children,  being  obliged 
to  live,  or  rather  exist,  in  a  wretched,  damp, 
gloomy  room,  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  square,  and 
that  room  without  a  floor ;  but  common  decency 
must  revolt  at  considering  that  over  this  wretched 
apartment  there  is  only  one  chamber,  to  hold 
all  the  miserable  beds  of  this  miserable  family. 
And  yet  instances  of  this  kind,  to  our  shame  be 
it  spoken,  occur  in  every  country  village.  How 
can  we  expect  our  laborers  or  their  families  to 
be  healthy,  or  that  their  daughters,  from  whom 
%ve  are  to  take  our  future  female  domestics, 
should  be  cleanly,  modest,  or  even  decent,  in 
such  wretched  habitations  ?' 

The  last  writer  describes  an  economical  stair- 
case for  cottages,  in  which  every  step  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  half  of  it  being  just  double  the 
height  of  the  other  half.  In  ascending  his  stair 
tht  left  foot  is  set  on  the  left  step,  and  the  right 


foot  on  the  right,  alternately  to  the  top  of  the 
stair.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  as  the  steps  for 
the  right  and  for  the  left  foot  are  in  the  same 
line,  and  although  neither  foot  rises  each  time 
higher  than  seven  inches  and  a  half  above  the 
other,  yet  every  time  that  one  foot  is  moved,  it 
rises  fifteen  inches  higher  than  it  was  before.  In 
a  stair  of  this  kind,  if  each  tread  or  breadth  for 
the  foot  be  nine  inches,  and  each  rise  of  the  one 
foot  above  the  other  seven  inches  and  a  half,  as- 
each  foot  rises  the  height  of  two  steps,  or  fifteen 
inches,  every  time  it  is  moved,  it  is  plain  that 
six  steps  of  this  kind  will  rise  as  high  as  twelve 
in  the  common  way,  and  will  require  only  one 
half  the  size  of  a  hatch  or  opening  in  the  floor 
above,  that  would  be  required  for  those  twelve 
steps  as  usually  constructed.  This  will  be  of 
advantage,  where  much  is  required  to  be  made 
of  little  room,  and  will  of  course  give  more 
space  to  the  chambers  above. 

In  addition  to  our  better  farm-houses,  given 
under  the  article  FARM,  we  may  here  subjoin  the 
elegant  design  of  a  very  commodious  and  ample 
farmery  given  in  the  General  Report  of  the 
Agricultural  State  of  Scotland  : — The  dwelling- 
house  contains  two  parlours,  fig.  4  (a,  6);  kitchen 
(c);  dairy  (d);  pantry  (c);  dining  parlour  (/); 
bed-rooms  (g,  A);  cellars  (i).  The  farmery  con- 
sists of  cart-sheds  and  granary  over  (a);  riding 
horse  stable  (6)  ;  common  stable  (c ) ;  stalled  cat- 
tle (d) ;  places  for  tools  and  other  articles  of  the 
cattle  attendant  (e)  ;  entrance  from  the  spacious 
root  or  turnip  shed  (/);  straw  (g);  threshing- 
machine  and  water-wheel  (A);  granaries  and 
straw-lofts  over  (g,  /,  ni) ;  tools  and  sundries  (i) ; 
smith's  shop  (f),  and  carpenter  (&). 

2.  Of  farm  stables. — Stables  of  all  kinds  should 
be  situated  on  dry  hard  ground  ;  and,  if  possible, 
on  an  ascent,  for  the  sake  of  drainage :  the  win- 
dows or  some  openings  should  be  made  to  the 
north  or  east,  that  the  north  winds  may  be  let  in 
in  the  summer  to  cool  them,  and  the  rising  sun 
all  the  year  round.  Close  window-shutters  are 
always  a  valuable  addition. 

Farm  stables  should  of  course  be  contiguous 
to  those  other  offices  with  which  they  are  natu- 
rally connected.  Beatson  objects  to  the  mode  of 
making  the  racks  and  mangers  of  a  farm  stable 
run  quite'  across  the  upper  end  of  the  stall.  Ser- 
vants, he  observes,  in  order  to  save  trouble,  are 
very  apt  to  stuff  the  racks  full  of  hay,  however 
large  they  may  be,  from  which  many  bad  conse- 
quences arise,  and  much  hay  is  lost  or  destroyed 
by  being  pulled  down  and  mixed  with  the  litter. 
Besides,  various  bad  effects  result  from  the  prac- 
tice of  suffering  horses  to  be  continually  stuffing 
themselves  with  hay,  as  is  well  known  to  those 
who  are  accustomed  to  the  proper  management 
of  such  animals ;  as  under  their  directions  they 
are  never  permitted  to  have  much  hay  in  their 
racks  at  a  time.  Another  disadvantage  also  at- 
tends this  mode  of  fitting  up  stalls,  especially 
for  farm-houses,  as  it  ought  to  be  the  object  to 
preserve,  every  thing ;  the  hay-seeds  are  totally 
lost.  And,  by  the  practice  of  placing  the  racks 
with  so  much  inclination  outwards,  the  seeds  are 
also  very  apt  to  fall  into  the  horse's  ears  and 
eyes,  which  often  cause  disagreeable  effects. 
For  these  reasons  it  is  said  that  racks  should 

G2 


84 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE. 


have  a  perpendicular  direction,  not  having  a 
space  of  more  than  fourteen  or  sixteen  inches 
from  the  wall ;  the  bottom  being  sparred,  in 
order  to  let  the  seeds  fall  down  through  below, 
whence  they  may  be  removed  by  a  sort  of  sliding 
shutter.  These  advantages  may  also  be  neatly 
and  conveniently  obtained  by  leaving  niches  in 
the  walls  for  the  racks,  on  which  plan  the  spars 
will  be  equal  with  the  insides  of  the  walls. 
Where  the  niches  and  racks  are  made  in  the 
middle  of  the  stalls,  two  feet,  or  two  feet  and  a 
half  wide,  will  in  most  cases  be  sufficient ;  they 
should,  however,  be  carried  down  low  enough 
to  admit  of  a  small  box  or  drawer  being  placed 
under  them,  for  the  reception  of  the  hay-seeds. 
Racks  of  this  sort  may  likewise  be  placed  in  the 
corners  of  the  stalls,  and  be  made  in  such  a  way 
as  that  one  niche  may  serve  two  stalls.  And 
they  may  be  placed  in  the  angles  of  the  stalls 
without  having  any  niche,  and  may  be  made  of 
a  semicircular  form.  But,  in  whatever  way  they 
are  formed,  there  should  constantly  be  a  division 
betwixt  them,  which  is  probably  best  made  of 
deal.  Where  the  racks  are  put  in  the  corners  of 
the  stalls,  it  may  perhaps  be  more  advantageous 
to  have  them  straight  than  circular ;  but,  in  which- 
ever way  they  are  formed,  the  farmer  should 
always  have  a  hatch  fixed  for  each  stall,  as  by 
that  means  a  great  deal  of  time  may  be  saved  in 
feeding  his  horses.  If  the  above  methods  be 
adopted,  it  must  be  unnecessary  to  make  a 
manger  of  the  same  width  with  the  stall ;  as  a 
box  or  drawer,  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches  long, 
and  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  wide,  will  answer 
every  intention  perfectly  well.  But  it  should  be 
so  contrived  that  it  may  be  readily  taken  out 
and  cleaned  whenever  it  is  fouled,  or  becomes 
furred  with  dirt.  With  the  fixed  mangers  this 
can  never  be  done. 

There  is  another  method  of  making  stalls, 
which,  as  being  cheaper  and  more  economical, 
deserves  to  be  regarded  by  the  farmer :  on  this 
plan  the  stable  has  neither  racks  nor  mangers; 
the  head  of  the  stall  is  boarded  about  three  feet 
from  the  ground,  having  a  space  of  about  two 
feet  from  the  wall,  in  which  the  hay  is  to  be  de- 
posited, the  horse  pulling  his  hay  from  below, 
instead  of  drawing  it  from  above ;  which  is  not 
only  more  natural,  but  prevents  the  waste  of  hay, 
much  of  which  drops  down  and  is  lost  when  the 
horse  eats  from  a  rack.  But  even  in  this  con- 
struction it  will  be  necessary  to  have  the  bottom 
sparred  within  eight  or  ten  inches  of  the  ground, 
and  a  box,  hopper,  or  hay-manger  and  drawer, 
so  contrived  as  to  receive  the  seeds  of  the  hay  : 
where  there  are  double  stalls,  the  boxes  may  be 
divided  in  the  middle.  Single  stalls,  where  they 
can  be  conveniently  made,  should  however  al- 
ways he  preferred,  as  being  much  more  safe  and 
convenient  in  different  points  of  view,  both  for 
the  horses  and  persons  employed  about  them. 

The  paving  of  stables  is  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance, though  it  ha?  been  hitherto  but  little 
attended  to  :  and  whether  the  stall  should  have 
a  slight  declivity,  or  be  perfectly  level,  has  not 

rerliaps  yet  been  so  fully  considered  as  it  ought, 
t  would  appear  to  be  more  natural  and  easy  for 
these  animals  to  stand  and  rest  themselves  on  a 
level  surface,  than  on  one  that  is  sloping,  as  it  is 


evident  that  the  tendons  or  sinews  of  the  pastern 
joints  must  be  kept  more  upon  the  stretch  in  the 
latter  than  in  the  former  case.  The  main  diffi- 
culty in  regard  to  a  level  stall  has  been  the  con- 
veying away  of  the  moisture;  but  this  may  be 
effected  by  paving  the  stall  perfectly  level,  and 
leaving  a  small  drain  in  the  middle,  extending 
within  two  or  three  feet  of  the  upper  end  ;  but 
which  should  not  be  more  than  seven  or  eight 
inches  wide  at  top,  forming  an  angle  at  the  bot- 
tom. The  depth  at  the  end  nearest  the  head  of 
the  stall  need  not  be  more  thaji  three  or  four 
inches,  having  as  much  slope  as  can  be  con- 
veniently given  it  backwards,  in  order  that  it 
may  carry  the  moisture  off  quickly  to  the  main 
drain,  into  which  all  the  stall-drains  should  have 
a  fall,  and  the  moisture  be  discharged.  And  the 
small  stall-drains  must  also  be  covered  with  a 
piece  of  good  strong  oak-plank,  in  which  a  great 
number  of  holes  are  bored,  and  which  must  be 
so  fastened  as  to  admit  of  its  being  readily  raised 
up  and  let  down;  as  by  this  means  the  drains 
may  be  washed,  and  kept  clean  and  sweet,  as 
often  as  they  are  found  to  be  furred  up  and  ob- 
structed. Besides  these,  main  drains  must  be 
made  at  the  end  of  the  stalls,  or  in  some  other 
convenient  situation,  for  carrying  off  the  moisture 
into  the  general  receptacle.  Where  they  are 
placed  at  the  bottoms  of  the  stalls,  th*ey  should 
not  be  closer  to  the  stalls  than  two  feet,  in  order 
that  the  stale  of  mares  may  get  readily  into  them, 
which  would  not  be  the  case  if  they  were  nearer, 
unless  the  pavement  behind  the  stalls  was  made 
to  decline  a  little  towards  them.  These  main 
drains  need  not  be  more  than  seven  or  eight 
inches  wide  at  the  top ;  but  they  should  be 
covered  with  plank,  in  which  holes  are  perfo- 
rated for  conveying  away  the  moisture  and  wet- 
ness. But,  with  the  view  of  saving  the  expense 
of  making  main  drains  within  the  stable,  a  shal- 
low open  drain  may  be  made  in  the  common 
way,  with  which  the  stall  drains  may  communi- 
cate by  means  of  very  small  grates  at  the  ends. 
And  it  should  be  observed  that  the  pavements 
or  floors  of  the  stalls  should  have  a  very  slight 
declination  from  their  sides  towards  the  drains, 
to  prevent  moisture  standing  on  them  ;  an  inch, 
or  an  inch  and  a  half  in  the  whole,  will  however 
be  quite  sufficient  for  these  purposes. 

In  regard  to  the  sizes  of  stalls,  it  may  be 
noticed  that  they  differ  much  according  to  cir- 
cumstances ;  but  four  feet  and  a  half  in  width 
are  the  least  they  should  ever  be  made,  and  five 
feet  are  much  better.  The  divisions  between 
them  should  be  high,  so  that  strange  horses  may 
not  see  each  other.  But  where  stallions  are  kept, 
or  young  horses  required  to  be  left  loose  in  a 
stall,  they  should  be  so  enclosed  as  to  be  incapa- 
ble of  doing  mischief.  And,  for  these  purposes, 
one  or  more  stalls  may  be  sparred  to  the  top, 
or  doors  provided,  which  may  be  hung  to  the 
back  posts  of  the  stable.  Where  this  last  method 
is  followed,  the  stalls  serve  extremely  well  for 
keeping  different  mares  and  their  foals  separate 
from  others,  as  well  as  many  other  useful  pur- 
poses in  the  business  of  horse-management  with 
the  farmer. 

The  writer  of  the  East  Ix>thian  Agricultural 
Survey  has  remarked  that  sometimes  stalls  are 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE. 


85 


made  double ;  and,  as  farm-horses  generally  work 
in  pairs,  each  pair  that  work  together  have  one 
of  these  double  stalls ;  for  horses  are  social  ani- 
mals, and  it  is  said  they  feed  better,  and  are  more 
cheerful,  when  they  live  in  society.  But  even  in 
this  case  it  is  proper  they  should  be  fastened  to 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  stall,  and  that  each 
horse  should  have  his  own  rack  and  his  own 
manger ;  for,  although  they  may  seem  to  have  a 
very  great  attachment  to  each  other,  yet,  if  the 
dividing  of  their  food  is  left  to  themselves,  it  is 
more  than  probable  they  will  quarrel  about  it, 
and  that  the  strongest  horse  will  have  the  best 
share.  But  such  farm-stables  as  contain  only  one 
row  of  stalls,  with  one  horse  in  each  stall,  are, 
on  the  whole,  the  most  useful  and  convenient ; 
and  if  the  stalls  are  sufficiently  large,  and  the 
divisions  between  them  raised  sufficiently  high, 
not  wilh  spars,  as  often  is  the  case,  but  with 
boards  closely  joined,  each  horse  will  be  allowed 
to  eat  his  proportion  of  corn  and  hay  equally, 
and  allowed  to  take  the  necessary  rest,  without 
danger  of  being  disturbed  by  a  troublesome 
neighbour.  The  stable  ought  to  be  well  paved, 
and  of  a  sufficient  breadth  to  leave  a  space  of  at 
least  six  or  seven  feet  behind  each  horse,  for  a 
safe  passage  to  the  servants  in  hanging  the  harness 
upon  the  wall,  &c.  The  pavement  should  de- 
cline very  gradually  from  the  horse's  head  back- 
wards, towards  the  channel  at  his  heels,  which 
should  also  decline,  in  the  same  gradual  manner, 
towards  one  end  of  the  stable,  where  the  urine 
may  be  received  into  a  reservoir.  Proper  open- 
ings should  also  be  left  in  the  walls,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ventilation ;  these  should  be  fitted  with 
sliding  or  flap-boards,  opened  in  the  morning, 
when  the  horses  go  out  to  work,  and  shut  in  the 
evening  :  in  this  way  the  stables  will  be  properly 
ventilated  ;  and  every  risk  of  cold,  from  having 
these  openings  uncovered  during  the  night,  be 
avoided. 

In  some  cases  the  racks  are  fixed  about  four- 
teen inches  from  the  walls,  with  but  very  little, 
if  any,  slant ;  having  their  bottom  parts  laid  with 
small  spars,  or  thin  narrow  pieces  of  wood,  in  an 
open  manner,  so  that  the  hay  seeds  can  fall  down 
through  between  them,  and  be  received  in  a 
drawer  or  box,  made  for  the  purpose  below, 
where  they  are  capable  of  being  drawn  or  taken 
out  at  pleasure.  A  small  box,  or  trough,  is 
placed  in  some  convenient  part,  answering  the 
purpose  of  a  manger,  and  which  is  sometimes 
made  as  a  drawer,  to  put  in  and  draw  out  as 
there  may  be  occasion.  The  divisions  of  the 
stalls  sometimes  rise  pretty  high  at  the  head 
parts  in  the  ordinary  way  ;  and,  at  other  times, 
in  a  curving  manner  at  the  upper  ends,  from  the 
tail-posts  to  nearly  the  ceilings  of  the  stables ; 
and  flap-doors,  the  height  of  the  lower  parts  of 
the  divisions,  are  sometimes  fastened  with  hinges 
to  posts,  or  the  walls  behind  the  horses.  In 
other  instances,  the  racks  are  placed  in  half-cir- 
cular niches  or  recesses  in  the  walls  of  the 
stables,  opposite  the  divisions  of  the  stalls  ;  each 
niche  being  made  to  serve  two  stalls,  by  having 
a  division  in  the  middle  betwixt  them  ;  and  the 
racks  themselves  are  sometimes  made  in  half- 
circular  forms.  The  same  kind  of  half-circular 
racks  are  occasionally  also  put  in  the  angles  or 
corners  of  the  stalls,  without  any  niches;  there 


being  divisions  between  them,  so  as  that  they 
may  serve  two  stalls :  but  the  racks,  in  these 
cases,  have  not  always  the  half-circular  form,  but 
are  made  and  fixed  up  in  a  straight  manner.  In 
all  these  cases,  small  drawers  or  boxes  serve  as 
mangers,  for  the  horses  to  eat  their  provender 
out  of,  as  may  be  necessary. 

There  is  sometimes  a  hopper  sort  of  contriv- 
ance in  stables,  where  neither  racks  nor  mangers 
are  employed,  which  is  broad  at  the  top,  and  has 
about  fourteen  inches  width  in  the  bottom  part ; 
being  sparred,  in  order  that  the  seeds  may  drop 
through  into  a  drawer  made  for  the  purpose  be- 
low. In  each  corner  there  is  a  small  box  for 
corn,  which  serves  as  a  manger ;  the  hopper 
part  being  divided  in  the  middle,  so  as  to  serve 
two  stalls  as  hay-mangers.  This  is  a  neat  and 
convenient  mode  in  some  cases,  though  rather 
expensive  in  making  and  putting  up.  There  are 
still  other  contrivances  in  fitting  up  racks  and 
stalls  for  preventing  the  unnecessary  waste  of 
labor  and  food,  as  well  as  to  guard  against  the 
inconvenience  of  hay  seeds  falling  into  the  eyes 
and  ears  of  horses,  which  have  been  suggested 
by  experienced  farmers  in  other  countries.  In 
one  set  of  contrivances,  in  this  intention,  the 
racks  are  placed  in  an  upright  manner,  and  the 
perpendiculars  of  them  are  made  to  fall  on  the 
inner  edges  of  the  troughs  below,  which  have 
shelving  leaves.  In  these  cases,  when  the  ani- 
mals pull  out  the  hay  from  the  racks,  the  waste 
parts  fall  on  the  leaves,  and  thus  slide  down  into 
the  troughs,  where  they  are  secured  from  bdng 
spoiled  by  the  breath  of  the  horses  ;  while  the 
distance  between  the  bottoms  of  the  racks  and 
the  troughs  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  admission 
of  the  heads  of  the  horses,  so  as  that  they  may 
get  at  the  hay  which  is  dropped.  The  racks,  in 
these  cases,  are  two  feet  four  inches  in  depth, 
and  two  feet  at  top  from  the  edge  parts  of  them ; 
being  planed  within,  in  order  that  the  hay  may 
fall  to  the  bottoms  of  the  racks  gradually,  in 
proportion  as  it  diminishes  in  quantity,  and  the 
animals  he  saved  the  trouble  of  a  long  reach, 
which  they  are  often  obliged  to  make  in  the 
stables  which  are  fitted  up  in  the  old  usual  man- 
ner. The  animals  are  fed  and  supplied  with 
the  fodder  from  the  entry,  which  is  six  feet  in 
width ;  the  hay  being  dropped  through  a  trap- 
door from  the  store-room  above  the  stable.  This 
plan  is  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  West,  an  intelli- 
gent North  American  farmer.  Another  plan  of 
this  kind  has  been  proposed  by  Mr.  Cooper  of 
the  United  States,  in  which  the  racks  of  the  stalls 
of  the  stables  have  a  somewhat  different  construc- 
tion and  position,  being  formed  with  what  are 
called  flats,  or  thin  strips  or  pieces  of  wood.  In 
these  the  advantages  are  supposed  to  be  very 
great,  as  the  upright  flats  prevent  the  horses  from 
wasting  the  hay,  as  well  as  from  blowing  upon 
it ;  and,  besides,  the  animals  are  prevented  from 
looking  round,  a  habit  to  which  horses  are  much 
accustomed  when  any  person  enters  the  stable ; 
neither  can  they  thrust  their  heads  over  the 
troughs,  as  the  flats  compel  them  to  feed  directly 
over  them,  without  turning  to  either  side.  This 
mode  of  fitting  up  the  stalls  of  stables  may  be 
found  of  much  utility,  in  different  situations  and 
circumstances,  in  the  management  of  both  sad- 
dle, farm,  and  team-horses.  At  Holkham  Mr 


86 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE. 


Coke  has  his  mangers  themselves,  it  is  said  by 
the  writer  of  the  corrected  agricultural  account 
of  that  district,  plated  with  sheet-iron ;  and  the 
front  edges,  which  are  rollers,  covered  with  tin- 
plates.  The  bottoms  of  the  stall  divisions  are 
made  of  slate.  It  has  also  been  found  that  for 
stables,  as  well  as  all  other  offices,  those  locks 
which  have  copper  wards  are  the  best,  as -being 
much  more  durable  than  any  other  kinds. 

Stable  lofts  for  saddle  as  well  as  for  farm, 
team,  and  carriage-horses,  are  also  fitted  up  with 
different  sorts  of  machinery  and  contrivances  for 
preparing  and  reducing  the  different  articles  of 
food,  which  such  horses  arc  to  have,  into  the 
most  proper,  and  economical  forms.  These  are, 
for  the  most  part,  straw  or  chaff-cutters,  bean, 
barley,  or  malt-crackers,  and  oat-crushing  and 
bruising  machines.  Such  contrivances  are  often 
of  very  great  utility  and  convenience,  when  pro- 
perly managed,  and  put  up  in  such  stable  build- 
ings, or  the  rooms  connected  with  them  ;  and 
particularly  where  other  more  valuable  uses  are 
to  be  made  of  straw,  pea  and  bean-haum,  and 
other  similar  materials,  than  that  of  merely  lit- 
tering animals.  They  are  likewise  useful  in  sav- 
ing much  labor,  by  their  being  always  ready  and 
at  hand. 

A  lofty  stable  is  recommended  by  White 
(Treatise  on  Veter.  Med.  p.  1),  fifteen  or  twenty 
but  never  less  than  twelve  feet  high,  with  an 
opening  in  the  ceiling  for  ventilation.  The 
floor  he  prefers  is  brick  or  limestone,  inclining 
not  more  from  the  manger  to  the  gutter  than  an 
inch  in  a  yard.  Some  litter,  he  says,  should 
always  be  allowed  for  a  horse  to  stale  upon, 
which  should  be  swept  away  as  often  as  is 
necessary.  This,  with  a  pail  or  two  of  water, 
thrown  upon  the  floor,  and  swept  off  while  the 
horse  is  at  exercise,  will  keep  the  stable  per- 
fectly clean,  and  free  from  offensive  smells.  The 
depth  of  a  stable  should  never  be  less  than 
twenty  feet,  nor  the  height  less  than  twelve.  The 
width  of  a  stall  should  not  be  less  than  six  feet 
clear.  But,  when  there  is  sufficient  room,  it  is  a 
much  better  plan  to  allow  each  horse  a  space  of 
ten  or  twelve  feet,  where  he  may  be  loose  and 
exercise  himself  a  little.  This  will  be  an  effec- 
tual means  of  avoiding  swollen  heels,  and  a 
great  relief  to  horses  that  are  worked  hard. 
With  respect  to  the  rack  and  manger,  White 
prefers  the  former  on  the  ground  rising  three 
feet  high,  eighteen  inches  deep  from  front  to 
back,  and  four  feet  long.  The  manger,  eighteen 
inches  deep,  eighteen  inches  from  front  to  back, 
and  five  feet  in  length.  The  rack  he  prefers 
being  closed  in  front.  '  Farm  stables  in  Scot- 
land,' says  the  editor  of  The  Farmer's  Maga- 
zine, '  are  constructed  in  such  a  manner  that  all 
the  horses  stand  in  a  line,  with  their  heads  to- 
wards the  same  side  wall,  instead  of  standing  in 
two  lines,  fronting  opposite  walls,  as  formerly. 
Those  lately  erected  are  at  least  sixteen  feet  wide 
within  walls,  and  sometimes  eighteen,  and  the 
width  of  each  stall  upon  the  length  of  the  stable 
is  commonly  five  feet.  To  save  a  little  room, 
>;t:ills  of  nine  feet  are  sometimes  made  to  hold 
two  horses,  and,  in  that  case,  the  manner  and  the 
wjrlth  of  the  stall  are  divided  into  equal  purls 
l<v  \\hat  is  called  a  half  trevice,  or  a  part. (ion 
about  halC  the  depth  of  that  which  ^oj-arairs  one 


stall  from  another.  By  this  contrivance,  each 
horse  indeed  eats  his  food  by  himself;  but  the 
expense  of  single  stalls  is  more  than  compen- 
sated by  the  greater  ease,  security,  and  comfort 
of  the  horses. 

It  may  be  of  importance  to  observe  here  that 
stables  should  be  better  lighted  than  is  com- 
monly the  case,  as  the  blindness  which  is  so  fre- 
quently met  with  among  horses  has  really  been 
attributed,  and  not  without  probability,  to  an 
excess  of  the  stimulus  of  light  on  their  coming 
out  of  dark  or  dusky  stables.  Another  practical 
hint. 

Farm-stables  are  mostly,  during  -the  summer 
months,  much  exposed  to  the  open  air,  the 
doors,  wickets,  or  windows  of  them  being  very 
seldom  shut,  except  at  night,  and  then  but  rarely; 
the  consequence  is,  that  flies,  which  are  attracted 
by  the  horse-dung  and  other  similar  matters,  have 
very  free  access;  but  as  it  may  commonly  be 
observed  that  in  such  exposed  stables,  too,  the 
spider  is  very  prevalent,  as  is  seen  by  the  num- 
ber of  cobwebs,  it  may,  of  course,  be  unwise. 
and  improper  to  disturb  or  destroy  them,  and 
the  insect  should  probably  be  cherished  in  such 
stables,  as  it  may  save  the  horse  from  the  irrita- 
tion of  a  variety  of  troublesome  enemies  and 
disturbers.  It  has  been  observed  by  Mr.  Van- 
couver, that,  except  in  Ireland,  where  the  metho'1 
of  treating  farm-horses  is  extremely  bad  irul.ed, 
those  in  the  county  of  Devon  have  perhaps  as 
hard  measure  dealt  out  to  them  as  is  any  \\licn- 
to  be  met  with  in  the  United  Kingdom.  1  roi:i 
the  injudicious  manner  in  which  they  receive  i!,,- 
corn,  that  is  occasionally  given  them,  it  is  sup- 
posed, in  some  measure,  a  questionable  poii't, 
whether  it  affords  them  a  benefit,  or,  by  diu -:t- 
ing  their  appetites  from  the  hay,  pea-hauni,  or 
other  sorts  of  straw,  absolutely  produces  an  in- 
jury and  disadvantage,  in  consequence  oi 
avidity  with  which  they  swallow  the  corn  in  an 
unmasticated  or  unchewed  state.  In  order  to 
rectify  and  remedy  such  improper  mode- 
management  in  the  stable,  and  other  treatment  i<f 
farm  and  heavy  team-horses,  a  better  and  more 
desirable  example,  .it  is  thought,  can  no  \\ 
be  found  than  that  which  may  be  drawn  from 
the  management  of  farm  and  waggon-horses  in 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  These  horses,  it 
is  said,  perform  journeys  of  200  and  300  mile-; 
over  the  stupendous  mountains  of  that  country, 
with  prodigious  loads  of  wheat  and  flour  from 
the  interior,  and  wet  and  dry  goods  from  the 
sea-ports  to  the  different  points  of  embarkation, 
at  1  ort  Pitt,  Red-stone,  Charlestown,  Wheeling, 
and  other  places  on  the  Ohio  River.  Notwith- 
standing which,  these  waggon-horses,  through 
the  whole  extent  of  that  country,  are,  it  is  as- 
serted, seldom  seen  in  a  less  high  condition  than 
the  brewers'  and  other  large  cart-horses  in  the 
metropolis  of  this  country.  The  manner  in 
which  these  American  horses  are  sustained  and 
supported,  so  as  to  perform  these  labors,  is,  it  is 
said,  generally  by  feeding  them,  in  the  stables 
and  on  the  roads,  with  hay  and  straw  chopped 
in  short  pieces  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  \\  ith 
which  is  mixed  about  half  a  peck  of  rye,  oat,  and 
Indian  corn-meal,  to  about  two  and  a  half  or 
three  pecks  of  hay  c!i<>|>ped  in  the  same  manner. 
Imu-trough,  sufficiently  large  for  four  or 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE. 


87 


five  horses  to  eat  out  of  at  the  same  time,  is  at- 
tached to  each  waggon,  it  is  said,  while  on  the 
road.  The  chaff  is  put  into  this  trough,  and, 
after  being  well  mixed  with  the  given  quantity 
of  meal,  is  moistened,  and  again  well  stirred 
together,  until  every  shred  or  part  of  the  hay  or 
chopped  straw  is  found  to  be  covered,  or,  as  it 
were,  frosted  over  by  the  meal.  The  avidity 
with  which  the  horses  eat  their  meat,  or  proven- 
der, when  thus  prepared,  may,  it  is  supposed, 
be  readily  conceived.  Their  feed  or  meal  being 
finished,  they  either  pursue  their  journey  or  lie 
down  to  rest :  but  in  either  case,  it  is  observed, 
not  without  being  well  dressed,  and  perfectly 
freed  and  cleansed  from  the  muddy  and  other 
effects  of  their  last  labor.  It  is  the  pride  and 
pleasure,  it  is  said,  of  the  carters,  as  well  as  of 
the  waggon  masters  in  that  country,  to  see  their 
horses  in  a  condition  above  rather  than  under 
the  labor  which  they  have  to  perform;  and  in 
100  miles  travelling,  from  Baltimore  to  Philadel- 
phia, it  is  confidently  asserted  that  as  many 
prime  waggon-horses,  and  in  as  high  condition, 
may  be  seen,  as  is  the  case  in  any  direction  for 
the  same  distance  from  the  chief  city  of  this 
country. 

What  are  called  korse-hanimeh,  or  sheds,  with 
distinct  yards,  have  been  used  as  stables  with  great 
success  in  Berwickshire.  Each  shed  holds  two 
horses,  with  a  nitch  for  harness ;  to  each  there  is 
an  open  straw  yard,  of  small  size,  with  a  water 
trough,  and  a  gate  large  enough  to  admit  a  cart 
to  take  out  the  dung.  Mr.  Herriot,  of  Lady- 
kirk,  has  long  used  these  buildings,  and  has  lost 
no  horse  by  death  for  a  number  of  years.  His 
horses  lie  in  these  open  hammels  in  winter ;  and 
it  is  remarked  that  in  frosty  weather,  when  snow 
is  falling,  and  lying  on  the  ground,  the  animals 
do  not  go  under  cover,  but  prefer  to  lie  out,  with 
their  backs  and  sides  covered  with  snow.  It  is 
known  that,  if  a  horse  is  kept  out  in  winter,  he 
will  have  no  grease,  nor  swelled  legs,  and  perhaps 
few  other  diseases.  Every  farmer  who  keeps  a 
large  stock  of  horses,  occasionally  loses  one  by 
inflammation,  brought  on  by  coughs  and  colds ; 
but  the  horses  of  the  farmer  alluded  to  become 
aged,  and  he  has  not  had  occasion  to  purchase  a 
young  horse  for  several  years.' — (Husb.  of  Scot. 
i.  26.) 

3.  Of  buildings  for  live  stock. — The  cattle- 
shed  is  used  both  for  lodging  milch  cows,  and 
feeding  cattle  for  the  butcher.  The  principal 
requisites  are,  that  they  can  be  readily  and  well 
aired,  and  that  they  are  so  constructed  as  to  save 
labor  in  feeding  and  cleaning  the  cattle.  There 
are  three  ways  in  which  cattle  are  placed  in 
them  ;  first,  in  a  row  towards  one  of  the  walls  ; 
secondly,  in  two  rows,  either  fronting  each  other, 
with  a  passage  between,  or  with  the  heads  to 
each  wall ;  or  thirdly,  across  the  building  in  suc- 
cessive rows.  It  is  common  to  have  an  opening 
in  the  walls,  through  which  turnips  are  supplied ; 
but  the  plan  most  approved,  and  now  becoming 
general,  is  to  fix  the  stakes  to  which  the  cattle 
are  tied  about  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  from 
the  wall,  which  allows  the  cattle-man,  without 
going  among  them,  to  fill  the  troughs  successively 
from  his  wheelbarrow  or  basket.  It  is  also  an 
improvement  to  keep  the  cattle  separate,  by  par- 


titions at  least  between  every  two.  The  width 
of  such  stalls  should  not  be  less  than  seven  feet 
and  a  half. 

Cattle  hammels  have  also  been  adopted  in 
Berwickshire.  Two  cattle  are  here  usually  kept 
together,  and  go  loose,  in  which  way  they  are 
thought  by  some  to  thrive  better  than  when  tied 
to  a  stake,  and,  at  the  same  time,  feed  more  at 
their  ease  than  when  a  number  are  kept  together. 
All  that  is  necessary  is,  to  run  partition  walls 
across  the  sheds  and  yards  of  the  farmers ;  or,  if 
these  are  allotted  to  rearing  stock,  one  side  of 
the  square,  separated  by  a  cart-way  from  the 
straw-yards,  may  be  appropriated  to  the  ham- 
mels. In  the  usual  management  of  a  row  of 
hammels,  in  Berwickshire,  there  is  one  hammel 
at  one  end  used  as  a  temporary  repository  for 
roots  and  straw  for  the  cattle ;  then  each  hammel 
consists  of  the  open  yard,  and  the  covered  part ; 
the  entrance  door,  of  which  there  is  only  one  to 
each  hammel,  is  in  the  wall  of  the  yard,  and  on 
each  side  of  it  are  two  troughs  for  food,  and  a 
crib  for  hay,  straw,  cut  clover,  or  other  herbage 
in  summer. 

Calf-pens,  or  stages,  are  common  additions  to 
cow-houses.  The  floor  should  be  made  of  laths 
or  spars  about  two  inches  broad,  laid  at  the  dis- 
tance of  an  inch  from  each  other,  upon  joists,  so 
as  to  make  it  about  ten  or  twelve  inches  from 
the  ground :  and  the  place  below  should  be  often 
cleaned.  This  is  the  principal  suggestion  we 
have  to  offer :  but  a  slight  partition  of  about 
three  feet  high  between  the  calves,  and  a  rack 
for  the  hay,  are  also  improvements. 

The  calf-pens  of  Gloucestershire,  as  described 
by  Marshal,  are  of  admirable  construction.  A 
pen  which  holds  seven,  or  occasionally  eight 
calves,  is  of  the  following  description : — The 
house  or  roomstead,  in  which  it  is  placed,  mea- 
sures twelve  feet  by  eight :  four  feet  of  its  width 
are  occupied  by  the  stage,  and  one  foot  by  a 
trough  placed  on  its  front ;  leaving  three  feet  as 
a  gangway,  into  the  middle  of  which  the  door 
opens.  The  floor  of  the  stage  is  formed  of  laths, 
about  two  inches  square,  lying  lengthways  of  the 
stage,  and  one  inch  asunder.  The  front  fence  is 
of  staves,  an  inch  and  a  half  diameter,  nine 
inches  from  middle  to  middle,  and  three  feet 
high :  entered  at  the  bottom  into  the  front  bearer 
of  the  floor  (from  which  cross-joists  pass  into 
the  back  wall),  and  steadied  at  the  top  by  a  rail ; 
which,  as  well  as  the  bottom  piece,  is  entered  at 
each  end  into  the  end  wall.  The  holes  in  the  upper 
rail  are  wide  enough  to  permit  the  staves  to  be 
lifted  up  and  taken  out,  to  give  admission  to  the 
calves  ;  one  of  which  is  fastened  to  every  second 
stave,  by  means  of  two  rings  of  iron  joined  by 
a  swivel ;  one  ring  playing  upon  the  stave,  the 
other  receiving  a  broad  leathern  collar,  buckled 
round  the  neck  of  the  calf.  The  trough  is  for 
barley-meal,  chalk,  &c.,  and  to  rest  the  pails  on. 
Two  calves  drink  out  of  one  pail,  putting  their 
heads  through  between  the  staves.  The  heigh.: 
of  the  floor  of  the  stage  from  the  floor  of  the 
room  is  about  one  foot.  It  is  thought  to  be 
wrong  to  hang  it  higher,  lest,  by  the  wind  draw- 
ing under  it,  the  calves  should  be  too  cold  in 
severe  weather :  this,  however,  might  be  easily 
prevented  by  litter,  or  long  strawy  dung  thrust 


88 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE. 


beneath  it.  It  is  observable  that-  these  stages 
are  fit  only  for  calves  which  are  fed  with  the  pail, 
not  for  calves  which  suck  the  cow. 

Hog-styes  are  generally  constructed  with 
shed-roofs,  about  six  or  seven  feet  wide,  with 
height  in  proportion.  They  should  be  at  no 
great  distance  from  the  house ;  while  the  less 
they  arc  connected  with  the  other  buildings  of  the 
farm  the  better.  Swine,  it  seems,  though  gene- 
rally considered  as  filthy  animals,  delight  in  a 
clean  and  comfortable  place  to  lie  down  in,  and 
cleanliness  has  a  better  effect  upon  no  animal, 
with  respect  to  their  thriving,  lu  order  to  keep 
them  dry,  a  sufficient  slope  must  be  given,  not 
only  to  the  inside  places  but  to  the  outside 
areas;  these  should  be  a  little  elevated,  having 
steps  up  from  them  of  at  least  five  or  six  inches. 
Hog-styes  should  likewise  have  divisions,  to 
keep  the  different  sorts  of  swine  separate;  nor 
should  many  ever  be  allowed  to  be  together. 

According  to  Marshal,  every  pig  should  have 
a  rubbing-post.  '  Having  occasion,' says  he, 'to 
shift  two  hogs  out  of  a  sty  without  one,  into 
another  with  a  post,  accidentally  put  up  to  sup- 
port the  roof,  he  had  a  full  opportunity  of  ob- 
serving its  use.  The  animals,  when  they  went 
in,  were  dirty,  with  broken  ragged  coats,  and 
with  dull  heavy  countenances.  In  a  few  days 
they  cleared  away  their  coats,  cleaned  their 
skins,  and  became  sleeky  haired.'  They  enjoyed 
their  post  like  a  placeman.  It  was  discernible 
in  their  looks,  in  their  liveliness,  and  apparent 
contentment.  It  is  not  probable  that  any  animal 
should  thrive  while  afflicted  with  pain  or  un- 
easiness. Graziers  suffer  single  trees  to  grow,  or 
put  up  dead  posts  in  the  ground,  for  their  cattle 
to  rub  themselves  against ;  yet  it  is  probable  that 
a  rubbing-post  has  never  been  placed  intention- 
ally in  a  sty ;  though,  perhaps,  for  a  two-fold 
reason,  rubbing  is  most  requisite  to  swine. 

'  In  farm-yards,'  says  Mr.  Loudon,  '  the  pig- 
geries and  poultry-houses  generally  occupy  the 
south  side  of  the  area,  in  low  buildings,  which  may 
be  overlooked  from  the  farmer's  dwelling-house. 
They  should  open  behind  into  the  straw-yards  or 
dungheap,  to  allow  the  hogs  and  fowls  to  pick 
up  the  corn  left  on  the  straw,  or  what  turnips, 
clover,  or  other  matters  are  refused  by  the  cat- 
tle. They  should  have  openings  outwards,  that 
the  pigs  may  be  let  out  to  range  round  the 
farmery  at  convenient  times  ;  and  that  the  poul- 
try may  have  ingress  and  egress  from  that  side 
as  well  as  the  other.' 

Beatson  (Com.  to  the  Board  of  Ag.  vol.  i.),  is 
of  opinion  that  poultry  ought  always  to  be  con- 
fined, but  not  in  a  close,  dark,  diminutive  hovel, 
as  is  often  the  case  ;  they  should  have  a  spaci- 
ous airy  place,  properly  constructed  for  them. 
Some  people  are  of  opinion  that  each  sort 
should  be  kept  by  itself.  This,  however,  is  not, 
he  thinks,  necessary ;  for  all  sorts  may  be  kept 
promiscuously  together,  provided  they  have  a 
place  sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  them, 
and  proper  divisions  and  nests  for  each  kind  to 
retire  to  separately,  which  they  will  naturally  do. 
Wakefield  of  Liverpool  keeps  a  large  stock  of 
turkeys,  geese,  hens,  and  ducks,  all  in  the  same 
place  :  and,  although  young  turkeys  are  in  gene- 
.-al  considered  so  difficult  to  bring  up,  he  rears 


great  numbers  in  this  manner  every  season.  For 
this  purpose  he  has  about  three-quarters,  or  nearly 
a  whole  acre,  enclosed  with  a  fence  only  six  or 
seven  feet  high,  formed  of  slabs  set  on  end,  or 
any  thinnings  of  fir  or  other  trees  split  and  put 
close  together.  They  are  fastened  by  a  rail  near 
the  top  and  another  near  the  bottom,  and  are 
pointed  sharp,  which  he  supposes  prevents  the 
poultry  flying  over,  for  they  never  attempt  it, 
although  so  low.  Within  this  fence  are  places 
done  up  slightly  (but  well  secured  from  wet)  for 
each  sort  of  poultry-;  also  a  pond  or  stream  of 
water  running  through  it.  These  poultry  are  fed 
almost  entirely  with  potatoes  boiled  in  steam, 
and  thrive  astonishingly  well.  The  quantity  of 
dung  that  is  made  in  this  poultry  place  is  also 
an  object  worth  attention  :  and,  when  it  is  cleaned 
out,  a  thin  paring  of  the  surface  is  at  the  same 
time  taken  off,  which  makes  a  valuable  compost, 
for  the  purpose  of  manure.  But,  for  keeping 
poultry  upon  a  small  scale,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  have  a  small  shed  or  slight  building,  formed 
in  some  warm  sheltered  sunny  situation  :  if  near 
"the  kitchen  or  other  place  where  a  constant  fire 
is  kept  so  much  the  better,  with  proper  divisions, 
boxes,  baskets,  or  other  contrivances  for  the 
different  sorts  of  birds,  and  for  their  laying  and 
incubation. 

1  The  poultry-house  should,'  says  Young, '  con- 
tain an  apartment  for  the  general  stock  to  roost 
in,  another  for  setting,  a  third  for  fattening,  and 
a  fourth  for  food.  If  the  scale  is  large,  there 
should  be  a  fifth  for  plucking  and  keeping  fea- 
thers. If  a  woman  is  kept  purposely  to  attend 
them,  she  should  have  her  cottage  contiguous, 
that  the  smoke  of  her  chimney  may  play  into 
the  roosting  and  setting  rooms  :  poultry  never 
thriving  so  well  as  in  warmth  and  smoke ;  an 
observation  as  old  as  Columella,  and  strongly 
confirmed  by  the  quantity  bred  in  the  smoky 
cabins  of  Ireland.  For  setting  both  turkeys  and 
hens,  nests  should  be  made  in  lockers,  that  have 
lids  with  hinges,  to  confine  them,  if  necessary, 
or  two  or  three  will,  he  says,  in  sitting,  crowd 
into  the  same  nest.  All  must  have  access  to  a 
gravelled  yard,  and  to  grass  for  range,  and  the 
building  should  be  near  the  farm-yard,  and  have 
clear  water  near.  Great  attention  should  be 
paid  to  cleanliness  and  whitewashing,  not  for  ap- 
pearance, but  to  destroy  vermin.'  Loudon  re- 
commends for  the  interior  a  sloping  stage  of 
spars  for  the  poultry  to  sit  on ;  '  beneath  this 
stage  may  be  two  ranges  of  boxes  for  nests ;  the 
roof  should  have  a  ceiling  to  keep  the  whole 
warm  in  winter,  and  the  door  should  be  nearly 
as  high  as  the  ceiling  for  ventilation,  and  should 
have  a  small  opening  with  a  shutter  at  bottom, 
which,  where  there  is  no  danger  from  dogs  or 
foxes,  may  be  left  open  at  all  times  to  admit  of 
the  poultry  going  in  and  out.  The  spars  on 
which  the  clawed  birds  are  to  roost  should  not 
be  round  and  smooth,  but  roundish  and  roughish, 
like  the  branch  of  a  tree.  The  floor  must  be 
dry,  and  kept  clean  for  the  web-footed  kinds.' 

4.  Of  the  barn. — Barns  should,  if  possible, 
be  placed  on  a  declivity  ;  and,  according  to  the 
recommendation  of  the  Annals  of  Agriculture, 
vol.  xvi.,  should  be  underpinned  with  brick  or 
stone  ;  the  roof  covered  with  reed  or  straw  ;  and 


\'U1.  lil  I'AC.KW). 


KT  KM,   AUi'll  [TE<TTID  K  K 


RURAL    ARCHITECTURE. 


89 


those  of  adjoining  stables  (if  any),  with  slate. 
At  each  end  of  the  barn,  and  over  the  back  door, 
small  doors,  four  feet  square,  should  be  fixed  at 
the  height  of  twelve  feet  from  the  ground ;  the 
two  former  for  putting  corn  in  at  the  ends,  and 
the  latter  for  filling  the  middle  of  the  barn  after 
the  bays  are  full.  All  the  bays  should  have  a 
floor  of  clay  or  marie,  and  the  threshing-floor  be 
made  with  hard  bricks,  which  will  be  sufficient 
for  all  sorts  of  grain  except  wheat  and  rye ;  and 
for  threshing  them  it  will  be  good  economy  to 
have  planks  of  oak  or  red  deal  well  fitted  toge- 
ther and  numbered,  to  be  laid  down  occasionally 
and  confined  by  a  frame.  A  barn  built  on  such 
a  plan  would  hold  a  great  deal  of  corn  and  be 
filled  most  conveniently  ;  and,  if  the  stacks  were 
built  at  each  end,  they  might  be  taken  in  without 
any  carting.  If  more  buildings  are  requisite, 
two  may  be  added  on  the  back  side  like  the  sta- 
bles in  front ;  otherwise  if  doors  are  made  under 
the  eaves  on  the  back  side,  as  directed  at  the 
ends,  and  stacks  be  placed  opposite  to  them  just 
far  enough  to  avoid  the  eaves  dropping,  by  plac- 
ing a  waggon  between  them  and  the  barn  by  way 
of  a  stage,  these  stacks  may  be  taken  in  without 
carting ;  which  method  spares  a  great  waste  of 
corn  and  much  trouble.  The  spars  of  the  roofs 
of  the  stables  rest  upon  the  upper  cills  of  the 
sides  of  the  barn,  and  the  outside  wall  of  the 
stables  is  eight  feet  high ;  the  barn  supplying  the 
highest  side  and  one  end  of  each  stable,  and  the 
stables  in  return  are  buttresses  to  the  barn.  An 
elevated  barn  floor  is  both  more  durable,  and 
less  subject  to  vermin ;  the  grain  is  kept  more 
dry  and  sweet  than  on  a  ground  floor,  and  cannot 
slip  through  it  without  discovery.  When  built 
in  this  way,  barns  should  have  a  southern  aspect, 
the  arches  of  the  cattle-stalls  facing  that  way. 
Mr.  Marshal,  in  the  Rural  Economy  of  York- 
shire, speaks  highly  of  the  advantages  of  barns 
formed  in  this  manner. 

In  respect  to  the  size  of  barns,  the  same  writer 
observes,  that  in  Gloucestershire  fifty-two  by 
twenty  feet  in  the  clear,  and  from  sixteen  to 
twenty  feet  in  height  to  the  plate,  is  considered 
a  good  barn  ;  these  dimensions  admitting  of  four 
bays  of  ten  feet  each,  with  a  floor  in  the  middle. 
The  advantage  of  having  buildings  of  this  sort 
conveniently  situated  is  extremely  great,  both  in 
regard  to  the  feeding  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs, 
and  likewise  in  the  economy  of  labor  and  fodder. 

The  invention  of  threshing  machines  has  of 
late  varied  the  construction  of  barns,  as  where 
they  are  made  use  of  they  should  be  contrived 
chiefly  with  a  view  to  the  working  of  them  :  the 
machines  being  built  in  the  centre,  with  the  grain 
stacks  adjoining  them,  in  such  a  manner  as  that 
they  may  be  supplied  without  the  assistance  of 
carts  or  horses.  The  barns  in  these  cases  need 
not  be  so  large,  but  they  should  have  granaries 
provided  in  them,  which  may  probably  be  most 
conveniently  placed  over  the  floors.  In  most 
old  barns,  threshing  machines  may  be  erected 
without  much  inconvenience  ;  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  superiority  of  stacking  grain  in  the  open 
air  has  been  fully  shown,  and  of  course  the  ne- 
cessity of  large  barns  in  a  great  measure  done 
away,  many  agricultors  are  still  attached  to  the 
method  of  housing  corn  in  the  straw. 


The  hay-barn  is  generally  constructed  of  tim- 
ber, and  open  on  the  south  or  east,  or  even  on 
all  sides.  In  Middlesex  there  are  many  hay- 
barns  capable  of  holding  from  thirty  to  fifty,  and 
some  even  1 00,  loads  of  hay.  They  are  found 
to  be  extremely  useful  and  convenient  during  a 
catching  and  unsettled  hay-harvest. 

In  plate  II.  RURAL  ARCHITECTURE,  are,  fig. 
1 .  The  ground  plan  and  elevation  of  a  common 
double  barn  :  a  wall  is  often  run  across  the  middle 
of  these  buildings  ;  they  are  chiefly  serviceable 
for  the  storage  of  grain  in  the  straw,  and  are  of 
all  sizes.  Fig.  2  is  the  ground  plan  and  eleva- 
tion of  an  open  improved  barn,  the  threshing 
floor  of  which  is  towards  one  end ;  and  on  each 
side  of  it  below  are  divisions  for  different  pur- 
poses :  the  corn  being  kept  above  in  the  straw. 
This  is  an  economical  and  airy  building.  Figs.  3 
and  4  are  a  front  and  end  elevation  of  a  barn 
adapted  for  a  two-horse  threshing-machine.  This 
barn  is  fifty-five  feet  in  length  within  the  walls, 
-and  seventeen  in  width.  The  walls  are  ten  feet 
high,  which  idmits  of  a  granary  or  room  thirty 
feet  long  above  the  machine,  shown  by  the  dotted 
line  in  the  elevation.  The  floor  is  not  continued 
the  whole  length,  in  order  that  there  may  be 
more  room  left  in  the  other  end  for  unthreshed 
grain,  which  is  introduced  at  the  end.  The  ma- 
chine within  the  barn  is  only  ten  feet  by  seven, 
including  the  distance  from  the  wall.  The  horse 
beam  is  twenty-four  feet  in  length,  and  gives 
motion  by  a  laying  shaft  through  the  wall,  to  the 
machine  within.  There  is  no  shed  or  cover  over 
the  horse-path.  The  expense  of  a  machine  on 
this  plan  will  be  from  thirty  to  forty  pounds. 

In  barns  with  threshing  machines,  the  granary 
is  almost  always  formed  immediately  above  the 
floor  on  which  the  machine  works ;  which  admits 
raising  the  corn  to  it  directly  from  the  ground- 
floor,  either  by  the  threshing-mill  iiself,  or  a 
common  windlass.  When  it  is  to  be  taken  out, 
and  carried  to  market,  it  may  be  lowered  down 
upon  carts  with  the  utmost  facility.  See  our 
article  GRANARY. 

5.  Off  the  straw-house,  cart-sheds,  root-house, 
4-c. — The  straw-house,  when  distinct  from  the 
barn,  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  cattle- 
sheds,  opposite  to  the  root-house,  and  have  a 
cart  entrance,  and  an  inner  door  communicating 
with  the  feeder's  walk.  Straw,  however,  is  often 
stacked,  in  preference  to  placing  it  in  a  straw- 
house,  especially  where  farming  is  on  any  con- 
siderable scale. 

Cart-sheds  or  lodges,  for  the  protection  of 
carts  or  waggons,  should  be  near  the  farm-yard. 
Carts,  &c.,  under  proper  shelter  when  out  of 
use,  will  last  much  longer  than  if  left  exposed 
in  the  yard  to  the  weather;  for,  as  they  are  thus 
sometimes  wet,  and  sometimes  dry,  they  soon 
rot.  The  dust  and  nastiness  should  also  be  con- 
stantly washed  off  before  they  are  laid  up  in 
these  places. 

The  root  house  is  intended  for  depositing  or 
stowing  away  potatoes,  turnips,  cabbages,  and 
other  roots  or  tops  for  the  winter  feed  of  cattle. 
It  should  join  the  cattle-sheds,  and  communicate 
with  them  by  an  inner  door  that  opens  into  the 
feeder's  walk,  and  the  entrance  door  ought  to 
admit  a  loaded  cart.  These  houses  seem  very 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


necessary  wherever  there  is  a  number  of  cows 
or  other  cattle  supported  on  roots  or  cabbages, 
as  without  them  it  would  not  only  be  inconve- 
nient, but  in  many  cases  in  severe  weather  im- 
possible to  provide  for  them  the  daily  supply. 
Cabbages  should  not,  however,  be  kept  long  in- 
doors, as  they  are  very  liable  to  the  putrid  fer- 
mentation. The  master  should  be  careful  that 
the  yard-man  constantly  keeps  such  places  per- 
fectly clean  and  sweet,  in  order  that  the  roots 
may  contract  no  bad  smell,  as  cattle  are  in  many 
cases  extremely  nice  in  this  respect. 

The  appendages  to  farm  buildings  are  the 
dung-yards,  pits,  and  reservoirs,  the  rick-yard, 
straw-yard,  poultry-yard,  drying-yard,  garden, 
orchard,  and  cottage-yards.  These  vary  so  much, 
according  to  situation  and  other  circumstances, 
that  a  description  of  them  seems  needless  in  this 
place. 

Corn-stands  have  been  of  late  considered  re- 
quisite fixtures  of  a  stack-yard  ;  their  basements 
are  of  timber,  masonry,  or  iron,  on  which  the 
stack  is  built,  and  their  object  is  to  keep  the 
lower  part  dry,  and  exclude  vermin.  A  usual 
mode  of  constructing  them  is  to  place  a  stout 


frame  of  timber  on  uprigh .  stones,  two  feet  high, 
and  having  projecting  caps  of  flat  stones.  They 
are  also  constructed  wholly  of  stone,  of  circular 
or  polygonal  walls.  In  both  modes,  pieces  of 
timber  are  placed  as  a  frame  in  the  middle  to 
support  the  grain  upon,  and  generally  a  cone  of 
spars  in  the  centre,  to  form  a  funnel.  Cast  iron 
stands  (plate  II.  fig.  5)  for  stacks,  on  pillars 
about  three  feet  high,  and  weighing  half  a  hun- 
dred weight  each,  have  been  introduced  with 
success  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  They  are 
made  both  with  and  without  hollow  cones  or 
triangles.  A  stack  requires  seven  pillars,  besides 
the  framing,  which  may  either  be  made  of  poles 
or  young  trees.  In  the  wet  climate  of  Clack- 
mannanshire  wheat  has  been  stacked  in  five 
days,  beans  in  eight,  and  barley  and  oats  in  ten 
days  and  sometimes  earlier.  No  vermin  can 
find  their  way  into  these  stacks  to  consume  the 
grain,  and  the  straw  is  better  preserved.  The 
cone  or  triangle  keeps  up  a  circulation  of  air, 
and  prevents  heating,  or  other  damage.  (Gen. 
Rep.  of  Scotland,  Vol.  IV.,  Appendix  p.  379). 
Hay-stands  have  been  constructed  in  a  similar 


RURAL    ECONOMY 


RCRAI  ECONOMY.  Under  this  general  head 
we  have  determined  to  include  those  practical 
parts  of  the  science  of  agriculture  which  could  not 
conveniently  be  embraced  in  the  general  article 
of  that  name.  See  AGRICULTURE. 

In  that  article  we  have  taken  a  general  view 
of  soils,  and  of  the  ordinary  principles  of  amelio- 
rating them  by  manuring,  ploughing,  rotation  of 
crops,  &c.  In  the  present  paper  we  propose  to 
treat,  1.  Of  the  arable  system.  2.  Of  grazing. 
3.  Of  the  modern  convertible  system.  4.  Of 
the  cultivation  of  plants  that  are  articles  of  com- 
merce. 5.  Of  the  management  of  live  stock. 
6.  Of  implements  of  husbandry.  The  dairy,  and 
its  general  economy,  have  engaged  our  attention 
under  the  article  DAIRY. 

PART  I. 
OF  THE  ARABLE  SYSTEM. 

In  laying  out  a  farm  on  the  arable  system,  it  has 
been  recommended  that  attention  be  paid  to  that 
course  of  crops,  which  the  quality  of  the  soil  may 
point  out ;  and  that,  upon  all  farms  not  below  a 
medium  size,  there  should  be  twice  the  numberof 
enclosures  that  there  are  divisions  or  breaks  in 
the  course.  Thus,  if  a  six  years'  rotation  be 
thought  most  profitable,  there  should  be  twelve 
enclosures,  two  of  which  are  always  under  the 
same  crop.  One  advantage  in  tin's  arrange- 
ment is,  that  it  tends  greatly  to  equalize  labor, 
and,  with  a  little  attention,  may  contribute  much 
to  equalise  the  produce.  On  large  farms,  where 
all  the  land  under  turnips  and  clover,  for  instance, 
is  near  the  extremity  of  the  grounds,  or  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  buildings,  supposed 
to  be  set  down  near  the  centre,  it  is  clear  that 
the  labor  of  supplying  the  house  and  straw-yard 
stock  with  these  crops,  as  well  as  the  carriage  of 
the  manure  to  the  field,  is  much  greater  than  if 


the  fields  were  so  arranged  as  that  the  half  of 
each  of  these  crops  had  been  near  the  offices. 
But,  by  means  of  two  fields  for  each  crop  in  the 
rotation,  it  is  quite  easy  to  connect  together  one 
field  near  the  houses  with  another  at  a  distance  ; 
thus  having  a  supply  at  hand  for  the  home  stock, 
while  the  distant  crops  may  be  consumed  on  the 
ground.  The  same  equalisation  of  labor  should 
be  observed  in  the  cultivation  of  the  corn  fields, 
and  in  harvesting  the  crops.  By  this  kind  of 
arrangement  a  field  of  inferior  soil  may  be  so 
connected  with  one  that  is  naturally  rich,  that 
the  former  may  be  gradually  brought  up  in  pro- 
duce towards  the  level  of  the  latter,  without  any 
injury.  For  instance,  a  field  under  turnips  may 
be  so  fertile  that  it  would  be  destructive  to  the 
succeeding  corn  crop  to  consume  the  whole  or 
the  greater  part  on  the  ground ;  while  another 
may  be  naturally  so  poor,  or  so  deficient  in  te- 
nacity, as  to  make  it  inexpedient  to  spare  any 
part  for  consumption  elsewhere.  By  connecting 
these  two  under  the  same  crop, — by  carrying 
from  the  one  what  turnips  are  wanted  for  the 
feeding-houses  and  straw-yards,  and  eating  the 
whole  crop  of  the  other  on  the  ground  with 
sheep,  the  ensuing  crop  of  corn  will  not  be  so 
luxuriant  on  the  former  as  to  be  unproductive, 
while  the  latter  will  seldom  fail  to  yield  abund- 
antly. 

1.  In  preparing  land  for  crop  ping,  the  first  thing 
that  occurs  is  to  consider  the  obstructions  to  regular 
ploughing.  The  most  formidable  of  these  are 
stones  lying  above  or  below  the  surface.  Stones 
above  the  surface  may  be  avoided  by  the  plough- 
man, though  not  without  loss  of  ground ;  but 
stones  below  the  surface  are  commonly  not  dis- 
covered till  the  plough  is  shattered  to  pieces, 
and  perhaps  a  day's  work  lost.  The  clearing 
land  of  stones  is  therefore  necessary  to  prevent 
mischief.  And.  to  encourage  the  operation,  it  is 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


91 


attended  with  much  actual  profit.  In  the  first 
place,  the  stones  are  often  useful  for  fences : 
when  large  they  must  be  blown,  and  are  com- 
monly proper  for  building.  And,  as  the  blowing 
with  gunpowder  does  not  exceed  a  halfpenny  for 
each  inch  that  is  bored,  these  stones  come  gene- 
rally cheaper  than  to  dig  as  many  out  of  the 
quarry.  2dly,  As  the  soil  round  a  large  stone  is 
commonly  the  best  in  the  field,  it  is  purchased 
at  a  low  rate  by  taking  out  the  stone ;  for  not 
only  is  the  ground  lost  that  is  occupied  by  a 
large  stone,  but  also  a  considerable  space  round 
it,  to  which  the  plough  has  not  access  without 
danger.  A  third  advantage  is  that  the  plowing 
can  be  carried  on  with  much  expedition,  when 
there  is  no  apprehension  of  stones  :  in  stony 
land,  the  plough  must  proceed  so  slow,  as  not  to 
perform  half  of  its  work. 

But  to  clear  land  of  stones  is  an  undertaking 
too  expensive  for  a  tenant  who  has  not  a  long 
lease.  As  it  is,  however,  so  important  both  to 
him  and  to  his  landlord,  it  appears  reasonable 
that  the  expense  should  be  divided,  where  the 
lease  does  not  exceed  nineteen  or  twenty  years. 
It  falls  naturally  upon  the  landlord  to  be  at  the 
expense  of  raising  the  stones,  and  upon  the  te- 
nant to  carry  them  off  the  field. 

Another  obstruction  is  wet  ground.  Water 
may  improve  gravelly  or  sandy  soils  ;  but  it 
sours  a  clay  soil,  or  renders  it  unfit  for  vegeta- 
tion, and  converts  low  ground  into  a  morass. 
A  great  deal  has  been  written  upon  different 
methods  of  draining  land.  See  DRAINING.  One 
way  of  draining  without  expense,  when  land  is  to 
be  enclosed  with  hedge  and  ditch,  is  to  direct 
the  ditches  so  as  to  carry  off  the  water.  But 
this  method  is  not  always  practicable.  If  the 
run  of  water  be  considerable,  it  will  destroy  the 
ditches, and  lay  open  the  fences,  especially  where 
the  soil  is  loose  or  sandy.  If  ditches  will  not 
answer,  hollow  drains  are  sometimes  made,  and 
sometimes  open  drains,  made  so  deep  as  to  com- 
mand the  water.  The  former  is  filled  up  with 
loose  stones,  with  brush-wood,  or  with  any  other 
porous  matter  that  permits  the  water  to  pass. 
The  latter  is  left  open.  To  make  the  former  ef- 
fectual, the  ground  must  have  such  a  slope  as  to 
give  the  water  a  brisk  course.  To  attempt  to 
execute  them  in  a  level  ground  is  an  error ;  the 
passages  are  soon  stopped  up  with  sand  and  se- 
diment, and  the  work  is  rendered  useless.  This 
inconvenience  takes  not  place  in  open  drains  ; 
but  they  are  subject  to  other  inconveniences. 
They  are  always  filling  up,  and  make  a  yearly 
reparation  necessary;  and  they  obstruct  both 
ploughing  and  pasturing. 

The  following  open  drain  is  one  of  the  best. 
It  is  made  with  the  plough,  cleaving  the  space 
intended  for  the  drain  over  and  over,  till  the  fur- 
row be  made  of  a  sufficient  depth  for  carrying 
off  the  water.  The  slope  on  either  side  may,  by 
repeated  ploughings,  be  made  so  gentle  as  to 
give  no  obstruction  either  to  the  plough  or  to  the 
harrow.  There  is  no  occasion  for  a  spade,  unless 
to  smooth  the  sides,  and  to  remove  accidental 
obstructions  in  the  bottom.  This  drain  is  exe- 
cuted at  much  less  expense  than  either  of  the 
former  ;  and  it  is  perpetual,  as  it  can  never  be 
obstructed.  In  level  ground  indeed  grass  may 


grow  at  the  bottom,  but  to  clear  off  tho  grass 
once  in  four  or  five  years  will  restore  it  to  its 
original  perfection.  A  hollow  drain  may  be 
proper  between  the  spring-head  and  the  main 
drain,  where  the  distance  is  not  great ;  but  in 
every  other  case  the  drain  recommended  is  the  best. 
N\  here  a  level  field  is  infested  with  water  from 
higher  ground,  the  water  ought  to  be  intercepted 
by  a  ditch  carried  along  the  foot  of  the  high 
ground,  and  terminating  in  some  capital  drain. 
The  only  way  to  clear  a  field  of  water  that  is  hol- 
low in  the  middle  is  to  carry  it  off  by  some 
drain  still  lower. 

A  clay  soil  of  any  thickness  is  often  pestered 
with  rain,  which  settles  on  the  surface.  The 
only  remedy  is  high  narrow  ridges,  well  rounded. 
And,  to  clear  the  furrows,  the  furrow  of  the  foot- 
ridge  ought  to  be  considerably  lower,  to  carry 
off  the  water  cleverly.  It  cannot  be  made  too 
low,  as  nothing  hurts  clay  soil  more  than  the 
stagnation  of  water  on  it.  Some  gravelly  soils 
have  a  clay  bottom  ;  which  is  a  substantial  be- 
nefit to  a  field  when  in  grass,  as  it  remains 
moister.  But,  when  in  tillage,  ridges  are  ne- 
cessary to  prevent  rain  from  settling  at  the  bot- 
tom ;  and  this  is  the  only  case  where  a  gravelly 
soil  ought  to  be  ridged.  Clay  soils  that  have 
little  or  no  level  have  sometimes  a  gravelly  bot- 
tom. For  discharging  the  water,  the  best  method 
is,  at  the  end  of  every  ridge  to  pierce  down  to  the 
gravel,  which  will  absorb  the  water.  But  if  the 
furrow  of  the  foot-ridge  be  low  enough  to  receive 
all  the  water  it  will  be  more  expeditious  to  make 
a  few  holes  in  that  furrow.  In  some  cases,  a 
field  may  be  drained,  by  filling  up  the  hollows 
with  earth  from  higher  ground.  But,  as  this  me- 
thod is  expensive,  it  will  only  be  taken  where 
no  other  method  answers.  Where  a  field  hap- 
pens to  be  partly  wet,  partly  dry,  there  ought  to 
be  a  separation  by  a  middle  ridge,  if  it  can  be 
done  conveniently ;  and  the  dry  part  may  be 
ploughed  while  the  other  is  drying. 

Some  of  the  low  parts  of  Scotland  are  of  a 
brick  clay  soil,  extremely  wet  in  winter.  This 
in  a  good  measure  may  be  prevented  by  proper 
enclosing,  as  there  is  scarcely  a  field  but  can  be 
drained  into  lower  ground.  But  as  this  would 
lessen  the  quantity  of  rain  in  a  dry  climate,  such 
as  is  all  the  east  side  of  Britain,  it  may  admit  ot 
some  doubt  whether  the  remedy  would  not  be  as 
bad  as  the  disease. 

To  improve  a  moor,  let  it  be  opened  in  winter 
when  it  is  wet ;  and  when  the  plough  cannot  be 
employed  at  any  other  work.  In  spring,  after 
frost  is  over,  a  slight  harrowing  will  fill  up  the 
seams  with  mould,  to  keep  out  the  air,  and  rot 
the  sod.  In  that  state  let  it  lie  the  following 
summer  and  winter,  which  will  rot  the  sod  more 
than  if  laid  open  to  the  air  by  ploughing.  Next 
April,  let  it  be  cross-ploughed,  breaked,  and 
harrowed,  till  it  be  sufficiently  pulverised.  Let 
the  manure  laid  upon  it,  whether  lime  or  dunu, 
be  intimately  mixed  with  the  soil  by  repeated 
harrowirgs.  This  will  make  a  fine  bed  for  tur- 
nip seed  if  sown  broad-cast.  But,  if  drills  be 
intended,  the  method  must  be  followed  that  is 
directed  afterward  in  treating  of  the  culture  of 
turnip.  A  successful  turnip-crop,  fed  on  the 
ground  by  sheep,  is  a  fine  preparation  for  laying 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


down  a  field  with  grass  seeds.  It  is  an  improve- 
ment upon  this  method,  to  take  two  or  three 
successive  crops  of  turnip,  which  will  require  no 
dung  for  the  second  and  following  crops.  This 
will  thicken  the  soil,  and  enrich  it  greatly. 

The  best  way  of  improving  swampy  ground, 
after  draining,  is  paring  and  burning.  But 
where  the  ground  is  dry,  and  the  soil  so  thin  as 
that  the  surface  cannot  be  pared,  the  way  of 
bringing  it  into  tilth  from  the  state  of  nature  is 
to  plough  it  with  a  feathered  sock,  laying  the 
grassy  surface  under.  After  the  new  suiface  is 
mellowed  with  frost,  fill  up  all  the  seams  by  har- 
rowing cross  the  field,  which  by  excluding  the  air 
will  effectually  rot  the  sod.  In  this  state  let  it 
lie  summer  and  winter.  In  the  beginning  of 
May  after,  a  cross-ploughing  will  reduce  all  to 
small  square  pieces,  which  must  be  pulverised 
with  the  brake,  and  made  ready  for  a  May  or 
June  crop.  If  these  square  pieces  be  allowed  to 
lie  long  in  the  sap  without  breaking,  they  will 
become  tough  and  not  be  easily  reduced. 

On  the  subject  of  paring  and  burning,  Mr.  Lou- 
don  says,  '  The  season  for  this  operation  is  April, 
May,  and  June :  the  particular  period  must,  how- 
ever, always  depend  much  on  the  state  of  the 
weather  and  the  nature  of  the  crop.  When  the 
east  winds  prevail,  in  February  and  March,  this 
sort  of  business  may  sometimes  be  carried  on. 
But  for  accomplishing  the  work  with  the  greatest 
despatch,  and  also  with  the  least  trouble  and  ex- 
pense, a  dry  season  is  obviously  the  best.  The 
prudent  cultivator  should  not  embark  in  the  un- 
dertaking unless  there  be  a  reasonable  probability 
of  his  accomplishing  it  while  the  weather  keeps 
dry  and  favorable.  The  latter  end  of  May  or  the 
beginning  of  June,  when  the  hurry  of  the  spring- 
seed  time  is  over,  in  the  more  northern  districts, 
when  a  number  of  hands  can  be  most  easily  pro- 
cured may,  upon  the  whole,  be  considered  as  the 
best  and  most  convenient  season  ;  as  at  this 
period  the  green  vegetable  products  are  in  their 
most  succulent  state,  and  of  course  may  probably 
afford  more  saline  matter ;  but  in  the  more 
southern  counties  either  a  much  earlier  season 
must  be  taken,  or  the  interval  between  the  hay 
season  and  the  harvest  time  must  be  fixed  upon, 
the  latter  of  which  is,  on  the  principle  just  stated, 
evidently  the  best,  where  the  extent  of  ground 
to  be  burnt  is  not  too  large.  In  other  seasons 
it  would  frequently  be  impossible  to  procure  a 
sufficient  number  of  hands  for  performing  the 
business.  In  bringing  waste  lands  into  cultiva- 
tion, where  an  extensive  tract  of  ground  is  to  un- 
dergo this  process,  the  autumn  may,  in  many 
cases,  afford  a  convenient  opportunity  for  the 
operation.  A  good  deal  depends  on  the  crops 
that  are  to  be  sown  after  paring  and  burning. 
When  rape  or  turnips  are  to  be  cultivated,  the 
end  of  May,  or  the  beginning  of  June,  will  be 
the  most  proper  time:  but,  if  barley  or  oats  are 
to  be  sown,  the  paring  and  burning  must  be 
completed  as  early  in  spring  as  the  nature  of  the 
season  will  admit ;  and,  when  lands  are  pared 
and  burned  as  a  preparation  for  a  crop  of  wheat, 
July,  or  even  the  beginning  of  August,  may,  in 
favorable  seasons,  answer ;  but  U  is  better  to 
have  the  ground  ready  sooner  if  possible.  In 
respect  to  the  depth  to  which  lands  of  different 


qualities  maybe  pared  with  the  most  advantage, 
it  is  obvious  that,  as  it  can  hardly  be  prope.-  to 
pare  light,  thin-stapled  soils,  to  the  same  depths 
as  those  of  the  more  deep  and  heavy  kinds,  it 
should,  in  some  degree,  be  regulated  by  their 
particular  nature,  and  their  differences  in  re- 
spect to  heaviness.  Boys,  who  is  in  the  habit 
of  breaking  up  thin  chalky  soils,  and  sucli 
as  have  been  in  tillage,  in  this  way,  observes 
that  in  Kent,  where  the  method  of  paring  most 
in  use  is  with  down-shares  or  breast  ploughs, 
they  take  off  turfs  as  thick  as  the  nature  of  the 
soil  will  admit,  from  half  an  inch  to  two  inches ; 
the  thicker  the  better,  provided  there  be  a  suffi- 
cient portion  of  vegetable  matter  contained 
within  them  to  make  them  burn  well.  The  most 
usual  depths  of  paring  are  from  about  one  to 
three  inches. 

'  In  regard  to  burning,  when  the  season  is  not 
very  wet,  the  turfs  will  commonly  be  sufficiently 
dried  in  about  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks,  even 
without  being  turned  ;  but  in  rainy  weather  they 
require  a  longer  time,  and  must  be  turned  more; 
than  once  to  prevent  their  striking  out  roots  and 
shoots,  which  might  hinder  them  from  burning. 
As  soon  as  the  turfs  have  fully  undergone  tho 
process  of  burning,  and  are  reduced  to  the  state 
of  ashes  and  a  powdery  earthy  matter,  the  whole 
should,  as  soon  as  possible,  be  spread  out  over 
the  land  in  as  regular  and  equal  a  manner  as 
the  nature  of  the  work  will  admit  of ;  for,  without 
great  attention  in  this  respect,  great  inequality 
in  the  crops  may  take  place ;  besides  the  soil 
will  be  made  lighter  in  some  places  than  in 
others,  which  may  be  disadvantageous  in  the 
same  way.  The  spreading,  where  it  ran  by  any 
means  be  accomplished,  should  always  be  per- 
formed before  any  rain  falls  ;  as,  where  this  point 
is  not  attended  to,  a  great  loss  may  be  sustained 
by  the  saline  matters  being  carried  down  in  a 
state  of  solution,  and  their  beneficial  effects  in  a 
great  measure  lost  before  the  crops  are  in  a  con- 
dition to  receive  them.  In  order  to  secure  tho 
full  influence  of  the  ashes,  the  land  is  frequently 
slightly  ploughed  over  immediately  after  the 
ashes  are  spread  out  And  it  is  stated  by  Do- 
naldson that  those  who  are  more  than  ordinarily 
attentive  in  this  respect  only  rib  or  slob  furrow 
the  field,  so  that  the  ashes  after  burning  may  be 
covered  up  with  the  greater  expedition  and  de- 
spatch. By  this  mode  they  cannot  probably, 
however,  be  so  equally  mixed  with  the  soil  as  by 
that  of  ploughing  the  whole  field  with  a  very 
slight  furrow,  so  as  just  to  cover  them.  The  ex- 
pense of  the  operation  of  paring  and  burning 
will  vary  according  to  the  nature  and  situation 
of  the  land,  the  method  in  which  it  is  performed, 
and  the  customs  of  the  district  in  regard  to  the 
price  of  labor.  On  the  thin  sort  of  chalky  soils 
it  is  stated  by  Boys  that  the  expense  for  paring 
at  a  moderate  thickness,  where  the  land  is  not 
very  flinty,  is  about  equal  to  four  or  five  plough- 
ings.' 

We  add  this  writer's  remarks  on  the  operation 
of  drying  and  burning  clay  for  manure,  as  it  is  in 
several  respects  similar  to  that  of  paring  and 
burning.  '  The  practice  of  burning  clay,'  ho 
observes,  '  has  at  various  times  been  pursued  with 
energy  and  success,  and  at  other  times  has  fallen 


RURAL     ECONOM.Y. 


into  neglect.  The  oldest  book  in  which  it  is 
mentioned  is  probably  The  Country  Gentleman's 
Companion,  by  Stephen  Switzer,  gardener,  Lon- 
don, 1732.  In  that  work  it  is  stated  that  the 
earl  of  Halifax  was  the  inventor  of  this  useful 
improvement;  and  that  it  was  much  practised 
in  Sussex.  There  are  engravings  of  two  kilns 
for  burning  clay,  one  adopted  in  England,  and 
the  other  in  Scotland ;  where  it  is  said  to  have 
been  ascertained  that  lands,  reduced  by  tillage  to 
poverty,  would  produce  an  excellent  crop  of  tur- 
nips if  the  ground  were  ploughed  two  or  three 
times,  and  clay  ashes  spread  over  it.  In  the 
same  work  there  are  several  letters,  written  in 
the  years  1730  and  1731,  stating  that  the  plan 
of  burning  clay  had  answered  in  several  parts  of 
England  ;  and  accounts  were  received  from  Scot- 
land that,  upon  experiment,  it  had  answered 
better  than  either  lime  or  dung,  but  was  found 
too  expensive.  The  practice  is  described  at 
length  in  Ellis's  Practical  Farmer,  or  Hertford- 
shire Husbandman,  1732.  In  1786  James  Ar- 
buthuot,  of  Peterhead,  tried  several  successful 
experiments  with  burning  clay,  and  various 
others  have  since  been  made  in  different  parts 
of  the  empire.  In  1814  the  practice  was  revived 
and  written  on  by  Craig,  of  Callay,  near  Dum- 
fries, and  soon  after  by  general  Beatson,  near 
Tunbridge ;  by  Curwen,  Burrows,  and  several 
correspondents  of  agricultural  journals.  In 
Ireland,  it  would  appear,  the  practice  prevails  in 
several  places,  and  Craig  says  he  adopted  it  from 
seeing  its  effects  there.  The  result  of  the  whole 
is,  that  the  benefits  of  this  mode  of  manuring 
have  been  greatly  exaggerated  ;  though  they 
certainly  appear  to  be  considerable  on  clayey 
soils.  Aiton  (Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xxii.  p. 
423)  compares  this  rage  for  burning  clay,  which 
existed  in  1815,  to  the  fiorin  mania  of  a  few  years 
prior  date.  In  1822  he  found  few  of  the  advo- 
cates for  these  improvements  disposed  to  say 
much  on  the  subject,  and  saw  very  few  clay 
kilns  smoking.  '  To  give  my  ultimatum  upon 
this  subject,'  he  says, '  I  regret  that  the  disco- 
verers of  fiorin  grass,  and  of  the  effects  of  burnt 
clay,  have  so  far  overrated  their  value.  Both  are 
useful  and  proper  to  be  attended  to ; — the  grass 
to  be  raised  on  patches  of  marshy  ground,  and 
used  as  green  food  to  cattle  in  winter;  and  the 
burnt  earth  as  a  corrector  of  the  mechanical  ar- 
rangement of  a  stubborn  clay  soil ;  and  I  have 
no  doubt  but  if  they  had  been  only  recommended 
for  those  valuable  purposes  they  would  have  been 
brought  into  more  general  use  than  they  yet  are 
or  will  be,  till  the  prejudice  against  them,  arising 
from  the  disappointment  of  expectations  raised 
high  by  too  flattering  descriptions,  are  removed.' 
He  thus  describes  the  action  of  burnt  clay  : — 
•  It  must  be  obvious  to  every  person  that  has 
paid  attention  to  the  subject,  that  when  clay,  or 
other  earth,  is  burnt  into  ashes  like  brick-dust, 
it  will  not  (unless  acids  be  applied  to  it)  return 
again  to  its  former  state  of  clay,  but  will  remain 
in  the  granulated  state  of  ashes  or  friable  mould, 
to  which  it  was  reduced  by  the  operation  of 
burning.  An  admixture  of  this  kind,  with  a 
strong  adhesive  clay,  must  evidently  operate  as 
a  powerful  manure  bf  changing  the  mechanical 
arrangement  of  the  latter  and  rendering  it  more 


friable;  giving  greater  facility  to  the  protection 
of  redundant  moisture,  and  to  the  spreading  ot 
the  roots  of  vegetables  in  quest  of  food.  The 
application  of  as  much  water,  sand,  or  any  simi- 
lar substance,  would  have  exactly  the  same  effect 
in  opening,  and  keeping  open,  the  pores  of  an 
adhesive  clay  soil,  and  converting  it  into  the 
quality  loam.  Besides  this,  which  would  be  a 
permanent  improvement  upon  the  staple  or  tex- 
ture of  every  clay  soil,  burnt  clay  or  torrefied 
earth  may  sometimes  acquire,  in  this  operation, 
a  small  quantity  of  soot  or  carbonic  matter,  that 
may,  in  favorable  circumstances,  operate  for  one 
season  as  a  manure,  or  as  a  stimulus  to  a  small 
extent  to  the  growth  of  vegetables.  This  at 
least  may  be  the  case  if  the  clay  or  earth  burnt 
shall  abound  with  vegetable  matter,  and  if  the 
burning  is  conducted  in  such  a  smothered  way 
as  to  prevent  the  smoke  or  vegetable  matter  from 
escaping.  But  as  it  is  the  subsoil  that  is  recom- 
mended, and  seems  to  be  generally  used  for 
burning,  it  is  impossible  any  considerable  quan- 
tity of  vegetable  matter  fcan  be  found  in  it.  The 
calcareous  matter  in  the  soil,  it  is  said,  will  be 
calcined  and  formed  into  lime  by  the  operation 
of  burning.  But  I  am  disposed  to  consider  this 
argument  as  far  more  plausible  than  solid.  Cal- 
careous matter  is  no  doubt  found,  on  chemical 
analysis,  to  a  certain  extent  in  some  soils  ;  per- 
haps some  perceptible  portion  of  it  may  be  found 
in  every  soil.  But  it  is  seldom  or  never  found 
in  any  soil  to  such  an  extent  as  to  Be  of  much 
use  as  a  manure  to  other  land.  Even  when  the 
soil  is  impregnated  with  a  large  portion  of  calca- 
reous matter,  if  it  is  not  in  the  form  of  limestone, 
but  minutely  mixed  with  it,  the  burning  cannot 
either  increase  or  much  alter  the  lime.  If  it  is 
in  the  form  of  stones,  however  small,  or  in  what 
is  called  limestone  gravel,  there  is  little  chance 
of  its  being  calcined  in  the  operation  of  burning 
the  clay  ;  it  would  go  through  that  ordeal  unal- 
tered. Any  change,  therefore,  that  can  be 
made  upon  the  small  portion  of  calcareous 
matter  in  the  soil,  by  burning  in  the  manner  di- 
rected, can  scarcely  have  any  perceptible  effect 
when  that  matter  is  applied  as  manure  to  other 
soils.  And  though  it  is  possible  that  some  qua- 
lities in  particular  soils,  unfavorable  to  vegeta- 
tion, may  be  corrected  by  burning,  and  that  in 
some  other  instances  the  fire  may  render  the  clay 
more  nutritive  to  plants  (though  I  have  not  been 
able  to  trace  this,  or  even  to  conjecture  how  it 
can  happen),  yet  I  am  much  disposed  to  believe 
that  its  effect  as  a  mechanical  mixture  in  opening 
the  pores  of  the  soil  is  the  chief  improvement 
that  can  be  derived  from  the  application  of  burnt 
clay  as  a  manure.  If  it  has  any  other  effect  it 
must  be  from  the  soot  or  carbonic  matter  collected 
during  the  operation  of  burning;  or  perhaps  it 
may  acquire  by  the  torrefaction  somewhat  of  a 
stimulating  quality,  that  may  for  a  short  time 
promote  the  growth  of  particular  plants.  But 
these  qualities  can  only  be  to  a  small  extent, 
and  continue  to  act  for  a  very  limited  period.' — 
Far.  Mag.  xxii.  422. 

According  to  a  writer  in  the  Farmer's  Journal 
the  action  of  burnt  clay  is  at  least  three-fold, 
and  may  be  manifold.  It  opens  the  texture  of 
stubborn  clays,  gives  a  drain  to  the  water,  spira- 


94 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


cles  to  the  air,  and  affords  to  the  roots  facility  of 
penetrating.     Clay   ashes    burned    from    turves, 
containing  an  admixture   of  vegetable   matter, 
consist,  in  some  small  proportion,  of  vegetable 
alkali,  or  potassa,  a  salt  which  is  known  to  be  a 
good  manure.     It  also,  in  most  cases,  happens, 
that  a  stiff  cold  clay  is  impregnated  with  pyrites, 
a  compound  of  sulphuric  acid   and  iron.     Al- 
though the  chemical  attraction  between  these  two 
bodies  is  so  strong  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  dif- 
ficult operations  in  the  arts  totally  to   free  iron 
from  sulphur,  yet  a  very  moderate  heat  sublimes 
a  large  portion  of  the  sulphur.     The  iron  is  then 
left  at  liberty  to  re-absorb  a  portion-  of  the  redun- 
dant sulphuric  acid,  which  too  generally  is  found 
in  these  soils,  and  thereby  sweetens  the  land ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  bright  red,  or  crimson 
calx  of  iron,  which  gives  coloring  to  the  ashes 
when   over  burnt,  is  beneficial  to  vegetation   in 
the  present  case,  inasmuch  as  it  is,  of  itself,  one 
of  the  happiest  aids  to  fertility,  as  is  exemplified 
in   the    red   marl   strata,   and   red    sand   strata 
throughout  the  kingdom.    The  evolution  and  re- 
combination of  different  gases,  no  doubt,  mate- 
rially affect  the  question  ;  but  it  is  reserved  for 
accurate  chemical  observers  lo  give  us  an  account 
of  the  processes  which  take  place  in  this  respect. 
C'urwen  notices  that  clay  ashes  do  no  benefit  as 
a  top  dressing  on  grass,  which  is  in  part  to  be 
explained  by  reason  that  the  ashes,  when  spread 
on  the  surface  of  the  grass,  cannot  exert  the  me- 
chanical action  on  the  soil  in  the  ways  enume- 
rated.    Neither  can  the  calx  of  iron  come  so  im- 
mediately in  contact  with  the  particles  of  the  soil, 
for  the  producing  of  any  chemical  effect,  as  it 
would  do  if  the  ashes  were  ploughed   in.      In 
short,  like  many  other  manures  which  are  laid  on 
the  surface,  unless  it  contains  something  soluble 
which  may  be  washed  into  the  ground  by  rains, 
it  does  very  little  good  ;  and  the  feeble  propor- 
tion of  vegetable  alkali  is  probably  the  only  so- 
luble matter  the  ashes  contain.     However  san- 
guine may  be  the  admirers  of  burnt  clay,  all 
experience  confirms  that  the  most  beneficial  clay- 
ashes  are  those  which  are  burnt  from  the  greatest 
proportion  of  rich  old  turf,  ancient  banks,  roots 
of  bushes,  and  other  vegetable  matters;  and  I 
conceive  the  value  of  mere   powdered   pottery 
(for  such  it  is)  may  easily  be  overrated. — Far. 
Journ.  1819. 

The  common  method  of  burning  clay  is  thus 
described  by  Mr.  Loudon.  An  oblong  enclosure, 
of  the  dimensions  of  a  small  house  (say  fifteen 
feet  by  ten),  is  made  of  green  turf  sods,  raised 
to  the  height  of  three  and  a  half  or  four  feet.  In 
the  inside  of  this  enclosure,  air-pipes  are  drawn 
diagonally,  which  communicate  with  holes  left 
at  each  corner  of  the  exteriot  wall.  These  pipes 
are  formed  of  sods  put  on  edge,  and  the  space 
between  these  so  wide  only  as  another  sod  can 
<  ;i-ily  cover.  In  each  of  the  four  spaces  left  be- 
tween the  air-pipes  and  the  outer  wall,  a  fire  is 
kindled  with  wood  and  dry  turf,  and  then  the 
whole  of  the  inside  of  the  enclosure  or  kiln  filled 
\vith  dry  turf,  which  is  very  soon  on  fire ;  and 
on  the  top  of  that,  when  well  kindled,  is  thrown 
the  clay,  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  and  re- 
peated as  often  as  necessary,  which  must  be  re- 
gulated by  the  intensity  of  the  burning.  The 


air-pipes  are  of  use  only  at  first,  because,  if  the 
fire  burns  with  tolerable  keenness,  the  sods  form- 
in?  the  pipes  will  soon  be  reduced  to  ashes.  The 
pipe  on  the  weather  side  of  the  kiln  only  is  left 
open,  the  mouths  of  the  other  three  being  stopped 
up,  and  not  opened,  except  the  wind  should  veer 
about.     As  the  inside  of  the  enclosure,  or  kiln, 
begins  to  be  filled  up  with  clay,  the  outer  wall 
must  be  raised  in  height,  always  taking  care  to 
have  it  at  least  fifteen  inches  higher  than  the  top 
of  the  clay,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  wind 
from  acting  on  the  fire.     When  the  fire  burns 
through  the  outer  wall,  which  it  often  does,  and 
particularly    when  the  top  is   overloaded  with 
clay,  the  breach  must  be  stopped   up  immedi- 
ately, which   can  only  be  effectually   done   by 
building  another  sod  wall  from  the  foundation, 
opposite  to  it,  and  the  sods  that  formed  that  part 
of  the  first  wall  are  soon  reduced  to  ashes.     The 
wall  can  be  raised  as  high  as  may  be  convenient 
to  throw  on  the  clay,  and  the  kiln   may  be  in- 
creased to  any  size,  by  forming  a  new  wall  when 
the  previous  one  is  burnt  through.     The  princi- 
pal art  consists  in  having  the  outer  wall  made 
quite  close  and  impervious  to  the  external  air, 
and  taking  care  to  have  the  top  always  lightlv, 
but  completely  covered  with   clay  ;  because,  'if 
the  external  air  should  come  in  contact  with  the 
fire,  either  on  the  top  of  the  kiln,  or  by  means  of 
its  bursting  through  the  sides,   the  fire  will  be 
very  soon  extinguished.     In  short,  the  kiln  re- 
quires to  be  attended  to  nearly  as  closely  as  char- 
coal pits.     Clay  is  much  easier  burnt  than  either 
moss  or  loam  ; — it  does  not  undergo  any  altera- 
tion in  its  shape,  and  on  that  account 'allows  the 
fire  and  smoke  to  get  up   easily  between   the 
lumps ;  whereas  moss  and  loam,  by  crumbling 
down,  are  very  apt  to  smother  the  fire,  unless  care- 
fully attended  to.     No  rule  can  be  laid  down  for 
regulating  the  sine  of  the  lumps  of  clay  thrown 
on  the  kiln,  as  that  must  depend  on  the  state  of 
the  fire ;  but  I  have  found  every  lump  completely 
burnt  on  opening  the  kiln ;  and  some  of  them 
were  thrown  on  larger  than  my  head.     Clay,  no 
doubt,  burns  more  readily  if  it  be  dug  up  and 
dried  for  a  day  or  two  before  it  be  thrown  on 
the  kiln  ;  but  this  operation  is  not  necessary,  as 
it  will  burn  though  thrown  on  quite  wet.     After 
a  kiln  is  fairly  set  a  going,  no  coal  or  wood,  or 
any  sort  of  combustible  is  necessary,  the  wet 
clay  burning  of  itself,  and  it  can  only  be  extin- 
gnished  by  intention,  or  the  carelessness  of  the 
operator, — the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather  having 
hardly  any  effect  on  the  fire,  if  properly  attended 
to.     It  may,  perhaps,  be  necessary  to  menti  it 
that,  when  the  kiln  is  burning  with  great  keen- 
ness, a  stranger  to  the  operation  may  be  apt  to 
think  that  the  fire  is  extinguished.     If,  therefore, 
any  person,  either  through  impatience,  or  too 
great  curiosity,  should  insist  on  looking  into  the 
interior  of  the  kiln,  he  will  certainly  retard,  and 
may  possibly  extinguish  the  fire ;  for,  as  before 
mentioned,  the  chief  art  consists  in  keeping  out 
the  external  air  from  the  fire.     Where  there  is 
abundance   of  clay,  and   no   great   quantity  of 
green  turf,  it  would  perhaps  be  best  to  burn  the 
clay  in  draw-kilns  the  same  as  lime. 

Colonel  Dickson,  at  Ilexham,  and  other  gentle- 
men of  Northumberland,  instead  of  building  a 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


95 


kiln  use  gratings  or  arches  of  cast  iron,  to  form 
a  vault  or  funnel  for  the  fuel,  and  over  this  fun- 
••nel  the  clay  is  built.  The  grated  arches  are 
made  about  two  feet  and  a  half  long,  two  feet 
diameter,  and  about  fourteen  inches  high.  One 
grating  is  to  be  filled  with  brushwood,  stubble,  or 
any  other  cheap  fuel,  and  the  clay,  as  it  is  dug, 
built  upon  it  to  a  convenient  height,  leaving 
small  vacancies,  or  boring  holes,  to  allow  the 
heat  to  penetrate  to  the  middle  and  outer  parts 
of  the  clay.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  is  built 
upon  the  first  grating,  another  is  added  at  either 
or  both  ends,  filled  with  similar  fuel,  and  the 
clay  built  upon  them  as  before.  This  process 
is  continued  until  ten,  twelve,  or  a  greater 
number  of  the  gratings  have  been  used,  when 
one  end  is  built  up  or  covered  with  clay,  and 
at  the  other,  under  the  last  grating,  a  fire  is 
made  of  coals  or  faggot  wood.  The  end  at 
which  the  fire  is  made  should  face  the  wind  if 
possible,  and  if  the  process  has  been  pro- 
perly conducted  the  clay  will  be  effectually 
burnt.  By  commencing  with  a  centre  grating, 
in  the  form  of  a  cross,  the  workman  may  build 
from  four  ends  in  the  place  of  two ;  this  con- 
trivance will  afford  a  facility  in  the  work,  and 
have  a  draft  of  wind  at  two  entrances.  The  ad- 
vantage of  this  mode  of  burning  clay  is  the  saving 
of  cartage,  as  the  clay  may  be  always  burned 
where  it  is  dug. 

Mr.  Curwen  has  practised  burning  clay  and 
surface  soil  by  lime  without  fuel  (Farm.  Mag.  vol. 
xvi.  p.  1 1, 1 2),  in  the  following  manner : — Mounds 
of  seven  yards  in  length,  threT  and  a  half  in 
breadth,  are  kindled  with  seventy-two  Winches- 
ter bushels  of  lime.  First,  a  layer  of  dry  sods 
or  parings,  on  which  a  quantity  of  lime  is  spread, 
mixing  sods  with  it ;  then  a  covering  of  eight 
inches  of  sods,  on  which  the  other  half  of  the 
lime  is  spread,  and  covereU  a  foot  thick  :  the 
height  of  the  mound  being  about  a  yard.  In 
twenty-four  hours  it  will  take  fire.  The  lime 
should  be  immediately  from  the  kiln.  It  is 
better  to  suffer  it  to  ignite  itself,  than  to  effect  it 
by  operation  of  water.  When  the  fire  is  fairly 
kindled,  fresh  sods  must  be  applied.  Mr.  Cur- 
wen  recommends  obtaining  a  sufficient  body  of 
ashes  before  any  clay  was  put  on  the  mounds. 
The  fire  naturally  rises  to  the  top.  It  takes  less 
time,  and  does  more  work  to  draw  down  the 
ashes  from  the  top,  and  not  to  suffer  it  to  rise 
above  six  feet.  The  former  practice  of  burning 
in  kilns  was  more  expensive;  did  much  less 
work ;  and,  in  many  instances,  calcined  the 
ashes,  and  rendered  them  of  no  value. 

2.  Of  ridges. — The  first  thing  is  to  consider 
what  grounds  ought  to  be  formed  into  ridges,  and 
what  ought  to  be  tilled  with  a  flat  surface.  Dry 
soils,  which  suffer  by  want  of  moisture,  ought  to 
be  tilled  flat,  to  retain  moisture.  The  method 
for  such  tilling  is  to  go  round  from  the  circum- 
ference to  the  centre,  or  from  the  centre  to  the 
circumference.  This  method  is  advantageous 
in  point  of  expedition,  as  the  whole  is  finished 
without  once  turning  the  plough.  At  the  same 
time,  every  inch  of  the  soil  is  moved,  instead  of 
leaving  either  the  crown  or  the  furrow  unmoved, 
as  is  commonly  done  in  tilling  ridges.  Clay  soil, 
which  suffers  by  water  standing  on  it,  ought  to 


be  laid  as  dry  as  possible  by  proper  ridges.  A 
loamy  soil  is  the  medium  between  these  two.  It 
ought  to  be  tilled  flat  in  a  dry  country,  especially 
if  it  incline  to  the  soil  first  mentioned.  In  a 
moist  country,  it  ought  to  be  formed  into  ridges, 
high  or  low  according  to  the  degree  of  moisture 
and  tendency  to  clay. 

In  grounds  that  require  ridging,  an  error  pre- 
vails, that  ridges  cannot  be  raised  too  high.  But 
high  ridges  labor  under  several  disadvantages. 
The  soil  is  heaped  upon  the  crown,  leaving  the 
furrows  bare  ;  the  crown  is  too  dry,  and  the  fur- 
rows too  wet;  the  crop,  which  is  always  best  on 
the  crown,  is  more  readily  shaken  with  the  wind, 
than  where  the  whole  crop  is  of  an  equal  height; 
the  half  of  the  ridge  is  always  covered  from  the 
sun,  a  disadvantage  which  is  far  from  being 
slight  in  a  cold  climate.  High  ridges  labor  un- 
der another  disadvantage;  in  ground  that  has  no 
more  level  than  barely  sufficient  to  carry  off 
water,  they  sink  the  furrows  below  the  level  of 
the  ground ;  and  consequently  retain  water  at 
the  end  of  every  ridge.  The  furrows  ought 
never  to  be  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  ground. 
Water  will  more  effectually  be  carried  otf  by 
lessening  the  ridges  both  in  height  and  breadth  ; 
a  narrow  ridge  the  crown  of  which  is  but  eigh- 
teen inches  higher  than  the  furrow,  has  a  greater 
slope  than  a  very  broad  ridge  where  the  differ- 
ence is  three  or  four  feet. 

In  forming  ridges,  where  the  ground  hangs 
considerably,  they  may  be  too  steep  as  well  as 
too  horizontal ;  and,  if  to  the  ridges  be  given  all 
the  steepness  of  a  field,  a  heavy  shower  may  do 
irreparable  mischief.  To  prevent  this  the  ridge* 
ought  to  be  so  directed  cross  the  field  as  to  have 
a  gentle  slope,  for  carrying  off  water  slowly,  and 
no  more.  In  that  respect,  a  hanging  field  has 
greatly  the  advantage  of  one  that  is  nearly  hori- 
zontal ;  because,  in  the  latter,  there  is  no  oppor- 
tunity of  a  choice  in  forming  the  ridges.  A  hill 
is  of  all  ground  the  best  adapted  for  directing  the 
ridges  properly.  If  the  soil  be  gravelly,  it  may 
be  ploughed  round  and  round,  beginning  at  the 
bottom  and  ascending  gradually  to  the  top  in  a 
spiral  line.  This  method  of  ploughing  a  hill, 
requires  no  more  force  than  ploughing  on  a  level; 
and  removes  the  great  inconvenience  of  a  gravelly 
hill,  that  rains  go  off  too  quickly  ;  for  the  rain  is 
retained  in  every  furrow.  If  the  soil  be  such  as 
to  require  ridges,  they  may  be  directed  to  any 
slope  that  is  proper. 

To  form  a  field  into  ridges,  that  has  not  been 
formerly  cultivated,  the  rules  mentioned  are 
easily  put  in  execution.  After  seeing  the  ad- 
vantage of  forming  a  field  into  ridges,  people 
were  naturally  led  into  an  error,  that  the  higher 
the  better.  But  the  practice  of  making  their 
ridges  crooked  certainly  did  not  originate  from 
design,  but  from  the  laziness  of  the  driver  suffer- 
ing the  cattle  to  turn,  instead  of  making  them 
finish  the  ridge  without  turning.  There  is  more 
than  one  disadvantage  in  this  slovenly  practice. 
First,  the  water  is  kept  in  by  the  curve  at  the 
end  of  every  ridge,  and  sours  the  ground.  Se- 
condly, as  a  plough  has  the  least  friction  possi- 
ble in  a  straight  line,  the  friction  must  be 
increased  in  a  curve,  the  back  part  of  the  mould- 
board  pressing  hard  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 


96 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


coulter  pressing  hard  on  the  other.  Thirdly, 
the  plough  moving  in  a  straight  line  has  the 
greatest  command  in  laying  the  earth  over.  But, 
where  the  straight  line  of  the  plough  is  applied 
to  the  curvature  of  a  ridge  to  heighten  it  by 
gathering,  the  earth  moved  by  the  plough  is  con- 
tinually falling  back,  in  spite  of  the  most  skilful 
ploughman. 

The  inconveniences  of  ridges  high  and  crook- 
ed are  so  many  that  one  would  be  tempted  to 
apply  a  remedy  at  any  risk.  Ancl  yet,  if  the  soil 
be  clay,  it  would  not  be  advisable  for  a  tenant  to 
apply  the  remedy  upon  a  lease  shorter  than  too 
nineteen  years.  In  a  dry  gravelly  soil,  the  work 
is  not  difficult  or  hazardous.  When  the  ridges 
are  cleaved  two  or  three  years  successively  in  the 
course  of  cropping,  the  operation  ought  to  be 
concluded  in  one  summer.  The  earth,  by  reite- 
rated ploughings,  should  be  accumulated  upon 
the  furrows,  so  as  to  raise  them  higher  than  the 
crowns  ;  they  cannot  be  raised  too  high,  for  the 
accumulated  earth  will  subside  by  its  own  weight. 
Cross  ploughing,  once  or  twice,  will  reduce  the 
ground  to  a  flat  surface,  and  give  opportunity  to 
form  ridges  at  will.  The  same  method  brings 
down  ridges  in  clay  soil ;  only  let  the  work  be 
carried  on  with  expedition ;  because  a  hearty 
shower,  before  the  new  ridges  are  formed,  would 
soak  the  ground  in  water,  and  make  the  farmer 
suspend  the  work  for  the  remainder  of  that  year 
at  least.  In  a  strong  clay,  the  ridges  should  not 
be  altered,  unless  it  can  be  done  to  perfection  in 
one  season.  On  this  subject  Dr.  Anderson  has 
said,  '  The  difficulty  of  performing  this  operation 
properly  with  the  common  implements  of  hus- 
bandry, and  the  obvious  benefit  that  accrues  to 
the  fanner  from  having  his  fields  level,  has  pro- 
duced many  new  inventions  of  ploughs,  harrows, 
drags,  &c.,  calculated  for  speedily  reducing  the 
fields  to  that  state ;  none  of  which  have  as  yet 
been  found  fully  to  answer  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  intended,  as  they  all  indiscriminately 
carry  the  earth  that  was  on  the  high  places  into 
those  that  were  lower;  which,  although  it  may, 
in  some  cases,  render  the  surface  of  the  ground 
tolerably  smooth  and  level,  is  usually  attended 
with  inconveniences  far  greater,  for  a  considera- 
ble length  of  time,  than  that  which  it  was  intend- 
ed to  remove.  For  experience  sufficiently  shows 
that  even  the  best  vegetable  mould,  if  buried  for 
any  length  of  time  so  far  beneath  the  surface  as 
to  be  deprived  of  the  benign  influences  of  the  at- 
mosphere, becomes  an  inert  lifeless  mass,  little 
fitted  for  nourishing  vegetables  ;  and  constitutes 
a  soil  very  improper  for  the  purposes  of  the  far- 
mer. It  therefore  behoves  him  to  preserve,  on 
every  part  of  his  fields,  an  equal  covering  of  that 
vegetable  mould  that  has  long  been  uppermost, 
and  rendered  fertile  by  the  meliorating  influence 
of  the  atmosphere.  But  if  he  suddenly  levels 
his  high  ridges,  by  any  of  these  mechanical  con- 
trivances, he  buries  all  the  good  mould  that  was 
on  the  top  of  the  ridges  in  the  old  furrows,  by 
which  he  greatly  impoverishes  one  part  of  his 
field,  while  he  too  much  enriches  another,  and 
he  has  the  mortification  frequently  to  see  the  one 
half  of  his  crop  rotted  by  an  over-luxuriance, 
while  other  parts  of  it  are  weak  and  sickly,  or 
one  part  ripe  and  ready  for  reaping,  while  tin- 
other  is  not  propprly  filled. 


'  On  these  accounts,  if  the  farmer  has  not  a 
long  lease,  it  will  be  in  general  much  his  inte- 
rest to  leave  the  ridges  as  he  found  them,  rather 
than  to  attempt  to  aker  their  direction  ;  and,  if 
he  attends  with  due  caution  to  moderate  the 
height  of  these  ridges,  he  may  reap  very  good 
crops.  But,  where  a  man  is  secure  of  possessing 
his  ground  for  any  length  of  time,  the  advan- 
tages that  he  will  reap  from  having  level  and 
well  laid  out  fields  are  so  considerable  as  to  be 
worth  purchasing,  if  it  should  even  be  at  a 
considerable  expense.  But  the  loss  that  is  sus- 
tained at  the  beginning  by  this  mechanical  mode 
of  levelling  ridges,  if  they  are  of  considerable 
height,  is  so  very  great,  that  it  is  doubtful  if  any 
future  advantages  can  fully  compensate  it.  I 
would  therefore  advise  that  all  this  levelling 
apparatus  should  be  laid  aside,  and  the  follow- 
ing more  efficacious  practice  be  substituted  in 
its  stead  :  a  practice  that  I  have  long  followed 
with  success,  and  can  safely  recommend  as  the 
very  best  that  has  yet  come  to  my  knowledge. 

'  If  the  ridges  have  been  raised  to  a  very  great 
height,  as  a  preparation  for  the  ensuing  opera- 
tions, they  may  be  first  cloven,  or  scalded  out, 
as  it  is  called,  that  is,  ploughed  so  as  to  lay  the 
earth  on  each  ridge  from  the  middle  towards 
the  furrows  ;  but,  if  they  are  only  of  a  moderate 
degree  of  height,  this  operation  may  be  omitted. 
^  hen  you  mean  to  proceed  to  level  the  ground, 
let  a  number  of  men  be  collected,  with  spades, 
more  or  fewer  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  requires, 
and  then  set  a  plough  to  draw  a  furrow  directly 
across  the  ridges  of  the  whole  field  intended  to 
be  levelled.  Divide  this  line  into  as  many  parts 
as  you  have  laborers,  allotting  to  each  one  ridge 
or  two,  more  or  less,  according  to  their  number, 
height,  and  other  circumstances.  Let  each  of 
the  laborers,  as  soon  as  the  plough  has  passed 
that  part  assigned  him,  begin  to  dig  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  furrow  that  the  plough  has  just  made, 
about  the  middle  of  the  side  of  the  old  ridge, 
keeping  his  face  towards  the  old  furrow,  work- 
ing backwards  till  he  comes  to  the  height  of  the 
ridge,  and  then  turn  towards  the  other  furrow, 
and  repeat  the  same  on  the  other  side  of  the 
ridge,  always  throwing  the  earth  that  he  digs  up 
into  the  deep  old  furrow  between  the  ridges 
that  is  directly  before  him ;  taking  care  not  to 
dig  deep  where  he  first  begins,  but  to  go  deeper 
and  deeper  as  he  advances  to  the  height  of  the 
ridge,  so  as  to  leave  the  bottom  of  the  trench 
he  thus  makes  across  the  ridge  entirely  level, 
or  as  nearly  so  as  possible.  And  when  he  has 
finished  that  part  of  the  furrow  allotted  to  him 
that  the  plough  has  made  in  going,  let  him  then 
finish  in  the  same  manner  his  own  portion  of 
the  furrow  that  the  plough  makes  in  returning. 
In  this  manner  each  man  performs  his  own  task 
through  the  whole  field,  gradually  raising  the  old 
furrows  as  the  old  heights  are  depressed.  And 
if  an  attentive  overseer  is  at  hand,  to  see  that 
the  whole  is  equally  well  done,  and  that  each 
furrow  is  raised  to  a  greater  height  than  the 
middle  of  the  old  ridges,  so  as  to  allow  for  the 
subsiding  of  that  loose  earth,  the  operation  will 
be  entirely  finished  at  once,  and  nevar  again 
need  to  be  repeated. 

'  In  performing  this  operation,  it  will  alvvayt 
be  proper  to  make  the  ridges  formed  for  tht 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


97 


purpose  of  levelling,  which  go  across  the  old 
ridges,  as  broad  as  possible ;  because  the  deep 
trench  that  is  thus  made  in  each  of  the  furrows 
is  an  impediment  in  the  future  operations,  as 
well  as  the  height  that  is  accumulated  in  the 
middle   of  each  of  these    ridges ;    so  that  the 
fewer  there  are  of  these  the  better.   The  farmer, 
therefore,  will   do  well   to   advert  to  this,  and 
begin  by  forming  a  ridge  by  always  turning  the 
plough  to  the  right  hand,  till  it  becomes  of  such 
breadth  as  makes  it  very  inconvenient   to  turn 
longer  in  that  manner ;  and  then,  at  the  distance 
of  twice  the  breadth  of  this  new-formed  ridge 
from  the  middle  of  it,  mark  off  a  furrow  for  the 
middle  of  another  ridge,  turning  round  it  to  the 
right  hand,  till  it  becomes  of  the  same  breadth, 
and  then,  turning  to   the   left  hand,  plough  out 
the  interval  that  was  left  between  the  two  new- 
formed  ridges.      By  this   mode  of  ploughing, 
each  ridge  may  be  made  of  forty,  or  fifty,  or  sixty 
yards   in  breadth,  without   any  great    inconve- 
nience; for,  although  some  time  will  be  lost  in 
turning  at  the  ends  of  these  broad  ridges,  yet,  as 
this  operation  is  only  to  be  once  performed  in 
this  manner,  the  advantage  that  is  reaped  by  having 
few  open  furrows  is  more  than  sufficient  to  coun 
terbalance  it.  To  moderate  the  height  that  would 
be  formed  in  the  middle  of  each  of  these  grea4 
ridges,  it  will  be  proper  to  mark  out  the  ridges, 
and  draw  the   furrow  that  is  to  be  the  middle 
of  each  some  days  before  you  collect  your  la- 
borers to  level  the  field,  that  you  may,  without 
any  hurry  or   loss  of  labor,   clear  out  a  good 
trench  through  the  middle  of  each    of  the  old 
ridges ;  as  the  plough  at   this  time,  going  and 
returning  nearly  in  the  same  track,  prevents  the 
laborers    from  working   properly    without   this 
precaution.     If  these  rules  are  attended  to,  your 
field  will  be  at  once  reduced  to  a  proper  level, 
and  the  rich  earth  that  formed  the  surface  of  the 
old  ridge  be  still  kept  upon  the  surface  of  your 
neld ;  so  that  the  only  loss  that  the  possessor  of 
such  ground  can  sustain  by  this   operation  is 
merely  the  expense  of  performing  it.' 

Dr.  Anderson  afterwards  makes  a  calculation 
of  the  different  expenses  of  levelling  by  the 
plough  and  by  the  spade,  in  which  he  finds  the^ 
latter  by  far  the  cheapest  method.  It  should  be 
a  rule,  according  to  him,  to  direct  the  ridges 
north  and  south  if  the  ground  will  permit.  In 
this  direction,  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the 
ridges,  dividing  the  sun  equally  between  them, 
will  ripen  at  the  same  time.  It  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage to  form  ridges  so  narrow  and  so  low  as 
to  admit  the  crowns  and  furrows  to  be  changed 
alternately  every  crop.  The  soil  nearest  the 
surface  is  the  best ;  and,  by  such  ploughing,  it 
is  always  kept  near  the  surface,  and  never  buried. 
In  high  ridges  the  soil  is  accumulated  at  the 
crown,  and  the  furrows  left  bare.  Such  altera- 
tion of  crown  and  furrow  is  easy,  where  the 
ridges  are  only  seven  or  eight  feet  broad.  This 
mode  of  ploughing  answers  perfectly  well  in 
sandy  and  gravelly  soils,  and  even  in  loam ;  but 
it  is  not  safe  in  clay^oil.  In  that  soil  the  ridges 
ought  to  be  twelve  feet  wide,  and  twenty  inches 
high ;  to  be  preserved  always  in  the  same  form 
by  casting,  that  is,  by  ploughing  two  ridges  to- 
gether, beginning  at  the  furrow  that  separates 
VOL.  XIX. 


them,  and  plougning  round  and  round  till  iki 
two  ridges  be  finished.  By  this  method,  the  se- 
parating furrow  is  raised  a  little  higher  than  the 
furrows  that  bound  the  two  ridges.  But  at  the 
next  ploughing  that  inequality  is  corrected,  by  be- 
ginning at  the  bounding  furrows, and  going  round 
and  round  till  the  plough  ing  of  the  two  ridges  be 
completed  at  the  separating  furrow. 

For  cleaning  the  ground  of  weeds,  a  cleaning 
harrow  is  often  used.  It  is  drawn  by  a  single 
horse,  directed  by  reins,  which  the  man  at  the 
opposite  corner  puts  over  his  head,  to  have  botli 
hands  free.  In  this  corner  is  fixed  a  rope,  with 
which  the  man  from  time  to  time  raises  the  har- 
row from  the  ground,  to  let  the  weeds  drop.  For 
the  sake  of  expedition,  the  weeds  ought  to  be 
dropped  in  a  straight  line  cross  the  field,  whether 
the  harrow  be  full  or  not;  and  seldom  is  a  field 
so  dirty  but  that  the  harrow  may  go  thirty  yards 
before  the  teeth  are  filled.  The  weeds  will  be 
thus  laid  in  parallel  rows,  like  those  of  hay  raked 
together  for  drying.  A  harrow  may  be  drawn 
swiftly  along  the  rows,  to  shake  out  all  the  dust; 
and  then  the  weeds  may  be  carried  clean  off  the 
field  in  carts.  But,  instead  of  burning  them, 
they  may  be  converted  into  useful  manure,  by 
laying  them  in  a  heap,  with  a  mixture  of  hot 
dung  to  begin  fermentation.  At  first  view,  this 
way  of  cleaning  land  will  appear  operose ;  but 
neither  the  labor  nor  expense  is  imrroderate 
At  any  rate,  these  ought  not  to  be  grudged ;  for, 
if  a  field  be  once  thoroughly  cleaned,  the  seasons 
must  be  very  cross,  or  the  farmer  very  indolent, 
to  make  it  necessary  to  renew  the  operation  in 
less  than  twenty  years.  In  the  worst  seasons  a 
few  years'  pasture  is  always  under  command ; 
which  effectually  destroys  triennial  plants,  such 
as  thistles  and  couch-grass. 

3.  We  may  here  offer  a  few  remarks  of  a  prac- 
tical kind  on  soils  : — i.  Clay  is  in  general  the 
stiffest  of  all  soils,  and  contains  an  unctuous 
quality.  See  CLAY.  But,  under  the  term  clays, 
earths  of  different  sorts  and  colors  are  included. 
One  kind  is  so  obstinate  that  scarcely  any  thing 
will  subdue  it ;  another  is  so  hungry  and  poor 
that  it  absorbs  whatever  is  applied,  and  turns  it 
into  its  own  quality.  Some  clays  are  fatter  than 
others,  and  the  fattest  are  the  best ;  some  are 
more  soft  and  slippery.  But  all  of  them  retain 
water  poured  on  their  surfaces,  where  it  stagnates, 
and  chills  the  plants,  without  sinking  into  the 
soil.  The  closeness  of  clay  prevents  the  roots 
and  fibres  of  plants  from  spreading  in  search  of 
nourishment.  The  blue,  the  red,  and  the  white 
clay,  if  strong,  are  unfavorable  to  vegetation. 
The  stony  and  looser  sort  are  less  so  ;  but  none 
of  them  are  worth  any  thing  till  their  texture  is 
so  loosened  by  a  mixture  of  other  substances,  and 
opened,  as  to  admit  the  influence  of  the  sun,  the 
air,  and  frost.  Among  the  manures  recommended 
for  clay,  sand  is  of  all  others  to  be  preferred : 
and  sea-sand  the  best  of  all,  as  it  most  effectually 
breaks  the  cohesion.  It  is  preferred,  because  it 
is  not  formed  wholly  of  small  stones ;  but  con- 
tains a  great  deal  of  calcareous  matter,  such  as, 
shells  grated  and  broken  to  pieces  by  the  tide  ; 
and  al  so  salts.  The  smaller  the  sand  is  the 
more  easily  it  penetrates  the  clay  ;  but  it  abidps 
less  time  in  it  than  the  larger  The  next  best 

II 


98 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


sand  is  that  washed  down  by  rains  on  gravelly 
soils.  Those  which  are  dry  and  light  are  the 
worst.  Small  gritty  gravel  has  also  been  recom- 
mended by  the  best  writers  on  agriculture,  for 
these  soils ;  and  in  many  instances  they  have 
answered  the  purpose.  Shells,  marie,  ashes,  and 
all  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  are  very 
good  manures  for  clay  ;  but  they  have  .een  found 
most  beneficial  when  sand  is  mixed  with  th  ••m. 
Lime  has  been  often  used,  but  eminent  agri- 
culturists have  found  no  advantage  from  it 
singly,  when  applied  to  clays.  The  crops  most 
suitable  for  such  lands  are,  wheat,  beans,  cab- 
bages, and  rye-grass.  Clover  seldom  succeeds, 
nor  indeed  any  plants  whose  roots  require  depth, 
and  a  wide  spread  in  the  earth. 

ii.  Chalk. — Chalky  soils  are  generally  dry 
and  warm,  and,  if  there  be  a  tolerable  depth  of 
mould,  fruitful ;  producing  great  crops  of  barley, 
rye,  peas,  vetches,  clover,  trefoil,  burnet,  and 
particularly  sainfoin.  The  latter  plant  flourishes 
in  a  chalky  soil  better  than  any  other.  .  But,  if 
the  surface  of  mould  be  very  thin,  this  soil  re- 
quires good  manuring  with  clay,  marl,  loam,  or 
dung.  As  these  lands  are  dry,  they  may  be  sown 
earL'er  than  others.  When  barley  is  three  inches 
high,  throw  in  10  Ibs.  of  clover,  15  Ibs.  of  trefoil, 
and  roll  it  well.  The  next  summer  mow  the 
crop  for  hay;  feed  off  the  aftermath  with  sheep; 
and  in  winter  give  it  a  top-dressing  of  dung. 
This  will  produce  a  crop  the  second  spring, 
which  should  be  cut  for  hay.  As  soon  as  this 
crop  is  carried  off  plough  up  the  land,  and  in 
the  beginning  of  September  sow  three  bushels  of 
rye  per  acre,  either  to  feed  off  with  sheep  in  the 
spring  or  to  stand  for  harvest.  If  you  feed  it  off, 
sow  winter  vetches  in  August  or  September, 
and  make  them  into  hay  the  following  summer. 
Then  get  the  land  into  as  fine  tilth  as  possible, 
and  sow  it  with  sainfoin,  which,  wi*H  a  little  ma- 
nure once  in  two  or  three  years,  wi  remain  and 
produce  good  crops  for  twenty  yea : s  together. 

lii.  Light  poor  land  seldom  produces  good 
crops  of  any  thing,  till  well  manured.  After  it 
is  well  ploughed,  sow  three  bushels  of  buck 
wheat  per  acre,  in  April  or  May,  When  in 
bloom,  let  the  cattle  in  a  few  days  eat  off  the  best, 
and  tread  the  other  down  ;  this  done,  plough  in 
what  remains  immediately.  This  will  soon  fer- 
ment and  rot ;  then  lay  it  fine,  and  sow  three 
bushels  of  rye  per  acre.  If  this  can  be  got  off 
early  enough,  sow  turnips ,  if  not,  winter  vetches 
to  cut  for  hay.  Then  get  it  in  good  tilth  and 
sow  turnip-rooted  cabbages,  in  rows  three  feet 
apart.  This  plant  seldom  fails,  if  it  has  sufficient 
room,  and  the  intervals  are  well  horse-hoed ;  and 
it  is  the  best  spring  feed  for  sheep  when  turnips 
are  over.  The  horse-hoeing  will  clean  and  pre- 
pare the  land  for  sainfoin,  for  the  sowing  of 
which  April  is  the  best  season.  The  usual  way 
is  to  sow  it  broad-cast,  four  bushels  to  an  acre  ; 
but  experienced  husbandmen  prefer  sowing  it  in 
drills  two  feet  asunder  ;  for  then  it  may  be  horse- 
hoed,  and  half  the  seed  will  be  sufficient.  The 
hone-hoeing  will  also  earth  up  the  plants,  and 
render  them  more  luxuriant  and  lasting.  If  you 
sow  it  broad-cast,  give  it  a  top-dressing  m  De- 
.  v»  r  or  January  of  rotten  dung  or  as!. 
IT  of  both  mixed  up  in  comport.  From 


various  trials,  it  is  found  that  taking  only  one 
crop  in  a  year,  and  feeding  the  after-growth,  is 
better  than  to  mow  it  twice.  Cut  it  as  soon  as  it 
is  in  full  bloom,  if  the  weather  will  permit  The 
hay  will  be  the  sweeter,  and  the  strength  of  the 
plants  less  impaired,  than  if  it  stands  till  the  seed 
is  formed. 

iv.  Light  rich  land,  being  the  most  easy  to» 
cultivate  to  advantage,  and  capable  of  bearing 
most  kinds  of  grain,  pulse,  and  herbage,  little 
need  be  said  upon  it.  Such  lands  are  the  best 
adapted  to  the  drill  husbandry,  especially  where 
machines  are  used,  which  require  shallow  fur- 
rows to  be  made  for  the  seed.  This,  if  no*, 
prone  to  couch-grass,  is  the  best  of  all  soiis 
for  lucerne ;  which,  if  sown  in  two  feet  drills, 
and  kept  clean,  will  yield  an  astonishing  quantity 
of  the  most  excellent  herbage.  But  lucerne  will 
never  be  cultivated  to  advantage  where  couch- 
grass  and  weeds  abound  ;  nor  in  the  broad-cast 
method,  even  where  they  do  not ;  because  horse- 
hoeing  is  essential  to  the  vigorous  growth  of  this 
plant. 

v.  Coarse  rough  land. — Plough  deep  in  au- 
tumn ;  when  it  has  lain  two  weeks,  cross  plougn 
it,  and  let  it  lie  rough  through  the  winter.  In 
March  give  it  another  good  ploughing ;  drag, 
rake,  and  harrow  it  well  to  get  out  the  rubbish, 
and  sow  four  bushels  of  black  oats  per  acre  if 
the  soil  be  wet,  and  white  oats  if  dry.  When 
about  four  inches  high,  roll  them  well  after  a 
shower ;  this  will  break  the  clods  ;  and  the  fine 
mould,  falling  among  the  roots  of  the  plants,  will 
promote  their  growth  greatly.  Some  sow  clover 
and  rye  grass  among  the  oats,  but  this  is  bad 
husbandry.  If  designed  for  clover,  sow  it  singly, 
and  let  a  coat  of  dung  be  laid  on  it  in  Decem- 
ber. The  snow  and  rain  will  then  dilute  its  salts 
and  oil,  and  carry  them  down  among  the  roots  of 
the  plants.  This  is  better  than  mixing  the  crops 
on  such  land ;  for  the  oats  will  exhaust  the  soil 
so  much  that  the  clover  will  be  impoverished. 
The  following  summer  you  will  have  a  good  crop 
of  clover,  which  cut  once,  and  feed  the  after- 
growth. In  the  winter  plough  it  in,  and  let  it 
lie  till  February ;  then  plough  and  harrow  it 
»ell ;  and  in  March,  if  the  soil  be  moist,  plant 
beans  in  drills  of  three  feet,  to  admit  the  horse- 
hoe  freely.  When  you  horse-hoe  them  a  second 
time,  sow  a  row  of  turnips  in  each  interval,  and 
they  will  succeed  well.  But,  if  the  land  be 
strong  enough  for  sowing  wheat  as  soon  as  the 
beans  are  off,  the  turnips  may  be  omitted. 

4.  Of  ploughing. — No  operation  of  agricul- 
ture is  of  more  importance  than  ploughing : 
and,  as  the  Essex  Report  on  Agriculture  here 
observes,  '  there  is  scarcely  a  circumstance  in 
agriculture  more  surprising,  after  so  general  at- 
tention has  been  paid  to  it,  than  the  extreme 
uncertainty  in  which  the  true  structure  of  the 
plough  yet  remains.  That  variations  for  differ- 
ent soils  and  circumstances  must  and  ought  to 
occur  is  admitted ;  but  one  plough  for  one  spe- 
cific object  might  have  been  produced,  its  supe- 
riority to  others  ascertained^  and  the  principles 
in  its  construction,  on  which  such  merit  de- 
pended, fully  developed,  and  laid  down  in  ac- 
curate drawings ;  yet  this  has  not  been  done : 
the  only  approximation  to  it  is,  it  is  contended, 


RURAL    ECONOMY 


99 


in  a  paper  by  the  late  Mr.  Arbuthnot,  which  the 
writer  published  nearly  forty  years  ago  in  his 
'  Eastern  Tour.'  Farming  mechanics,  it  is  sup- 
posed, look  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  for  sup- 
plying this  great  deficiency,  which  can  be  sup- 
plied only  by  a  series  of  experiments,  demanding 
a  considerable  expense,  and  more  attention.' 
But  more  of  the  construction  of  particular 
ploughs  hereafter.  We  only  need  add  here  that 
•wheels  added  to  ploughs  have,  in  the  estimation 
of  many  good  farmers,  been  only  an  apology  for 
want  of  skill  in  the  ploughman.  Yet  they  often 
afford  much  assistance,  by  enabling  him  to  exe- 
cute the  work  with  greater  regularity  in  the 
depth,  and  more  evenness  in  the  surface.  From 
the  nature  of  the  machinery  with  which  they  are 
loaded,  however,  they  are  evidently  more  expen- 
sive in  their  construction,  more  liable  to  be  put 
out  of  order,  ;>nd  from  the  friction  that  is  thus 
produced  require  more  strength  in  the  teams 
that  are  employed  in  drawing  them.  Besides, 
they  have  the  disadvantage  of  being  more  apt  to 
be  put  out  of  order  in  their  course,  by  the  occur- 
rence of  stones,  clods,  and  other  surface  ine- 
qualities, than  those  of  the  common  kind.  A 
further  inconvenience  attending  these  ploughs  is 
noticed  by  lord  Somerville  in  the  Communica- 
tions to  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  which  is,  that 
with  wheel-ploughs  workmen  are  apt  to  set  the 
points  of  their  shares  too  low,  so  as  by  their  in- 
clined direction  to  occasion  a  heavy  pressure  on 
the  wheel,  which  must  proceed  horizontally.  He 
conceives  the  effect  of  this  struggle  to  be  an  in- 
creased weight  of  draught  infinitely  beyond  what 
could  be  imagined,  on  which  account  he  thinks 
that  the  wheel  is  to  be  considered  as  of  no  con- 
sequence in  setting  a  plough  for  work ;  but  that 
passing  lightly  over  the  surface  it  will  be  of 
material  use  in  breaking  old  lays,  or  lands  where 
flints,  rocks,  or  the  roots  of  trees  are  present, 
and  in  correcting  the  depression  of  the  share 
from  any  sudden  obstruction,  as  also  in  bringing 
it  quickly  into  work  again,  when  thrown  out 
towards  the  surface.  It  is  however  believed  on 
the  whole,  by  the  writer  of  the  Middlesex  Re- 
port, that  in  comparing  two  extensive  districts, 
one  of  which  is  managed  with  wheel-ploughs, 
and  the  other  with  those  of  the  swing  kind, 
taking  ever  description  of  ploughmen  that  are 
met  with  in  them,  the  wheel-ploughs  will  be 
found  to  have  the  advantage  in  point  of  neat- 
ness of  work.  See  PLATES  OF  1'ioucns. 

But  the  great  weight  of  the  carriage  parts  for 
the  wheels,  and  the  time  and  trouble  which  they 
require  in  adjusting  and  fixing  them,  are  great 
objections  to  the  use  of  this  sort  of  plough  in 
most  cases,  and  particularly  for  the  general  pur- 
poses of  husbandry.  Therefore,  in  the  forming 
of  all  sorts  of  ploughs,  the  less  they  are  encum- 
bered with  machinery  of  the  wheel  or  other 
kinds,  the  more  useful  they  will  probably  be 
found. 

Holding  the  plough  in  a  proper  position,  and 
properly  directing  the  horses  or  cattle  which 
draw  it,  are  only  to  be  acquired  by  experience : 
it  scarcely  need  be  added,  that  the  art  of  draw- 
ing a  straight  furrow  with  a  plough  in  which 
the  horses  are  yoked  in  pairs,  consists  in 
keeping  each  of  the  horses  a  small  distance 


apart,  so  as  to  see  forward  between  them ;  and 
next  to  fix  the  eye  on  some  object  or  objects 
over  the  land,  and  keep  tltese  objects  and  the 
coulter  or  muzzle  of  the  plough  in  one  line.  By 
far  the  best  practical  directions  for  ploughing, 
as  Mr.  Loudon  thinks,  are  thus  given  in  the  Sup- 
plement to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  by  Mr. 
C  leghorn. 

'  Three  different  points  require  particular  at- 
tention in  ploughing :  1 .  The  breadth  of  the 
slice  to  be  cut;  2.  its  depth;  and  3.  the  degree 
in  which  it  is  to  be  turned  over ; — which  last 
circumstance  depends  both  upon  the  construc- 
tion of  the  plough,  particularly  the  mould-board, 
and  the  care  of  the  ploughman. 

'  The  breadth  and  depth  of  the  furrow-slice 
are  regulated  by  judiciously  placing  the  draught 
on  the  nozzle  or  bridle  of  the  plough ;  setting  it 
so  as  to  go  more  or  less  deep,  and  to  take  more 
or  less  land  or  breadth  of  slice,  according  as 
may  be  desired.  In  general,  the  plough  is  so 
regulated  that,  if  left  to  itself,  and  merely  kept 
from  falling  over,  it  would  cut  a  little  broader 
and  a  little  deeper  than  is  required.  The  coul- 
ter is  also  placed  with  some  inclination  towards 
the  left  or  land  side,  and  the  point  of  the  sock 
or  share  has  a  slight  tendency  downwards.  The 
degree  to  which  the  furrow-slice  turns  over  is 
in  a  great  measure  determined  by  the  pro- 
portion between  its  breadth  and  depth,  whic:i 
for  general  purposes  is  usually  as  three  is  to 
two;  or,  when  the  furrow  is  nine  inches  broad, 
it  ought  to  be  six  inches  in  depth.  When  the 
slice  is  cut  in  this  proportion,  it  will  be  nearly 
half  turned  over,  or  recline  at  an  angle  of  forty 
or  forty-five  degrees ;  and  a  field  so  ploughed 
will  have  its  ridges  longitudinally  ribbed  int  . 
angular  drills  or  ridgelets.  But  if  the  slice  is 
much  broader,  in  proportion  to  its  depth,  it 
will  be  almost  completely  overturned,  or  left 
nearly  flat  with  its  original  surface  downwards ; 
and  each  successive  slice  will  be  somewhat  over- 
lapped by  that  which  was  turned  over  before  it. 
And,  finally,  when  the  depth  materially  exceeds 
the  width,  each  furrow  slice  will  fall  over  on  its 
side,  leaving  all  the  original  surface  bare,  and 
only  laid  somewhat  obliquely  to  the  horizon. 

'  Ploughing  with  the  breadth  and  depth  nearly 
in  the  proportion  of  three  to  two  is  best  adapted 
for  laying  up  stubble  land  after  harvest,  when 
it  is  to  remain  during  winter  exposed  to  the  mel- 
lowing influence  of  frost,  preparatory  to  fallow 
or  turnips.  The  shallow  furrow  of  considerable 
width,  as  five  inches  in  depth  by  eight  or  nine 
wide,  is  understood  to  answer  best  for  breaking 
up  old  leys  ;  because  it  covers  up  thp  grass  turf, 
and  does  not  bury  the  manured  soil.  Ploughing 
with  the  depth  of  the  furrow  considerably  ex- 
ceeding the  width  is  a  most  unprofitable  and 
uselessly  slow  operation,  which  ought  seldom  or 
never  to  be  adopted.  The  most  generally  useful 
breadth  of  a  furrow-slice  is  from  eight  to  ten 
inches,  and  the  depth,  which  ought  to  be  seldom 
less  than  four  inches,  cannot  often  exceed  six  or 
eight  inches,  except  in  soils  uncommonly  thick 
and  fertile.  When  it  is  necessary  to  go  deeper, 
as  for  carrots  and  some  other  deep-rooted  plants 
a  trench  ploughing  may  be  given  by  means  of  a 
second  plough  following  in  the  same  furrow 

H  1 


100 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


Shallow  ploughing  ought  always  to  be  adopted 
after  turnips  are  eaten  on  the  ground,  that  the 
manure  may  not  be  buried  too  deep ;  and  also 
in  covering  lime, — especially"  if  the  ground  has 
been  pulverised  by  fallowing,  because  it  natu- 
rally tends  to  sink  in  the  soil.  In  ploughing 
down  farm-yard  dung,  it  is  commonly  necessary 
to  go  rather  deep,  that  no  part  of  the  manure 
may  be  left  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  In  the 
first  ploughing,  for  fallows  or  green  crops,  it  is 
advisable  to  work  as  deep  as  possible,  and  no 
great  danger  is  to  be  apprehended,  though  a 
small  portion  of  the  subsoil  be  at  that  time 
brought  to  the  surface.  The  furrow-slices  are 
generally  distributed  into  beds  varying  in  breadth 
according  to  circumstances ;  these  are  called 
ridges  or  lands,  and  are  divided  from  one  ano- 
ther by  gutters  or  open  furrows.  These  last 
serve  as  guides  to  the  hand  and  eye  of  the  sower 
to  the  reapers,  and  also  for  the  application  of 
manures  in  a  regular  manner.  In  soils  of  a 
strong  or  retentive  nature,  or  which  have  wet 
close  subsoils,  these  furrows  serve  likewise  as 
drains  for  carrying  off  the  surface  water,  and 
being  cleared  out,  after  the  land  is  sown  and 
harrowed,  have  the  name  of  water  furrows. 

'  Ridges  are  not  only  different  in  breadth,  but 
are  raised  more  or  less  in  the  middle,  on  different 
soils.  On  clayey  retentive  soils,  the  great  point 
to  be  attended  to  is  the  discharge  of  superflu- 
ous water.  But  narrow  ridges  or  stitches,  of 
from  three  to  five  feet,  are  not  approved  of 
in  some  of  the  best  cultivated  counties.  In 
these  a  breadth  of  fifteen  or  eighteen  feet,  the 
land  raised  by  two  gatherings  of  the  plough,  is 
most  commonly  adopted  for  such  soils ;  such 
ridges  being  thought  more  convenient  for  ma- 
nuring, sowing,  harrowing,  and  reaping  than 
narrower  ones ;  and  the  water  is  drained  off  quite 
as  effectually.  Ridges  on  dry  porous  turnip  soils 
may  be  formed  much  broader ;  and,  were  it  not 
for  their  use  in  directing  the  laborers,  may  be, 
and  sometimes  are,  dispensed  with  altogether. 
They  are  often  thirty,  or  thirty-six  feet  broad, 
which  in  Scotland  are  called  band-win  ridges, 
because  reaped  by  a  band  of  shearers,  commonly 
six,  served  by  one  binder.  If  it  be  wished  to 
obliterate  the  intermediate  furrows,  this  may  be 
done  by  casting  up  a  narrow  ridglet  or  single 
bout-drill  between  the  broad  ridges,  which  is 
afterwards  levelled  by  the  harrows. 

The  mode  of  forming  ridges  straight  and  of 
uniform  breadth  is  as  follows  : — Let  us  suppose 
a  field  perfectly  level  that  is  intended  to  be  laid 
off  into  ridges  of  any  determinate  breadth.  The 
best  ploughman  belonging  to  the  farm  conducts 
the  operation,  with  the  aid  of  three  or  more 
poles  shod  with  iron,  in  the  following  manner  : — 
The  first  thing  is  to  mark  off  the  head  ridges,  on 
which  the  horses  turn  in  ploughing,  which 
should  in  general  be  of  an  equal  breadth  from 
the  bounding  lines  of  the  field,  if  these  lines 
are  not  very  crooked  or  irregular.  The  next 
operation,  assuming  one  straight  side  of  the 
field,  or  a  line  that  has  l>een  made  straight,  as 
the  proper  direction  of  the  ridges,  is  to  measure 
off  from  it  w  ith  one  of  the  poles  (all  of  them  of 
a  certain  length,  or  expressing  specific  measures), 
l.aif  the  intende  I  breadth  of  tlie  ridge,  if  it  is  to 


be  gathered,  or  one  breadth  and  a  half  if  to  be 
ploughed  flat ;  and  there  the  ploughman  sets  up 
a  pole  as  a  direction  for  the  plough  to  enter. 
On  a  line  with  this,  and  at  some  distance,  he 
plants  a  second  pole,  and  then  in  the  same  man- 
ner a  third,  fourth,  &c.,  as  the  irregularity  cf 
the  surface  may  render  necessary,  though  three 
must  always  be  employed,  the  last  of  them  at 
the  end  of  the  intended  ridge,  and  the  whole  in 
one  straight  line.  lie  then  enters  the  plough  at 
the  first  pole,  keeping  the  line  of  poles  exactly 
between  his  horses,  and  ploughs  down  all  the 
poles  successively ;  halting  his  horses  at  each, 
and  replacing  it  at  so  many  feet  distant  as  the 
ridges  are  to  be  broad ;  so  that,  when  he  reaches 
the  end  of  the  ridge,  all  his  poles  are  a^ain  set 
up  in  a  new  line  parallel  to  the  first.  He  re- 
turns, however,  along  his  former  track,  correct- 
ing any  deviations,  and  throwing  a  shallow  fur- 
row on  the  side  opposite  to  his  former  one. 
These  furrows,  when  reversed,  form  the  crown 
of  the  ridge,  and  direct  the  ploughmen  who  are 
to  follow.  '  The  same  operations  are  carried  on 
until  the  whole  field  is  marked  out.  This  is 
called  feiring  in  Scotland,  and  striking  the  fur- 
rows in  England.  It  is  surprising  with  what 
accuracy  these  lines  are  drawn  by  skilful  plough- 
men. Another  method  has  been  adopted  for  the 
same  purpose,  which  promises  to  be  useful 
with  less  experienced  workmen.  A  stout  lath 
or  pole,  exactly  equal  in  length  to  the  breadth  of 
the  intended  ridge,  is  fixed  to  the  plough  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  of  the  draught,  one  end  of  which 
is  placed  across  the  handles  exactly  opposite  the 
coulter,  while  the  other  end  projects  towards 
the  left  hand  of  the  ploughman,  and  is  preserved 
in  its  place  by  a  rope  passing  from  it  to  the  col- 
lar of  the  near-side  horse.  At  the  outer  end  of 
the  lath  a  coulter  or  harrow  tine  is  fixed  perpen- 
dicularly, which  makes  a  trace  or  mark  on  the 
ground,  as  the  plough  moves  onwards,  exactly 
parallel  to  the  line  of  draught.  By  this  device, 
when  the  plough  is  feiring  the  crown  of  uu- 
ridge,  the  market  traces  the  line  on  which  the 
next  ridge  is  to  be  feired. — General  Report  <y' 
Scotland,  vol.  i.  p.  354. 

The  direction  and  length  of  ridges  are  points 
which  must  evidently  be  regulated  by  the  nature 
of  the  surface,  and  the  size  of  the  field.  Short 
angular  ridges,  called  butts,  which  are  often  ne- 
cessary in  a  field  with  irregular  boundaries,  are 
always  attended  with  a  considerable  loss  of  time, 
and  ought  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 
In  ploughing  steep  land  it  is  thought  advisable 
to  give  the  ridges  an  inclination  towards  the 
right  hand  at  the  top,  by  which,  in  going  up  the 
acclivity,  the  furrow  falls  more  readily  from  the 
plongh,  and  with  less  fatigue  to  the  ho 
Another  advantage  of  forming  ridges  in  a  slant- 
ing direction,  on  such  lands,  is  that  the  soil  is 
not  so  apt  to  be  washed  down  from  the  higher 
ground,  as  if  the  ridges  were  laid  at  right  angles. 
Wherever  circumstances  will  permit,  the  best 
direction,  however,  is  due  north  and  south,  by 
which  the  grain  on  both  sides  of  the  rid^e  en- 
joys nearly  equal  advantages  from  the  influence 
of  the  sun. 

'  Land  thus   formed    into   ridges,'   says   Mr. 
Loudon,    is  afterwards  cultivated  without  it,  «rk- 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


101 


ing  out  the  ridges  anew,  until  the  inter-furrows 
liave  been  obliterated  by  a  fallow  or  fallow  crop. 
This  is  done  by  one  or  other  of  the  following 
modes  of  ploughing.  1 .  If  the  soil  be  dry,  and 
the  land  has  been  ploughed  flat,  the  ridges  are 
split  out  in  such  a  way  that  the  space  which  the 
crown  of  the  old  ridge  occupied  is  now  allotted 
to  the  open  furrow  between  the  new  ones.  This 
is  technically  called  crown  and  furrow  plough- 
ing. 2.  When  the  soil  is  naturally  rather  wet, 
or,  if  the  ridges  have  been  raised  a  little  by 
former  ploughings,  the  form  of  the  old  ridges, 
and  the  situation  of  the  inter-furrows,  are  pre- 
served by  what  is  called  casting,  that  is,  the 
furrows  of  each  ridce  are  all  laid  in  one  direc- 
tion, while  those  of  the  next  adjoining  ridges 
are  turned  the  contrary  way ;  two  ridges  being 
always  ploughed  together.  3.  It  is  commonly 
necessary  to  raise  the  ridges,  on  soils  very  tena- 
cious of  moisture,  by  what  is  called  gathering, 
which  is  done  by  the  plough  going  round  the 
ridge,  beginning  at  the  crown,  and  raising  all  the 
furrow  slices  inwards.  4.  This  last  operation, 
when  it  is  wished  to  give  the  land  a  level  sur- 
face, as  in  fallowing,  is  reversed  by  turning  all 
the  furrow-slices  outwards ;  beginning  at  the 
inter-furrows,  and  leaving  an  open  furrow  on  the 
crown  of  each  ridge.  In  order  to  bring  the  land 
into  as  level  a  state  as  possible,  the  same  mode 
of  ploughing,  or  cleaning,  as  it  is  called,  may 
be  repeated  as  often  as  necessary.  With  respect 
to  ploughing  relatively  to  time,  in  the  strongest 
lands,  a  pair  of  good  horses  ought  to  plough 
three-quarters  of  an  acre  in  nine  hours ;  but  upon 
the  same  land,  after  the  first  ploughing,  on  fria- 
ble soils,  one  acre  or  an  acre  and  a  quarter  is  a 
common  day's  work.  Throughout  the  year,  an 
acre  a  day  may  be  considered  as  a  full  average 
on  soils  of  a  medium  consistency.  The  whole 
series  of  furrows  on  an  English  statute  acre, 
supposing  each  to  be  nine  inches  broad,  would 
extend  to  19,360  yards;  and  adding  twelve  yards 
to  every  220,  for  the  ground  travelled  over  in 
turning,  the  whole  work  of  one  acre  may  be 
estimated  as  extending  to  20,41 6  yards,  or  eleven 
miles  and  nearly  five  furlongs. 

'  In  ploughing  relatively  to  season,  it  is  well 
known  that  clayey  or  tenacious  soils  should 
never  be  ploughed  when  wet ;  and  that  it  is 
almost  equally  improper  to  allow  them  to  become 
too  dry,  especially  if  a  crop  is  to  be  sown  with- 
out a  second  ploughing.  The  state  in  which 
such  lands  should  be  ploughed  is  that  which  is 
commonly  indicated  by  the  phrase,  '  between 
the  wet  and  the  dry,' — while  the  ground  is 
slightly  moist,  mellow,  and  the  least  cohesive. 
The  season  best  for  ploughing  the  first  time,  for 
fallow  or  green  crops,  is  immediately  after  har- 
vest, or  after  wheat  sowing  is  finished ;  and, 
when  this  land  has  been  gone  over,  the  old  tough 
swards,  if  there  be  any,  are  next  turned  up. 
The  reasons  for  ploughing  so  early  are  sufficiently 
obvious ;  as  the  frosts  of  winter  render  the  soil 
more  friable  for  the  spring  operations,  and  assist 
in  destroying  the  weed  roots.  In  some  places, 
however,  the  first  ploughing  for  fallow  is  still 
delayed  till  after  the  spring  seed-time.' 

The  cultivator,  grubber,  scuffler,  scarifier,  &c., 
are  used  to  lessen  the  number  of  ploughings  in 


fallows  or  light  free  soils.  Their  operation  differs 
from  that  of  the  plough  in  not  reversing  the 
surface,  and  therefore  they  can  never,  as  some 
suppose,  become  a  substitute  for  that  implement. 
Still  the  grubber  is  recommended  by  good 
judges  as  a  valuable  implement.  Lester  of 
Northampton,  who  is  said  first  to  have  invented 
an  implement  of  this  kind,  declares  himself 
confident  that  one  man,  a  boy,  and  six  horses, 
will  move  as  much  land  in  a  day,  and  as  effectu- 
ally, as  six  ploughs  :  meaning  land  in  a  fallow 
state  that  has  been  previously  ploughed.  And 
this  may  allow  us  to  introduce  the  important 
question 

5.  Of  Fallowing. — '  The  vague  ancient  opi- 
nion of  the  use  of  nitre,  and  of  nitrous  salts  in 
vegetation,'  says  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  '  seems  to 
have  been  one  of  the  principal  speculative  rea- 
sons for  the  defence  of  summer  fallows.  Ni- 
trous salts  are  produced  during  the  exposure  of 
soils  containing  vegetable  and  animal  remains, 
and  in  greatest  abundance  in  Lot  weather;  but  it 
is  probably  by  the  combination  of  the  azote 
from  these  remains  with  oxygen  in  the  atmo- 
sphere that  the  acid  is  formed  ;  and  at  the  ex- 
pense of  an  element  which  otherwise  would 
have  formed  ammonia;  the  compounds  of  which 
are  much  more  efficacious  than  the  nitrons  com- 
pounds in  assisting  vegetation.  Mr.  Loudon 
observes  '  that  this  reason  is,  however,  more 
speculative  than  experimental,  and  seems  influ- 
enced by  the  opinion  adopted  by  the  author, 
that  fallows  are  of  little  use  in  husbandry. .  One 
obvious  advantage  of  aeration  in  summer,  or  a 
summer  fallow,'  he  says,  '  is,  that  the  soil  may 
thus  be  heated  by  the  sun  to  a  degr.ee  which  it 
never  could  be,  if  partially  covered  with  the 
foliage  of  even  the  widest  drilled  crops.  For 
this  purpose,  if  the  soil  is  laid  up  in  large 
lumps,  it  is  evident  it  will  receive  more  heat  by 
exposing  a  greater  surface  to  the  atmosphere, 
and  it  will  retain  this  heat  longer  than  can  he 
expected,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  lumps 
reflecting  back  the  rays  of  heat  radiated  l>y  each 
other.'  A  clayey  soil  in  this  way  (Farmer's 
Magazine,  1815)  may  be  heated  to  120°,  which 
may  in  some  degree  alter  its  absorbent  powers 
as  to  water,  and  contribute  materially  to  the 
destruction  of  vegetable  fibre,  insects,  and  their 
eggs.  By  the  aeration  of  lands,  in  winter,  mi- 
nute mechanical  division  is  obtained  by  the 
freezing  of  the  water  in  the  <(soil ;  for,  as  water 
in  the  solid  state  occupies  more  space  than 
when  fluid,  the  particles  of  earthy  matters  and  of 
decomposing  stones  are  thus  rent  asunder,  and 
crumble  down  in  a  fine  mould.  Rough  stony 
soils  will  thus  receive  an  accession  to  their  finer 
soil  every  winter. 

'  Agricultural  experience,'  adds  our  author, 
*'  has  fully  proved  that  fallows  are  the  only 
means  by  which  stiff  clays-  in  moist  climates 
can  be  effectually  cleared  of  weeds.  Supposing 
therefore  that  no  other  advantage  whatever  was 
obtained,  that  no  nutritive  matter  was  imbibed 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  the  soil  was  neither 
chemically  nor  mechanically  benefited  by  aera- 
tion, this  benefit  alone,  the  effectual  eradication 
of  weeds,  is  sufficient  to  justify  the  use  of  fallows 
on  such  soils  Many  of  the  objections  to  fal- 


102 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


lows  have  arisen  in  consequence  of  the  parties 
not  previously  agreeing  as  to  what  a  summer 
fallow  is.  In  England  generally,  or  at  least 
formerly,  a  fallow  was  a  portion  of  land  left  a 
year  without  culture  or  cropping  :  unless  being 
once  or  twice  ploughed  can  be  denominated  the 
former,  and  an  abundant  growth  of  coarse 
grasses  and  weeds  can  constitute  the  latter. 
The  jacheres  of  the  French  are  the  same  thing. 
In  Scotland  and  the  best  cultivated  districts  a 
summer  fallow  is  a  portion  of  land  which  is 
begun  to  be  cultivated  after  the  crop  is  removed 
in  autumn,  and  is  frequently,  as  need  requires, 
ploughed,  harrowed,  and  otherwise  comminuted, 
and  freed  from  stones,  weeds,  inequalities,  &c., 
till  the  autumnal  seed-time  of  the  following 
year  :  it  is  thus  for  twelve  months  in  a  state  of 
constant  tillage  and  movement.  The  result  is 
that  the  land  is  thoroughly  freed  from  roots  of 
weeds ;  from  many  seeds  of  weeds,  which  are 
thus  made  to  germinate  and  are  then  destroyed  ; 
and  from  many  eggs  of  insects  which  are  thus 
hatched,  but,  being  without  plants  to  nourish 
them  in  their  larva  state,  speedily  die.  The 
land  is  also  thoroughly  pulverised,  and  the  top, 
bottom,  and  middle,  mixed  together ;  stones  are 
picked  out ;  inequalities  unfavorable  to  surface 
drainage  removed  or  lessened,  and  various  other 
useful  objects  attained.  Such  a  fallow  can  no 
more  be  compared  with  what  usually  passes 
under  that  name  than  the  plough  of  Virgil  with 
that  of  Small.' 

East  Lothian  stands,  we  believe,  at  the  head 
of  the  Scottish  counties  for  excellent  farming : 
and  here  fallowing,  introduced  at  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  seems  to  be  practised  in  its 
greatest  perfection.  The  sixth  earl  of  Hadding- 
ton,  we  are  told,  was  the  first  proprietor,  and 
John  Walker,  of  Beanston,  near  Dunbar,  the 
first  fanner  upon  this  principle.  lie  took  the 
hint  from  some  English  travellers,  while  they 
spent  a  night  at  his  house,  and  with  whom  he 
had  conversation  upon  the  subject,  so  much  to 
his  satisfaction  that  he  made  an  experiment 
upon  six  acres  the  following  summer,  which  he 
carried  through  in  spite  of  the  animadversions  of 
his  neighbours,  who  were  divided  in  their  opi- 
nions as  to  the  sanity  of  his  mind,  or  the  sta- 
bility of  his  circumstances.  The  result  of  the 
experiment  gave  them  a  better  opinion  of  both, 
and  the  return  was  so  abundant  as  to  induce 
him  to  extend  his  next  year's  fallow  break  to 
twenty  acres  ;  soon  after  which  the  practice  began 
to  spread',  and,  so  early  as  the  year  1724,  fallow- 
ing upon  all  the  deep  strong  soils  was  common 
throughout  the  county,  and  has  continued  to  be 
so  ever  since.  The  practice  of  the  county  is 
thus  described  in  the  General  Report  of  Scot- 
land, vol.  i.  p.  419, 

'  Invariably,  after  harvest,  the  land  intended 
for  being  summer  fallowed  in  the  ensuing  year 
gets  an  end-long  ploughing,  which  ought  to  be 
as  deep  as  the  soil  will  admit,  even  though  a 
little  of  the  till  or  subsoil  is  brought  up.  This 
both  tends  to  deepen  the  cultivated  or  manured 
soil,  as  the  fresh  accession  of  hitherto  unculti- 
vated earth  becomes  afterwards  incorporated  with 
the  former  manured  soil,  and  greatly  facilitates 
the  separation  of  the  roots  of  weeds  during  the 


ensuing  fallow  process,  by  detaching  them  com- 
pletely from  any  connexion  with  the  fast  sub- 
soil. This  autumnal  ploughing,  usually  called 
the  winter  furrow,  promotes  the  rotting  of  stub- 
ble and  weeds;  and,  if  not  accomplished  to- 
wards the  end  of  harvest,  must  be  given  in  the 
winter  months,  or  as  early  in  the  spring  as  pos- 
sible. In  giving  this  first  ploughing,  the  old 
ridges  should  be  gathered  up,  if  practicable,  as 
in  that  state  they  are  kept  dry  during  the  winter 
months  ;  but  it  is  not  uncommon  to  split  them 
out  or  divide  them,  especially  if  the  land  had 
been  previously  highly  gathered,  so  that  each 
original  ridge  of  land  is  divided  into  two  half 
ridges.  Sometimes,  when  the  land  is  easily  laid 
dry,  the  furrows  of  the  old  ridges  are  made  the 
crowns  of  the  new  ones,  or  the  land  is  ploughed 
in  the  way  technically  called  crown-and-fur. 
In  other  instances  two  ridges  are  ploughed  toge- 
ther, by  what  is  called  casting,  which  has  been 
already  described.  After  the  field  is  ploughed, 
all  the  inter-furrows,  and  those  of  the  head- 
lands, are  carefully  opened  up  by  the  plough, 
and  are  afterwards  gone  over  effectually  by  a 
laborer  with  a  spade,  to  remove  all  obstructions, 
and  to  open  up  the  water  furrows  into  the  fence 
ditches,  wherever  that  seems  necessary,  that  all 
moisture  may  have  a  ready  exit.  In  every  place 
where  water  is  expected  to  lodge,  such  as  ditches 
or  hollow  places  in  the  field,  cross  or  oblique 
furrows  are  drawn  by  the  plough,  and  their  in- 
tersections carefully  opened  into  each  other  by 
the  spade.  Wherever  it  appears  necessary, 
cross  cuts  are  also  made  through  the  head  ridges 
into  the  ditches  with  a  spade,  and  every  possible 
attention  is  exerted,  that  no  water  may  stagnate 
in  any  part  of  the  field. 

'  As  soon  as  the  spring  seed-time  is  over  the 
fallow  land  is  again  ploughed  end-long.  If  for- 
merly split,  it  is  now  ridged  up ;  if  formerly 
laid  up  in  gathered  ridges,  it  is  split  or  cloven 
down.  It  is  then  cross-ploughed ;  and,  after 
lying  till  sufficiently  dry  to  admit  the  harrows, 
it  is  harrowed  and  rolled  repeatedly,  and  every 
particle  of  the  vivacious  roots  of  weeds  brought 
up  to  view,  carefully  gathered  by  hand  into 
heaps,  and  either  burnt  on  the  field  or  carted  off 
to  the  compost  midden.  The  fallow  is  then 
ridged  up,  which  places  it  in  a  safe  condition  in 
the  event  of  bad  weather,  and  exposes  a  new 
surface  to  the  harrows  and  roller;  after  whi<*h 
the  weeds  are  again  gathered  by  hand,  but  a  pre- 
vious harrowing  is  necessary.  It  is  afterwards 
ploughed,  harrowed,  rolled,  and  gathered  as 
often  as  may  be  necessary  to  reduce  it  into  fine 
tilth,  and  completely  to  eradicate  all  root  weeds. 
Between  these  successive  operations,  repeated 
crops  of  seedling  weeds  are  brought  into  vege- 
tation and  destroyed.  The  larvae  likewise  of 
various  insects,  together  with  an  infinite  variety 
of  the  seeds  of  weeds,  are  exposed  to  be  de- 
voured by  birds,  which  are  then  the  farmer's  best 
friends,  though  often  proscribed  as  his  bitterest 
enemies.  Some  writers  on  husbandry  have  con- 
demned the  use  of  the  harrow  and  roller  in  the 
fallow  process,  alleging  that  frequent  ploughing 
is  all  that  is  necessary  to  destroy  root-weeds,  i>y 
the  bating  or  drying  of  the  c.lods  in  the  sun  and 
wind  l'iit  experience  has  ascertained  that  fir- 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


103 


qucnlly  turning  over  the  ground,  though  abso- 
lutely necessary  while  the  fallow  process  is  going 
on,  can  never  eradicate  couch-grass  or  other 
root-weeds.  In  all  clay  soils,  the  ground  turns 
up  in  lumps  or  clods,  which  the  severest  drought 
will  not  penetrate  so  sufficiently  as  to  kill  the 
included  roots.  When  the  land  Is  again  plough- 
ed, these  lumps  are  simply  turned  over  and  no 
more,  and  the  action  of  the  plough  serves  in  no 
degree  to  reduce  them,  or  at  least  very  imper- 
ceptibly. It  may  be  added  that  these  lumps 
likewise  enclose  innumerable  seeds  of  weeds, 
which  cannot  vegetate  unless  brought  under  the 
influence  of  the  sun  and  air  near  the  surface. 
The  diligent  use,  therefore,  of  the  harrow  and 
roller,  followed  by  careful  hand-picking,  is  indis- 
pensably necessary  to  the  perfection  of  the  fallow 
process.' 

'  When  employed  to  reduce  a  strong  obdurate 
soil,  not  more  than  two  of  the  common  sort  of 
harrows  should  be  yoked  together,  because  they 
are  apt  to  ride  and  tumble  upon  each  other,  and 
thus  impede  the  work.  It  may  also  be  remarked 
that  on  rough  soils  harrows  ought  to  be  driven 
as  fast  as  the  horses  can  walk ;  because  their 
effect  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  degree  of 
velocity  with  which  they  are  driven  :  and  the 
harrow-man's  attention  should  be  constantly 
directed  to  prevent  these  implements  from  riding 
upon  each  other,  and  to  keep  them  clear  of  every 
impediment,  from  stones,  lumps  of  earth,  clods, 
and  grass  roots.  In  ordinary  cases,  and  in  every 
case  where  harrowing  is  meant  for  covering  the 
seed,  and  the  common  implement  in  use,  three 
harrows  are  the  best  yoke,  because  they  fill  up 
the  ground  more  effectually  than  when  a  smaller 
number  is  employed ;  some  of  the  improved 
forms,  calculated  to  cover  the  breadth  of  two 
or  more  of  the  old  harrows  by  one  frame,  are 
only  fit  for  flat  ridges ;  or  for  working  dry  lands 
in  which  ridging  is  not  requisite. 

6.  Of  the  usual  crops. — The  preceding  part 
of  this  treatise  is  all  preparatory  to  the  capital 
object  of  a  farm,  that  of  raising  plants  for  the 
nourishment  of  man  and  other  animals.  These 
(see  AGRICULTURE,  par.  84)  are  of  two  kinds ; 
culmiferous  and  leguminous ;  differing  widely 
from  each  other.  Wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats, 
rye-grass,  are  of  the  first  kind  ;  of  the  other  kind 
are  peas,  beans,  clover,  cabbage,  and  many 
others.  The  propagation  of  plants  is  naturally 
divided  into  three  subdivisions : — 1st.  Plants 
cultivated  for  fruit;  2d.  Plants  cultivated  for 
roots  ;  3d.  Plants  cultivated  for  leaves. 

SECT.  I. — PLANTS  CULTIVATED  FOR  FRUIT. 

1.  WHEAT  takes  the  lead  among  plants  cul- 
tivated for  fruit.  A  sandy  soil  is  thought  too 
loose ;  the  only  chance  for  a  crop  is  after  red 
clover,  say  some  writers,  the  roots  of  which  bind 
the  soil.  Rye  is  a  crop  much  fitter  for  sandy 
soil  than  wheat;  and  like  wheat  is  generally 
sown  after  a  summer-fallow.  Sow  wheat  as 
soon  as  the  ground  is  ready.  When  sown  too 
early,  however,  it  is  too  forward  in  spring,  and 
apt  to  be  hurt  by  frost;  when  sown  a  month  too 
late,  it  has  not  time  to  root  before  frost  comes 
on,  and  frost  spews  it  out  of  the  ground.  The 
greater  part  of  the  wheat  crop  throughout  Britain 
is  probably  sown  upon  fallowed  land.  '  When 


it  succeeds  turnips  consumed  on  the  ground,  or 
clover  cut  for  hay  or  soiling,  it  is  commonly 
sown  after  one  ploughing ;  but  upon  heavier 
soils,  or  after  grass  of  two  or  more  years,  the  land 
is  ploughed  twice  or  three  times.' 

Setting  of  wheat,  or  dibbling,  is  a  method 
which  is  reckoned  one  of  the  greatest  improve- 
ments in  husbandry  that  was  made  during  the 
last  century.  It  seems  to  have  been  first  sug- 
gested by  planting  grains  in  a  garden  from  cu- 
riosity, by  persons  who  had  no  opportunity  of 
extending  it  to  a  lucrative  purpose.  Nor  was 
it  attempted  on  a  larger  scale,  till  a  farmer 
near  Norwich  began  it  upon  less  than  an  acre  of 
land.  For  two  or  three  years  only  a  few  followed 
his  example ;  and  these  were  generally  the  butt 
of  their  neighbours.  They  had,  however,  consi- 
derably better  corn  and  larger  crops,  which,  to- 
gether with  the  saving  of  seed,  engaged  more  to 
follow  them.  Experiment  established  the  prac- 
tice, and  was  the  means  of  introducing  it  gene- 
rally among  the  intelligent  farmers  of  a  very 
large  district. 

The  lands  on  which  this  method  was  found 
particularly  prosperous  were  either  after  a  clover 
stubble,  or  on  which  ti  efoil  and  grass-seed  were 
sown  the  preceding  year.  These  grounds,  after 
the  usual  manuring,  were  once  turned  over  by 
the  plough  in  an  extended  flag  or  turf,  at  ten 
inches  wide ;  along  which  a  man,  called  a 
dibbler,  with  two  setting-irons  somewhat  bigger 
than  ram-rods,  but  considerably  bigger  at  the 
lower  end,  and  pointed  at  the  extremity,  walked 
backwards  along  the  turf  and  made  the  holes 
about  four  inches  asunder  every  way,  and  one 
deep.  Into  these  holes  the  droppers  (women, 
boys  and  girls)  dropped  two  grains,  which  is 
quite  sufficient.  After  this  a  gate,  bushed  with 
thorns,  was  drawn  by  one  horse  over  the  land, 
and  closed  the  holes.  By  this  mode,  three  pecks 
of  grain  are  sufficient  for  an  acre;  and,  being  im- 
mediately buried,  it  is  equally  removed  from 
vermin  or  the  power  of  frost.  The  regularity  of 
its  rising  gives  the  best  opportunity  of  keeping 
it  clear  from  weeds,  by  weeding  or  hand-hoeing. 
Sir  Thomas  Beevor  of  Hethel-Hall,  in  Norfolk, 
soon  found  the  produce  to  be  two  bushels  per 
acre  more  than  from  the  wheat  which  is  sown  ; 
and,  having  much  less  small  corn  intermixed  with 
it,  the  sample  was  better,  and  always  fetched  a 
higher  price.  This  method,  too,  saves  to  the 
farmer  and  to  the  public  many  pecks  of  seed- 
wheat. 

In  light  lands  a  very  dry  time  prevents 
dibbling,  as  the  holes  made  with  the  instruments 
will  be  filled  up  again  with  the  mould  as  fast  as 
the  instrument  is  withdrawn.  So,  again,  in  a 
very  wet  season,  on  strong  and  stiff  clays,  the 
seeds  in  the  holes  cannot  be  properly  covered  by 
the  bushes  drawn  over  them.  But  these  extremes 
of  dry  and  wet  do  not  often  happen,  nor  do  they 
affect  lands  of  a  moderately  consistent  texture, 
or  both  light  and  heavy  soils  at  the  same  time, 
so  that  the  general  practice  is  in  fact  never  great- 
ly impeded  by  them. 

In  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1768 
we  meet  with  an  extraordinary  experiment  for 
propagating  wheat,  of  which  the  following  is  an 
abstract:— On  the  2d  of  June,  1766,  Mr.  C. 
Miller  (son  of  the  celebrated  gardener  of  this 


104 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


name)  sowed  some  grains  of  the  common  red 
wheat ;  and  on  the  8th  of  August,  a  single  plant 
was  taken  up  and  separated  into  eighteen  parts, 
and  each  part  planted  separately.  These  plants 
having  pushed  out  several  side-shoots,  about  the 
middle  of  September,  some  of  them  were  taken 
up  and  divided,  and  the  rest  between  that  time 
and  the  middle  of  October.  This  second  division 
produced  sixty-seven  plants.  These  plants  re- 
mained through  the  winter,  and  another  division 
of  them,  made  between  the  middle  of  March  and 
the  12th  of  April,  produced  500  plants.  They 
were  then  divided  no  further,  but  permitted  to 
remain.  The  plants  were  in  general  stronger 
than  any  of  the  wheat  in  the  fields.  Some  of 
them  produced  upwards  of  100  ears  from  a  single 
root.  Many  of  the  ears  measured  seven  inches 
in  length,  and  contained  between  sixty  and  se- 
venty grains.  The  whole  number  of  ears  which, 
by  the  process  abovementioned,  were  produced 
from  one  grain  of  wheat,  was  21,109,  which 
yielded  three  pecks  and  three  quarters  of  clear 
corn,  the  weight  of  which  was  forty-seven  pounds 
seven  ounces ;  and,  from  a  calculation  made  by 
counting  the  number  of  grains  in  an  ounce,  the 
whole  number  of  grains  was  about  576,840. 
There  was  only  one  general  division  of  the 
plants  made  in  the  spring.  Had  a  second  been 
made,  Mr.  Miller  thinks,  the  number  of  plants 
would  have  amounted  to  2000.  The  ground 
was  a  light  blackish  soil,  upon  a  gravelly  bottom ; 
and  consequently  a  bad  soil  for  wheat.  One 
half  of  the  ground  was  well  dunged,  the  other 
half  had  no  manure.  There  was,  however,  no 
difference  discoverable  in  the  vigor  or  growth  of 
the  plants.  It  is  evident  that  the  expense  and 
labor  of  setting  in  the  above  manner  by  the 
hand,  will  render  it  impracticable  upon  a  large 
scale. 

A  correspondent  of  the  Bath  Society,  there- 
fore (Robert  Bogle,  esq.),  to  extend  the  practice, 
proposed  the  use  of  the  harrow  and  roller  until 
some  better  implements  be  invented.  This 
method  occurred  to  him  from  attending  to  the 
practice  usual  with  farmers,  of  harrowing  their 
fields  after  the  grain  is  sprung  up.  Upon  inves- 
tigating the  principles  upon  which  these  practices 
are  founded,  they  said,  '  that  after  very  heavy 
rains,  and  then  excessive  dry  weather,  the  surface 
•  f  their  lands  was  apt  to  be  caked,  the  tender 
fibres  of  the  young  roots  were  thereby  prevented 
from  pushing,  and  of  course  the  vegetation  was 
greatly  obstructed  ;  in  such  instances  they  found 
very  great  benefit  from  harrowing  and  rolling.' 
This  reasoning  he  owns  to  be  well  founded,  but 
contends  that  the  benefit  arising  from  harrowing 
and  rolling  is  not  derived  from  pulverising  en- 
tirely, but  from  subdividing  and  enabling  the 
plants  to  tiller,  as  it  is  termed.  '  The  harrow,'  he 
observes,  '  certainly  breaks  the  incrustation,  and 
the  roller  crumbles  the  clods ;  but  the  harrow 
removes  many  of  the  plants  from  their  original 
stations  ;  and,  if  the  corn  has  begun  to  tiller  at  the 
time  it  is  used,  the  roots  will  be  in  many  instances 
subdivided,  and  then  the  application  of  my 
system  of  divisibility  comes  into  play.  The 
roller  then  serves  to  plant  the  roots  which  liavc 
been  torn  up  the  harrow.'  On  this  the  society 
observe,  that  the  teeth  of  a  harrow  are  too  l-ir^c 


to  divide  roots  so  small  and  tenacious  as  those 
of  grain ;  and,  whenever  such  roots  stand  in  the 
line  any  tooth  makes,  they  will,  if  small,  be  only 
turned  on  one  side  by  the  earth  yielding  to  their 
lateral  pressure,  or,  if  large,  the  whole  root  will 
be  drawn  out  of  the  ground.  The  principal 
uses,  therefore,  derived  from  harrowing  and 
rolling  these  crops  are,  opening  the  soil 
between  the  plants,  earthing  them  up,  break- 
ing the  clods,  and  closing  the  earth  about  their 
roots.  '  I  have  conversed,'  says  Mr.  Bogle, 
'  much  with  many  practical  farmers,  who  all 
admit  that  my  plan  has  the  appearance  not  only 
of  being  practical,  but  advantageous.  I  have 
also  seen  in  the  ninth  number  of  Mr.  Young's 
Annals  of  Agriculture  the  account  of  an  expe- 
riment which  strongly  corroborates  my  theory. 
It  was  made  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Pike  of  Edmonton. 
From  this,  and  other  experiments  which  have 
been  made  under  my  own  eye,  I  foresee  clearly 
that  the  system  is  practicable,  and  will  certainly 
be  productive  of  great  benefit,  should  it  become 
general.  Besides  the  saving  of  nine-tenths  of 
seed  in  the  land  sown  broad-cast,  other  very 
important  advantages  will  attend  the  setting  out 
of  wheat  from  a  seed-bed,  such  as  an  early  crop  ; 
the  certainty  of  good  crops  ;  rendering  a  summer 
fallow  unnecessary;  saving  dung;  and  having 
your  wheat  perfectly  free  from  weeds  without 
either  hand  or  horse-hoeing :  500  plants  in  April 
produced  almost  a  bushel  of  grain.  My  gardener 
says,  he  can  set  1000  plants  in  a  day,  which  is 
confirmed  by  the  opinion  of  two  other  gar- 
deners.' 

Excellent  wheat  according  to  Brown  (Tracts 
on  Rural  Affairs)  may  be  grown  on  light  soils, 
with  the  exception  of  soft  sands.  Such  soils, 
however,  are  not  constitutionally  disposed  to  the 
growth  of  that  grain ;  nor  will  they,  under  any 
management,  bear  such  a  frequent  repetition  of 
it  as  those  already  mentioned.  Summer  fallow 
on  them  may  safely  be  dispensed  with  ;  because 
a  crop  of  turnips,  which  admits  every  branch  of 
the  cleaning  process  to  be  more  perfectly  exe- 
cuted than  even  a  naked  or  bare  fallow  does, 
may  be  profitably  substituted.  Wheat  here 
comes  in  with  propriety  after  turnips,  though, 
in  general  cases,  it  must  be  sown  in  the  spring 
months,  unless  the  turnips  are  stored ;  in  which 
case  it  may  be  sown  in  November ;  or  it  may  be 
sown  after  clover,  for  the  fourth  crop  after  the 
rotation  ;  or  in  the  sixth  year,  as  a  way-going 
crop,  after  drilled  peas  and  beans,  if  the  rota- 
tion is  extended  to  that  length.  But,  take  it 
any  way,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  raise  wheat  so 
extensively  upon  light  soils,  even  where  they  are 
of  the  richest  quality,  as  is  practicable  upon 
clays;  nor  will  a  crop  of  equal  bulk  upon  the 
one  return  so  much  produce  in  grain  as  may  be 
got  from  the  other.  To  enlarge  upon  this  point 
would  only  serve  to  prove  what  few  husband- 
men will  dispute,  though,  it  may  be  added,  that, 
on  thin  sands,  wheat  ought  not  to  be  ventured, 
unless  they  are  either  completely  clayed  or 
marled,  as  it  is  only  with  the  help  of  these  aux- 
iliaries that  such  a  soil  can  gam  stamina  ca- 
pable of  producing  wheat  with  any  degree  of 
succi  --. 

'  On  soils  really  calculated  for  wheat,  though 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


105 


in  different  degrees,  summer  fallow  is  the  first 
and  leading  step  to  gain  a  good  crop  or  crops  of 
that  grain.      The  first  furrow  should  be  given 
before  winter,  or  as  early  as  other  operations 
upon  the  farm  will  admit;  and  every  attention 
should  be  used  to  go  as  deep  as  possible ;  for  it 
rarely  happens  that  any  of  the  succeeding  fur- 
rows exceed  the  first  one  in  that  respect.    The 
number  of  after-ploughings  must  be  regulated 
by  the  condition  of  the  ground  and  the  state  of 
the  weather;   but,  in    general,  it    may  be  ob- 
served  that  ploughing  in  length  and  across,  al- 
ternately, is  the  way  by  which  the  ground  will 
be  most  completely  cut,  and  the  intention  of 
fallowing  accomplished.       It  has  been  argued 
that  harrowing  clay  soils,  when  summer  fallowed, 
is  prejudicial  to  the  wheat  crop ;  but,  without 
discussing  this  point  (such  a  discussion  being 
unnecessary),  it  may  merely  be  stated  that  in  a 
dry  season  it  is  almost  impracticable  to  reduce 
real  clays,  or  to  work  them  too  small ;  and  that 
oven  in  a  wet  one,  supposing  they  are  made 
surface-smooth,  they  will,  when  ploughed   up 
attain,  consolidate  into  clods  or  big  lumps  after 
forty -eight  hours'  drought,  and  become  nearly  as 
obdurate  as  ever.     It  is  only  on  thin  soils,  which 
have  a  mixture  of  peat  earth,  and  are  incumbent 
on  a  bottom  impervious  to  wafer,  that  damage 
is   at   any  time   sustained   by  over  harrowing. 
Such  are  generally  of  a  weak  texture,  and  may 
be  broken  down  with  facility  by  the  roller  and 
harrow.      If  caught  by  much  rain,  before  the 
pores  are  in  some  measure  closed,  the  moisture 
is  greedily  absorbed  ;  and,  being  prevented  from 
going  downwards  by   the  hardness  of  the  sub- 
soil, the  whole  surface  becomes  a  kind  of  mor- 
tar or  paste,  unless  previously  well  ridged  up; 
which,  to  a  certain  extent,  prevents  the  conse- 
quences  from   being   dangerous.     These   evils, 
ho%vever,  must  be  submitted  to  by  the  posses- 
sors of  such  soils,  if  they  want  to  have  them 
sufficiently  fallowed  and  prepared  in  a  proper 
manner;    for,  without   reducing   them,   couch- 
grass,  and  especially  moss,  with  which  they  are 
commonly  stored,  cannot  be  eradicated.     If  they 
are  reduced  in  the  early  part'of  the  season,  the 
danger  is  small ;  but  to  break  them  down  in  the 
latter  part  ought  always  to  be  avoided,  unless 
called  for  by  imperious  necessity.     When  wheat 
is  sown  after  beans   it  rarely  happens,  in  this 
northern  climate,  that  more  than  one  ploughing 
can  be  successfully  bestowed.      Before  this  is 
given   it    is   advantageous   to  cross-harrow  the 
land,  which  levels  the  drills,  and  permits  the 
ploughing  process  to  be  executed  with  precision. 
Almost  in  every  case  the  ridges  should  be  ga- 
thered  up,   so   that   the   furrows  may  be  well 
cleared  out,  and  the  plants  preserved  from  in- 
jury during  the  inclement  winter  season.     Clover 
land  should  be  neatly  ploughed,  and  well  laid 
over,  so  that  the  roots  of  the  grasses  may  be 
buried  and  destroyed  ;  for  it  frequently  happens 
that  crops  of  wheat,  after  clover  and  rye-grass, 
.  are  greatly  injured  by  inattention  to  the  plough- 
ing process.     In  short,  sowing  wheat  after  clover 
may  be  considered  as  the  most  hazardous  way  in 
which  that  grain  can  be  cultivated.' 

The  manures  best  calculated  for  wheat,  are  now 
generally  allowed  to  be  animal  matters  and  lime. 


It  is  certain  according  to  Sir  H.  Davy,  Chaptal, 
&c.,  that  wheat  will  not  thrive  on  any  soil  that  does 
not  contain  lime.  Professor  Thaer  says  it  ab- 
sorbs more  nourishment  from  the  soil  than  any 
of  the'  corn  tribe;  and  he  calculates  (hypothe- 
tically,  as  he  allows)  that  for  every  100  parts  of 
nutriment  in  a  soil  sown  with  this  grain,  forty 
will  be  carried  off  by  the  crop.  (Principes 
Raisonnees,  torn.  iv.  art.  Froment).  At  the 
same  time  too  much  manure  on  land  in  good 
tilth  is  very  apt  to  cause  the  crop  to  lodge; 
and  hence  some  people  think  it  improper  to 
dung  rich  clays  or  loams  when  fallowed,  and 
choose  rather  to  reserve  that  restorative  till  the 
succeeding  season,  when  they  are  prepared  for  a 
crop  of  drilled  beans.  Delaying  the  manuring 
process  for  a  year  is  attended  with  many  advan- 
tages ;  because  good  land,  fully  wrought,  con- 
tains such  a  principle  of  action  within  itself,  as 
often  causes  the  first  wheat  crop  to  be  lodged 
before  it  is  filled ;  under  which  circumstance, 
the  produce  is  diminished  both  in  quantity  and 
quality.  This  delay  in  manuring  is,  however, 
attended  with  disadvantages;  because,  when 
dung  is  kept  back  till  the  end  of  autumn  or 
beginning  of  winter,  to  be  laid  on  the  stubbles, 
the  weather  is  often  so  wet  that  it  cannot  be 
carted  on  without  subjecting  the  land  to  injury 
from  poaching,  whilst  the  labor  in  laying  it  on  fs 
also  increased.  On  thin  clays,  or  even  upon 
soils  of  the  other  description  not  in  high  condi- 
tion, there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  end  of 
summer,  and  upon  summer  fallow,  is  the  most 
proper  time  for  manuring  them,  though  it  will 
be  found  that  an  improvident  expenditure  of 
dung,  on  such  occasions,  ought  always  to  be 
steadily  avoided.  Where  manure  is  abundant, 
wheat  alternating  with  a  green  crop,  or  indeed 
any  corn  crop  and  a  green  crop  may  be  grown 
alternately  for  any  length  of  time.  (Farm.  Mag. 
vol.  xxiii.  p.  298). 

Wheat  is  sown  as  far  north  as  Petersburgh 
and  in  Sweden,  and  will  endure  a  great  deal  of 
cold  during  winter,  if  sown  in  a  dry  or  well 
drained  soil.  Moderately  moist  weather  before 
the  flowering  season,  and  after  the  grain  is  set  or 
formed,  is  favorable;  but  continued  heavy  rains 
after  the  flowering  season  produces  the  smut. 
The  dry  frosty  winds  of  February  and  March, 
and  even  April  in  some  districts,  are  more  inju- 
rious to  the  wheats  of  Britain  than  any  other 
weather.  Hoar  frosts,  when  the  plant  is  in  the 
ear,  produce  blights ;  and  mildews  often  result 
from  or  follow  sultry  winds  and  fogs.  Cold,  in 
the  blossoming  and  ripening  season  in  July, 
even  unaccompanied  by  wind  or  rain,  produces 
an  inferior  grain,  greatly  deficient  in  gluten  ;  and 
heat  the  contrary.  The  most  valuable  wheat  of 
Europe,  according  to  Sir  H.  Davy,  is  that  of 
Sicily ;  which  he  found  to  contain  much  more 
gluten  than  any  other. 

The  season  of  sowing  wheat  on  clays,  accord- 
ing to  the  able  writer  in  the  Ency.  Brit.  Supple- 
ment, is  generally  the  latter  end  of  autumn ;  but 
on  early  turnip  soils  it  is  sown  after  clover  or 
turnips,  at  almost  every  period  from  tne  begin- 
ning of  September  till  the  middle  of  March , 
but  the  far  greater  part  is  sown  in  September  and 
October.  For  summer  wheat,  in  the  southeni 


10G 


RURAL     E  C  O  N  O  M  Y. 


districts,  May  is  sufficiently  early,  but  in  the 
north  the  last  fortnight  of  April  is  thought  a 
more  eligible  seed-time.  In  the  cultivation  of 
spring-sown  winter  wheat,  it  is  of  importance  to 
use  the  produce  of  spring-sown  grain  as  seed,  as 
the  crop  of  such  grain  ripens  about  a  fortnight 
earlier  than  when  the  produce  of  the  same  wheat 
winter-sown  is  employed  as  spring  seed.  Ac- 
cording to  Brown,  this  process  is  indispensably 
necessary  on  every  soil ;  otherwise  smut,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  will,  in  nine  cases  out  of 
ten,  assuredly  follow.  Though  almost  all  prac- 
tical farmers  are  agreed  as  to  the  necessity  of 
pickling,  yet  they  are  not  so  unanimous  as  to 
the  modus  operand!  of  the  process,  and  the  ar- 
ticle which  is  best  calculated  to  answer  the  in- 
tended purpose.  Stale  urine  may  be  considered 
as  a  safe  and  sure  pickle ;  and,  where  it  can  be 
obtained  in  a  sufficient  quantity,  is  commonly 
resorted  to.  The  mode  of  using  it  does  not, 
however,  seem  to  be  agreed  upon;  one  party 
contends  that  the  grain  ought  to  be  steeped  in 
the  urine,  another  considers  it  as  sufficient  to 
sprinkle  the  urine  upon  it.  Some,  again,  are 
advocates  for  a  pickle  made  of  salt  and  water, 
suttciently  strong  to  buoy  up  an  egg,  in  which 
the  grain  is  to  be  thoroughly  steeped.  But  what- 
ever difference  of  opinion  there  may  be  as  to  the 
kind  of  pickle  that  ought  to  be  used,  and  the 
mode  of  using  it,  all  admit  the  utility  of  mixing 
the  wetted  seed  with  hot  lime,  fresh  slaked  ;  and 
this,  in  one  point  of  view,  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary, so  that  the  seed  may  be  equally  distri- 
buted. It  may  be  remarked  that  experience 
justifies  the  utility  of  all  these  modes,  provided 
they  are  attentively  carried  into  execution. 
There  is  some  danger  from  the  first ;  for,  if  the 
seed  steeped  in  urine  is  not  immediately  sown, 
it  will  infallibly  lose  its  vegetative  power.  The 
second,  viz.  sprinkling  the  urine  on  the  seed, 
seems  to  be  the  safest,  if  performed  by  an  atten- 
tive hand;  whilst  the  last  may  do  equally  well, 
if  such  a  quantity  of  salt  be  incorporated  with 
the  water  as  to  render  it  of  sufficient  strength. 
It  may  also  be  remarked  that  this  last  mode  is 
oftener  accompanied  with  smut,  owing  no  doubt 
to  a  deficiency  of  strength  in  the  pickle ;  whereas 
a  single  head  with  smut  is  rarely  discovered 
when  urine  has  been  used.  A  mode  of  pre- 
paring wheat  for  sowing,  recently  adopted  in  the 
south  of  Scotland,  is  thus  described  : — '  Take 
four  vessels,  two  of  them  smaller  than  the  other 
two,  the  former  with  wire  bottoms,  and  of  a  size 
to  contain  about  a  bushel  of  wheat,  the  latter 
large  enough  to  hold  the  smaller  within  them. 
Fill  one  of  the  large  tubs  with  water,  and,  put- 
ting the-wheat  in  the  small  one,  immerse  it  in 
the  water  and  stir  and  skim  off  the  grains  that 
float  above,  and  renew  the  water  as  often  as  is 
necessary,  till  it  comes  off  almost  quite  clean. 
Then  raise  the  small  vessel  in  which  the  wheat 
is  contained,  and  repeat  the  process  with  it  in 
the  other  large  tub,  which  is  to  be  filled  with 
stale  urine ;  and  in  the  mean  time  wash  more 
wheat  in  the  water  tub.  When  abundance  of 
water  is  at  hand,  this  operation  is  by  no  means 
tedious;  and  the  wheat  is  much  more  effectually 
cleansed  from  all  impurities,  and  freed  more 
completely  from  weak  and  unhealthy  grains  and 


seeds  of  weeds,  than  can  be  done  by  t'ne  win- 
nowing machine.  \\  hen  thoroughly  washed  and 
skimmed,  let  it  drain  a  little;  then  empty  it  on  a 
clear  floor  or  in  the  cart  that  is  to  take  it  to  the 
field,  and  sift  quick-lime  upon  it,  turning  it  over 
and  mixing  it  with  a  shovel,  till  it  be  sufficiently 
dry  for  sowing.'  (Supplement,  Ency.  Brit.  art. 
Agriculture). 

The  modes  of  sowing  wheat  are  either  broad- 
cast, drilling,  ribbing,  or  dibbling.  The  first 
mode  is  the  most  general,  and  the  seed  is  for  the 
most  part  covered  by  harrowing;  but  no  more 
harrowing,  Brown  observes,  should  be  given  to 
fields  that  have  been  fallowed,  than  what  is  ne- 
cessary to  cover  the  seed,  and  level  the  surface. 
Ground  which  is  to  lie  in  a  broken  down  state 
through  the  winter  suffers  severely  when  an  ex- 
cessive harrowing  is  given.  It  is  a  general  prac- 
tice in  most  of  the  southern  counties,  and  even 
on  opposite  soils,  when  wheat  is  sown  broad- 
cast, to  plough  it  in  with  a  shallow  furrow. 
This  i*  done  erven  after  beans  and  on  clover  leys. 

Drilling  is  also  practised,  and  is  becoming 
more  general  on  lands  infested  with  annual 
weeds.  A  machine  which  sows  at  three  different 
intervals,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  far- 
mer, of  twelve,  ten  and  a  half,  or  nine  inches, 
is  much  approved  of  in  the  northern  districts. 
It  deposits  six,  seven,  or  eight  rows  at  once,  ac- 
cording as  it  is  adjusted  to  one  or  other  of  these 
intervals,  and  the  work  is  done  with  ease  and 
accuracy  when  the  ridges  are  previously  laid  out 
of  such  a  breadth,  twelve  and  a  half  feet,  as  to 
be  sown  by  one  bout :  the  machine  going  along 
one  side  of  such  a  ridge,  and  returning  on  the 
other,  and  its  direction  being  guided  by  one  of 
its  wheels,  which  thus  always  runs  in  the  open 
furrow  between  the  ridges.  If  the  ten  and  a 
half  inch  interval  be  adopted,  and  it  is  the  most 
common  one  in  that  country,  the  machine  sows 
seven  rows  at  once,  or  fourteen  rows  on  a  ridge 
of  twelve  feet  and  a  half.  But  the  space  be- 
tween the  rows  varies  in  some  parts  still  more 
than  this  machine  admits  of;  it  ought  not,  how- 
ever, to  be  so  narrow  as  to  prevent  hand  hoeing, 
even  after  the  crop  has  made  considerable  pro- 
gress in  growth ;  and  it  cannot  advantageously 
be  so  wide  as  to  admit  the  use  of  any  effective 
horse-hoe. 

Ribbing  is  a  mode  of  sowing  in  some  places, 
by  which  a  drill  machine  is  dispensed  with.  The 
seed  is  scattered  with  the  hand  in  the  usual 
broad-cast  manner,  but,  as  it  necessarily  falls  for 
the  most  part  in  the  furrows  between  the  ribs, 
the  crop  rises  in  straight  parallel  rows,  as  if  it 
had  been  sown  by  a  drill  machine  :  after  sowing 
the  ribs  are  levelled  by  harrowing  across.  This 
plan  has  nearly  all  the  advantages  of  drilling  in 
so  far  as  regards  exposure  to  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
and  the  circulation  of  air  among  the  plants  ;  but, 
as  some  plants  must  always  rise  between  the 
rows,  it  is  not  quite  so  proper  when  horse-hoeing 
is  required. 

Of  dibbling  Mr.  Loudon  says,  notwithstand- 
ing the  advantages  of  saving  seed,  as  well  as 
some  others  which  are  generally  reckoned  unde- 
niable, it  is  asserted  by  some  very  judicious 
farmers  that  dibbling  of  wheat  on  the  whole  is 
not  really  a  profitable  practice.  It  is  parti- 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


107 


cularly  said  to  be  productive  of  weeds  unless 
dibbled  very  thick :  which  indeed  may  probably 
be  the  case,  as  the  weeds  are  thus  allowed  a 
greater  space  to  vegetate  in.  Marshal  is  of  opi- 
nion that  the  dibbling  of  wheat  appears  to  be 
peculiarly  adapted  to  deep  rich  soils,  on  which 
three  or  four  pecks  dibbled  early  may  spread 
sufficiently  for  a  full  crop  ;  whereas  light,  weak, 
shallow  soils,  which  have  lain  two  or  three  years, 
and  have  become  grassy,  require  an  additional 
quantity  of  seed,  and  consequently  an  addition 
of  labor,  otherwise  the  plants  are  not  able  to 
reach  each  other,  and  the  grasses  of  course  find 
their  way  up  between  them,  by  which  means  the 
crop  is  injured  and  the  soil  rendered  foul.  If  a 
single  grain  of  good  size  and  sound  could  be 
dropt  in  each  hole,  and  no  more,  there  might  be 
an  advantage  in  dibbling  where  it  could  be  ac- 
complished at  a  moderate  rate ;  but  where  two 
or  three  grains  are  put  in  each  hole,  and  often 
six  or  eight,  the  source  of  profit  is  diminished 
or  destroyed  by  twofold  means ;  first,  by  using 
too  much  seed ;  and,  secondly,  because  three  or 
four  grains  springing  out  of  one  hole  will  not 
make  such  a  strong  plant  or  stool  as  one  sound 
grain.  The  only  way  in  which  we  can  conceive 
dibbling  likely  to  answer  is  by  the  use  of  a  ma- 
chine such  as  that  invented  by  I'lunkett,  but 
which  never  came  into  use.  To  attempt  dib- 
bling either  wheat  or  beans  by  hand,  on  a  large 
scale,  we  consider  as  quite  unsuitable  for  the 
present  improved  state  of  agriculture.' 

When  wheat  is  sown  broad-cast,  the  subse- 
quent culture  is  confined  to  harrowing,  rolling, 
and  hand-hoeing :  and,  as  grass  seeds  are  fre- 
quently sown  in  spring  on  winter-sown  wheat, 
the  harrows  and  roller  are  employed  to  loosen 
the  soil,  and  cover  the  seeds,  operations  to  a 
certain  extent  found  beneficial  to  the  wheat  crop 
itself,  and  sometimes  performed  when  grass  seeds 
are  not  to  be  sown.  One  or  two  courses  of  har- 
rowing penetrate  the  crust  which  is  formed  on 
tenacious  soils,  and  operate  like  hand-hoeing  in 
raising  a  fresh  mould  to  the  stems  of  the  young 
plants.  Rolling  in  spring  ought  never  to  be 
omitted  on  dry  porous  soils. 

When  drilling,  ribbing,  or  dibbling  has  been 
adopted,  the  intervals  are  hoed  or  stirred  either 
by  hand  hoes,  common  or  pronged,  by  horse 
hoes,  or  drill  harrows.  In  general  the  drill 
used  at  sowing  will  be  the  best  to  use  for  hoe- 
ing or  stirring.  Or,  if  a  single  drill  should  have 
been  used,  the  expanding  horse  hoe,  or  Blakie's 
invented  horse-hoe,  may  be  successfully  adopted. 
The  operation  of  hoeing  or  stirring  should  gene- 
rally be  performed  in  March.  Weeding  the  rows 
should  not  be  delayed  later  than  the  end  of  May. 

Where  wheats  rise  uneven,  or  too  thin  in 
some  places  and  too  thick  in  others,  the  practice 
of  transplanting  has  been  practised  in  Essex  and 
Norfolk,  at  the  end  of  March.  Blanks  are 
sometimes  filled  up  by  sowing  summer  wheat, 
dibbling  beans,  &c.,  but  these  are  obviously  bad 
modes ;  a  better  is  either  to  stir  the  soil  well, 
and  encourage  the  tillering  of  the  plants,  or  to 
stir  the  soil  and  then  transplant. 

Substances  both  solid  and  fluid  have  been 
made  use  of  for  top  dressing  wheat  where  the 
land  or  growth  is  poor;  the  first  consist  chiefly 


of  birds'  dung  brought  into  a  powdery  state, 
bone-dust,  soot,  peat-ashes,  and  saline  matters ; 
the  latter  are  principally  the  drainings  of  dung- 
hills, &c.  The  former  should  be  thinly  and 
evenly  sown  over  the  crop,  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  horses  can  be  admitted  on  the  land ;  and  a 
roller  may  then  be  passed  over  the  crop.  Where 
the  latter  substances  are  made  use  of,  care  should 
always  be  taken  that  the  plants  be  not  injured 
by  having  too  large  a  quantity  applied.  The 
season  for  performing  this  business  is  the  begin- 
ning of  February.  When  wheat  appears  too 
forward,  it  }s  sometimes  eat  down  in  April,  with 
sheep  or  even  with  horses,  but  this  requires 
great  judgment. 

The  best  farmers  agree  that  wheat  ought  to  be 
cut  before  it  become  dead  ripe.  In  ascertaining 
the  proper  state,  Brown  observes,  it  is  necessary 
to  discriminate  betwixt  the  ripeness  of  the 
straw,  and  the  ripeness  of  the  grain ;  for  in 
some  seasons  the  straw  dries  upwards;  under 
which  circumstance,  a  field  to  the  eye  may  ap- 
pear to  be  completely  fit  for  the  sickle,  when  in 
reality  the  grain  is  imperfectly  consolidated ; 
and  perhaps  not  much  removed  from  a  milky 
state.  Though  it  is  obvious  that,  under  such 
circumstances,  no  further  benefit  can  be  conveyed 
from  the  root,  and  that  nourishment  is  withheld 
the  moment  that  the  roots  die;  yet  it  does  not 
follow  that  grain  so  circumstanced  should  be 
immediately  cut;  because,  after  that  operation 
is  performed,  it  is  in  a  great  measure  necessarily 
deprived  of  every  benefit  from  the  sun  and  air, 
both  of  which  have  greater  influence  in  bringing 
it  to  maturity,  so  long  as  it  remains  on  foot, 
than  when  cut  down,  whether  laid  on  the  ground, 
or  bound  up  in  sheaves.  The  state  of  the 
weather  at  the  time  also  deserves  notice ;  for,  in 
moist  or  even  variable  weather,  every  kind  ot 
grain,  when  cut  prematurely,  is  more  exposed  to 
damage  than  when  completely  ripened.  All 
these  things  will  be  studied  by  the  skilful  hus- 
bandman, who  will  also  take  into  consideration 
the  dangers  which  may  follow,  were  he  to  permit 
his  wheat  crop  to  remain  uncut  till  completely 
ripened.  The  danger  from  wind  will  not  be 
lost  sight  of,  especially  if  the  season  of  the 
equinox  approaches  ;  even  the  quantity  dropped 
in  the  field,  and  in  the  stack-yard,  when  wheat 
is  over  ripe,  is  an  object  of  consideration.  The 
mode  of  reaping  is  almost  universally  by  the 
sickle.  In  a  few  days  of  good  weather  the  crop 
is  ready  for  the  barn  or  stack-yard,  where  it  is 
built  either  in  oblong  or  circular  stacks,  some- 
times on  frames  supported  with  pillars  to  pre- 
vent the  access  of  vermin,  and  to  secure  the 
bottom  from  dampness ;  as  soon  afterwards  as 
possible  the  stacks  should  be  neatly  thatched. 
When  the  harvest  weather  is  so  wet  as  to  render 
it  difficult  to  prevent  the  stacks  from  heating,  it 
has  been  the  practice  to  make  funnels  through 
them,  a  large  central  one,  and  small  lateral  ones 
to  communicate.  Corn  keeps  better  in  a  well- 
built  stack  than  in  any  barn. 

Wheat  is  now  the  cleanest  threshed  grain ; 
because  the  length  of  the  straw  allows  it  to  be 
properly  beaten  out  before  it  passes  the  machine, 
which  sometimes  is  not  the  case  with  short  oats 
and  barley.  If  horses  are  used  as  the  impelling 


108 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


power,  thin  feeding  is  necessary,  otherwise  the 
animals  may  be  injured  ;  but  where  'vind  or 
water  is  employed,  the  business  of  threshing  is 
executed  speedily,  completely,  and  economi- 
cally.— Brown.  In  performing  the  operation 
one  man  feeds  the  grain  in  the  straw  into  the 
machine,  and  is  assisted  by  two  half-grown  lads, 
or  young  women,  one  of  whom  pitches  or  car- 
ries the  sheaves  from  the  boy  close  to  the  thresh- 
ing stage,  while  the  other  opens  the  bands  of 
every  sheaf,  and  lays  the  sheaves  successively  on 
a  small  table  close  by  the  feeder,  who  spreads 
them  evenly  on  the  feeding  stage,  that  they  m  iy 
1  e  drawn  in  successively  by  the  fluted  rollers, 
to  undergo  the  operation  of  threshing.  In  the 
opposite  end  of  the  barn  or  straw-house,  into 
which  the  rakes  or  shakers  deliver  the  clean 
threshed  straw,  one  man  forks  up  the  straw  from 
the  floor  to  the  straw- mow,  and  two  lads  or 
young  women  build  it,  and  tread  it  down.  In 
a  threshing  machine,  worked  by  water  or  wind, 
this  is  the  whole  expense  of  hand-labor  in  the 
threshing  part  of  the  operation,  and, as  a  powerful 
machine  can  easily  thresh  from  200  to  300  bushels 
of  grain  in  a  working  day  of  nine  hours,  the  ex- 
pense is  exceedingly  small  indeed.  Assuming 
250  bushels  as  an  average  of  the  work  of  these 
people  for  one  day,  and  their  wages  to  be  nine 
shillings,  the  expense  does  not  amount  to  one 
halfpenny  for  each  bushel  of  grain.  Even  re- 
ducing the  quantity  of  grain  threshed  to  150 
bushels,  the  easy  work  of  a  good  machine  of  in- 
ferior size  and  power,  the  expense  does  not  ex- 
ceed three  farthings  the  bushel.  But  the  whole 
of  this  must  not  be  charged  against  the  threshing 
only,  the  grain  being  half  dressed  at  the  same 
time,  by  passing  through  one  winnowing-ma- 
chine,  which  is  always  attached  to  a  complete 
threshing-mill ;  and  where  a  second  can  be  con- 
veniently connected  with  it,  as  is  commonly  the 
case  if  the  mill  be  of  considerable  power,  the 
corn  comes  down  nearly  ready  for  market.  So 
that  the  threshing,  dressing,  and  building  of  the 
straw,  with  the  use  of  a  powerful  water-mill, 
will  scarcely  cost  more  than  dressing  alone  when 
the  flail  is  employed ;  after  every  reasonable 
allowance  for  the  interest  of  money,  and  the  tear 
and  wear  of  the  machine.  When  grain  is  threshed 
with  a  machine  worked  by  horses,  the  expens  > 
s  considerably  enhanced.  One  capable  of 
effecting  the  larger  quantity  of  work,  already 
calculated  on,  will  require  eight  good  horses, 
and  a  man  to  drive  them,  who  may  perhaps  re- 
quire the  aid  of  a  boy.  The  value  of  the  work 
of  eight  horses  for  a  day  cannot  be  less  than  forty 
shillings,  and  the  wages  of  the  driver  may  be 
called  two  shillings  and  sixpence.  Hence  the 
total  expense  of  threshing  250  bushels  will 
amount  to  £2  2x.  6d. :  or  about  two-pence  per 
bushel,  when  the  wages  of  the  attendants  are 
added ;  still  leaving  a  considerable  difference  in 
favor  of  threshing  by  the  machine,  in  preference 
to  the  flail.  Were  it  even  ascertained  that  the 
expense  of  threshing  by  horses  and  by  the  flail  is 
nearly  the  same,  horse-mills  are  to  be  recom- 
mended on  other  accounts ;  such  as  better  thresh- 
ing, expedition,  little  risk  of  pilfering,  &c. 

Professor  Thaer  says,  that  in  general  wheat 
gives  double  the  weight  of  straw  than  it  does  of 
grain  ;  OR  elevated  ground  something  less ;  and 


on  low  grounds  something  more.  An  acrp, 
therefore,  which  produces  four  quarters  of  wheat, 
weighing  sixty-one  pounds  per  bushel,  ought  to 
produce  about  177J  cwt.  of  straw;  two  load,  or 
twenty-two  hundred  weight  and  a  half,  however, 
is  only  reckoned  a  tolerable  crop  in  this  country. 
The  yield  of  grain  in  some  seasons  has  been 
under  twenty ;  while  in  others  it  is  upwards  of 
thirty  bushels  the  acre,  the  soil  and  culture  being 
in  every  respect  the  same.  The  average  produce 
of  Britain  has  been  estimated  at" three,  three  and 
a  half,  and  four  quarters  ;  and  one  of  the  largest 
crops  ever  heard  of  at  ten  quarters,  and  the 
least  at  one  quarter  and  a  half.  The  proportion 
which  the  corn  bears  to  the  straw,  in  Middlesex, 
is  eleven  bushels  and  a  half  to  a  load  of  thirty- 
six  truss  of  thirty-six  pounds  each,  or  eleven 
hundred  weight  and  a  half. 

2.  RYE  is   a   bread    corn  of   Germany  and 
Russia.      In  Britain  it  is  now  very  little  grown  : 
being  no  longer  a  bread  corn,  and  therefore  of 
less  value   to  the  farmer  than   barley,  oats,  or 
pease.     The  varieties  are  not  above  two,  winter 
and  spring  rye ;  but  there  is  so  little  difference 
between    them    that    spring   rye     sown    along 
with  winter   rye  can   hardly    be    disting     heel 
from  it. 

Rye,  as  we  have  said,  will  grow  in  dry  sandy 
soils  ;  on  the  whole  it  may  be  considered  as  pre- 
ferring sands  to  clays.  The  preparation  of  the 
soil  should  be  similar  to  that  for  wheat.  Accord- 
ing to  professor  Thaer,  rye  abstracts  thirty  parts 
in  100  of  the  nutriment  contained  on  the  soil  in 
which  it  is  grown.  The  after  culture,  harvesting, 
and  threshing,  are  also  the  same  as  on  wheat. 

3.  OATS. — As  winter  ploughing  enters  into  the 
culture  of  oats,  we  must  remind  the  reader  of 
the   effect  of  frost  upon    tilled   land.      Provi- 
dence has  neglected  no  region  intended  for  th  • 
habitation  of   men.     If  in  warm  climates  the 
soil  be  meliorated  by  the  sun,  it  is  no  less  me- 
liorated by  frost  in  cold  clima  es.     Frost  acts 
upon  water,  by  expanding  it  into  a  larger  space ; 
but  has  no  effect  upon  dry  earth,  or  sand.    Upon 
wet  earth,  however,  it  acts  most  vigorously ;  and 
expands  the  moisture;    which,  requiring  more 
space,  puts  every  particle  of  earth  out  of  its  place, 
and  separates  them  from  each  other.     In  that 
view,  frost  may  be  considered  as  a  plough  supe- 
rior to  any  that  can  be  made  by  the  hand  of 
man :  its  action  reaches  the  minutest  particles ; 
and,  by  dividing  and  separating  them,  it  render* 
the   soil   loose  and   friable.     This  operation  is 
most  remarkable  in  tilled  land,  which  gives  free 
access  to  frost. 

The  common  method  is  to  sow  oats  on  new- 
ploughed  land  in  March,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
tolerably  dry.  If  it  continues  wet  all  March,  it 
is  too  late  to  venture  them  after.  It  is  much 
better  to  summer-fallow,  and  to  sow  wheat  in 
the  autumn.  But  the  preferable  method,  espe- 
cially in  clay  soil,  is  to  turn  over  the  field  after 
harvest,  and  to  lay  it  open  to  the  influences  of 
frost  and  air,  which  lessen  the  tenacity  of  clay, 
and  reduce  it  to  a  free  mould.  The  surface 
soil  by  this  means  is  finely  mellowed  for  recep- 
tion of  the  seed  ;  and  it  would  be  a  pity  to  bury 
it  by  a  second  ploughing  before  sowing.  In 
general,  the  bulk  of  clay-soils  are  rich;  and 
skilful  ploughing,  without  dung,  will  probably  give 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


a  better  crop  than  unskilful  ploughing  with  dung. 
We  must  add  a  word  respecting  clays  which 
are  artificial,  whether  left  by  the  sea,  or  swept 
drown  from  higher  grounds  by  rain.  The  method 
commonly  used  of  dressing,  which  has  been 
called  carse-clay  for  oats,  is,  not  to  stir  it  till 
the  ground  be  dry  in  spring,  which  seldom  hap- 
pens before  the  1st  of  March,  and  the  seed  is 
sown  as  soon  after  as  the  ground  is  sufficiently 
dry  for  its  reception.  Frost  has  a  stronger  effect 
on  such  clays  than  on  natural  clay.  And,  if  the 
field  be  laid  open  before  winter,  it  is  rendered 
so  loose  by  frost  as  to  be  soon  drenched  in  water. 
The  particles  at  the  same  time  are  so  small  as 
that  the  first  drought  in  spring  makes  the  surface 
cake  or  crust.  The  difficulty  of  reducing  this 
crust  into  mould  for  covering  the  oat-seed,  has 
led  farmers  to  delay  ploughing  till  March.  But 
we  are  taught  by  experience  that  this  soil,ploughed 
before  winter,  is  sooner  dry  than  when  the  plough- 
ing is  delayed  till  spring ;  and,  as  early  sowing 
is  a  great  advantage,  the  objection  of  the  super- 
ficial crusting  is  easily  removed  by  the  first  har- 
row above  described,  which  will  produce  abun- 
dance of  mould  for  covering  the  seed.  The 
ploughing  before  winter  not  only  procures  early 
sowing,  but  has  another  advantage;  the  surface 
soil  that  had  been  mellowed  during  winter  by  the 
sun,  frost,  and  wind,  is  kept  above. 

The  dressing  a  loamy  soil  for  oats  differs  little 
from  dressing  a  clay  soil,  except  that,  being  less 
hurt  by  rain,  it  requires  not  high  ridges,  and 
therefore  ought  to  be  ploughed  crown  and  fur- 
row alternately.  Where  there  are  both  clay  and 
loam  in  a  farm,  it  is  obvious  from  what  is  said 
above,  that  the  ploughing  of  the  clay  after  har- 
vest ought  first  to  be  despatched.  If  both  can- 
not be  overtaken  that  season,  the  loam  may  be 
delayed  till  the,  spring  with  less  hurt. — Next  of  a 
gravelly  soil ;  which  is  the  reverse  of  clay,  as  it 
never  suffers  but  from  want  of  moisture.  Such 
a  soil  ought  to  have  no  ridges  ;  but  be  ploughed 
circularly  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference, 
or  from  the  circumference  to  the  centre.  It 
ought  to  be  tilled  after  harvest:  and  the  first  dry 
weather  in  spring  ought  to  be  laid  hold  of  to 
sow,  harrow,  and  roll ;  which  will  preserve  it  in 
sap. 

The  culture  of  oats  is  simple.  That  grain  is 
probably  a  native  of  Britain :  it  grows  on  the 
worst  soil  with  very  little  preparation.  Before 
turnips  were  introduced,  it  was  always  the  first 
crop  upon  land  broken  up  from  the  state  of  na- 
ture. Upon  such  land,  it  may  be  a  good  me- 
thod to  build  upon  the  crown  of  every  ridge, 
in  the  form  of  a  wall,  all  the  surface  earth,  one 
sod  above  another,  as  in  a  fold  for  sheep.  After 
standing  in  this  form  all  summer  and  winter,  let 
the  walls  be  thrown  down,  and  the  ground  pre- 
pared for  oats.  This  will  secure  one  or  two 
good  crops ;  after  which  the  land  may  be  dunged 
for  a  crop  of  barley  and  grass  seeds.  This 
method  may  answer  in  a  farm  where  manure  is 
scarce. 

In  England  oats  are  generally  cut  down  with 
the  scythe,  and  carried  loose  to  the  barn  or  stack ; 
but  in  the  northern  districts,  and  where  threshing 
machines  are  used,  they  are  tied  into  sheaves  if 
mown,  but,  for  the  most  par:,  reaped  with  the 


sickle,  in  order  in  both  cases  to  facilitate  the 
process  of  threshing.  They  are  ready  for  the 
scythe  or  sickle  when  the  grain  becomes  hard, 
and  the  straw  yellowish.  Like  wheat  they  should 
generally  be  cut  before  they  are  dead  ripe,  to 
prevent  the  shedding  of  the  grain,  and  to  in- 
crease the  value  of  the  straw  as  fodder.  They 
rarely  get  much  damage  when  under  the  har- 
vest process,  except  from  high  winds,  or  from 
shedding,  when  opened  out  after  being  thoroughly 
wetted.  The  early  varieties  are  much  more 
liable  to  these  losses  than  the  late  ones ;  because 
the  grain  parts  more  easily  from  the  straw,  an 
evil  to  which  the  best  of  grain  is  at  all  times 
subject.  Early  oats,  however,  may  be  cut  a  little 
quick,  which,  to  a  certain  extent,  lessens  the 
danger  to  which  they  are  exposed  from  high 
winds ;  and,  if  the  sheaves  be  made  small,  the 
danger  from  shedding  after  rains  is  considerably 
lessened,  because  they  are  thus  sooner  ready  for 
the  stack.  Under  every  management,  however, 
a  greater  quantity  of  early  oats  will  be  lost 
during  the  harvest  process  than  of  the  late  ones, 
because  the  latter  adhere  firmly  to  the  straw,  and 
consequently  do  not  drop  so  easily  as  the  former. 
— Brown. 

In  Sweden,  in  most  seasons,  the  oat  crop  is 
dried  on  frames  or  poles,  and  in  Russia,  not  only 
oats,  but  barley  and  rye  are  kiln-dried  in  the 
straw.  The  produce  of  oats  is  generally  consi- 
dered greater  and  of  better  quality  in  the 
northern  than  in  the  southern  counties ;  and  the 
reasons  are  obviously  that,  in  the  former,  more 
attention  is  paid  to  their  culture,  and  the  climate 
is  more  favorable  for  the  maturation  of  the  grain 
Ten  quarters  an  acre  is  reckoned  a  good  crop  in 
the  north,  but  the  produce  is  often  twelve  and 
thirteen  quarters,  and  the  straw  from  two  to  three 
and  a  half  loach  per  acre.  In  meal  the  produce 
is  eight  Ibs.  for  fourteen  Ibs.  of  corn.  Sir  II. 
Davy  found  100  parts  of  oats  afforded  fifty-nine 
parts  of  starch,  six  of  gluten,  and  two  of  sac- 
charine. 

4.  BARLEY  is  a  culmiferous  plant  that  re- 
quires a  mellow  soil.  In  England  it  ranks  next 
in  value  as  a  crop  to  wheat.  Extraordinary 
care  is  requisite  where  it  is  to  be  sown  in  clay. 
The  land  ought  to  be  stirred  immediately  after 
the  crop  is  removed,  which  lays  it  open  to  be 
mellowed  with  the  frost  and  air.  In  that  view 
the  sort  of  ploughing  has  been  introduced 
termed  ribbing,  by  which  the  greatest  quantity 
of  surface  possible  is  exposed  to  the  air.  The 
obvious  objection  to  this  method  is,  that  half  of 
the  ridge  is  left  unmoved :  and,  to  obviate  it,  the 
following  method  is  offered,  which  moves  the 
whole  soil,  and  at  the  same  time  exposes  the 
same  quantity  of  surface  to  the  frost  and  air.  As 
soon  as  the  former  crop  is  off  the  field,  let  the 
ridges  be  gathered  with  as  deep  a  furrow  as  the 
soil  will  admit,  beginning  at  the  crown  and  end- 
ing at  the  furrows.  This  ploughing  loosens  the 
whole  soil,  giving  free  access  to  the  air  and  frost. 
Soon  after,  begin  a  second  ploughing :  let  the 
field  be  divided  by  parallel  lines  cross  the  ridges, 
with  intervals  of  thirty  feet  or  so.  Plough  once 
round  an  interval,  beginning  at  the  edges  and 
turning  the  earth  toward  the  middle  of  the  in- 
terval ;  which  covers  a  foot  or  so  of  the  ground 


110 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


formerly  ploughed.  Within  that  foot  plough 
another  round  similar  to  the  former ;  and  after 
that  other  rounds,  till  the  whole  interval  be  fi- 
nished, ending  at  the  middle.  Instead  of  be- 
ginning at  the  edges,  and  ploughing  toward  the 
middle,  begin  at  the  middle  and  plough  toward 
the  edges.  Plough  the  other  intervals  in  the 
same  manner.  As  the  furrows  of  the  ridges  will 
thus  be  pretty  much  filled  up,  let  them  be  cleared 
and  water-furrowed  without  delay.  By  this 
method,  the  field  will  be  left  ridged  up  for  win- 
ter. In  this  form  the  field  is  kept  perfectly  dry; 
for,  beside  the  capital  furrows  that  separate  the 
ridges,  every  ridge  has  a  number  of  cross  fur- 
rows that  carry  the  rain  instantly  to  the  capital 
furrows.  In  hanging  grounds  retentive  of  mois- 
ture, the  parallel  lines  ought  not  to  be  perpendi- 
cular to  the  furrows  of  the  ridges,  but  to  be 
directed  a  little  downward,  to  carry  rain  water 
the  more  hastily  to  these  furrows.  If  the  ground 
be  clean,  it  may  lie  in  that  state  winter  and 
spring,  till  the  time  of  seed-furrowing.  If  weeds 
rise,  they  must  be  destroyed  by  ploughing,  or 
braking,  or  both;  for  there  cannot  be  worse 
husbandry  than  to  put  seed  into  dirty  ground. 

This  method  resembles  common  ribbing  in 
appearance,  but  is  very  different  in  reality.  As 
the  common  ribbing  is  not  preceded  by  a  gather- 
ing furrow,  the  half  of  the  field  is  left  unfilled, 
compact  as  when  the  former  crop  was  removed, 
impervious  in  a  great  measure  to  air  or  frost. 
The  common  ribbing  at  the  same  time  lodges 
the  rain-water  on  every  ridge,  preventing  it  from 
descending  to  the  furrows,  which  is  hurtful  in 
all  soils,  and  destructive  in  a  clay  soil.  The 
stitching  here  described,  or  ribbing,  prevents 
these  noxious  effects.  By  the  two  ploughings 
the  whole  soil  is  opened,  admitting  freely  air 
and  frost;  and  the  multitude  of  furrows  lays  the 
surface  perfectly  dry.  When  it  is  proper  to 
sow  the  seed,  all  is  laid  flat  with  the  brake,  and 
the  seed-furrow  which  succeeds  is  so  shallow  as 
to  bury  little  or  none  of  the  surface  earth : 
whereas  the  stirring  for  barley,  being  done  with 
the  deepest  furrow,  buries  all  the  surface-soil 
that  was  mellowed  by  the  frost  and  air.  This 
method  is  also  less  expensive ;  for  after  common 
ribbing,  which  keeps  in  the  rain  water,  the 
ground  is  commonly  so  soured  as  to  make  the 
stirring  a  laborious  work. 

Barley  is  less  valuable  when  it  does  not  ripen 
equally.  That  which  comes  up  speedily  in  a 
dusky  soil,  gains  a  great  advantage  over  seed- 
weeds.  Therefore,  first  take  out  about  one-third 
of  the  contents  of  the  sacks  of  seed  barley,  to 
-allow  for  the  swelling  of  the  grain.  Lay  the 
sacks  with  the  grain  to  steep  in  clean  water;  let 
it -lie  covered  with  it  for  at  least  twenty-four 
hours.  When  the  ground  is  dry,  and  no  likeli- 
hood of  rain  for  ten  days,  it  is  better  to  lie  thirty- 
six  hours.  Sow  the  grain  wet  from  steeping, 
without  any  powdered  quicklime,  which  would 
suck  up  part  of  its  useful  moisture.  The  seed 
will  scatter  well,  but  the  sower  must  put  in  one- 
quarter,  or  one-third  more  seed  in  bulk  than 
usual  of  dry  grain,  as  the  grain  is  swelled  in 
that  proportion :  harrow  it  in  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible after  it  is  sown  :  and  give  it  the  benefit  of  a 
fresh  furrow.  It  will  rise  in  a  fortnight  at  farthest. 


The  following  experiment  by  a  correspondent 
of  the  Bath  Society  is  considered  as  inter- 
esting : — The  last  spring,  1783,  being  remark- 
ably dry,  I  soaked  my  seed  barley  in  the  black 
water  taken  from  a  reservoir  which  constantly  re- 
ceives the  draining  of  my  dung  heap  and 
stables.  As  the  light  corn  floated  on  the  top,  I 
skimmed  it  off,  and  let  the  rest  stand  twenty- 
four  hours.  On  taking  it  from  the  water,  J 
mixed  the  seed  gram  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
sifted  wood  ashes,  to  make  it  spread  regularly, 
and  sowed  three  fields  with  it.  I  began  sowing 
the  16th  and  finished  the  23rd  of  April.  The 
produce  was  sixty  bushels  per  acre,  of  good  clean 
barley,  without  any  small  or  green  corn,  or 
weeds  at  harvest.  No  person  in  this  county  had 
better  grain,  I  sowed  also  several  other  fields  with 
the  same  seed  dry,  and  without  any  preparation  ; 
but  the  crop,  like  those  of  my  neighbours,  was 
very  poor ;  not  more  than  twenty  bushels  per 
acre,  and  much  mixed  with  green  corn  and  weeds. 
I  also  sowed  some  of  the  seed  dry  one  ridge  in 
each  of  my  former  fields,  but  the  produce  was 
very  poor  in  comparison  of  the  other  parts  of  the 
field. 

Where  the  land  is  in  good  order,  and  free  of 
weeds,  April  is  the  month  for  sowing  barley. 
Every  day  is  proper.  The  dressing  loamy  soil  and 
light  soil  for  barley,  is  the  same  with  that  de- 
scribed ;  only  that  to  plough  dry  is  not  so  es- 
sential as  in  dressing  clay  soil.  Loam  or  sand 
may  be  stirred  a  little  moist :  better,  however, 
delay  a  week  or  two,  than  to  stir  a  loam  when 
moist.  Clay  must  never  be  ploughed  moist, 
even  though  the  season  should  escape  altogether. 
But  this  will  seldom  be  necessary;  for  not  in  one 
year  of  twenty  will  it  happen,  but  that  clay  is  dry 
enough  for  ploughing  some  time  in  May.  Frost 
may  correct  clay  ploughed  wet  after  harvest ; 
but,  ploughed  wet  in  the  spring,  it  unites  into  a 
hard  mass,  not  to  be  dissolved  but  by  very  hard 
labor. 

On  the  cultivation  of  this  grain  we  have  the 
following  observations  by  a  Norfolk  farmer:  'The 
best  soil  is  that  which  is  dry  and  healthy,  rathei 
light  than  stiff,  but  yet  of  sufficient  strength  to 
retain  moisture.  On  this  kind  of  land  the  grain  is 
always  the  best  bodied  and  colored,  and  has  the 
thinnest  rind.  These  qualities  recommend  it  most 
to  the  maltster.  If  the  land  is  poor,  it  should  be 
dry  and  warm ;  and  when  so  it  will  often  bear 
better  grain  than  richer  land  in  a  cold  and  wet 
situation.  In  the  choice  of  seed,  the  best  is  of  a 
pale  lively  color  and  brightish  cast,  without  any 
deep  redness  or  black  tinge  at  the  tail.  If  the  rind 
he  a  little  shrivelled,  it  is  the  better;  for  that 
slight  shriveling  proves  it  to  have  a  thin  skin,  and 
to  have  sweated  in  the  mow.  The  necessity  of  a 
change  of  seed  by  not  sowing  two  years  together 
what  grew  on  the  same  soil,  is  not  in  any  part  of 
husbandry  more  evident  than  in  the  culture  of 
this  grain,  which,  if  not  frequently  changed,  will 
grow  coarser  every  year.  Liming  has  been  found 
prejudicial.  Sprinkling  a  little  soot  with  the 
water  in  which  it  is  steeped  has  been  of  great 
service,  as  it  secures  the  seed  from  insects.  In  a 
very  dry  seed  time,  barley  that  has  been  wetted 
for  malting,  and  begins  to  sprout,  will  come  up 
sooner,  and  produce  a  good  crop.  On  lands 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


Ill 


tolerably  manured,'  adds  this  writer,  '  I  sowed 
clover  with  my  barley,  which  I  reaped  at  har- 
vest ;  and  fed  the  clover  all  the  following  winter, 
and  from  spring  to  July,  when  I  fallowed  it  till 
the  following  spring,  and  then  sowed  it  with  bar- 
ley and  clover  as  before.  Repeating  this  method 
every  year,  I  had  very  large  crops ;  but  would 
not  recommend  this  practice  on  poor  light  land. 
We  sow  on  our  lightest  lands  in  April,  on  our 
moist  lands  in  May ;  finding  that  those  lands 
\\hich  are  the  most  subject  to  weeds  produce  the 
best  crops  when  sown  late.  The  common  method 
is  to  sow  the  barley  seed  broad-cast  at  two 
sowings,  the  first  harrowed  in  once,  the  second 
twice;  the  usual  allowance  from  three  to  four 
bushels  per  acre.  But  if  farmers  could  be  pre- 
vailed on  to  alter  this  practice,  they  would  soon 
find  their  account  in  it.  Were  only  half  the 
quantity  sown  equally,  the  produce  would  be 
greater,  and  the  corn  less  liable  to  lodge  ;  for, 
when  corn  stands  very  close,  the  stalks  are 
drawn  up  weak,  and  on  that  account  are  less 
capable  of  resisting  the  force  of  winds,  or  sup- 
porting themselves  in  heavy  rains.  From  our 
great  success  in  setting  and  drilling  wheat,  some 
of  our  farmers  tried  these  metnods  with  barley; 
but  did  not  find  it  answer  their  expectations,  ex- 
cept on  very  rich  land.  1  have  myself  had 
eighty  stalks  on  one  root  of  bailey,  which  all 
produced  good  and  long  ears,  and  the  grain  was 
better  than  any  other  ;  but  the  method  is  too  ex- 
pensive for  general  practice.  In  poor  land,  sow 
thin,  or  your  crop  will  be  worth  little.  Farmers 
who  do  not  reason  on  the  matter  will  be  of  a  dif- 
ferent opinion  ;  but  the  fact  is  indisputable.' 

When  the  barley  is  sowed,  and  harrowed  in,  he 
advises  that  the  land  be  rolled  after  the  first 
shower  of  rain  to  break  the  clods.  This  will 
close  the  earth  about  the  roots,  which  will  be  a 
great  advantage  to  it  in  dry  weather.  When 
the  barley  has  been  up  three  or  four  weeks,  roll 
it  again  with  a  heavy  roller,  which  will  prevent 
the  sun  and  air  from  penetrating  the  ground  to 
the  injury  of  the  roots.  This  rolling,  before  it 
branches  out,  will  also  cause  it  to  tiller  into  a 
greater  number  of  stalks  ;  so  that  if  the  plants 
be  thin,  the  ground  will  be  thereby  filled,  and 
the  stalks  strengthened.  If  the  blade  grows  too 
rank,  as  it  sometimes  will  in  a  warm  wet  spring, 
mowing  is  a  much  better  method  than  feeding 
it  down  with  sheep  ;  because  the  scythe  takes 
off  only  the  rank  tops,  but  the  sheep,  being 
fond  of  the  sweet  end  of  the  stalk  next  the  root, 
will  often  bite  so  close  as  to  injure  its  future 
growth. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  for  barley  is  often 
by  a  turnip  fallow  ;  sometimes  it  is  taken  after 
pease  and  beans,  but  rarely  by  good  farmers, 
either  after  wheat  or  oats.  When  sown  after 
turnips,  it  is  taken  with  one  furrow,  which  is 
given  -as  fast  as  the  turnips  are  consumed,  the 
ground  thus  receiving  much  benefit  from  spring 
frosts.  But  often  two  or  more  furrows  are  ne- 
cessary for  the  fields  last  consumed  ;  because, 
when  a  spring  drought  sets  in,  the  surface,  from 
being  poached  by  the  removal  or  consumption 
of  the  crop,  gets  so  hardened  as  to  render  a 
greater  quantity  of  ploughing,  harrowing,  and 
rolling  necessary,  than  would  otherwise  be  called 
for.  When  sown  after  beans  and  pease,  one 


winter  and  one  spring  ploughing  are  usually 
bestowed  ;  but,  when  after  wheat  or  oats,  three 
ploughings  are  necessary,  so  that  the  ground  may 
be  put  in  proper  condition.  These  operations 
are  very  ticklish  in  a  wet  and  backward  season, 
and  rarely  in  that  case  is  the  grower  paid  for  the 
expense  of  his  labor.  Where  land  is  in  such  a 
situation  as  to  require  three  ploughings  before  it 
can  be  seeded  with  barley,  it  is  better  to  summer 
fallow  it  at  once,  than  to  run  the  risks  which 
seldom  fail  to  accompany  a  quantity  of  spring 
labor.  If  the  weather  be  dry,  moisture  is  lost 
during  the  different  processes,  and  an  imperfect 
germination  necessarily  follows :  if  it  be  wet,  the 
benefit  of  ploughing  is  lost,  and  all  the  evils  of  a 
wet  seed-time  are  sustained  by  the  future  crop. 
Browne. — After  turnips,  eaten  on  the  ground  by 
sheep,  the  land,  being  consolidated  by  their 
treading,  sometimes  receives  two  ploughings ; 
but,  if  only  one,  it  should  be  well  harrowed  and 
rolled  ;  and  it  is  often  finished  by  harrowing 
after  the  roller,  especially  if  grass-seeds  be  sown, 
which  are  covered  by  this  last  harrowing.  Bar-' 
ley  is  sometimes  sown  on  the  first  ploughing, 
and  covered  by  a  second  shallow  ploughing.  As 
it  is  found  of  great  importance,  with  a  view  to 
speedy  and  equal  vegetation,  that  the  ground 
should  be  fresh  and  moist,  barley  is  generally 
sown  upon  what  is  termed  hot-fur,  that  is,  as 
soon  as  possible  after  it  is  turned  up  by  the 
plough.  Manure  can  seldom  be  applied  with  "' 
advantage.  The  climate  most  favorable  to  ,1-f 
barley  is  a  warm  and  dry  one.  There  are  in- 
stances of  a  crop  being  sown  and  ripened  with- 
out having  enjoyed  a  single  shower  of  rain  :  but 
gentle  showers  from  the  time  it  is  sown  till  it 
begins  to  shoot  into  the  ear  are  favorable ;  while 
heavy  rains  at  any  period,  and  especially  imme- 
diately after  sowing,  are  highly  injurious. 

No  grain  requires  such  careful  harvesting.  It 
should  be  cut  at  a  time  when  the  grain  is  soft, 
and  the  straw  retains  a  great  proportion  of  its 
natural  juices.  It  is  generally  cut  down  in 
England  with  the  cradle  scythe,  and  either  tied 
up  or  carted  home  loose  after  lying  in  the  swarth 
some  days  to  dry.  It  is  not  apt  to  shed ;  but  in 
wet  weather  it  will  be  apt  to  spout  or  grow 
musty ;  and  therefore  every  fair  day  after  rain  it 
should  be  shook  up  and  turned  ;  but  be  careful 
never  to  house  it  till  thoroughly  dry,  lest  it  mow- 
burn,  which  will  make  it  malt  worse  than  if  it 
had  spired  in  the  field.  Lisle  says,  that  poor 
thin  barley  should  be  cut  a  little  sooner  than  if 
the  same  plants  were  strong  and  vigorous ;  as 
the  straw,  when  the  plants  are  full  ripe,  in  such 
cases  will  not  stand  against  the  scythe.  In  this 
situation,  barley  in  particular  should  lie  in  swarth 
till  it  is  thoroughly  dry.  Some  of  his  barley, 
which  lay  out  in  swarth  five  or  six  days  in  very 
fine  weather,  though  both  blighted  and  edge- 
grown,  grew  plump,  and  acquired  very  nearly 
as  good  a  color  as  the  best.  He  reckons  short 
scythes  the  l>est  for  mowing  lodged  or  crumpled 
com,  because  they  miss  the  fewest  plants ;  and 
observes  that  a  bow  upon  the  scythe,  which 
carries  away  the  swarth  before  it,  is  preferable 
to  a  cradle,  the  fingers  of  which  would  be 
pulled  to  pieces  by  the  entangled  corn,  in  draw- 
ing back  the  scythe.  In  Scotland  and  Ireland  it 
is  generally  reaped  with  the  sickle.  Make  au 


112 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


opening  in  tne  stack  from  top  to  bottom,  by 
placing  a  large  bundle  of  straw  in  the  centre  of 
the  stack,  when  it  commences,  and  in  proportion 
as  it  rises,  the  straw  is  drawn  upwards,  leaving 
a  hollow  behind;  which,  if  one  or  two  openings 
are  left  in  the  side  of  the  stack  near  the  bottom, 
insures  a  complete  circulation  of  air.  Threshing 
machines  for  barley  are  furnished  with  what  is 
called  a  hummeling  machine,  and,  where  this  is 
wanting,  it  is  customary  to  put  the  grain,  accom- 
panied with  a  portion  of  threshed  straw,  a  second 
time  through  the  machine.  Where  barley  has 
been  mown,  the  whole  of  the  straw  requires  to 
be  twice  threshed,  independently  of  the  necessity 
of  getting  rid  of  the  ears.  The  produce  of 
barley,  taking  the  average  of  England  and  the 
south  of  Scotland,  Donaldson  considers,  might 
be  rated  at  thirty-two  bushels ;  but  when  Wales 
and  the  north  of  Scotland  are  included,  where, 
owing  to  the  imperfect  modes  of  culture  still 
practised,  the  crops  are  very  indifferent,  the  ge- 
neral average  will  not  probably  exceed  twenty- 
eight  bushels  the  acre.  Middleton  states  it  as 
varying  in  England  from  fifteen  to  seventy-five 
bushels  per  acre.  The  average  produce  of  the 
county  of  Middlesex  is  about  four  quarters  of 
com  and  two  loads  of  straw  per  acre. 

5.  BUCK  WHEAT  delights  in  a  mellow  sandy 
soil ;  but  succeeds  well  in  any  dry  loose  healthy 
land,  and  moderately  so  in  a  free  loamy  stone 
1  brash.  A  stiff  clay  is  its  aversion,  and  it  is  en- 
tirely labor  lost  to  sow  it  in  wet  poachy  ground. 
The  proper  season  for  sowing  is  from  the  last 
week  of  May  or  the  beginning  of  June.  It  has 
been  sown,  however,  so  early  as  the  beginning  of 
April,  and  so  late  as  the  22nd  of  July,  by  way 
of  experiment ;  but  the  latter  was  rather  too  great 
an  extreme,  and  the  former  was  in  danger 
from  frost.  In  an  experiment,  upon  a  small 
piece  of  ground,  the  grain  of  two  different  crops 
was  brought  to  maturity  in  summer  1787.  After 
spring  feedings,  a  crop  of  turnip-rooted  cabbage, 
or  vetches,  there  will  be  sufficient  time  to  sow  the 
land  with  buck-wheat.  In  hot  dry  summers,  a 
crop  of  vetches  might  even  be  mown  for  hay 
early  enough  to  introduce  a  crop  of  this  grain 
after  it.  It  will  grow  on  the  poorest  soil,  and 
produce  a  crop  in  the  course  of  three  or  four 
months.  It  was  cultivated  so  early  as  Gerard's 
time,  1597,  to  be  ploughed  in  as  manure;  but  at 
present,  from  its  inferior  value  as  a  grain,  and 
its  yielding  very  little  haulm  for  fodder  or  ma- 
nure, it  is  seldom  grown  but  by  gentlemen  in 
plantations,  to  encourage  game.  Arthur  Young 
recommends  farmers  in  general  to  try  this  crop. 
It  has  numerous  excellencies,  he  says,  perhaps  as 
many  to  good  farmers  as  any  other  grain  or 
pulse  in  use.  It  is  of  an  enriching  nature, 
having  the  quality  of  preparing  for  wheat,  or 
any  other  crop.  One  bushel  sows  an  acre  of  land 
well,  which  is  but  a  fourth  of  the  expense  of 
seed-barley.  It  should  not  be  sown  till  the  end 
of  May.  This  is  important;  for  it  gives  time  in 
the  spring  to  kill  all  the  seed-weeds  in  the 
ground,  and  brings  no  disagreeable  necessity 
from  bad  weather  in  March  or  April,  to  sow 
barley,  &c.,  so  late  as  to  hazard  the  crop.  It  is 
as  valuable  as  barley,  and  is  the  best  of  all  crops 
for  sowing  grass  seeds  with,  giving  them  the 


same  shelter  as  barley  or  oats  without  robbing. 
Buck-wheat  is  mown  and   harvested  in    the 
mariner  of  barley.     After  it  is  mown,  it  must  lie 
several  days,  till  the  stalks  be  withered,  before  it 
be  housed.      It  is  in  no  danger  of  the  seeds  fall- 
ing, nor  does  it  suffer  much  by  wet.      From  its 
great  succulency  it  is  liable  to  heat,  on  which 
account  it  is  better  to  put  it  in  small  stacks  of  five 
or  six  loads  each,  than  in  either  a  large  one  or  a 
barn.    The  produce  may  be  stated  upon  the  ave- 
rage  at   between  three  and  four  quarters   per 
acre;  it  would  be  considerably  more  did  all  the 
grains  ripen  together,  but  that  never  appears  to 
be  the  case.     Its  use  in  this  country  is  almosc 
entirely  for  feeding  poultry,  pigeons,  and  swine. 
It  may  also  be  given  to  horses,  which  are  -said  to 
thrive  well  on  it ;  but  the  author  of  the  New- 
Farmer's  Calendar,  says,  he   thinks  he  has  seen 
it    produce   a   stupefying   effect.      We    should 
add  that  it  has  been  used  in  the  distillery  in 
England,  and  is  a  good  deal  used  in  that  way, 
and  as  horse  corn  on  the  continent.  Young  says, 
a  bushel  goes  farther  than  two  bushels  of  oats, 
and,  mixed  with  at  least  four  times  as  much  bran, 
will  be  full  feed  for  any  horse  a  week.     Four 
bushels  of  the  meal,  put  up  at  four  hundred  weight 
will  fatten  a  hog  of  sixteen  or  twenty  stone  in 
three  weeks,  giving  him  afterwards  three  bushels 
of  Indian  corn  or  hog-pease,  broken  in  a  mill, 
with  plenty  of  water.     Eight  bushels  of  buck- 
wheat meat  will  go  as  far  as  twelve  bushels  of 
barley  meal.     The  meal  is  made  into  thin  cakes 
called  crumpits  in  Italy,  and  even  in  some  parts 
of  England ;  and  it  is  supposed  to  be  nutritious, 
and  not  apt  to  turn  acid  upon  the  stomach. 

6.  BEANS. — The  most  proper  soil  for  beans  is 
a  deep  and  moist  clay.  There  has  been  intro- 
duced into  Scotland  a  method  of  sowing  beans 
with  a  drill-plough,  and  horse-hoeing  the  inter- 
vals ;  which,  beside  affording  a  good  crop,  is  a 
dressing  to  the  ground.  In  the  common  way, 
as  this  grain  is  early  sown,  the  ground  intended 
for  it  should  be  ploughed  before  winter,  to  give 
access  to  the"  frost  and  air — beneficial  in  all  soils, 
and  necessary  in  a  clay  soil.  Take  the  first  op- 
portunity after  January,  when  the  ground  is  dry, 
to  loosen  the  soil  with  the  harrow,  till  a  mould 
be  brought  upon  it.  Then  sow  the  seed  and 
cover  it  equally.  Beans  ought  to  be  laid  deep 
in  the  ground,  not  less  than  six  inches.  In  clay 
soil,  the  common  harrows  are  altogether  insuffi- 
cient. The  soil  which  has  rested  long  after 
ploughing  is  rendered  compact  and  solid;  the 
common  harrows  skim  the  surface  :  the  seed  is 
not  covered  ;  and  the  first  hearty  shower  of  rain 
lays  it  above  ground.  If  the  ground  ploughed 
before  winter  happen,  by  a  superfluity  of  mois- 
ture, to  cake,  the  first  harrow  going  along  the 
ridges,  and  crossing  them,  will  loosen  the  sur- 
face, and  give  access  to  the  air  for  drying.  As 
soon  as  the  ground  is  dry,  sow  without  delay. 
If  rain  happen  in  the  interim,  wait  till  a  dry  day 
or  two  come.  Carse  clay,  ploughed  before 
winter,  seldom  fails  to  cake.  Upon  that  ac- 
count, a  second  ploughing  is  necessary  before 
sowing ;  which  ought  to  be  performed  with  an 
ebb  furrow,  to  keep  the  frost  n.ould  as  near  the 
surface  as  possible.  To  cover  the  seed  with  ine 
plough  is  expressed  by  the  phrase  to  sow  under 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


113 


furrow.  The  clods  raised  in  this  ploughing  are 
a  sort  of  shelter  to  the  young  plants  in  the 
chilly  spring  months.  The  above  method  will 
answer  for  loam.  As  for  a  sandy  or  gravelly 
soil,  it  is  altogether  improper  for  beans. 

Though  we  cannot  approve  the  horse-hoeing 
of  beans,  with  the  intervals  that  are  commonly 
allotted  for  turnip,  yet  we  would  strongly  re- 
commend the  drilling  them  at  the  distance  of  ten 
or  twelve  inches,  and  keeping  the  intervals  clean 
of  weeds.  This  may  begone  by  hand-hoeing,  at 
the  same  time  laying  fresh  soil  to  the  roots  of  the 
plants.  But  as  this  is  expensive,  and  hands  are 
not  always  to  be  got,  a  narrow  plough,  drawn  by 
a  single  horse,  might  be  used,  with  a  mould- 
board  on  each  side  to  scatter  the  earth  upon  the 
roots  of  the  plants.  This  is  a  cheap  and  expe- 
ditious method  ;  it  keeps  the  ground  clean,  and 
nourishes  the  plants  with  fresh  soil.  As  beans 
delight  in  a  moist  soil,  and  have  no  end  of 
growing  in  a  moist  season,  they  cover  the  ground 
totally  when  sown  broad-cast,  keep  in  the  dew, 
and  exclude  the  sun  and  air:  the  plants  grow  to 
a  great  height,  but  carry  little  seed,  and  that 
little  not  well  ripened.  Hence  the  advantage  of 
drilling ;  which  gives  free  access  to  the  sun  and 
air,  dries  the  ground,  and  affords  plenty  of  ripe 
seed. 

Brown,  a  very  superior  bean  grower,  gives  the 
following  directions  : — The  furrow  ought  to  be 
given  early  in  winter,  and  as  deep  as  possible, 
that  the  earth  may  be  sufficiently  loosened,  and 
room  afforded  for  the  roots  of  the  plant  to  search 
for  the  requisite  nourishment.  The  first  furrow 
is  usually  given  across  the  field,  which  is  the  best 
method  when  only  one  spring  furrow  is  intended  ; 
but,  as  it  is  now  ascertained  that  two  spring 
furrows  are  highly  advantageous,  perhaps  the 
one  in  winter  ought  to  be  given  in  length,  which 
lays  the  ground  in  a  better  situation  for  resisting 
the  rains,  and  renders  it  sooner  dry  in  spring, 
than  can  be  the  case  when  ploughed  across.  On 
the  supposition  that  three  furrows  are  to  be 
given,  one  in  winter,  and  two  in  spring,  the  fol- 
lowing is  the  most  eligible  preparation.  The 
land  being  ploughed  in  length,  as  early  in  winter 
as  is  practicable,  and  the  cross  gutter  and  headland 
furrows  sufficiently  digged  out,  take  the  second 
furrow  across  the  first  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
dry  enough  in  spring  to  undergo  the  operation ; 
water-furrow  it  immediately,  and  dig  again  the 
cross  gutter  and  headland  furrows,  otherwise  the 
benefit  of  the  second  furrow  may  be  lost.  This 
being  done,  leave  the  field  for  some  days,  till  it  is 
sufficiently  dry,  when  a  cast  of  the  harrow  be- 
comes necessary,  so  that  the  surface  may  be 
levelled.  Then  enter  with  the  ploughs,  and 
form  the  drills.  Manure  is  frequently  applied, 
especially  if  the  bean  crop  succeed  wheat. — Trea- 
tise on  Rural  Affairs.  According  to  Brown,  the 
best  way  is  to  apply  the  dung  on  the  stubble  be- 
fore the  winter  furrow  is  given,  which  greatly 
facilitates  the  after  process.  Used  in  this  way,  a 
fore  stock  must  be  in  hand ;  but,  where  the  far- 
mer is  not  so  well  provided,  spring  dunging  be- 
comes necessary,  though  evidently  of  less  advan- 
tage. At  that  season  it  may  either  be  put  into 
the  drills  before  the  seed  is  sown,  or  spread  upon 
the  surface  and  ploughed  down,  according  to  the 
Voi,.  XIX. 


nature  of  the  drilling  process  which  is  meant  to 
be  adopted.  Land  dunged  to  beans,  if  duly 
hoed,  is  always  in  high  order  for  carrying  a  crop 
of  wheat  in  succession.  Perhaps  better  wheat, 
both  in  respect  of  quantity  and  quality,  may  be 
cultivated  in  this  way,  than  in  any  other  mode  of 
sowing. 

In  one  mode  of  drilling  beans,  the  lands  or 
ridges  are  divided  by  the  plough  into  ridgelets, 
or  one  bout  stitches,  at  intervals  of  about  twenty- 
seven  inches.  If  dung  is  to  be  applied,  the 
seed  ought  to  be  first  deposited,  as  it  is  found 
inconvenient  to  run  the  drill  machine  after- 
wards. The  dung  may  then  be  drawn  out  from 
the  carts  in  small  heaps,  one  row  of  heaps  serv- 
ing for  three  or  five  ridgelets ;  and  it  is  evenly 
spread,  and  equally  divided  among  them,  in  a 
way  that  will  be  more  minutely  described  when 
treating  of  the  culture  of  turnips.  The  ridgelets 
are  next  split  out  or  reversed,  either  by  means  ofc 
the  common  plough,  or  one  with  two  mould- 
boards,  which  covers  both  the  seed  and  the  ma- 
nure in  the  most  perfect  manner.  When  beans 
are  sown  by  the  other  method,  in  the  bottom  of 
a  common  furrow,  the  dung  must  be  previously 
spread  over  the  surface  of  the  winter  or  spring 
ploughing.  Three  ploughs  then  start  in  succes- 
sion, one  immediately  behind  another,  and  a 
drill  harrow  either  follows  the  third  plough  or  is 
attached  to  it,  by  which  the  beans  are  sown  in 
every  third  furrow,  or  at  from  twenty-four  to 
twenty-seven  inches  asunder,  according  to  the 
breadth  of  the  furrow-slice.  Another  approved 
way,  when  dung  is  applied  at  seed  time,  is  to 
spread  the  dung  and  to  plough  it  down  with  a 
strong  furrow ;  after  this  shallow  furrows  are 
drawn,  into  which  the  seed  is  deposited  by  the 
drill-machine.  Whichever  of  these  modes  of 
sowing  is  followed,  the  whole  field  must  be 
carefully  laid  dry  by  means  of  channels  formed 
by  the  plough,  and  when  necessary  by  the  shovel; 
for  neither  then  nor  at  any  former  period  should 
water  be  allowed  to  stagnate  on  the  land.  The 
dibbling  of  beans  is  considered  by  Arthur  Young 
as  an  excellent  plan. 

7.  PEASE  are  of  two  kinds,  the  white  and  the 
gray :  the  cultivation  of  the  latter  only  belongs 
to  this  place.  There  are  two  principal  species  of 
the  gray  kind,  distinguished  by  their  time  of 
ripening.  One  ripens  soon,  and  for  that  reason 
is  termed  hot  seed  ;  the  other,  which  is  slower  in 
ripening,  is  termed  cold  seed. 

Pease,  a  leguminous  crop,  is  proper  to  inter- 
vene between  two  culmiferous  crops;  less  for 
the  profit  of  a  pease  crop,  than  for  meliorating 
the  ground.  Pease,  however,  in  a  dry  season, 
will  produce  six  or  seven  bolls  each  acre ;  but  in 
an  ordinary  season  they  seldom  reach  above  two 
or  two  and  a  half.  Hence,  in  a  moist  climate, 
which  all  the  west  of  Britain  is,  red  clover  seems 
a  more  beneficial  crop  than  pease ;  as  it  makes 
as  good  winter  food  as  pease,  and  can  be  cut 
green  thrice  during  summer. 

A  field  intended  for  cold  seed  ought  to  be 
ploughed  in  October  or  November ;  and  in  Fe- 
bruary, as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry,  the  seed 
ought  to  be  sown  on  the  winter  furrow.  A  field 
intended  for  hot  seed  ought  to  be  ploughed  in 
March  or  April,  immediately  before  sowing.  But, 

I 


114 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


;f  infested  with  weeds,  it  ought  to  be  also  ploughed 
in  October  and  Novemoer. 

Pease  laid  a  foot  be.ow  the  surface  will  vege- 
tate ;  but  the  most  approved  depth  is  six  inches 
in  light  soil,  and  four  inches  in  clay  soil ;  for 
which  reason  they  ought  to  be  sown  under 
furrow  when  the  ploughing  is  delayed  till  spring. 
Of  all  grains,  beans  excepted,  they  are  the  least 
in  danger  of  being  buried.  Pease  differ  from 
beans  in  loving  a  dry  soil  and  a  dry  season. 
Horse-hoeing  has  little  effect  when  the  plants  are 
new  sprung;  and,  when  they  are  advanced,  their 
length  prevents  it.  Fast  growing  at  the  same 
time  is  the  cause  of  their  carrying  so  little  seed  : 
the  seed  is  buried  among  the  leaves ;  and  the  sun 
cannot  penetrate  to  make  it  grow  and  ripen.  The 
only  practicable  remedy  to  obtain  grain  is  thin 
sowing  ;  but  thick  sowing  produces  more  straw, 
and  mellows  the  ground  more.  Half  a  boll  for 
an  English  acre  may  be  reckoned  thin  sowing; 
three  firlots,  thick  sowing. 

Notwithstanding  what  is  said  above,  Mr. 
Hunter  of  Berwickshire,  some  years  ago,  be- 
gan to  sow  all  his  pease  in  drills ;  and  never 
failed  to  have  great  crops  of  pease,  as  well  as  of 
straw.  He  sowed  double  rows  at  a  foot  inter- 
val, and  two  feet  and  a  half  between  the  dou- 
ble rows,  which  admit  horse-hoeing.  By  that 
method  he  had  also  good  crops  of  beans  on  light 
land. 

Pease  and  beans  mixed  are  often  sown  together, 
in  order  to  catch  different  seasons.  In  a  moist 
•eason,  the  beans  make  a  good  crop ;  in  a  dry 
<eason,  the  pease. 

The  growth  of  plants  is  commonly  checked 
by  drought  in  the  month  of  July,  but  promoted 
by  rain  in  August.  In  July  grass  is  parched  ; 
in  August  it  recovers  verdure.  Where  pease  are 
so  far  advanced  in  the  dry  season  that  the  seeds 
begin  to  form,  their  growth  is  indeed  checked, 
but  the  seed  continues  to  fill.  If  only  in  the 
blossom  at  that  season,  their  growth  is  checked  a 
little ;  but  they  become  vigorous  again  in  August, 
and  continue  growing  without  filling  till  stopped 
by  frost.  Hence  it  is  that  cold  seed,  which  is  early 
sown,  has  the  best  chance  to  produce  corn  ;  hot 
seed,  which  is  late  sown,  has  the  best  chance  to 
produce  straw. 

The  following  method  is  practised  in  Norfolk, 
for  sowing  pease  upon  a  dry  light  soil,  immedi- 
ately opened  from  pasture.  The  ground  is  pared 
with  a  plough  extremely  thin,  and  every  sod  is 
laid  exactly  on  its  back.  In  every  sod  a  double 
row  of  holes  is  made.  A  pea  dropt  in  every 
hole  lodges  in  the  flayed  ground  immediately 
below  the  sod,  thrusts  its  roots  horizontally,  and 
has  sufficient  moisture.  The  most  common  mode 
of  sowing  pease  is  broad-cast ;  but  the  advanta- 
ges of  the  row  culture  in  the  case  of  a  crop 
early  committed  to  the  soil  must  be  obvious. 
The  best  farmers,  therefore,  sow  pease  in  drills 
either  after  the  plough,  the  seed  being  deposited 
commonly  in  every  second  or  third  furrow,  or  if 
the  land  is  in  a  pulverised  state  by  drawing  drills 
with  a  machine  or  by  ribbing.  In  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk  pease  are  generally  dibbled  on  the  back 
of  the  furrow,  sometimes  one  and  sometimes  two 
rows  on  each ;  but  dibbling  in  no  manner  ap- 


pears to  us  so  well  suited  for  a  farmer's  purpose 
as  the  drill.  In  Kent,  where  immense  quantities 
of  pease  are  grown  both  for  gathering  green  and 
for  selling  ripe  to  the  seedsmen,  they  are  gener- 
ally sown  in  rows  from  eighteen  inches  to  three 
feet  asunder,  according  to  the  kind,  and  well 
cultivated  between. 

The  after  culture  is  that  of  hoeing,  either  by 
hand  or  horse.  Where  the  former  method  pre- 
vails, it  is  the  general  custom  to  have  recourse 
to  two  hoeings ;  the  first  when  the  plants  are 
about  two  or  three  inches  in  height,  and  again 
just  before  the  period  in  which  they  come  into 
blossom.  In  this  way  the  vigorous  vegetation  of 
the  young  crop  is  secured,  and  a  fresh  supply  o 
nourishment  afforded  for  the  setting  of  the  pods 
and  the  filling  of  the  pease.  At  the  last  of  these 
operations  the  rows  should  be  laid  down,  and 
the  earth  well  placed  up  to  them,  the  weeds 
being  previously  extirpated  by  hand  labor.  It 
has  been  stated  \hat  in  some  parts  of  Kent, 
where  this  sort  of  crop  is  much  grown,  it  is  the 
practice,  when  the  distance  of  the  rows  is  suf- 
ficiently great,  to  prevent  the  vegetation  of 
weeds,  and  forward  the  growth  of  pea  crops,  by 
occasionally  horse-hoeing,  and  the  use  of  the 
brake-harrow,  the  mould  being  laid  up  to  the 
roots  of  the  plants  at  the  last  operation  by  fixing 
a  piece  of  wood  to  the  harrow.  This  should, 
however,  only  be  laid  up  on  one  side,  the  pease 
being  placed  up  to  that  which  is  most  exposed 
to  the  sun.  When  pea  crops  become  ripe  they 
wither  and  turn  brown  in  the  haulm  or  straw, 
and  the  pods  open.  In  this  state  they  should 
be  cut  as  soon  as  possible,  in  order  that  there 
may  be  the  least  loss  sustained  by  their  shedding. 
In  early  crops  the  haulm  is  hooked  up  into 
loose  open  heaps,  which,  as  soon  as  they  are 
perfectly  dry,  are  removed  from  the  ground  and 
put  into  stacks  for  the  purpose  of  being  converted 
to  the  food  of  animals,  on  which  they  are  said 
to  thrive  nearly  as  well  as  on  hay.  When  in- 
tended for  horses,  the  best  method  would  seem 
to  be  that  of  having  them  cut  into  chaff  and 
mixed  with  their  other  food. 

Young  says  that  forward  white  pease  will  be 
fit  to  cut  early  in  July ;  if  the  crop  is  very  great 
they  must  be  hooked;  but  if  small,  or  only 
middling,  mowing  will  be  sufficient.  The  stalks 
and  leaves  of  pease  being  very  succulent,  they 
should  be  taken  good  care  of  in  wet  weather: 
the  tufts,  called  wads  or  heaps,  should  be  turned, 
or  they  will  receive  damage.  White  pease  should 
always  be  perfectly  dry  before  they  are  housed, 
or  they  will  sell  but  indifferently,  as  the  bright- 
ness and  plumpness  of  the  grain  are  considered 
at  market  more  than  with  hog-pease.  The  straw 
also,  if  well  harvested,  is  very  good  fodder  for 
all  sorts  of  cattle  and  for  sheep ;  but  if  it  re- 
ceives much  wet,  or  if  the  heaps  are  not  turn  n  I, 
it  can  be  used  only  to  litter  the  farmyard  with. 
It  is  the  practice  in  some  districts  to  remove  the 
haulm  as  soon  as  it  has  been  cut  up  by  hooks 
constructed  with  sharp  edges  for  the  purpose,  to 
every  fifth  ridge,  or  even  into  an  adjoining  grass 
field,  in  order  that  it  may  be  the  better  cured 
for  use  as  cattle  food,  and  at  the  same  time  allow 
of  the  land  being  immediately  prepared  for  the 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


115 


succeeding  crop.  When  wet  weather  happens, 
whilst  the  pease  lie  in  wads,  it  occasions  a  con- 
siderable loss,  many  of  them  being  shed  in  the 
field,  and  of  those  that  remain  a  great  part  will 
be  so  considerably  injured  as  to  render  the 
sample  of  little  value.  This  inability  in  pease 
to  resist  a  wet  harvest,  together  with  the  great 
uncertainty  throughout  their  growth,  and  the 
frequent  inadequate  return  in  proportion  to  the 
length  of  haulm,  has  discouraged  many  farmers 
from  sowing  so  large  a  portion  of  this  pulse  as 
of  other  grain  ;  though  on  light  lands,  which  are 
in  tolerable  heart,  the  profit,  in  a  good  year,  is 
far  from  inconsiderable. 

The  threshing  of 'pease  requires  little  labor. 
Where  the  haulm  is  wished  to  be  preserved  en- 
tire it  is  best  done  by  hand ;  as  the  threshing 
machine  is  apt  to  reduce  it  to  chaff.  But  where 
the  fodder  of  pease  is  to  be  given  immediately  to 
horses  on  the  spot,  the  breaking  it  is  no  disad- 
vantage. The  produce  in  ripened  seeds  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  from  three  and  a  half  to 
four  quarters  the  acre;  others,  as  Donaldson, 
imagine  the  average  of  any  two  crops  together 
not  more  than  about  twelve  bushels  ;  and  that  on 
the  whole,  if  the  value  of  the  produce  be  merely 
attended  to,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  less  pro- 
fitable crop  than  most  others.  But,  as  a  means  of 
ameliorating  and  improving  the  soil  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  esteemed  of  great  value.  As  to  the 
produce  in  green  pease,  in  the  husk,  the  average 
of  the  early  crops  in  Middlesex  is  supposed  to 
be  from  about  twenty-five  to  thirty  sacks  the  acre, 
which,  selling  at  from  8s.  to  18s.  the  sack,  afford 
about  £18  the  acre.  The  author  of  the  Synopsis 
of  Husbandry,  however,  states  the  produce  about 
Dartford,  at  about  forty  sacks  the  acre,  though, 
he  says,  fifty  have  sometimes  been  gathered  from 
that  space  of  land.  The  produce  of  pease  in 
straw  is  very  uncertain.  In  flour  it  is  as  three  to 
two  of  the  bulk  in  grain,  and  husked  and  split 
for  soups  as  four  to  two.  1000  parts  of  pea 
flour  afforded  Sir  H.  Davy  574  parts  of  nutri- 
tive or  soluble  matter,  viz.  501  of  mucilage  or 
vegetable  animal  matter,  twenty-two  of  sugar, 
thirty-five  of  gluten,  and  sixteen  of  insoluble 
extract. 

SECT.  II. — OF  PLANTS  CULTIVATED  FOR  ROOTS. 

Turnips  delight  in  a  gravelly  soil,  and  can  be 
raised  to  great  perfection,  and  without  the  least 
hazard  of  miscarrying.  At  the  same  time  there 
is  no  soil  but  will  bear  turnips,  when  well  pre- 
pared. No  agriculturist  ever  deserved  better  of 
a  country  than  he  who  first  cultivated  turnips  in 
the  field.  No  plant  is  better  fitted  for  the  climate 
of  Britain,  no  plant  prospers  better  in  the  coldest 
part  of  it,  and  no  plant  contributes  more  to  fer- 
tility. In  a  word,  there  has  not  for  two  centu- 
ries been  introduced  a  more  valuable  improve- 
ment. 

Of  all  roots,  turnips  require  the  finest  mould  ; 
and,  to  that  end,  of  all  harrows  frost  is  the  best. 
To  give  access  to  frost,  the  land  ought  to  be  pre- 
pared by  ribbing  after  harvest,  as  above  directed 
in  preparing  land  for  barley.  If  the  field  be 
not  subject  to  annuals,  it  may  lie  in  that  state 
till  the  end  of  May ;  otherwise  the  weeds  must 


be  destroyed  by  a  breaking  about  the  middle  o( 
April,  and  again  in  May,  if  weeds  arise.  The 
first  week  of  June  plough  the  field  with  a  shal- 
low furrow.  Lime  it  if  requisite,  and  harrow 
the  lime  into  the  soil.  Draw  single  furrows, 
with  intervals  of  three  feet,  and  lay  dung  in  the 
furrows.  Cover  the  dung  sufficiently,  by  going 
round  it  with  the  plough,  and  forming  the  three 
feet  spaces  into  ridges.  The  dung  comes  thus  to 
lie  below  the  crown  of  every  ridge. 

The  season  of  sowing  must  be  regulated  by 
the  time  intended  for  feeding.  When  intended 
for  feeding  in  November,  December,  January, 
and  February,  the  seed  ought  to  be  sown  from 
the  1st  to  the  20th  of  June.  Where  the  feeding 
is  intended  to  be  carried  on  to  March,  April,  and 
May,  the  seed  must  not  be  sown  till  the  end  of 
July.  Turnips  sown  earlier  than  above  directed 
flower  that  very  summer,  and  run  fast  to  seed  ; 
which  renders  them  unfit  for  food.  If  sown 
much  .later,  there  is  no  food  but  from  the  leaves. 
Though  by  a  drill  plough  the  seed  may  be  sown 
of  any  thickness,  the  safest  way  is  to  sow  thick. 
Thin  sowing  is  liable  to  many  accidents,  which  are 
far  from  being  counterbalanced  by  the  expense  that 
is  saved  in  thinning.  Thick  sowing  can  bear  the 
ravages  of  the  black  fly,  and  leave  a  sufficient 
crop  behind.  It  is  a  protection  against  drought, 
gives  the  plants  a  rapid  progress,  and  establishes 
them  in  the  ground  before  it  is  necessary  to  thin 
them. 

The  sowing  turnips  broad-cast  is  universal  in 
England,  and  common,  though  a  barbarous 
practice,  in  Scotland.  The  eminent  advantages 
of  turnips  is,  that,  besides  a  profitable  crop,  they 
make  a  most  complete  fallow  ;  and  the  latter 
cannot  be  obtained  but  by  horse-hoeing.  Upon 
that  account,  the  sowing  turnips  in  rows  at  three 
feet  distance  is  recommended.  Wider  rows  an- 
swer no  profitable  end  ;  straiter  rows  afford  not 
room  for  a  horse  to  walk  in.  When  the  turnips 
are  about  four  inches  high,  annual  weeds  will 
appear.  Go  round  every  interval  with  the 
slightest  furrow  possible,  two  inches  from  each 
row,  moving  the  earth  from  the  rows  towards  the 
middle  of  the  interval.  A  thin  plate  of  iron 
must  be  fixed  on  the  left  side  of  the  plough,  to 
prevent  the  earth  from  falling  back  and  burying 
the  turnips.  Let  women  weed  the  rows  with 
their  fingers  ;  which  is  better  and  cheaper  than 
with  the  hand  hoe,  which  is  also  apt  to  disturb 
the  roots  of  the  turnips  that  are  to  stand,  and  to 
leave  them  open  to  drought  by  removing  the 
earth  from  them.  The  standing  turnips  are  to  be 
twelve  inches  from  each  other :  a  greater  distance 
makes  them  swell  too  much ;  less  affords  them 
not  sufficient  room.  A  woman  soon  comes  to 
be  expert  in  weeding.  The  following  hint  may 
be  necessary  to  a  learner.  To  secure  the  turnip 
that  is  to  stand,  let  her  cover  it  with  the  left 
hand,  and  with  the  right  pull  up  the  turnip  on 
both  sides.  After  thus  freeing  the  standing  tur- 
nip, she  may  safely  use  both  hands.  Let  the 
field  remain  in  this  state  till  the  appearance  of 
new  annuals  make  a  second  ploughing  neces- 
sary ;  which  must  be  in  the  same  furrow  with 
the  former,  but  deeper.  As  in  this  ploughing 
the  iron  plate  is  removed,  part  of  the  loose  earth 

I  2 


lid 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


will  fall  back  on  the  roots  of  the  plants  :  the 
rest  will  fill  the  middle  of  the  interval,  and  bury 
every  weed.  When  weeds  begin  again  to  ap- 
pear, then  is  the  time  for  a  third  ploughing  in 
an  opposite  direction,  which  lays'the  earth  to  the 
roots  of  the  plants.  This  ploughing  may  be 
about  the  middle  of  August;  after  which  weeds 
rise  very  faintly.  If  they  do  rise,  another 
ploughing  will  clear  the  ground  of  them.  Weeds 
that  at  this  time  rise  in  the  row,  may  be  cleared 
with  a  hand-hoe,  which  can  do  little  mischief 
among  plants  twelve  inches  from  each  other. 
But  it  may  be  done  cheaper  with  the  hand.  And 
after  the  leaves  of  turnips  in  a  row  meet  together, 
the  hand  is  the  only  instrument  that  can  be  ap- 
plied for  weeding. 

In  swampy  ground,  the  surface  of  which  is 
best  reduced  by  paring  and  burning,  the  seed 
may  be  sown  in  rows  with  intervals  of  a  foot. 
To  save  time,  a  drill  plough  may  be  used  that 
sows  three  or  four  rows  at  once.  Hand-hoeing 
is  proper  for  such  ground ;  because  the  soil 
under  the  burnt  stratum  is  commonly  full  of 
roots,  which  digest  and  rot  better  under  ground 
than  when  brought  to  the  surface  by  the  plough. 
While  these  are  digesting,  the  ashes  will  se- 
cure a  good  crop.  •  In  cultivating  turnips, 
care  should  be  taken  to  procure  good,  bright, 
nimble,  and  well  dried  seed,  and  of  the  best 
kinds.  The  Norfolk  farmers  generally  raise  the 
oval  white,  the  large  green  topped,  and  the  red 
or  purple  topped  kinds,  which  from  long  expe- 
rience they  have  found  most  profitable.  The 
roots  of  the  green  topped  will  grow  to  a  large 
size,  and  continue  good  much  longer  than  others. 
The  red  or  purple  topped  will  also  grow  large, 
and  continue  good  till  February ;  but  the  roots 
become  hard  and  stringy  sooner  than  the  former. 
The  green  topped,  growing  more  above  ground, 
is  in  more  danger  of  injury  from  severe  frosts 
than  the  red  or  purple,  which  are  more  than 
half  covered  by  the  soil ;  but  it  is  the  softest 
and  sweetest,  when  grown  large,  of  any  kind. 
They  are  brought  to  table  a  foot  in  diameter,  as 
good  as  garden  turnips. 

Turnips  delight  in  a  light  soil,  of  sand  and 
loam  mixed.  When  the  soil  is  rich  and  heavy, 
although  the  crop  may  be  as  weighty,  they  will 
!>e  rank,  and  run  to  flower  earlier  in  spring. 
Turnip  seed  will  not  do  well  without  frequent 
changing.  The  Norfolk  seed  is  sent  to  most 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  even  to  Ireland,  but 
after  two  years  it  degenerates ;  so  that  those  who 
wish  to  have  turnips  in  perfection  should  pro- 
cure it  fresh  every  year  from  Norwich,  to  prevent 
being  imposed  upon  by  seed  of  that  name  in- 
ferior in  quality. 

When  the  plants  have  got  five  leaves,  they 
should  be  hoed,  and  set  out  at  least  six  inches 
apart.  A  month  afterward,  or  earlier  if  it  be  a 
wet  season,  a  second  hoeing  should  take  place, 
and  the  plants  be  left  at  least  fourteen  inches 
from  each  other,  especially  if  intended  for  feed- 
ing cattle ;  for,  where  the  plants  are  left  thicker, 
they  will  be  proportionably  smaller,  unless  the 
land  is  very  rich  indeed.  Some  of  the  best  Nor- 
folk farmers  sow  turnips  in  drills  three  feet 
asunder,  and  at  a  second  hoeing  leave  them  a 
foot  apart.  By  these  means  the  trouble  and  ex- 


pense of  hoeing  is  much  lessened,  and  the  crop 
of  equal  weight  as  when  sown  in  the  common 
method.  The  intervals  may  easily  be  cleared  of 
weeds  by  the  horse-hoe.  Great  quantities  of 
turnips  are  raised  in  Norfolk  every  year  for  feed- 
ing black  cattle,  which  turn  to  great  advantage. 
An  acre  of  land  contains  4840  square  yards,  or 
43,560  square  feet.  If  then  every  square  foot 
contains  one  turnip,  and  they  weigh  only  two 
pounds  each,  here  will  be  a  mass  of  excellent 
food  of  forty-six  tons  per  acre,  worth  from  four 
to  five  guineas  and  sometimes  more. 

Extraordinary  crops  of  barley  frequently  suc- 
ceed turnips,  especially  when  fed  off  the  land 
In  feeding  them  off,  the  cattle  should  not  be 
suffered  to  run  over  too  much  of  the  ground 
at  once ;  for  in  that  case  they  will  tread  down 
and  spoil  twice  as  many  as  they  eat.  In  Nor- 
folk they  are  confined  by  hurdles  to  as  much  as 
is  sufficient  for  them  for  one  day.  By  this  mode 
the  crop  is  eaten  clean,  the  soil  is  equally  trod- 
den, which  if  light  is  of  much  service,  and 
equally  manured  by  the  cattle.  A  notion  pre- 
vails, in  many  places,  that  mutton  rattened  with 
turnips  is  thereby  rendered  rank  and  ill  tasted  ; 
but  this  is  a  vulgar  error.  The  best  mutton  in 
Norfolk  is  all  fed  with  turnips.  Rank  pastures, 
and  marshy  lands  produce  rank  mutton.  If  the 
land  be  wet  and  spongy,  the  best  method  is  to 
draw  and  carry  off  your  turnips  to  some  dry 
pasture;  for  the  treading  of  the  cattle  will  not 
only  injure  the  crop,  but  render  the  land  so  stiff 
that  you  must  be  at  an  additional  expense  in 
ploughing.  To  preserve  turnips  for  late  spring 
seed,  the  best  method,  and  which  has  been  tried 
with  success  by  some  of  the  best  English  far- 
mers, is  to  stalk  them  up  in  dry  straw ;  a  load 
of  which  is  sufficient  to  preserve  forty  tons  of 
turnips.  The  method  is  easy,  and  is  as  follows : — 
After  drawing  your  turnips  in  February,  cut  off 
the  tops  and  tap  roots  (which  may  be  given  to 
sheep),  and  let  them  lie  a  few  days  in  the  field. 
Then,  on  a  layer  of  straw  next  the  ground,  place 
a  layer  of  turnips  two  feet  thick;  then  another 
layer  of  straw,  and  so  on  alternately,  till  you 
have  brought  the  heap  to  a  point.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  turn  up  the  edges  of  the  layers  of 
straw,  to  prevent  the  turnips  from  rolling  out ; 
cover  the  top  well  with  long  straw,  and  it  will 
serve  as  a  thatch  for  the  whole.  In  this  method, 
as  the  straw  imbibes  the  moisture  exhaled  from  the 
roots,  all  vegetation  will  be  prevented,  and  the 
turnips  will  be  nearly  as  good  in  May  as  when 
first  drawn  from  the  field.  If  straw  be  scarce, 
old  haulm  or  stubble  will  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose. But,  to  save  this  trouble  and  expense, 
farmers  in  all  counties  would  find  it  their  interest 
to  adopt  the  method  used  by  the  Norfolk  far- 
mers, which  is,  to  continue  sowing  turnips  to  the 
end  of  August ;  by  which  means  their  late  crops 
remain  good  in  the  field  till  the  end  of  April,  and 
often  till  the  middle  of  May.  The  advantages  of 
having  turnips  good  till  the  spring  seed  is  ready, 
are  so  obvious  and  great,  that  many  of  the  most 
intelligent  farmers  are  now  come  into  it,  and  find 
their  account  in  so  doing. 

2.  POTATOES. — The  choice  of  soil  is  not  of 
creater  importance  for  any  other  plant  than  for 
potatoes.  This  plant  in  clay  soil,  or  in  rank 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


117 


black  loam  lying  low  without  ventilation,  never 
makes  palatable  food.  In  a  gravelly  or  sandy 
soil,  exposed  to  the  sun  and  free  air,  it  thrives  to 
perfection,  and  has  a  good  relish.  But  a  rank 
black  loam,  though  improper  to  raise  potatoes 
for  the  table,  produces  them  in  great  plenty  ; 
and  the  product  is  a  palatable  food  for  horned 
cattle,  hogs,  and  poultry.  The  spade  is  a  proper 
instrument  for  raising  a  small  quantity,  or  for 
preparing  corners  or  other  places  inaccessible  to 
the  plough ;  but,  for  raising  potatoes  in  quantities, 
the  plough  is  the  only  instrument. 

As  two  great  advantages  of  a  drilled  crop  are, 
to  destroy  weeds,  and  to  have  a  fallow  at  the 
same  time  with  the  crop,  no  judicious  farmer 
will  think  of  raising  potatoes  in  any  other  way. 
In  September  or  October,  as  soon  as  that  year's 
crop  is  removed,  let  the  field  have  a  rousing  fur- 
row, a  cross  brakeing  next,  and  then  be  cleared 
of  weeds  by  the  cleaning  harrow.  Form  it  into 
three  feet  ridges,  in  that  state  to  lie  till  April, 
which  is  the  proper  time  for  planting  potatoes. 
Cross  brake  it,  to  raise  the  furrows  a  little.  Then 
lay  well  digested  horse  dung  along  the  furrows, 
upon  which  lay  the  roots  eight  inches  distant. 
Cover  up  these  with  the  plough,  going  once 
round  every  row.  This  makes  a  warm  bed  for 
the  potatoes;  hot  dung  below  and  a  loose  cover- 
ing above,  that  admits  every  ray  of  the  sun.  As 
soon  as  the  plants  appear  above  ground,  go 
round  every  row  a  second  time  with  the  plough, 
which  will  lay  upon  the  plants  an  additional 
incli  or  two  of  mould,  and  at  the  same  time  bury 
all  the  annuals ;  and  this  will  complete  the 
ploughing  of  the  ridges.  When  the  potatoes  are 
six  inches  high,  the  plough,  with  the  deepest 
furrow,  must  go  twice  along  the  middle  of  each 
interval  in  opposite  directions,  laying  earth  first 
to  one  row,  and  next  to  the  other.  And  to  per- 
form this  work,  a  plough  with  a  double  mould 
ooard  will  be  more  expeditious;  but,  astheearth 
cannot  be  laid  close  to  the  roots  by  the  plough, 
the  spade  must  succeed,  with  which  four  inches 
of  the  plants  must  be  covered,  leaving  little  more 
but  all  the  tops  above  ground  ;  and  this  operation 
will  bury  all  the  weeds  that  have  sprung  since  the 
former  ploughing.  What  weeds  arise  after,  must 
be  pulled  up  by  the  hand.  A  hoe  is  never  to  be 
used  here. 

In  the  Bath  Society  Papers,  we  have  the  fol- 
lowing practical  observations  on  the  culture  and 
use  of  potatoes,  given  as  the  result  of  various  ex- 
periments made  for  five  years  successively. 

When  the  potatoe  crop  has  been  the  only  ob- 
ject in  view,  the  following  method  is  the  most 
eligible : — The  land  being  well  pulverised  by 
two  or  three  good  harrowings  and  ploughings, 
is  then  manured  with  fifteen  or  twenty  cart  loads 
of  dung  per  acre,  before  it  receives  its  last  earth. 
Then  it  is  thrown  on  to  what  the  Suffolk  fanners 
call  the  trench  balk,  wm'ch  is  narrow  and  deep 
ridge  work,  about  fifteen  incites  from  the  centre 
of  one  ridge  to  the  centre  of  the  other.  Women 
and  children  drop  the  sets  in  the  bottom  of 
every  furrow  fifteen  inches  apart ;  men  follow 
and  cover  them  with  large  hoes,  a  foot  in  width, 
pulling  the  mould  down  so  as  to  bury  the  sets 
five  inches  deep ;  they  must  receive  two  or  three 
hand  lioeings,  and  be  kept  free  from  weeds;  al- 


ways observing  to  draw  the  earth  as  much  as 
possible  to  the  stems  of  the  young  plants.  The 
first  or  second  week  in  April  is  the  most  advan- 
tageous time  for  planting. 

In  the  end  of  September  or  beginning  of  Oc- 
tober, when  the  haulm  becomes  withered,  they 
should  be  ploughed  up  with  a  strong  doubk 
breasted  plough.  The  workman  must  be  cau- 
tioned to  set  his  plough  very  deep,  that  he  may 
strike  below  all  the  potatoes,  to  avoid  damaging 
the  crop.  The  women  who  pick  them  up,  if  not 
carefully  attended  to,  will  leave  many  in  the 
ground,  which  will  prove  detrimental  to  any 
succeeding  crop.  To  avoid  which,  let  the  land 
be  harrowed,  and  turn  in  the  swine  to  glean  the 
few  that  may  be  left.  By  this  method,  the  sets 
will  be  fifteen  square  inches  from  each  other ;  it 
will  take  eighteen  bushels  to  plant  an  acre  ;  and 
the  produce,  if  on  a  good  mixed  loamy  soil,  will 
amount  to  300  bushels.  If  the  potatoes  are 
planted  as  a  preparation  for  wheat,  it  is  prefer- 
able to  have  the  rows  two  feet  two  inches  from 
each  other,  hand-hoeing  only  the  space  from 
plant  to  plant  in  each  row  ;  then  turning  a  small 
furrow  from  the  inside  of  each  row  by  a  common 
light  plough,  and  afterwards  with  a  double 
breasted  plough  with  one  horse,  split  the  ridge 
formed  by  the  first  ploughing  thoroughly  to  clean 
the  intervals.  This  work  should  not  be  done 
too  deep  the  first  time,  to  avoid  burying  the  ten- 
der plants ;  but  the  last  earth  should  be  plough- 
ed as  deep  as  possible  ;  and  the  closer  the  mould 
is  thrown  to  the  stems  of  the  plants  the  better. 
Thus  fifteen  bushels  will  plant  an  acre,  and  the 
produce  will  be  about  300  bushels ;  and  the 
land,  by  the  summer  ploughings,  will  be  pre- 
pared to  receive  seed  wheat  immediately,  and  .il- 
most  ensure  a  plentiful  crop.  The  potatoe  sets 
should  be  cut  a  week  before  planting,  with  one 
or  two  eyes  to  each,  and  the  pieces  not  very 
small ;  two  bushels  of  fresh  slaked  lime  should 
be  sown  over  the  surface  of  the  land  as  soon  as 
planted,  which  will  effectually  prevent  the  attacks 
of  the  grub. 

A  premium  having  been  offered  by  the  abot  t 
Society  for  the  cultivation  of  potatoes  by  far- 
mers, &c.,  whose  rent  does  not  exceed  £40  per 
annum,  the  following  methods  were  communi- 
cated, by  which  those  who  have  only  a  small 
spot  of  ground  may  obtain  a  plentiful  crop. 

The  earth  should  be  dug  twelve  inches  deep, 
if  the  soil,  will  allow  of  it:  after  this,  a  hole 
should  be  opened  about  six  inches  deep,  horse 
dung,  or  long  litter  should  be  put  therein  aboul 
three  inches  thick  ;  this  hole  should  not  be  more 
than  twelve  inches  in  diameter;  upon  this  dung, 
or  litter,  a  potatoe  should  be  planted  whole, 
upon  which  a  little  more  dung  should  be  shook, 
and  then  earth  put  thereon.  In  like  manner  the 
whole  plot  of  ground  must  be  planted,  taking 
care  that  each  potatoe  be  at  least  sixteen  inches 
apart ;  and,  when  the  young  shoots  make  their 
appearance,  they  should  have  fresh  mould  drawn 
round  them  with  a  hoe ;  and  if  the  tender  shoots 
are  covered,  it  will  prevent  the  frost  from  injur- 
ing them;  they  should  again  be  earthed  when 
the  shoots  make  a  sec  OK  d  appearance,  but  not  be 
covered,  as  the  seasci  will  then  be  less  severe. 
A  plentiful  supply  r  mould  should  be  given 


118 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


them,  and  the  parson  who  performs  this  business 
.should  never  tread  upon  the  plant,  or  the  hillock 
that  is  raised  round  it;  as,. the  lighter  the  earth 
is,  the  more  room  the  potatoe  will  have  to  ex- 
pand. From  a  single  root  thus  planted,  very 
nearly  forty  pounds  of  large  potatoes  were  ob- 
tained, and  from  almost  every  other  root  upon  the 
same  plot,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  ;  and, 
unless  the  soil  be  stony  or  gravelly,  ten  pound, 
or  half  a  peck  of  potatoes  may  almost  always  be 
obtained  from  each  root,  by  pursuing  the  above 
method.  But  cuttings  or  small  sets  will  not  do 
for  this  purpose. 

The  second  method  will  suit  those  who  have 
not  time  to  dig  their  ground.  Where  weeds 
much  abound,  and  have  not  been  cleared  in  the 
winter,  a  trench  may  be  opened  in  a  straight 
line  the  whole  length  of  the  ground,  and  about 
six  inches  deep ;  in  this  trench  the  potatoes 
should  bo  planted  about  ten  inches  apart ;  cut- 
tings or  small  potatoes  will  do  for  this  method. 
When  they  are  laid  in  the  trench,  the  weeds  that 
are  on  the  surface  may  be  pared  off  on  each  side 
about  ten  inches  from  it,  and  be  turned  upon  the 
plants;  another  trench  should  then  be  dug,  and 
the  mould  that  comes  out  of  it  turned  on  the 
weeds.  Each  trench  should  be  regularly  dug, 
that  all  the  potatoes  may  be  ten  or  twelve  inches 
from  each  other.  This  method  will  raise  more 
potatoes  than  can  be  produced  by  digging  the 
ground  twice,  and  dibbling  in  the  plants;  as  the 
weeds  lighten  the  soil,  and  give  the  roots  room 
to  expand.  They  should  be  twice  hoed,  and 
earthed  up  in  rows.  If  cut  potatoes  are  to  be 
planted,  every  cutting  should  have  two  eyes,  for, 
though  fewer  sets  will  be  obtained,  there  will  be 
a  greater  certainty  of  a  crop,  as  one  eye  often 
fails.  Where  a  crop  of  potatoes  fails  in  part, 
amends  may  still  be  made  by  laying  a  little  dung 
upon  the  knots  of  the  straw  or  haulm  of  those 
potatoes  that  do  appear,  and  covering  them  with 
mould ;  each  knot  or  joint  thus  ordered,  will,  if 
the  weather  prove  wet  afterwards,  produce  more 
potatoes  than  the  original  roots.  From  the 
smallest  potatoes  planted  whole,  from  four  to  six 
pound  at  a  root  were  obtained,  and  some  of  the 
single  potatoes  weighed  nearly  two  pound. 
These  were  dug  in,  in  trenches  where  the  ground 
was  covered  with  weeds,  and  the  soil  was  a  stiff" 
loamy  clay. 

A  good  crop  may  be  obtained  by  laying  pota- 
toes upon  turf  at  about  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
apart,  and  upon  l>eds  of  about  six  feet  wide  ;  on 
each  side  of  which  a  trench  should  be  opened 
about  three  feet  wide,  and  the  turf  that  comes 
thence  should  be  laid  with  the  grassy  side  down- 
wards upon  the  potatoes  ;  a  spot  of  mould  should 
next  be  taken  from  the  trenches,  and  be  spread 
over  the  turf;  and  in  like  manner  the  whole  plot 
of  ground  that  is  to  be  planted  must  be  treated. 
When  the  young  bhoots  appear,  another  spot  of 
mould  from  the  trenches  should  he  strewed  over 
the  beds,  to  rover  the  shoots ;  this  will  prevent 
the  frost  from  injuring  them,  encourage  them  to 
expand,  and  totally  destroy  the  young  weeds. 
When  the  potatoes  are  taken  up  in  the  autumn, 
turn  the  earth  again  into  the  trenches,  so  as  to 
make  the  surface  level. 

For  field  planting,  a  good  method  is  to  dung 


the  land,  which  should  be  once  ploughed  pre- 
vious thereto  ;  and,  when  ploughed  a  second 
time,  the  potatoe  plants  should  be  dropped  be- 
fore the  plough  in  every  third  furrow,  about 
eight  or  ten  inches  apart.  Plants  that  are  cut 
s\it!i  two  eyes  are  best  for  this  purpose.  The 
reason  for  planting  them  at  so  great  a  distance 
as  every  third  furrow,  is,  that  when  the  shoots 
appear,  a  horse  hoe  may  go  upon  the  two  vacant 
furrows  to  keep  them  clean  ;  and,  after  they  are 
thus  hoed,  they  should  be  moulded  up  in  ridges  ; 
and,  if  this  crop  be  taken  up  about  October  or 
November,  the  land  will  be  in  excellent  condi- 
tion to  receive  a  crop  of  wheat.  Lands  that  are 
full  of  twitch  or  couch  grass,  may  be  made  clean 
by  this  method,  as  the  horse-hoeing  is  as  good  as 
a  summer  fallow;  and  if,  when  the  potatoes  are 
taken  up,  women  and  children  were  to  pick  out 
such  filth,  no  traces  of  it  would  remain  ;  and  by 
burning  it  a  quantity  of  manure  would  be  pro- 
cured. After  ploughing,  none  should  ever  dib- 
ble in  potatoes,  for  treading  the  ground,  . 

Vacant  places  in  hedge  rows  might  be  grubb- 
ed and  planted  with  potatoes,  and  a  good  crop 
might  be  expected,  as  the  leaves  of  trees,  thorns, 
&c.,  are  a  good  manure,  and  will  surprisingly 
encourage  their  growth,  and  gratify  the  wishes  of 
the  planter;  who,  by  cultivating  such  places,  will 
then  make  the  most  of  his  ground,  and  it  will  be 
in  fine  order  to  receive  a  crop  of  corn  the  follow- 
ing year. 

The  best  method  of  taking  up  potatoes  is  to 
plough  once  round  every  row  at  the  distance  of 
four  inches,  removing  the  earth  from  the  plants, 
and  gathering  up  with  the  hand  all  the  potatoes 
that  appear.  This  distance  is  proper  to  prevent 
cutting  the  roots.  When  the  ground  is  thus 
cleared  by  the  plough,  raise  the  potatoes  with  a 
fork  having  three  broad  toes.  The  potatoes 
must  then  be  gathered  with  the  hand. 

It  is  of  importance  to  have  potatoes  all  the 
year  round.  For  a  long  time  they  were  in  Scot- 
land confined  to  the  kitchen  garden  ;  and,  after 
they  were  planted  in  the  field,  it  was  not  supposed 
at  first  that  they  could  be  used  after  December. 
Of  late  they  have  been  kept  good  till  April. 
But  it  is  easy  to  preserve  them  till  the  next  crop: 
when  taken  out  of  the  ground,  lay  in  a  corner 
of  a  barn  a  quantity  that  may  serve  till  the 
spring  covered  with  dry  straw  pressed  down : 
hury  the  remainder  in  a  hole  dug  in  dry  ground, 
mixed  with  the  husks  of  dried  oats,  sand,  or  the 
dry  leaves  of  trees,  over  which  build  a  stack  ot 
hay  or  corn.  When  the  pit  is  opened  for  taking 
out  the  potatoes,  the  eyes  of  what  have  tendency 
to  push  must  be  cut  out;  and  this  cargo  will 
serve  till  the  end  of  June.  To  be  certain  of 
making  the  old  crop  meet  the  new,  the  setting  of 
a  small  quantity  may  be  delayed  till  June,  to  be 
taken  up  at  the  ordinary  time  before  frost.  This 
cargo,  having  not  arrived  to  full  growth,  will  not 
be  so  ready  to  push  as  what  are  set  in  April.  If 
the  old  crop  be  exhausted  before  the  new  crop  is 
ready,  the  interval  may  be  supplied  by  the  po- 
tatoes of  the  new  crop  that  lie  next  the  surface, 
to  be  picked  up  » -ith  the  hand ;  which,  far  from 
hurting  the  crop,  will  rather  improve  it. 

Kinlinrf  found  inealy'potatoes  to  contain  twen- 
ty-four per  cent,  of  thf 'ir  \\< -i^ht  of  nt-.tritive  mat- 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


119 


ter,  and  rye  seventy  parts.  Consequently  sixty- 
four  and  a  half  measures  of  potatoes  afford  the 
same  nourishment  as  twenty-four  measures -of  rye. 
1000  parts  of  potatoe  yielded  to  Sir  H.  Davy 
from  200  to  360  parts  of  nutritive  matter,  of 
which  from  155  to  200  were  mucilage  or  starch, 
fifteen  to  twenty  sugar,  and  thirty  to  forty  gluten. 
Now,  supposing  an  acre  of  potatoes  to  weigh 
nine  tons,  and  one  of  wheat  one  ton,  which  is 
about  the  usual  proportion,  then  as  1000  parts 
of  wheat  afford  950  nutritive  parts,  and  1000  of 
potatoe  say  230,  the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter 
afforded  by  an  acre  of  wheat  and  potatoes  will 
be  nearly  as  nine  to  four ;  so  that  an  acre  of  po- 
tatoes will  supply  more  than  double  the  quantity 
of  human  food  afforded  by  an  acre  of  wheat. 
The  potatoe  is  perhaps  the  only  root  grown  in 
Britain  which  may  be  eaten  every  day  in  the 
year  without  satiating  the  palate,  and  the  same 
thing  can  only  be  said  of  the  West  Indian  yam, 
and  bread  fruit.  They  are,  therefore,  the  only 
substitute  that  can  be  used  for  bread  with  any 
degree  of  success,  and  indeed  they  often  enter 
largely  into  the  composition  of  the  best  loaf 
bread  without  at  all  injuring  either  its  nutritive 
qualities  or  flavor.  In  the  answer  by  Dr.  Tissot 
to  M.  Linquet,  the  former  objects  to  the  constant 
use  of  potatoes  as  food,  not  because  they  are  per- 
nicious to  the  body,  but  because  they  hurt  the 
faculties  of  the  mind.  He  owns  that  those  who 
eat  maize,  potatoes,  or  even  millet  may  grow  tall 
and  acquire  a  large  size  ;  but  doubts  if  any  such 
ever  produced  a  literary  work  of  merit.'  Pota- 
toe meal  may  be  preserved  for  years  closely 
packed  in  barrels,  or  unground  in  the  form  of 
slices  ;  these  slices  having  been  previously  cook- 
ed or  dried  by  steam,  as  originally  suggested  by 
Forsyth  of  Edinburgh.  Some  German  philoso- 
phers have  also  proposed  to  freeze  the  potatoe, 
by  which  the  feculous  matter  is  separated  from 
the  starch,  and  the  latter,  being  then  dried  and 
compressed,  may  be  preserved  for  any  length  of 
time,  or  exported  with  ease  to  any  distance. 
(Annalen  des  Ackerbaues,  vol.  iii.  s.  389). 

Potatoes  as  food  for  live  stock  are  often  joined 
with  hay,  straw,  chaff,  and  other  similar  matters, 
and  have  been  found  useful  in  many  cases,  es- 
pecially in  the  later  winter  months,  for  horses, 
cows,  &c.  With  these  substances,  as  well  as  in 
combination  with  other  materials,  as  bean  or 
barley-meal  and  pollard,  they  are  also  used  in 
the  fattening  of  neat  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs. 
Potatoes  are  much  more  nutritive  when  boiled  ; 
they  were  formerly  cooked  in  this  way,  but  are 
now  very  generally  steamed,  especially  in  the 
north.  The  practice  has  been  carried  to  the 
greatest  extent  by  Curwen  in  feeding  horses. 
He  gives  to  each  horse,  daily,  one  and  a  half 
stone  of  potatoes  mixed  with  a  tenth  of  cut  straw  : 
120  stones  of  potatoes  require  two  and  a  quarter 
bushels  of  coals  to  steam  them.  An  acre  of 
potatoes,  he  considers,  goes  as  far  in  this  way  as 
four  of  hay.  VonTbaer  found  them,  when  given 
to  live-stock,  produce  more  manure  than  any 
other  food  :  100  Ibs.  of  potatoes  producing  sixty- 
six  pounds  of  manure  of  the  very  best  descrip- 
tion. The  baking  of  potatoes  in  an  oven  has 
also  been  tried  with  success  (Comm.  Board  of 
Agriculture,  vol.  iv.)  ;  but  the  process  seems  too 


expensive.  They  are  also  given  raw  to  stock  of 
every  description,  to  horses  and  hogs  washed, 
but  not  washed  to  cows  or  oxen.  Washing  was 
formerly  a  disagreeable  and  tedious  business, 
but  is  now  rendered  an  easy  matter,  whether  on 
a  large  or  small  scale,  by  the  use  of  the  washing 
machine. 

3.  CARROTS  and  PARSNIPS. — Of  all  roots  a 
carrot  requires  the  deepest  soil.  It  ought  at 
least  to  be  a  foot  deep,  all  equally  good  from  top 
to  bottom.  If  such  a  soil  be  not  in  the  farm,  it 
may  be  made  artificially  by  trench  ploughing, 
which  brings  to  the  surface  what  never  had  any 
communication  with  the  sun  or  air.  When  this 
new  soil  is  sufficiently  improved  by  a  crop  or 
two  with  dung,  it  is  fit  for  bearing  carrots.  Beware 
of  dunging  the  year  when  the  carrots  are  sown  ; 
for  with  fresh  dung  they  seldom  escape  rotten 
scabs.  The  only  soils  proper  for  carrrots  are 
loam  and  sand.  The  ground  must  be  prepared 
by  the  deepest  furrow  that  can  be  taken,  the 
sooner  after  harvest  the  better ;  immediately  upon 
the  back  of  which,  a  ribbing  ought  to  succeed,  as 
directed  for  barley.  At  the  end  of  March,  or  begin- 
ning of  April,  which  is  the  time  of  sowing  the 
seed,  the  ground  must  be  smoothed  with  a  brake 
Sow  the  seed  in  drills,  with  intervals  of  a  foot 
for  hand-hoeing,  where  the  crop  is  an  acre  or 
two  :  but  if  the  quantity  of  ground  be  greater,  the 
intervals  ought  to  be  three  feet  for  horse-hoeing. 
In  flat  ground  without  ridges,  it  is  proper  to  make 
parallel  furrows  jvith  the  plough,  ten  feet  asun- 
der to  carry  off  redundant  moisture.  The  for- 
mer will  often  find  carrots  a  very  advantageous 
crop ;  instances  are  given  of  their  excellence  as 
food  for  horses,  cattle,  and  hogs. 

The  culture  of  PARSNIPS  is  much  the  same 
with  that  of  carrots. 

SECT.  III. — PLANTS  CULTIVATED  FOR  LEAVES, 
OR  FOR  LEAVES  AND  ROOTS. 

The  plants  proper  for  the  field  of  these  kinds 
are  'cabbage  red  and  white,  colewort  plain  and 
curled,  turnip-rooted  cabbage,  and  the  root  of 
scarcity. 

1.  CABBAGE  is  an  interesting  article  in  hus- 
bandry. It  is  easily  raised,  is  subject  to  few  dis- 
eases, resists  frost  more  than  turnips,  is  palatable 
to  cattle,  and  sooner  fills  them  than  turnips,  car- 
rots, or  potatoes.  The  season  for  setting  cabbage 
depends  on  the  use  it  is  intended  for.  If  intend- 
ed for  feeding  in  November,  December,  and 
January,  plants  procured  from  seed  sown  the 
end  of  July  the  preceding  year  must  be  set  in 
March  or  April.  If  intended  for  feeding  in 
March,  April,  and  May,  the  plants  must  be  set 
the  first  week  of  the  preceding  July,  from  seed 
sown  in  the  end  of  February  or  beginning  of 
March  the  same  year.  The  late  setting  of  the 
plants  retards  their  growth ;  by  which  means  they 
have  a  vigorous  growth  the  following  spring, 
And  this  crop  makes  an  important  link  in  th« 
chain  that  connects  winter  and  summer  green 
food.  Where  cabbage  for  spring  food  is  neglected, 
a  few  acres  of  rye  sown  at  Michaelmas  will  sup- 
ply the  want.  After  the  rye  is  consumed  there  is 
time  sufficient  to  prepare  the  ground  for  turnips. 

Where  cabbage  plants  are  to  be  set  in  March, 
the  field  must  be  made  up  after  harvest  in  ridges 


120 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


three  feet  wide.  In  that  form  let  it  lie  all  winter 
to  be  mellowed  with  air  and  frost.  In  March 
take  the  first  opportunity,  between  wet  and  dry, 
to  lay  dung  in  the  furrows.  Cover  the  dune; 
with  a  plough,  which  will  convert  the  furrow  into 
a  crown,  and  the  crown  into  a  furrow.  Set  the 
plants  upon  the  dung,  three  feet  from  each  other. 
Plant  them  so  as  to  make  a  straight  line  cross 
the  ridges,  and  along  the  furrows,  to  which  a 
gardener's  line  stretched  perpendicularly  cross 
the  furrows  will  be  requisite.  This  will  set  each 
plant  at  the  distance  precisely  of  three  feet  from 
the  plants  that  surround  it.  The  purpose  of  this 
is  to  give  opportunity  for  ploughing,  not  only 
along  the  ridges,  but  across  them.  This  mode 
saves  hand-hoeing,  is  a  more  complete  dressing 
to  the  soil,  and  lays  earth  neatly  round  every 
plant.  If  the  soil  be  deep  and  composed  of 
pood  earth,  a  trench  ploughing  after  the  pre- 
ceding crop  will  be  proper ;  in  which  case  the 
time  for  dividing  the  field  into  three  feet  ridges 
ought  immediately  to  precede  the  dunging  for 
the  plants.  If  weeds  rise  so  close  to  the  plants 
as  not  to  be  reached  by  the  plough,  destroy  them 
with  a  hand-hoe.  Unless  the  soil  be  much  in- 
fested with  annual  weeds,  twice  ploughing  after 
the  plants  are  set  will  be  a  sufficient  dressing. 
The  first  removes  the  earth  from  the  plants ;  the 
next,  at  the  distance  of  a  month  or  so,  lays  it 
back. 

Where  the  plants  are  to  be  set  in  July,  the 
field  must  be  ribbed  as  directed  for  barley.  It 
ought  to  have  a  slight  ploughing  in  June  before 
the  planting,  to  loosen  the  soil,  but  not  so  as  to 
bury  the  surface  earth  ;  after  which  the  three 
feet  ridges  must  be  formed,  and  the  other  parti- 
culars carried  on  as  directed  above  with  respect 
to  plants  set  in  March. 

2.  As  to  the  turnip-rooted  cabbages,  in  the  Bath 
Society  Papers  we  have  the  following  account  of 
Sir  Thomas  Beevor's  method  of  cultivating  them, 
which  he  found  to  be  cheaper  and  better  than 
any  other  : — '  In  the  first  or  second  week  in 
June  I  sow  the  same  quantity  of  seed,  hoe  the 
plants  at  the  same  size,  leave  them  at  the  same 
distance  from  each  other,  and  treat  them  in  all 
respects  like  the  common  turnip.  In  this  method 
I  have  always  obtained  a  plentiful  crop  of  them ; 
to  ascertain  the  value  of  which  I  need  only  in- 
form you  that,  oti  the  23d  of  April  last,  having 
then  two  acres  left  of  my  crop,  sound,  and  in 
good  perfection,  I  divided  them  by  fold  hurdles 
into  three  parts  of  nearly  equal  dimensions.  Into 
the  first  part  I  put  twenty-four  small  bullocks  of 
about  thirty  stone  weight  each  (fourteen  pounds 
to  the  stone),  and  thirty  middle-sized  fat  wed- 
ders,  which,  at  the  end  of  the  first  week,  after 
they  had  eaten  down  the  greater  part  of  the 
leaves,  and  some  part  of  the  roots,  I  shified  into 
the  second  division,  and  then  put  seventy  lean 
sheen  into  what  was  left  of  the  first ;  these  fed 
off  the  remainder  of  the  turnips  left  by  the  fat 
stock  ;  and  so  they  were  shifted  through  the  three 
divisions,  the  lean  stock  following  the  fat  as  they 
wanted  food,  until  the  whole  was  consumed. 
The  twenty-four  bullocks  and  the  thirty  fat  wed- 
Mers  continued  in  the  turnips  until  the  2 1st  of 
M.iy.  and  the  seventy  lean  sheep  until  the  29th, 
ifhich  is  one  day  ovei  four  weeks;  so  that  the 


two  acres  kept  me  twenty-four  small  bullock* 
and  110  sheep  four  weeks,  not  reckoning  the 
overplus  day  of  keeping  the  lean  sheep ;  the 
value,  at  the  rate  of  keeping  at  that  season,  can- 
not be  estimated  in  any  common  year  at  less  than 
4rf.  a  week  for  each  sheep,  and  Is.  6d.  per  week 
for  each  bullock,  which  would  amount  together 
to  the  sum  of  £14  10s.  Qd.  for  the  two  acres. 

'  You  will  observe  that,  in  the  valuation  o. 
the  crop  above  mentioned,  I  have  claimed  no 
allowance  for  the  great  benefit  the  farmer  receives 
by  being  enabled  to  suffer  his  grass  to  get  into  a 
forward  growth,  nor  for  the  superior  quality  of 
these  turnips  in  fattening  his  stock  ;  both  which 
circumstances  must  stamp  a  new  and  a  great 
additional  value  upon  them.  But,  as  their  con- 
tinuance on  the  land  may  seem  to  be  injurious 
to  the  succeeding  crop,  to  supply  that  loss  I  have 
always  sown  buck-wheat  on  the  first  earth  upon 
the  land  from  which  the  turnips  were  thus  fed 
off;  allowing  one  bushel  of  seed  per  acre,  for 
whjch  I  commonly  receive  from  five  to  six  quar- 
ters per  acre  in  return.  Thus  you  see  that,  in 
providing  a  most  incomparable  vegetable  food 
for  cattle,  in  that  season  of  the  year  in  which  the 
farmer  is  generally  most  distressed,  and  his  cattls 
almost  starved,  a  considerable  profit  may  like- 
wise be  obtained,  much  beyond  what  is  usually 
derived  from  his  former  practice,  by  the  great 
produce  and  price  of  a  crop  raised  at  so  easy 
an  expense  as  that  of  the  buck-wheat,  which 
with  us  sells  commonly  at  the  same  price  as 
barley,  oftentimes  more,  but  very  rarely  for  less. 
The  land  on  which  I  have  usually  sown  turnip- 
rooted  cabbages  is  a  dry  mixed  soil,  worth  15s. 
per  acre.' 

To  the  preceding  account  the  Society  have 
subjoined  the  following  note : — '  Whether  we 
regard  the  importance  of  the  subject,  or  the  clear 
and  practical  information  which  the  foregoing 
letter  conveys,  it  may  be  considered  as  truly  in- 
teresting as  any  we  have  ever  been  favored  with  : 
and  therefore  it  is  recommended  in  the  strongest 
manner  to  farmers  in  general,  that  they  adopt  a 
mode  of  practice  so  decisively  ascertained  to  be 
in  a  high  degree  judicious  and  profitable.' 

To  raise  the  turnip-rooted  cabbage  for  trans- 
planting, the  best  method  yet  discovered  i*  to 
breast-plough  and  burn  as  much  old  pasture  as 
may  be  judged  necessary  for  the  seed-bed:  two 
perches  well  stocked  with  plants  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  plant  an  acre.  The  land  should  be  cluij 
as  shallow  as  possible,  turning  the  ashes  in  ;  ami 
the  seed  should  be  sown  the  beginning  of  April. 
The  land  to  be  cultivated  and  dunged  as  the 
common  turnip.  About  midsummer  will  be  a 
proper  lime  for  planting,  which  is  best  done  as 
follows  : — The  land  to  be  thrown  into  one-bout 
ridges,  upon  the  tops  of  which  the  plants  are  to 
be  set,  about  eighteen  inches  from  each  other. 
As  soon  as  the  weeds  rise  give  a  hand-hoeing, 
afterwards  run  the  ploughs  in  the  intervals,  and 
fetch  a  furrow  from  each  ridge,  which,  after  lym^ 
two  or  three  weeks,  is  a,fain  thrown  back  to  the 
ridges  ;  if  the  weeds  rise  again  give  them  ano- 
ther hand-hoeing.  If  the  young  plants  in  the 
seed-bed  be  attacked  by  the  fly,  sow  wood-ashes 
over  them  when  the  dew  is  <m  which  'will  pre- 
vent their  ravages 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


121 


3.  The  mangel  wurtzel,  or  ROOT  OF  SCARCITY, 
beta  cicla  (see  BETA),  delights  in  a  rich  loamy 
land  well  dunged.  It  is  directed  to  be  sown  in 
rows,  or  broad-cast,  and  as  soon  as  the  plants 
are  of  the  size  of  a  goose-quill,  to  be  transplanted 
in  rows  of  eighteen  inches  distance,  and  eighteen 
inches  apart,  one  plant  from  the  other  :  care 
must  be  taken  in  the  sowing  to  sow  very  thin, 
and  to  cover  the  seed,  which  lies  in  the  ground 
about  a  month,  an  inch  only.  In  transplanting 
the  root  is  not  to  be  shortened,  but  the  leaves 
cut  at  the  top ;  the  plant  is  then  to  be  planted 
with  a  setting  stick,  so  that  the  upper  part  of  the 
root  shall  appear  about  half  an  inch  out  of  the 
ground  ;  this  last  precaution  is  necessary  to  be  at- 
tended to.  These  plants  will  strike  root  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  a  man  will  plant  with  ease  1800 
or  2000  a  day.  In  the  seed-bed  the  plants,  like 
all  others,  must  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  :  when 
planted  out,  after  once  hoeing,  they  will  suffocate 
«very  kind  of  weed  near  them. 

The  best  time  to  sow  the  seed  is  from  the  be- 
ginning of  March  to  the  middle  of  April  :  but 
some  continue  sowing  every  month  until  the  be- 
ginning of  July,  to  have  a  succession  of  plants. 
Both  leaves  and  roots  have  been  extolled  as  ex- 
cellent both  for  man  and  beast.  This  plant  is 
said  not  to  be  liable,  like  the  turnip,  to  be 
destroyed  by  insects ;  for  no  insect  touches  it, 
nor  is  it  affected  by  excessive  drought,  or  the 
•changes  of  seasons.  Horned  cattle,  horses,  pigs, 
and  poultry,  are  exceedingly  fond  of  it  when 
cut  small.  The  leaves  may  be  gathered  every 
twelve  or  fifteen  days ;  they  are  from  thirty  to 
forty  inches  long,  by  twenty-two  to  twenty-five 
inches  broad.  This  plant  is  excellent  for  milch 
cows,  when  given  to  them  in  proper  proportions, 
as  it  adds  much  to  the  quality  as  well  as  quantity 
of  their  milk  ;  but  care  must  be  taken  to  propor- 
tion the  leaves  with  other  green  food,  otherwise 
it  would  abate  the  milk,  and  fatten  them  too 
much,  they  being  of  so  exceedingly  fattening  a 
quality. 

4.  OFTARES. — The  common  tare  is  d  istinguished 
into  the  winter  and  spring  tare,  probably  the 
same  original  plant ;  but  a  material  difference 
has  been  superinduced  by  cultivation.  (Annals  of 
Agriculture,  vol.  ii).  The  winter  tare  escapes  in- 
jury from  frosts,  which  destroy  the  spring  variety  : 
the  difference  in  the  seeds  is,  however,  so  incon- 
siderable, as  to  be  scarcely  distinguished ;  but 
'  the  winter-tare  vegetates  with  a  seed  leaf  of  a 
fresh  green  color,  whereas  the  spring  tare  comes 
up  with  a  grassy  spear  of  a  brown  dusky  hue.' — 
Dickson's  Practical  Agriculture. 

The  winter  variety  is  sown  in  September  and 
October,  and  the  first  sowing  in  spring  ought  to 
be  early.  If  they  are  to  be  cut  green  for  soiling 
throughout  the  summer  and  autumn,  which  is 
the  most  advantageous  method  of  consuming 
them,  successive  sowings  should  follow  till  the 
end  of  May.  The  quantity  of  seed  to  an  acre 
is  from  two  bushels  and  a  half  to  three  bushels 
and  a  half,  according  to  the  time  of  sowing,  and 
as  they  are  to  be  consumed  green  or  left  to  stand 
for  a  crop. 

Tares  are  in  some  places  eaten  on  the  ground, 
particularly  by  sheep  :  and,  as  the  winter  sown 
variety  comes  early,  the  value  of  this  food  is  then 


very  considerable.  The  waste,  however,  in  this 
way,  even  though  the  sheep  be  confined  in  hur- 
dles, is  great :  and  still  greater  when  consumed 
by  horses  or  cattle.  But  if  the  plants  be  cut 
green,  and  given  to  stock  either  on  the  field  or  in 
the  fold-yards,  there  is  perhaps  no  green  crop 
of  greater  value. 

A  little  rye  sown  with  winter  tares,  and  a  few 
oats  with  the  spring  sort,  serve  to  support  their 
weak  stems,  and  add  to  the  bulk  of  the  crop. 
There  is  little  difference  in  the  culture  of  tares 
and  peas ;  they  are  often  sown  broad-cast,  but 
sometimes  in  rows,  with  intervals  to  admit  of 
hand-hoeing.  The  land  ought  to  be  rolled  as  a 
preparation  ;  and  they  should  always  be  cut  with 
the  scythe,  rather  than  a  sickle.  When  thus  cut 
with  the  scythe,  even  an  early  spring  sown  crop 
sometimes  yields  a  weighty  after  crop.  In  those 
districts  where  winter  sown  tares  are  found  to 
succeed,  the  ground  may  be  cleared  in  time  for 
being  sown  with  turnips,  or  dressed  like  a  fallow 
for  wheat. 

5.  OF  RAPE-SEED. — Rape  is  cultivated  to  a 
large  extent  in  Great  Britain,  not  only  for  the 
sake  of  the  oil,  but  also  for  feeding  sheep.  The  late 
Mr.  Culley  of  Northumberland  gives  the  following 
account  of  its  culture,  founded  on  his  own  prac- 
tice : — 

'  Rape  may  be  sown  from  the  24th  of  May  to 
the   8th  of  June  :    but  comes  to   the   greatest 
growth  if  sown  in  May.      If  sown  earlier  it   is 
apt  to  run  to  seed.     From  two  to  three   pounds 
of  seed  is  required  per  acre,  sown  by  a  common 
turnip-seed  drill.     But,  as  rape-seed  is  so  much 
larger   than    turnip-seed,   the    drill   should    be 
wider.      When  hoed  the  rape  should  be  set  out 
at  the  same  distance  as  turnip  plants.  The  drills 
should  be  from   twenty-six  to  twenty-eight  or 
thirty  inches,  according  to  the  quantity  of  dung 
given.     As  many  ploughings,  harrowings,  and 
rollings,  &c.,  should  be  given,  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  make  that  kind  of  poor  soil  as  fine  as 
possible,  and  cleared  of  twitch,  &c. :  the   pro- 
duce will  be  from  twenty-five  to  even  fifty  tons 
per  acre,  or  upwards.    But  it  is  not  so  much  the 
value  of  the  green  crop  (though  the  better  the 
green  crop,  the  better  will  the  wheat  be)  as  the 
great  certainty  of  a  valuable  crop  of  wheat,  that 
merits  attention.    The  sheep  are  put  on  from  the 
beginning  to  the  middle  of  August ;  they  must 
have  the  rape  consumed  by  the  middle,  or  at 
latest  by  the  end  of  September,  so  that  the  wheat 
may  be  got  sown,  on  such  poor  damp  soils,  be- 
fore the  autumnal  rains  take  place.    The  number 
of  sheep  must  depend  on  the  goodness  or  bad- 
ness of  the  crop.      But  as  many  sheep  must  be 
employed  as  vo  eat  the  rape  by  the  middle  of 
September,  or  end  of  that  month  at  the  latest, 
for  the  reasons  formerly  given.     The  Burwell 
red  wheat  (so  called  from  a  village  in  Cambridge- 
shire) is  always  preferred      Poor  clays  will  not 
allow  deep  ploughing,  consequently  that  opera- 
tion must  be  governed  by  the  depth  of  the  soil. 
The  land  must  be  made  as  clean  as  any  naked 
fallow.      There  is  scarcely  an  instance  known  of 
a  crop  of  wheat  sown  after  rape,  and  eat  off 
with  sheep,  being  mildewed,  and   the  grain  is 
generally  well  perfected.    Mr.  Culley  has  known 
a  crop  of  wheat  after  rape,  upon  a  poor  moorisn 


122 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


thin  clay  soil,worth  much  more  than  the  fee-simple 
of  the  land  that  produced  it.  He  has  frequently 
known  land,  both  after  rape  and  after  naked  fal- 
low, in  the  same  field ;  and  invariably  the  rape- 
wheat  was  better  in  every  respect  than  that  after 
naked  fallow.' — Husbandry  of  Scotland,  vol.  ii. 
appendix,  p.  45. 

OF  THE  CULTURE  OF  GRASSES. 

The  end  of  August  or  the  beginning  of  Sep- 
tember is  the  best  season  for  sowing  grass-seeds, 
as  there  is  time  for  the  roots  of  the  young  plants 
to  fix  themselves  before  the  sharp  frosts  set  in. 
Moist  weather  is  best  for  sowing ;  the  earth  being 
then  warm,  the  seeds  vegetate  immediately ;  but 
if  this  season  proves  unfavorable,  they  will  do 
very  well  in  the  middle  of  March. 

Never  sow  on  foul  land ;  plough  it  well,  and 
clear  it  from  the  roots  of  couch-grass,  rest-har- 
row, fern,  broom,  and  all  other  noxious  weeds. 
If  these  are  suffered  to  remain  they  will  soon 
destroy  the  young  grass.  Rake  these  up  in 
heaps,  burn  them  on  the  land,  and  spread  the 
ashes  as  a  manure.  Repeat  the  ploughings  and 
harrowings  in  dry  weather.  If  the  soil  be  clayey 
and  wet  make  some  drains  to  carry  off  the  water. 
Before  sowing  lay  the  land  as  level  as  possible. 
If  the  grass  seeds  'are  clean,  three  bushels  will 
be  sufficient  per  acre.  When  sown,  harrow  it  in 
gently,  and  roll  it  in  with  a  wooden  roller.  When 
it  comes  up,  fill  up  all  the  bare  spots  with  fresh 
seed,  which,  if  rolled  to  fix  it,  will  soon  come 
up  and  overtake  the  rest.  In  Norfolk  they  sow 
clover  with  their  grasses,  particularly  with  rye- 
grass  ;  but  this  should  not  be  done  except  when 
the  land  is  designed  for  grass  only  three  'or  four 
years,  because  neither  of  these  kinds  will  last 
long  in  the  lands.  Where  you  intend  it  for  a 
continuance  it  is  better  to  mix  only  small  white 
Dutch  clover,  or  marl  grass  with  other  grass  seed, 
and  not  above  eight  pounds  to  an  acre.  These 
are  abiding  plants,  spread  close  on  the  surface, 
and  make  the  sweetest  feeding  for  cattle.  In 
spring  root  up  thistles,  hemlock,  or  any  large 
weeds  that  appear.  The  doing  this  while  the 
ground  is  soft  enough  to  permit  drawing  by  the 
roots,  and  before  they  seed,  will  save  a  vast  deal 
of  trouble  afterwards. 

A  common  method  of  laying  down  fields  to 
grass  is  extremely  injudicious.  Some  sow  barley 
with  the  grasses,  which,  they  suppose  to  be  use- 
ful in  shading  them,  without  considering  how 
much  the  corn  draws  away  the  nourishment. 
Others  take  their  seeds  from  a  foul  hay-rick ;  by 
which  means,  besides  filling  the  land  with  rubbish 
and  weeds,  what  they  intend  for  dry  soils  may 
have  come  from  moist,  where  it  grew  naturally, 
and  vice  versa.  The  consequence  is  that  the 
ground,  instead  of  being  covered  with  a  good 
thick  sward,  is  filled  with  plants  unnatural  to  it. 
The  kinds  of  grass  most  eligible  for  pasture  lands 
are,  the  annual  meadow,  creeping,  and  fine  bent, 
the  fox-tail,  and  crested  dog's  tail,  the  poas,  the 
fescues,  the  vernal,  oat-grass,  and  the  rye-grass. 
We  do  not,  however,  approve  of  sowing  all  these 
kinds  together;  for  besides  their  ripening  at  dif- 
ferent times,  by  which  we  can  never  cut  them  all 
in  perfection  and  full  vigor,  no  cattle  are  fond  of 
all  alike.  Horses  will  scarcely  eat  hay  which  oxen 


and  cows  will  thrive  upon ;  sheep  are  particu 
larly  fond  of  some  kinds,  and  refuse  others.  The 
darnel-grass,  if  not  cut  before  several  of  the  other 
kinds  are  ripe,  becomes  so  hard  and  wiry  in  the 
stalks,  that  few  cattle  eat  it.  Such  as  wish  for  a 
particular  account  of  the  above-mentioned 
grasses,  will  be  amply  gratified  in  consulting  Mr. 
Stillingfleet  on  this  subject,  who  has  treated  it 
with  great  judgment  and  accuracy.  The  sub- 
stance of  his  observations  is  given  in  our  article 
GRASS. 

The  grasses  commonly  sown  for  pasture,  for 
hay,  or  to  be  cut  green  for  cattle,  are  red  clover, 
white  clover,  yellow  clover,  rye-jjrass,  narrow- 
leaved  plantain  called  ribwort,  saintfoin  and  lu- 
cerne. Red  clover  is  of  all  the  most  proper  to  be 
cut  green  for  summer  food.  It  is  a  biennial  plant 
when  suffered  to  perfect  its  seed  ;  but,  when  cut 
green,  it  will  last  three  years,  and  in  a  dry  soil 
longer.  At  the  same  time  the  safest  course  is  to 
let  it  stand  but  a  single  year ;  if  the  second  year's 
crop  happen  to  be  scanty,  it  proves,  like  a  bad 
crop  of  pease,  a  great  encourager  of  weeds  by 
the  shelter  it  affords  them.  Here,  as  in  all  other 
crops,  the  goodness  of  seed  "is  of  importance. 
Choose  plump  seed  of  a  purple  color,  because  it 
takes  on  that  color  when  ripe.  It  is  red  when 
hurt  in  the  drying,  and  of  a  faint  color  when  un- 
ripe. 

Red  clover  is  luxuriant  upon  a  rich  soil,  whe- 
ther clay,  loam,  or  gravel :  it  will  grow  even 
upon  a  moor,  when  properly  cultivated.  A  wet 
soil  is  its  only  bane.  To  have  red  clover  in 
perfection,  weeds  must  be  extirpated,  and  stones 
taken  off.  The  mould  ought  to  be  made  as  fine 
as  a  harrowing  can  make  it ;  and  the  surface 
smoothed  with  a  light  roller.  This  gives  an  op- 
portunity for  distributing  the  seed  evenly  ;  which 
must  be  covered  by  a  small  harrow  with  teeth  not 
larger  than  that  of  a  garden  rake.  In  harrowing, 
the  man  should  walk  behind  with  a  rope  in  his 
hand  fixed  to  the  back  part  of  the  harrow,  ready 
to  disentangle  it  from  stones,  clods,  turnip  or  cab- 
bage roots,  which  would  trail  the  seed,  and  dis- 
place it. 

No  precise  depth  is  necessary  for  the  seed 
of  red  clover.  It  will  grow  vigorously  from  two 
inches  deep,  and  it  will  grow  when  barely  co- 
vered. Half  an  inch  may  be  reckoned  the  most 
advantageous  position  in  a  clay  soil,  a  whole  inch 
in  what  is  light  or  loose.  It  is  a  vulgar 
error  that  small  seed  ought  to  be  sparingly 
covered.  Misled  by  it,  farmers  cover  their 
clover  seed  with  a  bushy  branch  of  thorn, 
which  not  only  covers  it  unequally,  but  leaves 
part  on  the  surface  to  wither  in  the  air.  The 
proper  season  for  sowing  red  clover  is  from  the 
middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of  May.  It  will 
spring  from  the  first  of  March  to  the  end  of  Au- 
gust; but  such  liberty  ought  not  to  be  taken. 

There  cannot  be  a  greater  blunder  in  husbandry 
than  to  be  sparing  of  seed.  Some  writers  talk 
of  sowing  an  acre  with  four  pounds.  That 
quantity  of  seed,  say  they,  will  fill  an  acre  with 
plants  as  thick  as  they  ought  to  stand.  This  rule 
may  be  admitted  as  to  grain,  but  will  notanswer 
witli  respect  to  grass.  Grass  seed  cannot  be 
sown  too  thick :  the  plants  shelter  one  another  ; 
they  retain  all  the  dew  ;  and  they  must  push  for- 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


123 


ward,  having  no  room  laterally.  Observe  the 
place  where  a  sack  of  pease,  or  of  other  grain, 
has  been  set  down  for  sowing  :  the  seed  dropped 
there  accidentally  grows  more  quickly  than  in 
the  rest  of  the  field  sown  thin  out  of  hand.  A 
young  plant  of  clover,  or  of  sainfoin,  according 
to  Tull,  may  be  raised  to  a  great  size  where  it 
has  room ;  but  the  field  will  not  produce 
half  the  quantity.  When  red  clover  is  sown  for 
cutting  green,  there  ought  not  to  be  less  than 
twenty-four  pounds  to  an  acre.  A  field  of  clover 
is  seldom  too  thick ;  the  smaller  the  stem,  the 
more  acceptable  it  is  to  cattle.  It  is  often  too 
thin  ;  and  when  so  the  stem  tends  to  wood. 

Red  clover  is  commonly  sown  with  grain  ;  and 
the  most  proper  grain  is  flax.  The  soil  must  be 
highly  cultivated  for  flax  as  well  as  for  red 
clover.  The  proper  season  for  sowing  is  the 
same  for  both ;  the  leaves  of  flax,  being  very 
small,  admit  of  free  circulation  of  air;  and  flax 
being  an  early  crop  is  removed  so  early  as  to 
give  the  clover  time  for  growing.  In  a  rich  soil 
it  has  grown  so  fast  as  to  afford  a  good  cutting 
that  very  year.  Next  to  flax,  barley  is  the  best 
companion  to  clover.  The  soil  must  be  loose  and 
free  for  barley ;  as  well  as  for  clover  :  the  season 
for  sowing  is  the  same ;  and  the  clover  is  well 
established  in  the  ground  before  it  is  overtopped 
by  the  barley.  At  the  same  time,  barley  com- 
monly is  sooner  cut  than  either  oats  or  wheat. 
When  clover  is  sown  in  spring  upon  wheat,  the 
soil,  which  has  lain  five  or  six  months  without 
being  stirred,  is  an  improper  bed  for  it ;  and  the 
wheat,  being  in  the  vigor  of  growth,  overtops  it 
from  the  beginning.  It  cannot  be  sown  along 
with  oats,  because  of  the  hazard  of  frost ;  and 
when  sown  as  usual  among  the  oats  three  inches 
high,  it  is  overtopped,  and  never  enjoys  free  air 
till  the  oats  be  cut.  Where  oats  are  sown  upon 
the  winter  furrow,  the  soil  is  rendered  as  hard 
as  when  under  wheat.  Red  clover  is  sometimes 
sown  by  itself  without  other  grain  :  but  this  me- 
thod, besides  losing  a  crop,  is  not  salutary;  be- 
rause  clover  in  its  infant  state  requires  shelter. 

As  to  the  quantity  of  grain  proper  to  be  sown 
with  clover,  in  a  rich  soil  well  pulverised,  a 
peck  of  barley  on  an  English  acre  is  all  that 
ought  to  be  ventured  ;  but  there  is  not  so  much 
soil  in  Scotland  so  rich.  Two  Linlithgow 
firlots  make  the  proper  quantity  for  an  acre  that 
produces  six  bolls  of  barley;  half  a  firlot  for 
what  produces  nine  bolls.  To  some,  so  small  a 
quantity  may  appear  ridiculous.  But  a  rich 
soil  in  good  order,  will,  from  a  single  seed  of 
barley,  produce  twenty  or  thirty  vigorous  stems. 

The  culture  of  white  clover,  yellow  clover, 
ribwort,  and  rye-grass,  is  the  same  in  general 
with  that  of  red  clover.  Yellow  clover,  ribwort, 
and  rye-grass,  are  all  early  plants,  blooming  in 
the  end  of  April  or  beginning  of  May.  The  two 
latter  are  evergreens,  and  therefore  excellent  for 
winter  pasture.  Rye-grass  is  less  hurt  by  frost 
than  any  of  the  clovers,  and  will  thrive  in  a  moister 
soil  :  nor  is  it  much  affected  by  drought.  In  a 
rich  soil  it  grows  four  feet  high.  These  grasses 
are  generally  sown  with  red  clover  for  producing 
a  plentiful  crop.  The  proportion  of  seed  is  ar- 
bitrary ;  and  there  is  little  danger  of  too  much. 
When  rye-grass  is  sown  for  procuring  seed,  five 


firlots  wheat  measure  may  be  sown  on  an  acre ;  and. 
for  procuring  seed  of  rib-wort,  forty  pounds  may 
be  sown.  The  roots  of  rye-grass  spread  hori- 
zontally :  they  bind  the  soil  by  their  number ; 
and,  though  small,  are  yet  so  vigorous  as  to  thm  e 
in  hard  soil.  Red  clover  has  a  large  tap-roo 
which  cannot  penetrate  any  soil  but  what  is  open 
and  free ;  and  the  largeness  of  the  root  makes 
the  soil  still  more  open  and  free.  Rye-grass, 
once  a  great  favorite,  appears  to  be  discarded  in 
most  parts  of  Britain.  The  common  practice 
has  been  to  sow  it  with  red  clover,  and  to  cut 
them  promiscuously  in  the  beginning  of  June  for 
green  food,  and  a  little  later  for  hay.  This  in- 
deed is  the  proper  season  for  cutting  red  clover, 
because  it  then  begins  to  flower;  but,  as  the  seed 
of  the  rye-grass  is  then  approaching  to  maturity, 
its  growth  is  stopped  for  that  year,  as  much  as  of 
oats  or  barley  cut  after  the  seed  is  ripe.  Oats  or 
barley  cut  green  before  the  seed  forms,  will  afford 
two  other  cuttings ;  which  is  the  case  of  rye- 
grass,  of  yellow  clover,  and  of  ribwort.  By  such 
management,  all  the  profit  will  be  drawn  that 
these  plants  can  afford. 

When  red  clover  is  intended  for  seed,  the 
ground  ought  to  be  cleared  of  weeds,  as  the  seed 
cannot  otherwise  be  preserved  pure  :  what  seeds 
escape  the  plough  ought  to  be  taken  out  by  the 
hand.  In  England,  when  a  crop  of  seed  is  in- 
tended, the  clover  is  always  first  cut  for  hay. 
This  practice  will  not  answer  in  Scotland,  as  the 
seed  would  often  be  too  late  for  ripening.  It 
would  do  better  to  eat  the  clover  by  sheep  till 
the  middle  of  May,  which  would  allow  the  seed 
to  ripen.  The  seed  is  ripe  when,  upon  rubbing 
it  between  the  hands,  it  parts  readily  from  the 
husk.  Then  apply  the  scythe,  spread  the  crop 
thin,  and  turn  it  carefully.  When  perfectly  dry, 
take  the  first  hot  day  for  threshing  it  on  boards 
covered  with  a  coarse  sheet.  Another  way,  less 
subject  to  risk,  is  to  stack  the  dry  hay,  and  to 
thresh  it  in  the  end  of  April.  After  the  first 
threshing,  expose  the  husks  to  the  sun ;  and 
thresh  them  till  no  seed  remain.  Nothing  is  more 
efficacious  than  a  hot  day  to  make  the  husk  part 
with  its  seed  ;  in  which  view  it  may  be  exposed 
to  the  sun  by  parcels,  in  an  hour  or  two  before 
the  flail  is  applied. 

White  clover,  intended  for  seed,  is  managed  in 
the  same  manner.  No  plant  ought  to  be  mixed 
with  rye-grass  that  is  intended  for  seed.  In 
Scotland  much  rye-grass  seed  is  hurt  by  trans- 
gressing that  rule.  The  seed  is  ripe  when  it 
parts  easily  with  the  husk.  The  yellowness  01 
the  stem  is  another  indication  of  its  ripeness ; 
in  which  particular  it  resembles  oats,  barley,  and 
other  culmiferous  plants.  The  best  manner  to 
manage  a  crop  of  rye-grass,  for  seed,  is  to  bind  it 
loosely  in  small  sheaves,  widening  them  at  the  bot- 
tom to. make  them  stand  erect;  as  is  done  with 
oats  in  moist  weather.  In  that  state  they  may  stand 
till  sufficiently  dry  for  threshing.  They  thus  dry 
more  quickly,  and  are  less  hurt  by  rain,  than  by 
close  binding  and  putting  the  sheaves  in  shocks 
like  corn.  The  worst  way  of  all  is  to  spread  the 
rye-grass  on  the  moist  ground  ;  for  it  makes  the 
seed  malten.  The  sheaves,  when  sufficiently  dry, 
are  carried  in  close  carts  to  where  they  are  to  be 
threshed  on  a  l>oard,  a>  mentioned  above  for 


124 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


clover.  Put  the  straw  in  a  rick  when  100  stone 
or  so  are  threshed.  Carry  the  threshing  board 
to  the  place  where  another  rick  is  intended; 
and  so  on  till  the  whole  seed  is  threshed,  and  the 
straw  ricked.  There  is  necessity  for  close  carts 
to  save  the  seed  which  is  apt  to  drop  out  in  a 
hot  day ;  and  a  hot  day  ought  always  to  be 
chosen  for  threshing.  Carry  the  seed  in  sacks  to 
the  granary  or  barn,  to  be  separated  from  the 
husks  by  a  fanner.  Spread  the  seed  thin  upon  a 
timber  floor,  and  turn  it  once  or  twice  a-day  till 
perfectly  dry.  If  suffered  to  take  a  heat,  it  is 
useless  for  seed. 

The  writers  on  agriculture  reckon  sainfoin 
preferable  to  clover  in  many  respects .  they  say 
that  it  produces  a  larger  crop ;  that  it  does  not 
hurt  cattle  when  eaten  green ;  that  it  makes  bet- 
ter hay ;  that  it  continues  four  times  longer  in  the 
ground ;  and  that  it  will  grow  on  land  that  will 
bear  no  other  crop.  Sainfoin  has  a  very  long 
tap-root,  which  is  able  to  pierce  very  hard  earth. 
The  roots  grow  very  large ;  and  the  larger  they 
are,  they  penetrate  to  the  greater  depth ;  and 
hence  this  grass,  when  it  thrives  well,  receives  a 
great  part  of  its  nourishment  from  below  the 
staple  of  the  soil :  of  course,  a  deep  dry  soil  is 
best  for  sainfoin.  When  plants  draw  their  nou- 
rishment from  that  part  of  the  soil  that  is  near  the 
surface,  it  is  not  of  much  consequence  whether 
their  number  be  great  or  small.  But  the  case  is 
very  different  when  the  plants  receive  their  food, 
not  only  near,  but  also  deep  below  the  surface. 
Besides,  plants  that  shoot  their  roots  deep  are  of- 
ten supplied  with  moisture,  when  those  near  the 
surface  are  parched  with  drought. 

To  render  the  plants  of  sainfoin  vigorous,  they 
must  be  sown  thin.  The  best  method  of  doing 
this  is  by  a  drill ;  because,  when  sown  in  this 
manner,  not  only  the  weeds,  but  also  the  super- 
numerary plants,  can  easily  be  removed.  It  is 
several  years  before  sainfoin  comes  to  its  full 
strength  ;  and  the  number  of  plants  sufficient  to 
stock  a  field,  while  in  this  imperfect  state,  will 
make  but  a  poor  crop  for  the  first  year  or  two. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  that  it  be  sown  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  make  it  easyito  take  up  plants  in 
such  numbers,  and  in  such  order,  as  always  to 
leave  in  the  field  the  proper  number  in  their  pro- 
per places.  This  can  only  be  done  with  propriety 
by  sowing  the  plants  in  rows  by  a  drill.  Sup- 
posing a  field  to  be  drilled  in  rows  at  ten  inches 
distance,  the  partitions  may  be  hand-hoed,  and 
the  rows  dressed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  a 
proper  number  of  plants.  In  this  situation  the 
field  may  remain  two  years ;  then  one-fourth  of 
the  rows  may  be  taken  out  in  pairs,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  make  the  beds  of  fifty  inches,  with 
six  rows  in  each,  and  intervals  of  thirty  inches, 
which  may  be  ploughed.  Next  year  another 
fourth  of  the  rows  may  be  taken  out  in  the  same 
manner,  so  as  to  leave  double  rows,  with  parti- 
tions of  ten  inches,  and  intervals  of  thirty ;  all 
of  which  may  be  hoed  at  once  or  alternately,  as 
may  be  most  convenient. 

The  great  quantity  of  this  grass  which  the 
writers  on  this  subject  assure  us  may  be  raised 
upon  an  acre,  and  the  excellency  and  great  value 
of  the  hay  made  of  it,  should  induce  farmers  to 
make  a  complete  trial  of  it.  The  plants  taken 
up  from  a  field  of  sainfoin  may  be  set  in  another 


fi=>U  ;  and  if  the  transplanting  of  the  grass  suc- 
ceeds as  well  as  the  transplanting  of  lucerne  has 
done  with  Mr.  Lunin  de  Chateauvieux,  the  trou- 
ble and  expense  will  be  sufficiently  recompensed 
by  the  largeness  of  the  crops.  In  transplanting, 
it  IF  necessary  to  cut  off  great  part  of  the  long 
tap-ioot :  this  will  prevent  it  from  striking  very 
deep  into  the  soil,  and  make  it  push  out  laige 
roots  in  a  sloping  direction  from  the  cut  end  of 
the  tap-root.  Sainfoin  managed  in  this  manner 
will  thrive  even  on  shallow  land  that  has  a  wet 
bottom,  provided  it  be  not  overstocked  with 
plants.  Whoever  inclines  to  try  the  culture  of 
this  grass  in  Scotland,  should  take  great  pains  in 
preparing  the  land,  and  making  it  as  free  from 
weeds  as  possible.  In  England,  as  the  roots 
strike  deep  in  that  chalky  soil,  this  plant  is  not 
liable  to  be  so  much  injured  by  drought  as  other 
grasses  are,  whose  fibres  lie  horizontally,  and  lie 
near  the  surface.  The  quantity  of  hay  produced 
is  greater  and  better  in  quality  than  any  other. 
But  there  is  one  advantage  attending  this  grass, 
which  renders  it  superior  to  any  other ;  viz.  that 
it  affords  excellent  feeding  for  milch  cows.  The 
prodigious  increase  of  milk  which  it  makes  is 
astonishing,  being  nearly  double  that  produced 
by  any  other  green  food.  The  milk  is  also  bet- 
ter, and  yields  more  cream  than  any  other ;  and  the 
butter  procured  from  it  is  much  better  colored 
and  flavored. 

The  following  remarks  by  an  English  farmer 
are  made  from  much  experience  and  observation. 
Sainfoin  is  much  cultivated  in  those  parts  where 
the  soil  is  of  a  chalky  kind.  It  will  always  suc- 
ceed well  where  the  roots  run  deep  ;  the  worst 
soil  of  all  for  it  is  where  there  is  a  bed  of  cold 
wet  clay,  which  the  tender  fibres  cannot  pene- 
trate. It  will  make  a  greater  increase  of  pro- 
duce, by  at  least  thirty  times,  than  common  grass 
or  turf  on  poor  land.  Where  it  meets  with  chalk 
or  stone,  it  will  extend  its  roots  through  the 
cracks  and  chinks  to  a  very  great  depth,  in  search 
of  nourishment.  The  dryness  is  of  more  conse- 
quence than  the  richness  of  land  for  sainfoin ;  al- 
though land  that  is  both  dry  and  rich  will  always 
produce  the  largest  crops.  It  is  very  commonly 
sown  broad-cast ;  but  it  answers  best  in  drills, 
especially  if  the  land  be  made  fine  by  repeated 
ploughing,  rolling,  and  harrowing.  Much  de- 
pends on  the  depth  which  this  seed  is  sown.  If 
it  be  buried  more  than  an  inch  deep,  it  will  sel- 
dom grow ;  and,  if  left  uncovered,  it  will  push 
out  its  roots  above  ground,  and  these  will  be 
killed  by  the  air.  March  and  the  beginning  of 
April  are  the  best  seasons  for  sowing  it,  as  the 
severity  of  winter  and  the  drought  of  summer 
are  equally  unfavorable  to  the  young  plants.  A 
bushel  of  seed  sown  broad-cast,  or  half  that  quan- 
tity in  drills,  if  good,  is  sufficient  for  an  acre. 
The  drill  should  be  thirty  inches  apart,  to 
admit  of  horse-hoeing  between  them.  Much 
depends  on  the  goodness  of  the  seed,  which  may 
however,  be  best  judged  of  by  the  following 
marks  : — 

The  husk  being  of  a  bright  color,  the  kernel 
plump,  of  a  gray  or  bluish  color  without,  and, 
if  cut  across,  greenish  and  fresh  withinside;  if  it 
be  thin  and  furrowed,  and  of  a  yellowish  cast,  it 
will  seldom  grow.  When  the  plants  stand  sin- 
gle, and  have  room  to  spread,  they  produce  the 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


126 


greatest  quantity  of  herbage,  and  the  seed  ripens 
oest.  But  farmers  in  general  plant  them  so  close 
that  they  choke  and  impoverish  each  other,  and 
often  die  in  a  few  years.  Single  plants  run  deepest 
and  draw  most  nourishment;  they  are  also 
easiest  kept  free  from  weeds.  A  single  plant 
will  often  produce  half  a  pound  of  hay,  when 
dry.  On  rich  land  this  plant  will  yield  two 
good  crops  in  a  year,  with  a  moderate  share  of 
culture.  A  good  crop  must  not  be  expected  the 
first  year ;  but,  if  the  plants  stand  not  too  thick, 
they  will  increase  in  size  the  second  year  prodi- 
giously. No  cattle  should  be  turned  on  the 
field  the  first  winter  after  the  corn  is  off  with 
which  it  was  sown,  as  their  feet  would  injure  the 
young  plants.  Sheep  should  not  come  on  the 
following  summer,  because  they  would  bite  off 
the  crown  of  the  plants,  and  prevent  their  shoot- 
ing again.  A  small  quantity  of  soapers'  ashes  as 
a  top-dressing  will  be  of  great  service,  if  laid  on 
the  first  winter. 

If  the  sainfoin  be  cut  just  before  it  comes  into 
bloom,  it  is  admirable  food  for  horned  cattle  ; 
and,  if  cut  thus  early,  it  will  yield  a  second  crop 
the  same  season.  But,  if  it  proves  a  wet  season, 
it  is  better  to  let  it  stand  till  its  bloom  be  per- 
fected ;  for  great  care  must  be  taken,  in  making 
it  into  hay,  that  the  flowers  do  not  drop  off,  as 
cows  are  very  fond  of  them ;  and  it  requires 
more  time  than  other  hay  in  drying.  Sainfoin 
is  so  excellent  a  fodder  for  horses,  that  they  re- 
quire no  oats  while  they  eat  it,  although  they 
be  worked  hard  all  the  time.  Sheep  will  also  be 
fattened  with  it  faster  than  with  any  other  food. 
If  the  whole  season  for  cutting  proves  very  rainy, 
it  is  better  to  let  the  crop  stand  for  seed,  as  that 
will  amply  repay  the  loss  of  the  hay ;  because  it 
will  not  only  fetch  a  good  price,  but  a  peck  of 
it  will  go  as  far  as  a  peck  and  a  half  of  oats  for 
horses.  The  best  time  of  cutting  the  seeded 
sainfoin  is  when  the  greatest  part  of  this  seed  is 
well  filled,  the  first  blowing  ripe,  and  the  last 
blowing  beginning  to  open.  For  want  of  this 
care  some  people  have  lost  most  of  their  seed  by 
letting  it  stand  too  ripe.  Seeded  sainfoin  should 
always  be  cut  in  a  morning  or  evening,  when 
the  dews  render  the  stalks  tender.  If  cut  when 
the  sun  shines  hot,  much  of  the  seed  will  fall  out 
and  be  lost. 

An  acre  of  very  ordinary  land,  when  improved 
by  this  grass,  will  maintain  four  cows  very  well 
from  the  1st  of  April  to  the  end  of  November ; 
and  afford,  besides,  a  sufficient  store  of  hay  to 
make  the  greater  part  of  their  food  the  four 
months  following.  If  the  soil  be  tolerably  good, 
a  field  of  sainfoin  will  last  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
years  in  prime  ;  but,  at  the  end  of  seven  or  eight 
years,  it  will  be  necessary  to  lay  on  a  moderate 
coat  of  well  rotted  dung  ;  or,  if  the  soil  be  very 
ligkt  and  sandy,  of  marie.  The  future  crops, 
and  the  duration  of  the  plants  in  health  and  vigor, 
will  thus  be  greatly  increased  and  prolonged. 
Hence  it  will  appear  that,  for  poor  land,  there  is 
nothing  equal  to  this  grass  in  point  of  advantage 
to  tne  farmer.  Clover  will  last  only  two  years 
:n  perfection  ;  and  often,  if  the  soil  be  cold  and 
moist,  nearly  half  the  plants 'will  rot,  and  bald 
patcnes  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  field  the 
secono.  year.  Besides,  from  our  frequent  rains 


during  September,  many  crops  left  for  feeding 
are  lost.  But  from  the  quantity  and  excellent 
quality  of  sainfoin,  and  its  ripening  earlier,  and 
continuing  in  vigor  so  much  longer,  much  risk  and 
expense  is  avoided,  and  a  large  annual  profit 
accrues  to  the  farmer. 

The  writers  on  agriculture,  ancient  as  well  as 
modern,  bestow  the  highest  encomiums  upon  lu- 
cerne as  affording  excellent  hay,  and  producing 
very  large  crops.  Lucerne  remains  at  least  ten  or 
twelve  years  in  the  ground,  and  produces  about 
eight  tons  of  hay  upon  the  Scots  acre.  There  is 
but  little  of  it  cultivated  in  Scotland.  However, 
it  has  been  tried  in  several  parts  of  that  country  • 
and  it  is  found  that,  when  the  seed  is  good,  it 
comes  up  very  well,  and  stands  the  winter  frost. 
But  the  chief  thing  whicn  prevents  this  grass 
from  being  more  used  in  Scotland  is  the  difficulty 
of  keeping  the  soil  open  and  free  from  weeds 
lu  a  few  years  the  surface  becomes  so  hard,  and 
the  turf  so  strong,  that  it  destroys  the  lucerne 
before  the  plants  have  arrived  at  their  greatest 
perfection  ;  so  that  lucerne  can  scarcely  be  culti- 
vated with  success  there,  unless  some  method  be 
fallen  upon  of  destroying  the  natural  grass,  and 
preventing  the  surface  from  becoming  hard  and 
impenetrable.  This  cannot  be  done  effectually  by 
any  other  means  than  horse-hoeing.  This  method 
was  first  proposed  by  Tull,  and  afterwards  prac- 
tised successfully  by  M.  de  Chateauvieux.  That 
gentleman  tried  the  sowing  of  lucerne  both  in 
rows  upon  the  beds  where  it  was  intended  to 
stand,  and  likewise  the  sowing  it  in  a  nursery, 
and  afterwards  transplanting  it  into  the  beds 
prepared  for  it.  He  prefers  transplanting ;  be- 
cause part  of  the  tap-root  is  thus  cut  off,  and  the 
plant  shoots  out  a  number  of  lateral  branches 
from  the  cut  part  of  the  root,  which  makes  it 
spread  its  roots  nearer  the  surface,  and  conse- 
quently renders  it  more  easily  cultivated  ;  besides, 
this  circumstance  adapts  it  to  a  shallow  soil,  ia 
which,  if  left  in  its  natural  state,  it  would  not 
grow.  This  transplanting  is  attended  with  many 
advantages.  The  land  may  be  prepared  in  sum- 
mer for  receiving  the  plants  from  the  nursery  in 
autumn  ;  by  which  means  the  field  must  be  ia  a 
much  better  situation  than  if  the  seed  had  been 
sown  upon  it  in  the  spring.  By  transplanting,  the 
rows  can  be  made  more  regular,  and  the  intend- 
ed distances  more  exactly  observed ;  and  con- 
sequently the  hoeing  can  be  performed  more 
perfectly,  and  with  less  expense.  M.  Chateau- 
vieux likewise  tried  the  lucerne  in  single  beds 
three  feet  wide,  with  single  rows ;  in  beds  three 
feet  nine  inches  wide,  with  double  rows  ;  and  in 
beds  four  feet  three  inches  wide,  with  triple  rows. 
The  plants  in  the  single  rows  were  six  inches  asun- 
der, and  those  in  the  double  and  triple  rows  were 
about  eight  or  nine  inches.  In  a  course  of  three 
years  he  found  that  a  single  row  produced  more 
than  a  triple  row  of  the  same  length.  The  plants 
of  lucerne,  when  cultivated  by  transplantation, 
should  be  at  least  six  inches  asunder,  to  allow 
them  room  for  extending  their  crowns. 

He  further  observes  that  the  beds  or  ridges 
ought  to  be  raised  in  the  middle  ;  that  a  small 
trench,  two  or  three  inches  deep,  should  be  drawn 
in  the  middle ;  and  that  the  plants  ought  to  be 
set  in  this  trench,  covered  with  earth  up  to  the 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


neck.  He  says  that  if  the  lucerne  be  sown  in 
spring,  and  in  a  warm  soil,  it  will  be  ready  for 
transplanting  in  September ;  that,  if  the  weather 
be  too  hot  and  dry,  the  transplanting  should  be 
delayed  till  October ;  and  tbat,  if  the  weather  be 
unfavorable  during  both  these  months,  this  opera- 
tion must  be  delayed  till  spring.  He  further  directs 
that  the  plants  should  be  carefully  taken  out  of  the 
nursery,  so  as  not  to  damage  the  roots  ;  that  the 
roots  be  left  only  about  six  or  seven  inches  long; 
that  the  green  crops  be  cut  off  within  about  two 
inches  of  the  crown ;  that  they  be  put  into  \vater 
as  soon  as  taken  up,  and  remain  till  they  are 
planted  ;  and  that  they  should  be  planted  with  a 
planting-stick,  in  the  same  manner  as  cabbages. 
He  does  not  give  particular  directions  as  to  the 
times  of  horse-hoeing ;  but  only  says,  in  general, 
that  the  intervals  should  be  stirred  once  in  the 
month  during  the  whole  time  that  the  lucerne 
is  in  a  growing  state.  He  likewise  observes  that 
great  care  ought  to  be  taken  not  to  suffer  any 
weeds  to  grow  among  the  plants,  at  least  for  the 
first  two  or  three  years ;  and,  for  this  purpose, 
that  the  rows,  as  well  as  the  edges  of  the  inter- 
vals where  the  plough  cannot  go,  should  be 
weeded  by  the  hand. 

Burnet  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  poor  land,  it 
proves  an  excellent  winter  pasture  when  hardly 
any  thing  else  vegetates.  It  makes  good  butter; 
it  never  swells  cattle ;  it  is  fine  pasture  for  sheep ; 
and  will  flourish  well  on  poor,  light,  sandy,  or 
stony  soils,  or  even  on  dry  chalk  hills.  The  cul- 
tivation of  it  is  neither  hazardous  nor  expensive. 
If  the  land  is  prepared  as  is  generally  done  for 
turnips,  there  is  no  danger  of  its  failing.  After 
the  first  year,  it  will  be  attended  with  very  little 
expense,  as  the  flat  circular  spread  of  its  leaves 
will  keep  down,  or  prevent  the  growth  of  weeds. 
On  the  failure  of  turnips,  either  from  the  fly  or 
black  worm,  some  of  our  farmers  have  sown  the 
land  with  burnet,  and  in  March  following  had 
a  fine  pasture  for  their  sheep  and  lambs.  It  will 
perfect  its  seed  twice  in  a  summer ;  and  this  seed 
is  said  to  be  as  good  as  oats  for  horses ;  but  it  is 
too  valuable  to  be  applied  to  that  use.  It  is  some- 
times sown  late  in  the  spring,  with  oats  and  bar- 
ley, and  succeeds  very  well ;  but  it  is  best  to 
sow  it  singly  in  the  beginning  of  July,  when 
there  is  a  prospect  of  rain,  on  a  small  piece  of 
land,  and  in  October  following  transplant  it  in 
rows  two  feet  apart,  and  about  a  foot  distant  in 
rows.  This  is  a  proper  distance,  and  gives  op- 
portunity for  hoeing  the  intervals  in  the  succeed- 
ing spring  and  summer.  After  it  is  eaten  down 
by  cattle,  it  should  be  harrowed  clean.  Some 
horses  will  not  eat  it  freely  at  first,  but  in  two  or 
three  days  they  are  generally  very  fond  of  it.  It 
affords  rich  pleasant  milk,  and  in  great  plenty. 
The  severest  frost  never  injures  it,  and  the  oft- 
ener  it  is  fed  upon,  the  thicker  are  its  leaves, 
which  spring  constantly  from  its  root. 

PART  II. 
OF  THE  GRAZING  SYSTEM. 

Grazing,  in  a  large  sense,  will  comprehend  the 
entire  management  of  grass  lands.  These  are  ob- 
viously divided  into  meadows,  or  such  perennial 
grass  lands  as  are  usually  kept  for  a  hay  crop, 
and  permanent  pastures.  The  importance  of 


some  system  for  their  proper  management  being 
adopted  will  appear  from  the  consideration  that 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  land  of  Great 
Britain  is  included  in  one  or  other  of  these 
descriptions.  See  MEADOW. 

Of  the  culture  of  meadows. — The  most  luxuriant 
and  valuable  meadows  are  found  in  the  bottom  of 
valleys,  and  connected  with  one  or  more  rivers 
of  the  neighbourhood :  often  indeed  the  entire 
growing  soil  has  been  washed  down  from  adjoin- 
ing highlands.     This,  of  all  other  land,  observe 
the  Agricultural  Reports  of  Staffordshire,  is  '  the 
most  productive  of  grass  and  hay,  yielding  suste- 
nance for  cattle  through  the  summer  and  the 
winter,  and  producing  an  everlasting  source  of 
manure  for  the  improvement  of  the  adjoining 
lands.     In  all  cases  of  extensive  enclosures,  the 
improvement  of  the  vale  land,  or  that  formed  by 
nature  for  meadow  and  pasture,  should  be  first 
attended  to.     In  this  view,  the  low  lands  in  all 
situations  come  under  the  head  of  natural  mea- 
dows.    But  river  or  low  meadows,  from  their 
long  retention  of  moisture,  and  the  great  depth 
of  vegetable  matter  which  they  contain,  are  cer- 
tainly liable  to  throw  up  coarse  herbage ;  in  many 
cases  therefore  more  careful  drainage,  as  well  as 
other  management,  is  necessary  to  bring  them  into 
proper  condition  for  the  growth  of  good  herbage 
than  is  requisite  in  the  hay  grounds  in  more  ele- 
vated places.     The  most  proper  season  for  sur- 
face-draining grass  lands  is  autumn,  when  they 
are  comparatively   firm  and   dry ;  in  the  early 
spring  months  such  lands  are  too  full  of  mois- 
ture.    The  grips,  or  small  open  drains,  should 
be  cut  obliquely  in  the  most  suitable  directions 
for  conveying  off  the  superficial  stagnant  water. 
'  It  is  a  practice,  in  some  cases,  to  suffer  the  sods 
or  grippings  that  are  taken  out  of  the  trenches 
to  remain  on  their  sides  ;  but  it  is  much  better, 
and  a  less  slovenly  mode,  to  have  them  con- 
veyed from  the  land  and  laid  up  in  heaps,  in 
order  to  their  being  acted  upon  by  the  winter 
frosts  and  other  causes,  so  as  to  be  brought  into 
a  state  proper  for  being  formed  into  composts 
with  well  rotted  farm-yard  dung.     Much  of  this 
sort  of  draining  may  be  performed  at  a  small 
expense,  and  the  beneficial  effects  be  very  con- 
siderable, especially  where  the  lands  are  very 
much  loaded  with  moisture,  in  the  quantity  of 
produce.'     Besides,   such  meadow  lands   '  de- 
mand much  more  attention  in  their  management 
in  other  respects,  as  those  of  their  being  fed  by 
cattle,  and  the  performing  of  the  different  opera- 
tions that  are  proper  for  rendering  them  produc- 
tive  of   good   herbage.     In   these   cases   stock 
should  be  turned  upon  the  lands,  and  manure- 
be  applied  \vith  much  care,  and  only  when  the 
land  is  in  such  a  state  of  dryness  as  not  to  be  in- 
jured by  the  poaching  or  breaking  of  the  sward. 
The  higher  sorts  of  grass  lands,  in  most  instances, 
admit  of  considerably  more  latitude  in  perform- 
ing these  different  operations,  as  they  are  capable 
of  admitting  the  stock,  as  well  as  the  dung-cart, 
more  early  in  the  spring  months,  and  of  suffering 
them  to  remain  or  be  applied  at  later  periods  in 
the  autumn  without  inconvenience.    The  advan- 
tage of  this  attention   is    rendered   sufficiently 
plain  by  the  effects  which  the  contrary  practice 
produces  in  such  meadow  and  other  hay  lands 
as  are  in  a  state  of  commonage,  where  the  stock 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


127 


is  admitted  at  all  seasons,  and  under  all  circum- 
stances.' 

'  In  apiece  of  clayey  meadow  land/  mentioned 
in  the  Agricultural  Report  of  Middlesex,  '  which 
was  exposed  to  the  treading  of  cattle  during  the 
wet  season  of  winter,  with  a  view  of  fully  ascer- 
taining the  effects  of  the  practice  of  suffering 
cattle  to  remain  too  long  upon  grass  hay  lands, 
it  was  found  that  after  three  years,  notwithstand- 
ing every  possible  care  and  attention  in  rolling, 
manuring,  and  sowing  grass  seeds,  was  employed, 
it  was  not  restored  to  its  former  state  of  sward.' 
And  it  is  said  that,  on  the  deep  tough  yellow 
clayey  grass  lands  in  this  district,  '  it  is  well 
known  that  wherever  a  bullock  makes  a  hole 
with  his  foot,  it  holds  water,  and  totally  destroys 
every  vestige  of  herbage ;  which  is  not  quite  re- 
placed till  several  years  after  the  hole  is  grown 
up.'  Bog-meadows  are  drained  and  managed  in 
a  similar  manner  with  other  low  meadows. 

The  upland  meadows  of  Middlesex  yield  also 
some  fine  hay  crops ;  being  so  well  situated  for 
receiving  the  manure  of  the  metropolis.  Here 
moss,  mole-hills,  and  ant-hills,  are  the  great  ene- 
mies of  the  farmer :  and  the  destruction  of  the 
latter  is  often  a  process  of  no  small  difficulty. 
It  is  said  that  where  grass  lands  are  sufficiently 
rolled  with  a  heavy  roller,  once  or  oftener  every 
year,  no  ant-hills  will  ever  be  formed  greater 
than  the  roller  can  compress,  and  consequently 
no  injury  will  be  sustained.  In  this,  as  in  most 
other  cases  of  disease,  observes  Mr.  Loudon, 
proper  regimen  is  the  best  cure.  '  In  domestic 
economy,  various  directions  are  given  for  destroy- 
ing bugs,  lice,  and  other  vermin  ;  but  who  ever 
had  any  to  destroy,  who  attended  properly  to 
cleanliness  ?' 

With  regard  to  the  application  of  manure,  we 
are  told  in  the  Middlesex  Report,  that  almost  all 
the  grass  lands  in  the  county  are  preserved  for 
hay,  that  the  manure  is  invariably  laid  on  in 
October,  while  the  land  is  sufficiently  dry  to 
bear  the  driving  of  loaded  carts  without  injury, 
and  when  the  heat  of  the  day  is  so  moderated  as 
not  to  exhale  the  volatile  parts  of  the  dung. 
Other  agriculturists  prefer  applying  it  imme- 
diately after  hay-time,  or  from  about  the  middle 
of  July  to  the  end  of  August,  said  to  be  the 
'good  old  time'  (Cormnun.  to  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture, vol.  iv.  p.  138);  others  again  from  the  be- 
ginning of  February  to  the  beginning  of  April 
(Dickson's  Practical  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.  p.  915). 

'  The  dairy  farmers  in  North  Wiltshire,'  ob- 
serves Mr.  Davies,  and  in  particular  the  graziers, 
are  much  more  attentive  to  the  quality  than  the 
quantity  of  their  hay.  They  make  a  point  of 
haining  up  their  meadows  as  early  as  possible  in 
autumn,  and  of  course  are  able  to  mow  early  in 
the  summer.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  grass 
mown,  not  only  before  it  is  in  blossom,  but  even 
before  it  is  all  in  ear ;  and  to  this  it  is  owing  that 
it  is  more  common  to  fat  cattle  with  hay  alone, 
in  North  Wilts,  than  perhaps  in  any  country  in 
the  kingdom.  And  by  this  the  dairy-men  are 
able  to  keep  up  the  milk  of  those  cows  that  calve 
early,  and  from  which  calves  are  fatted,  which 
otherwise  shrink  before  the  springing  of  the 
grass  and  never  recover.  And  the  advantage 
they  get  by  early  after-grass,  and  by  the  duration 


of  that  after-grass  to  a  late  period  in  autumn, 
fully  compensates  for  the  loss  of  quantity  in  their 
hay  crop.' 

Dr.  Anderson  says  it  is  in  general  understood 
that,  if  hay  can  be  made  so  as  to  retain  some 
tinge  of  its  green  color,  it  is  better  than  if  it  were 
bleached  white  or  rotted ;  but  precautions  are 
seldom  thought  necessary  to  be  adopted  for 
guarding  against  the  effects  of  scorching  sun- 
shine, which,  by  too  quickly  exhaling  its  natural 
juices,  renders  it  sticky,  brittle,  and  unpalatable 
to  a  certain  degree ;  and,  what  is  of  still  more 
importance,  the  effects  of  rain,  or  even  dew  if 
abundant,  if  they  are  suffered  to  fall  upon  the 
grass  after  it  is  cut,  and  before  it  be  made  into 
hay,  are  seldom  adverted  to ;  so  that  if  dry 
weather  comes  soon  to  exhale  that  wet,  while  the 
grass  lies  spread  out  upon  the  ground,  the 
farmer  feels  little  anxiety  about  the  consequences ; 
though  it  is  a  certain  fact  that  no  hay  which  has 
been  in  the  least  wetted  during  the  process  of 
hay-making  can  ever  be  made  to  have  that  sweet 
palatable  taste  it  would  have  had  without  it. 
Nor  has  our  author  ever  seen  that  beasts,  when 
allowed  to  choose  between  hay  so  made  and 
that  which  has  been  guarded  from  moisture, 
ever  hesitated  to  make  choice  of  the  last,  or 
committed  a  mistake,  even  where  he  himself 
could  not  distinguish  a  perceptible  difference. 
But  to  obtain  hay  in  all  cases  of  the  very  best 
quality  the  circumstances  will  admit  of,  the  fol- 
lowing process,  he  says,  may  be  safely  conjoined 
with  the  practice  of  cutting  and  feeding  beasts 
with  grass  in  the  house  as  above  recommended. 
Where  the  produce  of  grass  land  is  to  be  cut,  as 
above  described,  and  used  green,  it  will  be  pro- 
per in  general  to  reserve  a  part  of  it  for  hay. 
In  this  case  the  cutting  for  grass  and  for  hay 
should  be  carried  on  together,  but  with  the  fol- 
lowing variations,  depending  on  the  uses  it  is  to 
be  applied  to.  That  part  of  the  grass  which  is 
intended  to  be  used  green,  as  it  will  suffer  no 
damage  by  being  cut  when  wet,  must  continue 
to  be  cut  regularly  each  day  as  it  is  wanted, 
without  regard  to  the  weather;  whereas  that 
part  of  it  which  is  intended  for  hay  ought  on  no 
account  to  be  cut  while  wet ;  and,  therefore,  that 
part  of  the  operation  must  be  discontinued,  un- 
less when  the  weather  is  dry  and  fine ;  nor  should 
it  ever  be  cut  either  in  the  morning  or  the  even- 
ing, while  dew  is  upon  it.  And  as  the  hay,  in 
the  mode  proposed,  ought  to  be  made  day  by 
day,  for  a  continuance,  as  the  grass  comes  for- 
ward for  the  scythe,  while  the  weather  is  in  a 
proper  state  for  it,  and  not  all  at  one  time,  as  in 
the  usual  mode  of  hay-making,  the  cutting  both 
grass  and  hay  from  the  same  field  may  be  very 
economically  combined  together.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  grass  which  is  cut  in  the  morninsr, 
while  the  dew  may  perhaps  be  upon  it,  and  in 
the  afternoon,  ought  to  be  appropriated  to  the 
beasts  gieen ;  and  that  part  of  the  grass  only 
which  is  cut  from  nine  till  two  o'clock,  while  the 
weather  is  dry  and  fine,  should  be  made  into 
hay.  If  the  mower  begins  to  cut  down  for  hay 
about  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  goes  on 
in  that  operation  till  one  or  two  in  the  afternoon  ; 
and,  if  the  persons  who  are  to  put  up  the  hay 
begin  that  operation  about  one,  the  grass  will 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


thus  be  allowed  to  lie  between  three  and  four 
hours  in  the  swathe,  exposed  to  the  sun,  which 
will  exhale  some  part  of  its  moisture,  and  deaden 
*  enough  for  the  purposes  required,  though  it 
Mill  retains  the  whole  of  its  nutritious  juices 
\vithout  abatement.  After  being  allowed  to  lie 
thus  long  it  should  be  raked  clean  up,  and  car- 
ried off  the  field  in  the  same  cart  that  is  em- 
ployed for  taking  in  the  grass,  and  immediately 
put  into  the  stack,  so  as  that  the  whole  grass 
that  was  cut  that  day  shall  be  put  up  hjefore 
evening;  and  thus  regularly  each  good  day 
throughout  the  season.  But  as  grass,  while  in 
this  green  and  succulent  state,  would  not  keep 
if  put  up  by  itself,  care  must  betaken  to  provide 
some  dry  forage  to  mix  with  it.  For  this  purpose 
nothing  can  be  so  proper  as  good  dry  hay  ;  but, 
for  want  of  that,  at  the  beginning,  good  straw 
may  be  very  safely  employed.  Our  author  once 
saved  a  great  quantity  of  clover  hay,  being  a  late 
third  cutting,  when  the  season  was  too  far  ad- 
vanced to  admit  of  its  being  made  in  the  usual 
way,  by  putting  it  up  when  new  cut,  thus  inter- 
mixed with  a  large  proportion  of  good  straw.  It 
kept  perfectly  well;  and,  when  cut  down  and 
given  to  the  beasts,  was  relished  by  them  better 
than  any  other  hay  he  had,  and  was  equally  va- 
luable for  every  purpose. 

Every  part  of  the  management  in  Middlesex, 
with  regard  to  hay,  has  been  acknowledged  by 
able  judges  to  be  very  superior.  When  the 
grass  here  is  nearly  fit  for  mowing,  the  farmer 
generally  lets  it  out  to  be  mown  by  the  acre ; 
calculating  that  a  healthy  man  will  mow  from 
one  and  a-half  to  two  acres  a  day,  beginning 
very  early  in  the  morning.  He  provides  five 
hay-makers  to  each  mower,  and  they  are  ex- 
pected to  bring  a  fork  and  rake  of  their  own. 
The  course  of  operations  that  now  takes  place  is 
thus  described  in  the  Middlesex  Report : — 

First  day. — All  the  grass  mown  before  nine 
o'clock  in  the  morning  is  tedded,  in  which  great 
care  is  taken  thoroughly  to  loosen  every  lump, 
and  to  strew  it  evenly  over  all  the  ground.  By 
this  regular  method  of  tedding  grass  for  hay,  the 
hay  will  be  of  a  more  valuable  quality,  heat 
more  equally  in  the  stack,  consequently  not  so 
liable  to  damage  or  fire ;  will  be  of  greater  quan- 
tity when  cut  into  trusses,  and  will  sell  at  a  bet- 
ter price ;  for,  when  the  grass  is  suffered  to  lie  a 
day  or  two  before  it  is  tedded  out  of  the  swathe, 
the  upper  surface  is  dried  by  the  sun  and  winds, 
and  the  interior  part  is  not  dried,  but  withered, 
so  that  the  herbs  lose  much,  both  as  to  quality 
and  quantity,  which  are  very  material  circum- 
stances. Soon  after  the  tedding  is  finished,  the 
hay  is  turned  with  the  same  degree  of  care  and 
attention:  and  if,  frorr.  the  number  of 'hands, 
they  are  able  to  turn  the  whole  again,  they  do  so, 
or  at  least  as  much  of  it  as  they  can,  till  twelve 
or  one  o'clock,  at  which  time  they  dine.  The 
first  thing  to  be  done  after  dinner  is  to  rake  it 
into  what  are  called  single  wind-rows;  and  the 
last  operation  of  this  day  is  to  put  it  into  grass- 
cocks. 

Second  day. — The  business  of  this  day  com- 
mences with  tedding  all  the  grass  that  wa>  mown 
the  first  day  after  nine  o'clock,  and  all  thai  was 
mown  this  day  before  nine  o'clock.  Next,  the 


grass-cocks  are  to  be  well  shaken  out  into  stad- 
dles  (or  separate  plats)  of  five  or  six  yards  dia- 
meter. If  the  crop  should  be  so  thin  and  light 
as  to  leave  the  spaces  between  these  staddles 
rather  large,  such  spaces  must  be  immediately 
raked  clean,  and  the  rakings  mixed  with  the 
other  hay,  in  order  to  its  all  drying  of  a  uniform 
color.  The  next  business  is  to  turn  the  staddles, 
and  after  that  to  turn  the  grass  that  was  tedded 
in  the  first  part  of  the  morning,  once  or  twice, 
in  the  manner  described  for  the  fiist  day.  This 
should  all  be  done  before  twelve  or  one  o'clock, 
so  that  the  whole  may  lie  to  dry  while  the  work- 
people are  at  dinner.  After  dinner  the  first 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  rake  the  staddles  into 
double  wind-rows ;  next,  to  rake  the  grass  into 
single  wind-rows ;  then  the  double  wind-rows 
are  put  into  bastard-cocks ;  and,  lastly,  the 
wind-rows  are  put  into  grass-cocks.  This  com- 
pletes the  work  of  the  second  day. 

Third  day. — The  grass  mown  and  not  spread 
on  the  second  day,  and  also  that  mown  in  the 
early  part  of  this  day,  is  first  to  be  tedded  in  the 
morning,  and  then  the  grass-cocks  are  to  be 
spread  into  staddles  as  before,  and  the  bastard- 
cocks  into  staddles  of  less  extent.  These  lesser 
staddles,  though  last  spread,  are  first  turned, 
then  those  which  were  in  grass-cocks;  and  next 
the  grass  is  turned  once  or  twice  before  twelve 
or  one  o'clock,  when  the  people  go  to  dinner  as 
usual.  If  the  weather  has  proved  sunny  and 
fine,  the  hay  which  was  last  night  in  bastard- 
cocks  will  this  afternoon  be  in  a  proper  state  to 
be  carried  ;  but  if  the  weather  should,  on  the 
contrary,  have  been  cool  and  cloudy,  no  part  of 
it  probably  will  be  fit  to  carry.  In  that  case  the 
first  thing  set  about  after  dinner  is  to  rake  that 
which  was  in  grass-cocks  last  night  into  double 
wind-rows  ;  then  the  grass  which  was  this  morn- 
ing spread  from  the  swathes  into  single  wind- 
rows. After  this  the  hay  which  was  last  night 
in  bastard-cocks  is  made  up  into  full-sized 
cocks,  and  care  taken  to  rake  the  hay  up  clean, 
and  also  to  put  the  rakings  upon  the  top  of  each 
cock.  Next,  the  double  wind-rows  are  put  into- 
bastard-cocks,  and  the  single  wind-rows  into 
grass-cocks,  as  on  the  preceding  days. 

Fourth  day. — On  this  day  the  great  cocks  just 
mentioned  are  usually  carried  before  dinner. 
The  other  operations  of  the  day  are  such,  and  in 
the  same  order,  as  before  described,  and  are  con- 
tinued daily  until  the  hay  harvest  is  completed. 

Of  the  culture  of  pastures. — Dr.  Anderson, 
in  the  third  volume  of  his  Essays  on  Agricul- 
ture, has  some  practical  remarks  on  pastures, 
which  we  think  worth  perpetuating  in  our  work  : 
— '  It  is  stated,'  he  says,  '  in  the  Agricultural 
Survey  of  Gloucestershire,  that  one  acre  of  rye- 
grass,  which  had  been  saved  from  Michaelmas 
to  May,  kept  nine  ewes  and  lambs  one  month. 
\\e  may,  therefore,  he  adds,  conclude  that  the 
produce  of  the  same  field,  from  May  till  Mi- 
chaelmas, would  have  been  double  to  that  it 
yielded  during  the  winter  half  year;  conse- 
quently it  could  have  sustained  eighteen  ewes 
and  lambs  one  month.  At  this  rate  the  acre  of 
ground,  ta,  ng  the  whole  year  round,  would 
have  afior  eil  food  Tor  twenty-seven  ewes 
and  lambs  for  one  month.  These  were  large 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


129 


sheep,  weighing  abovit  twenty-five  pounds  per 
quarter  on  the  average.  In  the  Survey  of  Wilt- 
shire, it  is  said  that  500  such  ewes  and  lambs 
are  sufficient  to  dung  an  acre  each  day  when 
folded  upon  it  ;  at  that  rate,  says  the  Dr.,  twenty- 
seven  of  them  should  dung  an  acre  in  a  little 
less  than  nineteen  days  ;  consequently,  in  thirty 
days,  somewhat  better  than  half  an  acre  more. 
He  is,  however,  inclined  to  think  this  would  be 
but  a  very  moderate  dunging ;  but  should  dou- 
ble the  quantity  of  dung,  or  more,  be  required 
for  certain  purposes  on  particular  occasions,  it 
will  not,  he  says,  affect  the  conclusions  deduci- 
ble  from  these  facts  in  kind,  only  in  degree. 
Hence,  in  his  opinion,  it  follows,  that  if  none  of 
this  dung  were  suffered  to  go  to  waste,  an  acre 
of  good  land  laid  down  to  grass,  in  high  order, 
should  afford  as  much  dung  as  would  be  sufficient 
to  dress  each  year  an  acre  and  a  half  of  other 
.and. 

In  the  Agricultural  account  of  Suffolk,  it  is 
stated  that  the  rich  marsh  lands  there  keep  at  the 
rate  of  six  sheep  for  seven  summer  months,  and 
four  for  the  five  winter  months  per  acre ;  that  is, 
a  little  more  than  five  sheep  on  an  average  per 
acre  throughout  the  year.  These  are  very  large 
sheep,  of  which  800  would  be  equal  to  the  500 
ewes  and  lambs  above  mentioned,  and  conse- 
quently would  be  sufficient  to  dung  an  acre  in 
one  day.  But  five  times  365  makes  1825,  the 
number  of  sheep  kept  for  one  day.  At  this  rate 
one  acre  of  these  rich  grass  lands  would  afford 
as  much  dung  in  the  course  of  one  year,  as 
should  be  sufficient  to  dung  somewhat  more  than 
two  acres  and  a  quarter  each  year,  if  husbanded 
with  due  economy  and  attention. 

But,  as  the  sheep  in  neither  of  these  cases  are 
folded,  the  dung  is  suffered  to  drop  in  a  scattered 
manner  over  the  pastures,  throughout  the  whole 
year.  In  this  manner  the  influence  of  the  dung  must 
either  be  nothing,  or  it  must  produce  certain  ef- 
fects upon  the  grass.  It  is  well  known  that  when 
sheep  are  folded  upon  grass  ground,  so  as  to  de- 
posit their  dung  upon  it  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties all  about  one  time,  as  in  folding,  the  effect  is, 
that  a  flush  of  grass  is  quickly  produced  over  its 
whole  surface,  which  is  much  more  luxuriant  and 
abundant  than  it  would  have  been,  had  it  not  re- 
ceivedthis  dressing.  But  it  is  well  known,  that  the 
animals,  whose  dung  has  occasioned  that  flush  of 
grass,  nauseate  it ;  nor  can  they  be  brought  to 
taste  it,  unless  they  be  compelled  through  hunger; 
although  animals  of  another  kind  are  seen  to  eat 
that  kind  of  grass,  not  only  without  reluctance,  but 
even  with  avidity.  He  thinks  the  extra  flush  of  grass 
raised  on  the  two  acres  and  a  half,  that  might  be 
thus  manured  by  the  sheep  fed  on  one  acre, 
would  be  sufficient,  on  a  moderate  computation, 
to  keep  at  the  rate  of  two  sheep  per  acre.  By 
consequence,  the  extra  grass  produced  by  the 
dung  of  the  sheep  kept  on  one  acre  of  this  rich 
grassland,  would  be  sufficient  to  keep  four  sheep 
and  a  half.  But,  to  keep  within  bounds,  say  three 
sheep  only  could  be  kept  by  the  grass  produced 
from  the  dung  of  the  sheep  fed  on  one  acre.  If 
the  dung  be  supposed  to  have  the  same  effect  in 
producing  extra  grass,  when  dropped  from  the 
animals  as  they  pasture  on  the  field,  as  it  has  when 
laid  upon  ground  closely  by  means  of  folding, 
VOL.  XIX 


it  must  follow,  from  these  premises,  that  as  much 
grass  will  grow  from  the  dung  upon  each  acre  as 
would  feed  three  sheep.  But,  as  the  sheep 
will  not  eat  this  kind  of  grass  without  constraint, 
the  ground  must  either  be  so  hard  stocked  as  to 
compel  them,  through  hunger,  to  eat  that  nau- 
seous food,  or  that  portion  of  the  grass  produced 
by  the  dung  will  be  suffered  to  run  to  waste ;  so 
that,  in  either  case,  a  considerable  loss  must  be 
sustained  by  the  owner.  After  some  farther  re- 
marks our  author  adds,  '  If  these  observations 
be  well  founded,  what  an  amazing  waste  is  sus- 
tained through  the  nation,  by  the  loss  of  the 
dung  thus  uselessly  scattered  on  the  surface  of 
pasture  fields  ! ' 

The  remedy  which  first  presents  itself  in  this 
case,  he  contends,  is  that  of  folding;  and  that, 
if  properly  managed,  there  are  perhaps  few  cases 
in  which  it  might  not  be  put  in  practice,  not  only 
without  detriment  to  the  stock,  but  even  to  their 
advantage.  All  animals,  but  especially  those 
that  ruminate,  choosing  to  feed  and  rest  by  turns. 
Ruminating  animals  require  much  time  for  rest ; 
and,  the  more  quiet  they  are  allowed  to  be  dur- 
ing that  period,  the  better  they*  will  thrive.  If 
these  then  are  withdrawn  from  their  pastures 
after  they  have  properly  filled  their  bellies,  and 
when  they  become  necessarily  disposed  to  rumi- 
nate, they  can  sustain  no  damage  by  being  put 
into  a  place  where  they  can  have  no  access  to 
food.  And  if  they  be  only  as  long  detained  there 
as  till  they  have  rechewed  the  food  they  have 
swallowed,  and  begin  to  feel  an  inclination  to 
eat  more,  they  will  be  benefited  by  this  confine- 
ment, rather  than  otherwise.  And  they  will  thus 
all  feed  and  rest  at  the  same  time. 

Penning,  however,  under  injudicious  manage- 
ment, may  tend  to  retard  the  feeding  of  the  ani- 
mals subjected  to  it.  If  the  creatures  be  driven 
to  a  great  distance  from  their  pastures  to  the  pen, 
it  must  subject  them  to  a  hurtful  degree  of  fatigue ; 
and  this  will  be  increased  if  they  are  made  to  pass 
through  lanes,  where  they  may  be  crowded  by 
passengers,  mired  in  dirt,  or  drenched  in  wet ; 
or  if  they  are  neglected  too  long  in  the  pen  ;  or 
put  up  at  improper  times,  &c.  Therefore,  to 
derive  the  full  benefit  from  folding,where  the  pas- 
tures are  of  a  great  extent,  there  ought  to  be  two 
or  more  folds  placed  close  by  the  pasture,  at  con- 
venient distances ;  so  that  the  flocks,  being  gently 
conducted  from  one  to  the  other,  feeding  all  the 
way,  might  find  themselves,  when  full,  just  at  the 
place  for  rest.  There  they  should  be  suffered  to  re- 
main just  so  long  as  is  found  to  be  necessary  to 
complete  their  ruminating  process,  and  to  prepare 
them  for  feeding  afresh  ;  they  should  then  be  suf- 
fered to  rise  and  stretch  themselves,  when  they 
naturally  void  their  dung  and  urine  on  the  spot. 
Thus  will  the  dung  be  preserved,  and  the  pas- 
tures be  kept  clean"and  sweet.  They  ought  then 
to  be  led  gently  to  the  fresh  pasture  which  they 
had  not  lately  breathed  upon,  or  trampled  with 
their  feet,  and  which  of  course  will  be  to  them 
sweet  and  inviting  ;  they  should  thus  be  slowly 
conducted  to  their  next  resting  place,  feeding  all 
the  way  ;  and  so  on  till  they  go  over  the  whole 
in  a  regular  succession.  If  diseases  be  produced 
by  suffering  the  animals  to  eat  their  food  when 
covered  with  hoar  frost,  or  dew,  or  mildew,  or 

K 


130 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


at  certain  times  of  the  clay  or  night,  when  snails 
and  other  creatures  are  abroad,  which  they  may 
swallow  with  their  food,  in  all  these  cases,  when 
observed,  the  evil  may,  by  an  attentive  economist, 
6e  avoided  by  a  judicious  use  of  the  fold.  He 
may  also  withdraw  the  sheep  from  the  pastures 
when  they  become  restless  and  refuse  to  feed. 
]n  short,  a  judicious  economist,  by  having  folds 
properly  situated,  respecting  the  circumstances 
of  shelter,  coolness,  water,  and  other  conveni- 
encies,  may  avail  himself  of  these  for  greatly 
promoting  the  health  and  enjoyment  of  the  ani- 
mals, and  thus  accelerating  their  feeding ;  so 
that,  independent  of  the  benefits  he  shall  derive 
from  their  dung,  he  will  in  other  respects  reap 
considerable  emolument. 

Dr.  Anderson  observes  that  some  persons 
contend  that  the  pastures  ought  to  be  stocked  very 
lightly ;  alleging  that  although  much  of  the  pro- 
duce is  thus  allowed  to  run  to  seed,which  the  beasts 
will  not  eat,  and  which  of  course  is  trod  under 
foot,  and  rotted  by  rain,  and  thus  wasted ;  yet 
experience,  they  say,  proves  that  a  greater  profit 
will  be  thus  derived  from  it,  upon  the  whole,  on 
account  of  the  superior  thriving  of  the  animals, 
than  by  any  other  practice.  Others  insist  that 
li^htstocking  of  grass  land  is  a  practice  highly  to 
be  condemned  ;  as  it  tends  not  only  gradually  to 
diminish  its  produce,  but  also  to  encourage  the 
growth  of  coarse  and  unprofitable  grasses,  which 
deteriorate  the  pastures ;  and  that  hard  stocking 
of  grass  lands,  especially  those  of  a  rich  quality, 
*  an  indispensible  requisite  of  good  manage- 
ment. These  two  opinions,  so  diametrically  op- 
posite, and  which  are  equally  maintained  by 
sensible  men,  he  thinks,  clearly  prove  the  embar- 
rassment to  which  they  are  subjected,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  not  having  adverted  to  the  cir- 
cumstances stated  above,  and  many  other  parti- 
culars, as  affecting  the  economical  consumption 
of  the  produce  of  lands  in  grass.  A  third  party, 
he  adds,  who  approach  perhaps  nearer  to  the 
txuth  than  either,  advise  that  a  mixed  stock  should 
be  always  kept  upon  the  same  field  ;  and  that, 
were  the  consumption  of  the  foul  grass  produced 
by  the  dung  of  the  animals  the  only  article  to  be 
adverted  to,  it  might  doubtless  be  so  managed  as 
to  correct  this  evil.  But  there  are  so  many  cir- 
cumstances to  be  adverted  to,  that  it  is  not  easy 
by  these  means  to  get  them  all  remedied.  In 
every  field  a  variety  of  plants  spontaneously 
spring  up,  some  of  which  are  disrelished  by  one 
class  of  animals,  while  they  are  eaten  by  others ; 
and  some  of  which,  though  eaten  readily  by  some 
animals  at  one  particular  period  of  their  growth, 
are  rejected  by  them  entirely  at  another.  Thus  it 
becomes  necessary,  not  only  to  have  a  vast 
variety  of  animals  in  the  same  pasture,  but  also  a 
very  particular  attention  is  required  to  augment 
or  diminish  the  proportion  of  some  of  these 
classes  of  animals,  at  particular  seasons  of  the 
year;  otherwise  some  part  of  the  produce  will 
M  allowed  to  run  to  waste,  unless  it  be  hard 
stocked  to  such  a  degree  as  to  retard  their  thriv- 
ing. But,  if  a  great  variety  of  animals  be  allowed 
to  go  at  large  in  the  same  pasture,  they  are  never 
suffered  to  feed  with  that  tranquillity  which  is 
necessary  to  ensure  thriving  in  the  highest  degree. 
One  class  of  these  wishes  to  feed,  or  to  play, 


while  the  others  would  incline  to  rest.  They  thus 
mutually  disturb  and  tease  each  other  ;  and  this 
inconvenience  is  greatly  augmented  if  penning 
of  any  sort  be  attempted.  From  these  considera- 
tions the  practice  of  intermixing  various  kinds  of 
stock  very  much  together  is  productive  of  evils  in 
many  cases  greater  than  those  which  result  from 
the  waste  of  food  they  were  intended  to  prevent. 
And  though,  by  hard  stocking,  the  grass  will  be 
kept  shorter,  and  more  palatable  in  general  to  the 
animals  who  eat  it,  than  if  it  were  allowed  to  run 
to  a  great  length,  yet  as  animals  which  are  to  be 
fatted  must  not  only  have  sweet  food,  but  an 
abundant  bite  at  all  times,  to  bring  them  forward 
in  a  kindly  manner,  it  seems  to  be  nearly  impos- 
sible to  obtain  at  the  same  time  both  these  advan- 
tages in  the  practice  of  pasturage. 

Might  not  these  evils,  says  our  author,  be 
greatly  diminished,  if  not  entirely  remedied,  in 
many  cases,  by  having  the  produce  cut  by  the 
scythe,  and  given  to  the  animals  fresh  in  the 
house  ;  rather  than  to  suffer  them  to  go  at  large  and 
eat  the  produce  on  the  field,  even  under  any 
system  of  management  whatever  ?  Many  argu- 
ments, he  thinks,  tend  to  show  that  this  practice 
is,  in  general,  highly  economical  and  advantage- 
ous. 1.  If  the  consumption  of  plants  be  the 
object  principally  attended  to,  it  is  pl<iin  the 
benefits  will  be  great ;  for  experience  has  clearly 
proved  that  there  are  many  plants  which  are 
greedily  consumed  by  beasts,  if  cut  and  given  to 
them  in  the  house,  which  never  would  be  touched 
by  them  when  growing  in  the  field.  Of  this  na- 
ture is  the  dock,  cow-parsley,  thistles,  nettle-;, 
and  many  other  plants.  Upon  what  principle  it 
should  happen  that  these  plants  should  be  so 
readily  eaten  when  thus  given,  while  they  are  to- 
tally rejected  when  in  the  field,  he  cannot  say  ; 
but  that  they  are  thus  eaten,  without  reluctance, 
even  when  the  animal  is  not  hurtfully  hungry,  is 
evident  from  this  circumstance,  that  tin?  beasts 
often  fall  greedily  to  these  at  the  moment 
they  are  brought  in  from  the  field,  even  before 
they  have  had  time  to  become  hungry  after  they 
had  come  in.  Fewer  plants  would  be  rejected  or 
suffered  logo  to  waste  on  this  plan.  2dly.  .Many 
of  even  the  best  kinds  of  grasses,  which  when 
young  form  the  most  palatable  food  for  the  crea?- 
tures,  if  once  suffered  to  get  into  ear  ;  are  disre- 
lished so  much  as  never  to  be  tasted  by  them 
unless  to  prevent  starvation  ;  and.  as,  in  most 
pasture  fields,  many  of  these  grasses  get  into  ear 
from  various  causes,  all  the  produce  of  these 
plants  is  inevitably  lost  to  the  farmer.  But  if 
cut  down  by  the  scythe,  in  proper  time,  not  one 
of  these  is  ever  suffered  to  get  into  that  nauseat- 
ing state  ;  and  consequently  no  waste  is  sustained. 
3dly.  But  when  animals  are  suffered  to  go  upon 
the  field,  many  of  the  plants  are  trodden  under 
foot  by  the  beasts,  and  bruised  or  buried  in  part 
of  the  earth  ;  in  which  state  they  are  greatly  dis- 
relished by  them,  and  are  suffered  to  run  to 
waste ;  which  never  would  take  place  were  the 
practice  of  cutting  adopted  generally.  Lastly. 
Those  few  plants  which  are  totally  disielished  by 
one  class  of  animals,  will  not,  from  this  circum- 
stance, become  less  acceptable  to  others,  but 
much  the  reverse.  Food  that  an  animal  has 
breathed  upon,  for  any  considerable  time,  be- 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


131 


comes  unpleasant  to  other  animals  of  the  same 
class;  but  not  so  to  those  of  another  species  ;  it 
seems  indeed  thus  to  acquire  for  them  a  higher 
relish.  Even  greater  defilement  by  one  animal 
seems  to  render  food  more  acceptable  to  others ; 
for  straw,  that  in  its  clean  state  has  been  rejected 
by  cattle,  if  employed  as  litter  for  horses,  ac- 
quires a  relish  for  cattle  that  they  search  for  with 
avidity.  Hence  the  sweeping  of  the  stalls  from 
one  animal  furnishes  a  dainty  repast  for  those 
of  another  kind  ;  which  can  easily  be  shifted 
from  one  to  the  other,  if  the  plants  are  consumed 
in  the  house,  but  which  must  have  been  lost  in 
the  field. 

If,  adds  this  author,  the  health  and  the  comfort 
of  the  animal  be  chiefly  adverted  to,  the  balance 
«vill  be  clearly  in  favor  of  the  cutting  system,  when 
compared  with  that  of  pasturing.  When  animals 
are  exposed  to  the  sun,  in  the  open  air,  they  are 
not  only  greatly  incommoded  on  many  occasions 
by  the  heat,  but  also  are  annoyed  by  swarms  of 
flies,gnats,  and  hornets,  particularly  by  the  gad-fly, 
which  drives  them  into  a  state  of  fury,  and  must 
retard  their  thriving.  At  other  times  they  are 
hurt  by  chilling  blasts,  or  drenched  by  cheerless 
rain,  which  renders  their  situation  very  unpleas- 
ing,  and  greatly  retards  their  feeding.  Under 
proper  management,  in  a  well  constructed  stall,  all 
these  evils  would  be  removed,  and  they  would 
be  kept  perpetually  in  a  proper  state  of  coolness, 
tranquillity,  and  ease,  so  as  to  make  the  same 
quantity  of  food  go  farther  than  it  otherwise  could 
have  done  in  nourishing  them.  They  would  also 
be  prevented  from  licking  up  snails,  worms,  and 
other  noxious  creatures,  among  their  food,  which 
they  are  by  pasturing  apt  to  do,  when  they  feed 
at  those  times  of  the  day  or  night  when  those 
creatures  crawl  abroad.  This  would  be  entirely 
avoided  by  cutting  the  grass  at  those  times  of  the 
day  when  none  of  these  are  to  be  found.  Thus 
lingering  diseases  might  often  be  avoided,  which 
always  retard  the  thriving,  and  often  prove  the 
destruction  of  the  animal.  And  by  giving  an 
opportunity  of  administering  dry  and  nourishing 
food  along  with  the  soft  and  succulent,  and  by 
varying  the  tastes,  so  as  to  provoke  an  appetite, 
not  only  the  health,  but  the  thriving  of  the  crea- 
tures, would  be  greatly  augmented  beyond  what 
they  could  have  been  in  any  other  way. 

But,  if  manure  is  to  be  chiefly  attended  to, 
there  can  be  no  comparison  between  the  two 
modes  of  consumption.  This  is  so  greatly  in 
favor  of  stall-feeding,  that  it  would  be  idle  to 
spend  time  in  proofs  of  a  proposition  that  may 
be  considered  as  self-evident  and  certain.  And 
lastly,  if  the  quantity  of  herbage  produced  from 
the  same  field  be  adverted  to,  it  will  be  found 
to  be  equally  in  favor  of  the  cutting  system.  All 
animals  delight  more  to  feed  on  the  young  fresh 
shoots  of  grass,  than  those  that  are  older.  Hence 
those  patches  in  a  pasture  field  that  happen  to 
have  been  eaten  once  bare,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  season,  are  kept  very  short  ever  afterwards 
throughout  the  whole  of  that  season,  by  the  crea- 
tures delighting  to  feed  upon  them  in  preference 
to  the  parts  of  the  field  that  have  got  up  to  a 
greater  head ;  so  that  these  last  are  suffered  to 
remain  in  a  great  measure  untouched  throughout 
the  season.  It  is  not,  brwcver,  in  general 


known,  tha!  grass,  even  the  leafy  parts  of  it, 
when  it  has  attained  a  certain  length,  becomes 
stationary  ;  and,  though  it  will  retain  its  verdure 
for  some  months  in  that  state,  makes  no  sort  of 
progress  whatever ;  whereas,  if  it  had  been 
cropped  down  frequently,  it  would  have  con- 
tinued in  a  constant  state  of  progress,  advancing 
with  a  rapidity  in  a  ereat  measure  proportioned 
to  the  frequency  of  its  being  cropped.  For  ex- 
perimental proofs  of  this  fact,  see  our  author's 
Essay  on  Agriculture  and  Rural  Affairs,  Vol.  II. 
Disquis  V. 

'  I  have  often,'  says  he,  '  seen  lawns  around 
gentlemen's  houses  that  have  been  under  a  course 
of  continued  shaving  from  time  immemorial,  that 
discovered  no  symptoms  of  exhaustion,  nor  any 
sensible  diminution  of  luxuriance    or  verdure, 
though  no  manures  of  any  sort  had  ever  been 
laid  upon  them.     This  fact  struck  him  as  im- 
portant; and  he  applied  for  information  respect- 
ing this  particular,  to  a  gardener  who  had  the 
charge  of  very  extensive  lawns  of  this  sort,  be- 
longing to  a  gentleman  of  large  property.     He 
assured  him  that,  for  upwards  of  thirty  years 
that  he  had  had  the   care  of  the  lawns,  some 
parts  of  them  which  had  been  laid  down  long 
before  he  knew  them,  and  were'  originally,  as  he 
supposed,  of  a  rich  quality,  had  never  received 
during  all  that  time  the  smallest  quantity  of  ma- 
nure of  any  sort ;  and  that  the  lawn  continued 
to  be  equally  close  in  the  pile,  equally  verdant 
at  all  seasons  in  the  year,  and  required  to  be  as 
often  cut  as  ever ;  and  that,  in  short,  he  had  no 
reason  to  apprehend  that  the  quantity  of  its  pro- 
duce  had  diminished  in  the  smallest  degree.* 
This  seems  to  our  author  a  strong  presumptive 
proof  that  grass  land,  when  once  of  a  rich  qua- 
lity, may  be  continued  for  an  indefinite  tength 
of  time  under  the  scythe,  without  being  at  all 
deteriorated,  even  when  it  gets  no  return  of  dung. 
And  as  the  Doctor  has  shown  that  rich  grass 
land,  under  pasturage,  produces  as  much  dung 
as  ought  to  manure  each  year  more  than  double 
its  own  extent  of  surface ;  it  follows  that,  if  the 
same  quantity  of  grass  land  will  only  furnish  as 
many  beasts  in  the  house,  as  if  it  were  pastured 
upon  (and  it  will  do  much  more),  there  can  be 
annually  obtained  from  each  acre  of  land  kept 
under  the  scythe  as  much  dung  as  might  manure 
two  acres  more,  which  might  be  abstracted  from 
that  grass  land   without  deteriorating   it.      Of 
course,   if  the  land  be  such  as  that  it  can  admit 
of  being  made  richer,  a  dressing  of  that  dung, 
now  and  then  returned  upon  itself,  would  give 
it  the  richness  wanted,  without  any  extraneous 
aid.     In  this  point  of  view,  then,  it  seems  to  be 
impossible  to  deny  that  rich  land,  if  kept  under 
the  scythe,  can  never  become  poorer,  if  none  of 
the  dung  made  by  the  beasts  fed  upon  it  be  ab- 
stracted from  it ;  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  can 
thus  be  made  to  afford  a  large  annual  supply  of 
dung  for  the  purpose  of  enriching  poorer  land, 
while  it  still  continues  to  be  fertile  itself  in  the 
same  degree.     He  also  remarks,  there  seems  to 
be  no  doubt  but  that  the  quality  of  the   grass 
must  continue  to  improve  while  under  the  scythe, 
much  more  than  while  under  pasturage.     Every 
person,  says  he,  who  has  bestowed  the  smallest 
attention   to  objects  of  this  sort,  must  have  re 

K2 


132 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


marked  that  the  worst  kiml  of  grasses  grow  most 
freely  upon  those  parts  of  rich  grass  lands  that 
are  the  most  open  and  spongy  in  their  texture  ; 
and  that  they  are  in  general  much  sweetened  in 
the  pile  where  they  chance  to  be  much  trod 
upon.  Hence  the  finest  grasses  on  such  fields 
always  abound  most  upon  paths  which  are  mode- 
rately trod  upon ;  white  clover,  and  the  sweetest 
grasses,  being  seen  there  in  abundance,  while 
they  are  less  frequent  in  the  spongy  parts  of 
the  field.  But  frequent  rolling  tends  to  produce 
this  effect  more  universally  and  equally  than  any 
kind  of  treading  by  beasts. 

In  confirmation  of  this,  the  observations  of 
Mr.  Davies,  in  his  Account  of  the  Agriculture 
of  Wiltshire,  may  be  quoted.  He  says  that  '  the 
sweetness  of  the  feed  depends  much  more  on  its 
being  kept  close,  and  eaten  as  fast  as  it  shoots, 
than  on  any  peculiar  good  quality  of  the  grass 
itself;  for  there  are  many  downs  that,  when  close 
fed,  appear  to  be  a  very  sweet  pasture,  but 
which,  if  suffered  to  run  a  year  or  two  without 
a  full  stock  on  thorn,  will  become  so  coarse  that 
sheep  will  almost  as  soon  starve  as  eat  the  grass : 
and  even  in  those  parts  of  the  downs,  where  the 
finer  and  sweeter  grasses  abound,  the  soil  is  fre- 
quently so  loose  and  porous,  that  nothing  but 
constant  treading  will  prevent  them  from  dying 
out,  or  being  choked  by  the  larger  and  coarser 
grasses.'  It  is  farther  remarked,  by  Mr.  Davies, 
that  in  consequence  of  too  light  stocking,  heath, 
in  some  cases,  comes  in  the  place  of  the  better 
grasses.  But,  says  Dr.  Anderson,  it  is  very  evi- 
dent that  all  the  purposes  of  hard  stocking,  that 
is,  keeping  the  grass  short,  and  in  a  continual 
slate  of  vegetation,  and  consequently  sweet,  and 
preventing  the  coarser  grasses  from  running  up 
to  stalk  and  overpowering  the  others,  together 
with  the  consolidating  of  the  ground  by  treading, 
would  be  obtained  with  much  greater  certainty 
by  the  practice  of  mowing ;  while  the  animals 
that  consumed  the  produce  could  in  no  case  be 
subjected  to  a  stint  of  food,  which  they  neces- 
sarily must  sometimes  be,  where  reliance  is  had 
upon  hard  stocking  for  preventing  this  evil. 

Our  able  essayist  observes  that  the  terms 
sweetness  of  pasture,  and  sweet  kinds  of  grass, 
frequently  occur  in  agricultural  writings ;  yet  it 
is  doubtful,  if  ever  they  have  been  properly  de- 
fined. He  therefore  here  attempts  to  supply  this 
defect.  Those  pastures  which  animals  choose 
to  feed  upon  in  preference  to  others,  and  which  in 
general  are  eaten  down  close  to  the  ground,  are 
said  to  be  sweet  pastures,  he  observes,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  those  where  the  grass,  being 
disrelished,  is  suffered  to  grow  to  a  greater 
length,  and  often  to  wither  in  part,  without  being 
touched  ;  which  are  called  coarse,  or,  if  tending 
to  dampness,  sour  pasture.  Without  entering 
into  a  disquisition  concerning  the  circumstances 
that  tend  to  produce  this  sweetness,  which  are 
various,  he  considers  that,  from  whatever  cause 
it  originates,  it  is  a  universal  rule,  that  in  every 
case  the  younger  the  grass  is,  the  sweeter  and 
more  palatable  it  will  be  to  beasts  of  every  sort ; 
and  that  the  same  weight  of  food  will  go  much 
farther  in  nourishing  or  fattening  an  animal,  if  it 
1  <•  very  pleasing  to  the  palate  of  the  animal  to 
ulnch  it  is  given,  than  if  it  had  been  less  tooth- 


some. For,  as  a  certain  quantity  of  food  is  re- 
quired for  the  mere  sustenance  of  every  animal, 
if  that  quantity  be  daily  administered  to  it,  and 
no  more,  the  creature  will  barely  subsist,  but 
will  never  return  any  profit  to  the  farmer.  But, 
if  the  beast  shall  get  a  greater  quantity  of  food 
than  this  portion  which  is  barely  necessary  for 
subsistence,  that  surplus  food  then  goes  to  aug- 
ment the  size,  and  to  fatten  the  animal,  and  of 
course  yields  a  profit  to  the  farmer  in  proportion 
to  its  quantity. 

As  to  weeding,  the  dock-weeder  will  be"  found 
a  useful  implement  for  taking  out  that  mis- 
chievous perennial  by  the  roots ;  nettles  and 
other  weeds  may  be  cut  with  spades,  or  mown 
over ;  while  some  of  the  rushes  and  fern  are  best 
killed  by  hoisting  the  stem.  Mosses  greatly  mo- 
lest old  pastures ;  and  rich  composts,  harrowing, 
and  drainage,  are  often  necessary  to  be  applied. 
The  Code  of  Agriculture  says  that,  '  to  keep 
grass  in  good  condition,  a  dressing  of  from  thirty 
to  forty  cubic  yards  or  cart-loads  of  compost  is 
required  every  four  years.  The  application  of 
unmixed  putrescent  manure  will  thus'  be  ren- 
dered unnecessary,  which  ought  at  least  to  be 
avoided,  in  meadows  appropriated  for  the  feeding 
of  dairy  cows,  from  its  affecting  the  quality  of 
the  milk.'  p.  476. 

An  eminent  agriculturist  observes  that  there 
seems  to  be  a  season,  some  time  during  the  year, 
when  grass  lands,  particularly  old  turf,  should  be 
eaten  very  close,  not  merely  for  the  sake  of  pre- 
venting waste,  but  also  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing down  the  coarser  kinds  of  plants,  and  giving 
to  the  pastures  as  equal  and  fine  a  sward  as  pos- 
sible. The  most  proper  period  must  partly  de- 
pend upon  the  convenience  of  the  grazier ;  but  it 
can  hardly  be  either  immediately  before  the 
drought  of  summer  or  the  frost  of  winter.  Some 
time  in  autumn,  when  the  ardent  heat  of  the 
season  is  over,  and  when  there  is  still  time  for  a 
new  growth  before  winter,  may  be  most  suitable 
for  the  land  itself,  and  generally  also  for  the 
grazier,  his  fat  stock  being  then  mostly  disposed 
of,  or  carried  to  the  after  grass  of  mown  grounds. 
The  sweeping  of  pastures  with  the  scythe  may 
be  employed  as  a  substitute  for  this  close  feeding ; 
the  waste  and  labor  of  which,  however,  though 
they  be  but  trifling,  it  does  not  seem  necessary 
to  incur  on  rich  grazing  lands,  under  correct 
management.  Under  the  system  of  fogging  pas- 
ture lands,  fields  in  pasture  are  shut  up  early  in 
May,  and  continued  in  that  state  till  November 
or  December,  when  the  farmer's  stock  is  turned 
in,  and  continue  to  pasture  till  the  May  succeed- 
ing. Such  management,  however,  can  only  be 
advisable  on  a  soil  of  the  driest  nature. 

The  chief  improvements  of  which  mountainous 
pastures  are  susceptible,  according  to  Mr.  Loudon, 
are  those  of  draining  and  sheltering  by  planta- 
tions. '  Some  parts  might  probably  be  enclosed 
by  strips  of  plantation  between  stone  walls,  or 
by  stone  walls  alone ;  but,  as  the  stock  on  moun- 
tain pastures  are  generally  under  the  care  of  a 
herdsman,  the  advantages  of  change  of  pasture, 
and  alternate  eating  down  and  saving  or  sparing 
the  grass,  by  keeping  out  the  cattle,  are  obtainable 
without  the  use  of  fields.'  But,  in  the  words  of 
an  able  contemporary, '  except  in  regard  to  those 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


necessary  operations  that  have  been  already 
.  noticed — such  as  the  extirpation  of  weeds  and 
noxious  shrubs,  clearing  away  ant  and  mole-hills, 
&c.,  there  are  few  points  respecting  the  manage- 
ment of  this  kind  of  land  on  which  some  dif- 
ference of  opinion  does  not  prevail.  The  time  of 
stocking — the  number  of  the  animals,  and  whether 
all  should  be  of  one  or  of  different  species — the 
extent  of  the  enclosures — and  the  propriety  of 
eating  the  herbage  close,  or  leaving  it  always  in 
a  rather  abundant  state — are  all  of  them  ques- 
tions which  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  decide  in  a 
satisfactory  manner  by  the  application  of  general 
rules.'  Mr.  Marshal  states  that,  in  all  cases  where 
fatting  cattle  or  dairy  cows  make  a  part  of  the 
stock,  and  where  situation,  soil,  and  water  will 
permit,  every  suit  of  grazing  grounds  ought  to 
consist  of  three  compartments.  One  for  head 
stock  (as  cows  or  fatting  cattle) ;  one  for  followers 
(as  rearing  and  other  lean  stock) ;  and  the  third 
to  be  shut  up  to  freshen,  for  the  leading  stock. — 
Marshal's  Yorkshire,  vol.  ii.  p.  158. 

PART  III. 

OF  THE  CONVERTIBLE  OR  ALTERNATE 
SYSTEM. 

The  Board  of  Agriculture,  under  the  direction 
of  government,  was  long  engaged  in  an  enquiry 
*  into  the  best  means  of  converting  portions  of 
grass  lands  into  tillage,  without  exhausting  the 
soil,  and  of  returning  the  same  to  grass,  after  a 
certain  period,  in  an  improved  state,  or  at  least 
without  injury :  and,  while  the  author  of  the  sup- 
plemental article  on  Agriculture  in  the  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica  thinks  the  industry  of  the 
Board  was  ill-directed,  much  information  was 
certainly  collected  by  this  means.  Sir  John  Sin- 
clair is  confident  that  a  '  much  larger  proportion 
of  the  United  Kingdom  than  is  at  present  so  cul- 
tivated, might  be  subject  to  the  alternate  system 
of  husbandry,  or  transferred  from  grass  to  tillage, 
and  then  restored  to  grass.  Much  of  the  middling 
sorts  of  grass  lands,  from  200  to  400  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  is  of  this  description ;  and  all 
well-informed  husbandmen,  and  friends  to  the 
general  prosperity  of  the  country,  regret  that 
such  lands  are  left  in  a  state  of  unproductive 
pasturage,  and  excluded  from  tillage. 

There  are  lands,  however,  respecting  which  it 
seems  the  general  testimony  was,  that  they  ought 
never  to  be  thus  broken  up ;  as  strong  clays,  un- 
fit for  barley  or  turnips ;  soft  clayey  loams,  with 
a  clayey  or  marly  sub-soil ;  and  the  deeper  valley 
or  river  meadows,  most  of  which  improve  an- 
nually while  kept  under  good  grazing  manage- 
ment. The  grass  lands  of  Lincolnshire  are  in- 
stanced as  the  richest  altogether  in  the  kingdom. 
They  let  from  £l  15s.  to  £3  per  acre,  and  the 
value  of  the  produce  is  from  £3  to  £lO,per  acre, 
arising  from  the  beef,  mutton,  and  wool,  obtained, 
subject  to  little  variation  from  the  nature  of  the 
seasons.  The  stock  maintained  per  acre  on  the 
best  grazing  lands  surpasses  what  could  be  fed 
by  any  arable  produce ;  it  being  not  uncommon 
to  feed  at  the  rate  of  from  six  to  seven  sheep  in 
summer,  and  two  sheep  in  winter.  The  sheep, 
when  put  on  the  grass,  may  weigh  from  18  Ibs. 
to  20  Ibs.  per  quarter,  and  the  increase  of  weight 


would  be  at  the  rate  of  4  Ibs.  per  quarter,  or  16 
Ibs.  per  sheep.  But  suppose  in  all  only  100  Ibs. 
at  8d.  per  pound,  that  would  amount  to  £3  17s. 
lOd.  The  wool  would  be  worth  about  two 
guineas  more,  besides  the  value  of  the  winter 
keep ;  and  the  total  may  be  stated  at  about  £7 
per  acre,  got  at  little  expense.  Such  lands  can- 
not be  better  employed.  From  other  causes, 
very  light  land,  where  sheep  are  both  bred  and 
fed,  must,  in  part  at  least,  be  left  as  permanent 
pasture  :  and  those  of  the  county  of  Norfolk  are 
here  adduced  in  proof.  Great  injury  has  been 
sustained,  we  are  told,  by  breaking  up  permanent 
pastures  on  such  soils,  more  especially  when 
subject  to  rectorial  tithes :  lands  of  an  inferior 
soil,  which  kept  two  sheep  on  an  acre,  paying 
only  vicarial  tithes,  and  rented  at  10s.  per  acre, 
since  they  have  been  broken  up  cannot  pay,  even 
without  rent,  both  the  tithe  of  corn  and  the  ex- 
pense of  cultivation.  In  general  it  may  be  al- 
lowed that  a  farm  lets  best  with  a  fair  proportion 
of  grass  land  upon  it,  which  admits  of  a  mixed 
management. 

Under  the  following  particulars  are  given,  in 
the  Code  of  Agriculture,  the  result  of  the  infor- 
mation communicated  to  the  Board  :  i.  e.  whe- 
ther any  previous  steps  are  necessary  before 
lands  in  grass  are  broken  up ;  the  proper  mode 
of  effecting  that  object ;  the  course  of  crops ; 
the  manure  necessary  :  the  system  of  manage- 
ment during  the  rotation ;  the  mode  of  laying 
down  the  land  again  to  grass  ;  that  of  sowing  the 
grass-seeds ;  and  the  subsequent  management. 

1 .  If  the  land  be  wet,  it  is  said  to  be  advisable 
to   drain  it  completely,  previous  to  its   being 
broken  up  ;  as  it  is  not  improbable  that  its  being 
kept   in   pasture   was   partly  on  that   account. 
Land  that  long  has  been  in  pasture  does  not  re- 
quire dung  during  the  first  course  of  crops  that 
is  taken  after  being  broken  up ;  but  the  applica- 
tion of  calcareous  manure  is  always,   in  suck 
cases,  expedient.     Sometimes  lime  is  spread  on 
the  ground  before  it  is  ploughed ;  at  other  times 
when   it  is  either  under   summer  fallow,  or  a 
drilled  crop   of  turnips.     Marl  and  chalk  also 
have  been  used  for  the  same  purpose  with  great 
advantage.     The  land  thence  derives  additional 
strength  and  vigor;   the  succeeding  crops  are 
much  improved ;  the  soil   is  commonly  so  sof- 
tened  in  its  texture  that  it  may  be  ploughed 
with  half  the  strength  that  would   otherwise  be 
necessary  ;  and,  whenever  it  is  restored  to  grass, 
the  herbage  is  abundant. 

2.  Wherever  the  soil  is  not  too  shallow,  or 
friable,  or  when  the  turf  cannot  soon  be  rotted, 
if  land  is  to  be  broken  up  from  old  pasture, 
paring  and  burning  is  the  proper  system.     In 
this  way  good  tilth  is  speedily  procured  ;  the  da- 
mage that  might  otherwise  be  sustained  by  the 
grub,    the   wire-worm,    and    other    insects,    is 
avoided,  while  the  soil  receives  a  stimulus  which 
ensures  an  abundant  crop.     Where  paring  and 
burning,   from  any   circumstance,    cannot  take 
place,    the   land   may  be  trenched   or   double- 
ploughed.     This    is  effected  by   means  of  two 
ploughs  following  each   other,  the  first  plough 
taking  off  a  thin  surface  of  about  three  inches, 
and  the  second  going  deeper  in    the  same  place, 
covering  the  surface-sod  with  fine  mould  ;  both 


134 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


furrows  not  exceeding  the  thickness  of  the  vege- 
table mould  or  other  good  soil.  If  the  land  is 
ploughed  with  one  furrow,  the  operation  ought 
to  be  performed  before  winter,  that  it  may  re- 
ceive the  benefit  of  the  succeeding  frosts,  by 
which  the  success  of  the  future  operations  will 
not  only  be  promoted,  but  most  of  the  insects 
lodged  in  the  soil  will  be  destroyed.  When  one 
furrow  alone  is  taken,  the  best  size  is  four  inches 
and  a  half  deep  by  eight  or  nine  broad.  The 
strain  on  horses  in  ploughing  ley  land  is  mostly 
from  the  depth. 

3.  The  rotation  of  crops  to  be  adopted,  when 
grass  lands  are  broken  up,  must  partly  depend 
upon  the  soil,  and  partly  on  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  prepared  for  cultivation.  As  a  gene- 
ral principle,  however,  it  may  be  laid  down, 
that  unless  by  the  course  of  cropping  to  be  pur- 
sued the  bad  grasses  and  other  plants  indigenous 
in  the  soil  are  extirpated,  they  will,  when  the 
land  is  again  laid  down  to  grass,  increase  and 
prevail  with  more  rapidity  and  effect  than  seeds 
chosen  by  the  farmer;  and  the  consequence 
must  be,  a  heavy  disappointment  to  the  future 
crops  of  grass,  perhaps  solely,  or  at  least  prin- 
cipally, attributable  to  a  previous  defective  ma- 
nagement. It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  enter 
into  details  upon  this  subject.  The  process  of 
conversion  in  clayey  soils  should  be  commenced 
with  paring  and  burning,  especially  where  the 
grub  is  suspected.  The  following  course  may 
then  be  adopted: — 1.  Rape  fed  with  sheep;  2. 
Beans;  3.  Wheat;  4.  Beans;  5.  W:heat ;  6.  Fal- 
low ;  7.  Wheat,  sown  with  grass-seeds.  This 
may  seem  severe  cropping,  but  is  justified  by 
experience  when  old  grass  clay  land  is  broken 
up.  If  the  land  has  not  been  pared  and  burnt, 
the  first  crop  ought  to  be  either  oats  or  dibbled 
beans.  To  do  justice  to  the  plan  of  restoring 
the  land  to  grass,  there  ought  to  be,  in  all  cases, 
according  to  the  soil,  either  a  naked  or  turnip 
fallow,  before  the  sowing  of  grass-seeds  be  at- 
tempted. But  on  mellow  loamy  clay  land,  con- 
sisting of  fine  old  grass  pasture,  where  it  is 
thought  necessary  or  advisable  to  break  up  such 
land,  it  should  be  done  in  detached  pieces,  so  as  to 
suit  the  convenience  of  the  occupier,  and  the 
following  course  should  be  adopted:  —  !.  Au- 
tumnal ploughing  for  oats  in  spring;  2.  Fallow 
for  rape,  to  be  eaten  with  sheep;  3.  Beans;  4. 
Wheat,  sown  with  clover;  5.  Clover;  6.  Clover; 
7  Wheat;  8.  Rape,  to  be  partially  eaten,  and 
jioed  in  spring,  and  to  stand  for  seed  ;  and,  9. 
Wheat  with  grass-seeds.  This  is  a  very  profit- 
able rotation,  and  applicable  to  the  best  grazing 
land  in  Lincolnshire.  As  to  chalk  :  Paring  and 
burning  is  considered  in  this  case  to  be  indis- 
pensable as  a  preparation  for  turnips,  which 
ought,  where  manure  can  be  got,  to  be  raised 
iwo  years  in  succession ;  then  barley,  clover, 
wheat;  and,  after  one  or  two  additional  crops  of 
'urnips,  the  land  may  be  laid  down  with  sain- 
foin  to  great  advantage.  Peat :  On  this  soil 
;>armg  and  burning  are  essentially  necessary. 
Under  a  judicious  system,  the  greatest  and 
quickest  profit  is  thus  secured  to  the  farmer, 
•Mih  advantage  to  the  public,  and  without  in- 
iury  to  the  landlord.  Draining  also  must  not 
be  neglected.  The  crops  to  be  grown  on  j«eat 


soils  are,  1.  Rape  or  potatoes;  2.  Oats;  3.  Tur 
nips;  4.  Oats  or  wheat;  and,  5,  Clover,  or  grass- 
seeds.  A  liberal  application  of  lime,  where  it  ' 
can  be  obtained,  is  of  the  greatest  service  in  en- 
abling such  soils  to  bring  corn  to  its  full  perfec- 
tion. In  the  fens  of  Thorney,  the  following 
course  was  recommended  : — 1.  Paring  and  burn- 
ing for  rape  ;  2.  Oats;  and,  3.  Wheat  with  grass- 
seeds  ;  if  the  land  was  safe  from  water,  the  Lam- 
mas sort,  if  not  spring  wheat.  This  short  cours^, 
it  is  contended,  preserves  the  land  in  heart ;  and 
it  afterwards  produces  abundant  crops  of  grass. 
But  long  courses,  in  such  a  soil,  run  the  lands 
to  weeds  and  straw,  without  quality  in  the  grain. 
Loam :  The  courses  of  crops  applicable  to  this 
soil  are  too  numerous  to  be  here  inserted.  If  the 
sward  be  friable,  the  following  rotation  may  .be 
adopted: — 1.  Oats;  2.  Turnips;  3.  Wheat  or 
barley  ;  4.  Beans  ;  5.  Wheat ;  6.  Fallow  or  tur- 
nips; 7.  Wheat  or  barley,  and  grass-seeds.  If 
the  sward  be  very  tough  and  coarse,  instead  of 
taking  oats,  it  may  be  pared  and  burnt  for  tur- 
nips. Sand :  On  rich  and  deep  sandy  soils, 
the  most  valuable  crop  that  can  be  raised  is  car- 
rots. For  inferior  sands,  turnips,  to  be  eaten  on 
the  ground,  then  to  be  laid  clown  with  barley  and 
grass  seeds. 

4.  According  to  the  improved  system  of  lav- 
ing down  lands  to  grass,  they  ought  to  be  pre- 
viously made   as  clean  and  fertile  as  possible. 
With  that  view,  all  the  green  crops  raised  oui;ht 
to  be   consumed   upon  the  ground ;   fallow   or 
fallow  crops  ought  not  to  be  neglected ;  an- 
whole  straw  of  the  corn  crops  should  be  con- 
verted into  manure,  and  applied  to  the  soil  that 
produced  it.  Above  all,  the  mixing  of  calcareous 
matter  with  the  soil,  either  previous  to,  or  during 
the  course  of  cropping,  is  essential ;  and  nothing 
generally  improves  meadows  or  pastures  more 
than  lime  or  marl. 

5.  It  is  disputed  whether  grass-seeds  should 
be  sown  with  or  without  corn.     In  favor  of  the 
first  practice,  that  of  uniting  the  two  cro: 

is  maintained  that,  where  equal  pains  are  taken, 
the  future  crop  of  grass  will  succeed  equally 
well  as  if  they  had  been  sown  separately,  while  the 
same  tilth  answers  for  both.  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  observed,  that  as  the  land  must,  in  that 
case,  be  put  into  the  best  possible  order,  there 
is  a  risk  that  the  corn  crop  will  grow  so  luxu- 
riantly, as  to  overpower  the  grass-seeds,  and,  at 
any  rate,  will  exclude  them  from  the  benefit  of 
the  air  and  the  dews.  If  the  season  also  In 
a  corn-crop  is  apt  to  lodge,  and  the  grass  will,  in 
a  great  measure,  be  destroyed.  On  soils  mode- 
rately fertile,  the  grasses  have  a  better  chance  of 
succeeding  ;  but  then,  it  is  said,  that  the  land  is 
so  much  exhausted  by  producing  the  corn- crops, 
that  it  seldom  proves  good  grass  land  afterwards. 
In  answer  to  these  objections,  it  has  been  01 
that  where,  from  the  richness  of  the  soil,  the 
any  risk  of  sowing  a  full  crop  of  corn,  less  seed 
d,  even  as  low  as  one-third  of  the  usual 
quantity  ;  and  that  a  moderate  crop  of  grain 
nurses  the  young  plants  of  grass,  and  protects 
them  from  the  rays  of  a  hot  sun,  without  pro 
ducing  any  material  injury.  Where  the  two 
crops  are  united,  barley  is  the  preferable  graic., 
except  on  peat.  Barley  has  a  tendency  to  !•- 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


135 


the  texture  of  the  ground  in  which  it  grows, 
which  is  favorable  to  the  vegetation  of  grass- 
seeds.  In  the  choice  of  barley,  that  sort  should 
be  preferred  which  runs  least  to  straw,  and  which 
is  the  soonest  ripe.  On  peat,  a  crop  of  oats  is 
to  be  preferred.  The  manner  of  sowing  the 
grass-seeds  requires  to  be  particularly  attended 
to.  Machines  have  been  invented  for  that  pur- 
pose, which  answer  well,  but  they  are  unfortu- 
nately too  expensive  for  the  generality  of  fanners. 
It  is  said  to  be  a  bad  system  to  mix  seeds  of 
different  plants  before  sowing  them,  in  order  to 
have  the  fewer  casts.  It  is  better  to  sow  each 
sort  separately,  for  the  expence  of  going  several 
times  over  the  ground  is  nothing,  compared  to 
the  benefit  of  having  each  sort  equally  distri- 
buted. The  seeds  of  grasses,  being  so  light, 
ought  never  to  be  sown  in  a  windy  day,  except 
by  machinery,  an  equal  delivery  being  a  point 
of  great  consequence.  Wet  weather  ought  like- 
wise to  be  avoided,  as  the  least  degree  of  poach- 
ing is  injurious.  Grass -seeds  ought  to  be  well 
harrowed,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

6.  When  the  corn  is  carried  off,  the  young 
crop  of  grass  should  be  but  little  fed  during  au- 
tumn, and  that  only  in  dry  weather ;  but  heavily 
rolled  in  the  following  spring,  in  order  to  press 
the  soil  home  to  the  roots.  It  is  then  to  be 
treated  as  permanent  pasture.  By  attention  to 
these  particulars,  the  far  greater  proportion  of 
the  meadows  and  pastures  in  the  kingdom,  of 
an  inferior,  or  even  medium  quality,  may  be 
broken  up,  not  only  with  safety,  but,  as  we  are 
told,  with  great  profit. 

PART  IV. 

OF  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  PLANTS  THAT 
ARE  ARTICLES  OF  COMMERCE. 

These  in  general  are  such  as  cannot  be  used 
for  food  ;  and  are  principally  flax,  hemp,  rape, 
hops,  and  timber  of  various  kinds. 

Ofjiax  and  hemp. — Flax  is  cultivated  not  only 
with  a  view  to  the  common  purposes  of  making 
linen,  but  for  the  sake  of  its  seed  also ;  and  thus 
forms  a  most  extensive  article  of  commerce,  all 
the  oil  used  by  painters,  at  least  for  common 
purposes,  being  extracted  from  this  seed.  See 
FLAX,  FLAX-DRESSING,  and  LINVM.  The  cake 
which  remains  after  ihe  extraction  of  the  oil  is 
in  some  places  used  as  a  manure,  and  in  others 
sold  for  fattening  of  cattle.  In  the  vale  of  Glou- 
cester, Mr.  Marshal  informs  us  that  it  is,  next 
to  hay,  a  main  article  of  stall  fatting ;  though 
the  price  is  often  great.  Hence  some  indivi- 
duals have  been  induced  to  try  the  effect  of  lint- 
seed  itself  boiled  to  a  jelly,  and  mixed  with  flour, 
bran,  or  chaff,  with  good  success ;  "and  even  the 
oil  itself  has  been  tried  for  the  same  purpose  in 
Herefordshire.  Though  this  plant  is  in  universal 
culture  over  the  whole  kingdom,  yet  it  appears, 
by  the  vast  quantity  imported,  that  by  far  too 
little  ground  is  employed  in  that  way;  as  Mr. 
Marshal  takes  notice  of  its  culture  only  in  York- 
shire, and  here,  he  tells  us,  its  cultivation  is  con- 
fined to  a  few  districts.  The  kind  cultivated  is 
that  called  '  blea-line,'  or  the  blue  or  lead  co- 
lored flax,  and  this  requires  a  rich  dry  soil  for 
its  cultivation. 


A  deep,  fat,  sandy  loam  is  perhaps  the  only- 
soil  on  which  it  can  be  cultivated  with  advan- 
tage. If  sown  upon  old  corn  land,  it  ought  to 
be  well  cleaned  from  weeds,  and  rendered  per- 
fectly friable  by  a  summer  fallow.  Manure  is 
seldom  or  ever  set  on  for  a  line  crop ;  and  the 
soil  process  consists  generally  of  a  single  plough- 
ing. The  seed  time  is  May,  but  much  depends 
on  the  state  of  the  soil  at  the  time  of  sowing. 
'  It  should  neither  be  wet  nor  dry ;  and  the  sur- 
face ought  to  be  made  as  fine  as  that  of  a  garden- 
bed.  Not  a  clod  of  the  size  of  an  egg  should 
remain  unbroken.'  Two  bushels  of  seed  are 
usually  sown  upon  an  acre;  the  surface,  after 
being  harrowed,  is  sometimes  raked  with  garden 
or  hay-rakes ;  and  the  operation  would  be  still 
more  complete  if  the  clods  and  other  obstructions, 
which  cannot  be  easily  removed,  were  drawn  into 
the  interfurrows.  A  light  hand-roller  used  be- 
tween the  final  raking  and  harrowing  would 
much  assist  this  operation.  The  chief  requisite 
during  the  time  of  vegetation  is  weeding,  which 
ought  to  be  performed  with  the  utmost  care  ;  and 
for  this  reason  it  is  particularly  requisite  that  the 
ground  should  be  previously  cleansed  as  well  as 
possible,  otherwise  the  expense  of  weeding  be- 
comes too  great  to  be  borne,  or  the  crop  must 
be  considerably  injured.  It  is  an  irreparable 
injury,  if,  through  a  dry  season,  the  plants  come 
up  in  two  crops ;  or  if  by  accident  or  misma- 
nagement they  be  too  thin.  The  goodness  of  the 
crop  depends  on  its  running  up  with  a  single 
stalk  without  branches  ;  for  wherever  it  ramifies 
there  the  length  of  the  line  terminates ;  and  this 
ramification  is  the  consequence  of  its  having  too 
much  room  at  the  root,  or  getting  above  the 
plants  which  surround  it.  The  branches  are  ne- 
ver of  any  use,  being  unavoidably  worked  off  in 
dressing ;  and  the  stem  itself,  unless  it  bear  a 
due  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  crop,  is  like- 
wise worked  off  among  the  refuse.  The  ramifi- 
cation of  the  flax  will  readily  be  occasioned  by 
clods  on  the  ground  when  sown.  A  second  crop 
is  very  seldom  attended  with  any  profit  ;  for,  be- 
ing overgrown  with  ihe  spreading  plants  of  the 
first  crop,  it  remains  weak  and  short,  and  at  pull- 
ing time  is  left  to  rot  upon  the  land. 

Flax  is  injured  not  only  by  drought,  but  by 
frost,  and  is  sometimes  attacked,  even  when  got 
five  or  six  inches  high,  by  a  small  white  slug, 
which  strips  off  the  leaves  to  the  top,  and  the 
stalks  bending  with  their  weight  are  thus  some- 
times drawn  into  the  ground.  Hence,  if  the 
crop  does  not  promise  fair  at-weeding  time,  our 
author  advises  not  to  bestow  further  labor  and 
expense  upon  it.  A  crop  of  turnips  or  rape  will 
generally  pay  much  better  than  such  a  crop  of 
flax.  The  time  of  flax  harvest  in  Yorkshire  is 
generally  in  the  latter  end  of  July,  or  beginning 
of  August.  On  the  whole,  our  author  remarks, 
that  '  the  goodness  of  the  crop  depends  in  some 
measure  upon  its  length;  and  this  upon  its 
evenness  and  closeness  upon  the  ground.  Three 
feet  high  is  a  good  length,  and  the  thickness  of 
a  crow's  quill  a  good  thickness.  A  fine  stalk 
affords  more  fine  and  fewer  shivers  than  a  thick 
one.  A  tall  thick  set  crop  is  therefore  desirable. 
But,  unless  the  land  be  good,  a  thick  crop  cannot 
attain  u  sufficient  length  of  stem.  Hence  the 


136 


HURAL    ECONOMY. 


folly  of  sowing  flax  on  land  which  is  unfit  for  it. 
Nevertheless,  with  a  suitable  soil,  a  sufficiency 
of  seed  evenly  distributed,  and  a  favorable  sea- 
son, flax  may  turn  out  a  very  profitable  crop. 
The  flax  crop,  however,  has  its  disadvantages ; 
it  interferes  with  harvest,  and  is  generally  be- 
lieved to  be  a  great  exhauster  of  the  soil,  espe- 
cially when  its  seed  is  suffered  to  ripen.  Its 
cultivation  ought  therefore  to  be  confined  to  rich 
grass-land  districts,  where  harvest  is  a  secondary 
object,  and  where  its  exhaustion  may  :-e  rather 
favorable  than  hurtful  to  succeeding  arible  crops, 
by  checking  the  too  great  rankness  of  rich  fresh 
broken  ground. 

In  vol.  ii.  of  Bath  Papers,  a  Dorsetshire  gen- 
tleman, who  writes  on  the  culture  of  hemp  and 
flax,  gives  an  account  somewhat  different  from 
that  of  Mr.  Marshal.  Instead  of  exhausting 
crops,  he  maintains  that  they  are  both  amelio- 
rating crops  if  cut  without  seeding;  and,  as  the 
best  crops  of  both  are  raised  from  foreign,  seed, 
he  is  of  opinion  that  there  is  little  occasion  for 
raising  it  in  this  country.  A  crop  of  hemp,  he 
insists,  prepares  the  land  for  flax,  and  is  there- 
fore clear  gain  to  the  farmer.  '  That  these  plants 
impoverish  the  soil,'  he  repeats,  '  is  a  mere  vulgar 
notion,  devoid  of  all  truth.  The  best  historical 
relations,  and  the  verbal  accounts  of  honest  in- 
genious planters,  concar  in  declaring  it  to  be  a 
vain  prejudice,  unsupported  by  any  authority; 
and  that  these  crops  really  meliorate  and  improve 
the  soil.'  He  is  likewise  of  opinion  that  the 
growth  of  hemp  and  flax  is  not  necessarily  con- 
fined to  rich  soils,  but  that  they  may  be  culti- 
vated with  profit  also  upon  poor  sandy  ground, 
if  a  little  expense  be  laid  out  in  manuring  it. 
;  Spalding  Moor  in  Lincolnshire  is  a  barren 
sand ;  and  yet  with  proper  care  and  culture  it 
produces  the  best  hemp  in  England,  and  in  large 
quantities.  In  the  Isle  of  Axholme,  in  the  same 
county,  equal,  quantities  are  produced ;  for  the 
culture  and  management  of  it  is  the  principal 
employ  of  the  inhabitants;  and,  according  to 
Leland,  it  was  so  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
In  Marshland  the  soil  is  a  clay  or  strong  warp, 
thrown  up  by  the  river  Ouze,  and  of  such  a  qua- 
lity that  it  cracks  with  the  heat  of  the  sun,  till  a 
hand  may  be  put  into  chinks  ;  yet,  if  it  be  once 
covered  with  the  hemp  or  flax  before  the  heats 
come  on,  the  ground  will  not  crack  that  summer. 
When  the  land  is  sandy,  they  first  sow  it  with 
barley,  and  the  following  spring  they  manure  the 
stubble  with  horse  or  cow  dung,  and  plough  it 
under.  Then  they  sow  their  hemp  or  flax,  and 
harrow  it  in  with  a  li^ht  harrow,  having  short 
teeth.  A  good  crop  destroys  all  the  weeds,  and 
makes  it  a  fine  fallow  for  flax  in  the  spring.  As 
soon  as  the  flax  is  pulled,  they  prepare  the 
ground  for  wheat.  Lime,  marl,  and  the  mud  of 
ponds,  is  an  excellent  compost  for  hemp  lands.' 
Our  author  takes  notice  of  the  vast  quantity  of 
flax  and  hemp,  not  less  than  11,000  tons,  im- 
ported formerly  into  Britain ;  and  complains 
ilia*  it  is  not  all  raised  in  the  island.  He  ob- 
serves that  the  greater  part  of  those  marshy 
Jands  lying  to  the  west  of  Mendip  hills  are  very 
{u-oper  for  the  cultivation  of  hemp  and  flax  ; 
wad  if  laid  out  in  this  manner  could  not  fail  of 
inR  out.  highly  advantageous  both  to  the  land- 


holders and  the  public  at  large.  '  The  vast  quan- 
tities of  hemp  and  flax,'  says  he,  'which  have 
been  raised  on  lands  of  the  same  kind  in  Lin- 
colnshire marshes,  and  the  fens  of  the  Isle  of 
Ely  and  Huntingdonshire,  are  a  full  proof  of 
the  truth  of  my  assertion.  Many  hundreds  of 
acres  in  the  above  mentioned  places,  which  for 
pasturage  or  grazing  were  not  worth  more  than 
20s.  or  25s.  per  acre,  hare  been  readily  let  at 
from  £-2  to  £4. 

Choice  of  the  soil,  and  preparing  the  ground. 
— A  skilful  flax-raiser  always  prefers  in  Scotland, 
we  are  told,  a  free  open  deep  loam,  and  all  grounds 
that  produced  the  preceding  year  a  good  crop  of 
turnips,  cabbages,  potatoes,  barley,  or  broad 
clover,  or  have  been  formerly  laid  down  rich, 
and  kept  for  some  years  in  pasture.  A  clay  soil, 
the  second  or  third  crop  after  being  limed,  will 
answer  well  for  tfax  ;  provided,  if  the  ground  be 
still  stiff,  that  it  be  brought  to  a  proper  mould,- 
by  tilling  after  harvest  to  expose  it  to  winter 
frosts.  All  new  grounds  produce  a  strong  crop 
of  flax,  and  pretty  free  of  weeds.  When  many 
mole-hills  appear  upon  new  ground,  ii  ;u>\v,.rs 
the  better  for  flax  after  one  tilling.  The  seed 
ought  never  to  be  sown  on  grounds  that  are  either 
too  wet  or  dry,  but  on  such  as  retain  a  natural 
moisture ;  and  such  grounds  as  are  inclined  to 
weeds  ought  to  be  avoided,  unless  prepared  by 
a  careful  summer  fallow.  If  the  linseed  be 
sown  early,  and  the  flax  not  allowed  to  stand  for 
seed,  a  crop  of  turnip  may  be  got  after  the  flax 
that  very  year ;  the  second  year  a  crop  of  rye  or 
barley  may  be  taken;  and  the  third  year  grass 
seeds  are  sometimes  sown  along  with  the  lint- 
seed.  This  is  the  method  mostly  practised  in 
and  about  the  counties  of  Lincoln  and  Somer- 
set, where  great  quantities  of  flax  and  hemp  are 
every  year  raised,  and  where  these  crops  have 
long  been  capital  articles.  There  old  ploughed 
grounds  are  never  sown  with  linseed,  unless  the 
soil  be  very  rich  an'd  clean.  A  certain  worm, 
called  in  Scotland  the  coup  worm,  abounds  in 
new  ploughed  grounds,  which  greatly  hurts  every 
crop  but  flax.  In  small  enclosures,  surrounded 
with  trees  or  high  hedges,  the  flax,  for  want  of 
free  air,  is  subject  to  fall  before  it  is  ripe,  and 
the  droppings  of  rain  and  dew  from  the  trees 
prevent  the  flax  within  the  reach  of  the  trees 
from  growing  to  any  perfection.  Of  preceding 
crops,  potatoes  and  hemp  are  the  best  prepara- 
tion for  flax.  In  the  fens  of  Lincoln,  upon  pro- 
per ground  of  old  tillage  they  sow  hemp,  dung- 
ing well  the  first  year;  the  second  year  hemp 
without  dung;  the  third  year  flax  without  dung; 
and  that  same  year  a  crop  of  turnip  eat  on  the 
ground  by  sheep  ;  the  fourth  year  hemp  with  a 
large  coat  of  dung;  and  so  on  successively.  If 
the  ground  be  free  and  open,  it  should  be  but 
once  ploughed,  and  that  as  shallow  as  possible, 
not  deeper  than  two  inches  and  a  half.  It 
should  be  laid  flat,  reduced  to  a  fine  garden 
mould  by  good  harrowing,  and  all  stones  and 
sods  should  be  carried  off.  Except  a  little  pi- 
geon's dung  for  cold  or  sour  ground,  no  other 
dung  should  be  used  preparatory  for  flax ;  be- 
cause it  produces  too  many  weeds,  and  throws 
up  the  flax  thin  and  poor  upon  the  stalk.  Ite- 
l<>ir  sowing,  the  bulky  clod.s  should  be  broken, 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


137 


or  carried  ofl'  the  ground ;  and  stones,  quicken- 
ings,  and  every  other  thing  that  may  hinder  the 
growth  of  the  flax,  should  be  carefully  taken 
away. 

Choice  of  seed. — The  brighter  in  color,  and 
heavier  the  seed  is,  so  much  the  better;  that 
which,  when  bruised,  appears  of  a  light  or  yel- 
lowish green,  and  fresh  in  the  heart,  oily,  and  not 
dry,  and  smells  and  tastes  sweet,  and  not  fusty, 
may  be  depended  upon.  Dutch  seed  of  the 
preceding  year's  growth  for  the  most  part  an- 
swers best ;  but  it  seldom  succeeds  if  kept  ano- 
ther year.  It  ripens  sooner  than  any  other  fo- 
reign seed.  Philadelphia  seed  produces  fine 
lint  and  few  bolls,  because  sown  thick,  and  an- 
swers best  in  wet  cold  soils.  Riga  seed  pro- 
duces coarser  lint,  and  the  greatest  quantity  of 
seed.  Scotch  seed,  when  well  winned  and  kept 
and  changed  from  one  kind  of  soil  to  another, 
sometimes  answers  pretty  well ;  but  should  be 
sown  thick,  as  many  of  its  grains  are  bad,  and 
fail.  It  springs  well,  and  its  flax  is  sooner  ripe 
than  any  other ;  but  its  produce  afterwards  is 
generally  inferior  to  that  from  foreign  seed.  A 
kind  has  been  lately  imported,  called  Memel 
seed ;  which  looks  well,  is  short  and  plump,  but 
seldom  grows  above  eight  inches,  and  on  that  ac- 
count ought  not  to  be  sown. 

Method  of  sowing. — The  quantity  of  lintseed 
sown  should  be  proportioned  to  the  condition 
of  the  soil ;  for  if  the  ground  be  in  good  heart, 
and  the  seed  sown  thick,  the  crop  will  be  in 
danger  of  falling  before  it  is  ready  for  pulling. 
In  Scotland,  from  eleven  to  twelve  pecks,  Lin- 
lithgow  measure,  of  Dutch  or  Riga  seed,  is  ge- 
nerally thought  sufficient  for  one  acre ;  and  about 
ten  pecks  of  Philadelphia  seed,  which,  being  the 
smallest  grained,  goes  farthest.  Riga  lintseed, 
and  the  next  year's  produce  of  it,  is  preferred  in 
Lincolnshire.  The  time  for  sowing  lintseed  is 
from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  end  of  April, 
as  the  ground  and  season  answer ;  but  the  earlier 
the  seed  is  sown,  the  less  the  crop  interferes  with 
the  corn-harvest.  Late  sown  lintseed  may  grow 
long,  but  the  flax  upon  the  stalk  will  be  thin 
and  poor.  After  sowing,  the  ground  ought  to 
be  harrowed  till  the  seed  is  well  covered,  and 
then  (supposing  the  soil,  as  before  mentioned,  to 
be  free,  and  reduced  to  a  fine  mould)  it  ought  to 
be  rolled.  ^Yhen  a  farmer  sows  a  large  quan- 
tity of  lintseed,  he  may  find  it  proper  to  sow  a 
part  earlier  and  part  later,  that  in  the  future  ope- 
rations of  weeding,  pulling,  watering,  and  grass- 
ing, the  work  may  be  the  easier  and  more  conve- 
niently gone  about.  It  ought  always  to  be  sown 
on  a  dry  bed. 

Weeding. — Flax  ought  to  be  weeded  when 
the  crop  is  about  four  inches  long.  If  longer 
deferred,  the  weeders  will  so  much  break  and 
bend  the  stalks  that  they  will  never  perhaps  re- 
cover their  straightness  again ;  and,  when  the 
flax  grows  crooked,  it  is  more  liable  to  be  hurt 
in  the  rippling  and  swingling.  Quicken-grass 
should  not  be  taken  up ;  for,  being  strongly 
rooted,  the  pulling  of  it  always  loosens  a  deal 
of  the  lint.  If  there  is  an  appearance  of  a  set- 
tled drought,  it  is  better  to  defer  the  weeding, 
than  by  that  operation  to  expose  the  tender  roots 
of  the  flax  to  the  drought.  So  soon  as  the  weeds 


are  got  out,  they  ought  to  be  carried  off  the  field, 
instead  of  being  laid  in  the  furrow,  where  they 
often  take  root  again,  and  at  any  rate  obstruct 
the  growth  of  the  flax  in  the  furrows. 

For  the  cultivation,  natural  history,  dressing, 
importation,  uses,  &c.,  of  hemp,  see  CANKABIS 
and  HEMP. 

We  may  subjoin  in  this  place  a  few  practical 
remarks  on  rape  or  cole  seed.  This,  as  well  as 
lintseed,  is  cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  making 
oil,  and  will  grow  almost  any  where.  Mr.  Ha- 
zard says  that  in  the  north  of  England  the 
farmers  pare  and  burn  their  pasture  lands,  and 
then  sow  them  with  rape  after  one  ploughing; 
the  crop  commonly  standing  for  seed.  Poor 
clay,  or  stone  brash  land,  will  often  produce 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  or  eighteen  bushels  per 
acre,  and  almost  any  fresh  or  virgin  earth  will 
yield  one  plentiful  crop ;  so  that  many  in  the 
northern  counties  have  been  raised,  by  culti- 
vating this  seed,  from  poverty  to  affluence.  The 
seed  is  ripe  in  July,  or  the  beginning  of  August; 
and  the  threshing  of  it  out  is  conducted  with  the 
greatest  mirth  and  jollity.  The  rape,  being  fully 
ripe,  is  first  cut  with  sickles,  and  then  lafd  thin 
upon  the  ground  to  dry ;  and,  when  in  proper 
condition  for  threshing,  the  neighbours  are  in- 
vited, who  readily  contribute  their  assistance. 
The  threshing  is  performed  on  a  large  cloth  in 
the  middle  of  the  field,  and  the  seed  put  into 
sacks  and  carried  home.  It  does  not  admit  of 
being  carried  from  the  field  in  the  pod,  to  be 
threshed  at  home,  and  therefore  the  operation  is 
always  performed  in  the  field  ;  and,  by  the  num- 
ber of  assistants  procured  on  this  occasion,  a 
field  of  twenty  acres  is  frequently  threshed  out 
in  one  day.  The  straw  is  burnt  for  the  sake  of 
its  alkali,  the  ashes  being  said  to  equal  the  best 
kind  of  those  imported  from  abroad.  The  pro- 
per time  for  sowing  rape  is  June ;  and  the  land 
should,  previously  to  the  sowing,  be  twice  well 
ploughed.  About  two  pounds  of  seed  are  suffi- 
cient for  an  acre;  and,  according  to  our  author, 
it  should  be  cast  upon  the  ground  with  only  the 
thumb  and  two  fore-fingers ;  for,  if  it  be  cast  witn 
all  the  fingers,  it  will  come  up  in  patches.  If 
the  plants  come  up  too  thick,  a  pair  of  light  har- 
rows should  be  drawn  along  the  field  length-ways 
and  cross-ways,  by  which  means  the  plants  will 
be  equally  thinned ;  and,  when  the  plants  which 
the  harrows  have  pulled  up  are  withered,  the 
ground  should  be  rolled.  A  few  days  after,  the 
plants  may  be  set  out  with  a  hoe,  allowing  six- 
teen or  eighteen  inches  distance  betwixt  every 
two  plants. 

Mr.  Hazard  strongly  recommends  the  trans- 
planting of  rape,  having  experienced  the  good 
effects  of  it  himself.  A  rood  of  ground,  sown 
in  June,  will  produce  as  many  plants  as  are  suf- 
ficient for  ten  acres  ;  which  may  be  planted  out 
upon  ground  that  has  previously  borne  a  crop  of 
wheat,  provided  the  wheat  be  harvested  by  the 
middle  of  August.  One  ploughing  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  these  plants  ;  the  best  of  which  should 
be  selected  from  the  seed-plot,  and  planted  in 
rows  two  feet  asunder,  and  sixteen  inches  apart 
in  the  rows.  As  rape  is  an  excellent  food  for 
sheep,  they  may  be  allowed  to  feed  upon  it  in 
the  spring ;  or  the  leaves  might  be  gathered,  and 


138 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


given  to  oxen  or  young  cattle  :  fresh  leaves  would 
sprout  again  from  the  same  stalks,  which  in  like 
manner  might  be  fed  off  by  ewes  and  lambs  in 
time  enough  to  plough  the  land  for  a  crop  of 
barley  and  oats.  Planting  rape  in  the  begin- 
ning of  July,  however,  would  be  most  advanta- 
geous for  the  crop  itself,  as  the  leaves  might  then 
be  fed  off  in  the  autumn,  and  new  ones  would 
appear  in  the  spring.  Our  author  discommends 
the  practice  of  sowing  rape  with  turnips,  as  the 
crops  injure  one  another.  '  Those  who  look  for 
an  immediate  profit,'  says  he,  '  will  undoubt- 
edly cultivate  rape  for  seed ;  but  perhaps  it  may 
answer  better  in  the  end  to  feed  it  with  sheep  : 
the  fat  ones  might  cull  it  over  first,  and  after- 
wards the  lean  or  store-sheep  might  follow  them, 
and  be  folded  thereon :  if  this  is  done  in  autumn 
season,  the  land  will  be  in  good  heart  to  carry  a 
crop  of  wheat ;  or,  where  the  rape  is  fed  off  in 
the  spring,  a  crop  of  barley  might  follow.  In 
either  case,  rape  is  profitable  to  the  cultivator ; 
and  when  it  is  planted,  and  well  earthed  round 
the  stems,  it  will  endure  the  severest  winter ;  but 
the  same  cannot  be  advanced  in  favor  of  that 
which  is  sown  broad  cast.'  In  the  Agricultural 
Survey  of  Kent  it  is  remarked,  that  this  seed 
is  much  cultivated  on  the  poor  lands  of  the 
eastern  part  of  that  county,  under  the  same  man- 
agement as  turnips.  Sometimes,  although  rarely, 
it  is  sown  for  seed  ;  but  most,  commonly  fed  off 
with  lean  flocks  of  sheep.  Cattle  and  sheep, 
when  poor,  are  however  very  subject  to  be  de- 
stroyed by  eating  greedily  of  this  plant. 

Of  coriander,  canary,  and  some  other  seeds.— 
Coriander  is  used  in  large  quantities  by  distil- 
lers, druggists,  and  confectioners,  and  might  be 
a  considerable  object  to  such  farmers  as  live  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  great  towns ;  but  the  price 
is  very  variable.  In  the  fourth  volume  of  Bath 
Papers,  Mr.  Hartley  gives  an  account  of  an  ex- 
periment made  on  this  seed,  which  proved  very 
successful.  Ten  perches  of  good  sandy  loam 
were  sown  with  coriander  in  March.  3  Ibs. 
of  seed  were  sufficient  for  this  spot ;  and 
the  whole  expense  amounted  only  to  5s.  Wd. 
The  produce  was  87  Ibs.  of  seed,  which, 
valued  at  3d.,  yielded  a  profit  of  15*. lid.  or 
£15  18i.  4rf.  per  acre.  He  afterwards  made  se- 
veral other  experiments  on  a  larger  scale ;  but 
none  of  the  crops  turned  out  so  well,  though  all 
of  them  afforded  a  good  profit. 

Canary  seed  has  been  cultivated  in  large  quan- 
tities in  the  Isle  of  Thanet,  where  it  is  said  they 
have  had  frequently  twenty  bushels  to  an  acre. 
Mr.  Hartley  sowed  half  an  acre  of  ground,  the 
soil  a  mixture  of  loam  and  clay,  but  had  only 
eight  bushels  and  a  half,  or  seventeen  bushels 
per  acre.  With  this  produce,  however,  he  had  a 
profit  of  £4  2*.  3d.  per  acre. 

In  Kent,  where  this  seed  is  much  cultivated, 
Mr.  Boys  says,  there  are  three  kinds  of  tilths  for 
it,  viz.  summer  fallow,  bean  stubble,  and  clover 
lay  ;  the  last  he  considers  the  best.  If  the  land 
is  not  very  rich,  a  coat  of  rotten  dung  is  fre- 
quently spread  for  it.  Whether  manured  or  not, 
the  tillage  necessary  is  to  plough  the  land  the 
first  opportunity  that  offers  after  wheat-sowing  is 
done ;  and,  as  soon  as  the  land  is  tolerably  dry 
in  the  spring,  furrows  are  made  about  eleven  or 


twelve  inches  apart,  and  the  seed  is  sown  broad- 
cast, about  four  or  five  gallons  per  acre,  and 
well  harrowed  in.  When  the  blade  appears,  and 
the  rows  are  distinct,  the  intervals  are  imme- 
diately hoed  with  a  Dutch  hoe,  and  afterwards, 
in  May  or  June,  the  hoeing  is  repeated  with  a 
common  hoe :  carefully  cutting  up  every  weed, 
and  thinning  the  plants  in  the  furrows,  if  they 
are  too  thick.  It  is  cut  in  the  harvest,  which  is 
always  later  than  any  corn  crop,  with  a  hook, 
called  a  twibil  and  a  hink ;  by  which  it  is  laid 
in  lumps,  or  wads,  of  about  half  a  sheaf  of 
each.  The  seed  clings  remarkably  to  the  husk ; 
and,  to  detach  it,  the  crop  must  be  left  a  long 
time  on  the  ground  to  receive  moisture  sufficient 
to  destroy  the  texture  of  the  envelopment, 
otherwise  it  would  be  hardly  possible  to  thresh 
out  the  seed.  The  wads  are  turned  from  time 
to  time,  to  have  the  full  benefit  of  the  rains  and 
sun. 

Radish  seed. — For  this  crop  the  land  should 
be  clean,  full  of  manure,  and  ploughed  a  good 
depth  in  the  early  part  of  the  winter.  In  Kent 
they  cultivate  the  early  short  top,  the  salmon, 
and  the  turnip  rooted.  The  seed  is  sown  on 
furrows,  about  ten  inches  apart :  in  a  dry  time 
in  the  month  of  March,  about  two  or  three  gal- 
lons per  acre.  As  soon  as  the  plants  appear, 
every  other  row  is  cut  up  with  a  horse-hoe, 
leaving  the  rows  twenty  inches  apart.  When 
the  plants  get  two  or  three  rough  leaves,  they 
are  hoed  out  in  rows,  and  are  then  kept  clean  by 
repeated  horse  and  hand-hoeing  when  necessary, 
leaving  the  plants  at  about  eighteen  inches  dis- 
tance. The  crop  is  seldom  fit  to  reap  till  Octo- 
ber, and  sometimes  is  out  in  the  fields  till 
Christmas,  without  receiving  injury  from  wet 
weather  :  it  being  necessary  that  it  should  have 
much  rain  to  rot  the  pods,  that  it  may  thresh 
well.  The  produce  is  from  eight  to  twenty-four 
bushels  per  acre. 

Spinach  seed. — Two  sorts  of  this  seed  are 
cultivated,  the  prickly  and  the  round  :  both  are 
sown  in  furrows,  about  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
apart ;  the  prickly,  six  gallons  per  acre,  and  the 
round  four.  1'arly  in  March,  when  the  plants 
have  leaves  about  an  inch  or  two  in  length,  they 
are  hoed  out  to  the  distance  of  four  or  five 
inches.  When  the  crop  is  in  full  bloom,  the 
greater  part  of  the  male  plants  are  drawn  out  by 
hand,  and  given  profitably  to  young  pigs ;  by 
which  operation  the  female  plants  have  more 
room  to  grow,  and  perfect  their  seed.  The  crop, 
when  ripe,  is  pulled  up,  and  threshed  in  the  field 
on  a  cloth,  or  carried  to  the  barn  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

Of  wood. — The  use  of  woad  in  dyeing  is  well 
known  (see  ISATIS  and  WOAD),  and  the  con- 
sumption is  so  great  that  the  raising  of  the 
plant  might  undoubtedly  be  an  object  to  a  hus- 
bandman, provided  he  could  get  it  properly 
manufactured  for  the  dyers,  and  could  overcome 
their  prejudices.  The  growing  of  this  plant  was 
long  in  a  manner  monopolised  in  particular 
places,  particularly  at  Keynsham  near  Bristol. 
Mr.  Bartley  informs  us  that,  in  a  conversation 
he  had  with  these  growers,  the  latter  asserted 
that  the  growth  of  woad  was  'peculiar  to  their 
soil.  This  is  a  blackish  heavy  mould,  with  a 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


139 


considerable  proportion  of  clay;  but  works 
freely  ;  that  of  Brislington,  where  Mr.  Bartley 
resided,  was  a  hazel,  sandy  loam  :  nevertheless, 
having  sowed  half  an  acre  of  this  soil  with 
woad  seed,  it  throve  so  well  that  he  never  saw 
a  better  crop  at  Keynsham.  Woad  grows  to  the 
greatest  advantage  on  a  light  black  rich  soil, 
which  has  a  southern  situation.  Land  intended 
for  it  should  be  dunged  a  year  before  it  is  sown 
with  this  plant,  and  made  first  to  bear  a  crop  of 
wheat,  &c.  This  being  taken  off,  three  deep 
stirrings  should  be  given  with  the  plough,  the 
first  in  November,  and  the  other  two  in  spring. 
It  is  often  sown  so  early  as  in  the  beginning  of 
April ;  but,  when  it  is  too  cold  at  that  period, 
the  sowing  must  be  deferred  till  May.  Jn  this 
climate,  however,  it  is  often  not  sown  until  some 
time  later. 

In  some  parts  of  Kent  this  plant  is  much  cul- 
tivated. It  is  frequently  sown  on  poor,  stiff,  and 
oome  chalky  lands,  in  the  proportion  of  ten  or 
twelve  Ibs.  of  seed  to  the  acre,  and  among  beans 
before  the  last  hoeing  in  the  beginning  of  July. 
It  requires  no  culture  while  growing,  unless  the 
land  be  full  of  weeds ;  in  which  case  the  weeds 
must  be  drawn  out  by  the  hand,  or  cut  up  with 
a  narrow  hoe.  When  the  plants  have  produced 
their  bloom  up  to  the  top  of  the  stem,  they  are 
pulled  up,  then  tied  by  a  single  stalk  in  small 
handfuls,  and  set  up  in  a  conical  form  to  ripen. 
When  thoroughly  dry,  the  seed  is  shaken  out  on 
a  cloth  or  into  a  tub,  the  plants  being  then  bound 
with  rope-yarn  into  bundles,  each  weighing  30 
Ibs. :  sixty  of  these  bundles  make  a  load  of  woad, 
the  price  of  which  is  generally  from  £4  to  £10. 
The  Keynsham  growers  are  said  to  cultivate  and 
prepare  it  in  the  best  manner. 

Of  madder. — This  is  a  plant  also  used  by  the 
dyers.  See  DYEING  and  RUDIA.  It  was  for- 
merly much  cultivated  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Kent :  '  I  am  firmly  persuaded,'  says  Mr.  Boys. 
'  that  good  crops  of  excellent  madder  may  be 
raised  in  Kent,  on  soils  properly  adapted  for  the 
purpose ;  and  that  it  would  be  a  profitable  arti- 
cle of  culture,  if  it  were  never  under  £3  per  cwt., 
nor  would  the  buyers  be  injured  by  a  restriction 
to  this  price ;  but  then  the  legislature  must  inter- 
fere to  prevent  the  importation  of  the  root  from 
Holland,  where  it  can  be  cultivated  cheaper. 
Perhaps,  (said  he  before  the  peace,)  if  that  coun- 
try should  continue  unfriendly  to  us,  it  might  be 
good  policy  to  encourage  the  growth  of  madder  at 
home.  I  have  many  years  been  in  the  habit  of 
cultivating  it ;  but,  from  the  low  price  at  market, 
have  been  obliged  to  abandon  it.  There  have 
been  several  modes  of  planting  practised  ;  but 
that  which  appears  the  best  is  to  plant  it  in  sin- 
gle rows,  about  two  feet  apart.  The  land  should 
be  perfectly  clean  from  weeds,  and  have  been 
well  manured  the  preceding  year,  so  that  the 
dung  may  be  well  incorporated  with  the  soil ; 
which  should  be  a  fine  deep,  rich,  sandy  loam, 
without  any  redundancy  of  moisture.  To  pre- 
pare the  land  for  planting,  it  should  be  ploughed 
Hi  the  autumn,  to  have  the  benefit  of  the  winter's 
frost,  and  harrowed  in  dry  weather  in  the  spring, 
and  then  kept  clean  by  horse-hoeing,  until  the 
nlanfs  are  ready  for  drawing,  which  is  usually  by 
tiic  end  of  May,  or  beginning  of  June:  the 


proper  time  is  known  by  the  plants  having  got 
to  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  inches  from  the 
ground,  and  having  produced  roots  branching 
out  from  the  bottom  of  the  suckers  which  will 
be  perceived  by  drawing  up  a  few  of  them. 
When  the  suckers  are  in  this  state,  all  hands 
necessary  for  this  work  are  to  be  provided,  that 
the  operation  may  proceed  with  every  possible 
despatch.  One  acre  requires  about  20,000 
plants.  The  plants  should  have  about  one-third 
of  their  tops  cut  off,  and  then  their  roots  should 
be  dipt  in  earth,  or  fine  mould  and  water  beaten 
together  to  the  consistence  of  batter;  which 
prevents  the  necessity  of  watering  them.  It  re- 
quires one  woman  to  dip  the  plants,  two  to  carry 
and  strew  them  in  handfuls  along  the  furrow, 
and  about  seven  to  follow  the  plough.  The  land 
should  be  ploughed  with  a  strong  turnwrest 
plough  with  six  horses,  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
deep  :  women  attend  to  lay  the  plants  about 
eight  or  nine  inches  apart  in  every  other  furrow, 
leaning  off  from  the  plough:  by  which,  every 
time  the  plough  returns,  the  row  of  plants  laid 
in  by  women  who  follow  the  plough  is  covered 
with  the  earth  of  the  furrow.  The  crop  must  be 
kept  perfectly  clean  by  the  hoe  and  hand  weed- 
ing during  the  summer  months,  and  earthed  up 
with  the  plough  each  autumn  until  the  third 
after  planting,  when  the  roots  are  dug  up  by 
trenching  the  land  two  feet  deep  ;  two  children 
attending  each  digger,  in  order  to  pick  out  the 
roots. 

The  most  proper  time  to  take  up  the  roots  is 
when  they  are  about  the  size  of  a  swan's  quill ; 
they  then  yield  most  dye,  and  are  of  course  most 
proper  for  use;  but  the  time  when  they  arrive 
at  this  proper  state  depends  not  only  on  the 
nature  of  the  soil  in  which  they  have  been 
planted,  but  also  on  the  good  husbandry  that  has 
been  bestowed  on  the  land. 

For  HOPS,  see  that  article. 

In  Vol.  II.  of  his  Annals,  Mr.  Young  informs 
us,  that  '  one  profit  of  hop  land  is  that  of  break- 
ing it  up.  Mr.  Potter  grubbed  up  one  garden, 
which  failing,  he  ploughed  and  sowed  barley, 
the  crop  great ;  then  mazagan  beans,  two  acres 
of  which  produced  sixteen  quarters  and  five 
bushels.  He  then  sowed  it  with  wheat,  which 
produced  thirteen  quarters  and  four  bushels  and 
a  half;  but  since  that  time  the  crops  have  not 
been  greater  than  common.  The  same  gentleman 
has  had  ten  quarters  of  oats  after  wheat.'  In  the 
ninth  volume  there  is  an  account  of  an  experi- 
ment by  Mr.  Le  Bland  of  Sittingbourne  in  Ke'H, 
of  grubbing  up  twelve  acres  of  hop  ground. 
Part  of  the  hops  were  grubbed  up  and  mazagan 
beans  sown  in  their  stead ;  but  the  seed  being 
bad,  and  the  summer  dry,  the  crop  turned  out 
very  indifferent.  Next  year  the  remainder  of  the 
hops  were  grubbed  up,  and  the  whole  twelve 
acres  sown  with  wheat;  but  still  the  crops 
turned  out  very  bad,  owing  to  the  wet  summer 
of  that  year.  It  was  next  planted  with  potatoes, 
which  turned  out  well ;  and  ever  since  that  tune 
the  crops  have  been  good.  This  gentleman  in- 
forms us  that  the  person  who  had  the  hop 
ground  above  mentioned  did  not  lose  less  by  it 
than  .t'1500. 

The  culture  of  hups  s  e  n>  to  be  confined  in  a 


140 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


great  measure  to  the  southern  counties  of  Eng- 
land ;  for  Mr.  Marshal  mentions  it  as  a  matter 
of  surprise  that  in  Norfolk  he  saw  a  '  tolerably 
large  hop  garden.'  The  proprietor  informed 
him  that  three  or  four  years  before  there  had 
been  ten  acres  of  hops  in  the  parish  (Blowfield), 
where  he  resided  ;  which  was  more  than  could 
be  collected  in  all  the  rest  of  the  county ;  but 
at  that  time  there  were  not  above  five  ;  and  the 
culture  was  daily  declining ;  as  the  crops,  owing 
to  the  low  price  of  the  commodity,  did  not  de- 
fray the  expense.  It  is  clear  enough  that  hops 
are  the  most  uncertain  and  precarious  crop  on 
which  the  husbandman  can  bestow  his  labor. 
Mr.  Young  is  of  opinion  that  some  improve- 
ment in  the  culture  is  necessary  ;  but  he  does 
not  mention  any,  excepting  that  of  planting  them 
in  espaliers,  a  method  long  since  recommended 
both  by  Mr.  Rogers  and  Mr.  Potter.  The  former 
took  the  hint  from  observing  that  a  plant  which 
had  been  blown  down,  and  afterwards  shot  out 
horizontally,  always  produced  a  greater  quantity 
than  those  wKich  grew  upright.  He  also  re- 
marks that  hops  which  are  late  picked  carry 
more  next  year  than  such  as  are  picked  early ; 
for  which  reason  he  recommends  the  late  pick- 
ing. The  only  reason  for  picking  early  is  that 
the  hops  appear  much  more  beautiful  than  the 
others. 

Of  the  cultivation  of  apples  and  pears. — In 
Herefordshire  and  Gloucestershire  the  cultivation 
of  fruit,  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  liquor  from 
the  juice,  forms  a  principal  part  of  their  hus- 
bandry. In  Devonshire  also  considerable  quan- 
tities of  this  kind  of  liquor  are  made,  though 
much  less  than  in  these  two  counties.  For  the 
cultivation,  curing,  and  management  of  fruit 
trees  in  general,  see  HORTICULTURE. 

The  fruits  cultivated  in  Herefordshire  and 
Gloucestershire  are  the  apple,  pear,  and  cherry. 
From  the  two  first  are  made  the  liquors  named 
cyder  and  perry.  See  CYDER  and  PERRY.  Mr. 
Marshal  remarks  that  nature  has  furnished  only 
one  species  of  pears  and  apples,  viz.  the  com- 
mon crab  of  the  woods  and  hedges,  and  the  wild 
pear,  which  is  also  pretty  common.  The  varie- 
ties of  these  fruits  are  entirely  artificial,  being 
produced  not  from  seed,  but  by  a  certain  mode 
of  culture ;  whence  it  is  the  business  of  those 
who  wish  to  improve  fruit  to  catch  at  superior 
accidental  varieties ;  and,  having  raised  them  by 
cultivation  to  the  highest  perfection  of  which 
they  are  capable,  to  keep  them  in  that  state  by 
artificial  propagation.  Mr.  Marshal,  however, 
observes  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  varieties 
of  fruit  altogether  permanent,  though  their  dura- 
tion depends  much  upon  management.  '  A  time 
arrives,  says  he,  '  when  they  can  no  longer  be 
propagated  with  success.  All  the  old  fruits 
which  raised  the  fame  of  the  liquors  of  this 
country  are  now  lost,  or  so  far  on  the  decline  as 
to  be  deemed  irrecoverable.  The  redstreak  is 
given  up;  the  celebrated  stir-apple  is  going  off; 
and  the  squash-pear,  which  has  probably  fur- 
nished this  country  with  more  champaign  than 
was  ever  imported  into  it,  can  no  longer  be  got 
to  flourish ;  the  stocks  canker,  and  are  unpro- 
ductive. In  Yorkshire  similar  circumstances 
have  tukrn  place;  several  old  fn  ':•;  which  were 


productive  within  my  own  recollection  are  lostj 
the  stocks  cankered,  and  the  trees  would  no  lon- 
ger come  to  bear.'  Our  author  controverts  the 
common  notion  among  orchard  men  that  the 
decline  of  the  old  fruits  is  owing  to  a  want  of 
fresh  grafts  from  abroad,  particularly  from  Nor- 
mandy, whence  it  is  supposed  that  apples  were 
originally  imported  into  this  country.  Mr.  Mar- 
shal, however,  thinks  that  these  original  kinds 
have  been  long  since  lost,  and  that  the  nume- 
rous varieties  of  which  we  are  now  possessed 
were  raised  from  seed  in  this  country.  At  Led- 
bury  he  was  shown  a  Normandy  apple-tree, 
which,  with  many  others  of  the  same  kind,  had 
been  imported  immediately  from  France.  He 
found  it,  however,  to  be  no  other  than  the  bitter- 
sweet, which  he  had  seen  growing  as  a  neglected 
wilding  in  an  English  hedge. 

The  process  of  raising  new  varieties  of  apples, 
Mr.  Marshal  says,  is  simple  and  easy.  '  Select 
among  the  native  species  individuals  of  the 
highest  flavor ;  sow  the  seeds  in  a  highly  enriched 
seed-bed.  When  new  varieties,  or  the  improve- 
ment of  old  ones,  are  the  objects,  it  may  be  eligi- 
ble to  use  a  frame  or  stove ;  but,  where  the  pre- 
servation of  the  ordinary  varieties  only  is  wanted, 
an  ordinary  loamy  soil  will  be  sufficient.  At 
any  rate,  it  ought  to  be  perfectly  clean  at  least 
from  root  weeds,  and  should  be  double  dug  from 
a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  deep.  The  surface 
being  levelled,  and  raked  fine,  the  seeds  ought  to 
be  scattered  on  about  an  inch  asunder,  and 
covered  about  half  an  inch  deep  with  some  of 
the  finest  mould  previously  raked  off  the  bed 
for  that  purpose.  During  summer  the  young 
plants  should  be  kept  perfectly  free  from  weeds, 
and  may  be  taken  up  for  transplantation  the  en- 
suing winter ;  or,  if  not  very  thick  in  the  seed 
bed,  they  may  remain  in  it  till  the  second  win- 
ter. The  nursery  ground  ought  also  to  be  en- 
riched, and  double  dug  to  the  depth  of  fourteen 
inches  at  least;  though  eighteen  or  twenty  are 
preferable.  The  seedling  plants  ought  to  be 
sorted  agreeably  to  the  strength  of  their  roots, 
that  they  may  rise  evenly  together,  the  top  or 
downward  roots  should  be  taken  off,  and  the 
longer  side  rootlets  shortened.  The  young  trees 
should  then  be  planted  in  rows  three  feet  asun- 
der, and  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  distant 
in  the  rows  ;  taking  care  not  to  cramp  the  roots 
but  to  lead  them  evenly  and  horizontally  among 
the  mould.  If  they  be  intended  merely  for 
stocks  to  be  grafted,  they  may  remain  in  this 
situation  until  they  are  large  enough  to  be  planted 
out ;  though,  in  strict  management,  they  ought 
to  be  re-transplanted  two  years  before  their  be- 
ing transferred  into  the  orchard,  '  in  fresh  but 
unmanured  double-dug  ground,  a  quincunx  four 
feet  apart  everyway.'  In  this  second  transplan- 
tation, as  well  as  in  the  first,  the  branches  of  the 
root  ought  not  to  be  left  too  long,  but  to  be 
shortened  in  such  a  manner  as  to  induce  them 
to  form  a  globular  root,  sufficiently  small  to  be 
removed  with  the  plant ;  yet  sufficiently  large  to 
.  give  it  firmness  and  vigor  in  the  plantation. 

Having  thus  proceeded  with  the  seed  bed,  our 
author  adds  the  following  directions  : — '  Select 
from  among  the  seedlings  the  plants  \\IIOM; 
wood  and  leaves  wear  the  most  apple-like  ap- 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


141 


pearance.  Transplant  these  into  a  rich  deep 
soil  in  a  genial  situation,  letting  them  remain  in 
this  nursery  until  they  begin  to  bear.  With  the 
seeds  of  the  fairest,  richest,  and  best  flavored  fruit, 
repeat  this  process ;  and  at  the  same  time,  or  in 
due  season,  engraft  the  wood  which  produced 
this  fruit  on  that  of  the  richest,  sweetest,  best 
flavored  apple ;  repeating  this  operation,  and 
transferring  the  subject  under  improvement  from 
one  tree  and  sort  to  another,  as  richness,  flavor, 
or  firmness  may  require;  continuing  this  double 
mode  of  improvement  until  the  desired  fruit  be 
obtained.  There  has,  no  doubt,  been  a  period 
when  the  improvement  of  the  apple  and  pear 
was  attended  to  in  this  country ;  and,  should  not 
the  same  spirit  of  improvement  revive,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  country  will,  in  a  course  of  years, 
be  left  destitute  of  valuable  kinds  of  these  two 
species  of  fruit ;  which,  though  they  may  in 
some  degree  be  deemed  objects  of  luxury,  long 
custom  seems  to  have  ranked  among  the  neces- 
saries of  life.'  , 

In  the  Bath  Papers,  Vol.  IV.,  JVIr.  Grimwood 
supposes  the  degeneracy  of  apples  to  be  rather 
imaginary  than  real.  He  says  that  the  evil 
complained  of  '  is  not  a  real  decline  in  the  qua- 
lity of  the  fruit,  but  in  the  tree ;  owing  either  to 
want  of  health,  the  season,  soil,  mode  of  plant- 
ing, or  the  stock  they  are  grafted  on  being  too 
often  raised  from  the  seed  of  apples  in  the  same 
place  or  county.  I  have  not  a  doubt  in  my 
own  mind,  but  that  the  trees  which  are  grafted 
on  the  stocks  raised  from  the  apple-pips  are 
more  tender  than  those  grafted  on  the  real  crab- 
stock  ;  and  the  seasons  in  this  country  have,  for 
many  years  past,  been  unfavorable  for  fruits, 
which  add  much  to  the  supposed  degeneracy  of 
the  apple.  It  is  my  opinion  that,  if  planters  of 
orchards  would  procure  the  trees  grafted  on  real 
crab-stocks  from  a  distant  country,  they  would 
find  their  account  in  so  doing  much  overbalance 
the  extra  expence  of  charge  and  carriage.'  In 
the  same  volume,  Mr.  Edmund  Gillingwater 
assigns  as  a  reason  for  the  degeneracy  of  apples 
the  mixture  of  various  farina,  from  the  orchards 
being  too  near  each  other.  In  consequence  of 
this  notion,  he  also  thinks  that  the  oldest  and 
best  kinds  of  apple-trees  are  not  lost,  but  only 
corrupted  from  being  planted  too  near  bad 
neighbours :  '  Remove  them,'  says  he,  '  to  a  situ- 
ation where  they  are  not  exposed  to  this  incon- 
venience, and  they  will  immediately  recover 
their  former  excellency,' 

With  regard  to  the  method  of  cultivating  fruit- 
trees,  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  that,  while  they 
remain  in  the  nursery,  the  intervals  betwixt  them 
may  be  occupied  by  such  kitchen-stuff  as  will 
not  crowd  or  overshadow  the  plants ;  keeping  the 
rows  in  the  mean  time  perfectly  free  from  weeds. 
In  pruning  them,  the  leader  should  be  particu- 
larly attended  to.  If  it  shoot  double,  the  weaker 
of  the  contending  branches  should  be  taken  off"; 
but  if  the  leader  be  lost,  and  not  easily  recover- 
able, the  plant  should  be  cut  down  to  within  a 
hand's  breadth  of  the  soil,  and  a  fresh  stem 
trained.  The  undermost  boughs  should  be  taken 
off  by  degrees,  going  over  the  plants  every  win- 
ter ;  but  taking  care  to  preserve  heads  of  suffi- 


cient magnitude  not  to  draw  the  stems  up  too 
tall,  which  would  make  them  feeble  in  the  lower 
part.  The  stems  in  Herefordshire  are  trained  to 
six  feet  high ;  but  our  author  prefers  seven,  or 
even  half  a  rood  in  height.  A  tall  stemmed  tree 
is  much  less  injurious  to  what  grows  below  it 
than  a  low  headed  one,  which  is  itself  in  danger 
of  being  hurt,  at  the  same  time  that  it  hurts  the 
crop  under  it.  The  thickness  of  the  stem  ought 
to  be  in  proportion  to  its  height ;  for  which  rea 
son  a  tall  stock  ought  to  remain  longer  in  the 
nursery  than  a  low  one.  The  usual  size  at  which 
they  are  planted  out  in  Herefordshire  is  from  four 
to  six  inches  girt  at  three  feet  high ;  which  size, 
with  proper  management,  they  will  reach  in 
seven  or  eight  years.  The  price  of  these  stocks 
in  Herefordshire  is  eighteen  pence  each. 

In  Herefordshire  it  is  common  to  have  the 
ground  of  the  orchards  in  tillage,  and  in  Glouces- 
tershire in  grass ;  which  Mr.  Marshal  supposes 
to  be  owing  to  the  difference  betwixt  the  soil  of 
the  two  counties;  that  of  Herefordshire  bein<( 
generally  arable,  and  Gloucester  grass  land. 
Trees,  however,  are  very  destructive  not  only  to 
a  crop  of  corn,  but  to  clover  and  turnips  ;  though 
tillage  is  favorable  to  fruit  trees  in  general,  espe- 
cially when  young.  In  grass  grounds  their  pro- 
gress is  comparatively  slow,  for  want  of  the  earth 
being  stirred  about  them,  and  by  being  injured 
by  the  cattle,  especially  when  low-headed  and 
drooping.  After  they  begin  to  bear,  cattle  ought 
by  all  means  to  be  kept  away  from  them,  as 
they  not  only  destroy  all  the  fruit  within  their 
reach,  but  the  fruit  itself  is  dangerous  to  the 
cattle,  being  apt  to  stick  in  their  throats  and 
choak  them.  These  inconveniences  may  be 
avoided  by  eating  the  fruit  grounds  bare  before 
the  gathering  season,  and  keeping  the  boughs  out 
of  the  way  of  the  cattle  ;  but  Marshal  is  of  opi- 
nion that  it  is  wrong  to  plant  orchards  in  grass 
land.  '  Let  them,'  says  he,  '  lay  their  old 
orchards  to  grass  ;•  and,  if  they  plant,  break  up 
their  young  orchards  to  arable.  This  will  be 
changing  the  course  of  husbandry,  and  be  at 
once  beneficial  to  the  land  and  to  the  trees.'  Our 
author  complains  very  much  of  the  indolent  and 
careless  method  in  which  the  Herefordshire  and 
Gloucestershire  farmers  manage  their  orchards. 

Blight  is  a  term,  as  applied  to  fruit  trees, 
which  Mr.  Marshal  thinks  is  not  understood, 
Two  bearing  years,  he  remarks,  seldom  come  to- 
gether ;  and  he  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  the  mere 
exhausting  of  the  trees  by  the  quantity  of  fruit 
which  they  have  carried  one  year  that  prevents 
them  from  bearing  any  the  next.  The  only  thing 
therefore  that  can  be  done  in  this  case  is  to  keep 
the  trees  in  as  healthy  and  vigorous  a  state  as 
possible.  Insects  destroy  not  only  the  blossoms 
and  leaves,  but  some  of  them  also  the  fruit, 
especially  pears.  Mr.  Marshal  advises  to  set  a 
price  upon  the  female  wasps  in  the  spring ;  by 
which  these  mischievous  insects  would  perhaps 
be  exterminated,  or  at  least  greatly  lessened. 

An  excess  of  fruit  stints  the  growth  of  young 
trees,  and  renders  all  in  general  barren  for  two 
or  three  years  ;  while  in  many  cases  the  branches 
are  broken  off  by  the  weight  of  the  fruit ;  and  in 
one  case  Mr.  Marshal  mentions  that  an  entire 


14-2 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


tree  had  sunk  under  its  burden.  To  prevent  as 
much  as  possible  the  bad  effects  of  an  excess  of 
fruit,  Mr.  Marshal  recommends  to  graft  in  the 
boughs,  and  when  fully  grown  to  thin  the  bearing 
branches  ;  thus  endeavouring,  like  the  gardener, 
to  grow  fruit  every  year. 

Though  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  the  effects 
of  old  age,  yet,  by  proper  management,  the 
natural  life  of  fruit-trees  may  be  considerably 
protracted.  The  most  eligible  method  is  to  graft 
stocks  of  the  native  crab  in  the  boughs.  The 
decline  of  the  tree  is  preceded  by  a  gradual  de- 
cline of  fruitfulness,  which  long  takes  place  be- 
fore  the  tree  manifests  any  sign  of  decay.  During 
this  decline  of  fruitfulness  there  is  a  certain 
period  when  the  produce  of  a  tree  will  no  longer 
pay  for  the  ground  it  occupies,  and  beyond  this 
period  it  ought  by  no  means  to  be  allowed  to 
stand.  In  the  Vale  of  Gloucester,  however,  our 
author  saw  an  instance  of  some  healthy  bearing 
apple  trees,  which  then  had  the  second  tops  to 
the  same  stems.  The  former  tops,  having  been 
worn  out,  were  cut  off,  and  the  stumps  saw- 
grafted.  Our  author  observes  that  the  pear-tree 
is  much  longer  lived  than  the  apple,  and  ought 
never  to  be  planted  in  the  same  ground.  He 
concludes  with  the  following  general  observation  : 
*  Thus,  considering  fruit-trees  as  a  crop  in  hus- 
bandry, the  general  management  appears  to  be 
this ;  plant  upon  a  recently  broken  up  worn  out 
sward.  Keep  the  soil  under  a  state  of  arable 
management,  until  the  trees  be  well  grown  ;  then 
lay  i*  down  to  grass,  and  let  it  remain  in  sward 
until  the  trees  be  removed,  and  their  roots  be 
decayed  ;  when  it  will  again  require  a  course  of 
arable  management.' 

Of  chei-ries  andflberts. — In  Kent  they  prefer 
for  this  fruit  a  situation  where  there  is  a  deep 
surface  of  loam  upon  the  rock.  But  by  some  it 
is  said  that  there  is  not  any  necessity  for  a  great 
depth  of  soil.  In  respect  to  distance  apart, 
cherry-trees  require  to  be  planted  according  to 
their  sorts  ;  a  heart  requiring  double  the  distance 
of  a  duke  or  mortllo.  But,  when  planted  by 
themselves,  they  are  generally  placed  from  twenty 
to  thirty  feet  distant,  and  are  put  somewhat 
deeper  in  the  earth  than  apples ;  but  in  other 
respects  the  management  is  the  same. 

Cherry  wine. — A  cooling  and  pleasant  drink 
is  made  from  the  juice  of  cherries  when  properly 
fermented.  For  making  this  liquor  the  cherries 
should  hang  upon  the  trees  till  they  are  thorough- 
ly ripe,  in  order  that  their  juices  may  be  better 
perfected  and  enriched  by  the  sun ;  and  they 
should  be  gathered  in  dry  weather.  The  juice 
is  then  pressed  out,  and  a  quantity  of  sugar  pro- 
portioned to  the  intended  strength  of  the  wine  is 
to  be  added,  and  the  whole  regularly  fermented. 
When  the  wine  is  become  fine  it  must  be  bottled 
for  use. 

Filberts  are  much  cultivated  in  some  parts  of 
Kent.  The  soil  best  adapted  for  them  is  the 
stone  shattery  sandy  loam  of  a  quality  somewhat 
inferior ;  as  it  is  a  disadvantage  for  the  trees  to 
grow  with  great  luxuriance,  they  bearing  most 
nuts  when  bat  moderately  strong.  If  they  are 
planted  among  hops,  without  apples  or  cherries, 
•hey  are  put  about  twelve  feet  apart ;  when  the 


hops  are  dug  up,  the  filberd  plantation  is  kept 
clean  by  repeated  dig^ug  and  hoeing  ;  and 
great  skill  is  necessary  in  pruning  to  make  them 
bear  well.  It  is  indeed  entirely  owing  to  skill 
and  management  in  this  operation  that  the  trees 
are  rendered  productive  upon  even  a  favorite 
soil.  These  trees  are  generally  trained  in  the 
shape  ot  a  punch  bowl,  and  never  suffered  to 
grow  above  five  or  six  feet  high,  with  short  stems, 
like  a  gooseberry  bush,  and  exceedingly  thin  of 
wood.  If  suffered  to  stand  till  ripe  this  fruit  will 
keep  good  for  several  years  in  a  dry  room  or 
closet ;  but  when  gathered  they  should  be  laid 
thin  on  the  floor  of  a  room  where  the  sun  can 
get  in  to  dry  them  properly. 

Of  raising  trees  for  timber  and  other  purposes. 
— The  importance  and  value  of  these  is  so  well 
known  that  it  is  almost  superfluous  to  say  any 
thing  on  that  subject :  notwithstanding  this  ac- 
knowledged value,  however,  the  growth  of  timber 
is  so  slow,  and  the  returns  for  planting  so  distant, 
that  it  is  generally  supposed  for  a  Ions  time  to 
be  a  positive  loss  or  at  least  to  be  attended  witli 
no  profit.  This  matter,  however,  when  properly 
"onsidered,  will  appear  in  another  light.  There 
are  four  distinct  species  of  woodlands,  viz.  woods, 
timber  groves,  coppices,  and  woody  waste*. 
The  woods  are  a  collection  of  timber  trees  and 
underwood  ;  and  the  coppices  are  collections  of 
underwood  alone.  All  these  turn  out  to  advan- 
tage sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  quick  or 
slow  growth  of  the  trees,  and  the  situation  of  the 
place  with  respect  to  certain  local  advantages. 
Thus  in  some  places  underwood  is  of  great  con- 
sequence, for  rails,  hoops,  stakes,  fuel,  &c. ;  and 
by  reason  of  its  growth  it  may  be  accounted  the 
most  profitable  of  all  plantations.  An  osier-bed 
will  yield  a  return  of  profit  the  second  or  third 
year,  and  a  coppice  in  fifteen  or  twenty  years ; 
while  a  plantation  of  oaks  will  not  arrive  at  per- 
fection in  less  than  a  century.  This  last  period 
is  so  long  that  it  may  be  supposed  likely  to  deter 
people  from  making  such  plantations  of  this  kind, 
as  few  are  willing  to  take  any  trouble  for  what 
they  are  never  to  see  in  perfection.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that,  though  the  trees 
themselves  do  not  come  to  perfection  in  a  shorter 
time,  the  value  of  the  ground  will  always  increase 
in  proportion  to  their  age.  Mr.  Pavier,  in  the 
Bath  Papers,  vol.  iv.,  compute.;  the  value  of 
fifty  acres  of  oak  timber  in  100  years  to  be 
£12,100,  which  is  nearly  fifty  shillings  annually 
per  acre;  and,  as  this  is  continually  accumulating 
without  any  of  that  expense  or  risk  to  which 
annual  crops  are  subject,  planting  of  timber  may 
be  accounted  one  of  the  most  profitable  articles 
in  husbandry.  Evelyn  calculates  the  profit  of 
1000  acres  of  oak  land  in  150  years,  at  no  less 
than  £670,000.  But  it  would  be  improper  to 
occupy  with  timber  of  such  slow  growth  the 
grounds  which,  either  in  grass  or  corn,  can  repay 
the  trouble  of  cultivation  with  a  good  annual  crop. 
In  the  Bath  papers,  vol.  iv.,  Mr.  Wagstaffc 
recommends  planting  as  an  auxiliary  to  cultiva- 
tion. He  brings  an.  instance  cf  the  success  of 
Sir  William  Jerringham,  who  made  trial  of  the 
most  unpromising  ground  perhaps  that  any 
successful  planter  has  hitherto  attempted.  His 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


143 


method  was  to  plant  beech  trees  at  proper  dis- 
tances among  Scotch  firs,  upon  otherwise  barren 
heaths.  '  These  trees,'  says  Mr.  Wagstaffe,  '  in 
a  soil  perhaps  without  clay  or  loam,  with  the 
heathy  sod  trenched  into  its  broken  strata  of 
sand  or  gravel,  under  the  protection  of  the  firs, 
have  laid  hold,  though  slowly,  of  the  soil ;  and, 
accelerated  by  the  superior  growth  of  the  firs, 
have  proportionally  risen,  until  they  wanted  an 
enlargement  of  space  for  growth  when  the  firs 
were  cut  down.'  He  adds  that,  when  the  firs 
are  felled,  their  roots  decay  in  the  ground ;  and 
hus  furnish  by  that  decay  a  new  support  to  the 
soil  on  which  the  beeches  grow ;  whereby  the 
latter  receive  an  additional  vigor,  as  well  as  an 
enlargement  of  space  and  freer  air;  the  firs 
themselves,  though  cut  down  before  they  arrived 
at  their  full  growth,  being  also  applicable  to 
many  valuable  purposes. 

In  the  Annals  of  Agriculture,  vol.  vi.,  we  find 
the  culture  of  trees  recommended  by  Mr.  Har- 
ries; and  he  informs  us  that  the  larch  is  the 
quickest  grower  and  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
resinous  timber  trees ;  but,  unless  there  be  pretty 
good  room  allowed  for  the  branches  to  stretch 
out  on  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk,  it  will  not 
arrive  at  any  consi'derable  size ;  and  this  obser- 
vation, he  says,  holds  good  of  all  pyramidal 
trees.  Scotch  firs  may  be  planted  between  them, 
and  pulled  out  after  they  begin  to  obstruct  the 
growth  of  the  larch.  Some  of  these  larches  he 
had  seen  planted  about  thirty  years  before, 
which,  at  five  feet  distance  from  the  ground, 
measured  from  four  feet  to  five  feet  six  inches  in 
circumference.  The  most  barren  grounds,  he 
says,  would  answer  for  these  trees,  but  better 
soil  is  required  for  the  oaks.  In  this  paper  he 
takes  notice  of  the  leaves  of  one  of  his  planta- 
tions of  oaks  having  been  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed by  insects ;  in  consequence  of  which 
they  did  not  increase  in  bulk  as  usual ;  but 
another,  which  had  nearly  escaped  these  ravages, 
increased  at  an  average  one  inch  in  circumfer- 
ence. '  A  tree  four  feet  round,'  says  he,  '  that 
has  timber  twenty  feet  in  length,  gains  by  this 
growth  a  solid  foot  of  timber  annually,  worth 
one  shilling  at  least,  and  pays  five  per  cent,  for 
standing.  It  increases  more  as  the  tree  gets 
from  five  to  six  feet  round.  I  have  in  my  groves 
3000  oaks  that  pay  me  one  shilling  each  per 
annum,  or  £150  a  year.  My  poplars  have 
gained  in  circumference  nearly  two  inches,  and 
a  Worcester  and  witch  elm  as  much.  I  have 
lately  been  informed  that  the  smooth  cut  of  a 
holly  tree,  that  measures  twenty  inches  and  up- 
wards round,  is  worth  to  the  cabinet  makers 
2s.  6d.  per  foot.' 

The  following  table  shows  the  increase  of  trees 
in  twenty-one  years  from  their  first  planting. 
It  was  taken  from  the  marquis  of  Lansdowne's 
plantation,  begun  in  1765,  and  the  calculation 
made  on  the  15th  of  July  1768.  It  is  about 
six  acres  in  extent,  the  soil  partly  a  swampy 
meadow  upon  a  gravelly  bottom.  The  measures 
were  taken  at  five  feet  above  the  ground ;  the 
small  firs  having  been  occasionally  drawn  for 
posts  and  rails,  as  well  as  rafters  for  cottages; 
and,  when  peeled  of  the  bark,  will  stand  well 
for  seven  years. 


Height  r.i 
Feet. 

Circumference  in 
Feet.      Inch. 

Lombardy  poplar 

60  to  80 

4 

8 

Arbeal 

50  to  70 

4 

6 

Plane 

50  to  60 

3 

6 

Acacia 

50  to  60 

2 

4 

Elm   . 

40  to  60 

3 

6 

Chestnut     . 

30  to  50 

2 

9 

Weymouth  pines 

30  to  50 

2 

5 

Cluster  ditto 

30  to  50 

2 

5 

Scotch  fir    . 

30  to  50 

2 

10 

Spruce  ditto 

30  to  50 

2 

2 

Larch 

50  to  60 

3 

10 

From  this  table  it  appears  that  planting  of 
timber  trees,  where  the  return  can  be  waited 
for  during  the  space  of  twenty  years,  will  un- 
doubtedly repay  the  original  profits  of  planting, 
as  well  as  the  interest  of  the  money  laid  out; 
which  is  the  better  worth  the  attention  of  a  pro- 
prietor of  land,  that  the  ground  on  which  they 
grow  may  be  supposed  good  for  very  little  else. 
From  a  comparative  table  of  the  growth  of  oak, 
ash,  and  elm  timber,  given  in  the  Annals  of 
Agriculture,  vol.  ii.,  it  appears  that  the  oak  is  by 
much  the  slowest  grower  of  the  three. 

With  respect  to  the  growth  of  underwood, 
which  in  some  cases  is  very  valuable,  it  is  to  be 
Remarked  that,  to  have  an  annual  fall  of  it,  the 
whole  quantity  of  ground,  whatever  its  extent 
may  be,  ought  to  be  divided  into  annual  sowings. 
The  exact  number  of  sowings  must  be  regulated 
by  the  uses  to  which  it  is  intended  to  be  put. 
Thus,  if,  as  in  Surrey,  stakes,  edders,  and  hoops 
are  saleable,  there  ought  to  be  eight  or  ten 
annual  sowings;  or  if,  as  in  Kent,  hop  poles  are 
demanded,  fourteen  or  fifteen  will  be  required  ; 
and  if,  as  in  Yorkshire,  rails  be  wanted,  or,  as 
in  Gloucestershire,  cordwood  be  most  marketa- 
ble, eighteen  or  t%venty  sowings  will  be  necessary 
to  produce  a  succession  of  annual  falls.  Thus 
the  business,  by  being  divided,  will  be  rendered 
less  burdensome;  a  certain  proportion  being 
every  year  to  be  done,  a  regular  set  of  hands 
will,  in  proper  season,  be  employed ;  and,  by 
beginning  upon  a  small  scale,  the  errors  of  the 
first  year  will  be  corrected  in  the  practice  of  the 
second,  and  those  of  the  second  in  that  of  the 
third.  The  produce  of  the  intervals  will  fall 
into  regular  course;  and,  when  the  whole  is 
completed,  the  falls  will  follow  each  other  in 
regular  succession.  The  greatest  objection  to 
this  method  of  sowing  woodlands  is  the  extra- 
ordinary trouble  in  fencing;  but  this  objection 
does  not  hold  if  the  sowings  lie  at  a  distance 
from  one  another;  on  the  contrary,  if  they  lie 
together,  or  in  plots,  the  entire  plot  may  be 
enclosed  at  once  ;  and,  if  it  contain  a  number  of 
sowings,  some  subdivisions  will  be  necessary, 
and  the  annual  sowing  of  these  subdivisions 
may  be  fenced  off  with  hurdles,  or  some  other 
temporary  contrivance ;  but,  if  the  adjoining 
land  be  kept  under  the  plough,  little  temporary 
fencing  will  be  necessary.  But,  in  raising  a 
woodland  from  seeds,  it  is  not  only  necessary  tc 
defend  the  young  plants  against  cattle  and  sheep 


144 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


but  against  hares  and  rabbits ;  so  that  a  close 
fence  of  some  kind  is  absolutely  necessary. 

With  regard  to  the  preparation  of  the  ground 
for  raising  timber,  if  the  soil  be  of  a  stiff  clayey 
nature,  it  should  receive  a  whole  year's  fallow  ; 
if  light,  a  crop  of  turnips  may  be  taken  ;  but  at 
all  events  it  must  be  made  perfectly  clean  before 
the  tree  seeds  be  sown,  particularly  from  peren- 
nial root  weeds ;  as,  after  the  seeds  are  sown, 
the  opportunity  of  performing  this  necessary 
business  is  in  a  great  measure  lost.  If  the  situa- 
tion be  moist,  the  soil  should  be  gathered  into 
wide  lands,  sufficiently  round  to  let  the  water 
run  off  'from  the  surface,  but  not  high.  The 
time  of  sowing  is  either  October  or  March  ;  and 
the  method  as  follows  : — 'The  land  being  in  fine 
order,  and  the  season  favorable,  the  whole  should 
be  sown  with  corn  or  pulse  adapted  to  the  season 
of  sowing;  if  in  autumn,  wheat  or  rye  may  be 
the  crop ;  but  if  in  spring,  beans  or  oats. 
Whichever  of  these  species  be  adopted,  the 
quantity  of  seed  ought  to  be  less  than  usual,  to 
give  a  free  admission  of  air,  and  prevent  the 
crop  from  lodging.  The  'sowing  of  the  grain 
being  completed,  that  of  the  tree  seeds  must  be 
immediately  set  about.  These  are  to  be  put 
in  drills  across  the  land  ;  acorns  and  nuts  should 
be  dibbled  in,  but  keys  and  berries  scattered  in 
trenches  or  drills  drawn  with  the  corner  of  a 
hoe,  as  gardeners  sow  their  pease.  The  distance 
mioht'be  a  quarter  of  a  statute  rod,  or  four  feet 
and  one  inch  and  a  half.  A  land  chain  should 
be  used  in  setting  out  the  drills,  as  not  being 
liable  to  be  lengthened  or  shortened  by  the 
weather.  It  is  readily  divided  into  roods  ;  and 
the  quarters  may  be  easily  marked.' 

The  species  of  underwood  to  be  sown  must 
be  determined  by  the  consumption  of  it  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Thus,  if  stakes,  hoops,  &c., 
be  in  request,  the  oak,  hazel,  and  ash,  are  es- 
teemed as  underwood.  Where  charcoal  is 
wanted  for  iron  forges,  beech  is  tbe  prevailing 
underwood.  The  oak,  box,  birch,  &c.,  are  all 
in  request  in  different  countries,  and  the  choice 
must  be  determined  by  the  prevailing  demand. 
As  the  keys  of  the  ash  sometimes  lie  two  or  even 
three  years  in  the  ground,  it  will  be  proper  to 
have  the  places  where  they  are  sown  distinguished 
by  some  particular  marks,  to  prevent  them  from 
being  disturbed  by  the  plough  after  harvest ;  as 
a  few  beans  may  be  scattered  along  with  them,  if 
the  crop  be  oats ;  or  oats  if  the  crop  be  beans. 
The  crop  should  be  reaped,  not  mown,  at  har- 
vest time,  and  be  carried  off  as  fast  as  possible. 
Between  harvest  and  winter  a  pair  of  furrows 
should  be  laid  back  to  back  in  the  middle  of 
each  interval,  for  meliorating  the  next  year's 
crop,  and  laying  the  seedling  plants  dry;  while 
the  stubble  of  thp  unploughed  ground  on  each 
side  of  the  drills  will  keep  them  warm  during 
the  winter.  The  next  year's  cro*p  may  be  pota- 
toes, cabbages,  turnips;  or,  if  the  first  was 
corn,  this  may  be  beans  ;  if  the  first  was  beans, 
this  may  be  wheat  drilled.  In  the  spring  of  the 
'  third  year  the  drills  which  rose  the  first  year 
must  be  looked  over,  and  the  vacancies  filled  up 
iiom  those  parts  which  are  thickest;  but  the 
drills  of  the  ash  should  be  let  alone  till  the 
fourth  year.  The  whole  should  afterwards  be 


looked  over  from  time  to  time  ;  and  this,  with 
cultivating  the  intervals,  and  keeping  the  drills 
free  from  weeds,  will  be  all  that  is  necessary 
until  the  tops  of  the  plants  begin  to  appear. 
The  crops  may  be  continued  for  several  years  ; 
and,  if  they  only  pay  for  the  expenses,  they  will 
still  be  of  considerable  advantage,  by  keeping 
the  ground  stirred,  and  preserving  the  plants 
from  hares  and  rabbits.  Even  after  the  crops 
are  discontinued,  the  ground  ought  still  to  be 
stirred,  alternately  throwing  the  mould  to  the 
roots  of  the  plants,  and  gathering  it  into  a  ridge 
in  the  middle  of  the  interval.  The  best  method 
of  doing  this  is  to  split  the  ground  at  the  ap- 
proach of  winter,  to  throw  it  up  to  the  trees  on 
both  sides;  this  will  preserve  the  roots  from 
frost ;  gather  it  again  in  the  spring,  which  will 
check  the  weeds,  and  give  a  fresh  supply  of  air; 
split  again  at  midsummer,  to  preserve  the  plants 
from  drought;  gather,  if  necessary,  in  autumn, 
and  split  as  before  at  the  approach  of  winter. 
The  spring  and  midsummer  ploughings  should 
be  continued  as  long  as  a  plough  can  pass  be- 
tween the  plants. 

Whenever  the  oaks  intended  for  timber  are  in 
danger  of  being  drawn  up  too  slender  for  their 
height,  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  off  all  the 
rest  at  the  height  of  about  a  hand-breadth  above 
the  ground  ;  and  those  designed  to  stand  must 
now  be  planted  at  about  two  rods  distant  from 
each  other,  and  as  nearly  a  quincunx  as  possible. 
The  second  cutting  must  be  determined  by  the 
demand  for  the  underwood ;  with  this  proviso, 
that  the  timber  stands  be  not  too  mucji  crowded 
by  it ;  for,  rather  than  this  should  be  the  case,  the 
coppice  should  be  cut,  though  the  wood  may  not 
have  reached  its  proper  profitable  state.  What 
is  here  said  of  the  method  of  rearing  oak  trees 
in  woods  is  in  a  great  measure  applicable  to 
that  of  raising  other  trees  in  timber  groves.  The 
species  most  usually  raised  in  these  are  the  ash, 
elm,  beech,  larch,  spruce  fir,  Weymouth  pine, 
poplar,  willow,  alder,  chestnut,  walnut,  and 
cherry.  The  three  last  are  used  as  substitutes 
for  the  oak  and  beech,  and  these  two  for  the 
mahogany. 

PART  V. 
OF  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  LIVE  STOCK. 

As  great  part  of  the  stock  of  a  husbandman 
must  always  consist  of  cattle,  and  one  of  his 
principal  expenses  is  in  the  maintenance  of 
them,  this  part  of  his  business  is  certainly  to  be 
looked  upon  as  important.  The  cattle  belonging 
to  a  farm  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  viz. 
such  as  are  intended  for  work,  and  such  as  are 
designed  for  sale.  The  former  are  now  princi- 
pally horses.  In  the  second  volume  of  Bath 
Papers,  we  have  an  account  of  a  comparative 
experiment  of  the  utility  of  horses  and  oxen  in 
husbandry,  by  Mr.  Kedington  of  Bury,  in  which 
the  preference  is  decisively  given  to  oxen.  He 
says  that  when  he  began  the  experiment,  in  1779, 
he  was  almost  certain  that  there  was  not  an  ox 
worked  in  the  whole  country  :  finding,  however, 
the  expense  of  horses  very  great,  he  purchased  a 
single  pair  of  oxen,  but  found  much  difficulty  in 
breaking  them,  as  the  workmen  were  so  much 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


145 


prejudiced  against  them,  that  they  would  not 
take  the  proper  pains.  At  last  he  met  with  a 
laborer  who  undertook  the  task ;  and  the  oxen 
'  soon  became  as  tractable  and  as  handy,  both  at 
ploughing  and  carting,  as  any  horses.'  On  this 
he  determined  to  part  with  all  his  cart  horses; 
and  when  he  wrote  his  letter  (1781)  he  had  not 
a  single  horse,  nor*  more  than  six  oxen;  which 
inconsiderable  number  performed,  with  ease,  all 
the  work  of  his  farm  (consisting  of  upwards  of 
luO  acres  of  arable  land  and  sixty  of  pasture 
uiid  wood),  besides  the  statute  duty  on  the  high- 
ways, timber  and  corn,  carting,  harrowing,  roll- 
ing, and  every  part  of  rural  business.  They 
are  constantly  shod ;  their  harness  is  the  same 
as  that  of  horses  (excepting  the  necessary 
alterations  for  difference  of  size  and  shape); 
they  are  driven  with  bridles  and  bits  in  their 
mouths,  answering  to  the  same  words  of  the 
ploughman  and  carter  as  horses  will  do.  A 
single  man  holds  the  plough,  and  drives  a  pair 
of  oxen  with  reins:  and  our  author  informs  us 
that  they  will  plough  an  acre  of  ground  in  less 
than  eight  hours,  or  even  in  seven.  The  inter- 
vals of  a  small  plantation,  in  which  the  trees 
are  set  in  rows  ten  feet  asunder,  are  ploughed 
by  a  single  ox  with  a  light  plough,  and  he  is 
driven  by  the  man  who  holds  it.  The  oxen  go 
in  a  cart  either  single,  or  one,  -two,  or  three, 
according  to  the  load.  Four  oxen  will  draw 
eighty  bushels  of  barley  or  oats  in  a  waggon 
with  ease  ;  and,  if  good  of  their  kind,  will  travel 
as  fast  as  horses  with  the  same  load.  One  ox 
will  draw  forty  bushels  in  a  light  cart,  which  our 
author  thinks  is  the  best  carriage  of  any.  On 
the  whole,  he  prefers  oxen  to  horses  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons: — 1.  They  are  kept  at  much  less 
expense,  never  eating  meal  or  torn  of  any  kind. 
In  winter  they  are  fed  with  straw,  turnips,  car- 
rots, or  cabbages :  or,  instead  of  the  three  last, 
they  have  each  a  peck  of  bran  per  day  while 
kept  constantly  at  work.  In  spring  they  eat 
hay  ;  and,  if  working  harder  than  usual  in  seed- 
time, they  have  also  bran.  When  the  vetches 
are  fit  for  mowing,  they  get  them  only  in  the 
stable.  After  the  day's  work  in  summer  they 
have  a  small  bundle  of  hay,  and  stand  in  the 
stable  till  they  cool ;  after  which  they  are  turned 
into  the  pasture.  Our  author  is  of  opinion  that 
an  ox  may  be  maintained  in  condition  for  the 
same  constant  work  as  a  horse  for  at  least  £4 
less  annually.  2.  After  a  horse  is  seven  years 
old,  his  value  declines  every  year ;  and  when 
lame,  blind,  or  very  old,  he  is  scarcely  worth 
any  thing :  but  an  ox  in  any  of  these  situations 
may  be  fatted,  and  sold  for  even  more  than  the 
first  purchase ;  and  will  always  be  fat  sooner 
after  work  than  before.  3.  Oxen  are  less  liable 
to  diseases  than  horses.  4.  Horses  are  often 
liable  to  be  spoiled  by  servants  riding  them 
without  their  master's  knowledge,  which  is  not 
the  case  with  oxen.  5.  A  general  use  of  oxen 
would  make  beef  plentiful,  and  consequently  all 
other  meat ;  which  would  be  a  national  benefit. 
Mr.  Marshal,  in  his  Rural  Economy  of  the 
Midland  Counties,  also  shows  the  advantage  of 
employing  oxen  in  preference  to  horses,  from  the 
mere  article  of  expense,  which,  according  to  his 
calculation,  is  enormous  on  ».he  part  rf  the  horses. 
VOL.  XIX. 


He  begins  with  estimating  the  number  of  square 
miles  in  England ;  and  this  he  supposes  to  be 
30,000  of  cultivated  ground.  Supposing  the 
work  of  husbandry  to  be  done  by  horses  only, 
and  each  square  mile  to  Employ  twenty  horses, 
which  is  about  three  to  100  acres,  the  whole 
number  used  throughout  Britain  would  be 
600,000 ;  from  which  deducting  one-sixth,  for  the 
number  of  oxen  now  employed,  the  number  will 
be  500,000.  Admitting  that  each  horse  works 
ten  years,  the  number  of  farm-horses  which  die 
annually  are  50,000  ;  each  of  which  requires  full 
four  years  keep  before  he  is  fit  for  work.  .Horses 
indeed  are  broken  in  at  three,  some  at  two  years 
old,  but  they  are,  or  ought  to  be,  indulged  in 
keep  and  work  till  they  are  six ;  so  that  the  cost 
of  rearing  and  keeping  may  be  laid  at  full  four 
ordinary  years.  For  all  this  consumption  of 
vegetable  produce  he  returns  the  community  not 
a  single  article  of  food,  clothing,  or  commerce  ; 
even  his  skin,'  for  economical  purposes,  being 
barely  worth  the  taking  off.  By  working  horses 
in  husbandry,  therefore,  '  the  community  is  losing 
annually  the  amount  of  200,000  years  keep  of  a 
growing  horse ;  which,  at  the  low  estimate  of  £5 
a-year,  amounts  to  a  million  annually.  On  the 
contrary,  supposing  the  business  of  husbandry  to 
be  done  solely  by  cattle,  and  admitting  that  oxen 
may  be  fatted  with  the  same  expenditure  of  ve- 
getable produce  as  that  which  old  horses  require 
to  fit  them  for  full  work,  and  that^  instead  of 
50,000  horses  dying,  50,000  oxen,  of  only  fifty- 
two  stone  each,  are  annually  slaughtered  ;  it  is 
evident  that  a  quantity  of  beef  nearly  equal  to 
what  the  city  of  London  consumes  would  be  an- 
nually brought  into  the  market ;  or  100,000 
additional  inhabitants  might  be  supplied  with 
one  pound  of  animal  food  a-day  each,  without 
consuming  one  additional  blade  of  grass.'  'Oxen,' 
adds  Mr.  Marshal,  '  appear  to  be  perfectly 
handy,  and  work,  either  at  plough  or  cart,  in  a 
manner  which  shows  that  although  horses  may 
be  in  some  cases  convenient,  and  in  most  cases 
pleasurable  to  the  driver,  they  are  by  no  means 
necessary  to  husbandry.  A  convenience  used  in 
this  country  is  a  moveable  harness-house,  with  a 
sledge  bottom,  which  is  drawn  from  place  to 
place  as  occasion  may  require.  Thus  no  labor  is 
lost  either  by  the  oxen  or  their  drivers.  In 
Yorkshire  oxen  are  still  used,  though  in  fewer 
numbers  than  formerly.  The  Yorkshire  plough 
was  formerly  of  such  an  unwieldy  construction 
that  four  or  six  oxen,  in  yokes,  led  by  two 
horses,  were  absolutely  requisite  to  draw  it ;  but 
the  improvements  in  the  construction  of  the 
plough  have  of  late  been  so  great  that  two  bones 
are  now  sufficient  for  the  purpose ;  so  that,  as 
Yorkshire  has  always  been  famous  for  its  breed 
of  horses,  we  are  not  to  wonder  at  the  present 
disuse  of  oxen.'  For  these  and  other  reasons, 
the  employment  of  oxen  at  all  is  to  Mr.  Marshal  a 
convincing  argument  of  their  utility  as  beasts  of 
draught.  The  timber  carriers  still  continue  to  us« 
them,  even  though  their  employment  be  solely 
upon  the  road.  They  find  them  not  only  able  to 
stand  working  every  day,  but  to  bear  long  hours 
better  than  horses  going  in  the  same  pasture.  An 
ox  in  a  good  pasture  soon  fills  his  belly,  and  lies 
down  to  rest;  but  a  horse  can  scarcely  satisfy 

L 


146 


R  U  II  A  L     E  0  O  N  (.)   M  V. 


his  hunger  in  a  short  summer's  night.  Oxen  are 
also  much  superior  at  a  difficult  pull  to  horses. 
Horses  of  draught  cost,  at  four  years  old,  from 
£•20  to  £30 ;  they  will,  with  extravagant  keep, 
extraordinary  care  and  attendance,  and  much 
good  luck,  continue  to  labor  eight  or  ten  years, 
and  may  then  generally  be  sold  for  5s.  a-head. 
if  we  had  no  other  species  of  animals  adapted  to 
the  purposes  of  draught  in  the  island,  cart-horses 
would  be  very  valuable.  But  it  is  evident  that, 
were  only  a  small  share  of  the  attention  paid  to 
the  breeding  of  draught  oxen  which  is  now 
bestowed  on  the  breeding  of  cart-horses,  animals 
equally  powerful,  more  active,  less  costly,  equally 
adapted  to  the  purposes  of  husbandry  if  harnessed 
with  equal  judgment,  less  expensive  in  keep  and 
attendance,  much  more  durable,  and  infinitely 
more  valuable  after 'they  have  finished  their 
labors,  might  be  produced.  A  steer,  like  a  colt, 
ought  to  be  familiarised  to  harness  at  two  or 
three  years  old,  but  should  never  be  subjected  to 
hard  labor  until  he  be  five  years  old  ;  from  which 
age,  until  he  be  fifteeu  or  twenty,  he  may  be 
considered  as  in  his  prime  as  a  beast  of  draught. 
'An  ox,'  says  Mr.  Marshal,  'which  I  worked 
several  years  in  Surrey,  might,  at  seventeen  or 
eighteen  years  of  age,  have  challenged,  for 
strength,  agility,  and  sagacity,  the  best  bred  cart- 
horse in  the  kingdom.' 

Of  horses,  and  the  methods  of  breeding,  rearing, 
and  feeding  them. — The  midland  counties  of 
England  have  for  some  time  been  celebrated  on 
account  of  their  breed  of  the  black  cart-horse  ; 
though  Mr.  Marshal  is  of  opinion  that  this  kind 
are  unprofitable  as  beasts  of  draught  in  husban- 
dry. The  present  improvement  in  the  breed  took 
its  rise  from  six  Zealand  mares  sent  over  by  the 
late  lord  Chesterfield  during  his  embassy  at  the 
Hague.  These  mares  being  lodged  at  his  lord- 
ship's seal  at  Bretby  in  Derbyshire,  the  breed  of 
horses  thus  became  improved  in  that  county,  and 
for  some  time  it  took  the  lead  for  the  species  of 
these  animals.  As  the  improved  breed  passed 
into  Leicestershire,  however,  through  some  un- 
known circumstances,  it  became  still  more  im- 
proved ;  and  Leicester  has  for  some  time  taken 
the  lead.  It  is  now  found,  however,  that  the 
very  large  horses  formerly  bred  in  this  district 
are  much  less  useful  than  such  as  are  of  a  smaller 
size.  Mr.  Marshal  describes  in  lofty  terms  one 
of  these  large  horses,  a  stallion  belonging  to  Mr. 
Bakewell,  which,  he  says,  was  the  handsomest 
horse  he  ever  saw.  '  He  was,'  says  he,  '  the 
fancied  war-horse  of  the  German  painters ;  who, 
in  the  luxuriance  of  imagination,  never  perhaps 
excelled  the  natural  grandeur  of  this  horse.  A 
man  of  moderate  size  seemed  to  shrink  behind 
his  fore  end,  which  rose  so  perfectly  upright, 
that  his  ears  stood  (as  Mr.  Bakewell  says  every 
horse's  ears  ought  to  stand)  perpendicularly 
over  his  fore  feet.  It  may  be  said,  with  little 
latitude,  that  in  grandeur  and  symmetry  of  form, 
viewed  as  a  picturable  object,  he  exceeded  as  far 
the  horse  which  this  superior  breeder  had  the 
honor  of  showing  to  his  majesty,  and  which  was 
afterwards  shown  publicly  at  London,  as  that 
horse  does  the  meanest  of  the  breed.'  A  more  useful 
horse,  l>m!  aUo  by  Mr.  Bakewell,  however,  is 
described  as  having  '  a  thick  carra-e,  his  back 


short  and  straight,  and  his  legs  short  and  clean  : 
as  strong  as  an  ox,  yet  active  as  a  poney  ;  equally 
suitable  for  a  cart  or  a  lighter  carnage.' 

The  stallions  in  this  country  are  bred  either  by 
farmers  or  by  persons  whose  business  it  is  to 
breed  them,  and  who  therefore  have  the  name  of 
breeders.  See  EQUUS  and  HORSE.  These  last 
either  cover  with  them,  or  let  them  out  to  others 
for  the  season,  or  sell  them.  The  prices  given 
for  them  are  from  fifty  to  200  guineas  by  pur- 
chase; from  forty  to  eighty  or  100  by  the  season  ; 
or  from  half  a  guinea  to  two  guineas  by  the  mare. 
Mr.  Marshal  owns  that  this  breed  of  horses  are  a 
profitable  species  of  live  stock,  and,  as  far  as 
there  is  a  market  for  six-years-old-horses  of  this 
breed,  it  is  profitable  to  agriculture.  '  But,'  says 
he,  '  viewing  agriculture  in  general,  not  one  oc- 
cupier in  ten  can  partake  of  the  profit ;  and,  being 
kept  in  agriculture  after  they  have  reached  that 
profitable  age,  they  become  indisputably  one  of 
its  heaviest  burdens.  Even  the  brood  mare, 
after  they  have  passed  that  age,  may,  unless  they 
be  of  a  very  superior  quality,  be  deemed  un- 
profitable to  the  farmer.' 

.Mr.  Marshal  complains  that  the  ancient  breed 
of  Norfolk  horses  is  almost  entirely  worn  out. 
They  were  small,  brown  muzzled, and  light  boned, 
but  they  could  endure  very  heavy  work,  with  little 
food  :  two  of  them  were  quite  equal  to  the  plough 
in  the  soil  of  that  county,  which  is  not  deep.  The 
present  breed  is  produced  by  a  cross  with  a  large 
one  of  Lincolnshire  and  Leicestershire  already 
mentioned.  He  approves  of  the  Suffolk  breed, 
which,  he  says,  are  a  '  half-horse,  half-hog  race 
of  animals,  but  better  adapted  to  the  Norfolk 
husbandry  than  the  Leicestershire  breed  ;'  their 
principal  fault,  in  his  opinion,  is  a  flatness  of  the 
rib.  In  the  Vale  of  Gloucester  most  farmers 
rear  their  own  plough  horses.  They  are  of  a  very 
useful  kind,  the  color  mostly  black,  inclinable  to 
tan  color,  short  and  thick  in  the  barrel,  and  low 
on  their  legs.  The  price  of  a  six-year-old  horse 
from  £2*5  to  £35.  Some  cart  horses  are  bred  in 
Cotswold  hills ;  the  mares  are  worked  till  the 
time  of  foaling,  but  not  while  they  suckle  ;  and 
the  foals  are  weaned  early,  while  there  is  plenty 
of  grain  upon  the  ground.  Yorkshire,  which  has 
been  long  celebrated  for  its  breed  of  horses,  still 
stands  foremost  in  that  respect  among  the  Kni;- 
lish  counties.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
breed  of  saddle  horses,  which  cannot  be  reared  in 
Norfolk,  though  many  attempts  have  been  made 
for  that  purpose.  Yorkshire  stallions  are  often 
sent  into  Norfolk;  but,  though  the  foals  may  I -.,- 
handsome  when  young,  they  lose  their  beautv 
when  old.  In  Yorkshire,  on  the  other  hand, 
though  the  foal  be  everso  unpromising,  it  acquire-; 
beauty,  strength,  and  activity  as  it  grows  up. 
Mr.  Marshal  supposes  that  from  5000  to  10,OOO 
horses  are  annually  bred  up  between  the  eastern 
Morelands  and  the  Humber.  In  the  breeding  of 
horses  he  complains  greatly  of  the  negligence  of 
the  Yorkshire  people,  the  mares  beini:  almost 
totally  neglected  ;  though  in  the  brute  creation 
almost  every  tiling  depends  upon  the  female. 
With  regard  to  the  general  maintenance  of  In 
our  author  recommends  the  Norfolk  manage- 
ment of  horses  as  the  cheapest  method  of  feeding 
them  practised  an>  where.  In  winter,  when  little 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


147 


work  is  to  be  done,  their  only  rack-meat  is  bar- 
ley-straw ;  a  reserve  of  clover-hay  being  usually 
made  against  the  hurry  of  seed-time.  A  bushel 
of  corn  in  the  most  busy  season  is  computed  to 
be  an  ample  allowance  for  each  horse,  and  in 
more  leisure  times  a  much  less  quantity  suffices. 
Oats  and  sometimes  barley,  when  the  latter  is 
cheap  and  unsaleable,  are  given  ;  but  in  this  case 
the  barley  is  generally  malted,  i.  e.  steeped  and 
afterwards  spread  abroad  for  a  few  days,  until  it 
begin  to  vegetate,  when  it  is  given  to  the  horses, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  less  heating  than  in  its 
natural  state.  Chaff  is  universally  mixed  with 
hoise  corn;  the  great  quantities  of  corn  grown 
in  this  country  afford  in  general  a  sufficiency  of 
natural  chaff;  the  chaff,  or  rather  the  awns  of 
barley,  which  in  some  places  are  thrown  as  use- 
less to  the  dunghill,  are  here  in  good  esteem  as 
provender.  This  method  of  keeping  horses, 
which  Mr.  Marshal  approves  of  in  the  Norfolk 
farmers,  is  practised,  and  probably  has  been  so 
from  time  immemorial,  in  many  places  of  the 
north  of  Scotland  ;  and  is  found  abundantly  suf- 
ficient to  enable  them  to  go  through  the  labor 
required.  In  summer  they  are  in  Norfolk  kept 
out  all  night,  generally  in  clover  leys ;  and  in 
summer  their  keep  is  generally  clover  only,  a  few 
tares  excepted. 

In  the  Annals  of  Agriculture,  vol.  iv.,  Mr. 
Young  gives  an  account  of  the  expenses  of 
keeping  horses ;  which,  notwithstanding  the  vast 
numbers  kept  in  the  island,  seem  still  to  be 
very  indeterminate,  as  the  informations  he  re- 
ceived varied  no  less  than  on  his  own  farm  of 
the  expense  of  horses  kept  from  £8  to  £25  a 
year.  From  accounts  kept  for  no  other  pur- 
pose than  that  of  agriculture  he  stated  the 
average  of  the  whole  at  £ll  12$.  3d.  On  the 
discordant  accounts  he  received,  Mr.  Young  ob- 
serves that  many  of  the  extra  expenses  depend 
on  the  extravagance  of  the  servants  ;  while  some 
of  the  apparent  savings  depend  either  on  their 
carelessness,  or  stealing  provender  from  their 
beasts  privately.  He  concludes,  however,  that '  the 
more  exactly  the  expense  of  horses  is  examined 
into,  the  more  advantageous  will  the  use  of  oxen 
be  found.'  Every  day's  experience  convinces  me 
more  and  more  of  this.  If  horses  kept  for  use 
alone,  and  not  for  show,  have  proved  thus  ex- 
pensive to  me,  what  must  be  the  expense  to 
those  farmers  who  make  their  fat  sleek  teams  an 
object  of  vanity  ?  It  is  easier  conceived  than 
calculated.' 

Notwithstanding  all  these  strong  arguments, 
urged  by  Mr.  Young,  Mr.  Henry  Harper,  an 
eminent  Lancashire  farmer,  in  a  comparative 
view  of  the  expense  of  the  purchase  and  keep  of 
three  horses  and  three  oxen  for  one  year,  makes 
a  balance  of  £44  Os.  6d.  in  favor  of  horses.  But 
in  the  calculation  he  states  49s.  per  week,  or 
£127  8s.  a  year,  for  gain  by  his  horse  team. 

The  Suffolk  punch  is  a  very  useful  animal  for 
labor,  according  to  Culley.  '  Their  color  is 
mostly  yellowish  or  sorrel,  with  a  white  ratch  or 
blaze  on  their  faces;  the  head  large,  ears  wide, 
muzzle  coarse,  fore-end  low,  back  long  but  very 
straight,  sides  flat,  shoulders  too  far  forward, 
hind  quarters  middling  but  rather  high  about  the 
laps,  lei;s  round  and  short  in  the  pasterns,  deep- 


bellied  and  full  in  the  flank.  Here,  perhaps, 
lies  much  of  the  merit  of  these  horses ;  for  we 
know,  from  observation  and  experience,  that  all 
deep-bellied  horses  carry  their  food  long,  and 
consequently  are  enabled  to  stand  longer  and 
harder  days'  works.  However,  certain  it  is  that 
these  horses  do  perform  surprising  days'  works. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  Suffolk  and  Norfolk 
farmers  plough  more  land  in  a  day  than  any  other 
people  in  the  island  ;  and  these  are  the  kind  of 
horses  every  where  used  in  those  districts.' — Cul- 
ley on  Live  Stock,  p.  27. 

Another  horse  in  high  repute  for  labor  with 
the  farmers  in  Scotland,  and  the  north  of  Eng- 
land, is  the  Clydesdale:  it  is  probably  equal, 
says  Mr.  Cleghorn,  to  any  other  breed  in  Britain 

Of  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  cattle. — These 
are  reared  for  two  different  purposes,  viz.  for 
work,  and  for  slaughter.  For  the  former  purpose 
Mr  Marshal  remarks  that  it  is  necessary  to  pro- 
cure a  breed  without  horns.  This  he  thinks 
would  be  no  disadvantage,  as  horn,  though  for 
merly  an  article  of  some  request,  is  now  of  very 
little  value.  The  horns  are  useless  to  cattle  in 
their  domestic  state,  though  nature  has  bestowed 
them  upon  them  as  weapons  of  defence  in  their 
wild  state ;  and  our  author  is  of  opinion  that  it 
would  be  quite  practicable  to  produce  a  hornless 
breed  of  black  cattle  as  well  as  of  sheep,  which 
last  has  been  done  by  attention  and  persever- 
ance; and  there  are  now  many  hornless  breeds 
of  sheep  in  Britain.  Nay,  he  insists  that  there 
are  already  three  or  four  breeds  of  hornless  cattle 
in  the  island ;  and  that  there  are  many  kinds  of 
which  numbers  of  individuals  are  hornless,  and 
from  these,  by  proper  care  and  attention  a  breed 
might  be  formed.  The  first. step  is  to  select  fe- 
males ;  and,  having  observed  their  imperfections, 
to  endeavour  to  correct  them  by  a  well  chosen 
male. 

The  other  properties  of  a  perfect  breed  of 
black  cattle  for  the  purposes  of  the  dairy  as  well 
as  others,  according  to  Mr.  Marshal,  are  as  fol- 
lows : — 1.  The  head  small  and  clean,  to  lessen 
the  quantity  of  offal.  2.  The  neck  thin  and 
clean,  to  lighten  the  fore  end  as  well  as  to  lessen 
the  collar  and  make  it  sit  close  and  easy  to  the 
animal  in  work.  3.  The  carcase  large,  the  chest 
deep,  and  the  bosom  broad,  with  the  ribs  stand- 
ing out  full  from  the  spine ;  to  give  strength  of 
frame  and  constitution,  and  to  admit  of  the  in- 
testines being  lodged  within  the  ribs.  4.  The 
shoulders  should  be  light  of  bone,  and  rounded 
off  at  the  lower  point,  that  the  collar  may  be 
easy,  but  broad  to  give  strength ;  and  well  co- 
vered with  flesh  for  the  greater  ease  of  draught, 
as  well  as  to  furnish  a  desired  point  in  fatting 
cattle.  5.  The  back  ought  to  be  wide  and  level 
throughout ;  the  quarters  long ;  the  thighs  thin, 
and  standing  narrow  at  the  round  bone ;  the  ud- 
der large  when  full,  but  thin  and  loose  when 
empty,  to  hold  the  greater  quantity  of  milk;  with 
large  dug  veins  to  fill  it,  and  long  elastic  teats  for 
drawing  it  off  with  greater  ease.  6.  The  legs, 
below  the  knee  and  hock,  straight,  and  of  a 
middle  length  ;  their  bones,  in  general,  light  and 
clean  from  fleshiness,  but  with  the  joints  and 
sinews  of  a  moderate  size,  for  the  purposes  of 
strength  and  activity.  7.  The  flesh  ought  to  be 

!.  1 


.148 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


mellow  in  the  state  of  fleshiness,  ami  firm  in  the 
state  of  fatness.  8.  The  hide  mellow  and  of  a 
middle  thickness. 

As  the  milk  of  cows  is  an  article  of  great  im- 
portance, it  is  an  object  to  the  husbandman,  if 
possible,  to  prevent  the  waste  of  that  useful  fluid 
which  in  the  common  way  of  rearing  calves  is 
unavoidable.  A  method  of  bringing  up  these 
young  animals  at  less  expense  is  proposed  by  the 
duke  of  Northumberland.  His  plan  is  to  make 
skimmed  milk  answer  the  purpose  of  that  which 
is  newly  drawn  from  the  teat ;  and  which,  he 
supposes,  might  answer  the  purpose  at  one-third 
of  the  expense  of  new  milk.  The  articles  to  be 
added  to  the  skimmed  milk  are  treacle  and  the 
common  linseed  oil  cake,  ground  very  fine,  and 
almost  to  an  impalpable  powder  :  the  quantities 
of  each  being  so  small  that  to  make  thirty-two 
gallons  would  cost  only  sixpence,  besides  the 
skimmed  milk.  It  mixes  very  readily,  and  al- 
most intimately,  with  the  milk,  making  it  more 
rich  and  mucilaginous,  without  giving  it  any 
disagreeable  taste.  The  recipe  for  making  it  is 
as  follows : — Take  one  gallon  of  skimmed  milk, 
and  to  about  a  pint  of  it  add  half  an  ounce  of 
treacle,  stirring  it  until  it  is  well  mixed;  then 
take  one  ounce  of  linseed  oil  cake  finely  pulver- 
ised, and  with  the  hand  let  it  fall  gradually  in 
very  small  quantities  into  the  milk,  stirring  it  in 
the  mean  time  with  a  spoon  or  ladle  until  it  be 
;horoughly  incorporated;  then  let  the  mixture 
be  put  into  the  other  part  of  the  milk,  and 
the  whole  be  made  nearly  as  warm  as  new  milk 
when  it  is  first  taken  from  the  cow,  and  in  that 
state  it  is  fit  for  use.  The  quantity  of  the 
oil-cake  powder  may  be  increased  as  occasion 
requires,  and  as  the  calf  becomes  inured  to  its 
flavor. 

On  this  subject  Mr.  Young  remarks  that,  in 
rearing  calves,  there  are  two  objects  of  great  im- 
portance. 1.  To  bring  them  up  without  any 
milk  at  all ;  and,  2.  To  make  skimmed  milk 
answer  the  purpose  of  such  as  is  newly  milked 
or  sucked  from  the  cow.  In  consequence  of 
premiums  offered  by  the  London  Society,  many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  accomplish  these 
desirable  purposes ;  and  Mr.  Budel,  of  Wanbo- 
rough  in  Surrey,  was  rewarded  for  an  account  of 
his  method.  This  was  to  give  the  calves  a  gruel 
made  of  ground  barley  and  oats.  But  Mr. 
Young,  who  tried  this  method  with  two  calves, 
assures  us  that  both  of  them  died.  When  in 
Ireland  he  had  an  opportunity  of  purchasing 
calves  at  three  days  old  from  Is.  8d.  to  3s.  each  ; 
by  which  he  was  led  to  repeat  the  experiment 
many  times  over.  This  he  did  in  different  ways, 
having  collected  various  recipes.  In  consequence 
of  these  he  tried  hay  tea,  bean  meal  mixed  with 
wheat  flow,  barley  and  oats  ground  nearly  but 
not  exactly  in  Mr.  Budel's  method ;  but  the 
principal  one  was  flax  seed  boiled  into  a  jelly, 
and  mixed  with  warm  water :  this  being  recom- 
mended more  than  all  the  rest.  The  result  of  all 
these  trials  was  that,  out  of  thirty  calves,  only 
three  or  four  were  reared  ;  these  few  were 
brought  up  with  barley  and  oatmeal,  and  a  very 
small  quantity  of  flax  seed  jelly  :  one  only  ex- 
cepted,  which  at  the  desire  of  his  coachman  was 
brought  up  on  a  mixture  of  two-thirds  of 


skimmed  milk  and  one-third  of  water,  with  a 
smalt  addition  of  flax  seed  jelly  well  dissolved. 
The  second  object,  namely,  that  of  improving 
skimmed  milk,  accord-ing  to  the  plan  of  the  duke 
of  Northumberland,  seems  to  be  the  more 
practicable  of  the  two.  Mr.  Young  informs-  us 
that  it  has  answered  well  with  him  for  two  sea- 
sons ;  and  two  farmers  to  whom  he  communicat- 
ed it  gave  likewise  a  favorable  report. 

In  vol.  iii.  of  the  same  work  we  are  informed 
that  the  Cornwall  farmers  use  the  following  me- 
thod in  rearing  their  calves: — 'They  are  taken 
from  the  cow  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  da\  ; 
after  which  they  have  raw  milk  from  six  to  u-n 
or  fourteen  days.  After  this  they  feed  them 
with  scalded  skimmed  milk  and  gruel  made  of 
shelled  oats,  from  three  quarts  to  four  being  given 
in  the  morning,  and  the  same  in  the  evening. 
The  common  family  broth  is  thought  to  be  better 
than  the  gruel.  The  proportion  of  gruel  or 
broth  is  about  one-third  of  the  milk  given 
themr  A  little  fine  hay  is  set  before  them,  which 
they  soon  begin  to  eat.' 

In  vol.  v.  of  Bath  Papers,  we  have  an  account 
by  Mr.  Crook  of  a  remarkably  successful  expe- 
riment in  rearing  calves  without  milk  at  all. 
This  gentleman,  in  1787,  weaned  seventeen 
calves;  in  1788,  twenty-three;  and  in  1789 
fifteen.  In  1787  he  bought  three  sacks  of  lin- 
seed, value  £2  5s.  which  lasted  the  whole  three 
years.  One  quart  of  it  was  put  to  six  quarts  of 
water ;  which,  by  boiling  ten  minutes,  was  rt- 
duced  to  a  jelly  ;  the  calves  were  fed  with  this 
mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  tea  made  by 
steeping  the  best  hay  in  boiling  water.  By  the 
use  of  this  food  three  times  a  day,  he  says  that 
his  calves  throve  better  than  those  of  his  neigh- 
bours which  were  reared  with  milk. — These  un- 
natural kinds  of  food,  however,  are  In  many 
cases  apt  to  produce  a  looseness,  which  in  the  eml 
proves  fatal  to  the  calves.  In  Cornwall  fhey  re- 
medy this  sometimes  by  giving  acorns  as  an 
astringent ;  sometimes  by  a  cordial  of  which 
opium  is  the  basis.  In  Norfolk  the  calves  are 
reared  with  milk  and  turnips ;  sometimes  with 
oats  and  bran  mixed  among  the  latter.  Winter 
calves  are  allowed  more  milk  than  summer  ones; 
but  they  are  universally  allowed  new  milk,  or 
even  to  suck. 

According  to  Parkinson  there  seem  to  be  two 
distinct  kinds  of  Welsh  cattle.  'The  large  sort 
are  of  a  brown  color,  with  some  white  on  the  rump 
and  shoulders,denoting  a  cross  from  the  long  horns, 
though  in  shape  not  the  least  resembling  them. 
They  are  long  in  the  legs,  stand  high  according 
to  their  weight,  are  thin  in  the  thigh,  and  rather 
narrow  in  the  chine  ;  their  horns  are  white  and 
turned  upwards;  they  are  light  in  flesh,  and, 
next  to  the  Devons,  well  formed  for  the  yoke; 
have  very  good  hoofs,  and  walk  light  and  nimble. 
The  other  sort  is  much  more  valuable;  color 
black,  with  very  little  white ;  of  a  good  useful 
form,  short  in  the  leg,  with  round  deep  bodies  ; 
the  hide  is  rather  riiin,  with  short  hair ;  they  have 
a  likely  look  and  a  good  eye ;  and  the  bones, 
though  not  very  small,  are  neither  large  nor 
clumsy ;  and  the  cows  are  considered  good 
milkers.'  (Parkinson  on  Live  Stock,  vol.  i.  p 
135). 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


149 


Aldrrney  cattle  are  much  prized  in  England 
for  the  sake  of  their  milk,  which  is  rich,  and  not 
always  small  in  quantity.  The  race  is  consider- 
ed by  competent  judges  as  too  delicate  and  ten- 
der to  be  propagated  to  any  extent  in  Britain. 
Their  color  is  mostly  yellow,  light  red,  or  dark 
dun,  with  white  or  mottled  faces;  they  have 
short  horns,  are  small  in  size,  and  often  ill  shap- 
ed ;  yet  are  they  fine  in  bone ;  and  their  beef, 
though  high  colored,  is  welf  flavored.  Mr. 
Culley  says  he  has  seen  some  very  useful 
cattle  bred  from  a  cross  between  an  Alderney 
cow  and  a  short  horned  bull.  See  Bos. 

'  Whatever  be  the  breed,'  says  Mr.  Culley,  '  I 
presume  that,  to  arrive  at  excellence,  there  is 
one  form  or  shape  essential  to  all,  which  form  I 
shall  attempt  to  give  in  the  following  description 
of  a  bull. 

'  The  head  of  the  bull  should  be  rather  long, 
and  muzzle  fine;  his  eyes  lively  and  prominent; 
his  ears  long  and  thin ;  his  horns  white ;  his 
neck  rising  with  a  gentle  curve  from  the  shoulders, 
and  small  and  fine  where  it  joins  the  head ;  his 
shoulders  moderately  broad  at  the  top,  joining 
full  to  his  chine  and  chest  backwards,  and  to  the 
neck-vane  forwards ;  his  bosom  open ;  breast 
broad,  and  projecting  well  before  his  legs ;  his 
arms  or  fore  thighs  muscular,  and  tapering  to 
his  knee  ;  his  legs  straight,  clean,  and  very  fine 
boned  ;  his  chine  and  chest  so  full  as  to  leave 
no  hollow  behind  the  shoulders ;  the  plates 
strong  to  keep  his  belly  from  sinking  below  the 
level  of  his  breast;  his  back  or  loin  broad, 
straight,  and  flat ;  his  ribs  rising  above  one  another, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  last  rib  shall  be  rather 
the  highest,  leaving  only  a  small  space  to  the 
hips  or  hooks,  the  whole  forming  a  round  or  bar- 
rel-like carcase  ;  his  hips  should  be  wide  placed, 
round  or  globular,  and  a  little  higher  than  the 
back ;  the  quarters  (from  the  hip  to  the  rump) 
long,  and,  instead  of  being  square,  as  recom- 
mended by  some,  they  should  taper  gradually 
from  the  hips  backward,  and  the  turls  or  pott- 
bones  not  in  the  least  protuberant ;  rumps  close 
to  the  tail  ;  the  tail  broad,  well  haired,  and 
set  on  so  high  as  to  be  in  the  same  horizontal 
line  with  his  back.'  (Culley  on  Live  Stock, 
p.  38.) 

Oftkfep. — According  to  Culley  there  are  four- 
teen different  breeds  of  sheep  in  Great  Britain, 
a"l  of  them  readily  distinguishable  by  their  horns, 
or  by  being  hornless,  by  the  color  of  their  faces 
and  legs,  and  by  the  length  and  quality  of  their 
wool.  Parkinson  (on  Live  Stock,  vol.  i.  p.  249) 
enumerates  no  fewer  than  thirty-seven  breeds. 
'  Perhaps,'  says  the  article  Agriculture,  Supple- 
ment to  Encyclopaedia  Britannica, '  the  most  eli- 
gible mode  of  classification  would  be,  to  consi- 
der separately  those  races  which  are  best  adapt- 
ed to  enclosed  arable  land ;  those  which  occupy 
green  hills,  downs,  and  other  tracts  of  moderate 
elevation ;  and,  finally,  such  as  inhabit  the  higher 
hills,  and  mountains.  On  the  first  description  of 
land  every  sort  of  practicable  improvement  may 
be  effected,  though  there  the  carcase  has  hitherto 
been  the  chief  object ;  on  the  second,  the  carcase 
is  smaller  but  the  wool  generally  finer, — and  it 
is  probably  with  such  sheep  that  the  greatest 
improvements  ought  to  be  attempted  on  the 


fleece  ;  and,  on  the  last  division,  the  breeds  are 
necessarily  small  and  hardy,  and,  in  regard  to 
form  and  general  properties,  still  almost  in  a 
state  of  nature.  The  improvement  of  sheep 
must  mainly  depend  on  the  circumstances  of 
every  district,  in  regard  to  the  food  and  shelter 
it  affords  them  ;  and  it  is  only  where  these  in- 
dispensable requisites  are  abundantly  provided 
by  nature,  or  by  human  industry,  that  the  most 
skilful  management  can  be  successful. 

Culley  gives,  as  in  the  case  of  cattle,  his  iJeaof 
the  best  general  form  of  the  male  : — '  His  head,' 
he  says,  of  the  ram,  '  should  be  fine  and  small, 
his  nostrils  wide  and  expanded,  his  eyes  pro- 
minent, and  rather  bold  or  daring,  ears  thin,  his 
collar  full  from  his  breast  and  shoulders,  but  ta- 
pering gradually  all  the  way  to  where  the  neck 
and  head  join,  which  should  be  very  fine  and 
graceful,  being  perfectly  free  from  any  coarse 
leather  hanging  down  ;  the  shoulders  broad  and 
full,  which  must  at  the  same  time  join  so  easy  to 
the  collar  forward,  and  chine  backward,  as  to 
leave  not  the  least  hollow  in  either  place ;  the 
mutton  upon  his  arm,  or  fore-thigh,  must  come 
quite  to  the  knee  ;  his  legs  upright,  with  a  clean 
fine  bone,  being  equally  clear  from  superfluous 
skin  and  coarse  hairy  wool  from  the  knee  and 
hough  downwards ;  the  breast  broad  and  well 
forward,  which  will  keep  his  fore-legs  at  a  pro- 
per wideness  ;  his  girth  or  chest  full  and  deep, 
and,  instead  of  a  hollow  behind  the  shoulders, 
that  part  by  some  called  the  fore-flank  should  be 
quite  full;  the  back  and  loins  broad,  flat,  and 
straight,  from  which  the  ribs  must  rise  with  a 
fine  circular  arch  ;  his  belly  straight,  the  quarters 
long  and  full,  with  the  mutton  quite  down  to  the 
hough,  which  should  neither  stand  in  nor  out; 
his  twist  deep,  wide,  and  full,  which,  with  the 
broad  breast,  will  keep  his  four  legs  open  and 
upright;  the  whole  body  covered  with  a  thin 
pelt,  and  that  with  fine,  bright,  soft  wool.  The 
nearer  any  breed  of  sheep  comes  up  to  the  above 
description,  the  nearer  they  approach  towards 
excellence  of  form.' 

This  kind  of  stock  is  highly  advantageous  to 
the  farmer  in  various  points  of  view  :  as  supply- 
ing food  and  clothing,  and  as  a  means  of  im- 
proving the  farm.  See  Ovis,  SHEEP,  and  WOOL. 
The  sheep  of  different  counties  excel  in  these 
different  properties,  and  in  some  parts  they  have 
been  much  improved  by  crossing  the  breeds. 
Kent,  in  his  Survey  of  Norfolk,  observes,  that 
there  ought  always  to  be  some  affinity  or  simili- 
tude between  the  animals  which  are  crossed.  It 
is,  says  he,  a  manifest  incongruity  to  match  a 
Norfolk  and  a  Leicester  sheep ;  or  a  Norfolk 
and  a  South  Down ;  or  any  long-woolled  sheep 
with  a  short -woolled ;  but  a  Leicestershire  sheep 
may  be  matched,  with  some  degree  of  propriety 
witli  a  Cottswold  ;  and  a  South  Down  sheep  with 
a  Berkshire  or  a  Herefordshire  Ryland. 

In  the  Survey  of  Staffordshire  Mr.  Pitt  says, 
the  Wiltshires  crossed  by  a  heavy  ram  have  pro- 
duced sheep,  at  little  more  than  two  years  old, 
of  forty  pounds  per  quarter,  and  which  have 
been  sold  to  the  butcher  at  £3  10s.  each.  The 
Dorsetshire  breed,  which  are  well  made  and 
compact,  have  often  answered  well,  and  are,  in 
the  opinion  of  some  experienced  farmers,  equal 


150 


RURAL    E  C  O  N  O  M  Y. 


to  any  other  breed.  The  fact  is,  that  any  breed 
of  sheep,  if  sound  and  healthy,  may  be  enlarged 
and  improved  by  good  keeping,  and  by  crossing 
with  rams  selected  with  attention. 

The  best  sheep  for  fine  wool  are  said  to  be 
those  bred  in  Herefordshire  and  Worcestershire ; 
but  they  are  small  and  black  faced,  and  conse- 
quently bear  but  a  small  quantity.  Warwick, 
Leicester,  Buckingham,  and  Northamptonshire, 
breed  a  large-boned  sheep,  of  the  best  shape, 
and  deepest  wool.  The  marshes  of  Lincolnshire 
also  breed  a  very  large  kind  of  sheep,  but  their 
wool  is  not  good.  The  northern  counties  in 
general  breed  sheep  with  long,  but  hairy  wool ; 
and  Wales  breeds  a  small  hardy  kind  of  sheep, 
which  has  the  best  tasted  flesh,  but  the  worst 
wool  of  all.  The  farmer,  according  to  some 
writers,  should  always  buy  his  sheep  from  a 
worse  land  than  his  own,  and  they  should  be 
big-boned,  and  have  long  greasy  wool  curling 
close  and  well.  These  sheep  always  breed  the 
finest  wool,  and  are  also  the  most  approved  of 
by  the  butcher. 

E'itt,  in  his  Survey  of  Staffordshire,  tells  us,  in 
that  populous  manufacturing  county  the  consi- 
derable demand  for  lamb,  as  well  as  mutton,  in- 
duced a  great  proportion  of  farmers  to  keep  none 
other  than  an  annual  stock  of  sheep,  consisting 
of  ewes  bought  in  at  Michaelmas  from  Cannock 
Heath,  Sutton  Coldfield,  the  common  of  Shrop- 
shire, and  sometimes  even  from  Gloucestershire, 
Wiltshire,  and  Dorsetshire.  These  ewes  being 
immediately  put  to  a  ram,  the  lambs  in  spring 
are  suckled  till  they  are  fit  for  the  butcher  ;  they 
are  then  sold,  and  the  ewes  kept  in  good  pasture, 
fatted  and  sold  after  them,  and  the  whole  stock 
generally  cleared  off  within  the  year:  the  lambs 
and  wool  generally  pay  the  original  purchase  of 
the  ewe,  and  sometimes  more ;  and  the  price  of 
the  fat  ewe  remains  for  keeping  and  profit.  He 
observes  that  the  rams  of  Mr.  Fowler,  a  celebrated 
breeder  of  this  kind  of  stock,  are  stout,  broad- 
backed,  wide  on  the  rump,  and  well  made,  with 
fine  wool  to  the  very  breech  ;  the  largest  of  them 
would,  he  believes,  fatten  to  more  than  thirty 
pounds  the  quarter  ;  and  the  smallest  would  be 
considerably  above  twenty  pounds.  Great  at- 
tention has  been  paid  for  several  years  past  to 
improving  this  breed  both  in  wool  and  carcasses. 
But  Mr.  Fowler  himself  thinks  the  breed  is  now 
pushed  rather  too  far  in  bulk  and  weight,  for  the 
pasturage  of  the  common,  or  even  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood, unless  they  are  driven  into  better 
land  for  fatting.  But  he  is  clearly  of  opinion 
that  pushing  or  increasing  the  size  or  bulk  of 
sheep  by  improving  their  pasturage,  or  removing 
i  Item  to  a  better  pasture,  does  not  at  all  tend  to 
injure  the  staple,  or  degenerate  the  fineness  of 
clothing  wool,  provided  due  attention  be  paid  to 
selecting  the  tinest-woolled  rams.  The  Leices- 
tershire breeds,  he  says,  are  of  two  kinds,  the 
old  and  the  new.  The  old  Leicesters  are  large, 
thick,  heavy  sheep,  with  long  combing  wool ;  the. 
new  Leicester  breed  is  a  refinement  upon  the 
old,  by  crossing  with  a  finer-boned  and  a  finer- 
woolled  ram.  These  are  now  established  in 
various  parts  of  Staffordshire,  and  increasing  in 
oilier  places.  The  old  Leicester  breeds  are  cross- 
ing with  the  new,  which  bids  fair  to  produce  a 


very  good  breed  ;  there  being  many  instances 
in  which  the  old  breed  were  become  too  coarse, 
and  the  new  too  fine.  The  stock  of  Mr.  Dyott, 
of  Freeford  near  Litchfield,  a  gentleman  who  has 
attended  much  to  this  subject,  is  closely  bred 
from  the  new  Leicester  breed,  by  rams  for  many 
years  procured  from  the  best  breeds.  His  farm- 
ing is  to  the  extent  of  800  acres  or  more;  and 
the  main  object  sheep.  His  stock  of  breeding 
ewes  is  2(30,  and* he  never  sells  a  lamb,  which 
upon  the  avenxyje  rearing  is  about  300.  lie  in- 
formed our  author  that  his  annual  sales  from 
sheep  and  wool  amounted  upon  an  average  to 
£650,  that  his  sheer  hogs  or  yearling  wethers 
generally  go  to  the  butcher  at  two  guineas  each  ; 
and  the  culls  of  this  age  make  35s.  each  ;  and 
by  keeping  to  February  he  has  sometimes  sold 
them  at  50s.  each,  under  two  years  old.  He  has 
several  times  killed  sheep  kept  to  a  greater  age, 
that  have  weighed  forty  pounds  per  quarter. 

Mr.  Pitt  says  that  there  are  some  other  flocks, 
such  as  those  of  lord  Bagot's  tenants,  and  parti- 
cularly some  lately  belonging  to  Mr.  Harvev, 
his  lordship's  steward,  that  deserve  attention. 
This  breed  is  gaining  ground  fast,  and  is  sup- 
posed by  many  to  be  the  best  pasture  sheep-flock 
in  the  kingdom.  The  superiority  consists  in  this, 
that  the  pastures  may  be  stocked  much  harder 
with  these  than  any  other  stock  of  equal  weight : 
as  they  are  always  fat,  even  when  suckling 
lambs.  The  ewes,  full  grown,  will  weigh  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds  per  quarter  ; 
wethers  at  two  years  old  about  the  same  ;  but 
when  kept  another  year  they  rise  to  thirty 
pounds  per  quarter.  The  fleeces  weigh  from 
seven  to  ten  pounds.  These  sheep  he  describes 
to  be  fine  and  light  in  the  bone  ;  thick  and 
plump  in  the  carcase ;  broad  across  the  loin, 
with  the  back  bone  not  rising  into  a  ridge,  but 
sinking  in  a  nick,  and  a  double  chine  of  mutton 
rising  on  either  side  ;  fine  and  clean  in  the  neck 
and  shoulder ;  not  too  short  in  the  leg ;  and  of 
a  sufficient  bulk  in  the  carcase  to  rise  to  the 
weight  above-mentioned. 

In  Norfolk,  those  who  keep  ewe  flocks,  Mr. 
Kent  observes,  find  them  answer  extremely  well ; 
for,  besides  the  fleece  and  manure,  the  average 
price  of  the  lambs  is  12s.  Those  who  buy  the 
wether  lambs  with  a  view  of  bringing  them  up  for 
fatting  stock,  after  keeping  them  eighteen  or 
nineteen  months,  generally  sell  them  at  an  ave- 
rage of  30s.,  which  is  a  very  handsome  profit. 

Mr.  Boys  informs  us  that  the  management  of 
sheep  in  the  different  parts  of  Kent  is  as  fol- 
lows : — In  the  eastern  part  the  flock  farmers  buy 
in  lambs  at  Romney  fair  the  20th  August,  at  from 
12s.  to  14s.  each  ;  and  when  they  have  kept  them 
two  yeacs  they  either  sell  them  lean  to  the  fatting 
grazier,  or  fatten  them  themselves  on  turnips  and 
pea  or  bean  straw.  Oats,  and  cullings  of  garden 
beans,  are  sometimes  given  to  finish  them  in  tho 
spring.  When  these  two  yearling  sheep  are  sold 
in  autumn  to  the  graziers,  the  price  is  from  2  l.v. 
to  28s.  each  ;  and  when  made  fat  they  product- 
from  34s.  to  42s.  according  to  their  size  and  fat- 
ness. Hut  these  prices  have  lately  considerabl) 
advanced.  The  few  sheep  bred  in  the  marshes 
are  of  the  same  sort,  except  some  small  parcels 
of  Dorsetshire  and  South  Down  cwos.  But  al> 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


151 


most  the  whole  of  the  sheep  kept  on  the  upland 
farms  of  East  Kent  are  the  true  Romney  marsh 
bi  oed ;  whose  carcases  and  bones  being  large, 
and  wool  long  and  heavy,  they  require  rich  land 
and  good  keep  to  make  them  fat.  Mr.  Boys 
keeps  no  other  than  South  Down  sheep,  and  has 
every  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  them  :  his  flock 
is  about  1000,  400  of  which  are  breeding  ewes. 

In  the  isle  of  Sheppey  the  sheep  are  of  the 
Romney  marsh  sort,  true  Rents.  The  soil  being 
much  inferior  to  Romney  marsh,  the  sheep  are 
somewhat  smaller ;  and,  from  the  same  cause, 
their  wool  is  lighter  and  finer.  The  wethers  are 
fattened  at  three  years  old,  then  weighing  from 
twenty  to  twenty-four  pounds  per  quarter.  The 
sheep  mostly  kept  in  the  district  of  West  Kent 
are  the  South  Down  sort,  bought  in  wether 
lambs  at  the  autumnal  fairs  on  the  Downs,  Oc- 
tober 2nd.  The  usual  practice  with  the  lambs 
in  the  Romney  marshes  is  that  of  sending  them, 
about  the  beginning  of  September,  to  be  kept  by 
the  neighbouring  upland -or  hill  farmers  during 
the  winter.  They  go  in  separate  lots,  being  re- 
ceived at  certain  appointed  places  by  the  far- 
mers, and  driven  to  the  houses  or  taken  to  the 
farms  by  their  servants.  They  are  then  com- 
monly put  upon  the  stubbles  or  grattons,  as  they 
are  called ;  but  in  some  cases  they  have  also 
pastures  to  run  upon,  though  too  little  attention 
is,  in  general,  paid  to  the  changing  of  them ;  by 
which  they  suffer  much,  and  are  ofbn  greatly  in- 
jured, especially  such  as  are  weakly  and  deli- 
cate. It  is  found  that  there  is  a  prodigious 
benefit  in  keeping  the  lambs  in  winter,  in  such 
situations,  in  having  the  grounds  dry  and  warm, 
instead  of  being  of  a  cold,  wet,  clayey  nature. 
Lambs  should  by  no  means  be  stocked  along 
with  the  ewes,  as  the  old  sheep  will  constantly 
take  the  feed,  and  stench  the  land,  by  which  the 
lambs  may  be  greatly  hurt.  They  should  always 
be  stocked  separately,  and  the  pastures  be  fre- 
quently changed,  circumstances  which  are  little 
regarded  here.  Some  think  that  lambs  do  not 
thrive  well  on  being  put  to  grass,  after  having 
been  fed  on  luxuriant  food,  such  as  turnips,  old 
tares,  rye-grass,  &c.  The  price  of  the  keeping 
of  lambs  in  these  cases  is  very  different ;  some 
paying  only  3s.  6d.  the  lamb,  while  others  pay 
5s. ;  and  where  no  neat  stock  are  kept  they  charge 
as  high  as  from  6s.  to  6s.  6d.  the  head,  for  the 
space  of  about  six  months.  This  is  but  a  late 
advance;  however  it  makes  the  price  of  keep 
a  serious  object.  The  loss  of  lambs  in  this  sys- 
tem of  winter  management  is  occasionally  con- 
siderable, but  depends  much  on  the  nature  of 
the  season,  as  to  mildness  or  severity,  amounting 
in  some  cases  to  four  or  more  in  TOO. 

The  tegs,  or  one-year  old  lambs,  in  this  system 
are  brought  from  the  uplands,  where  they  have 
been  wintered  too  often  in  a  low  state  of  con- 
dition, for  the  supply  of  the  marsh  graziers, 
which  enables  them  to  keep  more  ewes  and  fat- 
tening sheep  on  the  marsh  lands.  This  is  done 
about  the  beginning  of  April,  when  the  upland 
farmers  are  indulged  with  a  feast  or  treat  at  the 
expense  of  the  graziers,  as  a  recompense  for  their 
care  and  attention  to  the  lambs,  in  which  libe- 
rality has  a  great  effect.  As  the  flocks  reach  the 
marsh,  they  are  put  into  the  poorest  pastures,  at 
'he  rate  ot  five  to  the  acre,  their  old  sheep  being 


just  sold  to  make  room  for  them.  Tlu.se  are 
commonly  the  best  conditioned  tegs,  in  which 
there  may  sometimes  be  loss  from  the  sudden 
transition  from  poor  to  too  good  keep,  though 
they  are  not,  in  general,  so  subject  to  some  sorts 
of  disease  as  the  old  ones,  on  such  changes  being 
made  in  their  food.  The  marsh  sheep-graziers 
have  lately  been  much  in  the  practice  of  prevail- 
ing on  the  farmers  to  keep  such  flocks  a  fort- 
night, or  even  douhle  that  time,  on  turnips, 
which  has  the  advantage  of  enabling  them  to 
double  the  stock  on  the  same  pastures  during 
the  summer;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  evi- 
dent that,  when  they  are  so  hard  stocked  early  in 
the  spring,  they  can  neither  have  so  luxuriant  a 
growth  nor  be  so  full  of  grass.  The  pastures 
are  likewise  eased  gradually,  as  the  fat  ewes  or 
wethers  are  taken  off,  and  their  places  supplied 
by  the  wether-tegs,  while  the  ewe-tegs  are  suf- 
fered to  remain  on  their  original  pastures  until 
they  are  selected,  or  set  for  going  to  the  rams. 
The  wether  tegs  in  the  autumn  are  removed  to 
the  fatting,  and  the  ewe-tegs  to  the  breeding 
grounds,  among  the  two  and  three  yearling  ewes. 
The  wethers  remain  till  July  or  August  following, 
when,  as  they  become  fat,  they  are  drawn  out 
and  sold  to  the  butchers  at  the  marsh  markets, 
or  sent  to  Smithfield.  The  two-yearling  wethers, 
when  fat,  at  this  season  weigh  from  twenty  to 
twenty-eight  pounds  per  quarter ;  and  some  of 
the  largest  and  best  fed  a  few  pounds  more.  The 
old  ewes,  there  called  barrens,  are  put  to  fattening 
as  soon  as  their  milk  is  dried  after  the  third 
lamb,  which  is  at  the  age  of  four  years,  on  some 
of  the  best  lands  ;  where  they  are  placed,  from 
two  to  three  per  acre,  for  the  winter.  These,  in 
favorable  winters,  are  sometimes  made  fat,  and 
sold  in  the  spring.  The  practice  of  fattening 
sheep  on  turnips,  assisted  by  oil  cake,  corn,  hay, 
saintfoin,  &c.,  is  greatly  in  use  among  the  upland 
farmers  of  this  county ;  not  so  much  for  the 
profit  by  feeding  with  those  articles,  as  for  the 
great  improvement  of  the  soil  where  the  turnips 
are  fed  off.  The  manure  from  sheep  fed  on  oil 
cake  and  turnips  is  reckoned  very  enriching  to 
the  land.  A  great  number  of  fold  flocks  of  lean 
sheep  are  kept  by  the  farmers  in  the  east  part  of 
the  county,  of  from  eight  to  twenty  score.  These 
are  each  attended  by  a  shepherd,  who  removes 
the  fold  every  morning  to  fresh  ground,  at  six 
o'clock  in  summer,  and  at  break  of  day  in  win- 
ter :  the  flock  is  then  driven  away  to  the  most 
inferior  keep  at  the  first  part  of  the  morning,  and 
is  returned  into  the  fold  for  two  or  three  hours 
in  the  middle  of  the  day,  while  the  shepherd 
goes  to  dinner ;  in  the  afternoon  it  is  gradually 
led  to  the  best  keep  in  the  farm,  that  the  sheep 
may  return  full  fed  to  the  fold  in  the  evening. 
Great  caution  is  necessary  in  feeding  sheep  on 
clover  in  summer,  and  on  turnips  in  the  first  part 
of  winter. 

Mr.  Robertson  has  insetted  the  following  ac- 
count of  feeding  ewes  with  early  lambs  in  his 
Survey  of  Mid  Lothian,  as  stated  by  an  accurate 
observer.  The  number  in  all  was  sixty  ;  fed  off 
in  four  weeks  the  expense  was  £12.  Thus  each 
lamb  cost  4s.  The  expense  of  twenty  fed  five 
weeks  was  £5  12s.  6d.,  or  5s.  7%d.  each  lamb  : — 
'  Feeding  on  grass  takes  six  weeks  to  feed  off. 
The  average  rent  of  good  grass  may  be  £2  pe* 


152 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


acre,  which  will  feed  off  four  ewes  with  lambs. 
He  considers  six  weeks  from  the  middle  of  April, 
the  usual  time  of  laying  on,  to  be  full  one-half 
of  the  value  of  the  grass  for  that  season  ;  hence 
the  lambs  cost  5s.  each  in  that  time.  In  turnip 
feeding  sheep,  by  flaking  them  on  the  field, 
twenty  sheep  eat  an  acre  in  fourteen  weeks.  If 
they  be  led  off  to  a  grass  field,  ten  score  will 
tathe  or  dung  an  acre  in  seven  days,  worth  £2 
lOs.  As  to  feeding  in  the  house,  he  finds  the 
dung  worth  the  trouble  of  carting,  and  the  value 
of  the  straw  it  takes  for  litter,  lie  finds  also  the 
lambs  fed  on  grains  not  only  sooner  ready,  but 
more  white  and  firm  in  the  flesh  ;  the  ewes  are 
also  in  better  condition.  He  likewise  found  that, 
at  times,  to  mix  a  little  salt  among  the  grains 
was  of  great  service ;  but  it  was  necessary  to 
avoid,  above  all  things,  giving  them  grains  when 
sour,  or  old  kept;  and  of  importance  also  to  feed 
them  regularly,  and  to  give  them  fresh  clean 
litter  every  day.'  A  sheep  will  consume  about 
twenty  pounds  of  turnips  in  twenty-four  hours, 
if  it  he  allowed  as  many  as  it  can  eat,  which 
should  always  be  allowed  to  fat  sheep ;  but,  as 
sheep  vary  in  size,  so  they  will  consume  more  or 
less  food. 

The  Teeswater  breed  of  sheep  is  said  to  be  the 
largest  in  Great  Britain ;  is  at  present  the  most 
prevalent  in  the  fine  fertile  lands  on  the  banks  of 
the  Tees  in  Yorkshire  ;  and  supposed  to  be  from 
the  same  stock  as  those  of  the  Lincolns.  It  is  a 
breed  only  calculated  for  warm  rich  pastures, 
where  they  are  kept  in  small  lots  enclosed,  and 
well  supported  with  food  in  severe  winters.  The 
produce  in  mutton  is  large,  but,  from  their  re- 
quiring so  much  longer  time  and  richer  keep,  and 
being  admitted  in  so  much  smaller  proportions 
on  the  acre,  they  are  not,  upon  the  whole,  so  pro- 
fitable, perliaps,  as  the  smaller  more  quick-feed- 
ing breeds.  In  the  ewes  there  is,  however, 
according  to  Culley,  a  property  which  is  of  much 
consequence,  which  is,  that  in  general  they  are 
very  prolific,  bringing  two  and  frequently  three 
lambs,  and  in  some  cases  a  greater  number  each. 
Hegiresthe  following  description  of  the  breed  : — 
The  legs  are  longer,  finer  boned,  and  support  a 
thicker  and  more  firm  and  heavy  carcase  than 
the  Lincolnshires  ;  the  sheep  are  much  wider  on 
the  backs  and  sides,  and  a  fatter  and  finer-grained 
mutton.  The  weight  per  quarter  in  two-years 
old  wethers  is  from  twenty-five  pounds  to  thirty- 
five  pounds,  and  in  particular  instances  to  fifty- 
five  pounds  or  more.  The  wool  is  shorter  and 
less  heayy  than  in  that  breed. 

In  the  Corrected  Report  of  the  West  Riding, 
of  Yorkshire,  Mr.  Parkinson  supposes  that  a 
useful  kind  is  capable  of  being  bred  by  crossing 
the  ewes  of  this  sort  with  Dishley  rams. '  It  is 
added  that  by  the  use  of  these,  and  those  of  the 
Northumberland  kind,  the  quality  of  the  wool 
and  the  mutton  has  not  only  been  greatly  im- 
proved, but  the  quantity  of  bone  and  offal  much 
lessened  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  fattening 
property  considerably  increased  :  they  becoming 
fatter  ai  two  years  old  than  the  others  are  at 
three.  The  wethers  of  this  improved  sort  gene- 
rally sell,  unshorn,  at  two  years  old,  from  45*. 
to  55s.  a  piece,  and  weigh  from  twenty-four  to 
thirty  pounds  the  quarter. 


The  Lincolnshire  breed  is  characterised  by  their 
having  no  horns ;  white  faces;  lonsr,  thin,  weak 
carcases  ;  thick,  rough,  white  ;egs  ;  bones  large; 
pelts  thick;  slow  feeding;  mutton  coarse 
grained  ;  the  weight  per  quarter  in  ewes  from 
fourteen  pounds  to  twenty  pounds;  in  three- 
year  old  wethers  from  twenty  pounds  to  thirty 
pounds ;  the  wool  from  ten  to  eighteen  inches  in 
length.  And  it  is  chiefly  prevalent  in  the  dis- 
trict which  gives  the  name,  and  other  rich  grazing 
ones.  The  writer  of  the  work  on  Live  Stock 
supposes  that  this  breed  is  now  so  generally  im- 
proved by  new  Leicester  tups,  that  they  are  proba- 
bly, in  a  ^reat  measure,  free  from  those  defects  of 
the  old  breed  of  which  Mr.  Culley,  with  much 
reason,  complained,  namely,  slow  feeding,  from 
a  looseness  of  form,  and  too  much  bone,  and 
coarse-grained  flesh.  It  must  not,  however,  be 
denied,  that  a  good  old  Lincoln  has  ever  been, 
and  the  name,  at  least,  still  continues  a  great  fa- 
vorite at  Smithfield.  The  new  or  improved 
Lincolns  have  finer  bone,  with  broader  loins  and 
trussed  carcases,  and  are  among  the  best,  if  not 
actually  the  best,  long-woolled  stock  we  have. 

The  New  Leicester,  or  Dishley, is  an  improved 
breed  of  sheep,  readily  distinguished  from  the 
other  long-woolled  sons,  according  to  Culley,  by 
having  fine  lively  eyes;  clean  heads,  without 
horns;  straight,  broad,  flat  backs;  round  or 
barrel-shaped  bodies ;  fine  small  bones ;  thin 
pelU;  and  a  disposition  to  make  fat  at  an  early 
age ;  to  which  maybe  added  a  superiority  in  the 
fineness  of  the  grain  and  the  flavor  of  ihe  mutton 
to  that  of  other  sheep  of  the  large  long-woolled 
kinds.  The  weight  per  quarter  in  ewes  three  or 
four  years  old  from  eighteen  pounds  to  twenty- 
six  pounds ;  in  two-year  old  wethers,  from 
twenty  pounds  to  thirty  pounds;  the  length  of 
wool  from  six  to  fourteen  inches.  The  author  of 
the  Treatise  on  Live  Stock  characterises  them  as 
having  a  fulness  of  form  and  substantial  width 
of  carcase,  with  a  peculiar  plainness  and  meek- 
ness of  countenance ;  the  head  long,  tiiin,  and 
leaning  backward  ;  the  nose  projecting  forward  : 
the  ears  somewhat  lone,  and  standing  backward, 
great  fulness  of  the  fore-quarters ;  legs  of  mode- 
rate length,  and  ihe  finest  bone;  tail  small; 
fleece  well  covering  the  body,  of  the  shortest  and 
finest  of  the  combing  wools,  the  length  of  staple 
six  or  seven  inches.  The  fore-flank,  a  term  of 
the  old  school,  current  in  the  time  of  Lisle,  or 
that  flap  of  skin  and  fat  appended  to  the  ribs, 
and  the  inferior  part  of  the  shoulder,  is  remark- 
ably capacious  in  this  breed.  New  Leicester 
mutton,  it  is  believed,  is  the  most  finely  grained 
of  all  the  large  lonsj-woolled  species,  but  of  a 
flavor  bordering  on  the  insipid.  And  it  is  added, 
that  it  is  reported,  and  with  the  strongest  pro- 
bability, from  the  appearance  of  the  stock,  the 
fineness  of  the  wool,  and  the  grain  of  the  mutton, 
that  a  Ryeland  cross  was  a  prime  instrument  in 
the  Dishley  improvement  of  sheep.  Probably 
the  root  or  foundation  was  Lincoln.  In  the 
ordinary  and  gradual  course  of  improvement 
or  alteration  of  form,  it  must  have  taken,  it  is 
thought,  a  long  time  and  vast  pains,  to  mould  the 
animals  into  that  artificial  and  peculiar  shape 
which  distinguishes  this  remarkable  variety. 
The  author  of  the  Treatise  on  Cattle  sa>  s,  the 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


153 


pure  Dishley  sheep  are  by  no  means  the  most 
prolific,  nor  the  best  nurses ;  and  adds  that,  the 
heads  of  the  improvers  having  had  time  to  cool, 
it  is  no  longer  boasted  that  new  Leicester  sheep 
are  able  to  subsist,  and  even  thrive,  on  the 
shortest  commons.  In  fine,  it  is  contended,  the 
merits  of  tliis  stock  as  an  improving  cross  (their 
grand  point  of  utility),  being  so  undeniably  great, 
their  disadvantages  have  been  overlooked  :  and, 
lurther,  that  though  the  Dishley  cross  has  made 
its  way  into  every  part  of  this  island,  to  the 
land's  End,  to  the  bottoms  of  the  Welsh  moun- 
tains, and  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  to  Ireland, 
and  even  to  Russia,  its  general  success  has  been  at- 
tended with  various  particular  instances  of  failure, 
a  remarkable  oneof  which  is  given  by  lordSomer- 
ville,  in  his  Facts,  in  respect  to  the  Bampton  or 
Western  long-woolled  sheep.  The  cross  is  some- 
times  very  injudiciously  used  with  short  or  carding 
wool  stock,  excepting  where  the  intention  is  only 
forward  lamb.  On  stock  naturally  good  and  im- 
proveable  this  peculiar  effect  of  the  new  Lei- 
cester cross  has  resulted :  the  improved  have 
considerably  surpassed,  in  the  most  valuable  pro- 
perties, their  improvers.  Of  this  many  examples 
may  be  seen,  it  is  supposed,  in  the  improved 
Lincoln,  Northumberland,  and  Midland  county 
sheep.  It  has  been  stated  by  lord  Somerville 
that  all  the  breeds  of  sheep  in  this  kingdom  may 
be  arranged  into  two  classes  ;  those  which  shear 
die  short  or  clothing,  and  those  which  shear  the 
long  or  combing  wool.  And  that  the  quality  of 
the  flesh  in  each  class  follows  the  character  of  the 
wool,  the  short-woolled  sheep  being  close  in  the 
grain  as  to  flesh,  consequently  heavy  in  the  scale, 
and  high  flavored  as  to  the  taste ;  the  polled 
Iniio-woolled  sheep  more  open  and  loose  in  the 
grain,  and  larger  in  size.  We  have  as  above  de- 
scribed the  three  chief  long-woolled  varieties, 
and  must  refer  to  our  article  SHEEP  for  further 
observations  on  this  valuable  animal  and  its 
habits. 

Of  the  rearing  and  fattening  of  hogs. — The 
practice  of  keeping  these  animals  is  so  general, 
especially  in  England,  that  one  should  think  the 
profit  attending  it  would  be  absolutely  indis- 
putable ;  and  this  the  more  especially  when  it  is 
considered  how  little  nicety  they  have  in  their 
choice  of  food.  From  such  experiments,  how- 
ever, as  have  been  made,  the  matter  appears  to 
be  very  doubtful.  In  the  Annals  of  Agriculture, 
vol.  i.,  we  have  an  experiment  by  Mr.  Mure,  of 
feeding  hogs  with  the  cluster  potatoe  and  carrots  ; 
by  which  it  appeared  that  the  profit  on  large 
hogs  was  much  greater  than  on  small  ones ;  the 
latter  eating  almost  as  much  as  the  former,  with- 
out yielding  a  proportionable  increase  of  flesh. 
The  gain  was  counted  by  weighing  the  large  and 
small  ones  alive;  and  it  was  found  that  from 
November  10th  to  January  5th  they  had  gained 
in  the  following  proportion:  twenty  large  hogs 
£l  3s.  6d. ;  twenty  small  7s.  Qd. ;  two  stag 
hogs,  £l  17s.  8rf.  On  being  finished  with  pease, 
however,  it  appeared  that  there  was  not  any  real 
profit  at  last ;  for  the  accounts  stood  ultimately 
at  par ;  the  expense  being  £95,  and  the  product 
being  exactly  the  same. 

In  some  experiments  by  Mr.  Young,  related 
in  the  same  volume,  he  succeeded  still  worse,  not 


being  able  to  clear  his  expenses.  His  first  expe- 
riment was  attended  with  a  loss  of  a  guinea 
per  hog;  the  second  with  the  loss  of  11s.  3d. ; 
the  third  of  3s.  In  the'se  three  the  hogs  were 
fed  with  pease ;  given  whole  in  the  two  first,  but 
ground  into  meal  in  the  last.  The  fourth  experi- 
ment, in  which  the  hog  was  fed  with  Jerusalem 
artichokes,  was  attended  with  no  loss ;  but  ano- 
ther, in  which  pease  were  again  tried,  was  at- 
tended with  a  loss  of  4s.  Barley  was  tried, 
ground  along  with  pease  and  beans ;  this  was 
attended  with  a  profit  of  17s.  4|d.  In  another 
experiment  in  which  the  hogs  were  fed  with 
pease  and  barley  ground,  the  beans  being  omitted 
as  useless,  there  was  a  profit  of  12s.  3d.  upon  an 
expense  of  £20  15s.  9d.  In  this  experiment  the 
pease  and  barley  meal  were  mixed  into  a  liquid 
like  cream,  and  allowed  to  remain  in  that  state 
for  three  weeks,  till  it  became  sour.  This  was 
attended  in  two  other  instances  with  profit,  and 
in  a  third  with  loss  :  however,  Mr.  Young  is  or 
opinion  that  the  practice  will  still  be  found  ad- 
vantageous, on  account  of  the  quantity  of  dung 
raised,  and  that  the  farmer  can  thus  use  his  pease 
and  barley  at  home,  without  carrying  them  to 
market. 

Mr.  Marshal  remarks  that,  in  the  midland 
district,  oats  are  preferred  to  barley  as  a  food 
both  for  young  pigs  and  breeding  swine.  It  is 
also  supposed  that  young  pigs  require  warm 
meat  to  make  them  grow  quickly.  Barley  meal 
and  potatoes  are  used  in  fattening  them.  In 
this  district  it  is  common  to  keep  two  or  three 
pigs  in  the  sty  along  with  the*old  hogs  to  be 
fatted. 

In  Staffordshire,  Mr.  Pitt  says,  the  breed  of 
hogs  most  esteemed  is  not  the  large  slouched- 
eared  breed,  but  a  cross  between  them  and  a 
smaller  dwarf  breed.  They  should  be  fine  in  the 
bone,  thick  and  plump  in  the  carcase,  with  a  fine 
thin  hide,  and  of  a  moderate  size;  large  enough 
to  fat,  at  from  one  to  two  years  old,  to  the 
weight  of  from  300  Ibs.  to  400  Ibs.  each.  These, 
if  well  bred,  will  keep  themselves  in  good  plight 
with  little  feeding,  and  will  soon  grow  fat  with  a 
plentiful  allowance  of  proper  food.  Hog^  of 
the  large  breed  have  been  fatted  there,  to  from 
600  Ibs.  to  800  Ibs.  each,  exclusive  of  the  en- 
trails; but,  requiring  much  time  and  food,  have 
pretty  generally  given  way  to  a  smaller-sized, 
finer-boned,  thick,  plump,  animal.  Hogs  are 
generally  fatted  there  by  farmers  with  the  refuse 
of  the  dairy,  boiled  potatoes,  and  barley  meal, 
and  pease  either  whole  or  ground  :  by  millers 
with  the  husk  or  bran  of  wheat  ground  down, 
but  not  wholly  divested  of  its  flour ;  also  with 
other  sorts  of  grain  and  pulse  ground  down  ;  by 
butchers  with  the  refuse  or  offal  of  slaughtered 
animals.  The  best  way  of  managing  the  pota- 
toes is  to  boil  them  in  their  own  steam,  and  put 
them  afterwards  into  a  large  oven  when  the  bread 
is  drawn,  to  evaporate  the  watery  parts :  they 
will  then  go  nearly  as  far  as  chestnuts  or  acorns 
in  feeding. 

In  Lancashire  Mr.  Holt  observes,  that  Mr. 
Eccleston  has  a  breed  between  the  wild  boar  and 
the  Chinese,  which  have  very  light  and  small 
bellies.  Upon  the  same  food,  he  thinks,  they  will 
yield  onefourth  more  flesh  than  either  the  large 


154 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


Irish  or  Shropshire  breeds.  Their  size  is  but 
small,  weighing  only  from  ten  to  fifteen  score, 
generally  about  twelve  score. 

In  Kent  a  great  number  of  pigs  are  reared  and 
fed  on  the  corn  stubbles  for  the  butchers,  which 
are  killed  in  autumn  for  roasting,  at  the  age  of 
three  or  four  months,  then  weighing  three  or  four 
score  pounds  each.  Some  are  also  fattened  and 
killed  at  from  six  to  twelve  months  old,  and  sold. 
In  the  west  part  of  this  district,  a  few  farmers 
hare  the  lamer  kind,  or  Berkshire  breed  ;  but  in 
general  they  are  mixtures  of  many  different  sorts. 
Little  attention,  says  Mr.  Boys,  is  paid  to  this 
animal,  though  the  breed  might  doubtless  be  very 
much  improved  with  proper  care.  Many  hogs, 
says  he,  are  likewise  kept  in  the  woods  of  the 
Weald  of  Kent  in  the  autumn,  on  acorns,  and 
fattened  on  corn  in  the  winter. 

Pigs,  Mr.  Holt  says,  should,  during  their 
growth,  be  regularly  turned  out  to  graze.  This, 
besides  the  advantageof  grass,  which  is  nutritious, 
by  the  fresh  air  and  exercise  causes  a  disposition 
to  take  their  rest;  and  sleep  after  a  meal  con- 
tributes to  their  cleanliness,  and  renders  their 
flesh  of  superior  flavor.  Mr.  Young  has  inserted 
a  number  of  experiments  on  feeding  hogs  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  London  Society  of  Arts ; 
and,  on  the  whole,  prefers  pollard  and  skimmed 
milk,  as  the  best  feeding;  and,  next  to  these, 
boiled  carrots  and  potatoes. 

Of  rabbits. — In  particular  situations  these 
animals  may  be  kept  to  advantage,  as  they  mul- 
tiply exceedingly,  and  require  no  trouble  in 
bringing  up.  A  considerable  number  of  them 
are  kept  in  Norfolk,  where  many  parts,  consisting 
of  barren  hills  or  heaths,  are  proper  for  their  re- 
ception. They  delight  in  the  sides  of  sandy 
hills,  which  are  generally  unproductive  when 
tilled ;  but  level  ground  is  improper  for  them. 

Mr.  Marshal  is  of  opinion  that  there  are  few 
sandy  or  other  loose  soiled  hills  which  would  not 
pay  better  in  rabbit  warrens  than  any  thing  else. 
'  The  hide  of  a  bullock,'  says  he,  '  is  not  worth 
more  than  one-twentieth  of  1iis  carcase ;  the  skin 
of  a  sheep  may,  in  full  wool,  be  worth  from  a 
sixth  to  a  tenth  part  of  his  carcase ;  but  the  fur 
of  a  rabbit  is  worth  twice  the  whole  value  of  the 
carcase  ;  therefore,  supposing  a  rabbit  to  consume 
a  quantity  of  food  in  proportion  to  its  carcase,  it 
is,  on  this  principle,  a  species  of  stock  nearly 
three  times  as  valuable  as  either  cattle  or  sheep.' 
Rabbit  warrens  ought  to  be  enclosed  with  a  stone 
or  sod  wall ;  and,  at  their  first  stocking,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  form  burrows  to  them  until  they  have 
time  to  make  them  for  themselves.  Boring  the 
ground  horizontally  with  a  large  auger  is  perhaps 
the  best  method  that  can  be  practised.  Eagles, 
kites,  and  other  birds  of  prey,  as  well  as  cats, 
weasels,  and  polecats,  are  great  enemies  of  rab- 
bits. The  Norfolk  warreners  catch  the  birds  by 
traps  placed  on  the  tops  of  stumps  of  trees  or 
artificial  hillocks  of  a  conical  form,  on  which  they 
naturally  alight.  Traps  also  seem  to  be  the  only 
method  of  getting  rid  of  the  other  enemies, 
though  thus  the  rabbits  themselves  are  in  danger 
of  being  caught. 

Rabbits  are  subject  to  two  diseases: — 1.  The 
rot,  occasioned  by  too  much  green  food,  or  giving 
it  to  them  fresh  gathered,  with  dew  or  rain  upon 


it.  The  cure  is  the  sweetest  hay  that  can  be  got. 
2.  A  kind  of  madness,  which  is  known  by  their 
tumbling  about,  with  their  heels  upwards.  The 
cause  is  full  feeding  ;  the  cure,  keeping  them  low, 
and  giving  them  tare  thistle.  One  buck  rabbit 
will  serve  nine  does. 

Of  poultry. — Under  this  head  are  compre- 
hended a  variety  of  birds,  which  are  objects  of 
attention  to  the  farmer.  1.  fowls. — The  farm 
yard  cannot  be  said  to  be  complete  until  well 
stocked  with  fowls ;  the  advantage  of  which  is 
most  considerable  in  situations  where  the  farmer 
is  best  supplied  with  grain,  and  has  the  best 
means  of  preserving  the  birds.  In  choosing  this 
kind  of  stock,  prefer  the  best  breeders  and  the 
best  layers  ;  the  oldest  being  the  best  sitters,  and 
the  youngest  the  best  layers  ;  but  no  sort  will  be 
good  for  either,  if  they  are  kept  too  fat.  The 
best  age  to  set  a  hen  for  chickens  is  two  years 
old,  and  the  best  month  is  February  ;  though  any 
month  between  that  and  Michaelmas  is  good. 
Hens  sit  twenty-one  days,  during  which  they 
should  constantly  have  meat  and  drink  near  them, 
that  they  may  not  straggle  from  their  eggs,  and 
chill  them.  If  fowls  are  fed  with  buck  or  French 
wheat,  or  with  hemp  seed,  they  will  lay  more  eggs 
than  ordinary  ;  and  buck-wheat,  either  whole  or 
ground,  made  into  paste,  will  fatten  fowls  very 
speedily ;  but  the  common  food  used  is  barley- 
meal,  with  milk  or  water;  but  wheat  flour  mois- 
tened is  the  best.  A  good  hen  should  be  work- 
ing, vigilant,  and  laborious,  both  for  herself  and 
her  chickens,  and  the  larger  the  better.  The 
elder  hens  are  rather  to  be  chosen  for  hatching 
than  the  younger,  because  they  are  more  con- 
stant, and  will  sit  out  their  time ;  but,  if  chosen 
for  laying,  take  the  youngest.  Those  eggs  that 
are  laid  when  the  hens  are  a  year  and  a  half  or 
two  years  old  are  the  best ;  at  that  time  give  the 
hens  plenty  of  victuals,  and  sometimes  oats, 
with  fenugreek  to  heat  them,  if  you  would  have 
large  eggs. 

In  setting  hens,  take  care  that  the  eggs  be  new, 
which  may  be  known  by  their  being  heavy,  full, 
and  clear.  While  sitting,  a  hen  should  never  be 
disturbed  from  her  nest,  lest  she  forsake  it.  A 
hen-house  should  be  large  and  spacious,  with  a 
pretty  high  roof  and  strong  walls,  to  keep  out 
thieves  and  vermin ;  there  should  likewise  be 
windows  on  the  east  side,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
rising  sun ;  and  round  about  the  inside  of  the 
walls,  upon  the  ground,  should  be  made  large 
pens,  three  feet  high,  for  geese,  ducks,  and  large 
fowls  to  sit  in ;  and  near  the  covering  of  the 
house  long  perches,  reaching  from  one  side  to  the 
other,  should  be  fixed,  on  which  cocks,  hens,  ca- 
pons, and  turkeys,  may  sit.  At  another  side  of 
the  house,  at  the  darkest  part  of  the  ground  pens, 
fix  hampers  full  of  straw,  for  nests,  for  the  hens 
to  lay  their  eggs ;  but,  when  they  sit  to  hatch 
chickens,  they  should  be  on  the  ground '.  there 
should  likewise  be  stakes  stuck  in  the  walls,  that 
the  poultry  may  climb  to  their  perches  with  ease ; 
and  the  floor  should  not  be  paved,  but  made  of 
earth  smooth  and  easy.  The  smaller  fowls  should 
also  have  a  hole  at  one  end  of  the  house  to  go  in 
and  out  when  they  please,  else  they  will  seek  out 
roosts  in  other  places.  It  would  likewise  be 
of  "great  advantage  to  have  the  hen-noun-,  si- 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


15ft 


tuated  near  some  kitchen,  brew-house,  bake- 
house, or  kiln,  where  it  may  have  the  heat  of  the 
fire,  and  be  perfumed  with  smoke,  which  is  very 
grateful  to  pullets. 

To  fatten  chickens,  put  them  into  coops,  and 
feed  them  "with  barley-meal ;  put  a  small  quan- 
tity of  brick  dust  into  their  water,  which  will 
give  them  an  appetite  and  fatten  them  very  soon ; 
for  all  fowls  and  birds  have  two  stomachs,  the  one 
is  their  crop,  that  softens  their  food,  and  the  other 
the  gizzard,  that  macerates  their  food  ;  in  the  last 
we  always  find  small  stones  and  sharp  sand, 
which  help  to  do  that  office. 

2.  The  duck,  a  native  of  Great  Britain,  is 
found  on  the  edges  of  all  quiet  waters  through- 
out Europe.  In  breeding,  one  drake  is  generally 
put  to  five  ducks ;  the  duck  will  cover  from 
eleven  to  fifteen  eggs,  and  her  term  of  incuba- 
tion is  thirty  days.  They  begin  to  lay  in  Fe- 
bruary, are  very  prolific,  and  are  apt,  like  the 
turkey,  to  lay  abroad,  and  conceal  their  eggs,  by 
covering  them  with  leaves  or  straw.  The  duck 
generally  lays  by  night,  or  early  in  the  morning; 
white  and  light-colored  ducks  produce  similar 
eggs,  and  the  brown  and  dark-colored  ducks 
those  of  a  greenish  blue  color,  and  of  the  largest 
size.  In  setting  ducks,  it  is  considered  safest  to 
put  light-colored  eggs  under  light  ducks,  and  the 
contrary;  as  there  are  instances  of  the  duck 
turning  out  with  her  bill  those  eggs  which  were 
not  of  her  natural  color.  During  incubation,  the 
duck  requires  a  secret  and  safe  place,  rather  than 
any  attendance,  and,  will,  at  nature's  call,  cover 
her  eggs,  and  seek  her  food,  and  the  refreshment 
of  the  waters.  On  hatching,  there  is  not  often 
a  necessity  for  taking  away  any  of  the  brood, 
barring  accidents;  and  having  hatched,  let  the 
duck  retain  her  young  upon  the  nest  her  own 
time.  On  her  moving  with  their  brood,  pre- 
pare a  coop  upon  the  short  grass,  if  the  wea- 
ther be  fine,  or  under  a  shelter,  if  otherwise: 
a  wide  and  flat  dish  of  water,  often  to  be  re- 
newed, standing  at  hand ;  barley,  or  any  meal, 
the  first  food.  In  rainy  weather,  particularly,  it 
is  useful  to  clip  the  tails  of  the  ducklings,  and  the 
surrounding  down  beneath,  since  they  are  else 
apt  to  draggle  and  weaken  themselves.  The 
duck  should  be  cooped  at  a  distance  from  any 
other.  The  period  of  her  confinement  to  the 
coop  depends  on  the  weather  and  the  strength  of 
the  ducklings.  A  fortnight  seems  the  longest 
time  necessary ;  and  they  may  be  sometimes 
permitted  to  enjoy  the  pond  at  the  end  of  a 
week,  but  not  for  too  great  a  length  at  once,  least 
of  all  in  cold  wet  weather,  which  will  affect,  and 
cause  them  to  scour  and  appear  rough  and 
draggled.  In  such  case  they  must  be  kept 
within  a  while,  and  have  an  allowance  of  bean 
or  pea-meal  mixed  with  their  ordinary  food. 
The  meal  of  buck-wheat  and  the  former  is  then 
proper.  The  straw  beneath  the  duck  should  be 
often  renewed,  that  the  brood  may  have  a  dry 
and  comfortable  bed ;  and  the  mother  herself  be 
well  fed  with  solid  corn,  without  an  ample  al- 
lowance of  which  ducks  are  not  to  be  reared  or 
kept  in  perfection,  although  they  gather  so  much 
abroad.  Duck  eggs  are  often  hatched  by  hens. 
The  fattening  of  ducks  at  any  age  is  very  easy  ; 
whether  it  be  the  duckling  or  the  grown  4uck, 


the  method  is  the  same.  They  are  to  be  put  in 
a  quiet  dark  place,  and  kept  in  a  pen,  where 
they  are  to  have  plenty  of  corn  and  water;  any, 
kind  of  corn  will  do  ;  and  with  this  single  di- 
rection they  will  fatten  extremely  well  in  fifteen 
or  twenty  days. 

3.  Geese  are  advantageous  both  for  food,  fea- 
thers, and  grease.  They  will  live  upon  com- 
mons, or  any  sort  of  pasture,  and  need  little  care 
and  attendance  ;  only  they  should  have  plenty  of 
water.  The  largest  geese  are  reckoned  the  best ; 
but  there  is  a  sort  of  Spanish  geese  that  are  mu^ 
better  layers  and  breeders  than  the  English,  es- 
pecially if  their  eggs  be  hatched  under  an  Eng- 
lish goose.  Geese  in  general  lay  in  spring,  the 
earlier  the  better,  because  of  their  price  and  of 
their  having  a  second  brood.  They  commonly 
lay  twelve  or  sixteen  eggs  each.  One  may  know 
•when  they  will  lay  by  their  carrying  straw  in 
their  mouths,  and  when  they  will  sit  by  their 
continuing  on  their  nest  after  they  have  laid.  A 
goose  sits  thirty  days,  but  if  the  weather  be  fair 
and  warm  she  will  hatch  three  or  four  days 
sooner.  After  the  goslings  are  hatched,  some 
keep  them  in  the  house  ten  or  twelve  days,  and 
feed  them  with  curds,  barley  meal,  bran,  Sec. 
After  they  have  got  some  strength,  let  them  out 
three  or  four  hours  a-day,  and  take  them  in  again, 
till  they  are  big  enough  to  defend  themselves. 
For  fattening  green  geese,  they  should  be  shut 
up  when  they  are  about  a  month  old,  and  they 
will  be  fat  in  about  a  month  longer.  The  fatting 
of  older  geese  is  commonly  done  when  they  are 
about  six  months  old,  in  or  after  harvest,  when 
they  have  been  in  the  stubble  fields,  from  which 
food  some  kill  them  ;  but  those  who  wish  to  have 
them  very  fat  shut  them  up  two  or  three  weeks, 
and  feed  them  with  oats,  split  beans,  barley  meal, 
or  ground  malt  mixed  with  milk.  Geese  will 
likewise  fatten  well  with  carrots  cut  small. 

4.  Turkeys  prosper  very  well  in  open  coun- 
tries, where  there  is  not  much  shelter  to  harbour 
vermin  to  destroy  them,  as  they  are  naturally  in- 
clined to  ramble.  The  hens  are  so  negligent  of 
their  young,  that,  while  they  have  one  to  follow 
them,  they  never  look  after  the  rest;  and  there- 
fore care  must  be  taken  while  they  are  young  to 
watch  them,  and  to  keep  them  warm,  as  they 
cannot  bear  the  cold.  When  kept  with  corn, 
they  are  very  great  feeders ;  but,  if  left  to  their 
liberty  when  grown  up,  they  will  get  their  own 
living,  without  trouble  or  expense,  by  feeding  on 
herbs,  seeds,  &c.  Turkeys,  being  very  apt  to 
straggle,  will  often  lay  their  eggs  in  secret  places ; 
therefore  they  must  be  watched,  and  made  to  lay 
at  home.  They  begin  to  lay  in  March,  and  sit 
in  April ;  eleven  or  thirteen  eggs  are  the  most 
they  sit  on.  They  hatch  in  twenty-five  or  thirty 
days.  The  young  ones  may  be  fed  either  with 
curds,  or  green  fresh  cheese.  Their  drink  may 
be  new  milk,  or  milk  and  water.  Some  give 
them  oatmeal  and  milk  boiled  thick  together, 
into  which  they  put  wormwood  chopped  small, 
and  sometimes  eggs  boiled  hard,  and  cut  in 
pieces.  They  must  be  fed  often  ;  and,  when  they 
have  got  some  strength,  feed  them  abroad  in  a 
close  walled  place  where  they  cannot  stray  ;  the\ 
must  not  be  let  out  till  the  dew  is  off  the  gras«, 
as  it  is  very  prejudicial  to  them.  In  the  faUiiiw 


156 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


of  turkeys,  sodden  barley  is  very  excellent,  or 
sodden  oats  for  the  first  fortnight. 

5.  Pigeons. — These,  Mr.  Pitt  observes,  can 
hardly,  in  general,  be  considered  as  an  article  of 
profit  to  the  occupier  of  a  farm,  though  there  are 
instances  in  Staffordshire,  where  something  hand- 
some is  actually  made  of  them  by  tenants;  yet 
these  instances  are  rare,  and  too  seldom  occur  to 
be  reckoned  upon  in  a  general  account.  But 
few  farm-houses  are  indeed  furnished  with  the 
necessary  accommodations  for  them ;  and  the 
increase  of  them  beyond  a  certain  degree  must 
be  injurious  to  the  cultivation  of  grain  ;  within 
due  bounds  they  do  little  harm  ;  but,  increased 
beyond  it,  they  prove  pernicious  vermin,  both 
to  the  new  sown  crops  and  the  early  part  of 
harvest.  They  are  particularly  voracious  on 
early  pease.  Mr.  Kent  says  that  pigeons  are 
much  fewer  in  Norfolk  than  formerly,  as  many  of 
the  pigeon-houses  have  been  dropt,  on  account  of 
the  injury  which  they  did  to  thatched  buildings. 

Of  bees. — Under  the  article  APIS,  we  have 
given  so  full  an  account  of  the  management  of 
these  useful  and  industrious  insects,  that  we  need 
add  nothing  here  on  the  subject  of  bee  hus- 
bandry. 

SKETCH  OF  HOLKHAM  FARMING. 

In  concluding  this  practical  article  we  trust 
our  readers  will  be  gratified  with  an  abstract  of 
Dr.  Rigby's  able  account  of  '  Holkham'  farming: 
we  give  it  not  only  with  a  view  to  doing  justice 
to  the  efforts  of  the  distinguished  proprietor  of 
that  estate  in  improving  and  extending  the  scien- 
tific pursuit  of  agriculture,  but  also  as  containing 
many  valuable  passing  hints  on  several  of  the 
topics  of  this  paper.  Dr.  Rigby  tells  us  that  his 
paper  was  originally  read  at  the  Norwich  Philo- 
sophical Society  in  December  1816  :  and  written 
from  notes  taken  at  Holkham,  not  intended  for 
publication. 

'  My  observations,'  says  our  author,  '  will  be 
principally  directed  to  the  extraordinary  im- 
provement Mr.  Coke  has  effected  in  the  value  of 
his  extensive  estate,  by  a  system  of  agriculture 
almost  peculiar  to  himself;  by  an  encouraging 
liberality  to  his  tenants,  in  a  system  of  leasing 
his  farms,  equally  peculiar  to  himself;  and  by 
his  judicious  and  extensive  system  of  planting, 
which,  I  believe,  already  exceeds  any  thing  of 
the  kind  in  the  county,  and  is  still  progressively 
increasing.  I  had  the  advantage  of  riding  with 
Mr.  Coke  several  hours,  two  successive  mornings, 
over  the  Holkhara  farm  in  his  own  occupation, 
;md  over  another  at  Warham,  occupied  by  an  in- 
telligent tenant ;  and,  as  he  allowed  me  to  he 
full  of  questions,  and  seemed  to  have  a  rea'dy 
pleasure  in  answering  them,  I  had  ample  means 
of  gratification  and  information. 

'  My  first  impression  was  that  of  surprise  and 
admiration  at  the  exuberance  of  the  crops,  at  the 
seeming  richness  of  the  soil,  and  at  its  unexampled 
freedom  from  weeds.  The  first  crops  which  at- 
tracted our  notice  were  some  extensive  ones, 
both  of  wheat  and  barley.  I  had  never  before 
•jeen  such.  Mr.  Coke  estimated  the  wheat  from 
ten  to  twelve  coombs  per  acre,  and  said  nearly 
twenty  coombs  per  acre  of  barley  had  urowti 
upon  it,  which  is  at  least  double  the  average 
crop  in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  and  nearly  treble 


that  of  many  counties  in  the  kingdom  ;  and  yet 
so  sterile  was  this  part  of  the  estate  considered,, 
when  he  came  into  possession  of  it,  that  a  large 
tract  of  it  had  been  let,  tithe  free,  on  a  long  lease, 
at  3s.  per  acre ;  and  Mr.  Coke  offered  another 
lease,  of  twenty-one  years,  at  5s.  per  acre,  but 
the  tenant  had  not  courage  to  take  it,  and  Mr 
Coke  procured  him  a  farm  under  another  land- 
lord. At  that  time  wheat  was  not  cultivated  in 
this  district :  in  the  whole  tract,  between  Holk- 
ham and  Lynn,  not  an  ear  was  to  be  seen,  nor 
was  it  believed  that  one  would  grow.  The  system 
of  farming  was  wretched,  and  the  produce  of  the 
soil  of  little  value.  What  a  change  has  been  ef- 
fected by  capital,  skill,  and  industry!  Notwith- 
standing the  rain  of  that  summer  had  been,  on 
other  farms,  bo  productive  of  weeds,  and  had 
rendered  crops,  in  general,  more  than  usually 
foul,  I  cannot  help  repeating  that  there  was 
scarcely  a  weed  to  be  seen  here.  In  several 
places  the  harvest  had  commenced,  and  the 
ground,  which  was  exposed  on  cutting  the 
wheat,  was  as  clean  as  a  barn  floor.  The  day 
being  fine,  it  was  pleasing  to  see  the  reapers  at 
work — they  were  divided  into  parties,  who 
seemed  to  have  certain  quantities  allotted  to 
them  to  cut;  among  the  rest  I  observed,  with 
some  interest,  a  man,  and  two  girls  about  twelve 
or  fourteen  years  of  age,  who  had  also  a  certain 
share ;  he  proved  to  be  a  widower,  and  these 
were  his  children. 

'  On  the  second  morning  Mr.  Coke  accompa- 
nied me  to  an  extensive  farm  of  his  at  Warham,. 
a  neighbouring  parish,  in  the  occupation  of  Mr. 
Blomfield,  cultivated  on  the  Holkham  system, 
and  exhibiting  the  same  weedless  surface,  and 
the  same  rich  produce,  as  Mr.  Coke's.  On  one 
piece  of  seventy  acres,  very  near  the  sea,  I  think 
the  wheat  exceeded  Mr.  Coke's  in  luxuriance 
and  quantity. 

'  Mr.  Blomfield  has  the  merit  of  having  made 
a  discovery,  and  adopted  a  practice,  which  must 
be  of  singular  benefit. to  Norfolk.  This  county  is 
deficient  in  old  pasture,  and  the  attempt  to  lay 
down  land,  as  it  is  called,  for  a  permanence,  so 
as  to  procure  this  kind  of  valuable  pasture,  has 
hitherto  been  attended  with  great  expense,  and 
has  not  always  been  successful.  lie  effects  it  l>y 
what  he  has,  rather  ludicrously,  called  inoculating 
the  land,  and  literally  in  one  summer  it  produces 
a  rich,  and,  strange  as  it  may  sound,  an  old  pas- 
ture. Without  describing  the  process  in  detail, 
it  will  give  a  sufficient  idea  of  it  to  say  tlia-t  the 
immediate  operation  on  the  land  consists  in 
placing  pieces  lof  grass,  turf,  or  flag,  of  about 
three  inches  and  a  half  square,  at  certain  dis- 
tances, leaving  an  interval  uncovered  equal  to 
that  which  is  covered  byy  the  pieces  of  flag  :  tlicse 
are  well  rammed  down,  and,  in  doing  this,  Air. 
Blomfield  jocularly  said  it  was  inoculating  the 
land,  which  gave  it  its  name :  this  process  takes 
place  in  a  winter  month,  and  in  the  spring  some 
grass  seeds  are  sown  on  the  uncovered  spots ; 
but,  before  the  end  of  the  summer,  the  pieces  of 
il.iv.  extend  themselves,  and,  uniting,  the  whole 
not  only  appears  to  be,  but  really  is,  the  same  as 
old  pasture.  I  saw  thirty  acres  near  Mr.  Blom- 
lirld's  house,  a  most  'ordinary  soil,  light  and 
gravelly,  and  not  worth  5s.  an  acre,  under  this 
process,  become  an  excdluit  pasture,  worth  at 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


157 


least  £l  10s.  an  acre.  Mr.  Coke  was  preparing 
a  large  piece,  within  view  of  the  house  at  llolk- 
ham,  to  he  thus  improved.  1  asked  Mr.  Blom- 
field  how  the  thought  occurred  to  him;  he  said, 
from  observing  pieces  of  flag  laid  on  the  hedge- 
row banks,  and  beaten  firmly  on  with  a  spade 
when  these  banks  are  dressed,  and  which,  he 
added,  soon  extended  themselves  and  covered  the 
1  anks,  if  free  from  weeds,  with  a  similar  flag.' 

Mr.  Coke's  system  of  husbandry  is  the  drill 
si/stem,  which  he  adopted  at  a  very  early  period, 
and  his  extraordinary  success  in  it  is  owing  to 
the  progressive  improvement  he  has  effected  in 
•the  process,  so  as  effectually  to  answer  the  pur- 
.pose  of  loosening  the  soil,  at  different  seasons, 
and  of  completely  extirpating  weeds.  The  ad- 
vantage of  deep  and  repeated  ploughings  and 
harrowings,  to  clean,  loosen,  and  pulverise  the 
soil,  preparatory  to  its  receiving  the  different 
seeds,  every  one  knows,  and,  to  a  certain  degree, 
this  is  practised  on  every  farm ;  but  the  impor- 
tance of  stirring  the  soil,  destroying  weeds,  and 
earthing  up  the  young  plants  in  the  summer 
months,  was  not  ascertained  until  effected  in  the 
drill  system,  by  horse-hoeing,  &c.;  and  Mr. 
Coke's  great  improvement  in  it,  derived  from 
his  long  experience,  consists  in  his  having 
gradually  drilled  at  wider  distances. 

When  the  drilling  of  wheat  was  first  practised, 
the  lines  were  four  and  six  inches  distant.  Mr. 
Coke  now  drills  it  at  nine  inches  distance,  which 
admits  ample  room  for  horse-hoeing,  in  the 
spring  and  early  summer  months,  obviously 
much  more  effectual  in  loosening  the  soil,  de- 
stroying weeds,  and  moulding  up  the  plants, 
than  hand-hoeing,  particularly  as  usually  prac- 
tised by  women  and  girls ;  who,  in  most  in- 
stances, by  a  partial  stirring  of  the  earth,  and  an 
incomplete  destruction  of  weeds,  promote  the 
more  vigorous  growth  of  those  which  remain. 
But  he  does  not  think  it  advisable  to  earth  up 
white-straw  crops,  and  therefore,  in  horse-hoeing 
wheat,  he  does  not  recommend  moulding  up  the 
plants. 

The  true  estimate  of  every  process  in  agricul- 
ture must  indeed  be  obtained  from  experience  ; 
but  the  drawing  earth  round  the  stems  would 
seem  to  promote  their  tillering,  or  the  produc- 
tion of  new  stems  by  suckers  or  pullulations ; 
and  this  was  one  of  the  great  advantages  which 
Tull,  who  has  unquestionably  the  merit  of  having 
been  the  first  to  suggest  the  drill  system,  ex- 
pected from  horse-hoeing  wheat.  And  it  is  wor- 
thy of  remark  to  what  an  extent  the  stems  may 
lie  multiplied  under  favorable  circumstances,  an 
indispensable  one  being  the  supplying  the  lower 
part  of  the  plant  with  fresh  earth  to  work  in. 
The  most  perfect  way  in  which  this  can  be  ef- 
fected is,  obviously,  by  transplanting.  Dr.  Dar- 
win, in  his  Phytologia,  gives  a  drawing  of  a 
plant  of  wheat  taken  from  a  corn  field  in  the 
spring,  which  then  consisted  of  two  stems ;  it 
was  replanted  in  his  garden,  and  purposely 
buried  so  deep  as  to  cover  the  two  or  three  first 
joints  of  both  the  stems  beneath  the  soil.  On 
taking  up  the  plant,  on  the  24th  of  September,  it 
had  assumed  the  form  delineated,  and  consisted 
of  six  stems,  p.  278.  Another  way  of  effecting  a 
multiplication  of  the  stems  is  by  drawing  fresh 
earth  round  the  lower  part  of  the  plant,  without 


removing  it,  and  whic^i,  though  inferior  in  degree, 
is  evidently  similar  in  principle,  to  transplant- 
ing it ;  for,  in  both  cases,  Dr.  Darwin  explains 
the  process  to  be  effected  by  accumulating  earth 
above  the  first  few  joints  of  the  stems,  whence 
new  buds  spring,  generated  and  nourished  by 
the  caudex  of  the  leaf,  which  surrounds  the  joint, 
as  the  original  stem  vvas  generated  and  nourished 
from  the  grain  itself,  and  which,  like  the  seed, 
withers  away,  when  sufficient  roots  have  been 
formed  for  the  future  support  of  the  plant.  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  also  entertains  a  similar  opinion 
on  this  subject,  and  considers  the  tillering  of 
corn,  or  the  multiplication  of  stems,  as  favored 
by  the  drill  husbandry;  for,  he  says,  loose  earth 
is  thrown,  by  hoeing,  round  the  stalks. — Ele- 
n.ents  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  p.  204. 

In  drilling  turnips,  Mr.  Coke  has  gradually 
extended  his  lines  on  ridges,  in  what  is  called  the 
Northumberland  method,  from  twelve  to  fifteen, 
to  eighteen,  and  even  to  twenty-seven  inches. 
These  wide  drills  allow  the  horse-hoe  of  the 
largest  dimensions,  and  of  various  forms,  adapted 
to  the  different  purposes  of  turning  up  the  soil 
and  earthing  up  the  plants,  to  pass  most  readily. 
1816  was  the  first  year  in  which  the  turnips 
were  drilled  so  widely,  and  Mr.  Coke  expected 
that  the  twenty-seven  inch  drilled  Swedish  tur- 
nips would  exceed  in  weight  those  of  eighteen 
inches,  by  ten  ions  an  acre.  Dr.  Itigby  saw  a 
large  piece  of  these,  about  sixty  acres,  in  which 
half  were  at  eighteen  inches  distance,  and  half  at 
twenty-seven  inches ;  the  latter  were  evidently 
the  largest,  in  the  most  vigorous  growth,  and 
certainly  promised  to  meet  Mr.  Coke's  expecta- 
tions. Drilled  turnips,  however,  obviously  re- 
quire cross-hoeing,  which  must  necessarily  be 
done  by  hand ;  but  as  this  is  merely  to  destroy 
the  supernumerary  plants,  it  is  easily  effected  by 
women  and  young  persons.  The  Swedish  turnips 
form  his  principal  and  most  valuable  crop,  and 
are  sown  upon  the  best  soils, from  the  middle  of 
May  to  the  middle  of  June ;  but  Mr.  Coke  cul- 
tivates on  his  lightest  soils  the  common  and  the 
Scotch  yellow  turnip,  both  which  are  sown  from 
the  middle  of  June  to  the  middle  of  July. 

In  1814  Mr.  Blaikie  published  some  observa- 
tions on  preserving  Swedish  turnips,  by  placing 
them,  as  he  terms  it,  and  this  has  been  success- 
fully adopted  at  Holkham.  They  are  taken  up 
about  the  middle  of  November,  or  as  soon  as 
they  have  attained  their  full  growth  ;  the  tails  or 
bulb  roots  only  are  cut  off,  and  they  are  placed 
in  an  orchard,  or  on  old  turf  land,  close  to,  and 
touching  each  other,  with  the  tops  uppermost, 
and  only  one  turnip  deep.  An  acre  of  good 
turnips  from  the  field  will  occupy  much  less 
space  when  placed  than  could  be  imagined.  In 
very  severe  weather  a  slight  covering  of  litter  is 
thrown  over  them.  In  this  way  they  will  keep 
very  well,  and  be  sound  and  firm  in  June.  Those 
taken  up  in  the  spring,  when  the  bulb  or  fibrous 
roots  begin  to  shoot,  and  which,  if  suffered  to 
remain  on  the  ground,  would  greatly  deteriorate 
the  soil,  may  be  placed  in  the  same  way  ;  and  at 
this  time,  if  under  the  shade  of  trees  the  better. 

The  carrying  off  the  Swedish  turnips,  and, 
placing  them  elsewhere  for  consumption,  is, 
however,  principally  recommpuded  on  strong 
soils  and  retentive  sub-soils,  where  they  cannot 


158 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


be  eaten  on  the  ground  without  injury-  But  upon 
light  soils,  and  open  sub-soils,  the  turnips  should 
be  placed  where  they  grow,  and  put  into  beds 
of  a  proper  width  for  a  common  hurdle  to  cover 
them ;  a  furrow  of  earth  should  be  ploughed 
against  the  outside  rows  to  protect  them  from 
the  severity  of  the  weather,  and  from  the  depre- 
dations of  game.  The  expense  of  placing  a  me- 
dium crop  of  Swedish  turnips,  with  tops  and  tails 
on,  is  about  four  shillings  and  sixpence  per  acre, 
and  five  shillings  per  acre,  when  the  tails  are  cut 
from  the  bulbs.  When  turnips  are  eaten  where 
they  are  placed,  the  ground  is  hurdled  oft"  and 
folded  in  the  usual  way ;  they  are  chopped  in 
pieces,  and  thrown  about  for  full-mouthed  sheep ; 
but  when  given  to  young  and  old  sheep  they  are 
cut  into  slices  by  a  machine,  and  given  to  the 
sheep  in  troughs,  which  are  frequently  shifted. 
The  refuse  is  thrown  about,  and  the  bottoms  of 
the  beds,  where  the  turnips  were  placed,  are 
shovelled  and  spread  about ;  particular  attention 
being  paid  to  shifting  the  folds,  so  that  the  land 
is  regularly  manured.  It  is  not  generally  known 
that  the  texture  of  the  larger  Swedish  turnips  is 
firmer,  and  the  specific  gravity,  consequently, 
greater  than  in  the  smaller  ones,  the  reverse  be- 
ing the  case  in  the  common  turnip.  The  rind, 
the  least  nutritive  part,  is  also,  in  the  same  pro- 
portion, thinner ;  but,  were  it  equally  thick, 
there  would  still  be  proportionately  less  of  it,  the 
surface  of  a  large  sphere  bearing,  obviously,  a 
less  proportion  to  the  interior  contents  than  the 
surface  of  a  smaller  sphere.  These  may  appear 
trifling  circumstances,  but  they  not  only  show 
the  intrinsic  superiority  of  the  Swedish  turnip, 
but  the  manifest  advantage  of  endeavouring,  by 
a  superior  cultivation,  to  grow  large  ones,  thereby 
improving  their  quality  as  well  as  increasing 
their  weight  per  acre ;  and  this,  it  is  evident, 
can  in  no  way  be  so-  completely  effected  as  by 
the  improved  drill  system,  and  which  was  never 
so  convincingly  apparent  as  in  the  most  magni- 
ficent crops  of  the  year  1817,  both  at  Holkham 
and  on  lord  Albemarle's  farm,  at  Quiddenham, 
in  this  county. 

Mr.  Coke  is  liberal  in  manuring  for  turnips  : 
he  allows  not  less  than  fourteen  loads  of  manure 
per  acre,  the  common  quantity  not  often  exceed- 
ing ten  loads  :  he  is  enabled  to  dp  this  by  ma- 
nuring his  wheat  with  oil  cake,  which  he  drills 
in  with  the  seed,  one  ton  being  sufficient  for  six 
acres ;  or  he  puts  it  in  between  the  rows  by  the 
drill  in  the  following  spring,  and  this  not  only 
saves  time,  labor  of  horses,  &c.,  as  well  as  ma- 
nure, but  certainly  answers  well,  as  his  wheat 
crops  sufficiently  prove.  Mr.  Coke  mixes  the 
farm-yard  dung  in  compost  heaps,  by  which 
means  he  not  only  increases  the  quantity,  but  he 
seems  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  manure,  so 
much  so  that  he  now  grows  better  crops  of  tur- 
nips upon  the  Northumberland  ridge  method, 
uith  compost  manure,  and  without  oil  cake,  than 
he  has  formerly  done,  when  his  turnips  were 
sown  upon  the  flat,  either  drilled  or  broad  cast, 
with  all  his  farm-yard  dung  in  the  common  me- 
thod, and  a  large  proportion  of  oil-cake  added  to 
it;  and  he  has  the  advantage  of  reserving  the 
oil  cake  for  the  wheat  crop,  to  which  he  consi- 
a  more  adapted  tl:;in  to  tisuiips.  The  tur- 


nip crop,  though  so  highly  important,  has  hitherto 
however,  even  under  the  best  management,  been 
considered  as  avery  uncertain  one,  depend  in  gal-- 
most wholly  on  seasons.  In  a  rainy  season  it 
has  been  unusually  good ;  but  in  dry  seasons 
there  is  frequently  a  general  failure ;  and,  inde- 
pendent of  the  plant  suffering  from  a  deficiency 
of  moisture,  in  its  very  early  state,  it  is  liable,  in 
all  seasons,  and  peculiarly  in  dry  ones,  to  be- 
come a  prey  to  the  ravages  of  the  fly,  which  not 
unfrequently  sweeps  off  whole  and  repeatedly 
sown  crops.  Some  ingenious  mechanical  con- 
trivances have  been  applied  to  remedy  this  latter 
evil,  and  a  curious  trap,  invented  by  Mr.  Paul 
of  Starston,  a  most  intelligent  and  active  farmer, 
has  been  successfully  used  in  saving  many  crops  ; 
but  its  application  is  necessarily  attended  with 
trouble ;  and  it  is,  at  least,  an  additional  source 
of  occupation  at  a  time  when  all  hands  are 
more  than  ordinarily  employed  in  making  hay, 
&c.,  and  it  has  never,  therefore,  been  generally 
made  use  of.  Mr.  Coke,  however,  no  longer  con- 
siders the  turnip  crop  as  an  uncertain  one  ;  under 
his  improved  system  of  cultivation,  it  appears 
to  be  alike  secure  both  from  the  seasons  and  the 
depredations  of  this  insect. 

By  depositing  a  much  larger  quantity  of  seed 
than  is  usually  sown,  Mr.  Coke  produces  a 
greatly  increased  number  of  plants,  which,  as 
the  time  of  the  insect  feeding  upon  them  is  li- 
mited, obviously  increases  the  chance  of  a 
greater  number  of  them  being  ultimately  left  un- 
touched ;  and  this  chance  is  much  increased  by 
shortening  the  period  of  the  existence  of  the 
leaf  on  which  these  little  animals  feed,  whicli 
is  effected  by  accelerating  the  growth  of  the 
plants,  by  the  stimulus  of  manure  placed  imme- 
diately under  them,  and  also  by  the  judicious 
method  of  depositing  the  seed  immediately  after 
the  earth  has  been  well  stirred  by  the  plough, 
by  which  in  all  seasons  some  moisture  is  evolved, 
and  some  chemical  changes  effected,  which  much 
favor  the  first  process  of  vegetation.  The  leaf 
on  which  the  insects  feed  is  the  first  or  cotyle- 
don leaf,  which  is  known  to  live  only  until  the 
second  or  rough  leaf  is  formed.  The  cotyledon 
leaf  appears  to  be  an  expansion  or  evolution  of 
the  seed  itself,  and  being  probably  nourished  by 
the  saccharine  matter,  which,  from  analogy,  we 
may  suppose  is  elaborated  during  its  process  of 
germination,  it  acquires  a  degree  of  sweetness 
which  attracts  the  fly.  This  communication  be- 
tween the  seed  and  cotyledon  leaf  continues, 
however,  only  until  the  roots  are  thrown  out 
whose  office  it  is  to  supply  nutriment,  derived 
immediately  from  the  soil,  to  the  plant  in  its  more 
advanced  state,  and  simultaneously  with  their 
formation  below  the  surface  are  the  second  or 
rough  leaves  formed  above  ground  ;  and,  as  soon 
as  this  curious  economy  between  the  roots  and 
these  leaves  is  established,  the  seed,  no  longer 
necessary  as  a  source  of  nourishment,  wastes 
away,  the  cotyledon  leaves  die  and  fall  off,  and, 
the  rough  leaves  not  being  sweet,  the  fly  is  no 
longer  attracted,  disappears  also,  and  the  crop  is 
secure. 

This  excellent  method  of  cultivating  the  tur- 
nip will,  probably,  be  understood  by  the  follow- 
ing brief  detail  of  the  process  of  sowing  it.  it 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


159 


is  effected  by  forming  trenches  and  raising  riil'jes 
on  a  clean  tilth,  by  a  trench  or  double-breasted 
plough  and  a  pair  of  horses,  one  of  which  always 
goes  in  the  last  trench,  and  this  sets  out  the  width 
and  preserves  the  straight  line  with  tolerable  ac- 
curacy. A  cart  and  two  or  three  horses  pass 
down  the  trenches,  which  are  thus  opened,  drop- 
ping heaps  of  compost  manure,  which  are  spread 
by  two  men  with  forks,  and  the  manure  falls 
pretty  equally  in  the  rows ;  another  plough,  like  the 
former,  passes  through  the  middle  of  the  first  form- 
ed ridge,  divides  it  equally,  covers  the  manure,  and 
forms  another  ridge  immediately  over  it ;  a  boy 
with  a  mule,  or  little  horse,  drawing  a  very  light 
roller,  follows  this  second  operation,  and  flattens 
the  top  of  the  ridges  ;  another  boy,  with  a  like 
horse,  follows  the  roller  with  a  drill,  and  deposits 
the  seed  on  the  middle  of  the  ridges,  and  a  light 
chain  attached  at  each  end  to  the  back  of  the 
drill  and  whicfi  at  first  sight  appeared  as  if  ac- 
cidentally fallen  from  it,  throws  the  earth  into 
the  drilled  lines  and  covers  the  seed,  and  thus 
the  work  goes  on,  the  laborers  and  ihe  relative 
progress  of  the  work  being  so  proportioned,  that 
none  are  idle,  none  stand  in  each  other's  way ; 
the  manure  is  not  left  to  dry  in  the  sun,  but  the 
operation  is  completed  as  it  proceeds,  and  about 
three  acres  in  a  day,  with  fourteen  cart  loads 
of  manure  on  each,  as  before  observed,  may 
be  accomplished  with  one  complete  set. 

In  drilling  wheat,  Mr.  Coke  allows  much 
more  than  the  usual  quantity  of  seed  ;  ten  pecks 
an  acre  are  the  utmost  which  most  farmers  drill 
or  dibble,  and  even  six  pecks  have  sometimes 
been  thought  sufficient ;  but  he  allows  four 
bushels  an  acre  in  October,  and  even  five  bushels 
in  November.  In  deposit-ng  so  large  a  quantity, 
of  seed,  and  burying  it  so  much  deeper  than 
when  sown  broadcast,  it  certainly  does  not  seem 
so  requisite  to  earth  up  the  plants,  as  probably 
there  will  ever  be  a  sufficient  number  of  stems 
derived,  in  the  first  instance,  from  the  seeds 
themselves ;  but  then  a  question  arises,  and 
which  may  merit  consideration,  whether  there 
would  not,  eventually,  be  an  equal  number  to 
produce  ears,  were  a  less  quantity  of  seed  sown, 
and  the  plants  afterwards  judiciously  moulded 
>ip.  It  would  seem,  indeed,  to  come  to  the 
same  thing,  and  if  so  in  the  latter  case  there 
would  be  a  manifest,  and  on  a  large  scale  a  very 
great  saving  of  seed.  It  cannot  be  expected 
that  nature  should  conform  her  processes  to  cal- 
culations on  paper  ;  but  if  the  production  of  buds 
and  stems  from  the  joints  of  wheat  plants,  when 
duly  surrounded  with  earth,  depends  upon  an 
established  and  unvarying  law  of  nature,  it  must 
be  the  same  thing  whether  twelve  stems  are  pro- 
duced directly,  from  six  grains  of  wheat,  or  six 
stems  are  produced  from  three  grains,  and  six 
more  are  subsequently  produced  by  surrounding 
the  lower  joints  with  earth.  A  few  experiments, 
conducted  as  they  usually  are  at  Holkham,  would 
decide  the  question. 

Mr.  Coke  is  an  advocate  for  early  sowing ; 
and,  as  the  drill  puts  in  the  seed  quickly,  and,  as 
before  observed,  no  time  is  lost  in  carting  on 
manure ;  he  has  seldom  much  to  sow  in  Novem- 
ber. He  says  he  has  always  the  best  crops  when 
the  wheat  is  very  thick  in  the  rows ;  and  he 


never  thinks  it  thick  enough  if  he  can  easily  pass 
his  finger  through  the  stems,  near  the  ground. 
He  cuts  his  wheat  very  early,  even  when  the 
ear  and  stem  are  greenish,  and  the  grain  not 
hard.  He  says  the  wheat,  thus  early  reaped,  is 
always  his  best  sample,  and  he  gets  2s.  a  quarter 
for  it  more  than  for  wheat  cut  in  a  more  mature 
state.  He,  perhaps,  loses  something  in  the  mea- 
sure, the  skin  being  thinner,  and  the  grain,  pro- 
bably, not  quite  so  bulky ;  but,  if  this  be  true, 
it  is  fully  compensated  by  his  suffering  no  loss 
by  shedding  on  the  ground,  which,  when  the  eai 
is  ripe  and  the  weather  windy,  is  often  not  in- 
considerable. He  is  equally  early  in  cutting 
oats  and  peas :  when  Dr.  Rigby  observed  to 
him  that,  in  both  these,  the  seeds  were  not  all 
ripe;  his  answer  was  that  he  should  lose  more 
by  the  falling  of  the  ripe  seeds  at  the  bot^pms, 
than  he  should  gain  by  waiting  until  the  rest  were 
ripe ;  and  that  the  straw  in  this  state,  retaining 
some  immature  seeds,  was  of  more  value  to  his 
stock  in  the  yards,  than  if  cut  later. 

To  prove  the  utility  of  reaping  wheat  early, 
Mr.  Coke  had  hung  up,  in  his  own  room,  a  few 
handfuls  of  wheat  which  was  greenish  and  im- 
mature ;  in  a  few  days  they  had  ripened  in  the 
capsule.  '  Mr.  George  Hibbert,  of  Clapham,  a 
gentleman  well  skilled  and  much  experienced  in 
the  cultivation  of  plants,  was  with  us,'  says  our 
author,  '  and  he  has  since,  in  a  letter,  observed 
to  me  that  this  is  a  common  natural  process, 
more  especially  when  the  capsules  are  of  a  suc- 
culent nature,  and  which  all  gardeners  very  well 
know  ;  and  he  mentioned  a  remarkable  instance 
which  occurred  to  him  respecting  a  plant  whose 
seed  had  no  considerable  envelopement.  James 
Niven  was  employed  by  him  to  collect  the  seeds 
of  plants  in  Southern  Africa :  he  sent  a  speci- 
men of  a  beautiful  erica,  lamenting,  in  his  letter, 
that  he  had  never  been  able  to  find  one  of  that 
species  advanced  into  fruit ;  but  out  of  that  very 
specimen,  which  he  seems  to  have  gathered  in 
the  full  vigor  of  flowering,  Mr.  Hibbert  actually 
obtained  ripe  seeds,  and  produced  plants  here 
by  sowing  them.  When  Niven  returned,  he 
showed  him  the  specimen,  and  he  said  a  very 
considerable  progress  towards  fructification  must 
have  been  made  during  the  transit  from  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  hither,  by  the  rising  of  the  sap 
within  the  specimen.' 

Mr.  Coke's  course  of  husbandry,  that  is,  the 
succession  of  his  crops,  varies  but  little  from 
that  which  is  general  throughout  the  county  of 
Norfolk.  It  is  called  the  four  or  five  course ; — 
first  year,  turnips — second,  barley,  laid  down 
with  clover  or  other  grass  seeds — third,  grass  to 
cut  or  feed — fourth,  wheat.  He  has,  within  a 
few  years,  found  it  profitable  to  lay  down  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  land  with  cock's-foot  grass,  dac- 
tylis  glomerata,  and  this  lies  two  years,  making 
the  course  on  this  land  five  years. 

This  grass  does  not  stand  for  hay,  but  is  ex- 
cellent sheep  feed ;  when  fed  close,  it  tillers  very 
much  ;  or  spreads  and  branches  on  the  «ground 
with  multiplied  stems,  and,  in  the  season  most 
favorable  to  vegetation,  it  will  grow  more  than 
an  inch  in  a  few  days.  Sheep  are  very  fond  of 
it,  and  Mr.  Coke  says  he  can  pasture  more  upon 
it  than  on  any  other  layer  of  artificial  grass.  The 


160 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


seeds  of  thu  grass,  which  is  indigenous,  are  ga- 
thered in  the  woods  and  lanes  by  women  and 
children,  who  cut  the  tops  off  with  scissars, 
about  six  inches  long,  an  inch  and  a  half  below 
the  lower  spur;  they  are  paid  3<f.  a  bushel  for 
it,  measured  as  hay ;  one  bushel  of  seed  is  ob- 
tained from  seven  bushels  of  it  in  the  state  it  is 
thus  gathered. 

Though  not  cultivated  as  other  artificial  grasses, 
in  the  regular  course  of 'husbandry,  saintfoin  has 
been  found,  at  Holkham,  a  valuable  source  of 
hay,  and  of  autumnal  pasturage.  It  was  first 
cultivated  in  this  district,  in  the  year  1774,  upon 
the  Brent  Hill  Farm,  by  Mr.  Beck,  the  then 
occupier.  Mr.  Beck's  example  was  followed  by 
.Mr.  Coke,  and  he  has  cultivated  saintfoin,  in 
Holkham  park,  about  forty  years.  It  seems 
mosi  adapted  to  thin  soils,  incumbent  on  chalk. 
The  seed  is  generally  sown,  in  the  pod,  at  the 
rate  of  five  bushels  per  acre,  with  the  barley, 
after  a  turnip  crop  ;  nine  pounds  of  trefoil  per 
acre  are  sown  at  the  same  time.  The  saintfoin 
being  in  pod,  attention  is  required  to  bury  the 
seed  properly.  The  trefoil  produces  a  crop  to 
mow  in  the  following  year,  and  dies  away  in  the 
succeeding  years.  The  saint foin  is  not  in  full 
perfection  until  the  third  and  fourth  years.  It 
continues  good  until  the  ninth  year,  after  which 
it  becomes  weaker,  and  is  ploughed  up  for  the 
land  to  go  through  a  regular  course  of  husban- 
dry. The  saintfoin  is  seldom  manured  or  top- 
dressed  :  it  produces  a  ton  and  a  half  of  hay  per 
acre,  annually,  while  in  perfection.  It  is  never 
spring-fed,  but  is  depastured  by  all  sorts  of 
cattle,  to  consume  the  after-math  in  autumn. 

Mr.  Coke  is  ever  ready  to  try  the  cultivation 
of  any  new  article.  The  introduction  of  the 
Swedish  turnip  into  general  cultivation  is  much 
owing  to  him.  I  was  pleased,  says  Dr.  R.,  to 
see  a  crop  of  mangel  wurzel  in  a  good  state : 
and  he  told  me  he  had  procured  some  Heligo- 
land beans,  a  new  and  promising  article,  which 
is  said  to  yield  sixty  bushels  or  fifteen  coombs 
per  acre,  and  he  proposed  dibbling  them  on  the 
transplanted  land  ;  but  I  saw  no  cabbages,  no 
succory,  no  burnet,  no  parsnips.  In  Mr.  Blai- 
kie's  pamphlet,  on  the  Conversion  of  Arable 
Land  into  Pasture,  he  gives  the  result  of  two 
trials  of  dibbling  the  Heligoland  beans  on  this 
land  ;  the  one  was  upon  land  which  had  under- 
gone a  complete  summer  fallow,  previous  to  its 
being  transplanted ;  and  the  other  was  land  from 
which  Swedish  turnips  were  taken  up  in  No- 
vember, but  they  seem  not  to  have  answered  in 
either  case ;  the  failure  is,  however,  attributed  to 
the  beans  having  been  put  into  the  ground  too 
late.  In  another  instance,  Poland  oats  were 
sown,  and  produced  twelve  coombs  per  acre. 

Mr.  Coke's  flocks  are  highly  estimated,  and  he 
is  distinguished  for  his  skill  and  attention  in  this 
branch  of  rural  economy.  His  sheep  are  all 
Soulhdowns,  but  he  told  me  he  had  not  the  merit 
of  selecting  them  himself.  Some  years  ago  he 
was  visited  by  some  gentlemen  from  the  South 
of  England,  who  found  much  fault  with  the 
Norfolks,  which  then  composed  his  flocks,  and 
told  him  that  the  sheep  in  their  county,  the 
Sussex  Southdowns,  were  much  more  profitable 
and  better  adapted  to  his  pastures  : — he  bought 


500  on  their  recommendation,  and,  finding  they 
fully  answered  his  purpose,  he  got  rid  of  his 
Norfolks,  and  has  had  none  since  but  the 
Southdowns.  Mr.  Coke  was  much  gratified  on 
finding  that  Mr.  Cline  confirmed  this  preference 
in  his  paper  on  the  forms  and  constitutions  of 
animals,  in  which  he  considers  the  characteristic 
mark  of  health  and  vigor,  in  an  animal,  to  be  the 
expanded  chest,  the  thorax  which  has  ample 
room  for  the  free  play  of  the  heart  and  lungs. 
In  the  Norfolk  sheep  the  sternum  terminates 
almost  in  a  line  or  edge,  the  ribs  contracting 
too  much  as  they  approach  it ;  while  the  chest 
of  the  Southdowns  is  more  rounded  and  wider, 
terminating  with  a  less  angle  at  the  sternum. 
He  remarked,  on  showing  Dr.  Rigby  his  admi- 
rable dairy  of  North  Devon  cows,  the  same  cha- 
racteristic superiority  of  form  over  the  Norfolk 
cows.  He  particularly  pointed  out  the  flat  line 
the  ribs  take  in  spreading  from  the  spine,  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  chest. 

When  Mr.  Coke  came  to  his  estate  at  Holk- 
ham, the  rent  was  £2200, — this  was  forty-one 
years  ago.  The  produce  of  his  woods  and  plan- 
tations amounts  now  to  a  larger  sum  ;  for  he  has 
had  the  spirit  and  judgment  to  plant  1500  acres ; 
the  greater  part  of  which  have  become  magnifi- 
cent woods,  which  have  not  only  by  their  pic- 
turesque beauty,  unspeakably  improved  the 
landscape;  by  their  protection  in  checking  the 
cold  rude  winds,  so  prevalent  on  this  coast,  ma- 
terially softened  the  temperature ;  and,  by  the 
annual  fall  of  their  leaves,  even  contributed 
something  to  the  fertilisation  of  the  soil ;  but,  at 
this  time,  the  annual  fall  of  timber,  poles,  and 
underwood,  from  them,  averages  about  £2700. 
The  timber  and  poles  are  applicable  to  most 
building  purposes;  some  of  them  are  used  in 
the  buildings,  which  he  is  constantly  carrying  on 
upon  an  extensive  scale;  his  houses,  cottages, 
barns,  stables,  and  other  farming  buildings  bein^ 
all  in  a  superior  style  of  architecture  ;  and  the 
remainder  is  sold  in  the  neighbourhood. 

'  I  saw,'  says  Dr.  R.,  '  a  handsome  house, 
built  in  the  summer  of  1815,  and  now  occupied 
by  his  head  gardener:  the  doors,  window;;, 
floors,  stairs,  as  well  as  the  roofs,  joists,  spars, 
&c.,  were  all  of  Scotch  larch,  and  spruce  fir,  of 
Holkham  growth ;  and  his  timber  yard,  from 
the  same  source,  displayed  no  mean  quantity  of 
rough  timber,  balks,  planks,  &c.  In  the  plan- 
tations, several  of  which  I  rode  through,  the 
oaks  and  Spanish  chestnuts  have  already  attained 
a  considerable  size,  and  are' in  a  state  of  vigor- 
ous growth ;  some  of'the  oaks,  particularly  those 
near  the  house,  being  the  largest  I  ever  saw,  of 
the  same  age ;  these  in  time  will,  obviously,  be- 
come the  most  valuable  timber  on  the  estate ;  in 
time  they  may  even  supply  our  future  wooden 
walls,  and,  under  a  change  of  form,  navigate  the 
very  sea  which  washes  the  shores  on  which  they 
are  now  growing.' 

Firs,  of  the  different  species,  the  Scotch  larch, 
spruce,  and  silver,  have  attained  a  sufficient 
growth  to  be  applied  to  the  above-mentioned 
useful  purposes  ;  and,  like  the  oaks,  for  many 
years  to  come,  will  have  an  increasing  value. 
There  are  also  other  trees,  which,  though  of  a 
subordinate  character,  Mr.  C«>kr  turns  to  ;t  gO"  '1 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


161 


account ;  the  Salix  coerulea,  or  the  French  wil- 
low, at  six  years'  growth,  can  be  advantageously 
riven  into  laths,  which  are  very  tough,  and 
answer  the  purpose  quite  as  well  as  those  made 
of  foreign  deal :  the  populus  monilifera,  the 
Canada  poplar,  also  grows  very  luxuriantly.  The 
wild  cherry  is  also  cultivated  extensively,  and 
its  timber  is  valuable  for  all  building  purposes, 
when  of  forty  of  fifty  years'  growth.  Another 
poplar,  the  black  Italian,  said  to  be  the  most 
profitable  for  planting  of  all  poplars,  is  judici- 
ously planted  as  a  skreen,  round  some  barns  and 
farming  buildings. 

Mr.  Coke's  system  of  letting  his  estates  is  not 
less  excellent  than  his  farming  system  :  a  long 
lease  and  a  moderate  rent  cannot  fail  to  be  highly 
advantageous  both  to  landlord  and  tenant ;  to 
the  occupier  it  affords  every  encouragement  to 
invest  capital,  and  every  motive  for  the  skilful 
cultivation  of  his  farm;  and  to  the  landlord 
eventual  permanent  profit  in  the  improved  value 
of  his  estate.  The  following  have  been  the  im- 
portant results : — Mr.  Coke's  tenants  are  en- 
riched, and  his  property  has  increased  in  value 
to  an  almost  incredible  degree.  He  gives 
twenty-one  years'  leases,  and  he  has  already  seen 
the  termination  of  such  leases  on  most  of  his 
farms,  and,  though  he  continues  the  same  encou- 
raging system  of  long  lease  and  moderate  rent, 
his  present  relatively  moderate  rents,  relatively 
as  to  the  improved  state  of  his  farms,  have  ad- 
mitted the  total  increase  of  his  Norfolk  rents  to 
amount  to  the  enormous  sum  of  £20,000;  an 
increase  in  the  value  of  landed  property,  a  crea- 
tion of  wealth,  probably,  unexampled,  except  in 
the  vicinity  of  large  towns,  or  in  populous  ma- 
nufacturing districts.  On  the  renewal  of  many 
of  his  leases,  he  has  given  the  tenants  the  bonus 
of  a  capital  house  :  these  afford  not  only  every 
possible  accommodation  to  his  tenants'  families, 
but  are  striking  ornaments  to  the  country. 

Irrigation  is  one  of  the  superior  improvements 
in  agriculture,  which  Mr.  Coke  has  advocated 
and  adopted;  but  this  can,  obviously,  be  only 
effected  in  peculiar  situations,  and  can  only  be 
undertaken  by  persons  of  considerable  capital. 
The  situation  of  Holkham  does  not  admit  of  ir- 
rigating to  any  extent ;  but  even  here  Mr.  Coke 
exhibits  a  water  meadow,  where  it  could  be 
little  expected  ;  it  is  near  the  house  at  Longlands, 
his  principal  farm,  and  rather  on  high  ground ; 
the  source  is  a  large  pond,  originally  formed  for 
the  common  purposes  of  a  farm- yard.  There 
may  be  a  spring  which  feeds  it  in  some  degree, 
but  its  principal  supply  is  from  the  heavens. 
When  the  pond  is  full,  the  water  is  well-directed 
to  an  adjoining  meadow,  whose  level  is  a  little 
below  it.  To  a  certain  degree  it  has  its  use, 
but  the  supply  of  water  is  inadequate  to  an  ex- 
tensive and  long  continued  irrigation. 

'  The  best  specimen  of  complete  irrigation, 
on  \any  of  his  estates,  is  at  Lexham,'  says  Dr. 
Iligby,  'which  I  have  seen,  when  visiting  his 
respectable  tenant  there,  Mr.  Beck.  A  small 
stream,  tolerably  well  supplied,  runs  through  a 
little  valley  of  ordinary  meadow  land ;  a  large 
reservoir  of  several  acres  has  been  formed  by  an 
embankment,  and  raised  so  much  above  the  con- 
tiguous grounds  as  to  admit  of  many  streams,  in 
VOL.  XIX. 


different  directions,  being  conveyed  over  an  ex- 
tensive surface  of  land,  to  which  they  impart  a 
wonderfully  fertilising  principle,  and  by  antici- 
pating the  common  period  of  the  growth  of 
grass  in  the  spring,  and  by  continuing  it  lux- 
uriantly during  the  whole  seasons  of  vegetating 
temperature,  the  supply  of  grass  is  much  more 
early,  and  infinitely  more  abundant,  than  could 
be  obtained  on  the  land  of  such  a  farm  under 
common  circumstances.  The  grass  which  first 
shows  itself  in  the  spring,  in  the  watered  mea- 
dows, is  the  festuca  fluitans,  the  long  and 
broadish  leaves  of  which  are  known  to  float  on 
the  surface  of  water,  in  ditches,  &c.  The  cattle 
are  very  fond  of  this  grass,  and,  on  being  first 
turned  into  these  meadows,  run  with  eagerness 
to  get  it.  These  water  meadows  were  well  de- 
signed and  executed  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 
Smith,  the  engineer,  but  at  a  very  considerable 
expense.  Mr.  Coke,  who  has  given  a  long  lease 
of  the  farm  to  Mr.  Beck,  is  said  to  have  been  at 
half  of  the  expense;  and,  in  addition  to  it,  he 
has  built  him  an  excellent  house,  on  a  rising 
ground,  and  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  water, 
which  is  here  as  much  a  feature  of  decoration 
and  beauty  as  in  any  gentleman's  ground  ;  and 
the  whole  would  form  a  picturesque  scene,  were 
more  trees  growing  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
water.' 

Dr.  Rigby  afterwards  visited  Holkham  at  the 
sheep-shearing.  At  this  time,  he  says  '  consider- 
ing the  extreme  dryness  of  the  season,  the  crops, 
particularly  the  wheat,  were  excellent.  The 
Devon  cattle  were  not  only  beautiful,  but,  by 
the  state  of  their  flesh,  they  betrayed  no  marks 
of  the  prevailing  drought,  it  being  a  peculiar 
excellence  of  this  stock  that  they  will  keep 
themselves  in  good  condition  in  moderate'  pas- 
tures. The  flocks  of  Southdown  sheep  appear 
to  be  every  year  improving,  showing  the  judici- 
ous and  unceasing  attention  paid  to  them.  About 
three  o'clock  the  company  returned  to  the  hall, 
and  not  fewer  than  300  persons  sat  down  to  din- 
ner in  the  statue  gallery,  Mr.  Coke  presiding  at 
one  table  and  the  earl  of  Albemarle  at  the  other. 
After  giving  '  a  fine  fleece  and  a  fat  carcase,' 
Mr.  Coke  proposed  the  health  of  '  lord  Erskine, 
who  sat  near  him.  He  should  not,  however,  he 
said,  give  him  as  a  lawyer,  but  as  a  farmer. 
The  circumstance  of  his  lordship  having,  of  late 
years,  turned  his  attention  to  agriculture,  and 
having  been,  several  times  during  the  morning 
engaged  in  conversation  with  him  on  the  subject 
of  Merinos,  whose  cause  he  seems  disposed  to 
advocate,  he  was  induced  to  anticipate  some  ob- 
servations from  his  lordship  on  that  subject,  and, 
in  a  vein  of  humor,  alluded  to  the  rudiments  of 
his  lordship's  agricultural  studies,  and  the  pro- 
gress he  had  made.  I  am  led  to  hope,  said  Mr. 
Coke,  that  we  shall  hear  something  instructive, 
especially  on  the  subject  of  Merinos,  which,  you 
know,  has  many  times  been  discussed  in  this 
room  with  great  good-humor.  It  will  give  me 
pleasure,  and  I  am  persuaded  it  will  give  you 
all  pleasure,  to  hear  his  lordship  inform  you  of 
his  great  success.  1  am  fond  of  instruction, 
have  met  it  many  times  where  I  did  not  expect 
it,  and  look  for  it  now  very  anxiously. — I  know 
his  lordship's  abilities  ;  but  I  fear  the  subject  is 

M 


162 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


a  difficult  one,  as  1  have  never  yet  known  a  good 
carcase  supported  under  10  or  12  Ibs.  of  such 
close  and  fine  wool ;  and  I  have  long  been  con- 
vinced that  good  carcases  and  fine  fleeces  toge- 
ther, early  maturity  and  a  quick  return,  which 
we  have  in  the  Southdowns,  will  always  beat  the 
Merinos. — Their  backs  are  as  narrow  as  rabbits, 
and  their  faults  appear  to  be  incorrigible. 
Perhaps  every  one  here  may  not  think  so,  and  I 
know  there  is  a  considerable  party  of  public- 
spirited  gentlemen  who  still  persist  in  the  Me- 
rino cause.  I  am  persuaded  they  do  it  from  the 
best  motives :  I  heartily  wish  them  success,  but 
I  do  not  envy  them  ;  I  do  not  envy  my  honor- 
able friend  here,  and  hope  he  has  reaped  a  plen- 
tiful and  encouraging  profit.  For  my  part,  I 
am  governed  by  experience,  and  I  always  make 
haste  to  discard  error  when  I  find  it  out.  I 
must  beg,  however,  to  relate  an  anecdote,  which 
will  show  you  what  immense  progress  his  lord- 
ship must  have  made  in  these  studies,  since  the 
first  time  I  had  the  honor  of  his  company  here, 
to  venture  upon  such  a  subject.  He  was  riding 
with  me  in  a  barouche  by  a  field  of  wheat,  some 
years  ago,  at  a  time  when  he  certainly  was  not 
prepared  to  enlighten  us  on  the  difficulties  of  the 
point  in  question,  and  he  suddenly  clapped  his 
hands  together,  and  exclaimed, '  What  a  beau- 
tiful piece  of  lavender !' — but  since  that  time, 
gentlemen,  his  lordship  is,  I  know  very  well, 
considerably  improved,  and  may  be  thoroughly 
prepared  to  defend  the  cause  upon  which  I  have 
so  long  been  in  an  error,  if  it  be  one. 

His  lordship,  in  reply,  commented,  in  a  strain 
of  pleasantry,  on  Mr.  Coke's  observations  rela- 
tive to  his  studies  in  agriculture.  He  had  stu- 
died it  under  an  able  master,  and,  if  he  had  made 
no  considerable  progress,  it  must  be  owing  to  his 
own  want  of  capacity.  He,  however,  assured 
the  company  that  he  did  know  wheat  from  laven- 
der ;  but  he  certainly  had  made  the  exclama- 
tion alluded  to ;  and  was  it  to  he  wondered  at  ? 
He  had  seen  wheat  many  times  before ;  but, 
never  having  seen  any  so  admirably  cultivated, 
was  a  sufficient  reason  for  his  not  knowing  the 
plant  again. — He  had  seen  such  facts  and  ex- 
amples at  Holktiam,  that  he  had  been  struck 
with  the  conviction  that  agriculture  must  be  an 
important  branch  of  knowledge  :  important  not 
only  to  the  good  of  mankind,  but  to  mental  im- 
provement ;  to  the  understanding  of  a  man,  and 
to  the  science  of  a  philosopher.  He  had  indeed, 
his  lordship  observed,  commenced  his  study  of 
agriculture  late  in  life,  when,  perhaps,  the  vigor 
of  his  attention  was  spent  in  other  pursuits,  more 
important  to  him  at  the  time,  but  never  more 
pleasing.  It  is  this  day,  said  his  lordship,  forty 
years  since  I  was  called  to  the  bar ; — I  have 
studied  Coke  at  Westminster,  and  I  now  study 
Coke  at  Holkham.  But  the  difference  between 
these  studies  is  very  great ;  they  differ  as  the 
laws  of  man  differ  from  the  laws  of  nature  ;  as  a 
complex  and  opposing  system  of  facts  and  pre- 
cedents,— where  no  two  cases  can  be  perfectly 
parallel,  where  human  interests  and  passions  are 
perpetually  excited,  where  human  evidence  is 
often  incomplete,  often  doubtful, — differs  from 
that  order  and  regularity,  where  the  finger 
of  nature  points  to  certain  conclusions;  where 


the  fruits  of  our  skill  and  labor  rise  to  gire  tes- 
timony ;  and  where  the  very  earth  is  eloquent, 
and  speaks  nothing  but  the  truth.  If,  continued 
Ins  lordship,  we  only  consider  the  subject  of 
manure,  we  shall  perceive  one  of  the  most  strik- 
ing bounties  and  benefits  of  the  divine  ordkiation. 
and  of  that  wisdom  with  which  we  are  blessed, 
in  a  thousand  ways,  without  our  knowing  it : 
this  very  substance,  the  refuse  of  every  thing, 
had  it  been  useless,  must  have  accumulated  in 
heaps,  intolerably  noisome,  and  perpetually  pes- 
tilential ;  but,  by  the  blessing  of  providence,  it  is 
every  man's  interest  to  remove  these  otherwise 
increasing  mountains  of  filth,  and  by  decompo- 
sition, in  various  ways,  concealed  in  a  great 
measure  from  us,  it  gives  increase  to  our  fields, 
and  adds  to  the  means  of  industry  and  the  re- 
ward of  the  husbandman.  In  allusion  to  what 
he  was  expected  to  deliver  in  the  Merino  cause, 
his  lordship  very  pleasantly  waived  the  subject, 
by  saying  that  it  was  a  subject'on  which  he  was 
yet  considerably  deficient  in  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience, and  he  must  take  a  few  more  lessons 
before  he  could  venture  to  sum  up  the  evidence 
before  such  a  jury. 

In  proposing  the  health  of  lord  Lynedock,  Mr. 
Coke  took  occasion  to  advert  to  the  Scotch  hus- 
bandry. He  alluded  to  a  report  which  had  prevail- 
ed, which  had  perhaps  been  industriously  circulat- 
ed, and  eagerly  listened  to,  as  all  calumnies  were, 
by  many  persons.  It  had  been  said  that  he  had 
found  fault  with  the  agriculture  of  Scotland. 
Found  fault !  said  Mr.  Coke,  to  be  sure  I  did, 
and  I  praised  it  likewise.  But  the  first  only  is 
remembered  by  those  who  would  malign  my  ob- 
servations. If  there  be  a  fault,  it  ought  to  be 
noticed,  or  how  should  we  improve?  The  truth 
is,  the  agriculture  of  Scotland  deserves  very 
great  praise,  and  especially  their  turnip  husban- 
dry, which  equals  any  thing  I  ever  saw.  If  I 
had  wavered  before  in  opinion,  I  should  have 
been  at  once  convinced  of  the  decided  superiority 
of  the  ridge  system,  by  what  I  saw  in  Scotland ; 
and  I  now  think  it  my  duty  to  declare  my  con- 
viction that  the  ridge  system  of  cultivating  this 
crop  is  not  only  the  best  for  producing  the 
largest  crops,  but  it  will  obtain,  what  can  never 
be  insured  by  the  other,  a  certain  crop.  By 
what  we  witness  this  year,  notwithstanding  the 
drought,  the  crops  in  this  neighbourhood,  by  the 
ridge  system,  are  both  forward  and  promising ; 
and,  as  this  is  the  foundation  of  the  success  of  the 
whole  course,  it  must  be  the  most  important 
point  in  our  favor.  Mr.  Coke  then  congratulated 
the  neighbourhood  around  him,  for  having  very 
generally  adopted  this  system,  for  which  they 
were  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Blaikie.  The  fault 
he  had  found  in  Scotland,  Mr.  Coke  observed, 
was  that  the  land,  with  the  crop  after  turnips, 
was  not  so  clean  as  it  might  be,  and  he  was  induced 
to  observe  it,  in  order  to  draw  the  attention  of 
the  Scotch  farmers  to  the  probable  defect  there 
might  be  in  cleaning  the  fallows;  buthewilling- 
ly  allowed  that  they  had  a  very  troublesome 
weed  in  the  north,  which  seemed  to  be  peculiar 
to  Scotland  ;  and,  as  the  root  was  a  small  bulb, 
it  was  difficult  to  be  destroyed.  It  increased  so 
much  in  the  land  before  the  field  came  to  wheat, 
that  the  crop,  if  lodged,  would  be  presently  tied 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


163 


down  by  the  stems  of  this  weed  growing  through 
it,  and  it  could  not  rise4o  ripen  the  grain,  lie 
said  he  had  visited  lord  Lynedock's  farm,  and  he 
was  beyond  measure  gratified  at  his  reception. 
The  noble  lord  had  carried  inoculation  into  Scot- 
land ;  he  thanked  him  for  it,  and  it  proved  that 
this  meeting  did  good. 

In  the  course  of  this  meeting,  Mr.  Coke  stated 
that  it  had  existed  forty-two  years.  Upon  no 
former  occasion  had  it  been  so  numerously  at- 
tended :  a  proof  that  the  motives  for  its  establish- 
ment had  met  with  the  approbation  of  his  neigh- 
bours, and  that  the  result  had  been  favorable  to 
the  country.  He  trusted  that  it  would  still  in- 
crease in  numbers  every  year,  and  that  he  should 
lie  honored  with  the  company  of  all  who  desired 
to  see  agriculture  cultivated  on  the  liberal  princi- 
ple of  a  community  of  interest  between  landlord 
and  tenant.  When  he  began  this  institution,  the 
land  of  llolkham  was  so  poor  and  unproductive 
that  much  of  it  was  not  worth  5s  per  acre. — He 
began  with  a  trial  of  the  Leicester  breed  of  sheep ; 
but,  by  the  advice  of  Mr.  Ellman  of  Sussex,  he 
was  induced  to  adopt  the  Southdown  breed,  and 
to  that  admirable  stock  he  much  attributed  the 
progress  which  Norfolkhad  made  in  cultivation. 
The  extension  of  farms,  where  flocks  were  to  be 
employed,  was  unavoidable.  Such  farms  must 
be  large  :  but  if  capital  and  skill  were  applied  to 
them,  and  the  flocks  were  made  the  means  of  in- 
creasing the  corn  produce,  so  far  from  its  being 
injurious,  as  a  question  of  political  economy,  ex- 
perience had  proved  it  to  be  highly  advantageous, 
since  he  could  state,  from  actual  enumeration, 
that  three  times  the  number  of  inhabitants  were 
maintained  on  the  same  space  of  ground  as  be- 
fore ;  the  population  of  Holkham  had  increased 
from  200  to  600,  within  a  few  years  back,  since 
cultivation,  by  the  union  of  capital  and  skill,  had 
advanced.  In  all  his  parish  there  was  scarcely  a 
single  individual,  of  any  age,  that  did  not  find 
full  employment,  and  they  even  wanted  hands. — 
He  had  been  applied  to,  some  time  ago,  by  the 
principal  inhabitants  of  the  three  parishes  of 
llolkham,  Warham,  and  Wighton,  to-  say  that 
their  poor-house  was  no  longer  wanted ;  that,  in 
fact,  it  was  a  burden'to  keep  it  up;  their  poor 
were  so  much  diminished,  they  had  no  use  for  it. 
And  when  he  told  them  to  consider  well  what 
they  were  about,  and  to  look  forward  to  times 
when  the  poor  might  increase  upon  them,  they 
replied,  they  were  convinced  that,  by  the  spirit 
of  independence  which  their  comfort  inspired, 
and  the  certainty  of  labor,  they  had  no  dread  of  a 
reverse,  for  the  whole  district  was  industrious  and 
moral. — The  workhouse  was  therefore  pulled 
down,  and  the  aged  and  infirm  were  a  small  bur- 
den on  the  three  parishes.  The  introduction  of 
the  drill  husbandry,  which  he  could  now,  from  the 
most  ample  experience,  recommend,  had  justified 
all  the  hopes  he  had  entertained  of  it.  It  was  the 
most  profitable  course  a  farmer  could  pursue, 
and,  with  the  turnip  crops,  completed  the  Nor- 
folk system  of  husbandry.  He  paid  merited 
compliments  to  Mr.  Blakie,  his  steward,  for  su- 
perior talents,  indefatigable  attention,  and  inte- 
grity in  the  conduct  of  his  affairs,  as  well  as  for 
the  many  plain,  practicable,  and  ingenious  com- 
munications he  had  given  to  the  public  ;  and  he 


spoke,  with  warm  eulogy,  of  the  ardent  manner 
in  which  his  efforts  had  been  seconded,  not  only 
by  his  own  tenants,  but  by  many  of  the  noble- 
men and  gentlemen,  as  well  as  yeomen,  his 
friends  and  neighbours. 

PART  V. 

OF  IMPLEMENTS  OF  HUSBANDRY. 

Upon  this  topic  we  can  of  course  accomplish 
nothing  more  than  a  selection  of  the  most  approved 
modern  instruments  of  agriculture.  Many  of  the 
machines  and  implements  involved  meet  our  sepa- 
rate attention  in  their  alphabetical  places  :  others, 
as  the  peck,  the  mattock,  the  spade,  fork,  &c., 
seem  too  minute,  and  of  too  universal  applica- 
tion, to  be  inserted  in  a  work  of  this  description. 

We  begin  therefore  with  the  most  important, 
perhaps,  of  agricultural  implements. 

1.  Of  ploughs. — In  our  plate  AGRICULTURE 
(Plate  I.)  are  figures  of  ploughs,  whose  names 
are  given.  The  first,  the  Roman  plough,  has  good 
authority  for  its  iron  part  or  share,  such  as  it  is  ; 
but  we  are  doubtful  as  to  the  wheels  and  handle. 

The  Roman  plough  was  according  to  Cato  of 
two  kinds,  one  for  heavy  and  one  for  light  soils. 
There  is  a  plough  still  in  use  in  Spain,  which  is 
supposed  to  come  the  nearest  to  the  Roman  im 
plement  generally  used.  It  is  our  fig.  2,,plate  I. 
RURAL  ECONOMY. 

Virgil  describes  a  plough  with  a  mould-boara 
used  for  covering  seed  and  ridging:  to  supply 
its  place  a  sort  of  diverging  stick  was  used,  it 
seems,  in  the  form  described  :  this  stick  appears  to 
have  been  inserted  in  the  share  head,  or  held  ob- 
liquely and  sloping  towards  the  side  to  which 
the  earth  was  to  be  turned.  The  Romans  did 
not  plough  their  fields  in  beds,  by  circumvolving 
furrows  ;  but  the  cattle  returned  to  the  same  fur- 
row. Virgil  also  mentions  wheel  ploughs,  which 
Lasteyrie  thinks  were  invented  in  or  not  long 
before  the  time  of  Pliny,  who  attributes  the  in- 
vention to  the  inhabitants  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. 
Lasteyrie  gives  figures  of  three  wheel  ploughs 
from  a  Sicilian  model,  and  from  Caylus's  Col- 
lection of  Antiquities. 

Cato  says,  of  ploughing,  What  is  the  best  cul- 
ture of  land  ?  Good  ploughing.  What  tha 
second  best?  Ploughing  in  the  common  way. 
What  the  third  ?  Laying  on  manure.  The  Ro- 
man season  for  ploughing  was  any  time  when 
land  was  not  wet :  in  the  performance,  the  fur- 
row is  directed  to  be  kept  equal  in  breadth 
throughout,  one  furrow  equal  to  another;  and 
straight  furrows.  The  usual  depth  is  not  men- 
tioned, but  it  was  considerable,  as  Cato  says  corn- 
land  should  be  of  good  quality  for  two  feet  in 
depth.  No  scamni  or  balks  (hard  unmoved 
soil)  were  to  be  left,  and,  to  ascertain  that  this 
was  properly  attended  to,  the  farmer  is  directed, 
when  inspecting  the  work  done,  to  push  a  pole 
into  the  ploughed  land  in  a  variety  of  places. 
The  plough  was  generally  drawn  by  one  pair  of 
oxen,  guided  by  the  ploughman  without  the  aid 
of  a  driver.  In  breaking  up  stiff  land  he  was 
expected  to  plough  half  an  acre ;  and  in  free 
lands  an  acre ;  and  light  lands  one  acre  and  a 
hull1  each  day.  Land  was  ploughed  in  square 
plots  of  120  feet  to  the  side,  two  of  which  made 


164 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


a  jugerum  or  acre.  We  may  here  add,  though  a 
little  out  of  place  among  mere  implements,  in 
most  cases  a  crop  and  a  year's  fallow  succeeded 
each  other ;  though,  when  manure  could  be  got, 
two  crops  or  more  were  taken  in  succession  ; 
and  on  certain  rich  soils,  which  Pliny  describes 
as  favorable  for  barley,  a  crop  was  taken  every 
year.  In  fallowing,  the  lands  were  first  ploughed 
after  the  crop  was  removed,  generally  in  August ; 
they  were  again  cross-ploughed  in  spring,  and  at 
least  a  third  time  before  sowing,  whether  spring 
corn  or  winter  corn  was  the  crop.  There  was, 
however,  no  limit  to  the  number  of  ploughings 
and  sarclings,  and  when  occasion  required  ma- 
nual operations ;  the  object  being,  as  Thec- 
phrastus  observes,  '  to  let  the  earth  feel  the  cold 
of  winter,  and  the  sun  of  summer,  to  invert  the 
soil,  and  render  it  free,  light,  and  clear  of  weeds, 
so  that  it  can  most  easily  afford  nourishment.' 
(Theo.  de  Caus.  Plant,  lib.  iii.  c.  25).  Manuring 
was  held  in  such  high  esteem  by  the  Romans, 
that  immortality  was  given  to  Stercutius  for  the 
invention. 

To  return  to  our  modern  ploughs.  In  the 
'  Itural  Economy  of  Yorkshire,'  after  the  simi- 
larity of  the  principles  that  are  requisite  in  the 
constriction  of  the  ship  and  the  plough  is  no- 
ticed, and  the  difficulty  of  fixing  and  reducing 
them  to  a  regular  theory  as  nearly  the  same,  it 
is  observed  that  the  art  of  construction  in  either 
case  is  principally  attained  by  practice.  In  this 
district,  says  the  writer,  the  ploughs  of  different 
makers  pass  through  the  soil  with  various  de- 
grees of  facility  and  execution;  nevertheless, 
though  he  has  paid  some  attention  to  the  dif- 
ferent makes,  he  finds  himself  entirely  incapable 
of  laying  down  such  particular  rules  of  con- 
struction as  would  do  his  country  any  service,  or 
his  work  any  credit.  Even  the  general  princi- 
ples of  construction  he  must  mention  with  diffi- 
dence. 

The  principal  difficulty  in  the  construction  of 
a  plough  is  that  of  adapting  it  to  all  soils,  in  all 
seasons,  and  to  all  depths.  If  the  soil  break  up 
in  whole  furrows,  every  inch  of  depth  requires 
in  strictness  a  separate  plough,  or  a  separate  re- 
gulation. Here  rests  the  main  objection  to  the 
winding  mould-board,  which  admits  no  regula- 
tion in  respect  of  depth.  If  the  semi-arch,  or 
nollow  of  the  hind  part  of  the  mould-board,  be 
raised  sufficiently  high  to  turn  a  thick  furrow 
completely,  it  is  of  no  use  in  turning  a  thin  one. 
On  the  contrary,  if  it  be  brought  down  suffi- 
ciently low  to  turn  a  shallow  furrow  properly, 
it  is  impossible  to  turn  a  deep  one  with  it  in  a 
workman-like  manner.  There  is  not  room  for 
it  within  the  hollow,  or  semi-archway  of  the 
mould-board.  The  inevitable  effect  of  this  is, 
either  the  furrow  is  forced  away  wholly  by  the 
upper  edge  of  the  mould-board,  and  set  on  edge ; 
or  the  mould-board  rides  upon  the  furrow,  rais- 
ing the  heel  of  the  plough  from  the  ground,  the 
bad  effects  of  which  need  not  be  explained.  An 
upright  stern,  with  a  moveable  heel-plate  to 
turn  the  furrow  at  any  given  depth,  is,  in  this 
point  of  view,  much  preferable  to  a  hollow 
mould-board ;  and,  if  its  use  in  raising  a  crest 
of  mould,  for  the  purpose  of  covering  the  seed, 
be  added,  its  preference  is  still  more  conspi- 


cuous. But  some  of  these  inconveniences  have 
been  obviated  by  the  invention  of  moveable 
mould-plates,  as  will  be  seen  afterwards.  Yet, 
in  the  construction  of  all  sorts  of  ploughs,  there 
are,  notwithstanding,  a  few  points  or  circum- 
stances that  ought  to  be  particularly  and  in  all 
cases  attended  to ;  such  as  the  following :  that 
part  which  perforates  the  soil,  and  breaks  it  up, 
and  which  is  usually  termed  the  throat  or  breast, 
should  have  that  sort  of  clean,  tapering,  sharp- 
ened form,  that  is  introduced  with  the  greatest 
readiness,  and  which  affords  the  smallest  resist- 
ance in  its  passage  through  the  ground.  Accord- 
ing to  some,  this  part  should  be  long  and  narrow, 
making  an  acute  angle  with  the  beam,  as  the 
length  of  the  breast  is  supposed  to  have  a  ten- 
dency to  preserve  the  flag  from  being  broken, 
on  account  of  the  surface  for  its  support  being 
longer ;  which  is  a  circumstance  of  consequence 
in  the  ploughing  of  old  lays  for  wheat,  pease, 
and  other  similar  crops  ;  as,  by  such  means,  the 
growth  of  weeds  through  the  broken  ground  is 
prevented.  And  the  resistance  of  the  earth 
against  the  breast  is  likewisevlessened,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  acute  angularity  of  that  part  against 
the  beam  of  the  plough.  The  mould-board 
should  also  have  that  sort  of  curved,  twisted,  or 
hollowed-out  form,  which  is  best  calculated  to 
lessen  resistance,  and  at  the  same  time  give  the 
furrow-slice  the  proper  turn.  And  the  beam 
and  muzzle  of  these  implements  should  likewise 
have  such  a  construction  as  that  the  team  or 
moving  power  may  be  attached  in  the  best  and 
most  suitable  line  of  draught,  as  this  is  a  cir- 
cumstance of  great  importance,  when  several 
animals  are  made  use  of  together,  that  the 
draught  of  the  whole  may  coincide  in  the  most 
perfect  manner,  and  with  the  utmost  exactness. 
Likewise,  in  the  construction  of  every  sort  of 
plough,  much  regard  should  be  paid  to  the 
weight,  so  that  they  may  have  sufficient  strength 
for  the  purpose,  without  being  unnecessarily 
heavy.  Much  may  be  done  in  this  intention,  by 
lessening  the  quantity  of  wood  in  those  parts 
where  there  it  no  particular  stress,  while  it  is 
retained  so  as  to  have  full  power  in  the  others. 
This  has  been  much  less  attended  to  in  the 
making  of  ploughs  than  its  importance  would 
seem  to  demand. 

It  is  noticed,  in  the  Agricultural  Survey  of  the 
County  of  Essex,  that  the  throat  at  the  fore  end 
or  neb  of  the  plate  or  breast  in  the  Norfolk,  and 
most  other  ploughs,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Rotherham,  rises  from  the  upper  surface  of  the 
share  too  perpendicularly,  and  too  much  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  of  friction,  or  pressure  of  the 
earth  the  plate  has  constantly  to  act  against : 
working  thus  abruptly  in  the  ground,  the  slice 
or  furrow  is  violently  torn,  or  burst  from  off  the 
ground  hand,  broken  and  imperfectly  turned 
over,  instead  of  being  gradually  cut,  raised 
whole,  and  whelmed  over;  as  will  always  be  the 
case,  when  the  plough  enters  the  ground  ob- 
liquely, and  at  a  proper  angle ;  and  that  the 
plate  or  mould-board  is  properly  turned  for 
raising  up,  and  turning  the  slice  completely  over. 
It  is  a  clear  position,  proved  by  experiment, 
that  a  semi-ellipsis  is  the  true  form  of  throat 
which  is  necessary  in  ploughs,  which  is  the  part 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


165 


or  space  from  the  share  point  to  the  junction  or 
approach  of  the  breast  to  the  beam  :  and  that 
there  is  found  a  remarkable  variation  in  the  form 
of  the  breasts,  or  mould-boards  of  the  ploughs 
throughout  the  northern  parts  of  the  same  dis- 
trict, and  which  is  chiefly  in  the  degree  of  con- 
cavity or  convexity.  Some  wheel-wrights  and 
farmers  prefer  a  form  rather  concave,  a  flatness 
in  the  fore  part,  which  joins  the  share,  and  which 
gradually  fills  up  as  the  sweep  recedes ;  others 
like  it  neither  concave  nor  convex  ;  and  there 
are  many  ploughs  in  which  the  convexity  is  ex- 
tremely great.  The  great  length  of  the  breast, 
in  some  ploughs,  is  a  circumstance  which  gives 
steadiness  to  the  implements ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  probably  the  means  of  increasing  the 
draught  to  the  horses  in  a  great  degree.  The 
shortness  of  the  breast,  if  the  curve  or  sweep  be 
in  perfection,  or  wears  equally  every  where,  may 
lessen  friction,  and  certainly  does,  if  the  earth 
be  loose  ;  but  it  probably  may  not  have  the  same 
effect  in  the  first  earth,  upon  a  stiff  layer.  It  is, 
however,  a  pretty  general  opinion,  that  it  lessens 
it  in  all  cases.  A  great  variety  of  breasts,  of 
different  forms  and  constructions,  are  repre- 
sented in  the  plates  upon  ploughs,  in  the  Agri- 
cultural Survey  already  referred  to,  which  are 
well  worth  consulting  by  the  enquirer. 


The  old  Norfolk  plough  of  our  plate  I.  AGRI- 
CULTURE is  held  in  much  esteem  in  that,  as  well 
as  some  other  light  districts,  as  performing  the 
work  in  an  easy  and  expeditious  manner.  The 
carriage  and  wheels  in  all  ploughs  of  this  nature, 
however,  form  objections  to  them,  and  render 
them  clumsy  implements.  The  wheels  added  to 
them  in  our  figure  are  an  improvement. 

The  head  and  beam  are  short ;  the  carriage 
part  and  wheels  stand  very  high,  of  course  the 
fore  end  of  the  beam  is  much  elevated,  by  which 
advantage  is  gained  in  driving  the  horses,  as  it  is 
usually  drawn  by  two  horses  yoked  abreast,  the 
ploughman  directing  them  by  reins. 

Of  the  swing  sort,  the  Rotherham  plough 
is  perhaps  the  most  popular.  See  AGRICUL- 
TURE, plate  I.,  figure  3.  It  is  a  light  useful 
plough  for  all  the  less  heavy  sorts  of  soil,  and 
has  certainly  much  superiority  where  one  plough 
is  only  required,  and  where  the  advantageous  and 
economical  method  of  performing  the  work  with 
one  man  and  two  horses  without  a  driver  is  used. 
It  is  in  much  estimation  in  all  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  and  is  said  in  the  Agricultural  Sur- 
vey of  the  Riding  district  to  have  been  invented 
by  Mr.  Joseph  Foljambe,  of  Eastwood,  about 
seventy  years  ago.  In  that  district  its  usual  di- 
mensions are 


From  the  end  of  stilt  on  landside   to  the   point  of  the  Feet.  Inches 

share                ........  7  4 

From  the  end  of  beam  where  inserted  into  it  to  ditto, 

of  ditto 3  0 

Length  of  beam      ........'  6  0 

Width  of  the  head  in  the  widest  upper  part      ...  1  4 

Ditto  of  ditto  at  lowest  part             0  9 

Ditto  of  share  behind  the  wing         .....  0  3J 
Length   of    surface  on   which   the   plough   touches   the 

ground             2  lOjj 

Height  from  ground  to  top  of  beam  where  coulter  goes 

through 1  8 

Width  between  stilts  at  the  end 2  6 

Height  of  ditto  from  the  ground       .         .         .         .         .  1  11 
Weight  of  wood  and  iron  work,  about  If  cw 


whole  length 


bottom 


face. 


And  it  has  also  a  copse  rack,  or  hock  with 
teeth,  to  admit  of  more  land  being  given  to  the 
plough,  or  the  contrary,  which  is  particularly 
useful  in  many  cases. 

It  is  noticed  that  with  a  few  trifling  altera- 
tions it  is  made  use  of  over  the  whole  district, 
and  from  that  being  often  called  the  Dutch 
plough,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  originally 
brought  from  Holland  by  the  inventor. 

In  Mr.  Bailey's  improved  Rotherham  plough 
the  mould-board,  which  is  of  cast-iron,  is 
so  formed  that  the  sod  to  be  raised  presses 
equally  against  it,  in  every  part,  from  the  sock 
point  to  Ihe  place  where  it  leaves  it;  and  it 
varies  from  other  mould-boards,  in  not  beginning 
to  take  its  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  heel,  but 
at  least  twelve  inches  farther  forward  towards  the 
sock,  and  in  being  cut  away  at  the  bottom  op- 
posite the  heel,  about  three  inches  high,  from 
the  sole,  by  which  the  turning  of  the  sod  or  fur- 
row-slice is  said  to  be  much  facilitated.  Thus 
improved,  these  ploughs  have  been  found  to 
answer  perfectly  in  different  trials,  and  have 
been  allowed  by  those  who  have  seen  them 


at  work  to  go  with  more  ease  to  the  teams  than 
most  others.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the 
beam,  from  its  crooked  form,  which  is  obvious 
in  some  of  its  improvements,  by  being  fixed  so 
low  down  in  the  part  next  to  the  handles,  makes 
the  plough  require  less  force,  and  to  go  in  a 
more  sliding  manner.  And  that  from  the  fore 
end  of  the  beam  being  so  much  higher  than  the 
hinder  part,  the  holder  of  the  plough  has  more 
power,  as  the  draught  does  not  oppose  so  much 
resistance  to  him ;  for,  if  the  beam  were  fixed  to 
the  handles  much  higher,  as  is  usually  the  case 
in  other  ploughs,  this  plough  would  be  con- 
stantly rippling  on  the  point,  and  in  that  way 
increase  the  weight  of  draught.  And  where  it 
meets  with  any  resistance,  such  as  a  stone,  it  is 
liable  to  rise  up,  while  in  this  form  it  proceeds 
in  a  sliding  manner,  which  affords  a  steadier 
motion,  and  renders  it  more  easily  held.  Besides, 
it  is  much  stronger  ;  particularly  in  the  part  where 
the  left  handle  and  the  beam  are  joined,  under- 
neath the  mortise  where  the  tenon  of  the  beam  ; 
by  which  the  bearing  of  the  ploughman  on  the 
handles  does  not  in  the  least  affect  that  part, 


166 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


which  in  other  ploughs  is  the  weakest.  In  this 
improvement  of  the  Rotherham  plough  the 
mould-board  is  so  constructed  at  the  breast  as  to 
have  a  slight  degree  of  convexity,  instead  of 
being  concave,  as  is  often  the  case,  by  which  the 
furrow-slice  is  supposed  to  be  prevented  from 
slipping  down  ;  and  by  the  keeping  the  lower 
part  from  the  ground,  when  it  comes  to  the  turn 
of  the  breast,  it  falls  off;  consequently,  as  the 
furrow-slice  is  rested  on  or  by  the  side  of  the 
breast,  when  the  plough  has  advanced  twelve 
inches  the  work  is  finished.  By  this  improve- 
ment it  is  supposed  that  the  plough  will  turn  a 
furrow  of  any  extent,  from  four  to  eighteen 
inches,  where  requisite,  and  the  same  in  depth  ; 
as  the  plough  that  will  produce  a  wide  furrow 
and  turn  it  well  is  capable  of  ploughing  deep  : 
the  convexity  of  the  breast  also  causes  it  to  clean 
itself  better,  which  is  a  desirable  property,  as  it 
is  thereby  rendered  less  heavy,  and  less  resistance 
afforded  by  one  portion  of  earth  being  prevented 
from  rubbing  upon  another,  and  at  the  same 
*ime  the  work  performed  in  a  more  perfect  man- 
ner. The  coulter  has  likewise  a  position  so  as 
to  cut  in  a  slanting  manner,  which  causes  any 
resistance  to  rise  up  more  expeditiously,  and  the 
land  to  be  opened  with  more  facility  than  where 
it  has  a  more  perpendicular  direction.  Where 
this  improved  plough  is  employed  with  more 
than  two  horses  abreast,  the  additional  ones  must 
be  put  before  the  pair,  as  it  has  not  land  enough 
to  follow  single  horses. 

Wheels  have  been  added  to  these  ploughs  for 
particular  purposes  ;  and  with  either  one  or  two 
fixed  near  the  points  of  the  beams,  without  any 
carriage  parts,  they  have  been  found  to  pass 
through  the  soil  in  a  very  light,  easy,  and  steady 
manner,  and  where  there  are  two  to  require 
no  holder  in  many  cases,  except  in  setting  in 
turning  out  of  the  work  at  the  ends  of  the  ridges. 
The  Northumberland  or  Cumberland  plough  is 
only  an  improved  plough  of  this  kind. 

Smalfs  chain  plough  is  esteemed  one  of  the 
best  of  the  swing  kind,  and  seems  capable  of 
very  extensive  application.  It  has  its  name  from 
that  of  the  inventor,  who  constructed  it  about 
forty  years  ago.  It  is  neatly  formed,  and  very 
light  in  its  appearance,  but  at  the  same  time, 
from  the  addition  of  the  chain,  possessing  great 
strength.  It  is,  therefore,  capable  of  being  em- 
ployed in  strong  rough  sorts  of  soil,  where  other 
sorts  of  ploughs  are  liable  to  be  destroyed,  as 
when  the  share,  or  even  the  coulter,  in  this  im- 
plement, meets  with  any  sudden  impediment  or 
obstructing  cause,  the  stress  is  immediately 
thrown  upon  the  chain  instead  of  the  beam.  The 
is  formed  with  a  fin  or  feather,  by  which 
the  firm  earth  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  is  cut 
and  moved  more  readily,  and  in  a  more  com- 
plete manner  than  could  be  done  by  the  sock  in 
the  common  plough.  In  this  plough  the  mould- 
hoard  is  mostly  made  of  cast-iron,  ha\ 
gentle  curve,  by  which  the  furrow-slice  is  thrown 
off  with  the  least  possible  resistance.  It  is  sup- 
I  by  Mr.  Donaldson  to  be  on  the  whole  one 
of  the  best  constructed  swing-ploughs  for  all 
sorts  of  souls.  It  is  capable  of  ploughing,  with 
one  man  and  two  horses  yoked  abreast  without 
any  driver,  more  than  an  acre  a  day  with  the 


greatest  ease.     A  plough  of  this  sort  is  shown  at 
fig.  1.,  plate  II.,  RURAL  ECONOMY. 

Lord  Somerville's  single  plough  is  also  a  plough 
of  this  sort,  in  which  the  throat  is  sharpened, and 
the  mould  board  rendered  moveable  in  the  mat- 
ner  of  his  double  furrow  plough,  shown  iu-fi^. 
5  of  plate  AGRICULTURE.  It  is  capable  of  being 
made  use  of  with  advantage  in  breaking  up  deep 
stifi'  soils,  as  from  the  moveable  nature  of  the 
extreme  part  of  the  mould-board  the  furrow-slice 
can  be  laid  more  or  less  flat. 

Ducket's  skim-coulter,  or  trenching  plough,  is 
an  implement  of  this  sort,  capable  of  being  em- 
ployed with  great  advantage  where  the  surface 
is  coarse  or  grassy.  The  principle  upon  which 
this  plough  operates  is  that  of  trenching  ground 
in  the  practice  of  gardening,  or  depositing  the 
surface  spit  of  earth  in  the  bottom  of  the  pre- 
ceding furrow,  and  placing  the  second,  or  that 
taken  from  below,  upon  it.  Where  the  soils  are 
sufficiently  deep  it  is  capable  of  performing  its 
work  to  a  considerable  extent.  It  has  been  ob- 
served by  lord  Somerville,  in  a  little  tract  on 
ploughs  and  oxen,  that  the  skim  requires  a  per- 
pendicular direction,  and  that  the  coulter-hole 
should  be  removed  farther  from  the  throat  and 
share,  as  in  the  common  position  it  would  choak 
when  in  work. 

The  use  of  the  paring  plough,  the  fourth  figure 
of  the  plate  AGRICULTUUL,  will  be  shown  in  that 
part  of  this  article  which  treats  of  '  preparing ' 
land  on  the  arable  system, 

Plate  I.  RURAL  ECONOMY,  fig.  3,  shows  a 
plough  to  be  made  entirely  of  iron,  to  which  a 
new  kind  of  share  is  attached,  the  invention  of  M  r. 
Finlayson.  This  share,  a,  instead  of  having  it* 
cutting  edge  curved,  or  forming  an  obtuse  angle 
with  the  land  side,  is  made  straight,  and  extend- 
ing nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  mould-board, 
at  an  acute  angle  with  the  land  side.  At  the 
back  part  of  the  share  a  triangular  piece,  or 
wing,  6,  is  to  be  introduced  occasional  y  bv 
screwing  its  pin  into  a  hole  in  the  share,  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  it  to  turn  and  accommodate 
itself  to  the  way  of  the  plough.  The  intended 
purpose  of  this  wing  is  to  cut  the  clods  of  the 
earth,  and  break  them  in  a  perpendicular  direc- 
tion. In  order  to  prevent  the  plough  from  choking 
at  the  coulter,  the  beam  is  made  to  curve  upwards 
as  seen  at  r,  the  coulter  being  introduced  at  the 
under  side,  and  made  fast  by  wedges.  Another 
contrivance  to  effect  the  same  object  is  shown  at 
1,  and  consists  in  opening  the  beam  by 
lateral  curves,  c,  c,  the  coulter  being  attached  by 
screw  bolts,  and  rounded  off  at  top.  By  these 
means,  should  any  stubble  or  other  vegetable 
matters  accumulate  in  front,  they  would  be 
enabled  to  rise  over  the  top  of  the  coulter  without 
choking  or  obstructing  the  progress  of  the  plough. 
For  the  purpose  of  r>  in  at  which 

the  share  shall  cut  the  ground,  the  shackle  by 
which  the  plough  is  drawn  is  to  be  shifted  higher 
or  lower,  at  the  muzzle  or  nose  of  the  '. 
This   i>  done  by  means  of  a  MTI-W,  ,/,   in 
which  passes  through  the  bolt  of  the  shackle,  and, 
1-y  bfiiv,'  timu'd,  moves  the  shackle  higher  or 
low  or,  and  t!:« :  the  share  to  be  drawn 

through  the  ground  at  a  less  or  greater  d"pth 
bem  'face,  as  rircumstance>  nny  re- 


Vol.  .1U.P&CC  W6  . 


ACrRlf  ITJLTURE. 


.  hit  'a  nt  /ic/iu 


/..•ntt->i,  I v/ /.//:.•/,,-,/ 


VOL.19.PAC7E  168  . 


:\O.R  1C  D  LT  I'K  K', 


/'/../r£JT. 


/  >  •.  .-/V/  •-  >•  Cuitit  '<it  t  <r. 


' 


- 


VOI..1H  I'A'.K.  KM 


R  i'KAL      E  ('  OA  OAJ-J, 
Ploughs 


PLOTOBS  j 


/;,/.  4. 


/•/.  ni:  i . 


Fill    .''. 


.'  Sliiin- sculp 


\'Ol..i:i.l'A(iK  I  r,,- 


K  I'  R.A  I,    K  ('  0  N  O  M  V 

Flo  n  chs    <?•    Grn  />  l>  er. 


/:'  SonanerwOes  Sin  ale  Hough 


ft./.  •/. 


J.SIiun-.sruljj 


.  I'VC.K  ICfi. 


L"  K  A  i,    I-1,  ('  0  \  0  \l  V, 
ft*/.  J. 


//y.  /. 


culp. 


R  URAL    E  0  O  N  O  M  Y. 


167 


quite.  The  mode  of  adjusting  the  lateral  draugnt 
of  the  plough  so  as  to  give  the  share  more  or  less 
land,  and  also  to  enable  it  to  be  drawn  by  a  single 
or  double  team  of  horses,  is  by  the  addition  of  a 
bary,  fig.  5,  to  the  end  of  which  one  of  the  draw- 
ing shackles  is  to  be  attached.  The  plough, 
shown  at  fig.  5,  is  constructed  in  every  respect 
upon  the  ordinary  principles  of  what  is  called  a 
Scotch  plough,  the  side  bar  only  excepted,  which 
by  sliding  horizontally,  in  a  lateral  direction  upon 
a  plate  g,  may  be  set  at  any  angle  to  the  beam, 
ard,  being  there  fixed  by  a  bolt,  will  cause  the 
plough  to  follow  a  certain  course  to  which  the 
draught  by  the  adjustment  of  the  bar  will  incline  it. 

The  skeleton  plough,  fig.  6,  designed  for  wet 
land,  is  constructed  of  bars  set  in  the  usual  form 
of  the  mould-board,  and  landside ;  these  bars 
may  be  either  square  or  round,  and  set  by  screws 
or  bolts,  cradled  together  so  as  to  produce  the 
general  figure  of  those  surfaces.  The  object  of 
this  construction  is  that  the  earth  shall  not  adhere 
to  the  surfaces,  but  pass  through  between  the 
bars,  and  by  that  means  allow  the  plough  to 
clear  itself  as  it  proceeds. 

Fig.  7  represents  the  improved  harrow;  it  is 
formed  of  bars,  which  support  a  peculiar  sort  of 
t;ues  (shown  detached  at  fig.  8,  and  another  form 
at  fig.  9).  The  intention  in  forming  these  tines 
with  rounded  heads  is  that  the  stubble,  roots, 
and  other  vegetable  matters,  may  be  enabled  to 
rise  over  the  top  of  the  tines,  and  clear  them. 
In  order  to  regulate  the  depth  at  which  the  tines 
of  this  harrow  shall  penetrate  the  ground,  the 
carriage  of  the  fore-wheel  is  connected  to  a  lever 
bar,  a,  by  the  raising  and  lowering  of  which  the 
nose  of  the  harrow  is  depressed  or  elevated  to 
any  required  distance  from  the  ground,  and  con- 
sequently the  depth  to  which  the  tines  are  in- 
tended to  penetrate  will  by  these  means  be  de- 
termined. The  lever  that  regulates  the  fore-wheel 
is  held  at  the  hinder  part  of  the  harrow  by  a 
spring-guide,  b,  consisting  of  two  rods  placed 
close  together  with  swells  or  bands,  forming 
open  spaces  at  several  parts  for  the  lever  to  rest 
in.  When  the  tines  are  intended  to  penetrate 
the  ground  to  the  greatest  depth,  the  handle  of 
the  lever  must  be  raised  to  the  top  of  the  guide; 
but,  when  the  tines  are  to  be  drawn  out  of  the 
ground,  the  handle  must  be  pressed  upon  so  as 
to  cause  the  lever  to  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the 
guide,  the  elastic  lateral  pressure  of  the  guide 
holding  the  lever  in  any  intermediate  position  to 
which  it  may  have  been  shifted  for  adjustment. 
As  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  lift  the  tines  of 
the  harrow  out  of  the  ground  instantly,  without 
stopping  the  horses,  as  in  turning  at  the  head- 
lands, that  may  be  done  by  merely  pressing  upon 
the  handle  of  the  lever.  The  hinder  wheels  of 
the  harrow  are  also  to  be  raised  or  lowered  to 
correspond  with  the  fore-wheel,  and  this  is  done 
by  means  of  screws,  c,  c,  which  pass  through  the 
end  bearings  of  the  frame  into  the  axle  of  the 
wheels.  The  last  improvement  proposed  is  a 
horse-hoe,  or  drill-harrow,  with  peculiarly  formed 
tines  attached  to  the  frame-work,  as  seen  in  fig. 
10.  One  of  these  tines  has  been  shown  at  fig.  9, 
and  before  alluded  to,  as  designed  to  permit  the 
.stubble  to  rise  over  its  top,  and  thereby  to  relieve 
the  hoe  or  harrow  fro:n  choking.  At  the  sides  of 


this  hoe  scufflers  are  introduced,  their  extremi. 
ties  being  formed  like  shares  for  the  purpose  of 
cutting  away  obstructions. 

The  inventor  has,  we  understand,  received 
testimonials  from  a  number  of  highly  respectable 
agriculturists,  expressing  their  unqualified  ap- 
probation of  the  efficacy  with  which  these  ploughs 
performed  when  employed  upon  rough  and  un- 
broken ground,  for  which  they  are  particularly 
designed :  and  the  manner  in  which  they  throw 
off  the  stubble,  permitting  those  obstructions  to 
escape  without  clogging  the  progress,  is  obviously 
calculated  to  diminish  the  labor  of  draught,  as  well 
as  perform  clean  work. 

2.  Other  harrows  are  exhibited,  AGRICULTURE, 
plate  II.,  as  the  first,  or  tusset  harrow,  and 
second,  or  fallow,  with  their  teeth  separately  un- 
derneath. Then  follow  the  double  seed  and 
chain  and  screw  harrows.  By  mistake  the  plate 
containing  the  common  and  iron  seed  harrows 
has  been  numbered  plate  II.  of  AGRICULTURE, 
as  well  as  that  containing  the  ploughs  ;  but  the 
figures  with  these  inscriptions  speak  sufficiently 
for  themselves.  The  field  roller  of  this  plate  is 
a  very  useful  instrument :  its  weight  being  of 
course  adapted  to  the  land. 

Harrows  have  not  undergone  much  improve- 
ment in  their  construction ;  the  principal  point 
in  which  they  have  been  rendered  more  benefi- 
cially applicable  and  convenient  for  use,  appears 
to  be  in  the  form  of  the  frames ;  the  method  of 
attaching  the  draught;  the  position  and  manner 
of  fixing  in  the  tines  or  teeth  ;  and  the  directions 
of  the  bulls  or  solid  parts. 

It  has  been  justly  hinted  by  a  late  writer  that 
there  is  no  one  harrow,  whatever  the  nature  of 
its  construction  may  be,  that  can  be  applicable 
to  every  description  of  soil,  or  which  can  ope- 
rate with  equal  effect  and  advantage  on  such 
lands  as  are  rough  and  smooth,  loose  and  solid, 
&c.  It  is  necessary  that  they  should  constantly 
be  fitted  to  the  particular  nature  of  the  soil,  and 
the  peculiar  uses  to  -which  it  is  devoted. 

In  the  lighter  sorts  of  ground,  it  is  obvious 
that  smaller  and  lighter  sorts  of  harrows,  with 
shorter  teeth,  may  more  fully  answer  the  purpose 
than  in  such  as  are  strong,  heavy,  and  tenacious, 
or  which  have  been  lately  broken  up  from  the 
state  of  old  sward,  and  that  of  common  moor 
heath,  and  other  sorts  of  waste,  where  they 
should  have  much  greater  weight  and  length  of 
tines.  It  is  frequently  the  practice,  where  the 
soil  is  rough  and  stubborn,  as  in  some  instances 
of  fallowing  stiff  clayey  lands,  to  unite  two  com- 
mon harrows  together,  in  order  more  completely 
to  reduce  and  break  down  the  lumpiness  of  such 
grounds.  And  in  the  view  of  effecting  these 
purposes,  especially  where  the  soil  is  stiff,  adhe- 
sive, and  much  matted  with  weeds,  it  has  been 
found  advantageous  not  to  have  the  harrows  too 
thickly  set  with  tines,  by  which  they  are  liable 
to  become  choked  up,  and  prevented  from  work- 
ing in  a  proper  manner. 

The  hitching  or  riding  of  harrows  upon  each 
other  it  has  been  attempted  to  remove,  by  having 
them  constructed  with  running  bulls,  which  are 
said  to  answer  the  purpose.  It  has  also  been 
suggested  that  inconveniences  of  this  nature  may 
be  obviated  by  the  mere  fastening  of  the  different 


168 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


harrows  together  by  means  of  hooks  and  eyes,  or 
what  in  some  places  are  called  coupling-irons  ; 
as  in  this  way  the  different  harrows  are  only  suf- 
fered to  rise  and  fall  at  the  same  time. 

3.  Lester's  cultivator  of  our  (second)  plate  II. 
AGRICULTURE,  is  a  fine  implement  amongst  the 
variety  that  have  been  suggested  as  pulverisers  of 
the  soil.     The  scuffler  is  of  similar  character  and 
use.     But  the  grubber,  RURAL  ECONOMY,  plate 
II.  fig.  2,  is  thought  an  improvement  on  both. — 
All  the  coulters  but  two  are  fixed  iu  the  bars  ; 
these  two  are  placed  in  the  side  beams  of  the 
outer  fume,  and  may  be  said  to  go  more  or  less 
deep  by  pins  and  wedges.     Land  on  which  po- 
tatoes or  turnips  have  grown,  or  that  has  been 
ploughed  in  autumn  or  winter  may  be  so  stirred 
by  this  instrument  that  a  crop  may  be  sown  in 
spring  without  further  use  of  the  plough.    Beans 
and  pease  have  been  thus  sown  in  spring,  says 
Mr.  Cleghorn,  on  the  winter  furrow,  after  being 
stirred  by  the  grubber :  and   barley   also,  after 
turnip,   without   any   ploughing.      In   working 
fallow  it  is  used  with  good  effect. 

4.  The  heavy  roller  of  our  (second)  plate  II. 
AGRICULTURE   has  been  improved  upon,  in  a 
compound  or  spiked  roller,  and  in  the  roller  and 
water-box,  plate  III.  RURAL  ECONOMY,  fig.  1, 
of  which  latter  a  representation  is  given.     The 
spiked  roller  is  employed  in  working  fallows,  or 
preparing   stiff  bean  land   for  wheat.     In   stiff 
clay-ground,  when   ploughed  dry,  or  which  has 
been  much  trod  upon,  the  furrow-slice  will  rise 
in  large  lumps,  or  clods,  which  the  harrow  can- 
not break.     In  this  state  of  the  ground,  the  rol- 
lers commonly  used  have  little  effect.     Indeed, 
the  seed  is  often  buried  in  the  ground,  observes 
Mr.  Loudon,  by  the  clods  being  pressed  down 
upon  it  by  the  weight  of  the  roller.   '  To  remedy 
this,  the   spike-roller  has  been  employed,  and 
found   very  useful ;  but  a  roller  can   be  made, 
which,  perhaps,  may  answer  the  purpose  better 
than  the  spike  one.     This  roller  is  formed  from 
a  piece  of  hard  wood,  of  a  cylindrical  form,  on 
which  are  placed  several  rows  of  sharp-pointed 
darts,  made  either  of  forged  iron,  or  cast  metal. 
These  darts,  by  striking  the  hard  clods  in  a  slop- 
ing direction,  cut  or  split  them  into  small  pieces; 
and,  by  this  means,  they  must  be  more  easily 
pulverised  by  the  harrow.' 

5.  The  best,  and,  as  Mr.  Loudon   says,  '  the 
essential  drill  machines,  are  French's  for  turnips, 
Cooke's  for  corn,  and  the  drill  attached   to  a 
plough  for  beans.' 

Mr.  French  was  an  agricultural  mechanic  of 
Northumberland,  who  first  suggested  the  great 
improvement  of  concave  rollers  in  the  drill  ma- 
chine. Since  it  has  been  usual  to  sow  pulverised 
manure  with  turnip  seed,  two  hoppers  (A)  (A) 
have  been  added  to  his  invention.  See  plate  III. 
fig.  2. 

Cooke's  improve  1  drill  and  horse-hoe  is 
shown  in  fig.  3,  plate  III.  It  can  be  used  as  cul- 
tivator, hoe,  rake,  &c.  It  is  in  general  use  in 
Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  various  other  parts  of 
England.  Its  advantages  are  said  to  be,  1. 
That  the  wheels  are  so  large  that  the  ma- 
chine c;iii  travel  on  any  road  without  trouble  or 
'i.ui.rrof  I'l-iakinjr ;  ;iU:>  tV.->m  tlx,-  farm  to  the 
X<\,  .M'nnut  taking  :»  [i*C8l.  •:.  In  ihe 


coulter-beam,  with  all  the  coulters,  moving  with 
great  ease,  on  the  principle  of  the  pentagraph.  *o 
the  right  or  left,  so  as  to  counteract  the  irregula- 
rity of  the  horse's  draught,  by  which  means  the 
drills  may  be  made  straight:  and,  where  lands  or 
ridges  are  made  four  and  a  half  or  nine  and  a  half 
feet  wide,  the  horse  may  always  go  in  the  furrow, 
without  setting  a  foot  on  the  land,  either  in  drilling 
or  horse-hoeing.  3.  In  the  seed  supplying  itself 
regularly,  without  any  attention,  from  the  upper 
to  the  lower  boxes,  as  it  is  distributed.  4.  In 
lifting  the  pin -on  the  coulter-beam  to  a  hook  011 
the  axis  of  the  wheels  ;  by  which  means  the 
coulters  are  kept  out  of  the  ground  at  the  end  of 
the  land,  without  the  least  labor  or  fatigue  to  the 
person  who  attends  the  machine.  5.  In  going 
up  or  down  steep  hills,  in  the  seed-box  being 
elevated  or  depressed  accordingly,  so  as  to  ren- 
der the  distribution  of  the  seed  regular ;  and  the 
seed  being  covered  by  a  lid,  and  thus  screened 
from  wind  or  rain.  The  bean  drill  attached  to  a 
plough  is  shown  fig.  4. — It  can  be  fixed  in  the 
handles  of  any  common  plough. 

The  interval  between  the  rows  of  drilled  tur- 
nips, potatoes,  and  beans  and  peas,  admit  the 
employment  of  a  horse-hoe,  or  hoeing-plough. 
Of  this  kind  of  machine  there  are  many  varieties. 
A  very  good  one  is  described  in  the  Northum- 
berland Report  (p.  43).  The  body  is  of  a  trian- 
gular form,  and  contains  three  coulters  and  three 
hoes,  or  six  hoes,  according  to  the  state  of  the  soil. 
A  hoe  of  the  same  kind  is  sometimes  attached  to  a 
small  roller,  and  employed  between  rows  of 
wheat  and  barley,  from  nine  to  twelve  inches 
distant ;  it  is  also  used  in  place  of  a  cultivator, 
in  preparing  bean  stubbles  for  wheat  in  autumn, 
and  for  barley  in  spring.  For  THRESHING  and 
WINNOWING  MACHINES,  see  those  articles 

ADDENDA. 

We  hoped  (see  our  article  AOUCDLTDBB) 

to  advert  at  this  period  of  the  publication  of 
our  work  to  a  more  satisfactory  adjustment  of 
the  corn  question  by  the  government. 

At  present  (1829)  we  have  only  seen  another 
temporary  and  tampering  expedient  resorted  to 
in  the  shape  of  a  new  corn  bill  which  we  be- 
lieve satisfies  no  party.  We  consider  this,  there- 
fore, still  an  adjourned  question ;  and  shall  only 
add  some  miscellaneous  observations  on  its  im- 
portance. We  are  indebted  to  a  pamphlet  pub- 
lished at  the  period  of  the  passing  of  the  corn 
bill  of  1815  for  the  following  observations: — 

1.  On  the  variations  in  seasons,  and  their  <//<r/s 
on  agricultural  productions. — Although  the  price 
at  which  productions  will  sell  is  in  some  in.  a 
sure  regulated  by  the  proportion  betwixt  demand 
and  supply,  yet  it  is  by  no  means  in  the  ratio  of 
the  excesses  to  the  demand  in  times  of  super- 
abundance, or  in  the  ratio  of  deficiency  to  demand 
in  times  of  scarcity.  Thus,  if  the  demand  be  as- 
ten,  and  the  supply  as  eleven,  the  price  will  be 
depressed  more  than  ten  per  cent.  If,  on  the; 
other  hand,  the  demand  be  as  ten,  and  the  sim- 
ply as  nine,  the  price  will  be  raised  more  than 
ten  per  cent.  If  the  demand  continue  the  same, 
and  (lie  supply  be  as  twelve,  the  price  to  wliic-h 
the  |  roduclinii  will  be  reduced  will  !•<  I'ar  tnur9 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


169 


than  ten  per  cent,  lower  than  it  would  have  been 
with  a  supply  at  eleven. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  carry  this  illustra- 
tion farther,  though  it  will  be  obvious  that,  in  the 
case  of  excess  of  supply  beyond  demand,  the 
depreciation  will  be  much  greater  in  a  commo- 
dity that  is  quickly  perishable,  than  in  one  that 
will  retain  its  properties  for  a  long  period.  Even 
in  articles  that  lose  none  of  their  virtues  by 
being  preserved,  but  from  their  bulk  require 
considerable  space,  the  depreciation  will  be 
greater  than  in  those  which  are  more  easily  re- 
moved or  stored  at  less  expense.  Thus  potatoes 
have  felt  a  much  greater  depreciation  than 
wheat  from  their  perishable  nature ;  and,  from 
being  bulky,  when  raised  at  a  distance  from  a 
large  town  or  a  populous  district,  they  have  not 
borne  even  the  expense  of  conveyance  to  the 
consumers.  The  prices  of  commodities  are  also 
influenced  in  some  measure,  and  occasionally 
in  a  considerable  degree,  by  the  prevalence  of 
public  opinion,  as  to  the  proportion  between 
demand  and  supply  ;  and,  in  articles  of  the  first 
necessity,  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  those  of  in- 
ferior consideration.  This  influence,  however, 
is  of  a  transient  kind ;  and  the  opinion  on  which 
it  is  grounded  is  generally  corrected  before  any 
very  injurious  effect  is  produced. 

From  the  great  variety  in  soil  and  climate 
within  this  island,  the  produce  of  our  harvests 
generally  does  not  vary  so  much  as  a  slight 
observer  would  suppose.  The  wet  seasons, 
which  are  injurious  to  our  cold  and  heavy  soils, 
are  beneficial  to  those  of  the  opposite  descrip- 
tion; and  a  summer  of  great  drought,  which 
parches  the  lighter  soils,  and  lessens  their  pro- 
ductions, increases  those  of  the  heavier  soils. 
There  will,  however,  be  variations  in  produc- 
tiveness, but  usually  not  to  a  great  extent.  Per- 
haps on  a  large  average  of  years,  not  including 
one  or  two  of  very  uncommon  character,  it  will 
be  found  that,  taking  the  standard  as  twenty,  in 
the  best  years  their  production  may  have  reached 
twenty-three,  and  the  worst,  not  fallen  short  of 
seventeen ;  and  that  most  of  our  harvests  have 
been  at  some  period  between  seventeen  and 
twenty-three.  If  the  views  we  have  taken  be 
tolerably  correct,  we  may  presume  that  for  the 
past  twenty  years,  if  our  production  has  been  as 
twenty,  our  consumption  may  be  estimated  as 
twenty-one  ;  and  this  estimate  will  be  confirmed 
by  the  excess  of  our  importation  beyond  our  ex- 
portation of  corn  for  that  period,  as  shown  by 
the  public  documents. 

Previously  to  the  year  1811  there  had  been  for 
several  years  a  gradual  increase  in  the  prices  of 
corn,  such  as  must  have  happened  if,  as  in  every 
other  country,  the  population  had  a  little  preceded 
in  its  march  the  production  of  food.  This  in- 
crease had  given  a  stimulus  to  agriculture ;  the 
capital  which  had  acci«nulated  in  that  branch  of 
industry  had  been  invested  in  making  further 
improvements ;  some  extraneous  capital  also 
was  attracted  into  the  same  channel,  and  in  con- 
sequence a  greater  portion  of  labor  was  exer- 
dsed  in  cultivation  than  it  had  before  received. 
The  harvest  of  1811  was  miserably  deficient; 
and,  before  one  half  of  it  was  threshed,  the  defi- 
ciency became  obvious ;  prices  rose  with  rapi- 


dity, and  to  a  height  scarcely  ever  known  before. 
The  advance  in  price  came  too  late  to  produce 
much  influence  on  the  ensuing  harvest.  Some 
spring  wheat  indeed  was  sown ;  but  its  effect  in 
aiding  national  subsistence  was  trifling,  as  the 
same  land  would  probably  have  produced  more 
food,  if,  as  usual,  barley,  and  not  spring  wheat, 
had  succeeded  to  turnips. 

The  deficiency  of  the  harvest  of  1811  was  not 
made  up  by  that  of  1812,  which  probably  readi- 
ed the  average  of  our  usual  production,  or  one- 
twentieth  less  than  our  consumption.  The  same 
price  thus  continued,  and,  appearing  to  be  almost 
permanently  fixed  at  a  rate  that  would  pay  the 
most  expensive  cultivation,  it  gave  a  stimulus  to 
still  greater  agricultural  exertions  ;  no  cost  w;is 
spared  in  the  purchase  of  manures  ;  every  portion 
of  land  capable  of  bearing  corn  was  appropriated 
to  that  purpose ;  the  usual  and  regular  courses 
of  cropping  were  generally  deviated  from  ;  and 
a  breadth  of  land  sown,  far  exceeding  what  had 
ever  before  been  done.  Potatoes,  which  had 
borne  a  higher  relative  price  than  corn,  were  cul- 
tivated also  to  an  extent  before  unknown. 

The  year  1313  proved  highly  propitious;  all 
the  different  species  of  corn  were  favored  by  the 
seasons,  whose  variations  seemed  exactly  exe- 
cuted as  if  to  promote  abundant  vegetation ;  the 
weather  whilst  harvesting  this  crop  was  unusu- 
ally favorable  ;  and  this  bountiful  supply,  housed 
under  such  happy  circumstances,  proved  as  good 
in  quality,  as  it  was  excessive  in  quantity.  But 
the  impression  of  its  abundance  upon  the  public 
exceeded  the  reality. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  estimate  the  quan- 
tum of  excess  in  this  year  of  singular  character. 
As  fai  as  pretty  extensive  enquiry,  and  not  inat- 
tentive observation,  may  enable  us,  we  may  at- 
tempt the  calculation  without  the  fear  of  erring 
very  materially.  Most  of  the  farmers  on  poor 
lands,  whose  usual  growth  of  wheat  had  been 
twenty  bushels  to  the  acre,  in  that  year  allow 
that  their  growth  amounted  to  from  twenty-four 
to  twenty-five  bushels;  those  on  better  lands 
usually  producing  twenty-four  to  twenty-six, 
produced  from  thirty  to  thirty-two  bushels,  and 
on  the  very  best  wheat  lands  some  have  stated 
their  excess  above  the  usual  production  to 
amount  to  eight  bushels.  Allowing  difficulty  of 
accuracy,  and  requesting  that  indulgence  which 
the  nature  of  the  case  requires,  it  will  not  be 
deemed  presumptuous  to  estimate  this  great  pro- 
duction at  twenty-six,  taking,  as  before,  the 
average  production  as>  twenty,  and  the  consump- 
tion as  twenty-one  :  this  will  account,  if  tolerably 
accurate,  for  an  enormous  depreciation  in  price. 
The  happy  events  which  led  to  the  peace  fol- 
lowed each  other  in  quick  succession.  Soon 
after  our  harvest  was  securely  housed,  the  foreign 
ports  were  opened  as  well  as  our  own,  and  a 
large  importation  of  foreign  corn  was  made. 
The  words  peace  and  plenty  have  been  so  com- 
monly joined  together  that  the  public  expected 
some  union  by  which  one  must  necessarily  pro- 
duce the  other  ;  as  if  a  magical  operation  was  to 
be  performed  by  the  cessation  of  war,  by  which 
either  the  earth  was  to  become  more  fertile,  or 
thf  physical  necessity  for  food  become  lessened. 
'  Partly  from  the  clamors  of  the  populace,  partly 


170 


RURAL     ECONOMY. 


from  the  state  of  the  foreign  exchanges,  and, 
perhaps,  partly  because  the  measure  originated 
with  their  political  opponents,  the  alterations  in 
the  corn  laws,  which  it  was  afterwards  found 
necessary  to  make,  were  protracted  by  ministers 
till  the  greatest  mischief  was  effected  ;  and  then, 
when  too  late  to  be  of  any  service,  they  were 
enacted  amidst  as  much  popular  confusion  as 
could  have  happened  had  it  been  done  at  the 
proper  period. 

Notwithstanding  the  surplus  quantity  of  corn 
produced  by  the  harvest  of  1813,  the  markets 
would  not  liave^been  so  ruinously  depressed  if 
the  law  had  protected  the  grower  early  against 
the  foreign  competitors.  A  sufficient  number 
would  have  retained  their  stock,  or  at  least  a 
part  of  it,  till  a  more  distant  period ;  but,  seeing 
no  check  on  the  foreign  corn,  and  dreading  a 
larger  quantity  than  even  could  be  imported, 
each  rushed  to  the  market,  the  produce  rapidly 
fell,  till  at  last  it  seemed  permanently  settled  at 
a  price  from  thirty  to  fifty  per  cent,  below  its  ac- 
tual cost.  Those  farmers  who  were  obliged  to 
sell,  and  who  are  the  far  greater  proportion  of 
the  body,  when  they  wanted  money  to  pay  their 
rent,  taxes,  and  laborers,  were  under  the  neces- 
sity of  selling  a  double  quantity,  to  realise  the 
usual  sum ;  and  thus  a  glut  was  produced, 
which  has  been  attended  with  the  most  serious 
consequences.  The  harvest  of  1814  was  by  no 
means  abundant  in  quantity,  and  the  quality  of 
the  wheat  was  so  bad  in  general,  and  yielded  so 
little  flour,  that  it  may  be  fairly  estimated  below 
the  average  rate  of  our  production.  The  surplus 
of  the  preceding  great  harvest,  and  the  quantity 
imported,  which  was  increased  by  the  expecta- 
tion that  the  corn  bill  would  raise  the  price, 
were  sufficient  for  the  consumption  of  the  year, 
but  left  a  very  small  stock  on  hand  to  meet  the 
future  wants  of  the  country.  The  harvest  which 
followed,  in  1815,  was  a  month  earlier  than  our 
harvests  usually  are ;  and  from  the  surplus  of  the 
great  harvest,  from  the  imported  quantity,  and" 
from  the  harvest  of  1814,  instead  of  twelve,  not 
more  than  eleven  months'  provision  had  been 
consumed,  when  the  next  harvest  commenced. 

The  very  low  price  at  which  wheat  was  sold, 
now  increased  the  consumption  very  considera- 
bly ;  and  the  inferior  qualities  of  it,  whkh  would 
produce  but  little  at  the  market,  were  used  for 
fattening  cattle,  and  for  other  purposes  to  which 
wheat  was  never  applied  before.  Thus  a  degree 
of  profusion  in  the  use  of  it  has  rendered  the  sur- 
plus quantity  of  little  avail  towards  supplying 
any  future  scarcity  that  may  occur. 

The  harvest  of  1815,  which  has  been  before 
stated  to  have  taken  place  a  month  earlier  than 
usual,  found  us  with  a  small  quantity  of  foreign 
wheat  of  an  indifferent  quality  in  the  granaries  at 
the  sea  ports,  and  but  a  small  stock  in  the  hands 
of  the  grower,  probably  not  more  than  sufficient 
for  our  consumption  to  the  usual  period  at  which 
our  corn  is  harvested.  The  productiveness  of  the 
harvest  of  1815  most  certainly  was  below  the 
average  of  our  consumption,  at  least  if  the  whole 
rnay  l>e  judged  of  from  the  southern  parts  of  the 
island ;  but  still  the  markets  became  lower,  not 
from  abundance,  but  from  the  impoverished^ 
condition  of  the  cultivators.  At  an  unusually 


early  period  a  great  quantity  of  new  corn  was 
produced  in  the  markets  ;  the  pressing  demands 
for  money  could  only  be  met  by  sacrificing  at 
less  than  half  the  cost  the  greater  part  of  the 
year's  production  and  even  that  became  insuffi- 
cient to  satisfy  only  the  most  pressing  wants; 
the  inferior  wheats  could  not  be  sold  at  any  rate ; 
the  prices  were  so  low  that  only  wheat  of  the 
best  quality  would  suit  the  palates  even  of  the 
poor ;  and  accordingly  at  this  early  period  there  is 
felt  a  scarcity  of  the  finest  kinds  of  wheat.  The 
same  profusion  of  the  inferior  descriptions  has 
continued ;  and  the  probability  is  that,  before 
the  harvest  arrives,  a  sensible  deficiency  will  be 
discovered.  Thus  from  the  alarm  produced  by 
an  expectation  of  enormous  importation  of  fo- 
reign corn,  added  to  a  surplus  at  home,  our  own 
prices  have  been  reduced  so  low  as  to  bring 
ruin  on  many  cultivator's,  and  a  loss  of  capital  to 
all,  which,  whatever  may  be  the  future  demand, 
must  prevent  them  from  bestowing  on  the  land 
that  labor  which  can  alone  enable  it  to  produce 
nearly  sufficient  for  our  subsistence. 

If  the  corn-bill  (of  1815)  passed  in  the  last  ses- 
sion of  parliament,  had  been  enacted  when  it  was 
first  proposed,  it  is  probable  that  the  price  would 
have  been  kept  at  nearly  its  cost,  notwithstanding 
the  surplus  quantity.  The  general  profusion  in 
the  use  of  corn  would  not  have  taken  place ; 
some  of  the  surplus  would  have  been  stored  to 
meet  future  periods  of  scarcity ;  and  the  land 
whose  culture  is  now  slighted,  and  neglected, 
would  have  been  kept  up  to  that  full  power 
of  production,  which  is  now  from  the  loss  of  ca- 
pital gradually  diminishing. 

2.  On  the  present  and  future  effects  of  the  de- 
pression of  agriculture. — It  is  not  unusual  to  hear 
those  who  have  paid  but  slight  attention  to  the 
nature  of  agriculture  express  their  surprise  that 
a  year  or  two  of  actual  loss,  should  be  produc- 
tive of  so  much  distress  as  jis  complained  of  at 
present;  especially  when  following  years  in 
which  the  cultivators  have  gained  large  profits. 
They  ask,  cannot  those  who  during  several  years 
have  gained  on  the  amount  of  their  capital  a 
larger  share  of  profit  than  other  members  of  the 
community  endure  the  discontinuance  of  that 
profit,  or  even  some  loss,  without  suffering  more 
than  has  been  inflicted  on  their  neighbours  ? 

It  may  not  be  amiss  in  the  first  place  to  re- 
mark that,  in  those  years  in  which  the  produce 
of  the  land  has  borne  the  highest  prices,  they 
have  seldom  been  very  much  raised  till  a  large 
part  of  the  growth  of  the  more  numerous  por- 
tion, the  poorer  farmers,  had  passed  from  their 
hands  into  those  of  the  corn  merchant,  the  factor, 
or  the  meal-man ;  and,  therefore,  those  who 
most  needed  have  been  the  least  benefited  by 
such  high  prices.  The  fact  is  that  the  smaller 
class  of  farmers  are  under  the  necessity  of 
selling  their  produce  early ;  long  before  the  de- 
ficiency is  apparent;  and  therefore  never  can 
have  the  full  benefit  which  "the  richer  part  of  the 
profession,  the  smaller  number,  may  sometimes 
gain.  Very  high  prices  of  produce,  such  as 
were  obtained  three  or  four  years  ago,  have  been 
occasioned  by  crops  deficient  either  in  quantity 
or  quality ;  and  then  such  advanced  prices 
amounted  to  but  little  more  on  the  whole  growth 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


171 


of  the  year,  than  a  good  crop  would  have  pro- 
duced at  lower  prices. 

Whatever  gains  have  been  made  in  prosperous 
years  by  the  great  mass  of  cultivators,  however 
much  they  may  have  increased  their  substance 
during  those  years,  it  has  not  usually  been  di- 
verted into  other  channels  than  that  in  which  it 
has  been  acquired.  It  has  generally  been  ex- 
pended either  in  improving  the  soil  already 
under  cultivation,  or  in  preparing  land,  before 
in  a  neglected  state,  to  bear  the  most  valuable 
crops.  Thus  this  increase  of  property,  added  to 
what  they  had  before  invested  in  agriculture,  has 
only  increased  their  loss.  It  is  almost  needless 
to  state  that  all  land  recently  brought  into  culti- 
vation, instead  of  repaying  any  part  of  the 
capital  expended  upon  it,  or  even  any  interest, 
has  not  paid  the  annual  expenses  of  seed,  labor, 
and  taxes ;  and  the  loss  has  been  equal  to  the 
capital  expended,  and  the  annual  rent.  It  will 
thus  appear  that  a  series  of  years  of  moderate 
prosperity  and  accumulation,  if  that  accumula- 
tion has  been  re-invested  in  the  soil,  is  not  a 
compensation  equivalent  to  the  disastrous  events 
which  the  two  last  years  have  produced ;  in 
which  probably  the  whole  rental  of  the  corn  land 
in  this  kingdom  has  been  paid  (as  far  as  rents 
have  been  paid),  not  out  of  the  profits,  but  out 
of  the  capital  of  the  cultivators. 

The  first  of  the  evils,  a  long  train  of  which 
must  follow,  has  fallen  on  the  laboring  poor, 
whose  wages,  indeed,  have  not  been  lessened  to 
the  full  extent  of  the  reduced  prices  of  the  pro- 
duce of  the  land,  and  who,  could  they  obtain 
employment,  would  have  no  great  reason  to  com- 
plain ;  but  their  sufferings  arise  from  the  scarcity 
of  labor.  The  farmer  has  no  means,  and  no  in- 
ducement to  employ  laborers,  the  cost  of  whose 
labor  is  greater  than  he  can  hope  to  be  paid  for ; 
and  should  corn  now  become  higher  in  price,  the 
greater  part  of  his  growth  being  sold,  he  would 
still  be  unable  to  pay  those  whom,  excited  by 
hopes  of  further  improvement,  he  might  wish  to 
employ. 

At  no  period  in  the  memory  of  man  has  there 
been  so  great  a  portion  of  industrious  agricul- 
tural laborers  absolutely  destitute  as  at  the  pre- 
sent moment.  They  cannot  procure  employ- 
ment, and  parochial  relief  is  doled  out  with  a 
scanty  hand,  by  those  who  want  even  the 
pittance  that  is  bestowed  to  pay  the  few  work- 
men they  are  obliged  to  employ.  This  evil  is 
not  likely  to  be  lessened,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
must  increase  as  the  capital  of  the  farmers  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  annihilation.  To  them  it  will 
be  of  no  consequence  that  labor  is  cheap,  and 
corn  scarce.  The  capital,  \\liich  by  setting  in 
motion  the  labor  would  increase  the  quantity  of 
corn  grown,  is  departed,  and  a  long  period  must 
elapse  before  it  can  be  again  collected.  The 
mechanics  and  tradesmen,  whose  principal  de- 
pendence was  on  the  agriculturists,  and  who 
form  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  kingdom,  are 
in  a  situation  not  much  better  than  the  laboring 
poor.  Their  best  customers  can  scarcely  employ 
them;  and  for  the  little  trade  they  have,  instead 
of  being  paid  with  punctuality  as  heretofore,  they 
are  glad  to  receive  a  very  small  proportion,  and 
defer  the  remainder  to  a  future  period.  This 


evil  extends  to  all  the  other  classes  not  imme- 
diately dependent  on  the  agriculturists ;  and  it 
would  be  difficult  to  point  out  a  single  branch  of 
industry  that  is  not  suffering  under  the  influence 
of  the  general  depression. 

The  higher  classes  of  the  community,  the 
landed  proprietors,  whose  wealth  and  rank  are  as 
beneficial  to  the  poor  as  to  themselves,  must  suffer 
in  their  revenues  and  their  comforts,  as  well  as  in 
their  feelings.  They  have  been  warranted  in  living 
very  (  nearly  up  to  their  annual  incomes :  and, 
in  general,  cannot  be  capable  of  very  great  re- 
trenchments, without  denying  themselves  many 
luxuries,  and  even  comforts,  in  the  furnishing  of 
which  numerous  members  of  the  community 
have  found  the  means  of  subsistence.  It  is  no- 
torious that  rents  cannot  be  paid,  except  in  a 
few  partial  instances  ;  that,  as  the  capital  of  the 
tenants  is  d  minished,  their  means  of  paying 
must  become  lessened  ;  and,  for  many  extensive 
portions  of  land,  no  tenants  will  be  found  who 
have  the  means  of  cultivating  them.  Thus  that 
important  class,  the  pillars  and  the  ornaments  of 
our  country,  are  already  in  some  degree,  and 
must  more  extensively  hereafter  become  sharers 
in  the  general  calamity. 

This  slight  sketch  of  the  evils  which  have 
already  resulted  from  the  depression  of  agricul- 
ture, and  whose  extent  must  be  yet  increasing,  is 
by  no  means  overcharged.  The  subject  is  too 
painful,  or  it  might  be  much  enlarged.  Alarm- 
ing, however,  as  this  representation  is,  it  is  by  no 
means  equal  to  those  which  the  future  presents. 
The  distress  of  the  agriculturists  has  been  stated 
to  have  already  diminished  the  labor  applied  to 
the  land.  The  withdrawing  of  the  labor  will  di- 
minish the  produce ;  and  if  the  opinions  before 
stated,  of  the  proportion  between  our  supply 
of  food  and  our  consumption,  be  nearly  correct, 
a  very  small  diminution  in  our  produce,  which 
is  already  begun,  and  will  surely  continue,  must 
reduce  the  community  to  a  state  approaching  to 
famine. 

It  may  appear  ridiculous,  to  those  who  suppose 
we  are  overloaded  with  food,  to  talk  of  ap- 
proaching famine  :  they  may  think  that,  having 
already  too  much  corn,  we  shall  never  again  feel 
a  deficiency  of  that  necessary  article  :  but  let  it 
be  considered  that,  during  twenty  years,  we  have 
regularly,  with  one  exception,  felt  a  deficiency ; 
that  in  the  whole  of  that  period,  if  not  rapidly, 
our  agriculture  was  regularly  increasing,  whereas 
now  it  is  at  least  as  rapidly  on  the  decline ;  that 
many  producing  farms  are  now  absolutely  and 
totally  without  cultivation ;  that  the  number  of 
such  farms  is  daily  increasing ;  that  the  land 
which  has  hitherto  enjoyed  its  full  portion  of 
labor  is  deprived  of  the  greater  part ;  and  that 
the  population  has  increased,  and  will  continue 
to  do  so  till  it  is  checked  by  a  scarcity  of  food. 
If  these  facts  are  correct,  and  it  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible that  they  should  be  controverted,  the  time 
cannot  be  very  distant  when  our  cultivation  will 
be  so  much  diminished,  that  after  a  harvest  but 
a  little  below  the  ordinary  rate  of  productive- 
ness, our  deficiency  in  corn  must  be  too  great 
for  any  surplus  in  foreign  countries  to  supply 
our  wants,  however  high  the  price  we  may  offer 
for  it. 


172 


RURAL    ECONOMY. 


If  it  be  true  that  at  the  commencement  of  the 
last  harvest  there  was  not  a  surplus  of  wheat 
sufficient  to  supply  us  for  more  than  a  month ; 
that  the  produce  of  the  last  year  was  below  the 
average  of  twelve  months'  consumption;  that, 
unless  the  next  harvest  happens  as  early  as  the 
last,  thirteen  months'  consumption  will  be  requi- 
site ;  that  from  the  distress  of  the  farmers  the 
markets  early  became  overloaded,  and  were  de- 
pressed to  a  price  that  created  profusion  in  the 
use  of  wheat ;  that  the  cultivation  of  potatoes, 
that  useful  substitute  for  wheat,  has,  from  the 
losses  sustained,  nearly  ceased,  except  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  large  towns  or  populous  districts  ;  and 
if  we  consider  that  the  price  of  wheat  is  in  most 
parts  of  Europe  so  high  as  to  indicate  a  scarcity 
rather  than  a  surplus,  we  may  conclude  that  a 
considerable  degree  of  want  will  prevail  before  any 
new  wheat  is  produced.  If  such  scarcity  should 
happen,  and  a  probability  appear  of  such  a 
price  being  maintained  as  will  repay  the  expense 
of  cultivation,  those  who  have  not  quite  ex- 
hausted their  powers  may  continue  the  growth 
of  corn  to  a  moderate  extent ;  but,  should  it 
happen  that  the  present  depression  continues, 
the  prospect  will  be  gloomy  indeed  ;  the  great 
number  of  cultivators  who  will  have  been  driven 
from  the  occupation,  the  increased  quantity  of 
land  without  culture,  and  the  slovenly  manner  in 
which  what  is  cultivated  will  be  managed,  must 
produce  scarcity,  famine,  and  depopulation. 

These  observations  may  be  thought  a  little  an- 
tiquated, but  we  conceive  most  of  the  reasoning 
applicable  to  the  present  state  of  agricultural 
affairs :  and  cannot  better  conclude  than  by  the 
following  brief  statement  of  the  drawbacks  and 
improvements  in  agriculture,  suggested  by  another 
able  writer,  Mr.  Cleghora,  in  the  article  we  have 
already  been  much  indebted  to,  Agriculture, 
Supplement  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. '  To 
the  class  of  drawbacks  upon  agriculture,'  says 
this  writer,  '  and  impediments  to  its  improve- 
ment, belong  tithes, — poor-rates, — payments  in 
the  shape  of  fines,  and  services  exacted  by  the 
lords  of  manors — entails — tenancy  at  will,  or  on 
very  short  leases — unfair  restrictions  on  the  te- 
nant as  to  the  disposal  of  his  lease,  and  as  to  the 
management  of  the  lands  during  its  currency — 
the  game  laws — and  the  complicated  regulations 
under  which  commons  and  common  fields  are 


cultivated,  and  the  great  expense  required  to 
place  them  in  a  state  of  severally.  It  appears 
that  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  land  of  England 
and  Wales  are  exposed  to  claims  which  wrest 
from  the  husbandman  one-tenth  of  the  gross  pro- 
duce of  his  labor  and  capital,  and  this  whether 
the  remainder  of  the  produce  be  or  be  not  suffi- 
cient for  his  remuneration.  Though  no  rent 
were  paid  for  poor  soils,  this  burden  alone  would 
effectually  prohibit  their  correct  cultivation  ;  and, 
even  in  the  case  of  rich  soils,  tithes  diminish  the 
rent  so  considerably,  as  to  make  it  the  interest  of 
landholders,  in  many  parts  of  England,  to  re- 
strain their  tenants  from  converting  grass  lands 
into  tillage;  that  is,  from  placing  them  under  the 
most  productive  management  for  the  community, 
both  in  regard  to  the  supply  of  food  and  of  em- 
ployment. 

*  To  the  enlightened  enquirer  it  "must  appear 
abundantly  clear  that  all  plans  for  the  extension 
and  improvement  of  British  agriculture  must 
prove  ineffectual,  so  long  as  these  capital  obsta- 
cles are  left  untouched  ;  and  that  their  removal 
is  all  that  need  be  done,  and  all  that  ought  to  be 
done  by  a  wise  government,  for  securing  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  the  first  necessaries  of  life.  Let 
all  land  be  held  and  occupied  in  severally — let  it 
be  exempted  from  all  indefinite  exact  ons,  parti- 
cularly such  as  diminish,  or  altogether  absorb 
the  just  returns  of  capital  and  industry — let  the 
connexion  between  the  land  proprietor  and  the 
farmer  be  every  where  formed  upon  equitable 
principles  to  the  exclusion  of  all  remnants  of  feu- 
dal ideas,  all  notions  of  favor  and  dependence, 
and  all  obligalions  lhat  do  not  appear  within  the 
four  corners  of  the  lease  itself,  or  i«  not  im- 
posed by  the  general  principles  of  law — let  the 
rights  of  a  tenant  be  so  far  enlarged  as  lhat  he 
may  be  enabled  at  pleasure  to  withdraw  his 
capital  by  a  transference  of  his  lease,  and  to  re- 
gulate the  succession  to  it  after  his  death — then 
there  can  be  little  doubt  thai  a  large  pan  of  the 
disposable  capital  of  the  nalion,  now  embark C' I 
in  much  less  profitable  pursuits,  would,  of  its 
own  accord,  turn  lowards  the  improvement  of  our 
lands ;  and  thus  furnish  employment  and  subsis- 
tence for  our  population,  secure  from  the  caprice 
of  fashion,  and  the  rivalship  and  jealousy  of 
other  countries.' 


RUSCUS,  knee-holm,  knee-holly,  or  butcher's 
broom,  a  genus  of  the  syngenesia,  and  dicecia 
class  of  plants  ;  natural  order  eleventh,  sarmen- 
taceae :  MALE  CAL.  hexaphyllous :  COB.  none, 
nectarium  central,  ovate,  and  perforated  al  ihe 
top :  FEMALE  CAL.  COR.  and  nectarium  are  the 
same  as  in  the  male ;  there  is  one  style,  with  a 
trilocular  two  seeded  berry.  The  most  remark- 
able species  is  the 

K.  aculeatus,  or  common  butcher's  broom, 
common  in  ihe  woods  in  many  parts  of  Eng- 
land. It  has  roots  composed  of  many  thick 
fibres  which  twine  about  each  other ;  from 
which  arise  several  stiff  green  stalks  about  three 
feet  high,  sending  out  from  their  sides  sc'  oral 
ihort  branches,  garnished  with  stiff,  oval,  heart- 
rhaped  leaves,  placed  alternately  on  every  pa  it 


of  the  stalk,  ending  with  sharp  prickly  points. 
The  flowers  are  produced  in  the  middle,  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  leave? ;  they  are  small,  and 
cut  into  six  parts,;  of  a  purple  color,  sitting 
close  to  the  midrib.  They  appear  in  June ;  and 
the  female  flowers  are  succeeded  by  berries  as 
large  as  cherries,  of  a  sweetish  taste,  which 
ripen  in  winter;  when  ihey  are  of  a  beautiful 
red  color.  As  this  plant  grows  wild  in  m<»t 
parts  of  England,  it  is  rarely  admitted  into  gar- 
dens ;  but,  if  some,  of  ihe  rools  are  plaiiu^l 
under  tall  trees  in  large  plantations,  they  will 
spread  into  large  clumps ;  and,  as  ihey  retain 
their  leaves  in  winter,  at  that  season  they  will 
have  a  good  effect.  The  seeds  of  this  plant  ge- 
nerally lie  a  year  in  the  ground  before  they  vege- 
tate; and  Ihe  plants  so  raised  are  long  before 


RUS 


173 


RUS 


they  arrive  at  a  size  big  enough  to  make  any 
figure,  and  therefore  it  is  much  better  to  trans- 
plant the  roots.  The  root  is  accounted  aperient, 
and  in  this  intention  is  sometimes  made  an  in- 
gredient in  apozejns  and  diet  drinks,  for  opening 
slight  obstructions  of  the  viscera  and  promoting 
the  fluid  secretions.  This  plant  is  used  by  the 
butchers  for  besoms  to  sweep  their  blocks. 

K.USE,  TI.  s.  Fr.  ruse.  Cunning;  artifice; 
little  stratagem ;  trick.  A  French  word,  says 
Johnson,  neither  elegant  nor  necessary. 

1  might  here  add  much  concerning  the  wiles  and 
ruses,  which  these  timid  creatures  use  to  save  them- 
selves. Ray. 

RUSH,  n.  s.      }      Sax.    nipc;   Teut.   rusch ; 

RUSH-CANDLE,  >Goth.    raus.     A   plant:    the 

RUSHY,  adj.  3  compound  and  adjective 
follow  the  noun-substantive  in  sense. 

He  taught  me  how  to  know  a  man  in  love  ;  in 
which  cage  of  rushes  I  am  sure  you  are  not  prisoner. 

Stiakspeare. 

.Man  but  a  rush  against  Othello's  breast, 
And  he  retires.  Id.  Othello. 

He  it  moon  or  sun  or  what  you  please ; 
And  if  jou  please  to  call  it  a  rush-candle, 
Henceforth  it  shall  be  so  for  me.  Shakspetire. 

If  your  influence  be  quite  dammed  up 

With  black  usurping  mists,  some  gentle  taper, 

Though  a  rush-caudle  from  the  wicker  hole 

Of  some  clay  habitation,  visit-us.  Milton. 

Your  farm  requites  your  pains  ; 
Though  rushes  overspread  the  neighbouring  plains. 

Dryden. 

Not  a  rush  matter,  whether  apes  go  on  four  legs  or 
two.  L' Estrange. 

In  rushy  grounds,  springs  are  found  at  the  first 
snit.  Mortimer. 

John  Bull's  friendship  is  not  worth  a  rush. 

Arbuthnot. 

What  knight  like  him  could  toss  the  rushy  lance  ? 

Ticket. 

The  timid  hare  to  some  lone  seat 
Retired  ;  the  rushy  fen  or  rugged  furze.     Thomson. 

A  rush  hath  a  flower  composed  of  many  leaves, 
which  are  placed  orbicularly,  and  expand  in  form  of 
a  rose  :  they  are  planted  with  great  care  on  the 
hanks  of  the  sea  in  Holland,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
water  from  washing  away  the  earth  ;  for  the  roots  of 
these  rushes  fasten  themselves  very  deep  in  the 
ground,  and  mat  themselves  near  the  surface,  so  as  to 
hold  the  earth  closely  together.  Miller. 

RUSH,  v.  n.  Sen.  s.  Sax.  pneopan.  To  move 
with  violence ;  go  on  with  tumultuous  rapidity ; 
violent  course  or  motion. 

Their  dam  upstart  out  of  her  den  afraide, 
And  rushed  forth,  hurling  her  hideous  taile. 

Spenser.  Faerie  Queene. 

Gorgias  removed  out  of  the  camp  by  night,  to  the 
end  he  might  rush  upon  the  camp  of  the  Jews. 

1  Mac.  iv.  2. 

A  gentleman  of  his  train  spurred  up  his  horse, 
and  with  a  violent  rush  severed  him  from  the  duke. 

Wotton. 
Him  while  fresh  and  fragrant  time 

Cherisht  in  his  golden  prime, 

The  rush  of  death's  unruly  wave 

Swept  him  off  into  the  grave.  Crashaw. 

Annies  ruth  to  battle  in  his  clouds.  Milton. 

Desperate  should  he  rush,  and  lose  his  life, 
With  odds  oppressed.  Drydens  JEneis. 

They  will  always  strive  to  be  good  Christians,  but 
never  think  it  to  be  a  part  of  religion  to  rush  into 
the  office  of  princes  or  ministers.  Sprat. 


You  say,  the  sea 

Does  with  its  waves  fall  backward  to  the  west, 
And,  thence  repelled,  advances  to  the  east ; 
While  this  revolting  motion  does  indure, 
The  deep  must  reel,  and  rush  from  shoar  to  shoar, 

Blackmure. 

With  a  rushing  sound  the  assembly  bend 
Diverse  their  steps.  Pope's  Odyssey. 

RUSH,  in  botany.     See  JUNCUS. 

RUSH,  SWEET.     See  Acouus. 

RUSHWORTH  (John),  was  born  in  Nor- 
thumberland about  1607.  After  attending  the 
university  of  Oxford,  he  removed  to  Lincoln's 
Inn ;  and  attended  the  meetings  of  parliament, 
where  he  wrote  down  the  speeches  of  the  king 
and  members.  During  eleven  years,  from  1630 
to  1640,  when  no  parliament  was  held,  he  was 
an  attentive  observer  of  the  great  transactions  of 
state  in  the  star-chamber,  the  court  of  honor,  and 
exchequer  chamber.  He  also  visited  the  camp 
at  Berwick,  was  present  at  the  battle  of  New- 
born, at  the  treaty  of  Rippon,  and  at  the  great 
council  of  York.  In  1640  he  was  appointed 
assistant  to  Henry  Elsynge,  clerk  to  the  house 
of  commons;  and  the  commons  trusted  him  to 
convey  their  overtures  to  the  king,  while  he  was 
at  York.  When  the  parliament  created  Fairfax 
their  general,  Rushworth  was  appointed  his 
secretary ;  and,  when  Fairfax  resigned  his  commis- 
sion, Rushworth  returned  to  Lincoln's  Inn,  and 
was  soon  after  chosen  one  of  the  committee  to 
consider  the  propriety  and  means  of  new-model- 
ling the  common  law.  He  was  elected  a  repre- 
sentative for  Berwick-upon-Tweed  to  the  parlia- 
'ment  which  Richard  Cromwell  assembled  in 
1658,  and  was  reelected  to  that  which  restored 
Charles  II.  to  tfye  crown.  After  the  restoration 
he  delivered  to  the  king  several  books  of  the 
privy  council,  which  he  had  preserved  during- 
the  commotions.  Sir  Orlando  Bridgeman  keeper 
of  the  great  seal  chose  him  his  secretary  in  1677, 
which  office  he  held  as  long  as  Sir  Orlando  kept 
the  seals.  In  1678  he  was  a  third  time  chosen 
member  for  Berwick,  and  a  fourth  time  in  the 
parliament  in  1679.  He  was  imprisoned  in  the 
King's  Bench  for  the  last  six  years  of  his  life. 
He  died  12th  of  May,  1690.  His  Historical 
Collection  of  Private  Passages  in  State,  weighty 
Matters  in  Law,  and  Remarkable  Proceedings 
in  Parliament,  was  published  in  folio.  The 
first  part  appeared  in  1659 ;  the  second  in  1680  ; 
the  third  in  1692;  the  fourth  and  last  was  pub- 
lished in  1701 ;  and  altogether  made  7  vols. 
These  underwent  a  second  edition  in  1721  ;  and 
the  trial  of  the  earl  of  Strafford  was  added, 
which  made  the  eighth.  This  work  has  of  course 
been  much  applauded  by  those  who  condemn 
the  conduct  of  Charles  L,  and  accused  of  parti- 
ality by  their  opponents. 

RUSK,  n.  s.  Arm.  ruzg.  Hard  bread  for 
stores. 

The  lady  sent  me  divers  presents  of  fruits,  sugar, 
and  rusk.  Raleigh. 

RUSMA,  in  natural  history,  is  the  modern 
name  of  the  eastern  nations  for  the  substance 
called  by  the  ancient  Greeks  sory,  and  used  as  a 
depilatory.  The  Turks  in  particular  call  this  sub- 
stance rusma.  It  is  not,  as  some  have  imagined, 
a  mineral  substance  found  ready  for  use,  in  the 


174 


RUSSELL. 


bowels  of  the  earth ;  but  requires  a  preparation 
and  alloy.  Bellon,  who  first  described  at  Cuta, 
in  Galatia,  '  the  source  of  a  mineral  which  they 
call  rusma,'  adds  that  this  mineral  alone  cannot 
be  used  '  till  it  has  been  beaten  into  a  very  fine 
powder,  putting  half  as  much  quicklime  as 
rusma,  which  is  then  diluted  in  a  vessel  with 
water.'  Thus  the  rusma  of  Bellon  is  not  of  it- 
self a  depilatory ;  but  it  contains  some  caustic 
matter,  which  being  mixed  with  lime  gives  it  that 
property.  This  presumption  is  confirmed  by 
Velmont  de  Bomare,  who,  having  received  from 
Constantinople  some  small  pieces  of  mineral 
rusma,  perceived  that,  on  throwing  it  upon  hot 
coals,  there  immediately  exhaled  from  it  a  vapor, 
which  gives  reason  for  suspecting  that  it  is  a 
'  colchitis'  mineralised  by  sulphur  and  arsenic. 
This  mixture  is  the  true  rusraa  of  the  Turks,  and 
the  nouret  of  the  Arabs.  Boyle  tells  us-  he 
made  a  fine  powder  of  equal  parts  of  rusma  and 
quicklime,  and,  letting  them  soak  a  little  time  in 
water,  they  became  a  soft  paste,  which  he  spread 
on  the  part  he  would  free  from  hair ;  and,  after 
letting  this  paste  lie  on  about  three  minutes,  he 
wiped  it  off  with  a  wet  cloth,  and  found  the 
hair  taken  away  by  the  roots  without  any  incon- 
venience. 

RUSSEL  (Alexander),  M.  D.,  was  born  and 
educated  at  Edinburgh.  He  became  physician 
to  the  English  Factory  at  Aleppo.  In  1775  he 
published  a  History  of  Aleppo,  whicli  was  much 
esteemed,  and  has  since  been  reprinted,  and 
translated  into  different  languages.  He  returned 
to  England  in  1759,  and  became  physician  to  St. 
Thomas's  hospital.  He  died  in  1770. 

RCSSEL  (Lord  William),  an  illustrious  British 
patriot,  the  third  son  of  William,  first  duke  of 
Bedford,  was  born  in  1641.  In  1667  he  mar- 
ried Rachael,  second  daughter  of  Thomas  Wri- 
othesly,  earl  of  Southampton,  and  widow  of  lord 
Vaughan,  a  lady  of  distinguished  talents  and 
piety.  Having  obtained  a  seat  in  the  house  of 
commons,  he  took  part  with  the  whigs,  and 
opposed  the  succession  of  James  duke  of  York, 
with  great  zeal.  He  afterwards  entered  into 
various  schemes  for  excluding  that  prince,  for 
which  he  was  indicted  and  tried  at  the  Old 
Bailey,  by  a  venal  court,  and  a  packed  jury  who 
found  him  guilty ;  and  he  was  beheaded  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  "Fields,  July  31st,  1683.  In  1689 
the  house  of  lords  passed  an  act,  reversing  his 
attainder.  His  lady  survived  him  several  years, 
and  a  volume  of  her  correspondence  with  some 
of  the  most  eminent  personages  of  that  age  has 
been  published.  See  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

RL'SSELIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  digynia 
order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants  :  CAL.  five- 
leaved  :  rop..  two-lipped ;  petals  five  above:  CAPS. 
one  celled  and  many  seeded.  Species  one  only, 
a  climber  of  Havannah. 

RUSSELL  (Thomas  Macnamara,)  esq.,  admi- 
ral of  the  white,  was  descended,  on  both  sides, 
from  most  respectable  families.  His  father  (an 
Englishman)  went  over  to  Ireland,  where  he 
married  a  lady  of  that  country,  and  settled.  .Mr. 
11  was  born,  we  believe,  about  the  year 
1743,  and  his  Christian  name  .Macnamara  was 
derived  from  his  paternal  crrandmother.  At  the 
early  age  of  five  years,  he  had  the  misfortune  of 


losing  his  father :  and,  through  either  the  fraud 
or  mismanagement  of  his  guardians,  all  the  for- 
tune which  had  been  left  him  was  dissipated  by 
the  time  that  he  reached  fourteen.  Our  officer 
entered  the  service  at  an  early  period ;  and,  after 
serving  fourteen  years  as  midshipman,  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  During  the 
war  with  the  colonies  he  served  on  board  the 
Albany,  Diligent,  and  Raleigh,  principally  on 
the  coast  of  America,  and  distinguished  himself 
on  several  occasions.  The  pilot  having  once 
run  the  Albany  upon  a  rock,  at  some  distance 
from  the  land,  to  the  westward  of  the  bay  of 
Fundy.  lieutenant  Russell  requested  and  ob- 
tained from  his  commander  the  Albany's  boats, 
armed  with  volunteers,  to  cruize  for  vessels  to 
lighten  and  get  her  off;  or,  should  that  be  im- 
practicable, to  save  her  stores,  and  to  cover  their 
own  retreat  to  Halifax.  In  the  course  of  seven 
or  eight  hours  he  returned,  with  no  fewer  than 
four  fine  sloops  and  schooners,  some  laden  and 
some  in  ballast,  which  he  had  cut  out  from  under 
a  very  heavy  fire  from  the  shore. 

From  the  Albany  Mr.  Russell  was  removed 
to  the  command  of  the  Diligent  brig,  of  eisrht 
three-pounders.  In  this  ship,  whilst  cruising  off 
the  Chesapeak,  he  engaged  and  took  the  Lady 
Washington,  letter  of  marque,  of  sixteen  six- 
pounders,  richly  laden,  from  France.  Mr.  Uus- 
sell  now  became  first  lieutenant  of  the  Raleigh, 
commanded  by  captain  (afterwards  admiral) 
Gambier.  In  this  ship  he  was  engaged  in  re- 
pelling the  French  attempt  upon  Jersey  (under 
the  command  of  captain  Ford  and  Sir  James 
Wallace)  in  1779. 

After  this  service  lord  Shuldham,  then  port 
admiral  at  Plymouth,  honored  lieutenant  Russell 
with  the  command  of  Drake's  Island,  with  200  or 
300  seamen  and  marines.  His  lordship  flatter- 
ingly termed  this  the  Post  of  Honor;  it  being, 
as  he  observed,  the  advanced  post  of  Great 
Britain,  whilst  the  combined  fleets  kept  the 
channel.  Lieutenant  Russell  next  served  in  the 
Raleigh,  at  the  siege  of  Charlestown  ;  on  the  re- 
duction of  which  (May  the  llth,  1780)  vice- 
admiral  Arbuthnot,  the  naval  commander-in- 
chief,  promoted  him  to  the  rank  of  master  and 
commander  in  the  Beaumont  sloop. 

From  the  Beaumont  sloop,  captain  Russell 
was  made  post  in  the  Bedford,  of  seventy-four 
guns,  then  bearing  the  broad  pendant  of  commo- 
dore Affleck.  He  soon  after  removed  into  the 
Hussar,  of  twenty  guns;  in  which  ship  he  cruis- 
ed successfully  against  the  enemy,  by  taking  and 
destroying  a  large  frigate  near  Boston,  laden  with 
masts  and  naval  stores,  for  the  French  fleet ;  a 
large  brig  privateer,  of  eighteen  guns ;  a  letter 
of  marque,  of  nearly  the  same  force ;  and  seve- 
ral smaller  prizes,  beside  the  Sybille  frigate,  the 
capture  of  which  demands  more  particular  no- 
tice.— The  Hussar  had  only  twenty  guns,  and 
1 16  men,  thirteen  of  whom  were  on  the  sick  li>t ; 
but  La  Sybille  had  thirty-eight  guns,  and  350 
men  ;  circumstances  which  rendered  the  odds  far 
greater  in  favor  of  the  Frenchman. 

Captain  Russell's  official  letter  says,  '  On  my 

approach,  she  displayed  an  English  ensign  re- 

i  in  her  main  shrouds,  and  English  colors 

over  French  at  the  ensign-staff.     Having  like- 


RUSSELL. 


wise  discovered  that  she  was  under  very  good 
jury-masts,  had  some  shot-holes  in  her  quarter, 
and  not  supposing  that  French  tactics  contained 
a  ruse  de  guerre  of  so  black  a  tint,  I  took  her  to 
he  what  her  colors  intimated — a  distressed  prize 
to  some  of  his  majesty's  ships ;  every  hostile 
idea  vanished ;  my  mind  was  employed  in  de- 
vising means  to  succor  and  protect  her ;  I  de- 
clined the  privilege  of  my  supposed  rank,  and 
stood  under  his  lee  to  hail.  At  that  moment,  by 
a  pre-concerted  and  rapid  movement,  he  put  up 
his  helm,  aimed  at  laying  me  athwart  hawse, 
carrying  away  my  bowsprit,  raking,  and  then 
boarding  me.  I  felt  the  error  of  my  credulity; 
ordered  our  helm  hard-a-weather,  shivered,  and 
shortened  the  after-sails:  The  Hussar  obeyed  it 
• — saved  me  from  the  murdering  reflection  of  a 
surprise — baffled  in  part  the  enemies'  attention, 
and  received  only  a  half-raking  fire ;  which, 
however,  tore  me  to  pieces  forward,  and  killed 
two  of  my  men.  By  this  time  both  ships  were 
by  the  lee  forward,  and  almost  aboard  each  other. 
I  called  aloud,  to  stand  by  to  board  him.  It 
had  the  desired  effect;  he  put  up  his  helm — 
wore  off — the  Hussar  closed  with  him — and  a 
fair  engagement  commenced  before  the  wind. 
After  about  two  hours'  chase,  the  Hussar  got  up 
abreast  of  the  enemy,  gave  him  one  broadside, 
which  he  returned  with  two  guns,  and  struck  his 
colors;  the  Centurion,  then  about  long  random 
shot  astern,  and  the  Terrier  sloop  about  four  or 
five  miles  to  leeward,  under  a  pressure  of  sail. 
The  French  officers,  when  prisoners,  confessed 
that  it  was  their  intention  to  put  the  crew  of  the 
Hussar  to  the  sword  for  daring  to  chase  them  in 
so  contemptible  a  ship.' 

From  the  circumstance  of  peace  taking  place 
just  at  that  period,  the  above  letter  was  never 
published.  Perhaps,  also,  from  motives  of  con- 
ciliation on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  it  was 
thought  politic  not  to  give  it  to  the  world,  as  it 
certainly  bore  extremely  hard  upon  the  French 
commander.  But,  as  it  was  intended  that  this 
letter  should  appear  at  the  court  of  France 
against  count  Krergarou,  it  became  necessary  to 
have  it  legally  authenticated,  which  was  accord- 
ingly done. 

When  the  captain  of  la  Sybille  delivered  his 
sword  to  captain  Russell  on  the  Hussar's  quar- 
ter-deck, he  commenced  a  speech,  with  much 
pomposity  of  style  and  manner,  saying,  '  Ac- 
cept, Sir,  of  a  sword,  which  was  never  before 
surrendered.  Conceive  my  feeling,  on  being  re- 
duced to  it  by  a  ship  of  less  than  half  my  force 
but  such  a  ship  !  such  a  constant  and  continued 
tremendous  fire '. ' — Captain  Russell  answered, 
'  Sir,  1  must  humbly  beg  leave  to  decline  any 
compliments  to  this  ship,  her  omcers,  or  com- 
pany, as  I  cannot  return  them.  She  is  in- 
deed no  more  than  a  British  ship  of  her  class 
should  be.  She  had  not  fair  play :  but  Almighty 
God  has  saved  her  from  a  most  foul  snare  of  a 
most  perfidious  enemy.'  '  I  receive  your  sword 
with  me  most  inexpressible  contempt ;  and,  sir, 
you  will  please  to  observe,  that  lest  it  should  ever 
defile  the  hand  of  any  honest  French  or  English 
officer,  I  here,  in  the  most  formal  and  public 
manner,  break  it.'  At  this  moment  a  strong  box, 
containing  about £500, was  brought  onboard  the 


Hussar,  and  another  filled  with  plate,  &c.  The 
French  officers  in  a  body  declared  that  the  mo- 
ney was  their  private  property,  and  that  the  plate 
belonged  to  their  captain.  '  Gentlemen,'  said 
captain  Russell,  '  it  shall  continue  yours ;  what- 
ever your  captain  may  think,  British  officers  do 
not  fight  for  money.'  Attempts  were  made  to 
bribe  captain  Russell  to  release  the  count ;  the 
English  commander,  of  course,  revolted  at  the 
offer,  and  severely  reproved  the  bearer. 

On  his  return  to  England,  captain  Russell,  for 
his  various  services,  was  offered  the  honor  of 
knighthood;  an  honor  which  he  modestly  de- 
clined, as  not  possessing  a  sufficient  fortune. 
Some  of  his  friends  thought  that  this  refusal  might 
disoblige  lord  Keppel ;  but  that  it  did  not  was  evi- 
dent from  his  lordship's  continued  friendship 
towards  him  whilst  he  lived. 

During  the  peace,  in  the  course  of  the  year 
1791,  captain  Russell  was  appointed  to  command 
the  Uiana,  on  the  Jamaica  station ;  where,  for 
his  conduct  during  the  apprehension  of  a-  rising 
among  the  negrops,  he  was  twice  honored  with 
the  public  thanks  of  the  inhabitants.  It  was 
during  this  time  that  he  was  sent  by  admiral 
Affleck,  to  convoy  a  cargo  of  provisions,  as  an 
act  of  charity,  f;om  the  government  and  princi- 
pal inhabitants  of  Jamaica,  to  the  white  people 
of  St.  Domingo,  who  were  then  severely  suffer- 
ing from  the  depredations  of  the  people  of  color. 
He  was  received  with  joy  and  gratitude ;  and 
was  invited  to  a  public  dinner  given  by  the  co- 
lonial assembly  at  Aux  Cayes.  At  this  repast 
our  officer  represented  to  the  assembly  that  there 
was  a  lieutenant  Perkins,  of  the  British  navy, 
cruelly  confined  in  a  dungeon  at  Jeremie,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  island,  under  the  pretext  of  having 
supplied.the  blacks  with  arms ;  but,  in  fact,  through 
malice  for  his  activity  against  the  trade  of  that  part 
of  St.  Domingo  in  the  American  war.  Captain 
Russell  stated  that,  before  he  had  ventured  to 
plead  his  cause,  he  had  satisfied  himself  of  his 
absolute  innocence;  that  he  had  undergone 
nothing  like  a  legal  process,  a  thing  impos- 
sible from  the  suspension  of  their  ordinary 
courts  of  justice,  owing  to  the  divided  and  dis- 
tracted state  of  the  colony  ;  and  yet,  horrible  to 
relate,  he  lay  under  sentence  of  death !  '  Grant 
me,'  said  captain  Russell,  '  his  life !  Do  not 
suffer  these  people  to  be  guilty  of  the  murder  of 
an  innocent  man,  by  which  they  would  drag 
British  vengeance  upon  the  whole  island.'  So 
forcible  was  this  appeal  that  the  assembly,  in  the 
most  hearty  and  unequivocal  manner,  promised 
that  an  order  should  be  instantly  transmitted  for 
him  to  be  delivered  up.  On  the  following  day, 
however,  on  captain  Russell  sending  an  officer 
to  receive  the  order  for  lieutenant  Perkins's  libe- 
ration, he  returned  with  a  refusal  from  the  as- 
sembly ;  for,  '  as  it  was  a  promise  made  after 
dinner,  they  did  not  think  it  binding.' 

Almost  at  the  moment  of  the  officer's  return,  the 
Ferret  sloop,  captain  Nowell  (afterwards  admiral 
Nowell),  hove  in  sight.  She  had  been  at  Jeremie, 
with  despatches  containing  the  requests  of  lord 
Effingham  and  admiral  Affleck,  that  lieutenant 
Perkins  might  be  delivered  up,  which  the  council  of 
commons  there  absolutely  refused.  No  sooner 
was  captain  Russell  apprised  of  this  state  of  the 


RUS 


176 


RUS 


business,  than  he  declared  that  he  would  sacrifice 
as  many  Frenchmen  as  there  were  hairs  on  Per- 
kins's head,  if  they  murdered  him.  His  deter- 
mination was  soon  known  amongst  the  Diana's 
crew ;  the  anchor  was  up,  sail  crowded,  and  the 
wind  favoring  them  in  an  uncommon  manner, 
the  frigate  and  sloop  quickly  appeared  offJere- 
mie.  Both  of  the  vessels  hove  to  close  to  the 
harbor,  and  prepared  for  battle  ;  every  soul  on 
board  of  them  panting  for  vengeance,  should 
Perkins  be  murdered.  Captain  Nowell,  on  land- 
ing, was  surrounded  by  a  mob  of  at  least  300 
villains,  armed  with  sabres;  and,  together  with 
lieutenant  Godby,  who  accompanied  him,  had 
occasion  to  keep  his  hand  on  his  sword  during 
the  whole  of  the  conference  which  took  place. 
The  president  read  the  letter,  and  said,  '  Sir, 
suppose  I  do  not  ?  '  'In  that  case,'  replied  the 
British  officer,  'you  draw  down  a  destruction 
which  you  are  little  aware  of.  I  know  captain 
Russell ;  beware,  if  you  value  your  town,  and 
the  lives  of  thousands ;  he  has  given  me  sixty 
minutes  to  decide ;  you  see,  sir,  that  thirty  of 
them  are  elapsed.'  The  mob  now  grew  outrage- 
ous. '  You  shall  have  him,'  exclaimed  one  of 
them,  '  but  it  shall  be  in  quarters  ! '  Captain 
Nowell  instantly  drew  his  sword,  and;  looking  at 
the  president,  said,  '  Sir,  order  that  fellow  out  of 
my  sight,  or  he  dies  ! '  The  president  did  so  ; 
and,  after  a  few  more  threats  from  captain 
Nowell,  that  he  would  return  without  him,  poor 
Perkins  was  led  from  the  brig  of  war  lying  off  the 
town  in  which  he  had  been  kept  a  close  prisoner, 
into  the  Ferret's  boat. 

Having  remained  the  usual  time  on  the  Ja- 
maica station,  the  Diana  returned  to  England, 
and  was  paid  off;  after  which  captain  Russell 
was  appointed  to  command  the  St.  Albans  of 
sixty-four  guns,  and  brought  home  four  or  five 
East  Indiamen  from  St.  Helena.  On  the  llth 
of  January,  1796,  he  was  appointed  to  the  Ven- 
geance, of  seventy-four  guns ;  in  which  he  served 
in  the  West  Indies,  under  rear-admiral  Harvey, 
at  the  captures  of  St.  Lucia  and  Trinadad,  and  at 
the  subsequent  unsuccessful  siege  of  Porto  Rico  ; 
and  on  this  station  captain  Russell  had  the  satis- 
faction of  making,  the  second  time  in  his  life,  an 
ample  fortune  ;  but,  by  an  unlimited  confidence 
in  the  integrity  of  others,  his  golden  treasures 
soon  vanished. 

In  the  spring  of  1799  he  returned  to  England, 
and  joined  the  Channel  fleet,  then  under  the 
orders  of  earl  St.  Vincent.  Having  remained  for 
some  time  in  that  service,  the  Vengeance,  being 
much  out  of  repair,  was  paid  off;  and,  on  the 
23d  of  April,  1800,  captain  Russellwas  appointed 
to  the  Princess  Royal,  a  second  rate,  in  which 
ship  he  remained  until  advanced  to  the  rank  of 
rear  admiral  of  the  white,  Jan.  1st.,  1801 ;  and  on 


the  23d  of  April,  1804,  rear-admiral  of  the  red. 
Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  late  war, 
v.e  tincl  our  officer  serving  under  lord  Keith. 
About  the  year  1807  he  was  appointed  to  'he 
chief  command  of  the  North  Sea  fleet ;  but,  from 
the  rigid  caution  which  the  Dutch  squadrons  ob- 
served, no  opportunity  occurred  for  him  to  dis- 
play the  determined  spirit  which  he  was  well 
known  to  possess.  His  promotion  to  the 
rank  of  vice-admiral  took  place  Nov.  9th,  1805; 
and  on  the  12th  of  August,  1812,  he  became  a 
full  admiral.  Mrs.  Russell,  to  whom  he  was 
united  about  the  year  1793,  died  March  9th, 
1818,  leaving  an  only  child,  a  daughter,  married 
in  1817  to  George  Edward  Patey,  esq.,  lieut. 
R.N. 

Admiral  Russell's  blockade  of  the  Texel,  dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  threatened  invasion  of  our 
shores,  has  been  considered  admirable,  and  was 
planned  and  executed  by  himself.  His  system 
of  anchoring  during  the  strongest  gales,  with 
sometimes  three  cables  on  end,  was  rewarded  by 
the  most  complete  success.  During  the  neap 
tides,  the  line-of-battle  ships  for  the  most  part 
rendezvoused  at  North  Yarmouth,  by  which  a 
saving  to  his  country  in  wear  and  tear,  and  pro- 
bable loss  of  ships,  was  effected  to  an  immense 
amount.  Indeed,  while  this  blockade  of  the 
Texel  was  the  most  efficient  ever  known,  and 
was  conducted  with  all  the  rigidness  of  a  si;'e 
of  bitter  warfare,  it  was  marked  by  instances 
refined  humanity  which  procured  the  respect 
and  esteem  of  the  Dutch  admiral  Kictchurt,  his 
officers,  and  men. 

RUSSET,  adj.  &  n.  s.  Fr.  rousset ;  Lat. 
russus.  Reddishly  brown  :  such  is  the  color  of 
apples  called  russetings,  and  of  coarse  country 
dresses. 

The  morn,  in  ruttet  mantle  clad, 
Walks  o'er  the  dew  of  yon  high  eastern  hill. 

Shakfpeare. 

Taffata  phrases,  silken  terms  precise, 
Figures  pedantical :  these  summer  flies 
Have  blown  me  full  of  maggot  ostentation  : 
Henceforth  my  wooing  mind  shall  be  exprest 
In  russet  yeas,  and  honest  kersey  noes.  Id. 

Our  summer  such  a  russet  livery  wears, 
As  in  a  garment  often  dyed  appears.  Dryden. 

The  Dorick  dialect  has  a  sweetness  in  its  clownish- 
ness,  like  a  fair  shepherdess  in  her  country  russet. 

Id. 

This  white  spot  was  immediately  encompassed 
with  a  dark  gray  or  russet,  and  that  dark  gray  with 
the  colors  of  the  first  iris.  Newton'i  Opticks. 

The  rtuset  pearmain  is  a  very  pleasant  fruit,  con- 
tinuing long  on  the  tree,  and  in  the  conservatory  par- 
takes both  of  the  russeting  and  pearmain  in  colour 
and  taste  ;  the  one  side  being  generally  russet,  and 
the  other  streaked  like  a  [-earraain.  Mortimer. 


_:       - 

ml*  if? 


177 


RUSSIA. 


RUSSIA  (from  Sclav.  Rossi  or  Russi,  a  small 
Sclavonic  tribe)  comprehends  a  portion  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  exceeding  in  extent  any  em- 
pire that  was  ever  before  included  under  one 
form  of  government.  It  borders  on  the  Baltic, 
the  Euxine,  and  the  Caspian,  and  is  washed 
both  by  the  Arctic  and  Great  Pacific  Oceans. 
.  Stretching  from  the  eastern  confines  of  Asia  to 
the  mountains  of  Olonetz,  and  from  the  mouths 
of  the  Don,  the  Volga,  and  the  Kuban,  to  the 
Frozen  Sea,  Russia  comprises,  independently  of 
islands  and  promontories,  165°  of  longitude  and 
32°  of  latitude;  being  9684  miles  in  length  and 
2400  in  breadth.  It  contains  a  surface  of  about 
4,000,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
more  than  42,000,000  inhabitants,  or  about  ten 
persons  to  each  square  mile.  The  population 
of  European  Russia,  exclusively  of  the  kingdom 
of  Poland,  does  not  much  exceed  40,000,000. 
The  chief  augmentations  by  which  the  empire 
has  been  enlarged  (for  since  its  provinces  were 
united  under  one  government  they  have  never 
been  contracted)  are  the  following,  as  stated  in 
the  Russian  Court  Calendar  for  1817  : — 

The  conquest  of  Siberia  took  place  in  1573. 
Yermark,  the  hetman  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  re- 
belled against  the  authority  of  Russia,  and  was 
obliged  to  flee  before  the  forces  of  the  czar.  In 
this  extremity  he  ascended  the  Ural  mountains, 
and  discovered  the  vast  plains  of  Siberia.  Ani- 
mated by  the  idea  of  founding  a  new  empire,  in 
these  unknown  regions,  he  pushed  on  from  con- 
quest to  conquest,  till  he  had  subdued  all  the 
savage  tribes  from  the  Ob  and  the  Ural  to  the 
Altaian  mountains.  But,  being  unable  to  pre- 
serve the  conquests  which  his  valor  had  achieved, 
he  laid  the  fruit  of  his  victories  at  the  feet  of  the 
czar,  who  not  only  forgave  his  rebellion,  but  re- 
warded his  talents,  his  courage,  and  his  enter- 
prise. '  Thus  an  empire  more  extensive  than 
Mexico  or  Peru  was  added  to  the  Russian  terri- 
tory, by  a  man  inferior  to  the  conquerors  of  tne 
New  World,  only  because  his  exploits  have  not 
been  recorded.'  Little  Russia  was  added  to  the 
i  former  possessions  in  1644;  and  Livonia,  Estho- 
nia,  Ingria,  Carelia,  Viborg,  and  several  islands 
in  the  gulf  of  Finland,  were  ceded  to  Sweden, 
at  the  peace  concluded  between  the  two  powers 
in  1721.  White  Russia  was  annexed  in  1772; 
and  the  Crimea,  the  island  of  Taman,  and  a  great 
part  of  the  Kuban,  comprising  a  vast  territory, 
with  about  1,500,000  inhabitants,  were  wrested 
from  the  Porte,  by  the  treaty  which  the  menac- 
ing attitude  of  Catharine  II.,  and  her  celebrated 
minister  Potemkin,  induced  that  power  to  sign 
in  1784.  The  dukedoms  of  Lithuania  and  Cour- 
land  augmented  the  accumulating  mass  in  1793; 
and  the  partition  of  Poland,  about  two  years 
afterwards,  added  nearly  3440  square  leagues, 
nnd  about  2,000,000  inhabitants.  Georgia  was 
annexed  in  1801  ;  and  Baily stock  in  1807.  The 
war  between  Russia  and  Sweden,  in  1809,  proved 
disastrous  to  the  latter,  and  Russia  acquired 
Finland  by  the  peace  that  was  concluded  in 
September  of  that  year. 
VOL.  XIX 


By  a  treaty  of  peace  in  August  1811  between 
Russia  and  Turkey  the  former  obtained  the  pro- 
vince of  Bessarabia,  and  the  eastern  part  of  Mol- 
davia ;  for  by  that  treaty  the  Pruth,  from  its  en  - 
trance  into  Moldavia,  to  its  junction  with  the 
Danube,  and  tin's  last  river  to  the  Black  Sea, 
were  fixed  as  the  boundaries  between  the  two 
empires.  The  grand  duchy  of  Warsaw  was 
also  annexed  to  Russia  in  1815,  but  now  con- 
stitutes a  great  part  of  the  present  kingdom  of 
Poland. 

This  empire  has  undergone  much  variation  in 
its  political  divisions.  In  1796  Catherine  II. 
divided  the  whole  into  fifty  governments  ;  a  divi- 
sion annulled  by  Paul  in  1800,  another,  com- 
prising forty-one  governments,  being  substituted 
in  its  stead.  When  the  late  emperor  ascended 
the  throne,  he  re-established  most  of  the  govern- 
ments which  his  father  had  abolished;  and  a 
Ukase  for  that  purpose  was  published  in  Sep- 
tember 1801,  by  which  the  forty-one  existing 
governments  were  increased  by  five  others  that 
had  previously  been  established,  and  four  more 
were  added,  which  made  the  number  fifty.  The 
acquisition  of  Finland  has  been  made  since  that 
period.  The  following  are  its  present  chief  di- 
visions : — 

GOVERNMENTS  ON  THE  NOUTII. 

Governments.  Capitals. 

Finland Abo 

Wyburg Wyburg 

Olonetz Olonetz 

Archangel        ....  Archangel 

Esthonia Revel 

St.  Petersburgh    .     .     .St.  Petersburgh. 
Novogorod       ....  Novogorod-Veliki 

Vologda Vologda 

Livonia Riga 

Pskove        ^     .     .     .     .  Pskove 

Twer Twer 

Jarosla Jarosla 

Kostroma Kostroma. 

GOVERNMENTS  IN  THE  CENTRE. 

Smolensko       ....  Smolensko 

Moscow Moscow 

Volodimir Volodimir 

Nizney  Novogorod    .     .  Nizney  Novogorod 

Kaluga        Kaluga 

Tula  Tula 

Riazan Riazan 

Tambof Tambof 

Orel       Orel 

Kursk Kursk 

Woronetz Woronetz 

Tschenigo Tschenigo 

Ukraine Karkof. 

GOVERNMENTS  ON  THE  SOUTH. 

Kiev Kiev 

Catharinoslaf  ....  Catharinoslaf 

Cossacks Tscherkaskoy 

Taurina Caffa 

Caucasus  (pan  in  Asia). 


178  It  U  S  S  1  A. 

GOVERNMENTS  ON  THE  EAST. 
Governments.  Capitals. 

Perm  (part  in  Asia)       .  Perm 

Vyatka Vyatka 

Orenburg  (part  in  Asia)  Orenburg 

Kazan Kazan 

Simbirsk Simbirsk 

Penza Penza 

Saratof Saratof. 

GOVERNMENTS  ON  THE  WEST. 

Witepsk Witepsk 

Moghilef Moghilef 

Courland Mittau 

Wilna    .     .     ...     .     .  Wilna 

Grodno Grodno 

Minsk Minsk 

Volhynia Lucko 

Podolia Kaminieck 

Cherson Cherson. 

I.  EUROPEAN  RUSSIA. — European  Russia  oc- 
cupies the  north-east  portion  of  Europe ;  being 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Frozen  Ocean  ;  on 
the  east  by  Asia ;  on  the  west  by  Sweden,  the 
gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  Baltic,  Prussia,  Poland, 
and  Austria ;  and  on  the  south  by  Turkey  and 
the  Black  Sea.  It  extends  from  about  44°  to 
72°ofNlat.;  and  from  22°  to  60°  of  E.  long, 
from  Greemvich.  Its  length  in  a  right  line  on 
the  western  frontier  is  about  1940  miles;  but 
from  south-west  to  north-east  it  is  nearly  2180 
miles.  Its  greatest  breadth  is  about  51°  of 
lat.,  where  it  is  nearly  1520  miles.  Its  su- 
perficial extent  has  been  estimated  at  about 
1,000,000  square  miles. 

The  two  distinguishing  features  of  this  part  of 
Russia  are  vast  plains,  denominated  steppes, 
and  majestic  rivers.  Some  of  the  former  con- 
sist of  an  extremely  fertile  soil ;  others  are  saline 
wastes ;  while  a  middle  kind  produces  a  scanty 
supply  of  vegetation,  and  are  occupied,  in  sum- 
mer, by  tribes  that  roam  in  quest  of  pasturage. 
The  most  noted  of  these  steppes  are,  1 .  The  de- 
sert of  Petshora,  situated  between  the  Dwina 
and  Petshora,  and  extending  from  63°  of  lat.  to 
the  shores  of  the  White  Sea.  This  plain  is  in- 
terspersed with  forests  and  small  lakes,  and  is 
almost  destitute  of  inhabitants,  except  in  the 
vicinity  of  Archangel  and  Mezen.  2.  The  steppe 
of  the  Dnieper,  including  the  Crimean  desert, 
and  comprised  between  the  Dnieper,  the  Don, 
and  the  sea  of  Azof.  It  consists  chiefly  of  dry 
sand  diversified  with  salt  lakes.  The  appearance 
indicates  its  having  once  been  a  submarine  bed, 
the  waters  of  which,  by  bursting  the  Thracian 
Bosphorus,  may  have  flowed  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 3.  The  steppe  of  the  Don  and  the 
Volga,  which  occupies  a  considerable  part  of  the 
space  between  these  rivers.  The  great  and  ge- 
nerally rich  plain  bounded  by  the  Volga  and  the 
Ural  is  about  2°  further  north  than  the  latter, 
and  stretches  towards  the  Caspian. 

( )ther  parts  of  the  Russian  territory,  though 
generally  flat,  present  more  variety.  The  surface, 
generally  speaking,  is  composed  of  two  inclined 
planes ;  one  sloping  towards  the  south  and 
south-east,  and  the  other  descending  towards 
the  opposite  points.  These  declivities  meet  on 


the  east  side  of  the  empire,  about  60°  of  lat. 
and  thence  follow  a  winding  line  towards  the 
south-west,  till  their  union  reaches  50°,  and 
quits  Russia  in  the  vicinity  of  Sraolensko.  From 
this  waving  ridge,  the  waters  flow  on  the  one 
side  to  the  Euxine  and  Caspian ;  and,  on  the 
other,  into  the  White  Sea  and  the  Baltic. 

The  mountains  of  Olonetz  originate  in  the 
northern  extremity  of  Lapland,  and  stretch 
through  about  15°  towards  the  south.  The 
northern  parts  are  constantly  covered  with  snow ; 
the  more  southern  regions  with  forests,  and  con- 
tain various  metals,  particularly  iron.  The 
mountains  of  Valday,  which  are  crossed  by  the 
road  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Moscow,  have 
been  supposed,  by  some  travellers,  to  be  merely 
a  continuation  of  the  former  chain.  They  are 
chiefly  composed  of  clay  and  sand,  with  occa- 
sional blocks  of  granite,  forests,  and  fertile  val- 
leys. This  elevated  region  gives  rise  to  the 
Volga,  the  Duna,  the  Dnieper,  and  the  Ocka. 
A  ridge  of  hills  likewise  extends  through  Mol- 
davia and  Bessarabia,  along  the  southern  coast 
of  Taurida,  and  connects  the  Carpathian  with 
the  Caucasian  chain.  '  They  form  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  peninsula,  and  consist  of  cal- 
careous matter,  supported,  as  it  were,  by  pillars 
of  marble,  trap,  clay,  common  lime-stone,  and 
schistus,  in  parallel  and  almost  vertical  veins, 
alternating  with  each  other.  This  singular  ridge 
has  the  appearance  of  an  amphitheatre  along 
the  Euxine.  The  vales  produce  the  laurel,  the 
olive,  the  fig,  the  lotus,  and  the  pomegranate ; 
the  cliffs  are  adorned  with  the  red  bark  and  per- 
petual foliage  of  the  strawberry-tree ;  while  the 
sheep  and  goats,  clinging  to  the  declivities, 
combine  with  the  simple  manners  of  the  Tartars 
to  form  an  enchanting  picture.'  The  Uralian 
mountains,  which  separate  Europe  from  Asia, 
for  more  than  1200  miles,  have  already  been 
mentioned  in  our  article  EUROPE.  This  range 
declines  abruptly  on  the  western  side.  The 
highest  part  is  in  the  province  of  Orenburg,  and 
the  most  elevated  near  the  western  verge  of  the 
range.  These,  however,  do  not  exceed  4500  feet 
in  height 

The  principal  rivers  descending  towards  the 
south  are  the  Volga,  the  Don,  and  the  Dnieper. 
Those  that  run  in  an  opposite  direction,  the  Pet- 
shora, the  Dwina,  the  Neva,  and  the  Duna,  with 
their  tributaries. 

The  level  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  number 
of  large  rivers,  are  extremely  favorable  to  inter- 
nal navigation  of  all  kinds.  Peter  the  Great  com- 
pleted the  navigation  from  the  Caspian  to  the 
Baltic,  by  opening  the  canal  of  Vishnei  Voloshok, 
between  the  river  Twerza,  that  falls  into  the 
Volga,  and  the  Shlina,  which  terminates  in  the 
gulf  of  Finland.  Various  other  plans  of  internal 
navigation  have  at  different  times  been  wholly 
or  partially  executed  ;  and  the  repose  of  peace, 
aided  by  the  information  which  the  Russians 
have  derived  from  their  visits  to  the  more  im- 
proved nations  of  Europe,  will  doubtless  be  em- 
ployed in  promoting  the  national  resources  of 
these  vast  dominions.  Among  these  improve- 
ments, the  construction  of  canals  is  finding  a 
place,  though  they  are  rendered  less  necessary 
in  Russia  than  in  most  other  countries,  by  the 


RUSSIA. 


119 


continued  intensity  of  the  frost,  which  makes  the 
conveyance  of  heavy  articles  on  sledges  a  matter 
of  ease  constantly  to  be  depended  on.  No  sooner 
has  the  frobt  set  in  than  sledge-ways,  covered 
with  these  vehicles,  are  opened  from  the  gulf  of 
Archangel  to  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  and  from 
the  banks  of  the  Irtish  to  those  of  the  Neva. 
Some  of  the  Russian  lakes  are  the  largest  bodies 
of  fresh  water  in  Europe  :  as  those  of  Ladoga, 
Peypus,  Onega,  and  ILmen.  Russia  also  con- 
tains several  others. 

Russia  is  generally  connected  with  the  idea  of 
cold ;  but  this  applies  only  to  the  northern  dis- 
tricts ;  those  of  the  opposite  extreme  participate 


in  the  temperature,  and  yield  all  the  products  of 
southern  Europe.  With  respect  to  climate, 
European  Russia  may  be  divided  into  three  dis- 
tinct regions  ;  the  cold  otie  from  60°  northward  ; 
the  temperate  between  50°  and  60° ;  and  the 
warm  from  50°  to  the  southern  extremity.  In 
the  first  of  these  the  severity  of  winter  is  sreat, 
and  confines  the  labors  of  agriculture  to  a  very 
limited  period.  Little  vegetation  appears  before 
June ;  but  then  the  accumulated  heat  of  almost 
continual  day  renders  its  progress  vigorous  and 
rapid.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  at  St. 
Petersburg!!  during  ten  years  were  as  follow  :  — 


GREATEST  HEAT. 

GREATEST  COLD. 

I 

Year. 

Day. 

Degree  of  Fahrenheit. 

Day. 

Degree  of  Fahrenheit. 

1782 

12th  July 

85° 

16th  February 

29°  below  0. 

1783 

17th  June 

88 

9th  January 

•23    ditto 

1784 

29th  July 

92 

30th  January 

8   ditto 

1785 

23d  July 

86 

3d  March 

22    ditto 

1786 

27th  June 

87 

2d  January 

24    ditto 

1787 

13th  June 

92 

9th  February 

14   ditto 

1788 

18th  July 

95 

{  20th  January     \ 
\  23d  December  $ 

15    ditto 

1789 

19th  July 

90 

12th  January 

20   ditto 

1790 

31st  July 

78 

3d  and  10th  February 

8    ditto 

1791 

15th  June 

86 

7th  and  22d  December 

10    ditto 

The  climate  here  is  as  changeable  as  in  our 
own  country.  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  has  been 
known  at  St.  Petersburgh  to  be  at  3°  one  day, 
and  nearly  37°  the  next;  making  a  difference  of 
about  34°  in  a  few  hours.  Storms  of  thunder 
and  lightning  seldom  take  place  in  Russia;  but 
the  aurora  borealis  is  very  frequent,  and  the  at- 
mosphere is  often  seen  to  discharge  electric  fluid. 
Near  Moscow  the  rivers  are  generally  frozen  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  November  ;  and  the  ice 
seldom  breaks  up  till  the  middle  of  Marcn.  The 
buds  of  the  birch  expand  in  May,  and  its  leaves 
fall  in  September.  In  the  southern  parts  of  this 
middle  region,  particularly  in  the  government  of 
Tula,  Orel,  Kursh,  and  Kiev,  the  climate  re- 
sembles that  of  parts  of  France.  It  produces 
apples,  pears,  plums,  melons,  and  arbutuses.  But 
here,  as  well  as  in  the  former  region,  the  year 
embraces  only  two  seasons.  Snow  clogs  the 
path  of  retreating  summer,  and  a  vivid  sun  at 
once  dissolves  the  winter's  frost.  In  the  southern 
regions  the  luxuriance  of  warm  latitudes  greets 
the  travellers'  eye,  and  wine  and  silk,  with 
abundance  of  choice  fruits,  are  found.  Spring 
begins  with  March,  and  continues  to  the  end  of 
May.  Nature  is  then  arrayed  in  her  rnost  brilliant 
colors,  and  every  aspect  under  which  she  is 
viewed  is  refreshing  and  beautiful.  In  June, 
the  influence  of  the  sun  becomes  powerful,  the 
plains  lose  their  verdure,  the  springs  are  dried 
up,  and  the  rivers  cease  to  flow.  Fahrenheit's 
thermometer,  in  the  shade,  often  exceeds  100°. 
September  is  sometimes  far  advanced  before  the 
fiery  glare  of  summer  abates.  In  this  season 
ruin  and  dew  seldom  fall ;  but  in  the  peninsular 
province  of  Tauiida  the  heat,  during  the  middle 


of  the  day,  is  tempered  by  refreshing  breezes 
from  the  sea,  succeeded  in  the  evening  by  others 
from  the  land.  Here  the  climate  is  salubrious  ; 
though  in  some  other  districts  of  the  south  the 
swamps  and  saline  steppes  are  unhealthy.  As 
autumn  advances  the  nights  become  cold,  and 
this  season  is  the  most  sickly  in  the  year.  In 
winter  the  tops  of  the  mountains  are  covered 
with  snow. 

The  varieties  of  the  soil  we  have  already 
glanced  at.  Barren  deserts  occur  even  in  the 
southern  regions,  and  wide-spread  plains,  im- 
pregnated with  salt.  The  governments  of  Vo- 
lodimir  and  Riazan  are  esteemed  the  most 
productive.  There  the  soil  consists  of  a  rich 
vegetable  mould,  and  yields  all  kinds  of  grain 
and  esculent  vegetables.  On  some  of  the 
steppes  the  grass  grows  to  the  height  of  a  man. 

The  Russian  forests  are  perhaps  unequalled  in 
the  old  world,  and  consist  of  oak,  pines,  cedars, 
firs,  linden,  and  birch.  The  shores  of  the  Volga, 
the  Ocka,  and  the  Don,  are  adorned  with  vast 
woods  of  oak,  whence  it  is  conveyed  to  the  ports 
of  the  Baltic  and  the  Euxine.  The  Valchonskoi 
forest,  through  which  the  road  lies  from  Viesma 
to  Moscow,  extends  on  all  sides  to  a  great  dis- 
tance. The  governments  of  Olonetz,  Archangel, 
Perm,  and  other  northern  regions,  are  likewise 
covered  with  forests  of  unknown  extent.  Even 
the  road  from  Petersburg  to  Moscow  runs 
chiefly  through  a  succession  of  woods.  The  fir, 
the  pine,  and  the  black  pine,  are  the  prevailing 
trees  in  the  northern  parts.  On  the  Ural  moun- 
tains the  cedar  grows  in  abundance,  and  is  often 
cut  down  by  the  inhabitants  for  its  cones,  which 
yield  excellent  oil.  The  larch  flourishes  in  the 

N  2 


180 


RUSSIA. 


north,  and  is  employed  in  ship-building,  and  for 
its  turpentine  and  charcoal.  In  addition  the 
beech,  the  elm,  the  maple,  and  the  poplar,  grow 
in  the  southern  regions.  The  birch  is  used  in 
various  ways.  Its  bark  is  employed  in  tanning ; 
its  leaves  afford  a  yellow  dye,  its  sap  a  liquor 
called  birch  wine,  and  its  wood  not  only  sup- 
plies fuel,  but  is  converted  into  domestic  vessels. 
The  linden  is  likewise  equally  valuable.  Its 
outer  bark  is  manufactured  into  carriages, 
baskets,  trunks,  and  covering  for  cottages;  and 
the  inner  rind  into  mats.  The  rind  of  its  shoots 
is  platted  into  shoes  for  the  boors.  Its  blossom 
supplies  food  for  bees,  and  its  wood  is  made  into 
boats. 

The  Russian  agriculture  is  generally  in  a  very 
rude  state.  In  the  north  both  the  soil  and  cli- 
mate are  unfavorable  to  its  progress,  and  a  few 
patches  of  feeble  rye  are  almost  the  sole  evi- 
dences of  civilisation;  and  the  thinly  scattered 
inhabitants  chiefly  derive  their  subsistence  from 
the  fishery  and  chase.  In  Finland  also  the  inha- 
bitants grow  little  grain.  See  FINLAND. 

The  productions  of  this  extensive  empire,  it 
has  been  long  said,  are  as  various  as  the  soil  and 
climate.  Here  the  gifts  of  Providence  are  scat- 
tered with  a  profusion  which,  while  it  corre- 
sponds with  the  prodigality  of  the  inhabitants, 
forms  a  singular  contrast  with  their  indolence, 
poverty,  and  unskilfulness  in  the  arts  of  wealth 
and  comfort.  The  Russians  at  once  suffer  from 
want,  and  allow  abundance  to  corrupt ;  and 
though  they  might  supply  the  world  they  depend 
on  others.  The  following  facts  have  been  re- 
cently stated  : — '  The  harrow  consists  of  short 
wooden  pegs,  driven  into  thin  laths,  woven 
together  with  willows.  The  use  of  the  roller  is 
hardly  known.  A  crooked  stick  frequently 
serves  as  a  flail.  To  drain  moist  lands  or 
swamps  is  not  at  all  the  practice,  though  they 
are  so  numerous  and  prejudicial  to  man  and 
beast,  and  might  be  converted  into  the  finest 
corn  fields.  The  steppe  lands  are  employed  a 
short  time  without  manure  and  then  forsaken. 
When  a  boor  has  fixed  on  a  piece  of  forest  land 
for  the  purpose  of  making  it  arable,  together 
with  the  bushes  and  young  wood,  he  cut*  down 
and  consigns  to  the  flames,  trees  which  have 
stood  for .  two  centuries,  and  are  fit  to  be  the 
'mast  of  some  great  admiral.'  If  he  cannot  fell 
such  large  trees,  stripping  them  of  their  bark,  he 
leaves  them  to  wither,  and  kindles  the  brush- 
wood under  them.  In  burning  the  dry  weeds 
and  grass  for  the  purpose  of  manure  the  forests 
are  sometimes  set  on  fire,  and  consumed  for 
miles.  The  boor  has  no  conception  of  artificial 
manure,  marl,  chalk,  or  pond-mud.  The  land  is 
seldom  clean  harrowed.'  Oats,  rye,  wheat,  and 
barley,  are  sown  in  most  parts ;  and  raised  in 
considerable  quantities.  Rice  is  grown  in  some 
of  the  southern  districts ;  but  hemp  and  flax  are 
the  principal  objects  of  culture.  In  some  of 
the  Uralian  mountains  they  grow  wild.  Hops 
and  tobacco  are  cultivated  in  the  southern  pro- 
vinces. Beyond  60°  of  latitude  the  vegetables 
resemble  those  of  the  northern  parts  of  Norway 
and  Sweden.  Between  50°  and  60°  they  differ 
little  from  those  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Almost  all  sorts  of  culinary  vegetables  are  cul- 
tivated. This  region  is  also  plentifully  stocked 


with  fruit  trees  and  shrubs ;  and  vast  orchards 
of  apple,  pear,  plum,  and  cherry  trees  appear. 
Cherries  are  produced  in  such  abundance  that' 
both  wine  and  vinegar  are  made  of  them.  Nuts 
and  walnuts  are  likewise  plentiful.  Various 
berries  are  annually  gathered  in  vast  quantities, 
and  eaten  either  raw  or  preserved.  They  include 
gooseberries,  currants,  strawberries,  cranberries, 
&c.  &c. 

Maize,  rice,  and  cotton,  are  among  the  com- 
mon products  of  the  south.  The  fruits  comprise 
chestnuts,  almonds,  pomegranates,  olives,  figs, 
peaches,  apricots  and  mulberries,  with  grapes 
and  other  delicate  fruits  of  southern  climates. 
The  vine  is  cultivated  by  the  Cossacks  of  the 
Don,  but  in  an  imperfect  manner.  The  water- 
melon often  weighs  30  Ibs.,  and  is  of  an  excel- 
lent flavor. 

Cattle  abound  in  all  parts  of  Russia,  and 
form  a  principal  source  of  wealth.  The  breed 
is  often  large,  and  as  well  as  that  of  the  sheep 
has  been  much  improved;  but  they  are  fre- 
quently left  to  seek  their  own  food  in  the  fields 
and  forests.  Buffaloes  are  numerous  in  the 
south.  The  long-tailed  sheep,  kept  by  the 
Cossacks  of  the  Don,  and  other  tribes  in  the 
south,  yield  wool  of  an  excellent  quality.  The 
large  sheep  which  range  over  the  steppes  of 
Taurida  are  covered  with  coarse  wool  mixed 
with  hair;  but  the  skins  of  their  lambs  furnish  a 
fine  colored  and  valuable  fur  in  great  request. 
The  silky-fleeced  Tauridan  is  also  a  valuable  but 
small  breed.  Sheep  indeed  are  so  numerous  in 
the  southern  provinces  that  a  common  Tartar 
often  possesses  a  flock  of  1000,  and  a  rich  one 
of  50,000.  There  are  also  great  numbers  of 
swine  in  Russia. 

Notwithstanding  the  diversity  of  climate  and 
treatment,  the  native  Russian  horses  have  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  each  other.  All  are  of 
a  compact  form,  with  ram-like  heads,  and  long 
and  meagre  necks,  but  they  are  hardy  and  active. 
In  the  governments  of  Moscow,  Tambof,  Kazan, 
and  some  others,  the  native  breed  has  been  im- 
proved by  the  introduction  of  foreign  horses 
The  Tartar  horses  are  of  known  excellence. 
Those  of  the  Cossacks  are  small  but  indefatiga- 
ble. The  Russian  cavalry  is  chiefly  composed 
of  Lithuanian  horses.  The  Russian  nobility  pay 
great  attention  to  the  breed  of  this  animal.  The 
ass  is  little  used ;  but,  as  well  as  the  camel  and 
dromedary,  it  is  sometimes  employed  in  the 
southern  provinces  for  domestic  purposes.  The 
rein-deer  is  the  principal  domestic  animal  in  the 
north.  Goats  are  common  in  all  the  districts  ; 
and  are  kept  both  for  their  milk  and  hair.  The 
peculiar  species  bred  in  Taurida  sheds  its  fleece 
every  spring;  it  is  obtained  by  combing  the 
animal  at  that  season.  In  both  silkiness  and 
elasticity  it  exceeds  the  finest  wool. 

Among  the  wild  animals  are  the  bear,  the 
wolf,  the  lynx,  the  fox,  the  deer,  the  elk,  the 
antelope,  and  many  other  smaller  species.  Those 
which  are  most  valued  for  their  furs  are  inhabit- 
ants of  Siberia  ;  but  hares  and  rabbits  are  com- 
mon to  all  parts.  The  wild  boar  is  found  on  the 
steppes  of  the  Volga,  and  the  borders  of  the 
Uralian  forests ;  and  is  often  huuted  by  the 
Cossacks.  So  much  does  this  animal  fatten  on 
the  roots  and  salt  plants  of  the  steppes,  that  he 


RUSSIA. 


181 


often  weighs  more  than  six  hundred  weight. 
The  flesh  is  esteemed  a  delicacy,  und  the  animal 
is  rarely  killed  without  danger.  The  antelope 
ranges  in  large  herds  in  the  south. 

Russia  possesses  nearly  all  the  species  of 
birds  which  are  to  be  found  in  Europe.  The 
number  of  wild  fowl  that  flock  to  the  desolate 
steppes,  marshes,  and  forests,  is  almost  incredi- 
ble. Some  idea,  however,  may  be  formed  of 
their  number  by  their  value  when  caught;  a 
bustard,  weighing  20  Ibs.,  is  frequently  sold  for 
thirty  or  forty  copecs,  which  is  only  equal  to  a 
few  pence.  Other  game  are  equally  plentiful. 

The  sturgeon  is  caught  in  the  Volga,  and  some 
of  the  other  rivers,  in  the  highest  perfection. 
The  sterlet -is  also  an  excellent  fish,  common  in 
the  lakes  and  rivers;  and  a  rich  salmon  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  Kama,  a  stream  that  falls  into  the 
Volga.  It  is  from  three  to  four  feet  in  length. 
To  the  general  diffusion  of  the  common  species 
of  European  fish  through  the  rivers  of  Russia, 
the  eel  forms  an  exception,  none  being  found 
either  in  the  Volga  or  in  the  rivers  to  the  east  of 
it.  It  is  also  remarkable  that  the  herring  and 
seal  are  here  found  in  some  of  the  lakes  and 
even  the  rivers. 

.VIATIC  RUSSIA. — Asiatic  Russia  extends 
from  about  37°  of  E.  long.,  to  the  eastern 
extremity  of  Asia,  (more  than  5000  English 
miles),  and  from  the  Frozen  Ocean  to  the  great 
range  of  mountains  which  separates  it  from  the 
central  plateau.  Its  breadth  exceeds  1500  miles ; 
but  it  is  much  narrower  towards  the  east.  The 
whole  surface  is  computed  at  3,000,000  of  square 
miles,,  with  about  one  individual  to  each.  The 
population  is  composed  of  a  variety  of  primi- 
tive tribes,  intermixed  with  a  few  Russian  set- 
tlers, and  a  small  accession  in  the  east,  which 
from  its  difference  in  manners,  customs,  and  ap- 
pearance, is  supposed  to  be  of  American  descent. 
The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  extended  their 
Scythian  Ocean  over  the  wide  regions  of  Sibe- 
ria; but  Ptolemy,  who  was  better  informed,  placed 
an  unknown  land  in  that  direction  :  and  Marco 
Polo,  with  other  travellers  of  the  middle  ages, 
obtained  some  vague  ideas  of  a  country  in  this 
part  of  Asia,  rich  in  furs.  In  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century  the  Monguls  had  established 
a  government  on  the  Irtish,  in  the  western  part 
of  Siberia,  but  Russia  was  then  too  frequently 
exposed  to  the  ravages  of  its  eastern  neighbours 
to  carry  either  its  arms  or  its  investigations  into 
those  regions.  Even  when  her  internal  divisions 
had  enabled  her,  in  some  measure,  to  consolidate 
her  empire,  its  southern  and  eastern  frontiers 
were  exposed  to  hostile  attacks,  and  the  northern 
provinces  of  Archangel  afforded  the  means  of 
first  becoming  acquainted  with  the  countries 
bordering  on  that  quarter.  The  Samoiedes  of 
the  Oby  and  the  adjacent  districts  visited  Rus- 
sia to  barter  their  furs  with  the  natives.  This 
excited  their  curiosity,  and  enterprises  were  un- 
dertaken to  the  countries  whence  the  furs  were 
brought. 

Yermack,  one  of  the  principal  chiefs  of  the 
Cossacks,  with  about  6000  followers,  first  entered 
Siberia  in  quest  of  new  regions,  and  vanquished 
Kutchum,  the  khan  of  Siber,  took  his  capital, 
.ind  suddenly  found  himself  at  the  head  of  an 
almost  unlimited  empire.  Apprehensive,  how- 


ever, that  continual  efforts  would  be  made  to 
wrest  the  newly-acquired  sceptre  from  his  hands, 
he  endeavoured  to  secure  it  by  laying  it  at  the 
feet  of  the  czar.  This  was  an  offer  too  conge- 
nial with  the  Russian  disposition  to  be  refused ; 
and,  though  the  conquest  was  transient,  it  not 
only  disclosed  those  eastern  countries,  but  ani- 
mated the  hope  of  permanent  success.  The 
Russians  soon  after  penetrated  to  the  Yenisei,  or 
Jenisei,  and,  having  conquered  the  Tonguses,  en- 
joined them  to  prosecute  their  discoveries  to  the 
east.  These  people  fulfilled  their  commission, 
and  soon  penetrated  to  the  Pisida,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  Angara,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  which  they  found  a  people,  whom  they 
described  as  '  of  good  understanding,  well  set, 
with  small  eyes,  flat  faced,  brown  color,  and  in- 
clining to  tawney.'  But  they  could  not  under- 
stand their  language.  The  Russians  now  soon 
arrived  at  the  Lena,  descending  its  stream  to  the 
Frozen  Ocean  ;  in  1639  one  of  their  adventurers 
reached  the  eastern  shore*  Thus,  in  half  a  cen- 
tury, a  few  wandering  Cossacks  and  Tungusian 
hunters,  added  an  extent  of  country  to  the  Rus- 
sian empire  that  stretched  one-third  round  the 
globe.  After  this  they  founded  the  towns  of 
Irkutsk  and  Nertschinsk,  and  established  a  line 
of  posts  along  the  Amur.  The  map  of  the  Cas- 
pian, constructed  by  Peter  the  Great,  was  an 
important  accession  to  the  progressive  geography 
of  that  district,  and  was  the  first  document  which 
represented  that  sea  as  stretching  from  north  to 
south,  instead  of  from  east  to  west,  as  had  been 
previously  supposed. 

The  mountainous  region,  at  the  south-west  ex- 
tremity of  Asiatic  Russia,  has  always  been  -inha- 
bited by  rude  tribes,  under  independent  chiefs, 
secure  in  their  own  fastnesses.  Here  they  have 
imbibed,  and  constantly  cherished,  the  spirit  of 
the  feudal  ages ;  and,  though  Russia  has  made 
great  advances  in  the  work  of  subjugation,  she 
is  yet  unable  to  exact  more  than  a  precarious 
submission,  and  can  only  levy  her  imposts  by 
force  of  arms,  and  a  chain  of  military  posts. 

Asiatic  Russia  consists  of  two  distinct  parts, 
Siberia  and  Caucasus.  The  first  is  divided  into 
the  two  great  governments  of  Tobolsk  on  the 
west  and  Irkutsk  on  the  east.  The  latter  go- 
vernment includes  the  peninsula  of  Kamschatka. 
Besides  these  two  governments,  the  province  of 
Astracan,  with  parts  of  Caucasus,  Perm,  and 
Orenburg,  are  Asiatic.  We  therefore  adopt  the 
following  general  division  : — 

Capitals. 

(Tobolsk     .     .     Tobolsk 
t  Irkutsk      .     .     Irkutsk 

Astracan     .     .     Astracan 

Part  of  Perm 

Part  of  Orenburg 
'Part  of  Caucasus  Georgiewsk 

Cossacks  of  the 


Governments. 
SIBERIA 


Black  Sea 
Circassia    . 

!  Georgia     . 

'  Lesghistan 
Dashes  tan 
Schirwan    . 
Mingrelia    . 


Ekaterinodar 
Tiflis 

Derber.d 

Baku 

Xalikara 

t  'atalis. 


182 


RUSSIA. 


Abassia,  bordering  on  the  north-eastern  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea,  is  under  the  protection  of  the 
Turks  ;  and  Circassia,  with  some  divisions  of  the 
other  provinces,  nearly  independent.  Georgia, 
however,  was  incorporated  with  Russia  in  1800. 
The  extent  and  population  of  those  various  go- 
vernments are  uncertain. 

The  ice-bound  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean 
stretch  along  the  north  ;  while  the  fury  of  the 
eastern  wave,  and  the  action  of  subterranean 
tire,  seem  to  have  rent  the  oriental  regions  into 
vast  promontories  and  islands.  An  immense 
range  of  mountains  sweeps  along  its  southern 
confines,  mingling  with  the  Caspian  and  Cau- 
casan  chain.  The  Uralian  mountains,  which 
constitute  the  western  boundary,  we  have  already 
noticed. 

In  Asiatic  Russia  the  general  surface,  like  that 
of  the  European  portion  of  this  empire,  is  chiefly 
composed  of  steppes;  sometimes  arid  or  saline 
deserts,  at  others  principally  occupied  by  marshes, 
or  covered  with  almost  interminable  forests; 
while  some  consist  of  a  fertile  soil,  and  produce 
a  luxuriant  vegetation.  Asiatic  Russia,  however, 
is  not  destitute,  on  its  confines,  of  mountain 
ranges."  The  great  ridge  which  stretches  nearly 
from  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Caspian  to  the 
promontory  of  Tschutskoi  is  known  by  various 
names.  The  Altaian  mountains  form  a  barrier 
between  this  empire  and  independent  Tartary. 
South  of  the  lake  of  Baikal  the  mountains  of  that 
name,  supposed  to  be  the  highest  points  of  the 
chain,  rear  their  summits  to  more  than  10,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  In  most  parts  of  the  chain, 
however,  they  are  lower.  After  bending  to  the 
north,  they  are  known  as  the  Daouria,  which 
are  succeeded  by  those  of  the  Yablonnoi  and 
Stannovoi,  which  give  place  to  the  vague  deno- 
mination of  the  mountains  of  Okotsk.  The  com- 
ponent parts  of  this  range  are  various.  In  some, 
^reat  masses  of  granite  indicate  a  primitive  for- 
mation, while  in  others,  limestone,  marble,  pe- 
trified shells,  and  valuable  ores  abound.  This 
range  gives  rise  to  many  of  the  largest  rivers  of 
Northern  Asia;  but  little  is  known  beyond  its 
outlines  and  general  direction.  Several  lower 
ridges  diverge  from  it,  and  diversify  the  neigh- 
bouring districts. 

Through  Ramtschatka  also  a  mountainous 
range  stretches,  the  highest  summits  of  which 
are  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  and  many  of 
them  constantly  shaken  by  volcanic  fury.  One 
of  these  is  situated  near  Nijni  Kamtschalka,  and 
may  be  seen  at  the  distance  of  more  than  100 
miles.  Scarcely  two  years  elapse  without  erup- 
tions, when  the  whole  country  is  covered  with 
ashes  for  thirty  miles  round.  Another  active 
volcano  rises  near  the  southern  extremity  of 
Kamschatka. 

The  Oby,  the  Yenisei,  and  the  Lena,  are 
the  largest  streams,  and  divide  all  the  broad 
part  of  Siberia  into  three  great  basins.  A  few 
smaller  streams  also  enter  the  Arctic  Ocean  from 
the  narrower  districts  on  the  east.  The  first  ,of 
these  vast  basins  embraces  all  the  space  be- 
tween the  I'ralian  mountains  and  00°  of  long., 
l>ein-  about  :%,0°  from  ea-t  in  \%,>i,  ;md  20°  from 
north  to  south.  Many  writers  place  the  * 
<>f  the  Oby  in  the  lak'  of  Alum.  or  Altyn, 


52°  of  lat, ;  but,  as  the  Shabetian  is  the 
only  confluent  river  of  that  lake,  it  may,  with 
propriety,  be  considered  as  the  parent  stream, 
which  extends  several  degrees  to  the  south, 
and  nearly  to  95°  of  long.  After  crossing 
the  Altaian  chain  it  flows  in  a  serpentine  di- 
rection towards  the  north-west,  till  it  meets 
the  Irtish,  which  issues  from  the  said  moun- 
tain range,  and  rivals  it  in  magnitude. — 
Subsequently  to  its  junction,  it  winds  to  the 
north,  and  forms  that  vast  estuary  called  the  Sea 
of  Oby.  Having  collected  the  waters  of  such  a 
wide  space  it  becomes  a  large  river  long  before 
it  reaches  the  sea,  and  is  in  some  places  several 
miles  in  width.  Its  whole  length  is  about  2180 
miles,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  navigable. — 
The  Irtish  flows  nearly  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  Oby,  but  a  few  degrees  more  to  the  west. 

Several  important  streams  likewise  fall  into 
the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas.  The  Ural  rises 
from  the  south-western  part  of  the  Uralian  chain, 
and,  after  flowing  towards  the  west,  turns  to  the 
south,  and  enters  the  Caspian.  In  the  upper 
part  of  its  course,  its  banks  are  steep  and  rocky, 
but  it  afterwards  flows  through  a  vast  saline 
steppe  :  its  fisheries  are  an  inexhaustible  source 
of  wealth  to  the  Cossacks.  The  Volga  also  falls 
into  the  same  sea,  which  is  likewise  joined  by 
the  Terek  and  the  Kuma  on  the  west,  while  the 
Kuban  or  ancient  Hypanis  flows  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  enters  the  Euxine  near  the  Isle  of 
Taman. 

Siberia  contains  few  lakes ;  but  the  vast  Bai- 
kal has  often  been  delineated  as  an  inland  sea. 
Another  large  lake  is  met  with  about  52°  of  lat. 
and  east  of  the  Irtish.  Its  length  is  170  miles, 
and  its  shape  very  irregular.  An  island  divide* 
it  into  two  parts,  called  the  lakes  of  Tchany  and 
Soumi.  Several  other  lakes  are  situated  bet\\,  t  u 
this  and  the  Uralian  mountains.  That  of  Altyn 
has  been  mentioned  in  the  description  of  the 
Oby.  It  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  Altaian 
chain,  and  is  nearly  forty  miles  long  and  twenty 
broad.  The  largest  lake  in  the  north  of  Siberia 
is  the  Fiazinskoi,  in  68°  of  lat.,  and  a  few  de- 
grees east  of  the  Yenisei.  Some  small  saline 
lakes  are  found  on  the  steppes  north  of  tin  ' 
pian,  and  are  considered  as  indications  of  that 
sea  having  extended  much  farther  north  than  at 
present. 

With  respect  to  the  climate,  Asiatic  Russia  i< 
colder  than  the  European  part,  under  the  same 
latitudes.,  Beyond  60°  the  winter  lasts  nine  or 
ten  months,  and  the  earth  is  frozen  to  a 
depth  ;  but  the  almost  perpetual  day  imparts 
considerable  heat  to  the  summer.  In  the  vao 
marshes  traversed  by  the  lower  part  of  the  Oby 
the' whole  accumulated  heat  of  this  period,  how- 
ever, does  not  thaw  the  ground  'more  than  two 
feet;  and  Gmeliu  states,  that,  at  .lakoutsk,  in 
62°,  the  ground  in  the  middle  of  summer  wa> 
found  to  be  frozen  at  the  depth  of  three  or  four 
feet.  The  use  of  wells  is  therefore  entireU 
vented. 

In  the  southern  parts  the  cold  is  often  extreme. 
1'allas  witnessed  the  freezing  of  mercury  in  58° 
i>t'  lat.  ;  and  even  on  the  southern  borders  in  50° 
the  cold  is  severe.  North  of  the  lake  of  Baikal, 
the  .••uniii!  ;l!y  MI  slum  and  uncertain 


RUSSIA. 


183 


that  agriculture  is  almost  impracticable.  In  the 
most  genial  parts,  where  it  is  attempted,  if  the 
crop  does  not  ripen  before  the  end  of  August,  it 
is  usually  buried  in  snow,  before  the  husband- 
man can  reap  the  reward  of  his  labor.  Captain 
Cook  found  snow  six  feet  deep  on  the  eastern 
coast  in  May,  which  was  not  dissolved  till  June. 
There  the  thermometer  stood  at  32°  during  the 
whole  of  the  former  month,  and  even  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  latter  it  did  not  rise  higher  than  58°. 
In  August  it  reached  65°,  and  the  lowest  point  to 
which  it  sunk  was  40°.  In  October  the  ground 
was  again  covered  with  snow.  W  inter  then  be- 
gins his  sway,  and,  though  in  the  latitude  of 
England  and  some  of  the  finest  provinces  of 
France,  the  mercury  commonly  stands  below  20°. 

With  the  name  of  Kamtschatka  is  connected 
the  idea  of  one  of  the  most  desolate  and  inhospi- 
table regions  on  the  globe.  Its  geographical 
situation,  however,  renders  its  climate  and  pro- 
ductions much  superior  to  those  of  Siberia. 
Baron  Steinheil,  who  lived  several  years  in  this 
distant  land,  and  drew  up  a  plan  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  country,  asserts,  '  From  a  loug 
course  of  observations  made  during  my  residence 
in  Kamtschatka,  I  am  convinced  that  both  the 
climate  and  soil  are  such  as  that  agriculture 
might  be  carried  on  with  the  most  complete  suc- 
cess.' But  see  our  article  KAMTSCHATKA. 

The  forests  of  Siberia  contribute  to  render  the 
air  in  many  places  damp  and  unwholesome,  par- 
ticularly in  the  western  regions.  The  eastern 
districts  are  colder,  but  more  salubrious.  In 
most  parts  the  winds  are  violent,  and  tremendous 
hurricanes  often  bury  both  man  and  beast  be- 
neath the  sand  and  snow.  Near  the  Caspian 
the  inhabitants  enjoy  a  warm  and  protracted 
summer,  though  the  winter  is  cold.  In  the  pro- 
vince of  Astracan,  the  heat  is  sufficient  to  mature 
the  grape,  and  much  excellent  wine  is  made.  Mul- 
berry-trees flourish  also,  and  silk  is  produced  in 
considerable  quantities.  In  the  mountainous  region 
of  Caucasus,  the  climate  exhibits  every  variety. 
On  the  southern  side  heat  prevails  in  the  valleys, 
and  cold  on  the  mountains ;  the  following  extract 
from  Mr.  Glen's  Journal  gives  a  good  idea  of 
the  climate  of  the  northern  side.  'The  tempe- 
rature of  the  atmosphere  is  in  general,'  he  says, 
'  much  more  equable  than  at  Astracan ;  the  ther- 
mometer does  not  rise  so  high  in  summer,  neither 
does  it  sink  so  low  in  winter ;  and,  what  may 
appear  strange,  the  temperature  is  still  more 
equable  in  the  valleys  of  the  snow  mountains. 
Last  winter  (1818-19),  when  the  thermometer 
fell  to  17°  in  the  colony,  the  rivulets  among  vhe 
mountains  were  not  frozen,  and  the  valleys  were 
green  all  the  winter  through.  The  summer  heats, 
too,  are  less  oppressive.  In  short,  from  all  ac- 
counts, the  climate  in  these  valleys  does  not 
materially  differ  from  that  of  the  valleys  among 
the  hills  of  our  native  country  (Scotland).  The 
most  striking  characteristic  of  a  Karass  winter, 
as  it  set  in  about  the  beginning  of  December, 
1819,  was  a  strong  rind  (rime),  that  lodged  on 
the  branches  of  trees,  in  the  form  of  minute 
icicles,  in  such  quantities  as  to  weigh  them  to  the 
ground,  or  break  them.  Its  appearance  is  pic- 
turesque and  romantic  in  a  high  degree ;  but  its 
effect  particularly  in  the  orchards,  destructive. 


Nor  are  large  trees  proof  against  its  overwhelming 
power.  I  have  seen  the  massy  branches  of  some 
of  them  break  down  with  a  crash,  in  a  dead 
calm,  merely  by  the  weight  of  the  rind.  When 
it  is  strong,  the  whole  country  is  overhung, 
sometimes  for  many  successive  days,  by  a  thick 
fog.' 

The  oak  and  the  hazel,  which  bear  the  rigors 
of  a  German  winter,  will  not  flourish  under  the 
same  parallels  in  Siberia.  They  indeed  stretch 
along  the  northern  base  of  the  Altaian  chain, 
but  farther  north  they  become  stunted.  The  com- 
mon heath  that  covers  many  of  the  lower  districts 
of  Lapland  is  not  to  be  found  in  these  wastes.  It 
must  not,  however,  be  inferred  that  these  plains 
are  merely  tracts  of  snow  ;  on  the  contrary, 
almost  interminable  forests  of  birch,  elder,  lime, 
maple,  poplar,  and  aspen,  interspersed  with 
millions  of  pines,  cover  many  parts.  The  Si- 
berian plum,  the  crab,  the  mountain  ash,  the 
willow,  and  other  trees,  are  found  ;  and  the  short 
summer  exhibits  a  brilliant  display  of  flowers. 
The  lily  of  the  valley,  and  several  bulbous- 
rooted  plants,  are  concealed  beneath  the  snow 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

Though  agriculture  is  but  little  practised  in 
Siberia,  the  crops  are  occasionally  good ;  nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  country,  however,  yield  no 
grain.  Hemp  and  flax  are  cultivated  in  some 
parts,  and  the  potatoe  has  likewise  been  intro- 
duced. The  cattle,  in  a  few  of  the  richest  steppes, 
are  of  a  tolerable  size,  and  the  Mongol  horses 
are  beautiful ;  some  of  them  resembling  the  tiger, 
and  the  leopard,  in  the  variety  of  their  colors. 
In  all  the  northern  and  eastern  regions,  except 
Kamtschatka,  and  a  few  other  parts,  where  dogs 
are  employed  in  drawing  sledges,  the  rein-deer 
is,  however,  the  most  valuable  possession  of  the 
natives.  The  utility  of  this  singular  animal  is 
greatly  enhanced  by  its  capability  of  enduring 
the  most  extreme  cold,  and  subsisting  on  a  spe- 
cies of  moss.  A  Samoiede  often  possesses  150 
or  200 ;  and  the  wealthy  Koriaks  and  Tchoukt- 
chis  several  thousands  each.  The  Siberian  dog 
resembles  the  wolf,  and  in  many  parts  supplies 
the  place  of  the  rein-deer,  in  drawing  the  sledge. 
The  wild  animals  are  numerous. 

The  mineral  productions  of  Russia  are  chiefly 
obtained  in  the  Asiatic  regions. 

The  primitive  mountains  supply  granite  and 
porphyry  in  great  abundance.  Alabaster  is  also 
found  in  extraordinary  quantities  and  of  every 
color.  Yellow,  gray,  and  cloudy  marble  abounds 
in  many  places,  and  white  is  found  in  the  Ura- 
lian  quarries,  little  inferior  to  the  finest  Parian. 
A  great  variety  of  cems  have  also  been  dis- 
covered in  the  mountainous  part  of  the  empire. 

Various  parts  of  Russia  yield  gold,  silver, 
copper,  iron,  and  lead.  The  chief  gold-mines 
are  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Uralian  mountains, 
and  were  first  opened  in  1754.  These  annually 
supply  about  6430  tons  of  ore,  which  yield 
about  1901bs.  of  refined  metal.  But  the  produce 
has  now  oeen  increased,  as  is  stated,  to  nearly 
28011-s.  of  gold.  The  mines  which  were  pre 
viously  opened,  in  the  mountains  of  Olonetz, 
have  either  been  abandoned  or  are  now  little 
productive. 

Twines  of  silver  are  worked  in  several  places, 


184 


RUSSIA. 


but  chiefly  in  Asia ;  and  the  whole  produce  is 
stated  at  46,800lbs.  of  the  refined  metal.  Lead 
mines  have  been  worked  in  Russia  for  more 
than  a  century,  and  still  yield  a  considerable 
quantity  of  metal.  The  number  of  workmen 
employed  in  all  these  mines  is  estimated  at 
70,000;  and  the  value  of  the  produce  exceeds 
double  the  expenses  of  working  them.  Copper 
is  obtained  jn  the  mountains  of  Olonetz,  in  the 
Uralian  chain,  and  in  Asia.  The  quantity  of 
copper  now  annually  obtained  has  lately  been 
stated  at  67,000  quintals,  each  equal  to  about 
108lbs.  avoirdupois,  which  is  consequently  equal 
to  3230  tons ;  and  its  value  exceeds  £250,000. 

Most  of  the  mountains,  and  many  of  the  plains, 
of  Russia  atford  iron-ore,  and  great  quantities 
are  annually  procured,  in  the  manufacturing  of 
which  about  100  forges  and  800  hammers  are 
constantly  employed.  The  value  of  the  iron  is 
more  than  double  that  of  the  copper.  The  whole 
produce  of  all  the  gold  and  silver  mines  belongs 
to  the  crown,  with  a  sixth  of  the  copper  and 
one-eighth  of  the  iron. 

Coal  has  been  found  in  various  parts  of  Russia, 
and  attempts  are  making,  under  the  immediate 
sanction  of  the  emperor,  for  discovering  it  in 
others. 

Salt  abounds,  and  is  found  in  the  pure  and 
solid  rock,  at  the  bottom  of  the  lakes,  in  the 
liquid  spring,  and  incrusting  the  plains.  Rock 
salt  is  obtained  in  the  government  of  Orenburg, 
and  in  the  steppe  of  the  Volga  ;  the  salt  lakes 
of  Saratof,  Taurida,  and  other  places,  yield  large 
quantities,  as  well  as  the  impregnated  springs  of 
Perm  and  Novogorod.  Glauber's  salts,  and  seve- 
ral of  the  other  saline  species,  are  likewise  found. 
Thermal  springs  are  found  in  various  places,  and 
of  different  temperatures,  from  merely  warm  to 
1 90°  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  The  most  cele- 
brated vitriolic  waters  are  at  Sarepta,  near  the 
banks  of  the  Volga,  in  the  government  of  Sara- 
tof, and  are  much  frequented.  The  water  is 
clear  and  saline,  its  taste  not  unpleasant,  and  its 
temperature  generally  about  10°  of  Fahrenheit 
above  the  common  water  in  its  vicinity.  These 
waters  are  beneficial  in  various  complaints,  such 
as  inflammation:),  cramps,  and  inveterate  colds. 
They  are  supposed  to  contain  about  l-200th  part 
of  earthly  and  mineral  ingredients.  The  spring 
is  very  copious.  The  principal  places  in  Euro- 
pean Russia  where  naphtha  is  found  are  in  the 
district  of  Perekop,  in  the  government  of  Tauri- 
da, and  in  the  Island  of  Taman  ;  but  it  is  still 
more  abundant  in  the  Asiatic  part  of  the  empire. 
Incrusting  springs  are  numerous,  and  the  moun- 
tains contain  stalactic  caverns,  with  springs  that 
mcrust  substances  with  a  coating  of  iron  ore. 

The  chief  towns  of  the  provinces  will  be  found 
in  their  places  in  our  alphabet,  and  ST.  PETERS- 
BURG and  Moscow  have  received  our  particular 
atteniion,  see  these  articles.  Kiev,  the  original 
«:radle  of  the  monarchy,  was  settled  by  a  colony 
of  Sarmates  before  the  Christian  era.  Its  appear- 
ance from  the  Moscow  road  is  thus  described 
by  Mr.  James  : — '  Arrived  at  the  top  of  a  decli- 
vity," says  our  traveller,  'a  new  scene  presented 
itself.  The  cupolas,  that  before  were  but  as  spots 
in  the  vjpw,  faced  us  with  a  blaze  of  gold,  and 
*  tixniyiriii  JMV  colors  which  dazzled  the  eye. 


The  country  below  showed  an  unvaried  plain  of 
immeasurable  extent,  covered  with  a  thick  forest, 
through  the  middle  of  which  the  Dnieper,  now 
dwindled  to  a  streamlet,  was  seen  winding  its 
silvery  path  into  the  horizon.  It  was  a  land 
seeming  untouched  by  man,  and  afforded  a  pros- 
pect as  wild  in  appearance  as  any  that  the  most 
uncivilised  tracts  of  America  could  furnish.' 
Kiev  is  celebrated  for  its  ancient  catacombs, 
which  render  it  the  resort  of  numerous  pilgrims, 
many  of  whom  undertake  a  journey  of  1500 
versts  on  foot. 

Tcherchaskoy,  the  capital  of  the  Don  Cossacks, 
is  situated  on  the  river  Don,  about  100  miles 
before  it  is  lost  in  the  sea  of  Azof.  It  is  thus 
described  by  Dr.  Clarke  : — '  The  appearance  of 
Tcherchaskoy,  as  the  traveller  approaches  it  upon 
the  river,  affords  a  most  novel  spectacle.  Al- 
though not  so  grand  as  Venice,  it  somewhat  re- 
sembles that  city.  The  entrance  is  by  broad 
canals  intersecting  it  in  all  parts.  On  each  side 
wooden  houses,  built  on  piles,  appear  to  float  on 
the  water  ;  to  these  the  inhabitants  pass  in  boats, 
or  on  narrow  bridges,  only  two  planks  wide, 
with  posts  and  rails,  forming  a  causeway  to  every 
quarter  of  the  place.  As  we  sailed  into  the 
town,  we  beheld  the  younger  part  of  the  inhabit- 
ants upon  the  house-tops,  sitting  upon  the  ridges 
of  the  sloping  roofs,  while  their  dogs  were  actu- 
ally running  about  and  barking  in  that  extraor- 
dinary situation.  During  our  approach,  children 
leaped  from  the  windows  and  doors  like  so 
many  frogs,  into  the  water,  and  in  an  instant 
were  seen  swimming  about  our  boat.  Every 
thing  seemed  to  announce  an  amphibious  race : 
not  a  square  inch  of  dry  land  was  to  be  seen  ;  in 
the  midst  of  a  very  populous  metropolis,  at  least 
one  half  of  its  citizens  were  in  the  water,  and  the 
other  in  the  air.'  The  population  is  estimated 
at  15,000  individuals.  Nicholaef  is  the  chief 
town  in  the  southern  part  of  the  empire. 

The  principal  town  in  the  eastern  part  of  Si- 
beria is  Irkutsk,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Angara,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  sea  of  Ii;u- 
kal.  The  streets  are  in  general  broad  and  i 
lar,  but  not  paved.  Most  of  the  private  dwellings 
are  of  wood ;  the  government  buildings  and 
churches  of  stone  This  is  now  considered  as 
the  capital  of  the  whole  of  Siberia.  The  mode 
of  living  is  quite  oriental ;  and  the  wives 
and  daughters  of  the  principal  citizens  are  sel- 
dom seen  except  on  public  occasions.  Nearly 
in  the  same  latitude,  on  the  Chinese  borders, 
and  about  ten  or  twelve  degrees  further  cust, 
stands  Nertschink,  in  the  midst  of  a  mining  dis- 
trict. The  caravans  engaged  in  the  Chi;ia  trade 
formerly  passed  through  Nertschink,  but  I 
they  have  followed  a  different  route  it  has  de- 
clined. Kiakhta,  in  the  government  of  Irkutsk, 
and  on  the  border*  of  China,  has  lately  risen  to 
eminence,  as  the  centre  of  the  trade  between  the 
two  empires. 

The  privilege  of  engaging  in  arts  and  in<ninfnf- 
tiircs  in  Russia  was,  till  lately,  reserved  tor  lh<; 
nobility  and  the  first  and  second  class  of  artizans. 
Hut  the  emperor  Alexander,  by  an  imperial 
I'kase,  dated  December  1818,  removed  this  ob- 
stacle to  improvement.  Among  the  articles 
most  extensively  made  are  linen,  leather,  isin- 


RUSSIA. 


185 


glass,  and  kaviar,  of  which  large  quantities  are 
exported.  The  two  latter  are  prosecuted  with 
great  success  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  and 
other  great  rivers  in  the  south.  Silk,  cotton, 
woollen-cloth,  sail-cloth,  hats,  lace,  glass,  por- 
celain, oil,  soap,  candles,  cordage,  and  paper, 
are  likewise  manufactures  found  in  various  parts 
of  the  empire.  Those  of  pitch,  tar,  pot-ash, 
alum,  saltpetre,  and  gunpowder,  with  iron,  brass, 
and  copper  works,  are  numerous  :  nor  is  any  one 
more  extensive  or  more  productive  to  the  revenue 
than  that  of  spirituous  liquors.  Cannon,  and 
all  other  implements  of  war,  are  made  in  great 
numbers  ;  and  several  steam  engines  have  been 
purchased  in  England,  for  the  improvement  of 
the  different  national  establishments.  Breweries 
and  sugar-refineries  have  likewise  been  intro- 
duced. 

Thejisheriet  of  the  Volga,  the  Ural,  and  other 
rivers,  form  an  important  part  of  the  Russian 
industry.  Those  of  the  last  named  river  belong 
rntirely  to  the  Cossacks,  to  whom  it  has  proved 
an  inexhaustible  source  of  wealth.  The  manner 
in  which  they  are  conducted  is  thus  described 
in  the  European  commerce  of  Rordansz  : — 'The 
river  Ural  flows  into  the  Caspian  ;  when  winter 
approaches,  the  fish  seek  refuge  in  the  river  from 
the  storms  which  at  that  season  Tint  the  Caspian. 
They  ascend  the  river  in  such  immense  numbers 
that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  form  an  idea  of  it, 
and  stop  at  different  places  where  they  find  suf- 
licient  water  and  food.  The  Cossacs  carefully 
observe,  beforehand,  all  the  places  where  such  a 
mass  is  collected,  and  wait  there  patiently  till 
the  river  is  frozen  over.  On  the  1st  of  January 
the  fishery  begins  upon  the  whole  river,  from  the 
capital  town  Uralski,  down  into  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Above  and  below  the  several  banks  of  fish, 
the  hetman  first  causes  the  river  to  be  blockaded 
by  means  of  laige  double  nets  extended  across 
its  whole  breadth,  which  is  effected  by  cutting 
in  the  ice  a  ditch,  if  it  maybe  so  called,  two  feet 
broad.  As  soon  as  it  is  certain  that  the  fish  can- 
not escape,  the  governor  of  Orenburg  and  the 
hetman  of  the  Cossacks  repair  to  a  certain  place 
on  the  bank  of  the  river,  and  on  both  sides  of 
it  above  30,000  Cossacks  are  ready,  each  in  his 
own  sledge,  drawn  by  a  strong  and  swift-footed 
horse,  and  armed  with  a  harpoon  and  an  axe. 
By  the  order  of  the  governor,  a  cannon  is  fired 
as  a  signal  for  beginning ;  hereupon  the  Cossacks 
all  rush  upon  the  river,  and  drive  full  speed  to 
the  fish-bank,  enclosed  with  nets,  which  is  usually 
some  versts  distant.  Those  who  arrive  first  are 
praised  not  only  for  the  swiftness  of  their  horses, 
but  for  their  courage,  for  this  racing  is  attended 
with  no  little  danger  ;  because,  if  any  one  should 
be  so  unskilful,  or  so  unlucky,  as  to  overturn  his 
sledge,  all  those  that  follow  would  infallibly 
drive  over  him.  As  soon  as  the  Cossacks  reach 
the  place  where  there  is  such  a  bank  of  fish, 
they  immediately  cut  a  hole  in  the  ice  with  their 
axe,  and  thrust  in  their  harpoon,  and  the  quan- 
tity of  fish  is  so  great  that  they  never  fail  to 
strike  one  at  every  time.  The  terrible  noise 
caused  by  the  driving  of  30,000  sledges  over  the 
frozen  river  naturally  terrifies  the  fish,  which 
try  all  to  escnpe  at  once,  but  are  hindered  by  the 
The  greatest  difficulty  for  the  fishermen 


is  to  draw  out  the  fish,  and  they  are  often  obliged 
to  call  their  comrades  to  assist ;  for  they  some- 
times spear  fish  weighing  150lbs.  to  200  Ibs. ; 
but  in  such  cases  they  must  divide  the  fish  with 
him  who  assists  them.  This  fishery  continues 
the  whole  winter,  during  which  the  Cossacks 
dwell  in  tents  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  They 
proceed  successively  from  one  bank  of  fish  to 
another,  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Dur- 
ing this  time,  the  river  affords  a  very  peculiar 
spectacle ;  both  its  surface  and  its  two  banks  are 
covered  with  a  countless  multitude  of  men,  who 
are  in  constant  motion.  Traders  come  from  the 
remotest  parts  of  the  empire  to  buy  the  fish  im- 
mediately from  the  Cossacks,  with  a  great  train 
of  sledges,  all  loaded  with  salt;  they  constantly 
attend  the  fishery  in  its  progress  down  the  river 
to  the  sea.  Every  evening  the  Cossacks  sell  to 
them  what  they  have  caught  during  the  day,  and 
receive  payment  on  the  spot.  The  merchants 
send  the  fish  (which  are  frozen  quite  hard)  to 
Moscow,  Casan,  &c.,  and  also  an  incredible 
quantity  of  the  salted  row  of  sturgeon,  known 
under  the  name  of  kaviar.  It  is  astonishing 
what  a  great  number  of  different  kinds  of  fish 
are  found  in  the  Ural,  and  they  all  attain  an  ex- 
traordinary size,  particularly  the  sturgeon,  sal- 
mon, and  pike.  The  very  best  of  these  fish  cost, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Ural,  not  more  than  a  half- 
penny, or  three  farthings  a  pound.  The  day 
when  the  fishery  begins,  the  governor  has  the 
fish,  which  the  Cossacks  send  as  a  present  to  the 
emperor,  chosen  from  among  the  whole  number, 
and  sends  them  without  delay  to  St.  Petersburgh, 
where  they  arrive  quite  frozen.  The  quantity  is 
fixed,  and  it  is  said  to  be  very  considerable.  In 
summer  the  Cossacks  also  carry  on  the  fishery; 
but  it  is  far  less  productive,  and,  as  the  fish  will 
not  keep  in  this  season,  the  Cossacks  salt  them 
immediately,  and  send  them  to  the  neighbouring 
towns  for  sale.'  The  whale  and  seal  fishery  is 
chiefly  prosecuted  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Among  the  exports  of  Russian  commerce,  are 
iron,  copper,  hemp,  flax,  linen,  sail-cloth,  cord- 
age, grain,  tobacco,  linseed,  saltpetre,  and  oil ; 
with  timber,  planks,  masts,  pitch,  tar,  resin, 
pot-ash,  wax,  tallow,  hides,  candles,  isinglass, 
kaviar,  and  horse-hair.  Leather  is  the  most  im- 
portant manufacture  exported,  and  the  greatest 
endeavours  are  used  to  keep  the  method  by  which 
it  is  prepared  a  secret.  For  these  articles  the 
Russians  receive  in  return  silks,  woollen,  and 
cotton  cloth,  hardware,  looking-glasses,  stock- 
ings, watches,  wines,  brandy,  and  fruits  from 
southern  Europe,  with  colonial  produce,  paper, 
books,  engravings,  &c.,  from  England,  and  other 
states.  It  is  estimated  that  one-half  of  the  trade 
of  Russia  is  carried  on  within  the  confines  of  the 
capital.  The  trade  of  Russia  with  Persia  is  by 
means  of  the  Caspian,  and  the  caravans  that 
travel  to  Orenburg,  a  few  degrees  north  of  that 
sea.  The  chief  articles  are  woollens,  furs,  iron, 
steel,  copper,  lead,  and  other  native  productions. 
Russia  receives  in  return  silk,  cotton,  drugs, 
tapestry,  gold,  pearls,  and  diamonds.  Thetrade 
of  China  is  carried  on  from  the  frontier  of  Sibe- 
ri;i,  and  consists  in  the  exchange  of  furs,  iron, 
copper,  and  other  minerals,  for  Chinese  silks, 
tea,  musk,  tigor  skins,  and  a  few:  other  articles. 


186 


RUSSIA. 


The  annual  amount  of  this  commerce  is  between 
3,000,000  and  4,000,000  of  rubles.  With 
Turkey,  the  Russians  exchange  kaviar,  soap,  lea- 
ther, iron,  and  other  produce,  for  olive  oil, 
wines,  rice,  and  fruits.  Of  the  whole  foreign 
European  trade  of  Russia  more  than  half  is  with 
Great  Britain,  the  different  articles  of  which  have 
been  specified  above. 

We  may  now  exhibit  the  comparatively  mo- 
dern rise  and  progress  of  the  maritime  greatness 
of  Russia.  At  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, when  Peter  the  Great  ascended  the  throne, 
Russia  was  still  in  a  state  of  barbarism,  in  com- 
parison with  the  other  nations  of  Europe.  This 
prince  possessed  from  nature  a  great  activity  of 
disposition,  an  impatient  ardor,  and  a  perseve- 
rance which  obstacles  only  served  to  stimulate. 
With  such  a  character  it  was  natural  that  Peter 
should  form  the  project  of  improving  his  sub- 
jects, and  of  making  Russia  act  a  part  amongst 
the  nations  of  Europe;  but  to  this  effect  it  was 
necessary  to  have  suitable  communications  with 
the  ocean,  and  the  procuring  them  was  the  first 
object  of  the  enterprises  of  the  czar.  He  first 
turned  his  views  towards  the  White  Sea,  and  in 
person  visited  Archangel ;  but  observing  that  its 
distance,  and  the  severity  of  its  climate,  opposed 
insurmountable  obstacles  to  any  considerable  ex- 
tension of  industry  and  commerce,  his  next  ob- 
ject was  the  Black  Sea,  situated  under  a  more 
favorable  climate,  but  of  which  the  coasts  were 
possessed,  and  the  navigation  watched  with  jea- 
lousy by  the  Turks.  A  war  breaking  out  be- 
tween the  two  nations,  Peter  attacked  Azoph, 
but  failed  in  the  attempt,  for  want  of  vessels  to 
block  it  by  water.  A  fleet  being,  however, 
quickly  created,  the  following  year  put  him  in 
possession  of  this  fortress  and  its  territory,  but 
which  the  defeat  of  Pruth  again  obliged  him  to 
relinquish. 

Peter  now  seriously  occupied  himself  in  the 
creation  of  a  navy  ;  and,  in  order  to  give  full 
effect  to  his  designs,  he  visited,  as  we  have  seen 
in  his  life,  England,  Germany,  and  Holland,  in 
order  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of  con- 
structing vessels,  and  of  the  details  of  a  marine. 
During  his  travels  the  activity  and  opulence  of 
Riga,  Konigsberg,  and  other  ports  of  the  Baltic, 
did  not  fail  to  strike  him,  and  to  give  him  a  just 
idea  of  the  importance  of  maritime  commerce. 
Not  far  from  the  frontiers  of  his  dominions  he 
met  Augustus,  who,  on  being  raised  to  the  throne 
of  Poland,  had  promised  his  subjects  to  recon- 
quer the  Polish  provinces,  reduced  under  the 
dominion  of  Sweden  ;  but,  being  too  weak  to 
execute  this  promise  alone,  he  proposed  a  coalition 
to  the  czar.  A  perspective  conformable  to  the 
views  of  Peter  now  presented  itself;  and  on  his 
return  to  his  dominions  he  armed,  and  the  coasts 
of  the  Baltic  became  the  theatre  of  his  efforts. 
While  Charles  XII.  was  overrunning  Poland  and 
Saxony,  Peter  seized  on  Ingria,  and  founded 
Peters!.  ur_r. 

In  spite  of  the  superiority  of  situation,  and  the 
encouragement  given  to  foreigners  to  visit  his 
infant  capital,  a  great  part  of  the  productions  of 
Russia  were  still  sent  to  Archangel,  until,  prohibi- 
tions and  punishments  being  added  to  premiums 

nd    privilege-:    Petersburg   at   last  triumphed. 


The  first  foreign  vessel  that  entered  the  Neva  was 
a  large  Dutch  ship,  richly  laden  ;  and  her  arrival 
caused  such  satisfaction  to  the  czar  that  he 
granted  this  vessel  an  exemption  from  all  duties 
while  she  should  continue  to  trade  to  Petersburg : 
and  by  frequent  repairs  she  was  kept  in  existence 
for  more  than  half  a  century.  So  early  as  1718 
100  ships  of  the  same  nation  loaded  at  Peters- 
burg ;  and,  other  nations  following  the  example 
of  the  Dutch,  it  was  soon  known  that  a  vast 
field  was  opened  in  the  north  for  the  exercise  of 
talents  and  industry,  and  strangers  of  all  nations 
flocked  to  Russia  to  improve  or  seek  their  fortunes. 
The  merchants  of  Germany,  England,  France 
Holland,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  established 
themselves  in  the  cities  for  the  purposes  of  com- 
merce, while  the  English  and  Dutch  also  sup- 
plied ship-builders  and  officers,  both  of  land  and 
sea,  who  improved  the  organisation  of  the  ar- 
mies and  fleets. 

The  plans  of  Peter  were  not  lost  sight  of  by 
his  successors  ;  Catharine  II.,  in  particular,  by 
her  victories  and  her  negociations,  as  well  as  by 
the  encouragement  of  foreigners  and  the  protec- 
tion of  commerce,  accelerated  the  progress  of 
industry  and  civilisation  amongst  her  subjects. 

Although  a  part  of  the  commercial  productions 
of  the  Russian  dominions  are  still  exported  from 
Archangel,  and  another  part  from  the  ports  of  the 
Black  Sea,  since  its  navigation  has  been  opened , 
the  principal  commerce  of  Russia  is  by  the 
Baltic.  From  its  ports  on  this  sea  are  exported 
corn,  hemp,  flax  and  flax-seed,  fir  timber  (masts, 
deals,  rafters),  pitch,  tar,  and  potash,  iron  and 
copper  of  Siberia,  hides  and  tallow,  honey  and 
wax,  rhubarb,  tobacco  in  leaf,  fish  oil,  isinglass, 
kaviar,  and  furs  of  Siberia,  viz.  castors,  sables, 
foxes  of  various  colors,  wolves,  squirrels,  bears, 
rats,  and  white  hares.  In  1793  Russia  exported 
by  sea,  for  400,000  rubles  of  these  furs  ;  sea- 
birds'  feathers,  horse-hair,  hogs'  bristles,  and 
neats'  tongues.  The  chief  manufactured  objects 
are  saltpetre,  cordage,  and  sail-cloth  ;  coarse 
linens,  mats,  and  soap.  The  principal  imports 
are  English  manufactures,  viz.  fine  woollens, 
glass,  and  earthenware,  stationary,  all  kinds  of 
cottons,  mathematical  instruments,  cutlery,  and 
hardware,  tin  and  lead.  The  other  imports  are 
colonial  produce,  particularly  coffee,  pf  which 
Petersburg  imports  nearly  1,500,000  Ibs. ;  sugar, 
of  which  it  receives  nearly  5,000,000  Ibs. ;  tea 
and  spices,  wines,  liqueurs,  fruits,  and  oil  of  the 
south  ;  fine  linens  of  Holland  and  Silesia  ;  silks 
of  France,  watches,  toys,  &c.,  of  ditto,  besides 
various  utensils  of  iron  and  copper. 

In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
exports  of  Russia  from  the  Baltic  did  not  exceed 
12,000,000  or  13,000,000  of  rubles,  and  the  im- 
ports about  8,000,000  or  10,000,000.  At  the 
close  of  the  same  century  the  exports  exceed- 
ed 45,000,000,  and  the  imports  were  above 
32,000,000.  The  general  statement  of  the  Rus- 
sian maritime  commerce  (independently  of  the 
Caspian  and  Siberian  Seas  *)  was  as  follows  :— 


*  The  amount  of  the  commerce  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  in  late  years,  has  been  about  100,000  rubles 
of  exports,  and  800,000  of  imports. 


RUSSIA. 


187 


Exports. 

Imports. 

1802,  From  the  Baltic 
1804, 
1805, 

llubles. 
47,000,000 
45,OCO,000 
52,000,000 

Rubles. 
33,000,000 
27,000,000 
29,000,000 

1802,  From  Archangel 
1804, 
1805, 

5,000,000 
2,200,000 
3,750,000 

550,000 
390,000 
390,000 

1  802,From  the  Black  Sea 
1804, 
1805, 

3,000,000 
5,000,000 
7,400,000 

2,055,000 
4,200,000 
5,356,000 

Catharine  II.,  by  duties  and  prohibitions,  en- 
deavoured to  diminish  the  mass  of  imports ;  and, 
by  late  regulations,  certain  objects  are  allowed 
to  be  imported  by  foreigners  only  into  the  ports 
of  Petersburg,  Riga,  Revel,  and  Liebau.  But, 
though  the  manufactures  of  Russia  have  advanced 
beyond  the  state  of  infancy  they  were  in  half  a 
century  past,  they  are  still  very  insufficient  to 
afford  all  the  objects  that  increasing  civilisation 
renders  necessaries  to  the  higher  classes,  such  as 
fine  manufactures  for  clothing,  wines, ornamental 
furniture,  &c. 

Russia  presents  a  singular  phenomenon  among 
the  maritime  powers,  that  of  possessing  an  im- 
posing military  marine  with  a  very  insignificant 
commercial  one.  The  total  number  of  her  mer- 
chant vessels  that  navigate  the  Baltic  and  the 
ocean  did  not  very  lately  exceed  fifty  ;  100  lesser 
vessels  serve  to  carry  on  the  coasting  trade  of 
the  Baltic,  and  about  100  craft,  of  twenty  to 
thirty  tons,  are  employed  in  loading  and  dis- 
charging the  vessels  at  Cronstadt  that  cannot 
enter  the  Neva.  Not  one  of  the  Russian  ports, 
except  Petersburgh,  has  any  establishments  for 
building  or  repairing  ships.  Even  the  few  ships 
that  sail  under  the  Russian  flag  from  Riga  and 
Revel  belong  to  the  merchants  of  Hamburg  and 
Lubeck,who,  in  order  to  profit  by  the  drawback 
of  three-eighths  of  the  duties  on  imports,  have 
purchased  the  freedom  of  these  cities. 

Russia  has  two  trading  companies,  one  for 
carrying  on  the  herring-fishery  in  the  \Vhite  Sea, 
and  the  North-west  American  Company.  A 
company  has  also  been  founded  at  Petersburg 
for  saving  the  cargoes  of  vessels  wrecked  in  the 
gulf  of  Finland  ;  and  the  fourth  part  of  the  pro- 
perty saved  is  adjudged  to  the  company  as  sal- 
vage. Several  ukases  also  prescribe  to  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  coasts  the  measures  to  be  taken  to 
assist  the  crews  and  save  the  cargoes  of  the 
stranded  vessels. 

Under  the  immediate  successors  of  Peter  the 
dreat  the  Russian  navy  was  neglected,  and  had 
little  more  than  a  nominal  existence.  When 
Catharine  II.  mounted  the  throne,  this  ambitious 
ind  enlightened  princess  auain  invited  English 
uul  other  foreign  ship -builders  and  officers  to 
Petersburg  ;  and  among  the  English  was  Sir 
Charles  Knowles,  a  captain  in  the  British  navy, 
who  united  the  professional  knowledge  of  the 
complete  practical  seaman  to  an  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  theory  of  naval  construction. 
lor  his  direction  the  Russian  marine  was 


soon  put  on  a  respectable  footing,  and  many 
of  the  abuses  in  its  civil  administration  corrected. 
Towards  the  end  of  Catharine's  reign  the  marine 
again  declined,  but  revived  under  Paul,  who 
built  many  ships,  and  introduced  several  im- 
provements into  the  administration.  The  Rus- 
sian dominions  afford  every  article  necessary  to 
the  construction  and  equipment  of  a  navy.  At 
Cronstadt  and  Petersburg  the  ships  are  built  of 
the  oak  of  Kasan ;  the  Ukraine  and  government 
of  Moscow  supply  hemp ;  masts  are  procured 
from  the  vast  pine  forests  of  Novogorod,  and 
from  the  Polish  provinces;  pitch  and  tar  from 
Wyborg ;  iron  and  copper  from  Siberia.  In 
spite  of  all  these  advantages  the  marine  is  far 
from  having  attained  a  height  proportionate  to 
the  land  forces  of  the  empire.  The  want  of  ports 
on  the  ocean,  and  of  colonies  and  fisheries 
abroad,  as  well  as  the  state  of  vassalage  of  the 
peasantry,  which  binds  them  to  the  soil,  are  the 
chief  causes  that  keep  down  the  military  marine, 
as  well  as  the  commercial,  by  preventing  the 
formation  of  seamen.  The  government  has, 
however,  latterly  done  something  towards  form- 
ing national  seamen,  by  obliging  all  Russian 
ships  to  have  two-thirds  of  their  crews  natives; 
and  binding  the  captains,  under  a  penalty  of  240 
rubles,  to  bring  back  to  port  every  Russian  sea- 
man he  carries  from  it.  There  is,  however,  no 
restriction  with  respect  to  the  countries  of  the 
captains  and  officers  of  merchant  vessels  ;  and 
the  greater  number  of  those  in  the  Russian 
foreign  traders  are  foreigners.  It  has  also  been 
latterly  the  custom  to  send  young  men,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  crown,  into  the  English  service  to 
learn  the  profession,  and  they  have  been  admitted 
into  the  British  navy  as  volunteers. 

In  1803  a  school  of  naval  architecture  w;is 
founded  at  Petersburg,  the  expenses  of  which  are 
paid  by  government,  and  amount  to  upwards  of 
200,000  rubles  a  year.  There  is  also  a  similar  insti- 
tution at  Nicolaef  in  the  Black  Sea.  The  palace  of 
Oranienbaum  has  been  appropriated  for  a  naval 
academy,  in  which  600  cadets  are  educated  at 
the  expense  of  the  crown.  They  are  admitted 
at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  remain  till  seven- 
teen :  during  the  last  three  years  they  make  an 
annual  cruise  in  the  Baltic,  as  far  as  Revel. 
There  are  also  navigation  schools  at  Riga,  Arch- 
angel, and  Irkutsk  in  Siberia,  and  a  school  for 
Baltic  pilotage  at  Cronstadt. 

The  government  of  Russia  is  a  despotic  mo- 
narchy ;  the  sovereign  uniting  in  himself  the 
legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  authorities. 
Any  subject,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  may 
be  banished,  and  his  property  confiscated,  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  czar.  The  succession  appears  to 
be  hereditary ;  but  one  prince  has  often  been 
deposed  and  another  raised  to  the  throne  with- 
out exciting  any  commotion.  The  emperor  is 
generally  assisted,  however,  by  a  number  of 
ministers  and  counsellors  of  his  own  appointing. 
The  grand  chancellor  is  the  first  officer  of  state ; 
and  under  him  are  ministers  for  foreign  affairs, 
finances,  war,  marine,  interior,  religious  worship, 
public  instruction,  and  police.  The  different 
councils  in  which  the  ministers  preside  are 
styled  imperial  colleges :  the  members,  with  a 
number  of  other  statesmen  appointed  by  the 


188 


RUSSIA. 


emperor,  amounting  altogether  to  thirty-five, 
compose  the  supreme  council,  which  is  invested 
with  a  superintending  and  controlling  power  over 
all  the  public  affairs.  The  senate  is  another 
public  body,  established  by  the  late  emperor  in 
1801,  and  of  which  his  imperial  majesty  is  the 
president.  This  body  has  the  revision  of  both 
civil  and  criminal  affairs.  It  receives  reports 
from  all  the  inferior  departments,  decides  in 
every  difficult  case  that  arises  in  the  tribunals; 
and  from  its  decrees  there  lies  no  appeal  except 
to  the  emperor.  AH  questions  are  determined  in 
this  body  by  a  majority  of  votes,  amounting  to 
two-thirds  of  the  whole:  in  the  other  depart- 
ments unanimity  is  necessary.  The  senate  is  the 
organ  of  the  decrees  or  ukases  of  the  emperor. 
The  cabinet  is  a  distinct  council  from  any  of  the 
above,  and  has  generally  consisted  of  ten  mem- 
bers, including  the  high  steward  of  the  house- 
hold. This  council  manages  his  majesty's  private 
affairs,  examines  petitions,  despatches,  and  ac- 
counts, and  watches  over  the  produce  of  the 
revenue.  It  also  assists  the  emperor  in  delibe- 
rating on  the  appeals  received  from  the  senate. 

The  civil  law  in  Russia  is  a  collection  of  rules 
derived  from  most  of  the  other  states  of  Europe, 
and  methodised  under  the  direction  of  Catharine 
II.  She  divided  the  empire  into  provinces,  and 
adopted  a  variety  of  regulations  for  the  better 
administration  of  justice.  Courts  are  now  esta- 
blished in  each  of  the  provinces,  and  judges 
appointed  by  the  crown.  But  an  impartial 
administration  of  justice  cannot  be  introduced 
between  the  nobles  who  are  tyrants,  and  the 
peasants,  slaves.  The  criminal  law  admits  of 
capital  punishment  for  high  treason  only ;  and 
the  humanity  of  the  emperor  Alexander  induced 
him  to  abolish  torture.  Felons  receive  the  knout, 
are  branded  on  the  cheek  and  forehead,  and  sen- 
tenced to  hard  labor.  Many  of  them  are  sent  to 
the  mines  of  Siberia,  where  numbers  perish 
from  the  effects  of  the  knout,  the  fatigue  of  tra- 
velling nearly  5000  miles  in  fetters,  and  the  un- 
healthy state  of  the  mines. 

The  nominal  force  of  the  army  is  600,000 ; 
but  in  time  of  peace  one-fifth  or  one-sixth  of  this 
number  is  non-effective,  and  at  least  an  equal 
number  are  required  for  garrison  duty.  At  the 
beginning  of  1812  the  utmost  exertions  of  the 
emperor  could  not  bring  into  the  field  more  than 
200,000  men.  The  navy  we  have  already  no- 
ticed. 

According  to  the  most  authentic  accounts  the 
revenue  of  Russia  is  nearly  £25,000,000  sterling, 
arising  chiefly  from  a  poll  tax,  first  imposed  by 
Peter  the  Great ;  a  tax  on  the  capital  of  mer- 
chants residing  within  the  imperial  dominions; 
duties  on  the  exports  and  imports,  and  upon  law 
proceedings;  together  with  the  produce  of  the 
royal  domains  and  monopolies.  There  are  like- 
wise stamp  duties,  and  various  other  imposts. 

The  established  religion  is  the  Greek  church, 
ati'l  has  been  fully  described  in  our  article 
GREEK  CHURCH.  There  are  about  2,000,000  of 
separatists,  with  a  great  number  of  Mahometans 
and  Pagans,  as  well  as  Protestants  and  Roman 
Cntliolics,  to  all  of  whom  complete  toleration  is 
allowed.  The  mo<:l  singular  of  the  sects  is  the 
Duhoborsti,  who,  after  many  persecutions,  have 


been  allowed  to  settle  undisturbed  in  Taurida. 
They  have  neither  priests,  church,  nor  picture*  ; 
and  reject  both  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper. 
They  are  sober,  industrious,  and  gentle, and  dis- 
tinguished by  mutual  affection,  hospitality,  and 
benevolence.  They  take  great  care  to  bring  up 
their  children  in  the  principles  and  precepts  of 
religion.  Their  worship  is  confined  neither  to 
place  nor  time,  and  consists  of  singing,  praying, 
and  reading  the  scriptures.  They  have  all  things 
in  common,  and  their  only  punishment  for  those 
who  have  transgressed  the  rules  of  the  society  is 
banishment  from  the  community. 

Education  was  much  neglected  in  Russia  till  a 
late  period ;  for  though  various  schools,  acade- 
mies, and  colleges  were  instituted,  their  benefits 
were  confined  to  certain  classes,  and  their  in- 
fluence was  little  felt  on  the  general  condition  of 
society.  A  great  number  of  schools  have  been 
established,  in  the  different  provinces,  for  the 
education  of  the  peasants.  The  academies  and 
universities  have  been  improved  or  remodelled, 
and  more  amply  endowed  with  funds,  for  the 
liberal  support  of  the  professors,  and  the  better 
accommodation  of  the  students,  the  number  of 
whom  has  been  greatly  increased.  The  Russian 
language  is  a  dialect  of  the  Sclavonian,  harsh 
and  difficult  of  utterance,  but  it  is  said  to  possess 
great  copiousness.  The  alphabet  comprises 
thirty-six  letters,  formed  of  the  Greek  characters, 
with  others  apparently  of  native  origin.  The 
language,  however,  is  far  from  being  in  a  precise 
form. 

Dr.  Clarke  says,  *  in  whatever  country  we 
seek  original  genius  we  must  go  to  Russia  for  a 
talent  of  imitation.  It  is  the  scheme  of  Russian 
intellect ;  the  principle  of  all  their  operations. 
They  have  nothing  of  their  own ;  but  it  is  not 
their  fault  if  they  have  not  every  thing  that  others 
invent.  Their  surprising  cowers  of  imitation 
exceed  all  that  has  hitherto  been  known.  The 
meanest  Russian  slave  has  been  found  adequate 
to  the  accomplishment  of  the  most  intricate  and 
most  delicate  works  of  mechanism,  to  copy, 
with  his  single  hand,  what  has  demanded  the 
joint  labors  of  the  best  workmen  in  France  or 
England.'  Mr.  James  (in  reference  to  this  sub- 
ject)— '  Newly  extricated  from  barbarism,  the  in- 
fant mind  is  seized  with  the  desire  of  pursuing 
whatever  strikes  the  fancy,  or  serves  to  interest; 
or  amuse,  while  the  labors  of  more  rigid  science 
and  learning  are  entirely  thrown  aside.  We  find 
at  Petersburgh  few  men  of  abstruse  acquire- 
ments, yet  musicians,  poets,  and  painters  in 
abundance ;  and  the  nation  has  arrived  in  these 
arts,  it  must  be  confessed,  at  a  highly  reputable 
pitch  of  perfection.  The  works  of  art,  though 
not  fraught  with  the  spirit  of  originality  of  the 
southern  professors,  yet  display  in  almost  every 
branch  the  most  correct  and  refined  taste ;  and 
even  the  natives  shine,  while  the  prejudices  of 
their  countrymen  have  denied  them  a  fair  share 
of  patronage.  The  academy  of  arts  is  fostered 
by  the  superintendence  cf  the  crown  ;  and,  from 
the  revenues  allotted  to  it,  it  is  well  furnished  with 
models  from  the  antique,  as  well  as  other  matters 
suited  to  its  institution.  The  labors  of  the  stu- 
dents exhibit  some  of  the  highest  specimens  of 
imitative  excellence  ;  their  designs  in  architec- 


RUSSIA. 


189 


ture  are  of  great  merit,  and  their  pictures  pos- 
sess a  free  style  of  execution,  combined  with 
chasteness  and  harmony  of  color,  seldom  equalled 
in  any  school.'  Their  music  is  framed  in  the 
Italian  state.  Many  of  the  national  airs  are  ex- 
tremely simple  and  regular.  The  cultivation  of 
science  has  been  encouraged  by  the  establishment 
of  various  institutions  for  that  purpose  ;  and  seve- 
ral volumes  of  the  memoirs  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  founded  at  St.  Petersburgh  in  1725, 
have  been  distinguished  by  the  excellence  of  their 
papers  in  the  abstruse  parts  of  mixed  mathema- 
tics. The  chief  Russian  universities  are  those  of 
St.  Petersburgh,  Kiev,  and  Abo,  with  the  col- 
leges founded  by  Peter  the  Great  at  Moscow. 

More  than  eighty  distinct  nations  are  said 
to  be  included  within  the  limits  of  this  empire, 
and  thus  exhibit  man  in  every  state  of  his  phy- 
sical and  moral  condition,  from  the  being  who 
lives  on  the  produce  of  the  chase,  clothed  in  the 
skins  of  his  prey,  and  sheltered  in  the  recess  of  a 
rock,  or  the  wandering  Nomade,  who  pitches  his 
tent  to-day,  removes  it  to-morrow,  and  is  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  produce  of  his  flock,  through 
the  humble  peasant,  the  industrious  husband- 
man, the  jngenious  mechanic,*  the  wealthy  mer- 
chant, the  owners  of  almost  unknown  estates, 
and  the  proprietors  of  men,  to  the  autocrat  of  all 
the  Russias.  The  Sclavonians  constitute  the 
great  body  of  the  population  of  European  Rus- 
sia :  this  part  of  the  empire  embraces,  beside 
Fins  and  Laplanders  on  the  north-west,  the  Sa- 
moides  on  the  north-east ;  the  Cossacks  on  the 
south,  and  the  Tartars  of  Taurida  on  the  south- 
east. The  Sclavonic  Russians  are  middle-sized, 
robust,  and  vigorous,  differing  little  in  com- 
plexion from  the  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain. 
Those  towards  the  north  are  a  more  diminutive 
race.  Their  characteristic  physiognomy,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Tooke,  is  a  small  mouth  and  eyes,  thin 
lips,  and  white  teeth,  the  nose  usually  small  and 
turned  upwards,  the  forehead  low,  the  beard 
thick  and  bushy,  and  the  hair  varying  from  dark 
brown  to  red.  The  general  expression  of  the 
countenance  is  that  of  gravity  rather  than  spright- 
liness,  but  indicating  much  good-nature.  Ac- 
customed to  implicit  obedience  from  the  nature 
of  the  government,  and  trained  to  the  endurance 
of  hardships  and  privation  from  their  manner  of 
life,  they  seem  neither  to  fear  danger,  nor  shrink 
from  fatigue, are  subject  to  few  diseases,  and  fre- 
quently attain  old  age.  With  the  same  general 
features  the  women  have  a  delicate  skin  and  a 
fine  complexion,  which  they  often  destroy  by  a 
free  use  of  paint.  '  On  looking  at  their  faces 
you  easily  discern  the  Tartar  and  Kalmuc  ingrat- 
tation  upon  the  old  Moscovite  stock.  The  vi- 
sage is  short,  the  bones  of  the  cheek  high,  the 
forehead  projecting:,  and  the  eyes  small.  Their 
stature  is  commonly  of  the  middle  size;  and, 
from  their  habits  of  life,  both  men  and  women 
are  inclined  to  be  very  corpulent.  When  a  tinge  of 
the  Georgian  Poles  and  Circassians  mingles  with 
the  Russian  blood,  the  result  is  the  most  exqui- 
site beauty.' 

The  whole  people  of  Russia  may  be  said  to 
consist  only  of  two  distinct  orders,  the  nobles 
and  the  peasants.  The  interval  between  these 
has  been  denominated  a  tiers  etat ;  but,  a?  far  as 


relates  to  all  the  practical  purposes  of  life,  it  is 
filled  up  by  foreigners,  who  once  enjoyed  all  lie 
lucrative  branches  of  commerce,  in  which  only  a 
few  of  the  natives  as  yet  participate.  'The 
privileges  of  a  nobleman  consist  in  being  ex- 
empted from  military  conscription,  and  from 
corporal  punishment ;  in  having  the  right  to  es- 
tablish manufactories,  to  possess  land  and  slaves, 
to  impose  taxes,  and  to  inflict  chastisement  upon 
them,  &c.  The  charges  on  this  class  are  to  fur- 
nish recruits  to  the  crown, .and  to  pay  a  certain 
fee  on  the  alienation  cf  their  property.  Besides 
those  who  enjoy  the  above-mentioned  rights  by 
inheritance,  these  advantages  are  attached  to  cer- 
tain stations  in  the  civil  and  military  lines  ;  as- 
sessors in  the  chancery,  for  instance,  and  all  offi- 
cers of  the  army  or  navy,  are  called  nobles,  though 
the  possession  of  slaves  is  limited  to  persons  above 
the  rank  of  major.  The  imperial  companies  of 
trade  at  Petersburg  also  participate  in  certain  of 
these  immunities,  and  are  allowed  to  use  carriages 
with  one  pair  of  horses.  But  even  the  nobility 
can  neither  marry,  nor  choose  a  profession, 
without  the  emperor's  consent.  Their  estates  are 
valued  by  the  number  of  peasants  they  support. 
Several  of  the  nobility  possess  more  than  100,000 
peasants ;  the  property  belonging  to  the  family 
of  Scheremeter  consists  of  125,000  slaves.  Both 
in  their  privileges,  and  in  their  manner  of  life, 
these  nobles  seem  to  be  exact  copies  of  the  great 
feudal  barons  of  the  middle  ages.  Many  of  them, 
in  the  country,  have  households  consisting  of 
500  or  600  peasants,  who  perform  all  the  various 
duties  of  butchers,  bakers,  tailors,  shoemakers, 
footmen,  valets,  surgeons,  musicians,  and  come- 
dians ;  for  which  they  are  selected  without  dis- 
crimination. Their  destinations  are  determined 
upon,  and  they  are  then  qualified  for  them  by 
the  cudgel.' — James's  Travels. 

Dr.  Clarke  exhibits  a  lively  picture  of  the  ef- 
fect of  the  extremes  of  poverty  and  riches  in  this 
empire. 

'  To  this  poverty,  and  to  these  riches,  are 
equally  joined,'  he  says,  '  the  most  abject  mean- 
ness, and  the  most  despicable  profligacy.  In 
sensuality  they  are  without  limits  of  law,  con- 
science, or  honor;  in  their  amusements  always 
children  ;  in  their  resentment  women.  The  tHys 
of  infants,  the  baubles  of  French  fops,  constitute 
the  highest  objects  of  their  wishes.  Novelty  de- 
lights the  human  race ;  but  no  part  of  it  seeks  for 
novelty  so  eagerly  as  the  Russian  nobles.  Novelty 
in  their  debaucheries ;  novelty  in  gluttony ;  novelty 
in  cruelty ;  novelty  in  whatever  they  pursue.  This 
is  not  the  case  with  the  lower  class,  who  preserve 
their  habits  unaltered  from  one  generation  to 
another.  But  there  are  characteristics  in  which 
the  Russian  prince  and  peasant  are  the  same. 
They  are  all  equally  barbarous.  Visit  a  Russian, 
of  whatever  rank,  at  his  country  seat,  and  you 
will  find  him  lounging  about,  uncombed,  un- 
washed, unshaven,  half-naked,  eating  raw  tur- 
nips, and  drinking  quass.  The  raw  turnip  is 
handed  about  in  slices,  in  the'first  houses,  upon 
a  silver  salver,  with  brandy,  as  a  whet  before 
dinner.  The  real  Russian  rises  at  an  early  hour, 
and  breakfasts  on  a  dram  with  black  bread. 
His  dinner,  at  noon,  consists  of  the  coarsest  and 
most  greasy  viands,  the  scorbutic  effects  of  which 


190 


RUSSIA. 


are  counteracted  by  salted  cucumbers,  sour  cab- 
bage, the  juice  of  his  vaccinium,  and  his  nectar 
quass.  Sleep,  which  renders  him  unmindful  of 
his  abject  servitude  and  barbarous  life,  he  par- 
ticularly indulges ;  sleeping  always  after  eating, 
and  going  early  to  bed.  The  principal  articles 
of  diet  are  the  same  every  where,  grease  and 
brandy.' 

A  uniform  costume  is  seen  in  all  parts  of  Rus- 
sia, only  differing  in  quality  as  it  is  worn  in  the 
country  or  the  capital.  In  the  one  it  is  a  sheep- 
skin tunic,  fastened  round  the  waist  with  a  gir- 
dle ;  in  the  other  of  cloth,  plaited  behind  like  a 
petticoat.  The  hair  is  cut  in  one  shape,  and  the 
lower  part  of  the  face  is  always  hid  by  a  beard. 
The  females  retain  much  of  Asiatic  finery  and 
gaudy  robes.  They  wear  a  saraphan,  or  vest 
without  sleeves,  fitting  close  about  the  neck, 
down  to  the  hips,  and  reaching  to  the  feet.  A 
row  of  close-set  buttons  usually  adorns  the  front, 
and  it  is  girt  round  the  waist  with  a  sash,  to 
which  the  keys  in  common  use  are  suspended. 
In  some  parts  the  females  wear  their  hair  bound 
up  with  a  riband,  or  band,  which  crosses  the 
forehead,  and  which  is  often  decorated  with 
pearls  and  beads  of  various  colors :  in  others 
they  wear  caps  made  in  the  form  of  an  upright 
crescent.  -  In  the  vicinity  of  Moscow,  and  in 
some  of  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  country,  the 
cap  has  a  front  resembling  that  worn  by  the 
English  jockey,  studded  with  pearls  or  beads. 
The  houses  of  the  peasants  are  all  of  rough  logs 
of. wood,  and  in  villages  these  are  uniformly 
placed  with  their  ends  to  the  street.  The  walls 
have  their  interstices  stopped  with  moss.  The 
whole  family  sleep  in  the  same  room,  reclining 
on  mats,  straw,  or  sheep-skins,  and  in  the  clothes 
they  wear  during  the  day.  The  favorite  place  at 
night  is  on  the  edge  of  the  stove,  which  is  raised 
above  the  floor  with  a  few  bricks. 

A  peculiar  custom  of  Russia  is  the  frequent 
use  of  the  warm  bath,  with  which  the  meanest 
hamlets  are  provided.  The  heat  they  sustain  on 
these  occasions  would  be  almost  insupportable 
to  other  people.  It  is  usually  from  100°  to  130° 
of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer;  and  the  vapor  is 
renewed  every  five  minutes,  by  water  thrown  on 
hot  stones.  Such  is  the  effect  of  habit  on  the 
constitution  of  the  Russians  that  they  frequently 
sally  forth  from  these  steam  caldrons,  and  plunge 
immediately  into  cold  water,  or  roll  in  the  snow ; 
and  male  and  female,  old  and  young,  not  only 
of  the  same  family,  but  even  of  the  same  vil- 
lage, all  assemble  in  the  bath  together. 

We  must  conclude  this  part  of  our  paper 
with  a  sketch  of  the  mode  of  travelling  peculiar 
to  Russia :  we  mean  the  extensive  and  skilful  use 
of  sledges.  Sometimes  a  body,  like  that  of  a 
coach,  is  placed  on  a  sledge,  which  unites  the 
advantage  of  repose  with  the  convenience  of 
rapid  motion.  In  this  manner  eighty  or  100 
miles  a  day  are  performed.  And  hence  the 
Russian  prefers  the  winter  for  his  long  journeys. 
In  summer  travelling  is  far  more  tedious  and 
fatiguing  by  the  badness  of  the  roads,  which  are 
often  composed  of  rough  logs  of  wood,  laid 
transversely  on  beams.  Of  his  passage  over  one 
of  the  large  rivers,  Mr.  James  says,  '  Nothing 
could  be  more  strikingly  wild  than  our  passage 


over  the  Ypoote.  A  raft  of  trees  loosely  pinned 
together  was  provided  ;  a  rope,  made  from  the 
bark  of  trees,  served  for  its  draught ;  on  either 
bank  of  the  river  rose  a  vast  forest,  not  thick  and 
luxurious,  but  bared  in  many  a  line  by  the  pro- 
gress of  age  an(|  decay  ;  amidst  its  shades  were 
seen  the  white  shirts  and  black  fur  caps  of  the 
Tartars,  as  they  scampered  along  in  the  wanton- 
ness of  sport,  with  their  horses  at  full  speed; 
their  taravan,  just  arrived,  was  ranged  on  the 
river  side,  and  the  oxen  were  seen,  every  now 
and  then,  as  the  raft  put  off,  plunging  into  the 
stream,  and  swimming  lo  the  opposite  shore.' 

SOUTHERN  RUSSIA  is  largely  inhabited  by  the 
Cossacks,  who  present  the  singular  anomaly  of 
a  free  people  in  the  midst  of  abject  slavery.  As 
free  as  a  Cossack  is  a  common  proverb  in  Russia. 
They  have  been  acknowledged  as  a  distinct  race 
for  more  than  nine  centuries ;  and,  according  to 
their  different  emitrrations  and  settlements,  are 
at  present  distinguished  by  the  names  of  Malo- 
Russian  Cossacks,  Don  Cossacks,  Cossacks  of 
the  Black  Sea,  of  the  Volga,  of  Grebenskoy,  of 
Orenburg,  of  the  Ural  Alps,  and  of  Siberia.  The 
subsequent  remarks,  chiefly  confined  to  those 
within  the  European  part  of  the  empire,  are 
principally  derived  from  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels. 

The  ramifications  of  the  Cossack  republic,  for 
such  it  is,  extend  into  various  parts  of  a  vast 
despotic  government,  which  considers  it  a  mat- 
ter of  policy  to  guarantee  their  privileges, 
do  the  Cossacks  afford  a  greater  contrast  with 
the  Russians  in  their  political  existence  than  in 
their  personal  appearance  and  individual  cha- 
racter. These  people  are  thus  contrasted  by  the 
intelligent  author  above  referred  to,  ana  who 
had  excellent  opportunities  of  witnessing  the  t\\<> 
nations.  In  reference  to  the  Cossacks  of  the 
Don  and  the  Black  Sea,  he  says,  'The  Rti- 
regards  both  with  aversion,  and  affects  to  consider 
them  beneath  his  notice,  and  unworthy  of  his 
society,  for  no  other  assignable  reason  than  igno- 
rance or  envy.  The  Cossack  is  rich,  the  1 
sian  poor.  The  Cossack  is  high-minded,  the 
Russian  abject.  The  Cossack  is  for  the  most 
part  clean  in  his  person,  honorable,  valiant,  often 
well  informed,  and  possesses,  with  his  loftiness 
of  soul,  a  very  noble  stature;  the  Russian  is 
generally  filthy,  unprincipled,  dastardly,  always 
ignorant,  and  rarely  distinguished  by  any  eleva- 
tion of  mind  or  body.'  Many  of  those  vast 
steppes  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Don,  which  appear 
as  blanks  in  our  best  maps,  are  said  to  be  filled 
with  Cossack  abodes.  Stanitzas,  or  settlements, 
are  formed  along  all  the  rivers  by  which  they 
are  intersected ;  and  the  late  bishop  Ileber 
states  that  the  procurator  (who  is  a  person  ap- 
pointed by  the  Russian  government  to  superin- 
tend the  execution  of  the  laws)  affirmed  to  him 
that  the  whole  number  of  Cossacks  liable  to  he 
called  upon  for  active  service  amounted  to 
200,000  men.  The  entire  male  population  is  rec- 
koned at  500,000.  'There  is  something  ex- 
tremely martial,  and  even  intimidating,  in  the  first 
appearance  of  a  Cossack.  Mis  dignified  and 
majestic  look ;  his  elevated  brows  and  dark 
mustachoes ;  his  tall  helmet  of  black  wool,  ter- 
minated by  a  crimson  sash,  with  its  plume,  and 
white  cockade ;  his  upright  posture ;  the  ease 


RUSSIA. 


191 


and  elegance  of  his  gait;    give  him  an  air  of 
great  importance.     We   found   them   in  consi- 
derable numbers  at  Kasankaia,  lounging  before 
their  houses,  and  conversing  in  such  large  parties 
that   it   seemed   as  if  we   were   entering   their 
capital.     Their  dresses  were  much  richer  than 
any  we  had  seen  in  Russia,  although  all  were 
uniform.     Each  person's   habit  consisted    of   a 
blue  jacket,  edged  with  gold,  and  lined  with  silk, 
fastened  by  hooks  across  the  chest.     Beneath  the 
jacket  appeared  a  silk  waistcoat,  the  lower  part 
of  which  was  concealed  by  the  sash.     Large  and 
long  trowsers,  either  of  the  same  material  as  the 
jacket,  or  of  white  dimity,  kept  remarkably  clean, 
were  fastened  high  above  the  waist,  and  covered 
the  boots.     The  sabre  is  not  worn,  except  on 
horseback,  on  a  journey,  or  in  war.     In  its  place 
is  substituted  a  switch,  or  a  cane,  with  an  ivory 
head :  this  every  Cossack  bears  in  his  hand,  as 
an  appendage  to  his  dress;  being  at  all  times 
prepared  to  mount  his  horse  at  a  moment's  no- 
tice.    Their  cap  or  helmet  is  the  most  beautiful 
part  of  the  costume,  because  it  is  becoming  to 
every  set  of  features.     It  adds  considerably  to 
their  height,  and  gives,  with  the  addition  of  whis- 
kers,  a  military  air  to   the  most   insignificant 
figure.      They  wear  their  hair  short  round  the 
head,  but  not  thin  upon  the  crown.     It  is  gene- 
rally dark,  thick,  and  quite  straight.     The  cap 
is  covered  by  a  very  soft  and  shining  black  wool. 
Some  of  them  have  civil  and  military  distinc- 
tions of  ha'bit,  wearing,  in  time  of  peace,  instead 
of  the  jacket,  a  large  frock  without  buttons.    The 
sash  is  sometimes  yellow,  green,  or  red,  though 
generally  black,  and  they  wear  large   military 
gloves.     There  is  no  nation  in  the  world  more 
neat  with  regard  to  dress  ;  and,  whether  young 
or  old,  it  seems  to  become  them  all.     A  quiet 
life  seems  altogether  unsuited  to  their  disposi- 
tion.    They  loiter  about,  having  no  employment 
to  interest  them ;  and,  passionately  fond  of  war, 
seem  distressed  by  the  indolence  of  peace.   The 
territory  of  the  Cossacks,  which  is  almost  en- 
tirely pasture  land,  is  divided  into  stanitzas,  or 
cantons;  for  many  stanitzas  now  contain  more 
than  a  single  village.     To  each  of  these  a  certain 
portion  of  land  and  fishery  is  allotted  by  govern- 
ment, and  an  allowance  of  corn  from  Voronetz, 
and  northwards  according  to  the  returned  num-~ 
ber  of  Cossacks.     They  are  free  from  all  taxes ; 
even   from  those  of  salt  and  distilleries.      The 
distribution  of  the  land  to  individuals  in  each  sta- 
nitza  is  settled  by  the  inhabitants  and  their  Ata- 
man.    This  Ataman  was  chosen  by  the  people, 
and  was  both  civil  and  military  commander  of 
the  place ;  but  he  is  now  appointed  by  the  crown, 
and  greatly  diminished  in  power ;    formerly  the 
Ataman  himself   marched  at   the  head    of  his 
stanitza  :  now  he  merely  sends  the  required  con- 
tingent, which  is  put  under  officers  named  by 
the  crown.     The  allotment  of  land  and  fishery 
which  each  Cossack  possesses  may  be  let  out 
by  him  to  farm,  and  often  is  so.     The  Cossack, 
in  consequence  of  his  allowance,  may  be  called 
upon  to  serve  for  any  term  not  exceeding  three 
years,  in  any  part  of  the  world,  mounted,  armed, 
and  clothed,  at  his  own  expense,  and  making 
good  any  deficiencies  that  may  occur.     Food, 
hay,  and  camp  equipage,  are  furnished  by  go- 


vernment. Those  who  have  served  three  years 
are  not  liable,  at  least  not  usually  called  upon, 
to  serve  abroad,  except  on  particular  emergencies. 
They  serve,  however,  in  the  cordon  along  the 
Caucasus,  and  in  the  duties  of  the  post  and  po- 
lice. After  twenty  years  they  become  free  from 
all  service,  except  the  home  duties  of  police, 
and  assisting  in  the  passage  of  corn  barks  over 
the  shallows  of  the  Don.  After  twenty-five 
years'  service  they  are  free  entirely.' 

The  Cossacks  and  other  inhabitants  of  Tcher- 
chaskoy  export  fish,  iron,  kaviar,  and  a  little 
wine  :  their  merchants  going  to  war,  like  the 
rest  of  their  countrymen,  and  the  greater  num- 
ber of  their  superior  officers  being  merchants. 
In  the  capital  they  live  a  pleasant  and  agreeable 
life,  and  have  often  public  amusements,  as  balls 
and  parties  of  pleasure. 

The  Cossacks  are  said  to  be  favorably  con- 
trasted with  the  other  inhabitants  of  Russia  as  to 
cleanliness  both  in  their  persons  and  houses. 
The  dress  of  the  females  differs  from  all  the  other 
costumes  of  Russia  ;  and  its  magnificence  is  dis- 
played in  the  ornaments  of  the  cap.  The  hair  of 
the  married  women  is  tucked  under  the  cap, 
which  is  adorned  with  flowers,  or  covered  with 
pearls  and  gold.  The  dress  of  the  young  \vomen 
is  elegant ;  a  silk  tunic  with  trowsers  fastened 
with  a  girdle  of  solid  silver,  yellow  boots,  and 
an  Indian  handkerchief  round  the  head.  '  The 
common  dress  of  men  in  Tcherchaskoy  is  a  blue 
jacket,  with  a  waistcoat  and  trowsers  of  white 
dimity ;  the  latter  so  white  and  spotless  that 
they  seem  always  new.  We  never  saw  a  Cos- 
sack in  a  dirty  suit  of  clothes.  Their  hands, 
moreover,  are  always  clean,  their  hair  free  from 
vermin,  their  teeth  white,  and  their  skin  has  a 
healthy  and  cleanly  appearance.  Polished  in 
their  manners,  instructed  in  their  minds,  hos- 
pitable, generous,  disinterested,  humane,  and 
tender  to  the  poor,  good  husbands,  good  fathers, 
good  wives,  good  mothers,  virtuous  daughters, 
valiant  and  dutiful  sons ;  such  are  the  natives  of 
Tcherchaskoy.  In  conversation  the  Cossack  is  a 
gentleman ;  for  he  is  well  informed,  free  from 
prejudice,  open,  sincere,  and  honorable.' 

The  following  account  of  the  religious  cere- 
monies of  this  people  is  from  Dr.  Clarke : — 
'  The  morning  after  our  arrival  (at  Axay)  the 
general,  who  was  commander-in-chief  over  all 
the  district,  including  the  town  of  Tcherchaskoy, 
the  metropolis,  came  to  Axay.  The  day  was 
celebrated  as  a  festival,  in  honor  of  the  recovery 
of  one  of  the  emperor's  children  from  the  small 
pox  inoculation.  He  sent  us  an  invitation  to 
dinner ;  and  in  the  forenoon  we  accompanied 
him,  with  all  the  staff  officers,  to  a  public  cere 
mony  in  the  church.  On  entering  this  building 
we  were  much  surprised  at  its  internal  magnifi- 
cence. The  screen  of  the  altar  was  painted  of  a 
green  color,  and  adorned  with  gold  :  before  it 
was  suspended  a  very  large  chandelier,  filled 
with  tapers  of  green  wax.  The  screen,  like  the 
rest  of  the  church,  was  covered  with  pictures  : 
some  of  these  were  tolerably  well  executed,  and 
all  of  them  curious  from  their  singularity  and  the 
extraordinary  figures  they  served  to  represent 
Here  were  no  seats  as  in  other  Russian  churches 
The  general  placed  himself  against  a  wall  on  the 


192 


RUSSIA. 


right  hand  facing  the  sacristy,  standing  on  a  step 
covered  with  a  carpet,  and  raised  about  four 
inches  from  the  level  of  the  floor.  We  were 
directed  to  place  ourselves  by  his  right  hand. 
The  other  Cossacks,  whether  in  military  uniform 
or  national  domestic  habit,  stood  promiscuously 
in  the  body  of  the  church.  The  priest,  in  very 
rich  robes,  with  his  back  towards  the  people, 
was  elevated  upon  a  kind  of  throne,  placed  be- 
neath the  chandelier,  and  raised  three  steps  from 
the  platform,  facing  the  great  doors  of  the  sa- 
cristy :  these  were  shut.  Over  them  was  a  pic- 
ture of  the  Virgin  ;  and  before  it,  suspended 
by  a  string,  were  two  wooden  angels,  joine'd 
b^ck  to  back,  like  the  figures  of  Janus,  with 
candles  in  their  hands.  Whenever  the  doors  of 
the  sacristy  were  thrown  open,  the  wooden  an- 
gels were  lowered  before  the  centre  of  the  en- 
trance :  here  they  whirled  round  and  round  in  a 
most  ludicrous  manner.  As  the  ceremony  began, 
the  priest,  standing  upon  the  throne,  loosened  a 
girdle  bound  across  his  breast  and  shoulders, 
whereon  was  an  embroidered  representation  of 
the  cross.  This  he  held  between  his  forefinger 
and  thumb,  repeating  the  service  aloud,  and 
touching  his  forehead  with  it,  while  the  people 
sang  responses,  and  were  busied  in  crossing 
themselves.  The  vocal  part  of  the  ceremony  was 
very  solemn.  The  clear  shrill  notes  of  children 
placed  among  the  choristers,  rising  to  the  dome 
of  the  church,  and  seeming  to  die  away  in  the 
air,  had  a  most  pleasing  effect.  It  is  the  same 
in  all  the  Russian  churches,  and  I  know  not  any 
tlung  with  which  it  can  more  justly  be  compared 
than  the  sounds  produced  by  an  /Eolian  harp. 
The  words  they  use  are  Russian,  and  every 
where  the  same,  '  Lord  have  mercy  upon  us !' 
We  did  not  find  them  altered  even  among  the 
Cossacks ;  it  was  still  '  Ghospodi  pomilui !'  but 
thrilled 

'  In  notes  with  many  a  winding  bout 
Of  linked  sweetness  long  drawn  out.' 

'At  last  there  was  an  interval  of  silence,  after 
Jus,  other  voices,  uttering  solemn  airs,  were 
heard  within  the  sacristy.  The  doors  were  then 
thrown  open,  and  a  priest,  having  upon  his  head 
a  silver  chalice,  containing  the  sacred  bread, 
covered  with  a  white  napkin,  made  his  appear- 
ance. He  was  preceded  by  others,  who  advanced 
\vith  censers,  dispersing  incense  over  the  doors 
of  the  sacristy,  the  pictures,  the  priest,  the  gene- 
ral, the  officers,  and  the  people.  After  some 
ceremonies,  the  bread  was  distributed  among  the 
congregation ;  then,  those  who  came  out  of  the 
sacristy  having  retired,  its  doors  were  again 
closed,  and  prayers  were  read  for  all  the  royal 
family ;  their  names  being  enumerated  in  a  tone 
of  voice  and  manner  exactly  like  that  of  a  cor- 
poral or  serjeant  at  a  roll-call.  Passages  were 
also  read  from  the  Psalms;  but  the  method  of 
reading  in  all  the  Russian  churches  is  beyond 
description.  The  young  priests  who  officiate 
pride  themselves  upon  mouthing  it  over  with  all 
possible  expedition,  so  as  to  be  unintelligible, 
eren  to  Russians ;  striving  to  give  to  the  whole 
lesson  the  appearance  of  a  single  word  of  num- 
berless syllables.  Some  notion  may  be  formed 
of  their  delivery,  by  (.earing  the  criers  in  our 


courts  of  justice  administer  the  oath  to  a  jury. 
HISTORY. — Russia  was  anciently  inhabited  by 
various  nations ;  such  as  Huns,  Scythians,  Sar- 
matians,  Cimbri,  &c.,  of  whom  an  account  is 
given  under  the  various  detached  articles.  The 
origin  of  the  Russians  themselves,  though  not 
prior  to  the  ninth  century,  is  covered  with  almost 
impenetrable  obscurity ;  partly  owing  to  the 
ignorance  and  barbarity  of  the  people,  and  partly 
to  the  policy  which  long  prevailed  among  them 
of  discouraging  all  accounts  of  their  origin,  and 
enquiries  into  their  ancient  state  and  situation; 
of  which  we  have  a  remarkable  instance  in  the 
modern  suppression  of  a  work  by  professor 
Muller,  entitled  Ue  Originibus  Gentis  et  Nominis 
Russorum.  According  to  several  authors  of 
credit,  the  Russians  derived  their  origin  from 
the  Slavi  or  Slavonians,  corruptly  called  the 
Sclavonians,  who  settled  first  along  the  banks  of 
the  Volga,  and  afterwards  near  the  Danube,  in 
Bulgaria  and  Hungary ;  but,  being  driven  thence 
by  the  Romans  (whom  the  Russians  call  Wolo- 
chers,  or  Wolotaners),  they  first  removed  to  the 
banks  of  the  Borysthenes  or  Dnieper,  then  over- 
ran Poland,  and  built  the  city  of  Kiow.  After- 
wards they  extended  their  colonies  farther  north, 
to  the  rivers  which  run  into  the  Ilmen  Lake,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  city  of  Novogorod. 
The  towns  of  Smolensk  and  Tsernikow  appear 
also  to  have  been  built  by  them.  The  most  an- 
cient inhabitants,  not  only  of  Russia,  but  of  all 
Siberia  to  the  borders  of  China,  are  called 
Tshudi :  for  professor  Muller,  who,  on  enquiring 
in  those  parts  by  whom  the  ancient  buildings 
and  sepulchral  monuments  he  saw  there  were 
erected,  was  every  where  answered  that  they 
were  the  works  of  a  people  of  this  name.  In 
the  ninth  century  the  Scandinavians,  that  is, 
the  Danes,  Norwegians,  and  Swedes,  emigrated 
from  the  north,  and,  crossing  the  Baltic,  went  to 
seek  habitations  in  Russia.  They  first  subdued 
the  Courlanders,  Livonians,  and  Esthonians ; 
and,  extending  their  conquests  still  farther,  ex- 
acted tribute  from  the  Novogorodians,  settled 
kings  over  them,  and  traded  as  far  as  Kiow,  and 
even  to  Greece.  These  new  invaders  were  called 
Waregers,  which,  according  to  Muller,  signifies 
seafaring  people;  or,  if  derived  from  the  old 
northern  word  war,  it  signifies  warlike  men. 
To  these  Waregers  the  name  of  Russes,  or  Rus- 
sians, is  thought  by  the  most  eminent  authors  to 
owe  its  origin ;  but  the  etymology  of  the  word 
itself  is  uncertain.  In  these  dark  ages  Russia 
was  divided  among  a  great  number  of  pctty 
princes,  who  made  war  upon  each  other  with 
great  ferocity  and  cruelty,  so  that  the  whole 
country  was  reduced  to  the  utmost  misery  ; 
when  Gostomisel,  a  chief  of  the  Novogorodians, 
pitying  the  unhappy  fate  of  his  countrymen, 
and  seeing  no  other  method  of  remedying  their 
calamities,  advised  them  to  offer  the  government 
of  their  country  to  the  Waregers.  The  proposal 
was  readily  accepted,  and  three  princes  of  great 
abilities  and  valor  were  sent  to  govern  them  ; 
namely,  Ruric,  Sincus,  and  Truwor,  said  to  have 
been  brothers.  The  first  took  up  his  residence 
at  Ladoga,  in  the  principality  of  Great  Novo- 
.  (.rod  ;  tin:  srrond  at  Bielo  Osero,  or  the  Wliit<> 
I  ake ;  and  the  third  kept  his  court  at  Isborsk, 


K/JW/tr 


RUSSIA. 


193 


or,  according  to  others,  at  a  small  town  then 
called  Twertzog,  in  the  principality  of  Pleskow. 
The  three  brothers  reigned  amicably,  and  made 
considerable  additions  to  their  dominions  ;  all  of 
which  at  length  devolved  on  Ruric  by  the  death 
of  Sincus  and  Truwor. 

RUSSIA,  UNDER    THE  RACE  OF  RURIC. RuHC 

became  zealous  for  the  strict  administration  of 
justice,  and  issued  a  command  to  all  the  boyars 
who  possessed  territories  under  him  to  exercise 
it  in  an  exact  and  uniform  manner.  To  this 
end  it  was  necessary  there  should  be  general 
laws:  and  this  leads  us  to  conclude  that  letters 
were,  not  entirely  unknown  in  his  dominions. 
The  Russian  empire  continued  to  flourish  till 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Wolodomir,  who  as- 
cended the  throne  in  976.  Having  settled  the 
affairs  of  his  empire,  he  demanded  in  marriage 
the  princess  Anne,  sister  to  the  Greek  emperor 
Basilius  Porphyrogenitus.  His  suit  was  granted, 
on  condition  that  he  should  embrace  Chris- 
tianity. With  this  the  Russian  monarch  com- 
plied ;  and  that  vast  empire  was  thenceforward 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  patriarchate  of 
Constantinople.  Wolodomir  received  <he  name 
of  Basilius  on  the  day  on  which  he  was  baptised  ; 
and,  according  to  the  Russian  annals,  20,000  of 
his  subjects  were-  baptised  on  the  same  day. 
Michael  Syra,  or  Cyrus,  a  Greek,  sent  by  Pho- 
tius  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  ac- 
cepted as  metropolitan  of  the  whole  country. 
At  the  same  time  Wolodomir  put  away  all  his 
former  wives  and  concubines,  of  whom  he  had 
upwards  of  800,  and  by  whom  he  had  twelve 
sons,  who  were  baptised  on  the  same  day  with 
himself.  The  idols  of  paganism  were  now  thrown 
down,  churches  and  monasteries  were  erected, 
towns  built,  and  the  arts  began  to  flourish.  The 
Sclavonian  letters  were  now  first  introduced  into 
Russia;  and  Wolodomir  sent  missionaries  to 
convert  the  Bulgarians ;  but  only  three  or  four 
of  their  princes  came  to  him  and  were  baptised. 
These  events  happened  in  the  year  987.  Wolo- 
domir called  the  arts  from  Greece,  cultivated 
them  in  the  peaceable  periods  of  his  reign,  and 
rewarded  their  professors  with  generosity,  that 
he  might  dispel  the  clouds  of  ignorance  which 
enveloped  his  country,  call  forth  the  genius  of 
his  countrymen,  and  render  them  happy.  He 
also  founded  public  schools,  and  enacted  a  law 
concerning  the  method  of  instructing  youth,  and 
directing  the  conduct  of  the  masters  appointed 
to  instruct  them.  He  died  in  1008,  and,  con- 
trary to  all  rules  of  sound  policy,  divided  his 
empire  among  his  twelve  sons. 

Wolodomir  was  no  sooner  dead  than  his  sons 
commenced  a  civil  war.  Suantepolk,  one  of 
the  brothers,  having  destroyed  and  seized  upon 
the  dominions  of  two  others,  was  himself  driven 
out  by  Jarislaus,  and  obliged  to  fly  to  Boleslaus 
king  of  Poland.  This  brought  on  a  dreadful 
war  betwixt  the  Poles  and  Russians,  in  which 
the  former  were  victorious,  and  the  latter  lost  a 
great  part  of  their  dominions,  as  related  under 
POLAND.  Jarislaus,  finding  himself  unable  to 
oppose  the  king  of  Poland,  now  turned  his  arms 
against  the  rest  of  his  brothers,  all  of  whom  he 
dispossessed  of  their  dominions,  and  seized 
them  for  himself.  He  next  attacked  the  Cos- 
VOL.  XIX. 


sacks,  over  whom  he  gained  several  advantages : 
after  which  he  ventured  once  more  to  try  his 
fortune  with  Boleslaus  :  but  in  this  second  ex- 
pedition he  was  attended  with  worse  success 
than  before,  being  now  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  a  vassal  and  tributary  to  the  victorious  mon- 
arch. However,  in  the  reign  of  Mieczislaus  11. 
the  successor  of  Boleslaus,  the  Russians  again 
shook  off  the  yoke,  and  a  lasting  peace  was  con- 
firmed by  the  marriage  of  Mieczislaus  with  the 
sister  of  Wolodomir.  Jarislaus  now  continued 
to  enjoy  the  empire  quietly ;  and  devoted  a  great 
part  of  his  time,  we  are  told,  to  study.  He  in- 
vited men  of  letters  to  his  court,  and  caused 
many  Greek  books  to  be  translated  into  the 
Russian  language.  In  1019  he  gave  the  people 
of  Novogorod  several  laws,  under  the  title  of 
Gramota  Soudebnaia,  to  be  observed  in  the 
courts  of  justice.  These  are  the  first  laws  that 
are  known  to  have  been  reduced  to  writing  in 
Russia ;  and  what  renders  them  remarkable  is 
the  conformity  they  have  to  those  of  the  other 
northern  nations.  He  founded  a  public  school 
at  Novogorod,  where  he  maintained  and  edu- 
cated 300  children  at  his  own  expense.  His 
court  was  the  most  brilliant  of  the  north,  and 
furnished  an  asylum  to  unfortunate  princes.  He 
died  in  1052. 

Jarislaus  fell  into  the  same  error  which  his 
father  had  committed,  by  dividing  his  domi- 
nions among  his  five  sons.  This  produced  a 
repetition  of  the  bloody  scenes  which  had  been 
acted  by  the  sons  of  Wolodomir ;  the  Poles 
took  advantage  of  the  distracted  state  of  affairs 
to  make  continual  inroads  and  invasions ;  and 
the  empire  continued  in  the  most  deplorable 
situation  till  1237,  when  it  was  totally  subdued 
by  the  Tartars.  Innumerable  multitudes  of 
these  barbarians  headed  by  their  khan  Batto,  after 
ravaging  great  part  of  Poland  and  Silesia,  broke 
suddenly  into  Russia,  where  they  committed  the 
greatest  cruelties.  Most  of  the  Russian  princes, 
among  whom  was  the  great  duke  George  Sevo- 
loditz,  were  made  prisoners,  and  racked  to 
death  ;  and,  in  short,  none  found  mercy  but  such 
as  acknowledged  themselves  the  subjects  of  the 
Tartars.  The  imperious  conqueror  imposed 
upon  the  Russians  every  thing  that  is  most  mor- 
tifying in  slavery ;  insisting  that  they  should 
have  no  other  princes  than  such  as  he  approved 
of;  that  they  should  pay  him  yearly  a  tribute, 
to  be  brought  by  the  sovereigns  themselves  on 
foot,  who  were  to  present  it  numbly  to  the  Tar- 
tarian ambassador  on  horseback.  They  were 
also  to  prostrate  themselves  before  the  haughty 
Tartar ;  to  offer  him  milk  to  drink,  and,  if  any 
drops  of  it  fell  down,  to  lick  them  up :  a  sin- 
gular mark  of  servility,  which  continued  nearly 
260  years. 

George  Sevoloditzwas  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Michael  Sevoloditz  Zernigouski ;  who  opposed 
the  Tartars,  but  was  defeated  by  them,  and  lost 
his  life.  He  left  three  sons,  Theodore,  Alex- 
ander, and  Andrew,  whose  wars  with  each  other 
ended  in  the  death  of  them  all.  Alexander,  a 
son  of  Alexander,  was  then  placed  on  the  throne 
by  the  Tartars ;  and  his  son  Daniel  removed  his 
court  from  Wolodimir  to  Moscow,  where  he 
first  assumed  the  title  of  great  duke  of  Wolo- 


194 


RUSSIA. 


imir  and  Moscow.  Daniel  left  two  sens,  Gre- 
gory and  John ;  the  former  of  whom,  named 
Kalita,  from  a  purse  he  used  always  to  carry 
about  him  filled  with  money  for  the  poor,  as- 
cended the  throne  ;  but  he  was  soon  assassinated 
by  another  prince  named  Demetrius,  who  \vus 
himself  put  to  death  for  it  by  the  Tartars  ;  and 
John,  likewise  surnamed  Kalita,  was  then  made 
czar.  This  John  left  three  sons,  John,  Simon, 
and  Andrew ;  and  the  eldest  of  these,  commonly 
called  Ivan  Ivanovitz  in  the  barbarous  language 
of  Russia,  i.  e.  John,  the  son  of  John,  was  made 
czar,  with  the  approbation  of  the  Tartars,  on 
whom  he  was  dependent.  During  these  several 
reigns,  which  occupied  upwards  of  100  years, 
the  miseries  of  a  foreign  yoke  were  aggravated 
by  all  the  calamities  of  intestine  discord  and 
war ;  whilst  the  knights  of  Livonia,  or  brothers 
of  the  short  sword,  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
s  kind  of  military  order  of  religious,  on  one 
side,  and  the  Poles  on  the  other,  attacked  Rus- 
sia, and  took  several  of  its  towns,  and  some 
considerable  countries.  The  Tartars  and  Rus- 
sians, whose  interests  were  in  this  the  same, 
often  united  to  oppose  their  common  enemies, 
but  were  generally  worsted.  The  Livonians  took 
Pleskow  ;  and  the  Poles  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  Black  Russia,  the  Ukraine,  Podolia,  and 
t lie  city  of  Kiow.  Casimir  the  Great,  one  of 
their  kings,  carried  his  conquests  still  farther. 
He  claimed  a  part  of  Russia,  in  right  of  his 
relation  to  Boleslaus  duke  of  Halitz,  who  died 
without  issue,  and  took  the  duchies  of  Perze- 
myslia,  Halitz,  and  Luckow,  and  the  districts  of 
Sanock,  Lubackzow,  and  Trebowla;  all  which 
countries  he  made  a  province  of  Poland.  See 
POLAND. 

The  newly  conquered  Russians  were  ill  dis- 
posed to  brook  the  government  of  the  Poles, 
whose  laws  and  customs  were  more  contrary  to 
their  own  than  those  of  the  Tartars  had  been. 
They  joined  the  latter  to  rid  themselves  of  the 
yoke,  and  assembled  an  army  numerous  .enough 
to  overwhelm  all  Poland,  but  destitute  of  valor 
and  discipline.  Casimir,  undaunted  by  this 
deluge  of  barbarians,  presented  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  few  troops  on  the  borders  of  the  Vis- 
tula, and  obliged  his  enemies  to  retire.  Deme- 
trius, the  son  of  John,  who  commanded  in 
Moscow,  made  frequent  efforts  to  rid  himself  of 
the  galling  yoke.  He  defeated  in  several  battles 
Ms.,,  may,  khan  of  the  Tartars  ;  and,  when  con- 
queror, refused  to  pay  them  any  tribute,  and  as- 
sumed the  title  of  great  duke  of  Muscovy.  But 
the  oppressors  of  the  north  returned  in  greater 
numbers  than  before ;  and  Demetrius,  at  length 
overpowered,  after  a  struggle  of  three  years,  pe- 
rished with  his  whole  army,  which  amounted  to 
240,000  men.  His  son,  Basilius,  revenged  his 
father's  death.  He  attacked  his  enemies,  drove 
them  out  of  his  dominions,  and  conquered  Bul- 
garia. He  made  an  alliance  with  the  Poles, 
whom  he  could  not  subdue ;  and  even  ceded  to 
them  a  part  of  his  country,  on  condition  that 
they  shouiu  help  him  to  defend  the  rest  against 
any  :iew  irxarsions  of  the  Tartars.  But  this 
treaty  was  a  weak  barrier  against  ambition.  The 
Russians  found  new  enemies  in  their  allies,  and 
the  Tartars  soon  returned.  Basilius  had  a  son 


named  Basilius,  to  whom  the  crown  ought  (o 
have  descended.  But  the  father,  suspecting  his 
legitimacy,  left  it  to  his  own  brother  Gregory,  a 
man  of  a  severe  and  tyrannical  disposition,  and 
therefore  hated  by  the  people,  who  asserted  the 
son's  right,  and  proclaimed  him  their  sovereign. 
The  Tartars  took  cognizance  of  the  dispute,  and 
determined  it  in  favor  of  Basilius ;  upon  which 
Gregory  had  recourse  to  arms,  drove  his  nephew 
from  Moscow  to  the  principality  of  Uglitz,  and 
usurped  his  throne.  Upon  the  death  of  Gre- 
gory, Basilius  returned  to  Moscow ;  but  Andrew 
and  Demetrius,  sons  of  the  late  usurper,  laid 
siege  to  that  city,  and  obliged  him  to  retire  to 
the  monastery  of  Troitz,  where  they  took  him 
prisoner,  with  his  wife  and  son,  and  put  out  hi«= 
eyes  :  hence  the  appellation  of  jemnoi,  the  blind. 
The  subjects  of  this  unfortunate  prince,  incensed 
at  the  cruel  treatment  he  had  received,  forced 
the  perpetrators  of  it  to  fly  to  Novogorod,  and 
reinstated  their  lawful  sovereign  at  Moscow, 
where  he  died.  In  the  midst  of  this  general 
confusion,  John  I.,  the  son  of  Basilius,  by  his 
invincible  spirit  and  refined  policy,  became 
both  the  conqueror  and  deliverer  of  his  coun- 
try, and  laid  the  first  foundation  of  its  future 
grandeur. 

Observing  with  indignation  the  narrow  limits 
of  his  power  at  his  accession  to  the  throne,  after 
the  death  of  his  father,  he  began  immediately  to 
revolve  within  himself  the  means  of  enlarging  his 
dominions.  Marriage  seemed  to  him  one  of  the 
best  expedients  he  could  begin  with;  and  ac- 
cordingly he  demanded  and  obtained  Maria, 
sister  of  Michael  duke  of  Twer,  whom  he  soon 
after  deposed,  under  pretence  of  revenging  the 
injuries  done  to  his  father,  and  added  this  duchy 
to  his  own  territories  of  Moscow.  Maria,  by 
whom  he  had  a  son  named  John,  who  died  be- 
fore him,  did  not  live  long  ;  and  upon  her  death 
he  married  Sophia,  daughter  of  Thomas  Palico- 
logus,  who  had  been  driven  from  Constantinople, 
and  forced  to  take  shelter  at  Rome,  where  the 
pope  portioned  this  princess,  in  hopes  of  pro- 
curing thereby  great  advantage  to  the  Romish 
religion ;  but  his  expectations  were  frustrated, 
Sophia  being  obliged  to  conform  to  the  Greek 
church  after  her  arrival  in  Russia.  John  doubt- 
less hoped  by  this  marriage  to  establish  a  claim 
to  the  empire  of  the  east,  to  which  her  father  was 
the  next  heir :  and  the  Russians  certainly  owed 
to  this  alliance  their  deliverance  from  the  Tartar 
yoke.  Shocked  at  the  servile  homage  exacted 
by  those  proud  victors,  her  husband  going  to 
meet  their  ambassadors  at  some  distance  from 
the  city,  and  standing  to  hear  what  they  had  to 
say,  whilst  they  were  at  dinner,  Sophia  told  him 
that  she  was  surprised  to  find  that  she  had  mar- 
ried a  servant  to  the  Tartar.  Nettled  at  this  re- 
proach, John  feigned  himself  ill  when  the  next 
deputation  from  the  Tartars  arrived,  and  under 
that  pretence  avoided  a  repetition  of  the  stipulated 
humiliating  ceremonial.  Another  circumstance 
equally  displeasing  to  this  princess  was  that  the 
Tartars  had,  by  agreement,  within  the  walls  of 
the  palace  at  Moscow,  houses,  in  which  their 
ministers  resided  ;  to  show  their  power,  and  at 
the  same  time  watch  the  actions  of  the  great 
duke.  To  get  rid  of  these,  a  formal  embassy 


RUSSIA. 


was  sent  to  the  Tartarian  khan,  to  tell  him,  that 
Sophia  having  been  fave^d  with  a  vision  from 
above,  ordering  her  to  build  a  temple  in  the 
place  where  those  houses  stood,  her  mind  could 
not  be  at  ease  till  she  had  fulfilled  the  divine 
command  ;  and  therefore  his  leave  was  desired 
to  pull  them  down,  and  give  his  people  others. 
The  khan  consented :  the  houses  within  the 
kremlin  were  demolished  ;  and,  no  new  ones 
being  built,  the  Tartar  residents  were  obliged  to 
leave  Moscow,  their  prince  being  prevented 
from  revenging  this  breach  of  promise,  by  a  war 
he  was  engaged  in  with  the  Poles.  John  taking 
advantage  of  this  circumstance,  and  having  con- 
siderably increased  his  forces,  disclaimed  all 
subjection  to  the  Tartars,  attacked  their  do- 
minions, and  made  himself  master  of  Casan, 
where  he  was  solemnly  crowned  with  the  diadem 
of  that  kingdom,  which  is  still  used  for  the  coro- 
nation of  the  Russian  sovereigns.  The  province 
of  Perraia,  with  great  part  of  Lapland  and 
Asiatic  Bulgaria,  soon  submitted  to  him ;  and 
Great  Novogorod  was  reduced  by  his  generals 
after  a  seven  years'  siege,  and  yielded  him  300 
cart  loads  of  gold  and  silver,  and  other  valuable 
effects.  Alexander  Witold,  waiwode  of  Lithuania, 
was  in  possession  of  this  rich  place,  from  which 
lie  had  exacted  for  some  years  an  annual  tribute 
of  100,000  rubles,  a  prodigious  sum  for  those 
days  in  that  country.  When  it  was  taken  by 
John  Basiltowitz,  he,  to  secure  his  conquest,  put 
it  under  the  protection  of  the  Poles,  voluntarily 
rendered  himself  their  tributary  for  it,  and  ac- 
cepted a  governor  from  the  hand  of  their  king 
Casimir  III.,  a  weak  prince,  from  whom  he  had 
nothing  to  fear.  The  Novogorodians  continued 
to  enjoy  all  their  privileges  till  about  two  years 
after ;  when  John,  ambitious  of  reigning  without 
control,  entered  their  city  with  a  numerous 
retinue,  under  pretence  of  keeping  to  the  Greek 
faith,  he  being  accused  of  an  intention  to  em- 
brace the  Romish  religion ;  and,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  archbishop  Theophilus,  stripped  them 
of  all  their  remaining  riches.  He  then  deposed 
the  treacherous  prelate,  and  established  over 
Novogorod  new  magistrates,  creatures  of  his  own ; 
thus  destroying  at  once  a  noble  city,  which,  had 
its  liberties  been  protected,  and  its  trade  en- 
couraged, might  have  proved  to  him  an  inex- 
haustible fund  of  wealth.  All  the  north  beheld 
with  terror  and  astonishment  the  rapid  increase 
of  the  victor's  power :  foreign  nations  courted 
his  alliance ;  and  the  petty  princes  of  Russia 
submitted  to  him  without  resistance.  The  Poles, 
however,  complained  loudly  of  this  breach  of 
faith  in  regard  to  Novogorod,  and  threatened  re- 
venge ;  upon  which  John,  elated  with  his  suc- 
cesses, with  the  riches  he  had  amassed,  and  the 
weak  condition  of  most  of  his  neighbours,  sent  a 
body  of  troops  into  Lithuania,  and  soon  became 
master  of  several  of  its  towns.  Casimir  applied 
for  assistance  to  Matthias  king  of  Hungary  ;  but 
was  answered  that  his  own  soldiers  were  quite 
undisciplined ;  that  his  auxiliaries  had  lately 
mutinied  for  want  of  pay ;  and  that  it  was  im- 
possible for  him  to  raise  a  new  army  out  of  the 
neighbouring  countries.  The  Polish  monarch  in 
this  distress  was  obliged  to  purchase  of  John  a 
cessation  of  arms  for  two  years,  during  which  the 


Muscovite  made  new  accessions  to  his  dominions- 
The  dukes  of  Servia,  whose  territories  were  about 
500  miles  in  extent,  had  long  thought  themselves 
ill  used  by  the  Lithuanians  on  account  of  their 
religion,  which  was  that  of  the  Greek  church  ; 
and  wanted  to  withdraw  from  this  subjection  to 
Poland,  and  put  themselves  under  the  protection 
of  Russia.  An  accident  afforded  them  the 
wished  for  pretence.  Their  envoys,  arriving  at 
Wilna,  desired  admittance  to  the  king's  presence; 
which  being  refused  one  of  them  endeavoured  to 
force  his  way  in  ;  but  the  porter  shut  the  door 
rudely  against  him,  and  in  so  doing  broke  one  of 
his  fingers.  The  porter  was  immediately  put  to 
death  ;  but  the  Servians,  not  satisfied,  returned 
home  in  great  fury,  and  prevailed  upon  their  coun- 
trymen to  submit  to  the  Muscovites.  Casimir 
made  several  attempts  to  recal  them,  but  to  no 
purpose.  Matthias  king  of  Hungary  dying  about 
this  time,  two  of  his  sons,  Uladislaus,  then  king 
of  Bohemia,  and  John  Albert,  contended  for  his 
vacant  crown.  Casimir  wished  to  give  it  to  the 
latter,  whom  he  assisted  to  the  utmost  of  his 
power ;  and,  though  he  was  in  great  want  of  men 
and  money,  he  purchased  a  renewal  of  the  truce 
with  the  Russians,  and  thereby  gave  John  time 
to  establish  himself  in  his  new  acquisitions. 
Casimir  died  in  1492,  and  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  of  Poland  by  his  son  John  Albert,  who, 
totally  disregarding  the  Russians,  involved  him- 
self unnecessarily  in  a  war  with  the  brave  Stephen 
duke  of  Moldavia;  and,  though  he  had  at  the 
same  time  both  the  Tartars  and  Turks  against 
him,  his  propensity  to  pleasure  rendered  him  so 
indolent  that  he  not  only  did  not  attempt  to 
molest  John  in  any  of  his  possessions,  but  con- 
cluded a  peace  with  him  on  terms  very  advan- 
tageous to  the  latter ;  and  even  entered  into  a 
treaty,  by  which  he  stipulated  not  to  assist  the 
Lithuanians,  though  they  had  chosen  his  brother 
Alexander  for  their  duke,  in  case  the  Russians 
should  attack  them.  Alexander,  to  parry  the  in- 
conveniences of  this  agreement,  and  to  guard 
against  the  designs  of  his  enemies,  demanded  in 
marriage  John's  daughter,  Helena,  by  his  second 
wife  Sophia,  and  obtained  her.  The  Lithuanians 
then  expected  tranquillity;  but  the  ambitious 
czar,  (for  John  had  assumed  that  title  since  his 
conquest  of  Casan,)  soon  found  a  pretence  to 
break  with  his  new  allies,  by  alleging  that  Polish 
Russia,  as  far  as  the  river  Berezina,  had  belonged 
to  his  ancestors,  and  therefore  was  his  by  right, 
and  that  Alexander  had  engaged  to  build  a  Greek 
church  at  Wilna  for  his  Russian  consort,  which 
instead  of  doing,  he  had  endeavoured  to  force  the 
Polish  Russians  to  become  Roman  Catholics.  In 
consequence  of  this  plea,  he  sent  into  the  terri- 
tories of  his  son-in-law,  by  different  ways,  three 
armies,  which  reduced  several  places,  destroyed 
the  country  about  Smolensko,  and*  defeated  the 
Lithuanian  field  marshal  Ostrosky  near  the  river 
Wredrasch,  where  he  fell  unawares  into  an  am- 
bush of  the  Russians.  Alexander  raised  a  new 
army  of  Silesians,  Bohemians,  and  Moravians; 
but  they  came  too  late,  the  Russians  having  re- 
tired with  their  plunder.  Elated  by  their  suc- 
cess they  invaded  Livonia  in  1502,  with  130,000 
men  ;  but  Walter  Von  Plettenberg,  grand-master 
of  the  knights  of  the  cross,  with  only  12, 000  men, 

O  2 


196 


RUSSIA. 


gave  them  a  total  overthrow;  killing  10,000  of 
them  with  little  loss  on  his  own  side.  John 
dispirited  by  this  defeat,  and  being  engaged  in  a 
•war  with  the  Tartars,  the  Poles,  and  the  city  of 
Pleskow,  immediately  despatched  an  embassy  to 
Plettenberg,  and  concluded  a  truce  with  him  for 
fifty  years.  At  the  same  time  he  begged  of  that 
general  to  send  to  Moscow,  that  he  might  see 
him,  one  of  the  iron  dragoons,  as  he  called  them, 
who  had  performed  wonders  in  the  late  engage- 
ment. Von  Plettenberg  readily  complied ; 
and  the  czar  rewarded  the  cuirassier's  accom- 
plishments with  considerable  honors  and  pre- 
sents. Alexander  had  been  elected  king  of 
Poland  upon  the  death  of  his  brother  John 
Albert,  in  1501,  but  the  Poles  refused  to  crown 
his  consort  Helena,  because  she  adhered  to  the 
Greek  religion.  Provoked  at  this  affront,  and 
probably  still  more  stimulated  by  ambition,  John 
resolved  again  to  try  his  fortune  with  them  :  and 
accordingly  ordered  his  son  Demetrius  to  march 
against  Smolensko,  and  reduce  that  city.  The 
young  prince  did  what  he  could,  but  the  vigorous 
resistance  of  the  besieged,  and  the  arrival  of  the 
king  of  Poland  with  a  numerous  army,  obliged 
the  Russians  to  raise  the  siege  and  return  home ; 
and  the  czar  was  glad  to  make  a  fresh  truce  with 
the  Poles  for  six  years,  upon  the  easy  terms  of 
only  returning  the  prisoners  he  had  taken.  Nei- 
ther the  czar  nor  Demetrius  long  survived  this 
event;  for  Sophia,  who  had  gained  an  absolute 
ascendant  over  her  husband,  and  wanted  to  give 
the  sovereignty  to  her  children,  persuaded  him  to 
set  aside  and  imprison  his  grandson  Demetrius, 
the  only  child  of  the  late  John,  whom  he  had 
by  his  first  wife  Maria,  and  declare  her  eldest 
son  Gabriel  his  successor.  The  czar  blindly 
followed  the  iniquitous  advice ;  but  shortly 
after,  finding  his  end  approach,  he  sent  for  young 
Demetrius,  expressed  great  remorse  for  his  bar- 
barity, and  on  his  death-bed  declared  him  his 
lawful  successor.  He  died  in  November  1505, 
after  a  reign  of  fifty-five  years  ;  leaving  be- 
hind him  an  immense  territory,  chiefly  of  his  own 
acquiring. 

The  czar  was  no  sooner  dead  than  his  son  Ga- 
briel, at  the  instigation  of  his  mother  Sophia,  put 
an  end  to  the  life  of  the  young  Demetrius,  by 
confining  him  in  prison,  where  he  perished  with 
hunger  and  cold ;  after  which  Gabriel  was 
crowned  by  the  name  of  Basilius,  and  took  the 
title  of  czar.  On  his  accession  he  expected  that 
the  Poles  would  be  in  confusion  about  the  elec- 
tion of  a  new  sovereign  ;  but,  being  disappointed 
by  their  unanimous  election  of  Sigismund  I. 
(see  POLAND),  he  sent  an  army  into  Lithuania, 
and  laid  siege  to  Smolensko.  It  made  a  brave 
resistance,  till  news  arrived  that  the  crown  troops 
of  Poland  were  coming  to  their  assistance,  with 
80,000  Crim  Tartars  ;  on  which  the  Russians  re- 
treated with  precipitation,  but  were  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  the  Poles,  who  reduced  the  czar  to 
submit  to  their  own  terms.  Basilius  remained 
quiet  for  some  time  ;  after  which  he,  with  a  nu- 
merous army,  encamped  near  Pleskow,  where  the 
Poles,  presuming  on  the  late  treaty,  received  him 
as  a  friend.  But  the  Muscovite  priests,  of  the 
Greek  church,  preaching  up  that  it  would  be  ad- 
vantageous to  have  a  sovereign  of  their  own  IP- 


ligion,  brought  them  to  such  a  height  of  enthusi- 
asm that  they  murdered  their  magistrates,  and 
opened  their  gates  to  the  czar,  who  made  them 
all  slaves,  banished  them  to  different  parts,  and 
filled  the  city  with  Muscovites,  to  secure  his 
conquest.  Soon  after  he  took  Smolensko  ;  and 
the  Swedes,  alarmed  at  his  rapid  progress,  de- 
sired a  prolongation  of  the  truce  for  sixty  years 
longer.  The  duchy  of  Lithuania  was  the  great 
object  of  Basilius;  to  accomplish  which  he  or- 
dered John  Czeladin,  a  man  enterprising  even  to 
rashness,  to  march  thither  with  80,000  men.  The 
army  of  the  Poles  did  not  exceed  35,000  men, 
but  was  commanded  by  a  most  experienced 
general.  The  two  armies  met  on  the  opposite 
banks  of  the  Dneiper,  near  Orsova,  and  the  Poles 
passed  that  river  in  sight  of  their  enemies.  The 
Lithuanians  began  the  aUack,  but  were  repulsed 
by  the  Russians,  who,  imprudently  following 
them,  became  at  once  exposed  to  the  full  fire  of 
the  enemy's  artillery.  The  Polish  cavalry  then 
rushed  in  among  them  and  made  dreadful  havoc. 
Those  who  endeavoured  to  fly  were  drowned  in 
the  Dneiper ;  and  the  rest,  including  Czeiadin 
himself,  were  made  slaves.  Basilius  was  at  Smo- 
lensko, when  he  received  the  news  of  this  dread- 
ful defeat ;  on  which  he  immediately  fled  to 
Moscow  where  his  danger  increased  daily.  The 
Crim  Tartars  ravaged  his  dominions,  and  the 
emperor  Maximilian,  with  whom  he  had  been  in 
alliance,  deserted  him  ;  his  troops  were  defeated 
in  Livonia,  where  he  was  obliged  to  submit  to  a 
peace  on  dishonorable  terms.  In  the  mean  time, 
the  king  of  Poland  stirred  up  the  Tartars  to 
invade  Russia,  while  the  Russian  monarch  en- 
deavoured to  excite  them  to  an  invasion  of  Poland . 
These  barbarians,  equally  treacherous  to  both 
parties,  first  invaded  and  ravaged  Podolia  in  Po- 
land ;  and  then  invaded  Russia,  defeated  the 
armies  of  the  czar  in  1521,  and  quickly  made 
themselves  masters  of  Moscow.  An  army  which 
had  been  sent  to  oppose  their  progress  was  de- 
feated near  the  Occa;  and  the  czar's  brother 
Andrew,  who  commanded  it,  was  the  first  who 
fled.  Basilius  with  great  difficulty  made  his 
way  to  Novogorod  ;  but  so  terrified  that  he  hid 
himself  by  the  way  under  a  haycock,  to  avoid  a 
party  of  the  enemy.  The  Tartars,  however,  soon 
obliged  him  to  sign  a  writing,  by  which  he 
acknowledged  himself  their  vassal,  and  promised 
to  pay  them  a  tribute  of  so  much  a  head  for  every 
one  of  his  subjects.  Besides  this,  Machmet 
Gerei,  the  commander  of  the  Tartars,  caused  hi 
own  statue  to  be  set  up  at  Moscow,  as  a  mark  of 
his  sovereignty  ;  compelled  Basilius  to  return  to 
his  capital,  to  bring  thither  in  person  the  first 
payment  of  this  tribute,  and,  as  a  token  of  his 
submission,  to  prostrate  himself  before  his  statue. 
Machmet  Gerei  then  left  Moscow,  and  returned 
home  with  an  immense  booty,  and  upwards  of 
80,000  prisoners,  who  were  made  slaves,  ;m-l 
sold  like  cattle  to  the  Turks.  In  his  way  back 
he  attempted  to  take  the  city  of  Rezan;  but  was 
repulsed  with  considerable  loss  by  John  Kowen, 
who  commanded  in  that  place  for  the  Russians. 
Here  the  Tartar  general  narrowly  escaped  with 
his  life,  his  coat  being  shot  through  with  a  mus- 
kel  hall;  and  the  Mu-roviies  pulled  down  his 
p,  and  broke  it  t->  pieces  as  soon  as  the  con- 


RUSSIA. 


197 


querors  had  left  them.  Basilius  died  in  1533, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John  Basiliowitz 
II.,  an  infant  of  five  years  of  age. 

During  the  minority  of  John  II.  his  two  uncles 
Andrew  and  George  endeavoured  to  deprive 
him  of  the  crown;  but  their  attempts  were  de- 
feated by  the  activity  of  his  guardians.  The  Poles 
also  commenced  hostilities,  but  made  little  pro- 
gress. John,  as  soon  as  he  entered  his  nineteenth 
year,  showed  a  desire  to  rescue  his  subjects  out 
of  that  desperate  state  of  ignorance  and  barba- 
rism in  which  they  had  been  hitherto  immersed. 
He  sent  a  splendid  embassy  to  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  who  was  then  at  Augsburg,  to  desire 
the  renewal  of  a  treaty  of  friendship  which  had 
been  concluded  with  his  father  Maximilian,  and 
offering  to  enter  into  a  league  with  him  against 
the  Turks,  as  enemies  to  the  Christian  religion  ; 
for  his  farther  information  in  which,  particularly 
in  regard  to  the  doctrine  and  ceremonies  of  the 
Latin  church,  he  requested  that  his  ambassador 
might  be  allowed  to  send  from  Germany  to  Rus- 
sia proper  priests  to  instruct  him  and  his  sub- 
ects.  With  these  he  likewise  desired  to  have 
some  wise  and  experienced  statesmen,  able  to 
civilize  the  wild  people  under  his  government; 
and  also,  the  better  to  help  to  polish  them,  he 
requested  that  he  would  send  mechanics  and 
artists  of  every  kind  ;  in  return  for  all  which  he 
offered  to  furnish  two  tons  of  gold  yearly,  for 
twenty  years  together,  to  be  employed  in  the 
war  against  the  Turks.  The  emperor  readily 
agreed,  and  the  Russian  ambassador  accordingly 
engaged  upwards  of  300  German  artists,  to  re- 
pair to  Lubec,  and  proceed  thence  to  Livonia. 
But  the  Lubeckers,  who  were  very  powerful  at 
that  time,  and  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  en- 
grossing of  the  whole  commerce  of  the  north, 
stopped  them,  and  represented  strongly  to  the 
emperor,  in  the  name  of  all  the  merchants  in  Li- 
vonia, the  dangerous  consequence  of  thus  afford- 
ing instructions  to  the  Russians,  who  would  soon 
avail  themselves  of  it  to  ruin  their  trade,  and 
distress  the  subjects  of  his  imperial  majesty. 
The  workmen  and  others  intended  for  Russia 
were  easily  prevailed  upon  to  return  home;  and 
the  czar's  ambassador  was  arrested  upon  his  arri- 
val at  Lubec,  and  imprisoned  there  at  the  suit 
of  the  Livonians  :  however  he  escaped  soon 
after ;  and  the  czar,  though  provoked  at  the  Lu- 
beckers, was  obliged  to  suspend  his  resentment. 
His  first  enterprise  was  against  the  Tartars  at 
Casan,  who  had  hitherto  been  such  formidable 
enemies.  In  this  he  was  attended  with  success  : 
the  whole  territory  was  conquered  in  seven 
years;  but  the  capital,  Casan,  being  well  fortified 
and  bravely  defended,  made  such  resistance  as 
quite  disheartened  the  besiegers.  John,  hearing 
of  this,  hastened  to  them  with  considerable  rein- 
forcement, and  exhorted  them  to  push  the  siege 
with  redoubled  vigor.  But  the  greater  part, 
deaf  to  his  remonstrances,  proceeded  to  mutiny, 
and  fell  upon  their  comrades  who  were  for  con- 
tinuing the  war.  John,  alarmed  at  this,  rushed 
in  among  the  combatants,  and  with  difficulty 
'parted  them  ;  but  neither  menaces  nor  entreaties, 
nor  even  a  promise  of  the  whole  plunder  of  the 
city  if  they  took  it,  could  prevail  on  them  to 
continue  the  war.  Their  rage  at  last  prompted 


them  to  threaten  the  life  of  their  sovereign,  who 
was  obliged  to  make  the  best  of  his  way  to  Mos- 
cow ;  and  the  mutineers  instantly  returned 
thither.  John,  though  justly  incensed  at  this  in- 
solence, took  a  method  of  punishing  it  which 
does  honor  to  his  humanity.  Having  selected  a 
guard  of  2000  of  his  best  troops,  he  ordered  a 
great  feast,  to  which  he  invited  his  principal 
nobles  and  officers,  to  each  of  whom,  according 
to  the  Russian  custom,  he  gave  very  rich  gar- 
ments. The  chief  of  the  seditious  were  clothed 
in  black  velvet ;  and  after  the  dinner  was  over 
he  made  a  speech  to  the  whole  company,  setting 
forth  the  behaviour  of  his  troops  before  Casan, 
their  contempt  of  his  commands,  and  their  con- 
spiracy against  his  life  :  to  which  he  added  that 
he  was  doubly  sorry  to  find  the  instigators  of 
such  wickedness  among  those  who  were  styled, 
and  who  ought  to  be,  his  faithful  counsellors ;  and 
that  those  who  knew  themselves  to  be  guilty  of 
such  atrocious  wickedness  could  not  do  better 
than  voluntarily  to  submit  themselves  to  his 
mercy.  Upon  this  most  of  them  immediately 
threw  themselves  at  his  feet,  and  implored  his 
pardon.  Some  of  the  most  criminal  were  exe- 
cuted, but  the  rest  were  only  imprisoned.  Im- 
mediately after  this  John  marched  with  a  fresh 
army  to  reinvest  Casan,  before  the  Tartars  had 
time  to  recover  themselves.  The  besieged  still 
made  an  obstinate  defence,  and  the  Russians 
again  began  to  be  dispirited;  upon  which  the 
czar  ordered  his  pioneers  to  undermine  the  walls 
of  the  citadel,  a  practice  then  unknown  to  the 
Tartars.  This  work  being  completed,  he  directed 
his  priests  to  read  a  solemn  mass  to  the  whole 
army,  at  the  head  of  which  he  afterwards  spent 
some  time  in  prayer,  and  then  ordered  fire  to  be 
set  to  the  powder,  which  acted  so  effectually  that 
great  part  of  the  foundation  was  immediately 
blown  up,  and  the  Muscovites,  rushing  into  the 
city,  slaughtered  all  before  them  ;  while  the  as- 
tonished Tartars,  crowding  out  at  the  opposite 
gate,  crossed  the  Casanka,  and  fled  into  the 
forests.  Among  the  prisoners  taken  on  this  oc- 
casion were  Simeon  king  of  Casan,  with  his 
queen  ;  both  of  whom  were  sent  to  Moscow, 
where  they  were  treated  with  the  utmost  civility 
and  respect.  Encouraged  by  this  success^John 
invaded  the  country  of  Astracan,  the  capital  of 
which  he  soon  reduced  ;  after  which  he  prepared 
to  revenge  himself  on  the  Livonians  for  their  be- 
haviour in  stopping  the  German  artists.  John 
Basiliowitz  I.  had  concluded  a  truce  with  this 
people  for*fifty  years  ;  which  now  being  expired, 
lodocus,  archbishop  of  Dorpt  and  canon  of  Mun- 
ster,  sensible  of  the  danger  to  which  he  was 
exposed  by  the  vicinity  of  the  Russians,  request- 
ed the  czar  to  give  him  a  prolongation  of  the 
truce.  John  offered  him  the  alternative  of  a 
truce  for  five  y^ars,  upon  payment  of  one-fifth 
of  a  ducat  for  e^ich  person  in  Dorpt ;  or  for 
twenty  years,  on  condition  that  he  and  the  Livo- 
nians should  rebuild  all  the  Russian  churches 
which  had  been  demolished  in  their  territories, 
and  allow  his  subjects  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion.  lodocus  evaded  an  answer,  but  at  last 
levied  a  considerable  sum,  and  fled  with  it  to 
.Munster,  where  he  resigned  his  prebend  and 
married.  His  successor,  named  Herman  and 


198 


RUSSIA. 


the  deputies  from  Livonia,  accepted  of  condi- 
tions, and  swore  to  observe  them ;  with  this  ad- 
ditional clause,  that  the  priests  of  the  Romish 
communion  should  be  exempted  from  paying 
tribute.  But,  while  the  Livonians  swore  to  these 
terms,  they  were  at  that  very  time  in  treaty  with 
Gustavus  Vasa,  king  of  Sweden,  to  join  them 
in  attacking  Russia.  Gustavus  complied  with 
their  desires;  upon  which  John  invaded  Fin- 
land. Gustavus  advanced  against  him  with  a 
powerful  army  ;  but,  as  neither  the  Poles  nor  Li- 
vonians gave  him  any  assistance,  he  was  obliged 
to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  czar,  and  soon  after 
to  evacuate  the  country.  Finland  was  then 
governed  by  William  of  Furstenberg,  grand  mas- 
ter of  the  Livonian  knights  and  the  archbishop 
of  Riga;  between  whom  a  quarrel  happened 
about  this  time,  which  facilitated  John's  designs. 
The  archbishop,  after  attempting  to  set  himself 
above  the  grand  master  even  in  civil  affairs,  and 
to  persecute  those  who  adhered  to  the  conefesion 
of  Augsburg,  chose  for  his  coadjutor  in  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Riga  Christopher  duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg. From  the  abilities  and  haughty  temper 
of  this  lord  the  Livonian  knights  had  reason  to 
fear  the  worst  ;  and  the  step  was,  besides,  un- 
precedented, and  contrary  to  the  established 
laws.  These  discontents  were  heightened  by 
letters  intercepted  from  the  archbishop  to  his 
brother  Albert,  duke  of  Prussia,  inviting  this 
last  to  suppress  the  order  of  Livonian  knights, 
and  to  secularise  their  possessions ;  so  that  an 
open  war  broke  out  among  the  contending 
parties,  and  the  archbishop  was  seized  and  made 
prisoner.  He  was,  however,  soon  released, 
through  the  mediation  of  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many and  other  potentates,  backed  by  the  pow- 
erful preparations  of  the  Prussians  to  avenge  his 
cause ;  but  in  the  mean  time,  the  strength  of 
their  country  being  totally  exhausted,  the  Livo- 
nians were  obliged,  instead  of  preparing  for  war, 
to  sue  to  the  czar  for  peace.  John  replied  that 
he  did  not  believe  their  intentions  to  be  sincere 
while  they  kept  6000  Germans  in  pay  ;  and, 
therefore,  if  they  meant  to  treat  of  peace,  they 
must  begin  with  dismissing  these  troops.  The 
Livonians  did  as  they  were  ordered  ;  and  in  1558 
an  army  of  100,000  Russians  entered  the  district 
of  Dorpt,  and  laid  every  thing  waste  with  the 
most  shocking  cruelty.  After  this  they  entered 
the  territories  of  Riga,  where  they  behaved  with 
equal  inhumanity;  and,  having  at  last  satiated 
themselves  with  blood  and  treasure,  they  retired 
with  an  immense  booty  and  a  great  number  of 
prisoners.  The  Livonians,  now  convinced  of 
their  own  folly  in  provoking  the  rage  of  the  Rus- 
sians, sent' ambassadors  to  sue  for  peace.  These 
offered  the  czar  a  present  of  30,000  ducats,  and 
prevailed  upon  him  to  grant  their  nation  a  truce 
for  four  months,  during  which  they  returned 
home  to  get  the  money.  But  in  this  interval  the 
Livonian  governor  of  the  city  of  Nerva  fired 
some  cannon  against  Ivanogorod  or  Russian 
Nerva,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  and 
killed  several  of  the  czar's  subjects  who  were 
quite  unarmed.  The  Russians,  out  of  regard  to 
the  truce,  did  not  attempt  to  make  reprisals,  but 
immediately  acquainted  John  with  it  ;  which  so 
incensed  the  czar  that,  when  the  Livonian  am- 
idors  arrived,  he  told  them  he  looked  upon 


their  nation  to  be  a  set  of  perjured  wretches,  who 
had  renounced  all  honesty  ;  that  they  might  go 
back  with  their  money  and  proposals,  and  let 
their  countrymen  know  that  his  vengeance  would 
soon  overtake  them.  The  ambassadors  were 
scarcely  arrived  in  Livonia  when  an  army  of 
300,000  Russians  entered  the  district  of  Nerva, 
under  Peter  Sisegaledrii,  who  had  been  a  famous 
pirate  in  the  Euxine  Sea.  He  took  Nerva  in 
nine  days,  and  soon  made  himself  master  of 
Dorpt,  where  he  found  immense  treasures.  Se- 
veral other  garrisons,  terrified  by  the  approach  of 
such  numbers,  quitted  their  posts;  so  that  the 
Russians  became  masters  of  a  ^reat  part  of  Livo- 
nia almost  without  opposition.  At  last  Gothard 
Kettler,  grand  master  of  the  knights  of  Livonia, 
entreated  Christian  III.  king  of  Denmark,  to 
take  Ri?a,  Revel,  and  the  countries  of  Garnland, 
Wirrland,  and  Esthonia,  under  his  protection ; 
but,  from  his  advanced  age,  he  declined  the  offer, 
though  he  assisted  them  with  money  and  powder, 
of  which  they  stood  greatly  in  need.  Having 
then  applied  to  the  emperor  of  Germany  and  the 
court  of  Sweden,  Kettler  put  himself  under  the 
protection  of  the  Poles,  who  had  hitherto  been 
such  formidable  enemies  to  the  Russians.  In  the 
mean  time  the  latter  pursued  their  conquests  ; 
took  the  city  of  Marienburg,  laid  waste  the  dis- 
trict of  Riga,  destroyed  Garnland,  and  penetrated 
to  the  very  gates  of  Revel.  Felin,  though  pro- 
vided with  the  best  artillery  in  the  whole  coun- 
try, became  theirs  by  the  treachery  of  its  gar- 
rison ;  and  William  of  Furstenberg,  the  old 
grand  master,  was  taken,  and  ended  his  days  in 
a  prison  at  Moscow.  The  distracted  situation 
of  the  Livonian  affairs  now  reduced  the  bishop 
of  Oesal  to  sell  his  bishopric  to  Ferdinand  king 
of  Denmark,  who  exchanged  it  with  his  brother 
Masrnus  for  a  part  of  Holstein.  The  districts 
of  Revel  and  Esthonia  put  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  Sweden ;  and  tire  grand  master, 
finding  himself  deserted  by  all,  suppressed  the 
order  of  which  he  was  the  chief,  and  accepted  of 
the  duchy  of  Courland,  which  he  held  as  a  tief 
of  the  crown  of  Poland.  The  czar  saw  with 
pleasure  the  division  of  Livonia  between  the 
Swedes  and  Poles,  which,  he  rightly  judged, 
would  produce  quarrels  between  the  two  nations, 
and  thus  give  him  the  fairer  opportunity  of 
seizing  the  whole.  In  1564  the  Swedes  offered 
him  their  assistance  against  the  Poles  ;  but  he, 
judging  himself  strong  enough  without  them,  at- 
tacked the  Poles  with  his  own  forces,  but  was  twice 
defeated,  which  checked  his  farther  operations 
in  Livonia.  In  1569  he  entered  into  a  treaty  of 
commerce  with  England,  captain  Richard  Chan- 
cellor having  recently  discovered  a  passage  to 
Archangel  in  Russia,  through  the  White  Sea,  by 
which  that  empire  could  be  supplied  with  foreign 
goods,  without  the  assistance  of  Poland  or  Livo- 
nia. To  the  discoverers  of  this  new  passage  John 
granted  many  exclusive  privileges  ;  and  after  the 
death  of  queen  Mary  I.  renewed  the  alliance 
wit!)  queen  Elizabeth,  which  has  been  continued 
without  interruption  evtr  since.  In  the  mean 
time,  however,  a  prodigious  army  of  Turks  and 
Tartars  entered  Muscovy,  with  a  design  tosubduc 
the  whole  country ;  but  Xerebrinov,  the  czar's 
general,  havinjj  attacked  them  in  a  defile,  put 
them  to  flight  with  great  shuchter.  They  then 


RUSSIA. 


199 


retired  towards  the  mouth  of  the  Volga ;  but, 
being  closely  pursued  by  the  Russians  and  Tar- 
tars, they  were  again  defeated,  and  forced  to  fly 
towards  Azof  on  the  Black  Sea,  which  they  found 
ruined  by  the  blowing  up  of  a  powder  magazine. 
The  Russians  then  attacked  their  ships  there,  took 
some,  and  gunk  the  rest ;  by  which  means  almost 
the  whole  army  perished  either  with  hunger  or 
sword.  From  this  time  the  empire  of  Russia  be- 
came so  formidable  that  none  of  the  neighbour- 
ing nations  could  expect  to  make  a  conquest  of  it. 
The  Poles  and  Swedes  indeed  continued  to  be 
very  formidable  ;  and,  by  the  instigation  of  the 
former,  the  Grim  Tartars,  in  1571,  again  in- 
vaded the  country  with  an  army  of  70,000  men. 
The  Russians,  who  might  have  prevented  their 
passing  the  Volga,  retired  before  them  till  they 
came  within  eighteen  miles  of  Moscow,  where 
they  were  totally  defeated.  The  czar  no  sooner 
heard  this  news  than  he  retired  with  his  most 
valuable  effects  to  a  well  fortified  cloister  ;  upon 
which  the  Tartars  entered  the  city,  plundered  it, 
and  set  fire  to  several  churches.  A  violent  storm 
of  wind  soon  spread  the  flames  all  over  the  city, 
which  was  totally  burnt  in  six  hours,  though  its 
circumference  was  upwards  of  forty  miles.  The 
fire  likewise  communicated  itself  to  a  powder 
magazine  at  some  distance  from  the  city ;  by 
which  accident  upwards  of  fifty  roods  of  the 
city  wall,  with  all  the  buildings  upon  it,  were 
destroyed  ;  and,  according  to  the  best  historians, 
upwards  of  120,000  citizens  were  burnt  or 
buried  in  the  ruins,  besides  women,  children, 
and  foreigners.  The  castle,  however,  which  was 
strongly  fortified,  could  not  be  taken  ;  and  the 
Tartars  hearing  that  a  formidable  army  was  com- 
ing against  them  under  John  Magnus,  duke  of 
Holstein,  whom  John  had  made  king  of  Livonia, 
thought  proper  to  retire.  The  war,  nevertheless, 
continued  with  the  Poles  and  Swedes ;  and  the 
czar,  being  defeated  by  the  latter  after  some 
trifling  success,  was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of 
suing  for  peace.  But,  the  negociations  being 
somehow  or  other  broken  off,  the  war  was  re- 
newed with  vigor.  The  Livonians,  Poles,  and 
Swedes,  having  united  against  the  Russians, 
gained  great  advantages  over  them ;  and  in 
1579  Stephen  Battori,  then  king  of  Poland, 
levied  an  army  to  invade  Russia,  and  regain  all 
that  Poland  had  formerly  claimed,  which  indeed 
was  little  less  than  the  whole  empire.  As  the 
Poles  understood  the  art  of  war  much  better 
than  the  Russians,  John  found  his  undisciplined 
multitudes  unable  to  cope  with  the  regular  forces 
of  his  enemies ;  and  their  conquests  were  so 
rapid  that  he  was  soon  obliged  to  sue  for  peace, 
which,  however,  was  not  granted  :  and  the  num- 
ber of  enemies  which  now  attacked  Russia 
might  probably  have  conquered  it  entirely,  had 
not  the  allies  grown  jealous  of  each  other.  The 
consequence  was  that,  in  1582,  a  peace  was 
concluded  with  the  Poles,  in  which  the  Swedes 
were  not  comprehended.  However  the  Swedes, 
finding  themselves  unable  to  effect  any  thing  of 
moment  after  the  desertion  of  their  allies,  con- 
cluded a  truce  ;  after  which  the  czar,  having  been 
worsted  in  an  engagement  with  the  Tartars,  died 
*n  1548.  This  great  prince  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Theodore;  a  man  of  such  weak  under- 


standing that  he  was  totally  unfit  for  government. 
Under  him,  therefore,  the  Russian  affairs  fell  into 
confusion;  and  Boris  Gndenov,  a  nobleman 
whose  sister  Theodore  had  married,  assumed  all 
the  authority.  At  last  he  resolved  to  usurp  the 
throne.  For  this  purpose  he  caused  the  czar's 
brother  Demetrius,  who  was  only  nine  years  of 
age,  to  be  assassinated,  and  afterwards  caused 
the  czar  also  to  be  murdered.  In  1597  the  czar 
himself  was  taken  ill  and  died,  being  poisoned 
by  Gudenov  ;  of  which  indeed  the  czarina  was 
so  well  convinced  that  she  would  never  after- 
wards speak  to  her  brother.  With  Theodore 
ended  the  line  of  Ruric,  who  had  governed  the 
empire  of  Russia  for  above  700  years. 

II.    RUSSIA,  TILL  THE  ELECTION  OF  THEODORE 

III  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  ROMANO  V. — Boris,  who  in 
reality  was  possessed  of  all  the  power,  and  would 
indeed  have  suffered  nobody  else  to  reign,  art- 
fully pretended  to  be  unwilling  to  accept  the 
crown,  till  compelled  to  it  by  the  intreaties  of  the 
people  ;  and  even  then  he  put  the  acceptance  of  it 
on  the  issue  of  an  expedition  which  he  was  about 
to  undertake  against  the  Tartars.  The  truth  of 
the  matter,  however,  was,  that  no  Tartar  army 
was  in  the  field,  nor  had  Boris  any  intention  of 
invading  that  country  ;  but  by  this  pretence  he 
assembled  an  army  of  500,000  men,  which  he 
thought  the  most  effectual  method  of  securing 
himself  in  his  new  dignity.  Boris,  in  1600,  con- 
cluded a  peace  with  the  Poles,  but  resolved  to 
continue  the  war  against  the  Swedes  ;  however, 
being  disappointed  in  some  of  his  attempts 
against  that  nation,  he  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  the  Swedish  monarch,  and  even  proposed  a 
match  between  the  king's  brother  and  his 
daughter.  But,  while  these  things  were  in  agita- 
tion, the  city  of  Moscow  was  desolated  by  one 
of  the  most  dreadful  famines  recorded  in  history. 
Thousands  of  people  lay  in  the  streets  and  high- 
ways, with  their  mouths  full  of  hay,  straw,  or 
even  the  most  filthy  things,  which  they  had  been 
attempting  to  eat.  In  many  houses  the  fattest 
person  was  killed,  in  order  to  serve  for  food  to  the 
rest.  Parents  were  said  to  have  eaten  their  chil- 
dren, and  children  their  parents,  or  to  have  sold 
them  to  buy  bread.  One  author,  Petrius,  says 
that  he  himself  saw  a  woman  bite  several  pieces 
out  of  a  child's  arm  as  she  was  carrying  it  along : 
and  Margaret  relates  tha£  four  women,  having 
ordered  a  peasant  to  come  to  one  of  their  houses, 
under  pretence  of  paying  him  for  some  wood, 
killed  and  ate  both  him  and  his  horse.  This 
dreadful  calamity  lasted  three  years,  notwith- 
standing all  the  means  which  Boris  could  use  to 
alleviate  it ;  and  in  this  time  upwards  of  500,000 
people  perished  in  the  city.  In  1604  a  young  man 
appeared,  who  pretended  to  be  Demetrius,  whom 
Boris  had  caused  to  be  murdered.  Being  sup- 
ported by  the  Poles,  he  proved  very  troublesome 
to  Boris  all  his  lifetime;  and  after  his  death  de- 
prived his  son  Theodore  II.,  the  new  czar,  of  the 
empire  ;  after  which  he  ascended  the  throne  him- 
self, and  married  a  Polish  princess.  However  he 
held  the  empire  but  a  short  time,  being  killed  in 
an  insurrection  of  his  subjects  ;  and  the  unhappy 
czarina  was  sent  prisoner  to  Jaroslaw.  After  the 
death  of  Demetrius,  Zuski,  who  had  conspired 
against  him,  was  chosen  czar ;  but  rebellions 


200 


RUSSIA. 


continually  taking  place,  and  the  empire  being 
perpetually  harassed  by  the  Poles  and  Swedes,  in 
1610  Zuski  was  deposed,  and  Uladislaus  son  of 
Sigismund  king  of  Poland  was  elected.  However, 
the  Poles  representing  to  Sigismund  that  it  would 
be  more  glorious  for  him  to  be  the  conqueror  of 
Russia  than  only  the  father  of  its  sovereign,  he 
carried  on  the  war  with  such  fury  that  the  Rus- 
sians in  despair  fell  upon  the  Poles,  who  resided 
in  great  numbers  at  Moscow.  The  Poles  being 
well  armed,  and  mostly  soldiers,  had  greatly  the 
advantage;  however,  they  were  on  the  point  of 
being  oppressed  by  numbers,  when  they  fell  upon 
the  most  cruel  method  of  insuring  their  success 
that  could  be  devised.  This  was  by  setting  fire  to 
the  city  in  several  places ;  and,  while  the  distressed 
Russians  ran  to  save  their  families,  the  Poles  fell 
upon  them  sword  in  hand.  In  this  confusion  up- 
wards of  100,000  people  perished  ;  but  the  event 
was  that  the  Poles  were  finally  driven  out,  and 
lost  all  footing  in  Russia.  The  expulsion  of  the 
Poles  was  succeeded  by  the  election  of  Theodore 
Romanov,  a  young  nobleman  of  seventeen  years 
of  age,  whose  posterity  still  continue  to  enjoy  the 
sovereignty.  He  died  in  1646,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Alexis. 

III.    RUSSIA  UNDER  THE  HOUSE  OF  ROMANOV. 

—The  reign  of  Alexis  was  almost  one  continued 
scene  of  tumult  and  confusion,  the  empire  being 
harassed  on  all  sides  by  external  enemies,  and 
perpetually  disturbed  by  internal  commotions. 
The  sources  of  these  commotions  arose  from  the 
multiplicity  and  inconsistency  of  the  laws,  and  the 
jarring  claims  of  the  border  nobles.  An  eman- 
noy  ukase,  or  personal  order  of  the  sovereign, 
signed  with  his  own  hand,  is  to  this  day  the  law 
of  Russia.  These  edicts  are  as  various  as  the 
opinions,  prejudices,  passions,  or  whims  of  men  ; 
and  in  the  days  of  Alexis  they  produced  endless 
contentions.  To  remedy  this  evil,  he  made  a  se- 
lection from  all  the  edicts  of  his  predecessors,  of 
such  as  had  been  familiarly  current  for  100 
years ;  presuming  that  those  either  were  founded 
in  natural  justice,  or  during  so  long  a  currency 
had  formed  the  minds  of  the  people  to  consider 
them  as  just.  This  digest,  which  he  declared  to 
be  the  common  law  of  Russia,  and  which  is 
prefaced  by  a  sori  of  institute,  is  the  standard 
law  book  at  this  day,  known  by  the  title  of  the 
Ulogenie  or  Selectior. ;  and  all  edicts  prior  to  it 
were  declared  to  be  obsolete.  He  soon  made  his 
Novellie,  however,  more  bulky  than  the  Ulo- 
genie ;  and  the  additions  by  his  successors  are 
beyond  enumeration.  This  was  undoubtedly  a 
great  and  useful  work ;  but  Alexis  performed 
another  still  greater.  Though  there  are  many 
courts  of  judicature,  in  this  widely  extended  em- 
pire, the  emperor  has  always  been  lord  para- 
mount, and  could  take  a  cause  from  any  court 
immediately  before  himself.  But  as  several  of  the 
old  nobles  had  the  remains  of  principalities  in 
their  families,  and  held  their  own  courts,  the  so- 
vereign or  his  ministers,  at  a  distance  up  the 
country,  frequently  found  it  difficult  to  bring  a 
culprit  out  of  one  of  these  hereditary  feudal  ju- 
risdictions, and  try  him  by  the  laws  of  the  em- 
pire. This  was  a  very  disagreeable  limitation  of 
imperial  power ;  and  the  more  so,  that  some 
families  claimed  even  a  right  to  repledge.  A 


lucky  opportunity  offered  of  settling  this  dispute; 
and  Alexis  embraced  it  with  great  ability.  Some 
families  on  the  old  frontiers  were  taxed  with  their 
defence,  for  which  they  were  obliged  to  keep 
regiments  on  foot;  and,  as  they  were  but  scantily 
indemnified  by  the  state,  it  sometimes  required 
the  exertion  of  authority  to  make  them  keep  up 
their  levies.  When  the  frontiers,  by  the  conquest 
of  Casan,  were  far  extended,  those  gentlemen 
found  the  regiments  no  longer  burdensome,  be- 
cause, by  the  help  of  false  musters,  the  former 
scanty  allowance  much  more  than  reimbursed 
them  for  the  expense  of  the  establishment.  The 
consequence  was  that  disputes  arose  among  them 
about  the  right  of  guarding  certain  districts,  and 
law-suits  were  necessary  to  settle  their  respective 
claims.  These  were  tedious  and  intricate.  One 
claimant  showed  the  order  of  the  court,  issued  a 
century  or  two  back  to  his  ancestor,  for  the 
marching  of  his  men,  as  a  proof  that  the  right  was 
then  in  his  family.  His  opponent  proved  that  his 
ancestors  had  been  the  real  lords  of  the  marches ; 
but  that,  on  account  of  their  negligence,  the  court 
had  issued  an  emannoy  ukase  to  the  other,  only  at 
that  particular  period.  The  emperor  ordered  all 
the  family  archives  to  be  brought  to  Moscow,  and 
all  documents  on  both  sides  to  be  collected.  A 
time  was  set  for  the  examination  ;  a  fine  wooden 
court-house  was  built ;  every  paper  was  lodged 
under  a  good  guard ;  the  day  was  appointed 
when  the  court  should  he  opened  and  the  claims 
heard ;  but  that  morning  the  house,  with  all  its 
contents,  was  in  two  hours  consumed  by  fire. 
The  emperor  then  said,  '  Gentlemen,  hence- 
forward your  ranks,  your  privileges,  and  your 
courts,  are  the  nation's,  and  the  nation  will  guard 
itself.  Your  archives  are  unfortunately  lost,  but 
those  of  the  nation  remain.  I  am  the  keeper,  and 
it  is  my  duty  to  administer  justice  for  all  and  to 
all.  Your  ranks  are  not  private,  but  national, 
attached  to  the  services  you  are  actually  perform- 
ing. Henceforward  colonel  Buturlin  (a  private 
gentleman)  ranks  before  captain  Viazemsky  (an 
old  prince).'  This  constitution,  which  established 
the  different  ranks  of  Russia,  as  they  remain  to 
this  day,  is  by  Voltaire  ascribed  to  Peter ;  but  it 
was  the  work  of  Alexis,  who,  when  the  situation 
of  himself  and  his  country  is  considered,  must  be 
allowed  to  have  been  a  great  and  a  good  man. 
He  died  in  1676. 

Alexis  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Theodore 
IV.,  who  after  an  excellent  reign,  during  the 
whole  of  which  he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost 
for  the  good  of  his  subjects,  died  in  1682,  having 
appointed  his  brother  Peter  I.,  commonly  called 
the  Great,  his  successor.  See  PETEII  I.  Theo- 
dore had  another  brother  named  John ;  but,  as 
he  was  subject  to  the  falling  sickness,  the  czar 
had  preferred  Peter,  though  very  young,  to  the 
succtssion.  But  through  the  intrigues  of  the 
princess  Sophia,  sister  to  Theodore,  a  strong 
ptity  was  formed  in  favor  of  John;  and  soon 
after  both  John  and  Peter  were  proclaimed  sove- 
reigns of  Russia  under  the  administration  or 
Sophia,  who  was  declared  regent.  But  the 
princess  regent  conspired  against  Peter,  and, 
being  discovered,  was  confined  for  life  in  aeon- 
vent.  From  this  time  also  John  continued  to  be 
only  a  nominal  sovereign  till  hi-*  dca'lt,  which 


RUSSIA. 


201 


happened  in  1696,  Peter  continuing  to  engross 
all  the  power.  To  this  emperor  Russia  has  long 
ascribed  the  whole  of  her  present  greatness.  The 
private  character  of  Peter,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  very  indifferent.  Though  he  had 
been  married  in  his  eighteenth  year  to  a  young 
and  beautiful  princess,  he  was  not  restrained  by 
the  vows  of  wedlock;  and  was  besides  so  much 
addicted  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  the  prevail- 
ing vice  of  his  country,  that  nobody  could  have 
imagined  him  capable  of  effecting  the  reforma- 
tion which  he  accomplished.  In  spite  of  all 
disadvantages,  however,  he  applied  himself  to 
«.he  military  art  and  to  civil  government.  He 
had  also  a  very  singular  dread  of  water,  which, 
had  it  not  been  conquered,  would  have  rendered 
him  for  ever  incapable  of  accomplishing  what  he 
afterwards  did.  Whfn  he  was  about  five  years 
of  age,  his  mother  went  with  him  in  a  coach  in 
the  spring  season  ;  and  passing  over  a  dam  where 
there  was  a  considerable  water-fall,  whilst  he  lay 
asleep  in  her  lap,  he  was  so  suddenly  awaked 
and  frightened  by  the  rushing  of  the  water,  that 
it  brought  a  fever  upon  him  ;  and  after  his  reco- 
very he  retained  such  a  dread  of  that  element 
that  he  could  not  bear  to  see  any  standing  water, 
much  less  to  hear  a  running  stream.  This  aver- 
sion, however,  he  conquered  by  jumping  into 
water ;  and  afterwards  became  fond  of  that  ele- 
ment. Being  ashamed  of  the  ignorance  in 
which  he  had  been  brought  up,  he  learned  al- 
most of  himself,  and  without  a  master,  enough  of 
tlie  High  and  Low  Dutch  languages  to  speak 
and  write  intelligibly  in  both.  He  looked  upon 
the  Germans  and  Dutch  as  the  most  civilised 
nations ;  because  the  former  had  already  erected 
some  of  those  arts  and  manufactures  in  Moscow 
which  he  was  desirous  of  spreading  throughout 
his  empire,  and  the  latter  excelled  in  navigation. 
During  the  administration  of  the  princess  Sophia, 
he  had  formed  a  design  of  establishing  a  mari- 
time power  in  Russia;  which  he  accomplished 
by  the  means  recorded  in  our  memoir  of  him. 
Ravine  reformed  his  army,  and  introduced  new 
discipline,  he  led  his  troops  against  the  Turks  ; 
from  whom,  in  1696,  he  took  the  fortress  of 
Azof;  and  had  the  satisfaction  to  see  his  fleet 
defeat  that  of  the  enemy.  On  his  return  to  Mos- 
cow were  struck  the  first  medals  which  had  ever 
appeared  in  Russia.  The  legend  was,  '  PETER 
I'HE  FIRST,  the  august  emperor  of  Russia.'  On 
the  reverse  was  AZOF,  with  these  words  '  Victori- 
ous byfre  and  water.'  Notwithstanding  this  suc- 
cess, however,  Peter  was  much  chagrined  at 
having  his  ships  all  built  by  foreigners  ;  having 
besides  as  great  an  inclination  to  have  a  harbour 
on  the  Baltic  as  on  the  Euxine.  These  consi- 
derations determined  him  to  send  some  of  the 
young  nobility  of  his  empire  into  foreign  countries, 
where  they  might  improve.  In  1697  he  sent 
sixty  young  Russians  into  Italy,  most  of  them 
to  Venice,  and  the  rest  to  Leghorn,  to  learn  the 
method  of  constructing  their  galleys.  Forty 
more  were  sent  to  Holland,  to  be  instructed  in 
building  and  working  large  ships;  others  to  Ger- 
many, to  serve  in  the  land  forces,  and  to  learn 
military  discipline.  At  last  he  resolved  to  travel 
through  different  countries  in  person,  that  he 
might  have  the  opportunity  of  profiting  by  hi? 


own  observation  and  experience.  Of  this  jour- 
ney we  have  given  a  short  account  in  our  me- 
moir of  him;  and  shall  only  add  that,  in  execut- 
ing his  great  design,  he  lived  and  worked  like  a 
common  carpenter.  He  labored  hard  at  the 
forges,  rope-yards,  and  mills  for  sawing  timber, 
manufacturing  of  paper,  wire-drawing,  &c.  In 
acquiring  the  art  of  a  carpenter  he  began  with 
purchasing  a  boat,  to  which  he  made  a  mast 
himself,  and  by  degrees  executed  every  part  of 
the  construction  of  a  ship.  Peter  went  also  from 
Sweden  to  Amsterdam,  to  attend  the  lectures  of 
the  celebrated  Ruysch  on  anatomy.  He  likewise 
attended  the  lectures  of  burgo-master  Witsen  on 
natural  philosophy.  From  this  place  he  went  to 
Utrecht,  to  visit  king  William  III.  of  England  ; 
and  on  his  return  sent  to  Archangel  a  sixty  gun 
ship,  in  the  building  of  which  he  had  assisted 
with  his  own  hands.  In  1698  he  went  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  employed  himself  as  he  had  done 
in  Holland,  and  perfected  himself  in  the  art  of 
ship-building;  and,  having  engaged  a  great 
number  of  artificers,  returned  with  them  to  Hol- 
land :  whence  he  set  out  for  Vienna,  where  he 
visited  the  emperor ;  and  was  on  the  point  of 
setting  out  for  Venice,  to  finish  his  improvements, 
when  he  was  informed  of  a  rebellion  having 
broken  out  in  his  dominions.  This  was  occasion- 
ed by  the  superstition  and  obstinacy  of  the  Rus- 
sians, who,  having  an  almost  invincible  attach- 
ment to  their  old  ignorance  and  barbarism,  had 
resolved  to  dethrone  the  czar  on  account  of  his 
innovations.  But  Peter,  arriving  unexpectedly 
at  Moscow,  quickly  put  an  end  to  their  machina- 
tions, and  took  a  most  severe  revenge  on  those 
who  had  been  guilty.  Having  then  made  great 
reformations  in  every  part  of  the  empire,  in 
1700  he  entered  into  a  league  with  the  kings  of 
Denmark  and  Poland  against  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden.  The  particulars  of  this  famous  war  are 
related  under  SWEDEN.  Here  we  shall  only  ob- 
serve that,  from  the  conclusion  of  this  war, 
Sweden  ceased  not  only  to  be  a  formidable 
enemy  to  Russia,  but  even  lost  its  political  con- 
sequence in  a  great  measure  altogether.  Peter 
applied  himself  to  the  cultivation  of  commerce, 
arts,  and  sciences,  with  equal  assiduity  as  to  war; 
and  he  made  such  acquisition  of  dominion,  even 
in  Europe  itself,  that  he  may  be  said,  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  to  have  been  the  most  powerful 
prince  of  his  age.  He  was  unfortunate  in  the 
Czarovitz  his  eldest  son,  whom  he  contrived  to 
get  rid  of  by  the  forms  of  justice,  and  then  or- 
dered his  wife  Catharine  to  be  crowned  with 
the  same  magnificent  ceremonies  as  if  she  had 
been  a  Greek  empress,  and  to  be  recognised  as 
his  successor  ;  which  she  accordingly  was,  and 
mounted  the  Russian  throne  upon  the  decease  of 
her  husband. 

Catharine  I.  succeeded  her  husband  in  1725, 
and  carried  into  execution  many  of  the  great  de- 
signs which  he  had  left  unfinished.  See  CATHA- 
RINE. She  died  after  a  short  but  glorious  reign, 
in  1727,  and  was  succeeded  by  Peter  II.  a  mi- 
nor, son  to  the  Czarovitz  Alexis.  Many  domes- 
tic revolutions  happened  in  Russia  during  the 
short  reign  of  this  prince ;  but  none  was  more 
remarkable  than  the  disgrace  and  exile  of  prince 
Menzikoff,  the  favorite  general  in  the  two  late 


204 


RUSSIA. 


New  Code  of  Laws,  &c.,  and  is  a  very  respecta- 
ble work,  which  does  honor  to  the  empress,  by 
whom  it  was  undoubtedly  composed,  if  she  had 
seriously  intended  to  put  it  in  execution.  But 
the  most  consequential  of  the  deputies  were 
privately  instructed  to  be  very  cautious,  and  in- 
formed that  carriages  and  guards  were  ready  for 
Siberia.  There  was  a  grand  procession  at  their 
presentation.  Each  had  the  honor  of  kissing 
her  majesty's  hand  and  receiving  a  gold  medal. 
They  met  in  form  to  recognise  one  another,  then 
parted,  and  have  never  met  since.  The  New 
Code  melted  away  without  notice;  and  the 
princess  Dashkoff  was  handsomely  given  to  un- 
derstand that  her  counsels  were  no  longer  ne- 
cessary, and  that  she  could  not  do  better  than 
take  the  amusement  of  the  tour  of  Europe.  She 
was  liberally  supplied,  visited  London,  Edin- 
burgh, and  most  other  capitals  in  Europe ;  ac- 
companied by  one  of  the  young  princes,  said  to 
have  been  Paul,  afterwards  emperor;  and  was 
treated  with  great  kindness,  but  kept  amused  with 
something  very  different  from  legislation.  Jn 
the  mean  time,  many  patriotic  things  were  really 
done.  Taxes  were  frequently  remitted  where 
they  were  burdensome.  Every  person  was  de- 
clared free  who  had  served  government  without 
pay  for  two  years.  No  man  was  allowed  to  send 
boors  from  his  cultivated  estates  to  his  mines  in 
Siberia,  nor  to  any  distant  estates,  but  for  the 
purposes  of  agriculture.  Many  colonies  of 
German  peasants  were  in  various  places  settled 
on  the  crown-lands,  to  teach  the  natives  the 
management  of  the  dairy :  a  branch  of  rural 
economy  of*which  the  Russians  were  till  that 
period  so  completely  ignorant  that  there  is  not 
in  their  language  an  appropriated  word  for  butter, 
or  cheese,  or  even  for  cream.  The  Russians  hoped 
to  be  likewise  instructed  in  agriculture ;  but  the 
colonists  were  poor  and  ignorant ;  and  this  part 
of  the  project  came  to  nothing,  like  the  great 
national  schools.  Other  improvements,  however, 
took  place  in  favor  of  commerce ;  for  all  bar- 
riers were  removed,  and  goods  suffered  to  pass 
through  the  empire  duty-free.  The  empress 
with  great  liberality  encouraged  the  introduction 
of  arts  and  manufactures.  An  academy  was  in- 
stituted of  sculpture,  painting,  architecture,  &c., 
a  magnificent  and  elegant  building  was  erected 
for  it,  and  many  ele"ves  supported  in  it  at  the 
expense  of  the  crown.  Several  very  promising 
youths  have  been  educated  in  that  academy ; 
but  as  the  Russians  are  childishly  fond  of  finery, 
and  cannot  be  persuaded  that  any  thing  fine  was 
ever  done  by  their  own  countrymen,  the  students 
are  all,  on  leaving  the  academy,  suffered  to  starve. 
The  empress,  who  had  a  very  just  taste  in  architec- 
ture, designed  several  buildings  equally  useful  and 
ornamental  to  her  capital  (see  NEVA  and  PE- 
TERSBURG): and,  while  she  thus  diligently  cul- 
tivated the  arts  of  peace,  she  did  not  neglect 
those  of  war.  She  put  her  fleets  on  the  most 
respectable  footing,  and  procured  a  number  of 
British  officers  to  instruct  her  seamen  in  the 
science  of  naval  tactics.  By  land,  her  suc- 
cesses against  the  Turks,  the  Swedes,  and  the 
Poles  (see  POLAND,  SWEDEN,  and  TURKEY), 
compel  us  to  believe  that  her  troops  were  better 
disciplined,  and  her  generals  more  skilful,  than 


any  whom  the  greatest  of  her  predecessors  could 
bring  into  the  field;  and  the  empire  of  Russia, 
though  the  people  are  but  just  emerging  from  a 
state  of  barbarism,  is  at  this  day  one  of  the  most 
powerful  in  Europe.  But  the  glory  of  Catha- 
rine's reign  is  stained  by  injustice  and  cruelty. 
More  horrible  massacres  than  those  of  Ismail 
and  Prague,  by  her  general  Suwarrow,  were  not 
committed  by  the  most  savage  troops  in  the  most 
barbarous  ages.  Of  her  character,  both  public  and 
private,  we  have  given  a  general  sketch  under  the 
article  CATHARINE  II.  About  fifteen  different 
princes  and  courtiers  successively  gratified  her 
desires.  Among  these  were  Alexis  and  Gregory 
Orloffs,  brothers ;  prince  Potemkin ;  prince  Laus- 
koi ;  the  two  Zubows,  brothers ;  Vassiltchikoff,  a 
lieutenant  of  the  guards;  count  Panin;  and  seve- 
ral others.  The  first  of  her  lovers  was  Stanislaus 
Augustus,  count  Poniatowski,  with  whom  she  had 
formed  a  connexion  even  in  her  husband's  life 
time ;  and  whom  she  afterwards  rewarded  with 
the  kingdom  of  Poland,  for  it  was  by  her  in- 
fluence, and  the  presence  of  her  troops,  that  the 
election  was  over-awed  in  his  favor,  on  the  7th 
of  September  1764 ;  though  she  afterwards  de- 
prived him  of  his  crown  and  dominions,  when 
she  found  him  no  longer  pliable,  but  willing  to 
give  the  Poles  a  free  constitutution.  While  she 
was  thus  disposing  of  foreign  kingdoms,  she  was 
under  continual  dread  of  beinsf  thrown, by  some 
sudden  plot  or  revolution,  from  the  throne  she 
had  usurped.  To  prevent  this,  she  hesitated  at  no 
new  crimes.  She  procured  the  private  assassi- 
nation of  prince  John,  whom  her  husband 
Peter  HI.  had  generously  liberated  from  prison. 
She  also,  by  the  most  treacherous  means,  wherein 
prince  Alexis  Orloff  was  her  villanous  agent, 
shut  up  the  princess  Tarrakanoff,  a  daughter  of 
the  empress  Elizabeth,  by  Alexis  Razumoffsky 
(who  had  been  privately  married  to  her),  in  a 
fortress,  where  she  was  never  more  heard  of. 
Such  were  the  means  she  used  to  get  rid  of  all 
who  had  any  claim  to  the  throne.  Yet,  with 
all  her  crimes  and  vices,  it  must  be  allowed  that 
she  did  more  to  civilize  her  barbarous  subjects 
than  even  Peter  the  Great.  In  Petersburg 
alone  she  founded  thirty-one  seminaries,  where- 
in 6800  children  of  both  sexes  were  educated 
at  the  annual  expense  of  754,335  rubles.  She 
superintended  the  education  of  her  own  grand- 
children, and  even  wrote  books  for  their  instruc- 
tion ;  while  jealousy  led  her  to  keep  their  father, 
her  own  son  Paul,  at  a  distance  from  court  and 
from  all  opportunity  of  improvement.  But  her 
greatest  effort  for  the  improvement  of  science 
was  in  1767,  when  she  employed  the  celebrated 
Drs.  Pallas,  Gmelin,  Euler,  and  several  other 
men  very  eminent  in  the  republic  of  letters,  to 
travel  through  her  vast  dominions,  to  determine 
the  geography  of  her  extensive  territories,  the 
position  of  the  chief  towns,  their  temperature, 
soil,  and  productions ;  and  the  manners  of  the 
inhabitants,  &c.  This  survey  of  her  empire  must 
immortalise  her  name  in  science,  when  her 
crimes  are  forgotten.  In  the  coalition  against  the 
French  republic  Catharine  promised  much,  hut 
did  nothing,  except  granting  refuge  to  French 
emigrants,  and  sending  a  squadron  of  crazy  ship* 
to  co-operate  with  the  British  navy,  which  were 


RUS 

obliged  to  be  repaired  at  the  expense  of  the 
British  government.  This  extraordinary  woman 
was  meditating  a  new  war  with  the  Turks,  when 
she  was  suddenly  seized  on  the  morning  of  No- 
vember 9th,  1796,  with  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  which 
put  an  end  to  her  life  at  10  o'clock  in  the  evening 
of  the  10th,  in  the  sixty- eighth  year  of  her  age. 
And  she  certainly  died  with  the  character  of  one 
of  the  greatest  sovereigns  that  ever  swayed  the 
sceptre  in  Russia. 

Catharine  II.  was  succeeded  in  the  empire  of 
all  the  Russias  by  her  son  Paul,  whose  reign 
was  short,  and  his  end,  like  that  of  his  father, 
unfortunate.  Paul,  though  his  education,  from 
his  mother's  jealousy,  had  been  very  much  neg- 
lected, seemed  not  to  want  spirit  for  great  exer- 
tions. He  took  an  active  and  zealous  part  with 
the  combined  powers  in  the  operations  against 
the  French  republicans ;  and,  by  the  exertions 
of  his  troops  under  Suwarrow,  the  French 
power  in  Italy  was  for  some  time  totally  over- 
thrown. They  also  made  some  exertions  in  Hol- 
land to  assist  the  British  troops,  but  with  less 
success.  But  all  Suwarrow 's  exertions  were  un- 
rewarded by  Paul ;  who,  adopting  a  new  system 
of  politics,  and  showing  an  evident  inclination 
to  favor  the  French  republicans,  disgraced  instead 
of  recompensing  the  old  general.  But,  while 
Paul  was  meditating  farther  exertions  in  favor  of 
his  new  allies,  the  French  republicans,  he  was 
murdered  on  the  23d  March,  1801.  The  parti- 
culars of  this  transaction  have  been  so  variously 
related  that  we  forbear  to  state  any  of  them.  The 
causes  of  the  murder  have  been  also  so  variously 
assigned  that  we  shall  likewise  leave  the  investi- 
gation of  them  to  future  historians.  But  it  is  per- 


RCJS 


haps  an  instructive  exhibition  of  the  nature  o\ 
all  arbitrary  governments  that,  where  the  lives  ol 
the  subjects  are  all  at  the  mercy  of  the  sovereign, 
the  life  of  the  sovereign  should  be  at  all  times 
at  the  mercy  of  assassins.  Of  the  character  of 
Paul  we  shall  only  say  that  he  appears  to  have 
been  a  well  meaning  man,  but  too  fond  of  that 
arbitrary  power  to  which  he  thought  himself  en- 
titled by  his  birth,  and  of  consequence  rash  and 
precipitate  in  his  measures.  See  PAUL. 

Paul  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Alex- 
ander ;  who,  whether  he  was  previously  acquaint- 
ed with  the  plot  or  not,  appears  to  have  made 
little  enquiry  after  his  father's  murderers.  For 
some  time  after  his  accession  to  the  throne  he 
appears  to  have  profited  considerably  by  his 
grandmother's  instructions,  and  those  of  the  pre- 
ceptors she  placed  over  him.  lie  encouraaed 
learning,  the  sciences,  commerce,  and  manufac- 
tures, for  the  benefit  of  his  subjects  and  empire. 
After  several  energetic  but  unsuccessful  struggles 
against  France,  he  became  the  humble  friend  of 
Buonaparte.  See  his  life  in  detail  in  our  article 
ALEXANDER  OF  RUSSIA.  At  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander, through  the  intrigues  of  the  empress  mo- 
ther, Constantine  the  elder  brother  was  set  aside, 
or  compelled  to  abdicate  the  throne  in  favor  of  the 
reigning  emperor  Nicholas  :  he  has  already  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  a  successful  war  against 
Turkey,  in  which  he  at  last  compelled  the  Porte 
to  sue  for  peace  upon  humiliating  conditions.  In 
1831  he  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  the  Poles,  in 
which  he  lost  many  thousand  men,  besides  his 
general  field-marshal  Count  Diebitsch  Sabalkan- 
ski,  but  succeeded  in  crushing  their  liberties  and 
reducing  Poland  to  the  form  of  a  province. 


RUST,  n.  s  ,v.n.,  &  v.  a,  )      Sax.  riuj-t;  Dan. 

RUSTY,  adj.  J  rust ;    Sard.    rost. 

Is  the  oxide  of  a  metal,  and  is  composed  of 
oxygen  combined  with  a  metal  :  to  gather 
rust  or  make  rusty ;  the  adjective  correspond- 
ing. 

H,er  fallow  leas, 

The  darnel,  hemlock,  and  rank  fumitory 
Doth  root  upon,  while  that  the  culler  rusts, 
That  should  deracinate  such  savagery.     Shakspeare. 

Keep  up  your  bright  swords,  for  the  dew  will  rust 
them.  Id.  Othello. 

Hector,  in  his  dull  and  long  continued  truce, 
Is  rutty  grown.  Id.    Troilus  and  Cressida. 

Let  her  see  thy  sacred  truths  cleared  from  all  rust 
and  dross  of  human  mixtures.  King  Charles. 

Rust  eaten  pikes  and  swords  in  time  to  come, 
When  crooked  ploughs  dig  up  earth's  fertile  womb, 
The  husbandman  shall  oft  discover.      May's  Virgil. 

Gold  is  the  best  metal ;  and,  for  purity,  not  sub- 
ject to  rust  as  all  others  :  and  yet  the  best  gojd  has 
some  dross.  Bp.  Hall. 

After  a  long  calm  of  peace,  he  was  left  engaged 
in  a  war  with  a  rusty  sword  and  empty  purse. 

Hovel. 

But  Pallas  came  in  shape  of  rusf, 
And  'twixt  the  spring  and  hammer  thrust 
Her  Gorgon  shield,  which  made  the  cock 
Stand  stiff,  as  'twere  transformed  to  stock. 

Hudibras. 

By  dint  of  sword  his  crown  he  shall  increase, 
And  scour  his  armour  from  the  rust  of  peace. 

J)ryden . 


Must  I  rust  in  Egypt  never  more 
Appear  in  arms,  and  be  the  chief  of  Greece  ?     Id. 

Part  scour  the  rusty  shields  with  seam,  and  part 
New  grind  the  blunted  axe.  Id.  j£neis. 

My  scymitar  got  some  rust  by  the  sea  water. 

Gulliver. 

RUST  is  the  oxide  of  any  metal,  procured  by 
corroding  and  dissolving  its  superficial  parts  by 
some  menstruum.  Water  is  the  great  agent  in 
producing  rust ;  and  hence  oils  and  other  fatty 
bodies  secure  metals  from  rust,;  water  being  no 
menstruum  for  oil,  and  therefore  not  able  to 
make  its  way  through  it.  All  metals  except 
gold  are  liable  to  rust ;  and  even  this  also  if  ex- 
posed to  the  fumes  of  sea-salt.  Iron,  for  instance, 
when  exposed  to  the  air,  soon  becomes  tarnished, 
and  gradually  changed  into  a  brownish-red  or 
yellow  powder,  well  known  by  the  name  of  rust. 
This  change  is  occasioned  by  the  gradual  combi- 
nation of  the  iron  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmos- 
phere, and  is  therefore  an  oxide  of  iron.  The 
cutlers  in  Sheffield,  when  they  have  given  knife 
or  razor  blades  the  requisite  degree  of  polish, 
rub  them  with  powdered  quicklime,  in  order 
to  prevent  them  from  tarnishing  ;  and  we  have 
been  informed  that  articles  made  of  polished 
steel  are  dipped  in  lime-water  by  the  manu- 
facturer, before  they  are  sent  into  the  retail 
market.  Another  method  is  that  of  varnish- 
ing over  the  metal  with  a  composition  of  two 
parts  oil  varnish,  mixed  with  one  part  rectified 


RUS 


206 


RUT 


sjiiiits  of  turpentine.  This  varnish  must  be 
lightly  and  evenly  applied  with  a  sponge;  after 
uhich  the  article  is  to  be  left  to  dry  in  some 
situation  not  exposed  to  dust.  Articles  thus 
varnished  retain  their  metallic  lustre,  and  do  not 
contract  any  spots  of  rust.  This  varnish  may 
be  employed  with  particular  advantage  to  pre- 
serve philosophical  instruments  from  any  change, 
in  experiments  where,  by  being  placed  in  con- 
tact with  water,  they  are  liable  to  lose  that 
polish  and  precision  of  form,  which  consti- 
tute part  of  their  value.  Plumbago,  or  black 
lead,  also  protects  iron  from  rust  for  a  time,  and 
is  on  that  account  used  on  the  fronts  of  grates, 
&c. 

RUSTIC,  adj.  &  n.  s.     ~)         Lat.       rusticus. 

RUST'JCAL,  |  Rural ;      country ; 

RUST'ICALLY,  I  rude ;       untaught ; 

RUST'ICALNESS,  [plain:  a  rustic  is  a 

RUST'ICATE,  v.  n.  &  v.  a.  \  clown,  a   country- 

RCSTIC'ITY.  J  man :    the    adverb 

and  noun-substantive  corresponding :  to  rusticate 

is  to  reside  in  or  banish  into  the  country. 

By  Lelius  willing  missing  was  the  odds  of  the  Ibe- 
rian side,  and  continued  so  in  the  next  by  the  ex- 
cellent running  of  a  knight,  though  fostered  by  the 
muses,  as  many  times  the  very  rustick  people  left 
both  their  delights  and  profits  to  hearken  to  his  songs. 

Sidney. 

There  presented  himself  a  tall,  clownish,  young 
man,  who,  falling  before  the  queen  of  the  fairies,  de- 
sired that  he  might  have  the  achievement  of  any 
adventure,  which,  during  the  feast,  might  happen  ; 
that  being  granted,  he  rested  him  on  the  floor,  unfit 
for  a  better  place  by  his  rusticity.  Spenser. 

My  brother  Jaques  he  keeps  at  school, 
And  report  speaks  goldenly  of  his  profit ; 
For  my  part  he  keeps  me  rustically  at  home. 

Shakspeare. 

An  altar  stood,  rustick,  of  grassy  ford.      Milton. 
This  is  by  a  rustical  severity  to  banish  all  urbanity, 
whose  harmless  and  confined  condition  is  consistent 
with  religion.  Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

He  confounds  the  singing  and  dancing  of  the  sa- 
tyrs with  the  rustical  entertainment  of  the  first  Ro- 
mans. Dryden. 

Quintius  here  was  born, 

Whose  shining  ploughshare  was  in  furrows  worn, 
Met  by  his  trembling  wife,  returning  home, 
And  rustically  joyed,  as  chief  of  Rome.  Id. 

I  was  deeply  in  love  with  a  milliner,  upon  winch 
I  was  sent  away,  or,  in  the  university  phrase,  rusti- 
cated for  ever.  Spectator. 

The  sweetness  and  rusticity  of  a  pastoral  cannot 
be  so  well  exprest  in  any  other  tongue  as  in  the 
Greek,  when  rightly  mixed  with  the  Dorick  dialect. 

Addison. 

As  nothing  is  so  rude  and  insolent  as  a  wealthy 
rustick,  all  this  his  kindness  is  overlooked,  and  his 
person  most  unworthily  railed  at.  South. 

This  so  general  expense  of  their  time  would  cur- 
tail the  ordinary  means  of  knowledge,  as  'twould 
shorten  the  opportunities  of  vice  ;  and  so  accord- 
ingly an  universal  rustirity  presently  took  place,  and 
stopped  not  till  it  had  over-run  the  whole  stock  of 
mankind.  Woodward's  Natural  History. 

With  unguent  smooth  the  polished  marble  shone, 
Where  ancient  Neleus  sat,  a  rustick  throne.    Pope. 

My  lady  Scudamore,  from  having  rusticated  in  your 

company  too  long,  pretends  to  open  her  eyes  for  the 

sake  of  seeing  the  sun,  and  to  sleep  because  it  is 

night.  Id. 

An  ignorant  clown  cannot  learn  fine  language  or 


a  courtly  behaviour,  when  his  rustick  airs  have  grown 
up  with  him  till  the  age  of  forty.       W alts' &  Logick. 

RUSTIC  GODS,  dii  rustici,  in  antiquity,  the 
gods  of  the  country,  or  those  who  presided  over 
agiculture,  &c.  Varro  invokes  the  twelve  di. 
consentes,  as  the  principal  among  the  rustic 
gods,  viz.  Jupiter,  Tellus,  the  Sun,  Moon, 
Ceres,  Bacchus,  Rubigus,  Flora,  Minerva,  Ve- 
nus, Lympha,  and  Fortune.  Besides  these  twelve 
arch-rustic  gods,  there  were  a  number  of  lesser 
ones ;  as  Pales,  Vertumnus,  Tutelina,  Fulgor, 
Sterculius,  Mellona,  Jugatinus,  Collinus,  Val- 
lonia,  Terminus,  Sylvanus,  and  Priapus.  Stru- 
vius  adds  the  Satyrs,  Fauns,  Sileni,  Nymphs, 
and  even  Trytons ;  and  gives  the  empire  over 
all  the  rustic  gods  to  Pan. 

RUSTIC  WORK,  is  where  the  stones  in  the  face, 
&c.,  of  a  building,  instead'  of  being  smooth,  are 
hatched,  or  picked  with  the  point  of  a  hammer. 
RUSTICUS  (L.  Junius  Arulenius),  a  learned 
Roman,  the  preceptor  and  friend  of  Pliny  the 
younger.  His  abilities  are  celebrated  by  Pliny 
and  Tacitus.  He  was  put  to  death  by  Domitian. 
— Sueton. 

RUS'TLE,  v.  n.    Sax.  pnij-tlan.     To   make 
a  low  continued  small  noise  or  rattle. 
He  is  coming  ;  I  hear  the  straw  rustle. 

Shakspeare. 
This  life 

Is  nobler  than  attending  for  a  check ; 
Richer  than  doing  nothing  for  a  bauble  ; 
Prouder  than  rustling  in  unpaid-for  silk.  Id. 

Thick  swarmed,  both  on  the  ground,  and  in  the 

air 
Brushed  with  the  hiss  of  rustling  wings.        Hilton. 

As  when  we  see  the  winged  winds  engage, 
Rustling  from  every  quarter  of  the  sky, 
North,  East,  and  West,  in  airy  swiftness  vy. 

Granville. 

All  begin  the  attack  ; 
Fans  clap,  silks  rustle,  and  tough  whalebones  crack. 

Pope. 

Not  less  their  number  than  the  milk-white  swans 
That  o'er  the  winding  of  Cyaster's  springs, 
Stretch  their  long  necks,  and  clap   their   ri.itling 
wings.  Id. 

RUSTSCHUK,  or  RUSCEK,"  a  large  town  01 
European  Turkey,  in  Bulgaria,  situated  at  the 
influx  of  the  Cara  Lorn  into  the  Danube,  which 
is  here  nearly  two  miles  wide.  It  has  a  strong 
'castle  and  several  mosques  and  public  baths ;  is 
the  see  of  a  Greek  archbishop,  and  contains  con- 
siderable manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  linen, 
woollen,  and  tobacco.  Giorgley  and  this  town 
are  the  two  great  entrepots  for  the  commercial  in- 
tercourse by  the  Danube  between  the  Euxine 
and  the  interior.  It  was  taken  by  the  Russians 
in  1810,  and  the  following  year  a  Turkish  army 
was  totally  defeated  near  this  by  the  Russians, 
with  the  loss  of  all  its  artillery  and  baggage. 
About  five  miles  from  Rustschuk  are  to  be  seen 
the  ruins  of  the  old  town  of  Tschernow  or  Cser- 
navoda.  Population  24,000.  Forty  miles  east 
of  Nicopoli,  and  fifty-five  west  of  Semendria. 

RUT,  n.  s.     Fr.  rut.      Copulation    of  deer  : 

also,  from  the  Fr.  route,  the  track  of  a  cart-wheel. 

That  is  an  advertisement  to  one  Diana,  to  take 

heed  of  the  allurement  of  coant  Rousillon,  a  foolish 

idle  boy;  but  for  all  that  very  mttish. 

Shakspeare.  All's  Well  that  Ends  Well.. 


RUT 


207 


RUT 


The  time  of  going  to  rut  of  deer  is  in  September  ; 
for  that  they  need  the  whole  summers  feed  to  make 
them  tit  for  generation ;  and,  if  ram  come  about  the 
middle  of  September,  they  go  to  rut  somewhat  the 
sooner.  Bacon. 

From  hills  raine  waters  headlong  fall, 
That  always  eat  huge  ruts,  which,  met  in  one  bed 

fill  a  vail 
With   such  a  confluence  of  streames,  that  on  the 

mountaine  grounds 
Farre  off,  in  frighted  shepherds  eares  the  bustling 

noise  rebounds.  Chapman. 

The  ground  hereof  was  the  observation  of  this  part 
in  deer  after  immoderate  venery,  and  about  the  end 
of  their  rut.  Browne. 

RUTA,  in  botany,  rue ;  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of  plants  ;  na- 
tural order  twenty-sixth,  multisiliquae :  CAL. 
quinquepartite  ;  petals  concave;  receptacle 
surrounded  wi^h  ten  melliferous  pores  :  CAPS. 
lobed :  SEEDS  numerous.  There  are  several 
species,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  are 
these  : — 

1.  R.  baga,  or  Swedish  turnip.  See  RURAL 
ECONOMY.  Besides  being  later  in  shooting  than 
the  common  turnip,  this  plant  loses  not  its  nutri- 
tive qualities  after  beinsj  shot,  but  retains  all  its 
juices  and  solidity.  This  root  has  been  supposed 
a  mere  variety  of  the  yellow  turnip,  but  it  is 
found  to  differ  very  materially.  The  stem  has 
something  of  the  appearance  of  the  rape,  or  cab- 
bage kind ;  and  that  part  of  the  root  which  is  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground  is  covered  by  a  thick, 
green  skin,  which  in  some  is  smooth,  but  in 
others  quite  rough,  and  the  internal  fleshy  part 
is  of  a  dense  firm  consistence,  having  a  yellowish 
tinge,  nearly  similar  to  that  of  the  horn  carrot. 
The  great  inducements  for  the  farmer  to  enter 
freely  into  the  culture  of  this  root  are,  according 
to  Mr.  Young,  1.  If  he  has  the  right  sort  of  seed, 
the  root  yellow  in  flesh,  and  rough  in  coat,  it 
lasts  through  all  frosts,  and  may  be  depended  on 
for  sheep  quite  through  the  month  of  April, 
though  drawn  two  months  before,  and  spread 
on  a  grass  field.  2.  It  is  an  excellent  and  nou- 
rishing food  for  sheep,  and  also  for  any  sort  of 
cattle.  3.  It  is  equal  to  potatoes  in  keeping 
stock  swine  :  a  point  of  very  great  consequence. 
4.  It  is,  next  to  carrots,  the  very  best  food  that 
can  be  given  to  horses.  5.  It  is  sown  at  a  season 
which  leaves  ample  time,  in  case  of  a  failure,  to 
put  in  common  turnips,  or  cabbages.  Another 
extraordinary  quality  of  the  ruta  baga  is  that  it 
seems  impossible  to  make  it  rot :  though  bit,  or 
trod  upon  by  cattle  or  horses,  it  never  rots ;  but 
whatever  part  of  the  root  is  left,  nay,  if  scooped 
out  to  the  shell,  it  remains  perfectly  fresh,  and 
in  spring  puts  out  a  new  stem.  Both  roots  and 
leaves  are  excellent  for  culinary  purposes. 

2.  R.  hortensis,  or  common  broad-leaved  gar- 
den rue,  has  been  long  cultivated  for  medicinal 
use.  It  rises  with  a  shrubby  stalk  to  the  height 
of  five  or  six  feet,  sending  out  branches  on  every 
side,  garnished  with  leaves,  whose  small  lobes 
are  wedge-shaped,  of  a  gray  color,  and  have  a 
strong  odor.  The  flowers  are  produced  at  the 
end  of  the  branches  in  bunches  almost  in  the 
form  of  umbels :  they  are  composed  of  four 
yellow  concave  petals,  which  are  cut  on  their 
edges,  and  eight  yellow  stamina  which  are  longer 


than  the  petals,  terminated  by  roundish  summits. 
The  germen  becomes  a  roundish  capsule,  with 
four  lobes,  full  of  holes  containing  rough  black 
seeds.  Rue  has  a  strong  unpleasant  smell,  and 
a  bitterish  penetrating  taste  :  the  leaves,  when 
full  of  vigor,  are  extremely  acrid,  insomuch  as 
to  inflame  and  blister  the  skin,  if  much  handled. 
With  regard  to  their  medicinal  virtues,  they  are 
powerfully  stimulating,  attenuating,  and  deter- 
gent. Boerhaave  entertained  a  very  high  opinion 
of  the  virtues  of  this  plant,  particularly  of  the 
essential  oil,  and  the  distilled  water  cohobated 
or  redistilled  several  times  from  fresh  parcels  of 
the  herb 

RUTCHESTER,  an  ancient  town  of  Northum- 
berland, noith-west  of  Chollerton,  called  Vindo- 
bala  by  the  Romans.  The  wall  of  Severus 
runs  on  the  middle  of  the  east  rampart,  and  that 
of  Adrian  passes  about  a  chain  to  the  south  of 
it.  Its  fort  was  formerly  considerable,  and  its 
ruins  are  still  remarkable. 

RUTH,  n.  s.          ~\       From   rue.      Mercy ; 

RUTH'FUL,  adj.        (.pity;  tenderness  :  thede- 

RUTH'FULLY,  adv.  i  rivatives  all  correspond- 

RUTH'LESS,  adj.      J  ing.     Out  of  use. 

His  archers  circle  me ;  my  reins  they  wound, 
And  ruthless  shed  my  gall  upon  the  ground. 

Sandys. 

The  Britons,  by  Maximilian  laid  way 
With  wretched  miseries  and  woful  ruth, 
Were  to  those  Pagans  made  an  open  prey.  Spenser. 

Help  me,  ye  baneful  birds,  whose  shrieking  sound 
Is  sign  of  dreary  death,  my  deadly  cries 
Most  ruthfully  to  tune.  Id.  Pastoral*. 

The  flower  of  horse  and  foot,  lost  by  the  valour  of 
the  enemy,  ruthfully  perished.  Knolles. 

What  is  Edward  but  a  ruthless  sea  ? 
What  Clarence  but  a  quicksand  of  deceit? 

Shakspeare. 

All  ruth,  compassion,  mercy  be  forgot.    Fairfax. 

By  this  Minerva's  friend  bereft 
Oileades  of  that  rich  bowl,  and  left  his  lips,  nose, 

eyes 
Ruthfully  smeared.  Chapman's  Iliad. 

O  wretch  of  guests,  said  he,  thy  tale  hath  stirred 
My  mind  to  much  ruth.  Chapman. 

The  inhabitants  seldom  take  a  ruthful  and  reaving 
experience  of  those  harms,  which  infectious  dis- 
eases carry  with  them.  Careut. 

The  better  part  with  Mary  and  with  Ruth 
Chosen  thou  hast ;  and  they  that  overween, 
And  at  thy  growing  virtues  fret  their  spleen, 
No  anger  find  in  thee,  but  pity  and  ruth.       Milton. 

Their  age  the  hostile  powers  restrain, 
All  but  the  ruthlea  monarch  of  the  mam.  Pope. 

RUTH,  a  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, being  a  kind  of  appendix  to  the  book  of 
Judges,  and  an  introduction  to  Samuel ;  and 
having  its  title  from  the  person  whose  history  is 
herein  principally  related.  In  this  history  are 
observable  the  ancient  rights  of  kindred  and  re- 
demption, and  the  manner  of  buying  the  inheri- 
tance of  the  deceased.  The  authenticity  of  this 
book  was  never  disputed  ;  but  the  learned  are 
not  agreed  about  the  epocha  of  the  history  it  re- 
lates. Watkins  places  it  about  A.  A.  C.  1254. 

RUTHERFORD  (John),  M.  D.,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  medical  school  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  was  born  in  1695,  and  received 
the  rudiments  of  his  education  at  the  parish 
school  of  Selkirk.  After  his  father's  death  he 


RUS 


206 


RUT 


v.mits  of  turpentine.  This  varnish  must  be 
lightly  and  evenly  applied  with  a  sponge;  after 
\vhich  the  article  is  to  be  left  to  dry  in  some 
situation  not  exposed  to  dust.  Articles  thus 
varnished  retain  their  metallic  lustre,  and  do  not 
contract  any  spots  of  rust.  This  varnish  may 
be  employed  with  particular  advantage  to  pre- 
serve philosophical  instruments  from  any  change, 
in  experiments  where,  by  being  placed  iu  con- 
tact with  water,  they  are  liable  to  lose  that 
polish  and  precision  of  form,  which  consti- 
tute part  of  their  value.  Plumbago,  or  black 
lead,  also  protects  iron  from  rust  for  a  time,  and 
is  on  that  account  used  on  the  fronts  of  grates, 
&c. 

RUSTIC,  adj.  &c  n.  s.     ~)        Lat.      rusticus. 

RUST'ICAL,  j  Rural;      country; 

RVST'ICALLY,  I  rude ;      untaught ; 

RUST'ICALNESS,  j  plain:  a  rustic  is  a 

RUST'ICATE,  v.  n.  &  v.  a.  \  clown,  a   country- 

RUSTIC'ITY.  J  man :    the    adverb 

and  noun-substantive  corresponding :  to  rusticate 

is  to  reside  in  or  banish  into  the  country. 

By  Lelius  willing  missing  was  the  odds  of  the  Ibe- 
rian side,  and  continued  so  in  the  next  by  the  ex- 
cellent running  of  a  knight,  though  fostered  by  the 
muses,  as  many  times  the  very  rustick  people  left 
both  their  delights  and  profits  to  hearken  to  his  songs. 

Sidney. 

There  presented  himself  a  tall,  clownish,  young 
man,  who,  falling  before  the  queen  of  the  fairies,  de- 
sired that  he  might  have  the  achievement  of  any 
adventure,  which,  during  the  feast,  might  happen  ; 
that  being  granted,  he  rested  him  on  the  floor,  unfit 
for  a  better  place  by  his  rusticity.  Spenser. 

My  brother  Jaques  he  keeps  at  school, 
And  report  speaks  goldenly  of  his  profit ; 
For  my  part  he  keeps  me  rustically  at  home. 

Shakspeare. 

An  altar  stood,  rustick,  of  grassy  ford.      Milton. 
This  is  by  a  rustical  severity  to  banish  all  urbanity, 
whose  harmless  and  confined  condition  is  consistent 
with  religion.  Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

He  confounds  the  singing  and  dancing  of  the  sa- 
tyrs with  the  rustical  entertainment  of  the  first  Ro- 
mans. Dryden. 

Quintius  here  was  born, 

Whose  shining  ploughshare  was  in  furrows  worn, 
Met  by  his  trembling  wife,  returning  home, 
And  rustically  joyed,  as  chief  of  Rome.  Id. 

I  was  deeply  in  love  with  a  milliner,  upon  which 
I  was  sent  away,  or,  in  the  university  phrase,  rusti- 
cated for  ever.  Spectator. 

The  sweetness  and  rusticity  of  a  pastoral  cannot 
be  so  well  exprest  in  any  other  tongue  as  in  the 
Greek,  when  rightly  mixed  with  the  Dorick  dialect. 

Addison. 

As  nothing  is  so  rude  and  insolent  as  a  wealthy 
rustick,  all  this  his  kindness  is  overlooked,  and  his 
person  most  unworthily  railed  at.  South. 

This  so  general  expense  of  their  time  would  cur- 
tail the  ordinary  means  of  knowledge,  as  'twould 
shorten  the  opportunities  of  vice  ;  and  so  accord- 
ingly an  universal  rustifity  presently  took  place,  and 
stopped  not  till  it  had  over-run  the  whole  stock  of 
mankind.  Woodward's  Xalimil  Hiitory. 

V»'ith  unguent  smooth  the  polished  marble  shone, 
Where  ancient  Neleus  sat,  a  nuttch  throne.    Pope. 

My  lady  Scudamore,  from  having  rusticated  in  your 

company  too  long,  pretends  to  open  her  eyes  for  the 

sake  of  seeing  the  sun,  and  to  sleep  because  it  is 

night.  id. 

An  ignorant  clown  cannot  learn  fine  language  or 


a  courtly  behaviour,  when  his  rustick  airs  have  grown 
up  with  him  till  the  age  of  forty.       Watts's  Logick. 

RUSTIC  GODS,  dii  rustici,  in  antiquity,  the 
gods  of  the  country,  or  those  who  presided  over 
agiculture,  &c.  Varro  invokes  the  twelve  di. 
consentes,  as  the  principal  among  the  rustic 
gods,  viz.  Jupiter,  Tellus,  the  Sun,  Moon, 
Ceres,  Bacchus,  Rubigus,  Flora,  Minerva,  Ve- 
nus, Lympha,  and  Fortune.  Besides  these  twelve 
arch-rustic  gods,  there  were  a  number  of  lesser 
ones ;  as  Pales,  Vertumnus,  Tutelina,  Fulgor, 
Sterculius,  Mellona,  Jugatinus,  Collinus,  Val- 
lonia,  Terminus,  Sylvanus,  and  Priapus.  Stru- 
vius  adds  the  Satyrs,  Fauns,  Sileni,  Nymphs, 
and  even  Trytons ;  and  gives  the  empire  over 
all  the  rustic  gods  to  Pan. 

RISTIC  WORK,  is  where  the  stones  in  the  face, 
&c.,  of  a  building,  instead  of  being  smooth,  are 
hatched,  or  picked  with  the  point  of  a  hammer. 

RUSTICUS  (L.  Junius  Arulenius),  a  learned 
Roman,  the  preceptor  and  friend  of  Pliny  the 
younger.  His  abilities  are  celebrated  by  Pliny 
and  Tacitus.  He  was  put  to  death  by  Domitian. 
— Sueton. 

RUSTLE,  v.  n.  Sax.  pnij-tlan.  To  make 
a  low  continued  small  noise  or  rattle. 

He  is  coming ;  I  hear  the  straw  rustle. 

Shakspeare. 
This  life 

Is  nobler  than  attending  for  a  check ; 
Richer  than  doing  nothing  for  a  bauble  ; 
Prouder  than  rustling  in  unpaid-for  silk.  Id. 

Thick  swarmed,  both  on  the  ground,  and  in  the 

air 
Brushed  with  the  hiss  of  rustling  wings.        Milton. 

As  when  we  see  the  winged  winds  engage, 
Rustling  from  every  quarter  of  the  sky, 
North,  East,  and  West,  in  airy  swiftness  vy. 

Granville. 

All  begin  the  attack  ; 

Fans  clap,  silks  rustle,  and  tough  whalebones  crack. 

Pope. 

Not  less  their  number  than  the  milk-white  swans 
That  o'er  the  winding  of  Cyaster's  springs, 
Stretch  their  long  necks,  and  clap   their   rust/in^- 
wings.  Id." 

RUSTSCHUK,  or  RuscEK,"a  large  town  or 
European  Turkey,  in  Bulgaria,  situated  at  the 
influx  of  the  Cara  Lorn  into  the  Danube,  which 
is  here  nearly  two  miles  wide.  It  has  a  strong 
castle  and  several  mosques  and  public  baths ;  is 
the  see  of  a  Greek  archbishop,  and  contains  con- 
siderable manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  linen, 
woollen,  and  tobacco.  Giorgley  and  this  town 
are  the  two  great  entrepots  for  the  commercial  in- 
tercourse by  the  Danube  between  the  Euxine 
and  the  interior.  It  was  taken  by  the  Russims 
in  1810,  and  the  following  year  a  Turkish  army 
was  totally  defeated  near  this  by  the  Russians, 
with  the  loss  of  all  its  artillery  and  baggage. 
About  five  miles  from  Rustschuk  are  to  be  seen 
the  ruins  of  the  old  town  ofTschernow  or  Cser- 
navoda.  Population  24,000.  Forty  miles  east 
of  Nicopoli,  and  fifty-five  west  of  Semendria. 

RUT,  n.  s.     Fr.  rut.      Copulation    of  deer  : 

also,  from  the  Fr.  route,  the  track  of  a  cart- wheel. 

That  is  an  advertisement  to  one  Diana,  to  take 

heed  of  the  allurement  of  coant  Rousillon,  a  foolish 

idle  boy;  but  for  all  that  very  rutt'uh. 

Shakspeare.  All's  Well  that  Ends  WeU.. 


RUT 


207 


RUT 


The  time  of  going  to  rut  of  deer  is  in  September ; 
for  that  they  need  the  whole  summers  feed  to  make 
them  tit  for  generation ;  and,  if  rain  come  about  the 
middle  of  September,  they  go  to  rut  somewhat  the 
sooner.  Bacon. 

From  hills  raine  waters  headlong  fall, 
That  always  eat  huge  ruts,  which,  met  in  one  bed 

fill  a  vail 
With   such  a  confluence  of  streames,  that  on  the 

mountaine  grounds 
Farre  off,  in  frighted  shepherds  eares  the  bustling 

noise  rebounds.  Chapman. 

The  ground  hereof  was  the  observation  of  this  part 
in  deer  after  immoderate  venery,  and  about  the  end 
of  their  rut.  Browne. 

RUTA,  in  botany,  rue ;  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of  plants ;  na- 
tural order  twenty-sixth,  multisiliquae :  CAL. 
quinquepartite  ;  petals  concave ;  receptacle 
surrounded  with  ten  melliferous  pores :  CAPS. 
lobed :  SEEDS  numerous.  There  are  several 
species,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  are 
these : — 

1.  R.  baga,  or  Swedish  turnip.     See  RURAL 
ECONOMY.    Besides  being  later  in  shooting  than 
the  common  turnip,  this  plant  loses  not  its  nutri- 
tive qualities  after  beinpj  shot,  but  retains  all  its 
juices  and  solidity.  This  root  has  been  supposed 
a  mere  variety  of  the  yellow  turnip,  but  it  is 
found  to  differ  very  materially.     The  stem  has 
something  of  the  appearance  of  the  rape,  or  cab- 
bage kind ;  and  that  part  of  the  root  which  is  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground  is  covered  by  a  thick, 
green  skin,  which   in  some  is  smooth,  but   in 
others  quite  rough,  and  the  internal  fteshy  part 
is  of  a  dense  firm  consistence,  having  a  yellowish 
tinge,  nearly  similar  to  that  of  the  horn  carrot. 
The  great  inducements  for  the  farmer  to  enter 
freely  into  the  culture  of  this  root  are,  according 
to  Mr.  Young,  1.  If  he  has  the  right  sort  of  seed, 
the  root  yellow  in  flesh,  and  rough  in  coat,  it 
lasts  through  all  frosts,  and  may  be  depended  on 
for   sheep  quite   through   the   month  of  April, 
though  drawn  two  months   before,  and  spread 
on  a  grass  field.     2.  It  is  an  excellent  and  nou- 
rishing food  for  sheep,  and  also  for  any  sort  of 
cattle.     3.  It   is  equal  to   potatoes   in  keeping 
stock  swine  :  a  point  of  very  great  consequence. 
4.  It  is,  next  to  carrots,  the  very  best  food  that 
tan  be  given  to  horses.  5.  It  is  sown  at  a  season 
which  leaves  ample  time,  in  case  of  a  failure,  to 
put  in  common  turnips,  or  cabbages.      Another 
extraordinary  quality  of  the  ruta  baga  is  that  it 
seems  impossible  to  make  it  rot :  though  bit,  or 
trod  upon  by  cattle  or  horses,  it  never  rots;  but 
whatever  part  of  the  root  is  left,  nay,  if  scooped 
out  to  the  shell,  it  remains  perfectly  fresh,  and 
in  spring  puts  out  a  new  stem.     Both  roots  and 
leaves  are  excellent  for  culinary  purposes. 

2.  R.  hortensis,  or  common  broad-leaved  gar- 
den rue,  has  been  long  cultivated  for  medicinal 
use.     It  rises  with  a  shrubby  stalk  to  the  height 
of  five  or  six  feet,  sending  out  branches  on  every 
side,  garnished  with  leaves,  whose  small  lobes 
are   wedge-shaped,  of  a  gray  color,  and  have  a 
strong  odor.     The  flowers  are  produced  at  the 
end  of  the  branches  in  bunches  almost  in  the 
form    of  umbels :   they  are   composed   of   four 
yellow  concave  petals,  which  are  cut  on  their 
edges,  and  eight  yellow  stamina  which  are  longer 


than  the  petals,  terminated  by  roundish  summits. 
The  germen  becomes  a  roundish  capsule,  with 
four  lobes,  full  of  holes  containing  rough  black 
seeds.  Rue  has  a  strong  unpleasant  smell,  and 
a  bitterish  penetrating  taste  :  the  leaves,  when 
full  of  vigor,  are  extremely  acrid,  insomuch  ts 
to  inflame  and  blister  the  skin,  if  much  handled. 
With  regard  to  their  medicinal  virtues,  they  are 
powerfully  stimulating,  attenuating,  and  deter- 
gent. Boerhaave  entertained  a  very  high  opinion 
of  the  virtues  of  this  plant,  particularly  of  the 
essential  oil,  and  the  distilled  water  cohobated 
or  redistilled  several  times  from  fresh  parcels  of 
the  herb 

RUTCHESTER,  an  ancient  town  of  Northum- 
berland, noith-west  of  Chollerton,  called  Vindo- 
bala  by  the  Romans.  The  wall  of  Severus 
runs  on  the  middle  of  the  east  rampart,  and  that 
of  Adrian  passes  about  a  chain  to  the  south  of 
it.  Its  fort  was  formerly  considerable,  and  its 
ruins  are  still  remarkable. 

RUTH,  n.  s.          ~\       From   rue.      Mercy; 

RUTH'FUL,  adj.        (.pity;  tenderness  :  thede- 

RUTH'FULLY,  adv.  i  rivatives  all  correspond- 

RUTH'LESS,  adj.       x  ing.     Out  of  use. 

His  archers  circle  me ;  my  reins  they  wound, 
And  ruthless  shed  my  gall  upon  the  ground. 

Sandys. 

The  Britons,  by  Maximilian  laid  way 
With  wretched  miseries  and  woful  ruth, 
Were  to  those  Pagans  made  an  open  prey.  Spenser. 

Help  me,  ye  baneful  birds,  whose  shrieking  sound 
Is  sign  of  dreary  death,  my  deadly  cries 
Most  ruthfully  to  tune.  Id.  Pastorals. 

The  flower  of  horse  and  foot,  lost  by  the  valour  of 
the  enemy,  ruthfully  perished.  Knolles. 

What  is  Edward  but  a  ruthless  sea  1 
What  Clarence  but  a  quicksand  of  deceit? 

Shakspeare. 

All  ruth,  compassion,  mercy  be  forgot.    Fairfax. 

By  this  Minerva's  friend  bereft 
Oileades  of  that  rich  bowl,  and  left  his  lips,  nose, 

eyes 
Ruthfully  smeared.  Chapman's  Iliad. 

O  wretch  of  guests,  said  he,  thy  tale  hath  stirred 
My  mind  to  much  ruth.  Chapman. 

The  inhabitants  seldom  take  a  ruthful  and  reaving 
experience  of  those  harms,  which  infectious  dis- 
eases carry  with  them.  Carew. 

The  better  part  with  Mary  and  with  Ruth 
Chosen  thou  hast ;  and  they  that  overween, 
And  at  thy  growing  virtues  fret  their  spleen, 
No  anger  find  in  thee,  but  pity  and  ruth.      Milton. 

Their  age  the  hostile  powers  restrain, 
All  but  the  ruthless  monarch  of  the  main.  Pope. 

RUTH,  a  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, being  a  kind  of  appendix  to  the  book  of 
Judges,  and  an  introduction  to  Samuel ;  and 
having  its  title  from  the  person  whose  history  is 
herein  principally  related.  In  this  history  are 
observable  the  ancient  rights  of  kindred  and  re- 
demption, and  the  manner  of  buying  the  inheri- 
tance of  the  deceased.  The  authenticity  of  this 
book  was  never  disputed ;  but  the  learned  are 
not  agreed  about  the  epocha  of  the  history  it  re- 
lates. VVatkins  places  it  about  A.  A.  C.  1254. 

RUTHERFORD  (John),  M.  D.,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  medical  school  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  was  born  in  1695,  and  received 
the  rudiments  of  his  education  at  the  parish 
school  of  Selkirk.  After  his  father's  death  he 


208 


RUTLAND. 


went  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity. He  next  engaged  himself  as  an  appren- 
tice to  a  surgeon  in  Edinburgh,  with  whom  he 
continued  till  1716,  when  he  went  to  London, 
and  attended  the  lectures  on  anatomy  by  Dr. 
Douglas,  on  surgery  by  Andre,  and  on  materia 
medica  by  Strother.  In  1717  he  returned  to 
Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  he  went  to  Leyden, 
then  the  most  famous  medical  school  in  Europe. 
In  1719  he  went  to  France,  and  was,  in  July, 
admitted  to  the  degree  of  M.  I),  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Rheims.  He  spent  the  winter  in  Paris, 
for  the  sake  of  Winslow's  demonstrations  m 
anatomy;  and  in  1720  returned  to  Britain.  In 
1721  he  settled  as  a  physician  in  Edinburgh  ; 
and  soon  afterwards  joined  with  Drs.  Sinclair, 
Plummer,  and  Innes,  in  purchasing  a  laboratory, 
for  the  preparation  of  compound  medicines. 
They  also  gave  lectures  on  chemistry  to  a  nume- 
rous audience ;  and  soon  after  on  other  branches 
of  medicine.  In  1725  they  were  appointed  con- 
junct professors  in  the  University,  and  each  for 
some  time  read  lectures  in  every  department  of 
medical  science,  except  anatomy,  and  carried 
forward  their  classes  in  rotation.  In  1748  Dr. 
Rutherford  introduced  a  great  improvement  in 
medical  education.  Sensible  that  abstract  lec- 
tures on  the  symptoms  and  the  mode  of  treating 
various  diseases,  of  which  the  students  know 
little  but  the  names,  could  scarcely  be  of  any 
benefit,  he  had  for  some  time  encouraged  his 
pupils  to  bring  patients  to  him  on  Saturday, 
when  he  enquired  into  the  nature  of  their  dis- 
eases, and  prescribed  for  them  in  the  presence 
of  the  class.  This  gave  rise  to  the  course  of 
clinical  lectures ;  the  utility  of  which  was  so  ob- 
vious that  it  was  enacted,  by  a  decree  of  the  se- 
nate of  the  University,  that  no  man  should  be 
admitted  to  an  examination  for  his  degree  who 
had  not  attended  those  lectures ;  to  which  an 
excellent  hospital,  then  newly  erected,  gave  the 
professors  every  opportunity  of  doing  ample 
justice.  He  resigned  his  professorship  in  1765, 
after  having  taught  medicine  in  its  different 
departments  for  upwards  of  forty  years.  He 
died  in  Edinburgh  in  1779. 

RUTHERFORD  (Thomas),  D.  D.,  was  born  in 
1712;  became  fellow  of  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  regius  professor  of  divinity  in  that 
university,  rector  of  Shenneld,  and  archdeacon 
of  Essex.  He  married  Charlotte  Elizabeth  Abdy, 
daughter  of  Sir  William  Abdy,  Bart.  He  pub- 
lished, 1.  An  Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Obliga- 
tions of  Virtue;  8vo.  1744.  2.  A  System  of 
Natural  Philosophy  ;  Cambridge,  1748  ;  2  vols. 
8vo.  3.  A  Letter  to  Dr.  Middleton,  in  defence 
of  Bishop  Sherlock;  8vo.  1750.  4.  A  Discourse 
on  Miracles;  8vo.  1751.  5.  Institutes  of  Na- 
tural Law;  2  rols.  8vo.  6,  7.  Two  Letters  to 
Dr.  Kennicott;  1761  and  1762.  8.  A  Vindi- 
cation of  Subscriptions  to  an  Established  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  &c.;  Cambridge,  1767.  9,  10. 
Two  other  Tracts  on  the  same  subject ;  1 766  and 
1 767  :  besides  several  Sermons,  and  Charges  to 
the  Clergy.  He  died  October  5th,  1771,  aged 
rifty-nine. 

RUTHERGLEN,  or  RIGLEN,  an  ancient 
royal  borough  of  Scotland,  in  Lanarkshire. 
Maitland  says  it  was  founded  by  Ruther,  the 


seventh  king  of  Scots,  from  whom  it  derived  its 
name.  From  several  original  charters,  still  pre- 
served, it  is  certain  that  it  was  erected  into  a 
royal  borough  by  king  David  I.  about  1126. 
The  territory  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bo- 
rough was  extensive,  and  the  inhabitants  enjoyed 
many  distinguished  privileges,  which  were  how- 
ever gradually  wrested  from  them  in  favor  of  Glas- 
gow, which  in  later  times  rose  into  consequence 
by  trade  and  manufactures.  It  is  now  much 
reduced,  consisting  of  but  one  street  and  a  few 
lanes.  About  150  yards  to  the  south  of  the  main 
street  is  a  kind  of  lane,  named  Dins  Dvkes, 
where  queen  Mary  was  for  a  short  time  stopt  in 
her  flight,  after  the  battle  of  Langsid*,  by  some 
insolent  rustics.  Adjoining  to  a  lane  called  the 
Back  Row  stood  the  castle  of  Rutherglen,  ori- 
ginally built  about  the  time  of  the  foundation  of 
the  town.  This  ancient  fortress  underwent  se- 
veral sieges  during  the  wars  in  the  days  of  kins; 
Robert  Bruce,  and  it  remained  a  place  of  strength 
until  the  battle  of  Langside;  soon  after  which  it 
was  destroyed  by  the  regent,  to  revenge  himself 
on  the  Hamilton  family,  in  whose  custody  it  then 
was.  No  relic  of  it  now  exists.  Rutherjlen 
joins  with  Kilmarnock,  Port-Glasgow,  Renfrew, 
and  Dumbarton,  in  electing  a  member  to 
parliament.  Rutherglen  is  two  miles  south-east 
of  Glasgow,  and  nine  west  of  Hamilton. 

RUTHYN,  a  borough  of  North  Wales,  in  Den- 
bighshire, with  a  good  market  on  Monday,  with 
an  ancient  castle  restored  and  occupied  by  the 
WTests.  The  church,  a  handsome  building,  was 
made  collegiate  in  1310,  at  which  time  there  was 
here  a  monastery  of  White  Friars.  The  town 
was  formerly  surrounded  by  walls,  but  it  is  now 
little  more  than  a  broad  ill-built  street,  leading 
to  the  market-house,  in  which  stands  the  town- 
hall.  It  has  a  free  school,  hospital,  and  county 
court-house ;  fifteen  miles  south-west  from  Holv- 
well,  and  210  miles  north-west  of  London 

RUTILIUS  RUFUS  (Publius),  a  Roman  con- 
sul, in  the  age  of  Sylla,  celebrated  for  his  writ- 
ings. Sylla  having  banished  him,  he  retired  to 
Smyrna,  and  refused,  when  solicited  by  his 
friends,  to  be  restored  by  arms.  He  was  the 
first  who  taught  the  Roman  soldiers  to  fabricate 
their  own  weapons ;  and,  during  his  exile,  wrote 
a  History  of  Rome,  in  Greek ;  an  account  of 
his  own  life  in  Latin  ;  and  many  other  works, 
which  are  lost.  Ovid,  Fast.,  Seneca,  Cic.  &c. 

RUTLAND,  county  of,  or  RUTLANDSHIRE,  is 
the  smallest  county  of  England.  The  Saxon 
name  of  this  county  was  Roteland,  but  its  ety- 
mology is  otherwise  unknown.  Some  have  de- 
rived it  from  Roet,  or  Rud,  which  signifies  red, 
because  in  many  parts  of  the  county  the  land  is 
of  a  red  color.  But  others  object  that  this  cannot 
be  the  reason,  and  allege  that  there  is  only  one 
part  of  the  county,  which  is  about  Glaiston,  that 
has  a  ruddy  soil ;  besides,  most  of  the  English 
counties  have  soils  of  the  same  color ;  and  there- 
fore these  would  have  it  to  be  derived  from  the 
word  Rotundalandia,  from  its  circular  figure ; 
but  its  form  was  not  round  when  this  name,  of 
which  Rutland  is  supposed  to  be  a  contraction, 
was  given  it;  and,  besides,  it  is  not  probable 
that  the  Saxons  would  give  a  Latin  name  to  an 
English  county.  The  Coritani  inhabited  tin* 


RUTLAND. 


•209 


district  in  the  time  of  the  Romans ;  but  under 
the  Saxons  it  was  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Mer- 
cia.  This  county  is  bounded  by  Leicestershire  on 
the  N.  N.W.,  west  and  south-west ;  and  by  Lin- 
colnshire on  the  east  and  north-east.  It  is  only 
forty-eight  miles  in  circumference.  It  is  divided 
inio  five  hundreds,  and  contains  91,002  acres 
;uid  twenty-nine  perches. 

The  climate  of  this  county  is  generally 
esteemed  very  good  and  healthy ;  and  it  is 
thought  that  the  winds  blow  as  many  days  in 
the  year  from  one  point  as  another,  the  west  e\- 
cepted.  The  mean  quantity  of  rain  which  has 
been  observed,  according  to  a  journal  kept  by 
Samuel  Barker,  esq.,  and  cited  in  Mr.  Parkin- 
son's Survey,  in  eight  years,  was  24-61.  The 
soil  of  this  county  is,  generally  speaking,  fertile, 
but  varying  very  much  in  different  parts ;  the 
«;ust  and  south-east  parts,  through  which  the 
great  North  road  runs,  being  in  general  of  a 
shallow  staple,  upon  limestone  rock,  with  a  mix- 
ture of  cold  woodland  clay  soil.  The  other 
parts  of  the  county  are  composed  of  a  strong 
loamy  red  land,  intermixed  with  keal  (iron-stone 
is  found  amongst  it).  This  soil  is  esteemed 
most  congenial  for  convertible  tillage  crops ;  the 
understratum  of  the  whole  county,  at  different 
depths,  is  generally  a  very  strong  blue  clay. 
The  circumstance  of  this  county  varying  so 
much  in  its  soils,  at  such  small  distances,  causes 
each  sort  to  be  much  more  valuable  than  it 
would  be  were  it  of  one  kind  through  the  whole 
of  a  lordship;  there  being  a  proportion  of  each 
soil  on  the  different  farms,  so  as  to  have  con- 
vertible high  lands  for  tillage,  and  low  lands  for 
grass,  having  the  advantage  of  being  proper  for 
breeding  and  store  stock ;  thus  producing  every 
thing  useful  within  themselves,  the  tillage  land 
growing  turnips  for  the  store  and  fattening 
sheep ;  barley,  clover,  wheat,  and  grass-seeds 
plentifully.  The  face  of  the  county  is,  generally 
speaking,  very  beautiful,  especially  where  it  is 
well  timbered,  being  much  diversified  by  small 
and  gently  rising  hills  running  east  and  west, 
with  valleys  of  about  half  a  mile  in  width  inter- 
vening; so  that  in  travelling  through  the  county 
there  are  fresh  views  at  the  distance  of  every 
three  or  four  miles,  causing  its  appearance  to  be 
very  lively.  The  produce  of  this  county  has 
already  been  partially  alluded  to  :  its  barley  is 
of  a  very  superior  quality,  so  that  the  inhabi- 
tants call  it  corn,  giving  other  grain  its  name, 
such  as  wheat,  oats,  &c.  At  Ketton  there  is  a 
kind  of  stone  very  proper  and  famous  for  build- 
ing. There  is  also  in  many  parts  stone  for 
lime,  consisting  of  a  soft  and  hard  species. 
Various  opinions  are  entertained  of  the  lime 
made  from  these  two  sorts ;  but  in  general  that 
from  the  hard  stone  is  preferred.  This  county 
is,  upon  the  whole,  well  watered.  The  rivers 
Eye  and  Welland  are  its  south-west  and  south- 
east boundaries ;  but  its  two  principal  rivers  are 
the  Guash  and  the  Chater :  there  are  also  many 
rivulets  and  numberless  springs.  The  Welland 
divides  this  county  from  Northamptonshire ;  the 
Guash,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  Wash, 
rises  near  Oakham,  in  a  district  surrounded  with 
hills,  and  running  eastward  divides  the  county 
nearly  into  two  equal  parts,  and  running  into 
Voi,.  MX. 


Lincolnshire  fulls  into  the  Welland  to  the  east  of 
Stamford.  This  river  supplies  many  towns  with 
excellent  water,  and  affords  plenty  of  fish ;  and 
most  of  the  other  towns  and  villages  at  a  dis- 
tance from  this  river  have  rivulets  and  brooks 
that  pass  by  them. — There  is  a  navigable  canal 
in  this  county,  made  by  act  of  parliament  passed 
in  1793,  for  extending  the  Melton  Mowbray 
canal  to  Oakham,  the  centre  of  the  county, 
which  has  proved  of  great  benefit  to  it.  It  i» 
said,  however,  to  be  frequently  defective  in  the 
summer  season  from  the  very  scanty  supply  of 
water.  Rutlandshire  sends  only  two  members 
to  parliament,  both  for  the  county. 

The  smallness  of  this  county  will  account  for 
the  few  eminent  men  it  has  produced.  We  know 
not  whether  we  may  apply  the  term  eminent  to 
Jeffery  Hudson,  the  dwarf;  but  certainly  he 
thought  himself  of  some  consequence  when  he 
fought  a  duel  with  a  brother  of  lord  Croft's.  He 
was  born  at  Oakham,  the  county  town,  in  the 
year  1619,  and  when  seven  years  of  age  was  not 
above  fifteen  inches  high,  though  his  parents, 
who  had  several  other  children  of  the  usual  size, 
were  tall  and  lusty.  At  that  age  the  duke  of 
Buckingham  took  him  into  his  family ;  and,  to 
divert  the  court,  who,  on  a  progress  through  this 
county,  were  entertained  at  the  duke's  seat  at  Bur- 
leigh-on-the-llill,  he  was  served  up  at  table  in  a 
cold  pie.  Between  the  seventh  and  the  thirteenth 
year  of  his  age  he  did  not  advance  many  inches 
in  stature  :  but  it  is  remarkable  that  even  after 
thirty  he  shot  up  to  the  height  of  three  feet  nine 
inches,  which  he  never  exceeded.  He  was  given 
to  Henrietta  Maria,  consort  to  king  Charles  I., 
probably  at  the  time  of  his  being  served  up  in 
the  pie;  and  that  princess,  who  kept  him  as  her 
dwarf,  is  said  frequently  to  have  employed 
him  in  messages  abroad.  In  the  civil  wars 
between  king  Charles  the  First  and  the  Par- 
liament, Hudson  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
captain  of  horse  in  the  king's  service,  and 
afterwards  accompanied  the  queen,  his  mis- 
tress, to  France ;  whence  he  was  banished  for 
killing  his  antagonist,  as  above  mentioned.  They 
fought  on  horseback.  After  his  banishment,  he 
was  taken  at  sea  by  an  Algerine  corsair,  and  was 
many  years  a  slave  in  Barbary ;  but  being  re- 
deemed he' came  to  England,  and  in  1678  was 
committed  prisoner  to  the  Gate  House,  West- 
minster, on  suspicion  of  being  concerned  in 
what  was  called  Oates's  plot.  After  lying  there 
a  considerable  time  he  was  discharged,  and  died 
in  1682,  aged  sixty-three  years.  In  Newgate 
Street,  London,  there  is  a  small  stone  sculpture 
of  one  William  Evans,  a  gigantic  porter  to 
Charles  1 . ;  and  another  of  his  diminutive  frl- 
low-servant.  Pennant  has  given  us  a  sketch  of 
this  sculpture  on  the  same  plate  with  the  Boar 
in  East  Cheap,  but  has  omitted  to  insert  the 
date,  1669.  The  same  author  observes  that  it 
was  probably  by  his  own  consent  that  the  dwarf 
was  put  into  the  pocket  of  the  giant,  and  drawn 
out  by  him  at  a  masque  at  court  to  amaze  and 
divert  the  spectators ;  for  it  is  certain  he  had  too 
much  spirit  to  suffer  such  an  insult  from  even 
Goliath,  as  was  evident  from  his  courage  in  1644, 
when  he  killed  Mr.  Croft,  who  had  presumed  to 
ridicule  the  irritable  hero.  These  figures  are  in 

I1 


RUY 


210 


RYD 


very  excellent  preservation,  having  been  recently 
painted,  with  red  surtouts,  by  the  owner  or  oc- 
cupier of  the  house  (No.  80),  Mr.  George  Payne, 
hatter,  hosier,  and  glover.  Mr.  Pennant,  and 
others  after  him,  have  placed  this  sculpture  over 
the  entrance  to  Bagnio  Court. — This  county  has 


given  the  title  of  earl  ever  since  the  reign  of    1681. 


sciences  at  Paris  in  1727  elected  him  a  member. 
He  was  also  F.  R.  S.  of  London. 

RUYSDAAL,  or  RUYSDALL  (Jacob),  an 
eminent  Dutch  landscape  painter,  born  at 
Haerlem,  in  1636.  He  painted  sea  pieces  with 
inimitable  truth  and  transparency.  He  died  in 


RUYTER  (Michael  Adrian),  a  distinguished 
Dutch  naval  officer  born  at  Flushing,  in  Zealand, 
in  1607.  He  entered  on  a  seafaring  life  when 


Richard  II.  The  first  earl  of  Rutland  was  Ed- 
ward, the  eldest  son  of  Edward  Langley,  the 
fifth  son  of  Edward  III. :  but  the  first  earl  of 

the  present  family  of  Manners  was  created  earl  of  he  was  only  eleven  years  old,  was  first  a  cabin 

Rutland  by  Henry  VIII.    In  the  reign  of  queen  boy,  and  advanced  successively  to  the  rank  of 

Anne,  John  Manners,  then  earl  of  Rutland,  re-  mate,   master,   and   captain.      He   made   eight 

ceived  from  that  princess  the  title  of  marquis  of  voyages  to  the  West  Indies,  and  ten  to  Brasil. 

Granby  and  duke  of  Rutland,  which  his  succes-  He  was  then   promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear  ad- 

sors  still  enjoy.  miral,  and  sent  to  assist  the  Portuguese  against 

'  There  is  no  manufacture  carried  on  in  this  the   Spaniards.     His  gallantry  was   still  more 

county  of  any  account.  Want  of  water  and  scarcity  conspicuous  before  Sallee  in  Barbary.    With  one 

of  fuel  are  the  only  reasons,  and  not  any  want  of  single  vessel  he  sailed  through  the  roads  of  that 

inclination,  spirit,  or  property,  in  the  inhabitants  place  in  defiance  of  five  Algerine  corsairs.     In 


of  the  county.'     Parkinson. 


1653  a  squadron  of  seventy  vessels  was  sent 


RUTTUNPORE,  a  town  and  district  of  Hin-  against  the  English  under  admiral  Van  Tromp. 

dostan,  in  the  province  of  Gundwaneh.  It  is  Ruyter,  who  accompanied  the  admiral  in  this 

governed  by  a  rajah,  who  is  tributary  to  the  expedition,  seconded  him  with  great  skill  and 

Mahrattas.  The  town  consists  of  about  1000  bravery  in  the  three  battles  which  the  English  so 

houses,  but  it  was  formerly  a  place  of  much  gloriously  won.  He  was  afterwards  stationed  in 

greater  consequence.  There  are  other  places  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  he  took  several  Turkish 

this  name  in  Hindostan.  vessels.  In  1659  he  received  a  commission  to 

RUTUBA,  in  ancient  geography,  two  rivers  join  the  king  of  Denmark  in  his  war  with  the 

of  Italy  :  one  in  Liguria,  rising  in  the  Appenine  Swedes  ;  and  the  king  of  Denmark  ennobled 

mountains,  and  running  into  the  Mediterranean:  him  and  gave  him  a  pension.  In  1661  he  run 


another  in  Latium,  falling  into  the  Tiber. 


ashore   a   vessel   belonging   to   Tunis,  released 


RUTULI,  an  ancient  people  of  Latium,  over    forty  Christian  slaves,  made  a  treaty  with  the 
whom  Turnus  reigned,  when  ./Eneas  arrived  in    Tunisians,  and  reduced  the  Algerine  corsairs  to 


Italy.     Their  capital  was  Ardea. 


submission.     His  country  raised  him  to  the  rank 


RUTUP./E,  RUTUPIUM,  or  RUTUPENSIS  POB-  of  vice-admiral  and  commander  in  chief.     He 

TUS,  in  ancient  British   geography,  a  sea-port  obtained  a  signal  victory  over  the  combined  fleets 

town  of  Cantium,  on  the  south  coast  of  Britain,  of  France  and  Spain  in  1672,  about  the  time  of 

abounding  in  oysters.     Some  suppose  it  to  be  the  conquest  of  Holland.     Ruyter,  having  thus 


Dover;  others  Richborough,  or  Sandwich. 


made  himself  master  of  the   sea,  conducted  a 


RUYSCH  (Frederick),  the  celebrated  Dutch  neat  of  Indiamen   safely  into   the  Texel ;  thus 

anatomist,  was   born   at   the   Hague   in   1638.  defending  and  enriching  his  country,  while  it 

After  making  great  progress  at  home,  he  repaired  was  the  prey  of  hostile  invaders.     In  1673  he 

to  Leyden,  and  there  prosecuted  the  study  of  had  three  engagements  with  the  fleets  of  France 

anatomy  and  botany.     He  studied  next  at  Fra-  and   England,  in  which  his  bravery  was  more 


neker,  where  he  became  M.  D.  He  then  returned 
to  the  Hague;  and,  marrying  in  1661,  devoted 
his  whole  time  to  his  profession.  In  1665  he 
published  a  treatise,  entitled  Dilucidatio  valvu- 


distinguished  than  ever.  But  in  an  engagement 
with  the  French  fleet,  off  the  coast  of  Sicily,  he 
lost  the  day,  and  received  a  mortal  wound,  of 
which  he  died  in  a  few  days.  His  corpse  was 


larum  de  Vasis  Lymphaticis  et  Lacteis  ;  which  carried  to  Amsterdam,  and  a  magnificent  monu- 

raised  his  reputation  so  high  that  he  was  chosen  ment  was  there  erected  by  the  command  of  the 

professor  of  anatomy  at  Amsterdam.     After  this  states-general. 

he  was  perpetually  engaged  in  dissecting  the  RYDAL  WATER,  a  lake  of  Westmoreland,  a 

various  parts  of  the  human  body.    Ilis  anatomi-  little  west  of  Ambleside  ;  about  one  mile  long, 

cal    collection  was  very  valuable.     He  had   a  It  has  many  small  islands ;  and  communicates 

series  of  foetuses  of  all  sizes,  from  the  length  of  by  a  narrow  channel  with  Grassmere  Water  on 


the  little  finger  to  that  of  a  new  born  infant. 
Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  in  his  tour  through 
Holland  in  1698,  visited  Ruysch,  passed  whole 
days  with  him,  and,  when  he  returned  to  Hol- 
land in  1717,  purchased  his  cabinet  of  curiosities 
for  30,000  florins,  and  sent  it  to  Petersburg. 
In  1685  he  was  made  professor  of  medicine. 
Ruysch  retained  his  vigor  of  mind  and  body 
till  1731,  when  he  died  on  the  22d  of  February. 
His  anatomical  works  are  printed  in  4  vols.  4to. 
The  style  of  his  writings  is  simple  and  concise, 


the  west,  and  by  the  Rothway  with  Windermere 
Lake  on  the  south.  Rydal  Mall  stands  on  an 
eminence  near  the  lake. 

RYDROOG,  a  town  and  district  of  Hindos- 
tan, in  the  province  of  Bijanagur,  now  included 
in  the  British  collectorship  of  Bellary.  It  was 
taken  possession  of  in  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  by  the  delawai,  or  minister  of  the  rajah 
of  Bijanagur,  after  the  defeat  of  that  prince 
by  the  Mahometans.  In  1766  it  was  subdued 
by  Hyder  Aly  ;  and  at  the  peace  of  1 792  ceded 


but    sometimes  inaccurate.      The    academy  of    to  the   Nizam;  but   in   the  year  1800  it 


RYM 


211 


RZE 


made  over  to  the  British.      The  town  stands  in 
long.  77°  22'  E.,  and  lat.  14°  19'. 

RYE,  n.  s.  Sax.  riyje ;  Swed.  ryg,  rug ; 
Belg.  rogge,  i.  e.  rough.  A  coarse  kind  of  bread 
corn. 

Between  the  acres  of  the  rye, 
These  pretty  country  folks  would  lye.      S/iakspeare 

Some  sow  rye  grass  with  the  corn  at  Michaelmas 

Mortimer. 

Rye  is  more  acrid,  laxative,  and  less  nourishing 
than  wheat.  Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 

RYE,  in  botany.     See  SECALE. 

RYE,  a  town  of  Sussex,  with  markets  on  Wed- 
nesday and  Saturday.  It  is  one  of  the  cinque- 
ports  ;  is  a  handsome  well  built  place,  governed 
by  a  mayor  and  jurats,  and  sends  one  member 
to  parliament.  It  has  a  church  built  with  stone, 
and  a  town  hall ;  and  the  streets  are  paved  with 
stone.  It  has  two  gates,  and  is  a  place  of  great 
naval  trade.  Thence  large  quantities  of  corn 
are  exported,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  are 
fishermen.  It  is  thirty-four  miles  south-east 
by  south  of  Tunbridge,  and  sixty-four  on  the 
same  point  from  London.  The  mouth  of  the 
harbour  is  choked  up  with  sand,  though  of 
late  it  has  been  considerably  improved,  by  cut- 
ting a  new  channel  to  the  sea,  and  erecting  a 
dam  across  the  old  one,  under  the  direction  of 
Dr.  Pape,  vicar  of  Pen.  The  corporation  is  held 
by  prescription,  and  consists  of  a  mayor,  jurats, 
and  freemen  ;  and,  ever  since  the  reign  of  king 
Edward  III.,  this  place  has  sent  two  members 
to  parliament,  who  are  elected  by  the  mayor  and 
freemen.  A  store-house,  called  the  Friary,  was 
formerly  a  church  belonging  to  the  Augustins. 

RYEGATE,  a  borough  and  market  town  of 
Surry,  seated  in  the  valley  of  Holmsdale.  It 
sends  one  member  to  the  imperial  parliament. 
It  had  a  castle,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be 
seen;  particularly  a  long  vault,  with  a  large 
room  at  one  end,  where  the  barons  held  their 
private  meetings  in  the  reign  of  king  John,  be- 
fore they  took  up  arms  against  him.  It  is  six- 
teen miles  east  of  Guildford,  and  twenty-one 
south-west  of  London.  Market  on  Tuesday. 

RYEGRASS.     See  HORDEUM. 

RYEPOOR,  a  large  town  of  Hindostan,  pro- 
vince of  Gundwaneh,  district  of  Choteesgur.  It 
was  formerly  reckoned  the  second  in  the  Nagpore 
dominions,  and  is  situated  on  the  road  from 
Cuttack  to  Nagpore,  in  long.  82°  26'  E..  lat.  21° 
17'  N. 

RYER  (Peter  Du),  a  French  dramatic  writer, 
oprn  in  Paris  in  1605.  He  was  secretary  to  the 
king,  and  afterwards  became  secretary  to  the 
duke  of  Vendome.  He  wrote  for  the  booksellers, 
and  his  works  procured  him  a  place  in  the 
French  Academy  in  1646.  He  was  afterwards 
made  historiographer  of  France.  He  wrote  nine- 
teen dramatic  pieces,  and  thirteen  translations. 
He  died  in  1658. 

RYMER  (Thomas),  esq.,  the  author  of  the 
Pffidera,  was  born  in  the  north  of  England,  and 
educted  at  the  grammar  school  of  Northallerton. 


He  was  admitted  a  scholar  at  Cambridge,  then 
became  a  member  of  Gray's  Inn,  and  at  length 
was  appointed  historiographer  to  king  William. 
He  wrote  A  View  of  the  Tragedies  of  the  Last 
Age,  and  afterwards  published  a  tragedy  named 
Edgar.  His  Fccdera,  a  collection  of  all  the 
public  transactions,  treaties,  &c.,  of  the  kings  of 
England  with  foreign  princes,  is  esteemed  one  of 
our  most  authentic  and  valuable  records,  and  is 
often  referred  to  by  the  best  English  historians. 
It  was  published  in  London  about  1700,  in 
17  vols.  folio.  Three  were  added  by  Sanderson 
after  Rymer's  death.  The  whole  were  reprinted 
at  the  Hague  in  10  vols.  in  1739.  They  were 
abridged  by  Rapin  in  French,  and  inserted  in 
Le  Clerc's  Bibliotheque.  Rymer  died  in  1713. 
Some  specimens  of  his  poetry  are  preserved  in 
Nichols's  Select  Collections. 

RYMER,  THOMAS  THE.     See  RHYMER. 

RYNABAD,  a  town  of  Bengal,  in  the  district 
of  Jessore,  stands  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Boi- 
rub,  and  is  one  of  the  most  frequented  channels 
for  boats  coming  down  the  country  in  the  hot  sea- 
son, through  the  woods  or  sunderbunds.  Long. 
89°  44'  E.,  lat.  22°  42'  N. 

RYNCHOPS,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  belong- 
ing to  the  order  of  anseres.  The  bill  is  straight; 
and  the  superior  mandible  much  shorter  than  the 
inferior,  which  is  truncated  at  the  point.  The 
species  are  two,  viz. 

1.  R.  fulva,  and  2.  R.  nigra,  both  natives  of 
America. 

RYSCHIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  and  penta»idria  class  of  plants:  TIL. 
pentaphyllous :  COR.  pentapetalous ;  the  apices 
turned  back,  about  three  times  the  length  of  the 
calyx ;  the  filaments  are  five,  awl-shaped,  and 
shorter  than  the  petals :  CAPS,  quadrilocular, 
and  contains  many  seeds.  Of  this  there  are  two 
species,  viz. 

1.  R.  clausifolia  ;  and  2.  R.souroubea. 

RYVES  (Sir  Thomas),  an  English  lawyer, 
born  about  1590,  and  educated  at  Winchester 
school,  and  the  university  of  Oxford.  He  be- 
came a  celebrated  civilian  in  Doctors'  Commons, 
and  the  court  of  Admiralty.  On  the  accession 
of  Charles  I.  he  was  made  king's  advocate,  and 
knighted.  He  wrote,  1.  The  Vicar's  Plea;  2. 
Historia  Navalis  Antiqua;  3.  Historia  Navalis 
Media.  He  died  in  1651. 

RZESZOW,  one  of  the  circles  of  Austrian 
Poland,  lying  along  the  southern  frontier  of  the 
new  kingdom  of  Poland,  and  containing  a  tract 
of  1675  square  miles.  It  is  watered  by  the 
San  and  the  Wisloka,  and  has  about  225,000  in- 
habitants. It  is  in  general  level  and  fertile,  but 
is  covered  on  the  north  side  by  almost  impene 
trable  forests.  The  capital  of  the  same  name  is 
a  small  town  on  the  Wisloka,  seventy  miles  west 
of  Lemberg,  and  eighty  east  of  Cracow.  It  is  one 
of  the  best  built  towns  of  the  Austrian  part  of 
Poland,  and  has  a  brisk  traffic  in  corn  and  poultry. 
Inhabitants  4600. 


P2 


SAA 


212 


SAB 


As  a  letter,  S  is  the  eighteenth  in  our  alphabet, 
-and  the  fourteenth  consonant.  The  sound  is 
formed  by  driving  the  breath  through  a  narrow 
passage  between  the  palate  and  the  tongue,  ele- 
vated near  it,  together  with  a  motion  of  the  lower 
jaw  and  teeth  towards  the  upper,  the  lips  being 
a  little  way  open ;  with  such  a  configuration  of 
every  part  of  the  mouth  and  larynx  as  renders 
the  voice  somewhat  hissing. 

S  has  in  English  the  same  sound  as  in  other 
languages,  and  unhappily  prevails  in  so  many  of 
our  words  that  it  produces  in  the  ear  of  a 
foreigner  a  continued  sibilation.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  words  it  has  invariably  its  natural  and 
genuine  sound  :  in  the  middle  it  is  sometimes 
uttered  with  a  stronger  appulse  of  the  tongue  to 
the  palate,  like  z,  as  rose,  rosy,  osier,  resident, 
business.  In  the  end  of  monosyllables  it  is 
sometimes  5,  as  in  this ;  and  sometimes  z,  as  in 
as,  has;  no  noun  singular  should  end  with  s 
single :  therefore  in  words,  written  with  diph- 
thongs, and  naturally  long,  an  e  is  nevertheless 
added  at  the  end,  as  goose,  house  ;  and,  where 
the  syllable  is  short,  the  s  is  doubled,  and  was 
once  sse,  as  ass,  anciently  asse;  wilderness, 
anciently  wildernesse;  distress,  anciently  dis- 
tresse.  In  some  words  it  is  silent,  as  isle, 
island,  viscount,  &c.  Of  all  other  letters,  the  s 
is  nearest  akin  to  the  r ;  whence  it  was  frequently 
changed,  on  account  of  its  disagreeable  sound, 
into  r.  See  R.  Add  to  this,  that  the  Latin 
nouns  now  terminating  in  or,  as  arbor,  labor,  Sec., 
all  anciently  ended  in  s,  as  arbos,  labos,  &c. 
As  an  abbreviation,  S  stands  for  societas  or 
socius;  as,  R.S.S.  for  Regie  societatis  socius ;  or 
F.  R.S.  Frater  rigia  societatis,  i.  e.  fellow  of  the 
royal  society.  As  a  numeral,  S  was  anciently 
us*»r1  for  seven. 

SAAD  EDDIN  MOHAMMED  BEN  HASSAN, 
known  also  by  the  appellation  of  Khodja  Effendi, 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  Turkish  historians. 
He  became  preceptor  to  sultan  Amurath  III. ;  and 
was  subsequently  appointed  mufti,  which  office 
he  held  till  his  death,  about  A.  D.  1600.  He 
was  the  author  of  The  Crown  of  Histories,  con- 
taining an  account  of  all  the  Turkish  emperors 
to  his  own  times,  translated  into  Italian  by  Vin- 
cent Brattuti,  and  into  Latin  by  Kollar.  A.  L. 
Schloezer,  in  his  Critico- Historical  Amusements, 
Gottingen,  1797,  8vo.,  has  given  full  details  of 
this  Chronicle,  which  has  been  continued  from 
1510,  where  the  author  concluded  it,  to  1751,  by 
five  other  historiographers  appointed  by  the 
lultans. 

SAADE,  a  town  of  Arabia,  the  capital  of  the 
mountainous  district  of  Yemen,  called  also  the  Sa- 
han.  It  is  the  residence  of  a  chief,who  assumes  the 
title  of  Imam ;  but  who  finds  it  difficult  to  main- 
tain his  ground.  His  revenue  arises  chiefly  from  a 
custom-house  here  established,  at  which  duties 
are  paid  by  goods  passing  into  the  interior.  In 
the  neighbourhood  is  a  fortified  height.  368 
miles  N.N.  E.  of  Mocha. 

SAAN  LOUIS,  a  town  of  the  Prussian  pro- 
\ince  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  fortified  by  Vauban, 


S. 

under  Louis  XIV.,  but  ceded  to  Prussia  by  a 
treaty  of  Paris  in  1815.  During  the  revolution, 
this  place  was  called  Sarre  Libre.  It  is  eleven 
miles  north-west  of  Saarbruck,  and  thirty-four 
east  of  Thionville,  contains  4 100  inhabitants,  and 
has  manufactures  of  iron  and  leather. 

SAATZ,  a  circle  of  Bohemia,  contiguous  to 
the  Saxon  frontier,  and  to  the  circles  of  Leut- 
meritz,  Rakonitz,  and  Elnbogen.  Its  area  is 
about  820  square  miles,  is  level  towards  the 
south,  and  contains  some  of  the  best  corn  land 
in  Bohemia,  but  the  north  is  traversed  by  the 
Erzgebirge  mountains,  in  which  there  are  mines  of 
iron,  alum,  and  tin.  The  woods  are  here  also 
extensive.  Other  products  of  this  circle  are 
flax,  hops,  turf,  and  coal.  There  are  some  cotton 
manufactures.  Population  114,000. 

SAATZ,  in  Bohemian  Zatets,  a  town  of  Bohe- 
mia, on  the  Egra,  the  chief  place  of  the  preced- 
ing circle.  Population  3800.  Eighty-nine  miles 
west  by  north  of  Prague,  aud  twenty-eight  east 
of  Carlsbad. 

SAAVEDRA.     See  CERVANTES. 

SABA,  a  Dutch  island  of  the  West  Indies,  is 
a  great  but  fruitful  rock,  four  leagues  in  circuit, 
without  any  road  for  ships,  and  with  but  one 
landing  place,  at  a  creek  on  the  south  side.  One 
delightful  valley  produces  necessaries  for  the  few 
inhabitants,  and  materials  for  several  manufac- 
tures ;  but,  being  destitute  of  a  port,  its  com- 
merce is  inconsiderable.  There  is  abundance  of 
fish,  particularly  bonitos,  caught  on  the  coasts. 
Rocks  appear  for  some  distance  on  the  coast, 
and  vessels*  of  course  cannot  come  in,  unless  they 
be  very  small. 

SAB^EANS,  or  SABJEI.    See  SABIANS. 

SAB'AOTH,  n.s.  Heb.  K3JT.  Signifying  an 
army. 

Holy  Lord  God  of  sabaoth  ;  that  is,  Lord  of  hosts. 
Common  I'rayer. 

SABA/I  A,  in  Greek  antiquity,  were  noctur- 
nal mysteries  in  honor  of  Jupiter  Sabazius.  All 
the  initiated  had  a  golden  serpent  put  in  at  their 
breasts,  and  taken  out  at  the  lower  part  of  their 
garments,  in  memory  of  Jupiter's  ravishing  Pro- 
serpine in  the  form  of  a  serpent.  There  were  also 
other  feasts  and  sacrifices  distinguished  by  this 
appellation,  in  honor  of  Mithras,  the  deity  of 
the  Persians. 

SABBATARIANS,  a  sect  of  Christians, 
chiefly  Baptists,  whot  observe  the  Jewish  or 
seventh-day  Sabbath,  from  a  persuasion  that, 
being  one  of  the  ten  commandments,  which 
they  contend  are  all  in  their  nature  moral,  it 
was  not  abrogated  by  the  New  Testament.  They 
say  that  Saturday  must  at  least  be  deemed  of 
equal  validity  for  public  worship  with  any  day 
never  particularly  set  apart  by  Jesus  Christ  and 
his  Apostles.  In  our  own  country  this  sect  is 
by  no  means  numerous.  They  have  but  two  con- 
gregations in  London,  if  these  are  not  united. 
In  America,  however,  there  are  many  Christians 
of  this  persuasion,  particularly  in  Rhode  Island, 
and  New  Jersey. 


SABBATH. 


213 


SAB'BATH,  n.  s.  >      Heb.    H3P,   signifying 
SABBAT'ICAL,  adj.  ]  rest;  Fr.  s'ibbat;  Lat.  sab- 
batum.     The  day  appointed   by  God  for  public 
worship  among  Jews  and  Christians  :   the  adjec- 
tive correspond)  ag. 

I  purpose, 

And  by  our  holy  sabbath  have  I  sworn, 
To  have  the  due  and  forfeit  of  my  bond. 

Shakspeare 

The  usurer  is  the  greatest  sabbathbreaker,  because 
his  plough  goes  every  Sunday.  Bacon'i  Essays. 

The  Sabbathless  pursuit  of  wealth  is  the  present 
disease  of  Great  Britain.  Bacon. 

Never  any  sabbath  of  release 
Could  free  his  travels  and  afflictions  deep. 

Daniel's  Civil  War. 

Glad  we  returned  up  to  the  coasts  of  light, 
Ere  sabbath  ev'ning.  Milton. 

Nor  can  his  blessed  soul  look  down  from  heaven, 
Or  break  the  eternal  sabbath  of  his  rest, 
To  see  her  miseries  on  earth.  Dryden. 

The  appointment  and  observance  of  the  sabbatical 
year,  and,  after  the  seventh  sabbatical  year,  a  year 
of  jubilee,  is  a  circumstance  of  great  moment. 

Forbes. 

Peaceful  sleep  out  the  sabbath  of  the  tomb, 
And  wake  to  raptures  in  a  life  to  come.  Pope. 

SABBATH,  Heb.  H31P,  i.  e.  rest.  The  seventh 
day  was  so  denominated,  because  in  it  God  had 
rested  from  his  works  of  creation.  From  that 
time  the  seventh  day  was  set  apart  for  religious 
services;  and,  by  a  particular  injunction,  was 
afterwards  observed  by  the  Hebrews  as  a  holy 
day.  They  were  commanded  to  set  it  apart  for 
sacred  purposes  in  honor  of  the  creation  being 
completed  in  six  days,  God  resting  on  the 
seventh. 

The  importance  of  the  institution  may  be  ga- 
thered from  the  different  laws  respecting  it. 
When  the  ten  commandments  were  published 
from  Mount  Sinai,  the  law  of  the  Sabbath  held 
a  place  in  what  is  commonly  called  the  first 
tulile,  and  by  subsequent  statutes  the  violation 
of  it  was  punished  with  death.  Six  days  were 
allowed  for  the  service  of  man;  but  the  seventh 
God  reserved  to  himself,  and  appointed  it  to  be 
observed  as  a  stated  time  for  holy  offices,  and 
the  duties  of  piety  and  devotion.  On  this  day 
the  ministers  of  the  temple  entered  upon  their 
week ;  and  those  who  had  attended  on  the  tem- 
ple service  the  preceding  week  went  out  at  the 
same  time.  New  loaves  of  show-bread  were 
placed  upon  the  golden  table,  and  the  old  ones 
taken  away.  Two  lambs  for  a  burnt-offering, 
with  a  certain  proportion  of  fine  flour  mingled 
with  oil,  and  wine  for  a  libation,  were  offered. 
The  Sabbath  too  was  celebrated  from  evening  to 
evening.  It  began  at  six  in  the  evening  on 
Friday,  and  ended  at  the  same  time  the  next 
day.  Concerning  the  time  at  which  the  Sab- 
bath day  was  first  instituted,  different  opinions 
have  been  held,  some  have  maintained  that  the 
sanctincaion  of  the  seventh  day,  mentioned  in 
Gen  ii.,  is  only  there  spoken  of  Jio  7rpo\«i//tv,  or 
by  anticipation  ;  and  is  to  be  understood  of  the 
Sabbath  afterwards  enjoined  the  children  of 
Israel.  But  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the  in- 
spired penman  would  have  mentioned  the  sanc- 
tification  of  the  seventh  day  amongst  the  pri- 
meval transactions,  if  such  sanctitication  had 
not  taken  place  until  2500  years  afterwards. 


From  the  accounts  we  have  of  the  religious 
service  practised  in  the  patriarchal  age,  it  ap- 
pears that,  immediately  after  the  fall,  when  Adam 
was  restored  to  favor  through  a  mediator,  a  stated 
form  of  public  worship  was  instituted,  which 
man  was  required  to  observe,  in  testimony,  not 
only  of  his  dependence  on  the  Creator,  but  also 
of  his  faith  and  hope  in  the  promise  made  to 
our  first  parents,  and  seen  afar  off.  It  is  no  ob- 
jection to  the  early  institution  of  the  Sabbath 
that  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  history  of 
the  patriarchal  age.  When  Moses  wrote  the 
book  of  Genesis  it  was  unnecessary  to  relate 
minutely  transactions  and  institutions  already 
well  known  by  tradition;  accordingly  we  see 
that  his  narrative  is  every  where  very  concise, 
and  calculated  only  to  preserve  the  memory  of 
the  most  important  facts.  The  sabbath  is  first 
taken  notice  of  as  a  well  known  solemnity  ;  and 
the  incidental  manner  in  which  it  is  mentioned  is 
a  convincing  proof  that  the  Israelites  were  no 
strangers  to  the  institution ;  for,  had  it  been  a 
new  one,  it  must  have  been  enjoined  in  a  positive 
and  particular  manner,  and  the  nature  of  it  must 
have  been  laid  open  and  explained,  otherwise  the 
term  would  have  conveyed  no  meaning. 

The  division  of  time  into  weeks,  or  periods 
of  seven  days,  which  obtained  so  early  and  al- 
most universally,  is  a  strong  indication  that  one 
day  in  seven  was  always  distinguished  in  a  par- 
ticular manner.  God  commanded  Noah,  seven 
days  before  he  entered  the  ark,  to  introduce  into 
it  all  sorts  of  living  creatures.  When  the  waters 
of  the  flood  began  to  abate,  Noah  sent  forth  a 
dove,  which,  finding  no  rest  for  the  sole  of  her 
foot,  returned  to  him.  After  seven  days  he  sent 
forth  the  dove  a  second  time ;  again  she  returned 
to  the  ark,  &c.  This  septenary  division  of  time 
has  been,  from  the  earliest  ages,  uniformly  ob- 
served over  all  the  eastern  world.  The  Assy- 
rians, Egyptians,  Arabians,  and  Persians,  made 
use  of  a  week,  consisting  of  seven  days.  Many 
vain  attempts  have  been  made  to  account  for  this 
uniformity ;  but  a  practice  so  general  and  preva- 
lent could  never  have  taken  place  had  not  the 
septenary  distribution  of  time  been  instituted 
from  the  beginning,  and  handed  down  by  tradi- 
tion. From  the  same  source  also  must  the  an- 
cient heathens  have  derived  their  notions  of  the 
sacredness  of  the  seventh  day.  That  they  had 
such  notions  of  it  is  evident  from  several  pas- 
sages of  the  Greek  poets,  quoted  by  Aristobulus, 
a  learned  Jew,  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and 
Eusebius. 


wpov 


The  seventh,  the  sacred  day. 


Ilcsiod. 


upov  t)fiap. 

Homer. 
Afterwards  came  the  seventh,  the  sacred  day. 

That  they  likewise  held  the  number  seven  in 
high  estimation  has  been  also  shown.  The  Py- 
thagoreans call  it  the  venerable  number,  ai^aautt 
a£ioc,  worthy  of  veneration,  and  held  it  to  be 
perfect  and  most  proper  to  religion.  These  facts 
can  be  accounted  for  only  by  admitting  the 
primeval  institution  of  the  Sabbath,  as  related 
by  Moses  in  the  book  of  Genesis.  That  institu- 
tion was  absolutely  necessary  to  preserve  amori;:: 
men  a  sense  of  religion  ;  and  it  was  renewed  to. 


SAB 


214 


SAB 


the  Jews  at  the  giving  of  the  law,  and  its  ob- 
servance enforced  by  the  severest  penalties.  It 
was  accordingly  observed  by  them  with  more  or 
less  strictness  in  every  period  of  their  common- 
wealth and  kingdom ;  and  there  is  no  one  of  the 
institutions  of  their  divine  lawgiver  which,  in 
their  present  state  of  dispersion,  they  more 
highly  honor.  In  the  time  of  the  Maccabees 
they  carried  their  respect  for  the  Sabbath  so  very 
high  that  they  would  not  on  that  day  defend 
themselves  from  the  attacks  of  their  enemies. 
But  afterwards  they  did  not  scruple  to  stand 
upon  their  necessary  defence,  although  they 
vrould  do  nothing  to  prevent  the  enemy  from 
carrying  On  their  operations.  When  our  Saviour 
was  on  earth,  it  was  no  sin  to  loose  a  beast  from 
the  stall,  and  lead  him  to  water  ;  and,  if  he  had 
chanced  to  fall  into  a  ditch,  they  pulled  him  out: 
but  now  it  is  absolutely  unlawful  to  give  a  crea- 
ture in  that  situation  any  other  assistance  than 
that  of  food.  Their  various  ceremonies  are  so 
trifling,  superstitious,  and  ridiculous,  that  we 
think  it  would  be  disgracing  a  work  of  science 
to  take  up  room  with  them.  Vide  Buxtorfs 
Judaica  Synagoga ;  and  Allen's  Modern  Judaism. 
As  the  seventh  day  was  observed  by  the 
Jewish  church,  in  memory  of  the  rest  of  God 
after  the  works  of  creation,  so  the  first  day  of 
the  week  has  always  been  observed  by  the  Chris- 
tian church,  in  memory  of  the  resurrection"  of 
Jesus  Christ,  by  which  he  completed  the  work 
of  man's  redemption  on  earth,  and  rescued  him 
from  the  dominion  of  him  who  has  the  power  of 
death.  This  day  was  denominated  by  the  primi- 
tive Christians  the  Lord's  Day,  or  Sunday,  but 
it  was  never  styled  the  Sabbath ;  a  name  solely 
appropriated  to  Saturday,  or  the  seventh  day, 
both  by  sacred  and  ecclesiastical  writers.  Of 
the  change  from  the  seventh  to  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  or  even  of  the  institution  of  the  Lord's 
Day  festival,  there  is  no  account  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. However,  it  may  be  fairly  inferred 
from  it  that  the  first  day  of  the  week  was,  in  the 
apostolic  age,  a  stated  time  for  public  worship. 
On  this  day  the  apostles  were  assembled,  when 
the  Holy  Ghost  came  down  so  visibly  upon  them 
to  qualify  them  for  the  conversion  of  the  world. 
On  this  day  we  find  St.  Paul  preaching  at  Troas, 
when  the  disciples  came  to  break  bread :  and 
the  directions  which  the  same  apostle  gives  to 
the  Corinthians,  concerning  their  contributions 
for  the  relief  of  their  suffering  brethren,  plainly 
allude  to  their  religious  assemblies  on  the  first 
day  of  the  week.  From  the  consentient  evidence 
and  uniform  practice  of  the  primitive  church, 
and  also  from  the  attestation  of  Pliny,  we  find 
that  the  first  day  of  the  week  was  observed  in 
the  earliest  ages  as  a  holy  day  or  festival,  in 
honor  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  In  the 
early  ages  this  day  was  occupied  in  a  constant 
atlendance  on  all  the  offices  of  divine  worship. 
On  it  they  held  their  religious  assemblies,  in 
which  the  writings  of  the  apostles  and  prophets 
were  read  to  the  people,  and  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity  pressed  upon  them  by  the  exhorta- 
tions of  the  clergy.  Solemn  prayers  and  praises 
were  offered  up  to  God,  and  hymns  sung  in 
honor  of  Christ ;  the  Lord's  supper  was  cele- 
brated ;  and  collections  were  made  for  the  main- 


tenance of  the  clergy  and  the  relief  of  the  poor 
On  this  day  they  abstained,  as  much  as  they 
could,  from  bodily  labor.  They  looked  upon 
it  as  a  day  of  joy  and  gladness  ;  and  therefore 
all  fasting  on  it  was  prohibited,  even  during 
Lent,  their  gieat  annual  fast. — Such  was  the  zeal 
of  those  times  that  nothing,  no,  not  the  severest 
persecutions,  hindered  them  from  celebrating 
holy  offices  on  this  day ;  and,  when  they  could 
not  meet  in  the  day  time,  they  assembled  in  the 
morning  before  it  was  light.  When  the  empire 
became  Christian,  Constantine  and  his  successors 
made  laws  for  the  more  solemn  observation  of 
the  Lord's  day.  They  prohibited  all  prosecu- 
tions and  pleadings,  and  other  juridical  matters, 
to  be  transacted  on  it,  and  also  all  unnecessary 
labor. 

SABBATH  BREAKING,  or  profanation  of  the 
Lord's  day,  is  punished  by  the  municipal  laws 
of  England.  The  keeping  one  day  in  seven  holy. 
as  a  time  of  relaxation  and  refreshment,  as  well 
as  for  public  worship,  is  of  great  service  to  a  state, 
considered  merely  as  a  civil  institution.  The 
laws  of  king  Athelstan  forbad  all  merchandising 
on  the  Lord's  day,  under  very  severe  penalties. 
And  by  the  statute  27  Henry  VI.,  c.  5,  no  fair 
or  market  shall  be  held  on  the  principal  festivals, 
Good  Friday,  or  any  Sunday  (except  the  four 
Sundays  in  harvest),  on  pain  of  forfeiting  the 
goods  exposed  to  sale.  And  by  the  statute  1 
Car.  I.,  c.  1 ,  no  persons  shall  assemble,  out  of 
their  own  parishes,  for  any  sport  whatsoever, 
upon  this  day  ;  nor,  in  their  parishes,  shall  use 
any  bull  or  bear  beating,  interludes,  plays,  or 
other  unlawful  exercises  or  pastimes,  on  pain 
that  every  offender  shall  pay  3s.  4d.  to  the  poor. 
By  statute  29  Car.  II.,  c.  7,  no  person  is  allowed 
to  work  on  the  Lord's  day,  or  use  any  boat  or 
barge,  or  expose  any  goods  to  sale,  except  meat 
in  public  houses,  milk  at  certain  hours,  and 
works  of  necessity  or  charity,  on  forfeiture  of  5s. 

SABBATH  DAY'S  JOURNEY,  a  measure,  amonvr 
the  ancient  Jews,  of  729  English  paces  and  three 
feet;  or  200O  cubits;  or  3648  feet. 

SABBATICAL  YEAR,  or  the  year  of  jubilee,  among 
the  ancient  Jews,  was  every  seventh  year ;  in 
which  it  was  unlawful  to  till  the  ground,  and  all 
slaves  were  set  at  liberty,  except  those  who  pre- 
ferred continuing  in  service  to  freedom.  There 
was  also  a  grand  sabbatical  year  held  by  the  Jews 
with  uncommon  splendor  every  forty-ninth  year : 
though  some  commentators  assert  it  was  held  tin- 
fiftieth  year.  See  JUBILEE. 

SABEANS,  in  ancient  history,  a  tribe  of 
Arabs,  descended  from  Sheba,  the  son  of  Cush, 
or  from  Sheba,  the  son  of  Raaroah,  and  grandson 
of  Cush.  .  They  inhabited  the  country  culled 
Saba  or  Sheba ;  they  carried  off  Job's  cattle,  and 
were  afterwards  conquered  by  Cyrus. 

SABEANS,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a  sect  of 
Christian  heretics,  who  held  mixed  doctrines  dc» 
rived  from  Christianity,  Judaism,  Mahometanism, 
and  Paganism.  They  adopted  baptism  after 
the  example,  and  in  commemoration  of,  John 
the  Baptist;  but  did  not  administer  it  in  the 
name  of  the  Trinity.  They  have  four  sacraments ; 
baptism,  the  eucharist,  orders,  and  marriage. 
Both  ministers  and  laity  are  allowed  two  wives, 
-till  retain  some  knowledge  of  the  gospel; 


SAB 


215 


SAB 


but  their  superstitious  ceremonies  and  frequent 
washings  are  supposed  to  be  of  Jewish  origin, 
and  derived  from  the  Hemerobaptists,  who  had 
a  -;hief  of  the  name  of  John. 

SABELLI,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy,  de- 
scended from  the  Sabines,  or,  as  others  say,  of 
the  Samnites.  They  inhabited  that  part  of  Italy 
which  lay  between  the  Sabines  and  the  Marsi. 

SABELLIANS,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a 
sect  of  the  third  century,  who  embraced  the 
opinions  of  Sabellius.  They  maintained  that  the 
Word  and  the  Holy  Spirit  are  only  virtues,  ema- 
nations, or  functions  of  the  Deity  ;  and  held  that 
he  who  is  in  heaven  is  the  Father  and  Creator  of 
all  things,  that  he,  through  the  virgin,  became  a 
child ;  and  that,  having  accomplished  the  mys- 
tery of  our  salvation,  he  diffused  himself  on  the 
apostles  in  tongues  of  fire,  and  was  then  denomi- 
nated the  Holy  Ghost.  This  they  explained  by 
resembling  God  to  the  sun,  the  illuminative  vir- 
tue or  quality  of  which  was  the  Word,  and  its 
warming  virtue  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Word, 
they  taught,  was  darted  like  a  divine  ray,  to  ac- 
complish the  work  of  redemption ;  and  that, 
being  re-ascended  to  heaven,  the  influences  of 
the  Father  were  communicated  after  a  like  man- 
ner to  the  apostles.  They  were  anathematised  in 
a  council  held  at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  381. 

SABELLICUS  (Mark  Anthony  Coccins),  a 
learned  Italian,  born  at  a  small  town  upon  the 
Teveron,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  He  became 
professor  of  belles  lettres  at  Vicenza,  and  died 
in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  age. 

SABELLIUS,  an  ancient  philosopher  of  Egypt, 
the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Sabellians,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Libya.  He  first  broached  his  doctrines 
in  the  third  century,  about  the  year  255,  in  Pto- 
lemais.  He  taught,  according  to  Epiphanius, 
that  the  same  person  is  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Ghost ;  so  that  there  are  only  three  denomina- 
tions in  one  hypostasis  or  subsistence ;  or)  as  in 
man,  body,  soul,  and  spirit.  This  author  says 
that  the  Sabellians  agreed  with  the  Noetians,  ex- 
cept in  one  thing,  viz.  that  they  said  the  Father 
did  not  suffer.  Theodoret's  account  of  Sabellius 
is,  that  he  taught  the  Father,  and  the  Son,  and 
the  Holy  Spirit,  to  be  one  hypostasis  or  subsis- 
tence, and  one  person  with  three  names ;  that  he 
speaks  of  the  same  sometimes  as  Father,  some- 
times as  Son,  and  sometimes  as  Holy  Ghost. 

SABIA,  a  country  of  Eastern  Africa,  to  the 
south  of  Sofala,  traversed  by  a  river  of  the  same 
name,  which  falls  into  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Slaves,  ivory,  and  gold  dust,  may  be  procured 
here. 

SABIANS,  or  SAB^ANS,  an  ancient  sect  of 
idolaters,  who  worshipped  the  sun.  Some  critics 
derive  the  name  from  the  Hebrew  Tsaba,  a  host 
or  army,  because  they  worshipped  the  host  of 
heaven,  the  Tsaba  hememim,  against  which 
idolatry  Moses  cautions  the  Israelites.  The 
word  is  sometimes  also  written  Sabaites,  Za- 
beeans,  Zabians,  Zabaites,  Tsabaeans,  Tsabians, 
and  Tsabaists.  Mahomet,  in  the  Koran,  and 
the  Arabian  authors  since  him,  make  frequent 
'mention  of  them.  Beidavius,  in  his  comment 
on  the  Koran,  represents  them  as  a  kind  of  mean 
between  the  Christians  ana  the  Magusians,  who 
«re  trie  followers  of  the  Magi  among  the  Persians : 


he  adds,  that  they  pretend  to  be  of  the  religion 
of  Noah.  Some  charge  them  with  worshipping 
the  stars;  and  others  the  angels  or  demons. 
Maimonides  attributes  both  to  them. 

Sale,  in  his  preliminary  discourse  to  the  Koran, 
has  given  the  following  brief  account  of  the 
tenets  and  worship  of  this  sect : — They  believe 
in  the  existence  of  one  God,  though  they  also 
pay  an  adoration  to  the  stars,  or  the  angels  and 
intelligences  which  they  suppose  reside  in  them, 
and  govern  the  world  under  the  supreme  Deity. 
They  endeavour  to  perfect  themselves  in  the 
four  intellectual  virtues,  and  believe  the  souls  of 
wicked  men  will  be  punished  for  9000  ages,  but 
will  afterwards  be  received  to  mercy.  They  are 
obliged  to  pray  three  times  a  day,  before  sun- 
rise, before  noon,  and  before  sun-set;  and  in 
praying  they  turn  their  faces,  as  some  say,  to  the 
north ;  according  to  others  to  the  south,  to  Mec- 
ca, or  to  the  star  to  which  they  pay  their  devo- 
tion. They  have  three  fasts  in  the  year;  the 
first  lasts  thirty  days,  the  second  nine  days,  and 
the  last  seven.  They  offer  many  sacrifices,  of 
which  they  eat  no  part,  but  wholly  burn  them. 
They  abstain  from  beans,  garlic,  and  some  other 
pulse  and  vegetables. 

SABINA  (Julia),  a  Roman  lady,  who  married 
the  emperor  Adrian,  by  advice  of  Plotina,  Tra- 
jan's widow.  She  is  celebrated  for  her  .virtues, 
but  was  ill  used  by  her  husband,  though  she  as- 
sisted in  raising  him  to  the  empire.  Some  say 
he  even  poisoned  her.  She  had  been  thirty-eight 
years  married  to  him  when  she  died  A.  D.  138. 

SA'BINE,  n.  s.  Fr.  sabine;  Lat.  sabina.  A 
plant. 

'  Sabine  or  savin  will  make  fine  hedges,  and  may  be 
brought  into  any  form  by  clipping  much  beyond 
trees.  Mortimer. 

SABINE,  or  SAVIN.     See  JUNIPERUS. 

SABINES,  or  SABINI,  an  ancient  nation  of 
Italy,  reckoned  among  the  Aborigines.  Some, 
however,  say  they  were  originally  a  colony  of 
Spartans,  who  settled  in  that  part  of  Italy. 
Their  territories  were  situated  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Rome  between  the  Nar  and  the  Anio, 
and  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Appennines  and 
Umbria;  east  by  the  dominions  of  the  JEqui ; 
south  by  Latium;  and  west  by  Etruria.  Their 
chief  cities  were  Cures,  Fidenae,  Crustumerium, 
Collatia,  Corniculum,  Nomentum,  and  Reate. 
The  greatest  part  of  the  neighbouring  nations 
were  descended  from  them ;  particularly  the 
Sabelli,  the  Samnites,  the  Umbrians,  yEqui, 
Brutii,  Marsi,  &c.  Under  their  king  Titus 
Tatius  they  made  war  with  the  Romans  under 
Romulus,  on  account  of  the  rape  of  their  virgins ; 
but,  after  several  battles,  the  war  was  put  an  end 
to  by  the  women  on  whose  account  it  was  com- 
menced, who  by  this  time  were  attached  to  their 
Roman  husbands ;  a  peace  was  concluded,  the 
nations  united,  and  Romulus  and  Tatius  reigned 
jointly  for  six  years  over  both  nations,  till  Tatius 
was  killed.  See  ROME.  After  this  they  occa- 
sionally revolted,  but  were  finally  subdued  and 
incorporated  as  Roman  citizens  about  A.  U.C. 
373. 

SABINUS,  a  native  of  Sparta,  the  founder  of 
the  Sabine  nation,  to  whom  he  gave  name.  He 
was  deified  after  his  death. 


SAB 


216 


SAB 


SABINUS  (Flavius),  a  brother  of  the  emperor 
Vespasian,  famed  for  his  fidelity  to  Vitellius. 
He  commanded  the  Roman  armies  thirty-five* 
years,  and  governed  Home  twelve  years ;  but 
was  killed  irt  an  insurrection  of  the  people. 

SABINUS  (Julius),  a  Roman  commander,  who 
proclaimed  himself  emperor,  in  opposition  to 
Vespasian,  but,  being  defeated  soon  after,  hid 
himself  for  nine  years  in  a  cave,  attended  by  his 
wife  and  two  faithful  domestics  ;  but  being  dis- 
covered he  was  dragged  before  Vespasian,  and 
by  his  order  put  to  death,  though  his  wife  en- 
deavoured to  excite  Vespasian's  compassion,  by 
sliDwing  him  the  twins  she  had  borne  in  the  cave. 

SABINUS  (Francis  Floridus),  a  learned  writer, 
who  flourished  soon  after  the  restoration  of  let- 
ters in  Europe.  His  chief  works  are,  In  Calum- 
niatores  IMauti  et  aliorum  linguae  Latinae  scrip- 
sorum  apologia,  Basil,  1540;  and  Lectionum 
Successivarum  libri  tres.  Franc.  1602,  8vo.  He 
died  in  1547. 

SABINUS  (George),  a  celebrated  Latin  poet, 
born  in  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg  in  1508. 
His  poem,  Res  gestae  Caesarum  Germanorum, 
spread  his  reputation  all  over  Germany,  and  pro- 
cured him  the  patronage  of  several  princes ;  he 
was  made  professor  of  the  belles  lettres  at  Frank- 
fort on  the  Oder,  rector  of  the  academy  of  Ko- 
nigsburg,  and  counsellor  to  the  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg. He  married  two  wives,  the  first  was 
the  eldest  daughter  of  the  famous  reformer  Me- 
lancthon.  He  died  in  1560.  His  poems  have 
been  often  printed. 

SABIONCELLO,  or  SABIONEIRA,  a  penin- 
sula of  Austrian  Dalmatia,  having  the  islands  of 
Cufzolo  and  Meleda  on  the  south,  and  on  the 
north  the  island  of  Lesina,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  a  part  of  the  gulf  of  Venice  called  the 
Canal  of  Sabioncello,  or  the  Stagno.  Forty-five 
miles  north-west  of  Ragusa. 

SABIONETTA,  a  town  of  Mantuan,  now 
Austrian  Italy,  with  a  castle.  It  was  for  a  time 
the  capital  of  a  principality  of  the  same  name, 
given  in  1806,  by  an  imperial  decree  of  Buona- 
parte, to  his  sister  Paulina,  and  her  husband,  the 
prince  Borghese,  duke  of  Guastalla.  Nineteen 
miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Mantua.  Inhabitants  6000. 

SA'BLE,  n.  a.  &  adj.  Fr.  sable;  Swed.  subel ; 
Lat.  zibella.  Fur ;  black. 

By  this  the  drooping  daylight  'gan  to  fade, 
And  yield  bis  room  to  sad  succeeding  night, 

Who  with  her  sable  mantle  'gan  to  shade 
Che  face  of  earth,  and  ways  of  living  wight. 

Faerie  Queene. 

Furiously  running  in  upon  him  with  timultuous 
speech,  he  violently  rauglit  from  his  head  his  rich 
cap  of  tables.  Knolles. 

Sable  is  worn  of  great  personages,  and  brought  out 
of  Russia,  being  the  fur  of  a  little  beast  of  .that 
name,  esteemed  for  the  perfectness  of  the  colour  of 
the  hairs,  which  are  very  black.  Hence  sable,  in 
heraldry,  signifies  the  black  colour  in  gentlemen's 
arms.  Peacham  on  Blazoning. 

With  him  inthroned 
Sat  jafek-vested  night,  eldest  of  things, 
The  consort  of  his  reign.        Mdtont  Paradise  Lott. 

They  soon  begin  that  tragick  play, 
Ami  with  their  smoky  cannons  banish  day  : 
Muht,  horrour,  slaughter,  with  confusion  meet, 
And  in  their  sable  arms  embrace  the  flee*.      Wallrr. 


Adoring  first  the  genius  of  the  place, 
And    night,   and   all    the  stars  that  gild  her  sable 

tli  rone.  Dryiien. 

The  peacock's  plumes  thy  tackle  must  not  fail, 
Nor  the  dear  purchase  of  the  sable's  tail.  Gay. 

SABLE,  in  heraldry,  signifies  black;  and,  in 
engraving,  is  expressed  by  horizontal  and  perpen- 
dicular lines  crossing  <:ach  other.  Alexander 
Nisbet  says  that  '  the  duke  of  Anjou,  king  of 
Sicily,  after  the  loss  of  that  kingdom,  appeared 
at  a  tournament  in  Germany  all  in  black,  with 
his  shield  of  that  tincture,  seme  de  larmes,  i.  e. 
sprinkled  with  drops  of  water  to  represent  tears, 
indicating  by  that  both  his  grief  and  loss. 

SABLE,  in  zoology.  See  MUSTELA.  The 
chase  of  these  animals,  in  the  more  barbarous 
times  of  the  Russian  empire,  was  the  employ,  or 
rather  task  of  the  unhappy  exiles  in  Siberia. 
As  that  country  is  now  become  more  populous, 
the  sables  have  in  a  great  measure  quitted  it,  and 
retired  north  and  east  to  live  in  desert  forests 
and  mountains ;  they  live  near  the  banks  of 
rivers,  or  in  the  little  islands  in  them ;  on  this 
account  they  have  by  some  been  supposed  to  be 
the  2a/3fptov  of  Aristotle  (Hist.  An.  lib.  viii.  -c. 
5),  which  he  classes  with  the  animals  conversant 
among  waters.  The  hunters  of  sables  formed 
themselves  into  troops,  from  five  to  forty  each  ; 
the  last  subdivided  into  lesser  parties,  and  each 
chooses  a  leader,  but  one  directs  the  whole ;  a 
small  covered  boat  is  provided  for  each  party, 
loaded  with  provisions,  a  dog  and  net  for  every 
two  men,  and  a  vessel  to  bake  their  bread  in ; 
each  party  has  also  an  interpreter  for  the  country 
they  penetrate  into.  Every  party  then  sets  out 
according  to  the  course  their  chief  points  out ; 
they  go  against  the  stream  of  the  rivers,  drawing 
their  boats  up,  till  they  arrive  in  the  hunting 
country ;  there  they  stop,  build  huts,  and  wait 
till  the  waters  are  frozen,  and  the  season  com- 
mences. They  then  penetrate  into  the  woods ; 
mark  the  trees  as  they  advance,  that  they  may 
know  their  way  back;  and  in  their  hunting 
quarters  form  huts  of  trees,  and  bank  up  the 
snow  round  them ;  near  these  they  lay  their 
traps;  then  advance  farther,  and  lay  more  traps, 
still  building  new  huts  in  every  quarter,  and  re- 
turn successively  to  every  old  one  to  visit  the 
traps  and  take  out  the  game  to  skin  it,  which  the 
chief  of  the  party  alone  must  do;  during  this 
time  they  are  supplied  with  provisions  by  persons 
who  are  employed  to  bring  it  on  sledges,  from 
the  places  on  the  road,  where  they  are  obliged  to 
form  magazines  The  traps  are  a  sort  of  pit-fall, 
with  a  loose  board  placed  over  it,  baited  with 
fish  or  flesh ;  when  sables  grow  scarce  the 
hunters  trace  them  in  the  new-fallen  snow  to  their 
holes ;  place  their  nets  at  the  entrance ;  and 
sometimes  wait  two  or  three  days  for  the  com- 
ing out  of  the  animal.  The  season  of  chase  being 
over,  the  hunters  re-assemble,  make  a  report  to 
their  leader  of  the  number  of  sables  each  has 
taken ;  share  the  booty ;  then  continue  at  the 
head-quarters  till  the  rivers  are  clear  of  ice ;  and 
afterwards  return  home. 

SABLES,  D'OLUNE  DES,  a  port  in  the  west 
of  France,  in  La  Vendee.  It  is  well  built,  and 
has  a  harbour  capable  of  admitting  vessds  <>f 
r<«ii  -u'crable  siv.e.  Tho  chief  traffic  is  in  ba) 


SAC 


217 


SAC 


salt,  corn,  and  cattle.  It  has  an  extensive  fishery 
of  pilchards.  Inhabitants  5200.  Forty-five 
miles  south  of  Nantes. 

SABLIERE  (Anthony),  de  Rambouille  de  la,  a 
French  poet,  who  died  in  Paris  in  1680.  His 
Madrigals,  which  are  much  celebrated,  were 
published  after  his  death  by  his  son. 

SABOLCS,  a  palatinate  of  the  east  of  Hun- 
gary, bounded  on  the  west  and  north  by  the  river 
Theyss.  It  has  a  superficial  extent  of  2120 
square  miles,  consisting  entirely  of  level  ground  ; 
in  part  covered  with  sand,  and  another  part  with 
small  lakes,  of  so  little  depth  as  to  dry  up  in 
«ummer,  when  soda  is  founa  in  the  bottom.  The 
Theyss  often  overflows  its  banks,  and  causes 
jreat  ravages ;  yet  this  district  produces  large 
quantities  of  corn,  tobacco,  and  fruit.  The  chief 
town  is  Nagy  Kallo,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
palatinate,  amounting  to  135,000,  are  Calvinists. 

SABON,  an  island  of  a  triangular  form,  at 
the  south  entrance  of  the  straits  of  Malacca.  It 
is  about  twenty-four  miles  in  circumference,  and 
separated  from  the  island  of  Sumatra  by  a  navi- 
gable channel,  called  the  Straits  of  Sabon.  Long. 
103°  21'  E.,  lat.  0°  42'  N. 

SA'BRE,  n.  s.  Fr.  sabre.  I  suppose  of 
Turkish  original,  says  Johnson :  and  we  have 
Span,  table ;  Arab.  self.  A  cymetar ;  a  short 
sword  with  a  convex  edge;  a  falchion. 

To  me  the  cries  of  fighting  fields  are  charms ; 
Keen  be  my  sulre,  and  of  proof  my  arms  ; 
1  ask  no  other  blessing  of  my  stars, 
A'o  prize  but  fame,  no  mistress  but  the  wars. 

Dry  den. 
Seamed  o'er  with  wounds,  which  his  own  sabre 

gave, 

In  the  vile  habit  of  a  village  slave, 
The  foe  deceived.  Pitpe's  Odyssey. 

SABRE,  a  kitid  of  sword  with  a  very  broad  and 
heavy  blade,  thick  at  the  back,  and  a  little  fal- 
cated or  crooked  towards  the  point :  it  is  gene- 
rally worn  by  the  heavy  cavalry.  The  grena- 
diers, belonging  to  the  whole  of  the  French 
infantry,  are  likewise  armed  with  sabres.  The 
blade  is  not  so  long  as  that  of  a  small  sword, 
but  it  is  nearly  twice  as  broad .  French  hussars 
wear  the  curved  ones  somewhat  longer  than 
those  of  the  grenadiers. 

SABRE-TASCHE,  from  the  Ger.  tasche, 
pocket.  An  appointment  or  part  of  accoutrement 
which  has  been  adopted  for  the  use  and  conveni- 
ence of  dragoon  officers.  It  consists  of  a  pocket 
which  is  suspended  from  the  sword-belt  on  the 
left  side,  by  three  slings  to  correspond  with  the 
belt.  It  is  usually  of  an  oblong  shape  scolloped 
at  the  bottom  with  a  device  in  the  centre,  and  a 
broad  lace  round  the  edge.  The  color  of  it  always 
corresponds  with  that  of  the  uniform. 

SAC^E,  an  ancient  people  of  Scythia,  who  in- 
habited the  country  east  of  Bactriana  and  Sog- 
diana,  north  of  Mount  Imaus.  Thpy  lived  in 
tents  and  built  no  towns.  Ptol.  vi.  13,  Herod, 
iii.  c.  93. 

SACJEA,  a  feast  which  the  ancient  Babylo- 
nians and  other  orientals  held  annually  in  honor 
of  the  deity  Anaitas.  The  Sacsea  were  in  the 
east  what  the  Saturnalia  were  at  Rome,  viz.  a 
feast  for  the  slaves.  One  of  the  ceremonies  was 
to  choose  a  prisoner  condemned  to  death,  and 


allow  him  all  the  pleasures  and  gratifications  he 
could  wish  before  he  was  carried  to  execution. 

SACCANIA,  one  of  the  four  provinces  into 
which  the  Peloponnesus  or  Morea  was  divided 
by  the  Turks.  It  is  bounded  by  the  piovince 
of  Zakounia  (the  ancient  Laconia)  by  the  isth- 
mus of  Corinth,  and  the  gulfs  of  Lepanto,  Egina, 
and  Napoli,  and  comprehends  the  ancient  terri- 
tories of  Corinth,  Sicyon,  and  Argos,  forming 
the  north-east  part  of  the  Morea.  See  GREECE. 
SAC'CHARINE,  adj.  Lat.  saccharum.  Hav- 
ing the  taste,  or  any  other  of  the  chief  qualities 
of  sugar. 

Manna  is  an  essential  saccharine  salt,  sweating 
from  the  leaves  of  most  plants. 

Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 

SACCHAROMETER,  the  name  of  an  instru- 
ment for  ascertaining  the  value  of  worts,  and  the 
strength  of  different  kinds  of  malt  liquors.  It  is 
merely  an  hydrometer  contrived  to  ascertain  the 
specific  gravity  of  worts,  or  rather  to  compare 
the  weight  of  worts  with  that  of  equal  quantities 
of  the  liquor  employed  in  the  brewery.  The 
principle  is  as  follows : — The  menstruum  or 
water  employed  by  the  brewer  becomes  heavier 
or  more  dense  by  the  addition  of  such  parts  of 
the  materials  as  have  been  dissolved  or  extracted 
by,  and  thence  incorporated  with  it :  the  opera- 
tion of  boiling,  and  its  subsequent  cooling,  still 
adds  to  the  density  of  it  by  evaporation  :  so  that, 
when  it  is  submitted  to  the  action  of  fermenta- 
tion, it  is  more  dense  than  at  any  other  period. 
In  passing  through  this  operation  a  remarkable 
alteration  takes  place.  The  fluid  no  sooner  be- 
gins to  ferment  than  its  density  begins  to  dimi- 
nish ;  and,  as  the  fermentation  is  more  or  less 
perfect,  the  fermentable  matter  becomes  more 
or  less  attenuated;  and,  in  lieu  of  every  particle 
thus  attenuated,  a  spirituous  particle,  of  less 
density  than  water,  is  produced  ;  so  that  when 
the  liquor  is  again  in  a  state  of  quietude,  it  is  so 
much  specifically  lighter  than  it  was  before,  as 
the  act  of  fermentation  has  been  capable  of  atte- 
nuating the  component  parts  of  its  acquired 
density. 

SACCHARUM,  the  sugar  cane,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  digynia  order  and  triandria  class  of 
plants ;  natural  order  fourth,  gramina :  CA  L.  none 
but  a  long  down  :  COR.  bivalved.  Species  ele- 
ven ;  the  chief  is,  S.  officinarum,  called  by  for- 
mer botanists  arundo  saccharifera.  It  is  a  na- 
tive of  Africa,  the  East  Indies,  and  of  Brazil ; 
whence  it  was  introduced  into  our  West  India 
islands  soon  after  they  were  settled.  For  the 
process  of  making  sugar,  see  SUGAR. 

SACCHI  (Andrew),  a  celebrated  painter, 
born  at  Rome  in  1594.  He  was  the  disciple  of 
Francis  Albano,  whom  he  afterwards  surpassed 
in  taste  and  correctness.  He  distinguished  him 
self  by  his  paintings  in  fresco,  and  arrived  at  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  The  works  of  Sacchi 
are  finished  with  uncommon  care  and  skill.  He 
died  in  r668. 

SACCHOLACTIC  ACID.    See  MUCJC  ACID. 

SACERDOTAL,  adj.  Lat.  sacerdotalis. 
Priestly;  belonging  to  the  priesthood. 

They  have  several  offices  and  prayers,  especially 
for  the  dead,  in  which  functions  they  use  sacerdvtm 
garments.  StilUnpfeet. 


SAC 


218 


SAC 


He  fell  violently  upon  me,  without  respect  to  my 
tticfdotal  orders.  Drtiden'i  SpanUi  Fryar. 

If  ample  powers,  granted  by  the  rulers  of  this 
world,  add  dignity  to  the  persons  intrusted  with 
these  powers,  behold  the  importance  and  extent  of 
the  sacerdotal  commission.  Atterbury. 

SACHEVERELL  (Dr.  Henry),  a  clergyman 
of  the  Tory  faction  in  the  reign  of  queen  Anne ; 
who  distinguished  himself  by  his  sermons  and 
writings  against  the  dissenters.  He  owed  his 
consequence,  however,  to  being  indiscreetly  pro- 
secuted by  the  house  of  lords  for  his  assize  ser- 
mon at  Derby,  and  his  sermon  on  the  5th  of 
November,  at  St.  Paul's,  in  1709;  in  which  he 
asserted  the  doctrine  of  non-resistance  to  govern- 
ment in  its  utmost  extent ;  and  reflected  severely 
on  the  act  of  toleration.  The  high  and  low 
church  parties  were  then  very  violent,  and 
Sacheverell's  trial  inflamed  the  high  church 
party  to  dangerous  riots  and  excesses ;  he  was, 
however,  suspended  for  three  years,  and  his  ser- 
mons burned  by  the  common  hangman.  The 
Tories  being  in  administration  when  his  suspen- 
sion expired,  he  was  freed  with  every  mark  of 
honor  and  public  rejoicing ;  was  ordered  to 
preach  before  the  commons  on  the  29th  of  May, 
had  the  thanks  of  the  house  for  his  discourse, 
and  obtained  the  valuable  rectory  of  St.  Andrew's 
Holborn. 

SACHTLEVEN  (Cornelius  and  Herman), 
two  celebrated  Dutch  painters.  Herman  was 
the  most  eminent.  He  was  born  at  Rotterdam, 
in  1609,  and  was  the  disciple  of  Van  Goyen. 
His  pictures  are  rare  and  valuable.  He  died  in 
1685. 

SACK,  n.  t.  Sav.a-l      Sax.   j-aec ;  Heb.    par ; 

SACK-CLOTH,  n.  s.  S  Or.  (TGUCKOC  ;  Lat.  saccus. 
It  is  observable  of  this  word,  says  Dr.  Johnson, 
that  it  is  found  in  all  languages,  and  it  is  therefore 
conceived  to  be  antediluvian.  A  bag;  a  pouch; 
commonly  a  large  bag ;  to  put  in  bags  ;  hence  to 
plunder  ;  pillage  :  and,  as  a  noun  substantive,  the 
storm  of  a  town :  sack-cloth  explains  itself. 

Thus  with  tack-cloth  I  invest  my  woe, 
And  dust  upon  my  clouded  forehead  throw. 

Sandys. 

Edward  Bruce  spoiled  all  the  old  English  pale  in- 
habitants, and  sacked  and  raised  all  cities  and  corpo- 
rate towns.  Spenser. 

Vastius  caused  the  authors  of  that  mutiny  to  be 
thrust  into  sacks,  and  in  the  sight  of  the  fleet  cast 
into  the  sea.  K  nolle*. 

Our  tacks  shall  be  a  mean  to  sack  the  city  : 
And  we  be  lords  and  rulers  over  Roan. 

Shakspeare.   Henry  VI. 
I'll  make  thee  stoop  and  bend  thy  knee, 
Or  sack  this  country  with  a  mutiny.  Id. 

What  armies  conquered,  perished  with  thy  sword  ? 
What  cities  sacked  ?  Fairfax. 

Who  sees  these  dismal  heaps,  but  would  demand 
What  barbarous  invader  tacked  the  land  ?  Denham. 

If  Saturn's  son  bestows 
Thy  sack  of  Troy,  which  he  by  promise  owes, 
Then  shall  the  conquering  Greeks  thy  loss  restore. 

Dry  den. 

Now  the  great  work  is  done,  the  corn  is  ground, 
The  grist  is  sacked,  and  every  tack  well  bound. 

Relterton. 

The  pope  himself  was  ever  after  unfortunate, 
Rome  being  twice  taken  and  sacked  in  his  reign. 

St-uth. 


The  great  magazine  for  all  kinds  of  treasure  is  the 
bed  of  the  Tiber  :  when  the  Romans  lay  under  the 
apprehensions  of  seeing  their  city  sacked  by  a  bar- 
barous enemy,  they  would  take  care  to  bestow  such 
of  their  riches  this  way  as  could  best  bear  the  water. 

Addison. 

Being  clad  in  sackcloth,  he  was  to  lie  on  the  ground, 
and  constantly  day  and  night  implore  God's  mercy 
for  the  sin  he  had  committed.  Ayliffe's  Parergon. 

Wood  goes  about  with  suckfuU  of  dross,  odiously 
misrepresenting  his  prince's  countenance.  Suiift. 

Coarse  stuff  made  of  goats  hair,  of  a  dark  colour, 
worn  by  soldiers  and  mariners  ;  and  used  as  a  habit 
among  the  Hebrews  in  times  of  mourning.  Called 
sackcloth,  either  because  saris  were  made  of  this  sort 
of  stuff,  or  because  haircloths  were  straight  and  close 
like  a  sack.  Calmet. 

SACK.  Fr.  sec.  Of  uncertain  etymology 
A  kind  of  sweet  wine,  now  brought  chiefly  from 
the  Canaries.  The  sack  of  Shakspeare  is  be- 
lieved to  be  what  is  now  called  sherry. 

Pleash  you  drink  a  cup  of  sack.  Shaktptare. 

The  butler  hath  great  advantage  to  allure  the 
maids  with  a  glass  of  sack.  Swift. 

Snuff  the  candles  at  supper  on  the  table,  because 
the  burning  snuff  may  fall  into  a  dish  of  soup  or 
sackpossel.  Id. 

SACK  was  a  wine  used  by  our  ancestors,  which 
some  have  taken  to  be  Rhenish,  and  some  Ca- 
nary wine.  Venner,  in  his  Via  Recta  ad  Vitam 
Longam,  printed  in  1628,  says  '  that  sack,  taken 
by  itself,  is  very  hot  and  very  penetrative;  being 
taken  with  sugar,  the  heat  is  both  somewhat  al- 
layed, and  the  penetrative  quality  thereof  also 
retarded.'  He  adds  that  Rhenish,  &c.,  decline 
after  a  year,  but  sack  and  the  other  stronger 
wines  are  best  when  they  are  two  or  three  years 
old.  It  appears  probable  that  sack  was  not  a 
sweet  wine,  from  its  being  taken  with  sugar,  and 
that  it  did  not  receive  its  name  from  having  a 
saccharine  flavor,  but  from  its  being  originally 
stored  in  sacks  or  borachios.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  a  French  wine,  but  a  strong 
wine,  the  production  of  a  hot  climate.  Perhaps 
it  was  what  is  called  dry  mountain,  or  some  • 
Spanish  wine  of  that  kind.  This  is  the  more 
probable,  as  Howell,  in  his  French  and  English 
Dictionary,  1650,  translates  sack  by  vin  d  Es- 
pagne,  vin  sec. 

SACK'BUT,  n.  s.  FT.sambuque;  Span,  taea- 
buche ;  Lat.  tumbuca.  A  kind  of  pipe. 

The  trumpets,  sackbuts,  psalteries,  and  fife, 
Make  the  sun  dance.  Shakspeare.  Coriolanus. 

The  SACKBUT  is  a  musical  instrument  of  the 
wind  kind,  being  a  sort  of  trumpet,  though 
different  from  the  common  trumpet  both  in  form 
and  size  ;  it  is  fit  to  play  a  bass,  and  is  contrived 
to  be  drawn  out  or  shortened,  according  to  the 
tone  required,  whether  grave  or  acute.  The 
Italians  call  it  trombone. 

SACKVILLE  (Thomas),  lord  Buckhurst,  and 
earl  of  Dorset,  a  statesman  and  poet,  was  born 
in  1536.  He  was  sent  to  Hurt  Hall  in  Oxford, 
in  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  whence 
he  removed  to  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  M.  A.,  and  thence  to  the  Inner  Tem- 
ple, where  he  studied  the  law,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar.  He  commenced  poet  whilst  at  the 
universities,  and  his  juvenile  productions  were 
much  admired.  About  the  fourth  year  of  queen 


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219 


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Mary,  he  was  a  member  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons. In  1 557  he  wrote  a  poem  entitled  The 
Induction,  or  the  Mirror  of  Magistrates.  In 
1551  his  tragedy  of  Gorboduc  was  acted  before 
queen  Elizabeth  by  the  gentlemen  of  the  Inner 
Temple.  In  the  first  parliament  of  Elizabeth's 
reign  Mr.  Sackville  was  member  for  Sussex, 
and  for  Bucks  in  the  second.  In  the  mean  time 
he  made  the  tour  of  France  and  Italy,  and  in 
1566  was  imprisoned  at  Rome,  when  his  father 
died ;  by  which  he  became  possessed  of  a  very 
considerable  fortune.  Having  obtained  his  li- 
berty, be  returned  to  England ;  and  being 
knighted  was  created  lord  Buckhurst.  In  1570 
he  was  sent  ambassador  to  France.  In  1586  he 
was  one  of  the  commissioners  appointed  to  try 
the  unfortunate  Mary  queen  of  Scots ;  and  was 
employed  to  report  the  confirmation  of  her 
sentence,  and  to  see  it  executed.  In  1587  he 
went  ambassador  to  the  states  general,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  complaint  against  the  earl  of 
Leicester ;  who,  disliking  his  impartiality,  pre- 
vailed on  the  queen  to  recal  him,  and  he  was 
confined  to  his  house.  In  this  confinement  he 
continued  ten  months,  when,  Leicester  dying,  he 
\v;is  restored  to  favor,  and  in  1580  was  installed 
knight  of  the  garter ;  but  the  greatest  proof  of 
tho  queen's  partiality  for  him  appeared  in  1591, 
when  she  caused  him  to  be  elected  chancellor 
of  the  university  of  Oxford,  in  opposition  to  her 
favorite  Essex.  In  1 598,  on  the  treasurer  Bur- 
leigh's  death,  lord  Buckhurst  succeeded  him, 
and  became  in  effect  prime  minister;  and  when, 
in  1601,  the  earls  of  Essex  and  Southampton 
were  brought  to  trial,  he  sat  as  lord  high  steward. 
On  the  accession  of  James  I.  he  had  the  office 
of  lord  high  treasurer  confirmed  to  him  for  life, 
and  was  created  earl  of  Dorset.  He  continued 
in  high  favor  with  the  king  till  his  death,  which 
happened  suddenly  on  the  19th  of  April,  1608, 
in  the  council  chamber  at  Whitehall.  He  was 
interred  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

SACKVILLE  (Charles),  earl  of  Dorset,  a  cele- 
brated wit  and  poet,  was  born  in  1637.  He  was 
one  of  the  libertines  of  king  Charles  II.'s  court, 
and  indulged  in  inexcusable  excesses.  He 
openly  discountenanced  the  violent  measures  of 
James  II.,  and  engaged  early  for  the  prince  of 
Orange,  by  whom  he  was  made  lord  chamber- 
lain of  the  household,  and  a  member  of  the  privy 
council.  He  died  in  1Y06,  and  left  several 
poetical  pieces,  which  were  published  among 
the  works  of  the  minor  poets  in  1749. 

SAC'RAMENT,  n.s.   ^     Fr.  sacrament ;  Lat- 
SAC'RAMENTAL,  adj.       >  sacramentum.       An 
SAC'RAMENTALLY,  adv.  j  oath;  any  ceremony 
producing  an  obligation;  an  outward  and  visible 
sign  of  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace  :  the  ad- 
jective and  adverb  corresponding. 

As  often  as  we  mention  a  sacrament,  it  is  impro- 
perly understood  ;  for  in  the  writings  of  the  ancient 
fathers  all  articles  which  are  peculiar  to  Christian 
faith,  all  duties  of  religion  containing  that  which 
sense  or  natural  reason  cannot  discern,  are  most  com- 
monly named  sacraments.  Hooker. 

To  make  complete  the  outward  substance  of  a  sa- 
crament, there  is  required  an  outward  form,  which 
form'  sacramental  efements  receive  from  sacramental 
words.  Id. 


Ten  thousand  French  have  ta'en  the  sacratnent 
To  drive  their  dangerous  artillery 
Upon  no  Christian  soul  but  English  Talbot. 

fihakspeare.  Henry  VL, 

As  we  have  ta'en  the  sacrament, 
We  will  unite  the  white  rose  with  the  red. 

Id.  Richard  111. 

My  body  is  sacrcmentally  contained  in  this  sacra- 
ment of  bread.  Hall. 

The  law  of  circumcision  was  meant  by  God  sacra- 
mentally  to  impress  the  duty  of  strict  purity. 

Hammond. 

The  words  of  St.  Paul  are  plain  ;  and,  whatever 
interpretation  can  be  put  upon  them,  it  can  only  vary 
the  way  of  the  sacramental  efficacy,  but  it  cannot 
evacuate  the  blessing.  Taylor. 

Before  the  famous  battle  of  Cressy,  he  spent  the 
greatest  part  of  the  night  in  prayer  ,  and  in  the  morn- 
ing received  the  sacrament,  with  his  son,  and  the  chief 
of  his  officers.  Addinm. 

SACRAMENT  is  derived  from  the  Latin  sacra- 
mentum, which  signifies  an  oath,  particularly  the 
oath  taken  by  soldiers  to  be  true  to  their  country 
and   general.    The   words   of  it,   according   to 
Polybius  were,  obtemperaturus  sum  et  faclur  . , 
quicquid    mandabitur   ab    imperatoribus    juxta 
vires.     The  word  was  adopted  by  the  "writers  of 
the  Latin  church,  and  employed,  perhaps  with 
no  great  propriety,  to  denote  those  ordinances 
of  religion  by  which  Christians  came  under  an 
obligation,  equally  sacred  with  that  of  an  oath, 
to  observe  their  part  of  the  covenant  of  grace, 
and  in  which  they  have  the  assurance  of  Chri  ,t 
that  he  will  fulfil  his  part  of  it.     Of  sacramen  s 
in  this  sense  of  the  word,  Protestant  churches 
admit  of  but  two;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive 
how  a  greater  number  can  be  made  out  from 
Scripture,  if  the  definition   of  a  sacrament  be 
just  which  is  given  by  the  church  of  England. 
By   that   church   the  meaning  of  the    word  is 
declared  to  be  '  an  outward  and  visible  sign  6  ' 
an  inward  and  spiritual  grace  given  unto  us, 
ordained  by  Christ  himself  as  a  means  whereby 
we  receive  the  same,  and  a  pledge  to  assure  us 
thereof;     According  to  this  definition,  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  supper  are  certainly  sacraments  ; 
for  each  answers  the  definition  in  the  fullest 
sense  of  the  words.     See  BAPTISM  and  SUPPER 
OF  THE  LORD.     The  Romanists,  however,  add 
to  this  number  confirmation,  penance,  extreme 
unction,  ordination,  and  marriage,  holding  in  all 
seven  sacraments  ;  but  two  of  those  rites,  not 
being  peculiar  to  the  Christian  church,  cannot 
be  Christian  sacraments,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  sacraments  or  obligations  into  which  men  of 
all  religions  enter.     Marriage  was  instituted  from 
the  creation  (see  MARRIAGE)  ;  and  penance  or 
repentance  has  a  place  in  all  religions  which 
teach   that  God   is  merciful   and   men  fallible. 
The  external  severities  imposed  upon  penitents 
by  the  church  of  Rome  (see   PENANCE)   may 
indeed  be  in  some  respects  peculiar  to  the  dis- 
cipline of  that  church",  though  the  penances  of 
the  Hindoos  are  certainly  as  rigid  ;  but  none  of 
these  severities  were  ordained  by  Christ,  as  the 
pledge  of  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace ;  nor  do 
they  bring  men  under  obligations  analogous  to 
the  meaning  of  the  word  sacramentum.     Confir- 
mation has  a  better  title  to  the  appellation  than 
any  of  the  other  five ;  though  it  certainly  was 


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220 


SAC 


not  considered  as  such  by  the  earliest  writers  of 
the  Christian  church,  nor  does  it  appear  to  have 
been  ordained  by  Christ  himself.  See  CONFIR- 
MATION. Ordination  is  by  many  churches  con- 
sidered as  a  very  important  rite  ;  but  as  it  is  not 
administered  to  all  men,  nor  has  any  particular 
form  appropriated  to  it  in  the  New  Testament, 
it  cannot  be  considered  as  a  Christian  sacrament 
conferring  grace  necessary  to  salvation.  Extreme 
unction  is  a  rite  which  took  its  rise  from  the 
miraculous  powers  of  the  primitive  church, 
vainly  claimed  by  the  succeeding  clergy.  These 
considerations  seem  to  have  some  weight  with 
the  Homish  clergy  themselves  ;  for  they  call  the 
eucharist,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  holy  sacra- 
ment. Numerous  as  the  sacraments  of  the 
Romish  church  are,  a  sect  of  Christians  sprung 
up  in  England,  early  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
who  increased  their  number.  The  founder  was 
a  Dr.  Deacon  of  Manchester,  where  the  remains 
of  it  subsisted  very  lately.  According  to  these 
men,  every  rite  in  the  book  called  the  apostolical 
constitutions  was  certainly  in  use  among  the 
apostles  themselves.  Still,  however,  they  make 
a  distinction  between  the  greater  and  the  less 
sacraments.  The  greater  sacraments  are  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  supper.  The  less  are  no  fewer 
than  ten ;  viz. : — five  belonging  to  baptism,  ex- 
orcism, anointing  with  oil,  the  white  garment, 
a  taste  of  milk  and  honey,  and  anointing  with 
chrism  or  ointment.  The  other  five  are,  the 
sign  of  the  cross,  imposition  of  hands,  unction 
of  the  sick,  holy  orders,  and  matrimony.  Of 
the  nature  of  these  less  sacraments  we  need  give 
no  account.  The  sect  which  taught  them,  if  not 
extinguished,  is  in  its  last  wane.  It  has  pro- 
duced, however,  one  or  two  learned  men  ;  and 
its  founder's  Full,  True,  and  Comprehensive 
View  of  Christianity,  in  two  catechisms,  is  a 
work  'which  the  Christian  antiquary  will  read 
with  pleasure  for  information,  and  the  philoso- 
pher for  the  materials  which  it  contains  for  me- 
ditation on  the  workings  of  the  human  mind. 
It  was  published  in  8vo.  in  1748. 

SACRAMENT,  CONGREGATION  OF  THE  HOLY,  a 
religious  establishment  formed  in  France,  whose 
founder  was  Antherius,  bishop  of  Bethlehem, 
and  which,  in  1644,  received  an  order  from 
Urban  VIII.  to  have  always  a  number  of  eccle^ 
siastics  ready  to  exercise  their  ministry  among 
pagan  nations,  wherever  the  pope  or  congrega- 
tion de  propaganda  should  appoint. 

SACRAMENT  (St.),  or  Colonia,  a  city  and 
colony  which  was  held  by  the  Portuguese,  oppo- 
site the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres,  on  the  shore  of 
the  La  l'L,a.  It  has  a  tolerable  port,  receiving 
some  shelter  from  the  island  of  St.  Gabriel ;  yet 
it  is  otherwise  open  and  exposed.  It  was  founded 
by  the  Portuguese,  in  the  year  1679,  under  Don 
M  intiel  de  Lobo,  and  has  occasioned  many 
struggles  between  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  for- 
tress of  St.  Gabriel,  which  protects  the  harbour, 
is  reckoned  a  strong  one.  Thirty-three  miles 
north-east  from  Buenos  Ayres. 

SACRAMENTARY,  an  ancient  Romish 
church-book,  which  contains  all  the  prayers  and 
ceremonies  practised  at  the  celebration  of  the 
sacraments.  It  was  written  by  pope  Gelasius, 
and  afterwards  revised,  corrected,  and  abridged, 
by  St.  Gregory. 


SACRARIUM,  in  archaiology,  a  sort  of 
family  chapel  in  the  houses  of  the  Romans.  It 
differed  from  the  lararium,  inasmuch  as  that  was 
dedicated  to  all  the  household  deities  without 
exception,  while  the  sacrarium  was  devoted  to 
some  particular  divinity.  Cicero,  in  his  ora- 
tion for  Milo,  speaks  of  the  sacrarium  de  bona 
dea.  The  name  was  also  given  to  that  particu- 
lar portion  of  the  ancient  temples  wherein  the 
sacred  things  were  deposited. 

SA'CRED,  adj.    f      Fr.   sacre ;   Lat.   tacer. 

SA'CREDLY,  adv.     >  Immediately    relating    to 

SA'CREDNESS,  n.  s.  J  God  ;  devoted  to  religious 
uses ;  holy  ;  mysterious  :  the  derivatives  corre- 
sponding. 

Those  who  came  to  celebrate  the  sabbath,  made  a 
conscience  of  helping  themselves  for  the  honour  of 
that  most  sacred  day.  Mace. 

The  honour's  sacred,  which  he  talks  on  now, 
Supposing  that  I  lackt  it. 

Shahspeare.  Antony  and  Cleopatra 

Poet  and  saint,  to  thee  alone  were  given, 
The  two  most  sacred  names  of  earth  and  heaven; 

Cowley 

Wolves    shall    succeed    for    teachers,     grievous 

wolves, 

Who  all  the  sacred  mysteries  of  Heaven 
To  their  own  vile  advantages  shall  turn.        Milltm. 

Smit  with  the  love  of  sacred  song.  Id. 

O'er  its  eastern  gate  was  raised  above 
A  temple  sacred  to  the  queen  of  love.  Dryden. 

Secrets  of  marriage  still  are  sacred  held ; 
Their  sweet  and  bitter  by  the  wise  concealed.      Id. 

This  insinuates  the  sacredness  of  power,  let  the  ad- 
ministration of  it  be  what  it  will.  L'Ettrange. 

When  God  had  manifested  himself  in  the  flesh, 
how  sacredly  did  he  preserve  this  privilege  !  South. 

In  the  sanctuary  the  cloud,  and  the  oracular  an- 
swers, were  prerogatives  peculiar  to  the  lacredtiess  of 
the  place.  Id. 

Before  me  lay  the  sacred  text, 
The  help,  the  guide,  the  balm  of  souls  perplexed. 

Arbuthnot. 

SACRIF'ICABLE,  adj.         }     Fr.      sacri- 
SAC'RIFICATOR,  n.  s.  I  far ;    Lat.  sa- 

SAC'RIFICE,  v.  a.,  v.  n.  &  n.  s.  >  a  ifico.         To 
SAC'RIFICER,  i  offer    to    hea- 

SAC'RIFICED,  adj.  J  ven  ;  to  immo- 

late as  an  atonement  or  propitiation :  with  to  ; 
to  offer  a  propitiatory  victim  :  the  act  of  offer- 
ing, or  thing  offered  :  sacrificator  is  a  redundant 
synonyme  of  sacrificer  :  the  other  derivatives  are 
sufficiently  plain. 

Let  us  go  to  sacrifice  to  the  Lord.     Exod.  iii.  18. 
He  that  sacrificeth  of  things  wrongfully  gotten,  his 
offering  is  ridiculous.  Ecclus.  xxxiv.  18. 

A  la  rims'  limbs  are  lopt, 
And  intrails  feed  the  sacrificing  fire. 

Shakspeare.   Titus  Andronicuf. 
This  blood,  like  sacrificing  Abel's,  cries 
To  me  for  justice.  Id.  Richard  II. 

Upon  such  sacrifiet 
The  gods  themselves  throw  incense. 

Id,   King  Lear, 
Let  us  be  sacrificer*,  but  not  butchers.    .S/  akspeare. 

R  ain  sacrificial  whisperings  in  his  ear  ; 
Make  sacred  even  his  stirrup.  Id.   Timon. 

'Tis  a  sad  contemplation  that  we  should  sacrifice 
the  peace  of  the  church  to  a  little  vain  curiosity. 

Decay  of  Piety. 
.Men  from  the  herd  or  flock 
Of  facrijicing  bullock,  lamb,  or  kid.  Millon. 


SACRIFICE. 


221 


Some  mischief  is  befallen 
To  that  meek  man  who  well  had  sacrificed.          Id. 

God  will  ordain  religious  rites 
Of  sacrifice.  Jd. 

Although  Jephtha's  vow  run  generally  for  the 
words,  whatsoever  shall  come  forth  ;  yet  might  it  be 
restrained  in  the  sense  to  whatsoever  was  sacrijicable, 
and  justly  subject  to  lawful  immolation,  and  so  would 
not  have  sacrificed  either  horse  or  dog. 

Brotmt'l  Vulgar  Errotirt. 

Not  only  the  subject  of  tuo-ifae  is  questionable, 
but  also  the  tacnjicator,  which  the  picture  makes  to 
be  Jephtha.  Browne. 

Tertullian's  observation  upon  these  tacrijiciat  rites 
is  pertinent  to  this  rule. 

Taylor's  Worthy  Communicant. 

When  some  brawny  sacrificer  knocks, 
Before  an  altar  led,  an  offered  ox.  Dnjden. 

The  breach  of  this  rule,  To  do  as  one  would  be 
done  to,  would  be  contrary  to  that  interest  men  sa- 
crifice to  when  they  break  it.  Lncke. 

A  priest  pours  wine  between  the  horns  of  a  bull  : 
the  priest  is  veiled  after  the  manner  of  the  old  Roman 
sncrijicers.  Addison. 

I  saw  among  the  ruins  an  old  heathen  altar,  with 
this  particularly  in  it,  that  it  is  hollowed  like  a  dish 
at  one  end  ;  but  it  was  not  this  end  on  which  the 
sacrifice  was  laid.  Id. 

Syphax  loves  you,  and  would  sacrifice 
His  life,  nay  more,  his  honour  to  your  service.    Id. 

Condemned  to  sacrifice  his  childish  years 
To  babbling  ignorance,  and  to  empty  fears.     Prior. 

A  great  genius  sometimes  sacrifices  sound  to  sense. 

Broome. 

A  SACRIFICE  is  an  offering  made  to  God  on  an 
altar,  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  power  and  a 
payment  of  homage.  Sacrifices  (though  the  term 
is  sometimes  used  to  comprehend  all  the  offer- 
ings made  to  God,  or  in  any  way  devoted  to  his 
service  and  honor)  differ  from  mere  oblations  iu 
this,  that  in  a  sacrifice  there  is  a  real  destruction 
or  change  of  the  thing  offered  ;  whereas  an  ob- 
lation is  only  a  simple  offering  or  gift,  without 
any  such  change  at  all :  thus  all  sorts  of  tithes 
and  first-fruits,  and  whatever  of  men's  worldly 
substance  is  consecrated  to  God  for  the  support 
of  his  worship  and  the  miantenance  of  his  mi- 
nisters, are  offerings  or  oblations ;  and  these,  un- 
der the  Jewish  law,  were  either  of  living  crea- 
tures or  other  things  :  but  sacrifices,  in  the  more 
peculiar  sense  of  the  term,  were  either  wholly  or 
in  part  consumed  by  fire.  Concerrling  the  ori- 
gin of  sacrifices  very  various  opinions  have  been 
held.  By  many  the  Phoenicians  are  supposed  to 
have  been  the  authors  of  them  ;  though  Porphyry 
attributes  their  invention  to  the  Egyptians. 

By  modern  deists,  sacrifices  are  said  to  have 
had  their  origin  in  superstition.  It  is  therefore  weak 
(say  they)  to  derive  this  practice  from  any  par- 
ticular people ;  since  the  same  mode  of  reasoning 
would  lead  various  nations,  without  any  inter- 
course with  each  other,  to  entertain  the  same 
opinions  respecting  the  nature  of  their  gods,  and 
the  proper  means  of  appeasing  their  anger.  Men 
of  gross  conceptions  imagine  their  deities  to  be 
like  themselves,  covetous  and  cruel.  They  are 
accustomed  to  appease  an  injured  neighbour  by 
a  composition  in  money  ;  and  they  endeavour  to 
compound  in  the  same  manner  with  their  gods, 
by  rich  offerings  to  their  temples  and  to  their 
priests.  The  most  valuable  property  of  a  simple 


people  is  their  cattle.  These  offered  in  sacrifice 
are  supposed  to  be  fed  upon  by  the  divinity,  and 
are  actually  fed  upon  by  his  priests.  If  a  crime 
is  committed  which  requires  the  punishment  ot 
death,  it  is  accounted  perfectly  fair  to  appease 
the  deity  by  offering  one  life  for  another ;  be 
cause,  by  savages,  punishment  is  considered  as  a 
debt  for  which  a  man  may  compound,  and  which 
one  man  may  pay  for  another.  Hence,  they 
allege,  arose  the  notions  of  imputed  guilt  and 
vicarious  atonement. — Had  sacrifices  never  pre- 
vailed in  the  world  but  among  such  gross  idol- 
aters as  worshipped  departed  heroes,  who  were 
supposed  to  retain  in  their  state  of  deification  all 
the  passions  and  appetites  of  their  mortal  state, 
this  account  of  the  origin  of  that  mode  of  wor- 
ship would  have  been  perfectly  satisfactory.  But 
we  know  from  the  most  incontrovertible  author- 
ity, that  sacrifices  were  in  use  among  people  who 
worshipped  the  true  God,  and  who  must  have 
had  very  correct  notions  of  his  attributes.  Now 
we  think  it  impossible  that  such  notions  could 
have  led  any  man  to  fancy  that  the  taking  away 
of  the  life  of  a  harmless  animal,  or  the  burning 
of  a  cake  or  other  fruits  of  the  earth  in  the  fire, 
would  be  acceptable  to  a  Being  self-existent, 
omnipotent,  and  omniscient,  who  can  neither  be 
injured  by  the  crimes  of  his  creatures,  nor  receive 
any  accession  of  happiness. 

Some  persons  who  admit  the  authenticity  of 
the  Jewish  and  Christian  sacrifices,  and  firmly 
rely  on  the  atonement  made  by  Christ,  are  yet 
unwilling  to  allow  that  sacrifices  were  originally 
instituted  by  God.  Of  this  opinion  were  St. 
Chrysostom,  Spencer,  Grotius,  and  Warburton, 
as  were  likewise  the  Jewish  Rabbies,  Maimo- 
nides,  R.  I-evi,  and  Ben  Gerson.  The  greater 
part  of  these  writers  maintain  that  sacrifices 
were  at  first  a  human  institution,  and  that  God, 
to  prevent  their  being  offered  to  idols,  introduced 
them  into  his  service,  though  he  did  not  approve 
of  them  as  good  in  themselves,  or  as  proper 
rites  of  worship.  Warburton's  theory  of  sacri- 
fice is  more  plausible.  According  to  this  inge- 
nious prelate,  sacrifices  had  their  origin  in  the 
sentiments  of  the  human  heart,  and  in  the  an- 
cient mode  of  conversing  by  action  in  aid  of 
words.  Gratitude  to  God  for  benefits  received 
is  natural  to  the  mind  of  man,  as  well  as  his 
bounden  duty.  '  Expiatory  sacrifices,'  he  says, 
'  were  in  their  own  nature  intelligible.  Here 
some  chosen  animal,  precious  to  the  repenting 
criminal,  who  deprecates  the  Deity  who  is  to  be 
appeased,  was  offered  up  and  slain  at  the  altar, 
an  action  which  in  all  languages  speaks  to  this 
purpose : — I  confess  my  transgressions  at  thy 
footstool,  O  my  God  !  and  with  the  deepest  con- 
trition implore  thy  pardon.  And  1  own  that  I 
myself  deserve  the  death  which  I  now  inflict  on 
this  animal."  See  Divine  Legation,  B.  ix.  c.  2. 
This  system  of  sacrifice,  which  the  bishop  think* 
so  well  supported  by  the  most  early  movements 
of  simple  nature,  we  admit  to  be  ingenious,  but 
by  no  means  satisfactory.  The  two  chief  obser- 
vances in  the  Jewish  ritual  were  the  sabbath  and 
sacrifices.  Though  the  distinction  of  weeks  was 
well  known  over  all  the  eastern  world,  the  He- 
brews, during  their  residence  in  Egypt,  were 
probably  very  negligent  in  their  observance  of 


222 


SACRIFICE. 


the  sabbath.  To  enforce  a  religious  observance 
of  that  sacred  day  it  became  necessary  to  inform 
them  of  the  time  and  occasion  of  its  first  institu- 
tion, that  they  might  keep  it  holy  in  memory  of 
the  creation ;  but,  in  a  country  like  Egypt,  the 
people  were  in  danger  of  holding  sacrifices  in 
too  high  rather  than  too  low  veneration,  so  that 
there  was  not  the  same  necessity  for  mentioning 
explicitly  the  early  institution  of  them.  It  was 
sufficient  that  they  knew  the  divine  institution  of 
their  own  sacrifices,  and  the  purposes  for  which 
they  were  offered.  '  Faith,'  says  the  apostle  Paul, 
is  the  substance  of  things  hoped  for,  the  evidence 
of  things  not  seen,'  and  comes  not  by  reasoning, 
but  by  hearing.  What  things  then  were  they 
of  which  Abel,  the  first  sacnficer,  had  heard,  for 
which  he  hoped,  and  in  the  faith  of  which  he 
offered  sacrifice  ?  Undoubtedly  it  was  a  restora- 
tion to  that  immortality  which  was  forfeited  by 
the  transgression  of  his  parents.  Of  such  re- 
demption an  obscure  intimation  had  been  given 
to  Adam,  in  the  promise  that  the  seed  of  the  wo- 
man should  bruise  the  head  of  the  serpent ;  and 
it  was  doubtless  to  impress  upon  his  mind  in 
more  striking  colors  the  manner  in  which  this 
was  to  be  done  that  bloody  sacrifices  were  first 
instituted.  As  long  as  such  rites  were  thus  un- 
derstood they  constituted  a  perfectly  rational 
worship,  as  they  showed  the  people  that  the 
wages  of  sin  is  death  ;  but  when  men  sunk  into 
idolatry,  and  lost  all  hopes  of  a  resurrection  from 
the  dead,  the  slaughtering  of  animals  to  appease 
their  deities  was  a  practice  grossly  superstitious- 
It  rested  in  itself,  without  pointing  to  any  farther 
end,  and  the  grovelling  worshippers  believed 
that  by  their  sacrifices  they  purchased  the  favor 
of  their  deities.  When  once  this  notion  was 
entertained,  human  sacrifices  were  .soon  intro- 
duced. By  the  Jewish  law  these  abominable 
offerings  were  strictly  forbidden,  and  the  whole 
ritual  of  sacrifice  restored  to  its  original  purity. 

All  Christian  churches  have,  till  very  lately, 
agreed  in  believing  that  the  Jewish  sacrifices 
served,  among  other  uses,  for  types  of  the  death 
of  Christ  and  the  Christian  worship.  Many  are 
of  opinion  that  they  were  likewise  federal  rites, 
as  they  certainly  were  considered  by  the  ancient 
Romans.  (Liv.  21,45).  Of  the  various  kinds 
of  Jewish  sacrifices,  and  the  subordinate  ends  for 
which  they  were  offered,  a  full  account  is  given 
in  the  books  of  Moses.  When  an  Israelite  of- 
fered a  loaf  or  a  cake,  the  priest  broke  it  into 
two  parts ;  and,  setting  aside  that  half  which  he 
reserved  for  himself,  broke  the  other  into  crumbs, 
poured  oil,  wine,  incense,  and  salt  upon  it,  and 
spread  the  whole  upon  the  fire  of  the  altar.  If 
these  offerings  were'  accompanied  with  the  sacri- 
fice of  an  animal,  they  were  thrown  upon  the 
victim  to  be  consumed  along  with  it.  If  the 
offerings  were  of  the  ears  of  new  corn,  they  were 
parched  at  the  fire,  rubbed  in  the  hand,  and  then 
offered  to  the  priest  in  a  vessel,  over  which  he 
poured  oil,  incense,  wine,  and  salt,  and  then 
burnt  it  upon  the  altar,  having  first  taken  as 
much  of  it  as  of  right  belonged  to  himself.  The 
principal  sacrifices  among  the  Hebrews  consist- 
ed of  bullocks,  sheep,  and  goats  :  but  doves  and 
turtles  were  accepted  from  those  who  were  not 
able  to  bring  the  other;  these  animals  were  to 
be  perfect,  and  without  blemish.  The  rites  of 


sacrificing  were  various,  and  are  very  minutely 
described  in  the  books  of  Moses. 

The  manner  of  sacrificing  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  was  as  follows  : — In  the  choice  ot 
the  victim,  they  took  care  that  it  was  without 
blemish  or  imperfection ;  its  tail  was  not  to  be 
too  small  at  the  end ;  the  tongue  not  black,  nor 
the  ears  cleft ;  and  the  bull  must  never  have  been 
yoked.  The  victim  being  pitched  upon,  they 
gilt  his  forehead  and  horns,  especially  if  a  bull, 
heifer,  or  cow.  The  head  they  also  adorned  witli 
a  garland  of  flowers,  a  woollen  infula  or  holy 
fillet,  whence  hung  two  rows  of  chaplets  with 
twisted  ribands;  and  over  the  middle  of  the 
body  a  kind  of  stole,  hung  down  on  each  side  ; 
the  lesser  victims  were  only  adorned  with  gar- 
lands and  bundles  of  flowers,  together  with 
white  tufts  or  wreaths.  The  victims,  thus  pre- 
pared, were  brought  before  the  altar  :  the  lesser 
being  driven  to  the  place,  and  the  larger  led  by 
a  halter;  when,  if  they  made  any  struggle,  or 
refused  to  go,  the  resistance  was  taken  for  an  ill 
omen,  and  the  sacrifice  often  delayed.  The  vic- 
tim, thus  brought,  was  carefully  examined,  to  see 
that  there  was  no  defect  in  it;  then  the  priest, 
clad  in  his  sacerdotal  habit,  and  accompanied 
with  the  sacrincers  and  other  attendants,  and 
being  washed  and  purified  according  to  the  ce- 
remonies prescribed,  turned  to  the  right  hand, 
and  went  round  the  altar,  sprinkling  it  and  those 
who  were  present  with  meal  and  holy  water. 
Then  the  crier  proclaimed  with  a  loud  voice, 
Who  is  here?  To  which  the  people  replied, 
Many  and  good.  The  priest  then  having  ex- 
horted the  people  to  join  with  him,  by  saying 
Let  us  pray,  confessed  his  own  unworthiness, 
acknowledging  that  he  had  been  guilty  of  divers 
sins  ;  for  which  he  entreated  pardon  of  the  gods, 
hoping  that  they  would  grant  his  requests,  accept 
the  oblations  offered,  and  send  them  all  health 
and  happiness;  and  to  this  general  form  added 
petitions  for  such  particular  favors  as  were  then 
desired.  The  priest  then  took  a  cup  of  wine; 
and,  having  tasted  it,  caused  his  assistants  to  do 
the  like ;  and  then  poured  forth  the  remainder 
between  the  horns  of  the  victim.  Then  the 
priest  or  the  crier,  or  sometimes  the  most  honor- 
able person  in  the  company,  killed  the  beast,  by 
knocking  it  down  or  cutting  its  throat.  If  the 
sacrifice  was  in  honor  of  the  celes<ial  gods,  the 
throat  was  turned  up  towards  heaven,  but  if 
they  sacrificed  to  the  heroes  or  infernal  gods,  the 
victim  was  killed  with  its  throat  towards  the 
ground.  If  by  accident  the  beast  escaped  the 
stroke,  leaped  up  after  it,  or  expired  with  pain 
and  difficulty,  it  was  thought  to  be  unacceptable 
to  the  gods.  The  beast  being  killed,  the  priest 
inspected  its  entrails,  and  made  predictions  from 
them.  They  then  poured  wine  and  frankincense 
into  the  fire,  to  increase  the  flame,  and  then  laid 
the  sacrifice  on  the  altar;  which  in  the  primitive 
times  was  burnt  whole  to  the  gods,  and  thence 
called  a  holocaust ;  but  in  after-times  only 
part  of  the  victim  was  consumed  in  the  fire,  and 
the  remainder  reserved  for  the  sacrincers ;  the 
thighs,  and  sometimes  the  entrails,  being  burnt 
to  their  honor,  the  company  feasted  upon  the 
rest.  During  the  sacrifice,  the  priest,  and  the  per- 
son who  gave  the  sacrifice,  jointly  prayed,  laying 
their  hand  noon  the  altar.  Sometimes  they 


SACRIFICE. 


223 


played  upon  musical  instruments  in  the  time  of 
the  sacrifice,  and  on  some  occasions  they  danced 
round  the  altar,  singing  sacred  hymns  in  honor 
of  the  gods. 

Concerning  the  origin  of  human  sacrifices 
various  opinions  have  been  formed.  When 
men  had  indulged  the  fancy  of  bribing  their 
gods  by  sacrifice,  it  was  natural  for  them 
to  think  of  enhancing  the  value  of  the  atone- 
ment by  the  cost  and  rarity  of  the  offering,  and 
thus  at  last  they  offered  that  which  they  conceiv- 
ed to  be  the  most  precious  of  all,  a  human  sa- 
crifice. 'It was  customary,' says Sanchoniathon, 
'-in  ancient  times,  in  great  and  public  calamities 
before  things  became  incurable,  for  princes  and 
magistrates  to  offer  up  in  sacrifice  to  the  aveng- 
ing demons  the  dearest  of  their  offspring.'  San- 
choniathon wrote  of  Phoenicia ;  but  the  practice 
prevailed  in  every  nation  of  which  we  have  re- 
ceived any  ancient  account.  The  people  of 
Dumah,  in  particular,  sacrificed  every  year  a 
child,  and  buried  it  underneath  an  altar;  for 
they  did  not  admit  of  images.  The  Persians 
buried  people  alive.  Hamestris,  the  wife  of 
Xerxes,  entombed  twelve  persons  alive  under 
ground.  It  would  be  endless  to  enumerate 
every  city  and  province  where  these  dire  prac- 
tices obtained.  The  Cyprians,  the  Rhodians, 
the  Phoceans,  the  lonians,  those  of  Chios,  Les- 
bos, Tenedos,  all  offered  human  sacrifices.  The 
natives  of  the  Tauric  Chersonesus  offered  up  to 
Diana  every  stranger  whom  chance  threw  upon 
their  coast.  Hence  arose  that  just  expostulation 
of  Euripides  in  his  Iphigenia,  upon  the  incon- 
sistency of  the  proceeding.  Iphigenia  wonders, 
as  the  goddess  delighted  in  the  blood  of  men, 
that  every  villain  and  murderer  should  be  privi- 
ledged  to  escape,  nay,  driven  from  the  threshold 
of  the  temple;  whereas,  if  an  honest  and  virtu- 
ous man  chanced  to  stray  thither,  he  was  only 
seized  upon,  and  put  to  death.  The  Pelasgi,  in 
a  time  of  scarcity,  vowed  the  tenth  of  all  that 
should  be  born  to  them  for  a  sacrifice,  to  pro- 
cure plenty.  Aristomenes  the  Messenian  slew  300 
noble  Lacedemonians,  among  whom  was  Theo- 
pompus  the  king  of  Sparta,  at  the  altar  of  Jupi- 
ter at  Ithome.  The  Lacedemonians  did  not  fail 
to  make  ample  returns,  and  offered  the  like 
number  of  victims  to  Mars.  Their  barbarous 
festival  of  the  Diamastigosis  is  well  known.  See 
DIAMASTIGOSIS.  Phylarchus,  as  quoted  by  Por- 
phyry, says  that  of  old  every  Grecian  state  made 
it  a  rule,  before  they  marched  against  an  enemy, 
to  solicit  a  blessing  on  their  undertakings  by  hu- 
man victims.  The  Romans  were  accustomed  to 
the  like  sacrifices.  They  both  devoted  themselves 
to  the  infernal  gods,  and  constrained  others  to 
submit  to  the  same  horrid  doom.  Hence  we 
read  in  Livy  that,  in  the  consulate  of  JEmilius 
Paulus  and  Terentius  Varro,  two  Gauls,  a  man 
and  a  woman,  and  two  Greeks  were  buried  alive  at 
Rome  in  the  ox-market.  He  says  it  was  a  sacri- 
fice not  originally  of  Roman  institution  ;  yet  was 
often  practised  there  by  public  authority.  Plu- 
tarch mentions  a  similar  instance  a  few  years 
before,  in  the  consulship  of  Flaminius  and  Fu- 
rius.  Caius  Marius  offered  up  his  own  daughter 
as  a  victim  to  the  Dii  Averrunci,  to  procure  suc- 
cess in  a  battle  against  the  Cimbri ;  as  we  are 


informed  by  Dorotheus,  quoted  by  Clemens 
and  by  Plutarch,  who  says  that  her  name  wa> 
Calpurnia.  Cicero,  mentioning  this  custom  as 
common  in  Gaul,  adds  that  it  prevailed  among 
the  people  even  at  the  time  he  was  writing ;  and 
Pliny  says  that  it  had  then,  and  not  very  long, 
been  discouraged.  For  there  was  a  law  enacted 
when  Lentulus  and  Crassus  were  consuls,  so 
late  as  A.  U.  C.  657,  that  there  should  be  no 
more  human  sacrifices.  They  were,  however, 
again  offered,  though  they  became  not  so  ge- 
neral. For  Augustus  Caesar,  when  Perusia  sur- 
rendered during  the  second  triumvirate,  offered 
up,  upon  the  Ides  of  March,  300  persons,  of  the 
equestrian  and  senatorial  order,  to  the  manes 
of  his  uncle  Julius  Caesar.  Even  in  Rome  this 
custom  was  revived  :  and  Porphyry  assures  us 
that  in  his  time  a  man  was  every  year  sacrificed 
at  the  shrine  of  Jupiter  Latialis.  Heliogabalus 
offered  similar  victims  to  the  Syrian  deity  which 
he  introduced  among  the  Romans.  The  same  is 
said  of  Aurelian.  The  Gauls  and  Germans  were 
so  devoted  to  this  shocking  custom  that  no  bu- 
siness of  any  moment  was  transacted  among 
them  without  the  blood  of  men.  They  were  of- 
fered up  to  Husus,  Taranis,  Thautates,  8cc. 
These  deities  are  mentioned  by  Lucan.  The  al- 
tars of  these  gods  were  generally  situated  in  the 
depth  of  woods,  that  the  gloom  might  add  to  the 
horror  of  the  operation.  The  persons  devoted 
were  led  thither  by  the  Druids,  who  presided  at 
the  solemnity,  and  performed  the  cruel  office. 
Tacitus  mentions  the  cruelty  of  the  Hermunduri, 
in  a  war  with  the  Catti,  wherein  they  had  greatly 
the  advantage  ;  at  the  close  of  which  they  made 
one  general  sacrifice  of  all  their  prisoners.  The 
remains  of  the  legions  under  Varrus  suffered  the 
same  fate.  There  were  many  places  destined  for 
this  purpose  all  over  Gaul  and  Germany  ;  but  es- 
pecially the  woods  of  Arduenna(now  Ardennes), 
and  the  great  Hercynian  forest ;  a  wild  that  ex- 
tended above  thirty  days'  journey  in  length. 
The  places  set  apart  for  this  solemnity  were  held 
in  the  utmost  reverence.  Lucan  mentions  a 
grove  of  this  sort  near  Marsilia,  which  even  the 
Roman  soldiers  were  afraid  to  violate,  though 
commanded  by  Caesar.  Claudian  compliments 
Stilicho  that,  among  other  advantages  accruing 
to  the  Roman  armies  through  his  conduct,  they 
could  now  venture  into  the  awful  forest  o, 
Ilercynia,  and  follow  the  chace  in  those  so 
much  dreaded  woods.  These  practices  prevail- 
ed among  all  the  nations  of  the  north.  The 
Massagetae,  the  Scythians,  the  Getes,  th«  Sar- 
matians,  all  the  various  nations  upon  the  Bal- 
tic, particularly  the  Suevi  and  Scandinavians, 
held  it  as  a  fixed  principle  that  their  security 
could  not  be  obtained  but  at  the  expense  of 
the  lives  of  others.  Their  chief  gods  were 
Thor  and  Woden,  whom  they  thought  they 
could  never  sufficiently  glut  with  blood.  They 
had  many  celebrated  places  of  worship ;  espe- 
cially in  the  island  of  Rugen,  near  the  mouth  ot 
the  Oder  ;  and  in  Zealand,  and  among  the  Sem- 
nones  and  Naharvalli.  But  the  most  frequented 
was  at  Upsal ;  where  there  was  every  year  a 
grand  solemnity,  which  continued  for  nine  days, 
during  which  they  sacrificed  animals  of  all  sorts; 
but  the  most  acceptable  and  numerous  victims 


224 


SACRIFICE. 


were  men.  Of  these  none  were  esteemed  so 
auspicious  a  sacrifice  as  the  prince  of  the  coun- 
try. Whea  the  lot  fell  for  the  king  to  die,  it  was 
received  with  universal  joy  ;  as  it  once  happened 
in  the  time  of  a  famine,  when  they  cast  lots,  and 
it  fell  to  king  Domalder  to  be  the  people's  vic- 
tim ;  and  he  was  accordingly  put  to  death.  They 
did  not  spare  their'  own  children.  Harold  the 
son  of  Gunild  slew  two  of  his  sons  to  obtain, 
says  Verstegan,  '  such  a  tempest  at  sea,  as 
should  break  and  disperse  the  shipping  of  Harold 
king  of  Denmark.'  Another  king  slew  nine 
sons  to  prolong  his  own  life.  Adam  Bremensis, 
speaking  of  the  awful  grove  at  Upsal  where 
these  horrid  rites  were  celebrated,  says  that 
there  was  not  a  single  tree  but  was  reverenced, 
as  if  gifted  with  some  portion  of  divinity ;  be- 
cause they  were  stained  with  gore  and  foul  with 
human  putrefaction.  The  same  is  observed  by 
Scheiffer  in  his  account  of  this  place.  The 
manner  in  which  the  victims  were  slaughtered 
was  diverse  in  different  places.  Some  of  the 
Gaulish  nations  chined  them  with  the  stroke  of 
an  axe.  The  Celtae  placed  the  man  who  was  to 
be  offered  for  a  sacrifice  upon  a  block  or  an 
altar,  with  his  breast  upwards,  and  with  a  sword 
struck  forcibly  across  the  sternum ;  then  tumb- 
ling him  to  the  ground,  from  his  agonies  and 
convulsions,  as  well  as  from  the  effusion  of 
blood,  they  formed  a  judgment  of  future  events. 
The  Cimbri  ripped  open  the  bowels ;  and  from 
them  they  pretended  to  divine.  In  Norway  they 
beat  men's  brains  out  with  an  ox-yoke.  In  Ice- 
land they  dashed  them  against  an  altar  of  stone. 
In  many  places  they  transfixed  them  with  ar- 
rows. After  they  were  dead,  they  suspended 
them  upon  the  trees,  and  left  them  to  putrefy. 
At  one  time  seventy  carcases  of  this  sort  were 
found  in  a  wood  of  the  Scevi.  Dithmar  of 
Mersburg  speaks  of  a  place  called  Ledur  in 
Zealand,  where  there  were  every  year  ninety- 
nine  persons  sacrificed  to  the  god  Swantowite. 
During  these  bloody  festivals  a  general  joy  pre- 
vailed, and  banquets  were  most  royally  served. 
They  fed,  caroused,  and  gave  a  loose  to  indulgence, 
which  at  other  times  was  not  permitted.  Their 
servants  were  numerous^  who  attended  during 
the  term  of  their  feasting,  and  partook  of  the 
banquet.  But,  at  the  close  of  all,  they  were 
smothered  in  the  same  pool,  or  otherwise  made 
away  with.  On  which  Tacitus  remarks  how 
great  an  awe  this  circumstance  must  necessarily 
infuse  into  those  who  were  not  admitted  to  these 
mysteries.  They  imagined  that  there  was  some- 
thing mysterious  in  the  number  nine  :  for  which 
reason  these  feasts  were  in  some  places  cele- 
brated every  ninth  year,  in  others  every  ninth 
month;  and  continued  for  nine  days.  When  all 
was  ended,  they  washed  the  image  of  the  deity 
in  a  pool ;  and  then  dismissed  the  assembly. 
These  accounts  are  handed  down  from  a  variety 
of  authors  in  different  ages;  many  of  whom 
were  natives  of  the  countries  which  they  de- 
scribe, and  to  which  they  seem  strongly  attached. 
The  like  custom  prevailed  to  an  excessive  degree 
at  Mexico  (see  MEXICO),  and  even  under'the 
mild  government  of  the  Peruvians  ;  and  in  most 
parts  of  America.  But,  among  the  nations  of 
Canaan,  the  victims  were  peculiarly  chosen. 


Their  own  cliildreT;,  and  whatever  was  nearest 
and  dearest  to  them,  were  deemed  the  most  wor- 
thy offering  to  their  gods.  The  Carthaginians, 
who  were  a  colony  from  Tyre,  carried  with  them 
the  religion  of  their  country,  and  instituted  the 
same  worship  in  the  parts  were  they  settled.  It 
consisted  in  the  adoration  of  several  deities,  but 
particularly  of  Kronus,  to  whom  they  offered 
human  sacrifices,  and  especially  children.  If 
the  parents  were  not  at  hand  to  make  an  imme- 
diate offer,  the  magistrates  did  not  fail  to  make 
choice  of  those  who  were  most  fair  and  pro- 
mising. Upon  a  check  being  received  in  Sicily, 
Hamilcar  laid  hold  of  a  boy,  and  offered  him  on 
the  spot  to  Kronus ;  and  at  the  same  time 
drowned  a  number  of  priests  to  appease  the  deity 
of  the  sea.  The  Carthaginians,  upon  a  great  de- 
feat of  their  army  by  Agathocles,  imputed  their 
miscarriages  to  the  anger  of  this  god,  and  seized 
at  once  300  children  of  the  nobility,  and  offered 
them  for  a  sacrifice;  300  more  yielded  them- 
selves voluntarily,  and  were  put  to  death  with 
the  others.  The  Egyptians  chose  the  most  hand- 
some persons  to  be  sacrificed.  The  Albanians 
pitched  upon  the  best  man  of  the  community, 
and  made  him  pay  for  the  wickedness  of  the 
rest.  If  a  person  had  an  only  child,  it  was  the 
more  liable  to  be  sacrificed,  as  being  esteemed 
more  acceptable  to  the  deity,  and  more  effica- 
cious to  the  general  good.  Those  who  were  sa- 
crificed to  Kronus  were  thrown  into  the  arms  of 
a  molten  idol,  which  stood  in  the  midst  of  a 
large  fire,  and  was  red  hot.  The  arms  of  it 
were  stretched  out,  with  the  hands  turned  up- 
wards, as  it  were  to  receive  them ;  yet  sloping 
downwards,  so  that  they  dropt  thence  into  a 
glowing  furnace  below.  To  other  gods  they 
were  otherwise  slaughtered,  often  by  the  very 
hands  of  their  parents.  They  embraced  their 
children  with  great  fondness,  and  encouraged 
them  in  the  gentlest  terms,  that  they  might  not 
be  appalled  at  the  sight  of  the  hellish  process ; 
begging  of  them  to  submit  with  cheerfulness  to 
this  fearful  operation.  If  there  was  any  appear- 
ance of  a  tear  rising,  or  a  cry  unawares  escaping, 
the  mother  smothered  it  with  her  kisses,  that 
there  might  not  be  any  show  of  backwardness 
or  constraint,  but  the  whole  be  a  free-will  offer- 
ing. These  cruel  endearments  over,  they  stab- 
bed them  to  the  heart,  or  otherwise  opened  the 
sluices  of  life ;  and  with  the  blood  warm,  as  it 
ran,  besmeared  the  altar  and  the  grim  visage  of 
the  idol.  These  were  the  customs  which  the 
Israelites  learned  of  the  people  of  Canaan,  and 
for  which  they  are  upbraided  by  the  Psalmist 
(cvi.  34 — 39).  These  cruel  rites,  practised  in  so 
many  nations,  made  Plutarch  doubt,  '  Whether 
it  would  not  have  been  better  for  the  Galatae,  or 
for  the  Scythians  to  have  had  no  tradition  or 
conception  of  any  superior  beings,  than  to  have 
formed  to  themselves  notions  of  gods  who  de- 
lighted in  the  blood  of  men ;  of  gods  who  es- 
teemed human  victims  the  most  acceptable  and 
perfect  sacrifice.  Would  it  not,  says  he,  have 
been  more  eligible  for  the  Carthaginians  to  have 
had  the  atheist  Critias,  or  Diagoras  their  law- 
giver, at  the  commencement  of  their  polity,  and 
to  have  been  taught  that  there  was  neither  god 
nor  demon,  than  to  have  sacrificed  in  the  man- 


SAC 


225 


SAD 


ner  they  were  wont  to  the  god  whom  they 
adored  ?  '  The  mother,  he  adds,  who  sacrificed 
her  child  stood  by,  without  any  seeming  sense 
of  what  she  was  losing,  and  without  uttering  a 
groan.  If  a  sigh  did  escape  she  lost  all  the 
honor  which  she  proposed  to  herself  in  the  offer- 
ing, and  the  child  was  notwithstanding  slain. 
All  the  time  of  this  ceremony,  while  the  chil- 
dren were  murdering,  there  was  a  noise  of  cla- 
rions and  tabors  sounding  before  the  idol,  that 
the  cries  and  shrieks  of  the  victims  might  not 
be  heard.'  '  Tell  me  now,'  adds  Plutarch,  '  if 
the  monsters  of  old,  the  Typhons,  and  the 
giants,  were  to  expel  the  gods,  and  to  rule  the 
world  in  their  stead ;  could  they  require  a  ser- 
vice more  horrid  than  these  infernal  rites  and 
sacrifices  ?' 

SAC'RILEGE,  n.  s.     ^      Fr.  sacrilege  ;  Lat. 

SACRILE'GIOUS,  adj.        >    sacrilcgium.     The 

SACRILEGIOUSLY,  adv.  )  crime  of  appropri- 
ating what  is  devoted  to  religion,  or  of  violating 
or  profaning  things  sacred  :  the  adjective  and  ad- 
verb corresponding. 

By  what  eclipse  shall  that  sun  be  defaced, 
What  mine  hath  erst  thrown  down  so  fair  a  tower, 
What  sacrilege  hath  such  a  saint  disgraced  ? 

Sidney. 

Then  'gan  a  cursed  hand  the  quiet  womb 
Of  his  great  grandmother  with  steel  to  wound, 

And  the  hid  treasures  in  her  sacred  tomb 
With  sacrilege  to  dig.  Faerie  Queene. 

To  sacrilegiotts  perjury  should  I  be  betrayed,  I 
should  account  it  greater  misery.  King  Charles. 

When  these  evils  befel  him,  his  conscience  tells 
him  it  was  for  sacrilegiously  pillaging  and  invading 
God's  house.  South. 

We  need  not  go  so  many  ages  back  to  see  the  ven- 
geance of  God  upon  some  families,  raised  upon  the 
ruins  of  churches,  and  enriched  with  the  spoils  of  sa- 
crilege. Id. 

Blasphemy  is  a  male  iiction,  and  a  sacrilegious  de- 
traction from  the  Godhead.  Aylijfe's  Parergon. 

Still  green  with  bays  each  ancient  altar  stands, 
Above  the  reach  of  sacrilegious  hands.  Pope. 

SA'CRING,  part.^      A     participle    of    the 

SA'CRIST,  ^  French  sacrer.     The  verb 

SAC'RISTAN,  i  is    not   used   in  English. 

SAC'RISTY.  *  Consecrating ;     a    sacrist 

or  sacristan  (Fr.  sacristairi)  is  one  who  has  the 

care  of  consecrated  things :    sacristy   the  place 

where  they  are  kept. 

I'll  startle  you, 
Worse  than  the  sacring  bell. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  VIII. 

The  sacring  of  the  kings  of  France  is  the  sign  of 
their  sovereign  priesthood  as  well  as  kingdom,  and 
in  the  right  thereof  they  are  capable  of  holding  all 
vacant  benefices.  Temple. 

Bold  Amycus  from  the  robbed  vestry  brings 
A  sconce  that  hung  on  high, 
With  tapers  filled  to  light  the  sacristy.         Dryden. 

A  third  apartment  should  be  a  kind  of  sacristy 
for  altars,  idols,  and  sacrificing  instruments. 

Addison. 

A  sacrist  or  treasurer  are  not  dignitaries  in  the 
church  of  common  right,  but  only  by  custom. 

Ayliffe's  Parergon. 

SACROBOSCO  (Joannes  de),  or  John  Hali- 
fax,  a  celebrated    mathematician    of    the  thir- 
teenth century,  said  by  English  biographers  to 
have  been  born  at  Halifax  in  Yorkshire,  but  both 
VOL.  XIX. 


Scots  and  Irish  writers  claim  him  as  their  coun- 
tryman. After  receiving  his  education  at  Ox-v 
ford,  he  entered  into  orders,  and  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  died  in  1256-  He  wrote,  1.  De 
Sphaera  Mundi ;  2.  De  Anni  Rations;  3.  De 
Algorismo. 

SACRUM,  or  Os  basilare,  the  sacred  bone, 
so  called  from  its  being  offered  in  sacrifice  by 
the  ancients,  or  perhaps  from  its  supporting  the 
organs  of  generation,  which  they  considered  as 
sacred.  In  young  subjects  it  is  composed  of 
five  or  six  pieces,  united  by  cartilage ;  but  in 
more  advanced  age  it  becomes  one  bone,  in 
which,  however,  the  marks  of  the  former  sepa- 
ration may  still  be  easily  distinguished.  Its 
shape  has  been  sometimes  compared  to  an  irre- 
gular triangle ;  and  sometimes,  and  perhaps 
more  properly,  to  a  pyramid,  flattened  before 
and  behind,  with  its  basis  placed  towards  the 
lumbar  vertebrae,  and  its  point  terminating  in  the 
coccyx.  See  ANATOMY. 

SAD,  adj.       -\      Of  this  word,  so  frequent  in 

SAD'DEN,  v.  a.  (the  language,  the  etymology  is 

SAD'LY,  adv.    {not     known,    says    Johnson. 

SAD'NESS,  n.  s.  *  Goth,     sat,  grief. — Thomson. 

Sorrowful ;  full  of  grief :  hence  heavy ;  gloomy  ; 

bad  ;  cohesive  :  to  sadden  is  to  make  sad  :  and 

the  adverb  and  noun  substantive  correspond. 

Be  not  as  the  hypocrites  of  a  sad  countenance. 

Matthew. 

Do  you  think  I  shall  not  love  a  sad  Pamela  s° 
well  as  a  joyful  ?  Sidney. 

\\ith  that  his  hand,  more  sad  than  lump  of  lead, 
Uplifting  high,  he  weened  with  Morddure, 
His  own  good  sword,  Morddure  to  cleave  his  head. 

Faerie  Queene. 

My  father  has  gone  wild  into  his  grave ; 
For  in  his  tomb  lie  my  affections  ; 
And  with  his  spirits  sadly  I  survive, 
To  mock  the  expectations  of  the  world. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  IV. 

It  ministreth  unto  men,  and  other  creatures,  all 
celestial  influences  ;  it  dissipateth  those  sad  thoughts 
and  sorrows  which  the  darkness  both  begetteth  and 
maintaineth.  Raleigh. 

If  it  were  an  embassy  of  weight,  choice  was  made 
of  some  sad  person  of  known  judgment  and  expe- 
rience, and  not  of  a  young  man,  not  weighed  in  state 
matters.  Bacon. 

A  sad  wise  valour  is  the  brave  complexion 
That  leads  the  van,  and  swallows  up  the  cities  : 

The  giggler  is  a  milk-maid,  whom  inflection, 
Or  a  fired  beacon,  frighteth  from  his  ditties. 

Herbert 

The  soul  receives  intelligence 
By  her  near  genius  of  the  body's  end, 
And  so  imparts  a  sadness  to  the  sense. 

Daniel's  Civil  War. 

A  passionate  regret  at  sin,  a  grief  and  sadness  of 
its  memory,  enter  into  God's  roll  of  mourners. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

And  let  us  not  be  wanting  to  ourselves, 
Lest  so  severe  and  obstinate  a  sadness 
Tempt  a  new  vengeance.  Denham's  Sophy. 

Thoughts  in  my  unquiet  breast  are  risen, 
Tending  to  some  relief  of  our  extremes, 
Or  end,  tho'  sharp  and  sad,  yet  tolerable.      Milton. 

Up  into  heaven,  from  Paradise  in  haste 
Th'  angelic  guards  ascended,  mute  and  sad.        Id. 

Dim  sadness  did  not  spare 
Celestial  visages.  Id. 

Crystal,  in  its  reduction  into  powder,  hath  a  vale 

Q 


SAD 


226 


SAD 


and  shadow  of  blue  ;  and  in  its  coarse  pieces  is  of  a 
sadder  hue  than  the  powder  of  Venice  glass. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errourt. 

I  met  him  accidentally  in  London  in  tad  coloured 
c.oathes,  far  from  being  costly. 

Walton'*  Life  of  Bishop  Sanderson. 

Scarce  any  tinging  ingredient  is  of  so  general  use 
as  woad,  or  glastum;  for  though  of  itself  it  dye  but 
a  blue,  yet  it  is  used  to  prepare  cloth  for  a  green, 
and  many  of  the  tadder  colours,  when  the  dyers 
make  them  last  without  fading.  Boyle. 

He  sadly  suffers  in  their  grief, 
Out- weeps  an  hermit,  and  out -prays  a  saint. 

Drifden. 

If  the  subject  be  mournful,  let  every  thing  in  it 
have  a  stroke  of  sadness.  Id. 

Woad  or  wade  is  used  by  the  dyers  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  all  sad  colours. 

Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

Marl  is  binding,  and  saddening  of  land  is  the  great 
prejudice  it  doth  to  clay  lands.  Id. 

We  may"  at  present  easily  see,  and  one  day  sadly 
feel.  South. 

These  qualifications  make  him  a  sad  husband. 

Adtiiton. 

Her  gloomy  presence  saddens  all  the  scene, 
Shades  every  flower,  and  darkens  every  green ; 
Deepens  the  murmurs  of  the  falling  floods, 
And  breathes  a  browner  horror  on  the  woods.  Pope. 

See  in  her  cell  sad  Eloisa  spread, 
Propped  on  some  tomb,  a  neighbour  of  the  dead. 

Id. 

SAD'DLE,  n.  *.'&  v.  a.  *\     Sax.  j-£rt>l ;  Goth. 

SAD'DLE-BACKED,  adj.     f    seda  ;    Dan.  and 

SAD'DLE-H AKER,  n.  s.      iBelg.   sadel;    Wei. 

SAD'DLER.  )  sadell.       The    seat 

which  is  put  upon  a  horse :  to  cover  with  a  sad- 
dle ;  to  burden  :  saddle-backed  is  denned  in  the 
extract :  saddle-maker  and  saddler,  a  manufac- 
turer of  saddles. 

I  will  saddle  me  an  ass,  that  I  may  ride  thereon. 

2  Sum. 

His  horse  hipped,  with  an  old  moth-eaten  saddle, 
and  the  stirrups  of  no  kindred 

Shakipeare.   Taming  of  the  Shrew. 
Sixpence  that  I  had 

To  pay  the  toddler  for  my  mistress'  crupper, 
The  toddler  had  it.  Id.  Comedy  of  Errours. 

The  law  made  for  apparel,  and  riding  in  saddles, 
after  the  English  fashion,  is  penal  only  to  English- 
men. Davies. 

Rebels,  by  yielding,  do  like  him,  or  worse, 
Who  saddled  his  own  back  to  shame  his  horse. 

Cleat-eland. 

The  utmost  exactness  in  these  belongs  to  farriers, 
saddlers,  and  smiths.  Digby. 

One  hung  a  pole-ax  at  his  saddle  bow, 
And  one  a  heavy  mace.        Dryden't  Knight'*  Tale. 

Resolved  for  sea,  the  slaves  thy  baggage  pack, 
Each  saddled  with  his  burden  on  his  back  ; 
Nothing  retards  thy  voyage.  Dryden. 

Horses,  taddlt-bached,  have  their  backs  low,  and  a 
raised  head  and  neck.  Farrier'*  Dictionary. 

No  man,  sure,  e'er  left  his  house, 
And  toddled  Ball,  with  thoughts  so  wild, 

To  brine  a  midwife  to  his  spouse, 
Before  he  knew  she  was  with  child.  Prior. 

The  smith  and  the  toddler's  journeyman  ought  to 
partake  of  your  master's  generosity. 

Swift's  Direction*  to  the  Groom. 
SADDLE,  in  archaiology.     In  the  earlier  ages 
the  Romans  used  neither  saddle  nor  stirrups, 
and  hence  the  Roman  cavalry  were  subject  to 


sundry  maladies  in  the  hips  and  legs  from  the 
want  of  some  support  for  their  feet.  Hippo- 
crates observes  that  the  Scythians,  who  were 
much  on  horseback,  were  incommoded  by  de- 
fluxions  in  the  legs  from  the  same  cause.  In 
less  remote  times,  the  Romans  placed  upon  their 
horses  a  square  pannel,  or  species  of  covering 
which  enabled  them  to  sit  less  hardly.  This 
they  termed  ephippium. 

The  saddles  now  chiefly  in  use  are : — The 
running  saddle,  which  is  a  small  one  with 
round  skirts.  The  Burford  saddle,  which  has 
the  seat  and  the  skirts  both  plain.  The  pad 
saddle,  of  which  there  are  two  sorts,  some  made 
with  burs  before  the  seat,  and  others  with  bol- 
sters under  the  thighs.  The  French  pad  saddle, 
of  which  the  burs  come  wholly  round  the  seat. 
The  portmanteau  saddle,  that  has  a  cantle  behind 
the  seat,  to  keep  the  portmanteau  from  the  back 
of  the  rider.  A  war  saddle,  whicli  has  a  cantle 
and  a  bolster  behind  and  before ;  also  a  fair 
bolster.  The  pack  saddle,  a  saddle  upon  which 
loads  may  be  carried 

The  several  parts  of  a  saddle  are  too  well 
known  to  require  any  minute  description  in  this 
place. 

SADDUCEES,  a  sect  among  the  ancient 
Jews  respecting  whose  origin  there  are  various 
opinions.  Epiphanius  and  others  contend  that 
they  took  their  rise  from  Dositheus,  a  sectary  of 
Samaria,  and  their  name  from  the  Hebrew  word 
p"l¥,  just,  from  the  great  justice  and  equity  which 
they  showed  in  their  actions.  In  the  Jewish 
Talmud  we  are  told  that  the  Sadducees  derived 
their  name  from  Sadoc,  or  Zadoc,  and  that  the 
sect  arose  about  260  years  before  Christ,  in  the 
time  of  Antigonus  of  Socho,  president  of  the 
Sanhedrim  at  Jerusalem,  and  teacher  of  the  law. 
He  had  often  in  his  lectures  taught  his  scholars 
that  they  ought  not  to  serve  God  as  slaves  do 
their  masters,  from  the  hope  of  a  reward,  but 
merely  out  of  filial  love  for  his  own  sake  ;  from 
which  Sadoc  and  Baithas  inferred  that  there 
were  no  rewards  after  this  life.  They  therefore 
separated  from  their  master,  and  taught  that  there 
was  no  resurrection  nor  future  state.  This  new 
doctrine  quickly  spread,  and  gave  rise  to  the 
sect  of  Sadducees,  which  in  many  respects  re- 
sembled the  Epicureans.  Dr.  Prideaux  thinks 
that  the  Sadducees  were  at  first  no  more  than 
what  the  Karaites  are  now ;  that  is,  they  would 
not  receive  the  traditions  of  the  elders,  but  stuck 
to  the  written  word  only  ;  and,  the  Pharisees 
being  great  promoters  of  those  traditions,  these 
two  sects  became  opponents.  Afterwards  the 
Sadducees  imbibed  other  doctrines,  they  denied 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  the  existence 
of  angels,  and  of  the  spirits  or  souls  of  men  de- 
parted. (Matt.  xxii.  23,  Acts  xxiii.  8).  They 
held  that  there  is  no  spiritual  being  but  God 
only ;  that  as  to  man,  this  world  is  his  all. 
They  did  not  deny  but  that  we  had  reasonable 
souls  ;  but  they  maintained  that  these  were  mor- 
tal ;  and  that  what  is  said  of  the  existence  ot 
angels,  and  of  a  future  resurrection,  is  nothing 
but  illusion.  It  is  also  said  that  they  rejected 
the  prophecies.  The  Sadducees  observed  the 
law  themselves,  and  caused  it  to  be  observed  by 
others  with  the  utmost  rigor.  They  admitted  of 


SAD 


227 


SAF 


cone  of  the  traditions,  explications,  or  modi- 
fications of  the  Pharisees ;  they  kept  only  to  the 
text  of  the  law ;  and  maintained  that  only  what 
•was  written  was  to  be  observed.  The  Sadducees 
are  accused  of  rejecting  all  the  books  of  Scrip- 
ture except  those  of  Moses.  But  Scaliger  vin- 
dicates them  from  this  reproach,  and  observes 
that  they  did  not  appear  in  Israel  till  after  the 
canon  was  completed  ;  and  that,  if  they  had  been 
to  choose  out  of  the  canonical  Scriptures,  the 
Pentateuch  was  less  favorable  to  them  than  any 
other  book,  since  it  often  mentions  angels.  Be- 
sides, the  Sadducees  were  present  in  the  temple, 
where  the  books  of  the  prophets  were  daily  read, 
and  were  in  the  chief  employments  of  the  na- 
tion ;  many  of  them  were  even  priests.  Men- 
asseh  Ben  Israel  says,  expressly,  that  they  did 
not  reject  the  prophets,  but  that  they  explained 
them  in  a  sense  very  different  from  that  of  the 
other  Jews.  Josephus  assures  us  that  they  de- 
nied destiny  or  fate ;  alleging  that  these  were 
only  sounds  void  of  sense,  and  that  all  the  good 
or  evil  that  happens  to  us  is  in  consequence  of 
the  good  or  evil  side  we  have  taken,  by  the 
free  choice  of  our  will.  They  said,  also,  that 
God  was  far  removed  from  doing  or  knowing 
evil,  and  that  man  was  the  absolute  master  of 
his  own  actions.  Yet  it  is  certain  they  were  not 
only  tolerated  among  the  Jews,  but  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  high  priesthood  itself.  John  Hyr- 
canus,  high  priest,  separated  from  the  Pharisees, 
and  went  over  to  this  sect ;  and  gave  strict  com- 
mand to  the  Jews,  on  pain  of  death,  to  receive 
the  maxims  of  this  sect.  Aristobulus  and  Alex- 
ander Jannsus,  sons  of  Hyrcanus,  favored  the 
Sadducees;  and  Maimonides  assures  us  that 
under  Alexander  Jannaeus  they  possessed  all  the 
offices  of  the  Sanhedrim,  and  that  there  only  re- 
mained of  the  party  of  the  Pharisees  Simon  the 
son  of  Secra.  Caiaphas,  who  condemned  Jesus 
Christ,  was  a  Sadducee,  as  well  as  Ananus  the 
younger,  who  put  to  death  St.  James.  The  mo- 
dern Jews  hold  as  heretics  that  small  number  of 
Sadducees  that  are  among  them.  The  sect  of 
the  Sadducees  was  much  reduced  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  by  the  dispersion  of  the 
Jews  ;  but  it  revived  afterwards.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  century  it  was  so  formidable  in 
Egypt  that  Ammonius  wrote  against  the.m,  or 
rather  against  the  Jews,  who  tolerated  the  Sad- 
ducees, though  they  denied  the  fundamental 
points  of  their  religion.  The  emperor  Justinian 
mentions  the  Sadducees  in  one  of  his  acts,  ba- 
nishes them  out  of  his  dominions,  and  condemns 
them  to  the  severest  punishment,  as  people  that 
maintained  atheistical  and  impious  tenets.  An- 
nus,  or  Ananus,  a  disciple  of  Juda,  son  of  Nach- 
man,  a  famous  rabbi  of  the  eighth  century, 
declared  himself  in  favor  of  the  Sadducees,  and 
strenuously  defended  them ;  as  did  also,  in  the 
twelfth  century,  Alpharag,  a  Spanish  rabbi. 
This  doctor  wrote  against  the  Pharisees,  and 
maintained  that  the  purity  of  Judaism  was  only 
to  be  found  among  the  Sadducees;  that  the  tra- 
ditions avowed  by  the  Pharisees  were  useless ; 
and  that  the  ceremonies,  which  they  had  mul- 
tiplied without  end,  were  an  insupportable  yoke. 
SADLER  (Anthony),  D.  D.,  an  eminent 
English  divine;  born  at  Chilton,  in  Wiltshire, 


in  1610.  He  took  his  degree  in  1665,  and  was 
appointed  one  of  the  king's  chaplains  by  Charles 
II.  He  died  in  1680. 

SADLER  (William  Windham),  an  ingenious 
aeronaut,  who  fell  a  victim  to  the  practice  of  his 
profession.  On  the  30th  of  September,  1824, 
he  ascended  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Black- 
burn in  Lancashire ;  and  in  the  descent,  the  car 
being  driven  against  a  chimney,  Mr.  Sadler  was 
thrown  out,  at  the  height  of  about  forty  yards 
from  the  ground,  when  his  skull  was  fractured, 
and  he  was  otherwise  so  injured  as  to  occasion 
his  death,  in  the  twenty-eighth  year  of  his  age. 
lie  had  made  thirty  aerial  voyages,  in  one  of  which 
he  attempted  to  cross  the  Irish  channel,  but,  from 
the  obstruction  of  various  currents,  failed.  He 
possessed  considerable  talents  as  a  chemist  and 
engineer,  in  which  capacities  he  was  employed 
by  the  first  gas  company  established  at  Liver- 
pool, where  he  had  also  fitted  up  warm,  medi- 
cated, and  vapor  baths. 

SADOLET  (James),  a  learned  cardinal,  born 
at  Modena  in  1477.  Leo  X.  made  him  his 
secretary.  Sadolet  was  soon  after  made  bishop 
of  Carpentras,  near  Avignon.  He  was  made  a 
cardinal  in  1536,  by  Paul  III.,  and  employed  in 
several  negociations  and  embassies.  He  died  in 
1547,  not  without  the  suspicion  of  poison,  for 
corresponding  too  familiarly  with  the  Protestants, 
and  for  testifying  too  much  regard  for  some  of 
their  doctors.  His  works,  which  are  in  Latin, 
were  collected  in  1607  at  Mentz,  in  1  vol.  8vo. 
All  his  contemporaries  spoke  of  him  in  the 
highest  terms. 

SADYATTES,  the  son  of  Gyges,  king  of 
Lydia,  father  of  Alyattes  II.,  and  grandfather  of 
the  famous  Croesus.  He  succeeded  Ardysus  II. 
about  A.  A.  C.  631 ;  carried  on  a  war  against  the 
Milesians  for  six  years,  and  died  in  619,  in  his 
thirteenth  year. 

SAFE,  adj.  &  n.  s.  ~}      Fr.   sanf;   Lat. 

SAFE'-CONDUCT,  n.  s.  \  $alvus.       Secure ; 

SAFE'GUARD,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.   !  free  from  danger 

SAFE'LY,  adv.  \  or    hurt ;    harm- 

SAFE'NESS,  n.  s.  \  less  :  a  safe  place 

SAFE'TY.  J    for    depositing 

food ;  a  safe-conduct  is,  a  pass  or  warrant  to 
pass  ;  a  convoy  :  safeguard,  protection ;  defence  ; 
pass :  and,  as  a  verb  neuter,  to  protect :  safely 
and  safeness  follow  the  senses  of  safe,  adjective  : 
safety  is,  security ;  freedom  or  preservation  from 
hurt;  custody. 

To  write  the  same  things  to  you,  to  me  is  not 
grievous,  but  to  you  safe.  Phil.  iii.  1 . 

We  serve  the  living  God  as  near  as  our  wits  can 
reach  to  the  knowledge  thereof,  even  according  to  his 
own  will ;  and  do  therefore  trust  that  his  mercy 
shall  be  our  safeguard.  Hooker. 

Our  separated  fortune 

Shall  keep  us  both  the  safer ;  where  we  are. 
There's  daggers  in  men's  smiles. 

Shakpeare.  Macbeth. 
But  Banquo's  lafel 

— Ay,  my  good  lord.     Safe  in  a  ditch  he  bides, 
With  twenty  trenched  gashes  on  his  head ; 
The  least  a  death  to  nature.  Id. 

If  you  do  fight  in  safeguard  of  your  wives, 
Your  wives  shall  welcome  home  the  conquerors. 

Shaksveart. 

God  safely  quit  her  of  her  burden,  and  with  gentle 

Q2 


SAP 


228 


SAP 


travail,  to  the  gladding  of  your  highness  with  an 
heir.  ld- 

To  that  dauntless  temper  of  his  mind, 
He  hath  a  wisdom  that  doth  guide  his  valour 
To  act  in  safety.  Id. 

Imprison  him ; 
Deliver  him  to  safety,  and  return.     Id.  King  John. 

Cssar,  where  dangers  threatened  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  opinion  that  there  should  be  in  him  little  safe- 
guard for  his  friends  on  the  other,  chose  rather  to 
venture  upon  extremities,  than  to  be  thought  a  weak 
prot  sctor.  Raleigh. 

A  trumpet  was  sent  to  sir  William  Waller,  to  de- 
sire a  safe-conduct  for  a  gentleman.  Clarendon. 

A  trumpet  was  sent  to  the  earl  of  Essex  for  a  safe- 
guard or  pass  to  two  lords,  to  deliver  a  message  from 
the  king  to  the  two  houses.  Id. 

Ascend ;  I  follow  thee,  safe  guide,  the  path 
Thou  leadest  me.  Milton. 

But  Trivia  kept  in  secret  shades  alone, 
Her  care,  Hippolytus,  to  fate  unknown  ; 
And  called  him  Virbius  in  the  Egerian  grove, 
Where  then  he  lived  obscure,  but  tafe  from  Jove. 

Dry  den. 

Put  your  head  into  the  mouth  of  a  wolf,  and,  when 
you've  brought  it  out  safe  and  sound,  talk  of  a  re- 
ward. L'Eitrange. 

Who  is  there  that  hath  the  leisure  and  means  to 
collect  all  the  proofs,  concerning  most  of  the  opinions 
he  has,  so  as  safely  to  conclude  that  he  hath  a  clear 
and  full  view  1  Locke. 

If  a  man  should  forbear  his  food  or  his  business, 
till  he  had  certainty  of  the  tafenets  of  what  he  was 
going  about,  he  must  starve  and  die  disputing.  Sauih. 

If  her  acts  have  been  directed  well, 
While  with  her  friendly  clay  she  deigned  to  dwell, 
Shall  she  with  safety  reach  her  pristine  seat, 
Find  her  rest  endless,  and  her  bliss  complete "! 

Prior. 

Great  numbers,  descended  from  them,  have,  by 
the  blessing  of  God  upon  their  industry,  raised  them- 
selves so  high  in  the  world  as  to  become,  in  times  of 
difficulty,  a  protection  and  a  safeguard  to  that  altar, 
at  which  their  ancestors  ministered.  Atterbury. 

Thy  sword,  the  tafeguard  of  thy  brother's  throne, 
Is  now  become  the  bulwark  of  thy  own.  Granville. 

Beyond  the  beating  surge  his  course  he  bore, 
With  longing  eyes  observing  to  survey 
Some  smooth  ascent,  or  safe  sequestered  bay.  Pope. 

SAFE-CONDUCT  is  a  security  given  by  a  prince 
under  the  great  seal,  to  a  stranger,  for  his  safe 
coming  into  and  passing  out  of  the  realm. 
There  are  letters  of  safe- conduct  which  must  be 
enrolled  in  chancery  ;  and  the  persons  to  whom 
they  may  be  granted  must  have  them  ready  to 
show. 

SAFETY  LAMP.  For  a  description  of  this 
humane  and  useful  invention  see  LAMP  and 
COAL.  One  inconvenience  attached  to  this 
lamp  was,  that  the  perfect  safety  which  attended 
its  use  often  induced  the  men  at  work  in  the 
mines  to  go  into  more  deteriorated  atmospheres 
than  they  otherwise  would,  which  sometimes  oc- 
casioned the  lights  to  be  extinguished.  To 
obviate  this  inconvenience,  Sir  Humphrey  Davy 
has  contrived  to  suspend  a  coil  of  platinum 
wire  over  the  flame  01  each  lamp,  the  effect  of 
which  is,  that  the  moment  the  light  is  extin- 
guished by  the  superabundance  of  carbureted 
hydrogen  gas  in  the  atmosphere,  the  coil  of  pla- 
tinum wire  becomes  of  an  intense  red  heat ;  and 
this  affords  light  enough  to  enable  the  men  to 
find  the  road  through  the  different  passages  to 


the  entrance  of  die  mine.  This  alone  would 
have  been  an  important  improvement — but  this 
is  not  all ;  for  no  sooner  is  the  lamp  brought 
into  a  part  of  the  mine  in  which  the  atmosphere 
contains  less  than  one-fourth  of  carbureted  hy- 
drogen gas,  than  the  heated  platinum  wire  of 
itself  re-lights  the  lamp,  and  the  men  are  enabled 
to  return  to  their  work  without  further  interrup- 
tion and  in  perfect  safety. 

Mr.  Murray's  new  safety  lamp, 
preresented  in  the  annexed  dia- 
gram, consists  of  two  concentric  cy- 
linders of  thick  glass,  the  space  be- 
tween being  filled  with  water 
through  a  pipe  at  top,  and  repre- 
sented in  the  figure,  having  an  air- 
escape  aperture  on  the  opposite 
side.  'Over  the  flame  of  the  wick,' 
says  Mr.  M.,  '  is  a  bell  or  funnel, 
with  a  double  recurved  pipe  issuing 
from  its  summit,  and  passing  be- 
low the  lamp,  terminating  imme- 
diately under  a  single  central  aper- 
ture. Here  the  products  of  com- 
bustion are  discharged  (the  excess 
is  of  course  disengaged  by  the  usual 
aperture  at  the  top  of  the  cylin- 
der), and  mingled  with  the  explo- 
sive atmosphere  rising  from  below, 
and  passing  to  the  rlame  of  the 
lamp.  This  is  again  mixed  more 
intimately  at  its  immediate  ingress,  where  it 
passes  through  the  apertures  represented  on  each 
side  of  the  lamp.  The  rest  may  be  inferred 
from  a  simple  inspection  of  the  figure,  in  which 
two  of  the  ribs  that  fence  in  the  outer  cylinder 
(a  guard  from  external  injury)  are  supposed  to 
be  removed,  in  order  to  show  the  internal  ar- 
rangement to  better  advantage. 

'  By  a  circular  band  of  lead  affixed  to  its 
base,  the  instrument  will  always  fall  vertically  ; 
and,  should  it  accidentally  fall  on  its  side,  it 
will  immediately  recover  its  upright  position. 
The  water  will  not  spill  in  any  condition  of  the 
instrument,  for  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere 
will  prevent  this.  It  is  shown  lower  in  the 
cylinders  than  it  ought  to  be,  in  order  to  be 
clearly  represented.  The  water  will  preserve 
the  inner  cylinder  of  an  equable  temperature. 
Hedged  in  by  water,  external  injury  may  only 
affect  the  outer  wall ;  but,  granting  that  the  in- 
strument is  crushed  to  atoms  in  an  explosive 
atmosphere,  the  worst  that  can  happen  is  the 
extinction  of  the  flame  within  by  a  flood  of 
water.' 

'  I  see,'  continues  the  inventor,  no  necessity 
for  shielding  the  inner  cylinder  by  metallic  bars, 
because  explosion  cannot  take  place  within. 
The  lamp  is  a  self  regulator;  for,  as  the  quantity 
of  azote,  &c.,  will  be  in  the  ratio  of  the  quantity 
of  the  disarmed  explosive  mixture,  and  conse- 
quent elongation  of  the  spire  of  flame,  so  soon 
as  it  amounts  to  a  maximum,  extinction  takes 
place,  and  the  comparative  color  of  the  flame, 
with  the  varied  phenomena  of  the  exotic  lambent 
flame,  will  afford  an  elegant  measure  of  that 
explosive  force  which  has  been  disarmed  before 
its  transmission  from  the  portal  below. 

'  This  lamp  has  been  submitted  to  the  ordeal 


SA  PJBTY 


SAFFRON 


229 


of  explosive  atmospheres,  with  the  most  com-  being  drawn  much  closer  together,  and  deeper, 

plete  success.     No  explosion   whatever  occurs  if  the  soil  will  allow,  than  is  done  for  any  kind 

within  the  cylinder.     When  the  explosive  atmo-  of  corn ;  and  accordingly  the  charge  is  greater, 

sphere,  mixed  with  the  product  of  combustion,  About  five  weeks  after,  during  any  time  in  May, 

passes  towards  the  lamp,  the  color  of  its  flame  they  lay  between  twenty  and  thirty  loads  of  dung 

is  changed,  and  it  shoots  up  into  the  bell  or  upon  each  acre ;  and,  having  spread  it  with  great 

funnel  (which  carries  off  these  chemical  products  care,  they  plough  it  in  as  before.     The  shortest 

of  flame,  in  order  that  they  may  be  mixed  with  rotten  dung  is  the  best ;  and  the  farmers  spare 

the  explosive  atmosphere,  before  it  passes  into  no  pains  to  make  it  good,  being  sure  of  a  pro- 

the  cylinder) ;  and,  as  the  explosive  mixture  in-  portionable    return.      About   midsummer  they 

creases,  a  lambent  attenuated  flame  plays  silently  plough  a  third  time,  and  between  every  sixteen 

round  that  of  the  lamp,  which  finally  disappears;  feet  and  a  half  they  leave  a  broad  furrow,  which 

and,  when  it  has  reached  its  maximum,  it  is  serves  both  as  a  boundary  to  the  several  parcels, 


tranquilly  extinguished. 

SAFFI,  or  AZAFFI,  a  sea-port  of  Morocco,  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Abda.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  a  town  originally  built  by  the  Carthaginians, 
and  is  situated  between  two  hills.  Here  is  a 
very  fine  road,  affording  anchorage  in  every  sea- 
son, except  in  winter,  when  the  winds  blow 
from  the  south  and  south-west.  The  French  had 


and  for  throwing  the  weeds  into  at  the  proper 
season.  The  time  of  planting  is  commonly  in 
July.  The  only  instrument  used  at  this  time 
is  a  small  narrow  spade,  commonly  called  a  spit 
shovel. 

One  man  with  his  shovel  raises  about  three  or 
four  inches  of  earth,  and  throws  it  before  him 
about  six  or  more  inches.  Two  persons,  gene- 


several  factories  there,  where  they  took  in  great  rally  women,  followwith  roots,  which  they  place 

quantities  of  wool,  wax,  gum,  and  leather ;  but  in  the  farthest  edge  of  the  trench  made  by  the 

the  emperor,  having  founded  jMogodor,  gave  it  digger,  at  about  three  inches  from  each  other, 

the  monopoly  of  the  trade  with  Europe.     The  As  soon  as  the  digger  has  gone  once  the  breadth 

country  round  consists  of  a  dry  and  barren  sand,  of  the  ridge,  he  begins  again  at  the  other  side ; 

and  the  Moors  are  very  rude  and  fanatical  here,  and,  digging  as  before,  covers  the  roots  last  set, 
The  population  is  stated  by  Jackson  at  12,000 
Long.  9°  5'  W.,  lat.  32°  20'  N. 


which  makes  room  for  another  row  of  roots  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  first.     The  only  dex- 


SAF'FRON,  n.  s.      Fr.  safran ;  from   Arab,    terity  necessary  in  digging  is  to  leave  some  part 


saphar  ;t  Span,  azafran.     A  plant. 
Are  these  your  customers  1 
Did  this  companion,  with  the  saffron  face, 
Revel  and  feast  it  at  my  house  to-day, 
Whilst  upon  me  the  guilty  doors  were  shut? 

Shakspeare. 

Soon  as  the  white  and  red  mixt  finger'd  dame 
Had  gilt  the  mountains  with  her  saffron  flame, 
1  sent  my  men  to  Circe's  house. 

Chapman's  Odyssey. 

Grind  your  bole  and  chalk,  and  five  or  six  chives 
of  saffron.  Peacham. 

Now  when  the  rosy  morn  began  to  rise, 
And  waved  her  saffron  streamer  through  the  skies. 

Dry  den. 

An  herb  they  call  safflow,  or  bastard  saffron,  dyers 
use  for  scarlet.  Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

SAFFRON,  in  botany.     See  CROCUS.     Saffron 
is  principally  cultivated  in  Cambridgeshire,  and 


of  the  first  stratum  of  earth  untouched  to  lie 
under  the  roots;  and,  in  setting,  to  place  the 
roots  directly  upon  their  bottom.  The  quantity 
of  roots  planted  on  an  acre  is  generally  about 
sixteen  quarters,  or  128  bushels.  From  the  time 
of  planting  till  September,  or  sometimes  later, 
there  is  no  more  labor  required ;  but  at  that  time 
they  begin  to  vegetate,  and  are  ready  to  show 
themselves  above  ground,  which  may  be  known 
by  digging  up  a  few  of  the  roots.  The  ground 
is  then  to  be  pared  with  a  sharp  hoe,  and  the 
weeds  raked  into  the  furrows,  otherwise  they 
would  hinder  the  growth  of  the  saffron.  In  some 
time  after  the  flowers  appear.  They  are  gathered 
before  they  are  full  blown,  as  well  as  after ;  and 
the  proper  time  for  it  is  early  in  the  morning. 
The  owners  of  the  saffron  fields  get  together  a 
sufficient  number  of  hands,  who  pull  off  the 


near  Saffron  Walden  in  Essex  ;  but  the  quantity  whole  flowers,  and  throw  them  by  handfuls  into 
of  land  under  this  crop  has  been  gradually  les-  a  basket,  and  so  continue  till  about  11  o'clock, 
sening  for  the  last  century,  and  especially  within  Having  then  carried  home  the  flowers,  they  im- 
the  last  fifty  years,  so  that  its  culture  is  now  al-  mediately  fall  to  picking  out  the  stigmata  or 
most  entirely  confined  to  a  few  parishes  round  chives,  and  together  with  them  a  pretty  large 

proportion  of  the  stylus  itself;  the  rest  of  the 
flower  they  throw  away.  Next  morning  they 
return  to  the  field,  without  regarding  whether 
the  weather  be  wet  or  dry  ;  and  so  on  daily,  till 
the  whole  crop  js  gathered. — The  next  labor  is 
to  dry  the  chives  on  the  kiln.  The  kiln  is  built 
upon  a  thick  plank,  that  it  may  be  moved  from 
place  to  place.  It  is  supported  by  four  short 


Saffron  Walden.  This  is  owing  partly  to  the 
material  being  less  in  use  than  formerly,  and 
partly  to  the  large  importations  from  the  east, 
often,  as  professor  Martyn  observes,  adulterated 
with  bastard  saffron  (carthamus  tinctorius)  and 
marygolds. 

Saffron    is   generally    planted    upon    fallow 
ground,  and  they  prefer  that  which  has  borne 


barley  the  year  before.     The  saffron  ground  is  legs  ;  the  outside  consists  of  eight  pieces  of  wood 

seldom  above  three  acres ;  and,  in  choosing,  the  of  three  inches  thick,  in  form  of  a  quadrangular 

principal  thing  is,  that  it  be  well  exposed,  the  frame,  about  twelve  inches  square  at  the  bottom 

soil  not  poor,  nor  a  very  stiff  clay,  but  a  tempe-  on  the  inside,  and  twenty-two  on  the  upper  part ; 

rate  dry  mould,  such  as  commonly  lies  upon  which  last  is  likewise  the  perpendicular  height 

chalk  and  is  of  a  hazel  color.    The  ground  being  of  it.     On  the  foreside  is  left  a  hole  of  aoout 

chosen,  about   Lady-day  or   the  beginning   of  eight  inches  square,  and  four  inches  above  tiif 

April  it  must  be  carefully  ploughed,  the  furrows  piank,  through  which  the  fire  is  put  in ;  over  att 


SAP 


230 


SAG 


the  rest  laths  are  laid  pretty  thick,  close  to  one 
another,  and  nailed  to  the  frame.  They  are  then 
plastered  over  on  both  sides,  as  are  also  the 
planks  at  bottom,  very  thick,  to  serve  for  a 
hearth.  Over  the  mouth  is  laid  a  hair-cloth, 
fixed  to  the  edges  of  the  kiln,  and  likewise  two 
rollers  or  moveable  pieces  of  wood,  which  are 
turned  by  wedges  or  screws,  to  stretch  the  cloth. 
Instead  of  the  hair-cloth,  some  people  use  a  net- 
work of  iron  wire,  by  which  the  saffron  is  sooner 
dried,  and  with  less  fuel;  but  the  difficulty  of 
preserving  it  from  burning  makes  the  hair-cloth 
preferred  by  the  best  judges.  The  kiln  is  placed 
in  a  light  part  of  the  house ;  and  they  begin 
with  putting  five  or  six  sheets  of  white  paper  on 
the  hair-cloth,  and  upon  these  they  lay  out  the 
wet  saffron  two  or  three  inches  thick.  It  is  then 
covered  with  some  other  sheets  of  paper,  and  over 
these  is  laid  a  coarse  blanket  five  or  six  times 
doubled,  or,  instead  of  this,  a  canvas  pillow  filled 
with  straw ;  and,  after  the  fire  has  been  lighted  for 
some  time,  the  whole  is  covered  with  a  board 
having  a  considerable  weight  upon  it.  At  first 
they  apply  a  pretty  strong  heat ;  and  at  this  time 
a  great  deal  of  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  burn- 
ing. When  it  has  been  thus  dried  about  an  hour 
they  turn  the  cakes  of,  saffron  upside  down, 
putting  on  the  coverings  and  weight  as  before. 
If  no  accident  happens  during  these  first  two 
hours  the  danger  is  over ;  and  nothing  more  is 
requisite  but  to  keep  up  a  very  gentle  fire  for 
twenty-four  hours,  turning  the  cake  every  half 
hour.  That  fuel  is  best  which  yields  least  smoke; 
for  which  reason  charcoal  is  preferred.  The 
quantity  of  saffron  produced  at  a  crop  is  uncer- 
tain. Sometimes  five  or  six  pounds  of  wet  chives 
are  got  from  one  rood,  sometimes  not  above  one 
or  two,  and  sometimes  not  so  much  as  is  suffi- 
cient to  defray  the  expense  of  gathering  and 
drying.  But  it  is  always  observed  that  about 
five  pounds  of  wet  saffron  go  to  make  one  pound 
of  dry  for  the  first  three  weeks  of  the  crop,  and 
six  pounds  during  the  last  week.  When  the 
heads  are  planted  very  thick  two  pounds  of  dry 
saffron  may  at  a  medium  be  allowed  to  an  acre  for 
the  first  crop,  and  twenty-four  pounds  fbr  the  two 
remaining  ones,  the  third  being  considerably 
larger  than  the  second.  To  obtain  the  second 
and  third  crops  the  hoeing,  gathering,  picking, 
&c.,  must  be  repeated  ;  and  about  midsummer, 
after  the  third  crop  is  gathered,  the  roots  must 
all  be  taken  up  and  transplanted.  For  taking 
up  the  roots  sometimes  the  plough  is  used,  and 
sometimes  a  forked  hoe ;  and  then  the  ground  is 
harrowed  once  or  twice  over.  During  all  the 
time  of  ploughing,  harrowing,  &c-,  fifteen  or 
more  people  will  find  work  enough  to  follow  and 
gather  the  heads  as  they  are  turned  up.  The 
roots  are  next  to  be  carried  to  the  house  in 
sacks,  where  they  are  cleaned  thoroughly  from 
earth,  decayed  old  pieces,  involucra,  or  excres- 
cences, after  which  they  become  fit  to  be  planted 
in  new  ground,  or  they  may  be  kept  for  some 
time  without  danger  of  spoiling.  At  a  medium, 
twenty-four  quarters  of  clean  roots,  fit  to  be 
planted,  may  be  had  from  each  acre. 

In  purchasing  saffron  that  kind  ought  to  be 
cho-en  which  has  the  broadest  blades ;  this  being 
the  mark  by  which  English  saffron  is  distin- 


guished from  the  foreign.  It  ought  to  be  of  an 
orange  or  fiery  red  color,  and  to  yieid  a  dark 
yellow  tincture.  It  should  be  chosen  fresh,  not 
above  a  year  old,  in  close  cakes,  neither  dry  nor 
yet  very  moist,  tough  and  firm  in  tearing,  of  the 
same  color  within  as  without,  and  of  a  strong, 
acrid,  diffusive  smell. 

SAFFRON,  the  KOOKOG  of  the  Greeks,  crocus  of 
the  Latins,  and  zadaran,  or  zahafaran  of  the  Ara- 
bians, was  held  in  much  estimation  by  the  He- 
brews, who  called  it  carcom,  and  was  greatly 
celebrated  in  ancient  times  both  by  physicians 
and  poets.  In  medicine  it  was  considered  to  be 
very  powerful,  but  it  is  not  now  much  used. 
Saffron  imparts  the  whole  of  its  virtues  and 
color  to  rectified  spirit,  proof  spirit,  wine,  vine- 
gar, and  water.  A  tincture  drawn  with  vinegar 
loses  greatly  its  color  in  keeping ;  the  watery 
and  vinous  tinctures  are  apt  to  grow  sour,  and 
then  lose  their  color  also ;  that  made  in  pure 
spirit  keeps  in  perfection  for  many  years. 

SAFFRON,  BASTARD.     See  CARTHAMUS. 

SAFFBON,  MEADOW.     See  COLCHICUM. 

SAFFRON  WALDEN,  a  market-town  and  parish 
of  Essex,  twelve  miles  north  from  Bishop's 
Stortford,  and  forty-two  north-east  from  London. 
The  church  is  a  fine  old  Gothic  building,  and 
there  are  Presbyterian,  Baptist,  and  Quakers' 
meeting-houses,  with  several  well-endowed  alms- 
houses,  and  a  free-school.  A  considerable  trade 
is  carried  on  in  malting,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  bolting-cloths,  checks,  fustians,  &c.  The  town 
is  irregularly  built  and  not  paved.  It  was  in- 
corporated by  Edward  VI.,  and  is  governed  by 
a  mayor  and  aldermen.  The  keep  of  its  ancient 
castle  is  still  to  be  seen,  and  on  the  green  behind 
it  is  a  singular  work,  called  the  Maze,  consisting 
of  a  number  of  concentric  circles,  with  four  out- 
works issuing  from  the  four  sides,  all  cut  in  the 
chalk,  and  supposed  by  Dr.  Stukely  to  have 
been  a  British  place  of  exercise  for  the  soldiery. 
Audley-End,  the  seat  of  lord  Braybrook,  stands 
on  the  site  of  a  priory  of  Benedictines,  and  was 
once  a  royal  palace  of  great  magnificence  and 
extent,  but  part  of  it  has  been  pulled  down. 
Market  on  Saturday. 

SAG,  v.  n.  Goth,  and  Swed.  siga.  To  hang 
heavy. 

The  mind  I  say  by,  and  the  heart  I  bear, 
Shall  never  sag  with  doubt,  nor  shake  with  fear. 

Stiaksptare. 

SAGA'CIOUS,  adj.  ~\  Lat.  sagax.  Quick 
SAGA'CIOUSLY,  adv.  f  of  scent  or  thought, 
SAGA'CIOUSNESS,  n.  s.  f  with  of:  the  adverb 
SAGAC'ITY.  J  and  noun  substantives 

corresponding. 

So  scented  the  grim  feature,  and  up  turned 
His  nostrils  wide  into  the  murky  air  ; 
Sagacious  ojf  his  quarry  from  so  far.  Milton. 

\\ith  might  and  main  they  chased  the  murd'rous 

fox, 
Nor  wanted  horns  t'  inspire  sagacunu  hounds. 

Dry  den. 

Only  sagacious  heads  light  on  these  observations, 
and  reduce  them  into  general  propositions.      Locke. 
Sagacity  finds  out  the  intermediate  ideas,  to  dis- 
cover what  connection  there  is  in  each  link  of  the 
chain,  whereby  the  extremes  are  held  together.    Id. 

It  requires  too  great  a  sagacity  for  vulgar  minds  to 
draw  the  line  nicely  between  virtue  and  vice.  South. 


SAG 


231 


SAG 


SAGAN,  in  Scripture  history,  the  suffragan  or 
deputy  of  the  Jewish  high-priest.  According  to 
some  writers,  he  was  only  to  officiate  for  him 
when  he  was  rendered  incapable  of  attending 
the  service  through  sickness  or  legal  uncleanness 
on  the  day  of  expiation  ;  or,  according  to 
others,  he  was  to  assist  the  high-priest  in  the  care 
of  the  affairs  of  the  temple  and  the  service  of 
the  priests. 

SAGAPENUM,  in  pharmacy,  &c.,  a  gum- 
resin  brought  to  us  in  two  forms ;  the  finer  and 
purer  is  in  loose  granules  or  single  drops;  the 
coarser  kind  is  in  masses  composed  of  these 
drops  of  various  sizes  cemented  together.  In 
either  case  it  is  of  a  firm  and  compact  substance, 
considerably  heavy,  and  of  a  reddish  color  on  the 
outside,  brownish  within,  and  spotted  in  many 
places  with  small  yellowish  or  whitish  specks. 
Its  smell  is  strong  and  disagreeable ;  its  taste 
acrid  and  unpleasant.  It  is  imported  from  Per- 
sia and  the  East  Indies.  The  plant  which  pro- 
duces it  is  supposed  to  be  of  the  ferula  kind, 
from  the  seeds  and  fragments  of  the  stalks  some- 
times met  with  in  the  body  of  it.  Its  dose  is 
from  ten  grains  to  two  scruples ;  but  it  is  now 
seldom  given  alone.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  the 
theriaca,  mithridate,  and  many  other  composi- 
tions of  the  shops. 

SAGARA,  the  ancient  Helicon  of  Greece, 
stands  a  few  miles  to  the  north  of  the  gulf  of 
Corinth.  It  is  of  considerable  height,  and  its 
scenery  is  picturesque.  Here  may  still  be  traced 
the  fountains  of  Aganippe  and  Hippocrene,  the 
stream  of  Permessus,  and  the  village  of  Ascra, 
the  birth-place  of  Hesiod,  now  also  called,  after 
the  mountain,  Sagara.  From  its  top  may  be  seen 
a  great  part  of  Greece. 

SAGE,  adj.  &  n.  s.  \      Fr.  sage  ;  Ital .  saggio; 

SAGE'LY,  adv.          £  Lat.  sagax.  Wise ;  grave ; 

SAGE'LINESS,  n.  s.  r  prudent :  a  man  of  gra- 
vity or  wisdom  :  the  adverb  and  noun  substan- 
tive corresponding. 

Though  you  profess 

Yourselves  such  sage*  ;  yet  know  I  no  less, 
Nor  am  to  you  inferior.  Sandys. 

Tired  limbs  to  rest, 

0  matron  sage,  quoth  she,  I  hither  came. 

Faerie  Queene. 

Vane,  young  in  years,  but  in  sage  councils  old, 
Than  whom  a  better  senator  ne'er  held 
The  helm  of  Rome.  Milton. 

At  his  birth  a  star  proclaimed  him  come, 
And  guides  the  eastern  sages,  who  enquire 
His  place,  to  offer  incense,  myrrh,  and  gold.  Id. 

Can  you  expect  that  she  should  be  so  sage 
To  rule  her  blood,  and  you  not  rule  your  rage  ? 

Waller. 

Groves,  where  immortal  tages  taught, 
Where  heav'nly  visions  Plato  fired.  Pope. 

1  grant  it  dangerous,  and  approve  your  fear, 
That  fire  is  catching  if  you  draw  too  near  ; 
But  sage  observers  oft  mistake  the  flame, 

And  give  true  piety  that  odious  name.          Cowper. 

SAGE,  n.  s.  Fr.  sauge  ;  Lat.  salvia.  A  plant 
of  which  the  school  of  Salernum  thought  so 
highly  that  they  left  this  verse  : — 

Cur  moriatur  homo  cui  salvia  crescit  in  horto  1 

Johnson. 

By  the  color,  figure,  taste,  and  smell ,  we  have 
as  clear  ideas  of  sage  and  hemlock,  as  we  have  of  a 
circle  Locke. 


Marbled  with  tage  the  hard'ning  cheese  she  pressed, 

Gay. 

SAGE,  in  botany.     See  SALVIA. 

SAGE  TREE.     See  PHILOMIS. 

SAGE  (Alan  Rene  Le),  a  celebrated  French 
writer,  born  at  Ruys,  in  Brittany,  in  1667.  He 
was  a  complete  master  of  the  French  and  Spa- 
nish languages,  and  wrote  several  admired 
novels  in  imitation  of  the  Spanish  authors.  These 
were,  The  Bachelor  of  Salamanca,  2  vols.  12mo. ; 
•New  adventures  of  Don  Quixote,  2  vols.  12mo. ; 
The  Devil«  on  Two  Sticks,  2  vols.  12mo. ;  and 
Gil  Bias,  4  vols.  12mo.  He  produced  also  some 
comedies,  and  died  in  1747,  near  Paris. 

SAGHALIEN,  called  also  Oku  Jessp,  the 
Upper  Jesso,  and  by  the  natives  Tchoka,  a  large 
island  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  Asia,  imme- 
diately to  the  north  of  the  island  of  Jesso.  It  is 
about  450  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south, 
and  from  forty  to  130  in  breadth  from  east  to 
west,  separated  from  the  continent  by  a  narrow 
channel,  called  the  channel  of  Tartary.  It  has 
become  a  subject  of  controversy  among  naviga- 
tors whether  this  channel  extends  along  the 
whole  western  coast,  thus  forming  Saghalien  into 
an  island,  or  whether  there  be  an  isthmus  con- 
necting it  with  Tartary,  rendering  it  a  penin- 
sula. D'Anville,  in  his  maps,  describes  it  some- 
times one  way  and  sometimes  the  other ;  and 
though  Peyrouse  entered  ihe  channel,  he  was 
obliged,  by  adverse  winds,  to  quit  it  before  ex- 
amining its  whole  extent.  On  enquiring  of  the 
people  of  Saghalien  itself,  he  was  assured  that 
it  was  an  island,  separated  from  the  continent 
only  by  a  narrow  strait.  The  people  of  Tartary, 
on  the  other  hand,  asserted  that  Saghalien  was 
connected  with  the  continent  by  an  isthmus  of 
sand.  Peyrouse,  on  the  whole,  was  led  to  con- 
clude that  there  was  a  strait,  but  so  obstructed 
by  sand  and  sea-weed  as  to  be  scarcely  passable. 
Some  geographers  are  of  opinion  that  all  the 
circumstances  may  be  best  accounted  for,  by 
supposing  a  very  narrow  and  winding  strait  se- 
parating the  two  coasts.  This  is  the  delineation 
followed  in  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  maps. 

Saghalien,  late  Jesso,  appears  to  be  very 
mountainous  towards  the  centre,  and  on  the 
eastern  coast.  To  the  south  of  51°  the  country 
becomes  more  level,  and  exhibits  only  sand-hills. 
Here  th^e  soil  exhibits  a  vigorous  vegetation,  and 
is  covered  with  forests  of  pine,  oak,  willow,  and 
birch.  The  surrounding  sea  and  the  rivers  pro- 
duce an  extraordinary  quantity  of  fish.  Roses, 
angelica,  and  other  flowers,  flourish  on  the  hills. 
The  eastern  coast,  along  which  the  Russian  na- 
vigator Krusenstern  sailed,  appeared  to  be  nearly 
destitute  of  inhabitants.  Peyrouse  gives  a  very 
favorable  account  of  those  with  whom  he  had 
intercourse.  They  sail  in  boats  of  willow  bark, 
similar  to  those  made  on  the  neighbouring  island 
of  Jesso.  The  north-east  coast,  opposite  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Saghalien,  is  occupied  by  a  colony 
of  Mantchou  Tartars.  The  Japanese  had  formed 
a  colony  in  the  bay  of  Aniwa,  at  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  island  ;  but  it  has  been  destroyed 
by  the  Russians. 

SAGINA,  in  botany,  pearl-wort,  a  genus  of  the 
tetragynia  order,  and  tetrandria  class  of  plants;  na- 
tural ordor  twenty-second,  caryophylleae :  CAL.  te- 


SAG 


232 


SAG 


traphyllous ;  petals  four  :  CAPS,  unilocular,  quad- 
rivalved,  and  polyspermous.  Species  five,  four 
common  in  our  own  country. 

SAGITTA,  in  astronomy,  the  arrow  or  dart,  a 
constellation  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  near  the 
eagle.  See  ASTRONOMY. 

SAGITTAL,  adj.  &  n.  s.  J       Lat.   sagitta,  an 

SAG'ITTARY,  n.  *.  t  arrow.      Belonging 

to  an  arrow  :  in  anatomy,  a  suture  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  to  an  arrow:  sagittary  is  the 
fabled  CENTAUR,  which  see. 

His  wound  was  between  the  tagittal  and  coronal 
sutures  to  the  bone.  Wiseman's  Surgery. 

The  dreadful  sagittary 
Appals  our  numbers. 

Shakrpeare.   Troilus  and  Cressida. 

SAGITTARIA,  arrow  head,  a  genus  of  the 
polyandria  order,  and  monoecia  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  fifth,  tripetaloideae :  MALE  CAL. 
triphyllous  :  COR.  tripetalous  ;  the  filaments  ge- 
nerally about  fourteen  :  FEMALE  CAL.  triphyl- 
lous :  COR.  tripetalous ;  pistils  many :  SEEDS 
many  and  naked.  Species  five,  of  which  the 
most  remarkable  is  the 

S.  sagittifolia,  growing  naturally  in  many  parts 
of  England.  The  root  is  composed  of  many 
strong  fibres,  which  strike  into  the  mud  ;  the 
foot-stalks  of  the  leaves  are  in  length  propor- 
tionable to  the  depth  of  the  water  in  which  they 
grow;  sometimes  almost  a  yard  long;  they  are 
thick  and  fungous ;  the  leaves,  which  float  upon 
the  water,  are  shaped  like  the  point  of  an  arrow, 
the  two  ears  at  their  base  spreading  wide  asunder. 
The  flowers  are  produced  upon  long  stalks  which 
rise  above  the  leaves,  standing  in  whorls  round 
them  at  the  joints.  They  consist  of  three  broad 
white  petals,  with  a  cluster  of  stamina  in  the 
middle,  which  have  purple  summits.  There  is 
always  a  bulb  at  the  lower  part  of  the  root, 
growing  in  the  sol  id  earth  beneath  the  mud.  This 
bulb  constitutes  a  considerable  part  of  the  food 
of  the  Chinese ;  and  upon  that  account  they 
cultivate  it.  Horses,  goats,  and  swine,  eat  it ; 
cows  are  not  fond  of  it. 

SAGITTARIUS,  the  archer,  in  astronomy,  the 
ninth  sign  in  the  zodiac,  marked  thus  $  .  The 
stars  in  this  constellation  are  in  the  Britannic 
Catalogue  fifty-two,  in  Tycho  Brahe's  sixteen, 
and  in  Ptolemy's  thirty-two. 

SAGO  is  a  simple  brought  from  the  East  Indies, 
of  considerable  use  as  a  restorative  diet.  It  is 
produced  from  a  species  of  palm  tree,  growing 
in  the  East  Indies.  The  progress  of  its  vegeta- 
tion in  the  early  stages  is  very  slow.  At  first  it 
is  a  mere  shrub,  thick  set  with  thorns ;  but,  as 
soon  as  its  stem  is  once  formed,  it  rises  in  a  short 
time  to  thirty  feet,  is  about  six  feet  in  circum- 
ference, and  imperceptibly  loses  its  thorns.  Its 
ligneous  bark  is  about  an  inch  in  thickness,  and 
covers  a  multitude  of  long  fibres ;  which,  being 
interwoven  one  with  another,  envelope  a  mass 
of  a  gummy  kind  of  meal.  As  soon  as  this  tree 
is  ripe,  a  whitish  dust,  which  transpires  through 
the  pores  of  the  leaves,  and  adheres  to  their  ex- 
tremities, proclaims  its  maturity.  The  Malays 
then  cut  it  down  near  the  root,  divide  it  into 
several  sections,  and  then  scoop  out  the  mass  of 
mealy  substance,  which  is  enveloped  by,  and  ad- 
to  the  fibres;  they  dilute  it  in  water,  and 


then  pass  it  through  a  straining  bag  of  fine 
cloth,  to  separate  it  from  the  fibres.  When  thrs 
paste  has  lost  part  of  its  moisture,  by  evapo- 
ration, the  Malays  throw  it  into  earthen  vessels, 
of  different  shapes,  where  they  allow  it  to  dry 
and  harden.  This  paste  is  wholesome  nourishing 
food  ;  the  Indians  eat  it  diluted  with  water,  and 
sometimes  baked  or  boiled.  A  jelly  is  some- 
times made  of  it,  which  is  white  and  of  a 
delicious  flavor.  An  inferior  kind  of  sago  is  made 
in  the  West  Indies  from  the  pith  of  the  areca. 

SAGOR,  an  island  of  Bengal,  from  time  im- 
memorial a  celebrated  place  of  Hindoo  pil- 
grimage. It  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Bhagurutty  River,  the  most  sacred  branch  of  the 
Ganges,  with  the  ocean.  Till  recently  many 
persons  annually  devoted  themselves,  and  sacri- 
ficed their  children  at  this  place,  to  the  sharks 
and  alligators.  The  island  is  not  inhabited,  but 
the  Brahmins  repair  at  the  appointed  season  to 
the  temple,  followed  by  the  pilgrims.  A  society 
in  Calcutta  has  lately  taken  a  lease  of  this  island 
from  the  East  India  Company,  and  engaged  to 
clear  and  bring  it  into  a  state  of  cultivation.  Its 
south  point  is  is  in  long.  88°  20'  E.,  lat.  21° 
34'  N. 

SAGREDO  (John),  a  noble  Venetian,  of  an 
ancient  family,  who  flourished  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  became  procurator  of  St.  Mark, 
and  was  elected  doge  of  Venice  in  1675  ;  but 
resigned  because  his  election  was  not  approved 
by  the  people.  He  was  sent  ambassador  to 
several  European  courts.  In  1677  he  published 
a  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  ;  which  is  es- 
teemed a  very  faithful  compilation. 

SAGUENAY,  a  river  of  Canada,  tributary  to 
the  St.  Lawrence,  into  which  it  flows,  on  the 
west  bank,  at  the  town  and  harbour  of  Tadousac. 
It  draws  its  source  from  Lake  St.  John,  receiving 
many  large  rivers  that  flow  from  the  north  and 
north-west,  from  an  immense  distance  in  the  in- 
teripr. 

SAGUM,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  military 
habit,  open  from  top  to  bottom,  and  usually 
fastened  on  the  right  shoulder  with  a  buckle  or 
clasp.  It  was  not  different  in  shape  from  the 
chlamysof  the  Greeks  and  the  paludamentumof 
the  generals.  The  only  difference  between  them 
was,  that  the  paludamentum  was  made  of  a 
richer  stuff,  was  generally  of  a  purple  color,  and 
rather  longer  and  fuller  than  the  sagum.  Some 
authors  have  defined  the  sagum  as  a  military 
tunic,  but  several  passages  of  Tacitus  and  Pliny 
show  that  it  was  without  sleeves,  and  was  more 
ample  than  the  tunic.  The  emperor  Caracalla 
had  invented,  or  imitated  from  the  Gauls,  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  sagum,  to  which  the  emperor's 
name  was  assigned  ;  and  so  fond  is  he  represented 
to  have  been  of  this  garment  that  he  preferred 
it  to  any  other,  distributed  a  large  number  among 
the  people  and  soldiers,  and  even  required  that 
all  who  approached  his  presence  should  wear  this 
vestment. 

The  precise  form  of  the  Caracalla  is  not  now 
to  be  ascertained.  It  has  been  described  as  a 
garment  made  of  several  pieces  diversely  em- 
broidered, and  descending  to  the  heels,  except- 
ing in  the  instance  of  the  soldiers  who  wore  it 
shorter. 


SAH 


233 


SAI 


SAGUNTUM,  or  SAGUNTUS,  an  ancient  town 
of  Spain,  now  called  Morvedro,  where  there  are 
still  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  amphitheatre.  Sa- 
guntum  is  celebrated  in  history  as  having  been 
the  cause  of  the  second  Punic  war,  and  for  its 
attachment  to  the  Romans.  Hannibal  took  it 
after  a  siege  of  about  eight  months ;  and  the  in- 
habitants, not  to  fall  into  the  enemy's  hands,  set 
fire  to  their'houses,  and  all  their  effects,  and  pe- 
rished in  the  flames.  The  conqueror  afterwards 
rebuilt  it,  and,  as  some  suppose,  called  it  Spar- 
tagene. 

SAHARA,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
great  African  desert,  or  the  immense  tract  of 
territory  in  Northern  and  Central  Africa,  inter- 
posed between  the  states  of  Barbary  and  Soudan. 
In  its  greatest  length  it  stretches  nearly  across 
the  whole  of  Africa,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Nile,  forming  a  space  of  45°  of  long.,  or  about 
3000  miles.  Its  breadth  from  Barbary  to  Soudan 
may  be  estimated  at  15°,  or  1000  miles.  It 
forms  thus  by  much  the  most  extensive  desert  to 
be  found  in  any  part  of  the  world,  and  has  al- 
ready been  treated  of  under  the  article  AFRICA. 
The  only  impulse  by  which  man  has  been  led  to 
traverse  these  dreary  wilds  is  lhat  of  commerce; 
and  the  chief  means  for  this  have  been  afforded 
by  that  most  useful  animal  the  camel.  The 
'ordinary  trade  is  carried  on  by  merchants,  inured 
from  their  infancy  to  that  train  of  hardship  and 
difficulty  which  attends  these  journeys,  and  who, 
for  the  sake  of  mutual  aid,  proceed  in  caravans 
or  large  bodies,  sometimes  amounting  to  the 
number  of  2000.  Their  food  consists  of  the 
milk  of  the  camel,  with  barley-meal  or  Indian 
corn,  a  few  dates,  or  dried  flesh  and  coffee. 
Water  is  conveyed  in  goat-skins  covered  with  tar. 
At  each  of  the  oases,  or  spots  affording  water, 
which  occur  at  distant  intervals  along  the  waste, 
they  stop  for  a  few  days  to  take  in  a  supply. 
The  greatest  evil  which  they  have  to  fear  is  when, 
in  consequence  of  a  peculiarly  dry  season,  one 
of  these  happens  to  fail  of  water.  A  caravan 
from  Morocco,  consisting  of  2000  men,  with 
1800  camels,  entirely  perished  in  this  way  in 
1798.  The  caravans  take  their  departure  from 
every  part  of  Northern  Africa  ;  but  the  three 
grand  points  of  rendezvous  are  Cairo,  Mourzouk, 
and  the  south  frontier  of  Morocco.  Cairo  sends 
three  great  caravans  into  the  interior ;  one  to 
Sennaar,  partly  along  the  Nile,  but  chiefly  across 
the  deserts  on  either  side ;  another  proceeds  to 
Darfur,  through  an  extensive  desert,  by  the  Great 
Oasis,  Sheb,  and  Selyme.  It  sends  one  also  to 
Mourzouk,  which  communicates  with  those  de- 
spatched thence  in  the  countries  on  the  Niger. 
Mourzouk  sends  two  great  caravans,  one  to  Bor- 
nou,  and  one  to  Cassina,  and  holds  intercourse 
with  Tombuctoo  on  a  smaller  scale. 

The  sea  coast  of  the  Sahara  is  for  the  most 
part  rocky  and  destitute  of  harbours.  Hence  a 
considerable  number  of  European  vessels  suffer 
shipwreck,  and  are  cast  ashore  here  ;  when  the 
crews  are  generally  stripped  of  every  thing,  and 
reduced  to  a  state  of  cruel  bondage.  Their  only 
hope  of  relief  is  from  being  carried  over  the 
desert  to  be  sold  in  Morocco,  whence  European 
merchants  frequently  send  them  home.  r 

SAID  orSAiiiD,  a  name  applied  to  Upper 


Egypt,  comprehending  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
from  the  vicinity  of  Cairo  to  the  frontier  of 
Nubia.  It  consists  throughout  of  a  plain  only  a 
few  miles  broad,  enclosed  between  the  chains  of 
mountains  which  extend  parallel  with  the  Nile, 
and  is  exceedingly  fertile,  particularly  in  grain, 
and  in  antiquities. 

SAIDA,  the  port  of  Damascus,  the  ancient 
SIDON,  see  that  article. 

SAIL,  n.  s.,  v.n.&v.a.  ^      Sax.   pe^l;    Belg. 

SAII/ER,  or  ^seyhel,   se.yl ;    Swed. 

SAIL'OR,  n.  s.  j  segel.  The  canvas 

sheet  which  catches  the  wind  and  carries  on  a 
vessel ;  a  ship  or  vessel ;  wings  ;  any  number  of 
ships  :  to  sail  is,  to  move  by  means  of  sails  ;  put 
out  to  sea ;  pass  by  sailing :  a  sailer,  a  seaman. 

Fearing  lest  they  should  fall  into  the  quicksands, 
they  strake  sail,  and  so  were  driven.  Acts  xxvii.  17. 
When  sailing  was  now  dangerous,  Paul  admo- 
nished them.  Acts. 

He  cutting  way 

With  his  broad  sails  about  him  soared  round  ; 
At  last,  low  stooping  with  u-nwieldy  sway, 
Snatched  up  both  horse  and  man.      Faerie  Queent. 
He  came  too  late ;  the  ship  was  under  tail. 

Shakspeare. 

So  by  a  roaring  tempest  on  the  flood, 
A  whole  armado  of  collected  sail 
Is  scattered.  «.. 

Speak  again,  bright  angel !  for  thou  art 
As  glorious  to  this  sight,  being  o'er  my  head, 
As  is  a  winged  messenger  from  heaven, 
When  he  bestrides  the  lazy-pacing  clouds, 
And  sails  upon  the  bosom  of  the  air.  Id. 

It  is  written  of  Edgar,  that  he  increased  the  fleet 
he  found  to  two  thousand  six  hundred  sail. 

Raleigh's  Essays. 

They  had  many  times  men  of  other  countries  that 
were  no  sailors.  Bacon. 

A  feigned  tear  destroys  us,  against  whom 
Tydides  nor  Achilles  could  prevail, 
Nor  ten  years'  conflict,  nor  a  thousand  tail. 

Denham. 

The  galley  borne  from  view  by  rising  gales, 
She  followed  with  her  sight  and  flying  sails. 

Dryden. 

Battered  by  his  lee  they  lay  ; 

The  passing  winds  through  their  torn  canvass  play, 
And  flagging  sails  on  heartless  sailors  fall.  II. 

I  shall  not  mention  any  thing  of  the  sailing  wag- 
gons. Mortimer. 

View  Alcinous'  groves,  from  whence 
Sailing  the  spaces  of  the  boundless  deep, 
To  Ariconium  precious  fruits  a/rived.  Philip*. 

A  sail  arrived 
From  Pompey's  son,   who   through   the  realms  of 

Spain 
Calls  out  for  vengeance  on  his  father's  death. 

Addison't  Cato. 

He  had  promised  to  his  army,  who  were  discou- 
raged at  the  sight  of  Seleucus's  fleet,  consisting  of 
an  hundred  fail,  that  at  the  end  of  the  summer  they 
should  see  a  fleet  of  his  of  five  hundred  sail. 

Arbuthnot  on  Coins. 

Young  Pompey  built  a  |fleet  of  large  ships,  and 
nad  goodsailon,  commanded  by  experienced  captains. 

Arbuthnot. 
Sublime  she  sails 
Th'  aerial  space,  and  mounts  the  winged  gales. 

Pope. 

Full  in  the  openings  of  the  spacious  main 
It  rides,  and,  lo !  descends  the  sailer  train. 

Id.  Odyttey, 


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234 


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A  SAIL,  in  navigation,  is  an  assemblage  of 
several  breadths  of  canvas  sewed  together  by  the 
lists,  and  edged  round  with  cord,  fastened  to  the 
yards  of  a  ship,  to  make  it  drive  before  the  wind. 
See  SHIPPING.  The  edges  of  the  cloths,  or 
pieces,  of  which  a  sail  is  composed,  are  generally 
sewed  together  with  a  double  seam  ;  and  the 
whole  is  skirted  round  at  the  edges  with  a  cord, 
called  the  bolt-rope.  Although  the  form  of 
sails  is  extremely  different,  they  are  all  neverthe- 
less triangular  or  quadrilateral  figures.  The  for- 
mer of  these  are  sometimes  spread  by  a  yard,  as 
lateen-sails;  and  otherwise  by  a  stay,  as  stay- 
sails; or  by  a  mast,  as  shoulder-of-mutton  sails; 
in  all  which  cases  the  foremost  leech  or  edge  is 
attached  to  the  said  yard,  mast,  or  stay,  through- 
out its  whole  length.  The  latter,  or  those  which 
are  four-sided,  are  either  extended  by  yards,  as 
the  principal  sails  of  a  ship ;  or  by  yards  and 
booms,  as  the  studding-sails,  drivers,  and  ring- 
sails  ;  or  by  gaffs  and  booms,  as  the  main-sails 
of  sloops  and  brigantines.  The  principal  sails  are 
the  courses,  or  lower  sails,  the  top-sails,  which 
are  next  in  order  above  the  courses,  and  the  top- 
gallant sails,  which  are  above  the  top-sails. 
Every  yard  in  a  ship  has  its  proper  sail,  except 
the  cross-jack,  which  takes  its  name  from  the 
yard  ;  and  those  which  are  not  bent  to  the  yard 
are  the  flying  jib,  fore,  foretop,  main,  maintop, 
maintop-gallant,  mizen,  mizen top-mast,  stay- 
sails, main  and  maintop  studding  sails.  In  this 
important  art  our  law  interferes  minutely,  eu- 
joining  by  various  acts  of  parliament  that  every 
vessel  first  setting  out  to  sea  from  Great  Britain 
or  British  America  shall  be  furnished  with  one 
full  and  complete  set  of  sails  of  the  manufacture 
of  Great  Britain,  under  a  penalty  of  fifty  pounds. 
These  acts  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  sail- 
cloth shall  be  manufactured  as  to  breadth  and 
width.  See  SHIP-BUILDING. 

To  make  sail  is  to  spread  an  additional  quan- 
tity of  sail,  so  as  to  increase  the  ship's  velocity. 
To  set  sail  is  to  unfurl  and  expand  the  sails  upon 
their  respective  yards  and  stays,  in  order  to  begin 
the  action  of  sailing.  To  shorten  sail,  is  to  re- 
duce or  take  in  part  of  the  sails,  with  an  inten- 
tion to  diminish  the  ship's  velocity.  To  strike 
sail  is  to  lower  it  suddenly.  This  is  particularly 
used  in  saluting  or  doing  homage  to  a  superior 
force,  or  to  one  whom  the  law  of  nations  ac- 
knowledges as  superior  in  certain  regions.  Thus 
foreign  vessels  strike  to  a  British  man  of  war  in 
the  British  seas. 

SAILING,  the  movement  by  which  a  vessel  is 
wafted  through  the  water,  by  the  action  of  the 
wind  upon  her  sails.  When  a  ship  changes  her 
state  of  rest  into  that  of  motion,  as  in  advancing 
out  of  a  harbour,  or  from  her  station  at  anchor, 
she  acquires  her  motion  very  gradually,  as  a  body 
which  arrives  not  at  a  certain  velocity  till  after  a 
frequent  repetition  of  the  action  of  its  weight. 
The  first  impression  of  the  wind  greatly  affects 
the  velocity,  which  being  but  small  at  first,  the 
resistance  of  the  water  which  depends  on  it  will 
be  very  feeble ;  but,  as  the  ship  increases  her 
motion,  the  force  of  the  wind  on  the  sails  will 
be  diminished  ;  whereas,  on  the  contrary,  the 
resistance  of  the  water  on  the  bow  will  accumu- 
iutc  in  proportion  to  the  velocity  with  which  the 


vessel  advances.  Thus  the  repetition  of  the  de- 
grees of  force,  which  the  action  of  the  sails  adds 
to  the  motion  of  the  ship,  is  perpetually  in- 
creasing ;  whilst,  on  the  contrary,  the  new  degrees 
added  to  the  effort  of  resistance  on  the  bow  are 
always  augmenting.  The  velocity  is  then  ac- 
celerated in  proportion  as  the  quantity  added  is 
greater  than  that  which  is  subtracted  ;  but  when 
the  two  powers  become  equal ;  when  the  im- 
pression of  the  wind  on  the  sails  has  lost  so 
much  of  its  force,  as  only  to  act  in  proportion 
to  the  opposite  impulse  of  resistance  on  the 
bow,  the  ship  will  then  acquire  no  additional  ve- 
locity, but  continue  to  sail  with  a  constant  uni- 
form motion.  The  great  weight  of  the  ship  may 
indeed  prevent  her  from  acquiring  her  greatest 
velocity ;  but,  when  she  has  attained  it,  she  will 
advance  by  her  own  intrinsic  motion,  without 
gaining  any  new  degree  of  velocity,  or  lessening 
what  she  has  acquired.  See  TACTICS,  NAVAL 
and  MILITARY,  and  NAVIGATION. 

SAIMA,  a  large  lake,  or  succession  of  lakes,  in 

European  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Finland, 

to   the  north   of  Wilmanstrand .     It  is  of  very 

irregular  form,  said  to  be  250  miles  in  length, 

and  of  very  various  breadths.  It  contains  a  great 

number  of  islands,  consisting  chiefly  of  granite, 

and  in  general  uninhabited.    The  lake  of  Lap- 

wesi  is  a  part  of  that  of  Saima. 

SAINT,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  \      Fr.  saint ;    Lat.  sanc- 

SAINT'ED,  adj.  I  tus.      A    person    emi- 

SAINT'LIKE,  >  nent  for  piety ;  to  place 

SAINT'LY,  adv.          i  among  saints ;  canonize: 

SAINT'SHIP,  n.  s.       J  sainted  is  holy;  pious; 

sacred:  saintlike  and  saintly  correspond,  as  also 

the  noun  substantive  following. 

To  thee  be  worship  and  thy  mints  for  aye. 

Shakrpeare 

She  will  not  stay  the  siege  of  loving  terms, 
Nor  ope  her  lap  to  saint-seducing  gold.  Id. 

I  hold  you  as  a  thing  enskied  and  tainted, 
By  your  renouncement  an  immortal  spirit, 
And  to  be  talked  with  in  sincerity 
As  with  a  saint.  Id. 

The  king,  in  whose  time  it  passed,  whom  catholicks 
count  a  saintlike  and  immaculate  prince,  was  taken 
away  in  the  flower  of  his  age.  Bacon. 

He  that  thinks  las  saintthip  entitles  him  to  cen- 
sures is  to  be  looked  on  not  only  as  a  rebel,  but  an 
usurper.  Decay  of  Piety. 

The  crown  virtue  gives, 
After  this  mortal  change,  to  her  true  servants, 
Amongst  the  enthroned  gods  on  tainted  hills. 

Miltt'H. 

I  mention  still 

Him  whom  thy  wrongs,  with  saintly  patience  borne, 
Made  famous  in  a  land  and  times  obscure.          Id. 

If  still  thou  dost  retain 
The  same  ill  habits,  the  same  follies  too, 
Glossed  over  only  with  a  saintlike  show, 
Still  thou  art  bound  to  vice.  Dryden's  Peniiis. 

This  savours  something  ranker  than  the  tenets  of 
the  fifth  monarch,  and  of  sovereignty  founded  upon 
taintship.  South. 

Are  not  the  principles  of  those  wretches  still 
owned,  and  their  persons  sainted,  by  a  race  of  men  of 
the  same  stamp  1  Id. 

Miracles  are  required  of  all  who  aspire  to  this  dig- 
nity, because  they  say  an  hypocrite  may  imitate  a 
saint  in  all  other  particulars.  Addium  on  Italy. 


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Over  against  the  church  stands  a  large  hospital, 
erected  by  a  shoemaker,  who  has  been  beatified, 
though  never  sainted.  Addison. 

By  thy  example,  kings  are  taught  to  sway, 
Heroes  to  fight,  and  saints  may  learn  to  pray. 

Granville. 

So  unaffected,  so  composed  a  mind  ; 
So  firm,  yet  soft,  so  strong,  yet  so  refined, 
Heaven,  as  its  purest  gold,  by  tortures  tried  ; 
The  saint  sustained  it,  but  the  woman  died.    Pope. 

Thy  place  is  here ;  sad  sister  ;  come  away  : 
Once,  like  thyself,  I  trembled,  wept,  and  prayed, 
Love's  victim  then,  though  now  a  sainted  maid.  Id. 

The  devil  was  piqued  such  saintship  to  behold, 
And  longed  to  tempt  him.  Id. 

SAINTS  (sancti),  in  the  Romish  church,  holy 
persons  deceased,  and,  since  their  decease,  ca- 
nonised by  the  pope,  after  several  informations 
and  ceremonies.  One  of  the  points  wherein  the 
Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  differ,  is,  that 
the  former  address,  invoke,  and  supplicate  saints, 
&c.,  to  intercede  for  them ;  whereas  the  latter 
hold  it  sufficient  to  propose  their  good  examples 
for  our  imitation.  It  would  seem  that  in  the  first 
ages  every  bishop  in  his  own  diocese  was  wont 
to  declare  what  persons  were  to  be  honored  as 
saints  by  his  people.  Hence  St.  Cyprian,  about 
the  middle  of  the  third  century,  B.  5.  ep.  6,  re- 
quires that  he  be  informed  of  those  who  should 
die  in  prison  for  the  faith,  that  so  he  might  make 
mention  of  them  in  the  holy  sacrifice  with  the 
martyrs,  and  might  honor  them  afterwards  on  the 
anniversary  day  of  their  happy  death.  It  was 
tlius  that  St.  Laurence,  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Augus- 
tine, St.  Basil,  and  many  others  appear  to  have 
been  canonised  by  custom  and  universal  per- 
suasion. In  those  ages  none  were  reckoned 
saints  but  the  apostles,  the  martyrs,  and  very 
eminent  confessors,  whose  sanctity  was  notorious 
every  where.  Afterwards  canonisations  were 
performed  in  provincial  synods  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  metropolitan.  It  was  thus  that 
St.  Isidore  of  Seville  was  canonised  in  the  se- 
venth century,  by  the  eighth  council  of  Toledo, 
fourteen  years  after  his  death.  This  method  of 
canonisation  continued  occasionally  down  to  the 
twelfth  century.  The  last  instance  of  a  saint 
canonised  in  that  way  is  that  of  St.  Walter,  abbot 
of  Pontoise,  who  was  declared  a  saint  by  the 
archbishop  of  Rouen  in  1 153.  In  the  twelfth 
century,  to  prevent  mistakes  in  so  delicate  a 
matter,  pope  Alexander  III.  judged  it  proper 
to  reserve  this  declaration  to  the  holy  see  of  Rome 
exclusively  ;  and  decreed  that  no  one  should  for 
the  future  be  honored  by  the  church  as  a  saint, 
without  the  express  approbation  of  the  pope. 
Since  that  time  the  canonisation  of  saints  has 
been  carried  on  in  the  form  of  a  process ;  and 
there  is  at  Rome  a  congregation  of  cardinals, 
called  the  congreuation  of  holy  rites,  who  are  as- 
sisted by  several  divines  under  the  name  of  con- 
suitors,  who  examine  such  matters,  and  prepare 
them  for  the  decision  of  his  holiness.  When, 
therefore,  any  potentate,  province,  city,  or  re- 
ligious body  think  fit,  they  apply  to  the  pope  for 
the  canonisation  of  any  person.  The  first  ju- 
ridical step  in  this  business  must  be  taken  by  the 
bishop  in  whose  diocese  the  person  for  whom  the 
application  is  made  had  lived  and  died,  who  by 
'iis  own  authority  calls  witnesses  to  attest  the 


holiness,  the  virtues,  and  miracles  of  the  person 
in  question.     This  is  succeeded  by  a   tedious 
process  of  enquiry  into  the  character  of  the  de- 
ceased.   Commissioners  summon  witnesses,  take 
depositions,  and  collect  letters  arid  other  writings 
of  the  venerable  man,  and  get  all  the  intelli- 
gence they  can  concerning  him,  and  the  opinion 
generally  entertained   of  him.     Their  report  is 
considered  by  the  congregation,  and  every  part 
of  it  discussed  by  the  consultors,  when  the  con- 
gregation  determines  whether  or  not  they  can 
permit  the  process  to  go  on.     If  it  be  allowed 
to  proceed,  a  cardinal,  who  is  called  ponent, 
undertakes  to  be  the  principal  agent  in  that  af- 
fair.    There  is  also  a  distinguished  ecclesiastic 
called  the  promoter  of  the  holy  faith,  who  is 
sworn  to  make  all  reasonable  objections  to  the 
proofs  adduced  in  favor  of  the  canonisation.     If 
the   decision   be  favorable,  then  the   proofs   ot 
miracles  are  permitted  to   be  brought  forward ; 
when  two  miracles  must  be  verified  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  congregation,  both  as  to  the  reality 
of  the  facts,  and  as  to  their  having  been  above 
the  power  of  nature.     If  the  decision  on  this 
point  is  likewise  favorable,  then  the  whole  is  laid 
before  the  pope  and  what  divines  he  chooses. 
When  the  pope  is  resolved  to  give  his  approba- 
tion, he  issues  a  bull,  first  of  beatification,  by 
which  the  person  is  declared  blessed,  and  after- 
wards  another  of  sanctification,  by  which  the 
name  of  saint  is  given  him.     These  bulls  are 
published  in  St.  Peter's  church  with  great  so- 
lemnity.    After  his  canonisation,  his  name  is  in- 
serted in  the  Martyrology,  or  catalogue  of  saints, 
of  which  a   portion  is  read  every  day   in   the 
choir  at  the  divine  office.     His  name  may  be 
mentioned  in  the  public  church  service,  and  his 
intercession  with  God  besought.    His  relics  may 
be  enshrined,  &c.     Canonisation  is  necessarily 
very  expensive,  because  so  many  persons  must 
be  employed  about  it ;  so  many  journeys  must 
be  made ;  so  many  writings  for  and  against  it 
must   be   drawn  out.     The  expense  altogether 
amounts  to   about   25,000   Roman  crowns,  or 
£6000  sterling.     But  it  is  generally  contrived  to 
canonise  two  or  three  at  a  time,  by  which  means 
the  particular  expense   of  each   is   very  much 
lessened,  the  solemnity  being  common.     Several 
authors  have  written  on  canonisation,  particu- 
larly Prosper  Lambertini,  afterwards  pope  under 
the  name  of  Benedict  XIV.  who  had  held  the 
office  of  promoter  of  the  faith  for  many  years. 
He  published  on  it  a  large  work  in  several  vo- 
lumes, folio,  of  which  there  is  an  abridgment  in 
French. 

ST.  JOHN  (Henry),  lord  Viscount  Bolingbroke, 
an  eminent  statesman  and  philosopher,  descended 
from  an  ancient  and  noble  family,  born  about 
the  year  1672.  He  had  a  liberal  education; 
and  when  he  left  the  university,  contrary  to  the 
inclinations  of  his  family,  he  cultivated  Tory 
connexions ;  and  gained  such  influence  in  the 
house  of  commons  that  in  1704  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  war  and  of  the  marines.  He  was 
closely  united  in  all  political  measures  with  Mr. 
Harley :  when,  therefore,  that  gentleman  was 
removed  from  the  seals  in  1707,  Mr.  St.  John 
resigned;  and  in  1710,  when  Mr.  Harley  was 
made  chancellcr  of  the  exchequer,  he  was  made 


SAI 


236 


SAK 


secretary  of  state.  In  1712  he  was  created  oaron 
St.  John  of  Lediard-Tregoze  in  Wiltshire,  and 
Viscount  Bolingbroke.  But,  not  receiving  when 
he  wished  the  ribbon  of  the  order  of  the  garter, 
he  renounced  the  friendship  of  Harley,  then 
earl  of  Oxford,  and  joined  with  the  Whigs. 
Nevertheless,  on  the  accession  of  George  I.,  the 
seals  were  taken  from  him ;  and,  hearing  that  he 
was  to  be  impeached  for  his  conduct  in  re- 
gard to  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  he  withdrew  to 
France.  Here  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  enter 
into  the  pretender's  service,  and  accepted  the 
seals  as  secretary;  but  the  year  1715  was  scarcely 
expired,  when,  though  he  was  attainted  of  high 
treason  at  home,  the  seals  and  papers  of  his 
office  were  taken  from  him ;  the  Pretender  and 
his  party  accusing  him  of  neglect,  incapacity, 
and  treachery.  While  in  France  he  wrote  his 
celebrated  Reflections  Upon  Exile ;  and  in  1716 
drew  up  a  vindication  of  his  conduct,  in  the  form 
of  A  Letter  to  Sir  William  Wyndham.  His  first 
lady  being  dead,  he  married  a  niece  of  Madame 
de  Maintenon,  and  widow  of  the  marquis  de  Vi- 
lette,  with  whom  he  had  a  very  large  fortune. 
In  1723  the  king  being  prevailed  on  to  grant 
him  a  free  pardon,  he  returned  to  England  ;  but 
was  by  no  means  satisfied  to  remaiu  a  mere 
titular  lord,  excluded  from  the  house  of  peers. 
This  confirmed  his  enmity  to  Sir  Robert  Wai- 
pole,  to  whom  he  attributed  his  not  receiving  the 
full  extent  of  the  king's  clemency :  hence  he 
distinguished  himself  by  a  multitude  of  political 
writings,  till  1735,  when  he  returned  to  France. 
In  this  retreat  he  began  his  course  of  Letters  on 
the  Study  and  Use  of  History,  for  the  use  of 
lord  Cornbury,  to  whom  they  are  addressed. 
Upon  the  death  of  his  rather  he  settled  at  Batter- 
sea,  the  ancient  seat  of  his  family,  where  he 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  died  in 
1751,  and  left  his  MSS.  to  Mr.  Mallet,  who  pub- 
lished them  with  his  former  printed  works,  in  5 
vol? .,  4to ;  they  are  also  printed  in  8vo. 

ST.  JUST  (Anthony),  a  political  demagogue  of 
the  French  Revolution,  associated  in  the  crimes 
and  punishment  of  Robespierre.  He  was  born 
in  1760  and  educated  for  the  law.  At  the  com 
mencement  of  the  revolution  he  was  chosen  a 
d«puty  to  the  convention  from  the  department 
of  the  Aisne,  and  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis 
XVI. :  assisted  materially  in  the  destruction  of 
the  Girondists,  and  was  subsequently  sent,  as  a 
commissioner  of  the  national  convention,  to  the 
army  in  Alsace,  when,  in  conjunction  with  Lebas, 
he  carried  to  a  great  extent  the  system  of  terror 
both  among  the  troops  and  people.  St.  Just,  on 
his  return  to  Paris,  towards  the  close  of  1793, 
obtained  great  influence  ;  and  Robespierre  was 
principally  guided  by  his  violent  counsels.  After 
assisting  in  the  overthrow  of  Danton  and  his 
friends,  he  became  justly  involved  in  the  ruin  of 
Robespierre,  who  rejected  his  advice  in  the  last 
struggle.  He  was  guillotined  July  28,  1794. 
He  was  the  author  of  Organ  t,  a  poem  in  twenty 
cantos,  1789,  2  vols.  8vo. ;  Mes  Passe-temps,  ou 
le  Nouvel  Organt  de  1792,  another  licentious 
poem  ;  and  Fragments  sur  les  Institutions  Re- 
puhlicaines,  a  posthumous  work,  1800,  12mo. ; 
besides  reports  to  the  National  Convention,  from 
the  Committees  of  General  Surety  and  of  Public 


Safety.  This  wretch  has  beer  sometimes  con- 
founded with  Louis  Leon  St.  just,  who  called 
himself  the  marquis  de  Fontvielle,  -and  was  the 
author  of  a  work,  enli'led  Esprit  de  la  Revolu- 
tion, et  de  la  Constitution  de  France. 

SAINTE  MARTHE  (Scevola),  was  born  at 
Loudun  in  1536.  He  early  acquired  the  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew  languages,  and  became  cele- 
brated as  a  lawyer,  orator,  poet,  and  historian. 
He  was  much  employed  under  Henry  III.  and  IV. 
In  1579  he  was  governor  and  treasurer  of  Pole- 
tiers.  In  1593  and  1594  he  was  intendant  of 
finances  in  the  army,  and  reduced  Poictiers  under 
Henry  IV.  He  published  1.  La  Louange  de  la 
Ville  de  Poictiers;  1573:  2.  Opera  Poetica; 
Lat.  et  Gall.;  1575  :  3.  Gallorum  doctrina  illus- 
trium  Elogia;  1598:  and  Paedotrophia,  seu  de 
Puerorum  Educatione;  dedicated  to  Henry  III.; 
1584.  This  last  work  went  through  ten  editions 
during  his  life,  and  has  been  often  reprinted. 
He  died  in  1623;  leaving  several  sons. 

SAINTE  MARTHE  (Abel),  eldest  son  of  Sce- 
vola, was  born  at  Loudun  in  1570;  and  culti- 
vated like  him  Latin  and  French  poetry.  His 
poems  were  printed  with  his  father's  in  1632, 
4to.  Louis  XIII.  gave  him  a  pension ;  made 
him  a  counsellor  of  state;  and,  in  1627,  made 
him  his  librarian.  He  published  Opuscula 
Yaria,  at  Poictiers,  in  8vo.,  1645.  He  died  in 
1652. 

SAINTES,  a  considerable  and  ancient  town 
in  the  south-east  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
the  Lower  Charente,  near  the  river  of  that  name. 
It  was,  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  one  of  the 
chief  cities  of  Aquitaine,  and  subsequently  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Saintonge.  Its  aspect 
from  a  distance  is  fine,  but  its  streets  are  narrow 
and  winding,  and  its  houses  ill  built ;  it  contains 
a  cathedral  founded  by  Charlemagne,  a  Roman 
amphitheatre,  an  aqueduct,  and  a  triumphal  arch 
of  white  marble  on  the  bridge  across  the  Cha- 
rente. Inhabitants  10,300.  Forty-two  miles 
south-east  of  Rochelle. 

SAKE,  n.  s.  Sax.  rac;  Goth,  sac;  Belg. 
saecke.  Account;  cause;  end;  purpose. 

Would  I  were  young  for  your  sake,  mistress  Anne. 

Shakspeare. 

Thou  neither  do'st  persuade  me  to  seek  wealth 
For  empire's  sake,  nor  empire  to  affect 
For  glory's  sake.  Milton  i  Paradise  Lost. 

The  profane  person  serves  the  devil  for  nought,  and 
sins  only  for  sin's  sake.  Tillotton. 

Wyndham  like  a  tyrant  throws  the  dart, 
And  takes  a  cruel  pleasure  in  the  smart ; 
Proud  of  the  ravage  that  her  beauties  make, 
Delights  in  wounds,  and  kills  for  killing  sake. 

Granville. 

SA'KER,  n.  s.  Saker  originally  signified  a 
hawk  :  then  a  small  piece  of  artillery. 

According  to  observations  made  with  one  of  her 
rrajesty's  sakers,  and  a  very  accurate  pendulum  chro- 
nometer, a  bullet,  at  its  first  discharge,  flies  five 
hundred  and  ten  yards  in  five  half  seconds,  which  is 
a  mile  in  a  little  above  seventeen  half  seconds. 

Derham's  Physico-Tlteology. 

The  cannon,  blunderbuss,  andsafcer, 
He  was  the  inventor  of  and  maker.  Hudwras. 

SA'KERET,  n.  t.  From  saker.  The  male  of 
a  saker-hawk.  This  kind  of  hawk  is  esteemed 
next  after  the  falcon,  and  gyr-falcon.  Bailey. 


SAL  23 

SAL,  n.  s.  Lat.  sal.  Salt.  A  word  often 
used  in  pharmacy. 

Acids  will  help  its  passing  off ;  as  tal  prunel. 

Floyer. 

Sal  gem  rt  so  called  from  its  breaking  frequently 
into  gemlike  squares.  It  differs  not  in  property 
from  the  common  salt  of  the  salt  springs  or  that  of 
the  sea,  when  all  are  equally  pure. 

Woodward's  Met.  Foss. 

SAL  ALEMBROTH,  a  compound  of  muriate  of 
mercury  and  ammonia. 

SAL  AMMONIAC,  muriate  of  ammonia.  See 
AMMONIA,  AMMONIAC  SAL,  and  MUBIATIC 
ACID.  This  salt,  according  to  Mongou,  is  met 
with  in  the  form  of  an  efflorescence  on  ihe  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  or  adhering  in  powder  to  rocks. 
Sometimes,  as  in  Persia  and  the  country  of  th'e 
Kalmucks,  it  is  found  as  hard  as  stone.  It  is 
met  with  of  different  colors,  as  gray,  black,  green, 
and  red,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  volcanoes,  in 
the  caverns  or  grottos  of  Puzzuoli,  and  in  the 
mineral  lakes  of  Tuscany,  as  well  as  in  some 
mountains  of  Tartary  and  Thibet.  At  Solfaterra, 
near  Naples,  it  is  found  in  the  crevices,  of  a  yel- 
lowish color,  like  common  sal  ammoniac  that 
has  been  often  sublimed. 

SAL  PRCNELLJE,  nitrate  of  potass  cast  into 
round  balls  or  flat  cakes  after  being  fused. 

SALACIA,  in- botany,  a  genus  of  the  trigynia 
order,  and  gynandria  class  of  plants  :  CAL.  quin- 
quefid :  COR.  quinquepetalous;  antherne  on  the 
lop  of  the  germ.  Species  two,  natives  of  China. 

SALA'CIOUS,  adj.  (      Fr.  solace  ;  Lat.  salax. 

SALA'CITY,  n.  s.  \  Lustful:  lecherous; 
lust. 

Immoderate  salacity  and  excess  of  venery  is  sup- 
posed to  shorten  the  lives  of  cocks. 

Browne'*  Vulgar  Errours. 

One  more  »aJacfoi/s,  rich,  and  old, 
Out-bids,  and  buys  her.  Dryden't  Juvenal. 

A  corrosive  acrimony  in  the  seminal  lympha  pro- 
duces salacity.  Flayer  on  the  Humours. 

Animals. spleened,  grow  extremely  salacioui. 

Arbnthnot. 

SALAD,  n.  s.  Fr.  sulade.  Food  of  raw 
herbs.  It  has  been  generally  pronounced  sallet. 

I  climbed  into  this  garden  to  pick  a  salad,  which 
is  not  amiss  to  cool  a  man's  stomach. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  VI. 
My  sallet  days, 
\Yhcn  I  was  green  in  judgment,  cold  in  blood. 

Shakspeare. 

You  have,  to  rectify  your  palate, 
An  olive,  capers,  some  better  salad, 
Ushering  the  mutton.  Ben  Jonson. 

I  tried  upon  sallet  oil.  Boyle. 

Some  coarse  cold  salad  is  before  thee  set ; 
Fall  on.  Dryden's  Persiut. 

Sow  some  early  toileting.    Mortimer'i  Husbandry. 

Leaves  eaten  raw  are  termed  talad  ;  if  boiled  they 
become  potherbs ;  and  some  of  those  plants  which 
are  potherbs  in  one  familv  are  salad  in  another. 

Watts. 

SALADILLO,  a  river  of  Buenos  Ayres,  which 
rises  in  vast  plains  in  the  interior,  and,  running 
to  the  south-east,  falls  into  the  sea  near  the 
mouth  of  the  La  Plata,  on  the  southern  side. 

SALADIN,  a  sultan  of  Egypt,  equally  re- 
ifowned  as  a  warrior  and  legislator.  He  sup- 
ported himself  by  his  valor  against  the  united 
efforts  of  the  chief  Christian  potentates  of  Europe, 


SAL 

who  carried  on  the  most  unjust  wars  against 
him,  under  the  false  appellation  of  Holy  Wars. 
See  CRUSADE. 

SALADO,  an  abundant  river  of  South  Ame- 
rica, in  the  province  of  Tucun.an,  which  has  its 
rise  from  many  streams  flowing  down  the  west- 
ern declivity  of  the  Andes,  in  lat.  24°  S.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  salt  with  which  its 
waters  are  impregnated. 

SALAMANCA,  a  province  of  Spain,  forming 
the  south  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Leon,  and  bor- 
dering on  Portugal ;  between  5°  and  7°  of  W . 
long.,  and  40°  and  41°  38'  of  N.  lat.  It  has  a 
superficial  extent  of  1500  square  miles,  consist- 
ing partly  of  a  dead  flat,  destitute  of  trees,  and 
deficient  in  water ;  partly,  particularly  in  the 
south,  of  lofty  mountains,  where  are  found  the 
Sierras  of  Francia,  Bejar,  Gredos,  Gata,  and 
Puerto  del  Pico.  It  is  watered  by  the  Douro, 
the  Aguedar,  the  Yeltes,  the  Tormes,  and  the 
Alagon,  and  contains  the  small  lake  of  Gredos. 
The  climate  is  in  general  dry  and"  hot ;  but  the 
mountains  are  rich  in  minerals,  and  the  more 
favorable  exposures  produce  vines,  and  other 
fruits  of  a  warm  climate.  The  wool  of  this  pro- 
vince is  good  ;  the  best  pastures  being  allotted 
to  the  Merino  breed  of  sheep.  Inhabitants 
200,000.  The  contraband  trade  with  Portugal 
is  very  considerable. 

SALAMANCA,  an  ancient  city  of  Spain,  is  si- 
tuated on  the  ascent  of  three  hills,  having  the 
river  Tormes  at  their  base.  The  environs  are 
pleasant,  and,  along  with  the  numerous  spires 
of  the  city,  are  happily  contrasted  with  the  sur- 
rounding monotonous  country.  The  town  has 
a  wall,  thirteen  gates,  several  squares  and  foun- 
tains, and  a  number  of  massy  buildings ;  but  the 
streets  are  all  on  uneven  ground,  and  often  in 
want  of  water.  The  houses  are  uniform,  and  of 
a  good  height,  with  balconies  in  front ;  and  one 
of  the  sides  of  the  great  square  is  occupied  by 
the  town-house.  Other  public  buildings  are  the 
cathedral,  university,  churches,  and  convents. 
The  cathedral  is  a  majestic  Gothic  edifice,  en- 
tered by  a  fine  gate,  and  admired  in  the  interior 
for  the  boldness  of  the  arches,  and  the  finished 
character  of  the  sculpture.  The  bishop's  see  is 
of  very  remote  date. 

The  university  was  founded  in  1239,  and  had 
long  a  considerable  reputation.  The  buildings 
are  still  extensive,  consisting  of  twenty-five  col- 
leges, and  the  number  of  professional  chairs  fully 
sixty;  while  the  students  do  not  at  present  ex- 
ceed 300  or  400. 

Here  are  various  vestiges  of  antiquity,  in  par- 
ticular a  Roman  road  leading  to  Merida,  and  a 
Roman  bridge  over  the  Tormes,  of  twenty-seven 
arches,  and  about  500  feet  in  length.  The  banks 
of  the  river,  and  the  country  to  the  west  of  Sa- 
lamanca, were  the  scene  of  an  engagement  be- 
tween the  British  under  lord  Wellington,  and 
the  French  under  Marmont,  in  July  1812.  Sa- 
lamanca is  153  miles  W.N.W.  of  Madrid. 

SALAMANCA,  a  small  town  of  Mexico,  in  the 
intendancy  of  Guanaxuato,  situated  in  a  rising 
plain,  at  the  height  of  7075  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  It  is  about  seventy  miles  N.N.W. 
of  Valladolid,  and  150  north-west  of  Mexico. 
Also,  formerly,  a  city  of  South  America,  in  the 


SAL 


233 


SAL 


kingdom  of  New  Granada,  and  province  of  Santa 
Martha,  of  which  little  remains  bnt  a  small  vil- 
lage. 

SAL'AMANDER,  n.  s.  ^      Fr.     salumandre  ; 

SALAMAN'DRINE,  adj.  i  Lzt.  sahmundra.  An 
animal  supposed  to  live  in  the  fire,  and  imagined 
to  be  very  poisonous :  salamandrine,  capable  of 
bearing  fire  unhurt. 

The  salamander  liveth  in  the  fire,  and  hath  force 
also  to  extinguish  it.  Bacon's  Xatural  History. 

There  may  be  such  candles  as  are  made  of  sala- 
mander's wool,  being  a  kind  of  mineral,  which 
whiteneth  in  the  burning,  and  consumeth  not. 

Bacon. 

According  to  this  hypothesis,  the  whole  lunar 
world  is  a  torrid  zone,  and  may  be  supposed  uninha- 
bitable, except  they  are  salamanders  which  dwell 
theiein.  Glanville's  Scepsis. 

Whereas  it  is  commonly  said  that  a  salamander  ex- 
tinguisheth  fire,  we  have  found  by  experience  that 
on  hot  coals  it  dieth  immediately. 

Bratcne's  Vulgar  Errcnrt. 

Laying  it  into  a  pan  of  burning  coals,  we  ob- 
served a  certain  lalamandrine  quality,  that  made  it 
capable  of  living  in  the  midst  of  fire,  without  being 
consumed  or  singed.  Spectator. 

The  artist  was  so  encompassed  with  fire  and  smoke 
that  one  would  have  thought  nothing  but  a  salaman- 
der could  have  been  safe  in  such  a  situation. 

Addisont  Guardian, 

Of  English  talc,  the  coarser  sort  is  called  plaister 
or  parget ;  the  finer,  spaad,  earth  flax,  or  salamander's 
hair.  Woodward. 

SALAMANDER.    See  LACERTA. 

SALAMIS,  an  island  of  the  archipelago,  in 
the  Sinus  Saronicus,  on  the  south  coast  of-  At- 
tica, opposite  to  Eleusis ;  celebrated  for  a  battle 
between  the  Greek  and  Persian  fleets.  In  the 
council  of  war  held  before  this  battle,  among  the 
Persians,  queen  Artemisia  was  the  only  person 
who  opposed  their  design  of  engaging.  She  was 
queen  of  Halicarnassus,  and  followed  Xerxes  in 
this  war  with  five  ships,  the  best  equipped  of 
any  in  the  fleet,  except  those  of  the  Sidonians. 
She  represented  in  the  council  of  war  the  dan- 
gerous consequences  of  engaging  a  people  far 
more  expert  in  maritime  affairs  than  the  Per- 
sians; alleging  that  the  loss  of  a  battle  at  sea 
would  be  attended  with  the  ruin  of  their  army ; 
whereas,  by  lengthening  out  the  war,  and  ad- 
vancing into  the  heart  of  Greece,  they  would 
create  jealousies  and  divisions  among  their  ene- 
mies, who  would  separate  to  defend  each  his 
own  country ;  and  that  the  king  might  thus 
make  himself  master  of  Greece.  This  prudent 
advice  was  not  followed,  but  an  engagement  was 
resolved  upon.  Xerxes,  to  encourage  his  men, 
caused  a  throne  to  be  erected  on  the  top  of  an 
eminence,  whence  he  might  safely  behold  what- 
ever happened ;  having  several  scribes  about 
him,  to  write  down  the  names  of  such  as  should 
signalise  themselves.  The  approach  of  the  Per- 
sian fleet,  with  the  news  that  a  strong  detach- 
ment from  the  army  was  marching  against  Cle- 
ombrotus,  who  defended  the  isthmus,  struck  such 
terror  into  the  Peloponnesians  that  they  could 
tiot  lie  prevailed  upon  to  stay  any  longer  at  Sa- 
lam is,  but  insisted  on  returning  to  their  own 
country.  Themistocles,  hearing  of  this,  privately 
•lesnatched  a  trusty  friend  to  the  Persian  com- 
mai.ders,  informing  them  of  the  intended  flight, 


and  exhorting  them  to  send  part  of  their  fket 
round  the  island,  to  prevent  their  escape.  The 
same  messenger  assured  Xerxes  that  Themis- 
tocles designed  to  join  the  Persians,  as  soon  as 
the  battle  began,  with  all  the  Athenian  ships. 
The  king,  giving  credit  to  this,  immediately 
caused  a  strong  squadron  to  sail  round  the  island 
in  the  night  to  cut  off  the  enemy's  retreat. 
Early  next  morning,  as  the  Peloponnesians  were 
preparing  to  set  sail,  they  found  themselves  en- 
compassed on  all  sides  by  the  Persian  fleet,  and 
were  against  their  inclination  compelled  to  re- 
main in  the  straits  of  Salamis  and  expose  them- 
selves to  the  same  dangers  with  their  allies.  As 
to  the  number  of  the  Persian  ships  the  poet  I  - 
chylus  speaks  of  it  in  his  tragedy  of  Perszs  as  a 
matter  he  was  well  assured  of: 

A  thousand  ships  (for  well  I  know  the  number 
The  Persian  flag  obeyed),  two  hundred  more 
And  seven,  o'erspread  the  seas. 

The  Athenians  had  only  180  galleys,  each  car- 
ried eighteen  men  that  fought  upon  deck,  four  of 
whom  were  archers  and  the  rest  heavy  armed. 
Themistocles  avoided  the  engagement  till  a  cer- 
tain wind,  which  rose  regularly  every  day  at  the 
same  time,  began  to  blow.  As  soon  as  this  wind 
blew  he  gave  the  signal  for  battle.  The  Per- 
sians advanced  with  great  resolutions,  but  the 
wind  blowing  directly  in  their  faces,  and  the 
largeness  and  number  of  their  ships  embarrassing 
them  in  a  place  so  narrow,  they  were  thrown 
into  disorder;  which  the  Greeks  observing,  broke 
into  the  Persian  fleet ;  some  of  whom  fled  to- 
wards Phalarus,  where  their  army  lay  encamped ; 
others  saving  themselves  in  the  harbours  of  the 
neighbouring  islands.  Queen  Artemisia  distin- 
guished herself,  her  ships  being  the  last  that  fled  : 
which  Xerxes  observing,  cried  out  that  the  men 
behaved  like  women,  and  the  women  with  the 
courage  and  intrepidity  of  men.  The  Athenians 
offered  a  reward  of  10,000  drachmas  to  any  one 
that  should  take  her  alive,  but  she  got  clear  of  the 
ships  and  arrived  safe  on  the  coast  of  Asia.  In 
this  engagement  the  Grecians  lost  forty  ships  ; 
and  the  Persians  200,  besides  many  more  that 
were  captured.  Pausanias  says  that  on  one  side  of 
this  island  stood  in  his  time  a  temple  of  Diana, 
and  on  the  other  a  trophy  for  a  victory  obtained 
by  Themistocles,  together  with  the  temple  of 
Cenchreus,  or  Cychreus,  the  site  of  which  is  now 
thought  to  be  occupied  by  the  church  of  St. 
Nicholas. 

SALAMIS,  the  capital  of  the  above  island.  This 
city  was  demolished  by  the  Athenians,  because 
in  the  war  with  Cassander  it  surrendered  to  the 
Macedonians.  In  the  second  century,  when  it 
was  visited  by  Pausanias,  some  ruins  of  the 
Agora  or  market-place  remained,  with  a  temple 
and  image  of  Ajax ;  and  not  far  from  the  port 
was  shown  a  stone,  on  which  they  related  Tela- 
mon  sat  to  view  the  Salaminian  ships  on  their 
departure  to  join  the  Grecian  fleet  at  Aulis. 
The  walls  may  still  be  traced,  and  were  about 
four  miles  in  circumference.  The  level  space 
within  them  is  now  covered  with  green  corn. 
The  port  is  choked  with  mud,  and  was  partly 
dry.  Among  the  scattered  marbles  are  some  with 
inscriptions.  On  one,  near  the  port,  the  name 


SAL 


239 


SAL 


of  Solon  'occurs.  This  renowned  lawgiver  was 
a  native  of  Salamis,  and  a  statue  of  him  was 
erected  in  the  market-place,  with  one  hand  co- 
vered by  his  vest,  the  modest  attitude  in  which 
he  was  accustomed  to  address  the  •  people  of 
Athens.  The  island  of  Salamis  is  now  inhabited 
by  a  few  Albanians,  who  till  the  ground. 

SALAMIS,  SALAMINA,  or  SALAMJNIA,  an  an- 
cient town  of  Cyprus  on  the  south-east  coast. 
It  was  built  by  Teucer,  and  so  named  by  him 
from  the  island  from  which  he  had  been  ba- 
nished, about  A.  A.  C.  1270.  His  descendants 
continued  masters  of  it  for  above  800  years.  It 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  but  rebuilt  in 
the  fourth  century,  and  called  Constantia.  It  is 
now  called  Salina. 

SALAMIS,  in  the  mythology,  a  daughter  of  the 
river  god  Asopus,  by  the  nymph  Methone.  Nep- 
tune became  enamoured  of  her,  and  carried  her 
to  the  island  afterwards  named  from  her,  where 
she  bore  him  a  son,  named  Cenchreus. 

SALAPIA,  or  SALAPIJE,  in  ancient  geography, 
a  town  of  Italy,  in  Apulia ;  to  which  Hannibal 
retired  after  the  battle  of  Cannae.  It  was  after- 
wards taken  from  him  by  Marcellus. 

SAL'ARY,  n.  s.  Fr.  salaire  ;  Lat.  solarium. 
Stated  hire ;  annual  or  periodical  payment  of 
money. 

This  is  hire  and  salary,  not  revenge.    Shukspeare. 

Several  persons,  out  of  a  salary  of  five  hundred 
pounds,  have  always  lived  at  the  rate  of  two  thou- 
sand. Swift. 

SALASSI,  an  ancient  people  of  Gallia  Cisal- 
pina,  who  were  often  at  war  with  the  Romans. 
In  A.  U.  C.  610  they  cut  off  an  army  of  10,000 
Romans  under  Appius  Claudius  ;  but  were  soon 
after  defeated,  and  at  last  totally  subdued,  and 
sold  as  slaves  by  Augustus.  Their  country  was 
settled  by  a  Roman  colony,  and  called  Pretoria 
Augusta. 

SALE,  n.  s.         ~\      Goth,  sala ;    Belg.  saal. 
SALE'ABLE,  adj.   I  The  act  or  power  of  selling ; 
SALE'ABLY,  adv.  Vvent;  market;  public  rnar- 
SALES'MAN,  n.  s.  i  ket ;  auction  ;  price :  used 
SALE'WORK.          }  by  Spenser  for  a  sale  bas- 
ket :  the   derivatives   correspond  :  sale-work  is, 
work  merely  for  sale  ;  careless  work. 

Nothing  doth  more  enrich  any  country  than  many 
towns  ;  for  the  countrymen  will  be  more  industrious 
in  tillage,  and  rearing  of  all  husbandry  commodities, 
knowing  that  they  shall  have  ready  tale  for  them  at 
Jiose  towns.  Spenser. 

To  make  baskets  of  bulrushes  was  my  wont ; 
Who  to  entrap  the  fish  in  winding  sale 
"Was  better?  Id. 

The  other  is  not  a  thing  for  sale,  and  only  the  gift 
of  the  gods.  Shakipeare.  Cvmbeline. 

I  see  no  more  in  you  than  in  the  ordinary 
Of  Nature's  tale-work.  Id.  As  You  Like  It. 

I  can  impute  this  general  enlargement  of  saleable 
things  to  no  cause  sooner  than  the  Cornishman's 
want  of  vent  and  money.  Carew. 

Others  more  moderate  seeming,  but  their  aim 
Private  reward ;  for  which  both  God  and  state 
They'd  set  to  sale.  Milton's  Agvniste*. 

Those  that  won  the  plate,  and  those  thus  sold, 
ought  to  be  marked  so  as  they  may  never  return  to 
the  race  or  to  the  sale.  Temple. 

This  vent  is  made  quicker  or  slower  as  greater  or 
less  quantities  of  any  saleable  commodity  are  removed 
out  of  the  course  of  trade.  Locke. 


The  more  money  a  man  spends,  the  more  must  he 
endeavour  to  increase  his  stock  ;  which  at  last  set* 
the  liberty  of  a  commonwealth  to  sale.  Additm. 

Poets  make  characters,  as  salesmen  cloaths  ; 
We  take  no  measure  of  your  fops  and  beaus.  Swift. 

SALE  is  the  exchange  of  a  commodity  for 
money;  barter,  or  permutation,  is  the  exchange 
of  one  commodity  for  another.  When  the  bar- 
gain is  concluded,  an  obligation  is  contracted  by 
the  buyer  to  pay  the  value,  and  by  the  seller  to 
deliver  the  commodity  at  the  time  and  place 
agreed  on,  or  immediately,  if  no  time  be  speci- 
fied. In  this,  as  well  as  other  mercantile  con- 
tracts, the  safety  of  commerce  requires  the  utmost 
good  faith  and  veracity.  Therefore,  although, 
by  the  laws  of  England,  a  sale  above  the  value 
of  £10  be  not  binding,  unless  earnest  be  paid, 
or  the  bargain  be  confirmed  by  writing,  a  mer- 
chant would  lose  all  credit  who  refused  to  per- 
form his  agreement,  although  these  legal  requi- 
sites were  omitted.  When  a  specific  thing  is 
sold,  the  property,  even  before  delivery,  is  in 
some  respect  vested  in  the  buyer ;  and,  if  the 
thing  perishes,  the  buyer  must  bear  the  loss. 
For  example,  if  a  horse  dies  before  delivery,  he 
must  pay  the  value  ;  but,  if  the  bargain  only  de- 
termines the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  goods, 
without  specifying  the  identical  articles,  and  the 
seller's  warehouse  with  all  his  goods  be  burned, 
he  is  entitled  to  no  payment.  He  must  also 
bear  the  loss  if  the  thing  perish  through  his 
fault.  If  a  person  purchase  goods  at  a  shop 
without  agreeing  for  the  price,  he  is  liable  for  the 
ordinary  market-price  at  the  time  of  purchase. 
If  the  buyer  prove  insolvent  before  delivery, 
the  seller  is  not  bound  to  deliver  the  goods  with- 
out payment  or  security.  If  the  importation,  or 
use  of  the  commodities  sold,  be  prohibited  by 
law,  or  if  the  buyer  knows  that  they  were  smug- 
gled, no  action  lies  for  delivery.  The  property 
of  goods  is  generally  presumed,  in  favor  of  com- 
merce, to  belong  to  the  possessor,  and  cannot  be 
challenged  in  the  hands  of  an  onerous  purchaser. 
But  to  this  there  are  some  exceptions.  By  the 
Scotch  law  stolen  goods  may  in  all  cases  be  re- 
claimed by  the  proprietor,  and  also  by  the  Eng- 
lish law,  unless  they  were  bought  bona  fide  in 
open  market ;  that  is,  in  the  accustomed  public 
places,  on  stated  days  in  the  country,  or  in  a  shop 
in  London ;  and  horses  may  be  reclaimed,  un- 
less the  sale  be  regularly  entered  by  the  book- 
keeper of  the  market.  In  all  cases,  if  the  goods 
be  evicted  by  the  lawful  proprietor,  the  seller  is 
liable  to  the  purchaser  for  the  value.  Actions 
for  payment  of  shop-accounts,  as  well  as  other 
debts  not  constituted  by  writing,  are  limited  in 
England  to  six  years.  The  testimony  of  one 
witness  is  admitted  ;  and  the  seller's  books,  al- 
though the  person  that  kept  them  be  dead,  are 
good  evidence  for  one  year.  In  Scotland  mer- 
chants' books  may  be  proved  within  three  years 
of  the  date  of  the  last  article,  by  one  witness, 
and  the  creditor's  books,  and  oath  in  supple- 
ment. After  three  years  they  can  only  be  proved 
by  the  oath  or  writ  of  the  debtor.  A  merchant's 
books  are  in  all  cases  good  evidence  against  him. 

SALE  (George),  a  learned  English  author,  one 
of  the  writers  in  the  Universal  History,  all  the 
oriental  part  of  which  he  compiled.  He  was 


SAL 


240 


SAL 


also  engaged  in  other  important  literary  labors  ; 
but  his  chief  work  is  The  Koran  of  Mahomet, 
which  he  translated  into  English  from  the  ori- 
ginal Arabic,  and  enriched  with  explanatory 
notes  from  the  most  approved  commentators ; 
and  to  which  he  prefixed  a  Preliminary  Dis- 
course; London,  4to.  1733.  Mr.  Sale  died  in 
1736. 

SALEM,  a  post  town  of  Rockingham  county, 
New  Hampshire,  thirty-five  miles  north  of  Bos- 
ton, and  thirty-five  south-west  of  Portsmouth. 
Here  is  a  woollen  manufactory. 

SALEM,  a  sea-port  town  of  the  United  States, 
capital  of  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  four 
miles  and  a  half  north-west  of  Marblehead, 
fourteen  N.  N.  E.  of  Boston,  twenty-four  south 
of  Newburyport.  It  is  chiefly  built  on  a  tongue 
of  land  formed  by  two  inlets  from  the  sea,  called 
North  and  South  rivers ;  over  the  former  of 
which  is  a  bridge,  upwards  of  1500  feet  long, 
connecting  Salem  with  Beverly,  and  the  latter 
forms  the  harbour.  The  harbour  has  good  an- 
chorage, but  the  water  is  so  shallow  that  vessels 
drawing  more  than  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  must 
unload,  in  part,  at  a  distance  from  the  wharfs. 
The  situation  of  Salem  is  low,  but  pleasant ;  it 
is  well  built;  and  with  regard  to  population, 
wealth,  and  commerce,  is  the  second  town  in 
New  England.  It  contains  a  court-house,  jail, 
alms-house,  market-house,  three  banks,  four 
insurance-offices,  a  custom-house,  a  grammar 
school,  an  orphan  asylum,  a  bank  for  savings,  a 
museum,  an  athenaeum  containing  upwards  of 
5000  volumes  well  selected,  and  eleven  houses 
of  public  worship,  six  for  Congregationalists, 
two  for  Baptists,  one  for  Episcopalians,  one  for 
Friends,  and  one  for  Universalists.  It  has  nu- 
merous public  and  private  schools,  which  are 
well  supported.  None  of  the  public  buildings 
are  splendid :  but  the  court-house,  the  market- 
house,  the  alms-house,  the  custom-house,  and 
the  grammar  school-house,  all  of  brick,  and  the 
jail  of  stone,  are  spacious,  handsome,  and  com- 
modious. The  churches  are  large,  neat,  and 
convenient.  Three  of  them  are  furnished  with 
organs,  and  six  with  steeples  or  cupolas.  The 
private  houses  have  generally  the  appearance  of 
neatness,  convenience,  and  comfort ;  and  many 
of  them  indicate  taste  and  opulence.  The  town 
was  formerly  built  almost  entirely  of  wood,  but 
a  large  proportion  of  the  houses  erected  within 
the  last  twenty  years  are  of  brick. 

The  appearance  of  Salem  is  very  irregular, 
the  streets  having  been  laid  out  with  little  regard 
to  symmetry  or  beauty.  In  the  northern  part  of 
the  town  there  is  a  common,  containing  about 
ten  acres,  surrounded  by  a  handsome  public 
walk,  which  is  planted  with  rows  of  trees.  On 
a  peninsula  below  the  town  there  are  two  forts, 
Fort  Pickering  and  Fort  Lee,  and  on  Baker's 
Island  there  is  a  light  house. 

S;ilem  is,  next  to  Plymouth,  the  oldest  town 
in  the  state,  and  was  settled  in  1626.  The  inha- 
t;mts  are  chiefly  employed  in  trade  and  naviga- 
tion. The  shipping  belonging  to  this  port  in 
1816  amounted  to  34,454  tons.  The  East  India 
trade  has,  for  several  years,  been  carried  on  here 
with  great  spirit  and  advantage,  and  it  is  to  this 
branch  of  commerce  that  the  town  is  indebted 


for  a  great  part  of  its  wealth.  The  number  of 
vessels  employed  at  present  in  this  trade  amounts 
to  fifty-three,  carrying  14,272  tons.  There  are 
now  living  about  1<50  persons,  who,  as  masters 
or  supercargoes  of  vessels,  have  sailed  from  this 
town  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  or  Cape 
Horn.  A  society  composed  of  such  persons, 
styled  the  East  India  Marine  Society,  was  incor- 
porated in  1801 ;  the  object  of  which  is  to  afford 
relief  to  indigent  members  or  their  families,  to 
promote  the  knowledge  of  navigation  and  trade 
to  the  East  Indies,  and  to  increase  the  museum. 
The  museum  belongs  to  this  society,  and  is  a 
very  extensive  and  interesting  cabinet  of  curi- 
osities collected  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
is  visited  free  of  expense. 

SALEM,  NEW,  a  post  town  of  Franklin  county, 
Massachusetts  ;  eighteen  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Green- 
field, eighty  west  of  Boston,  west  452.  Popu- 
lation 2167.  Here  is  a  respectable  academy. 

SALEM,  a  post  town  of  Washington  county, 
New  York,  eighteen  miles  south-east  of  Sandy 
Hill.  Population  2833.  The  courts  for  the 
county  are  held  alternately  here  and  at  Sandy 
Hill.  Here  is  a  handsome  town,  on  an  exten- 
sive plain,  containing  a  court  house,  a  jail,  an 
academy,  and  two  churches.  Two  weekly  news- 
papers are  published. 

SALENGORE,  a  Malay  principality,  extend- 
ing a  considerable  space  along  the  western  coast 
of  the  Malay  peninsula.  It  is  governed  by  a 
Mahometan  prince,  who  bears  the  title  of  rajah. 
The  rajah  monopolises  the  greater  part  of  the 
trade,  and  is  thus  induced  to  afford  protection 
to  vessels  coming  up  the  river  of  Salengore. 
There  are  several  other  rivers  traversing  the  ter- 
ritory, and  falling  into  the  straits  of  Malacca ; 
particularly  one  called  Burnam,  from  which  a 
great  number  of  long  rattans  are  brought.  The 
commodities  fitted  for  exportation  here  are  tin, 
rattans,  gold  dust,  elephants'  teeth,  dragon's 
blood,  camphire,  with  some  pepper,  and  other 
spices.  These  are  given  in  exchange  for  opium, 
piece  goods,  gunpowder,  cutlery,  steel,  copper, 
iron,  and  some  woollens.  The  Chinese  and  the 
Birgis  of  Celebes  carry  on  a  good  deal  of  trade 
at  this  port.  Long.  101°  18'  E. ;  lat.  3°  20'  N. 

SALEP,  in  the  materia  medica,  the  dried  root 
of  a  species  of  orchis.  See  ORCHIS.  Several 
methods  of  preparing  salep  have  been  practised. 
Geoffrey  has  given  a  very  judicious  process  for 
this  purpose  in  the  Histoire  de  L'academie  Royale 
des  Sciences,  1740  ;  and  Retmus  in  the  Swedish 
Transactions,  1764,  has  improved  Geoffrey's  me- 
thod. Mr.  Moult  of  Rochdale  also  found  a 
method  of  curing  the  orchis  root;  by  which 
salep  is  prepared,  at  least  equal,  if  not  superior, 
to  any  brought  from  the  Levant.  The  new  root 
is  to  be  washed  in  water ;  and  the  fine  brown 
skin  which  covers  it  is  to  be  separated  by  a  small 
brush,  or  by  dipping  the  root  in  hot  water,  an3 
rubbing  it  with  a  coarse  linen  cloth.  When  a 
sufficient  number  of  roots  have  been  thus  cleaned, 
they  are  spread  on  a  tin  plate,  and  placed  n  an 
oven  heated  to  the  usual  degree,  where  they  are 
to  remain  six  or  ten  minutes,  in  \.hich  time  they 
will  have  lost  their  milky  whiteness,  and  ac- 
quired a  transparency  like  horn,  without  any 
diminution  of  bulk.  They  are  then  to  be  re- 


SAL 


241 


moved  to  dry  and  harden  in  the  air,  which  will 
require  several  days  to  effect ;  or,  by  using  a  very 
pentle  heat,  they  may  be  finished  in  a  few  hours. 
Salep,  thus  prepared,  may  be  afforded  in  places 
where  labor  bears  a  high  value,  at  about  8d.  or 
lOd.  per  pound.  And  it  might  be  sold  still 
cheaper,  if  the  orchis  were  to  be  cured,  without 
separating  from  it  the  brown  skin  which  covers 
it ;  a  troublesome  part  of  the  process,  and  which 
does  not  contribute  to  render  the  root  either  more 
palatable  or  salutary.  The  foreign  salep  is  sold 
at  5x.  or  6s.  per  pound.  As  a  wholesome  nourish- 
ment, says  Dr.  Percival  in  his  Essays,  Medical 
and  Experimental,  rice  is  much  inferior  to  salep. 
Salep  has  the  singular  property  of  concealing  the 
taste  of  salt  water;  a  circumstance  of  the  highest 
importance  at  sea,  when  there  is  a  scarcity  of 
fresh  water.  The  restorative,  mucilaginous,  and 
demulcent  qualities  of  the  orchis  root,  render  it 
of  considerable  use  in  various  diseases.  In  the 
sea-scurvy  it  lessens  the  acrimony  of  the  fluids, 
and  at  the  same  time  is  easily  assimilated  into  a 
mild  and  nutritious  chyle.  The  ancient  chemists 
entertained  a  very  high  opinion  of  the  orchis 
root,  as  appears  from  the  secreta  secretorum  of 
Raymond  Lully,  1565. 

SALERNO,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Principato 
Citra,  and  having  a  population  of  10,000.  Though 
delightfully  situated,  the  town  itself  is  not  agree- 
able :  the  streets  are  paved  with  lava,  narrow 
and  irregular,  and  have  a  gloomy  appearance, 
from  the  height  of  the  houses.  Salerno  is  an 
ancient  city,  and  has  in  front  of  the  cathedral 
twenty-eight  ancient  granite  columns.  The  har- 
bour is  good.  Twenty-eight  miles  E.  S.  E.  of 
Naples. 

SALES  (St.  Francis  de),  a  Romish  saint,  born 
at  Sales  castle  in  1567.  In  1602  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Geneva,  in  which  station  his  conduct 
was  pious  and  exemplary ;  he  founded  a  society 
of  religious,  called  the  Order  of  the  Visitation ; 
which  was  sanctioned  by  Paul  V.  in  1618.  He 
died  in  1622,  and  was  canonized  by  Alexander 
VI.  He  wrote,  1.  An  Introduction  to  a  Devout 
Life ;  2.  A  Treatise  on  the  Love  of  God ;  and 
Letters. 

SALET,  in  war,  a^  light  covering  or  armour 
for  the  head,  anciently  worn  by  the  light  horse, 
only  different  from  the  casque  in  that  it  had  no 
crest,  and  was  little  more  than  a  bare  cap. 

SALIANT,  in  fortification,  denotes  projecting. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  angles,  the  one  saliant, 
which  have  their  point  outwards  ;  the  other  re-en- 
tering, which  have  their  points  inwards. 

SALIC,  or  SALIQUF.,  law  (lex  salica),  an  an- 
cient and  fundamental  law  of  the  kingdom  of 
France,  usually  supposed  to  have  been  made  by 
Pharamond,  or  by  Clovis ;  in  virtue  whereof 
males  only  are  to  inherit.  Some,  as  Postellus,  sup- 
pose it  to  have  been  called  Salic,  q.  d.  Gallic, 
because  peculiar  to  the  Gauls.  For  Montauus 
insists,  it  was  because  Pharamond  was  at  first 
called  Salicus.  Others  believe  it  to  have  been 
so  named,  because  used  only  in  the  Salic  lands. 
These  were  nqble  fiefs  which  their  first  kings 
used  to  bestow  on  the  sallians,  that  is,  the  great 
lord  of  their  salle  or  court,  without  any  other  te- 
nure than  military  service ;  and,  for  this  reason, 
VOL.  XIX. 


such  fiefs  were  not  to  descend  to  women,  as  being 
by  nature  unfit  for  such  a  tenure.  Shakspeure 
represents  it  as  derived  from  the  name  of  the 
river  Sala,  in  Germany,  and  says — 

'  That  the  land  of  Salique  lies  in  Germany, 
Between  the  floods  of  Sala  and  of  Elbe, 
Where  Charles  the  Great,    having  subdued  it.e 

Saxons, 

There  left  behind  and  settled  certain  French 
U'ho,  holding  in  disdain  the  German  women 
For  some  dishonest  manners  of  their  life, 
Established  there  this  law.  Henri/  V.,  act  1. 

Montesquieu  derives  the  origin  of  this  word 
from  theSalians,  a  tribe  of  Franks  who  settled  in 
Gaul  in  the  reign  of  Julian,  who  is  said  to  have 
given  them  lands  on  condition  of  their  personal 
service  in  war.  Before  the  election  of  the  Me- 
rovingian kings,  this  powerful  tribe  of  the 
Franks  appointed  four  venerable  chieftains  to 
compose  their  laws;  and  their  labors  were  ex- 
amined and  approved  in  three  successive  assem- 
blies of  the  people.  After  the  baptism  of  Clovis, 
he  reformed  several  articles  incompatible  with 
Christianity.  The  Salic  law  was  again  amended 
by  his  sons ;  and,  under  the  reign  Dagobert,  the 
code  was  revised  and  promulgated  100  years 
after  the  establishment  of  the  French  monarchy. 
If  it  be  asked,  how  it  came  to  pass  that  the  Salic 
laws  gained  general  authority  in  the  country  of 
the  Franks,  and  the  Roman  law  gradually  de- 
clined ;  while  in  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Visigoths 
the  Roman  law  spread  itself,  and  obtained  at  last 
a  general  sway  ?  Montesquieu  replies  that  the 
Roman  law  was  disused  among  the  Franks,  on 
account  of  the  great  advantages  accruing  from 
being  a  Frank  to  a  person  living  under  the  Sa- 
lic law.  The  clergy  alone  retained  the  old  law, 
because  a  change  could  be  of  no  advantage  to 
them.  The  Roman  law  inflicted  no  hardships 
upon  them,  as  it  was  the  work  of  Christian  em- 
perors. '  This  law,'  says  Millot,  '  fixed  the 
punishment  of  crimes  and  various  points  of  po- 
lice. There  is  no  ground  for  believing,  that  it 
expressly  settled  the  right  of  succession  to  the 
crown.  It  only  says  that,  with  relation  to  the 
salic  land,  women  have  no  share  of  heritage, 
without  restricting  it  to  the  royal  family  ;  for  all 
those  were  called  salic  lands  which  were  held  by 
right  of  conquest;  and  it  is  easy  to  conceive, 
that  a  nation  of  soldiers,  whose  general  \va? 
their  king,  would  not  submit  to  be  governed  by 
a  woman.  A  long  custom,  supported  by  the 
principles  of  the  nation,  became  in  time  the  es- 
tablished law  of  the  kingdom.' 

SALICORNIA,  jointed  glass-wort,  or  salt- 
wort, a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and 
monandria  class  of  plants  :  natural  order  twelfth, 
holoracere  :  CAL.  ventricose,  or  a  little  swelling 
out  and  entire  :  there  are  no  petals,  and  but  one 
SEED.  There  are  nine  species,  of  which  the  most 
remarkable  are — 

1.  S.  fruticosa,  with  obtuse  points,  grows 
plentifully  in  the  salt-marshes  which  are  over- 
flowed by  the  tides  in  many  parts  of  England.  It 
is  an  annual  plant,  with  thick,  succulent,  jointed 
stalks,  which  trail  upon  the  ground.  The  flowers 
are  produced  at  the  ends  of  the  joints  toward 
the  extremity  of  the  branches,  which  are  small, 
and  scarcely  discernible  by  the  naked  eye. 

II 


SAL 


242 


SAL 


2.  S.  perennis,  with  a  shrubby  branching  stalk, 
grows  naturally  in  Sheppey  Island.  This  has  a 
shrubby  branching  stalk  about  six  inches  long; 
the  points  of  the  articulations  are  acute ;  the 
stalks  branch  from  the  bottom,  and  form  a  kind 
of  pyramid.  They  are  perennial,  and  produce 
their  flowers  in  the  same  manner  as  the  former. 
The  inhabitants  near  the  sea  coasts,  where  these 
plants  grow,  cut  them  up  towards  the  latter  end 
of  summer,  when  they  are  fully  grown ;  and,  af- 
ter having  dried  them  in  the  sun,  they  burn  them 
for  their  ashes,  which  are  used  in  making  of 
glass  and  soap.  These  herbs  are  by  the  country 
people  called  kelp,  and  promiscuously  gathered 
for  use.  Barilla  is  likewise  made  from  them. 
They  are  also  used  for  dyeing  leather  red,  instead 
of  the  shenan. 

SA'LIENT,  adj.  Latin,  saliens.  Leaping ; 
bounding  ;  moving  by  leaps. 

The  legs  of  both  sides  moving  together  as  frogs, 
and  salient  animals,  is  properly  called  leaping. 

Browne'i  Vulgar  Errourt. 

A  talient  point,  so  first  is  called  the  heart, 
By  turns  dilated,  and  by  turns  comprest, 
Expels  and  entertains  the  purple  guest;  Blackmore. 

W  ho  best  can  send  on  high 
The  talient  spout,  far  streaming  to  the  sky.    •  Pope. 

SALII,  in  Roman  antiquity,  priests  of  Mars, 
of  whom  Numa  instituted  twelve,  who  wore 
painted  particolored  garments,  and  high  bonnets ; 
with  a  steel  cuirass  on  the  breast.  They  were 
called  salii,  from  saltare  to  dance;  because,  after 
assisting  at  sacrifices,  they  went  dancing  about 
the  streets,  with  bucklers  in  their  left  hand,  and 
a  rod  in  their  right,  striking  with  their  rods  on 
one  another's  bucklers,  and  singing  hymns  in 
honor  of  the  gods.  Their  feasts  were  uncom- 
monly sumptuous,  whence  dapes  saliares  is  pro- 
verbially applied  to  repasts  splendid  and  costly. 
Their  chief,  called  praesul  and  magister  saliorum, 
was  one  of  their  members,  and  led  the  band, 
the  rest  imitating  all  his  steps  and  motions.  The 
whole  company  was  called  collegium  saliorum. 
Sext.  Pompeius  makes  mention  of  salian  maids, 
virgines  saliares,  hired  for  the  purpose,  and 
joined  with  the  salii,  wearing  a  kind  of  military 
garb,  called  paludamentum,  with  high  round 
bonnets  like  the  salii,  and  like  them  performing 
sacrifice  with  the  pontifices. 

SALIMBENI  (V7enura),  an  eminent  historical 
painter,  born  at  Sienna,  in  Tuscany,  in  1557. 
There  was  a  fine  picture  by  him  of  the  descent 
of  the  Spirit  on  the  apostles  at  Pentecost,  in  the 
possession  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke.  He  died  in 
1613. 

SA'LINE,  adj.  .)      Lat.  salinus.      Consisting 

SALI'NOUS,  adj.  \  of,  or  forming,  salt. 

We  do  not  easily  ascribe  their  induration  to  cold  ; 
but  rather  unto  talinoia  spirits  and  concretive  juices. 

Browne. 

This  *aline  sap  of  the  vessels,  by  being  refused  re- 
ception of  the  parts,  declares  itself  in  a  more  hostile 
manner,  by  drying  the  radical  moisture. 

Harvey  on  Consumptions. 

If  a  very  small  quantity  of  any  salt  or  vitriol  be 
dissolved  in  a  great  quantity  of  water,  the  particles  of 
the  salt  or  vitriol  will  not  sink  to  the  bottom,  though 
they  be  heavier  in  specie  th.iu  the  water  ;  but  will 
evenly  diffuse  themselves  into  all  the  water,  so  as  to 
it  as  mline  at  the  top  as  at  the  bottom. 


As  the  substance  of  coagulation  is  not  merely  sa- 
line, nothing  dissolves  them  but  what  penetrates  and 
relaxes  at  the  same  time.  Arbuthnot  on  Aliments. 

SALISBURY,  the  capital  or  county  town  of 
Wiltshire,  is  situated  in  a  vale,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Wiley  and  Nadder,  with  the  Aron.  It 
owed  its  origin  to  the  cathedral,  which  was  be- 
gun in  1220,  by  bishop  Poor,  and  finished  in 
1256,  when  the  see  was  held  by  William  of  York. 
This  building  is  in  the  early  pointed  style  of  ar- 
chitecture, and  may  be  justly  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  elegant  and  regular  ecclesiastical  struc- 
tures in  the  kingdom.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
double  cross,  and  consists  of  a  nave  and  choir, 
with  two  side  aisles,  and  two  transepts,  each  with 
its  aisle.  Connected  with  it  is  a  handsome 
quadrangular  cloister,  and  an  octagon  chapter- 
house. The  spire,  which  is  evidently  a  later 
erection,  and  was  probably  begun  at  tho  latter 
end  of  Edward  II.,  or  the  beginning  of  Edward 
III.'s  reign,  rises  on  four  pillars,  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  nave  and  principal  transept,  to  the 
stupendous  height  of  400  feet.  Although  it  de- 
clines above  two  feet  from  the  perpendicular,  it 
has  yet  withstood  the  storms  and  tempests  of 
ages,  and  the  effects  of  time  and  accident;  and 
seems  likely  to  remain  for  centuries  a  monu- 
ment of  singular  architectural  boldness,  skill, 
and  perseverance.  The  chapter-house  is  also 
a  beautiful  specimen  of  architecture,  the  groined 
roof  of  fifty  feet  in  diameter  beiug  poised  on  a 
single  slender  pillar  in  the  centre. 

The  cathedral  establishment  consists  of  a  dean, 
forty-one  prebendaries,  six  of  whom  are  residen- 
tiary, and  called  canons,  a  sub-dean,  sub-chanter, 
four  vicars  choral,  seven  lay-vicars,  one  of  whom 
is  organist,  and  eight  choristers.  The  chapter 
is  composed  of  the  dean  and  residentiary  canons ; 
and  the  close  in  which  the  cathedral  is  situated 
is  environed  with  a  wall,  and  forms  a  distinct 
jurisdiction,  under  the  dean,  in  virtue  of  letters 
patent  granted  by  Edward  III.  The  bishop, 
who  is  a  member  of  the  cathedral  establishment, 
as  prebendary  of  Pottern,  has  under  him  the 
archdeacons  of  Sarum,  Wilts,  and  Berks,  for  the 
superintendance  of  his  diocese.  In  the  close  is 
a  college,  for  the  maintenance  of  a  certain  num- 
ber of  clergymen's  widovvs,  built  and  endowed 
by  bishop  Seth  Ward. 

The  city,  which  is  erected  on  ground  originally 
belonging  to  the  see,  acknowledges  the  bishop  as 
lord  of  the  manor.  It  is  incorporate,  and  govern- 
ed by  a  mayor,  high  steward,  recorder,  twelve 
justices,  fourteen  aldermen,  and  thirty  common- 
council  men.  The  justices  are  chosen  from  the 
aldermen,  and  the  aldermen  from  those  who 
have  borne  the  office  of  mayor. 

It  contains  the  three  parish  churches  of  St. 
Thomas,  St.  Edmund,  and  St.  Martin ;  and   in 
eludes  the  suburbs  of  Fisherton  and  Eastllarn- 
ham. 

An  attempt  was  made;  under  bishop  Ward,  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  to  render  the  Avon  na- 
vigable to  Christchurch ;  and,  about  thirty  years 
ago,  a  canal  was  begun  to  form  a  water  com- 
munication with  the  port  of  Southampton! :  but 
both  these  projects  proved  abortive.  With  re- 
spect to  land  communications,  the  city  was 
essentially  benefited  by  the  turning  of  the  threat 


SAL 


western  road  through  if,  which  was  effected  soon 
after  the  commencement  of  the  cathedral.  To 
this  advantage,  and  to  its  central  situation  in  re- 
gard to  the  great  towns,  in  the  west  and  south 
of  England,  Salisbury  owes  much  of  its  present 
importance  ;  for  its  manufactures  of  cloth,  flan- 
nel, and  lace,  are  now  in  a  manner  extinct,  and 
its  cutlery  much  reduced,  in  consequence  of  the 
competition  of  Birmingham,  Sheffield,  &c.  Be- 
sides the  parish  churches,  the  principal  buildings 
are  the  council-house,  erected  at  the  expense  of 
the  late  earl  of  Radnor ;  the  general  infirmary, 
supported  by  voluntary  contribution ;  and  the 
county  prison.  These  two  last  are  situated  in 
Fisherton.  There  are  many  alms-houses  and 
charitable  establishments,  the  chief  of  which  is 
the  hospital  of  St.  Nicholas,  founded,  or  at  least 
endowed,  by  bishop  Bingham.  Salisbury  is 
twenty-one  miles  north-east  from  Southampton, 
eighty-two  W.  S.W.  from  London,  ninety-one 
E.  N.  E.  from  Exeter,  and  thirty-seven  south- 
west from  Bath.  Lat.  51°  3'  N.,  long.  1°  42'  E. 
It  sends  two  representatives  to  parliament,  the 
right  of  election  being  rested  in  the  corporation. 

Old  Sarum,  the  parent  of  the  present  city, 
which  is  sometimes  called  New  Sarum,  is  situated 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  to  the  north.  It  consists 
of  a  circular  rampart  and  ditch,  formed  by  scacp- 
ing  down  a  hill,  and  a  mound  in  the  centre, 
which  was  probably  crowned  by  the  keep  Or 
citadel.  It  was  originally  a  fortress  of  the  Bri- 
tons ;  was  afterwards  occupied  by  the  Romans, 
of  whose  military  ways,  four  diverged  from  this 
spot  ;  next  by  the  Saxons ;  and  finally  rendered 
by  the  Norman  sovereigns  a  post  of  considerable 
importance.  Of  its  buildings  nothing  remains  but 
a  few  trifling  fragments,  though  it  long  enjoyed  the 
privilege  of  sending  two  members  to  parliament, 
•who  were  chosen  by  the  occupiers  of  certain  lands 
in  the  vicinity.  It  was  disfranchised  in  1832. 

SALISBURY,  a  post  town  of  Hillsborough  coun- 
ty, New  Hampshire,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Merrimack;  fourteen  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Con- 
cord, thirty-eight  south-east  of  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, fifty-nine  W.  N.  W.  of  Portsmouth.  The 
fourth  New  Hampshire  turnpike  passes  through 
this  town,  and  upon  this  road,  in  the  south  part 
of  the  town,  there  is  a  pleasant  village,  contain- 
ing a  Congregational  "meeting  house,  and  an 
academy ;  and  about  two  miles  above,  on  the 
turnpike,  there  is  a  Baptist  meeting-house.  On 
the  Merrimack  near  the  mouth  of  the  Winnipi- 
seogee,  there  is  another  flourishing  village.  Salis- 
bury is  a  very  good  agricultural  town. — Also  a 
post  town  of  Essex  county,  Massachusetts,  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Merrimack ;  four  miles 
north-west  of  Newburyport,  thirty-six  N.  N.  E. 
of  Boston.  It  contains  two  parishes,  and  has  a 
pleasant  and  considerable  village,  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Merrimack,  below  the  junction  of 
the  Powow  River.  Considerable  business  is  done 
at  this  village  at  ship  building,  and  here  is  some 
trade  in  the  fisheries. — Also  a  post  town  of  Litch- 
field  county,  Connecticut,  in  the  north-west  cor- 
ner of  the  state  ;  twenty-four  miles  north-west  of 
Litchfield.  It  is  a  considerable  town,  and  the 
neighbourhood  contains  large  quantities  of  iron 
ore. 


243  SAL 

SALI'VA,  n.  s.~\      Lat.  saliva.      Every  thing 

SAI/IVAL,  adj.    (that  is  spit  up  ;  more  strictly 

SAL'IVOUS,         t  that  juice  which  is  separated 

SALIVATE,  v.  a.  J  by  the  glands  called  salival : 
relating  to  the  saliva :  to  salivate  is  to  cleanse 
or  purge  by  means  of  the  salival  glands. 

The  woodpecker,  and  other  birds  that  prey  upon 
flies,  which  they  catch  with  their  tongue,  in  the  room 
of  the  said  glands  have  a  couple  of  bags  filled  with  a 
viscous  humour,  which,  by  small  canals,  like  the  sa- 
lival, being  brought  into  their  mouths,  they  dip  their 
tongues  herein,  and  so  with  the  help  of  this  natural 
bird-lime  attack  the  prey.  Grew. 

Holding  of  ill  tasted  things  in  the  mouth  will 
make  a  small  salivation.  Id.  Cosmologia. 

The  necessity  of  spittle  to  dissolve  the  aliment  ap- 
pears from  the  contrivance  of  nature  in  making  the 
salivary  ducts  of  animals  which  ruminate,  extremely 
open  :  such  animals  as  swallow  their  aliment  without 
chewing,  want  salivary  glands.  Arbuthnot. 

Not  "meeting  with  disturbance  from  the  saliva,  I 
the  sooner  extirpated  them.  Wiseman't  Surgery. 

She  was  prepossessed  with  the  scandal  of  salivating, 
and  went  out  of  town.  Id. 

There  happeneth  an  elongation  of  the  uvula,  through 
the  abundance  of  salivout  humour  flowing  upon  it. 

Wiseman. 

SALIVA  is  that  fluid  by  which  the  mouth  and 
tongue  are  continually  moistened  in  their  natural 
state ;  and  which  is  supplied  by  glands  which 
form  it,  called  salivary  glands.  This  humor  is 
thin  and  pellucid,  incapable  of  being  concreted 
by  the  fire,  almost  without  taste  and  smell.  Sa- 
liva, beside  water,  which  constitutes  at  least 
four-fifths  of  its  bulk,  contains  the  following 
ingredients:—!.  Mucilage.  2.  Albumen.  3. 
Muriate  of  soda.  4.  Phosphate  of  soda.  5. 
Phosphate  of  lime.  6.  Phosphate  of  ammonia. 
Like  all  the  other  animal  fluids,  it  is  however 
liable  to  many  changes  from  disease,  &c. 
Brugnatelli  found  the  saliva  of  a  patient  laboring 
under  an  obstinate  venereal  disease  impregnated 
with  oxalic  acid.  The  concretions  which  some- 
times form  in  the  salivary  ducts,  &c.,  and  the 
tartar  or  bony  crust  which  so  often  attaches  itself 
to  the  teeth,  are  composed  of  phosphate  of  lime. 
It  has  a  great  affinity  for  oxygen,  absorbs  it  rea- 
dily from  the  air,  and  gives  it  out  again  to  other 
bodies.  Hence  the  reason  why  gold  or  silver, 
triturated  with  saliva  in  a  mortar,  is  oxidated,  as 
Du  Tennetar  has  observed.  Hence  also  the  rea- 
son that  saliva  is  a  useful  application  to  sores  of 
the  skin.  Dogs  and  other  animals  have  con- 
stantly recourse  to  this  remedy,  and  with  much 
advantage. 

SALIVATION,  in  medicine, is  effected  chiefly 
by  mercury.  The  use  of  salivation  is  in  diseases 
belonging  to  the  glands  and  membrana  adiposa, 
and  principally  in  the  cure  of  the  venereal  dis- 
ease ;  though  it  is  sometimes  also  used  in  epi- 
demic and  cutaneous  diseases,  &cc. 

SALIX,  the  willow,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
diandria  order,  and  dicecia  class  of  plants  :  na- 
tural order  fiftieth,  amentaceae:  amentum  of  the 
male  scaly :  COR.  none,  but  a  nectariferous  glan- 
dule at  the  base  of  the  flower :  female  amentum 
scaly  :  COR.  none ;  style  bifid  :  CAPS,  unilocular 
and  bivalved  :  SEEDS  pappous.  The  willow  has 
been  frequently  the  theme  of  poetical  description, 


SAL 


'244 


SAL 


tooth  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  There  are  se- 
venty species  ;  of  which  the  most  remarkable  are, 
'  i.  S.  alba,  white  or  silver-leaved  willow, 
growing  to  a  great  height  and  considerable  bulk, 
having  smooth  pale  green  shoots  ;  long,  spear- 
shaped,  acuminated,  sawed,  silvery-white  leaves, 
downy  on  both  sides,  with  glands  below  the  ser- 
ratures.  This  is  the  common  white  willow, 
which  grows  abundantly  about  towns  and  vil- 
lages, and  by  the  sides  of  rivers  and  brooks,  &c. 

2.  S.  Babylonica,  Babylonian  pendulous  salix, 
commonly  called  weeping  willow,   grows  to  a 
largish  size,  having  numerous  long,  slender,  pen- 
dulous branches,  hanging  down  loosely  all  round, 
and  long,  narrow,  spear-shaped, serrated,  smooth 
leaves.     This  curious  willow  is  a  native  of  the 
east,  and  is  retained  in  our  hardy  plantations  for 
ornament,  and  exhibits  a  most  agreeable  variety  ; 
particularly  when  disposed  singly  by  the  verge 
of  any  piece  of  water,  or  in  spacious  openings  of 
grass  ground. 

3.  S.  caprea,  the  common  sallow  tree,  grows 
to  but  a  moderate  height,  having  smooth,  dark- 
green,    brittle   branches ;    oval,  waved,    rough 
leaves,  indented  at  top,  and  woolly  underneath. 
It  grows  abundantly  in  this  country,  but  more 
frequently  in  dry  than  moist  situations ;  it  is  of 
a  brittle  nature,  and  therefore  unfit  for  the  bas- 
ket-makers;  but  will    serve   for  poles,  stakes, 
and  to  lop  for  fire-wood  ;  and  its  timber  is  good 
for  many  purposes. 

4.  S.  fissa,   basket  osier.      Leaves   alternate, 
pedicelled,  minutely  toothed.     A  shrub  four  or 
five  feet  high,  with  erect)  flexible,  and  very  tough 
branches,  of  a  yellowish  ash  color,  sometimes 
purplish.     A  native  of  various  parts  of  Europe, 
on  the  sandy  banks  of  rivers,  and   in  England 
cultivated  in  fens  as  preferable  to  all  other  wil- 
lows or  osiers  for  basket-work. 

5.  S.  fragilis,  fragile  or  crack  willow,  rises  to 
a  middling  stature,  with  brownish,  very  br.ttle 
branches;  long,  oval,  lanceolate,  smooth  leaves, 
of  a  shining  green  on  both  sides,  having  dentat- 
ed  glandular  foot-stalks.     This  kind  in  particu- 
lar being  exceedingly  fragile,  so  that  it  easily 
cracks  and  breaks,  is  unfit  for  culture  in  osier- 
grounds. 

6.  S.  pentandria,  broad-leaved,  sweet-scented 
willow,  grows  to  some  considerable  stature,  hav- 
ing  brownish-green  branches ;   oblong,  broad, 
scattered,  smooth,  sweet-scented  leaves,  shining- 
above  ;  and  pentandrous  flowers. 

7.  S.  purpurea,  purple  or  red  willow,  grows 
to  a  large  height,  having  long,   reddish,    very 
pliable  shoots,  and  long,  spear-shaped,  serrated, 
smooth  leaves,  the  lower  one  being  opposite. 

8.  S.  viminalis,  or  osier  willow,  grows  but  to 
a   moderate    height,    having    slender    rod-like 
branches ;    very    long,  pliant,  greenish  shoots : 
and  very  long,  narrow,  spear-shaped,  acute,  al- 
most entire  leaves,  hoary,  and  silky  underneath. 

9.  S.  vitellina,  yellow  or  golden  willow,  grows 
but  to  a  moderate  height ;  having  yellow,  very 
pliant  shoots;  oval, acute,  serrated,  very  smooth 
leaves,  with  the  serratures cartilaginous,  and  with 
callous  punctures  on  the  foot-stalks.      All  the 
species  are  of  the  tree  kind,  very  hardy,  remark- 
abK  i-,  and  several  of  them  attaining 
•*  consul*. ruble  stature  when  permitted  to  run  up 


to  standards.  They  are  generally  the  most 
abundant  and  of  most  prosperous  growth  in 
watery  situations  :  they  however  will  grow  freely 
almost  anywhere,  in  any  common  soil  and  expo- 
sure :  but  grow  considerably  faster  and  stronger 
in  low  moist  land,  particularly  in  marshy  situa- 
tions, by  the  verge  of  rivers,  brooks,  and  other 
waters  ;  which  places,  often  lying  waste,  may  be 
employed  to  good  advantage  in  plantations  of 
willows  for  different  purposes. 

SALLEE,  a  large  walled  sea-port  on  the 
coast  of  Morocco,  situated  in  the  province  of 
Benihassen,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same 
name.  It  was  formerly  the  great  hold  of  Moor- 
ish piracy,  and  immense  depredations  were  com- 
mitted from  it  upon  European  commerce. 

SALLENGUE  (Albert  Henry  de),  F.  R.  S., 
an  ingenious  writer,  born  at  the  Hague  in  1694. 
His  father  was  receiver  general  of  Walloon 
Flanders,  and  of  an  ancient  family,  lie  sent 
young  Albert  to  Leyden,  who,  having  finished 
his  studies,  commenced  advocate  in  Holland. 
After  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  he  travelled 
into  France.  In  1716  he  was  made  counsellor 
to  the  princess  of  Nassau;  in  1717  commissary 
of  finances  to  the  States.  In  1719  he  visited 
England,  and  was  elected  F.  R.  S.  He  wrote 
commentaries  on  Ovid's  epistles  and  other  clas- 
sics ;  and  was  writing  a  History  of  the  United 
Provinces,  when  he  was  cut-off  by  the  small  pox 
in  1723. 

SALLO  (Denis  de),  a  French  writer,  born  in 
Paris  in  1626.  He  studied  the  law,  and  was 
admitted  a  counsellor  in  the  parliament  of  Paris 
in  1652.  It  was  in  1664  he  laid  the  plan  of  the 
Journal  des  Scavans;  and  the  year  following 
began  to  publish  it,  under  the  name  of  Sieur  de 
Heronville,  which  was  that  of  his  valet  de 
Chambre.  But  he  criticised  so  severely,  and 
authors  retorted  so  powerfully,  that  M.de  Sallo, 
after  he  had  published  his  third  Journal,  gave 
up  the  undertaking,  delivering  it  over  to  the 
abbe  Gallois  ;  who,  without  presuming  to  criti- 
cise, contented  himself  merely  with  giving  the 
titles  of  new  books,  and  making  extracts.  .M. 
de  Sallo  died  in  1669. 

SAL'LOW,  n.  s.  Lat.  salts.  A  tree  of  the 
genus  of  willow. 

Sallows  and  reeds  on  banks  of  rivers  born, 
Remain  to  cut  to  stay  thy  vines.  Drytltn. 

SAL'LOW,  adj.      >        Belg.     salow  ;    Teut. 
SAL'LOWKESS,  n.  s.  S  salo,  black.     Sickly  ;  yel- 
low :  the  noun  substantive  corresponding. 

\Yhat  a  deal  of  brine 
Hath  washt  thy  sallow  cheeks  for  Rosaline 


The  see  .e  of  beauty  and  delight  is  changed  : 
No  roses  bloom  upon  my  fading  cheefc, 
Nor  laughing  graces  wanton  in  my  eyes  ; 
But  haggard  Grief,  lean-looking  sallow  Care, 
And  pining  Discontent,  a  rueful  train, 
Dwell  on  my  brow,  all  hideous  and  forlorn.   Rowe. 

A  fish  diet  would  give  such  a  nallou-iuns  to  the  ce- 
lebrated beauties  of  this  island,  as  \voulJ  scarce 
make  them  distinguishable  from  those  of  Trance. 

Adii  a.  n. 

SALLUSTIUS  (Caius  Crispus),  a  celebrated 
Roman  historian,  born  at  Amitornum,  in  Iialy, 
A.  U.  C.  669.  His  Roman  History,  in  MX 


S  A  L  M  O. 


245 


books,  from  the  death  of  Syila  to  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline,  the  great  work  from  which  he 
chiefly  derived  his  glory  among  the  ancients,  is 
unfortunately  lost,  excepting  a  few  fragments ; 
but '  the  two  detatched  pieces  of  his  history 
which  happily  remain  entire  are  sufficient  to 
justify  the  great  encomiums  he  has  received  as  a 
writer.  No  man  has  inveighed  more  sharply 
against  the  vices  of  his  age  than  this  historian ; 
yet  no  man  had  less  pretensions  to  virtue.  His 
youth  was  spent  in  a  most  lewd  and  profligate 
manner,  and  his  patrimony  rapidly  squandered. 
Marcus  Varro,  a  writer  of  undoubted  credit, 
relates,  in  a  fragment  preserved  by  Aulus  Gel- 
lius,  that  Sallustius  was  actually  caught  in  bed 
with  Fausta  the  daughter  of  Sylla,  by  Milo  her 
husband ;  who  scourged  him  very  severely,  and 
did  not  suffer  him  to  depart  till  he  had  redeemed 
his  liberty  with  a  considerable  sum.  '  In  A.  U.  C. 
694  he  was  made  questor,  and  in  702  tribune 
of  the  people;  in  neither  of  which  places  did 
he  acquit  himself  with  honor.  By  his  questor- 
ship  he  obtained  an  admission  into  the  senate ; 
but  was  expelled  by  the  censors  in  704  on  ac- 
count of  his  debauched  way  of  life.  In  705 
Caesar  restored  him  to  the  dignity  of  a  senator, 
and  made  him  questor  a  second  time.  In  the 
administration  of  this  office  he  behaved  very 
scandalously.  In  707,  when  the  African  war 
was  at  an  end,  he  was  made  praetor  for  his  ser- 
vices to  Caesar,  and  sent  to  Numidia.  Here  he 
outrageously  plundered  the  province ;  and  re- 
turned with  such  immense  riches  to  Rome,  that 
he  purchased  a  magnificent  building  upon  mount 
Quirinal,  with  those  gardens  which  still  retain 
the  name  of  Sallustian  gardens,  besides  his 
country  house  at  Tivoli.  Eusebius  tells  us  that 
he  married  Terentia,  the  divorced  wife  of  Cicero ; 
and  that  he  died  at  the  age  of  fifty,  A.  U.  C. 
710,  four  years  before  the  battle  of  Actium. 
Besides  his  histories  of  the  Catilinarian  and 
Jugurthine  wars,  we  have  some  orations,  printed 
with  his  fragments. 

SAL'LY,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  )      Fr.  salfie.      Erup- 

SAL'LYPORT.  $  tion  ;    issue    from    a 

place  besieged  ;  quick  egress ;  escape :  to  make 
sucli  egress  :  a  sally-port  is  a  gate  at  which  sal- 
lies are  made. 

Now  mote  I  weet, 

Sir  Guyon,  why  with  so  fierce  sallience 
And  fell  intent,  yp  did  at  erst  me  meet. 

Faerie  Queene. 

The  Turks,  sallying  forth,  received  thereby  great 
hurt.  Knolles. 

The  episodical  part,  made  up  of  the  extravagant 
sallies  of  the  prince  of  Wales  and  Fal  staffs  humour, 
is  of  his  own  invention.  Shakspeare.  Illustrated. 

At  his  return  all  was  clear,  and  this  excursion  was 
esteemed  but  a  sally  of  youth.  Wotton. 

The  deputy  sat  down  before  the  town  for  the  space 
of  three  winter  months  ;  during  which  time  sullies 
were  made  by  the  Spaniards,  but  they  were  beaten 
in  with  loss.  Bacon. 

My  slippery  soul  had  quit  the  fort, 
But  that  she  stopped  the  sallyport.  Cleaveland. 

Love  to  our' citadel  resorts 
Through  those  deceitful  sallyports  ; 
Our  sentinels  betray  our  forts.  Denham, 

Tis  but  a  sully  of  youth.  Id.   &>/%. 

These  passages  were  intended  for  sullies  of  wit ; 
but  u hence  comes  all  thi^  rage  of  nil  !  St'dimgfleet. 


The  noise  of  some  tumultuous  fight ; 
They  break  th»  truce  aud  sally  out  by  night. 

Drijdeti. 

Every  one  shall  know  a  country  better  that  makes 
often  sallies  into  it,  and  traverses  it  up  and  down, 
than  he  that,  like  a  mill-horse,  goes  still  round  in  the 
same  track.  Locke. 

We  have  written  some  things  which  we  may  wish 
never  to  have  thought  on  :  some  sallies  of  levity 
ought  to  be  imputed  to  youth.  SwiJ't. 

SALLY-PORTS,  in  fortification,  or  posterns  as 
they  are  sometimes  called,  are  those  under- 
ground passages  which  lead  from  the  inner 
works  to  the  outward  ones ;  such  as  from  the 
higher  flank  to  the  lower,  or  to  the  tenailles,  or 
the  communication  from  the  middle  of  the  cur- 
tain to  the  ravelin.  When  they  are  made  for 
men  to  go  through  only,  they  are  made  with 
steps  at  the  entrance  and  going  out.  They  are 
about  six  feet  wide,  and  eight  feet  and  a  half 
high.  There  is  also  a  gutter  or  shore  made 
under  the  sally  ports,  which  are  in  the  middle  of 
the  curtains,  for  the  water  which  runs  down  the 
streets  to  pass  into  the  ditch  ;  but  this  can  only 
be  done  when  they  are  wet  ditches.  When 
sally-ports  serve  to  carry  guns  through  for  the 
out  works,  instead  of  making  them  with  steps, 
they  must  have  a  gradual  slope,  and  be  eight 
feet  wide.  See  FORTIFICATION. 

SALMANASAR,  or  SALMAXESER,  the  son 
of  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  succeeded 
his  father,  about  A.  M.  3276.  He  took  Sama- 
ria, put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and 
carried  the  Israelites  into  captivity,  A.  M.  3283. 
He  was  afterwards  defeated  by  the  Tyrians ;  and 
died  about  A.  A.  C.  714.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Sennacherib. 

SALMASIUS  (Claudius),  a  French  writer  of 
great  abilities  and  immense  erudition,  descended 
from  an  ancient  and  noble  family,  and  born  at 
or  near  Semur  in  1596.  His  mother,  who  was 
a  Protestant,  educated  him  in  her  own  religious 
opinions,  and  he  at  length  converted  his  father, 
lie  settled  at  Leyden ;  and  in  1659  paid  a  visit 
to  Christina,  queen  of  Sweden,  who  showed 
him  extraordinary  marks  of  regard.  Upon  the 
death  of  king  Charles  I.  he  was  prevailed  on  by 
the  royal  family,  then  in  exile,  to  write  a  defence 
of  that  king,  which  was  answered  by  the  cele- 
brated Milton  in  1651,  in  a  work  entitled  De- 
fensio  pro  Populi  Anglicano  contra  Claudii 
Salmasii  Defensionem  Regiam.  This  book  was 
read  over  all  Europe ;  and  conveyed  such  a 
proof  of  the  writer's  abilities  that  he  was  re- 
spected even  by  those  who  hated  his  political 
principles.  Salmasius  died  in  1653.  His 
works  are  numerous,  and  of  various  kinds  ;  but 
the  greatest  monuments  of  his  learning  are  his 
Notae  in  Historise  Augustae  Scriptores,.  and  his 
Exercitationes  Plinianse  in  Solinum. 

SALMASIUS  (Claudius),  son  of  the  preceding, 
published  the  answer  to  Milton,  which  his  father 
had  begun,  but  did  not  live  to  finish;  and  dedi 
cated  it  to  king  Charles  II.  in  1660. 

SALMO,  the  salmon,  in  ichthyology,  a  genus 
of  the  order  of  abdominales.  The  head  is 
smooth,  and  furnished  with  teeth  and  a  tongue  ; 
the  rays  of  the  gills  are  from  four  to  ten  ;  the 
back-fin  is  fat  behind,  and  the  ventral  fins  havo 


246 


S  A  L  M  O. 


many  rays.     There  are  many  species,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  are  the  following : — 

1.  S.  albus,  the  white,  migrates   out  of  the 
sea  into  the   river   Esk  in  Cumberland,   from 
July  to  September.     When  dressed  the  flesh  of 
these  fish   is  red   and   most  delicious    eating. 
They  have,  on  their  first  appearance  from  the 
salt  water,  the  lernaea  salmonea,  or  salmon  louse, 
adhering  to  them.    They  never  exceed  a  foot  in 
length.    The  upper  jaw  is  a  little  longer  than  the 
lower ;  in  the  first  are  two  rows  of  teeth,  in  the 
last   one ;  on  the  tongue  are  six   teeth.    The 
back  is  straight,  the  whole  body  of  an  elegant 
form,  the  lateral  line  is  straight ;  color,  between 
that  and  the  top  of  the  back,  dusky  and  silvery 
intermixed ;  beneath  the  line  white  ;  first  dorsal 
fin  spotted  with  black;  tail  black,  and  much 
forked. 

2.  S.  alpinus,  the  red  charr,  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  lakes  of  the  north,  and  of  those  of  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Europe.     It  chooses  clear 
and  pure  waters,  and  is  very  rarely  known  to 
wander  into  running  streams.     It  is  found  in 
vast  abundance  in  the  cold  lakes  on  the  summits 
of  the  Lapland  mountains,  and   is  almost   the 
only  fish  that  is  met  with  in  any  plenty  in  those 
regions.     The  larvae  of  a  species  of  gnat  afford 
food  to  the  fish,  who  in  their  turn  are  a  support 
to  the  migratory  Laplanders,  in  their  summer 
voyages  to  the  distant  lalces.    There  are  but  few 
lakes  in  our  island  that  produce  this  fish  ;  and 
even  those  not  in  any  abundance.     It  is  found 
in  Ullswater  and  Windermere  in  Westmoreland ; 
in  Llyn    Quellyn,  near  the  foot  of  Snowdon  ; 
and,  before  the  discovery  of  the  copper  mines, 
in  those  of  Llynberris ;  but  the  mineral  streams 
have  entirely  destroyed  the  fish  in  the  last  lakes. 
In  Scotland  it  is  found  in  Loch  Inch  and  other 
neighbouring  lakes,  and  is  said  to  go  into  the 
Spey  to  spawn.    They  are  supposed  to  be  in  the 
highest  perfection  about  May,  and  continue  so 
all   the  summer ;  yet  are   rarely  caught   after 
April.     When  they  are  spawning  in  the  river 
they  will  take  a  bait,  but  at  no  other  time ;  being 
commonly  taken,  as  well  as  the  other  species,  in 
what  they  call  breast-nets,  which  are  in  length 
about  twenty-four  fathoms,  and  about  five  where 
broadest.    They  are  taken  in   greatest   plenty 
from  the  end  of  September  to  the  end  of  Novem- 
ber.   This  species  is  much  esteemed  for  the 
table,  and  is  very  delicate  when  potted. 

3.  S.  eperlanus,  the  smelt,  inhabits  the  seas  of 
the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  found  as 
far  south  as  the  Seine.  They  are  also  taken  in 
i  lie  Straits  of  Magellan,  and  of  a  most  surprising 
size,  some  measuring  twenty  inches  in  length 
and  eight  in  circumference.  They  inhabit  the 
seas  that  wash  these  islands  the  whole  year, 
except  when  they  ascend  the  rivers.  In  certain 
rivers  they  appear  a  long  time  before  they  spawn, 
I  "'ing  taken  in  great  abundance  in  November, 
December,  and  January,  in  the  Thames  and 
Dee,  but  in  others  not  till  February  ;  and  in 
March  and  April  they  spawn  ;  after  which  they 
all  return  to  the  salt  water,  and  are  not  seen  in 
the  rivers  till  the  next  season.  They  never  come 
into  tin:  Mersey  .is  lonur  as  there  is  any  snow 
water  in  the  river.  These  fish  vary  greatly  in 
size;  but  the  largest  we  ever  heard  of  was  thir- 


teen inches  long,  and  weighed  half  a  pound. 
They  have  a  very  particular  scent,  whence  is 
derived  one  of  their  English  names,  smelt,  i.  e. 
smell  it.  That  of  sparling,  which  is  used  in 
Wales  and  the  north  of  England,  is  taken  from 
the  French  sperlan.  The  fishing  for  smelts  in 
the  Thames  is  prohibited  under  heavy  penalties, 
and  the  exertions  of  the  magistrates  hare  nearly 
put  an  end  to  it.  The  fish  can  hardly  be  pur- 
chased in  London  at  any  price  however  extra- 
vagant. It  is  a  fish  of  a  very  beautiful  form  and 
color ;  the  head  is  transparent,  and  the  skin  in 
general  so  thin  that  with  a  good  microscope  the 
blood  may  be  observed  to  circulate.  The  irides 
are  silvery;  the  pupil  of  a  full  black  ;  the  under 
jaw  is  the  longest ;  in  the  front  of  the  upper 
jaw  are  four  large  teeth ;  those  in  the  sides  of 
both  are  small ;  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  are  two 
rows  of  teeth  ;  on  the  tongue  two  others  of  large 
teeth.  The  scales  are  small,  and  readily  drop 
off;  the  tail  consists  of  nineteen  rays,  and  is 
forked.  The  color  of  the  back  is  whitish,  with  a 
cast  of  green,  beneath  which  it  is  varied  with 
blue,  and  then  succeeds  a  beautiful  gloss  of  a 
silvery  hue. 

4.  S.  fario,  the  trout:  the  colors  of  which 
vary  greatly  in  different  waters,  and  in  different 
seasons.  Trouts  differ  also  in  size.  The  stomachs 
of  the  common  trouts  are  uncommonly  thick 
and  muscular.  They  feed  on  the  shell-fish  of 
lakes  and  rivers,  as  well  as  on  small  fish.  They 
likewise  take  into  their  stomachs  gravel  or  small 
stones,  to  assist  in  comminuting  the  testaceous 
parts  of  their  food.  The  trouts  of  certain  lakes 
in  Ireland,  such  as  those  of  the  province  of 
Gal  way  and  some  others,  are  remarkable  for  the 
great  thickness  of  their  stomachs,  which,  from 
some  slight  resemblance  to  the  organs  of  diges- 
tion in  birds,  have  been  called  gizzards;  the  Irish 
name  the  species  that  has  them  gillaroo  trouts. 
These  stomachs  are  sometimes  served  up  to 
table  alone,  under  the  appellation  of  gillaroo. 
Trouts  are  most  voracious  fish,  and  afford  excel- 
lent diversion  to  the  angler.  Trouts  shift  their 
quarters  to  spawn;  and  like  salmon  make  up 
towards  the  heads  of  rivers  to  deposit  their  roes. 
The  under  jaw  of  the  trout  is  subject,  at  certain 
times,  to  the  same  curvature  as  that  of  the 
salmon.  Trouts  are  caught  in  very  great  plenty 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year ;  one  weighing  a  pound 
and  a  half  is  a  usual  size,  though  some  are  caught 
of  four  pound  weight.  Five  or  six  ounces  is  ;i 
common  weight ;  the  largest  are  commonly  the 
best  for  the  table,  when  a  deep  salmon  color. 
In  winter  great  quantities  are  potted  along  with 
the  charre,  and  sent  to  London,  &c.  Geld  fish 
(those  without  spawn)  are  the  firmest  and  best. 

5.  S.  lavaretus,  the  gwiniad,  is  an  inhabitant 
of  several  of  the  lakes  of  the  Alpine  parts  of 
Europe.  It  is  found  in  those  of  Switzerland, 
Savoy,  and  Italy  ;  of  Norway,  Sweden,  Lapland, 
and  Scotland  ;  in  those  of  Ireland  and  of  Cum- 
berland ;  and  in  Wales,  in  that  of  Llyntegicl, 
near  Bala,  in  Merionethshire.  It  is  the  same 
with  the  ferra  of  the  lake  of  Geneva;  the  Schelly 
of  Hulsewater;  the  pollen  of  Loch  Neah  ;  and 
the  vangis  and  juvengis  of  Loch  Mbaon.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  Scotland 
by  queen  Mary ;  and  as  in  her  time  the  Scottish 


S  A  L  M  O. 


247 


court  was  much  Frenchified,  the  name  was  per- 
haps derived  from  the  French  vendois,  a  dace; 
to  which  a  slight  observer  might  be  tempted  to 
compare  it  by  the  whiteness  of  its  scales.  The 
British  name  gwiniad  or  whiting  was  bestowed 
upon  it  for  the  same  reason.  It  is  a  gregarious 
fish,  and  approaches  the  shores  in  vast  shoals  in 
spring  and  in  summer  ;  which  proves  in  many 
places  a  relief  to  the  poor  of  inland  countries, 
as  the  annual  return  of  the  herring  is  to  those 
who  inhabit  the  coasts.  Between  7000  and  8000 
have  been  taken  at  one  draught.  The  whiting  is 
a  fish  of  an  insipid  taste,  and  must  be  eaten 
soon,  for  it  will  not  keep  long ;  those  that  choose 
to  preserve  them  do  it  with  salt.  They  die  very 
soon  after  they  are  taken.  Their  spawning  sea- 
son in  Llyntegid  is  in  December.  The  largest 
whiting  we  ever  heard  of  weighed  between  three 
and  four  pounds  ;  the  head  is  small,  smooth, 
and  of  a  dusky  hue ;  the  eyes  very  large ;  the 
pupil  of  a  deep  blue;  the  nose  blunt  at  the  end; 
the  jaws  of  equal  length;  the  mouth  small  and 
toothless ;  the  branchiostegous  rays  nine ;  the 
covers  of  the  gills  silvery,  powdered  with  black. 
The  back  is  a  little  arched,  and  slightly  cari- 
nated  ;  the  color,  a£  far  as  the  lateral  line,  is 
glossed  with  deep  blue  and  purple  ;  but  towards 
the  lines  assumes  a  silvery  cast,  tinged  with 
gold ;  beneath  which  those  colors  entirely  pre- 
vail. The  tail  is  very  much  forked  ;  the  scales 
are  large,  and  adhere  close  to  the  body. 

6.  S.  salar,  the  common  salmon,  is  a  northern 
fish,  being  unknown  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
and  other  warm  climates  ;  it  is  found  in  France 
in  some  of  the  rivers  that  fall  into  the  ocean,  and 
north  as  far  as  Greenland  ;  they  are  also  very 
common  in  the  northern  parts  of  North  America. 
They  are  in  several  countries  a  considerable 
article  of  commerce;  they  are  stationary  fisheries 
in  Iceland,  Norway,  and  the  Baltic ;  and  in 
Great  Britain,  on  the  Tweed,  at  Berwick,  and  in 
various  rivers  of  Scotland.  See  our  article 
FISHERIES.  In  Cumberland  they  go  up  the 
river  Derwent  in  September,  through  the  lake  of 
Bassenthwaite,  up  the  river  which  runs  through 
Keswick  into  the  Vale  of  St.  John,  where  they 
deposit  their  spawn  in  the  small  streams  and 
feeders  of  the  lake.  The  young  salmon  are  called 
salmon  smelts,  and  go  down  to  the  sea  with  the 
first  floods  in  May.  The  salmon  was  known  to 
the  Romans,  but  not  to  the  Greeks.  Pliny  speaks 
of  it  as  a  fish  found  in  the  rivers  of  Aquitaine  : 
Ausonius  enumerates  it  among  those  of  the  Mo- 
selle. The  salmon  is  a  fish  that  lives  both  in  the 
salt  and  fresh  waters ;  quitting  the  sea  at  certain 
seasons  for  the  sake  of  depositing  its  spawn,  in 
security,  in  the  gravelly  beds  of  rivers  remote 
from  their  mouths.  There  is  scarcely  any  diffi- 
culties but  what  they  will  overcome  to  arrive  at 
places  fit  for  their  purpose;  they  will  ascend 
rivers  hundreds  of  miles,  force  themselves  against 
the  most  rapid  streams,  and  spring  with  amazing 
agility  over  cataracts  of  several  feet  in  height. 
Salmon  are  frequently  taken  in  the  Rhine  as  high 
up  as  Basil ;  they  gain  the  sources  of  the  Lap- 
land rivers  in  spite  of  their  torrent  like  currents, 
and  surpass  the  perpendicular  falls  of  Leixslip, 
Kennerth,  and  Pont  Aberglastyn.  The  salmon 
is  so  generally  known  that  a  very  brief  descrip- 


tion will  serve.  It  has  been  known  to  weigh 
seventy-four  pounds.  The  color  of  the  back  and 
sides  is  gray,  sometimes  spotted  with  black, 
sometimes  plain  ;  the  covers  of  the  gilta  are  sub- 
ject to  the  same  variety ;  the  belly  silvery  :  the 
nose  sharp-pointed;  the  end  of  the  under  j;nv 
in  the  males  often  turns  up  in  the  form  of  a 
hook  ;  sometimes  this  curvature  is  very  consider- 
able ;  it  is  said  that  they  lose  this  hook  when 
they  return  to  the  sea.  The  teeth  are  lodged  in 
the  jaws  and  on  the  tongue,  and  are  slender  but 
very  sharp;  the  tail  is  a  little  forked.  When  the 
fish  enter  the  Friths,  or  mouths  of  the  rivers,  at  the 
commencement  of  their  upward  migration,  and 
are  thus  in  good  condition,  they  are  termed,  in 
the  language  of  fishermen,  clean  fish.  At  this 
period  they  are  infested  with  the  salmon  louse, 
caligus  productus  of  naturalists,  and  which 
chiefly  adhere  to  the  more  insensible  parts.  But 
when  arrived  at  the  place  of  spawning,  the  fish 
is  lean,  as  the  whole  fat  of  the  body  has  passed 
into  the  melt  and  the  roe.  In  this  state,  in 
which  they  are  termed  red  fish,  they  are  worth- 
less as  an  article  of  food.  After  the  fish  have 
spawned  they  are  termed  kelts  or  foul  fish,  and 
are  equally  despised  with  the  red  fish.  The  gills 
are  now  more  or  less  covered  with  the  entomoda 
salmonea.  The  motion  of  the  fish  upwards  from 
the  sea  to  the  river  and  place  of  spawning  is  in- 
fluenced by  several  causes.  When  there  is  abun- 
dance of  fresh  water  in  the  Friths  the  fish  seem 
to  proceed  regularly  and  rapidly  up  the  middle 
of  the  stream,  enter  the  rivers,  and  hasten  on  to 
their  destination.  In  returning  to  the  sen,  after 
spawning,  the  fish  seem  to  keep  the  middle  of 
the  stream  in  the  river,  and  the  deepest  and 
saltest  water  in  the  Friths.  Salmon  enter  the 
river  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  they  approach 
in  greatest  numbers  during  the  summer  months. 
Fish  taken  in  May,  June,  and  July,  are  much 
fatter  than  fish  in  the  same  condition  as  to 
spawning,  taken  in  February,  March",  or  April. 
They  fall  off  in  fatness  very  rapidly  from  August 
to  January,  when  they  are  leanest.  The  princi- 
pal spawning  season  is  in  November,  December, 
and  January.  See  FISHERIES.  Salmon  fisheries, 
Marshal  observes,  are  '  copious  and  constant 
sources  of  human  food  ;  they  rank  next  to  agri- 
culture. They  have  indeed  one  advantage  over 
every  other  internal  produce  :  their  increase  does 
not  lessen  other  articles  of  human  sustenance. 
The  salmon  does  not  prey  on  the  produce  of  the 
soil,  nor  does  it  owe  its  size  and  nutritive  quali- 
ties to  the  destruction  of  its  compatriot  tribes.  It 
leaves  its  native  river  at  an  early  state  of  growth ;. 
and,  going  even  naturalists  know  not  where,  re- 
turns of  ample  size,  and  rich  in  human  nourish- 
ment ;  exposing  itself  in  the  narrowest  streams, 
as  if  nature  intended  it  as  a  special  boon  to  man. 
In  every  stage  of  savageness  and  civilisation  the 
salmon  must  have  been  considered  as  a  valuable 
benefaction  to  this  country.'  From  the  extremity 
of  the  Highlands,  and  from  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  Islands,  these  fish  are  sent  up  to  the 
London  market  in  ice ;  and  when  the  season  is 
at  its  height,  and  the  catch  more  than  can  be 
taken  off  hand  fresh,  they  are  then  salted,  pickled, 
or  dried,  for  winter  consumption  at  home,  and 
for  thp  foreign  markets.  Perhaps  the  fishery  of 


SAL 


248 


SAL 


the  Tweed  is  the  first  in  point  of  quantity  caught, 
which  is  sometimes  quite  astonishing,  several 
hundreds  being  taken  at  a  single  draught  of  the 
net.  Formerly  it  was  all  pickled  and  killed, 
after  being  boiled,  and  sent  to  London  under  the 
name  of  Newcastle  salmon  ;  but  the  present  mode 
has  so  raised  the  value  of  the  fish  as  nearly  to 
have  banished  this  article  of  food  from  the  in- 
habitants in  the  environs  of  the  fishery,  except  as 
an  expensive  luxury.  Within  memory,  salted 
salmon  formed  a  material  article  of  economy  in 
all  the  farm  houses  of  the  vale  of  Tweed,  inso- 
much that  indoor  servants  often  bargained  that 
they  should  not  be  obliged  to  take  more  than  • 
two  weekly  meals  of  salmon.  It  could  then  be 
bought  at  2s.  the  stone,  of  nineteen  pounds 
weight;  it  is  now  never  below  12s.,  often  36s., 
and  sometimes  two  guineas. 

7.  S.   thymallus,   the    umber,   or    grayling, 
haunts  clear  and  rapid  streams,  and  particularly 
those  that  flow  through  mountainous  countries. 
It  is  found  in  the  rivers  of  Derbyshire  ;  in  some 
of  those  of  the  north  ;  in  the  Tame  near  Ludiow  ; 
in  the  Lug,  and  other  streams  near  Leominster. 
It  is  also  very  common  in  Lapland ;  the  inhabitants 
make  use  of  the  entrails  of  this  fish  instead  of 
rennet,  to  make  the  cheese  which  they  get  from 
the  milk  of  the  rein  deer.     It  is  a  voracious  fish, 
rises  freely  to  the  fly,  and  will  very  eagerly  take  a 
bait.  It  is  a  very  swift  swimmer,  and  disappears 
like  the  transient  passage  of  a  shadow,  whence  it 
derived  the  name  of  umbra. 

8.  S.  trutta,  the  sea  trout,  migrates  like  the 
salmon  up  several  of  our  rivers,  spawns,  and  re- 
turns to  the  sea.  The  shape  is  more  thick  than  the 
common  trout;  the  irides  silver  ;  the  head  thick, 
smooth,  and  dusky,  with  a  gloss  of  blue  and 
green  ;  the  back  of  the  same  color,  which  grows 
fainter  towards  the  side  line.    The  back  is  plain, 
but  the  sides,  as  far  as  the  lateral  line,  are  marked 
with   large   distinct   irregular-shaped    spots    of 
black ;  the  lateral  line  straight ;  the  sides  beneath 
the  line  and  the  belly  are  white.    Tail  broad, 
and  even  at  the  end.     The  flesh  when  boiled  is 
of  a  pale  red,  but  well  flavored. 

SALM'ON,  n.  s.  Lat.  salmo ;  Fr.  saumon.  A 
well-known  fish. 

They  poke  them  with  an  instrument  somewhat 
like  the  salmon  spear.  Carew's  Survey  of  Cornwall. 

They  take  salmon  and  trouts  by  groping  and  tick- 
ling them  under  the  bellies  in  the  pools,  where  they 
hover,  and  so  throw  them  on  land.  Carew. 

Of  fishes,  you  find  in  arms  the  whale,  dolphin, 
salmon,  and  trout.  Peacluim. 

The  satmmi  is  accounted  the  king  of  fresh  water 
fish,  and  is  bred  in  nvers  relating  to  the  sea,  yet  so 
far  from  it  as  admits  no  tincture  of  brackishness. 
Sir  Francis  Karon  observes  the  age  of  a  salmon  ex- 
ceed* not  ten  years.  After  he  is  got  into  the  sea  he 
becomes  from  a  samlet,  not  so  big  as  a  gudgeon,  to 
be  a  talmun  in  as  short  a  time  as  a  gosling  becomes 
a  goose.  Walton's  Angler. 

There  is  in  many  rivers  that  relate  to  the  sea  »i/- 
mott  trouts  as  much  different  from  others,  in  shape 
and  spots,  as  sheep  differ  in  their  shape  and  bigness. 

Id. 

SALMON,  in  ichthyology.     See  SALMO,  No.  6. 
SALMON  FISHERY,  &c.     See  FISHERY. 
SALMON    (Nathaniel),  a   celebrated    English 
divine,  physician,  and  antiquarian,  was  the  son 


of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Salmon,  M.  A.,  rector  of 
Mepsall.  He  was  admitted  of  Benet  College, 
Cambridge,  June  llth,  1690,  and  took  the  de- 
gree of  LL.  D.  in  1695.  He  then  entered  into 
orders,  and  became  curate  of  Westmill,  in  Hert- 
fordshire ;  but,  although  he  had  taken  the  oaths 
to  king  William  III.,  he  refused  to  do  so  to 
queen  Anne  ;  and,  being  therefore  turned  out  of 
his  cure,  he  studied  physic,  and  practised  at  St. 
Ives  and  Bishop's  Stortford.  He  was  married, 
and  left  three  daughters.  He  published,  1.  A 
Survey  of  the  Roman  Antiquities  in  the  Midland 
counties  of  England;  in  8vo.,  1726.  2.  A  Sur- 
vey of  the  Roman  Stations  in  Britain,  according 
to  the  Roman  Itinerary;  8vo.,  1728.  3.  The 
History  of  Hertfordshire,  &c.,  fol.,  1728.  4.  The 
Lives  of  the  English  Bishops  from  the  Restora- 
tion to  the  Revolution;  1733.  5.  The  Antiqui- 
ties of  Surrey,  &c.,  8vo.,  1736.  6.  The  History 
and  Antiquities  of  Essex,  folio.  This  work  was 
left  unfinished  at  his  death,  in  1738. 

SALMON  (Thomas),  an  eminent  English  histo- 
rian and  geographer,  younger  brother  to  the  Dr. 
He  wrote  many  useful  works,  particularly,  1.  A 
Geographical  Grammar  ;  8vo.,  which  went 
through  numberless  editions.  2.  A  History  of 
England.  3  An  examination  of  Bishop  Burnet's 
History  of  his  own  times.  He  died  in  April 
1743. 

SALMONE,  a  town  of  Peloponnesus,  in  EHs, 
with  a  fountain,  forty  stadia  from  Olympia; 
thence  called  Salmonis. 

SALMONEUS,  in  fabulous  history,  a  king  of 
Elis,  the  son  of  ^Eolus  and  Enarete,  and  brother 
of  Sisyphus.  He  married  Alcidice  by  whom  he 
had  Tyro.  Ambitious  to  be  reckoned  a  god,  he 
imitated  thunder  and  lightning  by  artificial  fire- 
works. Jupiter  therefore  struck  him  with  a  real 
thunderbolt,  and  placed  him  in  hell  near  his  bro- 
ther Sisyphus. 

SALON,  a  town  in  the  south-east  of  France, 
in  Provence,  department  of  the  mouths  of  the 
Rhone.  It  is  situated  on  a  height,  on  the  canal 
of  Capronne,  and  its  trade  consists  in  the  produce 
of  the  neighbouring  country,  viz.  corn,  cattle, 
wool,  olives  and  silk.  Inhabitants  6300.  Eiglv- 
teen  miles  W.N.W.  of  Aix,  and  nineteen  east  of 
Aries. 

SALONA,  a  town  of  Austrian  Dalmatia,  on  a 
bay  of  the  Adriatic,  once  a  town  of  importance, 
having  been  taken  and  destroyed  in  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  but  rebuilt  by  Tiberius,  who  sent 
thither  a  Roman  colony,  and  made  it  the  capital 
of  Illyricum.  This  rank  it  long  held  ;  but  seems 
to  have  declined  after  the  reign  of  Dioclesian. 
Two  miles  north-east  of  Spalatro. 

SALONA,  a  considerable  town  of  Livadia,  near 
a  bay  called  the  gulf  of  Salona,  which  is  an  inlet 
from  the  gulf  of  Corinth.  Salona  is  situated  in 
a  fertile  and  highly  cultivated  plain,  at  the  foot 
of  mount  Parnassus,  and  is  supposed  to  occupy 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Amphissu.  The  modern 
town  has  no  fortifications.  Its  population  is 
estimated  at  8000,  and  its  trade  is  considerable. 
Salona  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  subject  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  Athens.  Forty-eight  miles  north-east 
of  Lepanto. 

SALONICA  anciently  called  Thessalonica, 
Hallia,  and  Therma,  a  large  and  handsome  city 


SAL 


249 


SAL 


of  Macedon,  standing  at  the  northern  extremity 
of  a  great  bay,  and  on  the  acclivity  of  a  steep 
hill,  which  rises  from  the  bay  at  its  north-east 
extremity.  The  circumference  of  the  walls  is 
about  five  miles,  and  the  fortress  has  seven 
towers.  The  domes  and  minarets  of  mosques 
are  seen  rising  from  among  the  other  buildings, 
environed  by  cypresses,  and  giving  a  general  air 
of  splendor  to  the  place.  In  ancient  times  this  was 
a  comparatively  small  place,  and  is  indebted  for 
its  increase  to  the  advantage  of  its  position. 
With  the  country  to  the  north,  one  of  the  most 
fertile  districts  in  Macedon,  it  communicates  by 
land,  or  by  the  river  Vardari,  the  ancient  Axius. 
The  articles  collected  in  Salonica,  viz.  cotton, 
tobacco,  corn,  and  wool,  are  exported  to  different 
parts  of  Europe.  The  Turks  never  carried  on 
much  business  here;  it  is  in  the  hands  of  Greeks, 
Jews,  and  Frank  or  French,  Italian,  English,  or 
Dutch  merchants,  all  of  whom  have  consuls  here. 
The  population  is  computed  at  70,000. 

Salonica  has  few  antiquities,  except  the  pro- 
py'laea  of  the  ancient  Hippodrome,  the  alto  re- 
lievos on  which  are  represented  in  a  series  of 
beautiful  and  accurate  engravings,  in  Stuart's 
Antiquities  of  Athens.  272  miles  west  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  252  E.  S.  E.  of  Ragusa.  Long. 
22°  56'  E.,  lat.  40°  38'  7"  N. 

SALONIKA,  the  wife  of  the  emperor  Gallie- 
nus,  eminent  for  her  public  and  private  virtues. 
She  patronised  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  to  her 
Rome  was  greatly  indebted  for  a  short  period  of 
prosperity.  But  her  virtues  could  not  preserve 
her  from  the  murderers  of  her  husband,  v?ho 
assassinated  both,  A.  D.  268. 

SALSETTE,  an  island  on  the  western  coast 
of  Hindostan,  and  province  of  Aurungabad, 
formerly  separated  from  Bombay  by  a  strait  200 
yards  wide,  across  which,  in  the  year  1805,  a 
causeway  was  carried.  This  island  is  eighteen 
miles  long,  by  fourteen  broad,  and  is  well  adapt- 
ed for  sugar,  cotton,  hemp,  indigo,  &c. ;  but  it 
has  hitherto  been  kept  in  a  state  of  nature,  for 
the  purpose  of  supplying  Bombay  with  wood, 
charcoal,  and  sea  salt.  Salsette  is  remarkably 
rich  in  antiquities,  and  the  remains  of  reservoirs, 
with  flights  of  stone  steps  round  them,  the  ruins 
of  temples,  &c.  The  most  remarkable  object, 
however,  is  the  caverns  at  Kennere,  which  con- 
tain two  colossal  statues  of  Boodh.  One  of 
these  was  converted  by  the  Portuguese  into  a 
church.  In  1773,  during  a  rupture  with  the 
Mahrattas,  it  was  occupied  by  the  British  troops, 
and  has  ever  since  remained  in  their  possession. 
Janna  is  the  chief  town. 

SAL'SIFY,  n.  s.    A  plant. 

Salsify,  or  the  common  sort  of  goatsbeard,  is  of  a 
very  long  oval  figure,  as  if  it  were  cods  all  over 
streaked,  and  engraven  in  the  spaces  between  the 
streaks,  which  are  sharp-pointed  towards  the  end. 
Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

SALSOACID,  n.  *.  Lat.  'salsus  and  acidus. 
Having  a  taste  compounded  of  saltness  and  sour- 
ness. 

The  distinction  of  salts,  whereby  they  are  discri- 
minated into  acid,  volatile,  or  ialsugiueut,  if  I  may 
so  call  the  fugitive  salts  of  animal  substances,  and 
fixed  or  alcalizale,  may  appear  in  much  use  in  na- 
tural philosophy.  Boyle. 


The  takoacids  help  its  passing  off;  as  sal  nrunel. 

Floyer. 

SALSOLA,  glass-wort ;  a  genus  of  the  digy- 
nia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants,  natu- 
ral order  twelfth,  holoraceae  :  CAL.  pentaphyl- 
lous  :  CAPS,  monospermous,  with  a  screwed  seed. 
The  species  are  these : — 

1 .  S.  kali, growing  naturally  in  the  salt  marshes 
in  divers  parts   of  England.     It  is  an  annual 
plant,  which  rises  above  five  or  six  inches  hieh, 
sending  out  many  side  branches,  which  spread 
on  every  side,  garnished  with  short  awl-shaped 
leaves,  which  are  fleshy,  and  terminate  in  acute 
spines.     The  flowers  are  produced  from  the  side 
of  the  branches,  to  whicn  they  sit  close,  and  are 
encompassed  by  short  prickly  leaves ;  they  are 
small,  and  of  an  herbaceous  color.    The  seeds 
are  wrapped  up  in  the  empalement  of  the  flower, 
and  ripen  in  autumn;  soon  after  which  the  plant 
decays. 

2.  S.  rosacea,  growing  naturally  in  Tartary,  is 
an  annual  plant,  whose  stalks  are  herbaceous,  and 
seldom  rise  more  than  five  or  six  inches  high. 
The   leaves   are  awl-shaped,  ending   in    acute 
points ;  the  empalements  of  the  flowers  spread 
open;  the  flowers  are  small,  and  of  a  rose  color, 
but  soon  fade ;  the  seeds  are  like  those  of  the 
other  kinds. 

3.  S.  soda  rises  with  herbaceous  stalks,  nearly 
three  feet  high,  spreading  wide.    The  leaves  on 
the  principal  stalk,  and  those  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  branches,  are  long,  slender,  and  have  no 
spines';  those  on  the  upper  part  of  the  stalk  and 
branches  are  slender,  short,  and  crooked.     At 
the  base  of  the  leaves  are  produced  the  flowers, 
which  are  small  and  hardly  perceptible;  the  em- 
palement of  the  flower  afterwards  encompasses 
the  capsule,  which  contains  one  cochleated  seed. 
All  the  sorts  of  glass-wort  are  sometimes  pro- 
miscuously used  for  making  kali,  but  this  species 
is  esteemed  best.     The  manner  of  making  it  is 
as  follows : — Having  dug  a  trench  near  the  sea, 
they  place  laths  across  it,  on  which  they  lay  the 
herbs  in  heaps ;  and,  having  made  a  fire  below, 
the  liquor  which  runs  out  of  the  herbs  drops  to 
the  bottom,  which  at  length  thickening,  becomes 
kali,  which  is  partly  of  a  black,  and  partly  of  an 
ash  color,  very  sharp  and  corrosive,  and  of  a 
saltish  taste.     This,  when  thoroughly  hardened, 
becomes  like  a  stone ;  and  in  that  state  is  trans- 
ported to  different  countries  for  the  making  of 
glass. 

4.  S.  tragus  grows   naturally  on  the   sandy 
shores  of  the  south  of  France,  Spain,  and  Italy. 
This  is  also  an  annual  plant,  which  sends  out 
many  diffused  stalks,  garnished  with  linear  leaves 
an  inch  long,  ending  with  sharp  spines.     The 
flowers  come  out  from  the  side  of  the  stalks  in 
the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  former ;  their 
empalements  are  blunt,  and  not  so  closely  en- 
compassed with  leaves  as  those  of  the  other. 

5.  S.  vermiculata  grows  naturally  in  Spain. 
This  has  shrubby  perennial  stalks,  which  rise 
three  or  four  feet  high,  sending  out  many  side 
branches,    garnished   with   fleshy,   oval,    acute 
pointed  leaves,  coming  out  in  clusters  from  the 
side  of  the  branches,  they  are  hoary,  and  have 
stiff'  prickli-.s.     The   flowers  are  produced  from 
between    t!uj    leaves    to\\;ira    the    end    of  the 


250 


SALT. 


branches ;  they  are  so  small  as  scarcely  to  be 
discerned  unless  they  are  closely  viewed.  The 
seeds  are  like  those  of  the  other  kinds. 

SALT,  n.  s.,  adj.,  &  v.  a.-x        Saxon      pea^c> 
SALT-CAT,  n.  s.  I  Goth.,  Swed.,  and 

SALT-CELLAR,  lT)zn.salt;  Fr.se/; 

SALTEB,  TLat.   sal.     A  well 

SALTERN,  1  known     combina- 

SALTPETRE.  J  tion    of   an    acid 

with  an  alkali,  earth,  or  metallic  oxide :  impreg- 
nated with,  or  abounding  in  salt.  See  CHEMIS- 
TRY, and  below.  Taste ;  smack  ;  relish ;  wit :  to 
season  with  salt :  a  salt-cat  is  a  name  for  a 
lump  of  salt,  see  below :  salt-cellar,  the  vessel 
that  usually  holds  the  salt :  saltern,  a  salt-pan  or 
work :  saltish,  saltly,  and  saltness,  correspond : 
saltpetre  (Lat.  sal  petr<s)  nitre. 

He  shall  inhabit  the  parched  places  in  the  wil- 
derness in  a  salt  land,  ana  not  inhabited. 

Jer.  xvii.  6. 

Moab  and  Ammon  shall  be  as  the  breeding  of 
nettles,  salt-pits,  and  a  perpetual  desolation. 

Zech.  ii.  9. 

Is  not  discourse,'  manhood,  learning,  gentleness, 
virtue,  and  liberality,  the  spice  and  salt  that  seasons 
a  man  ?  Shakspeare. 

Though  we  are  justices  and  doctors,  and  church- 
men, Mr.  Page,  we  have  some  salt  of  our  youth  in 
us ;  we  are  the  sons  of  women. 

Id.   Merry  Wives  of  Windsor. 
We  were  better  parch  in  Africk  sun, 
Than  in  the  pride  and  toll  scorn  of  his  eyes. 

Shakspeare. 

Thou  old  and  true  Menenius, 
Thy  tears  are  softer  than  a  younger  man's, 
And  venomous  to  thine  eyes.  Id.  Coriolanus. 

Be  a  whore  still : 

Make  use  of  thy  salt  hours,  season  the  slaves 
For  tubs  and  baths ;  bring  down  the  rose-cheeked 

youth 
To  the  tub-fast  and  the  diet.  Id.   Timon. 

This  new-married  man,  approaching  here, 
VVhose  salt  imagination  yet  hath  wronged 
Your  well-defended  honour,  you  must  pardon. 

Shakspeare. 

After  these  local  names,  the  most  have  been  de- 
rived from  occupations ;  as  smith,  taller,  armourer. 
Camdent  Remains. 

Some  think  their  wits  have  been  asleep,  except 
they  dart  out  somewhat  that  is  piquant  and  to  the 
quick  ;  men  ought  to  find  the  difference  between  salt- 
ness  and  bitterness.  Bacon. 

Cicero  prettily  calls  them  salinas  salt-pans,  that 
you  may  extract  salt  out  of,  and  sprinkle  where  you 
please.  Id. 

It  hath  been  observed  by  the  ancients,  that  salt 
water  will  dissolve  salt  put  into  it  in  less  time  than 
fresh  water.  Id. 

Nitre,  or  saltpetre,  having   a  crude   and  windy 
spirit,  by  the  heat  of  the  fire  suddenly  dilateth.  Id. 
If  the  offering  was  of  flesh,  it  was  salted  thrice. 

Browne. 

Since  salts  differ  much,  some  being  'nit,  some  vo- 
latile, some  acid,  and  some  urinous,  the  two  qualities 
wherein  they  agree  are,  that  it  is  easily  dissoluble  in 
water,  and  affects  the  palate  with  a  sapour  good  or 
«v''-.  Boyle. 

Nitre  or  taltpetrt,  in  heaps  of  earth,  has  been  ex- 
tracted, if  they  be  exposed  to  the  air,  so  as  to  be 
kept  from  rain.  Locke. 

Soils  of  a  saltish  nature  improve  sandy  ground. 

Mortime*. 
In  Cheshire  they  improve  their  lands  by  letting 


out  the  water  of  the  salt  springs  on  them,  always 
after  rain.  Id. 

Many  give  a  lump  of  salt,  which  they  usually 
call  a  salt-cat,  made  at  the  saltern,  which  makes 
the  pigeons  much  affect  the  place.  Id.  Husbandry. 

A  leap  into  salt  waters  very  often  gives  a  new  mo- 
tion to  the  spirits,  and  a  new  turn  to  the  blood. 

Addison. 

A  particle  of  salt  may  be  compared  to  a  chaos, 
being  dense,  hard,  dry,  earthy  in  the  centre,  and 
rare,  soft,  and  moist  in  the  circumference. 

teuton's  Optichs. 

The  stratum  lay  at  about  twenty-five  fathoms,  by 
the  duke  of  Somerset's  salt-pant  near  \Vhitehaven. 
Woodward  on  Fossils, 

Salts  are  bodies  friable  and  brittle,  in  some  degree 
pellucid,  sharp  or  pungent  to  the  taste,  and  dissolu- 
ble in  water ;  but,  after  that  is  evaporated,  incorpo- 
rating, crystallising,  and  forming  themselves  into 
angular  figures.  Woodward. 

When  any  salt  is  spilt  on  the  table-cloth,  shake  it 
out  into  the  saltcellar. 

Swift's  Directions  to  the  Butler. 

SALT  is  distinguished  by  some  into  three 
kinds  :  native  or  rock  salt ;  common,  or  sea 
salt,  or  white  salt ;  and  bay  salt. 

SALT,  BAY.  Under  the  title  of  bay  salt  are 
ranked  all  kinds  of  common  salt  extracted  from 
the  water  wherein  it  is  dissolved,  by  means  of 
the  sun's  heat,  and  the  operation  of  the  air ; 
whether  the  water  from  which  it  is  extracted  be 
sea  water,  or  natural  brine  drawn  from  wells  and 
springs,  or  salt  water  stagnating  in  ponds  and 
lakes.  It  does  not  appear  that  there  is  any  other 
thing  requisite  in  the  formation  of  bay  salt,  than 
to  evaporate  the  sea  water  with  an  exceeding 
gentle  heat ;  and  it  is  even  very  probable  that 
our  common  sea  salt  by  a  second  solution  and 
crystallisation  might  attain  the  requisite  degree 
of  purity. 

SALT,  COMMON,  or  sea  salt,  or  white  salt,  the 
name  of  that  salt  extracted  from  the  waters  of 
the  ocean,  which  is  used  in  great  quantities  for 
preserving  provisions,  &c.     It  is  composed  of 
muriatic  acid,  saturated  with  soda  ;  and  hence,  in 
the   new   chemical   nomenclature,   it   is   called 
muriate  of  soda.     See  CHEMISTRY,  Index.     It  is 
commonly  found  in  salt  water  and  salt  springs, 
in  the  proportion  of  thirty-six  per  cent.     It  is 
found  also  in  coals  and  in  beds  of  gypsum.     Of 
this  most  useful  commodity   there   are   ample 
stores  on  land  as  well  as  in  the  ocean.    There 
are  few  countries  which  do  not  afford  vast  quan- 
tities of  rock   or  fossil  salt.     Mines  of  it  have 
long  be«n  discovered  and  wrought  in  England, 
Spain,   Italy,  Germany,  Hungary,  Poland,  and 
other  countries  of  Europe.     In  several  parts  of 
the  world  there  are  huge  mountains  which  wholly 
consist   of  fossil   salt.     Of   this   kind  are   two 
mountains  in  Russia,  near  Astracan ;  several  in 
the  kingdoms  of  Tunis  and  Algiers,  in  Africa ; 
and  several  also  in  Asia ;  and  the  whole  island 
of  Ormus  in  the  Persian  gulf  almost  entirely 
consists  of  fossil  salt.     The  new  world  is  like- 
wise stored  with  treasures  of  this  useful  mineral, 
as  well  as  with  all  other  kinds  of  subterranean 
productions.    The  sea  affords  such  vast  plenty 
of  common  salt,  that  all  mankind  might  thence 
be  supplied  with  quantities  sufficient  for  their 
occasions.    There  are  also  innumerable '  springs, 


SALT. 


251 


ponds,  lakes,  and  rivers,  impregnated  with 
common  salt,  from  which  the  inhabitants  of 
many  countries  are  plentifully  supplied  there- 
with. In  some  countries  which  are  remote  from 
the  sea,  and  have  little  commerce,  and  which  are 
not  blessed  with  mines  of  salt  or  salt  waters,  the 
necessities  of  the  inhabitants  have  forced  them 
to  invent  a  method  of  extracting  their  common 
salt  from  the  ashes  of  vegetables.  And  the  in- 
genious Dr.  Fothergill  extracted  plenty  of  it  from 
the  ashes  of  fern.  See  Medical  Essays,  vol.  v. 
article  13.  Mr.  Boyle  discovered  common  salt 
in  human  blood  and  urine.  '  I  have  observed 
it,'  says  Mr.  Brownrigg,  '  not  only  in  human 
urine,  but  also  in  that  of  dogs,  horses,  and  black 
cattle.  It  may  easily  be  discovered  in  these, 
and  many  other  liquids  impregnated  with  it,  by 
certain  very  regular  and  beautiful  starry  figures 
which  appear  in  their  surfaces  after  congelation. 
These  figures  I  first  observed  in  the  great  frost 
in  1739.  The  dung  of  such  animals  as  feed 
upon  grass  or  grain  doth  also  contain  plenty  of 
common  salt.'  Naturalists,  observing  the  great 
variety  of  forms  under  which  this  salt  appears, 
have  thought  fit  to  rank  the  several  kinds  of  it 
under  certain  general  classes  ;  distinguishing  it, 
more  usually,  into  rock,  or  fossil  salt,  sea  salt, 
nnd  brine  or  fountain  salt.  To  which  classes 
others  might  be  added,  of  those  muriatic  salts 
•vhich  are  found  in  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances. These  several  kinds  of  common  salt 
often  differ  from  each  other  in  their  outward 
form  and  appearance,  or  in  such  accidental  pro- 
perties as  they  derive  from  the  heterogeneous 
substances  with  which  they  are  mixed.  But, 
when  perfectly  pure,  they  have  all  the  same 
qualities ;  so  that  chemists,  by  the  exactest  en- 
quiries, have  not  been  able  to  discover  any 
essential  difference  between  them.  Immense 
masses  of  it  are  found  in  different  countries, 
which  require  only  to  be  dug  out  and  reduced 
to  powder.  In  this  state  it  is  called  rock  salt. 
The  water  of  the  ocean  also  contains  a  great 
proportion  of  this  salt,  to  which  indeed  it  owes 
its  taste,  and  the  power  it  possesses  of  resisting 
freezing  till  cooled  down  to  zero.  When  this 
water  is  evaporated  sufficiently,  the  salt  precipi- 
tates in  crystals.  It  is  by  this  process  that  it  is 
obtained  in  this  country.  But  the  salt  of  com- 
merce is  not  sufficiently  pure  for  the  purposes  of 
chemistry,  as  it  contains  usually  muriate  of  lime, 
&c. ;  but  it  may  be  obtained  pure  by  the  follow- 
ing process  : — Dissolve  it  in  four  times  its  weight 
of  pure  water,  and  filter  the  solution.  Drop 
into  it  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  as  long 
as  any  precipitate  continues  to  fall.  Separate 
the  precipitate  by  filtration,  and  evaporate  slowly 
till  the  salt  crystallises.  Muriate  of  soda  usually 
crystallises  in  cubes,  which,  according  to  Hauy, 
are  the  primitive  form  of  its  crystals  and  its  in- 
tegrant particles.  It  is  the  most  common  and 
most  useful  seasoner  of  food ;  it  preserves  meat 
from  putrefaction,  and  butter  from  rancidity  ;  it 
serves  for  an  enamel  to  the  surfaces  of  coarse 
stone  ware ;  it  is  an  ingredient  in  many  processes 
of  dyeing;  metallurgists  use  it  in  many  of  their 
essays.  Its  utility  in  chemistry  is  equally  ex- 
tensive. From  it  muriatic  and  oxy-muriatic 
acids  are  obtained  ;  and  from  it  also  of  late  great 


quantities  of  soda  have  been  extracted,  and  in- 
troduced with  advantage  as  a  substitute  for  the 
soda  formerly  obtained  from  the  combustion  of 
vegetables.  The  acid  is  easily  extracted  from 
this  salt  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid  ;  but  to 
obtain  the  alkali  at  a  cheap  rate  is  not  so  easy. 
The  methods  which  have  hitherto  succeeded  may 
be  reduced  to  two: — 1.  Muriate  of  soda  may  be 
decomposed  by  some  substance  which  has  a  » 
stronger  affinity  for  muriatic  acid  than  soda  has. 
The  soda  by  this  process  is  set  at  liberty,  and 
may  be  obtained  by  evaporation  and  crystallisa- 
tion. There  are  three  substances  capable  of 
setting  the  base  of  common  salt  at  liberty,  and 
of  furnishing  soda,  either  pure  or  in  the  state  of 
carbonate.  These  are  litharge,  lime,  and  iron. 
When  about  four  parts  of  litharge  and  one  of 
common  salt,  properly  pounded  and  mixed,  are 
macerated  in  a  little  water  for  several  hours  and 
stirred  repeatedly,  the  muriatic  acid  gradually 
combines  with  the  oxide  of  lead,  and  forms  a 
muriate,  while  the  soda  is  left  in  solution,  and 
may  be  obtained  separately  by  filtration  and 
evaporation.  The  decomposition  goes  on  still 
more  rapidly,  if  the  mixture  be  heated  during 
the  process.  That  the  alkali  may  be  extracted 
from  common  salt  by  lime  is  a  fact,  for  which  we 
are  indebted  to  Scheele.  Cahausen  indeed  had 
hinted  at  it  in  1717,  but  his  treatise  had  been 
forgotten.  Scheele  ascertained  that  a  mixture 
of  lime  and  common  salt,  formed  into  a  paste, 
and  placed  in  a  moist  cellar,  was  covered  with 
an  efflorescence  of  soda  in  fifteen  days.  Ber- 
thollet  has  rendered  it  probable  that  the  soda 
which  is  found  abundantly  in  the  west  of  Egypt 
is  formed  naturally  by  a  similar  process,  lo 
Scheele  likewise  we  owe  the  discovery  that  com- 
mon salt  may  be  decomposed  by  iron.  lie 
observed  that  a  wooden  vessel,  placed  in  a  cel- 
lar, and  containing  brine,  had  its  iron  hoops  co- 
vered with  an  efflorescence  of  soda.  This  in- 
duced him  to  dip  a  plate  of  iron  into  a  solution 
of  common  salt,  and  to  suspend  it  in  a  cellar. 
After  an  interval  of  fourteen  days,  he  found  his 
iron  incrusted  with  soda.  The  same  decompo- 
sition takes  place  also  if  zinc  or  copper  be  sub- 
stituted for  iron.  2.  The  second  method  of 
extracting  soda  from  common  salt  is  less  direct. 
It  consists  in  displacing  the  muriatic  by  some 
other  acid,  which  may  be  afterwards  easily  de- 
composed or  displaced  ;  thus  the  soda  is  left 
behind  at  last,  in  a  state  of  purity.  The  acids 
which  have  been  made  use  of  are  the  sulphuric 
and  acetous ;  the  boracic,  phosphoric,  and  arsenic 
acids  might  indeed  be  employed,  as  they  decom- 
pose common  salt  in  a  high  temperature.  The 
products  in  that  case  would  be  borat,  or  the 
phosphate  or  arseniate  of  the  same  base,  accord- 
ing to  the  acid.  These  salts  might  be  afterwards 
decomposed  by  lime,  and  the  soda  obtained 
separate.  But  these  acids  are  a  great  deal  too 
high  priced  to  admit  of  their  employment.  Sul- 
phuric acid  may  be  either  employed  in  a  separate 
state,  or  in  combination  with  bases,  when  the 
salts  which  it  then  forms  can  be  procured  at  a 
sufficiently  cheap  rate.  Alum,  sulphate  ot 
lime,  and  sulphate  of  iron,  have  been  respect- 
ively employed  with  advantage  to  decompose 
c«mmon  salt,  and  obtain  sulphate  of  soda. 


252 


SALT. 


Alum  was  first  employed  for  that  purpose  by 
Constantini,  a  physician  of  Melle  near  Osna- 
burgh,  about  1650.  The  process  does  not  suc- 
ceed but  at  a  low  temperature.  Sulphate  of 
lime  decomposes  common  salt  when  formed  with 
it  into  balls,  and  exposed  to  a  strong  heat. 
Much  discussion  has  taken  place  among  the 
German  chemists  about  the  possibility  of  de- 
composing common  salt  by  sulphate  of  iron. 
That  sulphate  of  soda  may  be  obtained  by  ex- 
posing a  mixture  of  these  two  salts  to  a  strong 
heat  was  first  announced  by  Vander  Ballen. 
This  was  contradicted  by  Hahneman,  but  con- 
firmed by  the  experiments  of  Tuhten,  Lieblein, 
and  VViegleb.  It  succeeded  completely  with  the 
French  commissioners,  De  Lievre,  Pelletier, 
Darcet,  and  Girond,  who  were  appointed,  in 
1794,  to  examine  the  different  processes  for 
obtaining  soda  from  common  salt.  They  ascer- 
tained also  that  pyrites  or  sulphureted  oxide  of 
iron  may  be  employed  for  the  same  purpose. 
After  obtaining  the  sulphate  of  soda  it  is  neces- 
sary to  expel  the  acid,  to  obtain  the  soda  separ- 
ately. This  is  done  by  calcining  the  salt  mixed 
with  a  certain  proportion  of  charcoal  or  pit-coal. 
By  this  process  it  is  converted  into  sulphuret  of 
soda,  and  the  sulphur  may  be  abstracted  by  the 
intervention  of  iron  or  chalk.  When  the  sul- 
phuret of  soda  is  nearly  in  fusion,  small  bits 
of  iron  (the  parings  of  tin-plate  answer  best) 
are  thrown  in  gradually  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
decompose  the  sulphate.  The  fire  is  raised  till 
the  mixture  melts.  The  iron,  having  a  stronger 
affinity  for  the  sulphur,  combines  with  it,  and 
leaves  the  soda,  which  may  be  separated  by  so- 
lution in  water,  filtration,  and  evaporation. 

SALT,  COMMON,  METHOD  OF  PREPARING. 
Without  entering  into  any  particular  detail  of 
the  processes  used  for  the  preparation  of  bay  salt, 
in  different  parts  of  the  world,  we  shall  only  give 
a  brief  account  of  the  best  methods  of  preparing 
common  salt.  At  some  convenient  place  near 
the  sea-shore  is  erected  the  saltern.  This  is  a 
long  low  buildinsi,  consisting  of  two  parts ;  one 
of  which  is  called  the  fore-house,  and  the  other 
the  pan-house  or  boiling-hou'se.  The  fore -house 
serves  to  receive  the  fuel,  and  cover  the  work- 
men ;  and  in  the  boiling-house  are  placed  the 
furnace  and  pan,  in  which  the  salt  is  made. 
Sometimes  they  have  two  pans,  one  at  each  end 
of  the  saltern  ;  and  the  part  appropriated  for  the 
fuel  and  workmen  is  in  the  middle.  The  fur- 
nace opens  into  the  fore-house  by  two  mouths, 
beneath  eacli  of  which  is  a  mouth  to  the  ash-pits. 
To  the  mouths  of  the  furnace  doors  are  fitted ; 
and  over  them  a  wall  is  carried  up  to  the  roof, 
which  divides  the  fore-house  from  the  boiling- 
house,  and  prevents  the  dust  of  the  coal  and  the 
ashes,  and  smoke  of  the  furnace  from  falling  into 
the  salt  pan.  The  fore-house  communicates 
with  the  boiling-house  by  a  door  placed  in  the 
wall  which  divides  them.  The  body  of  the  fur- 
nace consists  of  two  chambers,  divided  from 
<-;ich  other  by  a  brick  partition  called  the  mid- 
feather  ;  which  from  a  broad  base  terminates  in 
a  narrow  edge  nigh  the  top  of  the  furnace,  and, 
by  means  of  short  pillars  of  cast  iron  erected 
upon  it,  supports  the  bottom  of  the  salt  pun  :  it 
also  (ills  up  a  considerable  part  of  the  furnace, 


which  otherwise  would  be  too  large,  and  would 
consume  more  coals  than  by  the  help  of  this 
contrivance  are  required.  To  each  chamber  of 
the  furnace  is  fitted  a  grate,  through  which  the 
ashes  fall  into  the  ash-pits.  The  grates  are  made 
of  long  bars  of  iron,  supported  underneath  by 
strong  cross  bars  of  the  same  metal.  They  are 
not  continued  to  the  farthest  part  of  the  furnace, 
it  being  unnecessary  to  throw  in  the  fuel  so  far ; 
for  the  flame  is  driven  from  the  fire  on  the  grate 
to  the  farthest  part  of  the  furnace,  and  thence 
passes,  together  with  the  smoke,  through  two 
flues  into  the  chimney ;  and  thus  the  bottom  of 
the  salt  pan  is  every  where  equally  heated.  The 
salt  pans  are  made  of  an  oblong  form,  flat  at  the 
bottom,  with  the  sides  erected  at  right  angles ; 
the  length  of  some  of  these  pans  is  fifteen  feet, 
the  breadth  twelve  feet,  and  the  depth  sixteen 
inches ;  but  at  different  works  they  are  of  dif- 
ferent dimensions.  They  are  commonly  made  of 
plates  of  iron,  joined  together  with  nails,  and 
the  joints  are  filled  with  a  strong  cement.  Within 
the  pan  five  or  six  strong  beams  of  iron  are  fixed 
to  its  opposite  sides  at  equal  distances,  parallel 
to  each  other  and  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  from 
which  they  are  distant  about  eight  inches.  From 
these  beams  hang  down  strong  iron  hooks,  which 
are  linked  to  othei  hooks  or  clasps  of  iron  firmly 
nailed  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan;  and  thus  the 
bottom  of  the  pan  is  supported,  and  prevented 
from  bending  down  or  changing  its  figure.  The 
plates  most  commonly  used  are  of  malleable 
iron,  about  four  feet  and  a  half  long,  a  foot 
broad,  and  the  third  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 
The  Scots  prefer  smaller  plates,  fourteen  or  fif- 
teen inches  square.  Several  make  the  sides  of 
the  pan,  where  they  are  not  exposed  to  the  fire,  of 
lead ;  those  parts,  when  made  of  iron,  being 
found  to  consume  fast  in  rust  from  the  steam  of 
the  pan.  Some  have  used  plates  of  cast  iron, 
five  or  six  feet  square,  and  an  inch  in  thickness; 
but  they  are  very  subject  to  break  when  un- 
equally heated,  and  shaken  (as  they  frequently 
are)  by  the  violent  boiling  of  the  liquor.  The 
cement  most  commonly  used  to  fill  the  joints  is 
plaster  made  of  lime.  The  pan  thus  formed  is 
placed  over  the  furnace,  being  supported  at  the 
four  courners  by  brick  work,  but  along  the  mid 
die,  and  at  the  sides  and  ends,  by  round  pillars 
of  cast  iron,  called  taplins,  which  are  placed  at 
three  feet  distance  from  each  other,  being  about 
eight  inches  high,  and  at  the  top,  where  smallest, 
four  inches  in  diameter.  By  means  of  these 
pillars  the  heat  of  the  fire  penetrates  equally  to 
all  parts  of  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  its  four  cor- 
ners only  excepted.  Care  is  also  taken  to  pre- 
vent the  smoke  of  the  furnace  from  passing  into 
the  boiling-house,  by  bricks  and  strong  cement, 
which  are  closely  applied  to  every  side  of  the 
salt  pan.  In  some  places,  as  at  Blyth  in  Nor- 
thumberland, besides  the  common  salt-pans  here 
described,  they  have  a  preparing  pan  placed  be- 
tween two  salt-pans,  in  the  middle  part  of  the 
building,  which  in  other  works  is  the  fore-house. 
The  sea-water,  being  received  into  this  preparing 
pan,  is  there  heated  and  in  part  evaporated  by 
the  flame  and  heat  conveyed  under  it  through 
flues  from  the  two  furnaces  of  the  salt-pans; 
and  the  hot  water,  as  occasion  re-quires,  is  con- 


SALT 


vcyed  through  troughs  from  the  preparing  pan 
into  the  salt-pans.     Various  other  contrivances 
have  been  invented  to  lessen  the  expense  of  fuel, 
and  several  patents  have  been  obtained  for  that 
purpose ;   but  the  salt-boilers  have  found  their 
old  methods  the  most  convenient.     Between  the 
sides  of  the  pan  and  walls  of  the  boiling-house 
there  runs  a  walk  five  or  six  feet  b'oad,  where 
the  workmen  stand  when  they  draw  the  salt,  or 
have  any  other  business   in  the  boiling-house. 
The  same  walk  is  continued  at  the  end  of  the  pan, 
next  to  the  chimney  ;  but  the  pan  is  placed  close 
to  the  wall  at  the  end  adjoining  to  the  fore-house. 
The  roof  of  the  boiling-house  is  covered  with 
boards  fastened  on  with  nails  of  wood,  iron  nails 
quickly  mouldering  into  rust.     In  the  roof  are 
several  openings  to  convey  off  the  watery  vapors ; 
and  on  each  side  of  it  a  window  or  two,  which 
the  workmen  open  when  they  look  into  the  pan 
whilst  it  is  boiling.     Not  far  distant  from   the 
saltern  on  the  sea-shore,  between  full  sea  and 
low-water  marks,  they  also  make  a  little  pond  in 
the  rocks,  or  with  stones  on  the  sand,  which  they 
call  their  sump.     From  this  pond  they  lay  a  pipe, 
through  which,  when  the  tide  is  in,  the    sea- 
water  runs  into  a  well  adjoining  to  the  saltern  ; 
and  from  this  well  they  pump  it  into  the  troughs, 
by  which  it  is  conveyed  into  their  ship  or  cis- 
tern, where  it  is  stored  up  until  they  have  occa- 
sion to  use  it.     The  cistern  is  built  close  to  the 
saltern,  and  may  be  placed  most  conveniently 
between  the  two  boiling-houses,  on  the  back  side 
of  the  fore-house ;  it  is  made  either  of  wood  or 
brick  and  clay  :  it  sometimes  wants  a  cover,  but 
ought  to  be  covered  with  a  shed,  that  the  salt- 
water contained  therein  may  not  be  weakened  by 
rains,  nor  mixed  with  soot  and  other  impurities. 
It  should  be  placed  so  high  that  the  water  may 
conveniently  run  out  of  it  through  a  trough  into 
the  salt  pans.  Besides  the  buildings  already  men- 
tioned,  several   others   are  required  ;  as  store- 
houses for  the  salt  cisterns  for  the  bittern,  an  office 
for  his  majesty's  salt-officers,  and  a  dwelling- 
house  for  the  salt-boilers.     All  things  being  thus 
prepared,  and  the  sea-water  having  stood  in  the 
cistern  till  the  mud  and  sand  are  settled  to  the 
bottom,  it  is  drawn  off  into  the  salt-pan.  And  at 
the  four  corners  of  the  salt-pan,  where  the  flame 
does  not  touch  its  bottom,  are  placed  four  small 
iead  pans,  called  scratch-pans,  which,  for  a  salt- 
pan of  the  size   above-mentioned,   are   usually 
about  a  foot  and  a  half  long,  a  foot  broad,  and 
three  inches  deep ;  and  have  a  bow  or  circular 
handle  of  iron,  by  which  they  may  be  drawn  out 
with  a  hook  when  the  liquor  in  the  pan  is  boiling. 
The  salt-pan  being  filled  with  sea-water,  a  strong 
fire  of  pit-coal  is  lighted  in  the  furnace  ;  and  then, 
for  a  pan  which  contains  about  400  gallons,  the 
salt-boiler  takes  the  whites  of  three  eggs,  and  in- 
corporates them  well  with  two  or  three  gallons  of 
sea-water,  which  he  pours  into  the  salt- pan  while 
the  water  contained  therein  is  only  lukewarm ; 
and  immediately  stirs  it  about  with  a  rake,  that 
the  whites  of  the  eggs  may  every  where  be  equally 
mixed  with  the  salt  water.     Instead  of  whites  of 
ews,  at  many  salterns,  as  at  most  of  these  near 
Newcastle,   they  use  blood  from  the  butchers, 
either  of  sheep  or  black  cattle,  to  clarify  the  sea- 
water  ;  and  at  many  others  they  do   not  give 


themselves  the  trouble  of  clarifying  it.     As  the 
water  grows  hot,  the  whites  of  eggs  separate  from 
it  a  black  frothy  scum,  which  arises  to  the  surface 
of  the  water,  and  covers  it  all  over.     As  soon  as 
the  pan  begins  to  boil  this  scum  is  all  risen,  and 
it  is  then  time  to  skim  it  off.      The  most  conve- 
nient instruments  for  this  purpose  are  skimmers 
of  thin  ash  boards,  six  or  eight  inches  broad,  and 
so  long  that  they  may  reach  above  half  way  over 
the  salt-pan.  These  skimmers  have  handles  fitted 
to  them ;  and  the  salt-boiler  and  his  assistant, 
each  holding  one  of  them  on  the  opposite  sides 
of  the  pan,  apply  them  so  to  each  other  that  they 
overlap  in  the  middle,  and,  beginning  at  one  end 
of  the  pan,  carry  them  gently  forward  together, 
along  the  surface  of  the  boiling  liquor  to  the  other 
end  ;  and  thus,  without  breaking  the  scum,  col- 
lect it  all  to  one  end  of  the  pan,  from  whence 
they  easily  take  it  out.  After  the  water  is  skimmed, 
it  appears  perfectly  clear  and  transparent ;  and 
they  continue  boiling  it  briskly,  till  so  much  of 
the  fresh  or  aqueous  part  is  evaporated  that  what 
remains  in  the  pan  is  a  strong  brine  almost  fully 
saturated  with  salt,   so  that  small  saline  crystals 
begin  to  form  on  its  surface ;  which  operation,  in 
a  pan   filled  fifteen  inches  deep  with  water,   is 
usually  performed  in  five  hours.     The  pan  is  then 
filled  up  a  second  time  with  clear  sea-water  drawn 
from  the  cistern ;  and,  about  the  time  when  it  is 
half  filled,  the  scratch-pans  are  taken  out,  and, 
being  emptied  of  the  scratch  found  in  them,  are 
again  placed  in  the  corners  of  the  salt-pan.  The 
scratch  taken  out  of  these  pans  is  a  fine  white 
calcareous  earth  found  in  the  form  of  powder, 
which   separates  from  the  sea-water  during  its 
coction,  before  the  salt  begins  to  form  in  grains. 
This  subtile  powder  is  violently  agitated  by  the 
boiling  liquor,  until  it  is  driven  to  the  corners  of 
the  pan,  where,  the  motion  of  the  liquor  being 
more  gentle,  it  subsides  into  the  scratch-pans 
placed  there  to  receive  it,  and  in  them  it  remains 
undisturbed  ;  and  thus  the  greatest  part  of  it  is 
separated  from  the  brine.      After   the  pan  has 
again  been  filled  up  with  sea- water,  three  whites 
of  eggs  are  mixed  with  the  liquor,  by  which  it  is 
clarified  a  second  time,  in  the  manner  above  de- 
scribed ;  and   it  is  afterwards  boiled  down  to  a 
strong  brine  as  at  first;  which  second   boiling 
may  take  up  about  four  hours.    The  pan  is  then 
filled  up  a  third  time  with  clear  sea-water;  and 
after  that  a  fourth  time ;  the  liquor  being  each 
time  clarified  and  boiled  down  to  a  strong  brine, 
as  before  related ;  and  the  scrach-pans  being1 
taken  out  and  emptied  every  time  that  the  pan  is 
filled  up.     Then,  at  the  fourth  boiling,  as  soon 
as  the  crystals  begin  to  form  on  the  surface  of  the 
brine,  they  slacken  the  fire,  and  only  suffer  the 
brine  to  simmer,  or  boil  very  gently.     In  this 
heat  they  constantly  endeavour  to  keep  it  all  the 
time  that  the  salt  corns  or  granulates,  which  may 
be  nine  or  ten  hours.     The  salt  is  said  to  granu- 
late, when  its  minute  crystals  cohere  together  into 
little  masses  or  grains,  which  sink  down  in  the 
brine  and  lie  at  the  bottom  of  the  salt-pan.  When 
most  of  the  liquor  is  evaporated,  and  the  salt 
thus  lies  in  the  pan  almost  dry  on  its  surface,  it 
is  then  time  to  draw  it  out.  This  part  of  the  pro- 
cess is  performed  by  raking  the  salt  to  one  side 
of  the  pan  into  a  long  hea  •,  wher    it  drains  a 


2.34 


SALT. 


while  from  the  brine,  and  is  then  emptied  out  into 
barrows  or  other  proper  vessels,  and  carried  into 
the  store-house,  and  delivered  into  the  custody 
of  his  majesty's  officers.  And  in  this  manner 
the  whole  process  is  performed  in  twenty-four 
hours,  the  salt  being  usually  drawn  every  morn- 
ing. In  the  store-house  the  salt  is  put  hot 
into  drabs,  which  are  partitions  like  stalls  for 
horses,  lined  on  three  sides  and  at  the  bottom 
with  boards,  and  having  a  sliding  board  on  the 
foreside  to  put  in  or  draw  out  as  occasion  re- 
quires. The  bottoms  are  made  shelving,  being 
highest  at  the  back  side,  and  gradually  inclining 
forwards ;  by  which  means  the  saline  liquor, 
which  remains  mixed  with  the  salt,  easily  drains 
from  it ;  and  the  salt  in  three  or  four  days  be- 
comes sufficiently  dry,  and  is  then  taken  out  of 
the  drabs  and  laid  up  in  large  heaps,  where  it  is 
ready  for  sale.  The  saline  liquor  which  drains 
from  the  salt  is  not  a  pure  brine  of  common  salt, 
but  has  a  sharp  and  bitter  taste,  and  is  therefore 
called  bittern;  this  liquor  at  some  works  they 
sitve  for  particular  uses,  at  others  throw  away. 
A  considerable  quantity  of  this  bittern  is  left  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pan  after  the  process  is 
finished  ;  which,  as  it  contains  much  salt,  they 
suffer  to  remain  in  the  pan,  when  it  is  filled  up 
with  sea-water.  But  at  each  process  this  liquor 
becomes  more  sharp  and  bitter,  and  also  in- 
creases in  quantity  ;  so  that,  after  the  third  or 
fourth  process  is  finished,  they  are  obliged  to 
take  it  out  of  the  pan,  otherwise  it  mixes  in  such 
quantities  with  the  salt  as  to  give  it  a  bitter 
taste,  and  disposes  it  to  grow  soft  and  run  in 
the  open  air,  and  renders  it  unfit  for  domestic 
uses.  After  each  process  there  also  adheres  to 
the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  pan  a  white  stony  crust, 
of  the  same  calcareous  substance  with  that  be- 
fore collected  from  the  boiling  liquor.  This  the 
operators  call  stone- scratch,  distinguishing  the 
other  found  in  the  lead  pans  by  the  name  of 
powder-scratch.  Once  in  eight  or  ten  days  they 
saparate  the  stone-scratch  from  their  pans  with 
iron  picks,  and  in  several  places  find  it  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  thickness.  If  this  stony  crust  is 
suffered  to  adhere  to  the  pan  much  longer,  it 
grows  so  thick  that  the  pan  is  burnt  by  the  fire, 
and  quickly  wears  away. 

SALT,  NATIVE,  or  ROCK  SALT,  or  fossil  salt,  is 
common  salt  dug  out  of  the  earth.  This  kind  of 
salt  is  in  several  countries  found  so  pure  that  it 
serves  for  most  domestic  uses,  without  any  pre- 
vious preparation  (triture  excepted);  for,  of  all 
natural  salts,  rock-salt  is  the  most  abundantly 
furnished  by  nature  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
being  found  in  large  masses,  occupying  great 
tracts  of  land.  It  is  generally  formed  in  strata 
under  the  surface  of  the  earth,  as  in  Hungary, 
Muscovy,  Siberia,  Poland,  Calabria,  Egypt, 
Ethiopia,  and  the  East  Indies.  '  In  England,' 
says  Magellan, « the  salt  mines  at  Northwich  are 
in  a  high  ground,  and  contain  it  in  layers  or 
strata  of  various  colors,  of  which  the  yellow  and 
brown  are  the  most  plentiful,  as  I  have  observed 
on  the  spot,  which  I  visited  in  June  1782,  in 
company  with  my  worthy  and  learned  friend  Mr. 
Volta,  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the 
university  of  Pavia,  and  well  known  by  his  ?reat 
abilities  and  many  discoveries  in  that  branch  of 


knowledge.  The  mine  into  which  we  descended 
was  excavated  in  the  form  of  a  vast  dome  or  vault 
under  ground,  supported  by  various  columns  of 
the  salt,  that  were  purposely  left  to  support  the 
incumbent  weight.  And,  the  workmen  having 
lighted  a  number  of  candles  all  round  its  circum- 
ference, it  furnished  us  with  the  most  agreeable 
and  surprising  sight,  whilst  we  wera  descending 
in  the  large  tub  which  serves  to  bring  up  the 
lumps  that  are  broken  from  the  mine,  &c.  See 
the  description  of  the  famous  salt  mines  of 
Wieliczka  in  Poland,  by  Mr.  Bernard,  in  the 
Journal  de  Physique,  vol.  xvi.,  for  1780,  p.  459', 
in  which  the  miraculous  tales  concerning  these 
subterraneous  habitations,  villages,  and  towns, 
are  reduced  to  their  proper  magnitude  and  esti- 
mate.' But  the  English  fossil  salt  is  unfit  for  the 
uses  of  the  kitchen,  until  by  solution  and  coction 
it  is  freed  from  several  impurities,  and  reduced 
into  white  salt.  The  British  white  salt  is  not  so 
proper  as  several  kinds  of  bay  salt  for  curing  fish 
and  such  flesh  meats  as  are  intended  for  sea  pro- 
visions, or  for  exportation  into  hot  countries.  So 
that  for  these  purposes  we  are  obliged,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  to  use  bay  salt,  which  we 
purchase  in  France,  Spain,  and  other  foreign 
countries. 

It  is  remarked  by  the  writer  of  the  account  of 
the  Agriculture  of  Cheshire,  that,  from  some  ex- 
periments made  on  different  specimens  of  the 
rock-salt  of  that  county,  it  would  appear  that  the 
transparent  kind  of  it  is  an  almost  pure  muriate 
of  soda,  which  contains  no  admixture  of  either 
earth  or  earthy  salts ;  and  that  the  color  of  the 
less  transparent  and  brown  specimens  is  derived 
from  the  earth  that  enters,  in  greater  or  less  pro- 
portions, into  their  compositions.  That  on  480 
grains  of  transparent  rock-salt  being  dissolved 
in  four  ounces  of  distilled  water,  there  was,  first, 
no  precipitate  let  fall,  on  the  addition  of  car- 
bonate of  potash.  Secondly,  no  alteration  was 
produced  by  this  solution  on  blue  vegetable 
juices.  Thirdly,  on  the  addition  of  a  few  drops 
of  tincture  of  galls,  a  slight  purple  tinge  was 
given  to  the  solution ;  and  after  standing  some 
hours,  there  was  a  brown  sediment  at  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel.  Fourthly,  on  the  addition  of  mu- 
riate of  barytes,  there  was  no  precipitate  thrown 
down.  From  the  first  of  these  trials,  it  is  sup- 
posed that  rock-salt  has  no  muriate  of  lime,  or 
muriate  of  magnesia,  combined  with  it ;  from 
the  second,  that  it  has  no  uncombined  acid  or 
alkali ;  from  the  third,  that  it  contains  some  por- 
tion of  iron  ;  and  from  the  fourth,  or  last,  that 
there  is  no  sulphate  of  lime  contained  in  it. 
And  that,  on  examining  different  specimens  of  the 
less  transparent,  and  the  brown  rock-salt,  with 
the  same  re-agents  as  in  the  above  trials,  it  was 
found  that  these  consisted  of  muriate  of  soua, 
or  sea-salt,  in  combination  with  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  earth,  varying  in  quantity  from  one 
to  thirty  per  cent. ;  also,  that  the  earth  was 
wholly  the  argillaceous  or  common  clay ;  but 
that  some  of  the  specimens  contained  a  few 
grains  of  sulphate  of  lime,  in  480  of  those  of 
the  rock-salt. 

The  beds  of  this  salt  are  now  well  known  to 
be  the  principal  cause  of  the  salt-brine  spring* 
in  this  county  ;  and,  in  connexion  wur.  some 


SALT. 


255 


other  circumstances,  to  have  a  great  share  in 
causing  the  vast  differences  in  their  strength,  in 
di-U'erent  places. 

Although  rock-salt  is  found  in  various  parts  of 
the  above  district,  there  are  no  pits  of  it  wrought 
at  present,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  Northwich. 
Part  of  the  inferior  rock-salt  which  is  procured 
there,  is,  it  is  said,  used  at  some  of  the  refineries 
in  that  neighbourhood;  and  a  further  quantity 
sent  down  the  river  Weaver,  for  the  supply  of 
the  refineries  at  Frodsham,  in  the  same  county, 
and  those  on  the  banks  of  the  Mersey,  in  Lan- 
cashire. The  purer  rock-salt,  or  that  which  is 
called  in  general  Prussian  rock,  is  carried  by  the 
same  conveyance  to  the  port  of  Liverpool ; 
whence,  according  to  the  above  writer,  it  is  ex- 
ported chiefly  to  Ireland,  and  the  ports  of  the 
Baltic.  The  annual  quantity  sent  down  the  first 
of  the  above  rivers  is  found,  on  the  average  of 
ten  years,  to  be  51,109  tons.  But  in  this,  it  is 
observed,  is  included  what  is  used  at  the  Frod- 
sham and  Lancashire  refineries,  which  may  pro- 
bably be  about  one-third  of  the  whole.  And  it 
is  added  that  it  appears,  from  the  report  of  the 
committee  of  the  house  of  commons,  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  laws  respecting  the  salt  du- 
ties, printed  in  June,  1801,  that, 

in  1798)  (-20,162)  f 

1799  Were  exported?  33,913  £' 

1800  )  (.34,9393 
Of  this  quantity, 

in  1798     .     .     .     16,095) 

1799  .     .     .     22,374  Mons 

1800  .     .     .     19,663 ) 

•were  sent  to  different  ports  in  Ireland  ;  the  re- 
mainder was  principally  exported  to  Denmark, 
Russia,  Sweden,  Prussia,  and  Germany.  A 
small  quantity  went  to  Guernsey,  Jersey,  and  the 
\\  est  Indies. 

In  regard  to  the  original  formation  of  the  beds 
or  strata  of  rock-salt,  in  this  and  other  countries, 
different  theories,  opinions,  and  conjectures, 
have  been  formed  and  proposed  ;  but  it  is  one  of 
those  geological  questions  which  are  extremely 
embarrassing  in  their  nature,  and  very  difficult  in 
their  solution.  Mr.  Holland  has,  however,  in  the 
above  work,  ingeniously  stated  several  supposi- 
tions on  the  subject,  and  the  objections  to  which 
they  are  exposed.  It  is  remarked  that,  wherever 
rock-salt  is  met  with,  sulphate  of  lime  seems  to 
lie  very  generally  discovered  in  mixture  with  the 
earthy  strata  above  it.  And  the  writer  of  the 
Memoir  sur  le  Sel  Marin,in  the  eleventh  volume 
of  the  Annals  of  Chemistry,  it  is  added,  informs 
us,  that  this  is  the  case  in  Poland,  Transylvania, 
and  Hungary ;  also,  that  there  is  commonly  a 
layer  of  gypsum  betwixt  the  strata  of  stone 
and  the  bed  of  salt.  This  gypseous  layer  is 
of  different  colors  and  is  found  crystallised, 
striated,  and  mixed  with  marine  "shells.  The 
gypsum  above  the  beds  of  rock-salt  in  Cheshire 
is,  in  like  manner,  found  crystallised  and  striated, 
but  no  marine  exuviae,  or  organic  remains,  it  is 
observed,  are  ever  met  with  in  any  of  the  strata. 
Nor  does  gypsum  accompany  it.  as  is  usual  in 
other  places,  as  near  Cordova,  .in  Spain,  where 
rock-salt  forms  a  mountain  500  feet  in  height, 
and  three  miles  in  circumference,  as  noticed  l.y 


Kirwan  and  Townshend.  Jars,  the  author  of  the 
Voyages  Metallurgiques,  who,  it  is  asserted,  has 
given  the  most  particular  account  we  have  of  the 
upper  stratum  of  rock-salt  about  Northwich,  re- 
marks, that  '  it  appears  to  have  been  deposited 
by  layers  or  beds  of  several  colors ;  '  and  that 
'  these  layers  of  salt  are  in  such  a  position  as  to 
lead  us  to  believe  that  the  deposition  of  it  was 
made  in  waves,  similar  to  those  which  are  formed 
on  the  sea-coast  .'This,  Mr.  Holland  says,  coincides 
with  an  opinion  suggested  by  Mr.  Stanley,  a  friend 
of  his,  in  regard  to  the  probable  origin  of  the  beds 
of  rock-salt  now  in  existence  in  this  district ;  who 
states  that  rock-salt  is  there  found  in  several 
strata,  one  above  the  other,  with  intermediate  beds 
of  indurated  clay,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Weaver, 
and  those  of  the  other  rivers  and  brooks  empty- 
ing themselves  into  it ;  but  that  it  has  never  been 
found  so  near  the  surface,  as  to  be  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  or  beneath  any  solid  rock.  If  beds  of 
rock-salt  are  to  be  considered  as  so  many  depo- 
sits of  salt  from  sea-water,  we  must  suppose  the 
sea  at  some  former  period  to  have  occupied  the 
valleys  in  this  country;  and  that,  from  time  to 
time  the  communications  were  interrupted  be- 
tween these  valleys  (tthen  deeper  than  they  are 
now)  and  the  sea.  Earthquakes,  or  accumula- 
tions of  sand  in  the  estuaries  of  the  Mersey  and 
the  Dee,  might,  it  is  contended,  have  caused  the 
interruptions.  Whenever  the  sea-water  in  the 
valleys  became  separated  from  the  sea,  the  salt 
contained  in  it  would  subside  by  the  natural 
process  of  evaporation.  This,  it  is  supposed, 
would  the  more  easily  have  taken  place,  if,  by  any 
subterraneous  fermentation,  the  ground  below 
the  water  should  have  been  heated.  To  account 
for  a  greater  accumulation  of  salt  than  the  sea- 
water  filling  ail  the  lowest  parts  of  the  district 
would  contain,  we  must  suppose,  it  is  said,  that 
the  obstruction  interposed  between  the  valleys 
and  the  sea  had  been  repeatedly  broken  down 
and  renewed  again.  Tides,  unusually  high, 
might  occasionally  overcome  the  resistance  of 
the  accumulated  sand ;  and,  if  the  intervals  be- 
tween the  inundations  were  only  of  short  dura- 
tion, a  subsidence  of  salt  might  take  place  equal 
to  the  formation  of  the  thickest  stratum  of  the 
rock-salt  now  existing.  Long  intervals  be- 
tween the  inundations  would  admit  of  an  ac- 
cumulaton  of  clay,  and  other  earthy  particles, 
over  the  salt  thus  deposited  ;  and  in  this  manner 
would  be  formed  a  new  basis  for  another  stratum 
of  rock-salt  to  repose  upon.  Thus,  it  is  thought, 
the  regular  and  astonishing  existence  of  salt 
strata  may  be  accounted  for,  without  necessarily 
supposing  them  coeval  with  the  original  forma- 
tion of  the  earth  ;  but,  to  confirm  the  theory,  it 
is  suggested  that  much  observation  and  close  en- 
quiry into  the  natural  history  of  the  county 
would  be  required. 

Mr.  Holland,  however,  suggests  that  there  are 
many  objections  to  the  theory  which  supposes  the 
beds  of  rock- salt  in  this  district  to  have  been  formed 
by  deposition  from  the  waters  of  the  sea;  some 
of  which  he  states  rather  for  the  sake  of  promot- 
ing discussion  and  enquiry,  than  of  affording  any 
very  decided  opinion  on  a  matter  of  so  much 
doubt,  uncertainty,  and  obscurity.  Though  on 
making  a  perpendicular  section  of  the  upper  bed 


256 


SALT. 


of  rock-salt,  nn  im*rular  stratification,  such  as 
noticed  by  J;irs,  may,  lie  says,  by  frequent  accu- 
rate examination,  be.  observed,  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  sides  of  the  openings,  whence 
'.he  rock-salt  is  taken,  is  that  of  a  confused  and 
irregular  red  mass ;  in  which  some  portions  of 
salt  have  a  greater,  others  a  less,  proportionate 
admixture  of  earth  ;  while  here  and  there  they 
may  be  seen  perfectly  pure  and  transparent.  He, 
therefore,  asks,  is  it  likely  that  this  irregularity 
and  confusion  would  have  existed,  had  the  beds 
of  rock-salt  in  this  district  been  formed  by  the 
evaporation  of  sea-water  inundating  the  land  at 
certain  intervals  of  time,  as  the  above  theory 
supposes  ?  On  the  contrary,  says  he,  would  it 
not  be  natural  to  expect  from  reasonings  a  priori, 
that  the  salt,  thus  deposited  from  sea-water, 
would  be  disposed  in  layers  perfectly  regular, 
and  differing  from  one  another  merely  in  thick- 
ness, or  a  few  other  circumstances  of  inferior 
moment?  Another  fact  xvhich,  it  is  supposed, 
invalidates,  in  some  measure,  the  notion  that  the 
rock-salt  has  been  deposited  from  the  waters  of 
the  sea,  is  the  great  disproportion  of  quantity 
shown  by  analysis  to  exist  between  the  earthy 
salts  contained  in  the  brine  of  this  district,  and 
those  held  in  solution  by  sea-water  ;  the  ratio 
here  being  as  one  to  ten,  or  the  proportion  which 
the  earthy  salts  bear  to  the  pure  muriate  of  soda 
in  sea-water  is  ten  times  greater  than  that  which 
prevails  in  the  Cheshire  brine.  The  ascertaining 
of  this  fact  proves,  it  is  supposed,  that  the  rock- 
salt  (from  the  solution  of  which  the  brine  is 
formed)  is  combined  with  a  much  smaller  pro- 
portion of  earthy  salts  than  exists  in  sea-water ; 
a  circumstance  difficult  to  be  accounted  for,  on 
the  supposition  that  the  beds  of  this  substance 
were  formed  by  the  evaporation  of  the  sea-water, 
occupying  the  valleys  and  lowest  parts  of  the 
land.  It  must  be  noticed,  however,  as  worthy  of 
attention,  that  the  earthy  salts  intermixed  with  the 
rock-salt  in  the  above  district  are  the  same  which 
are  held  in  solution  by  sea-water,  being  princi- 
pally muriated  magnesia  and  sulphate  of  lime. 

There  is,  however,  a  still  stronger  proof,  it  is 
supposed,  against  the  notion  that  the  beds  of 
rock-salt  in  this  county  are  depositions  from  the 
sea-water,  in  the  circumstance  that  no  marine 
exuviae  have  ever  been  discovered  in  the  strata. 
This,  it  is  imagined, .would  almost  indubitably 
have  been  the  case,  had  the  land  been  covered 
with  sea-water  during  a  period  of  sufficient 
length  for  the  deposition  of  beds  of  salt  of  such 
prodigious  thickness  ;  and  the  fact,  that  no  such 
exuviae  do  actually  exist,  is  supposed  in  itself 
sufficient  to  induce  a  suspicion  that  the  theory 
in  question  cannot  be  well  founded.  Other  ob- 
jections too  i*  is  observed,  offer  themselves  to 
its  validity;  such  as  the  enormous  depth  of  sea- 
water  necessary  to  the  production  of  a  body  of 
rock-salt  forty  yards  in  thickness  ;  the  difficulty, 
if  not  impossibility,  on  such  principles,  of  ac- 
counting forthe  formation  of  the  singular  insulated 
mountain  of  rock-salt  at  Cordova  in  Spain;  with 
others  of  a  more  trivial  nature,  which  will  readily 
present  themselves  in  this  enquiry.  It  is,  how- 
ever, at  the  same  time  candidly  acknowledged, 
that  there  are  many  facts  and  circumstances  of 
actual  observation,  that  confer  a  strong  degree  of 


plausibility  on  the  opinion,  which  it  has  been  here 
contended  against.  The  certainty  that  the  surface 
of  the  county  was  at  some  former  period  mi  ch 
lower  than  it  is  at  present,  and  the  diminution 
of  the  thickness  of  the  strata  of  rock-salt  in  pro- 
portion as  they  recede  from  the  sea,  are  circum- 
stances which  undoubtedly  range  themselves  on 
this  side  of  the  question :  and,  upon  the  whole, 
it  is  thought,  that  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the 
theory,  which  regards  the  beds  of  rock-salt  as 
deposits  from  sea-water,  does  not  accord  more 
exactly  with  existing  appearances  than  any 
other  which  has  been  adduced  on  the  subject. 

According  to  the  satement  of.  Mr.  Holland,  in 
his  Agricultural  Survey,  the  first  bed  and  pit  of 
rock-salt  was  found  and  wrought  in  Marbury, 
at  a  small  distance  from  the  town  of  Northwich, 
at  the  depth  of  about  thirty  yards  from  the  sur- 
face, in  the  year  1670,  when  searching  for  coal. 
The  bed  was  thirty  yards  in  thickness,  and  rested 
upon  a  stratum  or  layer  of  hard  clay.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  discovery,  other  similar  attempts 
were  made ;  and,  on  sinking  shafts  or  pits  any 
where  in  the  vicinity  of  it  within  the  space  of 
half  a  mile,  it  was  found  to  exist  at  about  the 
same  depth  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  when 
not  prevented  from  being  dug  down  to  by  brine- 
springs  or  those  of  common  water.  This  conti- 
nued the  only  place  in  which  it  was  found  until 
the  year  1779,  when  this  sort  of  rock  was  again 
met  with  in  searching  for  brine  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Lawton,  at  the  depth  of  about  forty-two 
yards,  but  only  of  the  thickness  of  about  four 
feet ;  there  being  beneath  it  a  bed  of  indurated 
clay  ten  yards  in  thickness,  which,  being  pene- 
trated through,  a  second  stratum  of  rock-salt  was 
discovered,  twelve  feet  in  thickness ;  and,  on  con- 
tinuing the  sinking  of  the  pit,  another  layer  of 
indurated  clay,  fifteen  yards  in  thickness, 
passed  through ;  below  which  appeared  a  third 
stratum  of  rock-salt,  which  was  unk  into  not 
less  than  twenty-four  yards ;  the  lowest  four- 
teen yards,  being  the  purest,  or  the  least  mixed 
with  other  substances,  were  the  only  parts  that 
were  wrought. 

Until  this  period,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Northwich,  no  attempts  had,  however,  been 
made  to  sink  pits  in  order  to  find  a  lower  stra- 
tum of  rock-salt;  as  the  one  which  had  been 
first  met  with  was  so  thick,  and  furnished  such 
an  abundant  supply  for  every  demand,  there 
could  be  no  other  inducement  to  this  than  the 
expectation  of  meeting  with  a  stratum,  at  a 
greater  depth,  which  might  contain  a  less  ad- 
mixture of  earthy  matters.  It  would  seem,  too, 
that  the  fear  of  meeting  with  springs  below, 
which  might  impede  the  working  out  of  the 
materials  from  the  pits,  and  even  render  this 
wholly  impracticable,  prevented  the  proprietors 
of  them  from  sinking  deeper.  As,  however,  no 
inconvenience  or  interruption  of  this  nature  had 
occurred,  on  sinking  through  different  alternate 
strata  of  rock-salt  and  clay  at  Lawton ;  and  it 
had  been  found  that  there  was  a  wer  stratum 
of  rock-salt  there,  which  was  more  pure  than 
those  nearer  the  surface,  the  owners  of  one  of 
the  works  or  pits  in  this  vicinity  were  induced, 
a  little  time  after  the  trials  at  Lawton,  as  in  1781, 
to  sink  deeper  than  had  yet  been  done,  and  to 


SALT. 


25? 


pass  through  the  bed  or  body  of  indurated  clay 
lying  underneath  the  rock-salt,  which  had  been 
so  long  known  and  wrought.  This  indurated 
clayey  material  was  found  to  be  from  ten  to 
eleven  yards  in  thickness  ;  and  immediately  be- 
neath it  a  second  stratum  of  rock-salt  was  met 
with,  the  upper  part  of  which  differed  little  in 
purity  from  that  of  the  higher  stratum  or  layer 
of  rock ;  but,  on  penetrating  into  it  to  the  extent 
of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  yards,  it  was  there 
*  found  to  be  much  more  pure  and  free  from 
earthy  admixture.  But  it  continued  to  have  this 
increased  degree  of  purity  for  four  or  five  yards 
only;  while,  for  fourteen  yards  still  lower,  to 
which  depth  the  pit  or  shaft  was  sunk,  the  pro- 
portion of  earthy  matter  was  again  as  large  as  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  stratum.  It  was  therefore, 
on  this  account,  thought  useless  to  sink  the  pit 
to  any  greater  depth.  Many  other  proprietors 
of  pits,  shafts,  or  mines,  in  the  same  neighbour- 
hood, it  is  stated,  followed  the  example  which 
had  been  thus  set  them  ;  and  penetrated  through 
the  bed  of  indurated  clay  lying  beneath  the  upper 
stratum  of  rock-salt.  A  second  stratum  of  rock- 
salt  was  constantly  met  with  below  this ;  and,  on 
passing  down  into  it,  the  same  order  of  disposi- 
tion as  to  purity  was  observed,  as  in  the  pit  or 
mine  in  which  it  had  been  first  noticed  and  ex- 
amined ;  and  the  same  has  been  found  to  prevail 
in  all  the  pits,  shafts,  works,  and  mines,  which 
have  since  been  sunk  in  the  same  vicinity.  It 
is  further  noticed  that  there  is  great  uniformity 
in  the  strata  which  are  passed  through  in  sinking 
pits  for  rock-salt  or  brine ;  and  that  they  very 
generally  consist  of  clay  and  sulphate  of  lime 
mixed  in  various  proportions;  that  of  the  latter 
somewhat  increasing  as  the  pit,  shaft,  or  work, 
approaches  the  rock  or  brine.  The  workmen 
distinguish  the  clay  by  the  appellation  of  metal, 
giving  it  the  name  of  red,  brown,  or  blue  metal, 
according  to  its  color;  and  the  sulphate  of  lime 
by  that  of  plaster. 

The  strata  formed  by  these  are,  in  general, 
close  and  compact ;  allowing  very  little  fresh 
water  to  pass  through  them.  In  some  places, 
however,  they  are  broken  and  porous :  and  they 
admit  so  much  fresh  water  into  the  pit  or  work, 
that,  whenever  they  have  been  met  with,  it  has 
been  usual  to  discontinue  any  attempts  to  pass 
through  them  in  sinking  the  pits.  In  these  places 
the  workmen  call  the  metal  saggy.  It  was 
thought  not  only  impracticable  to  overcome  a 
water,  which  vulgar  prejudice  had  magnified  into 
a  great  stream  running  under  ground ;  but  it  was 
believed,  even  if  the  sinking  could  be  continued 
below  this,  that  the  water  could  not  be  kept  out 
of  the  pit,  shaft,  or  work,  and  that  it  would  either 
weaken  the  brine  so  as  to  destroy  its  value,  or 
would  find  its  way  into  the  cavity  of  any  rock, 
pit,  or  mine,  which  might  be  found  below  it. 
Later  experience,  it  is  said,  has  proved  that  these 
ideas  were  not  altogether  well  founded.  A 
few  years  ago  an  attempt  was  made  in  VVitton 
to  pass  through  this  porous  stratum,  in  order  to 
get  to  the  brine.  It  was  met  with  about  twenty- 
eight  yards  from  the  surface ;  the  thickness  of  it 
was  about  thirteen  feet ;  and  the  quantity  of 
water,  which  was  forced  through  it  into  the  pit 
or  shaft,  was  360  gallons  a  minute.  By  means  of 
VOL.  XIX. 


a  steam-engine,  the  sinkers  were  enabled  to  pass 
through  this  water ;  to  fix  a  gauge  or  curb  a  few 
yards  below  it,  in  a  stratum  of  indurated  clay ; 
and  thence  to  bring  up  a  wooden  frame,  sup- 
porting a  wall  of  puddled  earth  twelve  inches 
thick,  by  which  the  access  of  the  fresh  water  into 
the  pit  or  shaft  was  in  a  great  degree  prevented, 
and  an  opportunity  given  to  pass  down  to  the 
brine  below.  A  shaft  was  afterwards  sunk 
through  this  porous  stratum,  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  rock-salt ;  which  object  was,  after  a 
short  time,  defeated,  by  the  influx  of  brine  into 
the  shaft  at  the  surface  of  the  upper  stratum  of 
rock-salt ;  an  accident  originating  in  a  cause 
completely  distinct  from  the  fresh  water  in  the 
porous  stratum  or  bed.  An  exact  section  of  the 
different  strata  sunk  through  in  reaching  the  se- 
cond bed  of  rock-salt  in  the  pit  at  Witton,  near 
Northwich,  is  given  by  Mr.  Holland  in  the 
above  report ;  and  all  the  strata  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  last  town  are  supposed  to  have 
nearly  a  similar  disposition.  The  inclination  of 
them  in  the  pit  or  shaft  at  the  above  place  was 
from  north-west  to  south-east ;  and  the  dip  about 
one  yard  in  nine.  The  stratum  through  which 
the  fresh  water  flowed  is  shown,  and  the  level 
it  found,  it  is  said,  was' sixteen  yards  from  the 
surface,  which,  it  is  remarked,  nearly  corresponds 
with  that  of  the  brook  below.  The  line  of  sepa- 
ration, between  the  lowest  stratum  of  earth  and 
the  first  of  rock-salt,  is  very  exactly  defined ; 
they  are  perfectly  distinct,  and  do  not  at  all  run 
into  each  other.  It  is  farther  noticed  that,  in 
carrying  a  horizontal  tunnel  for  100  yards  along 
the  upper  stratum  of  rock-salt,  this  was  found  to 
be  irregular  and  unequal  on  its  surface ;  the  irre- 
gularities in  a  great  measure  corresponding  with 
those  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  above. 

Considerable  salt-works  are  carried  on  in  Scot- 
land, and  in  the  northern  counties  of  this  country 
on  the  sea-coast,  by  the  evaporation  of  sea-water. 
At  Lymington,  in  Hampshire,  the  sea-water  is 
evaporated  to  one-sixth  of  the  whole  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  sun  and  air. 

A  Mr.  Lowndes  some  time  since  published  a 
method  of  greatly  improving  the  English  brine- 
salt,  so  as  to  make  it  at  least  equal  to  the  French 
bay-salt.  His  method  is :  let  a  brine-pan,  con- 
taining about  800  gallons  of  liquor,  be  filled  with 
brine  to  within  an  inch  of  the  top ;  then  make 
and  light  the  fire,  and,  when  the  brine  is  just 
luke-warm,  put  in  either  an  ounce  of  blood  from 
the  butcher's,  or  the  whites  of  two  eggs.  Let 
the  pan  boil  with  all  possible  violence,  and  as 
the  scum  rises  take  it  off.  When  the  fresh  or 
watery  part  is  pretty  well  decreased,  throw  into 
the  pan  the  third  part  of  a  pint  of  new  ale,  or  the 
same  quantity  of  the  grounds  of  any  malt  liquor. 
When  the  brine  begins  to  grain,  add  to  it  the 
quantity  of  a  small  nut  of  fresh  butter,  and,  when 
the  liquor  has  stood  half  an  hour  longer,  draw 
out  the  salt.  By  this  time  the  fire  will  be  greatly 
abated,  and  so  will  the  heat  of  the  liquor;  let  no 
more  fuel  be  thrown  on  the  fire,  but  let  the  brine 
gently  cool,  till  a  person  can  just  bear  to  put  his 
hand  into  it ;  keep  it  in  that  degree  of  heat  as 
nearly  as  possible,  and  wnen  it  has  worked  for 
some  time,  and  is  beginning  to  grain,  throw  in 
the  quantity  of  a  small  nutmeg  of  fresh  butter, 

fl 


258 


SALT. 


and  about  two  minutes  aAer  that  scatter  through- 
out the  pan,  as  equally  as  may  be,  an  ounce  and 
three  quarters  of  common  alum,  pulverised  very 
tine ;  then  instantly,  with  the  common  iron 
scrape-pan,  stir  the  brine  very  briskly  in  every 
part  of  the  pan  for  about  a  minute ;  then  let  the 
pan  settle,  and  constantly  feed  the  fire,  so  that 
the  brine  may  never  be  quite  scalding  hot,  yet 
always  a  great  deal  more  than  luke-warm  ;  let 
the  pan  stand  working  thus  for  about  three  days 
and  nights,  and  then  draw  it,  or  take  out  the 
salt.  The  brine  remaining  will,  by  this  time,  be 
so  cold  that  it  will  not  work  at  all,  therefore 
fresh  coals  must  be  thrown  upon  the  fire,  and 
the  brine  must  boil  for  about  half  an  hour,  but 
not  near  so  violently  as  before  the  first  drawing  ; 
then,  with  the  usual  instrument,  take  out  such 
salt  as  is  beginning  to  fall,  and  put  it  apart ; 
then  let  the  pan  settle  and  cool.  \Vhen  the  brine 
becomes  no  hotter  than  one  can  just  put  one's 
hand  into  it,  proceed  as  before,  and  let  the 
quantity  of  alum  not  exceed  an  ounce  and  a 
quarter,  and  about  eight-and-forty  hours  after 
draw  the  pan,  and  take  out  all  the  salt. 
Lowndes's  Brine  Salt  improved. 

Mr.  Lowndes  afterwards  directs  cinders  to  be 
chiefly  used  in  preparing  the  fires,  the  better  to 
preserve  an  equal  heat,  and  by  that  means  also 
he  proposes  saving  a  considerable  expense,  as- 
serting that  at  present  cinders  are  so  little  valued 
in  Cheshire  as  to  be  thrown  out  into  the  high- 
ways. Mr.  Lowndes  adds  that,  in  a  pan  of  the 
size  before-mentioned,  there  may  be  prepared, 
at  each  process,  1600lbs.  weight  of  salt  from 
the  best  brine  in  Cheshire,  and  1066  Ibs.  from 
the  ordinary  brine  of  that  county.  This,  as  the 
process  continues  five  days,  is  a  little  more  than 
five  bushels  and  a  half  of  salt  a  day  from  the 
best  brine,  and  a  little  more  than  four  bushels  a 
day  from  the  ordinary  kind. 

The  commerce  of  salt  has  formerly  brought 
an  immense  profit  to  France,  or  rather  to  the 
royal  treasury  than  to  the  makers  and  sellers, 
on  account  of  the  heavy  duty.  The  English  and 
Dutch,  and  (when  they  are  at  war  with  France) 
the  Swedes  and  Danes,  have  taken  off  most  of 
the  salt  of  the  Comic"  Nantois ;  paying  for  it,  com- 
muoibus  annis,  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  livres 
the  load.  That  of  Guerande  has  been  preferred, 
by  the  English  and  Irish,  to  all  the  rest,  as  the 
best.  Yet  that  of  Borneuf,  though  browner  and 
heavier,  is  most  used  in  France,  as  also  through- 
out the  Baltic ;  particularly  in  Poland,  where, 
besides  the  ordinary  uses,  it  serves  in  tilling  the 
ground ;  being  found  to  warm  it,  and  prevent 
little  vermin  from  gnawing  the  grain.  The  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch  have  often  striven  hard,  in  times 
of  war,  to  do  without  the  French  salt;  and  to 
that  end  have  endeavoured  to  take  salt  from  the 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese ;  but  there  is  a  dis- 
agreeable sharpness  and  serosity  natural  to  this 
salt,  which  renders  it  very  unfit  for  the  salting  of 
flesh,  fish,  &c.  To  remove  this  they  boil  it  with 
sea-water,  and  a  little  French  salt,  which  they 
procure  by  means  of  neutral  nations,  which  not 
only  softens  it,  but  increases  its  quantity  by  one- 
third.  Hut  it  should  seem  their  refinine;  does 
no»  succeed  to  their  wish,  by  the  eagerness  with 
which  they  return  to  the  salt  of  Bretagne,  &c 


The    duties  on   salt   in    this  country    are    now 
wholly  insignificant. 

SALT,  in  chemistry.  This  term  has  been 
usually  employed  to  denote  a  compound,  in 
definite  proportions,  of  any  acid,  with  an  alkali, 
earth,  or  metallic  oxide.  When  the  proportions 
of  the  constituents  are  so  adjusted  that  the 
resulting  substance  does  not  affect  the  color  of 
infusion  of  litmus,  or  red  cabbage,  it  is  then 
called  a  neutral  salt.  When  the  predominance 
of  acid  is  evinced  by  the  reddening  of  these  in- 
fusions the  salt  is  said  to  be  acidulous,  and  the 
prefix  super,  or  bi,  is  used  to  indicate  this  excess 
of  acid.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  acid  appears  to 
be  less  than  is  necessary  for  neutralising  the  alkali- 
nity of  the  base,  the  salt  is  then  said  to  be  with 
excess  of  base,  and  the  prefix  sub  is  attached 
to  its  name.  See  CHEMISTRY,  and  the  various 
acids  and  metals  in  the  alphabetical  arrangement. 

SALT,  ARSENICAL,  NEUTRAL  OF  MACQUER. 
Superarseniate  of  potash. 

SALT,  BITTER,  CATHARTIC.  Sulphate  of 
magnesia. 

SALT,  COMMON.     Muriate  of  soda. 

SALT,  DIGESTIVE,  OF  SYLVIUS.  Acetate  of 
potash. 

SALT,  DIURETIC.    Acetate  of  potash. 

SALT,  EPSOM.     Sulphate  of  magnesia. 

SALT,  FEBRIFUGE,  OF  SYLVIUS.  Muriate  of 
potash. 

SALT,  FUSIBLE.     Phosphate  of  ammonia. 

SALT,  FUSIBLE,  OF  URINE.  Triple  phosphate 
of  soda  and  ammonia. 

SALT,  GLAUBER'S.     Sulphate  of  soda. 

SALT,  MARINE.     Muriate  of  soda. 

SALT,  MARINE,  ARGILLACEOUS.  Muriate  of 
alumina. 

SALT,  MICROCOSMIC.  Triple  phosphate  of 
soda  and  ammonia. 

SALT,  NITROUS,  AMMONIACAL.  Nitrate  of 
ammonia. 

SALT  OF  AMBER.     Succinic  acid. 

SALT  OF  BENZOIN.     Benzoic  acid. 

SALT  OF  CANAL.     Sulphate  of  magnesia. 

SALT  OF  COLCOTHAR.     Sulphate  of  iron. 

SALT  OF  EGKA.     Sulphate  of  magnesia. 

SALT  OF  LEMONS,  ESSENTIAL.  Superoxalate 
of  potash. 

SALT  OF  SATURN.    Acetate  of  lead. 

SALT  OF  SEDLITZ.     Sulphate  of  magnesia. 

SALT  OF  SEIGNETTE.  Triple  tartrate  of  pot- 
ash and  soda. 

SALT  OF  SODA.    Subcarbonate  of  soda. 

SALT  OF  SORREL.     Superoxalate  of  potash. 

SALT  OF  TARTAR.     Subcarbonate  of  potash. 

SALT  OF  VITRIOL.     Purified  sulphate  of  zinc. 

SALT,  PERLATE.     Phosphate  of  soda. 
•     SALT,  POLYCHREST,  OF  GLASER.    Sulphate  of 
potash. 

SALT,  SEDATIVE.     Boracic  acid. 

SALT,  SPIRIT  OF.  Muriatic  acid  was  formerly 
called  by  this  name,  which  it  still  retains  in 
commerce. 

SALT,  SULPHUREOUS,  OF  STAHL.  Sulphate  of 
potash. 

SALT,  WONDERFUL  PERLATE.  Phosphate  of 
soda. 

SALT  MINES.  The  salt  mines  of  Vielicza, 
near  Cracow.  Poland,  are  very  extraordinary 


SAL 


259 


SAL 


caverns.  Wraxall  describes  them  thus,  in  his 
Memoirs  of  the  Courts  of  Berlin,  Dresden,  War- 
saw, Vienna  : — '  After  being  let  down,'  says  he, 
*  by  a  rope  to  the  depth  of  230  feet,  our  con- 
ductors led  us  through  galleries  which,  for  lofti- 
ness and  breadth,  seemed  rather  to  resemble  the 
avenues  to  some  subterranean  palace  than  pas- 
sages cut  in  a  mine.  They  were  perfectly  dry 
in  every  part,  and  terminated  in  two  chapels, 
composed  entirely  of  salt,  hewn  out  of  the  solid 
mass.  The  images  which  adorn  the  altars,  as 
well  as  the  pillars  and  ornaments,  were  all  of 
the  same  transparent  materials ;  the  points  and 
spars  of  which,  reflecting  the  rays  of  light  from 
the  lamps  which  the  guides  held  in  their  hands, 
produced  an  effect  eo^ially  novel  and  beautiful. 
Descending  lower  into  the  earih,  by  means  of 
ladders,  I  found  myself  in  an  immense  hall  or 
cavern  of  salt,  many  hundred  feet  in  height, 
length,  and  dimensions,  the  floor  and  sides  of 
which  were  cut  with  exact  regularity  ;  1000  per- 
sons might  dine  in  it  without  inconvenience, 
and  the  eye  in  vain  attempted  to  trace  or  define 
its  limits.  Nothing  could  be  more  sublime  than 
this  vast  subterranean  apartment,  illuminated  by 
flambeaux,  which  faintly  discover  its  prodigious 
magnitude,  and  leave  the  imagination  at  liberty 
to  enlarge  it  indefinitely.  After  remaining  about 
two  hours  and  a  half  under  ground,  I  was  drawn 
up  again  in  three  minutes  with  the  greatest  facility.' 

SALTA,  or  SAN  MIGUEL  DE  SALTA,  a  city 
and  district  of  Tucuman,  South  America,  was 
founded  in  1682,  under  the  name  of  San  Clemente 
de  la  Nueva  Sevilla,  but  was  afterwards  changed 
to  its  present  site  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  Lerma. 
Its  environs  are  very  fertile,  abounding  in  wheat, 
rye,  and  vines,  with  pastures  for  the  cattle  ex- 
ported from  this  place  to  Peru  ;  and  its  commerce 
consists  in  corn,  meal,  wine,  cattle,  salt  meat,  fat, 
hides,  and  other  commodities,  which  are  sent  to 
all  parts  of  Peru.  It  is  computed  that  the  num- 
ber of  mules  fattened  in  the  valley  of  Lerma 
amount,  during  the  months  of  February  and 
March,  when  the  annual  lair  is  held,  to  60,000 ; 
and,  besides  these,  there  are  generally  4000 
horses  and  cows.  The  natives  are  subject  to  a 
species  of  leprosy,  and  nearly  all  the  women, 
after  they  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty,  have 
the  goitrous  swelling  in  the  throat,  which  dis- 
figures them  very  much.  It  is  fifty  miles  south 
of  Jujui ;  and  the  river  which  washes  the  town 
turns  east,  and  enters  the  Vermeijo. 

SALTASH,  a  post  and  market  town  of  Corn- 
wall, seated  on  the  side  of  a  sleep  hill,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tamar;  it  has  three  streets,  which, 
from  the  declivity,  are  washed  clean  by  every 
shower  of  rain  that  falls.  It  possesses  many 
privileges,  and  has  jurisdiction  on  the  Tamar, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  port,  claiming  anchorage 
dues  of  all  vessels  that  enter  the  harbour ;  and 
their  coroner  sits  upon  all  bodies  found  drowned 
in  the  river.  Saltash  sent  two  members  to 
parliament  ever  since  the  reign  of  Edward  VI., 
who  were  elected  by  the  mayor,  recorder,  &c., 
but  was  disfranchised  in  1832.  It  has  a.  market 
on  Saturday,  and  sufficient  depth  of  water  in  its 
harbour  for  lar^e  vessels.  It  lies  six  miles 
north-west  of  Plymouth,  and  220  W.  S.  W.  of 
London. 


SALTATION,  r,.  s.  Lat.  saltatio.  The  act 
of  dancing ;  jumping  :  beat ;  palpitation. 

The  locusts  being  ordained  for  saltation,  their 
hinder  legs  do  far  exceed  the  others. 

BKNBW'J  Vultjar  Errours. 

If  the  great  artery  be  hurt,  you  will  discover  it 
by  its  saltation  and  florid  colour. 

Wiseman's  Surgery. 

SALTCOATS,  a  sea-port  town  of  Ayrshire, 
five  miles  north-west  of  Irvine.  It  has  an  excel- 
lent harbour,  capable  of  admitting  vessels  of  220 
tons.  In  1700  it  became  the  property  of  Sir 
Robert  Cunningham,  who  began  to  work  the 
valuable  strata  of  coals  in  the  neighbourhood, 
and  built  a  harbour  at  Saltcoats  to  export  them. 
He  also  erected  several  large  pans  for  the  manu- 
facture of  salt ;  which  proved  so  successful  that 
there  is  now  made  above  3000  bolls  annually. 
Ship-building  was  also  commenced  and  carried 
on  with  success.  Notwithstanding  the  popula- 
tion and  prosperity  of  this  town  it  has  neither 
magistrates,  nor  police,  nor  even  a  weekly  mar- 
ket, but  only  one  annual  fair.  A  bailiff  levies 
the  dues  of  anchorage,  and  executes  such  regula- 
tions as  are  necessary  for  loading  the  vessels, 
sailing,  &c.,  and  the  masters  or  owners  of  these 
vessels  enter  into  a  written  obligation  to  observe 
these  regulations.  Saltcoats  lies  ten  miles  north- 
west of  Ayr,  and  twenty-two  south-west  of  Glas- 
gow. 

SALTEU  (John),  an  English  officer,  born  in 
1709,  who  by  his  merit  rose  from  the  ranks  to 
be  a  major-general,  and  lieutenant-colenol,  of  the 
first  regiment  of  foot.  The  duke  of  Cumberland, 
then  in  the  guards,  first  noticed  him,  made  him 
serjeant  in  his  own  company,  and  some  time 
after  gave  him  a  commission,  and  patronised 
him  publicly  in  presence  of  all  the  other  officers. 
He  died  in  1787,  aged  seventy-eight. 

SALTER  (Samuel),  D.D.,  a  learned  English 
divine,  born  at  Norwich,  and  educated  at  the 
Charter  House.  He  was  admitted  of  Benet 
College;  Cambridge,  in  1730,  where  he  obtained 
the  degree  of  B.A.  and  a  fellowship.  He  be- 
came soon  after  preceptor  to  the  sons  of  Sir  Phi- 
lip Yorke,  chief  justice  of  the  king's  bench,  who 
also  made  him  his  chaplain,  a  prebendary  of 
Gloucester,  and  rector  of  Burton  Goggles,  in 
1 740,  where  he  married  Miss  Seeker,  a  relation 
of  the  bishop  of  Oxford.  In  1750  he  was  made 
minister  of  Great  Yarmouth ;  in  1751  archbishop 
Herring  created  him  D.D.;  in  1756  the  lord 
chancellor  made  him  rector  of  St.  Bartholomew  ; 
and,  in  1761,  master  of  the  Charter  House.  He 
published  Pindaric  Odes,  in  Greek,  on  the  nup- 
tials of  the  Princes  of  Wales  and  Orange ;  Latin 
Verses  on  the  Death  of  Queen  Caroline ;  and 
Sermons,  Tracts,  &c.  He  died  May  2,  1 778. 

SALTFLEET,  a  sea-port  town  of  Lincoln- 
shire, with  a  market  on  Saturday ;  seven  miles 
south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Humber,  thirty-three 
north-east  of  Lincoln,  and  158  north  of  London. 

SALTIER,  n.  s.  FT.  saultiere.  A  term  of 
heraldry, 

A  saltier  is   in  the  form  of  a  St.  Andrew's  cross, 

and  by  some  is  taken  to  be  an  engine  to  take  wild 

beasts  ;  in  French  it  is  called  un  sautoir  :  it  is  an 

honourable  bearing.  Peacham. 

SALTIER.     See    HERALDRY.     This,   says   G 

S2 


SAL 


260 


SAL 


Leigh,  in  his  Accidence  of  Arms,  was  anciently 
made  of  tin;  height  of  a  man,  and  driven  full  of 
pins,  the  use  of  which  was  to  scale  walls,  &c. 
Upton  derives  this  word  from  saltus,  i.  e.  a  forest. 
The  French  call  this  ordinary  sautoir,  from  sauter, 
to  leap ;  perhaps  because  it  may  have  been  used 
by  soldiers  to  leap  over  walls  of  towns,  which  in 
former  times  were  low;  but  some  think  it  is 
borne  in  imitation  of  St.  Andrew's  cross. 

SALTINBANCO,  n.  s.  Lat.  saltare.  in  banco, 
to  climb  as  a  mountebank  mounts  a  bank  or 
bench.  A  quack  or  mountebank. 

Siiltinbuncoet,  quacksalvers,  and  charlatans,  deceive 
them  :  were  /Esop  alive,  the  Piazza  and  Pont-neuf 
could  not  speak  their  fallacies. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errtmrs. 

He  played  the  sallinbanco's  part, 
Transformed  to  a  Frenchman  by  my  art.  Hudibras. 

SALTPETRE.  See  GUNPOWDER  and  CHE- 
MISTRY. 

SALV'ABLE,  adj.  ~\      Lat.  salvo.      Possible 

SALVABIL'ITY,  n.  s.f  to  be  saved;    the  noun 

SAL'VAGE,  >  substantive   correspond- 

SALVA'TION,  \ing:    salvage   is  a  legal 

SAL'VATORY.  )  claim    for     assisting    a 

wrecked  vessel:  salvation,  preservation  from 
eternal  death :  the  act  of  saving. 

As  life  and  death,  mercy  and  wrath,  are  matters 
of  understanding  or  knowledge,  all  men's  tahwtion, 
and  all  men's  endless  perdition,  are  things  so  oppo- 
site, that  whosoever  doth  affirm  the  one  must  neces- 
sarily deny  the  other.  Hooker. 

Why  do  we  Christians  so  fiercely  argue  against  the 
salwibility  of  each  other,  xs  if  it  were  our  wish  that 
all  should  be  damned,  but  those  of  our  particular 
sect  ?  Decay  of  Piety . 

Our  wild  fancies  about  God's  decrees  have  in 
event  reprobated  more  than  those  decrees,  and  have 
bid  fair  to  the  damning  of  many  whom  those  left 
tollable.  Id. 

Him  the  most  High, 

Wrapped  in  a  balmy  cloud  with  winged  steeds, 
Did,  as  them  saw'st,  receive ;  to  walk  with  Ood 
High  in  talvation,  and  the  climes  of  bliss, 
Exempt  from  death.  Milton't  Paradise  Lost. 

I  consider  the  admirable  powers  of  sensation, 
phantasy,  and  memory,  in  what  talvatoriet  or  reposi- 
tories the  species  of  things  past  are  conserved. 

Hole's  Origin  of  Mankind. 

SALVADOR  (Si),  the  city  of  San  Salvador, 
the  chief  place  of  the  province,  and  the  second 
of  Brasil,  is  built  on  a  rocky  eminence  600  feet 
nigh,  on  the  east  shore  of  All  Saints'  bay,,  a 
league  within  Cape  Salvador,  the  east  point  of 
the  entrance.  The  streets,  though  wide,  are  so 
steep  as  generally  to  preclude  the  use  of  car- 
riages. The  number  of  private  houses  is  about 
2000,  mostly  of  stone,  and  massively  built.  The 
religious  buildings  are  of  course  numerous  and 
rich,  particularly  the  cathedral,  dedicated  to  San 
Salvador.  The  population  has  been  estimated  at 
30,000  whites,  and  70,000  Indians  and  negroes. 
The  natural  strength  of  the  position  is  aided  by 
strong  fortifications,  and  the  garrison  usually  con- 
sists of  5000  regular  troops,  besides  a  large 
white  and  black  militia.  Many  ships  of  war  and 
merchant  vessels  are  built  here.  The  buildings 
are  chiefly  of  the  seventeenth  century,  ill  con- 
structed, and,  from  the  slightness  of  the  materials, 
rapidly  decaying,  which  diminishes  the  effect  of 
many  of  them  once  sumptuous.  The  town  is 


divided  into  high  and  low,  the  latter  consisting 
of  streets  filled  with  store  houses  on  the  shores 
of  the  bay,  for  the  convenience  of  loading  and 
unloading. 

SALVADOR  (St.),  the  name  given  by  the  Portu- 
guese missionaries  to  the  capital  of  the  kingdom 
of  Congo,  in  Western  Africa.  We  have  no  ac-- 
count  of  it,  except  theirs,  which  is  somewhat 
antiquated.  They  describe  it  as  built  at  the  top 
of  a  rocky  and  steep  hill,  in  a  plain  about  ten 
miles  in  circumference.  The  king's  palace  con- 
sists of  a  vast  enclosure,  about  a  league  in  cir- 
cuit. The  Portuguese  had  a  quarter  assigned  to 
them,  they  tell  us,  which  they  built  partly  of 
stone  and  enclosed.  They  had  erected  a  church, 
and  invested  one  of  their  number  with  the  title 
of  bishop.  The  late  British  expedition,  though 
they  found  no  Portuguese  on  any  part  of  the 
Zaire,  were  yet  informed  that  a  few  still  re- 
mained in  this  capital. 

SALVADOR  (St.),  a  district  of  Guatimala,  in 
South  America,  which  produces  in  great  abund- 
ance sugar-cane  and  indigo. 

SALVADOR  (St.),  the  capital  of  the  above  pro- 
vince, situated  on  the  banks  of  a  river,  at  the 
distance  of  twelve  miles  from  the  Pacific.  It 
has  a  little  trade,  and  is  the  residence  of  a  go- 
vernor. Population  about  5000  Indians,  whites, 
and  castes.  140  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Guatimala. 

SALVADOR  (St.),  one  of  the  Bahama  Islands, 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1492.  It  is  also 
known  by  the  name  of  Cat  Island,  and,  except 
at  the  south  extremity,  is  very  narrow.  The 
population  in  1797  amounted,  including  whites, 
to  657,  and  in  1803,  the  era  of  patented  estates 
granted  by  the  crown  for  cultivation,  to  28,903. 

SALVADORA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  and  tetrandria  class  of  plants  : 
CAL.  quadrifid  :  COR.  none  :  KERRY  monosper- 
mous ;  species  one  only,  a  Persian  shrub  ;  the 
seed  covered  with  an  antlus  or  loose  coat. 

SAL'VAGE,  adj.  Fr.  saulvage ;  Ital.  sd- 
vaggio,  from  Lat.  silva.  Wild  ;  rude  ;  cruel. 
Now  spoken  and  written  SAVAGE,  which  see 

May  the  Essexian  plains 
Prove  as  a  desert,  and  none  there  make  stay 
But  tabage  beasts,  or  men  as  wild  as  they.    Waller. 

A  savage  race  inured  to  blood.  Dryden. 

SALVAGE  MONEY,  a  reward  allowed  by  the 
civil  and  statute  law  for  the  saving  of  ships  or 
goods  from  the  danger  of  the  sea,  pirates  or  ene- 
mies— Where  any  ship  is  in  danger  of  being 
stranded  or  driven  on  shore,  justices  of  peace 
are  to  command  the  constables  to  assemble  as 
many  persons  as  are  necessary  to  preserve  it ; 
and,  on  its  being  preserved  by  their  means,  the 
persons  assisting  therein  shall,  in  thirty  days 
after,  be  paid  a  reasonable  reward  for  their  sal- 
vage ;  otherwise  the  ship  or  goods  shall  remain 
in  the  custody  of  the  officers  of  the  customs,  as 
a  security  for  the  same.  And  in  case  the  said 
officer  of  the  customs,  and  the  owners,  &c.,  of 
the  ship  shall  be  unable  to  agree  concerning  the 
sum  to  be  paid  as  salvage,  they  shall  have  powet 
to  nominate  three  neighbouring  justices,  who 
shall  adjust  the  quantum  of  the  gratuity  to  be 
paid  to  the  several  persons  acting  in  the  salvage 
of  the  ship  or  goods ;  and  such  adjustment 
shall  be  binding  on  all  parties,  and  shall  be  re- 


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261 


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coverable  in  an  action  at  law  to  be  brought  by 
the  respective  persons  to  whom  the  same  shall 
be  allotted  by  the  justices.  And,  in  case  no  per- 
son shall  appear  to  make  his  claim  to  all  or  any 
of  the  goods  saved,  then  the  chief  officer  of  the 
customs  of  the  nearest  port  shall  apply  to  three 
of  the  nearest  justices,  who  shall  put  him  or  some 
responsible  person  in  possession  of  such  goods, 
such  justices  taking  an  account  thereof  in  writ- 
ing, to  be  signed  by  such  officers  of  the  customs ; 
and  if  the  goods  shall  not  be  legally  claimed 
within  twelve  months,  by  the  right  owners,  they 
shall  be  publicly  sold,  or,  if  perishable,  forth- 
with sold,  and  the  produce  of  the  sale,  after  all 
charges  deducted,  with  a  fair  account  of  the 
whole,  shall  be  transmitted  to  the  exchequer, 
there  to  remain  for  the  benefit  of  the  owner, 
when  appearing ;  who,  upon  affidavit,  or  other 
proof  of  his  right,  to  the  satisfaction  of  one  of 
the  bjtrons  of  the  coif,  shall,  upon  his  order,  re- 
ceive the  same  out  of  the  exchequer. 

SALVAGES,  a  group  of  uninhabited  islands, 
or  rather  rocks,  off  the  coast  of  Africa,  immedi- 
ately north  of  the  Canaries. 

SALU'BRIOUS,  adj.  \       Latin      salubris. 

SALU'BRITY,  n.  s.  $  Wholesome  ;  health- 
ful ;  promoting  health  ;  wholesomeness. 

The  warm  limbeck  draws 
Salubrioui  waters  from  the  nocent  brood.       Philipi. 

SALVE,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  \      Originally  and  pro" 
SA'LVER,  £  perly  sulf,  which  hav" 

SAL'VO.  )  ing     salves     in     the 

plural,  the  singular  in  time  was  borrowed  from  it. 
Sax.  rea'F  >  -Lat-  salviis,  salvo.  A  glutinous 
matter  applied  to  wounds  and  hurts  ;  a  plaster ; 
help;  remedy:  to  cure  by  medicaments;  help 
by  a  salvo  ;  salute  (obsolete)  :  a  salver  is  a  dish 
to  save  what  is  left :  salvo,  an  exception,  reser- 
vation, or  excuse. 

Some  seek  to  salve  their  blotted  name 
With  others  blot,  'till  all  do  taste  of  shame.  Sidney. 

Our  mother  tongue,  which  truly  of  itself  is  both 
full  enough  for  prose,  and  stately  enough  for  verse, 
hath  long  time  been  counted  most  bare  and  barren  of 
both  ;  which  default,  when  as  some  endeavoured  to 
salve  and  cure,  they  patched  up  the  holes  with  rags 
from  other  languages.  Spenser. 

That  stranger  knight  in  presence  came, 
And  goodly  salved  them ;  who  mought  again 
Him  answered  as  courtesy  became.     Faerie  Queene. 

Many  skilful  leeches  him  abide, 
To  salve  his  hurts.  Id. 

Ignorant  I  am  not  how  this  is  salved :  they  do  it 
but  after  the  truth  is  made  manifest.  Hooker. 

Let  us  hence,  my  sovereign  to  provide 
A  talre  for  any  sore  that  may  betide. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  VI. 
My  more  particular, 
And  that   which  most   with   you  should   salve   my 

?oing. 
Is  Fulvia's  death.  Id.  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 

The  schoolmen  were  like  the  astronomers,  who,  to 
talre  phenomena,  framed  to  their  concek  eccentricks 
and  epicycles  ;  so  they,  to  stilve  the  practice  of  the 
church,  had  devised  a  great  number  of  strange  posi- 
tions. Bacon. 

Sleep  is  pain's  easiest  salve,  and  doth  fulfil 
All  offices  of  death  except  to  kill.  Donne. 

I  hey  admit  many  *«/>v>s,  cautions,  and  reservations, 
so  as  (hey  cross  not  the  chief  design.  King  Charlis. 


Go  study  salve  and  treacle  :  ply 
Your  tenant's  leg,  or  his  sore  eye.  Cleaveland. 

If  they  shall  excommunicate  me,  hath  the  doc* 
trine  of  meekness  any  salve  for  me  then  ? 

Hammond* 

The  royal  sword  thus  drawn  has  cured  a  wouud, 
For  which  no  other  salve  could  have  been  found. 

Waller. 

Though   most  were   sorely   wounded,   none  were 

slain  ; 

The  surgeons  soon  despoiled  them  of  their  arms, 
And  some  with  salves  they  cure.  Dryden. 

It  will  be  hard  if  he  cannot  bring  himself  off  at  last 
with  some  salvo  or  distinction,  and  be  his  own  con- 
fessor. L'Estrange. 

He  has  printed  them  in  such  a  portable  volume 
that  many  of  them  may  be  ranged  together  on  a 
single  plate;  and  is  of  opinion  that  a  salver  of 
spectators  would  be  as  acceptable  an  entertain- 
ment for  the  ladies,  as  a  saiver  of  sweetmeats. 

Additon. 

If  others  of  a  more  serious  turn  join  with  us  deli- 
berately in  their  religious  professions  of  loyalty, 
with  any  private  salvoes  or  evasions,  they  would  do 
well  to  consider  those  maxims  in  which  all  casuists 
are  agreed.  Id. 

There  must  be  another  state  to  make  up  the  ine- 
qualities of  this,  and  salve  all  irregular  appearances. 

Atterbury. 

Between  each  act  the  trembling  salver  ring, 
From  soup  to  sweet  wine.  Pope. 

Tills  conduct  might  give  Horace  the  hint  to  say, 
that,  when  Homer  was  at  a  loss  to  bring  any  difficult 
matter  to  an  issue,  he  laid  his  hero  asleep,  and  this 
sak-ed  all  difficulty.  Broome. 

SALVE  REGINA,  among  the  Romanists,  the 
name  of  a  Latin  prayer,  addressed  to  the  Virgin. 
It  was  composed  by  Peter,  bishop  of  Compos- 
tella.  The  custom  of  singing  it  at  the  close  of 
the  office  was  begun  by  order  of  St.  Dominic, 
in  the  congregation  of  Dominicans  at  Bologna, 
about  1237.  Gregory  IX.  first  appointed  it  to 
be  general.  St.  Bernard  added  the  conclusion, 
O  dulcis  !  O  pia,  &c. 

SALVI  (John),  an  eminent  Italian  historical 
painter,  born  near  Urbino  in  1504.  He  excelled 
chiefly  in  copying  the  works  of  the  great  masters, 
which  he  did  with  surprising  accuracy.  He  died 
in  1590. 

SALVIA,  sage,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  and  digynia  class  of  plants  ;  natural  order 
forty-second,  verticillatse  :  COR.  unequal  ;  fila- 
ments placed  crosswise  on  a  pedicle.  The  most 
remarkable  species  are  these : — 

1.  S.  auriculata,  common  sage  ot  virtue,   is 
well  known  in  the  gardens  and  markets.     The 
leaves  are  narrower  than  those  of  the  common 
sort ;  they  are  hoary,  and  some  of  them  are  in- 
dented on  their  edges  towards  the  base,  which 
indentures  have  the  appearance  of  ears.     The 
spikes  of  flowers  are  longer  than  those  of  either 
the  second  or  fourth  species,  and  the  whorls  are 
t:enerally  naked,  having  no  leaves  between  them. 
The  flowers  are  smaller,  and  of  a  deeper  blue 
than  those  of  common  red  sage. 

2.  S.  officinalis,  the  common  large  sage,  which 
is  cultivated  in  gardens,  of  which  there  are  the 
following  varieties  : — 1.  The  common  green  sage. 
2.  The  wormwood  sage.    3.  The  green  sage  with 
a  variegated  leaf.     4.  The  red  sage.     5.  The  red- 
sage  \\nh  a  variegated  leaf.  These  are  accidental 


SAL 


262 


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variations,  and  therefore  are  not  enumerated  as 
species.  The  common  sage  grows  naturally  in 
the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  but  it  is  here  cul- 
tivated in  gardens  for  use ;  that  variety  with  red 
or  blackish  leaves  is  the  most  common  in  the 
British  gardens ;  and  the  wormwood  sage  is  in 
greater  plenty  here  than  the  common  green-leaved 
sage,  which  is  not  common  in  gardens. 

3.  S.  pomifera,  with  spear-shaped  oval  entire 
leaves,  grows   naturally    in   Crete.      It   has   a 
shpubby  stalk,  which  rises  four  or  five  feet  high, 
dividing  into   several  branches.      The   flowers 
grow  in  spikes  at  the  end  of  the  branches ;  they 
are  of  a  pale  blue  color,  and  have  obtuse  em- 
palements.    The  branches  have  often  punctures 
made  in  them  by  insects,  at  which  places  grow 
large  protuberances  as  big  as  apples,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  galls  upon  an  oak,  and  the  rough 
balls  on  the  briar. 

4.  S.  tomentosa,  generally  called   balsamic 
sage  by  the  gardener.     The  stalks  do  not  grow 
so  upright  as  those  of  the  common  sage ;  they 
are  very  hairy,  and  divide  into  several  branches, 
garnished  with  broad  heart-shaped  woolly  leaves 
standing  upon  long  foot-stalks ;  they  are  sawed 
on  their  edges,  and  their  upper  surfaces   are 
rough ;  the  leaves  which  are  upon  the  flower- 
stalks  are  oblong  and  oval,  standing  upon  shorter 
foot-stalks,  and  are  very  slightly  dentated  on  their 
edges ;  they  grow  in  whorled  spikes  toward  the 
top  of  the  branches  ;  the  whorls  are  pretty  far 
distant,  but  few  flowers  in  each  ;  they  are  of  a 
pale  blue,  about  the  size  of  those  of  the  common 
sort.    This  sage  is  preferred  to  all  the  others  for 
making  sage  tea.    All  the  sorts  of  sage  may  be 
propagated  by  seeds,  if  they  can  be  procured  ; 
but  as  some  of  them  do  not  perfect  their  seeds 
in  this  country,  and  most  of  the  sorts,  especially 
the  common  kinds  for  use,  are  easily  propagated 
by  slips,  it  is  not  worth  while  to  raise  them  from 
seeds. 

SALVIANS,  or  SALVIANUS,  an  ancient  father 
of  the  Christian  church,  who  flourished  about 
A.  D.  440,  and  was  well  skilled  in  the  sciences. 
Some  say  he  was  a  Gaul ;  others  a  German.  He 
resided  long  at  Triers,  and  was  called  the  Jere- 
miah of  the  fifth  century.  He  acquired  such 
reputation  for  his  piety  and  learning  that  he  was 
named  the  master  of  the  bishops.  He  wrote  A 
Treatise  on  Providence ;  another  on  the  Avarice 
of  the  Clergy ;  and  nine  epistles,  of  which  Ba- 
luze  has  given  an  excellent  edition  ;  that  of  Con- 
rad Rittershusius,  in  2  vols.  8vo.,  is  also  esteemed. 

SALVIATI  (Francis),  an  eminent  painter, 
born  in  Florence,  1510.  His  manner  of  design- 
ing approached  very  near  that  of  Raphael ;  and 
he  worked  in  distemper,  fresco,  and  oil.  His 
naked  figures  are  peculiarly  graceful,  as  well  as 
those  in  drapery.  He  died  in  1563. 

SALVIATI  (Joseph),  an  eminent  painter  and 
mathematician,  born  in  Venice  in  1535.  His 
original  name  was  Porta.  He  was  often  employed 
in  conjunction  with  Paul  Veronese  and  Tintoret. 
His  skill  was  equally  great  in  designing  and  color- 
ing ;  and  he  wrote  several  useful  Treatises  on 
.Mathematics.  He  died  in  1585.  Both  these 
painters  took  the  name  of  Salviati  from  a  cardi- 
Cfll,  who  patronised  them  greatly. 

SAl.VINI  (Antonio  Marie),  a  learned  Italian, 


who  became  professor  of  Greek  at  Florence. 
He  translated  Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey  ;  with 
the  poems  of  Hesiod,  Theocritus,  Anacreon,  and 
many  of  the  minor  Greek  poets,  into  Italian 
verse.  He  was  a  member  of  the  academy  de  la 
Crusca,  and  assisted  in  the  compilation  of  their 
Dictionary,  in  6  vols.  He  died  in  Florence  in 
1729. 

SALUS,  in  the  Roman  mythology,  the  god- 
dess of  health,  and  the  daughter  of  JEsculapius, 
called  Hygiaea  by  the  Greeks.  We  find  her  name 
on  many  medals  of  the  Roman  emperors,  with 
different  inscriptions  ;  as,  SALUS  PUBLICA,  SALUS 

REIPUBLlCjE,  SALUS  AUGUSTI,  &C. 

SALUSTE  (William  de),  Du  Bartas,  a  French 
poet,  who  lived  ia  the  sixteenth  century.  He 
was  employed  by  Henry  IV.  of  France  in  Eng- 
land, Denmark,  and  Scotland  ;  and  commanded 
a  troop  of  horse  in  Gascony,  under  marechal  de 
Martignan.  He  was  a  Calvinist,  and  died  in 
1590,  aged  forty-six.  He  wrote  a  great  number 
of  poems ;  the  most  famous  are,  1 .  The  Week, 
or  the  Creation  of  the  World,  in  seven  books. 
2.  The  Poem  of  Judith  :  and,  3.  The  Battle  of 
Ivry,  gained  by  Henry  IV.  in  1590.  He  wrote 
in  a  bombastic  style. 

SALUTARY,  o$    )      Fr.    salutaire;     Lat. 

SAL'UTARINESS,  n.  s.  $  salutaris.  Wholesome; 
healthful ;  safe ;  contributing  to  health  or  safety  : 
the  noun  substantive  corresponding. 

The  gardens,  yards,  and  avenues  are  dry  and  clean ; 
and  so  more  salutary  as  more  elegant.  Ray. 

It  was  want  of  faith  in  our  Saviour's  countrymen, 
which  hindered  him  from  shedding  among  them  the 
salutary  emanations  of  his  divine  virtue  ;  and  he  did 
not  many  mighty  works  there,  because  of  their  un- 
belief. Bentley. 

SALUTATION,   n.  s.  ^        Fr.     salutation  • 
SALUTE',  v.  a.  &  n.  s.      £  Lat.   salutatio.    The 
SALU'TER.  j  act  or  style  of  salu- 

ting ;  greeting :  to  greet ;  kiss  :  a  kiss  :  one  who 
salutes. 

The  early  village  cock 
Hath  twice  done  salutation  to  the  morn. 

Shakfpeare* 
One  hour  hence 
Shall  salute  your  grace  of  York  as  mother.          Id. 

Would  I  had  no  being, 
If  this  salute  iny  blood  a  jot :  it  faints  me, 
To  think  what  follows.  Id.  Henry  VIII. 

In  all  publick  meetings,  or  private  addresses,  use 
those  forms  of  salutation,  reverence,  and  decency, 
used  amongst  the  most  sober  persons. 

Taylor's  Rule  of  Holy  Living. 
On  her  the  angel  haii 
Bestowed,  the  holy  salutation  used 
To  blest  Mary.  Milton. 

O,  what  avails  me  now  that  honour  high 
To  have  conceived  of  God,  or  that  salute, 
Hail  highly  favoured,  among  women  blest!          Id. 

The  custom  of  praying  for  those  that  sneeze  is 
more  ancient  than  these  opinions  hereof ;  so  that 
not  any  one  disease  has  been  the  occasion  of  this 
salute  and  deprecation.  linnune. 

There  cold  salutes,  but  here  a  lover's  kiss. 

lioscommon. 

Court  and  state  he  wisely  shuns  ; 
Nor  bribed  to  servile  lalvtatiem  runs.  Dryden. 

Continual  salutes  and  addresses  entertaining  hwr 
all  the  way,  kept  him  from  saving  so  great  a  lile,  bu 


SAL 


263 


SAL 


with  one  glance  of  his  eye  upon  the  paper,  till  he 
came  to  the  fatal  place  where  he  was  stabbed. 

South. 

I  shall  not  trouble  my  reader  with  the  first  salutes 
of  our  three  friends.  Addifon. 

SALUTATION,  VARIOUS  MODES  OF.  Modes  of 
salutation  have,  in  different  countries,  very  dif- 
ferent characters,  and  it  is  not  uninteresting  to 
examine  .their  shades.  Many  display  a  refine- 
ment of  delicacy  ;  others  are  remarkable  for  their 
simplicity,  or  sensibility.  The  islanders,  near 
the  Philippines,  take  the  hand  or  foot  of  him 
they  salute,  and  with  it  they  gently  rub  their 
face.  The  Laplanders  apply  their  nose  strongly 
against  that  of  the  persons  they  salute.  Dampier 
says  that,  at  New  Guinea,  they  are  satisfied  in 
placing  on  their  heads  the  leaves  of  trees,  which 
have  ever  passed  for  symbols  of  friendship  and 
peace.  Other  salutations  are  very  incommodious; 
it  requires  great  practice  to  enable  a  man  to  be 
polite  in  an  island  in  the  Straits  of  the  Sound. 
Boatman  tells  us,  'They  raised  his  left  foot,  which 
they  passed  gently  over  the  right  leg,  and  thence 
over  his  face.'  The  inhabitants  of  the  Philip- 
pines bend  their  body  very  low,  in  placing  their 
hands  on  their  cheeks,  and  raising  at  the  same 
time  one  foot  in  the  air,  with  their  knee  bent. 
An  Ethiopian  takes  the  robe  of  another,  and  ties 
it  about  his  own  waist,  so  that  he  leaves  his 
friend  half  naked.  Sometimes  men  place  them- 
selves naked  before  the  person  whom  they  salute, 
to  show  their  humility,  and  that  they  are  un- 
worthy of  a  covering  in  his  presence.  This  was 
practised  befoie  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  when  he  re- 
ceived the  visit  of  two  Otaheitan  ladies.  Some- 
times they  only  undress  partially.  The  Japanese 
only  take  off  a  slipper ;  the  people  of  Arracan 
their  sandals  in  the  street,  and  their  stockings  in 
the  house.  The  grandees  ,of  Spain  claim  the 
right  of  appearing  covered  before  the  king  to 
show  that  they  are  not  so  much  subjected  to  him 
as  the  rest  of  the  nation.  When  two  negro  mo- 
narehs  visit  they  embrace  in  snapping  three  times 
the  middle  finger.  When  the  inhabitants  of  Car- 
mena,  says  Athenaeus,  would  show  a  peculiar 
mark  cf  esteem,  they  opened  a  vein,  and  pre- 
sented "or  the  beverage  of  their  friend,  the  blood 
as  it  issued.  The  Franks  tore  hair  from  their 
head,  and  presented  it  to  the  person  whom  they 
saluted  The  slave  cut  his  hair,  and  offered  it 
to  his  -naster.  The  Chinese  are  singularly  par- 
ticular in  their  personal  civilities ;  they  even 
calculate  the  number  of  their  reverences.  The 
men  trove  their  hands  in  an  affectionate  manner, 
while  iliey  are  joined  together  on  their  breast, 
and  bow  their  head  a  little.  If  two  persons 
meet  ai'.er  a  long  separation,  they  both  fall  on 
their  knees  and  bend  their  faces  to  the  earth,  and 
this  they  repeat  two  or  three  times.  If  a  Chi- 
nese is  a:ked  how  he  finds  himself  in  health  ?  he 
answers,  Very  well :  thanks  to  your  abundant 
felicity.  If  they  would  tell  a  man  that  he  looks 
well,  thej  say,  Prosperity  is  painted  on  your 
face ;  or,  Your  air  announces  your  happiness. 
All  these  ind  many  other  answers  are  prescribed 
by  the  Chiiese  academy  of  compliments.  There 
arc  determned  the  number  of  bows,  the  expres- 
sions to  beemployed,  the  genuflections,  and  the 
inclinations  to 'be  made  to 'the  right  or  left  hand, 


the  salutations  of  the  master  before  the  chair 
where  the  stranger  is  to  be  seated  ;  for  he  salutes 
it  most  profoundly,  and  wipes  the  dust  away 
with  the  skirts  of  his  robe.  The  lower  class  of 
people  are  equally  nice  in  these  punctilios  ;  and 
ambassadors  pass  forty  days  in  practising  them 
before  they  can  appear  at  court.  The  marks  of 
honor  are  frequently  arbitrary ;  to  be  seated, 
with  us,  is  a  mark  of  repose  and  familiarity;  to 
stand  up,  that  of  respect.  There  are  countries, 
however,  in  which  princes  will  only  be  addressed 
by  persons  who  are  seated,  and  it  is  considered 
as  a  favor  to  be  permitted  to  stand  in  their  pre- 
sence. This  custom  prevails  in  despotic  coun- 
tries :  a  despot  cannot  suffer  without  disgust  the 
elevated  figure  of  his  subjects ;  he  is  pleased  to- 
bend  their  bodies  with  their  genius  :  his  presence 
must  lay  those  who  behold  him  prostrate  on  the 
earth :  he  desires  no  eagerness,  no  attention  ;  he 
would  only  inspire  terror. 

SALUTE,  in  military  matters,  a  discharge  of 
artillery  or  small  arms,  or  both,  in  honor  of  some 
person  of  extraordinary  quality.  The  colors 
likewise  salute  royal  persons,  and  generals  com- 
manding in  chief;  which  is  done  by  lowering 
the  point  to  the  ground.  In  the  field,  when  a 
regiment  is  to  be  reviewed  by  the  king  or  his 
general,  the  drums  beat  a  march  as  he  passes 
along  the  line,  and  the  officers  salute  one  after 
another,  bowing  their  half-pikes  or  swords  to  the 
ground  ;  then  recover  and  take  off  their  hats. 
The  ensigns  salute  all  together  by  lowering  their 
colors.  In  the  navy  this  ceremony  is  variously 
performed,  according  to  the  circumstances,  rank, 
or  situation  of  the  parties.  It  consists  in  firing  a 
certain  number  of  cannon,  or  volleys  of  small 
arms;  in  striking  the  colors  or  topsails;  or  in 
one  or  more  general  shouts  of  the  whole  ship's 
crew,  mounted  on  mr«>ts  or  rigging  for  that  pur- 
pose. The  principal  regulations  with  regard  to 
salutes  in  the  royal  navy  are  as  follows  : — When 
a  flag-officer  salutes  the  admiral  and  commander 
in  chief  of  the  fleet  he  is  to  give  him  fifteen 
guns  ;  but  when  captains  salute  him  they  are  to 
give  him  seventeen  guns.  The  admiral  and  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  fleet  is  to  return  two  guns 
less  to  flag-officers,  and  four  less  to  captains. 
Flag-officers  saluting  their  superior  or  senior  offi- 
cer are  to  give  him  thirteen  guns.  Flag-officers 
are  to  return  an  equal  number  of  guns  to  flag- 
officers  bearing  their  flags  on  the  same  mast,  and 
two  guns  less  to  the  rest,  as  also  to  the  captains. 
When  a  captain  salutes  an  admiral  of  the  white 
or  blue  he  is  to  give  him  fifteen  guns ;  but  to 
vice  or  rear-admirals  thirteen  guns.  When  a 
flag-officer  is  saluted  by  two  or  more  of  his  ma- 
jesty's ships  he  is  not  to  return  the  salute  till  all 
have  finished,  and  then  to  do  it  with  such  a  rea- 
sonable number  of  guns  as  he  shall  judge  proper. 
In  case  of  the  meeting  of  two  squadrons,  the  two 
chiefs  only  are  to  exchange  salutes.  And,  if 
single  ships  meet  a  squadron  consisting  of  more 
than  one  flag,  the  principal  flag  only  is  to  be 
saluted.  No  salutes  shall  be  repeated  by  the 
same  ships  unless  there  has  been  a  separation  of 
six  months  at  least.  None  of  his  majesty's  ships 
of  war,  commanded  only  by  captains,  shall  give 
or  receive  salutes  from  one  another,  in  whatsoever 
part  of  the  world  they  meet.  A  flag-officer  com- 


SAL 


264 


SAM 


niandmg  ID  chief  shall  be  saluted,  upon  his  first 
Hoisting  his  flag,  by  all  the  ships  present,  with 
such  a  number  of  guns  as  is  allowed  by  the  first, 
third,  or  fifth  articles.  When  any  of  his  ma- 
jesty's ships  meet  with  any  ship  or  ships  belong- 
ing to  any  foreign  prince  or  state,  within  his 
majesty's  seas  (which  extend  to  Cape  Fir.isterre), 
it  is  expected  that  the  said  foreign  ships  do 
strike  their  topsail,  and  take  in  their  flag,  in  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  majesty's  sovereignty  in 
those  seas  :  and  if  any  shall  refuse,  or  offer  to 
resist,  it  is  enjoined  to  all  flag-officers  and  com- 
manders to  use  their  utmost  endeavours  to  com- 
pel them  thereto,  and  not  suffer  any  dishonor  to 
be  done  to  his  majesty.  And  if  any  of  his  ma- 
jesty's subjects  shall  so  much  forget  their  duty 
as  to  omit  striking  their  topsail  in  passing  by  his 
majesty's  ships,  the  name  of  the  ship  and  master, 
and  whence  and  whither  bound,  together  with 
affidavits  of  the  fact,  are  to  be  sent  up  to  the 
see-etary  of  the  admiralty,  in  order  to  their  being 
proceeded  against  in  the  admiralty  court.  And 
it  is  to  be  observed  that,  in  his  majesty's  seas,  his 
majesty's  ships  are  in  nowise  to  strike  to  any ; 
and  that  in  other  parts  no  ship  of  his  majesty  is 
to  strike  her  flag  or  topsail  to  any  foreigner,  un- 
less such  foreign  ship  shall  have  first  struck,  or 
at  the  same  time  struck,  her  flag  or  topsail  to  his 
majesty's  ship.  The  flag-officers  and  commanders 
of  his  majesty's  ships  are  to  be  careful  to  main- 
tain his  majesty's  honor  upon  all  occasions, 
giving  protection  to  his  subjects,  and  endeavour- 
ing, what  in  them  lies,  to  secure  and  encourage 
them  in  their  lawful  commerce ;  and  they  are 
not  to  injure,  in  any  manner,  the  subjects  of  his 
majesty's  friends  and  allies.  If  a  foreign  admiral 
meets  with  any  of  his  majesty's  ships,  and  salutes 
them,  he  shall  receive  gun  for  gun.  If  he  a 
be  a  vice-admiral,  the  admiral  shall  answer  with 
two  guns  less ;  if  a  rear-admiral,  the  admiral 
and  vice-admiral  shall  return  two  less.  But  if 
the  ship  be  commanded  by  a  captain  only,  the 
flag-officer  shall  give  two  guns  less,  and  captains 
an  equal  number.  When  any  of  his  majesty's 
ships  come  to  an  anchor  in  any  foreign  port  or 
road,  within  cannon-shot  of  its  forts,  the  captain 
may  salute  the  place  with  such  a  number  of  guns 
as  has  been  customary,  upon  good  assurance 
of  having  the  like  number  returned,  but  not 
otherwise.  But  if  the  ship  bear  a  flag,  the  flag- 
officer  shall  first  carefully  inform  himself  how 
ft  us  of  the  like  rank,  belonging  to  other  crowned 
heads,  have  given  or  returned  salutes,  and  to  in- 
sist upon  the  same  terms  of  respect.  It  is 
allowed  to  the  commanders  of  his  majesty's  ships 
in  foreign  parts  to  salute  the  persons  of  any  ad- 
mirals, commanders-in-chief,  or  captains  of  ships 
of  war  of  foreign  nations,  and  foreign  noblemen, 
or  strangers  of  rank,  coming  on  board  to  visit 
the  ship  ;  and  the  number  of  guns  is  left  to  the 
commander,  as  shall  be  suitable  to  the  occasion 
and  quality  of  the  person  visiting  ;  but  he  is 
nevertheless  to  remain  accountable  for  any  ex- 
cesses in  the  abuse  of  this  liberty.  If  the  ship 
visited  be  in  company  with  other  ships  of  war, 
the  captain  is  not  to  make  use  of  the  civilities 
allowed  in  the  preceding  articles  but  with  leave 
iind  consent  of  the  commander-in-chief  or  the 
vcinor  captain.  Merchant  ships,  whether  foreign- 


ers or  belonging  to  his  majesty's  subjects, 
the  admiral  of  the  fleet,  shall  be  answered  by  six 
guns  less  ;  when  they  salute  any  other  flag-ships, 
they  shall  be  answered  by  four  guns  less ;  and, 
if  they  salute  men  of  war  commanded  by  cap 
tains,  they  shall  be  answered  by  two  guns  less. 
If  several  merchant  ships  salute  in  company,  no 
return  is  to  be  made  till  all  have  finished,  and 
then  by  such  a  number  of  guns  as  shall  be 
thought  proper  ;  but,  though  the  merchant-ships 
should  answer,  there  shall  be  no  second  return. 
None  of  his  majesty's  ships  of  war  shall  salute 
any  of  his  majesty's  forts  or  castles  in  Great  Bri- 
tain or  Ireland  on  any  pretence  whatsoever. 

SALUZZO,  a  district  of  Piedmont,  forming 
part  of  the  continental  states  of  the  king  of  Sar- 
dinia, and  bounded  by  the  county  of  Nice,  the 
valley  of  Lucerne,  and  the  frontier  of  France, 
extending  along  the  province  of  Dauphiny.  It 
has  a  superficial  extent  of  750  square  miles, 
mountainous  and  rugged ;  but,  from  warmth  ol 
climate,  its  soil  is  in  many  parts  fertile,  produc- 
ing corn,  hemp,  fruit,  wine,  and  silk.  It  is 
commonly  called  the  marquisate  of  Saluzzo.  Po- 
pulation 126,000. 

SALUZZO,  a  town  of  the  Sardinian  states,  in  the 
north-west  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  the  above  dis- 
trict, situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  not  far 
from  the  source  of  the  Po.  Including  its  sub- 
urbs,  it  has  above  10,000  inhabitants.  It  is  to» 
lerably  well  built,  and  contains  a  cathedral  and 
several  churches  worth  notice.  The  silk  manu- 
factures are  extensive.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop, 
and  stands  on  an  eminence.  Twenty-eight  miles 
south  of  Turin. 

SALZBURG,  a  province  and  city  in  the  west 
of  Austria,  lying  between  Styria,  Tyrol,  and 
Bavaria.  Its  area,  since  the  cession  of  Berch- 
tolsgaden  to  Bavaria,  is  about  2800  square  miles, 
and  its  population  142,000.  It  consists  partly 
of  a  great  valley,  with  the  Salza  flowing  along 
the  middle,  and  partly  of  a  track  of  mountains 
and  defiles.  The  ground  is  highest  in  tlie  south, 
where  it  forms  part  of  the  None  Alps.  The  cli- 
mate of  this  mountainous  region  is  much  more 
severe  than  might  be  expected  in  46°  55'  and  47° 
58'  N.  lai.  Even  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Salz- 
burg, the  hills,  which  are  here  much  inferior  to 
those  of  the  south,  are  covered  with  snov  before 
October.  In  the  south  the  winter  lasts,  with  lit- 
tle intermission,  from  the  beginning  of  Novem- 
ber to  April,  and  showers  and  frosts  folow  till 
about  the  end  of  June.  The  Sirocco,  10  well 
known  in  the  Mediterranean,  then  passes  along 
these  valleys  from  Italy,  and,  though  much  cooled 
in  this  mountain  track,  has  not  eTen  herf  lost  its 
power,  though  it  seldom  lasts  above  a  diy. 

SAMANAP,  a  large  town  on  the  s«uth-east 
coast  of  the  island  of  Madura.  It  is  sitiated  on 
a  fine  bay,  which,  though  rather  shalbw,  will 
admit  of  large  brigs  or  prows,  lying  cbse  up  to 
the  town.  This  place  carries  on  an  extensive 
commerce ;  and  the  country  abounds  in  rice, 
and  teak  timber.  Here  the  Dutch  used  to  build 
their  largest  ships  for  the  country  trade. 

SAMANEANS,  an  ancient  philoscphical  sect 
of  India,  mentioned  by  Greek  writes,  who  de- 
voted themselves  entirely  to  the  study  of  divine 
nis  lorn,  and  gave  up  all  private  property,  coin- 


SAM 


265 


SAM 


milting  the  care  of  their  families  to  the  State. 
Their  Society  was  supported  at  the  public  ex- 
pense. They  were  a  kind  of  magi,  and  have 
been  confounded  by  some  with  the  Brahmins. 
They  proceeded  from  Ariana,  a  province  of  Per- 
sia, and  the  neighbouring  countries,  spread  them- 
selves in  India,  and  taught  new  doctrines.  The 
Brahmins,  before  their  arrival,  were  in  the  highest 
period  of  their  glory,  were  the  only  oracles  of  In- 
dia, and  their  principal  residence  was  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ganges,  and  in  the  adjacent  moun- 
tains ;  while  the  Samaneans  were  settled  towards 
the  Indus.  Others  say  that  the  Brahmins  ac- 
quired all  their  knowledge  from  the  Samaneans. 
The  most  celebrated  and  ancient  of  the  Samanean 
doctors  was  Boutta,  or  Buddah,  who  was  born 
A.  A.C.  683.  His  scholars  paid  him  divine  ho- 
nors ;  and  his  doctrine,  which  consisted  chiefly 
in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and  in  the  rever- 
ence of  cows,  was  adopted  not  only  in  India, 
but  also  in  Japan,  China,  Siam,  and  Tartary. 
It  was  propagated,  according  to  M.  de  Saint 
Croix,  in  Thibet,  in  the  eighth  century,  and  suc- 
ceeded there  the  ancient  religion  of  Zamolxis. 
The  Samaneans,  or  Buddists,  were  entirely  de- 
stroyed in  India  by  the  jealous  rage  of  the 
Brahmins,  whose  absurd  practices  and  fables  they 
affected  to  treat  with  contempt;  but  several  of 
their  books  afe  still  preserved  and  respected  on 
the  coasts  of  Malabar.  Several  of  the  Brahmin 
orders  have  also  adopted  their  manner  of  living, 
and  openly  profess  the  greatest  part  of  their  doc- 
trines. 

SAMAR,  one  of  the  Philippines,  situated 
south-east  from  the  large  island  of  Luzon,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait  about  five 
leagues  in  breadth.  In  length  it  may  be  esti- 
mated at  140  miles,  by  sixty  the  average  breadth. 
In  this  island  the  soil  is  extremely  fertile,  easily 
cultivated,  and  rewards  the  industry  of  the  la- 
borer with  at  least  forty-fold. 

SAMARA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  tetrandria  class  of  plants  :  CAL. 
quadripartite :  COR.  tetrapetalous :  stamina  im- 
mersed in  the  base  of  the  petal :  stigma  funnel- 
shaped.  Species  four,  natives  of  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  and  of  the  Cape. 

SAMARCAND,  a  great  city  of  Asia,  the  for- 
mer capital  of  Independent  Tartary,  and,  under 
Timur,  of  an  empire  which  extended  over  a  great 
part  of  this  continent.  Clavijo,  a  Spanish  am- 
bassador, who  visited  it  about  A.  D.  1400,  esti- 
mated the  population  of  the  city  and  suburbs  at 
150,000.  A  considerable  number,  for  want  of 
habitations,  were  obliged  to  make  their  habi- 
tations in  the  surrounding  rocks.  The  country, 
for  two  leagues  round,  was  entirely  covered  with 
large  villages,  gardens,  and  country  houses,  the 
residence  of  Tartar  chiefs ;  so  that  to  a  stranger 
approaching,  a  vast  forest  seemed  to  enclose  it. 
Its  inland  commerce  was  most  extensive.  The 
pomp  of  Timur's  court,  and  of  his  numerous 
palaces,  is  said  to  have  surpassed  description. 
Our  information  with  regard  to  the  modern  state 
pf  this  once  celebrated  capital,  is  very  imperfect. 

SAMARIA,  in  ancient  geography,  one  of  the 
three  larger  districts  on  this  side  of  the  Jordan, 
situated  in  the  middle  between  Galilee  on  the 
north,  and  Judea  on  the  south,  beginning  at  the 


village  Ginsea,  in  the  Campus  Magnus,  and  end- 
ing at  the  toparchy  called  Acrobatena.  (Josephus). 
Its  soil  differed  in  nothing  from  that  of  Judea  ; 
both  equally  hilly  and  champaign,  both  equally 
fertile  in  corn  and  fruit  (id.) :  called  the  king- 
dom of  Samaria  in  Ephraim  (Bible)  ;  comprising 
the  ten  tribes,  and  consequently  all  the  country 
to  the  north  of  Judea,  and  east  and  west  of  Jor- 
dan. Both  the  kingdom  and  city  are  now  called 
Naplous. 

SAMARIA,  the  capital  city  of  the  kingdom  of 
Samaria,  or  of  the  ten  tribes.  It  was  built  by 
Omri  king  of  Israel,  who  began  to  reign  A.  M. 
3079,  and  died  in  3086.  1  Rings  xvi.  24.  He 
bought  the  hill  Samaria  of  Shemer  for  two  ta- 
lents of  silver,  or  for  the  sum  of  £684  :  7  :  6.  It 
took  the  name  of  Samaria  from  Shemer  the  owner 
of  the  hill ;  though  some  think  there  were  al- 
ready some  beginnings  of  a  city,  because,  before 
the  reign  of  Omri,  there  is  mention  made  of  Sa- 
maria (I  Kings  xiii.  32)  in  A.  M.  3030.  But 
others  take  this  for  a  prolepsis,  or  an  anticipation, 
in  the  discourse  of  the  man  of  God,  who  speaks 
of  Samaria  under  the  reign  of  Jeroboam.  How- 
ever this  be,  it  is  certain  that  Samaria  was  no 
considerable  place,  and  did  not  become  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  till  after  the 
reign  of  Omri.  Before  him,  the  kings  of  Israel 
dwelt  at  Shechem,  or  at  Tirzah.  Samaria  was 
situated  upon  an  agreeable  and  fruitful  hill,  and  in 
an  advantageous  situation,  and  was  twelve  miles 
from  Dothairn,  twelve  from  Merom,  and  four 
from  Atharoth.  Josephus  says  it  was  a  day's 
journey  from  Jerusalem.  Besides,  though  it  was 
built  upon  an  eminence,  yet  it  must  have  had 
water  in  abundance ;  since  we  find  medals 
struck  in  this  city,  wherein  is  represented  the 
goddess  Astarte  treading  a  river  under  foot. 
And  Josephus  says  that,  when  it  was  taken  by 
John  Hyrcanus,  he  caused  the  brook  to  flow 
over  its  ruins,  to  obliterate  all  marks  of  it.  The 
kings  of  Samaria  omitted  nothing  to  make  the 
city  the  strongest,  the  finest,  and  the  richest,  that 
was  possible.  Ahab  built  there  a  palace  of 
ivory  (1  Kings  xxii.  39),  that  is  there  were  many 
ornaments  of  ivory  in  it.  Amos  describes  Sa- 
maria under  Jeroboam  II.,  as  a  city  sunk  into 
all  excesses  of  luxury  and  effeminacy.  (Amos 
iii.  15,  and  iv.  1,  2).  Benhadad  king  of  Syria 
built  public  places  or  streets  in  Samaria  (1  Kings 
xx.  34),  probably  for  traffic,  where  his  people 
dwelt  to  promote  trade.  His  son  Ben-hadad 
besieged  it  under  Ahab  (1  Kings  xx.  1,  2,  3,  &c.) 
A.  M.  3203.  In  3204  Ben-hadad  brought  au 
army  into  the  field,  but  it  was  again  cut  in 
pieces.  Some  years  after  this  Ben-hadad  came 
a  third  time,  lay  down  before  Samaria,  and  re- 
duced it  to  such  necessities  by  famine  that  a 
mother  was  there  forced  to  eat  her  own  child  ; 
but  the  city  was  relieved  by  a  sensible  exertion 
of  the  protection  of  God.  Lastly,  it  was  besieg- 
ed by  Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria,  in  the  ninth 
year  of  Hoshea  king  of  Israel  (2  Kings  xvii.  6,  7, 
&c.),  and  fourth  of  Hezekiah  king  of  Judah.  It 
was  taken  three  years  after,  in  A.  M.  3283.  The 
prophet  Hosea  speaks  of  the  cruelties  exercised 
by  Shalmaneser  against  the  besieged  (Hosea  x. 
4 — 8) ;  and  Micah  says  that  this  city  was  re- 
duced to  a  heap  of  stones.  (M.ic.  i.  6).  The 


266 


SAMARITANS. 


Cuthites,  who  were  sent  by  Esarhaddon  to  in- 
habit the  country  of  Samaria,  did  not  think  it 
worth  their  while  to  repair  the  ruins  of  this  city, 
they  dwelt  at  Shechem,  which  they  made  their 
capital.  They  were  still  upon  this  footing  when 
Alexander  the  Great  came  into  Phoenicia  and 
Judea.  However  the  Cuthites  had  rebuilt  some 
of  the  houses  of  Samaria,  from  the  time  of  the 
return  from  the  captivity,  since  Ezra  then  speaks 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  17;  Nehem. 
iv.  2) ;  and  the  Samaritans,  jealous  of  the  favors  that 
Alexander  the  Great  had  conferred  on  the  Jews, 
revolted  from  him  while  he  was  in  Egypt,  and 
burnt  Andromachus  alive,  whom  Alexander  had 
left  governor  of  Syria.  Alexander  marched  against 
them,  took  Samaria,  and  put  in  Macedonians  to 
inhabit  it ;  giving  the  country  around  it  to  the 
Jews  ;  and,  to  encourage  them  to  cultivate  it,  lie 
granted  them  an  exemption  from  tribute.  The 
kings  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  who  succeeded  Alex- 
ander, deprived  them  of  the  property  of  this 
country.  But  Alexander  Balas  king  of  Syria 
restored  to  Jonathan  Maccabaeus  the  cities  of 
Lydda,  Ephrem,  and  Ramatha,  which  he  cut  off 
from  the  country  of  Samaria.  (1  Mac.  x.  30, 
38,  and  xi.  28,  34).  Lastly,  the  Jews  re-enter- 
ed into  the  full  possession  of  this  whole  country 
under  John  Ilyrcanus,  the  Asmonacan,  who  took 
Samaria,  and  ruined  it  as  above-mentioned.  It 
continued  in  this  condition  to  A.  M.  3937,  when 
Aulus  Gabinius  was  the  proconsul  of  Syria,  and 
gave  it  the  name  of  Gabiniana.  But  it  was  still 
inconsiderable,  till  Herod  the  Great  restored  it 
to  its  ancient  lustre,  and  named  it  Sebaste,  the 
Greek  for  Augusta,  in  honor  of  Augustus,  who 
had  given  him  the  property  of  it.  The  sacred 
authors  of  the  New  Testament  mention  but  little 
of  Samaria  ;  and  when  they  do,  it  is  rather  of  the 
country  about  it  than  of  the  city.  (See  Luke 
xvii.  11 ;  John  iv.  4,  5).  It  was  there  our  Lord 
had  the  conversation  with  a  Samaritan  woman  of 
Sychar.  After  the  death  of  St.  Stephen  (Acts 
viii.  1,  2,  3),  when  the  disciples  were  dispersed 
through  Judea  and  Samaria,  St.  Philip  the  dea- 
con withdrew  into  the  city  of  Samaria,  where  he 
made  several  converts.  When  the  apostles 
heard  that  this  city  had  received  the  word  of 
God,  they  sent  Peter  and  John  thither,  to  com- 
municate the  Holy  Ghost  to  such  as  had  been 
baptised.  There  they  found  Simon  Magus. 
See  SIMON.  Samaria  is  never  called  Sebaste  in 
the  New  Testament,  though  strangers  hardly 
knew  it  but  by  this  name.  St.  Jerome  says  that 
it  was  thought  Obadiah  was  buried  at  Samaria. 
They  also  showed  there  the  tombs  of  Elisha  and 
of  St.  John  the  baptist.  There  are  found  many 
ancient  medals  that  were  struck  at  Sebaste  and 
Samaria ;  and  some  bishops  of  this  city  have 
subscribed  to  the  ancient  councils. 

SAMARITANS,  the  people  of  the  city  and 
province  of  Samaria.  In  this  sense,  it  should 
seem  that  we  might  give  the  name  of  Samaritans 
to  the  Israelites  of  the  ten  tribes,  who  lived  in 
the  city  and  territory  of  Samaria.  However,  the 
sacred  authors  give  the  name  of  Samaritans  only 
to  those  strangers  whom  the  kings  of  Assyria 
sent  from  beyond  the  Kuphrates  to  inhabit  the 
kingdom  of  Samaria,  when  they  carried  captive 
the  Israelites  that  were  there  before.  Thus  we 


may  fix  the  epoch  of  the  Samaritans  at  the  tak- 
ing of  Samaria  by  Salmaneser,  in  A.M.  3283. 
This  prince  carried  away  the  Israelites,  and  as- 
signed them  dwellings  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
and  in  Assyria  (2  Kings  xvii.  24).  He  sent 
other  inhabitants  in  their  stead,  of  whom  the 
most  considerable  were  the  Cuthites,  a  people 
descended  from  Cush,  and  who  are  probably  of 
the  number  of  those  whom  the  ancients  knew  by 
the  name  of  Scythians.  See  CUTH.  His  suc- 
cessor Esarhaddon,  being  informed  that  the  peo- 
ple which  had  been  sent  to  Samaria  were  infested 
by  lions  (3  Rings  xvii.  25),  imputed  it  to  their 
ignorance  of  the  manner  of  worshipping  the  god 
of  the  country  ;  and  sent  a  priest  of  the  god  of 
Israel  that  he  might  teach  them  the  religion  of 
the  Hebrews.  But  they  blended  this  religion 
with  that  which  they  professed  before;  so  they 
continued  to  worship  their  idols,  in  conjunction 
with  the  God  of  Israel,  not  perceiving  how  in- 
compatible these  two  religions  were.  It  is  not 
known  how  long  they  continued  in  this  state ; 
but,  at  the  return  from  the  captivity  of  Babylon, 
they  had  entirely  quitted  the  worship  of  their 
idols;  and,  when  they  asked  permission  of  the 
Israelites  that  they  might  labor  with  them  at  the 
rebuilding  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  they  affirm- 
ed, that  from  the  time  that  Esarhaddon  had 
brought  them  into  this  country  they  had  always 
worshipped  the  Lord.  (Ezra  iv.  1,  2,  3).  And 
indeed,  after  the  return  from  the  captivity,  the 
scripture  nowhere  reproaches  them  with  idola- 
trous worship,  though  it  does  not  dissemble 
either  their  jealousy  against  the  Jews,  or  the  ill 
offices  they  had  done  them  at  the  court  of  Persia, 
by  their  slanders  and  calJmnies,  or  the  strata- 
gems they  contrived  to  hinder  the  repairing  of 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  (Nehem.  ii.  10,  19;  iv. 
2,  &c. ;  vi.  1,  2,  &c.).  It  does  not  appear  that 
there  was  any  temple  in  Samaria,  in  common  to 
all  those  people  who  came  thither  from  beyond 
the  Euphrates,  before  the  coming  of  Alexander 
the  Great  into  Judea.  Till  then  every  one  was 
left  to  his  own  discretion,  and  worshipped  the 
Lord  where  he  thought  fit.  But  they  soon  com- 
prehended, from  the  books  of  Moses  which  they 
had  in  their  hands,  and  from  the  example  of  the 
Jews,  that  God  was  to  be  worshipped  in  that 
place  only  which  he  had  chosen.  As  they  could 
not  go  to  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  which  the 
Jews  would  not  permit,  they  resolved  to  build  a 
temple  of  their  own  upon  Mount  Gerizim,  near 
Shechern,  their  capital.  Therefore  Sanballat,  the 
governor  of  the  Samaritans,  applied  to  Alexan- 
der, as  Josephus  says,  but  more  probably  to  Da- 
rius Nothus,  king  of  Persia,  as  Dr.  Prideaux 
supposes  (see  SANBALLAT)  ;  and  told  him  he  had 
a  son-in-law,  called  Manasses,  son  to  Jaddus  the 
high  priest  of  the  Jews,  who  had  retired  to  Sa- 
maria with  a  great  number  of  other  persons  of  his 
own  nation  :  that  he  desired  to  build  a  temple  in 
this  province,  where  he  might  exercise  the  high- 
priesthood  ;  that  this  undertaking  would  be  to  the 
advantage  of  the  king's  affairs,  because,  in  build- 
ing a  temple  in  the  province  of  Samaria,  the  na- 
tion of  the  Jews  would  be  divided,  who  were  a 
turbulent  and  seditious  people,  and  by  such  a 
division  would  be  made  weaker,  and  less  in  acon- 
dilion  to  undertake  new  enterprises.  The  king 


SAMARITANS. 


267 


readily  consented  to  whatSanballat  desired,  and 
the  Samaritans  presently  began  their  building  of 
the  temple  of  Gerizim,  which  from  that  time 
they  have  always  frequented,  and  still  frequent  as 
the  place  where  the  Lord  intended  to  receive  the 
adoration  of  his  people.  It  is  of  this  mountain, 
and  of  this  temple,  that  the  Samaritan  woman  of 
Sychar  spoke  lo  our  Saviour.  (John  iv.  20).  See 
GERIZIM.  Josephus  adds  that  the  Samaritans 
did  not  long  continue  subject  to  Alexander  ;  they 
revolted  the  very  next  year,  and  he  drove  them 
out  of  Samaria,  put  Macedonians  in  their  room, 
and  gave  the  province  of  Samaria  to  the  Jews. 
This  preference  that  Alexander  gave  to  the  Jews 
contributed  not  a  little  to  increase  that  hatred 
that  had  already  obtained  between  these  two 
people.  When  an  Israelite  had  deserved  pun- 
ishment, for  the  violation  of  some  important  point 
<>f  the  law,  he  took  refuge  in  Samaria.  When 
the  Jews  were  in  a  prosperous  condition,  and 
affairs  were  favorable  to  them,  the  Samaritans 
called  themselves  Hebrews,  and  pretended  to  be 
of  the  race  of  Abraham.  But,  when  the  Jews 
fell  under  persecution,  the  Samaritans  disowned 
them,  and  acknowledged  themselves  to  be  Phoe- 
nicians originally.  This  was  their  practice  in 
the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The  Samari- 
tans, having  received  the  Pentateuch  from  the 
priest  that  was  sent  by  Esarhaddon,  have  pre- 
served it  to  this  day,  in  the  same  language  and 
character  it  was  then,  that  is,  in  the  old  Hebrew 
or  Phoenician  character  which  we  now  call  the 
Samaritan,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  modern 
Hebrew  character,  at  present  used  in  the  books 
of  the  Jews.  These  last,  after  their  captivity, 
changed  their  old  characters,  and  took  up  those 
of  the  Chaldee,  which  they  had  been  used  to  at 
Babylon,  and  which  they  continue  to  use.  It  is 
wrong,  says  F.  Calmet,  to  give  this  the  name  of 
the  Hebrew  character,  for  that  can  be  said  pro- 
perly only  of  the  Samaritan  text.  The  critics 
have  taken  notice  of  some  variations  between  the 
Pentateuch  of  the  Jews  and  that  of  the  Samari- 
tans ;  but  these  chiefly  regard  the  word  Gerizim, 
which  the  Samaritans  purposely  introduced  to 
favor  their  pretensions,  that  mount  Gerizim  was 
the  place  in  which  the  Lord  was  to  be  adored. 
The  religion  of  this  people  was  at  first  the  Pa- 
gan. Every  one  worshipped  the  deity  they  had 
been  used  to  (2  Kings  xvii.  29. — 31).  The  Ba- 
bylonians worshipped  Succoth-benoth  ;  the  Cu- 
thites,  Nergal;  the  Hamathites,  Ashima:  the 
Avites,  Nibhaz  and  Tartak ;  the  Sepharvites, 
Adrammelech  and  Anammelech.  Afterwards, 
the  Samaritans  added  that  of  the  Lord,  the  God 
of  Israel  (ibid.  32,  33).  But  they  gave  a  proof 
of  their  little  regard  to  the  worship  of  the  true 
God,  when,  under  Antidchus  Epiphanes,  they 
consecrated  their  temple  at  Gerizim  to  Jupiter 
Argivus.  In  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
they  celebrated  the  sabbatical  year,  and  conse- 
quently the  year  of  jubilee  also.  Under  the 
kings  of  Syria  they  followed  the  epoch  of  the 
Creeks,  or  that  of  the  Seleucidae.  After  Herod 
'iad  re-established  Sa.naria,  and  given  it  the  name 
of  Sebaste,  the  inhabitants,  in  their  medals,  and 
all  public  acts,  took  the  date  of  this  new  esiab- 
•  -•ihment.  But  the  old  inhabitants  of  Samaria, 
c>i  whom  the  greater  part  were  Pagans  or  Jews, 


were  no  rule  to  the  other  Samaritans,  who  pro- 
bably reckoned  their  years  by  the  reigns  of  the 
emperors  they  were  subject  to,  till  they  fell  under 
the  Mahometans,  under  whom  they  live  at  this 
day ;  and  they  reckon  their  year  by  the  Hegira, 
or  according  to  the  era  of  the  Ishmaelites.  Such 
as  desire  to  be  further  acquainted  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  ancient  Samaritans,  we  refer  to  the 
works  of  Josephus.  As  to  their  religion,  it  is 
said  that  they  receive  only  the  Pentateuch,  and 
reject  all  the  other  books  of  scripture,  chiefly  the 
prophets,  who  have  expressly  declared  thecominc; 
of  the  Messiah.  They  have  also  been  accused 
of  believing  God  to  be  corporeal,  of  denying  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  the  resurrection  of  the  dead. 
Jesus  Christ  says  (John  iv.  22)  they  worship  they 
know  not  what.  The  Samaritan  woman  is  a  suf- 
ficient testimony  that  the  Samaritans  expected  a 
Messiah,  who  they  hoped  would  clear  up  all  their 
doubts  (John  iv.  25).  Several  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Shechem  believed  at  the  preaching  of 
Jesus  Christ,  and  several  of  Samaria  believed  at 
that  of  St.  Philip.  The  modern  Samaritans  are 
not  numerous.  Joseph  Scaliger,  being  curious 
to  know  their  usages,  wrote  to  the  Samaritans  of 
Egypt,  and  to  the  high-priest  of  the  sect  who  re- 
sided at  Neapolis  in  Syria.  They  returned  two 
answers  to  Scaliger,  dated  in  the  year  of  the 
Hegira  998.  These  were  preserved  in  the 
French  king's  library,  and  were  translated  into 
Latin  by  Morin,  and  printed  in  England  in  the 
collection  of  that  father's  letters,  in  1682,  under 
the  title  of  Antiquitates  EcclesiseOrientalis.  By 
these  it  appears  that  they  believe  in  God,  in 
Moses,  the  holy  law,  the  mountain  of  Gerizim, 
the  house  of  God,  the  day  of  vengeance  and  of 
peace;  that  they  value  themselves  upon  ob- 
serving the  law  of  Moses  in  many  points  more 
rigidly  than  the  Jews  themselves.  They  keep 
the  sabbath  with  the  utmost  strictness,  without 
stirring  from  the  place  they  are  in,  but  only  to 
the  synagogue.  They  go  not  out  of  the  city,  and 
abstain  from  their  wives  on  that  day.  They 
never  delay  circumcision  beyond  the  eighth  day. 
They  still  sacrifice  in  the  temple  on  mount  Ge- 
rizim, and  give  to  the  priest  what  is  enjoined  by 
the  law.  They  do  not  marry  their  nieces  as  the 
Jews  do,  nor  do  they  allow  a  plurality  of  wives. 
Their  hatred  for  the  Jews  is  testified  by  Jose- 
phus, as  well  as  in  the  New  Testament.  (See 
John  iv.  9).  The  Jewish  historian  says  that  one 
passover  night,  when  they  opened  the  gates  of 
the  temple,  some  Samaritans  had  scattered  the 
bones  of  dead  men  there,  to  insult  the  Jews, 
and  to  interrupt  their  devotions.  And  the  Sa- 
maritan woman  of  Sychar  was  surprised  that 
Jesus  talked  with  her,  and  asked  drink  of  her, 
being  a  Samaritan.  When  our  Saviour  sent  his 
apostles  to  preach  in  Judea,  he  forbad  them  to 
enter  into  the  Samaritan  cities  (Matt.  x.  5); 
because  he  looked  upon  them  as  schismatics. 
One  day,  when  he  sent  his  disciples  to  provide 
him  a  lodging  in  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Samari- 
tans, they  would  not  entertain  him,  because  they 
perceived  he  was  going  to  Jerusalem  (Luke  ix. 
52,  53).  And,  when  the  Jews  were  provoked  at 
the  reproaches  of  Jesus  Christ,  they  told  him  he 
was  a  Samaritan  (John  viii.  48).  Josephus  re- 
lates t:  ;  t  some  Samaritans  having  killed  several 


SAM 


268 


SAM 


Jews,  as  they  were  going  to  the  feast  at  Jerusa- 
lem, this  occasioned  a  kind  of  war  between  them. 
The  Samaritans  continued  their  fealty  to  the 
Romans,  when  the  Jews  revolted ;  yet  they  did 
not  escape  from  being  involved  in  some  of  the 
calamities  of  their  neighbours.  There  were,  in 
very  modern  times,  Samaritans  at  Shechem, 
otherwise  called  Naplouse.  They  had  priests  of 
the  family  of  Aaron,  as  they  stated  :  a  high- 
priest,  who  resided  at  Shechem,  or  at  Gerizim, 
vho  offered  sacrifices  there,  and  who  declared 
the  feast  of  the  passover,  and  all  the  other  feasts, 
to  all  the  Samaritans.  Some  of  them  are  said 
still  to  be  found  at  Gaza,  some  at  Damascus, 
and  some  at  Grand  Cairo. 

SAMBALLAS,  a  name  given  to  a  cluster  of 
islands  near  the  coast  of  America,  in  the  Spanish 
Main,  of  which  three  groupes  are  called  Cave- 
sas,  Mulatas,  and  Sagua.  These  islands  are 
scattered  at  very  unequal  distances,  some  only 
one,  some  two,  some  three,  and  some  four  miles 
Irom  the  shore  and  from  one  another,  extending 
a  very  considerable  distance  along  the  northern 
shore  of  the  isthmus  of  Darien. 

SAMBUCUS  (John),  a  learned  physician, 
bon:  at  Teraau,  in  Hungary,  in  1531.  After  study- 
ing in  several  universities,  his  abilities  recom- 
mended him  to  the  emperors,  Maximilian  II.  and 
Rodolph  II.,  who  successively  appointed  him 
counsellor  and  historiographer.  He  wrote 
the  Lives  of  the  Roman  Emperors,  and  other 
works.  He  died  at  Vienna,  in  1584. 

SAMBUCUS,  in  botany,  elder,  a  genus  of  the 
trigynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants  ; 
natural  order  forty-third,  dumosae  :  CAL.  quin- 
quepartite  :  COR.  quinquefid  ;  berry  trispermous. 
The  most  remarkable  species  are  these : 

1.  S.  Canadensis,  the  Canada  shrubby  elder, 
rises  with  a  shrubby  stem,  branching  eight  or  ten 
feet  high,  having  reddish  shoots,  somewhat  bi- 
pinnated  leaves,  often  ternate  below ;  the  other 
composed  of  five,  seven,  or  nine  oval  lobes ;  and 
towards  the  ends  of  the  branches  cymose  quin- 
quepartite    umbels    of  flowers,    succeeded   by 
blackish-red  berries. 

2.  S.  nigra,  the  common  black  elder  tree,  rises 
with  a  tree  stem,  branching  numerously  into  a 
large  spreading  head,  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high  ; 
pinnated  leaves,  of  two  or  three  pairs  of  oval 
lobes  and  one  odd  one ;  and  large  five-parted 
umbels  of  white  flowers  towards  the  end  of  the 
branches,  succeeded  by  bunches  of  black  and 
other  different  colored  berries,  in  the  rarieties ; 
which    are,    common    black-berried   elder-tree, 
white-berried  elder,  green-berried  elder,  lacini- 
ated,  or  parsley-leaved  elder,  having  the  folioles 
much  laciniated,  so  as  to  resemble  parsley-leaves, 
gold-striped  leaved   elder,  silver-striped   elder, 
and  silver-dusted  elder. 

5.  S.  racemosa,  racemose,  red-berried  elder, 
rises  with  a  tree-like  stem,  branching  ten  or 
twelve  feet  high,  having  reddish-brown  branches 
and  buds ;  pinnated  leaves  of  six  or  seven  oval 
fleeply-sawed  lobes,  and  compound,  oval,  race- 
mous  clusters  of  whitish-green  flower,  suc- 
ceeded by  oval  clusters  of  red  berries.  It  is 
lommon  to  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  south 
of  Europe,  and  is  retained  in  our  gardens  as  a 
flowering  shrub,  naving  a  peculiar  singularity  in 


its  oval-clustered  flowers  and  berries.  AH  tlie 
sorts  of  elder  are  of  the  deciduous  kind,  very 
hardy,  and  grow  freely  any  where  ;  are  generally 
free  shooters,  but  particularly  the  common  elder 
and  its  varieties,  which  make  remarkably  strong- 
jointed  shoots,  of  several  feet  in  length,  in  one 
season ;  and  they  flower  mostly  in  summer,  ex- 
cept the  racemose  elder,  which  generally  begins 
flowering  in  April ;  and  the  branches  being  large, 
spreading,  and  very  abundant,  are  exceedingly 
conspicuous  ;  but  they  emit  a  most  disagreeable 
odor.  The  flowers  are  succeeded,  in  the  most  of 
the  sorts,  by  large  bunches  of  ripe  berries  in  au- 
tumn, which,  though  very  unpalatable  to  eat,  are  in 
high  estimation  for  making  that  well  known  cor- 
dial called  elder  wine,  particularly  the  common 
black-berried  elder.  The  merit  of  the  elder  in 
gardening  may  be  both  for  use  and  ornament, 
especially  in  large  grounds. 

SAME,  adj.       \     Sax.  j-am ;  Goth,  and  Teut. 

SAMENESS,  n.s.  \  same.  Identical ;  not  different ; 
not  another;  being  of  the  like  sort  or  degree: 
the  noun  substantive  corresponding. 

Miso,  as  spitefully  as  her  rotten  voice  could  utter 
it,  set  forth  the  tame  sins  of  Amphialus.  kidney. 

Difference  of  persuasion    in   matters  of  religion 
may  easily  fall  out,  where  there  is  the  sameness  of 
duty,  allegiance,  and  subjection.         King  C/mr/c*. 
Do  but  think  how  well  the  same  he  spends, 

Who  spends  his  blood  his  country  to  relieve. 

Daniel. 
The  tenor  of  man's  woe 

Holds  on  the  same.  Stilton. 

Th'  etlierial  vigour  is  in  all  the  tame, 
And  ev'ry  soul  is  filled  with  equal  flame.    Dryden. 

The  merchant  does  not  keep  money  by  him  ;  but, 
if  you  consider  what  money  must  be  lodged  in  the 
banker's  hands,  the  case  will  be  much  the  same. 

Locke. 

If  itself  had  been  coloured,  it  would  have  trans- 
mitted all  visible  objects  tinctured  with  the  same 
colour ,  as  we  see  whatever  is  beheld  through  a 
coloured  glass  appears  of  the  same  colour  with  the 
glass.  Hay  on  the  Creation. 

The  tame  plant  produceth  as  great  a  variety  of 
juices  as  there  is  in  the  same  animal.  Arbuthin>t. 

If  all  courts  have  a  sameness  in  them, 'things  may 
be  as  they  were  in  my  time,  when  all  employments 
went  to  parliamentmen's  friends.  Swift. 

SAM  I  EL,  the  Arabian  name  of  a  hot  wind 
peculiar  to  the  desert  of  Arabia.  It  blows  over 
the  desert  in  July  and  August  from  the  north- 
west quarter.  Some  years  it  does  not  blow  at 
all,  and  in  others  it  appears  six,  eight,  or  ten 
times,  but  seldom  continues  more  than  a  few  mi- 
nutes at  a  time.  It  often  passes  with  the  appa- 
rent quickness  of  lightning.  The  Arabs  and 
Persians  have  warning  of  its  approach  by  a  thick 
haze  arising  out  of  the  horizon:  when  they  in- 
stantly throw  themselves  with  their  faces  to  the 
ground,  and  continue  in  that  position  till  the  wind 
has  passed,  which  happens  almost  instantane- 
ously ;  but  if  they  are  not  brisk  enough  to  take 
this  precaution,  and  they  get  the  full  force  of  the 
wind,  it  generally  produces  death.  The  Arabs 
say  that  this  wind  always  leaves  behind  it  a  very 
strong  sulphureous  smell,  and  that  the  air  at 
these  times  is  quite  clear,  except  about  the  hori- 
zon in  the  north-west,  which  gives  wartiing  of  its 
approach.  See  ARABIA 


SAM 


269 


SAM 


SAM'LET,  n.  s.  Fr.  salmonet,  or  salmonlet. 
A  little  salmon. 

A  salmon,  after  he  is  got  into  the  sea,  becomes 
from  a  samlet,  not  so  big  as  a  gudgeon,  to  be  a  sal- 
mon, in  as  short  a  time  as  gosling  becomes  a  goose. 

Walton's  Angler. 

SAMNITES,  an  ancient  nation  of  Italy,  who 
inhabited  the  country  situated  between  Picenum, 
Campania,  Apulia,  and  Latium.  They  distin- 
guished themselves  by  their  implacable  enmity 
against  the  Romans,  in  the  early  ages  of  that 
republic ;  but  were  at  last  totally  subdued,  and, 
according  to  some,  extirpated,  about  A.  A.  C. 
272,  after  a  war  of  seventy-one  years.  See 
ROME. 

SAMOGITIA,  or  SZAMAIT,  a  tract  of  Russian 
Lithuania,  forming  the  north-west  part  of  that 
great  province,  and  bearing  the  title  of  county. 
It  lies  to  the  south  of  Courland,  and  to  the  north 
of  Prussia  Proper,  having  part  of  its  western 
boundary  along  the  Baltic,  but  without  any  har- 
bour of  consequence. 

SAMOLUS,  in  botany,  round-leaved  water 
pimpernel,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and 
pentandria  class  of  plants  ;  natural  order  twenty- 
first,  precise  :  COR.  salver-shaped ;  stamina  sur- 
rounded by  small  scales  at  its  throat:  CAPS. 
unilocular  inferior.  Species  four,  one  of  which, 
S.  valerandi,  is  common  to  the  marshes  of  our 
country. 

SAMON,  an  island  in  the  eastern  seas,  lying 
off  Timor  to  the  north-west.  It  is  woody,  hilly 
land,  but  not  mountainous,  and  towards  the 
south  end  low.  A  woody  island,  called  Tios  in 
the  charts,  lies  off  the  south-west  point,  which  is 
the  only  thing  like  danger  on  the  west  side ;  but 
the  tides  run  strong  here,  and  make  formidable 
riplings. 

SAMOS,  in  ancient  geography,  an  island  of 
Asia,  in  the  ./Egean  Sea,  near  the  promontory 
Mycale,  opposite  to  Ephesus  ;  in  compass  eighty- 
seven  miles  according  to  Pliny,  or  100  according 
to  Isidorus ;  famous  for  a  temple  of  Juno,  with 
a  noted  asylum,  whence  their  coin  exhibited  a 
peacock.  It  was  the  country  of  Pythagoras,  who, 
to  avoid  the  oppression  of  its  tyrants,  retired  to 
Italy.  Samos  was  first  governed  by  kings,  after- 
wards became  a  democracy,  and  at  last  an  oli- 
garchy. It  was  most  flourishing  under  Polv  crates. 
The  Samians  assisted  the  Greeks  against  Xerxes. 
They  were  conquered  by  Pericles  A.  A.C.  441  : 
afterwards  by  Eumenes  king  of  Pergamus  ;  but 
restored  to  liberty  by  Augustus.  Samos  was  re- 
duced to  a  Roman  province  under  Vespasian. 

SAMOS,  an  island  of  the  Grecian  archipelag  >, 
separated  only  by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  o  >- 
posite  continent  of  Asia  Minor.  See  GREECE. 

SAMOTHRACE,  or  SAMOTHRACIA,  in  ancient 
geography,  an  island  in  the  TEgean  Sea,  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Hebrus,  thirty-two  miles  from 
the  coast  of  Thrace.  It  was  also  called  Dardania, 
Electria,  Leucania,  Leucosia,  Melitis,  and 
Samos  ;  and  hence  Samothrace,  or  Thracian  Sa- 
mos, to  distinguish  it  from  Samos  in  Asia  Minor. 
Pliny  makes  it  thirty-eight  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, but  modern  travellers  say  it  is  only  twenty. 
Before  the  age  of  the  Argonauts  it  was  deluged 
to  the  top  of  the  highest  mountains  by  a  sudden 
inundation  of  the  Euxine.  It  was  anciently  go- 


verned by  kings,  but,  like  most  other  states  in 
Greece,  became  afterwards  democratic.  The 
people  enjoyed  all  their  rights  and  priyilege* 
under  the  Romans  till  the  reign  of  Vespasian. 
By  him  it  was  reduced,  with  the  other  islands  in 
the  ,/Egean  Sea,  to  the  form  of  a  Roman  province. 
It  is  now  under  the  Turks,  and  by  them  named 
Samandrachi. 

SAMOYEDES,  a  savage  race  who  traverse 
the  immense  and  frozen  deserts  extending  along 
the  northern  coast  of  Asia.  They  do  not  recog- 
nise themselves  by  this  name,  which  has  been 
given  to  them  by  the  Russians,  but  call  them 
selves  Khasova.  They  extend,  on  the  European 
side,  as  far  as  the  river  Mesen,  which  falls  into 
the  White  Sea ;  while  they  inhabit  the  shores  of 
Asia,  eastward  to  the  Olenek,  and  almost  to  the 
Lena :  thus  filling  up  the  space  between  40"  and 
120°  of  E.  long.,  a  line  of  upwards  of  2000 
miles.  The  whole  of  this  vast  extent  is  not 
supposed  to  contain  a  population  of  more  than 
20,000.  They  are  divided  into  three  great  tribes: 
the  Vanoites,  who  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Pet- 
chora  and  the  Obi,  in  the  vicinity  of  Ob- 
dorsk  ;  -the  Tysia-Igoley,  who  are  found  on  the 
Mesen,  and  in  the  interior  of  the  government  of 
Archangel  ;  and  the  Khirutches,  who  fill  the  re- 
moter and  interior  parts  of  Siberia.  The  rude 
traditions  concerning  their  origin  seem  to  sup- 
port the  conjecture  that  they  were  driven  hither, 
by  war  and  oppressson,  from  happier  climates. 

Like  other  tribes  of  these  ungenial  climates, 
theysare  a  small  and  stunted  race,  commonly  be- 
tween four  and  five  feet  high.  They  have  a  flat, 
round,  broad  face,  large  thick  lips,  a  wide  and 
open  nose,  little  beard,  and  black  and  rough  hair 
in  small  quantity,  carefully  arranged.  The  dress 
of  the  men  differs  little  from  that  of  the  Ostialcs; 
but  they  are  reckoned  more  savage,  and  are  very 
superstitious. 

SAMP,  a  dish  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
the  savages  of  North  America,  who  have  no  corn 
mills.  It  is  Indian  corn  deprived  of  its  external 
coat  by  soaking  it  ten  or  twelve  hours  in  a  lixi- 
vium of  water  and  wood-ashes.  This  coat  or 
husk,  being  separated  from  the  kernel,  rises  to 
the  surface  of  the  water,  while  the  grain,  which 
is  specifically  heavier  than  water,  remains  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel ;  which  grain,  thus  deprived 
of  its  hard  coat  of  armour,  is  boiled,  or  rather 
simmered,  for  two  days,  in  a  kettle  of  water  near 
the  fire.  When  sufficiently  cooked,  the  kernels 
swell  to  a  great  size  and  burst  open ;  and  this 
food,  which  is  uncommonly  sweet  and  nourish- 
ine,  may  be  used  in  a  variety  of  ways  ;  but  the 
best  way  is  to  mix  it  with  milk,  and  with 
soups  and  broths,  as  a  substitute  for  bread.  It 
is  even  better  than  bread  for  these  purposes; 
for,  besides  being  quite  as  palatable  as  the  very 
best  bread,  it  is  less  liable  than  bread  to  grow 
very  soft  when  mixed  with  these  liquids. 

SAM'PHIRE,  n.  s.  Fr.  sain*  Pierre  ;  Lat. 
crithmum.  A  plant  preserved  in  pickle. 

Half  way  down 

Hangs  one  that  gathers  samphire  :  dreadful  trade  ! 
Met h inks  he  seems  no  bigger  than  his  head. 

Shakajieare 

This  plant  grows  in  great  plenty  upon  the  rocks 
near  the  sea-shore,  where  it  is  washed  by  the  salt 


SAM 


270 


SAN 


water.     Il  is  greatly  esteemed  for  pickling,  and  is     from   the  form   of  the  arches  of  the  gates,  nnd 


sometimes  used  in  medicine.  Miller. 

SAMIMUHF..     See  CIUTHMTM. 
SAMT1.K,  n.  s.  \      Corrupted  from  example 
SAM'PI.ER.  <  and  exemplar.      A   speci- 

men ;  part  of  the  whole  shown,  that  judgment 
may  be  made  of  the  whole :  a  pattern  of  work. 
O  love,  why  dos't  thou  in  thy  beautiful  sampler 
set  such  a  Work  for  my  desire  to  set  out,  which  is 
impossible  ?  Sidney. 

Fair  Philomela,  she  but  lost  her  tongue, 
And  in  a  tedious  sampler  sewed  her  mind. 

Sliakspture. 

We  created  with  our  needles  both  one  flower, 
Both  on  one  sampler,  sitting  on  one  cushion  ; 
Both  warbling  of  one  song,  both  in  one  key. 
As  if  our  hands,  our  sides,  voices,  and  minds 
Had  been  incorp'rate.  fd. 

He  entreated  them  to  tarry  but  two  days,  and  he 
himself  would  bring  them  a  sample  of  the  ore. 

Raleigh. 

Coarse  complexions, 

And  cheeks  of  sorry  grain,  will  serve  to  ply 
The  sampler,  and  to  tease  the  housewife's  wool. 

Milton. 

I  have  not  engaged  myself  to  any  :  I  am  not 
loaded  with  a  full  cargo  :  'tis  sufficient  if  I  bring 
a  sample  of  some  goods  in  this  voyage.  Dryden. 

Determinations  of  justice  were  very  summary  and 
decisive,  and  generally  put  an  end  to  the  vexations 
of  a  law-suit  by  the  ruin  both  of  plaintiff  and  de- 
fendant :  travellers  have  recorded  some  samplet  of 
this  kind.  Addison. 

From  most  bodies 
Some  little  bits  ask  leave  to  flow  ; 
And,  as  through  these  canals  they  roll, 
Bring  up  a  sample  of  the  whole.  Prior. 

I  design  this  but  for  a  sample  of  what  I  hope  more 
fully  to  discuss.  Woodward. 

I  saw  her  sober  over  a  sampler,  or  gay  over  a 
jointed  baby.  Pope. 

SAMSON,  the  son  of  Manoah,  of  the  tribe  of 
Dan,  and  a  judge  of  Israel.  The  extraordinary 
circumstances  of  his  birth,  life,  miraculous 
strength,  marriage,  repeated  defeats  of  the  Phi- 


some  ancient  pieces  of  sculpture,  intermixed  with 
the  other  stones,  appears  to  have  been  built  by 
the  Turks  :  but  the  town  can  boast  of  five  mosques, 
with  minarets,  and  a  large  khan  for  the  use  of 
merchants.  The  ships  belonging  to  the  port 
are  navigated  by  the  Greeks  ;  adjoining  villages 
are  inhabited  chiefly  by  Christians.  Inhabitants 
2000. 

SAMUEL,  an  eminent  inspired  prophet,  his- 
torian, and  judge  of  Israel,  and  the  last  judge  of 
that  commonwealth.  lie  was  the  son  of  Klkanah, 
a  Levite  of  the  family  of  Kohath,  by  his  beloved 
wife  Hannah.  The  extraordinary  circumstances 
preceding  his  birth ;  his  early  dedication  to  God 
by  his  mother,  with  her  beautiful  hymn  on  that 
occasion;  the  revelations  communicated  to  him 
by  the  Almighty  ;  his  reformation  of  the  people, 
and  their  consequent  victory  over  the  Philistines ; 
the  conduct  of  his  sons,  which  excited  the  peo- 
ple to  desire  a  change  of  government ;  his 
description  of  the  character  of  a  king  ;  his 
anointing  of  Saul  their  first  monarch  ;  his  appeal 
to  the  people  respecting  his  own  just  govern- 
ment ;  his  repeated  reproofs  of  king  Saul  for 
his  improper  conduct ;  his  just  punishment  of 
the  murderous  monarch  of  the  Amalekites ;  his 
anointing  of  David  ;  and  his  death, — are  record- 
ed 1  Sam.  i. — xxv.  He  is  reckoned  the  author 
of  the  books  of  Judges  and  Ruth. 

SAMUEL,  THE  BOOKS  OF,  two  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament.  The  books  of  Samuel 
and  the  books  of  Kings  are  a  continued  history 
of  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  ; 
for  which  reason  the  books  of  Samuel  are  like- 
wise styled  the  first  and  second  book  of  Kinys. 
Since  the  first  twenty-four  chapters  contain  all 
that  relates  to  the  history  of  Samuel,  and  the 
latter  part  of  the  first  book  and  all  the  second 
include  the  relation  of  events  that  happened  aft«'r 
the  death  of  that  prophet,  it  has  been  supposed 
that  Samuel  was  author  of  the  first  twenty-four 
chapters,  and  that  the  prophets  Gad  and  Nathan 


listines,  captivity,  and  death,  are   recorded  in    finished  the  work.     The  hrst  book   of  Samuel 


Judges  xiii. — xvi.  He  judged  Israel  twenty 
years.  Chronologists  place  his  death  in  A.  M. 
S887,  or  A.  A.  C.  1117:  Milton  wrote  a  beauti- 
ful poem  on  his  history,  entitled  Samson  Agonis- 
tes. 

SAMSON'S  POST,  a  sort  of  pillar  erected  in  a 
ship's  hold,  between  the  lower  deck  and  the 
kelson,  under  the  edge  of  a  hatchway,  and  fur- 
nished with  several  notches  that  serve  as  steps  to 
mount  gr  descend,  as  occasion  requires.  This 
post,  being  firmly  driven  into  its  place,  not  only 
serves  to  support  the  beam  and  fortify  the  vessel 


comprehends  the  transactions  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Eli  and  Samuel,  and  under  Saul  the  first 
king ;  and  also  the  acts  of  David  while  lie  lived 
under  Saul.  The  second  book  is  wholly  spent 
in  relating  the  transactions  of  David's  reign. 

SAMYDA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of  plants  :  CAL. 
quinquepartite  and  colored  :  COR.  none :  CAPS. 
the  inside  resembles  a  berry,  is  trivalved  and 
unilocular:  the  SEEDS  nestling.  Species  ten, 
natives  of  the  East  and  West  Indies. 

SANADON  (Noel  Stephen),  a  Jesuit,  born  at 


in  that  place,  but  also  to  prevent  the  cargo  or  Roueu  in  1676,  and  a  distinguished  professor 
materials  contained  in  the  hold  from  shifting  to  of  humanity  at  Caen.  He  there  became  ac- 
the  opposite  side  by  the  rolling  of  the  ship  in  a  quainted  with  Huet  bishop  of  Avranches,  after- 
turbulent  or  heavy  sea.  wards  his  intimate  friend.  Sanadon  next  taught 
SAMSOON,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  rhetoric  at  the  university  of  Paris,  and  was  en- 
Black  Sea,  and  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Amisus,  trusted  with  the  education  of  the  prince  of  Conti 
which,  after  Sinope,  was  the  most  opulent  city  in  after  the  death  of  Du  Morceau.  In  1728  he  was 
Pontus.  It  is  situated  near  the  west  end  of  a  made  librarian  to  Louis  XIV.,  an  office  which 
bay,  about  four  miles  in  length,  and  surrounded  he  retained  t6  his  death.  He  died  on  the  21st 
by  olive  trees.  The  houses,  which  are  made  of  September  1733,  in  the  fifty-eighth  year  of  his 
wood,  plastered  with  mud,  and  white-washed,  age.  His  works  are,  1.  Latin  Poems,  in  12mo., 
produce  a  good  effect.  The  modern  town  is  1715,  and  by  Barbou,  in  8vo.,  1754.  These 
small,  surrounded  by  a  decayed  wall,  which,  consist  of  Odes,  Elegies,  Epigrams,  &c.  '2.  A 


SANCHONIATHO. 


271 


Translation  of  Horace,  with  Remarks,  in  2  vols. 
4to.,  Paris,  1727;  best  edition  Amsterdam,  1735, 
in  8  vols.  12mo,;  with  the  notes  of  M.  Dacier. 
Sanadon  translated  with  elegance  and  taste  ;  but 
his  version  is  rather ~a  paraphrase  than  a  faithful 
translation.  3.  A  collection  of  Discourses  ;  and 
4.  Prieres  et  Instructions  Chretiennes. 

SAN'ATIVE,  adj.  >     Lat.    sano.       Powerful 

SANA'TION,  M.S.  >  to  cure  ;  healing:  the  act 
of  curing. 

The  vapour  of  coltsfoot  hath  a  sanative  virtue  to- 
wards the  lungs.  Bacon 't  Natural  History. 

Consider  well  the  member,  and,  if  you  have  no 
probable  hope  of  sanatian,  cut  it  off  quickly. 

Wiseman 's  Surgery. 

SANBALLAT,  the  governor  of  the  Samari- 
tans, a  great  enemy  to  the  Jews.  He  was  a  na- 
tive of  Horon,  or  Horonaim,  a  city  beyond 
Jordan,  in  the  country  of  the  Moabites.  He 
lived  in  the  time  ofv  Nehemiah,  who  was  his 
great  opponent,  and  from  whose  book  we  learn 
his  history.  There  is  one  circumstance  related 
of  him  by  Josephus  which  has  occasioned  some 
dispute  among  the  learned.  According  to  that 
author,  when  Alexander  the  Great  came  into 
Phoenicia,  and  sat  down  before  the  city  of 
Tyre,  Sanballat  quitted  the  interests  of  Darius 
king  of  Persia,  and  went  at  the  head  of  8000 
men  to  offer  his  services  to  Alexander.  This 
prince  readily  entertained  him,  and,  at  his  re- 
quest, gave  him  leave  to  erect  a  temple  upon 
mount  Gerizim,  where  he  constituted  his  son-in- 
jaw  Manasseh  the  high-priest.  But  this  is  a  fla- 
grant anachronism  ;  for  120  years  before  this, 
that  is,  in  A.  M.  3550,  Sanballat  was  governor  of 
Samaria ;  wherefore  the  learned  Dr.  Prideaux 
(in  his  Connexion  of  the  Histories  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament)  supposes  two  Sanballats,  and 
endeavours  to  show  it  to  be  a  mistake  of  Jose- 
phus, in  making  Sauballat  to  flourish  in  the  time 
of  Darius  Codomannus,  and  to  build  his  temple 
upon  mount  Gerizim  by  license  from  Alexander 
the  Great ;  whereas  this  was  performed  by  leave 
from  Darius  Nothus,  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  his 
reign. 

SANCHES  (Anthony  Nunes  Ribeiro),  M.  D., 
a  learned  physician,  born  at  Penna-Macor  in 
Portugal,  in  1699.  His  father,  an  opulent  mer- 
chant, gave  him  a  liberal  education,  intending 
him  for  the  law,  and,  on  finding  him  prefer 
physic,  withdrew  his  protection ;  on  which  his 
maternal  uncle,  Dr.  Nunes  Ribeiro,  a  physician 
at  Lisbon,  furnished  him  with  the  means  of  pro- 
secuting his  studies,  at  Coimbra  and  Salamanca ; 
where  he  took  his  degree  in  1724.  In  1725  he 
was  appointed  physician  to  the  town  of  Bene- 
vente.  About  1727  he  came  over  to  London, 
•where  he  spent  two  years ;  after  which  he  studied 
at  Leyden  under  Boerhaave;  who,  in  1731,  re- 
commended him  to  the  empress  Anne  of  Russia. 
On  his  arrival  at  Petersburg  Dr.  Bidloo,  then 
first  physician  to  the  empress,  gave  him  an  ap- 
pointment in  the  hospital  at  Moscow,  where  he 
continued  till  1734,  when  he  was  appointed  phy- 
sician to  the  army,  and  was  present  at  the  siege 
of  Asoph.  In  1740  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
physicians  to  the  empress,  who  had  labored 
eight  years  under  a  disease  which  he  asserted  to 
be  a  stone  in  the  kidney.  His  opinion  was  con- 
firmed at  her  death,  six  months  after,  upon  open- 


ing her.  The  regency  that  succeeded  appointed 
him  first  physician  ;  but  the  revolution  of  1742, 
which  placed  Elizabeth  on  the  throne,  deprived 
him  of  all  his  employments.  Hardly  a  day 
passed  that  he  did  not  hear  of  some  of  his  friends 
being  executed ;  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that 
he  obtained  leave  to  retire  from  Russia.  In 
1747  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  continued  till 
October  14th,  1783,  when  he  died.  His  printed 
works,  on  the  Origin  of  the  Venereal  Disease, 
and  other  subjects,  are  well  known  to  the  faculty. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Royal  Medical  Society 
at  Paris,  and  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Lisbon, 
to  the  establishment  of  which  he  had  contributed. 

SANCHEZ  (Francis),  in  Latin  Sanctius,  was 
of  Las  Brocas  in  Spain.  He  wrote,  1.  An  ex- 
cellent treatise  entitled  Minerva,  or  De  Causis 
Linguae  Latinae,  which  was  published  at  Amster- 
dam in  1714,  in  8vo.  The  authors  of  the  Port- 
royal  Methode  de  la  Langue  Latine  have  been 
much  indebted  to  this  work.  2.  The  Art  of 
Speaking,  and  the  Method  of  Translating  Au- 
thors. 3.  Several  other  learned  pieces  on  gram- 
mar. He  died  in  1600,  in  his  seventy-seventli 
year. 

SANCHEZ  (Francis),  a  Portuguese  physician, 
who  settled  at  Toulouse,  and,  though  a  Christian, 
was  born  of  Jewish  parents.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  a  man  of  genius  and  a  philosopher.  His 
works  have  been  collected  under  the  title  of 
Opera  Medica.  His  juncti  sunt  tractatus  quidam 
philosophici  non  insubtiles.  They  were  printed 
at  Toulouse  in  1636;  where  Sanchez  died  in 
1632. 

SANCHONIATHO,  or  SANCHONIATHON,  a 
Phoenician  philosopher  and  historian,  who  is  said 
to  have  flourished  before  the  Trojan  war,  about 
the  time  of  Semiramis.  Of  this  most  ancient 
writer  the  only  remains  extant  are  fragments  of 
cosmogony,  and  of  the  history  of  the  gods  and 
first  mortals,  preserved  by  Eusebius  and  Theo- 
doret ;  both  of  whom  speak  of  Sanchoniatho  as 
an  accurate  and  faithful  historian  ;  and  the  for- 
mer adds  that  his  work,  which  was  translated  by 
Philo  Byblius  from  the  Phenician  into  the  Greek 
language,  contains  many  things  relating  to  the 
history  of  the  Jews  which  deserve  great  credit, 
both  because  they  agree  with  the  Jewish  writers, 
and  because  the  author  received  these  particulars 
from  the  annals  of  Hierombalus,  a  priest  of  the 
god  Jao.  Several  modern  writers,  however,  of 
great  learning,  have  called  in  question  the  very 
existence  of  Sanchoniatho,  and  have  'contended 
that  the  fragments  which  Eusebius  adopted  as 
genuine,  u-pon  the  authority  of  Porphyry,  were 
forged  by  that  author,  or  the  pretended  translator 
Philo,  from  enmity  to  the  Christians,  that  the 
Pagans  might  have  something  to  show  of  equal 
antiquity  with  the  books  of  Moses.  These  op- 
posite opinions  have  produced  a  controversy 
that  has  filled  volumes.  We  can,  however,  only 
refer  such  of  our  readers  as  are  desirous  of  fuller 
information  to  the  works  of  Bochart,  Scaliger, 
Vossius,  Cumberland,  Dodwell,  Stillingfleet, 
Mosheim,  Cudworth.  and  Warburton.  The  con- 
troversy respects  two  questions,  1.  Was  there  in 
reality  such  a  writer  ?  2.  Was  .he  of  the  very  re- 
mote antiquity  which  his  translator  claims  for 
him  ? 

That  there  was  really  such  a  writer,  and  that 


272 


S  A  N  C  H  O  N  I  A  T  II  O. 


the  fragments  preserved  by  Eusebius  are  indeed 
parts  of  his  history,  interpolated  perhaps  by  the 
translator,  we  are  fully  persuaded.  Eusebius, 
who  admitted  them  into  his  work  as  authentic, 
was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  age.  He 
had  better  means  than  any  modern  writer  can 
have  of  satisfying  himself  with  respect  to  the  au- 
thenticity of  a  very  extraordinary  work,  which 
had  then  but  lately  been  translated  into  the 
Greek  language,  and  made  generally  known  ; 
and  there  is  nothing  in  the  work  itself,  or  at  least 
in  those  parts  of  it  which  he  has  preserved, 
that  could  induce  a  wise  and  good  man  to  ob- 
trude it  upon  the  public  as  genuine,  had  he  him- 
self suspected  it  to  be  spurious.  Too  many  of 
the  Christian  fathers  were  indeed  very  credulous, 
and  ready  to  admit  the  authenticity  of  writings 
without  duly  weighing  the  merits  of  their  claim  ; 
but  then  such  writings  were  always  believed  to 
be  favorable  to  the  Christian  cause,  and  inimical 
to  Paganism.  That  no  man  of  common  sense 
could  suppose  the  cosmogony  of  Sanchoniatho 
favorable  to  the  cause  of  revealed  religion,  a  fur- 
ther proof  cannot  be  required  than  the  following- 
extract  : — '  He  affirms  that  the  principles  of  the 
universe  were  a  dark  and  windy  air,  or  a  wind 
made  of  dark  air,  and  a  turbulent  evening  chaos; 
and  that  these  things  were  boundless,  or  for  a 
long  time  had  no  bound  or  figure.  But  when 
this  wind  fell  in  love  with  its  own  principles, 
and  a  mixture  was  made,  that  mixture  was  called 
desire,  or  Cupid  (iroQoc).  This  mixture  com- 
pleted was  the  beginning  of  the  ((ertertwc)  making 
of  all  things.  But  that  wind  did  not  know  its 
own  production;  and  of  this,  with  that  wind, 
was  begotten  mot,  which  some  call  mud,  others 
the  putrefaction  of  a  watery  mixture.  And  of 
this  came  all  the  seed  of  this  building,  and  the 
generation  of  the  universe.  But  there  were  cer- 
tain animals  which  had  no  sense,  out  of  which 
were  begotten  intelligent  animals,  and  were 
called  Zophesemin,  that  is,  the  spies  or  overseers 
of  heaven ;  and  were  formed  alike  in  the  shape 
of  an  egg.  Thus  shone  out  mot,  the  sun  and  the 
moon,  the  less  and  the  greater  stars.  And  the 
air  shining  thoroughly  with  light,  by  its  fiery  in- 
fluence on  the  sea  and  earth,  winds  were  begot- 
ten, and  clouds  and  great  defluxions  of  the 
heavenly  waters.  And  all  these  things  first 
were  parted,  and  were  separated  from  their 
proper  place  by  <he  heat  of  the  sun,  and  then 
all  met  again  in  the  air,  and  dashed  against  one 
another,  and  were  so  broken  to  pieces  ;  whence 
thunders  and  lightnings  were  made ;  and  at  the 
stroke  of  these  thunders  the  fore-mentioned  in- 
telligent animals  were  awakened,  and  frighted 
with  the  sound  ;  and  male  and  female  stirred  in 
the  earth  and  in  the  sea.'  This  is  their  generation 
of  animals.  After  these  things  Sanchoniatho 
goes  on  saying :  'These  things  are  written  in  the 
Cosmogony  of  Taautes,  and  in  his  memoirs ; 
and  out  of  the  conjectures,  and  surer  natural 
signs  which  his  mind  saw,  and  found  out,  and 
wherewith  he  hath  enlightened  us.'  Afterwards 
declaring  the  names  of  the  winds  north  and  south, 
and  the  rest,  he  makes  this  epilogue:  '  But  these 
first  men  Consecrated  the  plants  shooting  out  of 
the  earth,  and  judged  them  gods,  and  worshipped 
them ;  upon  whom  they  themselves  lived,  and 


all  their  posterity  and  all  before  them ;  to  these 
they  made  their  meat  and  drink  offerings.'  Then 
he  concludes,  '  These  were  the  devices  of  wor- 
ship agreeing  with  the  weakness  and  want  of 
boldness  in  their  minds/  Let  u»  suppose  Euse- 
bius to  have  been  as  weak  and  credulous  as  the 
darkest  monk  in  the  darkest  age  of  Europe,  a 
supposition  which  no  man  will  make  who  knows 
any  thing  of  his  writings,  what  could  he  see  in 
this  senseless  jargon  which  even  a  dreaming 
monk  would  think  of  employing  in  support  of 
Christianity  ?  Eusebius  justly  styles  it  direct 
atheism,  but  could  he  imagine  that  an  ancient 
system  of  atheism  would  contribute  so  much  to 
make  the  Pagans  of  his  age  admit  as  divine  reve- 
lations the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, that  he  should  be  induced  to  adopt,  with- 
out examination,  an  impudent  forgery  not  200 
years  old  as  genuine  remains  of  the  most  remote 
antiquity  ?  If  this  Phenician  cosmogony  be  a 
fabrication  of  Porphyry,  or  of  the  pretended 
translator,  it  must  surely  have  been  fabricated 
for  some  purpose ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  con- 
ceive what  purpose  either  of  these  writers  could 
have  intended  to  serve  by  forging  a  system  so 
extravagantly  absurd.  Porphyry,  though  an  ene- 
my to  the  Christians,  was  not  an  atheistj  and 
would  never  have  thought  of  making  an  atheist 
of  him  whom  he  meant  to  obtrude  upon  the  world 
as  the  rival  of  Moses.  His  own  principles  were 
those  of  the  Alexandrian  Platonists ;  and,  had  he 
been  the  forger  of  the  works  which  bear  the  name 
of  Sanchoniatho,  instead  of  the  incomprehensible 
jargon  about  dark  wind,  evening  chaos,  mot,  the 
overseers  of  heaven  in  the  shape  of  an  egg,  and 
animation  proceeding  from  the  sound  of  thunder, 
we  should  doubtless  have  been  amused  with  re- 
fined speculations  concerning  the  operations  of  the 
Demiurgus  and  other  persons  in  the  Platonic 
Triad.  See  PLATONISM, and  PORPHYRY.  F.Simon 
of  the  oratory  imagines  (Bib.  Crit.  vol.  i.  p.  140) 
that  the  purpose  for  which  the  history  of  Sancho- 
niatho was  forged  was  to  support  paganism,  by 
taking  from  it  its  mythology  and  allegories, 
which  were  perpetually  objected  to  it  by  the 
Christian  writers ;  but  this  learned  man  totally 
mistakes  the  matter.  The  primitive  Christians 
were  too  much  attached  to  allegories  themselves 
to  rest  their  objections  to  Paganism  on  such  u 
foundation ;  what  they  objected  to  that  system 
was  the  immoral  stories  told  of  the  gods.  To 
this  the  Pagan  priests  and  philosophers  replied, 
that  these  stories  were  only  mythologic  allego- 
ries, which  veiled  all  the  great  truths  of  theology, 
ethics,  and  physics.  The  Christians  said  this 
could  not  be ;  Cor  that  the  stories  of  the  gods 
had  a  substantial  foundation  in  fact,  the.-:"  pods 
being  only  dead  men  deified,  who  in  life  had 
like  passions  and  infirmities  with  other  mortals. 
This  then  was  the  objection  which  the  forper  of 
the  works  of  Sanchoniatho  had  to  remove,  if  he 
really  forged  them  in  support  of  Paganism  ;  but, 
instead  of  doing  so,  he  gives  the  genealogy  and 
history  of  all  the  greater  gods,  and  shows  that 
they  were  men  deified  afterdeath  for  the  exploits, 
some  of  them  grossly  immoral,  which  they  had 
performed  in  this  world.  We  have  elsewhere 
given  his  account  of  the  deification  of  Chrysor, 
and  Ouranos,  and  Ge,  and  IJ ypsistos,  and  Muth ; 


SANCHONIATHO. 


273 


but  our  readers  may  wish  to  accompany  him 
•.hrough  the  history  of  Ouranos  and  Chronus,  two 
of  his  greatest  gods  ;  whence  it  will  appear  how 
little  his  writings  are  calculated  to  support  the 
tottering  cause  of  Paganism  against  the  objec- 
tions urged  to  it  by  the  Christian  apologists. 
'  Ouranos,'  says  he,  '  taking  the  kingdom  of  his 
father,  married  Ge  his  sister,  and  by  her  had 
four  sons  ;  Ilus,  who  is  called  Chronus  ;  Betylus ; 
Dagon  who  is  Siton,  or  the  god  of  corn ;  and 
Atlas.     But  by  other  wives  Ouranos  had  much 
issue,  wherefore  Ge,  being  grieved  at  it  and  jea- 
lous, reproached  Ouranos,  so  that  they  parted 
from  each  other.     But  Ouranos,  though  he  parted 
from  her,  yet  by  force  invading  her,  and  lying 
with  her  when  he  listed,  went  away  again  ;  and  he 
also  attempted  to  kill  the  children  he  had  by  her. 
Ge  also    often   defended   or    avenged   herself, 
gathering  auxiliary  powers  unto  her.     But  when 
Chronus  came  to  man's  age,  using  Hermes  Tris- 
megistus  as  his  counsellor  and  assistant  (for  he 
was  his  secretary),  he  opposed  his  father  Oura- 
nos, avenging  his  mother.      But  Chronus  had 
children,  Persephone  and  Athena;   the  former 
died  a  virgin,  but  by  the  council  of  the  latter 
Athena,  and  of  Hermes,  Chronus  made  of  iron  a 
scimitar  and  a  spear.     Then  Hermes,  speaking 
to  the  assistants  of  Chronus  with  enchanting  words 
wrought  in  them  a  keen  desire  to  fight  against 
Ouranos  in  the  behalf  of  Ge ;  and  thus  Chronus 
warring  against  Ouranos,  drove  him  out  of  his 
kingdom,  and  succeeded  in  the  imperial  power. 
In  the  fight  was  taken  a  well-beloved  concubine 
of  Ouranos  big  with  child.    Chronus  gave  her  in 
marriage  to  Dagon,  and  she  brought  forth  at  his 
house  what  she  had  in  her  womb  by  Ouranos, 
and  called  him  Demaroon.     After  these  things 
Chronus  builds  a  wall  round  about  his  house,  and 
founds  Byblus  the  first  city  in  Phenicia.     After- 
wards Chronus,  suspecting  his  own  brother  Atlas, 
with  the  advice  of  Hermes,  throwing  him  into  a 
deep  hole  of  the  earth,  there  buried  him,   and 
having  a  son  called  Sadid,  he  despatched  him 
with  his  own  sword,  having  a  suspicion  of  him, 
and  deprived  his  own  son  of  life  with  his  own 
hand.     He  also  cut  off  the  head   of  his   own 
daughter,  so  that  all  the  gods  were  amazed  at 
the  mind  of  Chronus.     But,  in  process  of  time, 
Ouranos  being  in  banishment,  sends  his  daughter 
Astarte,  with  two  other  sisters  Rhea  and  Dione, 
to  cut  off  Chronus  by  deceit,  whom  Chronus  tak- 
ing, made  wives  of  these  sisters.  Ouranos,  under- 
standing this,  sent  Eimarmene  and  Hore,  Fate 
and  Beauty,  with  other  auxiliaries,  to  war  against 
him ;  but  Chronus,  having  gained  the  affections 
of  these  also,  kept  them  with  himself.     Ouranos 
devised  Bsetulia,  contriving  stones  that  moved  as 
having  life.   But  Chronus  begat  on  Astarte  seven 
daughters,  called  Titanides  or  Artemides  ;  and 
he  begat  on  Rhea  seven  sons,  the  youngest  of 
whom,  as  soon  as  he  was  born,  was  consecrated 
a  god.     Also  by  Dione  he  had  daughters,  and 
by  Astarte  two  sons,  Pothos  and  Eros,  i.  e.  Cupid 
and  Love.     But  Dagon,  after  he  had  found  out 
bread,  corn,  and  the  plough,  was  called   Zeus 
Aratrius.     To  Sedyc,  or  the  just,  one  of  the  Ti- 
tanides bare  Asclepius.      Chronus  had  also  in 
Peraa  three  sons  :  1.  Chronus,  his  father's  name- 
sake.    2.  Zeus  Belus.     3.  Apollo/     T«s  it  Con- 
•  VOL.  XIX. 


ceivable  that  a  writer  so  acute  as  Porphyry,  or 
indeed  that  any  man  of  common  sense,  would 
forge  a  book  filled  with  such  stories  as  these,  to 
remove  the  Christian's  objections  to  the  immoral 
characters  of  the  Pagan  divinities?    The  suppo- 
sition is  impossible.     Nor  is  Sanchoniatho  here 
writing  allegorically,  and  by  his  tales  of  Oura- 
nos, and  Ge,  and  Chronus,  only  personifying  the 
heaven,  the  earth,  and  time.     On  the  contrary, 
he  assures  us  that  Ouranos,  or  Epigeus,  or  Au»- 
tochthon,  was  the  son  of  one  Eliaun  or  Hypsis- 
tos,  who  dwelt  about  Byblus,  and  that  from  him 
the  element  which  is  over  us  was  called  heaven, 
on  account  of  its  excellent  beauty,  as  the  earth 
was  named  Ge  after  his  sister  and  wife.    And 
his  translator  is  very  angry  with  the   Neoteric 
Greeks,  as  he  calls  them,  because  that,  '  by  a 
great  deal  of  force  and  straining,  they  labored  to 
turn  all  the  stories  of  the  gods  into  allegories 
and  physical  discourses.'     This  proves  that  the 
author  of  this  book  did  not  mean  to  veil  the  great 
truths  of  religion  under  the  cloak  of  mythologic 
allegories ;  and  therefore,  if  it  was  forged  by  Por- 
phyry in  support  of  Paganism,  the  forger  so  far 
mistook  the  state  of  the  question  between  him 
and  his  adversaries,  that  he  contrived  a  book, 
which,  if  admitted  to  be  ancient,  totally  over- 
threw his  own   cause.     The  next  enquiry  with 
respect  to  Sanchoniatho  is  his  antiquity.     Did 
he  really  live  and  write  at  so  early  a  period  as 
Porphyry  and  Philo  pretend  ?  We  think  he  did 
not;    and  what  confirms  our  opinion    is  that 
mark  of  national  vanity  and  partiality  in  making 
the  sacred  mysteries  of  his  own  country  original, 
and  conveyed  from  Phoanicia  into  Egypt.    This, 
however,  furnishes  an  additional  proof  that  Por- 
phyry was  not  the  forger  of  the  work  ;  for  he  well 
knew  that  the  mysteries  had  their  origin  in  Egypt 
(see  MYSTERIES),  and  would  not  have  fallen  into 
such  a  blunder.     He  is  guilty,  indeed,  of  a  very 
great  anachronism,  when  he  makes  Sanchoniatho 
contemporary  with  Semiramis,  and  yet  pretends 
that  what  he  writes  of  the  Jews  is  compiled  from 
the  records  of  Hierombalus  the  priest  of  the  god 
Jao;  for  Bochart  has  made  it  appear  highly  pro- 
bable that  Hierombalus  or  Jerom-baal  is  the 
Jerub-baal  or  Gideon  of  Scripture.    Between 
the  reign  of  Semiramis  and  the  Trojan  war  a 
period  elapsed  of  nearly  800  years,  whereas  Gi- 
deon flourished  not  above  seventy  years  before 
the  destruction  of  Troy.     But,  supposing  San- 
choniatho to  have  really  consulted  the  records  of 
Gideon,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  he  flourished 
at  the  same  period  with  that  judge  of  Israel. 
His  atheistic  cosmogony  he  does  not  indeed  pre- 
tend to  have  got  from  the  priest  of  Jao,  but  from 
records  deposited  in  his  own  town  of  Berytus  by 
Thoth,  a  Phoenician  philosopher,  who  was  after- 
wards king  of  Egypt.     Stillingfleet  indeed  thinks 
it  most  probable  that  Sanchoniatho  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  most  remarkable  passages  of 
the  life  of  Jerub-baal  from  annals  written  by  a 
Phoenician  pen.     He  observes  that,  immediately 
after  the  death  of  Gideon,  the  Israelites,  with 
their  usual  proneness  to  idolatry,  worshipped 
Baal-berith,  or  the  idol  of  Berytus,  the  town  in 
which  Sanchoniatho  lived ;  and  from  this  cir- 
cumstance he  concludes  that  there  must  have 
been  such  an  intercourse  between  the  Hebrews 

T 


SAN 


and  Borytians,  that  in  process  of  lime  the  latter 
people  might  assume  to  themselves  the  Jeruh- 
haal  of  the  former,  and  hand  down  his  actions  to 
posterity  as  those  of  a  priest  instead  of  a  great 
commander.  All  this  may  b<  true ;  but,  if  so,  it 
amounts  to  a  demonstration,  that  the  antiquity  of 
Sancboniatho  is  not  so  bigh  by  many  ages  as 
that  which  is  claimed  for  him  by  Philo  and  Por- 
phyry, though  he  may  still  be  more  ancient,  as 
we  think  Vossiushas  proved  him  to  be,  than  any 
other  profane  historian  whose  writings  have  come 
down  to  us,  either  entire  or  in  fragments.  (De 
Hist.  Grsec.  lib.  i.  c.  1).  But,  granting  the  au- 
thencity  of  Sanchoniatho's  history,  what,  it  may 
be  asked,  is  the  value  of  his  fragments,  that  we 
should  take  the  trouble  to  asceriain  whether  they 
be  genuine  remains  of  high  antiquity,  or  the  for- 
geries of  a  modem  impostor  ?  We  answer,  with 
the  illustrious  Stillingrleet,  that  though  those 
fragments  contain  such  absurdities  as  it  would 
be  a  disgrace  to  reason  to  suppose  credible; 
though  the  whole  cosmogony  is  the  grossest  sink 
of  atheism ;  and  though  many  persons  make  a 
figure  in  the  history,  whose  very  existence  may 
be  doubted ;  yet  we,  who  have  in  our  hands  the 
light  of  divine  revelation,  may  in  this  dungeon 
discover  many  excellent  relics  of. ancient  tradi- 
tion, which  throw  no  feeble  light  upon  many 
passages  of  Holy  Scripture,  as  they  give  us  the 
origin  and  progress  of  that  idolatry  which  was  so 
long  the  opprobrium  of  human  nature.  They 
furnish  too  a  complete  confutation  of  the  extra- 
vagant chronology  of  the  Chaldeans  and  Egyp- 
tians, and  show,  if  they  be  genuine,  that  the 
world  is  indeed  not  older  than  it  is  said  to  be  by 
Moses.  We  would  therefore  recommend  to  our 
readers  an  attentive  perusal  of  Cumberland's 
Sanction  iatho. 

BANCROFT  (William),  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, was  born  at  Fresingfield,  in  Suffolk,  in 
1616;  and  admitted  into  Emanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1633.  In  1642  he  was  elected  a 
fellow ;  and,  for  refusing  to  take  the  covenant, 
was  ejected.  In  1660  he  was  chosen  one  of  the 
university  preachers ;  in  1663  was  nominated 
dean  of  York ;  and  in  1664  dean  of  St.  Paul's. 
In  this  station  he  began  to  repair  the  cathedral, 
till  the  fire  of  London  in  1666  employed  his 
thoughts  on  the  more  noble  undertaking  of  re- 
building it,  toward  which  he  gave  £1400.  He 
also  rebuilt  the  deanery,  and  improved  the  reve- 
nue of  it.  In  1668  he  was  admitted  archdeacon 
of  Canterbury  on  the  king's  presentation.  In 
1677,  being  prolocutor  of  the  convocation,  he 
was  promoted  to  be  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
In  1678  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  with 
six  other  bishops,  for  presenting  a  petition  to 
king  James  against  reading  the  declaration  of 
indulgence.  Upon  the  king  withdrawing  himself, 
he  concurred  with  the  lords  in  a  declaration  to 
the  prince  of  Orange  for  a  free  parliament,  and 
due  Indulgence  to  the  protestant  dissenters.  But, 
when  that  prince  and  his  consort  were  declared 
king  and  queen,  his  grace,  refusing  to  take  the 
oaths,  was  suspended  and  deprived.  He  lived 
itely  till  his  death  in  1693.  Hi*  U-arnin-, 
integrity,  and  piety,  made  him  an  exalted  ornn- 
tiient  of  the  church.  He  puMMu-d  n  \olume 
:.i  lv!mo.,  entitled  M  a  from 


SAN 

Machiavel,  Borgia,  and  other  authors;  Familiar 
Letters  to  Mr.  North,  an  8vo.  pamphlet,  and 
three  of  his  sermons  were  printed  together  after 
his  death. 

M  TIFY,  r.fl. 

S  \NCTIFICA'TIOX,  n.  s. 

SANC'TIFIER, 

SAXCTIMO'XIOTS,  adj. 

SAXC'TIMOXV,  n.s. 

SAXC'TITUUE, 
IITY, 

SAXC'TUARIZE,  v.  a. 


•.  UARY,  n.  s. 


Fr.  sanctifier;  Lat. 
sanctifico.  To  make 
holy  ;  free  from  sin, 
or  moral  taint  ;  make 
;a  means  of  holint-ss  ; 
I  secure  from  pollution 
or  violation  :  sanctin- 
cation  and  sanctirier 
J  correspond  with  the 
verb  :  sanctimonious  is  having  the  appearance  of 
sanctity  or  sanctitude,  which  are  synonymous, 
and  signify  holiness;  goodness;  godliness:  to 
sanctuarize  is  to  shelter  under  sacred  privi! 
(obsolete)  :  a  sanctuary  is  a  holy  place  ;  the 
most  sacred  part  of  a  temple  or  place  of  worship  ; 
place  of  protection  ;  asylum  ;  shelter. 

For  if  the  blood  of  bulls,  sprinkling  the  unclean. 
sanctijieth  to  the  purifying  of  the  flesh,  how  much 
more  shall  the  blood  of  Christ!  Heb.  \\.  13. 

The  grace  of  his  ianctijication  and  life,  which 
first  received  in  him,  might  pass  from  him  to  ln> 
whole  race,  as  malediction  came  from  Adam  unto  all 
mankind.  -.cr. 

The  gospel,  by  not  making  many  things  unclean. 
as  the  law  did,  hath  sanctified  those  things  generally 
to  all,  which  partirularly  each  man  to  himself  must 
tunctifu  by  a  reveiend  and  holy  use.  Id. 

Her  pretence  is  a  pilgrimage,  which  holy  under- 
taking, with  most  austere  sanctimony,  she  accom- 
plished. Sliakfjtearf. 

At  his  touch, 

Such  sanctity  hath  heaven  given  his  hand, 
They  presently  amend. 
No  place  indeed  should  murder  tanctuarise. 
Come,  my  boy,  we  will  to  tanctuarti. 
Oft  have  I  heard  of  sanctuary  men  ; 
But  sanctuary  children  ne'er  'till  now. 

There  was  great  reason  why  all  discreet  princes 
should  beware  of  yielding  hasty  belief  to  the  robes 
of  lanctinwnti.  Raleigh. 

He  fled  to  Beverly,  where  he  and  divers  of  his 
company  registered  themselves  sanctuary  men. 

Bacon's  llenrn  VII  . 

Those  judgments  God  hath  been  pleased  to  send 
upon  me,  are  so  much  the  more  welcome,  as  a  means 
which  his  mercy  hath  sanctified  so  to  me  as  to  make 
me  repent  of  that  unjust  act.  King  Charles. 

In  their  looks  divine 

The  image  of  their  glorious  maker  shone, 
Truth,  wisdom,  sanctitude,  serene  and  pure. 

Mi/ton. 

God  attributes  to  place 
No  tanctity,  if  none  be  thither  brought 
By  men  who  there  frequent.  /./. 

About  him  all  the  sanctities  of  heav'n 
Stood  thick  as  stars,  and  from  his  sight  received 
Beatitude  past  utt'rance.  Id. 

They  often  plac'd 
Within  his  sanctuary  itself  their  shrines.  Id. 

The  bishop  kneels  before  the  cross,  and  devoutly 
adores  and  kisses  it  :  after  this  follows  a  long  prayer 
for  the  sanciijiratisn  of  that  new  sign  of  the  cross. 

StWngfteet. 

The  holy  man,  amazed  at  what  he  saw, 
Made  haste  to  sanctify  the  bliss  by  law.       DnjJm 

The  admirable  works  of  painting  were  made  fuel 
for  the  fire  ;  but  some  reliques  of  it  took  sanctuary 
under  ground,  and  escaped  the  common  destiny. 

LI.   Dnfrtsnoy. 


Id. 
Id 
Id. 

Id. 


SAN 


275 


SAN 


A  tanctimonious  pretence,  under  a  pomp  of  form, 
without  the  grace  of  an  inward  integrity,  will  not 
serve  the  turn.  L'Estrange. 

What  are  the  bulls  to  the  frogs,  or  the  lakes  to  the 
meadows  ? — Very  much,  says  the  frog ;  for  he  that's 
worsted  will  be  sure  to  take  sanctuary  in  the  fens. 

Id. 

Those  external  things  are  neither  parts  of  our  de- 
votion, or  by  any  strength  in  themselves  direct 
causes  of  it  ;  but  the  grace  of  God  is  pleased  to 
move  us  by  ways  suitable  to  our  nature,  and  to 
ftmctify  these  sensible  helps  to  higher  purposes. 

South. 

What  actions  can  express  the  entire  purity  of 
thought,  which  refines  and  sanctifies  a  virtuous  man  ? 

Addison. 

Tt  was  an  observation  of  the  ancient  Romans, 
that  their  empire  had  not  more  increased  by  the 
strength  of  their  arms  than  the  sanctity  of  their  man- 
ners. Id. 

Let  it  not  be.  imagined  that  they  contribute  no- 
thing to  the  happiness  of  the  country  who  only  serve 
God  in  the  duties  of  a  holy  life,  who  attend  his 
stimtutirij,  and  daily  address  his  goodness. 

Roger's  Sermons. 

To  be  the  sunctijier  of  a  people,  and  to  be  their 
God,  is  all  one.  Derham's  Physico-Tlieology. 

Truth  guards  the  poet,  sanctifies  the  line.     Pope. 

SANCTION,  n.  s.     Fr.  sanction  :  Lat.  sanctio. 
The  confirmation  which  gives  to  any  thing  its 
obligatory  power;  ratification. 
I  have  killed  a  slave, 

And  of  his  blood  caused  to  be  mixed  with  wine  . 
Fill  every  man  his  bowl.     There  cannot  be 
A  fitter  drink  to  make  this  sanction  in.  Ben  Jonson. 

Against  the  public  sanctions  of  the  peace, 
With  fates  averse,  the  rout  in  arms  resort, 
To  force  their  monarch.  Dryden's  JEneis. 

There  needs  no  positive  law  or  sanction  of  God 
to  stamp  an  obliquity  upon  such  a  disobedience. 

South. 

This  word  is  often  made  the  sanction  of  an  oath  : 
it  is  reckoned  a  great  commendation  to  be  a  man  of 
honour.  Swift. 

The  satisfactions  of  the  Christian  life,  in  its  pre- 
sent practice  and  future  hopes,  are  not  the  mere  rap- 
tures of  enthusiasm,  as  the  strictest  professors  of 
reason  have  added  the  sanction  of  their  testimony. 

Watts. 

Wanting  tanction  and  authority,  it  is  only  yet  a 
private  work.  Baker  on  Learning. 

SANCTORIUS,  or  SANTORIUS,  an  ingeni- 
ous and  learned  physician,  was  a  professor  in  the 
university  of  Padua  in  the  beginning  of  the  se- 
venteenth century.  He  contrived  a  kind  of 
weighing  chair,  by  means  of  which,  after  esti- 
mating the  aliments  received,  and  the  sensible 
discharges,  he  was  enabled  to  determine  with 
great  exactness  the  quantity  of  insensible  perspi- 
ration, &c.  On  these  experiments  he  erected  a 
curious  system,  which  he  published  under  the 
tkle  of  De  Medicina  Statica,  of  which  we  have 
an  English  translation  by  Dr.  Quincy.  Sancto- 
rius  published  several  other  treatises,  which 
showed  great  abilities  and  learning. 

SANCTUARY,  amons  the  Jews,  also  called 
sanctum  sanctorum,  or  holy  of  holies,  was  the 
holiest  and  most  retired  part  of  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem,  in  which  the  ark  of  the  covenant  was 
preserved,  and  into  which  none  but  the  high 
priest  was  allowed  to  enter,  and  that  only  once 
a-year,  to  intercede  for  the  people.  Some  dis- 


tinguish the  sanctuary  from  the  sanctum  sancto- 
rum, and  maintain  that  the  whole  temple  was 
called  the  sanctuary.  To  try  and  examine  any 
thing  by  the  weight  of  the  sanctuary,  is  to  exa- 
mine it  by  a  just  and  equal  scale  ;  because,  among 
the  Jews,  it  was  the  custom  of  the  priests  to'keep 
stone  weights,  to  serve  as  standards  for  regulat 
ing  all  weights  by,  though  these  were  not  at  aM 
different  from  the  royal  or  profane  weights. 

SANCTUARY,  in  the  Romish  church,  is  also 
used  for  that  part  of  the  church  in  which  the 
altar  is  placed,  encompassed  with  a  rail  or  ba- 
lustrade. 

SANCTUS,  SANCUS,  or  SANGUS,  a  deity  of  the 
Sabines,   introduced  among  the  gods  of  ancient 
Rome,  by  the  name  pf  deus  fidius.     He  was  the 
father  of  Sabinus,  the  first  king  of  the  Sabines. 
SAND,  n.  s.          1      Sax.  pand;  and  all  the 
SAKD'BLIND,  adj.      northern  languages.    Par- 
SAND'ED,  [tides  of  loam,  stone,  or 

SAND'ISH,  (gravelly   earth  ;    in   fact, 

SAND'STONE,  n.  s.  \  sundered  stone  :  hence 
SAND'Y,  adj.  J  barren  country  covered 
with  sand  :  sandblind,  having  a  disease  in  which 
sand,  or  small  matters,  appears  to  fly  before  the 
sight :  sanded  is,  covered  with  sand ;  barren ; 
marked  with  small  spots  :  sandish,  loose ;  hav- 
ing the  nature  of  sand :  sandstone,  stone  that 
easily  crumbles  to  sand  :  sandy,  abounding  with, 
or  like,  sand  ;  loose. 

Most  of  his  army  being  slain,  he,  with  a  few  of 
his  friends,  sought  to  save  themselves  by  flight  over 
the  desert  sands.  Knolles. 

Here  i'  the'  sands 
Thee  I'll  rake  up,  the  most  unsanctified.  Sliakspeare. 

My  true  begotten  father,  being  more  than  sand- 
blind,  high  gravelblind,  knows  me  not. 

Id.  Merchant  of  Venice. 
My  hounds  are  bred  out  of  the  Spartan  kind, 
So  flewed,  so  sanded,  and  their  heads  are  hung 
With  ears  that  sweep  away  the  morning  dew. 

Shakspeare. 

Safer  shall  he  be  on  the  sandy  plains, 
Than  where  castles  mounted  stand.  Id. 

Sand  hath  always  its  root  in  clay,  and  there  be  no 
veins  of  tund  of  any  great  depth  within  the  earth. 

Bacon, 

Favour,  so  bottomed  upon  the  sandy  foundation  of 
personal  respects  only,  cannot  be  long  lived. 

Bacon  to  Villiert. 
Her  sons  spread 
Beneath  Gibraltar  to  the  Libyan  sands.         Milton. 

Engaged  with  money  bags,  as  bold 
As  men  with  sand  bags  did  of  old.  Hndibras. 

A  region  so  desert,  dry,  and  sandy,  that  travellers 
are  fain  to  carry  waters  on  their  camels. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

SAND,  CHARLES  Louis,  student  of  theology, 
who  murdered  Kotzebue,  was  born  5th  of  Octo- 
ber, 1795,  at  Wansiedel,  in  the  Fitchetelgeberge, 
where  his  father  held  a  judicial  office.  In  1812 
he  was  sent  to  the  gymnasium  of  Ratislion;  in 
1814  he  entered  the  university  of  Tubingen; 
and  in  1815  joined  the  Bavarian  army,  as  a 
volunteer,  against  the  French.  After  the  peace, 
lie  pursued  his  studies  at  Erlangen,  when,  in 
1817,  his  most  attached  friend  was  drowned  in 
his  presence,  without  his  being  able  »o  render 
him  any  assistance.  In  the  autumn  of  1817, 
he  went  to  the  university  of  Jena,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Burchenshaft.  His  soul  now 


SAN 


i>76 


SAN 


necame  animated  with  that  enthusiastic  devotion 
to  wliat  he  considered  the  amelioration  of  his 
country,  that  was  then  predominant  amongst 
the  youth  of  Germany.  Amongst  the  writers  of 
that  period  who  ridiculed  the  ardour  of  these 
youthful  patriots,  Kotzebue  was  the  most  pro- 
minent. Kotzebue  also  was  discovered  to  be 
acting  at  the  instigation  of  the  Russian  govern- 
ment. Sand,  therefore,  viewed  Kotzebue  as  the 
enemy  of  his  country,  and  considered  that  his 
duty  could  only  be  conscientiously  discharged  by 
the  removal  of  so  powerful  an  enemy  to  her 
liberties.  On  the  afternoon  of  the  9th  of  March, 
1819,  he  went  to  Kotzebue's  residence  at  Men- 
heim,  delivered  him  a  letter,  and  whilst  he  was 
reading,  stabbed  him  with  a  dagger.  He  passed 
down  stairs,  handed  a  paper  to  the  servant,  in- 
scribed, "Death-blow  to  AugustusVon  Kotzebue," 
and  hasting  into  the  street,  knelt  down,  and  ex- 
claimed, "  Long  live  my  German  father-land." 
He  next  attempted  to  destioy  himself,  but  was 
arrested,  tried,  and  executed  on  the  20th  of 
May,  1820.  Kotzebue  died  soon  after  the  mur- 
derous attack. 

SAND,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of  fossils, 
the  characters  of  which  are,  that  they  are  found 
in  minute  concretions ;  forming  together  a  kind 
of  powder,  the  genuine  particles  of  which  are 
all  of  a  tendency  to  one  determinate  shape,  and 
appear  regular  though  more  or  less  complete 
concretions;  not  to  be  dissolved  or  disunited  by 
water,  or  formed  into  a  coherent  mass  by  means 
of  it,  but  retaining  their  figure  in  it ;  transparent, 
verifiable  by  extreme  heat,  and  not  dissoluble  in, 
nor  effervescing  with  acids.  Sands  are  subject 
to  be  variously  blended,  both  with  homogene  and 
heterogene  substances,  &c.,  and  hence,  as  well 
as  from  their  various  colors,  are  subdivided  into, 
1.  White  sands,  whether  pure  or  mixed  with 
other  arenaceous  or  heterogeneous  particles;  of 
all  which  there  are  several  species,  differing  no 
less  in  the  fineness  of  their  particles  than  in  the 
different  degrees  of  color,  from  a  bright  and 
shining  white,  to  a  brownish,  yellowish,  green- 
ish, &c.,  white.  2.  The  red  and  reddish  sands, 
both  pure  and  impure.  3.  The  yellow  sands, 
whether  pure  or  mixed,  are  also  very  numerous. 
4.  The  brown  sands  distinguished  in  the  same 
manner.  5.  The  black  sands  whereof  there  are 
only  two  species,  viz.  a  fine  shining  grayish-black 
sand,  and  another  of  a  fine  shining  reddish-black 
color.  6.  The  green  kind  of  which  there  is  only 
one  known  species,  viz.  a  coarse  variegated 
dusky  green  sand,  common  in  Virginia.  Sand 
is  of  great  use  in  the  glass  manufacture ;  a  white 
kind  of  sand  being  employed  for  making  of  the 
white  glass,  and  a  coarse  greenish  looking  sand 
for  the  green  glass.  In  agriculture  it  seems  to 
be  the  office  of  sand  to  make  unctuous  earths 
fertile,  and  fit  to  support  vegetables,  &c.  A 
vegetable  planted  only  in  sand,  or  in  a  fat  glebe, 
or  in  earth,  receives  little  growth  or  increase ; 
but  a  mixture  of  both  renders  the  mass  fertile. 
Common  sand  is  therefore  a  very  good  addition, 
by  way  of  manure,  to  all  sorts  of  clay  lands :  it 
warms  them,  and  makes  them  more  open  and 
loose. 

By  the  sand  from  the  son-shore  many  valuable 
pieces  of  land  have  been  entirely  lost;  of  wluVli  "»' 


give  the  following  instances  from  Mr.  Pennant :  '  I 
have  more  than  once,'  says  he, '  on  the  east  coasts  of 
Scotland,  observed  the  calamitous  state  of  several 
extensive  tracts,  formerly  in  a  most  flourishing 
condition,  at  present  covered  with  sands,  unstable 
as  those  of  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  The  parish  of 
Fyvie,  in  the  county  of  Aberdeen,  is  now  reduced 
to  two  farms.  Not  a  vestige  is  to  be  seen  of  any 
buildings,  unless  a  fragment  of  the  church.  The 
estate  of  Coubin,  near  Forres,  is  another  melan- 
choly instance.  This  tract  was  once  worth  £300 
a-year,  at  this  time  overwhelmed  with  sand. 
This  distress  was  brought  on  about  100  years 
ago,  and  was  occasioned  by  the  cutting  down, 
some  trees,  and  pulling  up  the  bent-star  which 
grew  on  the  sand  hills ;  which  at  last  gave  rise 
to  the  act  of  15  Geo.  II.  c.  33,  to  prohibit  the 
lestruction  of  this  useful  plant.  The  Dutch 
perhaps  owe  the  existence  of  part  at  least  of 
their  country  to  the  sowing  of  it  on  the  mobile 
solum,  their  sand  banks.  Mr.  Stillingrleet  re- 
commended the  sowing  of  this  plant  on  the 
sandy  wilds  of  Norfolk,  that  its  matted  roots 
might  prevent  the  deluges  of  sand  which  that 
country  experiences.  It  has  been  already  re- 
marked that,  wheresoever  this  plant  grows,  the 
salutary  effects  are  soon  observed  to  follow.  A 
single  plant  will  fix  the  sand,  and  gather  it  into 
a  hillock ;  these  hillocks,  by  the  increase  of  vege- 
tation, are  formed  into  larger,  till  by  degrees  a 
barrier  is  often  made  against  the  encroachments 
of  the  sea;  and  might  as  often  prove  preven- 
tative  of  the  calamity  in  question.  The  plant 
grows  in  most  places  near  the  sea,  and  is  known 
to  the  Highlanders  by  the  name  of  murah ;  to  the 
English  by  that  of  bent-star,  matgrass,  or  mar- 
ram. Linnaeus  calls  it  arundo  arenaria.  The 
Dutch  call  it  helm.  This  plant  has  stiff  and 
sharp-pointed  leaves,  growing  like  a  rush,  a  foot 
and  a  half  long  :  the  roots  both  creep  and  pene- 
trate deeply  into  their  sandy  beds :  the  stalk 
bears  an  ear  five  or  six  inches  long,  not  unlike 
rye ;  the  seeds  are  small,  brown,  and  roundish. 
By  good  fortune,  as  old  Gerard  observes,  no 
cattle  will  eat  or  touch  this  vegetable,  allotted 
for  other  purposes,  subservient  to  the  use  of 
mankind.' 

SAND  Box  TREE.    See  HURA. 

SANDA,  or  SANDAY,  one  of  the  Orkneys, 
twelve  miles  long,  and  from  one  to  three  broad. 
Its  form  is  irregular,  it  is  separated  from  Stron- 
say  on  the  south  by  a  channel  three  miles  broad  ; 
from  Eda,  or  Eday,  on  the  west  by  a  channel  of 
one  mile  and  a  half  broad ;  and  from  north  Ro- 
noldshay  on  the  north  by  a  channel  of  from  one 
to  two  leagues  and  a  half.  The  surface  is  flat, 
particularly  on  the  east  coast,  which  renders  it 
subject  to  inundations  during  the  spring  tides, 
accompanied  with  an  east  wind.  The  soil  is 
mixed  with  sand,  but  produces  good  crops,  when 
well  manured  with  sea-ware ;  which  abounds 
on  the  coast,  and  is  made  into  kelp  in  greater 
quantity  than  in  any  other  island  in  Orkney. 

SAN'DAL,  n.  $.  Fr.  tandtile  ;  I  .at.  xamlalium. 
A  loose  shoe. 

Thus  sung  the  uncouth  swain  to  the  oaks  and  rills. 
While  still  the  morn  went  out  with  mndtils  grey. 

A/I./OU 


SAN 


277 


From  his  robe 

Flows  light  ineffable  :  his  harp,  his  quiver, 
A  nd  Lycian  bow  are  gold  :  with  golden  tandals 
Mis  feet  are  shod.  Prior. 

The  sandals  of  celestial  mold, 

Fledged  with  ambrosial  plumes,  and  rich  with  gold, 
Surround  her  feet.  Pope's  Odyssey. 

The  SANDAL,  in  antiquity,  was  a  rich  kind  of 
slipper  worn  on  the  feet  by  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, made  of  gold,  silk,  or  other  precious  stuff; 
consisting  of  a  sole,  with  a  hollow  at  one  ex- 
treme to  embrace  the  ancle,  but  leaving  the  upper 
part  of  the  foot  bare.  It  was  fastened  on  with 
leather  strings,  which  crossed  several  times  round 
the  lower  part  of  the  leg.  Besides  these  san- 
dals, the  ancients  used  also  other  coverings  for 
the  feet,  which,  like  those  of  our  own  day,  left 
no  part  bare.  Those,  indeed,  often  ascended  as 
hieh  as  the  ancle,  and  even  the  calf  of  the  leg. 
The  proper  term  given  by  the  Romans  to  this  latter 
article  of  dress  was  calceus.  These  were,  how- 
ever, generally  regarded  as  troublesome  and  un- 
easy. The  wearers  took  care  to  provide  them  of 
leather  extremely  supple,  which  was  termed  aluta, 
derivative  of  alumen,  alum,  that  substance  being 
employed  to  produce  the  requisite  softness.  The 
Roman  matrons,  when  assembled  on  occasions  of 
solemnity,  wore  the  alutse  of  white  leather  :  the 
courtezans,  on  the  other  hand,  preferred  the 
sandal,  of  elegant  shape  and  handsomely  em- 
broidered, this  not  hiding  at  all  the  shape  of  a 
pretty  foot.  For  this  reason,  Ovid,  in  his  Art  of 
Love,  counsels  these  amiable  fair  to  conceal 
their  feet,  if  ill  formed,  in  an  aluta  of  dazzling 
white. 

SANDAL  is  also  used  for  a  shoe  or  slipper 
worn  by  the  pope  and  other  Romish  prelates 
when  they  officiate.  It  is  also  the  name  of  a 
sort  of  slipper  worn  by  several  congregations  of 
reformed  monks.  This  last  consists  of  no  more 
than  a  mere  leathern  sole,  fastened  with  latches 
or  buckles,  all  the  rest  of  the  foot  being  left  bare. 
The  capuchins  wear  sandals ;  the  recollets, 
clov«> ;  the  former  are  of  leather,  and  the  latter 
of  wood. 

SANDARACII  GUM  is  a  dry  and  hard  resin, 
usually  met  with  in  loose  granules,  of  the  size 
of  a  pea  or  a  horse-bean,  of  a  pale  whitish  yel- 
low color,  transparent,  and  of  a  resirrous  smell, 
brittle,  very  inflammable,  of  an  acrid  and  aro- 
matic taste,  and  diffusing  a  very  pleasant  smell 
when  burning.  Sandarach  is  esteemed  good  in 
diar 'lisas  and  in  haemorrhagies.  The  varnish- 
makers  make  a  kind  of  varnish  of  it,  by  dis- 
solving it  in  oil  of  turpentine  or  linseed,  or  in 
spirit  of  wine.  That  gum  sandarach  is  only 
produced  from  a  species  of  juniper  was  long  a 
very  common  opinion ;  but  it  appears  to  be  a 
mistake.  The  juniperus  communis,  from  which 
many  have  derived  this  gum,  does  no!  grow  in 
Africa;  and  sandarach  seems  to  belong  exclu- 
sively to  that  part  of  the  world.  The  gum  san- 
darach of  our  shops  is  brought  from  the  southern 
provinces  of  Morocco.  The  tree  which  pro- 
duces it  is  a  Thuia,  found  also  by  M.  Vahl  in 
Tunis.  It  was  made  known  several  years  ago 
by  Dr.  Shaw,  who  named  it  Cypressus  fructu 
quadnvalvi,  Equiseti  instar  articulatis  :  but  nei- 
ther of  these  learned  men  was  acquainted  with 


the  economical  use  of  this  tree;  probably  be- 
cause, being  not  common  in  the  northern  part  uf 
Barbary,  the  inhabitants  find  little  advantage  in 
collecting  the  resin  which  exudes  from  it.  M. 
Schousboe,  who  saw  the  species  of  thuia  in 
question,  says  that  it  does  not  rise  to  more  than 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  at  most,  and  that  the  dia- 
meter of  its  trunk  does  not  exceed  ten  or  twelve 
inches.  It  distinguishes  itself  on  the  first  view, 
from  the  two  other  species  of  the  same  genus 
cultivated  in  gardens,  by  having  a  very  distinct 
trunk,  and  the  figure  of  a  real  tree  ;  whereas  in 
the  latter  the  branches  rise  from  the  root,  which 
gives  them  the  appearance  rather  of  bushes.  Its 
branches  are  also  more  articulated  and  brittle. 
Its  flowers,  which  are  not  very  apparent,  show 
themselves  in  April ;  and  the  fruits,  which  are 
of  a  spherical  form,  ripen  in  September.  When 
a  branch  of  this  tree  is  held  to  the  light,  it  ap- 
pears to  be  interspersed  with  a  number  of  trans- 
parent vesicles  which  contain  the  resin.  When 
these  vesicles  burst,  in  the  summer  months,  a 
resinous  juice  exudes  from  the  trunk  and  branches, 
as  is  the  case  in  other  coniferous  trees.  This 
resin  is  the  sandarach,  which  is  collected  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  carried  to  the 
ports,  from  which  it  is  transported  to  Europe. 
It  is  employed  in  making  some  kinds  of  sealing 
wax,  and  in  different  sorts  of  varnish. 

SAN  DEC,  one  of  the  eighteen  circles  or  districts 
of  Austrian  Galicia.  It  lies  in  the  south-west  of 
the  province,  on  the  borders  of  Hungary,  and  is 
watered  by  the  Donajetz  and  the  Poprad,  the  latter 
being  the  only  river  common  to  Galicia  and 
Hungary.  It  is  of  irregular  form,  and  contains 
1400  square  miles,  with  195,000  inhabitants. 

SANDEMAN  (Robert),  was  born  at  Perth  in 
1723,  and  educated  at  the  university  of  St.  An- 
drew's. Becoming  a  member  of  the  society  of 
Independents,  he  in  1757  published  a  work  en- 
titled, Letters  on  Theron  and  Aspasio,  2  vols. 
8vo.,  in  which  he  attacked  the  Rev.  James 
Hervey,  author  of  Theron  and  Aspasio,  in  the 
most  severe  terms,  and  analysed  all  the  most 
popular  doctrines  advanced  ;n  that  work,  with 
the  most  satirical  criticism.  Mr.  Sandeman  in 
1766  went  over  to  America,  where  a  meeting 
was  erected  for  him  ;  but  preaching  the  doctrine 
of  '  submission  to  the  powers  that  be,'  this  did 
not  suit  the  spirit  of  resistance  to  British  tax- 
ation which  was  then  becoming  daily  more  po- 
pular in  the  American  colonies.  He  died  in 
New  England  in  1772. 

SANDEMANIANS,  a  sect  of  Independents, 
so  named  from  the  preceding  writer.  In  Scot- 
land they  are  called  Glassites,  from  their  founder 
Mr.  John  Glas,  who  was  a  minister  rf  the  esta- 
blished church  in  that  kingdom ;  but,  being 
charged  with  a  design  of  subverting  the  national 
covenant,  and  sapping  the  foundation  of  all  na- 
tional establishments  by  the  kirk  judicatory,  "as 
expelled  by  the  synod  from  the  church  of  Scot- 
land. His  sentiments  are  fully  e^  plained  in  a 
tract  published  at  that  lime,  enti  '<  d  The  Te-ti- 
mony  of  the  King  of  Martyrs,  and  preserved  in 
the  first  volume  of  his  works.  In  consequence 
of  Mr.  Glas's  deposition,  in  1728,  his  adherents 
formed  themselves  into  churches,  conformable 
in  their  institution  and  discipline  to  what  they 


SAN 


278 


SAN 


apprehended  to  be  the  plan  of  the  first  churches 
recorded  in  the  New  Testament.     And  the  pecu- 
liar doctrine  maintained  by  them  may  be  learned 
from  the  works  of   Mr.  John  Glas,  and  from 
Mr.  Robert  Sandeman's  Letters  to  Mr.  Hervey, 
in  which  he  endeavours  to  show  that  his  notion 
of  faith  is  contradictory  to  the  Scripture  account 
of  it,  and  could  only  serve  to  lead  men,  pro- 
fessedly holding  the  doctrines  commonly  called 
(.  'ah  inistic,  to  establish  their  own  righteousness 
upon  their  frames,  inward  feelings,  and  various 
acts  of  faith.     In  these  letters  Mr.  Sandeman 
attempts  to  prove  that  faith  is  neither  more  nor 
less  than  a  simple  assent  to  the  divine  testimony 
concerning  Jesus  Christ  recorded  in  the  New 
Testament;    and    he  maintains   that   the  word 
faith,  or  belief,  is  constantly  used  by  the  apos- 
tles to  signify  what  is  denoted  by  it  in  common 
discourse,  viz.  a  persuasion  of  the  truth  of  any 
proposition ;  and  that  there  is  no  difference  be- 
tween believing  any  common  testimony  and  be- 
lieving the  apostolic  testimony,  except  that  which 
results  from  the  nature  of  the  testimony  itself. 
This  led  the  way  to  a  controversy  among  those 
who  were  called  Calvinists,  concerning  the  nature 
of  justifying  faith  ;  and  those  who  adopted  Mr. 
Sandeman's  notion  of  it,  and  who  received  the 
denomination  of  Sandemanians,  formed   them- 
selves  into   church    order,  in   strict   fellowship 
with  the  Independent  churches  in  Scotland,  but 
holding    no    kind    of    communion   with    other 
churches.    The  chief  points  in  which  this  sect 
differs  from  other  Christians   are  their  weekly 
administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  :  their  love- 
feasts,  of  which  every  member  is   not  only  al- 
lowed but  required  to  partake,  and  which  consist 
of  their  dining  together  at  each  other's  houses, 
in  the  interval  between  the  morning  and  after- 
noon service;  their  kiss  of  charity  used  on  this 
occasion  at  the  admission  of  a  new  member  and 
at  other  times,  when  they  deem  it  to  be  neces- 
sary or  proper;  their  weekly  collection  before 
the  Lord  s  Supper,  for  the  support  of  the  poor, 
and  defraying  other  expenses;  mutual   exhor- 
tation ;  abstinence  from  blood  and  things  strang- 
led ;  washing  each  other's  feet,  the  precept  con- 
cerning which,  as  well  as  other  precepts,  they 
understand  literally  ;   community  of   goods,  so 
far  as  that  every  one  is  to  consider  all  that  he 
has  in  his  possession  and  power  as  liable  to  the 
calls  of  the  poor  and  the  church  ;  and  the  unlaw- 
fulness of  laying  up  treasures  on  earth,  by  set- 
ting them  apart  for  any  distant,  future,  and  un- 
certain use.    They  allow  of 'public  and  private 
diversions,  so  far  as  they  are  not  connected  with 
circumstances  really  sinful ;  but,  apprehending  a 
lot  to  be  sacred,  disapprove  of  playing  at  cards, 
dice,  &c.     They  maintain  a  plurality  of  elders, 
pastors,  or  bishops,   in  each   church ;  and    the 
necessity  of  the  presence  of  two  elders  in  every 
act  of  discipline,  and  at  the  administration   of 
the  I.onl's  Supper.     In  the  choice  of  these  elders 
second   marriages  disqualify  for  the  office ;  and 
they  are  ordained   by  prayer  and  fasting,  impo- 
sition of  hands,  and  giving  the  right  hand  of 
fellowship.     In   their  discipline  they  are  stru  t 
and    severe ;  and    think    thenpelves   oblis 
separate  from   the  communion   and  wor-hip   <>t 
al!  such  religious  societies  as  appr-.u   to  iiiem 


not  to  profess  the  simple  truth  for  their  only 
ground  of  hope,  and  who  do  not  walk  in  obedi- 
ence to  it. 

SAN'DERLING,  n.  s.    Of  uncertain  origin 
A  bird. 

\Ve  reckon  coots,  sanderlings,  pewets,  and  mews. 

(\irfw. 

SAN'DERS,  n.  s.  Lat.  tantalum.  A  kind  of 
Indian  wood. 

Aromatize  it  with  sanders.       Wueman's  Surgery. 

SAN  DEIIS,  or  SA  L  x  DEUS,  in  botany.  See  PTK- 
nocAiiprs,  and  SANTALLM. 

SANDERS  (Robert),  a  Scottish  author,  born 
near  Breadalbane,  in  1727.  He  went  to  London, 
and  compiled,  partly  from  his  own  survey  and 
partly  from  books,  a  work  entitled  The  Complete. 
English  Traveller,  in  folio.  He  next  compiled 
The  Newgate  Calendar.  He  afterwards  became 
amanuensis  to  lord  Lyttleton  ;  and  Dr.  Johnson 
mentions  that  he  was  in  his  lordship's  employ- 
ment when  he  wrote  his  History  of  Henry  11. 
But  of  all  his  writings,  that  which  made  most 
noise  was  his  Gaffer  Graybeard,  an  illil^r-d 
work,  in  4  vols.  12mo.,  in  which  the  most  emi- 
nent dissenting  ministers  of  the  age  were  treat*  'I 
with  very  little  ceremony.  He  died  in  1783. 

SANDERSON  (Robert),  F.  R.  S.,  a  learnt  ci 
and  laborious  antiquary,  who  was  usher  of  the 
court  of  chancery,  and  clerk  of  the  chapel  of  the 
rolls.  He  assisted  Mr.  Ryder  in  publishing  In- 
valuable work  entitled  Foedera;  and  continued  it 
after  his 'death;  beginning  with  the  sixteenth  vo- 
lume, the  title  of  which  says,  Ex  schedis  Thonise 
Rymer,  potissimum  edidit  Robertus  Sanderson, 
1715;  and  ending  with  the  twentieth,  August 
21st,  1735.  He  died  December  25th,  1741. 

SAND'EVER,  n.  s.  Fr.  suindcver.  Defined 
below. 

That  which  our  Enghsn  classmen  call  «/»<..' 
and  the  French,  of  whom  probably  the  name  \\;is 
borrowed,  suinderer,  is  that  recrement  that  is  made 
when  the  materials  of  glass,  namely,  sand,  and  a  tixt 
lixiviate  alkali,  having  been  first  baked  together,  and 
kept  long  in  fusion,  the  mixture  casts  up  the  super- 
fluous salt,  which  the  workmen  afterwards  take  off 
with  ladles,  and  lay  by  as  little  worth.  lini/le. 

SANDING  ISLES,  Pulo  Sanding,  or  San- 
diang,  two  small  islands  off  the  south-west  coast 
of  Sumatra,  near  the  south-eastern  extremity  of 
the  Nassau  or  Poggy  Isles,  in  which  turnup  they 
are  sometimes  included.  They  are  inhabited, 
and  only  remarkable  for  the  production  of  the 
long  nutmeg,  which  grows  wild  ;  and  some  good 
timber,  particularly  of  the  kind  known  by  the 
name  of  marbaw.  An  officer  and  a  few  men 
were  landed  here  in  1769,  with  a  view  to  the 
establishment  of  a  settlement,  but  the  scheme  was 
subsequently  abandoned. 

SANDIVER,  a  whitish  salt,  continually  cast 
up  from  the  metal,  as  it  is  called,  whereof  ulass 
is  made;  and,  swimming  on  its  surface.  i< 
skimmed  off.  Sandiver  is  also  plentifully  thrown 
out  in  the  eruptions  of  volcanoes ;  some  is  of  a 
line  white,  and  others  tinned  bluish  or  yelloss  ish. 
SANDIL'S  (Christopher),  a  celebrated  Soci- 
nian  writer,  born  at  Kouiu^lierj,  in  Prussia,  in 
I  li>l.  lie  wrote  Nuclei^  UJMon:i>  Kcclesiasticae, 
and  various  other  works  in  fas  or  of  his  opinions, 
and  dn  d  it  Amstridum,  in  16HU. 


SANDWICH    ISLANDS. 


279 


SANDOM1R,  a  palatinate  or  province  of  the 
ce\v  kingdom  of  Poland.  It  is  bounded  on  one 
part  by  the  Vistula,  on  another  by  the  Pilica ; 
the  rest  of  the  boundary  is  formed  by  the  palati- 
nate of  Cracow.  Its  area  is  about  4700  square 
miles,  with  448,000  inhabitants.  It  abounds  in 
wood,  and  has  several  sandy  tracks  and  marshes, 
but  in  general  is  of  great  fertility,  and  wants  only 
a  skilful  and  efficient  cultivation  to  render  it  flou- 
rishing. This  palatinate  has  a  greater  variety  of 
minerals  than  is  common  in  Poland.  Sandomir 
was  also  the  name  of  a  palatinate  in  the  old  king- 
dom of  Poland.  It  was  of  considerable  extent, 
but  in  1772  the  part  to  the  right  of  the  Vistula 
was  ceded  to  Austria. 

SANDOMIR,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Poland,  on 
the  Vistula,  opposite  to  the  influx  of  the  San, 
and  the  chief  place  of  the  foregoing  palatinate. 
In  a  remote  age  this  was  the  residence  of  the 
court.  At  present  it  is  a  poor  place,  and  the 
houses  built  of  wood. 

SANDORICUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of  plants  ; 
natural  order  twenty-third,  trihillatae  :  CAL.  quin- 
quedentate ;  petals  five,  and  linear  shaped ;  nec- 
tarium  having  ten  dentoe,  on  which  the  antherse 
grow ;  the  fruit  is  a  drupa,  and  five  in  number, 
each  of  which  has  one  seed.  There  is  only  one 
species,  viz. 

S.  Indicum,  a  native^  of  Africa  and  the  East 
Indies. 

SANDRAT  (Joachim),  a  celebrated  German 
painter  and  author,  born  at  Frankfort,  in  1606. 
He  was  early  sent  to  a  grammar  school,  but, 
showing  an  inclination  for  engraving,  he  was 
allowed  to  follow  his  own  wishes.  He  went  on 
foot  to  Prague,  and  placed  himself  with  Giles 
Sadler,  a  celebrated  engraver,  who  advised  him 
to  study  painting.  He  accordingly  went  to 
Utrecht,  and  studied  under  Gerard  Huntorst, 
who  took  him  to  England,  where  he  staid  till 
1627.  He  then  went  to  Venice,  where  he  copied 
the  paintings  of  Titian  and  Paul  Veronese  ;  and 
thence  went  to  Rome,  where  he  became  eminent, 
lie  then  went  to  Naples,  and  thence  to  Sicily 
and  Malta,  and  through  Lombardy  to  Frank- 
fort, where  he  married.  The  manor  of  Stokau 
having  fallen  to  him,  he  repaired  it  at  a  great 
expense,  but  had  hardly  got  it  finished,  when  it 
was  burnt  by  the  French.  Upon  their  retreat, 
he  rebuilt  it  in  a  better  style  than  ever ;  but,  on 
the  rumor  of  a  second  invasion,  sold  it,  and 
settled  in  Augsburg;  which,  on  his  wife's  death, 
he  left,  and  went  to  Nuremburg,  where  he  set 
up  an  academy  of  painting.  Here  he  also  pub- 
lished several  volumes  on  subjects  relating  to  his 
profession;  the  most  esteemed  of  which  is,  The 
Lives  of  the  Painters,  with  their  Effigies  ;  being 
an  abridgment  of  the  biographical  works  of 
\  asari,  Ridolfi,  and  Van  Mander.  He  painted 
till  he  was  seventy  years  of  age,  and  died  in 
1683,  aged  seventy-seven. 

SANDROCOTTUS,  an  Indian  of  mean  birth, 
contemporary  with  Alexander  the  Great,  who, 
from  the  prodigy  of  a  lion  once  licking  the  sweat 
from  his  brow  as  he  was  sleeping,  prognosticated 
future  greatness  to  himself.  For  impertinence 
to  Alexander,  he  had  been  ordered  out  of  his 
presence,  but,  on  the  death  of  that  conqueror, 


he  actually  made  himself  master  of  a  part  of  the 
country  in  the  hands  of  Seleucus. 

SANDSTOM,  in  mineralogy.  See  MINERA- 
LOGY. 

SANDWICH,  a  borough,  cinque  port,  and 
market-town  in  Eastry  hundred,  Kent,  sixty- 
eight  miles  east  by  south  of  London.  It  contains 
three  parish  churches,  and  was,  previous  to  the 
blocking  up  of  its  harbour  by  the  sand,  a  place 
of  considerable  importance.  It  was  walled  and 
surrounded  by  a  ditch,  and  was  considered  in  an- 
cient times  a  place  of  great  strength.  The  town 
is  irregularly  built,  standing  on  the  bank  of  the 
river  Stowe ;  the  streets  are  narrow  and  incommo- 
dious ;  the  principal  manufactures  are  those  of 
ropemaking  and  shipbuilding.  The  exports  of 
Sandwich  are  grain,  flour,  seeds,  hops,  wool, 
malt,  and  feather.  The  town  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  recorder,  twelve  jurats,  and  twenty-four 
common  councilmen,  and,  being  the  principal 
cinque-port,  the  mayor  carries  a  black  knotted 
staff,  whilst  the  other  cinque-ports  are  only 
allowed  white  ones.  The  members  belong- 
ing to  Sandwich  are  Fordwich,  Deal,  Rams- 
gate,  Reculver,  Sarre,  Stoner,  and  Walmer.  It 
sends  two  members  to  parliament,  who  are  re- 
turned by  the  corporation  and  freemen,  and  it 
also  gives  the  title  of  earl  to  the  family  of  Mon- 
tagu. There  is  an  hospital  for  six  poor  men  and 
as  many  women,  and  another  for  twelve  men, 
dedicated  to  St.  Thomas ;  also  two  good  charity- 
schools.  In  the  town-hall  is  the  council  chamber 
and  court-hall,  in  which  half-yearly  sessions  are 
held.  Market  on  Saturday. 

SANDWICH,  an  island  of  the  Eastern  seas,  op- 
posite New  Ireland.  It  is  rather  low,  and  co- 
vered with  trees.  Long,  of  the  most  westerly 
point,  50°  54'  15'  E.,  lat.  2°  59'26'S. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS,  an  interesting  group  of 
islands,  consisting  of  eleven  islands,  discovered 
by  captain  James  Cook  in  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1778,  lying  between  the  parallels  of  18°  54' 
and  22°  15'  N.,  and  extending  in  longitude  from 
the  meridian  of  154°  54'  to  160°  24'  W.  They 
are  called  by  the  natives  Qwhyee  (Hawaii), 
Mowee  (Maui),  Ranai  (Lanai),  Morotinnee 
(Molokina),  Kahowrowee  (Kahauraui),  Morotoi 
(Molokai),  Woahoo  (Oahu),  Atooi  (Kauai), 
Oneehou  (Niihau),  Oreehoua  (Lihaua  orLiihaua), 
Tahoora  (Kahura). 

Hawaii,  the  easternmost,  and  by  far  the  largest 
of  these  islands,  is  of  a  triangular  shape,  and 
nearly  equilateral.  'The  angular  points  make  the 
north-east  and  southern  extremities.  Its  greatest 
length,  which  lies  in  a  direction  nearly  north 
and  south,  is  eighty-four  miles  and  a  half;  its 
breadth  seventy-two  miles ;  and  it  is  about  293 
miles  in  circumference.  Of  the  six  large  dis- 
tricts into  which  this  island  is  divided,  Ehidu  is 
the  most  healthful  and  fertile.  The  chiefs  at 
Oahu  generally  speak  of  its  exuberance  and 
beauty  with  the  liveliest  expressions  of  recol- 
lected pleasure,  since  Hawaii  is  the  birth-place 
and  cradle  of  sovereignty.  A  great  part  of  the 
coast  presents  only  a  few  trees  growing  out  of 
the  mouldering  remains  of  volcanic  eruptions, 
and  shapeless  slags  of  lava ;  but.  after  ascending 
a  few  hundred  feet,  the  traveller  finds  himseH 
shrouded  in  a  cloud,  and  amid  the  soft  verduie 


280 


SANDWICH    ISLANDS. 


of  a  moii  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  blackcattle, 
which  were  introduced  by  the  circumnavigator, 
have  multiplied  exceedingly ;  and  there  is  reason 
to  believe,  from  the  accounts  given  by  the  na- 
tives who  have  penetrated  into  the  central  parts  of 
ihe  country,  that  its  recesses  contain  a  store  of 
vegetables  to  reward  the  pains,  and  inform  the 
understanding,  of  the  laborious  and  enlightened 
bota-iist.  Mauna  Roa,  or  the  great  mountain,  is 
estimated  to  be  nearly  16,000  feet  high  ;  a  vol- 
canic mountain,  once  the  source  of  superstitious 
fears  and  the  engine  of  priestly  bondage,  as  it 
js  now  the  wonder  of  all  who  visit  Hawaii,  and 
the  w  ished-for  bower  of  their  toil  and  travail. 

Maui  lies  at  the  distance  of  twenty-four  miles 
N.N.E.  from  Hawaii,  and  is  140  geographical 
miles  in  cirumference.  A  low  isthmus  divides 
it  into  two  circular  peninsulas,  of  which  that  to 
the  east  is  called  Oamadua,  and  is  double  the 
size  of  the  eastern  peninsula  called  \Vailukee. 
Its  mountains  are  so  high  that,  by  an  optical  il- 
lusion, their  summits  appear  like  hills  resting 
upon  the  clouds.  Lihaua,  the  residence  of  the 
princess  Nahienaena,  and  of  her  missionary  tu- 
tors, presents  a  very  beautiful  landscape  when 
viewed  from  the  sea,  but  disappoints  the  specta- 
tor as  he  approaches  the  landing  place,  for  want 
of  a  green  carpet  to  conceal  the  disagreeableness 
of  a  dirty  red  soil.  Captain  King  remarks  that 
'  this  pleasant  scene  was  shortly  changed  on 
advancing  a  few  miles  to  the  westward.  The 
Sice  of  the  country  became  totally  different,  the 
shores  and  sides  of  the  hills  had  no  indications 
of  being  inhabited,  and  were  almost  destitute  of 
vegetable  productions.'  '  There  appeared  to  be 
a  rude  mass  of  naked,  barren  rocks,  broken  into 
deep  gulleys,  that  extended  from  the  mountains 
to  the  sea-side.' — Vancouver. 

Lanai  is  about  nine  miles  distant  from  Maui, 
and  lies  to  the  south-west  of  the  passage  between 
these  islands.  The  country,  to  the  south,  is  high 
and  craggy,  but  the  other  parts  of  the  islands 
present  a  better  prospect. 

Oahu  lies  to  the  north-west  of  Molokai,  at  the 
distance  of  about  seven  leagues,  and  is  computed 
to  be  about  forty  miles  long,  and  somewhat  less 
than  eight  in  width.  The  highest  mountain  is 
conjectured  to  be  about  4000  feet  in  height,  and 
was  first  ascended  by  the  writer  of  this  paper  in 
company  with  several  natives  and  two  of  the 
mission  family.  The  nati'tes  mocked  their  dread 
of  a  monstrous  mou  or  lizard,  which  superstitious 
awe  had  created  and  endowed  with  supernatural 
attributes,  by  charging  themselves  with  the  load 
of  warlike  weapons ;  and  after  mou's  ascent  in- 
voked his  fancied  godship  in  tones  of  defiance. 
The  deep  recesses  of  the  mountains  are  rich  in 
the  varied  produce  of  stately  trees  and  other 
vegetable  curiosities.  A  wide  extended  plain, 
called  the  wilderness  of  Weuroa,  runs  obliquely 
across  the  island,  and  is  at  least  300  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Its  fertility  might,  by  in- 
dustrious means,  be  turned  to  a  good  account. 
Between  Kahauraui  and  Maui  lies  the  small  un- 
inhabited island  of  Molokina. 

Molokai  is  only  seven  miles  and  a  half  from 
Maui,  to  the  north-west;  very  barren,  and  nearly 
without  wood. 

Kauai  lies  to  the  north-west  of  Ohau,  and  is 


distant  from  it  about  eighty-one  miles.  The  face 
of  the  country  to  the  north-east  and  north-west 
is  broken  and  rugged,  but  to  the  south  it  is  more 
even ;  the  hills  rise  in  a  gentle  slope  from  the 
sea  side,  and  at  some  distance  back  are  covered 
with  wood. 

Niihau  lies  fifteen  miles  to  the  westward  of 
Tauai.  The  eastern  coast  is  high,  and  rises 
abruptly  from  the  sea ;  but  the  rest  of  the  island 
consists  of  low  ground,  excepting  a  cliff  on  the 
south-east  point.  This  island  produces  the  best 
kind  of  yams  that  are  to  be  obtained  among  the 
islands,  and  the  dracaena  terminalis,  or  tea-root 
(kii),  which  yields,  by  boiling,  ^  luscious  juice 
resembling  molasses. 

Liihaua,  separated  from  Niihau  by  a  channe. 
about  a  mile  in  breadth,  is  of  very  small  extent, 
and  entirely  composed  of  one  barren  rock,  to  all 
appearance  destitute  of  soil,  and  presenting  no 
indication  of  ever  having  been  by  choice  the 
residence  of  human  creatures. 

Kahura  is  a  low  sandy  island,  and  visited  only 
for  the  purpose  of  catching  turtle  and  sea-fowls. 

The  island  of  Hawaii  was  on  the  25th  of 
February,  1794,  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by 
Tamaahamaah,  or,  according  to  the  present  or- 
thography, Kamehameha,  the  king  of  Hawaii, 
who  by  right  of  conquest  became  afterwards  su- 
preme governor  of  all  the  islands,  and  hence  it  is 
evident  that  all  the  Sandwich  Islands  are,  both 
by  discovery  and  cession,  the  property  of  Great 
Britain.  This  is  now  the  more  to  be  insisted 
upon,  because  the  American  government,  pre- 
suming that  the  islands  were  autocratical,  em- 
powered captain  Jones  ofc  the  Peacock  to  ne- 
gociate  a  treaty  of  neutrality  with  the  natives,  in 
which  it  was,  among  other  things,  stipulated  that, 
in  the  case  of  a  war  between  Great  Britain  and 
America,  any  ship  should  be  indemnified  by 
taking  shelter  in  any  of  the  ports  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands.  This  treaty  was  in  a  very  clandestine 
manner  brought  about  through  the  ministry  of 
some  of  the  American  missionaries,  who  in  this 
instance  seem  to  have  forgotten  the  nature  of 
their  high  calling,  and  humbled  themselves  to 
become  the  instruments  of  a  secular,  and  not 
very  honest,  policy.  A  desire  to  blot  out  the 
remembrance  of  the  generosity  of  Great  Britain, 
by  razing  the  memorials  of  her  good  deeds  done 
to  the  islanders,  gave  occasion,  as  the  writer  has 
reason  to  believe,  to  the  following  otherwise  un- 
accountable transaction,  of  which  he  was  an  eye- 
witness:— Returning  one  evening  from  the  c  >n- 
sul's  house  to  his  rooms  at  Whitehall,  the  former 
residence  of  the  late  prime  minister  Karaimoku 
(shortly  after  the  orders  of  the  late  king  and 
queen  of  these  islands  had  arrived),  he  was  sur- 
prised to  see  all  the  principal  chiefs  of  the 
neighbouring  islands  assembled  round  the  door 
of  the  sepulchre  which  had  been  reared  for  the 
reception  of  the  coffins ;  and  yet  more  astonished 
on  entering  to  behold  one  of  the  coffins  just  about 
to  be  lowered  down  into  a  grave  prepared  for  that 
purpose.  His  presence  was  immediately  announc- 
ed by  murmurs  of  the  foreigner  (tahaure),  and  they 
listened  with  submission  to  his  admonition,  that 
charged  them  with  an  unaccountable  piece  of 
ungrateful  conduct  in  removing  these  great 
pledges  of  king  George's  love,  which,  in  the  sen- 


SANDWICH    ISLANDS. 


281 


timents  of  these  islanders,  are  always  accounted 
sacred.  After  some  consultation  the  queen, 
calling  me  aside,  requested  that  I  would  go  and 
ask  the  concurrence  of  Karaimoku,  the  dying 
minister,  who,  in  the  laconic  style  of  authority, 
said,  '  It  is  enough.'  The  design  was  immediately 
dropped,  and  the  dead  suffered  tosleop  in  peace. 
The  face  of  things  since  the  time  of  Cook  has 
been  completely  changed,  the  clou.c  of  vermil- 
tinctured  feathers  once  worn  by  the  chieftains 
has  been  exchanged  for  a  guise  of  European 
fashion,  and  the  plumy  sceptre,  or  kahele,  which 
was  wont  to  preqede  persons  of  distinction,  is 
now  displaced  by  some  foreign  badge  of  rank 
and  office.  Instead  of  the  thrilling  sound  pro- 
duced by  the  combination  of  various  rhythmical 
instruments,  played  in  measured  cadence  to  the 
movements  of  a  dance  which  was  led  in  honor 
of  some  tutelary  divinity,  you  hear  the  curious 
recitative  of  numerous  scholars  chanting  their 
lessons,  as  they  are  taught  to  combine  the  flowing 
sounds  of  their  native  language  into  words  and 
sentences.  Nor  has  the  outward  garb  alone  un- 
dergone a  great  change  since  that  period,  if  we 
may  judge  of  the  present  generation  by  com- 
paring them  with  a  few  old  men  who  are  the 
survivors  of  the  last ;  for  there  has  been  a  great 
falling  oft  in  mental  activity  and  manly  fortitude. 
An  observer  discovers  a  certain  nobility  of  dis- 
position indicated  by  the  carriage  of  the  elder 
race,  and  a  certain  frankness  of  humor,  of  which 
he  cannot  discern  the  slightest  symptons  in  their 
drowsy-headed  offspring  who  crowd  the  courts 
and  dwellings  of  the  chiefs.  In  the  room  of  en- 
gaging in  those  sports  and  gymnic  exercises 
which  were  once  the  favorite  amusements  of  his 
forefathers,  a  native,  when  he  has  finished  the 
task  which  necessity  imposes  on  him,  betakes 
himself  to  his  mat,  and  solaces  his  cares  by  re- 
citing a  psalm  or  portion  of  sacred  scripture, 
which  the  industrious  missionary  has  clothed  in 
the  mother  dialect  of  his  willing  convert. 

An  islander  looks  forward  to  the  time  of  a 
special  assembly  and  examination  of  the  schools 
as  to  a  day  of  general  festivity,  while  all  his 
thoughts  are  taken  up  in  providing  the  best  ap- 
parel for  the  occasion,  and  in  repeating  his  les- 
sons that  he  may  merit  the  public  applause  of 
the  chiefs  and  missionaries.  The  extraordinary 
fondness  which  these  people  exhibit  for  reading 
seems  to  be  a  phenomenon  in  the  human  mind  ; 
since,  from  the  scantiness  of  translated  matter, 
the  same  lesson  is  necessarily  repeated  many 
thousand  times  during  the  days  of  preparation 
preceding  these  general  meetings  :  and  the  in- 
tellectual gratifications  required  must  therefore, 
on  every  view  of  the  subject,  be  but '  a  vanishing 
quantity.'  The  allotted  hours  of  labor,  the  pro- 
portional mean  between  the  longest  and  shortest 
spaces  of  daylight,  are  not  thought  sufficient  for 
the  praxis  of  their  palapala  or  reading,  but  in 
these  seasons  they  borrow  freely  of  the  night,  so 
that,  when  fever  and  pain  have  kept  the  writer 
waking,  he  has  often  heard,  during  the  silent 
watches  of  midnight,  the  disjointed  sounds  of 
murmuring  voices.  This  may  however  be  ex- 
plained by  having  recourse  to  the  superior  prin- 
ciple, that  occupation  is  as  necessary  to  the 
health  of  the  mind,  as  the  stimulus  of  the  non- 


naturals  is  to  that  of  the  body,  and  hence  we  see 
one  reason  why  a  preference  is  given  to  an  exer- 
cise that  demands  so  few  of  our  physical  ener- 
gies. 

The  government  is  at  present  monarchical, 
and  was  at  a  late  period  administered  by  Kaha- 
manu,  the  favorite  queen  dowager  of  Tamelvameha, 
at  whose  nod  all  the  chiefs  and  subordinate  go- 
vernors tremble.  'All  the  land  is  said  to  be 
held  in  fee  by  the  king  or  queen  regent,  who 
can  take  away  or  bestow  it  at  their  pleasure 
The  aristocratic  part  of  the  community  let  their 
lands  by  a  kind  of  feodal  tenure,  which  obliges 
the  tenant  to  render  allegiance  to  his  landlord, 
and,  in  time  of  battle,  to  repair  to  his  standard  ; 
who,  besides  receiving  the  customary  rentage  of 
half  the  produce,  seldom  scruples  to  take  the 
fattest  of  his  swine,  and  the  choicest  part  of  his 
crop.  To  remove  this  great  discouragement  to 
industry,  some  laws  to  secure  the  enjoyment  of 
property  are  highly  necessary.  To  aggravate 
their  miseries,  a  law  was  passed  some  years  ago 
obliging  every  man  to  dispose  of  this  abundance 
to  foreign  ships,  &c.,  by  bringing  it  to  the  pub- 
lic market,  where,  besides  paying  the  clerk,  he 
was  compelled  to  surrender  half  the  price  to  the 
king  ;  but  this  severe  imposition  was  at  the  re- 
commendation of  the  English  consul  taken  off; 
and,  by  the  abolition  of  interdictions  and  various 
species  of  tyranny,  they  begin  to  realize  some  of 
the  advantages  of  freedom.  We  have  often  ad- 
mired the  silence  and  promptitude  with  which 
the  orders  of  the  queen  were  executed ;  the 
minister  who  has  any  particular  part  of  her  pro- 
perty in  charge,  or  whose  business  it  is  to  fill 
any  office  of  government, -seldom  requires  more 
than  the  silent  expression  of  the  countenance  to 
interpret  the  will  of  his  mistress. 

They  all  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the 
English  government,  and  are  impatiently  waiting 
for  its  interposition  and  advice  in  framing  a  few 
laws  or  maxims  for  adjusting  their  disordered 
state  of  affairs.  Though  there  are  differences  of 
opinion  as  to  what  rules  they  ought  to  be  governed 
by,  and  some  complaints  of  the  great  austerity  of 
the  missionary  discipline,  yet  there  is  not  the 
slightest  symptom  of  disturbance.  The  common 
people  have  sold  and  forgotten  the  use  of  their  na- 
tive arms  ;  and  the  ambition  of  ruling  over  others 
is  displaced  by  the  desire  of  appearing  more 
learned,  more  religious,  and  better  habited,  than 
their  fellow  creatures. 

In  order  to  train  and  bring  xinder  subjection 
the  humors  of  the  younger  people,  an  absolute 
authority  over  them  seems  necessary.  For  where 
diet,  lodging,  and  climate  tend  to  foster  the  con- 
cupiscible  part  of  our  nature,  and  the  restraints 
of  legal  enactments,  custom  and  example  are 
scarcely  felt ;  the  cordial  draught,  mingled  by 
Circe  for  the  unwary,  becomes  far  more  taste- 
ful, and  its  draught  attended  with  less  remorse 
than  in  societies  where  legislation  and  the  judg- 
ment of  civil  courts  provide  pains  and  penalties 
for  transgressors.  If  we  regard  individual  de- 
pravity, the  Sandwich  islander  wrll  appear  to  ad- 
vantage over  many  civilised  nations ;  but,  to 
institute  a  just  comparison,  we  must  consider 
him  in  a  state  of  society  wherein  he  will  come 
very  short  of  an  equality  with  most,  there  being 


282 


SANDWICH     ISLANDS. 


little  of  what  Tully  calls  communitas,  in  which 
condition  each  individual  member  contributes 
his  quota  of  benefits,  that  he  may  be  a  joint  par- 
taker in  the  common  stock  of  happiness. 

The  counterpart  of  the  sirens,  failed  in  ancient 
story,  who  have  been  deemed  by  some  to  exist 
only  in  the  imagination  of  poets,  may  be  found 
at  Oahu,  who  win  not  by  a  voice  tuned  to  en- 
chant by  melodious  warbling,  but  by  the  far 
more  powerful  spell  of  female  suasion,  that  — 


O'<mc  aicptirj  iriXaaii  KOI  ^Ooyyuiv  dtouati 

£«OT;V(J»V  TV  fovri  rvvt),  fat  v//~ta  TtKvi 

(fucaJSt  voffrijaavrt  Traptorarat,  ovS't  jawvrat. 

He  who  was  so  void  of  understand  ing  as  to  listen 
to  the  pleasing  sorcery  of  their  enticements  never 
after  felt  any  longings  after  the  blandishments  of 
home,  nor  the  fond  caresses  of  his  wife  and 
children.  And  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  wit- 
ness a  youth  of  respectable  parentage  and  hope- 
ful parts,  allured,  on  his  first  visit  to  Oahu,  into 
the  vortex  of  sensual  delights,  and,  after  reeling 
a  few  jears  in  dizzy  dissip.it  ion,  snatched  away 
by  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  unless  he  be  removed  from 
inevitable  ruin  by  some  forceful  interposition. 
One  would  not  be  inclined  to  predict  that  a  gen- 
tleman, who  had  been  fostered  in  the  bosom  of 
society,  could  prefer  a  life  at  Oahu,  where  there 
are  none  of  those  things  which  we  significantly 
call  comforts,  to  his  maternal  hearth,  where  they 
come  unbought  and  unasked  for.  But  we  have 
seen  instances  in  which  all  the  advantages  and 
all  the  charities  of  life  were  exchanged  for  a 
pleasing  companion  and  the  delicious  liberty  of 
Honolulu.  We  have  adverted  to  this  effect  upon 
the  minds  of  foreigners  by  way  of  extenuating, 
if  it  can  be  admitted  as  an  extenuation,  the  li- 
centious habits  of  a  great  proportion  of  the  na- 
tives, and  to  give  the  reader  some  perception  of 
the  baits  which  pleasure  holds  out  in  a  place 
wherein  a  stranger,  at  the  first  glance,  would  not 
expect  to  find  such  a  profusion  of  her  dainties. 

Few  encomiums  can  be  justly  bestowed  upon 
the  moral  rectitude  and  integrity  of  their  minds, 
but  in  spite  of  degeneracy  there  have  been  many, 
and  still  are  a  few  remaining,  who  in  this  respect 
might  be  patterns  for  people  of  a  better  educa- 
tion. The  frequent  examples  of  falsehood  and 
covenant-breaking  arise  not  altogether  from  a 
malignity  of  nature,  but  in  some  measure  from 
the  want  of  a  customary  or  intuitive  discrimina- 
tion of  right  and  wrong,  and  of  consequence  the 
selfish  passions,  receiving  little  or  no  check  from 
enlightened  reason,  are  allowed  to  gain  the  as- 
cendant ;  and  hence,  unless  profit  be  in  the  pros- 
pective, a  benefit  seldom  finds  a  counterpart  in 
the  mutual  good  offices  of  friendly  intercourse. 
To  make  a  native  a  present  in  order  to  entice 
him  to  engage  in  any  work  of  utility  would  be 
the  most  effectual  way  to  baffle  the  hopes  of  per- 
formance ;  and  we  have  been  taught  by  experi- 
ence the  necessity  of  deliberating  when  about 
to  recompense  a  servant  for  his  services,  whe- 
ther we  could  dispense  with  his  attendance  for 
several  days  ;  for  no  sooner  was  he  in  possession 
of  the  reward  than  he  presently  disappeared  to 
enjoy  it.  There  is  radically  in  their  disposition 
a  certain  waywardness  and  inclination  to  play 
the  truant,  the  growth  of  a  long-enjoyed  free- 


dom from  established  rules  of  action,  which, 
order  to  render  them  .capable  .  of  discharging 
those  duties  which  devolve  upon  us  from  the  re- 
lations of  civil  and  social  life,  must  be  cured; 
and  this  cannot  be  done  by  any  foreigner,  whether 
priest  or  layman,  \vithout  the  coercive  authority 
of  some  superior  chief  exerting  itself  in  pursuing 
the  runnaways  to  their  hiding  places,  and  bring- 
ing them  back  to  their  fancied  hard  bondage.  All 
the  experiments  we  have  seen  tried  or  heard  re- 
lated frustrated  the  exertions  of  their  foster  pa- 
rents, except  on  one  who  was  a  girl,  confided 
to  the  care  of  a  respectable  missionary  by  a  chief 
woman  of  Hawaii,  who,  as  often  as  the  maiden 
eloped  from  confinement  despatched  her  people 
in  all  directions  to  find  out  the  place  of  her  con- 
cealment. The  damsel  did  not,  as  might  have 
been  expected,  retain  any  resentment,  but  re- 
quited their  pains  by  waiting  on  her  sick  master 
and  mistress  unaided,  with  the  most  diligent  and 
loving  attention.  In  the  summer  of  1827,  when 
we  visited  the  family,  the  little  maid  was  still 
living  with  them,  and  appeared  an  emblem  of 
good  nature  and  assiduity.  \\e  notice  this  fact, 
because,  while  it  illustrates  their  native  disposi- 
tion, it  encourages  the  philanthropist  to  hope 
that  if  the  same  discipline,  grievous  indeed  for 
a  time  to  the  child,  could  be  made  use  of,  many 
who,  without  education  would  be  given  up  to 
lasciviousness,  might  by  timely  interposition 
be  retrieved  and  made  to  fulfil  with  applause 
those  duties  which  heaven  has  ordained  for  our 
general  benefit. 

There  is  one  tiling,  independent  of  a  genial 
climate,  which  tends  to  encourage  the  promiscu- 
ous intercourse  of  the  sexes,  namely,  on  particu- 
lar occasions  the  herding  together  of  many  hun- 
dreds of  both  sexes  within  the  confines  of  one 
apartment  or  dwelling-house,  who,  during  the 
time  of  repose,  when  they  are  extended  or  rather 
strewed  upon  the  matting,  adjust  themselves  so 
as  mutually  to  serve  as  pillows  for  each  other, 
and  by  their  numerous  intersections  form  such 
a  species  of  network  as  a  traveller  is  seldom  in- 
dulged with  a  sight  of.  Besides  there  is  a  cer- 
tain roving  propensity  among  the  better  sort, 
especially  derived  from  an  old  custom  of  sojourn- 
ing but  a  short  season  in  any  province  or  island 
and  this  practice  was,  anterior  to  the  port  town 
of  Honolulu  becoming  the  emporium  of  the 
whole  group  of  islands,  so  prevalent,  that  these 
successive  pilgrimages  answered  the  purpose  of 
a  sort  of  memorial  notation  for  measuring  the 
time  elapsed  since  the  happening  of  any  import- 
ant event.  But  since  it  is  not  practicable  to 
come  at  all  the  foreign  commodities  in  so  expe- 
ditious a  manner  as  at  Honolulu,  the  chiefs  who 
reside  there  content  themselves  by  indulging  this 
hereditarypropensity  to  peregrinations  on  a  smaller 
scale,  and  with  removing  to  houses  newly  erected 
by  themselves  or  their  friends  and  equals,  and 
hence  the  privileges  of  the  host  or  hostess  being 
in  no  respect  different  from  those  of  the  gu 
a  stranger,  on  his  first  visit,  finds  it  difficult  to 
distinguish  the  occasional  inmates  from  the  ori- 
ginal proprietor  of  the  tenement.  We  have  been 
told  that  Tamahnmeha,  who  subjugated  all  the 
inlands  to  the  yoke  of  Hawaii,  being  aware  of  this 
disposition  of  his  subjects,  when  he  had  built  ;• 


SANDWICH     ISLANDS. 


283 


house,  levied  the  toll  of  a  crown  upon  every 
chief  and  commoner  who  came  to  visit  him  in  his 
new  residence  ;  but  such  is  the  excess  of  this  pe- 
culiar species  of  curiosity  and  fondness  for  no- 
velty, that  I  never  heard  but  that  this  exaction 
was  cheerfully  paid,  though  money  was  not  at 
that  time  very  plentiful  among  them.  In  their 
intellectual  character  they  sometimes  evince  a 
degree  of  shrewdness  for  which  an  observer,  from 
a  contemplation  of  some  parts  of  their  mental 
exertion,  would  not  antecedently  be  inclined  to 
give  them  credit ;  to  mention  an  instance  or  two 
which  fell  under  my  own  notice : — While  a  nu- 
merous circle  of  natives,  whom,  at  the  writer's 
departure,  he  for  the  first  time  admitted  into  his 
room,  were  offering  various  articles  of  native  art 
for  sale  to  one  of  his  brother  officers,  he  remarked 
to  him  that  a  fisherman  was  exhorting  one  with 
whom  he  was  in  treaty  not  to  lower  his  demands ; 
but  the  former,  guessing  the  nature  of  our  com- 
munication, very  gravely  told  the  writer  that  as 
his  conversation  was  addressed  to  another  he  had 
no  business  to  apply  or  hear  any  part  of  it.  A 
person  who  was  steward  of  all  the  sandal-wood 
exported  from  Oahu  was  accused  of  embez- 
zling his  master's  property ;  the  chief,  after  re- 
flecting a  few  minutes,  said,  in  reply,  '  I  know 
that  this  man  robs  me,  but  he  will  not  allow 
another  to  do  so ;  now  I  know,  if  I  trust  you,  that 
you  will  not  only  rob  me  yourself,  but  suffer 
others  to  do  it.'  Nothing  can  be  more  complete 
than  the  dominion  which  the  Christians  have  ob- 
tained over  their  minds,  nor  any  thing  surpass 
the  eagerness  which  they  evince  to  be  better  ac- 
quainted with  the  statutes  and  ordinances  of 
Holy  Writ. 

The  American  missionaries,  who  have  been 
chiefly  instrumental  in  changing  the  features  of 
these  islands,  are,  in  the  relative  sense  of  lan- 
guage, men  of  unblemished  moral  character, 
notwithstanding  the  strange  load  of  calumnies 
and  obloquy  which  has  been  cast  upon  them 'by 
their  adversaries  ;  for  none  of  the  many  grievous 
charges  which  they  had  brought  against  the 
missionaries  could  be  made  good  when  they  were 
convened  in  a  public  manner  for  the  specific 
purpose  of  finding  them  guilty ;  and  so  little 
foundation  had  their  railings  in  trath  and  verity 
that  they  speedily  dropped  the  cause,  and  were 
fain  to  change  sides  with  the  defendants.  The 
capital  offence  which  the  missionaries  have  given 
to  the  residents  and  visitors  is  by  instigating  the 
chiefs  to  prevent  the  intercourse  of  the  unmar- 
ried women  with  foreign  suitors,  by  prohibiting 
their  going  on  board  the  vessels.  The  moral 
character  of  the  missionary  is  not  to  be  im- 
peached because  an  enlightened  judgment  does 
not  always  lead  him  to  frame  the  best  schemes 
and  adopt  the  most  eligible  methods  for  gaining 
his  purpose.  Men  of  no  great  learning,  and  less 
acquaintance  with  secular  matters,  often  en- 
deavour to  make  the  general  rule  efficient  with- 
out taking  into  the  account  those  corrections 
which  the  various  modifications  to  which  it  is 
subjected  when  put  in  practice  might  seem  to 
require.  The  logic  of  the  missionary  teaches 
him  to  argue  thus : — '  Hath  not  the  Scripture 
Slid  it,  and  shall  men  presume  to  add  to  or  take 
from  that  book  ?'  No  :  but  a  divine  command- 


ment sometimes  resolves  itself  into  cue  o  a 
more  general  influence  ;  as,  for  example,  that  of 
•keeping  the  sabbath  holy  does  into  that  precept 
to  show  mercy  and  kindness  to  all  God's  crea- 
tures. To  cut  off  occasion  for  cavilling  we  will 
divest  their  reports  of  that  machinery  which 
has  dignified  the  progressive  issue  of  the  labors, 
and  briefly  sum  up  the  effect  of  their  exertions, 
which  we  think  every  wise  man  will  allow  to  be 
highly  beneficial.  They  have  taught  the  idolaters, 
as  far  as  the  instruments  of  communication 
assist  them,  the  unity  of  the  God-head,  and  the 
infinite  perfection  of  the  divine  attributes,  the 
scope  and  design  of  revelation,  and  the  obliga- 
tion of  moral  virtues.  They  have  fixed  the 
varying  sounds  of  language  in  a  permanent 
orthography,  and  have  instructed  the  majority  of 
the  natives  in  the  nature  and  use  of  these 
symbols,  so  that  they  can  read  what  is  written 
and  communicate  with  their  friends  by  means  oi 
letters ;  and,  lastly,  they  have  prevented  an  un- 
speakable deal  of  hard  usage  by  reviving  the 
primeval  law  which  ordained  that  man  was  not 
only  the  head,  but  the  protector  of  his  helpmate. 

There  is  one  phenomenon,  though  familiar  to 
all,  which  a  traveller  in  ascending  the  moun- 
tains, if  he  possesses  any  relish  for  the  sublime 
and  beautiful,  cannot  fail  to  admire ;  this  is  the 
appearance  of  rainbows  in  arcs  of  various 
curvatures,  hung  as  it  were  in  the  ample  void 
of  the  deep  valleys  below  him :  sometimes  a 
thread  or  two  only  of  the  complex  twine  of 
ligh{  curving  to  the  sun's  altitude,  are  spread  on 
the  bosom  of  a  hill ;  at  others  the  purpled  scarf 
of  iris,  like  an  oblique  zone,  partly  encircles  one 
of  the  lesser  mountains,  and  thence  it  conies  to 
pass  that  this  strange  imagery,  added  to  other 
entertainments  of  nature,  beguile  the  mind  from 
regarding  the  concernments  of  the  body,  which 
is  toiling  through  black  mud  and  drenching 
rains  to  climb  the  headlong  ascent  of  some 
lofty  eminence.  In  the  year  1827,  August  18thy 
when  crossing  the  wilderness  of  Wairoa,  we 
witnessed  a  rainbow  which  seemed  best  fitted  to 
make  the  way-faring  man  turn  aside  and  wonder 
at  the  bright  enchantment;  the  primary  bow 
appeared  like  a  solid  arch,  with  its  two  ends 
resting  on  the  plain  a  few  paces  from  us,  and 
was  strengthened  by  three  supernumerary  red 
arches  of  unusual  splendor ;  the  secondary  bow 
was  not  complete,  but  had  one  supernumerary 
arch.  This  glorious  apparition  appeared  to  a 
lively  imagination  calculated  to  afford  a  glimpse 
at  a  similitude  of  those  transcendant  spectacles 
described  by  St.  John  and  the  prophet  Ezekiel. 

The  frequent  showers  which  fall  in  the  higher 
parts  of  this  island  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
trade  wind,  which  brings  along  with  it  a  mass 
of  vapors.  These  being  impelled  by  the  current 
of  air  are,  in  order  to  surmount  the  obstruction 
of  the  interposing  ridges,  obliged  to  ascend  into 
a  region  of  less  relative  heat  and  density,  where 
the  atmosphere,  being  unable  to  hold  the  vapory 
particles  any  longer  in  solution,  sheds  them 
upon  the  brows  of  the  highest  mountains. 

Die.l. — The  vegetable  called  poe  may  be 
justly  said  to  be  the  staff  of  life,  and  to 
an-iver  the  purpose  of  bread  among  us.  This 
is  made  by  first  roasting  and  then  macerating 


28* 


SANDWICH    ISLANDS. 


the  roots  of  the  taro  till  they  can  be  reduced  by 
kneading  and  the  gradual  admixture  of  water  to 
a  pulpy  solution,  winch,  after  it  has  remained  in 
calabashes  a  few  hours  to  acquire  of  fermenta- 
tion a  slight  degree  of  acidity  either  with  or 
without  a  little  animal  food,  forms  the  »tay  of  a 
Sandwich  islander's  diet.  The  nauseous  custom 
of  eating  dogs  is  very  much  tempered  in  the 
imagination  by  observing  in  what  manner  the 
animal  is  nurtured,  that  it  never  goes  abroad 
without  being  carried,  and  that  it  eats  of  the 
same  morsel  and  drinks  out  of  the  same  cup  as 
its  mistress.  The  flesh  is  thus  rendered  more 
wholesome  and  palatable  than  that  of  the  swine, 
whose  feeding  is  not  half  so  delicate.  Modern 
cookery  has  not  devised  a  method  more  simple 
or  more  effectual  for  dressing  meat,  without 
hardening  the  muscular  fibre  or  dissipating  the 
savory  juices,  than  the  custom  used  from  time 
immemorial  of  wrapping  up  the  flesh  in  the  suc- 
culent leaves  of  the  taro,  and  submitting  it  to  the 
action  of  heated  stones  in  an  oven  hollowed  out 
of  the  ground.  This  viand,  when  served  up  with 
the  vegetable  sauces,  is  called  luau. 

We  may  specify  the  following  as  the  principal 
productions  of  these  islands: — 1.  Oliia,  me- 
trosideros,  a  species  in  which  this  country  is 
comparatively  rich,  are  distinguished  by  some 
adjunctive  epithet  importing  their  respective 
uses  or  properties.  2.  Ohia-ai,  or  edible  ohia, 
which,  instead  of  the  capsules  borne  by  the  rest 
of  the  genus,  yields  a  pear-shaped  fruit  of  a  very 
mild  and  juicy  nature.  This  is  a  tree  of  pecu- 
liar beauty  and  stateliness,  and  the  large  dark 
green  leaves  are  strikingly  set  off  by  the  bunches 
of  red  flowers  which  are  followed  by  clusters  of 
fruit -garnishing  the  lower  part  of  the  branches  in 
rosy  prufusion.  3.  Pilo,  a  species  of  capparis, 
bearing  a  large  white  flower  singly  from  the 
bosoms  of  alternate,  smooth,  elliptical  leaves, 
and  an  oblong  yellow  berry.  4.  Limii,  a  gene- 
ral name  for  the  submarine  productions  of  that 
part  of  cryptogamous  botany  called  algae,  but 
particularly  of  the  various  species  of  fucus 
which  are  made  into  saline  pickles,  and  are  very 
much  relished  by  them ;  a  peculiar  sort  called 
kala  is  the  most  esteemed.  Every  species  has 
its  appropriate  name.  5.  Kukut,  aleurites  tn- 
bloba,  or  candle-nut  tree.  The  hoary  foliage  of 
this  tree  diversifies  the  hills  with  the  appearance 
of  white  patches.  The  nuts,  when  divested  of 
their  integuments,  were  formerly  set  in  order 
upon  a  sharp  stick,  and  burnt  in  the  room  of 
candles.  They  also  yield  by  expression  an  oil 
that  has  the  practical  uses  of  linseed  oil.  6.  Ko, 
corelia  sebestena,  a  large  shady  tree  which  grows 
by  the  sea  side.  This  genus  is  chiefly  charac- 
terised by  having  a  divided  style,  which,  with  its 
globular  stigmata,  resembles  the  figure  of  that 
kind  of  ancient  scourge  called  scorpions.  7.  Ko, 
saccharum,  the  sugar-cane,  which  grows  wild  on 
the  banks  of  rivulets,  has,  by  cultivation,  been 
modified  into  at  least  twenty  varieties,  dis- 
tinguished from  one  another  by  the  color  of  the 
stem,  sheath,  and  midrib  of  the  leaf,  and  ahe 
variations  of  its  surface.  Were  industry  as 
kind  to  this  people  as  nature  is  in  the  production 
of  this  plant,  the  making  of  sugar  might  be 
made  a  manufacture  of  great  importance  to  them. 


8.  Ka,  a  species  of  cyperus,  the  root  of  which 
affords  a  gluey  substance,  used  in  glazing  and 
scenting  their  native  cloth.  The  odor  is  of  such 
a  narcotic  nature  that,  if  a  piece  of  cloth  treated 
in  this  way  be  allowed  to  remain  in  a  close  room, 
it  is  apt  to  affect  the  person  who  inhabits  it 
with  an  intolerable  sickness,  which  continues 
till  the  offensive  material  is  removed.  9.  Hapu, 
cibotiumchamoisai,  the  ark-formed,  distinguished 
from  the  Dicksonia  by  the  determinate  figure  and 
cartilaginous  nature  of  its  capsules,  which  are  a 
stem  of  that  genus  seated  upon  the  margin  of  the 
frond.  From  a  stock  of  about  a  foot  high  usually 
issue  several  doubly  winged  fronds;  this  is 
crowned  with  convolute  bundles  of  brownish 
silk,  which  was  formerly  made  into  pillows  and 
cushions.  The  hapu  is  sometimes  roasted  and 
eaten  ;  but,  from  the  admixture  of  woody  matter, 
is  not  very  nutritious,  nor  very  easy  of  digestion. 
10.  le,  climbing  pandanus,  the  leaves  at  the  top 
of  the  branch  expand  and  form  a  cup-like  re-* 
ceptacle  for  the  fruit,  which,  by  the  absorption 
of  oxygen,  change  to  an  acetous  pulp.  This,  as 
well  as  the  ripening  berries,  with  which  branched 
spikes  are  closely  studded,  is  greedily  devoured 
by  the  little  birds.  The  stem  is  about  an  inch  in 
diameter,  sending  forth  many  radicles,  which 
attach  themselves  to,  and  imbibe,  the  juices  of 
the  larger  trees,  particularly  the  mimosa,  hetero- 
phylla,  or  hoa.  The  tree,  being  robbed  of  its 
nutriment,  after  a  few  years  begins  to  show 
signs  of  decay,  becomes  stag-headed,  and  ulti- 
mately dies.  1 1 .  Thoa,  mimosa  heterophylla,  re- 
markable for  the  transformation  of  its  leaves. 
This  alienation  is  accounted  for  by  supposing 
that  the  plastic  substance  provided  by  nature  for 
the  leaf  is  appropriated  by  the  leaf-stalk  ;  for,  in 
the  younger  trees,  it  may  be  traced  from  an  in- 
cipient winged  expansion,  till  it  ends  in  a  single 
uniform  leaf,  at  which  time,  the  power  of  further 
vegetation  being  exhausted,  the  numerous  leaflets, 
following  an  inverse  ratio  in  number  and  size ; 
disappear.  The  wood  of  this  tree  is  very  useful 
in  the  construction  of  canoes.  12.  Thi,  the 
oxalis  and  marsilea  quadrifoliata,  which  latter 
genus  is  characterised  by  having  a  receptacle 
rising  from  the  root,  and  forming  a  box,  which 
contains  many  rows  of  capsules,  separated  by  the 
doublings  of  a  subtile  membrane.  The  roots  of 
this  water  plant,  by  their  mode  of  propagation, 
weave  a  kind  of  net-work,  which  we  have  seen 
the  chief  women  convert  into  a  scarf,  and  wear 
about  their  necks  and  shoulders.  13.  Orana,  a 
shrub  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  urtica;,  be- 
longing to  the  genus  morens,  furnishes,  from  the 
woody  fibres  of  the  bark,  a  fine  material  for  the 
making  of  cordage.  14.  Ahuhu,  tephosia  pirca- 
toria,  the  bark  used  for  poisoning  fish.  15. 
Vthi,  a  species  of  grasshopper  roasted  and  eaten. 
16.  Iriiahi,  somtolum  or  sanders  wood,  an  im- 
portant article  of  commerce  with  China,  but,  like 
other  sources  of  national  wealth  which  are  not 
the  gradual  result  of  honest  industry,  has,  by 
inducing  an  over-confident  hope  in  the  ade- 
quacy of  their  means,  brought  upon  the  unwary 
people  a  huge  mass  of  debts,  of  which,  unless  they 
continue  to  pursue  the  plan  proposed  by  his  Bri- 
tannic majesty's  consul,  in  erection  of  a  poll  tol! 
they  will  not  speedily  disencumber  themselves. 


SANDWICH    ISLANDS. 


285 


Pastimes. — It  has  been  already  hinted  that 
scarcely  any  remnant  of  their  elder  games  and 
exercises  are  now  left  to  give  the  traveller  some 
notion  of  past  times,  and  hence,  if  a  rare  accident 
does  not  favor  him,  he  must  learn  their  nature 
from  the  relations  of  the  old  people.  Pohinehine 
is  a  game  of  chance,  wherein  several  folded 
pieces  of  native  cloth  are  severally  placed  before 
each  player ;  a  man  then  dexterously  passes  his 
hand  under  every  one  of  them,  containing  a  stone, 
which  is  hidden  beneath  a  different  parcel  each 
time,  while  each  competitor  in  his  turn  strikes 
with  a  wand,  at  a  venture,  any  one  of  them. 
After  ten  rounds,  the  game  is  decided  in  favor 
of  him  who  has  struck  the  lucky  parcel  of  cloth 
the  greatest  number  of  times.  Wawaiule  is  a 
species  of  dichotomous,  or  club-mess,  lycopo- 
dium.  Akakamoa,  the  denomination  of  a  game 
formerly  played  by  two  chiefs,  with  the  dichoto- 
mies of  the  branches  mutually  hooked  within 
each  other ;  the  gamester  whose  fork,  in  pulling 
them  asunder,  first  broke,  lost  his  wager.  Moko- 
moko,  or  boxing-matches,  consecrated  to  the 
memory  of  Olono,  a  certain  deity  who  was  be- 
lieved to  have  vouchsafed  his  presence  under  the 
form  of  captain  Cook.  The  people  of  two  neigh- 
bouring districts  used  to  assemble  on  their  bor- 
ders when  these  games  were  about  to  be  celebrated. 
A  ring  being  formed,  an  athlete  would,  like  Dares 
TEneid,  v.  376,  bare  his  broad  shoulders,  and, 
with  uplifted  arms  alternately,  provoke  the  yield- 
ing air  a  few  moments,  and  then  retire ;  one 
from  the  opposite  side  would  follow  his  example; 
and  this  exhibition,  by  turns  of  the  candidates 
for  renown,  continued  till  the  eyes  of  some  well- 
matched  pair  had  singled  out  each  other.  A  fall, 
or  turning  the  back  upon  the  antagonist,  decided 
the"  combat. 

Language. — One  general  language  is  extended 
over  all  die  islands,  which  are  comprehended 
under  the  name  of  Polynesia,  subject  to  a  peculiar 
dialectical  rariation  in  each  particular  group, 
with  occasional  mixture  of  words  which,  from 
their  anomalous  form,  seem  to  have  been  bor- 
rowed from  different  sources.  In  the  first  primer 
that  was  printed  by  the  missionaries  their  dia- 
lect is  made  to  embrace  seventeen  elementary 
sounds ;  but,  since  the  natives  confound  in  their 
articulation  the  elements  D  T  K,  R  L,  B  P,  with 
each  other,  it  appeared  expedient  to  a  council  of 
missionaries,  in  order  to  prevent  an  embarrassing 
variation  in  the  orthography  of  the  natives,  to 
retrench  the  superfluous  letters,  and  reduce  the 
number  of  simple  sounds  to  twelve.  But  since 
the  U,  like  W,  sometimes  assumes  the  power  of 
a  consonant,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  it 
ought  to  be  retained. 

The  orthography  is  precisely  the  same  as  that 
adopted  from  the  Sanscrit  by  professor  Lee  in 
the  compilation  of  the  New  Zealand  grammar. 
The  dialects  of  Hawaii  and  New  Zealand  differ 
chiefly  in  the  presence  of  nasal  sounds  in  the  latter. 
A  short  acquaintance  with  their  analogies  shows 
how  near  such  words  as  New  Zealand,  Tangata, 
and  Tanata,  as  the  word  Kanaka  is  often  heard. 
The  vocal  organs  of  a  Sandwich  islander,  without 
Jong  training,  find  it  impossible  to  articulate  the 
^arsh  combinations  of  consonantal  sounds  of 
•>ur  language ;  but  his  ear  can  nicety  discrimi- 


nate the  appropriate  sound  of  each  vowel  and 
diphthong.  They  never  amalgamate  two  conso- 
nants, a  mute  and  a  liquid,  as  we  do  in  the  syl- 
lable bri  in  Britain,  but  usually  insert  a  sheva, 
or  short  vowel  sound,  to  soften  the  utterance, 
and  pronounce  that  word  as  if  it  were  written 
Perikane.  The  affinity  of  the  Polynesian  lan- 
guage with  the  Malayan  has  been  pointed  out  by 
Mr.  Marshman  in  his  grammar  of  that  tongue, 
and  its  etymological  relationship  to  the  Hebrew 
did  not  escape  the  notice  of  the  propagators  of 
the  gospel ;  and,  during  the  author's  stay  at  Oahu, 
he  observed  several  instances  in  words  and  phrase- 
ology. To  give  our  readers  some  notion  of  the 
softness  and  flowing  sweetness  of  this  dialect,  we 
will  select  a  distich  from  a  hymn  composed  by 
the  missionaries,  in  which  the  Indians  call  upon 
their  hearts  to  rejoice  that  the  love  of  God  has 
visited  them.  It  is  read  nearly  as  if  it  were 
Italian: — 

Ua  iki  mai  nei  ke  kanawai  mau 
Ke  hauoli  nei  ko  kakou  naau. 

SANDWICH  LAND,  a  name  given  by  Cook  to 
the  southerly  land  which  he  discovered  in  the 
South  Atlantic  Ocean,  otherwise  called  Southern 
Thule. 

SANDY  DESERT,  a  name  given  byway  of  emi- 
nence to  an  extensive  tract  of  Hindostan,  in  the 
province  of  Gujerat,  where  the  army  of  the  cele- 
brated Mahmoud  of  Ghizne  was  nearly  lost. 
After  the  taking  of  the  temple  of  Diu,  in  the  year 
1025,  one  of  the  priests  offered  himself  as  a  guide 
to  the  sultan ;  and,  having  purposely  led  them  into 
the  heart  of  this  desert,  boasted  of  his  success, 
on  which  he  was  instantly  put  to  death. 

SANDY  HOOK,  an  island  of  the  United  States 
on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  in  the  township  of 
Middleton,  seven  miles  south  of  Long  Island, 
and  twenty-five  south  of  New  York.  It  was  for- 
merly a  peninsula.  Sandy  Hook,  or  Point,  forms 
a  capacious  harbour,  where  is  a  light-house  on 
the  north  point  of  the  Hook,  in  long.  72°  2'  \\ ., 
lat.  40°  26'  N. 

SANDY  LAKE,  a  lake  of  North  America,  near 
the  source  of  the  Mississippi,  twenty-five  miles 
in  circumference.  Of  the  numerous  rivers  run- 
ning into  it,  one  is  entitled  to  particular  atten- 
tion, viz.  the  Savannah,  which,  by  a  portage  of 
three  miles  and  three  quarters,  communicates 
with  the  river  St.  Louis,  which  flows  into  the 
Lake  Superior,  at  the  Ford  de  Lac,  and  is  the 
channel  by  which  the  North-west  company  bring 
all  their  goods  for  the  trade  of  the  Upper  Mis- 
sissippi. The  rigor  of  the  climate  is  extreme 
here.  Lat.  46°  9'  20'  N. 

SANDY  LAKE  RIVER,  a  large  but  short  river 
of  the  United  States,  which  falls  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi. It  connects  the  lake  of  the  same  name 
with  the  Mississippi,  by  a  strait  only  six  miles 
in  length. 

SANDY  RIVER,  BIG,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  which  rises  in  the  Laurel  mountains,  Hs 
sources  interlocking  with  those  of  the  Cumber- 
land, Clinch,  Kenhaway,  Kentucky,  and  Lick- 
ing. It  forms  part  of  the  boundary  between  Vir- 
ginia and  Kentucky,  running  N.N.W.  into  the 
Ohio,  forty  miles  above  the  Scioto.  It  has  a 
course  of  about  130  miles,  and  at  its  mouth  is 
200  yards  wide. 


SAN 


286 


SAN 


SANDY  RIVF.R,  LITTLE,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  in  Kentucky,  running  into  the  Ohio, 
twt-nty  miles  below  Bisj  Sandy. 

SANDY'S  (Edwin),  1).  D.,  and  archbishop  of 
York,  an  eminent  English  prelate,  and  zealous 
reformer,  born  at  liawkshead,  in  Lancashire,  in 
1519.  He  was  educated  at  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  graduated.  About  1547 
he  was  chosen  master  of  Catherine  Hall,  and,  in 
1553,  vice-chancellor  of  the  university.  Having 
early  embraced  the  Protestant  religion,  he,  on  the 
death  of  king  Edward  VI.,  zealously  espoused 
the  cause  of  lady  Jane  Gray  ;  preached  a  sermon 
in  favor  of  her  title,  and  even  printed  it.  Two 
days  after,  being  ordered  to  proclaim  queen 
Mary,  he  refused,  and  was  thereupon  deprived 
of  all  his  preferments,  and  sent  prisoner  to  the 
Tower,  where  he  lay  above  seven  months,  and 
was  then  removed  to  the  Marshalsea.  He  was 
afterwards  liberated ;  but  bishop  Gardiner,  hear- 
ing he  was  an  incorrigible  heretic,  made  strict 
search  after  him.  The  doctor  escaped,  however, 
in  May  1554,  to  Antwerp,  and  thence  went  to 
Augsburg,  and  Strasburg,  where  he  remained 
for  some  time.  In  1558  he  went  to  Zurich,  and 
lodged  five  weeks  with  Peter  Martyr,  with  whom 
he  maintained  an  intimate  correspondence  ever 
after.  On  queen  Mary's  death  he  returned  to 
England,  January  I Oth,  1558-9.  In  March  he 
was  appointed,  by  queen  Elizabeth,  one  of  the 
nine  Protestant  divines  to  dispute  with  nine 
Roman  Catholics  before  the  parliament.  He 
was  also  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners 
for  preparing  the  Liturgy.  He  was  then 
made  bishop  of  Worcester,  and,  being  well 
skilled  in  the  dead  languages,  he  was,  in  1565, 
one  of  the  bishops  appointed  to  make  a  new 
translation  of  the  Bible;  and  he  accordingly 
translated  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles. 
In  1570  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  London, 
and  in  1571  assistant  to  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, in  the  commission  against  papists  and 
puritans.  In  1576  he  was  promoted  to  be  arch- 
bishop of  York.  In  his  zeal  against  the  papists 
he  was  very  severe.  He  died  July  10th,  1588, 
aged  sixty-nine.  He  was  twice  married.  By 
his  second  wife  Cecilia,  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas 
Wilford,  of  Hartridge,  in  Kent,  he  had  seven 
sons  and  two  daughters. 

SANDYS  (George),  was  born  in  1577.  He 
travelled  over  several  parts  of  Europe  and  the 
east ;  and  published  an  account  of  his  journey 
in  folio,  in  1635.  He  made  an  elegant  transla- 
tion of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses ;  and  composed 
some  poetical  pieces  of  his  own,  that  were  greatly 
admired.  He  also  paraphrased  the  Psalms;  and 
left  behind  him  a  Translation,  with  Notes,  of  a 
Sacred  Drama  written  by  Grotius,  entitled  Chris- 
tus  Patiens ;  on  which,  with  Adamus  Exul,  and 
Masenius,  was  founded  Lauder's  impudent  charge 
of  plagiarism  against  Milton.  See  LAUDER.  He 
became  one  of  the  privy  chamber  to  Charles  I., 
and  died  in  1643. 

SANGALLAN,  or  CAPE  GALLAN,  the  Can- 
gallan  of  British  seamen,  is  situated  on  the  coast 
of  Peru,  N.N.W.  of  the  island  of  Lobos,  and 
three  miles  north-west  <  if  Curette  island-  On -its 
south  side  is  a  good  harbour,  frequented  by  the 
coasting  ships  from  Panama  ami  Lima. 


SANGAY,  a  volcanic  mountain  of  South 
America,  in  the  province  of  Quixos  and  Macas 
Quito.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  16,122  feet,  and 
its  north  side  is  constantly  covered  with  snow. 
From  its  summit,  flames,  smoke,  and  calcined 
matter,  are  seen  continually  to  burst 'forth,  ac- 
companied with  explosions,  which  are  heard  at 
Quito,  135  miles  distant.  The  country  adjacent 
is  rendered  totally  barren  by  its  incessant  action. 

SANGARIS,  or  SANGARIUS,  in  ancient  geo- 
graphy and  mythology,  a  river  of  Phrygia  rising 
in  Mount  Dindymus,  and  falling  into  the  Euxine. 
The  god  of  this  river  was  fabled  to  have  been 
the  father  of  Hecuba,  queen  of  Troy ;  and  she 
became  pregnant  of  Altes,  by  gathering  boughs 
of  an  almond  tree  on  its  banks. 

SANGIAC,  in  the  Turkish  polity,  the  gover- 
nor of  a  province.  Hence  also  the  province  so 
governed :  it  was  particularly  used  in  Egypt, 
which  was  divided  into  twenty-four  sangiacs. 

SAN  GUI,  an  oblong  island  in  the  eastern 
seas,  between  thirty-six  and  forty  miles  in  length, 
and  between  ten  and  fifteen  miles  in  breadth.  It 
extends  in  a  direction  N.N.W.,  and  is  broadest 
towards  the  north ;  towards  the  south  it  has  se- 
veral good  bays,  and  is  said  to  be  surrounded 
by  forty-six  smaller  islands  of  various  dimen- 
sions. The  coast  has  better  harboilrs,  and  is  less 
dangerous  from  hidden  rocks  and  shoals,  than 
most  of  the  eastern  islands.  The  island  is  well 
wooded  and  inhabited,  and  affords  refreshments 
of  all  kinds.  Spices  are  also  procured,  \\iili 
which  a  trade  is  carried  on  to  Magindanao.  The 
principal  town  and  bay  are  about  the  middle  of 
the  west  coast,  and  called  Taroona,  in  lat.  3°  28' 
N.,  long.  125°  44'  E. 

SANGUIF'EROUS,  adj. 

SANGUIFICA'TION,  «.  s. 


Fr.     sangiiin ; 
Lat.   sanguifer, 
sanguis.       Con- 
veying  blood  : 
'Sanguification     is 
the  product!  n  of 
blood :  sanguifier, 
a    producer  of 
blood  :     to    san- 


SAN'GUIFIER, 

SAN'GUIFY,  v.a. 

SAN'GUINARY,  adj. 

SAN'GUINE,  adj. 

SAN'GUINENESS,'«.*. 

SANGUIN'ITY, 

SANGUIN'EOUS,  adj. 
guify,  to  produce  blood  :  sanguinary,  bloody ; 
cruel ;  murderous  (always  used  in  a  bad  sense) : 
sanguine,  as  a  noun  substantive,  means  blood 
color :  as  an  adjective,  red ;  having  the  color  of 
blood  ;  cheerful ;  ardent ;  abounding  with  blood  : 
sanguineness  and  sanguinily,  heat;  ardor;  con- 
fidence :  sanguineous,  constituting  blood,  01 
abounding  in  blood. 

A  griesiy  wound, 
From  which  forth   gushed  a  stream  of  gore,  blood 

thick, 

That  all  her  goodly  garments  stained  around, 
And  in  deep  sanguine  dyed  the  grassy  ground. 

Faerie  Queeite. 
This  fellow 

Upbraided  me  about  the  rose  I  wear  ; 
Saying,  the  sanguine  colour  of  the  leaves 
Did  represent  my  master's  blushing  cheeks. 

SJiaktpfaart. 

Rage,  or  phrensy,  it  may  be,  in  some  perhaps  na 
tural  courage,  or  f«?yi/!»fnr.<s  of  temper  in  others  ; 
but  true  valour  it  is  not,  if  it  knows  not  as  well  l> 
suffl-r  as  to  do.  That  mind  is  truly  great,  and  only 
that  which  stands  above  the  power  of  all  extiinsi 


SAN 


2S7 


SAN 


violence;  which  keeps  itself  a  distinct  principality, 
independent  upon  the  outward  man. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

The  scene  is  now  more  sangniiuirv,  and  fuller  of 
ictors  :  never  was  such  a  confused  mysterious  civil 
war  as  this.  Howel. 

A  stream  of  nec'trous  humour  issuing  flowed 
Sanguine.  Milton. 

At  the  same  time  I  think,  I  command  :  in  inferior 
faculties,  I  walk,  see,  hear,  digest,  sanguify,  and  car- 
nify,  by  the  power  of  an  individual  soul.  Hale. 

The  choleric  fell  short  of  the  longevity  of  the  san- 
guine. Browne. 

This  animal  of  Plato  containeth  not  only  sangui- 
neous and  reparable  particles,  but  is  made  up  of 
veins,  necves,  and  arteries.  Id.  • 

Dire  Tisiphone  there  keeps  the  ward, 
Girt  in  their  sanguine  gown.  Dryden. 

Though  these  faults  differ  in  their  complexions  as 
sanguine  from  melancholy,  yet  they  are  frequently 
united.  Government  of  the  Tongue. 

Bitters,  like  choler,  are  the  best  sanguifiers,  and 
also  the  best  febrifuges.  Flouer  on  the  Humours. 

Since  the  lungs  are  the  chief  instrument  of  smigui- 
fication,  the  animal  that  has  that  organ  faulty  can 
never  have  the  vital  juices,  derived  from  the  blood, 
in  a  good  state.  Arbuthnot. 

A  plethoric  constitution,  in  which  true  blood 
abounds,  is  called  sanguineous.  Id. 

The  fifth  conjugation  of  the  nerves  is  branched  to 
the  muscles  of  the  face,  particularly  the  cheeks, 
whose  sanguiferous  vessels  it  twists  about. 

Derham  's  Phytico-  Tlieology.. 

A  set  of  sanguine  tempers  ridicule,  in  the  number 
of  fopperies,  all  such  apprehensions.  Swift. 

I  very  much  distrust  your  sanguinity.  Id. 

Passion  transforms  us  into  a  kind  of  savages,  and 
makes  us  brutal  and  sanguinary.  Broome. 

SANGUINARIA,  in  botany,  blood-wort,  a 
genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  polyandria 
class  of  plants ;  natural  order  twenty-seventh, 
rhceadeae ;  COR.  octopetalous :  CAL.  diphyllous; 
the  siliqua  ovate  and  unilocular.  There  is  only 
one  species,  viz. 

S.  ('anadensis,  a  native  of  the  northern  parts 
of  America,  where  it  grows  plentifully  in  the 
woods ;  and  in  spring,  before  the  leaves  of  the 
trees  come  out,  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  in 
many  places  covered  with  the  flowers  which 
have  some  resemblance  to  our  wood  anemone  ; 
but  they  have  short  naked  pedicles,  each  sup- 
porting one  flower  at  top.  Some  of  these  flowers 
will  have  ten  or  twelve  petals,  so  that  they  ap- 
pear to  have  a  double  range  of  leaves,  which  has 
occasioned  their  being  termed  double  flowers ; 
but  this  is  only  accidental,  the  same  roots  in -dif- 
ferent years  producing  different  flowers.  The 
plant  will  lu-ar  the  open  air  in  this  country,  but 
should  be  placed  in  a  loose  soil  and  sheltered 
situation,  not  too  much  exposed  to  the  sun.  It 
is  propagated  by  the  roots ;  which  may.  be  taken 
up  and  parted,  in  September,  every  other  year. 
The  Indians  paint  themselves  yellow  with  the 
juice  of  these  plants. 

SANGriSOKBA,  in  botany,  greater  wild 
biimet,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  te- 
Iniiidria  class  of  plants;  natural  order  fifty-fourth, 
miscellaneae :  CAL.  diphyllous  ;  germen  situated 
betwixt  the  calyx  and  corolla.  The  most  re- 
markable species  is — 

S.  ofh'cinalis,  with  oval  spikes.  This  grows 
naturally  in  moist  meadows  in  many  parts  of 


Britain.  The  stalks  rise  from  two  to  three  feet 
high,  branching  towards  the  top ;  and  are  ter- 
minated by  thick  oval  spikes  of  flowers  of  a 
grayish  brown  color,  which  are  divided  into  four 
segments  almost  to  the  bottom.  These  are  suc- 
ceeded by  four  oblong  cornered  seeds.  The 
leaves  of  this  sort  are  composed  of  five  or  six 
pairs  of  lobes  placed  along  a  midrib,  terminated 
by  an  odd  one.  These  are  heart-shaped,  deeply 
dentated  on  their  edges,  and  a  little  downy  on 
their  under  sides.  The  cultivation  of  this  plant 
has  been  greatly  recommended  as  food  to  cattle. 

SANIlEDRIM,orSANHEDRrN,Heb.pnnjD, 
was  the  name  whereby  the  Jews  called  the  great 
council  of  the  nation,  assembled  in  an  apartment 
of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  to  determine  the 
most  important  affairs  both  of  their  church  and 
state.  .This  council  consisted  of  seventy  sena- 
tors. The  room  they  met  in  was  a  rotunda,  half 
of  which  was  built  without  the  temple,  and  half 
within;  that  is,  one  semicircle  was  within  the 
compass  of  the  temple,  the  other  semicircle  was 
without,  for  the  senators  to  sit  in,  it  being  un- 
lawful for  any  one  to  sit  down  in  the  temple. 
The  nasi,  or  prince  of  the  sanhedrim,  sat  upon  a 
throne  at  the  end  of  the  hall,  having  his  deputy 
at  his  right  hand  and  his  sub-deputy  on  his  left. 
The  other  senators  were  ranged  in  order  on  each 
s-ide.  The  rabbins  assert  that  the  sanhedrim  has 
always  subsisted  in  their  nation  from  the  time  of 
Moses  down  to  the  destruction  of  the  temple  by 
the  Romans.  See  Grotius's  Commentaries,  and 
his  book  De  jure  Belli  et  Pacis,  lib.  i.  c.  3,  art. 
20,  and  Selden  de  Synedriis  veterum  Hebraeo- 
rum;  also  Calmet's  Dissertation  on  the  Polity 
of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  before  his  Comment 
upon  the  Book  of  Numbers.  As  to  the  qualifi- 
cations of  the  judges,  their  birth  was  to  be  un- 
tainted. They  were  often  taken  from  the  race 
of  the  priests  or  Levites,  or  out  of  the  number 
of  the  inferior  judges,  or  from  the  lesser  sanhe- 
drim, which  consisted  only  of  twenty-three 
judges.  They  were  to  be  skilful  in  the  law,  tra- 
ditional and  written.  Eunuchs  were  excluded 
from  the  sanhedrim,  usurers,  decrepit  persons, 
players  at  games  of  chance,  such  as  had  any  bo- 
dily deformities,  those  that  had  brought  up 
pigeons  to  decoy  others  to  their  pigeon-houses, 
and  those  that  made  a  gain  of  their  fruits  in  the 
sabbatical  year.  Some  also  exclude  the  high- 
priest  and  the  king,  because  of  their  power ;  but 
others  insist  that  the  kings  always  presided  in 
the  sanhedrim,  while  there  were  any  kings  in 
Israel.  Lastly,  the  members  of  the  sanhedrim 
were  to  be  of  a  mature  age,  a  handsome  person, 
and  of  considerable  fortune.  Such  at  least  are 
the  requisites  mentioned  by  the  rabbins.  The 
authority  of  the  great  sanhedrim  was,  according 
to  these  authors,  very  extensive.  This  council 
decided  such  causes  as  were  brought  before  it 
by  appeal  from  the  inferior  courts.  The  king, 
the  high-priest,  the  prophets,  were  under  its  ju- 
risdiction. If  the  king  offended  against  the  law, 
if  he  kept  too  many  horses,  if  he  hoarded  up  too 
much  gold  and  silver,  the  sanhedrim,  according 
to  these  rabbins,  had  him  stripped  and  whipped 
in  their  presence.  But  whipping  among  the 
Hebrews  was  not  ignominious ;  and  the  king 
is  said  to  have  borne  this  correction  by  way 


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of  penance,  and  himself  made  choice  of  the 
person  that  was  to  exercise  this  discipline. 
The  general  affairs  of  the  nation  were  also 
brought  before  the  sanhedrim.  The  right  of 
judging  in  capital  cases  belonged  to  this  court, 
and  this  sentence  could  not  be  pronounced  in 
any  other  place  but  in  the  hall  called  Laschat 
haggazith,  or  the  hall  paved  with  stones,  supposed 
by  some  to  be  the  A»0o<Tp«roc,  or  pavement, 
mentioned  in  John  xix.  13.  Hence  the  Jews 
were  forced  to  quit  this  hall  when  the  power  of 
life  and  death  was  taken  out  of  their  hands, 
forty  years  before  the  destruction1  of  their  tem- 
ple, arid  three  years  before  the  death  of  Jesus 
Christ  In  the  time  of  Moses  this  council,  say 
the  rabbies,  was  held  at  the  door  of  the  taber- 
nacle of  the  testimony.  As  soon  as  the  people 
were  in  possession  of  the  land  of  promise,  the 
s  uihedrim  followed  the  tabernacle.  It  was  kept 
successively  at  Gilgal  and  Shiloh,  at  Kirjath- 
jearim,  at  Nob,  at  Gibeon  in  the  house  of  Obed- 
edom;  and,  lastly,  it  was  settled  at  Jerusalem 
till  the  Babylonish  captivity.  During  the  cap- 
tivity it  was  kept  up  at  Babylon.  After  the  return 
from  Babylon  it  continued  at  Jerusalem  to  the 
time  of  the  Sicarii  or  Assassins.  Then,  finding 
that  these  profligate  wretches  whose  number  in- 
creased every  day  sometimes  escaped  punish- 
ment by  the  favor  of  the  president  or  judges,  it 
was  removed  to  Hanoth,  which  were  certain 
abodes,  situated,  as  the  rabbies  tell  us,  upon  the 
mountain  of  the  temple.  Thence  they  came 
down  into  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  withdrawing 
themselves  by  degrees  from  the  temple.  After- 
wards they  removed  to  Jamnia,  thence  to  Jeri- 
cho, to  Uzza,  to  Sepharvaim,  to  Bethsanim,  to 
Sephoris,  last  of  all  to  Tiberias,  where  they  con- 
tinued to  the  time  of  their  utter  extinction. 
This  is  the  account  which  the  Jews  give  us  of 
the  sanhedrim.  But  the  learned  do  not  agree 
with  them  in  all  this.  F.  Petau  fixes  the  date  of 
tht>  first  sanhedrim,  when  Gabinius  was  governor 
of  Judea,  who,  according  to  Josephus,  erected 
tribunals  in  the  five  principal  cities  of  Judea; 
Jerusalem,  Gadara,  Aniathus,  Jericho,  and  Se- 
phora  or  Sephoris,  in  Galilee.  Grotius  places 
the  origin  of  the  sanhedrim  under  Moses,  as  the 
rabbies  do ;  but  he  makes  it  terminate  at  the 
beginning  of  Herod's  reign.  Basnage  places  it 
under  Judas  Maccabaeus,  or  his  brother  Jona- 
than. We  see,  indeed,  under  Jonathan  Macca- 
baus,  that  the  senate  with  the  high-priest  sent 
an  embassy  to  the  Romans.  The  rabbies  say 
that  Alexander  Jannaeus,  king  of  the  Jews,  ot 
the  race  of  the  Asmonoeans,  appeared  before  the 
sanhedrim,  and  claimed  a  right  of  sitting  there, 
whether  the  senators  would  or  not.  Josephus 
informs  us  that,  when  Herod  was  but  yet  go- 
vernor of  Galilee,  he  was  summoned  before  the 
senate,  where  he  appeared.  It  must  be  therefore 
acknowledged  that  the  sanhedrim  was  in  being 
before  the  reign  of  Herod.  It  was  in  being 
afterwards,  as  we  find  from  the  gospel  and  from 
the  Acts.  Jesus  Christ,  in  St.  Matthew  (v.  22), 
distinguishes  two  tribunals.  '  Whosoever  is 
angry  with  his  brother  without  a  cause  shall  be 
in  danger  of  the  judgment.'  This,  they  say,  N 
the  tribunal  of  the  twenty-three  judges.  '  And 
whosoever  shall  say  to  his  brother,  Raca  shall 


be  in  danger  of  the  council ;'  that  is,  of  the  great 
sanhedrim,  which  had  the  right  of  life  and  death, 
at  least  generally,  and  before  this  right  was  taken 
away  by  the  Romans.  See  Mark  xiii.  9,  xiv.  55, 
xv.  1  ;  Luke  xxii.  52.  66  ;  John  xi.  47;  Acts  iv. 
15,  v.  21,  where  mention  is  made  of  the  syne- 
drion  or  sanhedrim.  The  origin  of  the  sanhe- 
drim is  involved  in  uncertainty ;  for  the  council 
of  the  seventy  elders  established  by  Moses  was 
not  what  the  Hebrews  understand  by  sanhedrim. 
Besides  we  cannot  perceive  that  this  establish- 
ment subsisted  either  under  Joshua,  the  judges, 
or  the  kings.  We  find  nothing  of  it  after  the 
captivity,  till  the  time  of  Jonathan  Maccaba>'is. 
The  tribunals  erected  by  Gabinius  were  very 
different  from  the  sanhedrim,  which  was  the  su- 
preme court  of  judicature,  and  fixed  at  Jeru- 
salem ;  whereas  Gabinius  established"  five  at  five 
different  cities.  Lastly,  this  senate  was  in  being 
in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ ;  but  it  had  no 
longer  then  the  power  of  life  and  death.  John 
xviii.  31. 

SANICULE,  SANICCLA,  or  self-heal,  in 
botany,  a  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  and  petan- 
dria  class  of  plants ;  natural  order  forty-fifth, 
umbellatae.  The  umbels  are  close  together, 
almost  in  a  round  head  ;  the  fruit  is  scabrous  ; 
the  flowers  of  the  disk  abortive.  There  are  three 
species,  viz. 

1.  S.  Canadensis,  sanicle  of  Canada. 

2.  S.  Europaea,  European  self-heal ;  and,  3. 
S.  Maralandica,  the  sanicle  of  Maryland ;  all  of 
which  are  found  in  many  parts  both  of  Scotland 
and  England.    These  plants  were  long  celebrated 
for  healing  virtues,  but  are  now  disregarded. 

SA'NIES,  n.  s.  Lat.  sanies.  Thin  matter ; 
serous  excretion. 

It  began  with  a  round  crack  in  the  skin,  without 
other  matter  than  a  little  unites.  U'ite'nun. 

Observing  the  ulcer  sanwus,  I  proposed  digestim. 
as  the  only  way  to  remove  the  pain.  Id. 

But  bolder  grown,  at  length  inherent  found 
A  pointed  thorn  and  drew  it  from  the  wound. 
The  cure  was  wrought ;  he  wiped  the  saniou*  blood. 
And  firm  and  free  from  pain  the  lion  stood.  ( Vir/vr. 

SANIES,  in  surgery,  is  a  serous  putrid  matter, 
issuing  from  wounds.  It  differs  from  pus,  which 
is  thicker  and  whiter. 

SANITY,  n.  5.  Lat.  sanitos.  Soundness  of 
mind. 

How  pregnant,  sometimes,  his  replies  are ! 
A  happiness  that  madness  often  hits  on, 
Which  unity  and  reason  could  not  be 
So  prosperously  delivered  of.     Shaktptare.  Hamlet. 

SANNAZARIUS  (James),  a  celebrated  Latin 
and  Italian  poet,  born  at  Naples  in  1458.  He 
ingratiated  himself  into  the  favor  of  king  Fre- 
derick; and,  when  that  prince  was  dethroned, 
attended  him  into  France,  where  he  staid  with 
him  till  his  death,  which  happened  in  1504. 
Sannazarius  then  returned  into  Italy,  where  he 
applied  himself  to  polite  literature,  and  parti- 
cularly to  Latin  and  Italian  poetry.  His  gay 
and  facetious  humor  made  him  sought  for  by  all 
companies  ;  but  he  was  so  afflicted  on  hearing 
that  Philibert,  prince  of  Orange,  general  of  the 
emperor's  army,  had  demolished  his  country 
house,  that  it  threw  him  into  an  .ilness,  of  which 
he  died  in  1530.  He  wrote  a  great  .umber  or 


SAN 


289 


SAN 


Italian  and  Latin  poems :  among  those  in  Latin 
liis  Dt  Partu  Yirginis  and  Eclogues  are  chiefly 
esteemed  ;  and  the  most  celebrated  of  his  Italian 
pieces  is  his  Arcadia. 

SAN-PIETRO,  or  SAMPIERO,  called  also  Bas- 
tilica,  from  Hastia,  in  Corsica,  his  birth-place, 


SANSANDING,  a  large  town  of  Central 
Africa,  in  the  state  of  Bambarra.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Niger,  and  has  a  considerable  trade,  parti- 
cularly in  salt.  The  market-place  is  an  extensive 
square,  constantly  crowded,  where  the  different 
articles  are  exposed  on  stalls,  roofed  with  mats. 


•was  a  celebrated  general  in  the  French  service,     The  currency  is  in  cowries,  3000  of  which  go  to 


under  Francis  I.,  Henry  II.,  and  Charles  IX. 
He  bore  arms  at  an  early  age  against  the  Ge- 
noese, and  by  his  valor  and  military  skill  soon 


a  monkalli  of  gold,  valued  at  12s.  6d.  sterling. 
Twenty-five  miles  north-east  of  Sego. 

SANS-CULOTTES,   Fr.  from  sans,  without, 


became  formidable  to  them.     He  married  Vanini    and  culottes,  breeches ;  a  term  of  contempt,  used 


Ornano,  a  rich  and  beautiful  heiress,  only  daugh- 
ter of  the  viceroy  of  Corsica.  Still  inveterate 
against  the  Genoese,  he  went  into  France  with 
Ins  wife  and  family,  where  he  served  the  court 
successfully  during  the  civil  wars.  He  then  set 
out  for  Constantinople  to  solicit  the  grand  sig- 
nior  to  send  a  fleet  against  the  Genoese.  Mean 
time  the  Genoese  sent  their  agents  to  his  wife, 
ihen  at  Marseilles,  soliciting  her  to  return  to  her 
native  country,  promising  the  restoration  of  her 


by  the  proud  noblesse  of  France  under  the  ancient 
despotism,  towards  those  of  the  inferior  ranks. 
This  rankled  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  when 
they  got  the  power  into  their  hands,  and  the 
plebeians,  in  the  pride  of  their  power,  at  last  en- 
nobled this  term  of  reproach,  and  some  of  their 
bravest  generals  in  their  despatches  announcing 
their  victories,  gloried  in  having  been  born  sans- 
culottes. The  term  and  its  fate  merit  preser- 
vation in  a  work  of  science,  as  a  caveat  against 


fortune,  and  even  giving  hopes  of  a  pardon  to  the  pride  of  the  higher  ranks  and  the  folly  of  the 

her  husband.     The  credulous  Vanini  was  per-  lower. 

suaded.  She  set  out  with  her  furniture,  jewels,  SANSON  (Nicholas),  a  celebrated  French  gec- 
and  family,  for  Genoa.  A  friend  of  San-Pietro's  grapher,  born  at  Abbeville,  in  Picardy,  December 
armed  a  ship,  pursued  her,  brought  her  back  to  12th,  1600.  Having  finished  his  studies,  he  en- 
France,  and  delivered  her  to  the  parliament  of  tered  into  business  as  a  merchant,  but,  meeting 
Aix.  San-Pietro,  returning  from  Constantino-  with  considerable  losses,  he  gave  up  merchan- 
ple,  was  enraged.  He  then  went  to  Aix,  and  dise,  and  applied  himself  to  geography;  his 
demanded  his  wife,  and  afterwards  murdered  her.  father  having  studied  that  science,  and  published 


He  immediately  after  set  out  for  Paris,  appeared 
before  Charles  IX.,  confessed  his  crime,  pleaded 
his  former  services,  and  demanded  a  pardon. 


several  maps.  In  1619  he  completed  a  map  of 
ancient  Gaul,  which  was  very  favorably  received, 
and  encouraged  him  to  further  exertions.  After 


The  whole  court  was  shocked,  but  the  pardon    this  he  published  about  300  large  maps  of  dif- 


was  granted  in  1567.      He  was  soon  after,  how- 
ever, assassinated  by  the  brothers  of  his  wife. 

SANQUEL,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  South 
America,  in  Patagonia.  It  has  its  rise  in  the 
snowy  mountains  of  the  Cordillera,  on  the  east 
side,  and  derives  its  name  from  a  thorny,  thick, 


ferent  countries,  ancient  and  modern  ;  and  caused 
100  tables  to  be  engraved,  exhibiting  the  divi- 
sions of  modern  Europe.  He  also  published 
several  tracts  to  illustrate  his  maps ;  as,  1 .  Re- 
marks upon  the  Ancient  Gauls ;  2.  A  Treatise 
on  the  Four  Parts  of  the  World  ;  3.  Two  Tables 


and  rough  reed,  called  sanquel,  with  which  the  of  the  Cities  and   Places  in  the  Maps  of  the 

country  between  this  river  and  the  first  Desa-  Rhine  and  Italy ;  4.  A  Description  of  the  Roman 

guero  abounds.     It  makes  its  first  appearance  at  Empire,   of  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  and 

a  place  called  Diamante,  whence  the  Spaniards  the  British  Isles;  together  with  the  ancient  Iti- 

sometimes  call  it  the  Rio  del  Diamante.     It  has  neraries.     He  also  wrote:    5.  The  Antiquity  of 

a  course  of  300  miles,  and  enters  the  Rio  Negro  Abbeville,  which  involved  him  in  a  controversy 

by  a  wide  mouth.  with  F.  L'Abbe,  the  Jesuit,  and  others ;  6.  Sa- 

SANQUHAR,  a  royal  borough,  seated  on  the  cred  Geography ;  and,  7.  A  Geographical  Index 

Nith,  on  the  borders  of  Ayrshire ;  nearly  equi-  of    the    Holy    Land.     Cardinal    Richelieu   and 

distant  from  the  Solway  Frith  and  the  Atlantic,  Mazarine  pgtrorJsed  him  greatly  ;  and  the  latter 

It  has  one  principal  street,  about  a  quarter  of  a  appointed  him  royal  geographer.     He  died  in 

mile  long,  and  has  long  been  famed  for  its  wool-  Paris,  while  preparing  an  Atlas  of  all  his  maps, 


len  manufactures.     Sanquhar  was  erected  into  a 
burgh  of  barony  in   1484;  but  had  previously 


in  1667;  leaving  two  sons. 

SANSONATE,  a  district  and    own  of  Gua- 


been  a  burgh  from  time  immemorial,  as   that  timala,  to  the  southward  of    Suchitepec.     The 

charter  relates.     King  James  VI.  made  it  a  royal  town  is  a  sea-port,  and  is  situated   120  miles 

borough  in  1596.     It  is  governed  by  a  provost,  south-east  of  the  city  of   Mexico,  with  about 

three  bailiffs,  dean  of  gujld,  treasurer,  and  eleven  2000  inhabitants.     The  population  of  the  dis- 

counsellors.       It  joins   with   the   boroughs   of  trict  is  about  40,000,  consisting  almost  entirely 

Dumfries,  Annan,    Kirkcudbright,    and    Loch-  of  Indians,  mulattoes,  and   negroes,  and  its  ca- 

maben,  in  electing  a  representative  in  the  impe-  pital  is  La  Trinidad  or  Sansonate,  situated  on 

rial    parliament.     It    lies    twenty-seven     miles  the  river  Sansonale,  at  its  mouth. 


N.  N.  W.  of  Dumfries,  thirty-two  north  of  Kirk- 
cudbright, and  thirty-three  from  Ayr. 

SANS,  prep.     Fr.  sans.  Without.   Out  of  use. 

Last  scene  of  all, 

That  ends  this  strange  eventful  history, 
Is  second  childishness  and  mere  oblivion, 
Sans  teeth,  tans  eyes,  sans  taste,  sans  every  thing. 

Shakspear*. 

Voi  XIX. 


SANSOVINO  (James),  an  eminent  sculptor 
and  architect,  born  in  Florence  in  1479.  The 
mint,  and  the  library  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice, 
were  magnificent  specimens  of  his  skill.  He 
was  so  highly  esteemed  at  Venice,  that,  when  a 
general  tax  was  laid  on  the  inhabitants,  he  and 
Titian  alone  were  exempted.  He  died  in  that 
city,  in  1570,  at  the  age  of  ninety-one- 

U 


SAX 


290 


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SANTA  BARBARA,  a  sea-port  and  settlement 
of  New  California,  visited  by  Vancouver  in 
1793,  who  gave  the  name  of  Point  Felipe  to  the 
west  point  of  its  harbour-  The  interior  a  few 
miles  only  from  the  sea  coast  is  composed  of 
rugged  barren  mountains,  which  rise  in  five  di<- 
tinCt  ridges  a  great  distance  inland,  and  to  the 
east.  Vancouver  says  that  the  sheep  and  poul- 
try at  this  settlement  exceed,  both  in  size  and 
delicacy  of  flavor,  those  of  any  of  the  other  set- 
tlements which  he  visited.  Santa  Barbara  was 
founded  in  1786,  and  lately  contained  1100  inha- 
bitants. It  is  garrisoned  by  about  sixty  soldiers, 
out  of  which  it  affords  guards  also  to  the  mis- 
sion of  the  same  name.  Long.  240°  43'  E.,  lat. 
34°  24'  N. 

SANTA  CRUZ,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Tene- 
riffe,  and  residence  of  the  governor  of  the  Cana- 
ries, is  also  the  centre  of  the  trade  of  these  is- 
lands. Here  reside  all  the  consuls  and  commis- 
saries of  foreign  powers,  and  this  port  may  be 
considered  as  a  great  caravansary  on  the  road 
between  America  and  the  Indies.  It  is  situated 
in  a  plain,  surrounded  by  barren  mountains,  and  • 
its  only  natural  advantage  is  a  road,  which  af- 
fords safe  anchorage  in  deep  water,  where  ten  or 
twelve  ships  of  war  may  lie.  A  mole  stretches 
out  into  the  sea,  which  is  rounded  at  the  extre 
raity,  to  afford  a  landing  place,  and  is  ascended  by 
a  stair  at  the  top  of  which  is  placed  the  custom- 
house, which  it -is  thus  impossible  to  avoid.  The 
streets  are  tolerably  broad,  and  generally  well 
built.  The  houses  have  all  a  wide  court  in  the 
interior.  Travellers  remark  the  vast  number  of 
ecclesiastics  seen  on  the  streets,  and  of  the  im- 
portunity of  beggars.  The  population  is  about 
8400. 

SANTA  CRUZ  DE  LA  SIERRA,  a  town  and  pro- 
vince of  Buenos  Ayres^  founded  in  1558,  and 
afterwards  removed  1 50  miles  more  to  the  south, 
to  the  place  where  it  now  stands,  in  lat.  14°  20' 
S.,  at  the  foot  of  a  chain  of  mountains,  which 
bounds  the  country  of  the  Chiquitos  Indians  to 
the  north,  and  thence  runs  in  a  north-east  direc 
tion  to  Lake  Xarayes.  It  was  at  first  called  San 
Lorenzo,  and  stands  on  the  Puapay. 

SANTALUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia  order,  and  octandria  class  of  plants  : 
CAL.  superior  :  COR.  monopetalous  ;  the  stamina 
placed  in  the  tube ;  the  stigma  is  simple ;  the 
fruit  a  berry.  It  grows  to  the  size  of  a  walnut- 
tree.  Its  leaves  are  entire,  oval,  and  placed  op- 
posite to  each  other.  Its  flower  is  of  one  single 
piece,  charged  with  eight  stamina,  and  supported 
upon  the  pistil,  which  becomes  an  insipid  berry, 
resembling  in  form  that  of  the  laurel.  Its  wood 
is  white  in  the  circumference,  and  yellow  in  the 
centre  when  the  tree  is  old.  This  difference  of 
color  constitutes  two  kinds  of  sanders,  both  em- 
ployed for  the  same  purposes,  and  having  equally 
a  bitter  taste,  and  an  aromatic  smell.  With  the 
powder  of  this  wood  a  paste  is  prepared  with 
which  the  Chinese,  Indians,  Persians,  Arabians, 
and  Turks,  anoint  their  bodies.  It  is  likewise 
burnt  in  their  houses,  and  yields  a  fragrant  and 
wholesome  smell. 

1.  S.  album,  white  sanders,  is  brought  from 
the  East  Indies  in  billets,  about  the  thickness  of 
a  man's  leer,  of  a  pale  whitish  color.  It  is  that 


part  of  the  yellow  sanders  wood  which  lies  next 
the  bark.  Great  part  of  it,  as  met  with  in  the 
shops,  has  no  smell  or  taste,  nor  any  sensible 
quality  that  can  recommend  it  to  the  notice  of 
the  physician. 

2.  S.  flavum,  yellow  sanders,  is  the  interior 
part  of  the  wood  of  the  same  tree  which  furnishes 
the  white,  is  of  a  pale  yellowish  color,  of  a  plea- 
sant smell,  and  a  bitterish  aromatic  taste,  accom- 
panied with  an  agreeable  kind  of  pungency.  Dis- 
tilled with  water  it  yields  a  fragrant  essential 
oil,  which   thickens  in  the  cold  into  the  consis- 
tence of  a  ba,lsam.     Digested  in  pure  spirit  it 
imparts  a  rich  yellow  tincture;  which,  being  com- 
mitted to  distillation,  the  spirit  arises  without 
bringing"  over  any  thing  considerable  of  the  fla- 
vor of  the  sanders.     Hoffman  looks  upon  this 
extract  as  a  medicine  of  similar  virtues  to  am- 
bergris ;    and    recommends   it   as   an    excellent 
restorative  in  great  debilities. 

3.  S.  rubrum,  red  sanders,  though  in  less  esti- 
mation, and  less  generally  used,  is  sent  by  pre- 
ference into  Europe.     This  is  the  produce  of  a 
different  tree,  which  is  common  on  the  coast  of 
Coromandel.     Some  travellers  confound  it  with 
the  wood  of  Caliatour,  which  is  used  in  dyeing. 
See  PTEROCARPIS. 

SANTANDER,  or  St.  Andero,  a  province  of 
Spain,  called  also,  and  more  correctly,  Las 
Montanas  de  Santander  and  de  Burgos,  or  sim- 
ply Las  Montanas,  stretching  along  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  between  Asturias, 
Old  Castile,  and  Biscay  Proper.  It  consists  of 
steep  mountains  and  valley*,  and  the  produce 
varies  greatly,  according  to  the  elevation.  The 
valleys  produce  maize;  and  the  pasturage,  whether 
on  the  plains  or  on  the  slope  of  the  hills,  is  in 
general  good.  It  contains  mines  of  the  finest 
iron ;  and  there  are  foundries  of  artillery  and 
steel  at  La  C'avada  and  Lierganes.  The  coast 
has  the  excellent  harbours  of  St.  Vincent  de  la 
Barquera,  Santillana,  Castro  de  Urdiales,  San- 
tander, Laredo,  and,  above  all,  Santona.  Ships 
of  war  are  built  at  Guarnizo.  This  province 
formed  part  of  the  ancient  Cantabria. 

SANTANDER,  the  capital  of  the  foregoing  pro- 
vince, is  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  in  a 
circular  peninsula,  to  the  east  of  Santillana.  Its 
port  is  of  easy  access  for  merchant  vessels  of  all 
sizes  ;  frigates  of  forty  guns  must  wait  the  flow 
of  the  tide  before  they  can  pass  the  bar.  The 
harbour  is  protected  by  two  forts  or  castles,  and 
the  entry  of  vessels  into  the  inner  basin  facilitated 
by  a  fine  pier.  Santander  was  long  one  of  the 
ports  called  habilitados,  or  authorised  to  carry 
on  a  free  trade  with  Spanish  America.  It  also 
exports  considerable  quantities  of  wool.  Popu- 
lation 10,000.  Since  1754  it  has  been  the  see  of 
a  bishop.  Fifty  miles  north-west  of  Bilboa,  and 
seventy-nine  north  of  Burgos. 

SANTEE,  a  river  of  South  Carolina,  United 
States,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Congaree  and 
Wateree.  It  runs  into  the  sea  by  two  mouths, 
twenty  miles  below  Georgetown.  This  river 
affords  a  navigation  at  some  seasons  nearly  300 
miles,  and  is  connected  with  Cooper  Kiver  by  a 
canal.  The  main  branch  in  North  Carolina  is 
called  Catawba. 

SANTEUIL,  or  SANTFA'I.  (John  Baptist),  de, 


SAN 


291 


SAX 


was  born  in  Paris  in  1630.  Having  finished  his 
studies  in  Louis  XIV. '3  college  he  applied  him- 
self entirely  to  poetry,  and  celebrated  in  his 
verses  the  praises  of  several  great  men.  He  was 
caressed  by  all  the  learned  men  of  his  time ;  and 
Louis  XIV.  gave  him  a  pension.  He  attended 
trie  duke  of  Bourbon  to  Dijon,  when  that  prince 
went  thither  to  hold  the  states  of  Burgundy: 
and  died  there  in  1697,  as  he  was  preparing  to 
return  to  Paris.  Besides  his  Latin  hymns,  he 
wrote  a  great  number  of  Latin  poems. 

SANTIPORE,  a  town  and  celebrated  factory 
of  the  East  India  Company  in  Bengal,  district  of 
Kishenagur.  The  factory. chiefly  purchases  mus- 
lins, saunahs,  sugar,  and  rum.  It  is  esteemed 
one  of  the  healthiest  places  in  Bengal.  Longr. 
28°  34'  £.,  lat.  23°  13'  N.  There  is  another 
place  of  the  same  name  in  Allahabad. 

SANTOLINA,  lavender  cotton,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  polygamia  rcqualis  order,  and  synge- 
nesia  class  of  plants  ;  natural  order  forty-ninth, 
compositac.  The  receptacle  is  paleaceous ;  there 
is  no  pappus:  c  A  L.  imbricated  and  hemispherical. 
The  most  remarkable  species  are  these  : — 

1.  S.  chamaecyparisus,  the  common  lavender- 
cotton,  has  been  long  known  in  the  English  gar- 
dens; it  was  formerly  called  abrotanum  faennna, 
or  female  southernwood,  and  by  corruption  hro- 
tany ;  it  grows  naturally  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  the 
warm  parts  of  Europe.     It  has  a  ligneous  stalk, 
dividing   into   many   branches,   garnished   with 
slender,  hoary,  indented,  leaves,  that  have  a  rank 
strong  odor  when  handled.     The  branches  are 
terminated   by   a   single    flower,    composed   of 
many  hermaphrodite  florets,  which  are  sistular, 
cut  into  five  parts  at  the  top,  of  a  sulphur-yellow 
and  included  in  one  common  scaly  empalement, 
having  no  borders  or  rays.     These  are  succeeded 
by  small,  oblong,  striated  seeds,  which  are  sepa- 
rated by  scaly  chaff,  and  ripen  in   the  empale- 
ment ;  the  plants  thrive  in  a  dry  soil  and  a  shel- 
tered situation. 

2.  S.    chamaemelifolia,    with    obtuse    woolly 
leaves,  has  shrubby  stalks,  which  rise  three  feet 
high,  garnished  with  broader  leaves  than  any  of 
the   other,   whose    indentures    are    looser,    but 
double  ;  they  are  hoary,  and  when  bruised  have 
an  odor  like  chamomile.     The  leaves  are  placed 
pretty  far  asunder,  and  the  stalks  are  garnished 
with  them  to  the  top.     The  stalks  are  divided 
likewise  at  the  top  into  two  or  three  foot-stalks, 
each  sustaining  one  pretty  large  sulphur-colored 
flower. 

3.  S.  decumbens,  with  linear  leaves,  is  of  a 
lower  stature  than  either  of  the  former,  seldom 
rising  more  than  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  high. 
The  branches  spread  horizontally  near  the  ground, 
and  are  garnished  with  shorter  leaves  than  either 
of  the  former,  which  are  hoary  and  finely  in- 
dented ;    the    stalks   are   terminated   by    single 
flowers,  of  a  bright  yellow  color,  which  are  larger 
than  those  of  the  first  sort. 

4.  S.  rosmarinifolia,  with  linear  entire  leaves, 
and  shrubby  stalks,  which  rise  about  three  feet 
high,  sending  out  long  slender  branches,  gar- 
nished with  single  linear  leaves  of  a  pale-green 
color.     The  stalks  are  terminated  by  large,  sin- 
gle, globular  flowers,  of  a  pale  sulphur-color. 

5.  S   vil!oL-a,  with  woolly  leaves,  has  a  shrubby 


stalk,  which  branches  out  like  the  first,  but  the 
plants  seldom  grow  so  tall.  The  branches  are 
garnished  very  closely  below  with  leaves  ;  the 
flowers  are  of  a  deep  sulphur-color.  It  grows 
naturally  in  Spain. 

6.  S.  virens,  with  very  long  linear  leaves,  rises 
higher  than  any  other  of  this  genus.  The  branches 
are  more  diffused ;  they  are  slender,  smooth, 
and  garnished  with  very  narrow  long  leaves, 
which  are  of  a  deep  green  color;  the  stalks  are 
slender,  naked  towards  the  top,  and  terminated 
by  single  flowers  of  a  gold  color.  All  these 
plants  may  be  cultivated  so  as  to  become  orna- 
ments to  a  garden,  particularly  in  small  bosquets 
of  ever-green  shrubs,  where,  if  they  are  artfully 
intermixed  with  other  plants  of  the  same  growth, 
and  placed  in  the  front  line,  they  will  make  an 
agreeable  variety ;  especially  if  care  be  taken  to 
trim  them  twice  in  a  summer,  to  keep  them 
witliin  bounds,  otherwise  their  branches  are  apt 
to  straggle,  and  in  wet  weather  to  be  borne 
down  and  displaced,  which  renders  them  un- 
sightly ;  but,  when  they  are  kept  in  order,  their 
hoary  and  different  colored  leaves  will  have  a 
fine  effect  in  such  plantations.  They  may  be 
propagated  by  planting  slips  or  cuttings  during 
the  spring,  in  a  border  of  light  fresh  earth,  but 
must  be  watered  and  shaded  in  hot  dry  weather, 
until  they  have  taken  root ;  after  which  they  will 
require  no  farther  care  but  to  keep  them  clean 
from  weeds  till  autumn,  when  they  should  be 
transplanted  where  they  are  designed  to  remain  ; 
but,  if  the  ground  is  not  ready  by  that  time  to 
receive  them,  let  them  remain  in  the  border  un- 
til spring ;  for  if  they  are  transplanted  late  in 
autumn,  they  are  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  cold 
in  winter. 

SANTORINI,  SANTORIN,  ST.  ERINI,  or  ST. 
IRENE,  the  ancient  Thera  and  Calista,  an  island 
in  the  Grecian  archipelago,  between  Nanphio, 
Nio,  and  Candia.  Its  length  and  greatest  breadth 
are  about  eight  miles.  It  has  the  form  of  a 
crescent,  and  between  its  two  points  are  the 
small  islands  of  Therasia  and  Aspronisi,  within 
which  again  are  three  others.  All  seem  of  vol- 
canic origin,  and  have  risen  at  different  periods 
from  the  sea :  Santorini  being  almost  entirely 
covered  with  pumice-stone,  ashes,  and  other 
volcanic  substances  It  is,  however,  well  culti- 
vated, and  produces  barley,  cotton,  vines,  al- 
monds, figs,  and  various  fruits.  Population 
10,000.  Long.  25°  36'  E ,  lat.  36°  28'  N. 

SANTOS,  a  well-built  town  and  port  of  St. 
Pauls,  Brazil,  is  the  storehouse  of  the  province, 
and  the  resort  of  many  vessels  trading  to  the  Rio 
de  la  Plata.  The  rice  and  bananas  of  the  dis- 
trict, which  are  grown  in  great  quantities,  are 
considered  the  best  in  Brasil.  It  also  exports 
sugar,  coffee,  rum,  rice,  mandioca,  indigo,  &c. 

As  Santos  is  the  embarking  place  of  St.  Paul's, 
its  intercourse  with  that  town  is  very  consider- 
able. In  the  course  of  a  day  several  hundred 
mules  arrive,  loaded  with  the  produce  of  the 
country,  and  return  with  salt,  iron,  copper, 
earthenwares,  and  European  manufactures.  It 
has  convenient  water  carriage,  its  river  being 
navigable  about  twenty  miles  up  to  Cuberton, 
where  an  officer  with  a  guard  of  soldiers  is  sta- 
tioned to  receive  the  duties,  for  the  repair  of  the 

U    2 


SAP 


294 


SAP 


•ree.  All  these  plants  are  propagated  by  seeds; 
they  must  be  put  into  small  pots,  and  plunged 
into  a  hot-bed  of  tanner's  bark.  In  five  or  six 
weeks  the  plants  will  appear,  when  the  glasses 
of  the  hot-bed  should  be  raised  every  day  in 
warm  weather,  to  admit  fresh  air  to  the  plants.  In 
three  or  four  weeks  after  the  plants  appear  they 
will  be  fit  to  transplant,  when  they  must  be 
shaken  out  of  the  pots,  and  carefully  parted,  so 
as  not  to  injure  their  roots,  and  each  planted 
into  a  separate  small  pot,  and  plunged  into  the 
hot-bed  again,  observing  to  shade  them  from  the 
sun  until  they  have  taken  new  root ;  after  which 
time  they  must  have  free  air  admitted  to  them 
every  day  when  the  weather  is  warm,  and  will 
require  to  be  frequently  watered. 

SAPLING,  n.  s.  From  sap.  A  young  tree ; 
a  young  plant. 

Look,  how  I  am  bewitched  ;  behold  mine  arm 
Is,  like  a  blasted  sapling,  withered  up.    Shaktpeare. 

Nurse  the  saplings  tall,  and  curl  the  grove 
With  ringlets  quaint.  Milton. 

A  sapling  pine  he  wrenched  from  out  the  ground, 
The  readiest  weapon  that  his  fury  found.  Dryden. 

Slouch  turned  his  head,  saw  his  wife's  vigorous 

hand 
Wielding  her  oaken  sapling  of  command.         A'i/i<;. 

What  planter  will  attempt  to  yoke 
A  sapling  with  a  falling  oak  ?  Surift. 

SAPONA'CEOUS,  adj.  \      Lat.    sapo,  soap. 

SAP'ONAUY.  J  Soapy;  resembling 

soap;  having  the  qualities  of  soap. 

By  digesting  a  solution  of  salt  of  tartar  with  oil 
of  almonds,  I  could  reduce  them  to  a  soft  saponary 
substance.  Boyle. 

Any  mixture  of  an  oily  substance  with  salt,  may 
he  called  a  soap  :  bodies  of  this  nature  are  called  su- 
ponaceaus.  Arbuthnot. 

SAPONARIA,  sopewort,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  digynia  order,  and  decandna  class  of 
plants,  natural  order  twenty-second,  caryophyl- 
leae  :  CAL.  monophyllous  and  naked;  there  are 
five  ungulated  petals  :  CAPS,  oblong  and  unilo- 
cular.  There  are  nine  species.  Of  these  the 
most  remarkable  is  the — 

S.  officinalis,  which  is  a  British  plant,  has  a 
creeping  root,  so  that  in  a  short  time  it  would 
fill  a  large  space  of  ground.  The  stalks  are 
about  two  feet  high,  and  of  a  purplish  color. 
The  foot-stalks  of  the  flowers  arise  from  the 
wings  of  the  leaves  opposite  ;  they  sustain  four, 
five,  or  more  purple  flowers  each ;  which  have 
generally  two  small  leaves  placed  under  them. 
The  stalk  is  also  terminated  by  a  loose  bunch  of 
flowers  growing  in  form  of  an  umbel ;  they  have 
each  a  large  swelling  cylindrical  empalement, 
and  five  broad  obtuse  petals,  which  spread  open, 
of  a  purple  color.  These  are  succeeded  by  oval 
t  upsiiles,  with  one  cell  filled  with  small  seeds. 
The  decoction  is  used  to  cleanse  and  scour 
woollen  cloths;  the  poor  people  of  some  coun- 
tries use  it  instead  of  soap  for  washing ;  from 
which  use  it  had  its  name. 

SAPOR,  n.  s.  Lat.  sapor.  Taste;  power  of 
affecting  or  stimulating  the  palate. 

is  some  sapor  in  all  aliments,  as  being  to  be 
distinguished  and  judged  by  the  gust,  whu  h  runnot 
b<  admitted  in  air.  Hiwnf. 

'1  lie  sliape  of  those  liltlc  paiti<  IT  «hich 


distinguish  the  various  sapors,  odours,  and  colours  of 
bodies.  Watt*. 

SAPOR  I.,  king  of  Persia,  succeeded  his 
father  A  rtaxerxes  about  A.  D.  438.  He  enlarged 
his  dominions  by  taking  Mesopotamia,  Syria, 
and  Cilicia ;  but  proved  a  most  haughty  and 
cruel  tyrant,  particularly  to  the  Roman  emperor 
Valerian,  whom  he  took  prisoner,  and  after  every 
possible  insult  put  him  to  a  cruel  death.  After 
this  he  was  very  unsuccessful ;  was  repeatedly 
defeated  by  Odenatus,  prince  of  Palmyra ;  and 
at  last  assassinated  by  his  own  subjects,  A.  D. 
273.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hormisdas. 
SAPOR  II.,  king  of  Persia,  grandson  of  Sapor 
I.,  succeeded  his  father  Hormisdas,  A.  D.  310. 
He  was  a  very  active  and  warlike  monarch,  and 
proved  very  troublesome  to  the  Romans.  His 
victories  alarmed  the  emperor  Julian  so  much 
that  he  marched  against  him  in  person  ;  but  in  a 
rencounter  with  the  troops  of  this  prince  received 
his  mortal  wound.  Jovian  made  peace  with 
Sapor ;  but  the  latter  afterwards  renewed  hosti- 
lities, invaded  Armenia,  and  defeated  the  empe- 
ror Valens.  Sapor  died  A.  D.  380,  after  a  long 
and  prosperous  reign  of  seventy  years. 

SAPPERS  are  soldiers  belonging  to  the 
royal  artillery,  whose  business  it  is  to  work  at 
the  saps,  for  which  they  have  an  extraordinary 
pay.  A  brigade  of  sappers  generally  consists  of 
eight  men,  divided  equally  into  two  parties ;  and, 
whilst  one  of  these  parties  is  advancing  the  sap, 
the  other  is  furnishing  the  gabions,  fascines,  and 
other  necessary  implements.  They  relieve  each 
other  alternately. 

SAPPHIC  AND  ADONIAN,  oradonic  Terse,  in 
the  ancient  poetry,  a  beautiful  kind  of  verse,  so 
named  from  Sappho,  the  poetess,  and  Adonis, 
the  favorite  of  Venus.  The  Sapphic  verses 
consisted  of  five  feet  each ;  of  which  the  first  was 
a  trochee;  the  second  a  spondee;  the  third  a 
dactyl;  and  the  two  lust  trochees.  The  Adonian 
consisted  of  five  syllables,  forming  a  dactyl  and 
a  spondee.  Each  stanza  consisted  of  three  lines 
Sapphic  and  one  Adonian,  thus  : 


Aure"- 

Diri- 
Sordi- 


arn  quis 
git,  tu 
bus  tec- 


quls  nicili-  |  ocrl-   |  tateru 
tus  caret       |  obso-  I  leti 
ti,  caret        |  invi-    |  dend'A 
Sobrius  aula. 


SAPPIHRA,  the  wife  of  a  rich  merchant  m 
Gueldres,  equally  distinguished  for  her  beauty 
and  her  misfortunes.  Rhinsauld,  a  German 
officer,  and  governor  of  the  town  of  Gueldres, 
fell  in  love  with  her;  and,  not  being  able  to  se- 
duce her  either  by  promises  or  presents,  lie  im- 
prisoned her  husband,  pretending  that  he  kept 
up  a  traitorous  correspondence  with  the  enemies 
of  the  state.  Sapphira  yielded  to  the  passion  of 
the  governor  to  relieve  her  husband  from  chains: 
but  private  orders  had  already  been  given  to  put 
liiui  to  death.  His  unhappy  widow,  overwhelmed 
with  grief,  complained  to  Charles  duke  of  Bur- 
•_'iindy.  He  ordered  Rhinsauld  to  marry  her, 
and  to  make  over  to  her  all  his  possessions.  As 
soon  as  the  deed  was  signed,  ami  the  marriage 
over,  Charles  commanded  him  to  be  put  to 
death.  Thus  the  children  of  a  wife  whom  he 
had  seduced,  and  of  a  husband  whom  he  had 
murdered,  became  lawful  heirs  to  all  his  \\";ihli. 


SAP 


295 


SAR 


SAPPHIRE,  n.  s.  Lat.  sapphirus.  A  pre- 
cious stone  of  a  blue  color. 

In  enrolled  tuffs,  flowers,  purfled,  blue  and  white, 
Like  saphire,  pearl,  in  rich  embroidery. 

Shakspeare. 

She  was  too  saphirine  and  clear  for  thee  ; 
Clay,  flint,  and  jet  now  thy  fit  dwellings  be. 

Donne. 

A  few  grains  of  shell  silver,  with  a  convenient 
proportion  of  powdered  crystal  glass,  having  been 
kept  three  hours  in  fusion,  I  found  the  coliquated 
mass,  upon  breaking  the  crucible,  of  a  lovely  saphi- 
rine blue.  Boyle. 

Saphire  is  of  a  bright  blue  color.  Woodward. 

He  tinctures  rubies  with  their  rosy  hue, 
And  on  the  saphire  spreads  a  heavenly  blue. 

Blackmore. 

That  the  saphire  should  grow  foul,  and  lose  its 
beauty,  when  worn  by  one  that  is  lecherous,  and 
many  other  fabulous  stories  of  gems,  are  great  argu- 
ments that  their  virtue  is  equivalent  to  their  value. 

Derham. 

SAPPHIRE,  a  genus  of  precious  stones,  of  a  blue 
color,  and  the  hardest  of  all  except  the  ruby  and 
diamond.  They  are  found  in  the  same  countries 
with  these  jewels,  also  in  Bohemia,  Alsace,  Si- 
beria, and  Auvergne.  M.  Rome  de  1'Isle  men- 
tions one  found  at  Auvergne,  which  appeared 
quite  green  or  blue  according  to  the  position  in 
which  it  was  viewed.  They  are  seldom  found 
of  a  deep  blue  color  throughout,  or  free  from 
parallel  veins.  The  late  unfortunate  Louis  XVI. 
had  one  with  a  stripe  of  fine  yellow  topaz  in  the 
middle.  Some  are  found  half  green  and  half 
red,  and  are  foliated  like  the  ruby.  The  finest 
sapphires  come  from  the  East  Indies.  In  Scot- 
land they  have  been  found  of  a  hardness  and 
lustre  equal  to  the  oriental,  both  light  and  deep 
colored.  When  powdered,  they  are  fusible  with 
borax,  magnesia,  or  microcosmic  salt,  into  a 
transparent  glass.  Jameson  considers  it  as  a 
species  of  rhomboidal  corundum.  It  is  the 
telesie  of  Haiiy,  and  the  perfect  corundum  of 
Bournon.  The  following  is  Jameson's  descrip- 
tion of  it  abridged  by  Dr.  Ure : — Colors  blue  and 
red ;  it  occurs  also  gray,  white,  green,  and  yel- 
low. It  occurs  in  blunt-edged  pieces,  in  roundish 
pebbles,  and  crystallised.  The  primitive  figure 
is  a  slightly  acute  rhomboid,  or  double  three- 
sided  pyramid,  in  which  the  alternate  angles  are 
86°  4'  and  93°  56'.  The  following  are  the  usual 
forms  : — a  very  acute,  equiangular,  six-sided  py- 
ramid ;  the  same  truncated  on  the  summit ;  a 
perfect  six-sided  prism ;  an  acute,  double,  six- 
sided  pyramid  :  the  same  acuminated,  or  trun- 
cated in  various  ways.  Splendent,  inclined  to 
adamantine.  Cleavage  parallel  with  the  terminal 
planes  of  the  prism.  Fracture  conchoidal.  From 
transparent  to  translucent.  Refracts  double. 
Brittle.  Specific  gravity  4  to  4-2.  Its  constitu- 
ents are, 


Klaproth. 

Blue. 

Alumina,  98-5 

Lime,  6-5 

Oxide  of  iron,  1 


Loss 


100-0 


Chenevix. 

Red. 

90-0 

7-0 

1-2 

1-8 

100-0 


Infusible  before  the  blowpipe.  It  becomes 
electrical  by  rubbing,  and  retains  its  electricity 
for  several  hours  ;  but  does  not  become  electrical 
by  heating.  It  occurs  in  alluvial  soil,  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  rocks  belonging  to  the  secondary  or 
floetz-trap  formation,  and  imbedded  in  gneiss. 
It  is  found  at  Podsedlitz  and  Treblitz  in  Bohe- 
mia, and  Hohenstein  in  Saxony;  Expailly  in 
France ;  and  particularly  beautiful  in  the  Cape- 
Ian  mountains,  twelve  days' journey  from  Sirian, 
a  city  of  Pegu.  Next  to  diamond,  it  is  the  most 
valuable  of  the  gems.  The  white  and  pale  blue 
varieties,  by  exposure  to  heat,  become  snow- 
white,  and  when  cut  exhibit  so  high  a  degree  of 
lustre  that  they  are  used  in  place  of  diamonds. 
The  blue  stone  to  which  the  ancients  applied  the 
name  of  sapphire  was  different  from  ours ;  it 
was  spotted  with  golden  spangles ;  it  was,  in- 
deed, the  same  as  the  lapis  lazuli. 

SAPPHO,  a  celebrated  poetess  of  antiquity, 
who  has  been  often  styled  the  Tenth  Muse,  born 
at  Mitylene,  in  the  isle  of  Lesbos,  about  A.A.C. 
610.  She  was  contemporary  with  Stesichorus 
and  Alcaeus.  The  last  was  her  countryman,  and 
some  think  her  suitor.  A  verse  of  this  poet,  in 
which  he  intimates  to  her  his  passion,  is  preserved 
in  Aristotle,  Rhet.  lib.  i.  cap.  9,  together  with 
the  damsel's  answer.  Of  the  numerous  poems 
this  lady  wrote,  nothing  remains  but  some  small 
fragments  which  the  ancient  scholiasts  have  cited ; 
a  hymn  to  Venus,  preserved  by  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus,  and  a  short  ode.  She  fell  in  love 
with  Phaon,  and  did  all  she  could  to  win  him, 
but  in  vain.  She  followed  him  into  Sicily,  whi- 
ther he  retired  to  avoid  her;  and  during  her  stay 
in  that  island  composed  the  Hymn  to  Venus, 
still  extant,  in  which  she  begs  so  ardently  the  as- 
sistance of  that  goddess.  But  her  prayers  proved 
fruitless;  Phaon  was  cruel  to  the  last,  and  Sappho 
at  length  went  to  the  promontory  Leucas,  and 
threw  herself  into  the  sea.  See  LEUCATE.  The 
Mitylenians  held  her  merit  in  such  high  esteem, 
that  they  stamped  their  money  with  her  image ; 
and  the  Romans  afterwards  erected  a  noble  sta- 
tue of  porphyry  to  her.  Vossius  says  that  none 
of  the  Greek  poets  excelled  Sappho  for  sweet- 
ness of  verse ;  and  that  she  made  Archilochus 
the  model  of  her  style,  but  softened  the  harsh- 
ness of  his  expression.  Rapin  observes  that 
Longinus  had  great  reason  to  extol  the  admirable 
genius  of  this  woman ;  for  what  remain  of  her 
works  are  delicate,  harmonious,  and  impassioned 
to  the  last  degree. 

SAR'ABAND,  n.  s.  Fr.  sarabande ;  Span. 
$arabunde.  A  Spanish  dance. 

The  several  modifications  of  this  tune-playing  qua- 
lity in  a  fiddle,  to  play  preludes,  sarabands,  jigs,  and 
gavots,  are  as  much  real  qualities  in  the  instrument 
as  the  thought  is  in  the  mind  of  the  composer. 

A  rbttthnot  and  Pope. 

A  SARABAND  is  a  musical  composition,  in  the 
triple  time,  the  motions  of  which  are  slow  and 
serious.  See  Music.  Saraband  is  also  a  dance 
to  the  same  measure,  which  usually  terminates 
when  the  hand  that  beats  fhe  time  falls  ;  and  is 
otherwise  much  the  same  as  the  minuet.  The 
saraband  is  said  to  be  originally  derived  from 
the  Saracens,  and  is  usually  danced  to  the  sound 
of  the  guitar  or  castauettes. 


SAP 


294 


SAP 


Tee.  All  these  plants  are  propagated  by  seeds; 
they  must  be  put  into  small  pots,  and  plunged 
into  a  hot-bed  of  tanner's  bark.  In  five  or  six 
weeks  the  plants  will  appear,  when  the  glasses 
of  the  hot-bed  should  be  raised  every  day  in 
warm  weather,  to  admit  fresh  air  to  the  plants.  In 
three  or  four  weeks  after  the  plants  appear  they 
will  be  fit  to  transplant,  when  they  must  be 
shaken  out  of  the  pots,  and  carefully  parted,  so 
as  not  to  injure  their  roots,  and  each  planted 
into  a  separate  small  pot,  and  plunged  into  the 
hot-bed  again,  observing  to  shade  them  from  the 
sun  until  they  have  taken  new  root ;  after  which 
time  they  must  have  free  air  admitted  to  them 
every  day  when  the  weather  is  warm,  and  will 
require  to  be  frequently  watered. 

SAPLING,  n.  s.  From  sap.  A  young  tree; 
a  young  plant. 

Look  how  I  am  bewitched  ;  behold  mine  arm 
Is,  like  a  blasted  sapling,  withered  up.    Shaktpeare. 

Nurse  the  saplings  tall,  and  curl  the  grove 
With  ringlets  quaint.  Milton. 

A  sapling  pine  he  wrenched  from  out  the  ground, 
The  readiest  weapon  that  his  fury  found.  Dryden. 

Slouch  turned  his  head,  saw  his  wife's  vigorous 

hand 
Wielding  her  oaken  sapling  of  command.         King. 

What  planter  will  attempt  to  yoke 
A  mpling  with  a  falling  oak?  Swift. 

SAPONA'CEOUS,  adj.  \      Lat.    sapo,  soap. 

SAP'ONAIIY.  J  Soapy;  resembling 

soap ;  having  the  qualities  of  soap. 

By  digesting  a  solution  of  salt  of  tartar  with  oil 
of  almonds,  I  could  reduce  them  to  a  soft  tapimary 
substance.  lioyle. 

Any  mixture  of  an  oily  substance  with  salt,  may 
he  called  a  soap  :  bodies  of  this  nature  are  called  sa- 
ponaceous, Arbuthnot. 

SAPONARIA,  sopewort,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  digynia  order,  and  decandna  class  of 
plants,  natural  order  twenty-second,  caryophyl- 
leae  :  CAL.  monophyllous  and  naked ;  there  are 
rive  ungulated  petals  :  CAPS,  oblong  and  unilo- 
cular.  There  are  nine  species.  Of  these  the 
most  remarkable  is  the — 

S.  officinalis,  which  is  a  British  plant,  has  a 
creeping  root,  so  that  in  a  short  time  it  would 
fill  a  large  space  of  ground.  The  stalks  are 
about  two  feet  high,  and  of  a  purplish  color. 
The  foot-stalks  of  the  flowers  arise  from  the 
wings  of  the  leaves  opposite  ;  they  sustain  four, 
five,  or  more  purple  flowers  each ;  which  have 
generally  two  small  leaves  placed  under  them. 
The  stalk  is  also  terminated  by  a  loose  bunch  of 
flowers  growing  in  form  of  an  umbel;  they  have 
a  large  swelling  cylindrical  empalement, 
and  five  broad  obtuse  petals,  which  spread  open, 
of  a  purple  color.  These  are  succeeded  by  oval 
i-u|iMiles  with  one  cell  filled  with  small  seeds. 
The  decoction  is  u*ed  to  cleanse  and  scour 
woollen  cloths;  the  poor  people  of  some  coun- 
tries use  it  instead  of  soap  for  washing ;  from 
which  use  it  had  its  name. 

SA1'<  )H,  n.  s.  I  .at.  stipor.  Taste;  power  of 
afl'rctingor  stimulating  the  palate. 

I  IK  if  is  some  tapor  in  all  aliments,  as  being  to  he 
distinguished  and  judged  by  the  gust,  whu  h  < 
b*  admitted  in  air.  Hriw/f. 

I  lie  •- 1 1 ape  of  those  liltl<    ;  i  lu.iHcr  "liicli 


distinguish  the  various  sapors,  odours,  and  colours  of 
bodies.  Watts. 

SAPOR  I.,  king  of  Persia,  succeeded  his 
father  Artaxerxes  about  A.  1).  438.  He  enlarged 
his  dominions  by  taking  Mesopotamia,  Syria, 
and  Cilicia ;  but  proved  a  most  haughty  and 
cruel  tyrant,  particularly  to  the  Roman  emperor 
Valerian,  whom  he  took  prisoner,  and  after  every 
possible  insult  put  him  to  a  cruel  death.  After 
this  he  was  very  unsuccessful ;  was  repeatedly 
defeated  by  Odenatus,  prince  of  Palmyra ;  and 
at  last  assassinated  by  his  own  subjects,  A.  D. 
273.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hormisdas. 
SAPOR  II.,  king  of  Persia,  grandson  of  Sapor 
I.,  succeeded  his  father  Hormisdas,  A.  D.  310. 
He  was  a  very  active  and  warlike  monarch,  and 
proved  very  troublesome  to  the  Romans.  His 
victories  alarmed  the  emperor  Julian  so  much 
that  he  marched  against  him  in  person  ;  but  in  a 
rencounter  with  the  troops  of  this  prince  received 
his  mortal  wound.  Jovian  made  peace  with 
Sapor ;  but  the  latter  afterwards  renewed  hosti- 
lities, invaded  Armenia,  and  defeated  the  empe- 
ror Valens.  Sapor  died  A.  D.  380,  after  a  long 
and  prosperous  reign  of  seventy  years. 

SAPPERS  are  soldiers  belonging  to  the 
royal  artillery,  whose  business  it  is  to  work  at 
the  saps,  for  which  they  have  an  extraordinary 
pay.  A  brigade  of  sappers  generally  consists  of 
eight  men,  divided  equally  into  two  parties;  and, 
whilst  one  of  these  parties  is  advancing  the  sap, 
the  other  is  furnishing  the  gabions,  fascines,  and 
other  necessary  implements.  They  relieve  each 
other  alternately. 

SAPPHIC  AND  ADONIAN,  oradonic  terse,  in 
the  ancient  poetry,  a  beautiful  kind  of  verse,  so 
named  from  Sappho,  the  poetess,  and  Adonis, 
the  favorite  of  Venus.  The  Sapphic  verses 
consisted  of  five  feet  each ;  of  which  the  first  was 
a  trochee ;  (he  second  a  spondee ;  the  third  a 
dactyl ;  and  the  two  lust  trochees.  The  Adonian 
consisted  of  five  syllables,  forming  a  dactyl  and 
a  spondee.  Each  stanza  consisted  of  three  lines 
Sapphic  and  one  Adonian,  thus  : 

tateni 
leti 
denda 
Sobrius  aula. 

SAPPHIRA,  the  wife  of  a  rich  merchant  in 
Gueldres,  equally  distinguished  for  her  beauty 
and  her  misfortunes.  Rhinsauld,  a  German 
officer,  and  governor  of  the  town  of  Gueldres, 
fell  in  love  with  her;  and,  not  being  able  to  se- 
duce her  either  by  promises  or  presents,  lie  im- 
]>riM>ned  her  husband,  pretending  that  he  kept 
up  a  traitorous  correspondence  with  the  enemies 
of  the  state.  Sapphira  yielded  to  the  passion  of 
the  governor  to  relieve  her  husband  from  chains: 
but  private  oruers  had  already  been  given  to  put 
Mm  to  death.  His  unhappy  widow,  overwhelmed 
N\  ith  grief,  complained  to  Charles  duke  of  Bur- 
LMimly.  He  ordered  Rhinsauld  to  marry  her, 
and  to  make  over  to  her  all  his  possessions.  As 
soon  as  the  deed  u, is  signed,  and  the  marriage 
over,  Charles  commanded  him  to  be  put  to 
death.  Tin1  -  the  children  of  a  wife  whom  he 
had  seduced,  and  of  a  husband  whom  lie  lunl 
nmideied,  became  lawful  heirs  to  all  his  \\»a!th. 


Aure- 

am  quis 

quis  mfrll- 

ocrl- 

Diri- 

git,  tu 

tus  caret 

obso- 

Soidi- 

bus  tec- 

ti,  caret 

invi- 

SAP 


295 


SAR 


SAPPHIRE,  n.  s.  Lat.  sapphirus.  A  pre- 
cious stone  of  a  blue  color. 

In  enrolled  tuffs,  flowers,  purfled,  blue  and  white, 
Like  sap/iire,  pearl,  in  rich  embroidery. 

Shakspeare. 

She  was  too  saphirine  and  clear  for  thee  ; 
Clay,  flint,  and  jet  now  thy  fit  dwellings  be. 

Donne. 

A  few  grains  of  shell  silver,  with  a  convenient 
proportion  of  powdered  crystal  glass,  having  been 
kept  three  hours  in  fusion,  I  found  the  coliquated 
mass,  upon  breaking  the  crucible,  of  a  lovely  saphi- 
rine blue.  Boyle. 

Saphire  is  of  a  bright  blue  color.  Woodward. 

He  tinctures  rubies  with  their  rosy  hue, 
And  on  the  saphire  spreads  a  heavenly  blue. 

Blackmore. 

That  the  saphire  should  grow  foul,  and  lose  its 
beauty,  when  worn  by  one  that  is  lecherous,, and 
many  other  fabulous  stories  of  gems,  are  great  argu- 
ments that  their  virtue  is  equivalent  to  their  value. 

Derham. 

SAPPHIRE,  a  genus  of  precious  stones,  of  a  blue 
color,  and  the  hardest  of  all  except  the  ruby  and 
diamond.  They  are  found  in  the  same  countries 
with  these  jewels,  also  in  Bohemia,  Alsace,  Si- 
beria, and  Auvergne.  M.  Rome  de  1'Isle  men- 
tions one  found  at  Auvergne,  which  appeared 
quite  green  or  blue  according  to  the  position  in 
which  it  was  viewed.  They  are  seldom  found 
of  a  deep  blue  color  throughout,  or  free  from 
parallel  veins.  The  late  unfortunate  Louis  XVI. 
had  one  with  a  stripe  of  fine  yellow  topaz  in  the 
middle.  Some  are  found  half  green  and  half 
red,  and  are  foliated  like  the  ruby.  The  finest 
sapphires  come  from  the  East  Indies.  In  Scot- 
land they  have  been  found  of  a  hardness  and 
lustre  equal  to  the  oriental,  both  light  and  deep 
colored.  When  powdered,  they  are  fusible  with 
borax,  magnesia,  or  microcosmic  salt,  into  a 
transparent  glass.  Jameson  considers  it  as  a 
species  of  rhomboidal  corundum.  It  is  the 
telesie  of  Haiiy,  and  the  perfect  corundum  of 
Bournon.  The  following  is  Jameson's  descrip- 
tion of  it  abridged  by  Dr.  Ure : — Colors  blue  and 
red ;  it  occurs  also  gray,  white,  green,  and  yel- 
low. It  occurs  in  blunt-edged  pieces,  in  roundish 
pebbles,  and  crystallised.  The  primitive  figure 
is  a  slightly  acute  rhomboid,  or  double  three- 
sided  pyramid,  in  which  the  alternate  angles  are 
86°  4'  and  93°  56'.  The  following  are  the  usual 
forms  : — a  very  acute,  equiangular,  six-sided  py- 
ramid ;  the  same  truncated  on  the  summit ;  a 
perfect  six-sided  prism ;  an  acute,  double,  six- 
sided  pyramid  :  the  same  acuminated,  or  trun- 
cated in  various  ways.  Splendent,  inclined  to 
adamantine.  Cleavage  parallel  with  the  terminal 
planes  of  the  prism.  Fracture  conchoidal.  From 
transparent  to  translucent.  Refracts  double. 
Brittle.  Specific  gravity  4  to  4-2.  Its  constitu- 
ents are, 


Klaproth. 

Blue. 

Alumina,  98-5 

Lime,  6-5 

Oxide  of  iron,  1 


Loss 


100-0 


Chenevix. 

Red. 

90-0 

7-0 

1-2 

1-8 

100-0 


Infusible  before  the  blowpipe.  It  becomes 
electrical  by  rubbing,  and  retains  its  electricity 
for  several  hours  ;  but  does  not  become  electrical 
by  heating.  It  occurs  in  alluvial  soil,  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  rocks  belonging  to  the  secondary  or 
floetz-trap  formation,  and  imbedded  in  gneiss. 
It  is  found  at  Podsedlitz  and  Treblitz  in  Bohe- 
mia, and  Hohenstein  in  Saxony;  Expailly  in 
France ;  and  particularly  beautiful  in  the  Cape- 
Ian  mountains,  twelve  days' journey  from  Sirian, 
a  city  of  Pegu.  Next  to  diamond,  it  is  the  most 
valuable  of  the  gems.  The  white  and  pale  blue 
varieties,  by  exposure  to  heat,  become  snow- 
white,  and  when  cut  exhibit  so  high  a  degree  of 
lustre  that  they  are  used  in  place  of  diamonds. 
The  blue  stone  to  which  the  ancients  applied  the 
name  of  sapphire  was  different  from  ours ;  it 
was  spotted  with  golden  spangles;  it  was,  in- 
deed, the  same  as  the  lapis  lazuli. 

SAPPHO,  a  celebrated  poetess  of  antiquity, 
who  has  been  often  styled  the  Tenth  Muse,  born 
at  Mitylene,  in  the  isle  of  Lesbos,  about  A.A.C. 
610.  She  was  contemporary  with  Stesichorus 
and  Alcaeus.  The  last  was  her  countryman,  and 
some  think  her  suitor.  A  verse  of  this  poet,  in 
which  he  intimates  to  her  his  passion,  is  preserved 
in  Aristotle,  Rhet.  lib.  i.  cap.  9,  together  witli 
the  damsel's  answer.  Of  the  numerous  poems 
this  lady  wrote,  nothing  remains  but  some  small 
fragments  which  the  ancient  scholiasts  have  cited ; 
a  hymn  to  Venus,  preserved  by  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus,  and  a  short  ode.  She  fell  in  love 
with  Phaon,  and  did  all  she  could  to  win  him, 
but  in  vain.  She  followed  him  into  Sicily,  whi- 
ther he  retired  to  avoid  her;  and  during  her  stay 
in  that  island  composed  the  Hymn  to  Venus, 
still  extant,  in  which  she  begs  so  ardently  the  as- 
sistance of  that  goddess.  But  her  prayers  proved 
fruitless;  Phaon  was  cruel  to  the  last,  and  Sappho 
at  length  went  to  the  promontory  Leucas,  and 
threw  herself  into  the  sea.  See  LEUCATE.  The 
Mitylenians  held  her  merit  in  such  high  esteem, 
that  they  stamped  their  money  with  her  image ; 
and  the  Romans  afterwards  erected  a  noble  sta- 
tue of  porphyry  to  her.  Vossius  says  that  none 
of  the  Greek  poets  excelled  Sappho  for  sweet- 
ness of  verse ;  and  that  she  made  Archilochus 
the  model  of  her  style,  but  softened  the  harsh- 
ness of  his  expression.  Rapin  observes  that 
Longinus  had  great  reason  to  extol  the  admirable 
genius  of  this  woman ;  for  what  remain  of  her 
works  are  delicate,  harmonious,  and  impassioned 
to  the  last  degree. 

SAR'ABAND,  n.  s.  Fr.  sarabande ;  Span. 
$arabande.  A  Spanish  dance. 

The  several  modifications  of  this  tune-playing  qua- 
lity in  a  fiddle,  to  play  preludes,  sarabands,  jigs,  and 
gavots,  are  as  much  real  qualities  in  the  instrument 
as  the  thought  is  in  the  mind  of  the  composer. 

Arbuthnot  and  Pope. 

A  SARABAND  is  a  musical  composition,  in  the 
triple  time,  the  motions  of  which  are  slow  and 
serious.  See  Music.  Saraband  is  also  a  dance 
to  the  same  measure,  which  usually  terminates 
when  the  hand  that  beats  fhe  time  falls  ;  and  is 
otherwise  much  the  same  as  the  minuet.  The 
saraband  is  said  to  be  originally  derived  from 
the  Saracens,  and  is  usually  danced  to  the  sound 
of  the  guitar  or  castauettes. 


296 


SARACENS. 


SARACENS,  a  name  given  to  the  former 
inhabitants  of  Arabia;  so  called  from  the 
word  sara,  which  signifies  a  desert,  as  the  greatest 
part  of  Arabia  is ;  and,  this  being  the  country 
of  Mahomet,  his  disciples  were  called  Sara- 
cens. 

Under  the  article  ARABIA,  and  still  more 
fully  under  MAHOMET,  we  have  given  an  account 
of  the  rise,  progress,  and  establishment  of  the 
Mahometan  system  of  imposture  and  super- 
stition ;  previous  to  which  event  the  name  of 
Saracens  was  hardly  known  in  Europe.  Of  his 
flight  from  Mecca"  to  Medina,  A.  D.  622,  and 
consequent  orijin  of  the  Mahometan  era  of 
the  Hegira,  we  have  also  given  a  particular  ac- 
count, with  his  various  and  rapid  successes,  for 
ten  years  after  the  commencement  of  that  era. 
By  the  year  631,  the  ninth  of  the  Hegira,  the 
principal  men  among  the  Arabs,  and  the  whole 
of  the  Koreish,  his  most  inveterate  opponents, 
had  submitted,  and  by  the  year  632  the  whole 
peninsula  of  Arabia  was  reduced  under  his  sub- 
jection and  superstition.  But  in  that  year,  the 
tenth  of  the  Hegka,  while  fresh  embassies  of 
submission  were  daily  arriving,  this  famous  im- 
postor died  in  Medina,  in  the  chamber  of  his 
best  beloved  wife,  in  consequence  of  a  poisoned 
dish  presented  to  him  three  years  before,  by 
Zainoh,  the  daughter  of  Hareth,  an  Arabian 
chief,  of  which  he  had  eaten  but  a  small  quan- 
tity. The  death  of  Mahomet  threw  all  Mecca 
into  consternation.  The  veneration  of  the  people 
was  so  great  that  they  could  hardly  believe  his 
death  possible.  Abu  Beer,  however,  at  last  con- 
vinced them  that,  though  God  was  immortal,  his 
prophet  was  mortal. 

Warm  disputes  followed  between  the  Mohaje- 
rin  and  the  Ansars ;  about  the  election  of  a 
caliph,  as  his  successor.  Ali,  the  son-in-law  of 
Mahomet,  who  had  married  the  prophet's  daugh- 
ter, Fatinia,  certainly  had  the  best  title;  but  Abu 
Beer  was  preferred  by  the  influence  of  Omar, 
and  chosen  by  both  parties.  Ali,  after  some  re- 
monstrances, submitted  :  but  his  superior  right 
is  defended  even  to  the  present  period,  by  a  nu- 
merous party  of  Mahometans,  hence  called 
Shites,  or  Sectaries.  Upon  Abu  Beer's  accession 
many  of  the  Arabs  refused  to  pay  the  tribute 
imposed  on  them  by  Mahomet ;  whereupon  Abu 
Beer  sent  Khaled,  with  an  army  of  4500  men, 
who  totally  defeated  them,  brought  off  much 
plunder,  and  made  many  of  them  slaves.  He 
also  killed  Moseilama,  and  defeated  Toleiah, 
two  pretended  prophets,  who  attempted  to  imi- 
tate Mahomet  in  his  posture.  He  next  sent  his 
son  Osama  into  Syria,  where  he  plundered  the 
country  and  did  much  damage  to  the  Greeks. 
He  soon  after  sent  Khaled  to  invade  Irak,  which 
he  accomplished,  and  put  an  end  to  tne  kingdom 
of  Hira,  collecting  70,000  pieces  of  money,  and 
subjecting  the  people  to  tribute.  He  next  pre- 
pared to  invade  Syria,  and,  having  collected  a 
great  army,  gave  Yezid  Ebn  Abu  Sosian  the 
rornmnnd  <.f  it,  with  the  following  among  oilier 
'Treat,  your  men  with  lenity  :  if  you 


be  victorious,  kill  neither  old  people,  \voir.snr 
nor  children  :  cut  down  no  palm  trees,  nor  burn 
any  fields  of  corn  :  spare  all  fruit  trees,  and  slay 
no  cattle  but  such  as  you  use  :  put  none  of  the 
religious  persons  to  the  sword  :  offer  no  violence 
to  the  places  they  serve  God  in.'  The  Greek 
emperor  was  much  alarmed,  and  sent  a  party  of 
Greeks  to  reconnoitre  the  enemy,  who  falling  in 
with  a  party  of  Arabs,  a  battle  ensued,  in  which 
the  Greeks  lost  1200  men,  while  the  Saracens 
lost  only  120.  Many  skirmishes  followed,  and 
much  rich  spoil  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  and 
sent  to  the  caliph.  Another  party  of  Greeks, 
however,  were  more  successful  against  Abu 
Obeidah,  whom  they  totally  defeated,  and  who 
was  therefore  displaced  by  Abu  Beer.  Khaled 
was  sent  to  reduce  Bostra,  a  rich  city  of  Syria, 
which  he  accomplished  chiefly  by  treachery. 
Being  joined  by  Obeidan's  troops,  he  laid  siege 
to  Damascus  with  45,000  men.  The  Greek  em- 
peror sent  an  army  of  100,000  men,  under  general 
Werdan,  to  relieve  it ;  but  they  were  attacked  by 
Derar  Ehn  Al  Wazar,  at  the  head  ef  a  numerous 
body  of  Saracens ;  and,  though  the  Greeks  were 
at  first  so  successful  as  even  to  take  Derar  him- 
self prisoner  (who  had  plunged  into  the  heart  of 
the  Christian  army,  killed  the  standard-bearer, 
and  seized  the  standard,  which  was  a  cross  richly 
adorned  with  precious  stones),  yet  the  Saracens 
completely  defeated  them,  Khaled  himself  turn- 
ing the  fortune  of  the  day,  by  arriving  with  a 
fresh  body  of  foot  and  1000  horse.  Werdan, 
however,  having  still  an  army  of  70,000  men, 
made  a  fresh  attempt  to  relieve  Damascus  ;  bu: 
being  again  completely  defeated,  with  the  loss 
of  50,000  men,  Damascus  was  soon  after  taken, 
A.  D.  634 ;  and  that  very  day  Abu  Beer  died  of 
a  consumption,  aged  sixty-three. 

Abu  Beer  was  succeeded  by  Omar  I.,  who  was 
saluted  with  the  title  of  emperor  of  the  be- 
lievers, and  replaced  Abu  Obeidah  in  the  com- 
mand, being  displeased  with  Khaled  for  his 
cruelties  ;  whereas  Obeidah  was  mild  and  mer- 
ciful to  the  Christians.  Khaled,  however,  bore 
his  disgrace  with  magnanimity,  and  swore  he 
would  obey  the  new  caliph.  Obeidah,  however, 
some  time  afterwards  voluntarily  yielded  the 
command  to  Khaled,  as  being  possessed  of  more 
military  skill.  Under  these  commanders,  the 
Saracens  soon  after  reduced  the  fortresses  of 
Kinnisrin,  Baalbec,  Adestan,  Shaizar,  and  Hems : 
upon  which  the  Greek  emperor  Heraclius  sent 
against  them  an  army  of  240,000  men,  under 
Manuel ;  but  this  numerous  body  was  utterly 
defeated  by  Khaled,  near  a  village  called  Yer- 
mouk;  where,  according  to  the  Arabian  his- 
torians, the  Christians  lost  150,000  men  killed, 
and  40,000  prisoners,  while  the  Arabs  lost  only 
4030  men;  but  this  seems  incredible.  The  de- 
feat of  Yermouk  was  followed  by  the  loss  of  Je- 
rusalem, and  all  Palestine.  Omar,  hearing  of 
the  success  of  his  troops,  immediately  set  out  to 
visit  Jerusalem,  in  a  kind  of  pilgrimage,  being 
dressed  in  a  coarse  habit  made  of  camels'  liair, 
daily,  and  performing  numberless  su- 


S  A  It  A  C  E  N  S. 


297 


perstitious  ceremonies  by  the  way,  as  well  as 
some  signal  acts  of  justice  and  mercy,  and  giving 
some  striking  instances  of  humility,  by  causing  all 
his  followers  to  eat  with  him  without  distinction. 
Upon  his  arrival  he  preached  a  sermon  to  his 
people  ;  after  which  he  signed  the  articles  of  ca- 
pitulation, confirmed  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusa- 
lem in  all  their  rights  and  privileges,  and  visited 
the  temple  of  the  resurrection,  and  other  antiqui- 
ties of  that  city,  accompanied  by  Sophronius  the 
patriarch,  who  with  difficulty  could  prevail  on 
him  to  change  his  dirty  garments  for  others 
more  becoming  his  dignity.  After  dividing  the 
government  of  Syria  between  Abu  Obeidah  and 
Yezid  Ebn  Abu  Sosian,  ordering  Amru  Ebn  Al 
As  to  invade  Egypt,  and  leaving  proper  orders 
otherwise,  he  returned  to  Medina.  Yezid  then 
attacked  Caesarea,  but  found  it  stronger  than  he 
expected.  Obeidah  advanced  to  Aleppo,  where 
Youkinna  and  John,  two  brothers,  governed 
under  Heraclius.  Youkinna  resolved  to  oppose 
the  Saracens,  and  accordingly  set  out  at  the  head 
of  12,000  troops  ;  and,  meeting  with  a  party  of 
Arabs,  defeated  them  ;  but,  in  the  mean  time,  the 
people  of  Aleppo,  afraid  of  the  consequences,  if 
their  city  should  be  taken  by  storm,  submitted  to 
Abu  Obeidah.  On  this  Youkinna  posted  home 
to  Aleppo  in  a  rage,  ordered  them  to  annul  their 
treaty,  and,  finding  them  not  ready  to  comply, 
killed  300  of  them,  among  whom  was  his  own 
brother  John.  He  vr?  soon  after  attacked  by 
the  Saracens,  and  defeated  with  the  loss  of  3000 
men ;  after  which  he  was  besieged  by  them  in 
the  citadel,  from  which  he  made  repeated  sallies, 
and  killed  great  numbers  of  the  Saracens.  Abu 
Obeidah,  after  continuing  the  siege  four  months 
onger,  at  last  wrote  Omar  that  the  citadel  was 
impregnable,  and  proposed  raising  it.  But  Omar 
sent  him  a  fresh  reinforcement,  with  seventy 
camels,  and  orders  to  continue  it.  Among  these 
new  troops  was  an  Arab  of  a  gigantic  size,  named 
Dames ;  who,  by  his  size  and  his  ingenuity,  in 
raising  seven  men  perpendicularly  upon  his  own 
and  each  other's  shoulders,  overtopt  the  walls 
in  the  night,  got  quietly  in,  killed  the  sentinels 
and  the  guards;  and  admitting  Khaled,  with  a 
fresh  party  of  Saracens,  soon  got  complete  pos- 
session of  the  citadel.  Youkinna  and  some 
of  the  principal  officers  turned  Mahometans. 
After  this  Youkinna  proposed  to  Obeidah  to  be- 
tray into  his  hand  Azar,  an  important  fort,  where 
his  own  cousin  Theodorus  was  commandant,  by 
going  to  him  at  the  head  of  100  Arabs  dressed 
as  Greeks.  But,  this  piece  of  treachery  was  de- 
tected, Theodorus  having  heard  of  the  plan  ;  and 
Youkinna  and  his  pseudo-Greeks  were  made 
prisoners.  But  the  fort  being  reduced,  You- 
kinna recovered  his  liberty  ;  but  was  soon  after 
taken  prisoner  a  second  time,  and  carried  before 
Heraclius  at  Antioch.  Here  again  he  dissembled, 
and  pretended  that  he  was  still  a  Christian,  and 
had  only  professed  Mahometanism  to  serve 
the  emperor  the  more  effectually ;  upon  which 
Heraclius  appointed  him  governor  of  Antioch, 
which  the  traitor  soon  after  delivered  up  to  the 
Saracens.  Heraclius,  disconsolate  by  these  suc- 
cessive losses,  was  put  by  the  king  of  Ghassan 
upon  the  ungenerous  plan  of  attempting  to  get 
rid  of  Omar  by  assassination.  The  king  accord- 


ingly employed  Wathek  Ebn  Mosafer,  a  resolute 
young  Arab  of  his  own  tribe,  on  this  dangerous 
enterprise.  Wathek  got  a  fair  opportunity,  by 
finding  Omar  sleeping  under  a  tree,  but  was  de- 
terred by  a  lion,  who  came  and  licked  the  ca- 
iiph's  feet  till  he  awoke  :  on  which  Wathek,  con- 
sidering this  as  miraculous,  confessed  his  inten- 
tion, turned  Mahometan,  and  was  pardoned. 
Obeidah  then  despatched  a  body  of  1300  troops, 
under  Meisarah  Ebn  Mesroux,  to  the  moun- 
tainous parts  of  Syria.  The  Greeks  surrounded 
them,  and  would  have  cut  them  all  off,  had  not 
Khaled  appeared  at  the  head  of  3000  Arabs. 
On  this  the  Greeks  fled,  leaving  their  tents  and 
rich  effects  to  the  Arabs.  But  Abdallah  Ebn 
Hodasa,  one  of  Omar's  chief  favorites,  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to  Constantinople.  Omar 
wrote  to  Heraclius,  requesting  his  release,  which 
Heraclius  generously  granted,  and  sent  along 
with  him  many  valuable  presents,  particularly  a 
jewel  of  immense  value,  which  Omar  sold,  and 
put  the  price  in  the  public  treasury,  though  re- 
quested to  keep  it  for  his  own  use.  About  this 
time  a  negotiation  for  peace  took  place ;  but, 
Omar  insisting  upon  an  annual  tribute,  it  failed. 
Mean  time  many  skirmishes  took  place,  and 
many  heroic  acts  of  prowess  were  performed  by 
individuals  on  both  sides.  But  the  chief  suc- 
cess was  on  the  side  of  the  Saracens.  Khaled 
took  Manbii,  Beraa,  Balis,  Raaban,  Douluc, 
Korus  (the  ancient  Cyrus),  and  several  other  for- 
tified towns.  Prince  Constantine,  the  son 
of  Heraclius,  finding  his  troops  diminishing- 
daily,  took  the  advantage  of  a  tempestuous  night 
to  escape  to  Catsarea;  which  was  soon  after  in- 
vested by  Amru.  Mean  time  Youkinna,  by  his 
old  system  of  treachery,  took  Tripoli,  and  seized 
fifty  ships,  which  had  just  arrived  from  Crete 
and  Cyprus  with  a  supply  of  arms  and  pro- 
visions, not  knowing  that  the  Saracens  were  pos- 
sessed of  it.  With  these  he  set  out  for  Tyre, 
where  he  deceived  the  people,  pretending  to 
come  as  a  friend,  and  opened  the  gates  to  Yezid. 
Constantine,  hearing  at  Caesarea  of  these  losses, 
set  sail  with  his  family  and  all  his  wealth,  leaving 
the  citizens  to  make  their  best  terms  with  Amru. 
The  surrender  of  Caesarea  was  followed  by  that 
of  all  the  other  cities  and  forts  in  Syria,  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Euphrates,  in  the  eigh- 
teenth year  of  the  Hegira,  or  A.  D.  640,  six  years 
after  the  expedition  commenced.  To  the  mise- 
ries of  war  were  added  those  of  violent  storms 
of  hail,  an  epidemical  distemper,  and  at  last  a 
pestilence,  all  within  the  course  of  this  year, 
which  the  Arabs  style  the  year  of  destruction. 
By  this  last  plague,  the  Saracens  lost  25,000 
men  ;  among  whom  were  Abu  Obeidah,  Yezid, 
Abu  Sosian,  Serjabil,  and  other  eminent  charac- 
ters. Amru  after  this  set  out  for  Egypt,  and  on 
l»is  way  took  Tarma,  a  town  on  the  isthmus  of 
Suez.  He  next  attacked  Mesr,  the  ancient  Mem- 
phis, which,  after  a  siege  of  seven  months,  was 
betrayed  to  him  by  Al  Mokawkas,  the  governor. 
He  then  proceeded  to  Alexandria,  which,  after 
defeating  the  imperial  army,  he  invested.  During 
the  siege  Amru  himself  was  taken  prisoner,  'but 
protected  from  detection  by  one  of  his  own  slaves 
giving  him  a  box  on  the  ear,  while  he  was  an- 
swering some  questions  proposed  by  tht  govcr- 


298 


SARACENS. 


nor,  who  generously  dismissed  him  without  ran- 
som. Amru  nevertheless  reduced  Alexandria 
soon  after,  which  was  followed  by  the  loss  of  the 
whole  kingdom  of  Egypt ;  while  his  general 
Okba  Ebn  Nafe  made  himself  master  of  all  the 
country  of  Africa,  between  Barka  and  Zoweilah, 
including  also  what  now  forms  the  piratical 
kingdom  of  Tripoli.  Soon  after  this  a  great 
famine  raged  in  Arabia,  particularly  at  Medina, 
where  Omar  then  resided.  Omar  therefore  wrote 
to  Amru  to  send  him  a  supply  of  corn,  which 
he  accordingly  sent  on  a  train  of  loaded  camels, 
the  first  of  which  entered  Medina  when  the  last 
left  Alexandria.  But,  this  method  proving  te- 
dious and  expensive,  Omar  ordered  Amru  to 
clear  the  Araris  T raj  anus,  now  named  Khalis, 
which  runs  through  Cairo,  of  the  sand  which 
choked  it.  This  Amru  did,  and  thus  rendered 
the  communication  from  Egypt  to  Arabia  easy. 
The  Saracens,  thus  successful  in  the  west,  were 
no  less  so  in  the  east.  The  capture  of  Irak,  and 
destruction  of  Hira,  brought  on  a  war  with  the 
Persians.  See  PERSIA.  On  the  departure  of 
Khaled,  the  command  of  the  troops  was  left  with 
Abu  Obeid  Ebn  Masud,  Mothanna  Ebn  Hare- 
tha,  Amru  Ebn  Hasen,  and  Salit  Ebn  Kis.  Abu 
Obeid,  having  passed  a  river,  was  killed,  and  his 
troops  in  great  danger  ;  Mothanna  retreated,  re- 
passed  the  river  without  loss,  and  fortified  his 
camp  till  he  received  supplies;  his  troops  in  the 
mean  time  ravaging  Irak  on  the  side  next  the 
Euphrates.  A  body  of  12,000  Persian  horse 
was  sent  against  these  invaders,  under  Mahran. 
The  Persians  had  the  advantage  at  first,  and  the 
Arabs  retired,  but  were  soon  brought  back  by 
Mothanna :  the  battle  lasted  from  noon  till  sun- 
set ;  at  last  Mothanna  engaging  Mahran  in  single 
combat  laid  him  dead  at  his  feet ;  on  which  the 
Persians  fled.  After  this  a  powerful  army  was 
sent  under  the  Persian  general  Rustam ;  but  he 
was  also  killed,  and  his  troops  dispersed.  Abu 
Musa,  another  Saracen  general,  defeated  a  for- 
midable body  under  Al  Harzaman,  a  noble  Per- 
sian, at  Athwaz.  But  of  all  Omar's  generals, 
Saad  Ebn  Abu  Wakkas  was  the  most  successful. 
With  12,000  troops  he  advanced  to  Kadesia,  a 
city  bordering  on  the  deserts  of  Irak ;  where, 
having  defeated  an  army  of  120,000  Persians,  he 
look  the  rich  city  of  Al  Madayen,  with  Yetde- 
gerd's  treasure ;  which  was  so  rich  that  Saad 
took  out  of  it  3000,000,000  of  dinars,  or 
£2025,000,000  sterling ;  besides  the  royal  plate, 
the  crown  and  royal  garments,  another  treasure 
of  10,000,000  of  crowns,  and  a  piece  of  silk 
tapestry  sixty  cubits  square,  so  richly  adorned 
with  gold,  silver,  and  jewels,  that  Omar  having 
cut  it  in  pieces,  and  distributed  it  among  the  Sa- 
racens, a  small  part  of  it,  which  fell  to  Ali's  share, 
sold  for  20,000  crowns.  In  the  twenty-first  year 
of  the  Hegira  the  Saracens,  still  unsatisfied  with 
conquest,  invaded  Mesopotamia,  under  Aiyad 
Ebn  Ganem,  where  the  city  of  Edessa  submitted 
at  the  first  summons.  He  next  marched  to  C'on- 
stantina,  the  ancient  Nicephorum,  which  he  took 
by  storm,  as  well  as  Dara,  where  he  massacred 
the  people;  which  so  terrified  the  rest  of  the 
fortified  towns  that  they  all  submitted.  Mo- 
;:heirah  KbnSaabah,  another  of  Omar's  generals, 
took  Shiz,  a  town  famed  for  the  birth  of  Zerdusht, 


the  Persian  philosopher,  and  overran  the  pro- 
vince of  Adtrbeitzan.  He  also  reduced  Arme- 
nia, and  penetrated  into  Cappadocia.  Saad  the 
?ame  year  took  Athwas,  the  capital  of  Khusistan, 
or  Chusistan,  the  ancient  Susiana,  and  reduced 
the  whole  province  ;  while  Al  Nooraan  conquered 
the  greatest  part  of  Chorasan.  But,  while  Omar's 
troops  were  thus  overrunning  the  finest  countries 
in  the  world,  a  period  was  put  to  his  rife  and  con- 
quests by  a  Persian,  named  Abu  Lulua,  who 
stabbed  him  thrice  in  the  belly,  while  performing 
his  devotions  at  Medina,  because  Omar  had  re- 
fused to  remit  a  tribute  payable  for  the  exercise 
of  his  religion.  The  Arabs  rushed  upon  the 
assassin,  but  before  they  could  get  him  over- 
powered he  murdered  seven  of  them.  Omar 
languished  three  days,  and  died  in  the  twelfth 
year  of  his  reign. 

After  the  murder  of  Omar,  Othman  Ebn  Assan 
was  chosen  caliph;  and  AH  was  still  kept  out  of 
his  right,  though  he  had  not  only  a  better  title, 
but  was  in  fact  the  most  virtuous  and  best  cha- 
racter, and  the  bravest  warrior  of  that  period. 
Othman  was  inaugurated  in  the  twenty-fourth 
year  of  the  Hegira,  or  A.  D.  645.  He  began  his 
reign  by  sending  Al  Mogheirah  to  complete  the 
conquest  of  Amadan  ;  which  he  soon  accom- 
plished, and  also  reduced  Bira,  a  strong  fort  of 
Mesopotamia.  Another  army,  under  Abdallah 
Ebn  Amur,  was  sent  into  Persia  to  reduce  the 
rest  of  Yezdegerd's  dominions;  which  was  done 
so  completely  that  Yezdegerd  was  obliged  to  fly 
to  Segestan,  and  leave  Persia  altogether.  See 
PERSIA.  In  the  twenty-seventh  year  of  the  He- 
gira Moawiyah  reduced  the  islands  of  Cyprus 
and  Aradus ;  and  took  Ancyra  and  Rhodes, 
where  he  broke  in  pieces  the  famous  colossus, 
and  sold  the  metal  of  it  to  a  Jew  of  Edessa. 
Another  of  Othman's  commanders  entered  Isau- 
ria,  where  he  committed  dreadful  depredations, 
plundering  the  towns  and  villages,  murdering 
many  of  the  inhabitants,  and  carrying  off  5000 
prisoners.  In  the  thirty-first  year  of  the  Hegira 
Hebib,  entering  that  part  of  Armenia  which  was 
still  unconquered,  defeated  a  body  of  the  impe- 
rial troops,  pursuing  them  to  Mount  Caucasus, 
and  laying  waste  the  country ;  and  Abul  Abar, 
the  admiral  of  the  Saracens,  defeated  the  empe- 
ror Constans  by  sea,  on  the  coast  of  Lycia.  This 
battle  was  so  bloody  that  the  sea  was  dyed  with 
blood.  But,  while  Othman's  arms  were  thus  suc- 
cessful abroad,  a  dangerous  conspiracy  was  form- 
ing against  him  at  home.  The  accusations 
against  him  were  trifling  and  superstitious.  To 
mention  but  one — 'he  had  presumed  to  sit  on 
the  top  of  Mahomet's  pulpit,  whereas  Abu  Beer 
had  only  sat  on  the  highest  step,  while  Omar 
was  content  with  the  lowest.'  Otnman.  however, 
to  all  these  formidable  accusations  pleaded  guilty, 
and  promised  amendment ;  but  this  only  in- 
creased the  insolence  of  the  rebels.  By  the  in- 
fluence of  AH,  however,  tranquillity  was  appa- 
rently restored.  Hut  it  was  soon  interrupted  by 
Ayesha,  one  of  Mahomet's  widows,  who,  by  a 
scheme  of  villany  worthy  of  the  widow  of  the 
grand  impostor,  accomplished  the  destruction  of 
the  caliph.  Wishing  to  raise  her  favorite  Telha 
to  the  caliphate,  she  prevailed  on  Merwan,  the 
caliph's  secretary,  to  write  to  the  prefect  of  Egypt, 


SARACENS. 


29P 


enjoining  him  to  put  to  death  Mahomet  Ebn 
Abu  Beer,  with  whom  the  letter  was  sent,  and 
who  was  to  have  been  his  successor.  This  letter 
Merwan  took  care  should  be  discovered,  and 
Mahomet,  taking  it  for  genuine,  published  the 
caliph's  cruelty  all  over  these  countries.  He 
then  marched  with  a  body  of  rebels  to  Medina, 
and  besieged  the  caliph  in  his  palace  ;  and,  not- 
withstanding Othman's  protestations  of  inno- 
cence, nothing  but  his  death  could  satisfy  the 
rebels.  Othman  applied  to  AH  for  assistance, 
who  sent  his  two  sons  Hassan  and  Hosein,  who 
defended  the  palace  with  great  courage,  till,  wa- 
ter failing,  they  were  obliged  to  abandon  it ; 
upon  which  the  rebels  entered  and  murdered  the 
caliph,  in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age,  and 
twelfth  of  his  reign.  His  body  remained  three 
days  unburied,  when  it  was  thrown  into  a  hole 
without  any  solemnity. 

Mahomet's  omission  of  naming  a  successor  to 
the  caliphate  is  totally  unaccountable ;  and,  as 
we  have  seen,  threw  the  dignity  out  of  his  family 
during  three  successive  reigns.  His  son-in-law 
Ali  repeatedly  claimed  the  succession,  and 
doubtless  had  the  best  right,  yet  always  peacea- 
bly submitted  to  the  election  of  other  persons. 
The  Arabs,  by  their  giving  the  preference  to 
others,  seem  to  have  been  influenced  by  no  mo- 
tive whatever  but  this  republican  idea,  that  it 
should  not  be  established  as  a  principle  that  the 
apostleship  or  caliphate  should  be  reckoned  an 
hereditary  dignity.  On  the  death  of  Othman, 
however,  Ali's  amiable  qualities  triumphed  over 
all  opposition,  and  he  was  unanimously  elected. 
Besides  his  other  popular  qualities,  he  was  a 
man  of  such  unparalleled  courage  and  strength, 
that  he  never  declined  a  combat  to  which  he  was 
challenged,  nor  ever  failed  to  come  off  victor; 
whence  he  was  styled  by  the  Arabs  The  lion  of 
God.  Great  as  Ali's  merits  were,  however,  he 
was  not  without  his  enemies.  Among  these 
Mahomet's  widow,  Ayesha,  was  the  most  con- 
spicuous. At  the  time  of  Ali's  inauguration  she 
was  at  Mecca,  where  she  possessed  a  considera- 
ble share  of  power.  She  very  early  began  to 
plot  against  him,  and  Ali  raised  up  against  him- 
self another  very  powerful  enemy,  by  imprudently 
dismissing  Moawiyah  from  his  government  of 
Syria,  who,  whatever  malversations  he  was  guilty 
of,  should  not  have  been  displaced  till  Ali's  go- 
vernment was  more  firmly  established.  The 
consequence  was  that  Moawiyah  was  immedi- 
ately proclaimed  caliph  by  his  troops,  and  thus 
the  Saracens  were  divided  into  two  factions ; 
the  one  under  Moawiyuh  and  Ayesha,  adhering 
to  the  house  of  Ommiya,  to  which  Othman  and 
Moawiyah  belonged,  the  other  to  Ali.  The  for- 
mer were  called  Motazalitus,  or  Separatists;  the 
latter  Sephalites.  Ali,  finding  a  strong  party 
forming  against  him,  applied  to  the  Koreish,  to 
raise  an  army  against  Ayesha,  who  had  begun 
hostilities  and  taken  the  city  of  Basra.  Ziyad  Ebn 
Ilantelah,  the  Ansars,  and  a  great  number  of  people 
joined  Ali.  At  Arrabah  he  was  joined  by  many 
other  parties ;  from  Medina  he  yot  a  large  sup- 
ply of  horses,  and  from  Cufa  8000  men.  He 
then  advanced  to  Basra,  attacked  and  defeated 
the  troops  of  Ayesha,  and  took  the  prophet's 
widow  prisoner,  though  her  troops  were  so  zea- 


lous in  her  defence,  that  seventy  men  had  their 
hands  cut  off  successively,  who  held  her  camel  by 
the  bridle.  Ali,  however,  treated  her  very  kindly, 
and  at  first  set  her  at  liberty,  but  afterwards  con- 
fined her  to  her  house  at  Medina,  to  prevent  her 
from  interfering  farther  instate  affairs.  After  this 
victory  AH  had  no  more  enemies  to  contend 
with  in  Arabia,  Egypt,  Irak,  Persia,  or  Chora- 
son.  But  a  strong  party  of  rebels  still  remained 
in  Syria  headed  by  Moawiyah,  who  was  soon 
joined  by  Amru  Ebn  Al  Ats.  Ali,  after  in  vain 
attempting  to  bring  the  rebels  to  an  accommo- 
dation, entered  Syria  with  70,000  men,  while 
that  of  Moawiyah  amounted  to  80,000.  By  re- 
inforcements the  former  was  increased  to  90,000, 
and  the  latter  to  120,000.  The  armies  came 
within  sight  of  each  other  in  the  end  of  the  thirty- 
sixth  year  of  the  Hegira.  The  first  month  of  the 
thirty-seventh  was  spent  in  fruitless  negociations ; 
after  which  they  fought  in  different  parties,  with- 
out hazarding  a  general  engagement.  These  battles 
lasted  about  110  days,  during  which  Moawiyah 
lost  45,000  men  and  Ali  25,000.  Among  these 
was  Ali's  general  of  horse,  Ammar  Ebn  Yazar, 
who  was  above  ninety  years  old,  and  had  been 
much  esteemed  by  Mahomet,  and  was  one  of  his 
companions.  The  loss  of  him  so  enraged  Ali, 
that  he  challenged  Moawiyah  to  fight  him  in  sin- 
gle combat.  This,  however,  the  coward  refused, 
though  Amru  urged  him  to  accept.  The  battle 
was  then  renewed  with  great  fury  ;  Moawiyah's 
troops  were  pushed  to  their  camp,  which  would 
certainly  have  been  taken,  had  not  Amru  retriev- 
ed Moawiyah's  affairs,  when  just  on  the  brink  of 
destruction,  by  a  stratagem.  He  ordered  some 
of  his  men  to  fix  copies  of  the  Koran  to  the  points 
of  their  lances,  and  carry  them  to  the  front  of  the 
battle,  crying  out,  'This  is  the  book  that  ought 
to  decide  all  differences  ;  this  is  the  book  of  God, 
that  prohibits  the  effusion  of  rnussulmans  blood.' 
Ali's  troops  on  this  threw  down  their  arms,  and 
thus  was  decisive  victory  wrested  from  him 
when  almost  gained.  The  two  parties  then 
agreed  to  choose  each  his  arbitrator.  Moawiyah 
chose  Amru,  but  Ali  was  again  shuffled  out  of 
his  right,  the  troops  of  Irak  naming  for  him  Abu 
Musa,  a  man  who  had  already  betrayed  him. 
The  consequence  was  that  Ali  was  deposed;  to 
which  sentence  he  submitted,  but  without  laying 
down  his  arms.  After  this  AH  retired  to  Cufa, 
where  12,000  of  his  troops,  called  Kharejites, 
pretending  to  be  offended  with  the  step  he  had 
taken,  revolted.  They  insisted  that  he  ought  not 
to  keep  the  peace  with  Moawiyah,  but  pursue 
him  without  mercy.  But  Ali  replied  that,  as  he 
had  given  his  word,  he  must  keep  it.  They  then 
chose  Abdallah  Ebn  Waheb  their  general,  who 
appointed  for  their  rendezvous  Naharwan,  a  town 
between  Waset  and  Bagdad,  four  miles  east  of 
the  Tigris,  where  they  collected  an  army  of 
25,000  men.  Ali  at  last  marched  against  them, 
but  previously  proclaimed  quarter  and  pardon  to 
all  who  should  return  to  his  standard.  This 
measure  soon  reduced  Abdallah 's  troops  to  4000 
men,  with  whom  he  rushed  upon  Ali's  forces, 
who  cut  them  all  to  pieces  except  nine.  Had 
AH  marched  immediately  against  Moawiyah,  he 
had  probably  reduced  him  entirely;  but  he  seems 
to  have  considered  the  agreement  as  binding, 


300 


SARACENS. 


and  therefore  acted  only  on  the  defensive.  At 
last  the  Kharejites,  wishing  to  ged  rid  of  Moa- 
wiyah, Amru,  and  Ali,  sent  assassins  to  murder 
all  the  three.  Moawiyah  was  wounded,  but  re- 
covered ;  Amru's  secretary  was  killed  by  mis- 
take; but  Ali  was  wounded  with  a  poisoned 
sword,  which  proved  mortal.  The  assassin  was 
taken,  and  would  have  been  pardoned  had  Ali 
recovered  ;  but  he  ordered  him  to  be  put  to 
death  if  he  died, '  that  he  might  accuse  him  before 
God.'  Even  in  this,  however,  Ali  showed  his 
clemency,  by  ordering  him  to  be  killed  at  one 
blow,  without  torture.  Thus  fell  Ali,  the  most 
virtuous  of  all  the  caliphs,  after  he  had  reigned 
nearly  five  years,  and  lived  sixty-three. 

Hassan  the  son  of  Ali,  who  inherited  all  his 
father's  virtues  except  his  courage,  was  declared 
caliph  immediately  upon  Ali's  death.  Moa- 
wiyah soon  showed  his  hostile  intentions,  and 
Hassan's  friends  pressed  him  to  declare  war  im- 
mediately ;  but,  though  they  prevailed  with  him 
to  take  the  field,  his  disposition  was  too  mild 
and  peaceable :  and  he  himself,  sensible  of  his 
incapacity  to  dispute  the  empire  with  Moawiyah, 
in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  his  friends,  re- 
signed it  to  that  villain ;  who  some  years  after 
caused  him  to  be  poisoned  by  his  own  wife. 
Moawiyah,  now  sole  master  of  the  empire,  re- 
solved to  reduce  the  Kharejites,  who  were  still 
rebellious.  In  this  service  he  offered  Hassan 
the  command  of  the  arfny,  but  that  prince  de- 
clined it.  He  then  sent  the  Syrian  troops  against 
them,  but  they  were  defeated.  At  last  the 
Cufans  were  employed,  who  quickly  put  an  end 
to  the  rebellion.  In  the  forty-eighth  year  of  the 
Hegira  the  caliph  sent  his  son  Yezid,  with  a 
powerful  army,  to  besiege  Constantinople.  In 
this  expedition  he  was  accompanied  by  three  or 
four  of  those  associates  of  Mahomet  whom  he 
had  dignified  with  the  title  of  his  companions, 
who,  notwithstanding  their  great  age,  were 
prompted  by  zeal  to  undergo  incredible  fatigues. 
But,  in  spite  of  the  zeal  of  these  veterans,  the  ex- 
pedition proved  unsuccessful ;  and  in  it  one  of 
them,  viz.  Abu  Ayub,  who  had  been  with  Maho- 
met at  the  battles  of  Bedr  and  Ohod,  lost  his 
life.  His  tomb  is  still  held  in  the  highest  vene- 
ration by  all  Mussulmans.  In  the  fifty-fourth 
year  of  the  Hegira  the  Saracens  made  an  irrup- 
tion into  Bukharia,  and  defeated  the  Turkish 
army,  killing  great  numbers  of  them.  About 
this  time  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the 
emperor  Constantine  IV.  and  the  Saracens, 
whereby  the  latter  were  allowed  to  keep  the  ter- 
ritories they  had  seized,  but  bound  to  pay  3000  Ibs. 
of  gold  annually,  fifty  slaves,  and  fifty  good 
horses.  This  treaty  was  to  last  thirty  years.  In 
the  fifty-fifth  year  of  the  Hegira,  Moawiyah  con- 
ferred the  government  of  Chorasan  upon  Saad, 
Othman's  grandson,  who  soon  after  passed  the 
Jihun,  or  Amu  (the  ancient  Oxus),  and  advanc- 
ed with  a  body  of  troops  to  Samarcand,  which 
instantly  surrendered  to  him  ;  soon  after  which, 
lie  defeated  an  army  of  Usbeck  Tartars,  and 
marcned  directly  to  Tarmud,  which  also  surren- 
dered. The  fifty-seventh  year  of  the  hegira  was 
remarkable  for  nothing  but  vast  swarms  of  lo- 
custs which  did  incredible  damage  in  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia.  In  the  fifty-eighth  Ayeslia,  Ma- 


homet's widow  died,  and  in  the  sixtieth  Moa- 
wiyah himself,  after  having  reigned  from  Hassan's 
resignation,  nineteen  years  five  months  and  five 
days.  He  was  interred  at  Damascus. 

On  Moawiyah's  death  his  son  Yezid  was  im- 
mediately proclaimed,  April  7th,  680.  He  wrote 
to  Al  Walid,  the  governor  of  Medina,  to  seize 
Hosein,  the  remaining  son  of  Ali,  and  Abdallah 
Ebn  Zobeir,  if  they  refused  to  acknowledge  his 
right ;  but  they  escaped  to   Mecca ;   on   which 
Jediz  displaced  Al  Walid,  and  appointed  Amru 
Ebn  Saad  governor  in  his  stead.     Amru  imme- 
diately sent  against  Abdallah  his   own  brother 
Amer,  who  mortally  hated  him  ;  but  Abdallah 
engaged  and   took  him  prisoner,  which  raised 
his  fame  at  Medina.     Mean  time  Hosein,  as  the 
only  heir  of  Ali,  became  very  popular  at  Mecca, 
Medina,  Irak,  and  Cufa ;  and  the  Cufans  even 
raised  an  army  of  18,000  men  in  his  favor ;  and 
promised  to  raise  120,000  more  ;  but  all  Hosein's 
hopes  were  soon  frustrated,  and  himself  killed 
in  an  engagement  with  Obeidallah.     Yezid  did 
himself  honor  by  treating  Hosein's  family  with 
kindness.     In  the  sixty-first  year  of  the  Hegira 
Yezid  appointed  Salem  Ebn  Ziyad  governor  of 
Chorasan,  who  soon  after  made  an  irruption  into 
the  Turkish  territories.  He  sent  a  body  of  troops 
to  Khowarazm,  the  capital  of  the  Tartars,  from 
which  he  extorted  50,000,000  of  money  :  whence 
advancing  to  Samarcand,  he  compelled  the  peo- 
ple of  that  city  also  to  pay  him  an  immense 
sum.     Meantime  Abdallah  Ebn  Zobeir,  being, 
by  the  death  of  Hosein,  at  the  head  of  the  house 
of  Hashem,  began  to  aspire  to  the  caliphate,  and 
was  proclaimed  caliph  at  Medina,  on  the  arrival 
of  Hosein's  family.     He  then  expatiated  on  Ho- 
sein's tragical  death,  and  accused  the  Cufans  of 
being  the  most  perfidious  villains  on  earth.  This 
pleased  the  citizens  of  Mecca  and  Medina,  who 
flocked  to  him  in  crowds,  so  that  he  soon  had  a 
great  crmy.     Yezid,  hearing  of  all  this,  swore 
he  would  have  him  in  chains,  and  sent  a  silver 
collar  for  him  to  Merwan,  governor  of  Medina. 
At  last  the  people  of  Medina  renounced  their  al- 
legiance to  Yezid,  and  formally  deposed  him  in 
a  whimsical  but   expressive   manner,  throwing 
aside  their  turbans,  shoes,   &c.,  and  saying,  '  I 
lay  aside  Yezid  as  I  do  this  turban,  or  shoe,'  &c. 
They  then  banished  Yezid's  governor,  and  all 
his   friends,  who,  to  the  number  of  1000,  took 
refuge  in  the  house  of  Merwan  Ebn  Al  llaken, 
where,  being  besieged  by  Abdallah's  party,  they 
sent  to  Yezid  for  assistance,  who  detached  a  body 
of  troops  under  Moslem  Ebn  Okba  to  Medina 
for  that  purpose.     The  people  of  Medina,  on 
this,  allowed  Yezid's   friends  to  withdraw ;  but 
Moslem  advanced  at  the  head  of  5000  foot  and 
12,000  horse,  and  summoned  the  town  to  sur- 
render ;  which  being  refused,  the  garrison  made 
a  vigorous  defence,  but,  the  principal  officers  being 
killed,  the  city  was  taken  by  storm  ;  all  the  men 
who  had  borne  arms  were  massacred,  the  women 
ravished,  and  the  city  pillaged.     Ali  alone,  the 
son  of  Hosein,  was  treated  with  respect.    By  this 
severity  Moslem   incurred    the    anathema   pro- 
nounced by  Mahomet  against  those  who  should 
pillage  Medina.      After  this  Moslem  proceeded 
to  Mecca,  where  Abdallah  had  retired  ;  but  he 
died  by  the  road,  and  the  command  dcvchd 


SARACENS. 


301 


upon  Hosein  Ebn  Thamir,  who  advanced  to 
Mecca  and  besieged  it  forty  days,  battering  it 
with  such  fury  that  he  beat  down  its  famous 
temple ;  and  it  must  soon  have  shared  the  fate 
of  Medina  had  not  the  news  of  Yezid's  death 
stopped  further  operations.  Yezid  died  in  his 
thirty-ninth  year,  the  sixty-second  of  the  Hegira, 
or  A.  D.  684,  having  reigned  only  three  years  and 
eight  months. 

'Yezid  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Moawiyah 
II.,  who  was  proclaimed  caliph  at  Damascus  on 
his  father's  death;  but,  being  of  a  weak  consti- 
tution, he  resigned  the  crown  in  six  weeks,  and 
died  soon  after.  Great  commotions  followed. 
Obeidallah  was  become  so  unpopular  by  his 
cruelties,  particularly  by  the  death  of  Hosein, 
that  he  was  obliged  to  fly  into  Syria ;  on  which 
his  house  was  plundered  by  the  mob.  In  this 
confusion  Abdallah  might  have  easily  secured  the 
caliphate,  had  he  not,  with  equal  imprudence  and 
cruelty,  ordered  the  house  of  Ommiyah  to  be 
exterminated.  This  ruined  his  affairs ;  for  they 
being  obliged  to  fly  for  safety,  Merwan  was  pro- 
claimed caliph  at  Damascus,  and  thus  the  Sara- 
cen empire  was  once  more  rent  into  two  factions. 
A  battle  soon  ensued  between  Dahak  Ebn  Kais, 
who  favored  Abdallah,  and  the  troops  of  Mer- 
wan, in  which  Dahak  was  defeated  and  killed, 
and  thus  Merwan  became  master  of  Syria.  Soon 
after  he  advanced  with  a  body  of  troops  to  Egypt, 
but  sent  before  him  Amru  Ebn  Said  with  a  de- 
tachment, who  defeated  Abdalrahman,  Abdal- 
lah's  lieutenant,  in  several  brisk  actions,  till  he 
at  last  surrendered  the  whole  country  to  Mer- 
wan, for  a  sum  of  money,  and  retired  to  Hedsjaz. 
The  Syrian  troops  immediately  took  possession 
of  the  country ;  and  Merwan,  having  appointed 
his  son  Abdalazziz  over  Egypt,  returned  to  Da- 
mascus. He  then  sent  Amru  Abn  Said  against 
Musab,  Abdallah's  brother,  whom  he  totally  de- 
feated. In  the  sixty-fifth  year  of  the  Hegira  the 
Cufans,  pretending  remorse  for  their  treachery 
to  Hosein,  raised  an  insurrection  against  both 
caliphs,  and  assembled  16,000  men  under  Soli- 
man  to  avenge  the  death  of  Hosein.  Al  Mockh- 
tar,  who  had  served  under  Abdallah,  offered  to 
serve  instead  of  Soliman,  who  he  said  was  inca- 
pable of  executing  the  enterprise.  This  being 
refused,  he  drew  off  2000  from  Soliman,  while 
other  10,000  left  him.  So  enthusiastic,  however, 
was  Soliman  in  the  affair,  that  he  set  forward  to 
Syria  with  the  remaining  4000,  who  were  all  cut 
to  pieces  by  Obeidallah,  who  was  at  the  head  of 
20,000.  Soon  after  this  died  the  caliph  Merwan, 
after  a  short  reign  of  eleven  months,  being  poi- 
soned by  Seinab,  Moawiyah's  widow,  whom  he 
had  married. 

Merwan  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Abdalma- 
lec,  who  released  Al  Mokhtar,  who  had  been  im- 
prisoned by  the  governor  of  Cufa.  Al  Mokhtar 
soon  after  hearing  that  Abdallah  had  imprisoned 
the  whole  descendants  of  the  celebrated  caliph 
Ali,  and  was  going  to  put  them  to  death,  sent  a 
body  of  750  horse  to  Mecca  under  Abu  Abdalla 
for  their  relief,  which  they  accomplished,  and 
took  Abdallah  himself  prisoner,  two  days  before 
they  were  all  to  have  been  murdered.  After 
this  they  settled  on  a  mountain  near  Mecca  with 
a  body  of  4000  men.  Al  Mokhtar  next  attacked 


and  killed  Obeidallah ;  but  was  soon  after  defeat- 
ed and  slain  by  Musab,  and  all  his  men  to  the 
number  of  7000,  though  they  surrendered  at  dis- 
cretion, were  also  slain  for  their  former  outrages. 
Next  year,  the  sixty-eighth  of  the  Hegira,  the 
Azarakites  made  an  irruption  into  Irak,  pene- 
trating to  Cufa  and  Al  Madayen,  and  committing 
the  most  horrid  cruelties,  murdering  all  they 
met  with,  and  sparing  neither  age  nor  sex.  The 
governor  of  Mesopotamia  carried  on  a  war  with 
them  for  eight  months.  Musab  sent  against  them 
Omar  Ebn  Abdallah,  who  gave  them  a  great 
overthrow,  slaughtered  great  numbers  of  them, 
and  pursued  the  rest  as  far  as  Ispahan  and  Ker- 
man.  Returning  a  second  time  Omar  totally 
defeated  and  dispersed  them.  In  the  sixty-ninth 
year  of  the  Hegira  Abdalmalec  marched  against 
Musab.  In  his  absence  he  left  Amru  Ebn  Said 
governor  of  the  city,  who  immediately  seized  it 
for  himself;  on  which  Abdalmalec  returned. 
After  some  skirmishes  between  the  caliph's  troops 
and  those  of  Amru,  a  treaty  was  agreed  upon  ; 
which  Abdalmalec  broke  immediately  after  by 
murdering  Amru  with  his  own  hand.  Upon  this 
Yahyah,  Amru's  brother,  at  the  head  of  1000 
slaves,  attacked  the  palace  and  killed  the  guards, 
but  were  quelled  afterwards,  partly  by  money. 
In  the  seventieth  year  of  the  Hegira  the  Greeks 
made  an  "irruption  into  Syria;  and  the  caliph 
was  obliged  to  pay  a  tribute  of  1000  dinars  per 
day,  and  sent  annually  365  slaves  and  365  horses 
to  Constantinople.  The  revenues  of  Cyprus, 
Armenia,  and  Heria,  were  agreed  to  be  divided. 
Abdalmalec  next  marched  against  Musab,  whom 
he  defeated  and  killed  through  the  treachery  of 
his  troops.  The  caliph  went  to  Cufa,  where  all 
ranks  submitted  and  swore  to  him.  He  then 
ordered  money  to  be  distributed  among  the  peo- 
ple, and  gave  a  splendid  entertainment  to  all 
his  new  subjects,  from  which  even  the  meanest 
were  not  excluded.  During  this  entertainment 
Musab's  head  was  presented  to  the  caliph ;  on 
which  one  of  the  company  said,  '  I  saw  Hosein's 
head  in  this  same  castle  presented  to  Obeidallah  ; 
Obeidallah's  to  Al  Mokhtar;  Al  Mokhtar's  to 
Musab ;  and  now  at  last  Musab's  to  yourself.' 
The  caliph  was  so  struck  with  this  remark,  that, 
to  divert  the  ill  omen,  he  ordered  the  castle  to 
be  instantly  demolished.  Abdallah  Ebn  Zobier, 
hearing  of  the  defeat  and  death  of -his  brother, 
put  Mecca  in  a  proper  state  of  defence.  Abdal- 
malec, on  his  return  from  Damascus,  appointed 
his  brother  Basbar  governor  of  Cafu,  and  Khaled 
Ebn  Abdallah  governor  of  Basra  ;  who  impru- 
dently displaced  Al  Mohalleb,  one  of  the 
greatest  generals  of  the  age,  from  the  command 
of  the  army,  and  put  in  his  place  Abdalaziz,  a 
man  much  inferior.  The  barbarous  Azarakites 
no  sooner  heard  of  this  than  they  attacked  Ab- 
dalaziz, entirely  defeated,  and  took  his  wife  pri- 
soner. A  dispute  arising  among  them  about 
the  price  of  the  lady,  one  of  them,  to  end  it,  cut 
off  her  head.  On  this  disaster  Khaled  was  or- 
dered to  replace  Al  Mohalleb,  which  he  no 
sooner  did  than  they  in  conjunction  attacked  the 
Azarakites,  forced  their  camp,  and  completely 
defeated  them.  In  the  seventy-second  year  of  the 
Hegira  Abdalmalec  prepared  to  invade  Hedsjaz, 
and  appointed  Al  Hejaj,  one  of  his  bravest  ge- 


302 


S  A  R  A  C  E  N  S. 


nerals,  commander.  After  several  skirmishes, 
wherein  Abdallah's  troops  had  the  worst,  most 
of  Abdallah's  friends,  two  of  his  sons,  and  10,000 
inhabitants  of  Mecca,  deserted  him.  In  this  ex- 
treirity  he  consulted  with  his  mother,  whether 
he  should  submit  to  the  caliph  or  not ;  but  she, 
being  a  high-spirited  woman,  the  daughter  of 
Abu  Beer,  the  second  caliph,  advised  him  against 
it;  whereupon,  in  a  fit  of  despair,  he  plunged 
into  the  midst  of  his  enemies  without  his  usual 
coat  of  mail,  and,  after  slaughtering  great  num- 
bers of  them,  was  killed.  Al  Hejaj  cut  off  his 
head  and  fixed  his  body  to  a  cross  ;  which  had 
a  strong  odor  of  musk  for  several  days  after,  his 
mother  having  given  him  a  draught  in  which  a 
pound  of  musk  was  infused,  to  inspire  him  with 
courage.  By  the  reduction  of  Mecca  Abdalma- 
lec  was  now  sole  master  of  the  empire,  but  he 
suffered  a  great  loss  the  next  year,  having  an 
army  of  100,000  men  cut  off  by  the  Khazarians 
in  Armenia.  The  governor,  however,  marched 
against  them  soon  after  at  the  head  of  40,000 
chosen  troops,  penetrated  into  the  heart  of  Arme- 
nia, defeated  a  large  body  of  them,  and  drove 
them  into  their  temples,  to  which  he  set  fire. 
One  of  his  generals  also  defeated  80,000  Khaza- 
rians at  the  Caspian  gates,  killed  a  great  num- 
ber of  them,  and  compelled  the  rest  to  turn  Ma-, 
hometans.  Al  Hejaj,  for  his  services,  was  made 
governor  of  Medina,  and  then  of  Irak,  Chorasan, 
and  Sejestan,  in  all  which  places  he  behaved 
with  the  greatest  cruelty,  and  yet  he  was  conti- 
nued in  these  governments  till  he  died.  In  the 
seventy-sixth  year  of  th«  Hegira  Saleh  Ebn  Marj, 
and  Shebib  Ebri  Seid,  a  Kharejite,  rebelled 
against  the  caliph.  Saleh  was  proclaimed  empe- 
ror of  the  faithful  at  Daras  in  Mesopotamia.  At 
first  they  were  successful,  and  defeated  even  Al 
Hejaj  himself;  but  at  last  were  defeated  and 
killed,  and  their  troops  slaughtered  and  dis- 
persed. In  the  seventy-sixth  year  of  the  Hegira 
Abdalmalec  erected  the  first  mint  in  Arabia,  and 
struck  gold  and  silver  coins.  Before  this  period 
their  dinars  or  gold  coins  had  Greek  inscriptions, 
and  their  dirhems  or  silver  coins  Persian.  The 
caliph  now  struck  dirhems  with  the  Arabic 
words,  Alia  Samad,  i.  e.  God  is  eternal,  upon 
them;  which  offended  some  superstitious  Mus- 
sulmans, who  thought  the  name  of  God  would 
thus  be  profaned  by  the  touch  of  the  unclean.  In 
the  seventy-seventh  year  of  the  Hegira,  the  Sara- 
cens made  an  incursion  into  the  imperial  terri- 
tories, when  Lazica  and  Bernucium  were  betrayed 
to  them.  In  the  seventy-eighth  they  over-ran 
Africa  Proper,  and  demolished  the  city  of  Car- 
thage. They  were  driven  out  by  John  the  Patri- 
cian, but,  returning  with  a  superior  force,  they 
made  John  fly  to  Constantinople.  In  the  year 
seventy-nine  Abdalrahman  rebelled  in  Persia ; 
and  drove  the  khan  or  emperor  of  the  Turks, 
Tartars,  and  Moguls,  out  of  that  country  ;  but  in 
eighty,  Heraclius,  the  Greek  general,  penetrated 
into  Syria,  as  far  as  Samosata,  killed  200,000 
Saracens,  and  ravaged  the  country  dreadfully. 
At  last,  after  about  eighty  battles,  or  as  some  say 
100,  Abdalrnhman  was  defeated  and  killed  by 
Al  Hejaj.  In  the  eighty-third  year  of  the  Hegira 
the  Armenian  nobolity  revolting,  drove  the  Arabs 
out  of  that  province ;  but  Mahomet,  a  general 


of  the  caliph's,  entering  it  witli  a  powerful  army, 
got  the  authors  of  the  revolt  into  his  hands,  and 
caused  them  to  be  burnt  alive.  The  Saracens 
then  invaded  Cilicia,  under  one  Azar,  but  were, 
to  the  number  of  10,000  the  one  year,  and  12,000 
the  next,  cut  in  pieces  by  Heraclius,  and  the 
rest  forced  to  fly.  In  the  year  eighty-six  Abdal- 
malec died,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-one  years. 

Abdalmalec  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Al 
Walid,  who  greatly  extended  the  Saracen  empire. 
In  the  first  year  of  his  reign  one  of  his  generals 
passed  the  Jihun,  and  defeated  a  numerous  army 
of  Turks  and  Tartars.  He  then  over-ran  and  re- 
duced Sogdiana,  Bagrass,  Shash,  Targana,  and 
the  whole  immense  tract  called  Mawaralnahar, 
or  Great  Bukharia.  He  also  conquered  the 
khan  of  Khowarazm,  and  forced  him  to  pay  an 
annual  tribute  of  2,000,000  of  dinars.  Another 
of  his  generals,  called  Mahomet,  made  an  irrup- 
tion into  India,  and  conquered  a  great  part  of 
that  country.  He  also  subdued  the  kingdom  of 
Al  Sind,  between  Persia  and  India ;  when 
Derar  the  king  of  it  was  defeated  and  killed, 
and  had  his  head  cut  off  by  Mahomet.  In  the 
ninetieth  year  of  the  Hegira  the  Saracens  made 
an  irruption  intc-  Cappadocia,  defeated  the  impe- 
rial army,  and  took  the  city  of  Tyana.  In  the 
two  following  years  they  repeated  their  incur- 
sions under  Othman,  took  several  cities,  and  car- 
ried off  numbers  of  slaves.  In  the  year  ninety- 
three,  or  A.  D.  712,  Tarek  Ebu  Zarka,  made  a 
descent  on  Spain,  defeated  Roderick,  the  last 
king  of  the  Goths,  reduced  Toledo,  and  over  ran 
a  great  part  of  the  kingdom.  Being  joined  by 
Musa,  commander  of  the  African  Moslems,  they 
took  most  of  the  forts  and  subdued  the  whole 
country.  In  these  expeditions  they  acquired 
immense  spoils,  particularly  a  very  rich  table, 
called  Solomon's  table,  of  gold,  silver,  and  pearls, 
and  standing  on  365  feet.  In  ninety-four  Tarick 
landed  a  body  of  12,000  men  at  Gibraltar,  with 
which  he  plundered  Hispania  Bsetica,  and  great 
part  of  Lusitania.  Roderick's  troops  being  new 
raised  were  unable  to  resist  these  hardy  invaders. 
Another  Saracen  general  entered  Pisidia,  ravaged 
the  country,  and  took  Antioch.  In  the  year 
ninety-five  Hejaj  died,  after  a  cruel  government 
of  twenty  years;  during  which  period  he  killed 
120,000  men,  and  suffered  50,000  men  and 
30,000  women  to  perish  in  prisons.  This  ysr.r 
also  the  Saracens  completely  defeated  Roderick 
king  of  the  Goths,  who  was  killed  in  the  battle; 
and  Tarif  amassed  immense  riches.  In  the  east 
these  plunderers  were  equally  successful.  Mos- 
lema  ravaged  the  whole  province  of  Galatia,  car- 
rying off  rich  spoils,  and  many  prisoners.  But, 
wMle  Al  Walid  was  preparing  to  invade  Con- 
stantinople, he  died  in  the  sixty-ninth  year  of 
the  Hegira. 

The  caliph  Al  Walid  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Soliman.  This  year  the  Saracen  con- 
quests on  the  east  side  were  increased  by  the  re- 
duction of  Tabrestan  and  Jurgon  or  Georgia. 
In  Spain  also  the  city  of  Toledo,  which  had  re- 
volted, was  reduced,  and  Caesar-Augusta,  now 
Saragossa,  as  well  as  several  others.  The  next 
year  Moslema  set  out  for  Constantinople,  which 
he  besieged  without  success  till  the  ninety-ninth 
year  of  the  Hegira;  when  he  was  obliged  to  re- 


SARACENS. 


303 


turn,  after  having  lost  before  it  120,000  men. 
The  soldiers  were  reduced  to  the  greatest  extre- 
mities of  hunger,  oeing  forced  to  live  upon  hides, 
he  roots  and  bark  of  trees,  the  most  noisome 
animals,  and  even  the  dead  bodies  of  their  com- 
panions. This  year  also  (the  ninety-ninth)  the 
caliph  Soliman  died.  According  to  some,  he 
was  poisoned  by  Yezid  his  brother,  governor  of 
Persia,  who  was  displeased-  with  his  having  ap- 
pointed his  cousin-german  Omar  Ebn  Abdala- 
ziz  as  his  successor,  to  the  exclusion  of  himself. 
According  to  others,  he  died  of  an  indigestion ; 
which  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  if,  as  those  au- 
thors say,  he  used  to  devour  lOOlbs.  of  meat 
every  day,  and  dine  very  heartily  after  eating 
three  lambs  roasted  for  breakfast.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  reign,  the  Moors  were  by  no  means 
successful  in  Spain ;  the  kingdom  of  Navarre 
being  founded  at  this  time  by  Pelagius,  or  Pe- 
layo,  whom  the  Arabs  were  never  able  to  reduce. 
The  new  caliph  Omar  Ebn  Abdalaziz  was  by  no 
means  of  a  martial  character ;  but  is  said  to 
have  been  very  pious,  and  possessed  of  very 
amiable  qualities.  He  suppressed  the  usual 
malediction,  which  was  solemnly  pronounced  by 
the  caliphs  of  the  house  of  Ommiyah  against  the 
house  of  AH;  and  always  showed  great  kindness 
to  the  latter.  He  was  poisoned  by  Yezid,  after  a 
short  reign  of  two  years  and  five  months.  Con- 
cerning Yezid  II.,  the  successor  of  Omar,  we 
find  very  little  worth  mentioning.  He  did  not 
long  enjoy  the  dignity  he  had  so  iniquitously 
purchased,  dying  after  a  reign  of  about  four 
years.  He  died  of  grief  for  a  favorite  concubine 
named  Hababah,  who  was  accidently  choked  by 
a  large  grape  which  stuck  in  her  throat.  Yezid 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Hesham,  who  as- 
cended the  throne  in  the  105th  year  of  the  He- 
gira.  In  the  second  and  third  years  of  his  reign 
several  incursions  were  made  into  the  imperial 
territories,  but  generally  without  success.  In  the 
109th  year  Moslema  drove  the  Turks  out  of 
Armenia  and  Adirbeitzan,  and  again  confined 
them  within  the  Caspian  gates.  The  next  year 
he  obliged  them  to  take  an  oath  that  they  would 
keep  their  own  country  ;  but  this  they  soon  vio- 
lated, and  were  again  driven  back  by  Moslema. 
About  this  time  also  the  Arabs,  having  passed  the 
Pyrenees,  invaded  France  to  the  number  of 
400,000,  including  women  and  slaves,  under  the 
command  of  one  Abdalrahman.  Having  ad- 
vanced to  Aries,  upon  the  Rhone,  they  defeated 
a  large  body  of  French  that  opposed  them :  and, 
having  also  defeated  count  Eudo,  they  pursued 
him  through  several  provinces,  wasted  the  coun- 
try with  fire  and  sword,  and  took  the  city  of 
Tours,  most  of  which  they  reduced  to  ashes. 
Here,  however,  a  stop  was  put  to  to  their  devas- 
tations by  Charles  Martel ;  who,  coming  up  with 
them  near  Tours,  engaged  them  for  seven  days 
together,  and  at  last  gave  them  a  total  overthrow. 
He  took  a».l  their  baggage  and  riches  ;  and  Ab- 
dalrahman, with  the  shattered  remains  of  his  army, 
reached  the  frontiers  of  Spain  with  difficulty. 
The  following  year  also  the  Arabs  were  over- 
thrown at  Illiberis,  scarcely  any  of  them  escap- 
ing. To  make  amends  for  this  bad  fortune, 
however,  the  caliph's  arms  were  successful  against 
the  Turks,  who  had  again  invaded  some  of  the 


eastern  provinces.  In  the  125lh  year  of  the 
Hegira  died  the  caliph  Hesham,  after  a  reign  of 
nineteen  years  seven  months  and  eleven  days. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Al  Walid  II.,  who  is  re- 
presented as  a  man  of  a  most  dissolute  life  and 
was  assassinated  the  following  year  on  account  of 
his  professing  Zendicism,  a  species  of  infidelity 
nearly  resembling  Sadducoeism. 

Al  Walid  II.  was  succeeded  by  Yezid  III., 
the  son  of  Al  Walid  I.,  who  died  of  the  plague 
after  a  reign  of  six  months ;  and  was  succeeded 
by  Ibrahim  Ebn  Al  Walirl,  an  imprudent  and 
stupid  prince.  He  was  deposed  in  the  127th 
year  of  the  Hegira  by  Merwan  Ebn  Mahomet, 
the  governor  of  Mesopotamia  ;  who  gave  out,  as 
an  excuse  for  his  revolt,  that  he  intended  to  re- 
venge the  murder  of  the  caliph  Al  Walid  II. 
He  was  no  sooner  seated  on  the  throne,  than  the 
people  of  Hems  rebelled  against  him.  Against 
them  the  caliph  marched  with  a  powerful  army, 
and  summoned  them  to  surrender.  They  as- 
sured him  that  they  would  admit  him  into  their 
city ;  and,  accordingly,  one  of  the  gates  bein^ 
opened,  Merwan  entered  with  about  300  of  his 
troops.  The  men  that  entered  with  him  were 
immediately  put  to  the  sword ;  and  the  culipli 
himself  escaped  with  great  difficulty.  However, 
he  afterwards  defeated  them  in  a  pitched  battle, 
put  a  great  number  of  them  to  the  sword,  dis- 
mantled the  city,  and  crucified  600  of  the  prin- 
cipal authors  of  the  revolt.  The  inhabitants  of 
Damascus  soon  followed  the  example  of  those  of 
Hems,  and  deposed  the  caliph's  governor;  but 
Merwan  marched  to  Damascus  with  great  cele- 
rity, entered  the  city  by  force,  and  punished  the 
authors  of  the  revolt.  Peace,  however,  was  no 
Sooner  established  at  Damascus,  than  Soliman 
Ebn  Hesham  set  up  for  himself  at  Basra,  where 
he  was  proclaimed  caliph  by  the  inhabitants. 
Here  he  assembled  an  army  of  10,000  men,  with 
whom  he  marched  to  Kinnissin,  where  he  was 
joined  by  vast  numbers  of  Syrians.  Merwan, 
receiving  advice  of  Soliman's  rapid  progress, 
marched  against  him  with  all  the  forces  he  could 
assemble,  and  entirely  defeated  him.  In  this 
battle  Soliman  lost  30,000  men,  so  that  he  was 
obliged  to  fly  to  Hems,  where  900  men  took  an 
oath  to  stand  by  him  to  the  last.  Having  ven- 
tured, however,  to  attack  the  caliph's  forces  a 
second  time,  he  was  defeated,  and  again  forced 
to  fly  to  Hems.  But,  being  closely  pursued  by 
Merwan,  he  constituted  his  brother  Said  governor 
of  the  city,  leaving  with  him  the  shattered  re- 
mains of  his  troops,  and  himself  fled  to  Tadmor. 
Soon  after  his  departure  Merwan  appeared  be- 
fore the  town,  which  he  besieged  for  seven 
months;  during  which  time  he  battered  it  inces- 
santly with  eighty  catapults.  The  citizens,  being 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity,  surrendered,  and 
delivered  Said  into  the  caliph's  hands.  In  con- 
sideration of  this  submission,  Merwan  pardoned 
the  rebels,  and  took  them  all  under  his  protec- 
tion. About  the  same  time,  another  pretender 
to  the  caliphate  appeared  at  Cufa;  but  Merwan 
took  his  measures  so  well  that  he  extinguished 
this  rebellion  before  it  could  come  to  any  height. 
Notwithstanding  the  success,  however,  that  had 
hitherto  attended  Merwan,  a  strong  party  was 
formed  against  him  in  Khorasan  by  the  house  of 


304 


SARACENS. 


Al  Abbas.  The  first  of  that  house  that  made  any 
considerable  figure  was  named  Mahomet,  who 
Nourished  in  the  reian  of  Omar  Ebn  Abdalaziz. 
He  was  appointed  chief  of  the  house  of  Al  Ab- 
bas, about  the  100th  year  of  the  Hegira  ;  and  is 
said  to  have  prophesied,  that  after  his  death,  one 
of  his  sons  named  Ibrahim  should  preside  over 
them  till  he  was  killed,  and  that  his  other  son 
Abdallah,  surnamed  Abul  Abbas  Al  Saffah, 
should  be  caliph,  and  exterminate  the  house  of 
Ommiyah.  Upon  this  Al  Saffah  was  introduced 
as  the  future  sovereign,  and  those  present  kissed 
his  hands  and  feet.  After  the  decease  of  Maho- 
met, his  son  Ibrahim  nominated  as  his  represen- 
tative in  Khorasan  one  Abu  Moslem,  a  youth  of 
nineteen  years  of  age ;  who  beginning  to  raise 
forces  in  that  province,  Merwan  despatched 
against  him  a  body  of  horse  under  Nasr  Ebn 
Sayer  ;  but  that  general  was  entirely  defeated  by 
Abu  Moslem,  and  the  greatest  part  of  his  men 
killed.  The  next  year  (the  128th  of  the  Hegira) 
Merwan  made  vast  preparations  to  oppose  Abu 
Moslem,  who  after  the  late  victory  began  to  grow 
formidable.  Merwan  gained  two  victories  over 
some  of  Ibrahim's  generals  ;  but,  the  year  follow- 
ing, Abu  Moslem  brought  such  a  formidable 
army  into  the  field  that  the  caliph's  troops  could 
not  make  head  against  them;  his  officers  in 
Khorasan  therefore  were  obliged  either  to  take 
an  oath  of  allegiance  to  Ibrahim,  or  to  quit  the 
province  within  a  limited  time.  In  the  1 30th  year 
of  the  Hegira  the  caliph's  general  Nasr,  having 
drawn  together  another  army,  was  again  defeated 
by  Kahtabah,  another  of  Ibrahim's  generals,  and 
forced  to  fly  to  Raya,  a  town  of  Dylam,  or  of 
Khorasan.  The  next  year  Ibrahim,  having  fool- 
ishly taken  it  into  his  head  to  go  on  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  attended  by  a  numerous  retinue  splen- 
didly accoutred,  was  seized  and  put  to  death  by 
Merwan  :  and  the  year  following  Abul  Abbas 
was  proclaimed  caliph  at  Cufa.  As  soon  as  the 
ceremony  was  ended,  he  sent  his  uncle  Abdallah 
with  a  powerful  army  to  attack  Merwan's  forces 
that  were  encamped  near  Tubar,  at  a  small  dis- 
tance from  Mosul,  where  that  caliph  was  then 
waiting  for  an  account  of  the  success  of  his  troops 
under  Yezid  governor  of  Irak  against  Khataba, 
one  of  Al  Saffah 's  generals.  Khataba,  receiving 
advice  of  Yczid's  approach,  immediately  advanc- 
ed against  him,  and  entirely  defeated  him  ;  but 
in  crossing  the  Euphrates,  the  waters  of  which 
were  greatly  swelled,  he  was  carried  away  by 
the  current  and  drowned.  The  pursuit,  how- 
ever, was  continued  by  his  son  Hamid,  who  dis- 
persed the  fugitives  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
could  never  afterwards  be  rallied.  At  the  news 
of  this  disaster,  Merwan  was  at  first  greatly  dis- 
pirited ;  but,  soon  recovering  himself,  he  ad- 
vanced to  meet  Abdallah.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  battle,  the  caliph  happened  to  dismount ; 
and  his  troop  perceiving  their  sovereign's  horse 
without  his  rider,  concluded  that  he  was  killed, 
and  therefore  immediately  fled ;  nor  was  it  in 
the  power  of  the  caliph  himself  to  rally  them 
again,  so  that  he  was  forced  to  fly  to  Damascus; 
but  the  inhabitants  of  that  city,  seeing  his  con- 
dition desperate,  shut  their  gates  against  him. 
Upon  this  he  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  maintained 
himself  for  some  time;  but  was  at  last  attacked 


and  killed  by  Saleh,  Abdallah 's  brother,  in  a  town 
ofThebais  called  Busir  Kurides.  The  citizens  of 
Damascus,  though  they  had  shamefully  deserted 
Merwan,  refused  to  open  their  gates  to  the  vic- 
tors ;  upon  which  Saleh  entered  the  city  by 
force,  and  gave  it  up  to  be  plundered  for  three 
days  by  his  soldiers. 

By  the  total  defeat  and  death  of  Merwan,  Al 
Saffah  remained  sole  master  of  the  Saracen 
throne ;  but  no  very  remarkable  events  happened 
during  his  reign ;  only  he  massacred  great  num- 
bers of  the  partisans  of  the  house  of  Ommiyah  ; 
and  Constantine  Copronymus,  taking  advantage 
of  the  intestine  divisions  among  the  Saracens, 
ravaged  Syria.  The  caliph  died  of  the  small 
pox  in  the  136th  year  of  the  Hegira,  in  the  thirty- 
third  year  of  his  age  ;  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Al  Mansur.  In  the  beginning  of  Al 
Mausur's  reign  hostilities  continued  against  the 
house  of  Ommiyah,  who  still  made  resistance, 
but  were  always  defeated.  Abdallah,  however, 
the  caliph's  uncle,  caused  himself  to  be  pro- 
claimed caliph  at  Damascus  ;  and  having  as- 
sembled a  powerful  army  in  Arabia,  Syria,  and 
Mesopotamia,  advanced  with  great  expedition 
to  the  banks  of  the  Masius  near  Nisibis,  where  he 
encamped.  Al  Mansur,  being  informed  of  this 
rebellion,  despatched  Abu  Moslem  against  Ab- 
dallah. This  general,  having  harassed  him  for 
five  months  together,  at  last  brought  him  to  a 
general  action ;  and,  having  entirely  defeated 
him,  forced  him  to  fly  to  Basra.  Notwithstand- 
ing all  his  services,  however,  Abu  Moslem  was 
soon  after  ungratefully  and  barbarously  mur- 
dered by  Al  Mansur,  on  some  ridiculous  pre- 
tences of  being  deficient  in  respect  towards  him. 
After  the  death  of  Abu  Moslem,  one  Sinan,  a 
Magian,  or  adorer  of  fire,  having  made  himself 
master  of  that  general's  treasures,  revolted  against 
the  caliph  ;  but  he  was  soon  defeated  by  Jamhur 
Ebn  Morad,  who  had  been  sent  against  him  with 
a  powerful  army.  In  this  expedition  Jamhur 
having  acquired  immense  riches,  the  covetous 
disposition  of  the  caliph  prompted  him  to  send 
a  person  express  to  the  army  to  seize  upon  all 
the  wealth.  This  so  provoked  Jamhur  that  he 
immediately  turned  his  arms  against  his  master; 
but  was  soon  defeated,  and  entirely  reduced. 
The  following  year  (the  139th  of  the  Hegira)  one 
Abdalrahman,  of  the  house  of  Ommiyah,  after 
the  entire  ruin  of  that  family  in  Asia,  arrived  in 
Spain,  where  he  was  acknowledged  caliph  ;  nor 
did  he  or  his  descendants  ever  afterwards  own 
subjection  to  the  Arabian  caliphs.  The  140th 
year  of  the  Hegira  is  remarkable  for  an  attempt 
to  assassinate  the  caliph.  This  attempt  was  made 
by  the  Rawandians  ;  an  impious  sect,  who  held 
the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  or  transmigra- 
tion. They  first  offered  Al  Mansur  divine 
honors,  by  going  in  procession  round  his  palace, 
as  the  Moslems  were  wont  to  do  round  the 
Caab ;  but  the  caliph,  highly  incensed  at  ciiis 
impiety,  ordered  100  of  the  principal  of  them  to 
be  imprisoned.  These,  however,  were  soon  re- 
leased by  their  companions  ;  who  then  went  in 
a  body  to  the  palace  with  an  intention  to  murder 
their  sovereign  ;  but  he  being  a  person  of  un- 
common bravery,  though  he  was  surprised  with 
very  few  attendants,  mounted  a  mule,  and  ad- 


SARACENS. 


305 


Tanced  towards  the  mutineers  witli  an  intention 
to  sell  his  life  as  dearly  as  possible.  In  the  mean 
time,  Maan  Ebn  Zaidat,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
Ommiyan  faction,  who  had  concealed  himself  to 
avoid  the  caliph's  resentment,  sallied  out  of  his 
retreat,  and,  putting  himself  at  the  head  of  Al 
Mansur's   attendants,   charged    the  rebels  with 
such  fury  that  he  entirely  defeated  them.     This 
generosity  of  Maan  was  so  remarkable  that  it 
afterwards  passed  into  a  proverb.     On  tliis  oc- 
casion 6000  of  the  Rawandians  were  killed  on 
the  spot,  and  the  caliph  delivered  from  instant 
death  ;  he  was,  however,  so  much  disgusted  with 
the  Arabs,  on  account  of  this  attempt,   that  he 
resolved  to  remove  the  capital  of  his  empire  out 
of  their  peninsula ;  and  accordingly  founded  a 
new  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  named  Bag- 
dad. The  foundations  of  it  were  laid  in  the  158th 
vear  of  the  Hegira,  and  finished  four  years  after. 
On  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  government  to  Bag- 
dad, the  peninsula  of  the  Arabs  seems  all  at  once 
to  have  lost  its  consequence,  and  in  a  short  time 
the  inhabitants  seem  even  to  have  detached  them- 
selves from  the  jurisdiction   of  the  caliphs;  for 
in  the  156th  year  of  the  Hegira,  while  Al  Man- 
sur  was   yet  living,  they   made  irruptions  into 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  as  if  they  had  designed 
to  conquer  these  countries  over  again  for  them- 
selves ;  and  though  the  Arabs,  properly  so  called, 
continued   nominally  subject  to  the   caliphs  of 
Bagdad    till   the  abolition  of  the  caliphate  by 
Hulaku  the  Tartar,  yet  they  did  not  become  sub- 
ject to  him  when  he  became  master  of  that  city. 
From  the  building  of  the  city  of  Bagdad   to 
the  death  of  Al  Mansur  nothing  very  remarkable 
happened,  excepting  some  irruptions  made  into 
the  territories  of  the  Greeks,  and  by  the  Arabs  into 
some  of  the  caliph's  other  territories.     In  the 
157th  year  of  the  Hegira,  also,  a  grievous  famine 
was   felt   in   Mesopotamia,  which  was  quickly 
after  followed  by  a  plague  that  destroyed  great 
numbers.      This  year   likewise,  the  Christians, 
who  had  been  all  along  very  severely  dealt  with 
by  Al  Mansur,  were  treated    with   the  utmost 
rigor  by  Musa  Ebn  Mosaab  the  caliph's  gover- 
nor ;  every  one  who  was  unable  to  pay  the  enor- 
mous tribute  exacted  of  them  being  thrown  into 
prison.     In  the   158th  year  of  the  Hegira,  the 
caliph  set  out  from  Bagdad  to  perform  the  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca ;  but,  being  taken  ill  on  the 
road,  he  expired  at  Bir  Maimun,  whence  his 
body  was  carried  to   Mecca ;  where,  after  100 
graves  had  been  dug,  that  his  sepulchre  might 
be  concealed,  he  was  interred,  having  lived,  ac- 
cording to  sone,  sixty-three,  according  to  others, 
sixty-eight  years,  and  reigned  twenty-two.     He 
was  extremely  covetous,  and  left  in  his  treasury 
600,000,000    dirhems,   and  24,000,000   dinars. 
He  is  reported  to  have  paid  his  cook  by  assign- 
ing him  the  heads  and  legs  of  the  animals  dressed 
in  his  kitchen,  and  to  have  obliged  him  to  pro- 
cure at  his  own  expense  all  the  fuel  and  vessels 
he  had  occasion  for.     When  Al  Mansur  expired 
at  Bir  Maimun,  he  had  only  his  domestics  and 
Rabi  his  freed  man  with  him.  The  latter,  for  some 
time,  kept  h'is  death  concealed,  and  pretended  to 
have  a  conference  with   him ;  in  which,  as  he 
gave  out,  the  caliph  commanded  him  to  exact  an 
oath  of  allegiance  to  Al  Mohdi  his  son,  as  his 
VOL.  XIX. 


immediate  successor,  and  to  Isa  Ebn  Musa  his 
cousin  german,  as  the  next  apparent  heir  to  the 
crown.     He  then  despatched  a  courier  to   Bag- 
dad with  the  news  of  Al  Mansur's  death  :  upon 
which  Al   Mohni  was  unanimously  proclaimed 
caliph.     Isa   Ebn    Musa,   however,   no   sooner 
heard    this   news   than    he  began    to   entertain 
thoughts  of  setting  up  for  himself  at  Cufa,  where 
he  then  resided  ;  and,  to  facilitate  the  execution 
of  his  scheme,  fortified  himself  in  that  city.   But 
Al  Mohdi,  being  apprized  of  his  defection,  sent  a 
detachment  of  1000  horse  to  bring  him  to  Bag- 
dad ;  which  being  done,   Al   Mohni   not   only 
prevailed   upon  him   to  own  his   allegiance  to 
him,  but  also  to  give  up  his  right  to  the  suc- 
cession for    10,000  according  to   some,  or   ac- 
cording to  others  for  10,000,000  dinars.     From 
the  accession  of  Al   Mohdi   to   the  164th  year 
of  the  Hegira,  the  most  remarkable  event  was 
the   rebellion    of  Al  Mokanna.     This   impious 
impostor,  whose   true  name  was    Hakem   Ebn 
Hesham,  came  originally  from   Khorasan,  and 
had  been  an  under  secretary  to  Abu  Moslem  go- 
vernor of  that  province.     He  afterwards  turned 
soldier,  and  passed  from  the  province  of  Khora- 
san into   that  of  Mawaralnahr,  where  he  pave 
himself  out  for  a  prophet.      The  name  of  Al 
Mokanna,  as  also  that  of  Al  Borkai,  that  is,  the 
veiled,  he  took  from  his  custom  of  covering  his 
fuce  with  a  veil  or  girdle  mask,  to  conceal  his 
deformity;  he  having  lost  an  eye  in  the  wars, 
and  being  otherwise  of  a  despicable  appearance. 
In  some  places  he  made  many  proselytes,  de- 
luding the  people  with   a  number  of  juggling 
tricks  which  they  swallowed  as  miracles,  and 
particularly  by  causing  the  appearance  of  a  moon 
to  rise  out  of  a  well  for  many  nights  together; 
whence  he  was  also  called  in  the  Persian  tongue 
Sazendeb  mak,  or  the  moon-maker.  This  wretch, 
not  content  with  being  reckoned  a  prophet,  arro- 
gated to  himself  divine  honors;  pretending  that 
the  Deity  resided  in  his  person.     At  last  this 
impostor  raised  an  open  rebellion  against  the 
caliph,  and  made  himself  master  of  several  for- 
tified places  in  Khorasan,  so  that  Al  Mohdi  was 
obliged  to  send  one  of  his  generals  with  an  army 
against  him.     Upon  the  approach  of  the  caliph's 
troops,  Al  Mokanna  retired  into  one  of  his  strong 
fortresses,  which  he  had  well   provided    for   a 
siege;  and   sent  his  emissaries  abroad  to  per- 
suade    the   people    that    he    raised   the    dead 
to  life,  and  foretold  future  events.     But  being 
closely   besieged    by   the  caliph's    forces,    and 
seeing  no  possibility  of  escaping,  he  gave  poison 
in  wine  to  his  whole  family,  and  burnt   theii 
bodies,    with    all    their  furniture,    provisions, 
and  cattle;  and, lastly,  he  threw  himself  into  the 
flames,  or,  as  others  say,  into  a  tub  of  aquafor- 
tis, or  some  other  preparation,  which  consumed 
every  part  of  him  except  the  hair.     When  the 
besiegers  therefore  entered  the  place,  they  found 
no  living  creature  in  it,  except  one  of  Al  Mo- 
kanna's  concubines,  who,  suspecting  his  design, 
had  hid  herself,  and  now  discovered  the  whole. 
This  terrible  contrivance,  however,  produced  the 
desired  effect.     He  had  promised  his  followers 
that  his  soul  should  transmigrate  into  the  form  of 
an  old  mnn  riding  on  a  grayish  coloied  beast, and 
that  afitr  so   manv  ypars  he  would    return  and 

X 


JOG 


SARACENS. 


give  them  the  earth  for  their  possession  ;  which 
ridiculous  expectation  kept  the  sect  in  being 
for  several  years.  All  this  time  war  had  been 
carried  on  with  the  Greeks,  but  without  any  re- 
remakable  success  on  either  side.  In  the  164th 
year  of  the  Hegira,  however,  Al  Mohdi  ordered 
his  son  Harun  Alraschid  to  penetrate  into  the 
Greek  territories  with  an  army  of  95,000  men. 
Harun,  then,  having  entered  the  dominions  of 
the  empress  Irene,  defeated  one  of  her  com- 
manders that  advanced  against  him ;  after  which 
he  laid  waste  several  of  the  imperial  provinces 
with  fire  and  sword,  and  even  threatened  Con- 
stantinople itself.  By  this  the  empress  was  so 
terrified  that  she  purchased  a  peace  with  the  ca- 
liph by  paying  him  an  annual  tribute  of  70,000 
pieces  of  gold ;  which  delivered  her  from  the  de- 
predations of  these  barbarians.  After  the  signing 
of  the  treaty,  Harun  returned  home  laden  with 
spoils  and  glory.  In  the  169th  year  of  the  He- 
gira, Al  Mohdi  was  poisoned,  though  unde- 
signedly,  by  one  of  his  concubines,  named  Ha- 
sanah.  She  had  designed  to  destroy  one  of  her 
rivals  whom  she  imagined  to  have  too  great  an 
ascendant  over  the  caliph,  by  giving  her  a  poi- 
soned pear.  This  the  latter,  not  suspecting  any 
thing,  gave  to  the  caliph ;  who  had  no  sooner 
eaten  it  than  he  felt  himself  in  an  exquisite  tor- 
ture, and  soon  after  expired. 

On  the  death  of  Al  Mohdi,  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  eldest  son  Al  Hadi ;  who  having  formed  a 
design  to  deprive  his  younger  brother  Harun 
Alraschid  of  his  right  of  succession,-and  even  to 
assassinate  him,  was  poisoned  by  his  vizier  in  the 
170th  year  of  the  Hegira;  and  on  his  death  the 
celebrated  caliph  Haruu  Alraschid  ascended  the 
throne.  This  was  the  best  and  wisest  prince  that 
ever  sat  on  the  throne  of  Bagdad.  He  was  also 
extremely  fortunate  in  all  his  undertakings,  though 
he  did  not  much  extend  his  dominions  by  con- 
quest. In  his  time  the  Saracen  empire  may  be 
said  to  have  been  in  its  most  flourishing  state, 
though,  by  the  independency  of  the  Saracens  in 
Spain,  who  had  formerly  set  up  a  caliph  of  the 
house  of  Ommiyahjhis  territories  were  not  quite 
so  extensive  as  those  of  some  of  his  predeces- 
sors. See  BAGDAD.  The  first  instance  of  Ha- 
run's  good  fortune,  and  which  was  taken  for  a 
presage  of  a  prosperous  and  happy  reign,  was 
his  finding  a  valuable  ring  which  he  had  thrown 
into  the  Tigris  to  avoid  being  deprived  of  it  by 
his  brother  Al  Hadi.  He  was  able  to  give  the 
divers  no  other  direction  than  by  throwing  a 
stone  from  the  bridge  of  Bagdad,  about  the  same 
place  of  the  river  in  which  he  hatl  thrown  the 
ring ;  notwithstanding  which  they  found  it  with- 
out any  great  difficulty.  In  the  1 86th  year  of 
the  Hegira,  or  A.  D.  802,  the  caliph  divided  the 
government  of  his  extensive  dominions  among  his 
three  sons :  to  Al  Amin  the  eldest  he  assigned 
Syria,  Irak,  the  three  Arabias,  Mesopotamia, 
Assyria,  Media,  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  all  that 
part  of  Africa  extending  from  the  confines  of 
Egypt  and  Ethiopia  to  the  straits  of  Gibraltar, 
with  the  dignity  of  caliph;  to  Al  Mamun,  the 
second,  he  assigned  Persia,  Kerman,  the  Indies, 
Khorasan,  Tabrestan,  Cablestan  and  Zablestan, 
with  the  vast  province  of  Mawaralnahr ;  and  to 
his  third  son,  Al  Kasem,  he  gave  Armenia,  Na- 


tolia,  Jorjan,  Georgia,  Circassia,  and  all  the  Sa» 
racen  territories  bordering  upon  the  Euxine  Sea. 
Al  Amin  was  to  ascend  the  throne  immediately 
after  his  father's  decase;  after  him  Al  Mamun-, 
and  then  Al  Kasem,  whom  he  had  surnamed  Al 
Mutaman.  The  most  considerable  exploits  per- 
formed by  this  caliph  were  against  the  Greeks, 
who  by  their  perfidy  provoked  him  to  make  war 
upon  them,  and  whom  he  always  overcame.  In 
the  187th  year  of  the  Hegira  the  caliph  received 
a  letter  from  the  Greek  emperor  Nicepliorus, 
soon  after  he  had  been  advanced  to  the  imperial 
dignity,  commanding  him  to  return  all  the  money 
he  had  extorted  from  the  empress  Irene,  though 
that  had  been  secured  to  him  by  the  last  treaty 
concluded  with  that  princess,  or  expect  soon  to 
see  an  imperial  army  in  the  heart  of  his  territories. 
This  insolent  letter  so  exasperated  Harun  that 
he  immediately  assembled  his  forces,  and  ad- 
vanced to  Heraclea,  laying  the  country  through 
which  he  passed  waste  with  fire  and  sword.  For 
some  time  also  he  kept  that  city  straitly  besieged  ; 
which  so  terrified  the  Greek  emperor  that  he 
submitted  to  pay  an  annual  tribute.  Upon  this 
Harun  granted  him  a  peace,  which  he  broke 
soon  after  ;  but  Harun  compelled  him  to  renew 
it,  and  then  returned  with  his  army.  In  the 
188th  year  of  the  Hegira  war  was  renewed  with 
the  Greeks ;  and  Nicephorus  with  a  great  army 
attacked  the  caliph's  forces  with  the  utmost  fury. 
He  was,  however,  defeated  with  the  loss  of 
40,000  men,  and  received  three  wounds  in  the 
action  ;  after  which  the  Saracens  committed  terri- 
ble ravages  in  his  territories,  and  returned  home 
laden  with  spoils.  The  next  year  Harun  invaded 
Phrygia,  defeated  an  imperial  army  sent  to  op- 
pose him,  and  ravaged  the  country.  In  the  190th 
year  of  the  Hegira,  November  (27th,  805,  the 
caliph  marched  into  the  imperial  territories  with 
an  army  of  135,000  men,  besides  a  great  num- 
ber of  volunteers.  He  first  took  the  city  of 
Heraclea,  whence  he  carried  16,000  prisoners  ; 
after  which  he  took  several  other  places,  and 
made  a  descent  on  Cyprus,  which  he  plundered 
in  a  terrible  manner.  This  so  intimidated  'Ni- 
cephorus that  he  immediately  sent  the  tribute 
due  to  Harun,  the  withholding  of  which  had 
been  the  cause  of  the  war,  and  concluded  a  peace 
upon  the  caliph's  own  terms ;  one  of  which  was 
that  the  city  of  Heraclea  should  never  be  rebuilt. 
This  perhaps  Harun  would  not  so  readily  have 
granted,  had  not  one  Rafe  Ebn  Al  Leith  revolted 
against  him  at  Samarcand,  and  assembled  a  con- 
siderable force.  In  the  191st  year  of  the  Hegira, 
the  caliph  removed  the  governor  of  Khorasan 
from  his  employment,  because  he  had  not  at- 
tended to  the  motions  of  the  rebel  Rafe.  As 
this  governor  had  also  tyrannised  over  his  sub- 
jeets  in  the  most  cruel  manner,  his  successor 
sent  him  in  chains  to  the  caliph :  yet  the  rebels 
made  this  year  a  great  progress  in  the  conquest 
of  Khorasan.  Next  year  the  caliph  marched  in 
person  against  the  rebels,  who  were  daily  be- 
coming more  formidable.  The  general  rendezvous 
of  his  troops  was  in  the  plains  of  Rakka,  whence 
he  advanced  with  them  to  Bagdad.  Having  the  re 
supplied  the  troops  with  every  thing  necessary, 
he  continued  his  march  to  the  frontiers  of  Jorjan, 
where  he  was  seized  with  an  illness  which  grew 


SARACENS. 


307 


more  violent  after  he  had  entered  that  province. 
Finding  himself,  therefore,  unable  to  pursue  iiis 
journey,  he  resigned  the  command  of  the  army 
to  his  son  Al  Mamun,  retiring  himself  to  Tus  in 
Khorasan.  We  are  told  by  Khondemir  that,  be- 
fore the  caliph  departed  from  Rakka,  he  had  a 
dream  wherein  he  saw  a  hand  over  his  head  full 
of  red  earth,  and  at  the  same  time  heard  a  person 
pronouncing  these  words,  '  see  the  earth  where 
Harun  is  to  be  buried.'  Upon  this  he  asked 
where  he  was  to  be  buried ;  and  was  instantly 
answered,  '  at  Tus.'  This  dream  greatly  discom- 
posing him,  he  communicated  it  to  his  chief  phy- 
sician, who  endeavoured  to  divert  him,  and  ad- 
vised him  to  pursue  some  amusement,  to  draw 
his  attention  another  way.  The  caliph  accord- 
ingly prepared  a  magnificent  regale  for  his  cour- 
tiers, which  lasted  several  days.  After  this  he 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  forces,  and  ad- 
vanced to  the  confines  of  Jordan.  As  his  disor- 
der increased,  he  retired  to  Tus,  where  he  sent 
for  his  physician,  and  said  to  him,  'Gabriel,  do 
you  remember  my  dream  at  Rakka  ?  We  are  now 
arrived  at  Tus,  the  place  of  my  interment.  Send 
one  of  my  eunuchs  to  fetch  me  a  handful  of  the 
earth  of  this  city.'  Upon  this,  Masrur,  a  favorite 
eunuch,  was  despatched  to  bring  a  little  earth. 
He  soon  brought  a  handful  of  red  earth, 
which  he  presented  to  the  caliph  with  his  arm 
half  bare.  At  the  sight  of  this,  Harun  cried 
out,  '  in  truth  this  is  the  earth,  and  this  is  the  very 
arm,  that  I  saw  in  my  dream.'  His  spirits  im- 
mediately failing,  and  his  malady  being  greatly 
increased  by  the  perturbation  of  mind  ensuing 
upon  this  sight,  he  d  ied  three  days  after,  and  was 
buried  in  Tus.  Bashir  Ebn  Al  Leith,  the  arch- 
rebel's  brother,  was  brought  in  chains  to  the 
caliph,  when  at  the  point  of  death.  At  the  sight 
of  him  Harun  declared  that  if  he  could  speak 
only  two  words  he  would  say  kill  him ;  and 
immediately  ordered  him  to  be  cut  in  pieces  in 
his  presence.  This  being  done,  the  caliph  soon 
after  expired,  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  193, 
having  reigned  twenty-three  years.  The  distem- 
per that  put  an  end  to  his  days  is  said  to  have 
oeen  the  bloody  flux. 

Upon  the  arrival  of  a  courier  from  Tus,  with 
the  news  of  Al  Raschid's  death,  his  son  Al  Amin 
was  immediately  proclaimed  caliph;  and  was  no 
sooner  seated  on  the  throne  than  he  formed  a 
design  of  excluding  his  brother  Al  Mamun  from 
the  succession.  Accordingly  he  deprived  him 
of  the  furniture  of  the  imperial  palace  at  Kho- 
rasan ;  and  in  open  violation  of  his  father's  will, 
who  had  bestowed  on  Al  Mamun  the  perpetual 
government  of  Khorasan,  and  of  all  the  troops 
in  that  province,  he  ordered  these  forces  to  march 
directly  to  Bagdad.  Upon  the  arrival  of  this 
order,  Al  Mamun  expostulated  with  the  general 
Al  Fadl  Ebn  Rabi,  who  commanded  his  troops, 
and  endeavoured  to  prevent  his  marching  to 
Bagdad ;  but  without  effect,  for  he  punctually 
obeyed  the  orders  sent  by  the  caliph.  Al  Ma- 
mun, however,  took  care  not  to  be  wanting  in 
fidelity  to  his  brother.  He  obliged  the  people 
of  Khorasan  to  take  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  Al 
Amin,  and  reduced  some  who  had  actually  excited 
a  considerable  body  of  the  people  to  revolt,  while 
the  general  Al  Fadl  having  ingratiated  himself 


with  the  caliph  by  his  ready  compliance  with  his 
orders,  was  chosen  prime  vizier,  and  governed  with 
an  absolute  sway :  Al  Amin  abandoning  himself 
entirely  to  drunkenness.  Al  Fadl  was  a  very  able 
minister ;  though,  fearing  Al  Mamun's  resent- 
ment if  ever  he  should  ascend  the  throne,  he 
gave  Al  Amin  such  advice  as  proved  in  the  end 
the  ruin  of  them  both.  He  told  him  that  his 
brother  had  gained  the  affection  of  the  people  of 
Khorasan  by  the  good  order  and  police  he  had 
established  among  them;  that  his  unwearied  ap- 
plication to  the  administration  of  justice  had  so 
attracted  their  esteem  that  the  whole  province 
was  entirely  at  his  devotion;  that  his  own  con- 
duct was  by  no  means  relished  by  his  subjects, 
whose  minds  were  almost  totally  alienated  from 
him ;  and  therefore  that  he  had  but  one  part  to 
act,  which  was  to  deprive  Al  Mamun  of  the  right 
of  succession  that  had  been  given  him  by  his 
father,  and  transfer  it  to  his  own  son  Musa,  thou«h 
then  but  an  infant.  Agreeably  to  this  pernicious 
advice,  the  caliph  sent  for  his  brother  Al  Kaseni 
from  Mesopotamia,  and  recalled  Al  Mamun 
from  Khorasan,  pretending  he  had  occasion  for 
him  as  an  assistant  in  his  councils.  By  this 
treatment  Al  Mamun  was  so  much  provoked 
that  he  resolved  to  come  to  an  open  rupture 
with  his  brother,  in  order  if  possible  to  frustrate 
his  wicked  designs.  Instead,  therefore,  of  going 
to  Bagdad  as  he  had  been  commanded,  he  cut 
off  all  communication  betsveen  his  own  province 
and  that  capital ;  saying  that,  as  his  father  Harun 
had  assigned  him  the  lieutenancy  of  Khorasan, 
he  was  responsible  for  all  the  disorders  that 
might  happen  there  during  his  absence.  He  also 
coined  money,  and  would  not  suffer  Al  Amin's 
name  to  be  impressed  upon  any  of  the  dirhems 
or  dinars  struck  in  that  province.  Not  content 
with  this,  he  prevailed  upon  Rafe  Ebn  Al  Leith, 
who  had  been  for  some  time  in  rebellion,  to  join 
him  with  a  body  of  troops  ;  whose  example  was 
soon  after  followed  hy  Harthema  Ebn  Aafan  ; 
which  put  him  in  possession  of  all  the  vast  terri- 
tory of  Khorasan.  Here  he  governed  with  an 
absolute  sway,  officiated  in  the  mosque  as  Imam, 
and  constantly  harangued  the  people.  In  the 
195th  year  of  the  Hegira,  October  4th,  817,  the 
caliph  Al  Amin,  finding  that  his  brother  set  him 
at  defiance,  declared  war  against  him,  and  sent 
his  general  AH  Ebn  Isa  with  an  army  of  60,000 
men  to  invade  Khorasan.  Al  Mamun,  being  in- 
formed that  Ali  was  advancing  against  him  with 
such  a  powerful  army,  put  on  foot  all  the  troops 
he  could  raise,  and  gave  the  command  to  Thaher 
Ebn  Hosein,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  his 
age.  Thaher,  being  a  man  of  undaunted  reso- 
lution, chose  only  4000  men,  whom  he  led 
against  Al  Amin's  army.  Ali,  seeing  so  small  a 
number  of  troops  advancing  against  him,  was 
transported  with  joy,  and  promised  himself  an 
easy  victory.  Despising  his  enemies,  therefore, 
lie  behaved  in  a  secure  and  careless  manner ; 
the  consequence  of  which  was  that  his  army 
was  entirely  defeated,  and  himself  killed,  his 
head  being  afterwards  sent  as  a  present  to  Al 
Mamun,  who  amply  rewarded  Thaher  and  Har- 
thema for  their  services.  After  this  victory,  Al 
Mamun  assumed  the  title  of  caliph,  and  made  all 
necessary  preparations  for  carrying  the  war  into 

X  2 


"308 


SARACENS. 


the  very  heart  of  his  brother's  dominions.      For 
this  purpose  he  divided  his  forces  into  two  bo- 
dies, and  commanded  them  to  march  into  Irak 
by  different  routes.     One  of  them  obeyed  the 
orders  of  Thaher,  and  the  other  of  Harthema. 
The  first  directed  his  march  to  Ahwas,  and  the 
other  towards  Holwan,  both  of  them  proposing 
to  meet  in  the  neigbourhood    of  Bagdad,  and 
after  their  junction  to  besiege  that  city.     In   the 
196th  year  of  the  Hegira,  Thaher  Ebn  liosein 
made  a  most  rapid  progres  with  the  troo*ps  under 
his  command.  Having  advanced  towards  Ahwas, 
he  there  defeated  a  body  of  the  caliph's  forces  ,• 
and,  though  the  victory  was  by  no  means  deci- 
sive, it  so  intimidated  the  commander  of  Ahwas, 
that  he  surrendered  that  fortress  to  him.      This 
opened  a  way  to  Wafer  on  the  Tigris,  and  facili- 
tated the  conquest  of  that  place.      After  this  he 
marched  with  his  army  to  Al  Madayen,  the  in- 
habitants of  which  immediately   opened  their 
gates  to  him.     The  rapidity  of  these  conquests, 
and  the  infamous  conduct  of  Al  Amin,  excited 
the  people  of  Egypt,  Syria,  Hejaz,  and  Yemen, 
unanimously  to  declare  for  Al  Mamun  ;  who  was 
accordingly  proclaimed  caliph   in  all  these  pro- 
vinces.     The   next  year  Al   Mamun's   forces, 
under  Thaher  and  Harthema,  laid  siege  to  Bag- 
dad.   As  the  caliph  was  shut  up  in  that  place, 
and  it  had  a  numerous  garrison,  the  besieged 
made  a  vigorous  defence,  and  destroyed  a  great 
number  of  their  enemies.      The  besiegers,  how- 
ever, incessantly  played  upon  the  town  with  their 
catapults  and  other  engines,  though  they  were  in 
their  turn  not  a  little   annoyed   by  the  garrison 
with  the  same  sort  of  military  machines.      The 
latter  likewise  made  continual  sallies,  and  fought 
like  men  in  despair,  though  they  were  always 
beaten  back  into  the  town  with  considerable  loss. 
In  short,  the  siege  continued  during  the  whole 
of  this  year,  in  which  the  greatest  part  of  the 
eastern  city,  called  the  Camp  of  Al  Mohdi,  was 
demolished  or  reduced  to  ashes.   The  citizens,  as 
well  as  the  garrison,  were  reduced  to  the  last 
extremity  by  the  length  and  violence  of  the  siege. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  198th  year  of  the  He- 
gira, Al  Amin,  finding  himself  deserted  by  his 
troops,  as  well  as  by  the  principal  men  of  Bag- 
dad, who  had  kept  a  private  correspondence  with 
Thaher,  was  obliged  to  retire  to  the  old  town  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Tigris.     He  did  not,  how- 
ever, take  this  step,  before  the  inhabitants  of  the 
new  town  had  formally  deposed  him,  and  pro- 
claimed his  brother  Al  Mamun  caliph.     Thaher, 
receiving  advice  of  this,  caused  the  old  town  to 
be  invested,  planted  his  engines  against  it,  and 
at  last  starved  it  to  a  surrender.     Al  Amin,  being 
thus  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  putting  himself 
into  the  hands  of  one  of  the  generals,  chose  to 
implore  the  protection  of  Harthema,  whom  he 
judged  to  be  of  a  more  humane  disposition  than 
Thaher.     Having  obtained  this,  he  embarked  in 
a  small  vessel  in  order  to  arrive  at  that  part  of 
the   camp   where   Harthema  was   posted;    but 
Thaher  being  informed  of  his  design,  which,  if 
put  in  execution,  he  thought  would  eclipse  the 
glory  he  had  acquired,  laid  an  ambush  for  him, 
which  he  had  not  the  good  fortune  to  escape. 
Upon  his  arrival  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Har- 
thema's  tent,  Thaher's  soldiers  rushed  upon  him, 


drowned  all  his  attendants,  and  put  Al  Amin  him- 
self in  prison.    Here  he  was  soon  after  massacred 
by  Thaher's  servants,  who  carried  his  head  in 
triumph  to  their  master,  by  whose  order  it  was 
afterwards   exposed   to   view   in   the   streets  of 
Bagdad.    Thaher  afterwards  sent  it  to  Al  Mamun 
in  khorasan,  together  with  the  ring  or  seal  of  the 
caliphate,  the  sceptre,  and  the  imperial  robe.     At 
the  sight  of  these  Al  Mamun  fell  down  on  his 
knees,  and  returned  thanks  to  God  for  his  suc- 
cess ;  making  the  courier  who  brought  them  a 
present  of  a  million  of  dirhems,  in  value  about 
£100,000  sterling.     The  same  day  that  Al  Amin 
was  assassinated,  his   brother   Al   Mamun  was 
proclaimed  caliph  at  Bagdad.     He  had  not  been 
lonsr  seated  on  the  throne,  when  he  was  alarmed 
by  rebellions  breaking  out  in  different  parts  of 
the  empire.  The>e,  however,  were  at  last  happily 
extinguished  ;  after  which  Thaher  Ebn  Hosein 
had  the  government  of  Khorasan  conferred  upon 
him  and  his  descendants  with  almost  absolute 
and  unlimited   power.     This   happened  in    the 
205th  year  of  the  Hegira,  from  which  time  we 
may  date  the  dismemberment  of  that  province 
from   the  empire   of  the  caliphs.     During  the 
reign  of  this   caliph   nothing  remarkable  hap- 
pened ;  only  the  African  Saracens  invaded  the 
island  of   Sicily,  where  they  made  themselves 
masters  of  several  places.     He  died  of  a  surfeit, 
in  the  218th  year  of  the  Hegira,  having  reigned 
twenty,  and  lived  forty-eight  or  forty-nine  years. 
On  the  death  of  Al  Mamun  his  brother  Al 
Motasem,  by  some  of  the  oriental  historians  sur- 
uamed  Billah,  was  saluted  caliph.     He  succeed- 
ed by  virtue  of  Al  Mamun  s  express  nomination 
of  him,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  own  son  Al  Ab- 
bas, and  his  other  brother  Al  Casern,  who  had 
been  appointed  by  Harun  Al  Raschid.     In  the 
beginning  of  his  reign  he  was  obliged  to  employ 
the  whole  forces  of  his  empire  against  one  Babec, 
who  had  been  for  a  considerable  time  in  rebellion 
in  Persia  and  Persian  Irak.    This  Babec  first  ap- 
peared in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  201,  when  he  be- 
gan to  take  upon  him  the  title  of  a  prophet.  What 
his  particular  doctrine  was  is  now  unknown  ;  but 
his  religion  is  said  to   have   differed   from  all 
others  then  known  in  Asia.      He  gained  a  gieat 
number  of  proselytes  in  Aderbijanand  the  Persian 
Irak,  where  he  soon  grew  powerful  enough  to  wage 
war  with  the  caliph  Al  Mamun,  whose  troops  he 
often  beat,  so  that  he  was  now  become  extremely 
formidable.    The  general  sent  by  Al  Motasem 
to  reduce  him  was  Heider  Ebn  Kans,  surnamed 
Afshan,  a  Turk  by  nation,  who  had  been  brought 
a  slave   to  the  caliph's  court,  and,  having  been 
employed   in  disciplining   the  Turkish    militia 
there,  had  acquired  the  reputation  of  a  great  cap- 
tain.    By  him  Babec  was  defeated  with  prodi- 
gious slaughter,  no  fewer  than  60,000  men  being 
killed  in  the  first  engagement.     The  next  year, 
being  the  220th  of  the  Hegira,  he  received  a  still 
greater  overthrow,  losing  100,000  men,  killed 
and   taken    prisoners.     By  this   defeat   he  was 
obliged  to  retire  into  the  Gordyaan  mountains  ; 
where  he  fortified  himself  in  such  a  manner  that 
Afshin  found  it  impossible  to  reduce  him  till  the 
year   of    the   Hegira   222.      This   commander, 
having  reduced  with  invincible  patience  all  Ba- 
bec's   castles,  one  after  another,  the  impostor 


SARACENS. 


309 


was  obliged  to  shut  himself  up  in  a  strong  for- 
tress called  Cashabad,  which  was  now  his  last 
resource.  Here  he  defended  himself  with  great 
bravery  for  several  months;  but  at  last,  finding 
he  should  be  obliged  to  surrender,  he  made  his 
escape  into  a  neighbouring  wood,  whence  he 
soon  after  came  to  Afshin  upon  that  general  pro- 
mising him  pardon.  But  Afshin  no  sooner  had 
him  in  his  power  than  he  first  caused  his  hands 
and  feet,  and  afterwards  his  head,  to  be  cut  off. 
Babec  had  supported  himself  against  the  power  of 
the  caliphs  for  upwards  of  twenty  years,  during 
which  time  he  had  cruelly  massacred  250,000 
people ;  it  being  his  custom  to  spare  neither 
man,  woman,  nor  child,  of  the  Mahometans  or 
their  allies.  Amongst  the  prisoners  taken  at 
Cashabad  there  was  one  Nud,  who  had  been  one 
of  Babec's  executioners,  and  who  owned  that, 
by  his  orders,  he  had  destroyed  20,000  Saracens 
with  his  own  hands ;  to  which  he  added  that 
vast  numbers  had  also  been  executed  by  his  com- 
panions. In  the  223d  year  of  the  Hegira  the 
Greek  emperor  Theophilus  invaded  the  caliph's 
territories,  where  he  behaved  with  the  greatest 
cruelty,  and  by  destroying  Sozopetra,  the  place 
of  Al  Motasem's  nativity,  notwithstanding  his 
earnest  entreaties  to  the  contrary,  occasioned  the 
terrible  destruction  of  AMORIUM,  mentioned 
under  that  article.  The  rest  of  this  caliph's  reign 
is  remarkable  for  nothing  but  <he  execution  of 
Afshin,  who  was  accused  of  holding  correspond- 
ence with  the  caliph's  enemies.  After  his  death 
a  great  number  of  idols  were  found  in  his  house, 
which  were  immediately  burned,  as  also  several 
books  said  to  contain  impious  and  detestable 
opinions.  In  the  227th  year  of  the  Hegira  died 
the  caliph  Al  Motasem,  in  the  forty-eighth  or 
forty-ninth  year  of  his  age.  He  had  reigned 
eight  years  eight  months  and  eight  days,  was 
born  in  the  eighth  month  of  the  year,  fought  eight 
battles,  had  8000  slaves,  and  had  8,000,000 
dinars  and  80,000  dirhems  in  his  treasury  at  his 
death  ;  whence  the  oriental  historians  gave  him 
the  name  Al  Mothamen,  or  the  Octonary.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  so  robust  that  he  once 
carried  a  burden  of  1000  Ibs.  weight  several 
paces.  As  the  people  of  Bagdad  disturbed  him 
with  frequent  revolts  and  commotions,  he  took 
the  resolution  to  abandon  that  city,  and  build 
another  for  his  own  residence.  The  new  city  he 
built  was  first  called  Samaria,  and  afterwards 
Sarra  Manray,  and  stood  in  the  Arabian  Irak. 
He  was  attached  to  the  opinion  of  the  Moataza- 
lites,  who  maintain  the  creation  of  the  Koran  ; 
and  both  he  and  his  predecessor  cruelly  perse- 
cuted those  who  believed  it  to  be  eternal. 

A!  Motazem  was  succeeded  by  Al  Wathek 
Ballah,  who  the  following  year,  being  the  228th 
of  the  Ilegira,  invaded  and  conquered  Sicily. 
Nothing  remarkable  happened  during  the  rest  of 
his  reign ;  he  died  in  the  232d  year  of  the  He- 
gira, and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Al  Mota- 
wakkel.  The  new  caliph  began  his  reign  with 
an  act  of  the  greatest  cruelty.  The  late  caliph's 
vizier,  having  treated  Al  Motawakkel  ill  in  liis 
brother's  lifetime,  and  opposed  his  election  to 
the  caliphate,  was  on  that  account  now  sent  to 
prison.  Here  the  caliph  ordered  him  to  be  kept 
awake  for  several  days  and  nights  together  :  after 


this,  being  suffered  to  fall  asleep,  he  slept  u 
whole  day  and  night ;  and  after  he  awoke  was 
thrown  into  an  iron  furnace  lined  with  spikes  or 
nails  heated  red  hot,  where  he  was  miserably 
burnt  to  death.  During  this  reign  nothing  re- 
markable happened,  except  wars  with  the  Greeks, 
which  were  carried  on  with  various  success.  In 
the  year  867,  too,  being  the  245th  of  the  Hegira, 
violent  earthquakes  happened  in  many  provinces 
of  the  Saracen  dominions;  and  the  springs  'at 
Mecca  failed  to  such  a  degree  that  the  celebrated 
well  Zemzem  was  almost  dried  up,  and  the 
water  sold  for  100  dirhems  a  bottle.  In  the 
247th  year  of  the  Hegira  the  caliph  was  assas- 
sinated at  the  instance  of  his  son  Al  Montaser; 
who  succeeded  him,  and  died  in  six  months 
after.  He  was  succeeded  by  Al  Mostain,  who, 
in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  252  was  forced  to  ab- 
dicate the  throne  by  his  brother  Al  Motazz,  who 
afterwards  caused  him  to  be  privately  murdered. 
He  did  not  long  enjoy  the  dignity  of  which  he 
had  so  iniquitously  possessed  himself;  being 
deposed  by  the  Turkish  militia  (who  now  began 
to  set  up  and  depose  caliphs  as  they  pleased)  in 
the  255th  year  of  the  Hegira.  After  his  depo- 
sition he  was  sent  under  an  escort  from  Sarra 
Manray  to  Bagdad,  where  he  died  of  thirst  or 
hunger,  after  a  reign  of  four  years  and  about 
seven  months.  The  fate  of  this  caliph  (however 
merited)  was  peculiarly  hard  :  the  Turkish  troops 
had  mutinied  for  their  pay;  and  Al  Motazz,  not 
hafirig  money  to  satisfy  their  demands,  applied 
to  his  mother,  named  kabiha,  for  50,000  dinars. 
This  she  refused,  telling  him  that  she  had  no 
money  at  all,  although  it  afterwards  appeared  that 
she  was  possessed  of  immense  treasures.  After 
his  deposition,  however,  she  was  obliged  to  dis- 
cover them,  and  even  deposit  them  in  the  hands 
of  the  new  caliph  Al  Mokhtadi.  They  consisted 
of  1,000,000  dinars,  a  bushel  of  emeralds,  and 
another  of  pearls,  and  three  pounds  and  three 
quarters  of  rubies  of  the  color  of  fire. 

Al  Mokhtadi,  the  new  caliph,  was  the  son  of 
one  of  Al  Wathek's  concubines,  named  Korb,  or 
Kark,  said  by  some  to  have  been  a  Christian. 
The  beginning  of  his  reign  is  remarkable  for  the 
irruption  of  the  Zenjians,  a  people  of  Nubia, 
Ethiopia,  and  the  country  of  Caffres,  into  Arabia, 
where  they  penetrated  into  the  neighbourhood  of 
Basra  and  Cufa.  The  chief  of  this  gang  of 
robbers,  who,  according  to  some  of  the  Arab  his- 
torians, differed  but  little  from  wild  beasts,  was 
Ali  Ebn  Mohammed  Ebn  Abdalrahman,  who 
falsely  gave  himself  out  to  be  of  the  family  of 
Ali  Ebn  Abu  Taleb.  This  made  such  an  im- 
pression upon  the  Shites  in  those  parts  that  they 
flocked  to  him  in  great  numbers ;  which  enabled 
him  to  seize  upon  the  cities  of  Basra  and  Ramla, 
and  even  to  pass  the  Tigris  at  the  head  of  a 
formidable  army.  He  then  took  the  title  ot 
prince  of  the  Zenjians  in  order  to  ingratiate  him- 
self with  those  barbarians,  of  whom  his  army 
was  principally  composed.  In  the  256th  year 
of  the  Hegira  Al  Mokhtada  was  barbarously 
murdered  by  the  Turks,  who  had  raised  him  t'> 
the  throne  ;  and  was  succeeded  by  Al  Motamed 
the  son  of  Al  Motawakkel.  This  year  the  prince 
of  the  Zenjians,  Ali,  or  Al  Habib,  made  incur- 
sions to  the  very  gates  of  Bagdad,  doing  prodi- 


310 

gious  mischief  wherever  he  passed.  The  caliph 
therefore  sent  against  him  one  Jolan  with  a  con- 
siderable army ;  he  was  overthrown,  however, 
with  very  great  slaughter  by  the  Zenjian,  who 
made  himself  master  of  twenty-four  of  the  ca- 
liph's largest  ships  in  the  bay  of  Basra,  put  a 
vast  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  Obolla  to  the 
sword,  seized  upon  the  town,  set  fire  to  it,  and 
soon  reduced  it  to  ashes,  the  houses  mostly  con- 
sisting of  the  wood  of  a  certain  plane-tree  called 
by  the  Arabians  s:ij.  Thence  he  marched  to 
Abadan,  which  likewise  surrendered  to  him. 
Here  he  found  an  immense  treasure,  which  ena- 
bled him  to  possess  himself  of  the  whole  district 
of  Ahwaz.  In  short,  his  forces  being  now  in- 
creased to  80,000  strong,  most  of  the  adjacent 
territories,  and  even  the  caliph's  court  itself,  were 
struck  with  horror.  In  the  257th  year  of  the 
llegira  Al  Habib  continued  victorious,  defeated 
several  armies  sent  against  him  by  the  caliph,  re- 
duced the  city  of  Basra,  and  put  20,000  of  the 
inhabitants  to  the  sword.  The  following  year  the 
caliph,  supported  by  his  brother  Al  Mowaffek, 
had  formed  a  design  of  circumscribing  the  power 
of  the  Turkish  soldiery,  who  had  for  some  time 
given  law  to  the  caliphs  themselves.  But  this 
year  the  Zenjians  made  so  rapid  a  progress  in 
Persia,  Arabia,  and  Irak,  that  he  was  obliged  to 
suspend  the  execution  of  his  design,  and  even  to 
employ  the  Turkish  troops  to  assist  his  brother 
Al  Mowaffek  in  opposing  these  robbers.  The 
first  of  the  caliph's  generals,  who  encountered 
Al  Habib  this  year,  was  defeated  in  several  en- 
\xagements,  and  had  his  army  at  last  entirely  de- 
stroyed. After  this  Al  Mowaffek  and  another 
general  named  Mosleh  advanced  against  him. 
In  the  first  engagement,  Mosleh  being  killed  by 
an  arrow,  the  caliph's  troops  retired  ;  but  Al 
Mowaffek  put  them  afterwards  in  such  a  posture 
of  defence  that  the  enemy  durst  not  renew  the 
attack.  Several  other  sharp  encounters  happened 
this  year,  in  which  neither  party  gained  great  ad- 
vantage; but  at  last,  some  contagious  distem- 
pers breaking  out  in  Al  Mowaffek's  army,  he 
was  obliged  to  conclude  a  truce,  and  retire  to 
Waset  to  refresh  his  troops.  In  the  259th  year 
of  the  Hegira,  commencing  November  7th,  881, 
the  war  between  the  caliph  and  Al  Habib  still 
continued.  Al  Mowaffek,  upon  his  arrival  at 
Bagdad,  sent  Mahommed,  surnamed  Al  Mo- 
walled,  with  a  powerful  army  to  act  against  the 
Zenjians:  but  he  could  not  hinder  them  from 
ravaging  the  province  of  Ahwaz,  cutting  off  about 
50,000  of  the  caliph's  subjects,  and  dismantling 
the  city  of  Ahwaz  ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  ut- 
most efforts  of  all  the  caliph's  generals,  no  consi- 
derable advantages  could  be  gained  either  this 
or  the  following  year.  In  the  261st  year  of  the 
Hegira,  beginning  October  16th,  883,  Moham- 
med Ebn  Wasel,  who  had  killed  the  caliph's 
governor  of  Pars,  and  afterwards  made  himself 
master  of  that  province,  had  several  engagements 
with  Al  Habib.  The  caliph,  having  been  ap- 
prised of  the  state  of  affairs  on  that  side,  annexed 
the  government  of  l-'ar>,  Ahwaz,  and  Basra  to  the 
prefecture  he  had  given  to  Musa  Ebn  Boga, 
whom  he  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  best  gene- 
rals he  had.  Musa,  soon  after  his  nomination  to 
that  post,  sent  Abdalrahman  Ebn  Mosleh  as  his 


SARACENS. 


deputy  to  Ahwaz,  giving  him  as  a  colleague  and 
assistant  one  Tisam,  a  Turk.  Mohammed  Ebn 
Wasel,  however,  refusing  to  obey  the  orders  of 
Abdalrahman  and  Tisam,  a  fierce  conflict  ensued, 
in  which  the  latter  were  defeated,  and  Adbalrah- 
man  taken  prisoner.  After  this  victory  Mahom- 
med advanced  against  Musa  Ebn  Boga  himself; 
but  that  general,  finding  he  could  not  take  pos- 
session of  his  new  government  without  a  vast 
effusion  of  blood,  recalled  the  deputies  from  their 
provinces,  and  made  the  best  of  his  way  to  Serra 
Manray.  After  this  Yakub  Ebn  Al  Leit,  having 
taken  Khorasan  from  the  descendants  ofThaher, 
attacked  and  defeated  Mohammed  Ebn  Wasel, 
seizing  on  his  palace,  where  he  found  a  sum  of 
money  amounting  to  40,000,000  dirhems.  The 
next  year  Yakub  being  grown  formidable  by  the 
acquisition  of  Ahwaz  and  a  considerable  portion 
of  Ears,  or  at  least  the  Persian  Irak,  declared 
war  against  the  caliph.  Against  him  Al  Mota- 
med  despatched  Al  Mowaffek  ;  who,  having  de- 
feated him  with  prodigious  slaughter,  plundered 
his  camp, and  pursued  him  into  Khorasan;  where, 
meeting  with  no  opposition,  he  entered  Nisabur, 
and  released  Mahomet  the  Thaherian,  whom 
Yakub  had  detained  in  prison  three  years.  As 
for  Yakub  himself,  he  made  his  escape  with 
great  difficulty  ;  though  he  and  his  family  conti- 
nued several  years  in  possession  of  many  of  the 
conquests  he  had  made.  This  war  with  Yakub 
proved  a  seasonable  diversion  in  favor  of  Al  Ha- 
bib, who  this  year  defeated  all  the  forces  sent 
against  him,  and  ravaged  the  district  of  Waset. 
In  the  263d  of  the  Hegira,  beginning  September 
24th,  885,  the  caliph's  forces,  under  the  command 
of  Ahmed  Ebn  Lebuna,  gained  two  considerable 
advantages  over  Al  Habib;  but,  being  at  last 
drawn  into  an  ambuscade,  they  were  almost  to- 
tally destroyed,  their  general  himself  making  his 
escape  with  the  utmost  difficulty  ;  nor  were  the 
caliph's  forces  able,  during  the  course  of  the  next 
year,  to  make  the  least  impression  upon  these 
rebels.  In  the  265th  year  of  the  Hegira,  begin- 
ning September  3d,  887,  Ahmed  Ebn  Tolon  re- 
belled against  the  caliph,  and  set  up  for  himself 
in  Egypt.  Having  assembled  a  considerable 
force,  he  marched  to  Antioch,and  besieged  Sima 
the  governor  of  Aleppo,  and  all  the'  provinces 
known  among  the  Arabs  by  the  name  of  Al  Awa- 
sem  in  that  city.  As  the  besieged  found  that  he 
was  resolved  to  carry  the  place  by  assault,  they 
thought  fit,  after  a  short  defence,  to  submit,  and 
to  put  Sima  into  his  hands.  Ahmed  no  sooner 
had  that  officer  in  his  power  than  he  caused  him 
to  be  beheaded ;  after  which  he  advanced  to 
Aleppo,  the  gates  of  which  were  immediately 
opened  unto  him.  Soon  after  he  reduced  Da- 
mascus, Hems,  Hamath,  Kinnisrin,  and  Al  Rak- 
ka,  situated  upon  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Eu- 
phrates. This  rebellion  so  exasperated  Al 
Motamed  that  he  caused  Ahmed  to  be  publicly 
cursed  iu  all  the  mosques  belonging  to  Bagdad 
and  Irak  ;  and  Ahmed  on  his  part  ordered  the 
same  malediction  to  be  thundered  out  aeainst 
the  caliph  in  all  the  mosques  within  his  jurisdic- 
tion. This  year  also  a  detachment  of  Al  Habib's 
troops  penetrated  into  Irak,  and  made  themselves 
rs  of  four  of  the  caliph's  ships  laden  with 
corn  ;  they  then  advanced  !o  Al  Nomanic,  laid 


SARACENS. 


311 


the  greatest  part  of  it  in  ashes,  and  carried  off 
with  them  several  of  the  inhabitants  prisoners. 
After  this  they  possessed  themselves  of  Jarjaraya, 
where  they  found  many  more  prisoners,  and  de- 
stroyed all  the  adjacent  territory  with  fire  and 
sword.  This  year  there  were  four  independent 
powers  in  the  Saracen  dominions,  besides  the 
house  of  Ommiyah  in  Spain  :  viz.  the  African 
Saracens,  or  Aglabites,  who  had  for  a  long  time 
acted  independently  ;  Ahmed  in  Syria  and 
Egypt ;  Al  Leit  in  Khorasan  ;  and  Al  Habib  in 
Arabia  and  Irak.  In  the  266th  year  of  the  He- 
trira,  beginning  August  23d,  888,  Al  Habib  re- 
duced Ramhormoz,  burnt  the  stately  mosque 
there  to  the  ground,  put  a  vast  number  of  the 
inhabitants  to  the  sword,  and  carried  away  great 
numbers,  as  well  as  a  vast  quantity  of  spoil. 

This  was  his  last  successful  campaign  ;  for  the 
year  following  Al  Mowaffek.  attended  by  his  son 
Abul  Abbas,  having  attacked  him  with  a  body  of 
10,000  horse  and  a  few  infantry,  notwithstanding 
the  vast  disparity  of  numbers  (Al  Habib's  army 
amounting  'to  100,000  men),  defeated  him  in  se- 
veral battles,  recovered  most  of  the  towns  he  had 
taken,  together  with  an  immense  quantity  of 
spoil,  and  released  5000  women  who  had  been 
thrown  into  prison  by  these  barbarians.  After 
these  victories  Al  Mowaffek  took  post  before  the 
city  of  Al  Mabiya,  built  by  Al  Habib,  and  the 
palace  of  his  residence ;  burnt  all  the  ships  in 
the  harbour ;  thoroughly  pillaged  the  town ;  and 
then  entirely  dismantled  it.  After  the  reduction 
of  this  place,  in  which  he  found  immense  trea- 
sures, Al  Mowaffek  pursued  the  flying  Zenjians, 
put  several  of  their  chiefs  to  the  sword,  and  ad- 
vanced to  Al  Mokhtara,  a  city  built  by  Al 
Habib.  As  the  place  was  strongly  fortified,  and 
Al  Habib  was  posted  in  its  neighbourhood  with 
an  army,  according  to  Abn  Jaafer  Al  Tabari,  of 
300,000  men,  Al  Mowaffek'  perceived  that  the 
reduction  of  it  would  be  a  matter  of  some  diffi- 
culty. He  therefore  built  a  fortress  opposite  to 
it,  where  he  erected  a  mosque,  and  coined  mo- 
ney. The  new  city,  from  its  founder,  was  called 
by  the  Arabs  Al  Mowaffekkia,  and  soon  rendered 
considerable  by  the  settlement  of  several  wealthy 
merchants  there.  The  city  of  Al  Mokhtara,  be- 
in^  reduced  to  great  straits,  was  at  last  taken  by 
storm,  and  given  up  to  be  plundered  by  the  ca- 
liph's troops;  after  which  Al  Mowaffek  defeated 
the  numerous  forces  of  Al  Habib  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  they  could  no  more  be  rallied  during 
that  campaign.  In  the  year  268  of  the  Hegira 
Al  Mowaffek  penetrated  a^aiu  into  Al  Mabiya, 
and  demolished  the  fortifications  which  had 
been  raised  since  its  former  reduction,  though 
the  rebels  disputed  every  inch  of  ground.  Next 
year  he  a^ain  attacked  Al  Habib  with  great 
bravery ;  and  would  have  entirely  defeated  him, 
had  he  not  been  wounded  in  the  breast  with  an 
arrow,  which  obliged  him  to  retreat.  However, 
as  soon  as  he  was  cured  of  his  wound,  Al  Mow- 
affek advanced  a  third  time  to  Al  Mabiya,  made 
himself  master  of  that  metropolis,  threw  down 
the  walls  that  had  been  raised,  put  many  of  the 
inhabitants  to  the  sword,  and  carried  a  vast 
number  of  them  into  captivity.  The  year  270 
of  the  Hegira,  commencing  July  llth,  892, 
proved  fatal  to  the  rebel  Al  Habib.  Al  Mowaffek 


made  himself  a  fourth  time  master  of  Al  Ma- 
biya, burnt  Al  Habib's  palace,  seized  upon  his 
family,  and  sent  them  to  Sarra  Manray.  As  for 
the  usurper  himself  he  escaped ;  but  being 
closely  pursued  by  Al  Mowaffek  into  the  province 
of  Ahwaz,  where  the  shattered  remains  of  his 
forces  were  entirely  defeated,  he  at  last  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  victor,  who  ordered  his  head  to 
be  cut  off,  and  carried  through  a  great  part  of 
that  region  which  he  had  so  long  disturbed.  By 
this  complete  victory  Al  Mowaffek  obtained  the 
title  of  Al  Nasir  Lidmalbah,  that  is,  the  protector 
of  Mahometanism.  This  year  also  died  Ahmed 
Ebn  Tolun,  who  had  seized  upon  Egypt  and  Sy- 
ria, and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Khamarawi- 
yah.  The  next  year  a  bloody  engagement  hap- 
pened between  the  caliph's  forces  commanded  by 
Al  Mowaffek's  son  and  those  of  Khamarawiyah, 
who  had  made  an  irruption  into  the  caliph's  ter- 
ritories. The  battle  was  fought  between  Al 
Ramla  and  Damascus.  In  the  beginning  Kha- 
marawiyah found  himself  so  hard  pressed  that 
his  men  were  obliged  to  give  way ;  upon  which, 
taking  for  granted  that  all  was  lost,  he  fled  with 
great  precipitation,  even  to  the  borders  of  Egypt ; 
but  in  the  mean  time  his  troops,  being  ignorant 
of  the  flight  of  their  general,  returned  to  the 
charge  and  gained  a  complete  victory.  After  this 
Khamarawiyah,  by  his  just  and  mild  administra- 
tion, so  gained  the  affections  of  his  subjects  that 
the  caliph  found  it  impossible  to  gain  the  least 
advantage  over  him.  In  the  year  of  the  Hegira 
276  he  overthrew  one  of  the  caliph's  generals, 
named  Abul  Saj,  at  Al  Bathnia,  near  the  city  of 
Damascus;  after  which  he  advanced  to  Al 
Rakka  on  the  Euphrates,  and  made  himself 
master  of  that  place.  Having  annexed  several 
large  provinces  to  his  former  dominions,  and  left 
some  of  his  friends  in  whom  he  could  confide  to 
govern  them,  he  then  returned  into  Egypt,  the 
principal  part  of  his  empire,  which  now  extended 
from  the  Euphrates  to  the  borders  of  Nubia  and 
Ethiopia.  The  following  year,  the  278th  of  the 
Hegira,  was  remarkable  for  the  death  of  Al  Mo- 
waffek. He  died  of  the  elephantiasis  or  leprosy ; 
and,  while  in  his  last  illness,  said  that,  of  100,000 
men  whom  he  commanded,  there  was  not  one  so 
miserable  as  himself.  This  year  was  also  remark- 
able for  the  first  disturbances  raised  in  the  Saracen 
empire  by  the  Karmatians.  The  origin  of  this 
sect  is  uncertain  ;  but  the  most  common  opinion 
is  that  a  poor  fellow,  by  some  called  Karmata, 
came  from  Khuzestan  to  the  villages  near  Cufa, 
and  there  pretended  great  sanctity,  and  that  God 
had  enjoined  him  to  pray  fifty  times  a  day,  in- 
viting people  to  the  obedience  of  a  certain  imam 
of  the  family  of  Mahomet ;  and  this  way  of  life 
he  continued  till  he  had  made  a  very  great  party, 
out  of  whom  he  chose  twelve  as  his  apostles  to 
govern  the  rest,  and  to  propagate  his  doctrines. 
He  also  assumed  the  title  of  prince,  and  obliged 
every  one  of  his  earlier  followers  to  pay  him  a 
dinar  a  year.  But  Al  Haidam,  the  governor  of 
that  province,  finding  that  men  neglected  their 
work,  to  say  those  fifty  prayers  a  day,  seized  the 
fellow,  and,  havins:  put  him  in  prison,  swore  that 
he  should  die.  This  being  overheard  by  a  girl, 
belonging  to  the  governor,  she,  out  of  compas- 
sion, took  the  key  of  the  dungeon  at  night  from 


SARAGOSSA. 


tinder  her  master's  head,  released  Karmata,  and 
restored  the  key  to  its  place.  The  next  morning 
the  governor  found  his  prisoner  gone ;  and  the 
accident,  being  publicly  known,  raised  great  ad- 
miration :  Karmata's  adherents  giving  out  that 
God  had  taken  him  into  heaven.  After  this  he 
appeared  in  another  province,  and  declared  to  a 
great  number  of  people  that  it  was  not  in  the 
power  of  any  person  to  do  him  hurt ;  notwith- 
standing which,  his  courage  failing  him,  he  re- 
tired into  Syria,  and  was  never  heard  of  more. 
After  his  disappearance  the  sect  continued  and 
increased :  his  disciples  pretending  that  their 
master  had  manifested  himself  to  be  a  true 
prophet,  and  had  left  them  a  new  law,  wherein 
he  had  changed  the  ceremonies  and  form  of 
prayer  used  by  the  Mahometans,  &o.  From 
this  year  (278)  these  sectaries  gave  almost  con- 
tinual disturbance  to  the  caliphs  and  their  sub- 
jects, committing  great  disorders  in  Chaldea, 
Arabia,  and  Mesopotamia,  and  at  length  estab- 
lished a  considerable  principality.  In  the  279th 
year  of  the  Hegira  died  the  caliph  Al  Motamed  ; 
and  was  succeeded  by  Al  Motaded,  son  to  Al 
Mowaffek. 

In  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  Al  Motaded 
demanded  in  marriage  the  daughter  of  Khama- 
rawiyah,  sultan,  or  caliph,  in  Egypt ;  which  was 
agreed  to,  and  their  nuptials  were  solemnised 
with  great  pomp  in  the  282d  year  of  the  Hegira. 
He  carried  on  a  war  with  the  Karmatians  ;  but 
very  unsuccessfully,  his  forces  being  defeated 
with  great  slaughter,  and  his  general  Al  Abbas 
taken  prisoner.  This  caliph  also  granted  to  Ha- 
run,  son  to  Khamarawiyah,  the  perpetual  prefec- 
ture of  Awasam  and  Kinnisrin,  which  he  annexed 
to  that  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  upon  condition  that  he 
paid  him  an  annual  tribute  of  45,000  dinars.  He 
died  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  289,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Al  Moctasi,  who  proved  a  war- 
like and  successful  prince.  He  gained  several  ad- 
vantages over  the  Karmatians,  but  was  not  able  to 
reduce  them.  The  Turks,  however,  having  invaded 
the  province  of  Mawaralnahar,  were  defeated  with 
great  slaughter ;  after  which  Al  Moctasi  carried 
on  a  successful  war  against  the  Greeks,  from 
whom  he  took  Seleucia.  After  this  he  invaded 
Syria  and  Egypt,  which  provinces  he  recovered 
from  the  house  of  Ahmed  Ebn  Tolun.  The  re- 
duction of  Egypt  happened  in  the  292d  year  of 
the  Hegira,  after  which  the  war  was  renewed 
with  success  against  the  Greeks  and  Karmatians. 
The  caliph  died  in  the  295th  year  of  the  Hegira, 
after  a  reign  of  about  six  years  and  a  half.  He 
was  the  last  of  the  caliphs  who  made  any  figure 
by  their  warlike  exploits.  His  successors  Al 
Moktader,  Al  Kaher,  and  Al  Radi,  were  so  dis- 
tressed by  the  Karmatians  and  numberless 
usurpers  who  were  every  day  starting  up,  that 
by  the  325th  year  of  the  Hegira  they  had  nothing 


left  but  the  city  of  Bagdad.  In  the  324th  year 
of  the  Hegira,  commencing  November  30th, 
946,  the  caliph  Al  Radi,  finding  himself  dis- 
tressed on  all  sides  by  usurpers,  and  having  a 
vizier  of  no  capacity,  instituted  a  new  office  su- 
perior to  that  of  vizier,  which  he  entitled  emir  al 
omra,  or  commandant  of  commandants.  This 
great  officer  was  trusted  with  the  management  01 
military  affairs,  and  had  the  entire  management  ot 
the  finances,  in  a  much  more  absolute  and  unli- 
mited manner  than  any  of  the  caliph's  viziers  ever 
had.  Nay,  he  officiated  for  the  caliph  in  the  great 
mosque  at  Bagdad,  and  had  his  name  mentioned 
in  the  public  prayers  throughout  the  kingdom. 
In  short,  the  caliph  was  so  much  under  the 
power  of  this  officer,  that  he  could  not  apply  a 
single  dinar  to  his  own  use  without  the  leave  of 
the  emir  al  omri.  In  the  year  325  the  Saracen 
empire,  once  so  great  and  powerful,  was  shared 
among  the  following  usurpers  : — 1 .  The  cities  of 
Waset,  Basra,  and  Cufa,  with  the  rest  of  the 
Arabian  Irak,  were  considered  as  the  property 
of  the  emir  al  omra,  though  they  had  been  in  the 
beginning  of  the  year  seized  upon  by  a  rebel 
called  Al  Barilli,  who  could  not  be  driven  out  ot 
them.  2.  The  country  of  Fars,  Farsistan,  or 
Persia,  properly  so  called,  was  possessed  by 
Amado'ddawia  Ali  Ebn  Bulya,  who  resided  in  the 
city  of  Shiraz.  3.  Part  of  the  tract  denominated 
Al  Jebal,  together  with  Persian  Irak,  which  is 
the  mountainous  part  of  Persia,  and  the  country 
of  the  ancient  Parthians,  obeyed  Rucno'ddawla, 
the  brother  of  Amao'  ddawla,  who  resided  at 
Ispahan.  The  other  part  of  that  country  was 
possessed  by  Washmakin  the  Deylamite.  4. 
Diyar  Rabia,  Diyar  Beer,  Diyar  Modar,  and  the 
city  of  Al  Mawsel,  or  Mosul,  acknowledged  for 
their  sovereign  a  race  of  princes  called  Hamda- 
nites.  5.  Egypt  and  Syria  no  longer  obeyed  the 
caliphs,  but  Mahomet  Ebn  Taj  ,who  had  formerly 
been  appointed  governor  of  these  provinces. 
6,  7.  Africa  and  Spain  had  long  been  independ- 
ent. 8,  9.  Sicily  and  Crete  were  governed  by 
princes  of  their  own.  10,  11.  The  provinces  of 
Khorasan  and  Mawaralnahar  were  under  the 
dominion  of  Ai  Nasr  Ebn  Ahmed,  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Samarians.  12 — 14.  The  provinces  of 
Tabrestan,  Jorjan  or  Georgiana,  and  Mazanderan, 
had  kings  of  the  first  dynasty  of  the  Deylamites. 

15.  The  province  of  Kerman  was  occupied  by 
Abu  Ali  Mahomet  Ebn  Eylia  Al  Sammani,  whc 
had  made  himself  master  of  it  a  short  time  before. 

16.  Lastly,  the  provinces  of  Yamana  and    Bah- 
rein, including  the  district  of  Hajr,  were  in  the 
possession  of  Abu  Thaer  the  Karmatian.    Farther 
particulars  respecting  the  history  of  the  Saracens 
will  be  found  under  the  articles  already  referred 
to,    and  particularly  under  SPAIN,  where  they 
were  more  generally  styled  Moors  than   either 
Saracens,  Arabs,  Moslems,  or  Mussulmans. 


SARAGOSSA,  or  ZARAGOSA,  a  city  in  the 
north  of  Spain,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Ebro, 
Jhe  capital  of  Arragon,  and  the  see  of  an  arch- 
bishop. It  is  surrounded  by  an  earthen  wall, 
:md  tins  twelve  gates:  the  town  being  built  on 
i!ie  site  of  the  ancient  Salpuba,  which  wa-t  «-n- 
i.ir^«-<!  l>\  .cud  thence  c?.lle^  Casi 


Augusta,  corrupted  subsequently  into  Sara^ossa. 
The  canal  of  Arragon  approaches  it  both  cast 
and  west.  It  is  a  large  place,  built  throughout 
of  brick,  but  the  houses  are  seldom  above  three 
stories  in  height ;  and  the  streets  generally  nar- 
row and  crooked.  Hut  there  is  one  long  and 
street  called  the  (.'07.0,  and  two 


SARAGOSSA. 


311 


ofcr  the  Ebro,  one  of  wood,  said  to  be  the  finest 
of  the  kind  in  Europe. 

Saragossa  has  a  Gothic  cathedral,  sixteen  other 
churches,  and  nearly  forty  convents.  The  church 
of  our  '  Lady  of  the  Pillar'  is  remarkable  for  its 
supposed  miraculous  image ;  and  that  of  St.  En- 
gracia  for  various  relics. 

This  city  is  the  residence  of  the  intendant, 
captain-general,  and  high  court  of  justice  of  Ar- 
idgon  ;  and  of  a  small  garrison.  It  has  a  uni- 
versity founded  in  1478,  and  an  academy  of 
fine  arts.  Here  are  also  two  public  libraries. 
The  climate  is  temperate,  and  of  far  less  intense 
heat  than  the  south  of  Spain. 

This  city  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  dreadful 
sieges  in  1808  and  1809.  The  French  attempted 
to  take  it  by  assault  in  1 808,  but  were  repulsed 
with  loss.  Returning  with  augmented  numbers, 
they  invested  nearly  half  the  town,  in  defence  of 
which  the  citizens  were  indefatigable,  the  batte- 
ries being  served  by  both  sexes.  However, 
on  the  4th  of  August,  the  French  beat  down 
the  wall  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Guerva,  and 
enabled  their  troops  to  force  their  way  into 
the  Cozo.  Being  thus  in  possession  of  nearly 
half  the  town,  the  contest  seemed  only  to 
have  begun  :  for  the  inhabitants  defended  house 
after  house,  and  made  a  number  of  nocturnal 
attacks  on  the  part  occupied  by  the  French  : 
eventually  the  latter,  making  no  progress,  on  the 
14th  of  August  retired.  The  siege  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  no  less  obstinate.  Having  re- 
ceived great  reinforcements,  and  entirely  de- 
feated various  Spanish  armies,  the  French 
marched  in  November  (1808)  once  more  upon 
this  point.  Their  plan  was  now  to  destroy  the 
city  partly  by  bombs,  or  by  mining,  and  their 
first  attack  (December  20th)  gave  them  posses- 
sion of  some  important  posts.  The  bombard- 
ment commenced  on  the  10th  of  January,  which, 
violent  as  it  was,  caused  less  injury  than  a  fever 
now  raging  in  the  garrison :  and  Saragossa  was 
crowded  with  soldiers.  It  continued,  however, 
to  make  a  brave  resistance,  and  it  was  not  till 
after  a  bombardment  of  six  weeks,  and  a  very 
unequal  contest  in  mining,  that  Palafox,  its 
noble  commander,  surrendered.  175  miles 
K.  N.  E.  of  Madrid.  Population  50,000. 

Dr.  Southey's  eloquent  narrative  of  the  siege 
of  1808,  in  his  History  of  the  Peninsular  War, 
is  amongst  the  most  successful  productions  of 
his  ever-able  pen.  We  are  quite  sure  our  readers 
will  only  wish  that,  instead  of  the  following  ab- 
stract, we  could  have  given  the  entire  chapter  he 
has  devoted  to  this  memorable  conflict  : — 

'  A  regular  siege  was  to  be  expected  ;  how 
were  the  citizens  to  sustain  it  with  their  brick 
walls,  without  heavy  artillery,  and  without  troops 
who  could  sally  to  interrupt  the  besiegers  in 
their  works  ?  In  spite  of  all  these  discouraging 
circumstances,  confiding  in  God  and  their  own 
courage,  they  determined  to  defend  the  streets 
to  the  last  extremity.  Palafox,  immediately  after 
the  repulse  of  the  enemy,  set  out  to  muster  rein- 
forcements, to  provide  such  resources  for  the 
Mege  as  he  could,  and  to  place  the  rest  of  Arra- 
iron  in  a  state  of  defence,  if  the  capital  should 
fall.  The  besiegers*  army  was  soon  reinforced 
i<y  general  Yerdier  with  2500  men,  besides  some 


battalions  of  Portuguese,  who,  according  to  the 
devilish  system  of  Buonaparte's  tyranny,  had 
been  forced  out  of  their  country,  to  be  pushed 
on  in  the  foremost  ranks,  wherever  the  first  fire 
of  a  battery  was  to  be  received,  a  line  of  bayo- 
nets clogged,  or  a  ditch  filled,  with  bodies.  They 
occupied  the  best  positions  in  the  surrounding 
plain,  and,  on  the  27th,  attacked  the  city  and 
the  Torrero ;  but  they  were  repulsed  with  the 
loss  of  800  men.  six  pieces  of  artillery,  and  five 
carts  of  ammunition.  By  this  time  they  had  in- 
vested nearly  half  the  town.  The  next  morning 
they  renewed  the  attack  at  both  places  ;  from 
the  city  they  were  again  repulsed,  losing  almost 
all  the  cavalry  who  were  engaged.  But  the  Tor- 
rero was  lost  through  the  alleged  misconduct  of 
an  artillery  officer,  vrho  was  charged  with  having 
made  his  men  abandon  the  batteries  at  the  most 
critical  moment.  For  this  he  was  condemned  to 
run  the  gauntlet  six  times,  the  soldiers  beating 
him  with  their  ramrods,  arid  after  this  cruelty  he 
was  shot. 

'  The  French  having  now  received  a  train  of 
mortarsy  howitzers,  and  twelve-pounders,  which 
were  of  sufficient  calibre  against  mud  walls, 
kept  up  a  constant  fire,  and  showered  down 
shells  and  grenades  from  the  Torrero.  About 
1200  were  thrown  into  the  town,  and  there  was 
not  one  building  that  was  bomb-proof  within  the 
walls.  After  a  time  the  inhabitants  placed  beams 
of  timber  together  endways  against  the  houses, 
in  a  sloping  direction,  behind  which  those  who 
were  near  when  a  shell  fell  might  shelter  them- 
selves. The  enemy  continued  also  to  invest  the 
city  more  closely,  while  the  Arragonese  made 
every  effort  to  strengthen  their  means  of  defence. 
They  tore  down  the  awnings  from  their  windows, 
and"  formed  them  into  sacks  which  they  filled 
with  sand,  and  piled  up  before  the  gates,  in  the 
form  of  a  battery,  digging  round  it  a  deep 
trench.  They  broke  holes  for  musketry  in  the 
walls  and  intermediate  buildings,  and  stationed 
cannon  where  the  position  was  favorable  for  it. 
The  houses  in  the  environs  were  destroyed. 
'  Gardens  and  olive  grounds,'  says  an  eye-wit- 
ness, 'that  in  better  times  had  been  the  recreation 
and  support  of  their  owners,  were  cheerfully 
rooted  up  by  the  proprietors  themselves,  where- 
ver they  impeded  the  defence  of  the  city,  or 
covered  the  approach  of  the  enemy.'  ^  omen 
of  all  ranks  assisted;  they  formed  themselves 
into  companies,  some  to  relieve  the  wounded, 
some  to  carry  water,  wine,  and  provisions,  to 
those  who  defended  the  gates.  The  countess 
Burita  instituted  a  corps  for  this  service;  she 
was  young,  delicate,  and  beautiful.  In  the 
midst  of  the  most  tremendous  fire  of  shot  and 
shells,  she  was  seen  coolly  attending  to  those  oc- 
cupations which  were  now  become  her  duty; 
nor  throughout  the  whole  of  a  two  months' 
siege  did  the  imminent  danger,  to  which  she  in- 
cessantly exposed  herself,  produce  the  slightest 
apparent  effect  upon  her,  or  in  the  slightest  de- 
gree bend  her  from  her  heroic  purpose.  Some 
of  the  monks  bore  arms  ;  others  exercised  their 
spiritual  offices  to  the  dying ;  others,  with  the 
nuns,  were  busied  in  making  cartridges  whr;h 
the  children  distributed. 

'  Among  60,000  persons   there  \\ill   always 


314 


SARAGOSSA. 


be  found  some  wicked  enough  for  any  employ- 
ment, and  the  art  of  corrupting  has  constituted 
great  part  of  the  French  system  of  war.  Dur- 
ing the  night  of  the  28th  the  powder  magazine, 
in  the  area  where  the  bull  fights  were  performed, 
which  was  in  the  very  heart  of  the  city,  was 
blown  up,  by  which  fourteen  houses  were  de- 
stroyed, and  about  200  persons  killed.  This 
was  the  signal  for  the  enemy  to  appear  before 
three  gates  which  had  been  sold  to  them.  And, 
while  the  inhabitants  were  digging  out  their  fel- 
low citizens  from  the  ruins,  a  fire  was  opened 
upon  them  with  mortars,  howitzers,  and  cannons, 
which  had  now  been  received  for  battering  the 
town.  Their  attack  seemed  chiefly  to  be  di- 
rected against  the  gate  called  Portillo,  and  a 
large  square  building  near  it,  without  the  walls, 
and  surrounded  by  a  deep  ditch  ;  though  called 
a  castle,  it  served  only  for  a  prison.  The  sand- 
bag battery  before  this  gate  was  frequently  de- 
stroyed, and  as  often  reconstructed  under  the 
fire  of  the  enemy.  The  carnage  here  throughout 
the  day  was  dreadful. 

'  Augustina  Zaragoza,  a  handsome  woman  of 
the  lower  class,  about  twenty-two  years  of  age, 
arrived  at  this  battery  with  refreshments,  at  the 
time  when  not  a  man  who  defended  it  was  left 
alive,  so  tremendous  was  the  fire  which  the 
French  kept  up  against  it.  For  a  moment  the 
citizens  hesitated  to  re-man  the  guns.  Augustina 
sprung  forward  over  the  dead  and  dying,  snatched 
a  match  from  the  hand  of  a  dead  artilleryman, 
and  fired  off  a  six-and-twenty  pounder;  then, 
jumping  upon  the  gun,  made  a  solemn  vow  ne- 
ver to  quit  it  alive  during  the  siege.  Such  a 
sight  could  not  but  animate  with  fresh  courage 
all  who.beheld  it.  The  Saragossans  rushed  into 
the  battery,  and  renewed  their  fire  with  greater 
vigor  than  ever,  and  the  French  were  repulsed 
here  and  at  all  other  points  with  great  slaughter. 

'  Lefebvre  probably  was  so  indignant  at  meet- 
ing with  any  opposition  from  a  people  whom  he 
despised,  and  a  place  which,  according  to  the 
rules  and  pedantry  of  war,  was  not  tenable,  that 
he  lost  his  temper,  and  thought  to  subdue  them 
the  shortest  way,  by  mere  violence  and  superior 
force.  Having  found  his  mistake,  he  proceeded 
to  invest  the  city  still  more  closely.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  siege,  the  besieged  received  some 
scanty  succors ;  yet,  however  scanty,  they  were 
of  importance.  400  soldiers  from  the  regiment 
of  Estremadura,  small  parties  from  other  corps, 
and  a  few  artillerymen  got  in ;  200  of  the  militia 
of  Logrono  were  added  to  these  artillerymen, 
and  soon  learnt  their  new  service,  being  in  the 
presence  of  an  enemy  whom  they  had  such 
righteous  reason  to  abhor.  Two  four-and-twenty 
pounders  and  a  few  shells,  which  were  much 
wanted,  were  procured  from  Lerida.  The  enemy, 
mean  time,  were  amply  supplied  with  stores  from 
the  magazine  in  the  citadel  of  Pamplona,  which 
they  had  so  perfidiously  seized  on  their  first  en- 
trance, as  allies,  into  Spain.  Hitherto  the,  had 
remained  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ebro.  On 
the  llth  of  July  they  forced  the  passage  of  the 
ford,  and  posted  troops  enough  on  the  opposite 
side  to  protect  their  workmen  while  foiming  a 
floating  bridge.  In  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  the 
Arragonese,  this  bridge  was  completed  on  the 


14th  ;  n  way  was  thus  made  for  their  cavalry, 
to  their  superiority  in  which  the  French  were 
mostly  indebted  for  all  their  victories  in  Spain. 
This  gave  them  the  command  of  the  surrounding 
country  ;  they  destroyed  the  mills,  levied  con- 
tributions on  the  villages,  and  cut  off  every  com- 
munication by  which  the  besieged  had  hitherto 
received  supplies.  These  new  difficulties  called 
out  new  resources  in  this  admirable  people  and 
their  general, — a  man  worthy  of  commanding 
such  a  people  in  such  times.  Corn-mills,  worked 
by  horses,  were  erected  in  various  parts  of  the 
city  ;  the  monks  were  employed  in  manufactur- 
ing gunpowder,  materials  for  which  were  obtained 
by  immediately  collecting  all  the  sulphur  in  the 
place,  by  washing  the  soil  of  the  streets  to  extract 
its  nitre,  and  making  charcoal  from  the  stalks  of 
hemp,  which  in  that  part  of  Spain  grows  to  a 
magnitude  that  would  elsewhere  be  thought  very 
unusual. 

'  By  the  end  of  July  the  city  was  completely 
invested,  the  supply  of  food  was  scanty,  and  the 
inhabitants  had  no  reason  to  expect  succor. 
Their  exertions  had  now  been  unremitted  for 
forty-six  days,  and  nothing  but  the  sense  of  duty 
could  have  supported  their  bodily  strength  and 
their  spirit  under  such  trials.  They  were  in 
hourly  expectation  of  another  general  attack,  or 
another  bombardment.  They  had  not  a  single 
place  of  security  for  the  sick  and  the  children, 
and  the  number  of  wounded  was  daily  in- 
creased by  repeated  skirmishes,  in  which  they 
engaged  for  the  purpose  of  opening  a  communi- 
cation with  the  country.  At  this  juncture  they 
made  one  desperate  effort  to  recover  theTorrero. 
It  was  in  vain  ;  and  convinced  by  repeated  losses, 
and  especially  by  this  last  repulse,  that  it  was 
hopeless  to  make  any  effectual  sally,  they  re- 
solved to  abide  the  issue  of  the  contest  within  the 
walls,  and  conquer  or  perish  there. 

'  On  the  night  of  the  2d  of  August,  and  on  the 
following  day,  the  French  bombarded  the  city 
from  their  batteries  opposite  the  gate  of  the  Car- 
men. A  foundling  hospital,  which  was  now  filled 
with  the  sick  and  wounded,  took  fire,  and  was 
rapidly  consumed.  During  this  scene  of  horror 
the  most  intrepid  exertions  were  made  to  rescue 
these  helpless  sufferers  from  the  flames.  No 
person  thought  of  his  own  property  or  individual 
concerns — every  one  hastened  thither.  The  wo- 
men were  eminently  conspicuous  in  their  exer- 
tions, regardless  of  the  shot  and  shells  which  fell 
about  them,  andbruving  the  flames  of  the  build- 
ing. It  has  often  been  remarked  that  the  wick- 
edness of  women  exceeds  that  of  ^the  other  sex  ; 
forthe  same  reason,  when  circumstances,  forcing 
them  out  of  the  sphere  of  their  ordinary  nature, 
compel  them  to  exercise  manly  virtues,  they 
display  them  in  the  highest  degree,  and,  when 
they  are  once  awaked  to  a  sense  of  patriotism, 
they  carry  the  principle  to  its  most  heroic  pitch. 
The  loss  of  women  and  boys  during  this  siege 
was  very  great,  fully  pioportionate  to  that  of 
men ;  they  were  always  the  most  forward,  and 
the  difficulty  was  to  teach  them  a  prudent  and 
proper  sense  of  their  danger.  On  the  following 
day  the  French  completed  their  batteries  upon 
the  right  bank  of  the  (iuerva,  \\ithin  pistol-shot 
of  the  gate  of  St.  Kngracia,  so  called  from  a 


SARAGOSSA. 


315 


splendid  church  and    conrent  of   Jeronimites, 
situated  on  one  side  of  it. 

'  On  the  4th  of  August  the  French  opened 
batteries  within  pistol-shot  of  this  church  and 
convent.  The  mud  walls  were  levelled  at  the 
first  discharge  ;  and  the  besiegers,  rushing  through 
the  opening,  took  the  batteries  before  the  adja- 
cent gates  in  reverse.  Here  general  Mori,  who 
had  distinguished  himself  on  many  former  occa- 
sions, was  made  prisoner.  The  street  of  St. 
Engracia,  which  they  had  thus  entered,  leads 
into  the  Cozo,  and  the  corner  buildings  where  it 
is  thus  terminated  were  on  the  one  hand  the 
convent  of  St.  Francisco,  and  on  the  other  the 
general  hospital.  Both  were  stormed  and  set  on 
fire  ;  the  sick  and  the  wounded  threw  themselves 
from  the  windows  to  escape  the  flames,  and  the 
horror  of  the  scene  was  aggravated  by  the  maniacs, 
whose  voices,  raving  or  singing  in  paroxysms  of 
wilder  madness,  or  crying  in  vain  to  be  set  free, 
were  heard  amid  the  confusion  of  dreadful  sounds. 
Many  fell  victims  to  the  fire,  and  some  to  the  in- 
discriminating  fury  of  the  assailants.  Those  who 
escaped  were  conducted  as  prisoners  to  the  Tor- 
rero;  but,  when  their  condition  had  been  dis- 
covered, they  were  sent  back  on  the  morrow 
to  take  their  chance  in  the  siege.  After  a  severe 
contest,  and  dreadful  carnage,  the  French  forced 
their  way  into  the  Cozo  in  the  very  centre  of  the 
city  ;  and,  before  the  day  closed,  were  in  posses- 
sion of  one  half  of  Saragossa.  Lefebvre  now 
believed  that  he  had  effected  his  purpose,  and 
required  Palafox  to  surrender  in  a  note  contain- 
ing only  these  words: — '  Head-quarters.  St. 
Engracia.  Capitulation  !'  The  heroic  Spaniard 
immediately  returned  this  reply  : — '  Head-quar- 
ters, Saragossa.  War  at  the  knife's  point !' 

'The  contest  which  was  now  carried  on  is 
unexampled  in  history.  One  side  of  the  Cozo, 
a  street  about  as  wide  as  Pall  Mall,  was  possessed 
by  the  French ;  and,  in  the  centre  of  it,  their 
general,  Verdier,  gave  his  orders  from  the  Fran- 
ciscan convent.  The  opposite  side  was  main- 
tained by  the  Arragonese,  who  threw  up  batteries 
at  the  openings  of  the  cross  streets,  within  a  few 
paces  of  those  which  the  French  erected  against 
them.  The  intervening  space  was  presently 
heaped  with  dead,  either  slain  upon  the  spot  or 
thrown  out  from  the  windows.  Next  day  the 
ammunition  of  the  citizens  began  to  fail ;  the 
French  were  expected  every  moment  to  renew 
their  efforts  for  completing  the  conquest,  'and 
even  this  circumstance  occasioned  no  dismay, 
nor  did  any  one  think  of  capitulation.  One  cry 
was  heard  from  the  people,  wherever  Palafox 
rode  among  them,  that,  if  powder  failed,  they 
were  ready  to  attack  the  enemy  with  their 
knives — formidable  weapons  in  the  hands  of 
desperate  men.  Just  before  the  day  closed  Don 
Francisco  Palafox,  the  general's  brother,  entered 
the  city  with  a  convoy  of  arms  and  ammunition, 
and  a  reinforcement  of  3000  men,  composed  of 
Spanish  guards,  Swiss,  and  volunteers  of  Arra- 
gon  :  a  succor  as  little  expected  by  the  Saragos- 
sans  as  it  had  been  provided  against  by  the 
enemy 

'  The  war  was  now  continued  from  street  to 
street,  from  house  to  house,  and  from  room  to 
room  ;  pride  and  indignation  having  wrought 


up  the  French  to  a  pitcli  of  obstinate  fury  littlo 
inferior  to  the  devoted  courage  of  the  patriots. 
Durinsr  the  whole  siege  no  man  distinguished 
himself  more  remarkably  than  the  curate  of  one 
of  the  parishes,  within  the  walls,  by  name  P. 
Santiago  Sass.  He  was  always  to  be  seen  in  the 
streets,  sometimes  fighting  with  the  most  deter- 
mined bravery  against  the  enemies,  not  of  his 
country  alone,  but  of  freedom,  and  of  all  virtu- 
ous principles,  wherever  they  were  to  be  found; 
at  other  times  administering  the  sacrament  to 
the  dying,  and  confirming,  with  the  authority  of 
faith,  that  hope  which  gives  to  death,  under  such 
circumstances,  the  joy,  the  exultation,  the  tri- 
umph, and  the  spirit  of  martyrdom.  Palafox 
reposed  the  utmost  confidence  in  this  brave 
priest,  and  selected  him  whenever  any  thing  pe- 
culiarly difficult  or  hazardous  was  to  be  done. 
At  the  head  of  forty  chosen  men,  he  succeeded 
in  introducing  a  supply  of  powder  into  the 
town,  so  essentially  necessary  for  its  defence. 

'  This  most  obstinate  and  murderous  contest 
was  continued  for  eleven  successive  days  and 
nights,  more  indeed  by  night  than  by  day ;  for 
it  was  almost  certain  death  to  appear  by  day- 
light within  reach  of  those  houses  which  were 
occupied  by  the  other  party.  But,  under  cover 
of  the  darkness,  the  combatants  frequently  dashed 
across  the  street  to  attack  each  other's  batteries ; 
and  the  battles  which  began  there  were  often 
carried  on  into  the  houses  beyond,  where  they 
fought  from  room  to  room  and  floor  to  floor. 
The  hostile  batteries  were  so  near  each  other  that 
a  Spaniard  in  one  place  made  way  under  cover 
of  the  dead  bodies,  which  completely  filled 
the  space  between  them,  and  fastened  a  rope  to 
one  of  the  French  cannons ;  in  the  struggle 
which  ensued,  the  rope  broke,  and  the  Saragos- 
sans  lost  their  prize  at  the  very  moment  when 
they  thought  themselves  sure  of  it. 

'  A  new  horror  was  added  to  the  dreadful  cir- 
cumstances of  war  in  this  ever  memorable  siege. 
In  general  engagements  the  dead  are  left  upon 
the  field  of  battle,  and  the  survivors  remove  to 
clear  ground  and  an  untainted  atmosphere;  but 
here — in  Spain,  and  in  the  month  of  August, 
there  where  the  dead  lay  the  struggle  was  still 
carried  on,  and  pestilence  was  dreaded  from  the 
enormous  accumulation  of  putrefying  bodies. 
Nothing  in  the  whole  course  of  the  siege  so  much 
embarrassed  Palafox  as  this  evil.  The  only  re- 
medy was  to  tie  ropes  to  the  French  prisoners, 
and  push  them  forward  amid  the  dead  and  dy- 
ing, to  remove  the  bodies,  and  bring  them  away 
for  interment.  Even  for  this  necessary  office 
there  was  no  truce,  and  it  would  have  been  cer- 
tain death  to  the  Arragonese  who  should  have 
attempted  to  perform  it ;  but  the  prisoners  were 
in  general  secured  by  the  pity  of  their  own  sol- 
diers, and  in  this  manner  the  evil  was  in  some 
degree  diminished. 

'  A  council  of  war  was  held  by  the  Spaniards 
on  the  8th,  not  for  the  purpose  which  is  toousual 
in  swch  councils,  but  that  their  heroic  resolution 
might  be  communicated  with  authority  to  the 
people.  It  was  that,  in  those  quarters  of  the 
city  where  the  Arragonese  still  maintained  their 
ground,  they  should  continue  to  defend  them- 
selves with  the  same  firmness :  should  the  enemy 


SAR 

at  last  prevail,  they  were  then  to  retire  over  the 
Ebro  into  the  suburbs,  break  down  the  bridge, 
and  defend  the  suburbs  till  they  perished. 
When  this  resolution  was  made  public,  it  was 
received  with  the  loudest  acclamations.  But  in 
every  conflict  the  citizens  now  gained  ground 
upon  the  soldiers,  winning  it  inch  by  inch,  till 
the  space  occupied  by  the  enemy,  which  on  the 
day  of  their  entrance  was  nearly  half  the  city, 
was  gradually  reduced  to  about  an  eighth  part. 
Meantime,  intelligence  of  the  events  in  other 
parts  of  Spain  was  received  by  the  French — all 
tending  to  dishearten  them ;  the  surrender  of 
Dupont,  the  failure  of  Moncey  before  Valencia, 
and  the  news  that  the  junta  of  that  province  had 
despatched  6000  men  to  join  the  levies  in  Arra- 
gon,  which  were  destined  to  relieve  Saragossa. 
During  the  night  of  the  13th  their  tire  was 
particularly  fierce  and  destructive  :  after  their 
batteries  had  ceased,  flames  burst  out  in  many 
parts  of  the  buildings  which  they  had  won  ;  their 
last  act  was  to  blow  up  the  church  of  St.  En- 
gracia;  the  powder  was  placed  in  the  subterra- 
nean church — and  this  remarkable  place — this 
monument  of  fraud  and  of  credulity — the  splen- 
did theatre  wherein  so  many  feelings  of  deep 
devotion  had  been  excited — which  so  many  thou- 
sands had  visited  in  faith,  and  from  which  un- 
questionably many  had  departed  with  their  ima- 
ginations elevated,  their  principles  ennobled, 
and  their  hearts  strengthened,  was  laid  in  ruins. 
In  the  morning  the  French  columns,  to  the  great 
surprise  of  the  Spaniards,  were  seen  at  a  distance, 
retreating  over  the  plain,  on  the  road  to  Pam- 
plona. 

'  The  history  of  a  battle,  however  skilfully 
narrated,  is  necessarily  uninteresting  to  all  ex- 
cept military  men ;  but,  in  the  detail  of  a  siege, 
*.vhen  time  has  destroyed  those  considerations 
which  prejudice  or  pervert  our  natural  sense  of 
right  and  wrong,  every  reader  sympathises  with 
the  besieged,  and  nothing,  even  in  fictitious  nar- 
ratives, excites  so  deep  and  animating  an  interest. 
There  is  not,  either  in  the  annals  of  ancient  or 
of  modern  times,  a  single  event  recorded  more 
worthy  to  be  held  in  admiration,  now  and  for 
evermore,  than  the  siege  of  Saragossa.  Will  it 
be  said  that  this  devoted  people  obtained  for 
themselves,  by  all  this  heroism  and  all  these 
sacrifices,  nothing  more  than  a  short  respite 
from  their  fate?  Woe  be  to  the  slavish  heart 
that  conceives  the  thought,  and  shame  to  the 
base  tongue  that  gives  it  utterance  !  They  pur- 
chased for  themselves  an  everlasting  remem- 
brance upon  earth — a  place  in  the  memory  and 
love  of  all  good  men  in  all  ages  that  are  yet  to 
come.  They  performed  their  duty ;  they  re- 
deemed their  souls  from  the  yoke ;  they  left  an 
example  to  their  country  never  to  b«  forgotten, 
never  to  be  out  of  mind,  and  sure  to  contribute 
to  and  hasten  its  deliverance.' — Souther's  Works, 
3  vols.  4to.,  pp.  405—421,  Vol.  I. 

SARAH  [Heb.  nitfr,  i.  e.  lady],  and  SARAI 
[Hfli.  i.  e.  my  mistress],  names  of  the  patriarch 
Abraham's  wife.  She  is  supposed  to  be  the  same 
with  Iscah,  the  daughter  of  Haran,  Abraham's 
younger  brother  by  a  different  mother,  and  con- 
sequently the  sister  of  Lot.  Her  beauty  and 
consequent  danger  in  the  courts  of  Egypt  and 


SAR 


Gerar ;  her  entertainment  of  the  angels ;  her 
barrenness  till  her  ninetieth  year,  with  her  mi- 
raculous conception  and  the  birth  of  Isaac  in 
her  ninety-first ;  her  turning  oflf  Hagar,  with  ner 
death  and  burial  in  her  128th  year,  are  recorded 
in  Genesis  xii.  xviii.  xx.  xxi.  xxiii. 

SARASIN  (John  Francis),  a  French  author, 
born  at  Hermauville,  near  Caen,  in  Normandy, 
about  1604.  He  studied  at  Caen,  and  afterwards 
went  to  Paris ;  where  he  became  eminent  for  his 
wit  and  humor.  He  afterwards  travelled  through 
Germany,  and,  upon  his  return,  became  secre- 
tary to  the  prince  of  Conti,  whom  he  prevailed 
upon  to  marry  the  niece  of  cardinal  Mazarine, 
in  reward  for  which  he  is  said  to  have  received 
a  large  sum.  But  the  prince,  afterwards  hearing 
of  his  venality,  dismissed  him,  which  is  said  to 
have  brought  on  his  death.  He  published,  1. 
Discours  de  la  Tragedie :  2.  L'Histoire  du  Siege 
de  Dunkerque :  and,  3.  La  Pompe  funebre  de 
Voiture :  inserted  in  the  Miscellanea  of  Menage ; 
to  whose  care  he  left  all  his  MSS.,  from  which 
Menage  published  a  4to.  vol.  at  Paris,  in  1656, 
and  other  2  vols.  in  1675;  consisting  of  various 
essays  in  prose  and  poetry,  which  are  esteemed. 
He  died  in  1654. 

SARATOGA,  a  county  and  town  of  New 
York.  The  county  has  a  population  of  33,000, 
chief  town  Ballston.  The  town  is  twelve  miles 
north-east  of  that  place,  and  gives  name  to  several 
mineral  springs.  The  most  noted,  those  of  Saratoga 
and  Ballston,  are  the  most  celebrated  mineral 
waters  in  the  United  States.  They  are  strongly 
impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,  and  contain 
also  carbonate  of  soda,  muriate  of  soda,  super- 
carbonated  lime,  and  a  carbonate  of  iron.  They 
are  much  frequented,  during  the  warm  months, 
by  gay  and  fashionable  people,  as  well  as  by  in- 
valids. The  principal  springs  in  Saratoga  are 
Congress  Spring,  and  Rock  Spring,  which  are 
situated  in  the  west  part  of  the  town,  seven  miles 
N.  N.  E.  of  Ballston,  twelve  west  of  the  Hudson, 
thirty-two  north  of  Albany.  Here  is  a  large, 
handsome,  and  flourishing  village,  with  a  post 
office,  a  Presbyterian  church,  and  boarding- 
houses  which  afford  excellent  accommodations 
for  visitors.  Saratoga  is  memorable  as  the  place 
where  general  Burgoyne  surrendered  the  Britisli 
army  to  general  Gates,  October  17th,  1777. 

SARATOV,  an  important  province  of  Russia, 
situated  on  the  Wolga,  partly  in  Europe,  and 
partly  in  Asia ;  having  on  the  one  side  the 
country  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  and  on  the  other 
that  of  Astracan.  Containing  an  area  of  91,000 
square  miles,  its  population  is  so  thin  as  not  to 
exceed  1,000,000;  and  a  great  part  of  the  tract 
to  the  east  of  the  Wolga  is  so-impregnated  with 
salt  as  to  be  in  many  parts  unfit  for  the  growth 
of  vegetables.  Of  the  salt  lakes  in  this  quarter, 
the  most  productive  is  that  of  Jelton.  The 
country  to  the  west  of  the  Wolga  is  fitted  partly 
for  tillage,  and  partly  for  pasturage.  The  great 
danger  to  vegetation  here  is  from  locusts,  swarms 
of  which  often  appear  in  summer.  Attempts 
were  made  in  the  last  century,  by  the  Russian 
government,  to  improve  particular  spots  by 
German  settlers;  and  these  colonists  form 
the  chief  merchants  and  manufacturers  of  th« 
country  ;  but  their  success  has  been  very  limited. 


SAR 


317 


SAR 


SARATOV,  a  neat  town  of  European  Russia, 
tne  capital  of  the  above  government,  stands  on 
the  Wolga,  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  ditch ;  the 
houses  are  mostly  of  wood.  It  has  an  active 
trade  between  Moscow  and  Astracan,  and  a 
fine  command  of  water  carriage :  the  articles  of 
traffic  not  derived  from  these  cities  are  fish,  ca- 
viar, and  salt.  Inhabitants  5000.  374  miles 
north  by  west  of  Astracan,  and  465  south-east  of 
Moscow. 

SAR'CASM,  n.  s.^      Fr.  sarcasme ;  Lat.  sar- 

SARCAS'TIC,  adj.     tcasmus.  A  keen  reproach  ; 

SARCAS'TICAL,        £a  taunt;  a  gibe  :   the  ad- 

SARCAS'TICALLY.  Jjective  and  adverb  corre- 
sponding. 

He  asked  a  lady  playing  with  a  lap-dog,  whether 
the  women  of  that  country  used  to  have  any  children 
or  no"!  thereby  sarcastically  reproaching  them  for 
misplacing  that  affection  upon  brutes  which  could 
only  become  a  mother  to  her  child.  South. 

What  a  fierce  and  sarcastick  reprehension  would 
this  have  drawn  from  the  friendship  of  the  world,  and 
yet  what  a  gentle  cme  did  it  receive  from  Christ ! 

Id. 

Sarcasms  of  wit  are  transmitted  in  story. 

Government  of  the  Tongue. 

Rejoice,  O  young  man,  says  Solomon,  in  a  se- 
vere sarcasm,  in  the  days  of  thy  youth,  and  walk 
in  the  ways  of  thy  heart ;  but  know  that  for  these 
things  God  will  bring  thee  into  judgment. 

Rogers's  Sermons. 

Epithets  may  be  found  in  great  plenty  at  Billings- 
gate ;  sarcasm  and  irony  learned  upon  the  water ;  and 
the  epiphonema  or  exclamation  frequently  from  the 
bear-garden,  and  as  frequently  from  the  '  hear  him,' 
of  the  house  of  commons.  Pope. 

When  an  angry  master  says  to  his  servant,  It  is 
bravely  done,  it  is  one  way  of  giving  a  severe  re- 
proach ;  for  the  words  are  spoken  by  way  of  sarcasm, 
or  irony.  Watts. 

SARCE'NET,  n.  s.  Derived  by  Skinner 
from  Lat.  sericum  saracenicum.  Fine  thin  woven 
silk. 

Why  art  thou  thdn  exasperate,  thou  idle  imma- 
terial skein  of  sley'd  silk,  thou  green  sarcenet  flap  for 
a  sore  eye,  thou  tassel  of  a  prodigal's  purse  1 

Shakspeare.    Troilus  and  Cressida. 

If  they  be  covered,  though  but  with  linen  or 
mcenet,  it  intercepts  the  effluvium.  Browne. 

These  are  they  that  cannot  bear  the  heat 
Of  figured  silks,  and  under  sarcenets  sweat. 

Dry  den. 

She  darts  from  sarcenet  ambush  wily  leers, 
Twitches  thy  sleeve,  or  with  familiar  airs 
Her  fan  will  pat  thy  cheek  ;  these  snares  disdain. 

Gay. 

SARCOCELE.     See  SURGERY. 

SARCOCOLLA,  a  concrete  juice  brought 
from  Persia  and  Arabia,  in  small  whitish  yellow 
grains,  with  a  few  of  a  reddish,  and  sometimes 
of  a  deep  red  color  mixed  with  them;  the  whitest 
tears  are  preferred  as  being  the  freshest ;  its  taste 
is  bitter,  accompanied  with  a  dull  kind  of  sweet- 
ness. This  drug  dissolves  in  watery  liquors, 
and  is  used  in  medicine. 

SARCOPHAGUS  [Gr.  ffapro^ayoc,  from 
.<rap£,  flesh,  and  0ayo>,  to  eat],  in  architecture, 
the  name  of  a  stone  found,  accord  ing  to  Pliny,  in 
the  Troad,  and  of  which  tombs  were  constructed 
on  account  of  its  caustic  qualities.  It  is  said  to 
have  perfectly  consumed  the  flesh  of  human  bo- 
dies buried  in  it  in  the  space  of  forty  days. 


This  property,  for  which  it  was  greatly  cele- 
brated, is  mentioned  by  all  the  ancient  natu- 
ralists. There  was  another  very  singular  quality 
also  attached  to  it,  but  whether  to  all,  or  only 
to  some  peculiar  pieces  of  it,  is  not  known ; 
that  is,  its  turning  into  stone  any  thing  that 
was  put  into  vessels  made  of  it.  This  is  re- 
corded only  by  Mutianus  and  Theophrastus, 
except  that  Pliny  had  copied  it  from  these  au- 
thors, and  some  of  the  later  writers  from  him. 
The  custom  of  burying  the  dead  is  proba- 
bly more  ancient  than  that  of  burning  their 
bodies.  Mythology  attributes  the  latter  mode 
to  Hercules,  while  it  assigns  the  earliest  usage 
of  the  former  method  to  the  primitive  Greeks 
and  Romans.  In  the  Greek  colonies  of  Italy 
they  buried,  as  we  do,  the  entire  body  ;  and, 
even  when  the  custom  of  burning  the  body  be- 
came general  among  the  Romans,  several  fami- 
lies retained  that  of  interment.  But  the  term 
sarcophagus  is  by  no  means  limited  to  a  parti- 
cular kind  of  stone.  Indeed,  its  more  generally 
accepted  meaning  is  a  sort  of  coffin,  made,  among 
the  ancients,  either  of  stone,  of  marble,  or  por- 
phyry. The  Greeks  also  sometimes  employed 
hard  wood,  which  was  calculated  to  resist  humi- 
dity, such  principally  as  oak,  cedar,  or  cypress. 
Occasionally  also  they  used  terra  cotta,  and  even 
metal.  The  form  of  these  sarcophagi  was  ordi- 
narily a  parallelopipedon — namely,  a  long  square, 
such  as  our  coffin.  Sometimes  the  angles  were 
rounded,  thus  assuming  an  elliptical  shape.  The 
lid  of  the  sarcophagus  varies  both  in  shape  and 
ornament.  Sometimes  it  bears  the  statue  of  the 
person  inhumed  therein,  often  lying  down  in  the 
posture  used  by  the  ancients  as  they  took  their 
meals.  The  capacity  or  size  of  the  sarcophagi 
was  also  of  course  very  various. 

The  sarcophagus  in  which  the  body  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  was  supposed  to  be  entombed 
is  one  entire  block  of  Egyptian  marble,  and  is 
now  in  the  British  Mtiseum,  a  prize  for  which 
we  are  principally  indebted  to  the  active  and 
classical  spirit  of  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  of  Cam- 
bridge. Some  doubts,  however,  are  entertained 
by  the  learned  as  tcr  this  being  the  real  tomb  of 
Alexander. 

SARCOPHAGY,  n.  s.  Gr.  <rap£,  flesh,  and 
0ayu>,  to  eat.  The  practice  of  eating  flesh. 

There  was  no  sarcophagy  before  the  flood ;  and, 
without  the  eating  of  flesh,  our  fathers  preserved 
themselves  unto  longer  lives  than  their  posterity. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

SARCOT'ICK,  n.  s.  Fr.  sarcotigue,  from 
Gr.  (rap£.  Medicines  which  fill  up  ulcers  with 
new  flesh. 

The  humour  was  moderately  repressed,  and 
breathed  forth  ;  after  which  the  ulcer  incarned  with 
common  sarcoticki,  and  the  ulcerations  about  it  were 
cured  by  ointment  of  tutty.  Wiseman. 

SARDANAPALUS,  the  last  king  of  Assyria, 
whose  character  is  one  of  the  most  infamous  in 
history.  He  clothed  himself  as  a  woman,  and 
spun  amidst  companies  of  his  concubines.  He 
painted  his  face,  and  buried  himself  in  the  most 
unbounded  sensuality.  Having  grown  odious  to 
his  subjects,  a  rebellion  was  formed  against  him 
by  Arbaces  the  Mede,  and  Belesis  the  Babylo- 
nian. They  were  attended,  however,  with  very 


318 


SARDINIA. 


bad  success  at  first,  being  defeated  with  great 
slaughter  in  three  pitched  battles.  With  great 
difficulty  Belesis  prevailed  upon  his  men  to  keep 
the  field  only  five  days  longer ;  when  they  were 
joined  by  the  Bactrians,  who  had  come  to  the 
assistance  of  Sardauapalus,  but  had  been  pre- 
vailed upon  to  renounce  their  allegiance  to  him. 
With  this  reinforcement  they  twice  defeated  the 
troops  of  Sardanapalus,  who  shut  himself  up  in 
Nineveh,  the  capital  of  his  empire.  He  was 
here  closely  besieged,  while  the  conspirators  re- 
ceived large  accessions  of  strength  from  the 
revolt  of  the  different  provinces ;  but  Sardana- 
palus confided  in  the  prediction  that  '  Nineveh 
could  never  be  taken,  unless  the  river  became 
her  enemy.'  The  city  being  well  supplied  with 
provisions,  the  confederate  forces  remained  two 
whole  years  before  it  without  producing  any  im- 
pression, till  at  length  the  Tigris,  having  been 
swollen  by  unusual  quantities  of  rain,  overflowed 
twenty  stadia  (two  miles  and  a  half)  of  the  wall, 
and  thus  made  a  practicable  breach.  Sardana- 
palus now,  dreading  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  an 
enraged  enemy,  retired  into  his  palace,  in  a 
court  of  which  he  caused  a  vast  pile  of  wood  to 
be  raised ;  and  heaping  upon  it  all  his  gold  and 
silver,  and  royal  apparel,  and  at  the  same  time 
enclosing  his  eunuchs  and  concubines  in  an 
apartment  within  the  pile,  he  set  fire  to  it,  and 
thus  destroyed  himself.  Athenaeus  represents 
the  treasures  thus  destroyed  as  worth  a  thousand 
myriads  of  talents  of  gold,  and  ten  times  as  many 


talents  of  silver,  i.  e.  about  £1400,000,000  ster 
ling. 

SARDANAPALUS,  another  monarch  of  Assyria, 
mentioned  by  Clectarchus,  who  died  of  old  age. 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  supposes  him  to  be  the  same 
with  Esarhaddon. 


SAR'DEL,  n.  s. 
SAR'DINE  STONE, 
SAR'DIUS. 


I  A  sort  of  precious  stone  : 
>  sardonyx ;  found  in  Sar- 
i  dinia. 


Thou  shall  set  in  it  four  rows  of  stones  ;  the  first 
row  shall  be  a  sardius.  Exod.  xxviii.  7. 

He  that  sat  was  to  look  upon,  like  a  jasper  and  a 
sardine  stone.  Rev.  iv.  3. 

SARDINIA,  an  insular  and  continental  king- 
dom of  Southern  Europe.  The  continental  part 
occupies  the  north-west  portion  of  Italy,  and  is 
bounded  by  Switzerland  on  the  north,  the  duchies 
of  Milan  and  Parma  on  the  east,  the  Mediter- 
ranean on  the  south,  and  France  on  the  west. 
It  stretches  about  200  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  1 30  from  east  to  west.  With  the  island,  it 
comprises  a  surface  of  27,400  English  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  3,994,000. 

All  the  continental  dominions  of  the  king  of 
Sardinia  had,  without  ceremony,  been  seized  by 
the  French,  and  were  united  to  their  empire,  till 
the  congress  of  Vienna,  which  restored  it  to  the 
condition  of  1792,  adding  the  states  of  Genoa, 
and  making  other  slight  changes  on  the  frontiers 
of  Switzerland  and  France.  It  contains  at  present 
the  following  countries : — 


Countries. 

Square  miles. 

Population. 

Chief  Towns. 

Inhabitants. 

Piedmont,  with  the  county  of  Nice     . 

7900 
900 

1,750,000 
186,000 

Turin 
Casale 

85,000 
15,000 

Part  of  the  duchy  of  Milan        .     .     . 
Territory  of  the  late  Republic  of  Genoa 
Savoy  (not  properly  included  in  Italy) 
Island  of  Sardinia,  with  the  adjacent  Isles 

3300 
2300 
3800 
9200 

556,000 
532,000 
450,000 
520,000 

Alessandria 
Genoa 
Chamberri 
Cagliari 

35,000 
80,000 
12,000 
30,000 

Piedmont  thus  appears  one  of  the  best  peopled 
districts  in  Europe,  while  the  mountainous  duchy 
of  Savoy  is  the  most  thinly  peopled  of  the  conti- 
nental states.     Intersected  from  north  to  south 
by  the  Maritime  Alps,  Continental  Sardinia  can 
scarcely  be  excelled  in  sublime  mountain  scenery. 
The  ridge  that,  sweeping  round  the  gulf  of  Ge- 
noa, joins  the  Appennines,  gives  a  fine  character 
to  the  southern  regions,  while  all  the  centre  and 
eastern  districts  form  part  of  the  grand  basin  of 
the  Po,  the  greatest  river  of  this  kingdom.     The 
summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  rising  15,660  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  with  Mont  Cenis,  Mont  Viso, 
and  several  other  lofty  peaks,  serrate  the  western 
chain ;  and  the  noble  St.  Bernard,  Mont  Rosa, 
and  others  of  the  great  Alps,  rise  majestically 
on  its  northern  frontier.     The  Tanaro,  the  Siara, 
and  other  rivers,  fall  into  the  Po,  from  the  south 
and  south-east;   while   the   Doira,    Baltea,  the 
Sesia,  and  the  Tesino,  enter  it  from  the  north. 
The  last  separates  the  Austrian  from  the  Sar- 
dinian dominions.    Most  of  the  lakes  in  northern 
Italy  are  situated  between  the  eastern  confines  of 
Sardinia   and    the   top  of  the  Adriatic.     Lago 
Maggiore  forms  a  part  of  the  north-west  boun- 
dary, while  that  of  Geneva  stretches  along  the 
borders  of  Switzerland. 


The  soil  in  the  lower  parts  of  these  territories 
is  a  rich  sandy  loam,  intermixed  with  gravel ; 
but  the  more  elevated  parts  are  chiefly  composed 
of  rock.  The  climate  is  hot  in  the  valleys  ;  on 
the  hills  mild ;  and  on  the  mountains  severe : 
but  in  most  places,  except  the  marshy  plains,  it 
is  salubrious.  The  annual  temperature  of  Genoa, 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sea  and  'the 
mountains,  is  about  61°  of  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
mometer. In  the  lower  parts  all  kinds  of  Euro- 
pean grain,  with  Indian  corn,  rice,  and  hemp, 
are  produced.  Oranges,  lemons,  olives,  vines, 
mulberries,  figs,  and  other  fruits,  are  of  the 
finest  flavor ;  and  rich  pastures  feed,  in  several 
places,  large  herds  of  cattle.  Irrigation  is  prac- 
tised to  a  great  extent.  Silk  is  a  valuable  pro- 
duct, and  of  good  quality  here.  The  Alps  of 
Piedmont  contain  gold,  silver,  and  copper ;  the 
last,  in  the  duchy  of  Aosta,  is  often  mixed  with 
antimony,  zinc,  and  arsenic.  A  vein  of  cobalt 
has  been  discovered  not  long  since,  a  little  east 
of  Mont  Blanc,  and  plumbago  near  Binay. 
Green  porphyry  is  found  on  Mont  Viso,  and 
various  inferior  precious  stones  in  other  places. 
Valuable  marbles  are  also  found  in  many  parts: 
and  some  of  the  mineral  waters  are  in  good  re 
pute  ;  particularly  the  baths  of  Binay. 


SARDINIA. 


319 


SARDINIA,  THE  ISLAND  or,  is  fifty-five 
leagues  long,  north  and  south,  and  twenty- 
five  broad,  having  upwards  of  200  leagues  of 
coast.  On  the  north  it  is  mountainous,  but 
has  extensive  plains,  marshes,  and  lakes,  towards 
the  south.  It  has  productive  iron  and  lead 
mines,  some  poor  silver  ones,  copper,  pyrites, 
precious  stones,  porphyry,  marbles,  alabaster, 
and  some  thermal  springs.  The  two  principal 
rivers  are  the  Oristano  and  Fumendosa.  The 
former,  also  called  the  Tirsi,  empties  itself  into 
the  gulf  of  Oristano  on  the  west  coast,  and  the 
latter  on  the  south-east  coast.  There  is  said  to 
be  an  inland  navigable  communication  between 
Cagliari  and  Oristano,  principally  by  the  river 
Mariel,  which  empties  itself  into  the  gulf  of 
Cagliari.  The  soil  in  the  valleys  is  fertile,  pro- 
ducing wheat  and  barley,  and  all  the  fruit  trees 
of  Europe,  besides  oranges,  lemons,  jujubes, 
grapes,  palms,  caroubs,  lentisk  (cistus  ladanum), 
tobacco,  &c.  The  horse  is  here  met  with  in  a 
wild  state :  it  is  small,  well  made,  and  very 
active.  The  asses  are  strong ;  the  mules  few ; 
the  hogs  excellent,  being  fed  on  chestnuts.  The 
wild  quadrupeds  are  small  deer,  abundance  of 
wild  hogs  :  the  muffoli,  or  wild  sheep,  inhabits 
the  most  solitary  parts  of  the  mountains.  The 
island  of  Assinara  has  numbers  of  land  turtle, 
and  sea  turtle  are  taken  on  the  coasts  as  well  as 
tunny  fish,  but  both  anchovies  and  sardines  are 
scarce.  The  small  bustard  and  wild-ducks 
abound.  The  climate  is  in  general  healthy,  ex- 
cept in  the  vicinity  of  the  morasses,  which  cause 
putrid  fevers.  The  population  is  about  50,000, 
and  the  revenues  do  not  exceed  £80,000.  Sur- 
rounded by  people  highly  civilised,  the  Sardes 
are  still  in  a  state  of  surprising  barbarity.  In 
the  country  the  men  are  clothed  in  goat-skins, 
one  before  and  another  behind,  without  breeches, 
shoes,  or  stockings,  and  a  woollen  or  skin  cap  on 
the  head.  The  women  have  no  other  habili- 
ment than  a  long  woollen  gown  and  a  woollen 
cap.  The  peasants  always  go  armed  to  defend 
themselves  from  one  another;  for  they  are  all 
robbers  and  assassins,  so  that  travelling  in  the 
interior  is  extremely  unsafe  without  an  escort ; 
and  it  is  even  dangerous  for  ships  to  send  their 
people  on  shore  for  water  unless  they  are  well 
armed.  In  short,  the  Sardes  are  the  Malays  of 
the  Mediterranean.  They  are,  however,  strongly 
attached  to  their  king  and  country.  The  bar- 
barism of  the  peasantry  is  strongly  contrasted 
by  the  pomp  and  outward  show  of  the  citizens 
of  the  capital,  all  of  whom,  mechanics  not  ex- 
cepted,  strut  about  with  bag-wig,  sword,  and 
chapeau  bras ;  and  even  in  this  costume  it  is 
common  to  be  solicited  for  charity. 

The  coasts  are  indented  by  numerous  gulfs  and 
lined  with  islets  and  rocks.  The  principal 
headlands  are,  cape  Comino,  the  east  point  and 
north  limit  of  the  gulf  of  Orosei.  Cape  Car- 
bonera,  the  south-east  point  and  east  limit  of  the 
gulf  of  Cagliau :  off  it  is  the  rocky  island  Cor- 
tellazzo  (Ficaria),  the  west  point  of  which  is 
foul,  but  there  is  a  good  road  on  its  north-west : 
on  it  is  a  castle,  and  north-east  of  it  are  two 
small  islands,  with  a  watch-tower  on  each ;  the 
outermost  is  named  Serpentaria.  Cape  Pola, 
the  west  point  of  the  gulf  of  Cagliari,  is  a  low 


rocky  point  with  a  watch-tower,  and  off  it  two 
rocky  islets.  Cape  Tavolaro,  or  Teulado,  is  the 
south-west  point  of  the  island,  and  east  point  of 
the  gulf  of  Palma.  Cape  de  Napoli,  or  la 
Fresca,  the  south  point  of  the  gulf  of  Oristano, 
on  the  middle  of  the  west  coast.  Cape  della 
Cacia  (Nympheus)  on  the  north-west.  Cape 
Falcon  (Gorditatum)  is  the  north-west  point  of 
the  island. 

The  chief  gulfs  are  Terra-Nova  on  the  north- 
east, the  north  point  of  which  is  cape  Figueri ; 
Porto  Cavallo  within  the  islands  Tavolaro,  and 
others.  The  gulf  of  Orosei,  between  cape  Co- 
mino and  Monte  Santo ;  the  bay  of  Oliastro, 
south  of  cape  Monte  Santo,  and  of  which  cape 
Bellevue  is  the  south  point.  The  gulf  of  Cag- 
liari on  the  south-east,  at  the  head  of  which  is 
Cagliari  (Calaris),  the  capital  of  the  island,  con- 
taining 25,000  inhabitants.  Its  port  is  formed 
by  two  moles,  and  receives  vessels  of  twelve 
feet.  The  gulf  of  Rosso  has  cape  Tavolaro  for 
its  west  point :  near  its  head  is  the  isle  Ilossa, 
tolerably  large,  flat,  and  very  rocky,  within 
which  is  good  anchorage  before  a  river.  The 
gulf  of  Palma,  at  the  south-west  extremity  of  the 
island,  is  formed  by  the  main  land  on  the  east, 
and  by  the  island  Antiocha,  also  called  St.  Jago 
and  Palma  de  Sal  (Plumbaria),  on  the  west, 
which  is  three  leagues  long  and  one  broad.  In 
the  entrance  of  the  gulf  are  two  great  rocks, 
named  the  Bull  and  Cow.  A  league  north-west 
of  Antiocha,  and  three  leagues  from  the  main, 
is  the  island  San  Pietro  (Accepitrum),  rocky, 
barren,  and  surrounded  by  islets,  with  fort  St. 
Carlos  on  its  east  side.  The  gulf  of  Oristano 
on  the  middle  of  the  west  coast.  Porto  Conta 
on  the  north-west  is  a  good  harbour  whose  en- 
trance is  protected  by  two  towers ;  that  on  the 
right  on  an  elevation  seventy  feet  high,  and  so 
perpendicular  that  the  ascent  is  by  a  rope  ladder. 
There  is  good  anchorage  throughout  the  port, 
except  near  the  town,  where  are  some  rocks  level 
with  the  sea.  At  the  head  of  the  port  is  a  spring 
of  brackish  water. 

The  north  coast  of  the  island  curves  greatly 
inward,  forming  a  large  gulf  between  the  island 
Asinara  on  the  north-west  and  Cape  Scardo,  the 
north  point  of  Sardinia.  The  island  Asinara 
(Herculis)  is  separated  from  cape  Falcon  by  a 
channel  with  but  two  fathoms,  and  in  it  is  the 
little  island  Piana.  Asinara  is  very  irregular, 
but  three  leagues  in  its  greatest  length.  On  its 
east  side  is  Porto  Trabuco,  well  sheltered,  and 
with  good  anchorage  in  six  and  eight  fathoms. 
Sassari,  the  second  town  of  the  island,  is  on  the 
river  Fiuminargia,  four  leagues  from  the  sea, 
Its  port,  named  Torres,  is  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  secured  by  two  moles.  Off  the  north-east 
end  of  Sardinia  are  the  isles  Madelaine  (Her- 
maea),  between  which  and  the  main  is  an  excel- 
lent road  for  the  largest  ships.  On  the  largest 
island  is  a  village  and  several  forts,  and  here 
beef,  wine,  and  vegetables  may  be  procured  for 
a  fleet,  and  water  from  a  considerable  river  on 
the  main. 

Sardinia,  as  well  as  Corsica,  passed  under  the 
dominion  of  successive  masters,  until  it  came 
in  the  seventh  century  under  that  of  the  Sara- 
cens, who  were  driven  from  it  by  the  Pisaus  an.l 


SAR 


320 


SAR 


Genoese,  and  the  Genoese  were  dispossessed  of 
it  by  the  king  of  Arragon  in  1330.  It  remained 
with  Spain  until  1708,  when  it  was  taken  by  the 
English  for  the  emperor  of  Germany,  who  in 
1720  ceded  it  with  the  title  of  kingdom  to  the 
house  of  Savoy. 

'The  inhabitants  of  Sardinia,'  says  Mr.  Salt, 
*  (I  speak  of  the  common  people,)  arc  yet  scarcely 
above  the  negative  point  of  civilisation;  perhaps 
it  would  be  more  correct  to  say  that  they  ap- 
pear to  have  sunk  a  certain  way  back  into  bar- 
barism. They  wear,  indeed,  linen  shirts,  fas- 
tened at  the  collar  by  a  pair  of  silver  buttons, 
like  hawks'  bills  ;  but  their  upper  dress  of  shaggy 
goat  skins  is  in  the  pure  savage  style.  A  few 
have  gone  one  step  nearer  to  perfectibility,  and 
actually  do  wear  tanned  leather  coats,  made 
somewhat  in  the  fashion  of  the  armor  worn  in 
Europe  in  the  fifteenth  century.  With  such  du- 
rable habiliments,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  they 
do  not  require  much  assistance  from  the  manu- 
factures of  foreign  countries.' 

SARDIS,  or  SAUDES,  now  called  SARDO  or 
SART,  an  ancient  towa  of  Asia,  in  Natolia,  about 
forty  miles  east  of  Smyrna.  It  was  much  cele- 
brated in  early  antiquity,  was  enriched  by  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  and  had  been  the  capital  of 
the  Lydian  kings.  It  was  seated  on  the  side  of 
mount  Tmclus ;  and  the  citadel,  placed  on  a  lofty 
hill,  was  remarkable  for  its  great  strength.  It 
was  the  seat  of  king  Croesus,  and  was  in  his  time 
taken  by  Cyrus ;  after  which  the  Persian  satrap 
f>r  commandant  resided  at  Sardis,  as  the  empe- 
ror did  at  Susa.  The  city  was  also  taken,  burnt, 
and  evacuated  by  the  Milesians  in  the  time  of 
Darius,  and  the  city  and  fortress  surrendered  on 
the  approach  of  Alexander  after  the  battle  of  the 
Granicus.  Under  the  Romans,  Sardis  was  a  very 
considerable  place  till  the  time  of  Tiberius  Caesar, 
jvhen  it  suffered  prodigiously  by  an  earthquake. 
The  munificence  of  the  emperor,  however,  was 
nobly  exerted  to  repair  the  damages.  Julian  at- 
tempted to  restore  the  heathen  worship  in  the 
place.  He  erected  temporary  altars  where  none 
had  been  left,  and  repaired  the  temples  where 
any  vestiges  remained.  In  the  year  400  it  was 
plundered  by  the  Goths,  and  it  suffered  consi- 
derably in  the  subsequent  troubles  of  Asia.  On 
the  incursions  of  the  Tartars,  in  1304,  the  Turks 
were  permitted  to  occupy  a  portion  of  the  cita- 
del, separated  by  a  strong  wall  with  a  gate,  and 
were  afterwards  murdered  in  their  sleep.  The 
site  of  this  once  noble  city  is  now  green  and 
flowery,  the  whole  being  reduced  to  a  poor  vil- 
lage. There  are,  however,  some  curious  remains 
of  antiquity  about  it,  and  some  ruins  which  dis- 
play its  ancient  grandeur. 

The  SARDIUS,  SAIIDEI.,  or  SARDINE  STONE, 
was  a  precious  stone  of  a  blood  red  color.  The 
best  came  from  Babylon. 

SAR'DONYX,  n.  s.  A  precious  stone.  See 
below. 

The  onyx  is  an  accidental  variety  of  the  agate 
kind;  'tis  of  a  dark  horny  colour,  in  which  is  a 
plate  of  bluish  white,  and  sometimes  of  red :  when 
oa  one  or  both  sides  tlie  white  there  happens  to  lie 
also  a  plate  of  a  reddish  colour,  the  jewellers  call 
the  stone  a  tardontir.  Wwdward. 


'ihr  SARDONYX  is  a  precions  stone  consisting 
of  a  mixture  of  white  and  red  cornelian,  some- 
times in  strata,  but  at  other  times  blended  toge- 
ther. It  is  found  1.  Striped  with  white  and  red 
strata,  which  may  be  cut  in  cameo  as  well  as  the 
onyx.  2.  White  with  red  dendritica!  figures, 
greatly  resembling  the  mocha  stone ;  but  with 
this  difference,  that  the  figures  in  the  sardonyx 
are  of  a  red  color,  in  the  other  black.  The  sar- 
donyx was  highly  esteemed  among  the  ancients  ; 
the  Romans  used  it  in  rings  and  other  articles  of 
jewellery.  According  to  Pliny,  the  rings  of 
knights  and  senators  we're  frequently  adorned 
with  the  sardonyx.  Martial  uses  the  expression 
sardonychata  manus  to  indicate  a  hand  embel- 
lished with  rings  of  sardonyx. 

SARI,  a  commercial  town  of  Mazanderan, 
Persia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Caspian.  It  is 
an  ancient  city,  alluded  to  by  the  poet  Fer- 
dusi;  and,  when  visited  by  Hanvvay,  contained 
four  or  five  temples,  built  of  the  most  solid  ma- 
terials, with  rotundas,  thirty  feet  in  diameter, 
and  nearly  120  feet  high.  Sari  is  well  fortified, 
having  a  good  wall  and  deep  ditch,  and  a  palace 
the  residence  of  one  of  the  Persian  princes.  It 
is  crowded  with  inhabitants,  we  are  told,  and  a 
society  of  Armenians  is  established  in  its  vici- 
nity. It  has  a  brisk  trade  with  Astracan  and  the 
interior.  Long.  52°  58'  E.,'  lat.  35°  35'  N. 

SARISBURIENSIS  (Joannes),  or  John 
of  Sarisbury,  an  English  writer,  born  at  Ro- 
chester about  1110,  and  who  went  to  France  in 
1126.  He  was  sent  by  Henry  II.  to  pope  Eu- 
genius,  and  was  much  patronised  by  him  and 
his  successor,  and  by  Thomas  a  Becket,  the 
chancellor,  whom  he  accompanied  in  his  travels 
to  France.  When  Becket  was  murdered,  Saris- 
hury  was  severely  wounded  in  the  arm,  defend- 
ing him.  He  afterwards  went  to  Fiance,  where 
he  was  made  bishop  of  Chartres  in  1179.  He 
died  about  1181.  He  wrote,  1.  Policraticon, 
sive  de  Nugis  Curialium,  et  Yestigiis  Philoso- 
phorum  ;  2.  Letters ;  3.  The  Life  of  Thomas  a 
Becket;  and, 4.  A  Treatise  upon  Logic  and  Phi- 
losophy. 

SARK,  n.  s.  Sax.  pcynk.  A  shark  or  shirk; 
in  Scotland,  a  shirt. 

Flaunting  beaux  gan^  with  their  breast  open,  and 
their  sarks  over  their  waistcoats.  Arbuthnot. 

SARK,  in  geography,  a  British  island  in  the 
English  Channel,  near  the  coast  of  France ; 
about  six  miles  east  of  Guernsey,  on  which  it  is 
dependent,  and  west  of  Jersey.  The  climate  is 
healthy,  and  the  land,  though  sandy,  sufficiently 
fertile  to  produce  provisions  for  its  inhabitants. 
It  is  about  two  miles  square,  and  contains  about 
450  inhabitants.  The  island  is  surrounded  with 
steep  rocks,  and  the  air  is  in  general  serene,  free 
from  fogs  and  damps,  and  remarkably  healthy. 

SAR  LAT,  a  town,  the  capital  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  department  of  the  Dordogne, 
in  the  south-west  of  France,  situated  on  the 
Sarlat.  It  has  nothing  interesting  except  a  few 
Roman  remains,  the  houses  being  ill  built,  and 
the  streets  narrow.  Before  the  revolution  it  was 
the  seat  of  a  bishop.  Population  0000.  Thirty 
miles  south-east  of  Perigueux,  and  ninety-eight 
east  by  north  of  Bordeaux. 

SARMATlA,in  ancient  geography,  an  exten- 


SAR 


321 


SAR 


sive  country  at  the  north  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
lying  partly  in  the  former  and  partly  in  the  lat- 
ter; comprehending  all  Poland,  Russia,  and 
great  part  of  Tartary.  Littleton.  It  was  divided 
into  European  and  Asiatic. 

ASIATIC  SARMATIA  was  bounded  by  Hyr- 
cania,  the  Tanais,  and  the  Euxine  Sea.  It  con- 
tained Great  Tartary,  Circassia,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring country. 

EUROPEAN  SARMATIA  was  bounded  by  the 
ocean  on  the  north,  Tanais  on  the  east,  the  Jazy- 
gae  on  the  south,  and  the  Vistula  on  the  west. 
It  contained  the  modern  countries  of  Russia, 
Poland,  Lithuania,  and  Little  Tartary.  Lem- 
priere. 

SARMATIANS,  Sarmatii,  the  ancient  inha- 
bitants of  Sarmatia.  They  were  a  savage  unci- 
vilised nation,  often  confounded  with  the  Scy- 
thians, naturally  warlike,  and  they  painted  their 
bodies  to  appear  more  terrible  in  battle.  They 
were  infamous  for  their  lewdness,  and  in  the 
time  of  the  emperors  they  became  very  power- 
ful, and  disturbed  the  empire  by  their  frequent 
incursions ;  till  at  last,  increased  by  the  savage 
hordes  of  Scythia,  they  successfully  invaded, 
and  finally  ruined  the  empire  in  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries.  They  generally  lived  on  the 
mountains,  without  houses,  residing  in  their  cha- 
riots, whence  they  were  called  Hamaxobii.  They 
lived  upon  plunder,  and  fed  upon  milk  mixed 
with  the  blood  of  horses. 

SARMATIAN  SEA,  or  SARMATICUM  MARE, 
a  name  given  to  the  Euxine  Sea,  because  on  the 
coast  of  Sarmatia.  Ovid. 

SARNO,  an  inland  town  of  Naples,  in  the 
Principato  Citra,  near  the  base  of  Mount  Vesu- 
vius, remarkable  for  the  superior  quality  of  the 
silk  raised  in  its  environs.  It  has  an  old  castle 
belonging  to  the  Barberini  family,  who  are  dukes 
of  Sarno.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop.  Inhabitants 
1 2,000.  Twenty  miles  east  of  Naples,  and  twelve 
north  by  west  of  Salerno. 

SARONICUS  SINUS,  the  Saronic  Bay,  in 
ancient  geography,  a  bay  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  on 
the  south  of  Attica,  and  north  of  Peloponnesus : 
so  named  from  Saron  king  of  Tro?zene,  who  was 
drowned  in  it,  swimming  after  a  stag.  The  entry 
to  it  was  between  the  promontories  of  Sunium 
and  Scylla. 

SAROS,  or  SCHAROS,  a  county  of  Hungary, 
separated  from  Austrian  Galicia  by  the  Carpa- 
thians. Its  area  is  about  1400  square  miles, 
containing  several  lofty  mountains,  the  chief  of 
which  are  called  Simonka  and  Oblik.  The  mi- 
neral springs  are  numerous ;  but  there  are  few 
mines,  except  of  salt :  there  is  also  a  mine  of 
opals  at  Czervenitz.  The  cold  is  rather  intense, 
on  account  of  the  vicinity  of  the  mountains ; 
but  corn  succeeds,  and  vines  in  particular  spots. 
Population  142,000.  The  chief  town  is  Eperies. 
SAROS-PATAK,  a  well  built  town  of  the  north- 
east of  Hungary,  on  the  Bodros.  It  has  a  Ca- 
tholic, Calvinist,  and  Greek  church.  Here  is  also 
a  Calvinist  college,  on  a  large  scale.  Inhabit- 
ants 8000.  Fourteen  miles  north  by  east  of 
Tokay,  and  125  E.  N.  E  of  Pest. 

SAROTHRA,  in  botany,  bastard  gentian,  a 
genus  of  the  trigynia  ord>  ,  and  pentandria  class 
of  plants ;  natural  order  twentieth,  rotacese ; 
VOL.  XIX. 


COR.   pentapetalous  :  CAPS,  unilocular, 
and  colored. 

SARPEDON,  in  fabulous  history,  the  son  of 
Jupiter  by  Europa,  and  younger  brother  of  Mi- 
nos, with  whom  he  stood  competitor  for  the 
kingdom  of  Crete.  Failing  in  that  attempt,  he 
went  to  Caria,  and  built  Miletus. 

SARPEDON,  another  son  of  Jupiter  by  Lao- 
damia,  daughter  of  Bellerophon,  flourished  about 
a  century  later  than  the  brother  of  Minos.  He 
went  to  the  Trojan  war  to  assist  king  Priam 
against  the  Greeks,  where  he  was  attended  by 
his  faithful  friend  Glaucus.  He  made  a  great 
slaughter  of  the  Greeks;  but  was  at  last  killed 
by  Patroclus. 

SARRACENA,  or  SARRACONIA,  in  botany, 
side-saddle  flower,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  and  polyandria  class  of  plants  ;  natural 
order  fifty-fourth,  miscellanea  :  COR.  pentapeta- 
lous: CAL.  double,  triphyllous  below,  pentaphyl- 
lous  above  :  CAPS,  quinquelocular  ;  the  style  has 
a  stigma  of  the  form  of  a  shield.  Species  four, 
all  natives  of  America. 

SARRASIN,  or  SARRAZIN,  in  fortification,  a 
kind  of  portcullis,  otherwise  called  a  herse,  which 
is  hung  with  ropes  over  the  gate  of  a  town  o* 
fortress,  to  be  let  fall  in  case  of  a  surprise. 

SARSAPARILLA,  in  botany.     See  SMILAX. 

SART,  an  insignificant  village  of  Asia  Minor, 
distinguished  by  containing  on  its  site  the  ruins 
of  Sardis.  These  are  confusedly  scattered  over 
a  large  verdant  plain,  and  consist  largely  of 
bricks,  so  strongly  cemented  as  to  make  it 
scarcely  possible  to  detach  them.  They  seem 
to  have  no  tendency  to  crumble  to  pieces  by 
mere  time. 

SARTHE,  or  SARTE,  a  department  of  the 
north-west  of  France,  comprising  the  greater 
part  of  the  former  province  of  Maine,  and 
bounded  by  the  departments  of  the  Orne,  the 
Loir  and  Cher,  and  the  Mayenne.  It  is  nearly 
of  a  circular  form,  and  has  a  superficial  and  level 
extent  of  2430  square  miles,  except  in  the  north- 
west part,  where  there  are  small  hills.  Lime  and 
sand  predominate  in  the  soil,  which  yields  luxu- 
riant fields  of  corn.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Sarthe,  the  Loir,  the  Huine.  The  climate  is 
mild,  and  the  air  healthy.  The  productions, 
beside  corn,  are  flax,  hemp,  vines,  and  fruits. 
Here  are  also  some  iron  mines  and  marble  quar- 
ries. Grazing  is  followed  to  a  considerable 
extent  :  the  principal  manufactures  are  of  hard- 
ware, leather,  paper,  and  woollens.  The  de- 
partment is  in  the  diocese  of  Le  Mans,  and  juris- 
diction of  the  cour  royale  of  Angers,  and  is 
divided  into  four  arrondissements,  LP  Mans 
(the  capital),  La  Fleche,  Mamers,  and  St.  Calais. 
Population  410,000. 

SARTORIUS  (from  sartor,  a  tailor;  because 
tailors  cross  their  legs  with  it),  a  flat  slender 
muscle  which  is  the  longest  of  the  human  body, 
and  from  an  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches  in 
breadth,  situated  immediately  under  the  integu- 
ments, and  extending  obliquely  from  the  upper 
and  anterior  part  of  the  thigh,  to  the  upper  an- 
terior part  of  the  tibia  ;  being  enclosed  by  a  thin 
membranous  sheath,  which  is  derived  from  the 
adjacent  fascia  lata.  It  serves  to  bend  the  leg 
obliquely  inwards,  or  to  roll  the  thigh  outwards, 


SAS 


322 


SAT 


and  at  the  same  time  to  cross  one  leg  over  ano- 
ther.   See  ANATOMY. 

SARUM,  OLD,  formerly  a  borough  of  Wilt- 
shire, about  one  mile  north  of  New  Sarura  or 
Salisbury.  It  has  the  ruins  of  a  fort  which  be- 
longed to  the  ancient  Britons ;  and  is  said  also 
to  have  been  a  Roman  station.  In  the  north- 


SASHES,  in  military  dress,  are  worn  by  the 
officers  of  most  nations,  either  round  their  waist 
or  over  their  shoulders.  Those  for  the  British 
army  are  made  of  crimson  silk. 

SASNEE,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Hindostaa, 
province  of  Agra,  once  the  residence  of  a 
zemindar,  who,  having  proved  refractor)',  was 


west  angle  stood  the  palace  of  the  bishop,  whose    expelled  by  the  British  after  a  desperate  resist- 


see  was  removed  hither  from  Wilton  and  Sher- 
born  ;  but,  the  bishop  quarreling  with  king  Ste- 
phen, he  seized  the  castle  and  put  a  garrison  into 
it,  which  was  the  principal  cause  of  its  destruc- 
tion, as  the  see  was  soon  after  removed  hence 
to  Salisbury  in  1219.  Here  synods  and  par- 


ance  in  1803.     Long.  78°  4'  E.,  lat.  27°  45'  N. 

SASSAFRAS,  in  botany.     See  LAURI-S. 

SASSARI,  a  considerable  town  and  province 
of  the  island  of  Sardinia,  standing  in  a  luxur>- 
ant  neighbourhood,  and  abounding  with  some 
rivers.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  courts  of  justice,  as 


liaments  have  formerly  been  held,  and  hither  well  as  of  a  university,  and  several  lesser  semi- 
were  the  states  of  the  kingdom  summoned  to  naries.  It  is  likewise  the  see  of  an  archbishop, 
swear  fidelity  to  William  the  Conqueror.  Here  and  contains  an  unusual  number  of  churches, 
also  was  a  pakce  of  the  British  and  Saxon  The  harbour,  called  Porto  Torre,  is  situated  on 
kings,  and  of  the  Roman  emperors  ;  which  was  the  gulf  of  this  name,  about  ten  miles  from  the 
deserted  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  for  want  of  town,  and  communicates  with  it  by  means  of  a 
water,  so  that  one  farm-house  is  all  that  is  left  of  river.  Sixty-four  miles  north  of  Oristano. 
this  ancient  city  ;  it  was  called  the  Borough  of  SATALIA,  ANTALIA,  or  ADALIA,  a  city  of 
Old  Sarum,  and  sent  two  members  to  pasliament,  Caramania,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Olbia,  and 
who  were  chosen  by  the  proprietors  of  certain  beautifully  situated  round  a  small  harbour :  on 
adjacent  lands.  It  was  disfranchised  in  1832.  «he  level  summit  of  the  hill  the  city  is  enclosed 
SARUN,  an  extensive  district  of  Hindostan,  by  a  ditch,  a  double  wall,  and  a  series  of  square 
in" the  province  of  Bahar,  on  the  north-east  side  towers,  about  fifty  yards  asunder.  Between  two 
of  the  Ganges ;  one  of  the  most  prosperous  for  of  the  towers  appear  the  remains  of  a  splendid 
its  size  in  the  British  territories.  The  Ganges,  gateway,  exhibiting  fourteen  columns,  the  upper 
Gunduck,  and  several  other  streams,  render  it  parts  of  which  are  of  the  Corinthian  order, 
rich  in  pasture,  and  it  produces  excellent  cattle  The  inside  walls  and  towers  appear  to  have  been 
and  horses.  A  great  quantity  of  the  saltpetre  well  built.  The  port  is  enclosed  by  two  stone 
exported  from  Calcutta  is  manufactured  here;  piers,  which  once  had  towers  on  the  extremities; 


the  inhabitants  are  about  one-fourth  Mahomet- 
ans.   The  chief  town  is  Chuprach. 

SARZEDAS,  an  inland  town  of  the  north  of 
Portugal,  supposed  to  be  the  Oppidum  Sarsi- 
dense  of  the  Romans ;  eight  miles  west  of  Cas- 
tel  Branoo,  and  117  E.  N.  E.  of  Lisbon.  It 
contains  3000  inhabitants,  and  various  antiqui- 


but  they  are  now  in  a  ruinous  state.  The  gar- 
dens round  the  town  are  beautiful.  Population 
8000. 

SATARAH,  a  celebrated  town  and  fortress  of 
Bejapoor,  Hindostan,  occupying  the  point  of  a 
rock  at  the  west  of  a  range  of  hills,  and  having 
only  a  very  narrow  passage  up  to  it,  admitting  but 


ties.    ^Particles  of  gold  are  found  in  the  Lica  at    a  single  person.     After  it  had  capitulated  to  the 


British,  in  February  1818,  the  officers  declared 
that  200  men  might  defend  it  against  any  force. 
Taken  originally  from  the  king  of  Bejapoor,  by 


a  little  distance. 

SASCACHAWAN,    or    SASKATCHIWINE,    a 
considerable  river  of  North  America,  rising  in  the 

Rocky  Mountains.  Its  two  principal  branches  are  the  Mahratta  chief  Sevajee,  in  1673,  this  fortress 
the  north  and  south,  which,  pursuing  very  wind-  was  captured  by  Aurungzebe  in  1690,  but  was 
ing  courses  to  the  east,  for  about  440  miles,  in  a  retaken  soon  after  the  death  of  that  monarch  in 
direct  line,  join  about  sixty  miles  east  of  Hud-  1707,  and  is  now  the  capital  of  a  Mahratta  state. 


son's  House,  and  then  run  north-east  through 
Pine  Island  Lake,  and  Cedar  Lake,  into  Lake 
Winnipic,  in  lat.  51°  45'  north.  As  for  as  Cedar 
Lake,  the  navigation  is  interrupted  by  falls  and 
rapids ;  but  above  this  lake  it  may  be  considered 
navigable  for  canoes  to  its  sources.  On  the 


It  owes  its  celebrity  principally  to  its  having 
been  for  a  long  period  the  residence  or  state 
prison  of  the  Maha  rajah.  Here  he  was  confined 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century  by  the 
peishwa,  who  usurped  the  government,  still  in- 
serting the  name  of  the  rajah  in  all  public  re- 


banks  are  five  principal  factories  of  the  North-    cords  and  forms.     It  stands  in  long.  74°  3'  ¥.., 
west  company. 

SASH,  n.  s.    Fr.  chassis.     Of  this  word,  says 
Johnson,  the  etymologists  give   no  account:  I 


lat.  17°  30'  N.,  a  short  distance  north  of  the 
Kistnah. 

SATCHEL,  n.  *.  Teut.feckel ;  I.at.  .««•(•«//«. 
suppose    it  comes  from  scache,  of  scayoir,  to    A  little  bag :  commonly  a  bag  used  by  school- 


know,  a  sash  worn  being  a  mark  of  distinction : 
and  a  sash  window  being  made  particularly  for 
the  sake  of  seeing  and  being  seen.  A  belt  worn 
by  way  of  distinction ;  a  silken  band  worn  by 
officers  in  the  army.  A  window  so  formed  as  to 
be  let  up  and  down  by  pulleys. 

She  ventures  now  to  lift  the  sash  ; 
The  window  is  her  proper  sphere.  Swift. 

She  broke  a  pane  in  the  iaih  window  that  looked 
into  the  yard.  Id. 


boys  to  carry  books. 

The  whining  schoolboy  with  his  satchel, 
And  shining  morning  face,  creeping  like  snail 
Unwillingly  to  school.  Shakspeare.  At  You  Like  It. 

Schoolboys  lag  with  satchels  in  their  hands. 

Swift. 

SATE,  v.  a.  ")       Both    verbs,   from 

SA'TIATE,  v.  a.  &  n.  *.  J  Latin     satio,     signify 

SATI'ETY,  n.  s.  3  to    feed    abundantly  ; 

fill ;  satisfy  :  and  the  first  is  commonly  confined 


SAT 


to  the  idea  of  filling  to  repletion,  ov  over  fulness, 
or  beyond  natural  desire  :  satiety  is  fulness  be- 
yond desire  or  pleasure ;  hence  wcarisouieness 
of  abundance. 

He  leaves  a  shallow  plash  to  plunge  him  in  the 

deep, 
And  with  satiety  seeks  to  quench  his  thirst. 

Shakspeare. 

Those  smells  are  the  most  grateful  where  the  de- 
gree of  heat  is  small,  or  the  strength  of  the  smell 
allayed  ;  for  these  rather  woo  the  sense  than  satiate  it. 

Bacon. 

Nothing  more  jealous  than  a  favourite,  especially 
towards  the  waining  time  and  suspect  of  satiety. 

Wotton. 

I  may  yet  survive  the  malice  of  my  enemies,  al- 
though they  should  be  satiated  with  my  blood. 

King  diaries. 

In  all  pleasures  there  is  satiety  ;  and  after  they  be 
used,  their  verdure  departeth.  Hakewill. 

Sated  at  length,  ere  long  I  might  perceive 
Strange  alteration  in  me.        Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

They  satiate  and  soon  fill, 

Though  pleasant  ;  but  thy  words,  with  grace  divine 
Imhued,  bring  to  their  sweetness  no  tatietij.  Milt<>n. 

Whatever  novelty  presents,  children  are  presently 
eager  to  have  a  taste,  and  are  as  soon  satiated  with  it. 

Locke. 

How  will  their  bodies  stript 
Enrich  the  victors,  while  the  vultures  sau 
Their  maws  with  full  repast.  Pkilip$. 

The  loosened  winds 

Hurled  high  above  the  clouds ;  till  all  their  force 
Consumed,  her  ravenous  jaws,  the  earth  satiate  closed. 

Id. 

He  may  be  satiated,  but  not  satisfied.         Norris. 

No  action,  the  usefulness  of  which  has  made  it 
the  matter  of  duty,  but  a  man  may  bear  the  con- 
tinual pursuit  of,  without  loathing  or  satiety.  South. 

Thy  useless  strength,  mistaken  king,  employ, 
Sated  with  rage,  and  ignorant  of  joy.  Prior. 

Why  does  not  salt  of  tartar  draw  more  water  out 
of  the  air  than  in  a  certain  proportion  to  its  quan- 
tity, but  for  want  of  an  attractive  force  after  it  is  *a- 
tiated  with  water  ?  Newton . 

Our  generals  retired  to  their  estates, 
In  life's  cool  evening,  satiate  of  applause, 
Nor  think  of  bleeding  even  in  Brunswick's  cause. 

Pope. 

The  joy  unequalled,  if  its  end  it  gain, 
Without  satiety,  though  e'er  so  blest, 
And  but  more. relished  as  the  more  distressed.     Id. 

SATELLITE,  n.  s.  \       Fr.    satellite;     Lat. 

SAT'ELLOUS,  adj.  S  satelles.  Pope  has  in 
the  plural  continued  the  Latin  form,  and  as- 
signed it  four  syllables.  I  think,  says  Johnson, 
improperly.  A  small  planet  revolving  round  a 
larger :  consisting  of  satellites. 

Four  moons  move  about  Jupiter,  and  five  about 
Saturn,  called  their  satellite*.  Locke. 

The  smallest  planets  are  situated  nearest  the  sun 
and  each  other ;  whereas  Jupiter  and  Saturn  that 
are  vastly  greater,  and  have  many  satellites  about 
them,  are  wisely  removed  to  the  extreme  regions  of 
the  system.  Bentley. 

Ask  of  yon  argent  fields  above, 
Why  Jove's  satellites  are  less  than  Jove "?          Pope. 

SATELLITES,  in  astronomy.     See  ASTRONOMY. 

SATGONG,  an  ancient  royal  port  of  Bengal, 
known  to  the  Romans  by  the  title  of  Ganges 
Keggia,  and  formerly  the  residence  of  the  kings 
of  that  country.  The  district  belonging  to  it 
contained  700  souare  miles.  It  is  mentioned  in 


323  SAT 

De  Barro's  Portuguese  History,  supposed  to 
have  been  written  about  the  year  1530,  as  being 
as  great  and  noble  as  Chatigong,  but  less  fre- 
quented, because  its  port  is  not  so  convenient 
for  the  entry  and  departure  of  shipping.  It  is 
first  spoken  of  by  the  Mabometan  historians  in 
1592,  when  it  was  plundered  by  the  Afghauns. 
The  Dummooda  is  supposed  formerly  to  have 
fallen  into  the  Bhagurutty  above  Satgong.  The 
town  stands  two  or  three  miles  from  the  river 
side,  and  four  from  Hoogly.  Long.  88°  30'  E., 
lat.  22°  57'  N. 

SATHMAH,  a  county  of  Hungary,  "adjacent 
to  Transylvania,  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
Szamos.  Its  territorial  extent  is  2250  square 
miles.  Many  tracts  are  sandy,  others  strewed 
with  soda,  or  covered  with  marshes ;  the  marsh 
of  Etsed  is  twenty-eight  miles  in  length ;  yet 
this  country  produces  on  the  whole  a  considera- 
ble quantity  of  wheat,  maize,  and  wine.  Parti- 
cular districts  contain  mines  of  salt  and  metals. 
The  chief  town  is  Nagy-Caroly.  Population 
187,000. 

SATHMAR,  or  SATHMAR  NEMETHI,  a  town  01 
Hungary,  in  the  palatinate  of  the  same  name, 
situated  on  the  Szamos,  255  miles  south  of 
Presburg.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  Sathmar 
and  Nemethi,  standing  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
river,  and  previous  to  1715  forming  two  distinct 
towns.  The  inhabitants  carry  on  an  active 
trade,  and  produce  a  large  quantity  of  wine.  In 
the  neighbourhood  are  salt-mines.  Sathmar  is  a 
bishop's  see,  erected  in  1806,  and  has  a  Catholic 
seminary,  one  Greek  and  two  Calvinist  churches. 
SATIMANGALUM,  a  town  and  strong  for- 
tress of  the  province  of  Coimbetoor,  South  of 
India.  The  fort  was  built  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  by  Trimula  Naick,  governor  on  the  part 
of  the  rajah  of  Madura.  It  was  taken  about 
fifty  years  afterwards  by  the  rajah  of  Mysore,  and 
by  the  British  in  the  year  1792.  It  contains  a 
temple,  dedicated  to  Vishnu,  and  is  inhabited  by 
weavers  of  coarse  cotton  cloth.  A  severe  battle 
was  fought  in  the  vicinity  of  this  place  between 
the  British  and  the  troops  of  Tippo.  Long.  77° 
20'  E.,  lat.  10°  28'  N. 

SATIN,  n.  s.  Fr.  satin ;  Ital.  setan;  Belg. 
sattin.  A  soft  close,  shining  silk. 

SATIN,  in  the  arts,  has  become  of  late  an  arti- 
cle of  considerable  use  for  hats.  See  SILK  MA- 
NUFACTURE. 

SATIRE,  n.  s.       -\      Fr.  satire  ;  Lal.satira, 
SATIR'IC,  adj.  I  anciently     satura.        A 

SATIR'ICAL,  f  poem  in  which  wicked- 

SATIR'ICALLY,  adv.  £  ness  or  folly  is  censured. 
SATIRIST,  n.  K.         V  Proper  satire,  says John- 
SAT'IRIZE,  v.  a.       j  son,  is  distinguished  by 
the  generality  of  the  reflection  from   a  lampoon 
which  is  aimed  against  a  particular  person  :  the 
adjective  and  adverb  strictly  agree  with  the  noun 
substantive :  a  satirist  is  a  writer  or  utterer  of 
satires  :  to  satirize,  to  censure  as  in  a  satire. 

SATIRE  ;  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word, 
pungent  ridicule  or  cutting  censure  of  faults, 
vices  and  weaknesses  ;  hence  the  phrase,  "  a 
satirical  person."  In  a  narrower  sense,  in 
which  it  is  more  commonly  used,  it  is  a  poem, 
of  which  ridicule  and  censure  are  the  object 
and  chief  characteristic.  This  species  of  poetry 

Y  2 


SAT 


324 


SAT 


nad  its  origin  with  the  Romans  :  the  name  is  de- 
rived from  satur  (by  no  means  from  satyr),  and 
refers,  originally,  to  the  mixture  of  subjects 
treated,  and  of  metres  used,  in  the  earlier  pro- 
ductions of  this  kind.  Satire  is  one  of  the 
latest  branches  of  poety  cultivated,  because  it 
presupposes  not  merely  much  natural  wit,  but 
also  acute  observation,  and  much  variety  of  life 
and  manners  to  call  this  wit  into  exercise.  In 
fact  it  is  only  in  an  advanced  state  of  society, 
where  folly  and  vice  force  themselves  on  the 
public  eye,  that  a  taste  can  exist  for  this  species 
of  production.  As  the  object  of  satire  is  al- 
ways castigation,  it  is  distinguished  from  mere 
wit,  which  may  occupy  itself  simply  with  the 
ludicrousness  of  particular  relations.  The  form 
of  satire  is  very  varied.  It  may  be  in  the  shape 
of  epistles,  tales,  dialogues,  dramas,  (as  with 
Aristophanes),  songs,  epics,  fables,  &c.  The  most 
common  form  of  satire,  however,  is  that  of  a  di- 
dactic composition.  The  ancients  wrote  their 
satires  in  iambic  and  dactylic  Terse.  The  moderns 
generally  use  the  iambus,  sometimes  the  Alex- 
andrine, (q.  v.),  sometimes  the  iambic  verse  of 
five  feet,  the  latter  sometimes  with,  sometimes 
without,  rhyme.  The  proper  didactic  satire 
originated,  as  we  have  said,  with  the  Romans ; 
and  its  inventor  was  Lucilius  :  Horace,  Juvenal, 
and  Persius  developed  it.  Vulpius,  Casaubon, 
and  Kunig  have  written  on  the  Roman  satire 
Of  the  modern  satirists,  we  may  mention,  among 
the  Italians,  Ariosto,  Alamanni,  Salvator  Ros:i, 
Meuzini,  Dotti,  Gasparo  Gozzi,  Alfieri,  &c.  ; 
among  the  Spaniards,  Cervantes,  Quevedo,  and 
Saavedra;  among  the  French,  Regnier,  Boileau, 
and  Voltaire,  &c. ;  among  the  Germans,  Seb. 
Brand,  Ulr.  Hutten,  Fischart,  Haller,  Rabener, 
Lichtenberg,  Falk,  Wieland,  &c. ;  among  the 
English,  Donne,  Rochester,  Dryden,  Butler, 
Pope,  Swift,  Young,  Churchill,  Johnson,  Peter 
Pindar  (Wolcot),  Gifford,  Mathias  ;  among  the 
Poles,  Krasiczky.  The  Greeks  had  not  the  pro- 
per satire.  The  poem  of  Archilocus,  and  that 
of  Simonides,  were  more  properly  lampoons  ; 
and  the  silli  had  probably  a  didactic  form,  but 
were  of  the  nature  of  parody.  Entirely  diffe- 
rent from  the  satire  was  the  drama  satyricon  of 
the  Greeks,  invented  by  Pratinas — a  mixture  of 
tragic,  at  least  heroic  action  with  comic.  These 
dramas  served  as  interludes  and  after-pieces,  and 
had  a  low  comic  character.  We  possess  only 
one— the  Cyclops  of  Euripides. — See  Eichstadt, 
De  Dramate  Gracorum  comico-satyrico,  fyc., 
and  Herrmann  and  Pinzger  on  the  same  sub- 
ject. 

SAT'ISFY,  v.  a.  kv.n.     "I        Fr.  satufaire  ; 

SATISFACTION,  n. t.  I  Lat. satisfacio.To 

SATISFAC'TI  VE,  adj.  [  content ;  please  to 

SATISFAC'TORY,  [^contentment ;  re- 

SATJSFAC'TORII.Y,  adv.         jcorapense;    con- 

SATISFAC'TORINESS,  n  s.     J  vince  ;    appease; 

free  from  doubt  or  perplexity  ;  make  payment ; 

give  content :  the  noun  substantive  corresponds  : 

satisfactive  and  satisfactory  mean  giving  content 

or  gratification  ;  atoning  :  the  adverb  and  noun 

substantive  following  correspond. 

Who  halh  caused  it  to  rain  oa  the  earth  to  satisfy 
the  desolate  and  waste  ground,  and  to  cause  the  bud 
of  the  tender  tree  to  spring  forth  ?  Job. 


A  most  wise  and  su'Scient  means  of  redemption 
and  salvation,  by  the  satisfactory  and  meritorious 
death  and  obedience  of  the  incarnate  son  of  God, 
Jesus  Christ.  Sanderson. 

They  strain  their  memory  to  answer  him  satisfac- 
torily unto  all  his  demands.  D'gby. 
Die  he,  or  justice  must ;  unless  for  him 

Some  other  able,  and  as  willing,  pay 

The  rigid  satisfaction,  death  for  death.       Milton. 

Will  he  draw  out, 
Fo/  anger's  sake,  finite  to  infinite 
In  punished  man,  to  satisfy  his  rigour, 
Satisfied  never  1     That  were  to  extend 
His  sentence  beyond  dust  and  Nature's  law.        Id. 

By  a  final  and  satisfactive  discernment  of  faith,  we 
lay  the  last  effects  upon  the  first  cause  of  all  things. 

liroiene. 

Bellonius  hath  been  more  satisfactorily  experimen- 
tal, not  only  affirming  that  chameleons  feed  on  flies, 
but  upon  exenteration  he  found  these  animals  in  their 
bellies.  Id. 

The  incompleatness  of  the  seraphick  lover's  hap- 
piness in  his  fruitions  proceeds  not  from  their  want 
of  satitf actor iness,  but  his  want  of  an  entire  posses- 
sion of  them.  hi't/le. 
Of  ev'ry  nation  each  illustrious  name, 

Such  toys  as  these  have  cheated  into  fame  ; 

Exchanging  solid  quiet  lo  obtain 

The  windy  satisfaction  of  the  brain. 

Dry  den's  Juvenal. 

Of  many  things  useful  and  curious  you  may  satisfy 
yourselves  in  Leonardo  de  Vinci.  Dryden. 

Tis  a  wretched  mtisfactia*  a  revengeful  man  takes, 
even  in  losing  his  life,  provided  his  enemy  go  for 
company.  L'Estrange. 

The  mind,  having  a  power  to  suspend  the  execu- 
tion and  satisfaction  of  any  of  its  desires,  as  at  liberty 
to  consider  the  objects  of  them.  Locke. 

An  intelligent  American  would  scarce  take  it  for  a 
satisfactory  account,  if,  desiring  to  learn  our  architec- 
ture, he  should  be  told  that  a  pillar  was  a  thing  sup- 
ported by  a  basis.  Id. 

This  I  would  willingly  be  satisfied  in,  whether  the 
soul,  when  it  thinks  thus,  separate  from  the  body, 
acts  less  rationally  than  when  conjointly  with  it  1 

Id. 

Run  over  the  circle  of  earthly  pleasures,  and,  bad 
not  God  secured  a  man  a  solid  pleasure  from  his  own 
actions,  he  would  be  forced  to  complain  that  pleasure 
was  not  satisfaction.  South. 

I'm  satisfied.    My  boy  has  done  his  duty. 

Addison. 

The  standing  evidences  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel 
are  in  themselves  most  firm,  solid,  and  satisfying. 

Atterbury. 

SATURATE,  v.  a.  )      Lat.  satura.     Fully  to 

SAT'URABLE,  adj.  ]  impregnate  :  impregna- 
ble with  any  thing  till  it  will  receive  no  more. 

Be  the  figures  of  the  salts  never  so  various,  yet,  if 
the  atoms  of  water  were  fluid,  they  would  always  so 
conform  to  those  figures  as  to  fill  up  all  vacuities  ; 
and  consequently  the  water  would  be  to.  tumble  with 
the  same  quantity  of  any  salt,  which  it  is  not. 

Crew's  Cosmo! .  Sacra. 

Rain-water  is  plentifully  saturated  with  terres- 
trial matter,  and  more  or  less  stored  with  it. 

Woodward. 

His  body  has  been  fully  saturated  with  the  fluid  of 
light,  to  be  able  lo  last  so  many  years  without  any 
sensible  diminution,  though  there  are  constant  ema- 
nations thereof.  Cheyne. 
Still  night  succeeds 

A  softened  shade,  and  saturated  earth 

Awaits  the  morning  beam.  Thomswi. 


SAT  3: 

SATURATION,  in  chemistry,  is  the  impreg- 
nating an  acid  with  an  alkali,  or  vice  versa,  till 
cither  will  receive  no  more,  and  the  mixture  will 
then  become  neutral.  Some  substances  unite  in 
all  proportions.  Such,  for  example,  are  acids  in 
general,  with  water,  and  many  of  the  metals  with 
each  other.  But  there  are  likewise  many  sub- 
stances which  cannot  be  dissolved  in  a  fluid,  at 
a  settled  temperature,  in  any  quantity  beyond  a 
certain  proportion.  Thus  water  will  dissolve 
only  about  one-third  of  its  weight  of  common 
salt,  and  if  more  be  added  it  will  remain  solid. 
A  fluid,  which  holds  in  solution  as  much  of  any 
substance  as  it  can  dissolve,  is  said  to  be  satu- 
rated with  it.  But  saturation  with  one  substance 
does  not  deprive  the  fluid  of  its  power  of  acting 
on  and  dissolving  some  other  bodies,  and  in 
many  cases  it  increases  this  power.  For  exam- 
ple, water  saturated  with  salt  will  dissolve  sugar. 

SATURDAY,  n.  s.  Sax.  r<Erenr&a:S>  or 
petermj-baej,  according  to  Yerstegan,  from  j-aeteri 
a  Saxon  idol ;  more  probably  from  Saturn,  dies 
Saturni.  The  last  day  of  the  week. 

This  matter  I  handled  fully  in  last  Saturday'! 
Spectator.  Addison, 

SATURDAY,  the  seventh  day  of  the  week,  is  so 
called  from  the  idol  Sealer,  worshipped  on  this 
day  by  the  ancient  Saxons,  and  thought  to  be  the 
Saturn  of  the  Latins. 

SATUREIA,  savory,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  gymnospermia  order,  and  didynamia  class  of 
plants ;  natural  order  forty-second,  verticillatae  : 
segments  of  the  corolla  nearly  equal ;  the  stamina 
standing  asunder. 

1.  S.  hortensis,  or  summer  savory,  is  an  an- 
nual plant,  which  grows  naturally  in  the  south 
of  France   and  Italy,  but  is  cultivated  in  this 
country  both  for  the  kitchen  and  medicinal  use. 
Summer  savory  is  a  very  warm  pungent  aroma- 
tic ;  and  affords  in  distillation  with  water  a  sub- 
tle essential  oil,  of  a  penetrating  smell,  and  very 
hot  acrid  taste.     It  yields  little  of  its  virtues  by 
infusion  to  aqueous  liquors  ;  rectified  spirit  ex- 
tracts the  whole  of  its  taste  and  smell,  and  ele- 
vates nothing  in  distillation. 

2.  S.  montana,  or  winter  savory,  is  a  perennial 
plant  growing  naturally  in  the  south  of  France 
and  Italy,  but  is  cultivated  in  gardens  both  for 
culinary  and  medicinal  purposes.  Both  kinds  are 
propagated  by  seeds.     Those  of  the  first  kind 
should  be  sown  in  the  beginning  of  April  upon 
a  bed  of  light  earth,  either  where  they  are  to  re- 
main, or  for  transplanting.     If  the  plants  are  to 
stand  unremoved,  they  should  be  sown  thinly; 
but  if  they  are  to  be  transplanted,  they  may  be 
sown  closer.     The  second  species  may  be  sowii 
upon  a  poor  dry  soil,  where  the  plants  will  en- 
dure the  severest  winters,  though  they  are  often 
killed  by  the  frost  when  planted  in  good  ground. 

SATURN,  n.  s.    >      Fr.  saturne ;    Lat.  satur- 

SAT'URNINE,  adj.ynus.   A  planet  long  thought 

SATUR'XIAN.         j  the  remotest  of  the  solar 

system  :  supposed  by  astrologers  to  impress  dul- 

ness,  or  severity  of  temper :  hence  the  adjective, 

which  signifies   gloomy;    grave;    severe:    and 

hence  the  opposing  adjective   saturnian,   which 

signifies  golden ;  happy  ;  like  the  fabled  days  of 

the  reign  of  Saturn. 

I  may  cast  my  readers   under   two  divisions,   the 


>5  SAT 

mercurial,  and  saturnine  :  the  first  are  the  gay  part, 
the  others  are  of  a  more  sober  and  solemn  turn. 

Addison. 

The  smallest  planets  are  placed  nearest  the  sun 
and  each  other  ;  whereas  Jupiter  and  Satuni,  that 
are  vastly  greater,  are  wisely  removed  to  the  extreme 
regions.  Bentley. 

Th'  Augustus,  born  to  bring  Saturnian  times. 

Pope. 
From  the  far  hounds 

Of  utmost  Saturn,  wheeling  wide  his  round. 

Thornton. 

SATURN,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  planets  of 
our  solar  system.  See  ASTRONOMY,  Index^ 

SATURN,  in  chemistry,  an  appellation  anciently 
given  to  lead. 

SATURN,  in  heraldry,  denotes  the  black  color 
in  blazoning  the  arms  of  sovereign  princes. 

SATURN,  in  the  ancient  mythology,  one  of  the 
principal  of  the  Pagan  deities,  was  the  son  of 
Ccelus  and  Terra,  and  the  father  of  Jupiter,  Nep- 
tune, and  Pluto.  He  deposed  and  mutilated  his 
father,  and  obliged  his  brother  Titan  to  resign 
his  crown  to  him,  on  condition  of  his  bringing  up 
none  of  his  male  issue,  that  the  succession  might 
at  length  devolve  on  him.  For  this  purpose  he 
devoured  all  the  sons  he  had  by  his  wife  Kheaor 
Cybele :  but,  bringing  forth  at  one  time  Jupiter  and 
Juno,  she  presented  the  latter  to  her  husband,  and 
sent  the  boy  to  be  nursed  on  Mount  Ida ;  when 
Saturn,  being  informed  of  her  having  a  son,  de- 
manded the  child  ;  but  in  his  stead  his  wife  gave 
him  a  stone  swaddled  up  like  an  infant,  which 
he  instantly  swallowed.  Titan,  finding  that  Sa- 
turn had  violated  the  contract  he  had  made  with 
him,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  children,  and 
made  war  on  his  brother;  and,  having  made  him 
and  Cybele  prisoners,  confined  them  in  Tarta- 
rus ;  but  Jupiter  raised  an  army  in  Crete,  went 
to  his  father's  assistance,  defeated  Titan,  and 
restored  Saturn  to  the  throne.  Some  time  after, 
Saturn  being  told  that  Jupiter  intended  to  de- 
throne him,  endeavoured  to  prevent  it ;  but  the 
latter,  being  informed  of  his  intention,  deposed 
his  father,  and  threw  him  into  Tartarus.  But 
Saturn,  escaping  thence,  fled  into  Italy,  where 
he  was  kindly  received  by  Janus,  king  of  the 
country,  who  associated  him  in  the  govern- 
ment :  whence  Italy  obtained  the  name  of  Satur- 
nia  Tellus  ;  as  also  that  of  Latium,  from  lateo, 
'  to  lie  hid.'  There  Saturn,  by  the  wisdom  and 
mildness  of  his  government,  is  said  to  have  pro- 
duced the  golden  age.  Saturn  is  represented  as 
an  old  man  with  four  wings,  armed  with  a  scythe. 
Sometimes  he  is  delineated  under  the  figure  of  a 
serpent  with  its  tail  in  its  mouth  :  this  is  em- 
blematic of  the  seasons,  which  roll  perpetually 
in  the  same  circle.  Sometimes,  also,  Saturn  is 
painted  with  a  sand-glass  in  his  hand.  The 
Greeks  say  that  the  story  of  his  mutilating  his 
father  and  destroying  his  children  is  an  allegory, 
which  signifies,  that  Time  devours  the  past  and 
present,  and  will  also  devour  the  future.  Tatius, 
king  of  the  Sabines,  first  built  a  temple  to  Saturn 
on  the  Capitoline  hill :  a  second  was  afterwards 
added  by  Tullus  Hostilius,  and  a  third  by  the 
first  consuls.  On  his  statues  were  generally 
hung  fetters,  in  commemoration  of  the  chains  he 
had  worn  when  imprisoned  by  Jupiter.  Fron. 
vhis  circumstance,  all  slaves  that  obtained 


SAT 

tiu'ir   liberty  generally  dedicated  their  fetters  to 
him. 

SATt'HNALIA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  festi- 
val observed  about  the  middle  of  December,  in 
honor  of  the  god  Saturn,  whom  Lucian  intro- 
duces giving  an  account  of  the  ceremonies  ob- 
served on  this  occasion,  thus: — '  During  my 
whole  reign,  which  lasts  but  for  one  week,  no 
public  business  is  done :  there  is  nothing  but 
drinking,  singing,  playing,  creating  imaginary 
kings,  placing  servants  with  their  masters  at 
table,  &c.  There  shall  be  no  disputes,  reproaches, 
&c.,  but  the  rich  and  poor,  masters  and  slaves, 
shall  be  equal,'  &c.  On  this  festival  the  Ro- 
mans sacrificed  bare-headed,  contrary  to  their 
custom  at  other  sacrifices.  During  its  continu- 
ance no  business  or  profession  was  allowed  to 
be  carried  on  except  cookery ;  all  distinctions  of 
rank  ceased ;  and  slaves  could  say  what  they 
pleased  to  their  masters  with  impunity. 

SATURNIA,  a  name  of  Juno  as  the  daughter 
of  Saturn. 

SATURNINUS  (P.  Sempronius),  a  Roman 
general  under  Valerian,  who  was  proclaimed 
emperor  by  the  troops  against  his  inclination. 
He  was  afterwards  murdered  by  them,  for  at- 
tempting to  restore  the  ancient  discipline,  in  his 
forty-third  year,  A.  D.  262.  See  ROME. 

SATURNINUS  (Sextus  Julius,  or  Junius),  an- 
other Roman  general,  a  native  of  Gaul,  who  was 
compelled  by  the  soldiers  to  assume  the  title  of 
emperor.  See  ROME.  He  was  ip  favor  with 
Aurelian. 

SATYAVRATA,  or  MENU,  in  Indian  mytho- 
lygy,  is  believed  by  the  Hindoos  to  have  reigned 
over  the  whole  world  in  the  earliest  age  of  their 
chronology,  and  to  have  resided  in  the  country  of 
Dravira  on  the  coast  of  the  eastern  Indian  penin- 
sula. His  patronymic  name  was  Vaivaswata,  or 
child  of  the  sun.  In  the  Bhagavat  we  are  in- 
formed that  the  Lord  of  the  universe,  intending 
to  preserve  him  from  the  sea  of  destruction 
caused  by  the  depravity  of  the  age,  thus  told  him 
how  hg  was  to  act : — '  In  seven  days  from  the 
present  time,  O  thoa  tamer  of  enemies,  the  three 
worlds  will  be  plunged  in  an  ocean  of  death  ; 
but,  in  the  midst  of  the  destroying  waves,  a  large 
vessel,  sent  by  me  for  thy  use,  shall  stand  before 
thee.  Then  shalt  thou  take  all  medicinal  herbs, 
all  the  rariety  of  seeds ;  and,  accompanied  by 
seven  saints,  encircled  by  pairs  of  all  brute  ani- 
mals, thou  shalt  enter  the  spacious  ark  and  con- 
tinue in  it,  secure  from  the  flood,  on  one  immense 
ocean  without  light,  except  the  radiance  of  thy 
holy  companions.  When  the  ship  shall  be  agi- 
tated by  an  impetuous  wind,  thou  shalt  fasten  it 
with  a  large  sea  serpent  on  my  horn  ;  for  I  will 
be  near  thee  :  drawing  the  vessel,  with  thee  and 
thy  attendants,  I  will  remain  on  the  ocean,  O 
chief  of  men,  until  a  night  of  Brahma  shall  be 
completely  ended.  Thou  shalt  then  know  my 
true  greatness,  rightly  named  the  supreme  God- 
head ;  by  my  favor  all  thy  questions  shall  be 
answered,  and  thy  mind  abundantly  instructed.' 
TbH  story  is  evidently  that  of  Noah  disguised  by 
A-iatic  fiction  and  allegory. 

>  \  I' VI!,  M.S.  i       Lat.    SH  tints.      A    sylvan 

SATYRI'ASIS.     J  god  ;    supposed    among    the 
ancient,  to  \<><  rude  :HK!  lev' 
low. 


Satyrs,  us  Pliny  (.usuries,  were  found  in  time  past 
in  the  eastern  mountains  of  India.  Peacham. 

If  the  chyle  \>e  very  plentiful,  it  breeds  a  taty- 
riasis,  or  an  abundance  of  seminal  lympha. 

Flayer  on  the  Humours. 

The  heathen  lawgivers  of  ancient  days, 
IS'ames  almost  worthy  of  a  Christian's  praise, 
Would  drive  them  forth  from  the  resort  of  men, 
And  shut  up  every  satyr  in  his  den.  Cou-per. 

SATYRS,  in  ancient  mythology,  a  species  of 
demi-gods  who  dwelt  in  the  woods.  They  are 
represented  as  monsters,  half  men  and  half  goats; 
having  horns  on  their  heads,  a  hairy  body,  with 
the  feet  and  tail  of  a  goat.  They  are  generally 
in  the  train  that  follows  Bacchus.  As  the  poets 
supposed  that  they  were  remarkable  for  piercing 
eyes  and  keen  raillery,  they  have  placed  them  in 
the  same  pictures  with  the  Graces,  Muses,  and 
even  with  Venus  herself.  It  seems  probable  that 
some  large  species  of  monkey  or  baboon  seen  in 
the  woods  gave  the  first  occasion  to  feign  these 
demi-gods.  Pliny  evidently  points  out  some 
sort  of  ape  under  the  name  of  Satyr.  He  says 
satyrs  are  found  in  some  mountains  of  India; 
they  are  nimble,  running  .sometimes  upon  all 
four,  sometimes  erect  like  men,  and  they  are  so 
swift  that  it  is  difficult  to  overtake  them  except 
they  are  old  or  sick.  To  this  we  may  add,  that 
shepherds  covered  with  goatskins,  and  still  more 
often  priests  of  Bacchus,  counterfeited  satyrs,  to 
seduce  the  innocent  shepherdesses ;  and  thus  we 
have  the  true  explication  of  the  fable.  Hence 
the  opinion  spread  that  the  woods  were  full  of 
these  mischievous  divinities.'  The  shepherdesses 
trembled  for  their  honor,  and  the  shepherds  for 
their  flocks ;  for  which  reason  they  sought  to 
appease  them  by  sacrifices,  and  by  the  offerings 
of  the  firstling  of  their  flocks. 

SATYRIASIS.     See  MEDICINE. 

SATYR1UM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  dian- 
dria  order,  and  gynandria  class  of  plants  ;  natu- 
ral order  forty-second,  verticillata; :  nectarium 
scrotiform,  or  inflated  double  behind  the  flower. 
Species  twenty-one,  natives  of  warm  climates. 

SAVAGE,  adj.,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.-\      Fr. 

SAV'AGELY,  cm. 

SAV'AGENE>S,  n.  $. 

SAV'AGEUY. 

taught :  a  man  untaught  or  uncivilised  :  to  make 
barbarous  (a  barbarism  of  Thomson's)  :  the  ad- 
verb corresponding ;  and  the  noun  substantives 
see  below. 

Chain  me  to  some  sleepy  mountain's  top, 

Where  roaring  bears  and  savage  lions  roam. 

Shakspcure. 

Your  castle  is  surprised,  your  wife  and  babes 
Savagely  slaughtered.  Id.  Macbeth. 

A  savagennx  in  unreclaimed  blood 
Of  general  assault.  Id.  Il-jmlel. 

'I  his  is  the  bloodiest  shame, 
The  wildest  tavag'ry,  the  vilest  stroke, 
That  ever  wall-eyed  wiath,  or  staring  rage, 
Presented  to  the  tears  of  soft  remorse.    Shahtpeare. 

Thus  people  lived  altogether  a  tawge  life,  'till 
Saturn,  arriving  on  those  coasts,  devised  laws  to 
govern  them  by.  Raleigh. 

Long  after  these  times  were  they  but  savages.  Id. 

The  seditious  lived  by  rapine   and  ruin  of  all  the 
country,    omitting   nothing   of   that    which    tanaget, 
unruly  behaviour,  clu 
commit.  Hni/tr<i«l. 


.•\  r.  siiitvu^f . 
f  Ital.  selnipiiio. 
f  Wild;  unculti 
J  vated  ;  un- 


SAVAGE, 


327 


I  see  the  savagest  of  all  creatures,  lions,  tigers, 
bears,  by  an  instinct  from  God,  come  to  seek  the  ark 
(as  we  see  swine  foreseeing  a  storm  run  home  crying 
for  shelter),  men  I  see  not ;  reason  once  debauched 
is  worse  than  brutishness.  Bp.  Hall. 

The  savage  clamour  drowned, 

Both  harp  and  voice.  Milton. 

Cornels,  and  savage  berries  of  the  wood, 
And  roots  and  herbs,  have  been  my  meagre  food. 

Dryden. 

A  herd  of  wild  beasts  on  the  mountains,  or  a 
savage  drove  of  men  in  caves,  might  be  so  disor- 
dered ;  but  never  a  peculiar  people. 

Sprat's  Sermons. 

To  deprive  us  of  metals  is  to  make  us  mere  savages  ; 
to  change  our  corn  for  the  old  Arcadian  diet,  our 
houses  and  cities  for  dens  and  caves,  and  our  cloath- 
ing  for  skins  of  beasts  :  'tis  to  bereave  us  of  all  arts 
and  sciences,  nay,  of  revealed  religion.  Benttey. 

Tyrants  no  more  their  savage  nature  kept, 
And  foes  to  virtue  wondered  how  they  wept.   Pope. 

The  Cyclops  were  a  people  of  Sicily,  remarkable 
for  savageness  and  cruelty.  Broome. 

Friends,  relations,  love  himself, 

Savaged  by  woe,  forget  the  tender  tie.     Thornton. 

SAVAGE  (Richard),  the  poet,  was  the  son  of 
Anne  countess  of  Macclesfield  by  the  earl  of 
Rivers,  according  to  her  own  confession ;  and 
was  born  in  1698.  This  confession  of  adultery 
was  made  to  procure  a  separation  from  her  hus- 
band, the  earl  of  Macclesfield  :  yet,  having  ob- 
tained this  end,  no  sooner  was  her  spurious  off- 
spring brought  into  the  world,  than  she  resolved 
to  disown  him  ;  and,  as  long  as  he  lived,  treated 
him  with  the  most  unnatural  cruelty.  She  en- 
deavoured to  send  him  secretly  to  the  plantations; 
but,  this  plan  being  frustrated,  she  placed  him 
apprentice  with  a  shoemaker.  In  this  situation, 
however,  he  did  not  long  continue  ;  for  his  nurse 
dying  he  discovered  his  real  mother,  and  there- 
fore applied  to  her,  and  tried  every  art  to  attract 
her  regard.  But  in  vain  did  he  solicit  this  un- 
natural parent ;  she  avoided  him  with  the  utmost 
precaution,  and  took  measures  to  prevent  his 
ever  entering  her  house.  Mean  time,  having  a 
strong  taste  for  poetry,  he  wrote  two  plays,  Wo- 
man's a  Riddle  and  Love  in  a  Veil :  by  the 
second  of  which  he  acquired  the  acquaintance  of 
Sir  Richard  Steele  and  Mr.  Wilks,  by  whom  he 
•was  pitied,  caressed,  and  relieved.  But  the 
kindness  of  his  friends  not  affording  him  a 
constant  supply,  he  wrote  the  tragedy  of  Sir 
Thomas  Overbury,  which  brought  him  in  £200. 
He  soon  after  published  a  volume  of  Mis- 
cellanies, to  which  he  wrote  a  preface,  in 
which  he  gives  an  account  of  his  mother's  cruelty. 
The  profits  of  his  tragedy  and  his  Miscellanies 
somewhat  raised  him  both  in  circumstances  and 
credit;  so  that  the  world  began  to  behold  him 
with  a  more  favorable  eye,  when  both  his  fame 
and  life  were  endangered  by  a  most  unhappy 
event.  A  drunken  frolic  in  which  he  one  night 
engaged  ended  in  a  fray,  and,  swords  having 
been  drawn  on  both  sides,  Savage  unfortunately 
killed  a  man,  for  which  he  was  condemned  to  be 
hanged.  But  the  countess  of  Hertford  at  length 
laid  his  whole  case  before  queen  Caroline,  and 
Savage  obtained  a  pardon.  Savage  now  lost 
that  affection  for  his  mother  which  the  whole 
series  of  her  cruelty  had  not  before  been  able 
wholly  to  repress;  and  considering  her  as  an 


implacable  enemy,  whom  nothing  but  his  blood 
could  satisfy,  threatened  to  harass  her  with  lam- 
poons, and  to  publish  a  copious  narrative  of  her 
conduct,  unless  she  consented  to  allow  him  a 
pension.  This  expedient  proved  successful ; 
and  lord  Tyrconnel,  upon  his  promise  of  laying 
aside  his  design  of  exposing  his  mother's  cruelty, 
took  him  into  his  family,  treated  him  as  an  equal, 
and  engaged  to  allow  him  a  pension  of  £200  a- 
year.  This  was  the  happy  period  of  Savage's 
life.  He  was  courted  by  all  who  wished  to  be 
thought  men  of  genius  and  taste.  At  this  time 
he  published  the  Temple  of  Health  and  Mirth,  on 
the  recovery  of  lady  Tyrconnel  from  a  long  illness; 
and  the  Wanderer,  a  moral  poem,  which  he  de- 
dicated to  lord  Tyrconnel,  in  strains  of  the  highest 
panegyric:  but  these  praises  he  soon  was  in- 
clined to  retract,  being  discarded  by  the  man  on 
whom  they  were  bestowed.  Of  this  quarrel  lord 
Tyrconnel  and  Mr.  Savage  gave  very  different 
accounts.  But  our  author's  conduct  was  ever 
such  as  made  all  his  friends,  sooner  or  later, 
grow  weary  of  him,  and  even  forced  most  of 
them  to  become  his  enemies.  Being  thus  once 
more  turned  adrift  upon  the  world,  Savage, 
whose  passions  were  very  strong  and  whose 
gratitude  was  very  small,  exposed  the  faults 
of  lord  Tyrconnel.  He  also  took  revenge  upon 
his  mother,  by  publishing  The  Bastard.  Some 
time  after  this,  Savage  formed  the  resolution 
of  applying  to  the  queen ;  who  having  once 
given  him  life,  he  hoped  she  might  extend  her 
goodness  to  him,  by  enabling  him  to  support  it. 
— With  this  view,  he  published  a  poem  on  hu 
birth-day,  which  he  entitled  The  Volunteer  Lau 
real ;  for  which  she  was  pleased  to  send  him  £50 
with  an  intimation  that  he  might  annually  ex- 
pect the  same  bounty.  But  this  annual  allow- 
ance was  nothing  to  a  man  of  his  strange  and 
singular  extravagance.  His  usual  custom  was, 
as  soon  as  he  had  received  his  pension,  *n  dis- 
appear with  it,  and  secrete  himself  from  his 
most  intimate  friends,  till  every  shilling  of  it  was 
spent;  which  done  he  again  appeared,  pennyless 
as  before ;  but  he  would  never  inform  any  per- 
son where  he  had  been,  nor  in  what  manner  his 
money  had  been  dissipated. — From  the  reports, 
however,  of  some  who  penetrated  his  haunts, 
he  expended  botli  his  time  and  his  cash  in  the 
most  sordid  and  despicable  sensuality ;  particu- 
larly in  eating  and  drinking,  in  which  he  would 
indulge  in  the  most  unsocial  manner,  sitting 
whole  days  and  nights  by  himself,  in  obscure 
houses  of  entertainment,  over  his  bottle  and 
trencher,  immersed  in  filth  and  sloth,  with  scarcely 
decent  apparel ;  generally  wrapped  up  in  a 
horseman's  great  coat.  His  wit  and  talents, 
however,  still  raised  him  new  friends  as  fast  as 
his  misbehaviour  lost  him  his  old  ones.  Yet  such 
was  his  conduct,  that  occasional  relief  only  fur- 
nished the  means  of  occasional  excess ;  and  he 
defeated  all  the  attempts  made  by  his  friends  to 
fix  him  in  a  decent  way.  Yet,  amidst  all  his 
penury  and  wretchedness,  this  man  had  so  much 
pride,  and  so  high  an  opinion  of  his  own  merit, 
that  he  was  always  ready  to  repress,  with  scorn 
and  contempt,  the  least  appearance  of  any  slight 
towards  himself,  in  the  behaviourof  his  acquaint- 
ance ;  among  whom  he  looked  upon  none  as  his 
superior.  He  would  be  treated  as  an  equal, 


328 


S  A  V  A  G  I  S  M. 


even  by  persons  of  the  highest  rank.  He  once 
refused  to  wait  upon  a  gentleman  who  was  de- 
sirous of  relieving  him  when  in  the  lowest  dis- 
tress, only  because  the  message  signified  the  gen- 
tleman's desire  to  see  him  at  nine  in  the  morning. 
.His  life  was  rendered  still  more  unhappy  by  the 
death  of  the  queen,  in  1738,  when  his  pension 
was  discontinued.  His  distress  now  became  so 
notorious  that  a  scheme  was  at  length  concerted 
for  procuring  him  a  permanent  relief.  It  was 
proposed  that  he  should  retire  into  Wales,  with 
an  allowance  of  £50  a  year,  on  which  he  was  to 
live  privately,  in  a  cheap  place,  for  ever  quitting 
his  town  haunts,  and  resigning  all  farther  preten- 
sions to  fame.  This  offer  he  seemed  gladly  to 
accept.  In  1739  he  set  out  for  Swansey,  in  the 
Bristol  stage-coach,  and  was  furnished  with  fif- 
teen guineas  to  bear  the  expense  of  his  journey. 
But,  on  the  fourteenth  day  after  his  departure, 
his  friends  and  benefactors,  the  principal  of 
whom  was  Mr.  Pope,  who  expected  to  hear  of 
his  arrival  in  Wales,  were  surprised  with  a  letter 
from  Savage,  informing  them  that  he  was  yet 
upon  the  road,  and  could  not  proceed  for  want 
of  money.  There  was  no  other  remedy  than  a 
remittance ;  which  was  sent  him,  and  by  the 
help  of  which  he  was  enabled  to  reach  Bristol, 
whence  he  was  to  proceed  to  Swansey  by  water. 
At  Bristol,  however,  he  found  an  embargo  laid 
upon  the  shipping ;  so  that  he  could  not  imme- 
diately obtain  a  passage.  Here,  therefore,  being 
obliged  to  stay  for  some  time,  he  so  ingratiated 
himself  with  the  principal  inhabitants,  that  he 
was  often  invited  to  their  houses,  distinguished 
at  their  public  entertainments,  and  treated  with 
a  regard  that  highly  gratified  his  vanity.  At 
length,  with  great  reluctance,  he  proceeded  to 
Swansey ;  where  he  lived  about  a  year,  very 
much  dissatisfied  with  the  diminution  of  his  sa- 
lary ;  for  he  had,  in  his  letters,  treated  his  con- 
tributors so  insolently  that  most  of  them  with- 
drew their  subscriptions.  Here  he  finished  a 
tragedy,  and  resolved  to  return  with  it  to  Lon- 
don ;  which  was  strenuously  opposed  by  his  con- 
stant friend  Mr.  Pope  ;  who  proposed  that  Sa- 
vage should  put  this  play  into  the  hands  of  Mr. 
Thomson  and  Mr.  Mallet,  that  they*  might  fit  it 
for  the  stage,  that  his  friends  should  receive  the 
profits  it  might  bring  in,  and  tha*  the  author 
should  receive  the  produce  by  way  of  annuity. 
This  kind  and  prudent  scheme  was  rejected  by 
Savage  with  contempt. — He  declared  he  would 
not  submit  his  works  to  any  one's  correction  : 
;ind  that  he  would  no  longer  be  kept  in  leading- 
strings.  Accordingly  he  soon  returned  to  Bristol, 
in  his  way  to  London  ;  but  at  Bristol,  meeting 
with  a  repetition  of  the  same  kind  treatment 
he  had  before  found  there,  he  was  tempted  to 
make  a  second  stay  in  that  opulent  city  for  some 
time.  Here  he  was  again  not  only  caressed  and 
treated,  but  the  sum  of  £30  was  raised  for  him, 
with  which  it  had  been  happy  if  he  had  imme- 
diately departed  for  London.  But  he  never 
considered  that  a  frequent  repetition  of  such 
kindness  was  not  to  be  expected.  In  short,  he 
remained  here  till  his  company  was  no  longer 
welcome.  Necessity  came  upon  him  before  he 
^•:is  aware ;  his  money  v-w  spent,  his  clothes 
vcrc  worn  nut,  his  appparanri-  was  shabby  ;  lie 


now  began  to  find  every  man  from  home  at 
whose  house  he  called;  and  he  found  it  difficult 
to  obtain  a  dinner.  Thus  reduced,  it  would 
have  been  prudent  in  him  to  have  withdrawn 
from  the  place;  but  the  mistress  of  a  coffee 
house,  to  whom  he  owed  about  £8,  arrested  him 
for  the  debt.  He  remained  for  some  time  at  a 
great  expense,  in  the  house  of  the  sheriff's  officer, 
in  hope  of  procuring  bail ;  which  expense  he 
was  enabled  to  defray  by  a  present  from  Mr. 
Nash  at  Bath.  No  bail,  however,  was  to  be 
found;  so  that  poor  Savage  was  at  last  lodged 
in  Newgate,  a  prison  in  Bristol.  But  it  was  the 
fortune  of  this  extraordinary  mortal  always  to 
find  more  friends  than  lie  deserved.  The  keeper 
of  the  prison  took  compassion  on  him,  and  greatly 
softened  the  rigors  of  his  confinement  by  every 
kind  of  indulgence.  While  he  remained  here 
his  ingratitude  again  broke  out,  in  a  bitter  satire 
on  the  city  of  Bristol;  to  which  he  certainly 
owed  great  obligations,  notwithstanding  his  ar- 
rest. This  satire  is  entitled  London  and  Bristol 
delineated;  and  in  it  he  abused  the  inhabitants 
of  the  latter,  with  such  a  spirit  of  resentment, 
that  the  reader  would  imagine  he  had  never  re- 
ceived any  other  than  the  worst  of  treatment  in 
that  city.  In  about  six  months  after  his  arrest 
he  was  seized  with  a  disorder,  which  at  first  was 
not  suspected  to  be  dangerous  ;  but,  growing 
daily  more  languid  and  dejected,  at  last  a  fever 
seized  him  ;  and  he  died  on  the  1st  of  August 
1743,  in  the  forty-sixth  year  of  his  age.  The 
works  of  this  original  writer,  after  having  long 
lain  dispersed  in  magazines  and  fugitive  publica- 
tions, were  collected  and  published  in  an  elegant 
edition,  in  2  vols.  8vo. ;  to  which  are  prefixed, 
the  admirable  Memoirs  of  Savage,  by  Dr. 
Samuel  Johnson. 

SAVAGE  ISLAND,  an  island  in  the  south  Paci- 
fic Ocean,  about  thirty-three  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, discovered  by  captain  Cook,  in  the  year 
1774.  The  name  was  given  on  account  of  the 
rude  behaviour  of  the  inhabitants.  Captain 
Cook  says  the  island  is  of  a  round  -form,  and 
good  height ;  and  has  deep  waters  close  to  its 
shores.  All  the  sea  coast,  and  as  far  inland  as 
he  could  see,  was  covered  with  trees,  shrubs,  &c., 
among  which  were  some  cocoa-nut  trees.  The 
inhabitants  seemed  to  be  stout  and  well  made. 
They  fish  with  lights  by  night,  called  tomais, 
made  from  the  bark  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree.  They 
form  a  decoy  for  fish.  The  island  is  .in  long. 
169°  37' W.,  and  lat.  19°  1' S. 

SAVAGISM,  a  word  of  modern  adoption, 
designed  to  express  that  ignorant  and  barbarous 
state  of  mankind,  which  most  ancient  philoso- 
phers, and  some  modern  authors  of  eminence, 
suppose  to  have  been  the  original  state  of  all  man- 
kind. A  numerous  sect  of  ancient  philosophers 
maintained  that  man  literally  sprung  at  first 
from  the  earth  ;  that  he  was  without  ideas  and 
without  speech  ;  and  that  many  ages  elapsed  be- 
fore the  race  acquired  the  use  of  language,  or  at- 
tained to  greater  knowledge  than  the  beasts. 
O^er  sects  again,  with  the  vulgar,  and  almost 
alrthe  poets,  maintained  that  the  h'rst  mortals 
were  wiser  and  happier,  and  moie  powerful, 
than  any  of  their  offspring  ;  that  mankind,  in- 
MI,U!  of  being  originally  garages,  and  rising  to 


S  A  V  A  G  I  S  M. 


329 


the  state  of  civilisation  by  their  own  gradual  and 
progressive  exertions,  were  created  in  a  high  de- 
gree of  perfection  ;  that,  however,  they  degene- 
rated from  that  state,  and  that  all  nature  degene- 
rated with  them.  Hence  the  various  ages  of  the 
world  have  almost  every  where  been  compared 
to  gold,  silver,  brass,  and  iron,  the  golden  having 
always  been  supposed  to  be  the  first  age.  See 
AGE. 

Since  the  revival  of  letters  in  Europe,  and  es- 
pecially during  the  last  century,  the  same  ques- 
tion has  been  agitated  both  in  France  and  the 
England.  Such  of  the  ancients  as  held  that  man 
was  originally  a  savage  were  countenanced  by 
the  atheistic  cosmogony  of  the  Phoenicians,  and 
by  the  early  history  of  their  own  nations  ;  the  mo- 
derns build  their  system  upon  what  they  suppose 
to  be  the  constitution  of  the  human  mind,  and 
upon  the  late  improvements  in  arts  and  sciences. 
As  the  question  must  finally  be  decided  by  his- 
torical evidence,  before  we  make  our  appeal  to 
facts,  we  may  remark,  upon  the  supposition  that 
all  mankind  were  originally  savages,  destitute  of 
the  use  of  speech,  and,  in  the  strictest  sense  of 
the  words,  mutum  et  turpe  pecus,  the  great 
difficulty  is  to  conceive  how  they  could  emerge 
from  that  state,  and  become  at  last  enlightened 
and  civilised  :  but  the  modern  advocates  for  the 
universality  of  the  savage  state  remove  this 
difficulty  by  a  number  of  instincts  or  internal 
senses,  with  which  they  suppose  the  human  mind 
endowed,  and  by  which  the  savage  is,  without 
reflection,  not  only  enabled  to  distinguish  be- 
tween right  and  wrong,  and  prompted  to  do 
every  thing  necessary  to  the  preservation  of  his 
existence  and  the  continuance  of  the  species,  but 
also  led  to  the  discovery  of  what  will  contribute, 
in  the  first  instance,  to  the  ease  and  accommoda- 
tions of  life.  These  instincts,  they  think,  brought 
mankind  together  when  the  reasoning  faculty, 
which  had  hitherto  been  dormant,  being  now 
roused  by  the  collisions  of  society,  made  its  ob- 
servations upon  the  consequences  of  their  differ- 
ent actions,  taught  them  to  avoid  such  as  expe- 
rience showed  to  be  pernicious,  and  to  improve 
upon  those  which  they  found  beneficial ;  and 
thus  was  the  progress  of  civilisation  begun.  But 
this  theory  seems  opposed  by  unanswerable  ob- 
jections. 

In  the  preliminary  discourse  to  Sketches  of  tfye 
History  of  Man,  lord  Kames  would  infer,  from 
some  facts  which  he  states,  that  many  pairs  of 
the  human  race  were  at  first  created,  of  very 
different  forms  and  natures,  but  all  depending 
entirely  on  their  own  natural  talents.  But  to 
this  statement  he  rightly  observes  that  the  Mo- 
saic account  of  the  creation  opposes  objections. 
'  Whence  then,'  says  his  lordship,  '  the  degene- 
racy of  all  men  into  the  savage  state  ?  To  ac- 
count for  that  dismal  catastrophe,  mankind  must 
have  suffered  some  dreadful  convulsion.'  Now 
this  is  taking  for  granted  the  very  thing  to  be 
proved.  We  deny  that  at  any  period  since  the 
creation,  all  men  were  sunk  into  the  state  of 
savages ;  and,  that  they  were,  no  proof  has  yet 
•oeen  brought,  nor  do  we  know  of  any  that  can 
be  brought,  unless  our  fashionable  philosophers 
Choose  to  prop  their  theories  by  the  buttress  of 
Sanchoniatho  9  Phoenician  cosmogony.  His 


lordship,  however,  says,  or  rather  supposes,  that 
the  confusion  at  Babel,  &c.,  was  this  dreadful 
convulsion :  For,  says  he,  by  confounding  the 
language  of  men,  and  scattering  them  abroad 
upon  the  face  of  all  the  earth,  they  were  rendered 
savages.  Here  again  we  have  a  positive  asser- 
tion without  the  least  shadow  of  proof;  for  it 
does  not  at  all  appear  that  the  confusion  of  lan- 
guages, and  the  scattering  abroad  of  the  people, 
was  a  circumstance  such  as  could  induce  uni- 
versal savagism.  There  is  no  reason  to  think 
that  all  the  men  then  alive  were  engaged  in 
building  the  tower  of  Babel ;  nor  does  it  appear 
from  the  Hebrew  original  that  the  language  of 
those  who  were  engaged  in  it  was  so  much 
changed  as  the  reader  is  apt  to  infer  from  our 
English  version.  That  the  builders  were  scat- 
tered is  indeed  certain  ;  and  if  any  of  them  were 
driven,  in  very  small  tribes,  to  a  great  distance 
from  their  brethren,  they  would  in  process  of  time 
inevitably  become  savages.  But  it  is  evident,  from 
the  Scripture  account  of  the  peopling  of  the 
earth,  that  the  descendants  of  Shem  and  Japheth 
were  not  scattered  over  the  face  of  all  the  earth, 
and  that  therefore  they  could  not  be  rendered 
savage  by  the  catastrophe  at  Babel.  In  the 
chapter  which  relates  that  wonderful  event  the 
generations  of  Shem  are  given  in  orders  down  to 
Abraham ;  but  there  is  no  indication  that  they 
had  suffered  with  the  builders  of  the  tower,  or 
that  any  of  them  had  degenerated  into  the  state 
of  savages.  On  the  contrary,  they  appear  to  have 
possessed  a  considerable  degree  of  knowledge  ; 
and  if  any  credit  be  due  to  the  tradition  which 
represents  the  father  of  Abraham  as  a  statuary 
and  himself  as  skilled  in  the  science  of  astro- 
nomy, they  must  have  been  far  advanced  in  the 
arts  of  refinement.  Even  such  of  the  posterity 
of  Ham  as  either  emigrated  or  were  driven  frorr. 
the  plain  of  Shinar  in  large  bodies,  so  far  from 
sinking  into  savagism,  retained  all  the  acquire- 
ments of  their  antediluvian  ancestors,  and  be- 
came afterwards  the  instructors  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  This  is  evident  from  the  history  of 
the  Egyptians  and  other  eastern  nations,  who  in 
the  days  of  Abraham  were  powerful  and  highly 
civilised.  And  that  for  many  ages  they  did  not 
degenerate  into  barbarism  is  apparent  from  its 
having  been  thought  to  exalt  the  character  of 
Moses,  that  he  was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of 
the  Egyptians,  and  from  the  wisdom  of  Solomon 
having  been  said  to  excel  all  the  wisdom  of  the 
east  country  and  of  Egypt.  Thus  decided  are 
the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament  against  the 
universal  prevalence  of  savagism  in  that  period 
of  the  world ;  nor  are  the  most  authentic  Pagan 
writers  of  antiquity  of  a  different  opinion.  Mo- 
chus  the  Phoenician  (Strabo,  lib.  17),  Democri- 
tus,  and  Epicurus,  appear  to  be  the  first  champions 
of  the  savage  state,  and  they  are  followed  by  a 
mumerous  body  of  poets  and  rhapsodists,  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  were  unquestion- 
ably devoted  to  fable  and  fiction.  The  account 
which  they  have  given  of  the  origin  of  man,  the 
reader  will  find  in  other  parts  of  this  work.  But 
we  hardly  think  that  he  will  employ  it  in  support 
of  the  fashionable  doctrine  of  original  savagism. 
Against  the  wild  reveries  of  this  school  might 
be  quoted  all  the  leaders  of  the  other  sects, 


330 


S  A  V  A  G  I  S  M. 


Greeks  and  barbarians  ;  the  philosophers  of  both 
academies,  the  sages  of  the  Italian  and  Alexan- 
drian schools  ;  the  magi  of  Persia ;  the  brahmins 
of  India,  and  the  druids  of  Gaul,  &c.  The 
testimonies  of  the  early  historians  among  all  the 
ancient  nations,  indeed,  who  are  avowedly  fabu- 
lists, is  very  little  to  be  depended  on,  and  has 
been  called  in  question  by  the  most  judicious 
writers  of  Pagan  antiquity.  (See  Plutarch  Vita 
Thes.  sub.  init. ;  Thucyd.  1.  i.  cap.  1  ;  Strabo, 
1.  xi.  p.  507  ;  Livy  Pref. ;  and  Varro  ap.  August. 
de  Civ.  Dei.)  The  more  populous  and  extensive 
kingdoms  and  societies  were  civilised  at  a  period 
prior  to  the  records  of  profane  history  ;  the  pre- 
sumption, therefore,  without  taking  revelation 
into  the  account,  certainly  is,  that  they  were  civi- 
lised from  the  beginning.  This  is  rendered  fur- 
ther probable  from  other  circumstances.  To 
account  for  their  system,  the  advocates  of  sava- 
gism  are  obliged  to  hare  recourse  to  numerous 
suppositions.  They  imagine  that  since  the  crea- 
tion dreadful  convulsions  have  happened,  which 
have  spread  ruin  and  devastation  over  the  earth, 
which  have  destroyed  learning  and  the  arts,  and 
brought  on  savagism  by  one  sudden  blow.  But 
this  is  reasoning  at  random,  and  without  a  ves- 
tige of  probability ;  for  the  only  convulsion  that 
can  be  mentioned  is  that  of  Babel,  which  we 
have  already  shown  to  be  inadequate. 

It  may  be  farther  argued,  that  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  any  people  that  were  once  civilised, 
and  in  process  of  time  had  degenerated  into  the 
savage  or  barbarous  state,  have  ever  recovered 
their  pristine  condition  with  foreign  aid.  Whence 
we  conclude  that  man,  once  a  savage,  would 
never  have  raised  himself  from  that  hopeless 
state.  This  appeaVs  evident  from  the  history  of 
the  world ;  for  that  it  requires  strong  incitements 
to  keep  man  in  a  high  state  of  knowledge  and 
civilisation  is  evident  from  what  we  know  of  the 
numerous  nations  which  were  famed  in  antiquity, 
but  which  are  now  degenerated  in  an  astonishing 
degree.  That  man  cannot,  or,  which  is  the  same 
thing,  has  not  risen  from  barbarism  to  civilisation 
and  science  by  his  own  efforts  and  natural  talents, 
appears  further  from  the  following  facts : — The 
rudiments  of  all  the  learning,  religion,  laws,  arts, 
and  sciences,  and  other  improvements  that  have 
enlightened  Europe,  a  great  part  of  Asia,  and  the 
northern  coast  of  Affica,  were  so  many  rays  di- 
verging from  two  points,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Nile.  In  proportion  as  na- 
tions receded  from  these  two  sources  of  huma- 
nity and  civilisation,  in  the  same  proportion 
were  they  more  and  more  immersed  in  ignorance 
and  barbarism.  The  Greeks  had  made  no  pro- 
gress towards  civilisation,  when  the  Titans  first, 
and  afterwards  colonies  from  Egypt  and  Phe- 
nicia,  taught  them  the  very  elements  of  science 
and  urbanity.  The  aborigines  of  Italy  wdre  in 
ihe  same  state  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  Pe- 
lasgi,  and  the  colonies  from  Arcadia  and  other 
parts  of  Greece.  Spain  was  indebted  for  the 
fir^t  seeds  of  improvement  to  the  commercial 
spirit  of  the  Phoenicians.  The  Gauls,  the 
Britons,  and  the  Germans,  derived  from  the  Ro- 
mans all  that  in  the  early  periods  of  their  history 
they  knew  of  science,  or  the  arts  of  civil  life,  and 
so  on  of  other  nations  in  antiquity.  The  same 


appears  to  be  the  case  in  modern  times.  The 
countries  which  have  been  discovered  by  the 
restless  and  inquisitive  spirit  of  Europeans  have 
been  generally  found  in  the  lowest  stage  of  sava- 
gism :  from  which,  if  they  have  emerged  at  all, 
it  has  been  exactly  in  proportion  to  their  con- 
nexion with  the  inhabitants  of  Europe.  Even 
Western  Europe  itself,  when  sunk  in  ignorance, 
during  the  reign  of  monkery,  did  not  recover  by 
the  efforts  of  its  own  inhabitants.  Had  not  the 
Greeks,  who  in  the  fifteenth  century  took  refuge 
in  Italy  from  the  cruelty  of  the  Turks,  brought 
with  them  their  ancient  books,  and  taught  the 
Italians  to  read  them,  we,  who  are  disputing 
about  the  origin  of  the  savage  state,  and  the  in- 
nate powers  of  the  human  mind,  had  at  this  day 
been  gross  and  ignorant  savages  ourselves,  inca- 
pable of  reasoning  with  accuracy  upon  any  sub- 
ject. That  we  have  now  advanced  far  before 
our  masters  is  readily  admitted;  for  the  human 
mind,  when  put  on  the  right  track,  and  spurred 
on  by  emulation  and  other  incitements,  is 
capable  of  making  great  improvements ;  but  be- 
tween improving  science,  and  emerging  from 
savagism,  every  one  perceives  there  is  an  immense 
difference.  Lork  Kames  observes  that  the  people 
who  inhabit  a  grateful  soil,  where  the  necessaries 
of  life  are  easily  procured,  are  the  first  who  in- 
vent useful  and  ingenious  arts,  and  the  first  who 
figure  in  the  exercises  of  the  mind.  But  the 
Egyptians  and  Chaldeans,  who  are  thought  to 
support  this  remark,  appear  from  what  we  have 
seen  to  have  derived  their  knowledge  from  their 
antediluvian  progenitors,  and  not  from  any  ad- 
vantages of  situation  or  strength  of  genius.  Be- 
sides, the  inhabitants  of  a  great  part  of  Africa, 
of  North  and  South  America,  and  of  many  of 
the  islands  lately  discovered,  live  in  regions 
equally  fertile,  and  equally  productive  of  the 
necessaries  of  life,  with  the  regions  of  Chaldea  and 
Egypt ;  yet  these  people  have  been  savages 
from  time  immemorial,  and  continue  still  in  the 
same  state.  The  Athenians,  on  the  other  hand, 
inhabited  the  most  barren  and  ungrateful  re- 
gion of  Greece,  while  their  acquirements  in  the 
arts  and  sciences  have  rarely  been  excelled.  The 
Norwegian  colony  which  settled  in  Iceland  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  inhabited  a 
most  bleak  and  barren  soil,  and  yet  the  fine  arts 
were  eagerly  cultivated  in  that  dreary  region, 
when  the  rest  of  Europe  was  sunk  in  ignorance 
and  barbarism.  Again,  there  are  many  parts  of 
Africa,  and  of  North  and  South  America,  where 
the  soil  is  neither  so  luxuriant  as  to  beget  indo- 
lence, nor  so  barren  and  ungrateful  as  to  depress 
the  spirits  by  labor  and  poverty  ;  where,  notwith- 
standing, the  inhabitants  still  continue  in  an  un- 
cultured state.  From  all  which,  and  from 
numerous  other  instances  which  our  limits  per- 
mit us  not  to  bring  forward,  we  infer  that  some 
external  influence  is  necessary  to  impel  savages 
towards  civilisation;  and  that  in  the  history  of 
the  world,  or  the  nature  of  the  thing,  we  find  no 
instance  of  any  people  emerging  from  barbarism 
by  the  progressive  efforts  of  their  own  genius. 
On  the  contrary,  as  we  find  in  societies  highly 
cultivated  and  luxurious  a  strong  tendency  to 
degenerate,  so  in  savages  we  not  only  find  no 
inaik  of  tendency  to  improvement,  but  rather  a 


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rooted  aversion  to  it.  Among  them,  indeed,  the 
social  appetite  never  reaches  beyond  their  own 
horde.  It  is,  therefore,  too  weak  and  too  con- 
lined  to  dispose  them  to  unite  in  large  commu- 
nities; and  of  course,  had  all  mankind  been 
once  in  the  savage  state,  they  never  could  have 
arrived  at  any  considerable  degree  of  civilisation. 
Instead  of  trusting  to  any  such  natural  progress 
as  is  contended  for,  the  providence  of  Heaven, 
in  pity  to  the  human  race,  appears,  at  different 
times,  and  in  different  countries,  to  have  raised 
up  some  persons  endowed  with  superior  talents, 
who,  having  themselves  acquired  some  knowledge 
in  nations  already  civilised  by  useful  inventions, 
legislation,  religious  institutions,  and  moral  ar- 
rangements, sowed  the  first  seeds  of  civilisation 
among  the  hordes  of  wandering  disunited  barba- 
rians. Thus  we  find  the  Chinese  look  up  to  their 
Fohee,  the  Indians  to  the  Brahma,  the  Persians 
to  Zoroaster,  the  Chaldeans  to  Cannes,  the 
Egyptians  to  Thoth,  the  Phoenicians  to  Meli- 
certa,  the  Scandinavians  to  Odin,  the  Italians  to 
Janus,  Saturn,  and  Picus,  and  the  Peruvians  to 
Manco.  In  later  times,  and  almost  within  our 
own  view,  we  find  the  barbarous  nations  of 
Russia  reduced  to  the  same  order  and  civilisation 
by  the  genius  and  exertions  of  Peter  the  Great. 
The  endeavours  of  succeeding  monarchs  have 
powerfully  contributed  to  the  improvement  of 
this  mighty  empire.  In  many  parts  of  it,  how- 
ever, we  still  find  the  inhabitants  in  a  state  very 
little  superior  to  savagism  ;  and,  through  the  most 
of  it,  the  lower,  and  perhaps  the  middling  orders, 
appear  to  retain  an  almost  invincible  aversion  to 
further  improvements.  A  fact  which,  when 
added  to  numerous  others  of  a  similar  nature 
which  occur  in  the  history  of  the  world,  seems 
to  prove  indisputably  that  there  is  no  such 
natural  propensity  to  improvement  in  the  human 
mind  as  we  are  taught  by  some  authors  to  believe. 
The  origin  of  savagism,  if  we  allow  mankind  to 
have  been  at  first  civilised,  is  easily  accounted 
for  by  natural  means  :  the  origin  of  civilisation, 
if  at  any  period  the  whole  race  were  savages, 
cannot,  we  think,  be  accounted  for  otherwise 
than  by  a  miracle,  or  a  series  of  miracles.  To 
many  persons  in  the  present  day  the  doctrines  we 
have  now  attempted  to  establish  will  appear 
very  humiliating  :  it  is  a  popular  kind  of  philo- 
sophy to  attribute  to  the  human  mind  very  pre- 
eminent powers;  which  so  flatter  our  pride  as 
in  a  great  measure  to  pervert  our  reason,  and 
blind  our  judgment.  The  history  of  the  world, 
and  of  the  dispensations  of  God  to  man,  are 
certainly  at  variance  with  this  doctrine  respecting 
the  origin  of  civilisation  :  for,  if  the  human  mind 
be  possessed  of  that  innate  vigor  which  that 
doctrine  attributes  to  it,  it  will  be  extremely 
difficult  to  account  for  .those  numerous  facts 
which  seem  with  irresistible  evidence  to  proclaim 
the  contrary  ;  for  that  unceasing  care  with  which 
the  deity  appears  to  have  watched  over  us ;  and 
for  those  various  and  important  revelations  He  has 
vouchsafed  to  us.  Let  us  rejoice  and  be  thank- 
ful that  we  are  men  and  Christians  ;  but  let  not 
a  vain  philosophy  tempt  us  to  imagine  that  we 
are  angels  or  gods. 

SAVAN'-XA,  w.  s.     Span,  submi'ia.     An  open 
meadow ;  pasture  ground. 


He  that  rides  posl  through  a  country  may  tell  how, 
in  general,  the  parts  lie  ;  here  a  morass,  and  there  a 
river  ;  woodland  in  one  part,  and  samnnut  in  another. 

Locke. 

Plains  immens1. 

And  vast  savannas,  where  the  wandering  eye, 
Unfixed,  is  in  a  verdant  ocean  lost.  Thomson. 

SAVANNAH,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  the 
United  States,  in  Chatham  county,  Georgia,  on 
the  south-west  bank  of  the  Savannah,  seventeen 
miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  situated  on  a  sandy 
plain,  about  forty  feet  above  low  tide,  and  con- 
tains a  court-house,  jail,  alms-house,  hospital, 
theatre,  public  library,  academy,  exchange,  three 
banks,  including  a  branch  of  the  United  States 
bank,  and  seven  houses  of  public  worship,  one 
for  Presbyterians,  one  for  Episcopalians,  one  for 
Lutherans,  one  for  Methodists,  one  for  Baptists, 
one  for  Roman  Catholics,  and  a  Jewish  syna- 
gogue. 

The  academy  is  built  of  brick  and  stone,  180 
feet  by  sixty,  of  three  stories.  The  exchange  is 
a  brick  edifice  of  five  stories.  The  new  Presby- 
terian church  is  a  very  spacious  and  elegant 
edifice  of  stone.  The  city,  a  few  years  since,  was 
almost  wholly  built  of  wood,  with  very  few  ele- 
gant houses ;  but  a  large  proportion  of  the  houses 
recently  erected  are  handsomely  built  of  brick. 
Savannah  has  heretofore  been  accounted  very  un- 
healthy during  the  summer  and  autumn,  but  the 
salubrity  of  the  place  is  now  much  improved, 
by  appropriating  to  a  dry  culture  those  lands  in 
its  immediate  vicinity  which  were  formerly  ap- 
propriated to  rice. 

The  city  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  contains 
ten  public  squares,  each  consisting  of  two  acres, 
with  a  pump  in  the  centre.  The  squares  and 
public  walks  are  planted  with  china  trees,  which 
contribute  much  to  the  ornament,  comfort,  and 
salubrity  of  the  place.  Savannah  is  the  great 
emporium  of  the  state,  and  is  a  place  of  much 
trade.  In  six  months,  ending  the  31st  of  March 
1818,  there  were  exported  from  it  61,797  bales 
of  cotton,  13,680  tierces  of  rice,  and  1500  hogs- 
heads of  tobacco.  The  shipping  owned  here,  in 
1816,  amounted  to  12,766  tons.  Vessels  draw- 
ing fourteen  feet  of  water  come  up  to  the  wharfs ; 
larger  vessels  take  in  their  cargoes  at  Five  Fathom 
Hole,  three  miles  below  the  town.  On  the  east 
side  of  the  city  is  Fort  Wayne ;  at  Five  Fathom 
Hole  is  Fort  Jackson  ;  and  on  Tybee  Island, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  there  is  a  light-house. 
118  miles  south-west  of  Charlestown,  and  123 
south-east  of  Augusta. 

SAVANNAH,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  which 
is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Tugeloo  and  Keo- 
wee.  It  separates  South  Carolina  from  Georgia, 
and  runs  south-east  into  the  Atlantic.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  large  vessels  to  the  town  of  Savannah, 
seventeen  miles,  and  for  boats  of  100  feet  keel  to 
Augusta,  which,  by  the  course  of  the  river,  is 
340  miles  above  Savannah.  Just  above  Augusta 
there  are  falls  ;  beyond  these  the  river  is  navig- 
able for  boats  to  the  junction  of  the  Tugeloo  and 
Keowee. 

SAVARY  (James),  an  eminent  French  writer 
on  trade,  was  born  at  Done,  in  Anjou,  in  1622. 
He  continued  in  trade  until  1658,  and  was  after- 
wards admitted  of  the  council  for  the  reforma- 


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332 


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tkm  of  commerce ;  and  the  orders  which  passed 
in  1670  were  drawn  up  by  his  instructions  and 
advice.  He  wrote  Le  Parfait  Negociant,  4to. ; 
and  Avis  et  Conseils  sur  les  plus  Importantes 
Matieres  du  Commerce,  4to.  He  died  in  1690; 
and  out  of  seventeen  children,  whom  he  had  by 
one  wife,  left  eleven. 

SAVARY  (James  and  Philemon  Lewis),  two  of 
the  sons  of  the  preceding,  labored  jointly  on  a 
Dictionnaire  Universelle  du  Commerce,  2  vols. 
folio.  This  work  was  begun  by  James,  who  was 
inspector -general  of  the  manufactures  at  the  cus- 
tom-house, Paris ;  who  called  in  the  assistance 
of  his  brother  Philemon-Lewis,  a  canon  of  the 
royal  church  of  St.  Maur,  and  at  his  death  left 
him  to  finish  it.  This  work  appeared  in  1723, 
and  Philemon  afterwards  added  a  third  supple- 
mental volume  to  the  former. 

SAVARY,  an  eminent  French  traveller  and 
writer,  born  at  Vitry,  in  Britanny,  about  1748. 
He  studied  with  applause  at  Rennes,  and,  in 
1776,  travelled  into  Egypt,  where  he  remained 
about  three  years.  During  this  period  he  was 
engaged  in  the  study  of  the  Arabian  languages, 
in  searching  out  ancient  monuments,  and  in 
examining  the  national  manners.  He  next  visited 
the  islands  in  the  Archipelago,  where  he  spent 
eighteen  months.  On  his  return  to  France,  in 
1780,  he  published,  1.  A  Translation  of  the  Ko- 
ran with  a  short  Life  of  Mahomet,  2  vols.  8vo. ; 
2.  The  Morality  of  the  Koran,  or  a  collection  of 
the  most  excellent  maxims  in  the  Koran ;  a  work 
extracted  from  his  translation,  which  is  esteemed 
both  elegant  and  faithful;  3.  Letters  on  Egypt, 
in  3  vols.  8vo.,  in  1785.  In  these  the  author 
makes  his  observations  with  accuracy,  and  ren- 
ders interesting  every  thing  he  relates ;  but  he  is 
censured  for  painting  modern  Egypt  and  its  in- 
habitants in  too  high  colors.  These  letters,  how- 
ever, were  rapidly  sold ;  and,  encouraged  by  this 
flattering  reception,  he  prepared  his  Letters  upon 
Greece.  But  about  this  time  he  contracted  a 
malady  from  too  intense  application.  His  diges- 
tion became  languid  ;  sleep  forsook  him  ;  a  dry 
and  troublesome  cough  came  on ;  his  face  ap- 
peared bloated,  and  his  legs  inflamed.  In  this 
situation  he  returned  to  Paris,  in  the  beginning 
of  1788,  to  attend  to  the  publication  of  his  new 
work.  He  had  then  all  the  symptoms  of  a  dan- 
gerous dropsy.  His  strength  was  exhausted,  and 
he  died  on  the  4th  of  February  1788. 

SAUCE,  n.  t.  &  v.  a. )      Fr.    souse,    saulse ; 

SADCE'PAN.  }  Ital.  salsa ;  Lat.  salt  us. 

Something  eaten  with  food  to  improve  it  or  give 
a  relish  :  to  treat  with  sauce;  hence  to  intermix  : 
a  sauce-pan  is  properly  a  pan  for  cooking  sauce. 

The  bitter  sauce  of  the  sport  was  that  we  had  our 
honours  for  ever  lost,  partly  by  our  own  faults,  but 
principally  by  his  faulty  using  of  our  faults. 

Sidney. 

Then  fell  she  to  tauce  her  desires  with  threatenings. 

Id. 

All  the  delights  of  love,  wherein  wanton  youth 
walloweth,  be  but  folly  mixed  with  bitterness,  and 
sorrow  untced  with  repentance.  Spenter. 

Epicurean  cooks 
Sharpen  with  cloyless  tauce  his  appetite. 

Slicksjvare. 

ttuch  was  the  sauce  of  Moab's  noble  feast, 
Till  night  far  spent  invites  'hem  to  their  rest. 

Cow  ley. 


He  thst  spends  his  time  in  sports  is  like  him 
\vhosemeatisnothingbut  sauces;  they  are  health- 
less, chargeable,  and  useless.  Taylor. 

Your  master  will  not  allow  you  a  silver  saucepan. 

Swift. 

High  sauces  and  rich  spices  are  fetched  from  the 
Indies.  Baker. 

SAUCER,  n.  s.  Fr.  sauciere,  or  from  sauce.  A 
small  pan  or  platter  in  which  sauce  is  set  on  the 
table 

Infuse  a  pugil  of  new  violets  seven  times,  and  it 
shall  make  the  vinegar  so  fresh  of  the  flower,  as,  if 
brought  in  a  saucer,  you  shall  smell  it  before  it  come 
at  you.  Bacon. 

Some  have  mistaken  blocks  and  posts 
For  spectres,  apparitions,  ghosts, 
With  saucer  eyes  and  horns.  Hudibras. 

The  SAUCISSE,  or  SAUCISSON,  in  mining,  is 
a  long  pipe,  sometimes  made  of  leather,  of  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  diameter,  filled  with  powder, 
going  from  the  chamber  of  the  mine  to  the  en- 
trance of  the  gallery.  It  is  generally  placed  in  a 
wooden  pipe  called  an  auget,  to  prevent  its 
growing  damp.  It  serves  to  give  fire  to  mines, 
bomb-chests,  &c. 

SAU'CY,  adj.      -\       Fr.   solace;   Lat.  so/or. 

SAUCE'BOX,  n.  s.  fPert;      petulant;     rude; 

SAU'CILY,  adv.      £  impertinent :     the    adverb 

SAU'CINESS,  n.  s.  *  and  noun-substantive  cor- 
responding :  saucebox  is  an  impertinent  busy 
fellow. 

With  how  sweet  saws  she  blamed  their  sauciness, 
To  feel  the  panting  heart,  which  through  her  side 
Did  beat  their  hands.  Sidney. 

You  are  more  taucy  with  lords  than  the  heraldry 
of  your  birth  and  virtue  gives  you  commission. 

Sliakspeare. 

And  if  thou  hast  the  mettle  of  a  king, 
Being  wronged  as  we  are  by  this  peevish  town, 
Turn  thou  the  mouth  of  thy  artillery, 
As  we  will  our's  against  these  MHCI/  walls.          Id. 

Though  this  knave  came  somewhat  saucily  into  the 
world  before  he  was  sent  for,  yet  was  his  mother  fair. 

Id. 

By  his  authority  he  remains  here,  which  he  thinks 
is  a  patent  for  his  sauciness.  Id. 

A  freed  servant,  who  had  much  power  with  Clau- 
dius, very  saucily  had  almost  all  the  words  ;  and, 
amongst  other  things,  he  asked  in  scorn  one  of  the  ' 
exammates,  who  was  likewise  a  freed  servant  of  Scri- 
bonianus,  I  pray,  sir,  if  Scribonianus  had  been  em- 
peror, what  would  you  have  done  1  He  answered,  I 
would  have  stood  behind  his  chair,  and  held  my 
peace.  Bacon. 

It  is  saucinets  in  a  creature,  in  this  case,  to  reply. 

HnimhaU. 

I  lose  my  patience,  when  with  saucy  pride 
By  untuned  ears  I  hear  his  numbers  tried. 

Rnscommon. 

Power's  first  pedigree  from  force  derives, 
And  calls  to  mind  the  old  prerogatives 
Of  free-born  man  ;  and  with  a  saucy  eye 
Searches  the  heart  and  soul  of  majesty.      Denham. 

You  saucinett,  mind  your  pruning  knife,  or  I  may 
use  it  for  you.  Dryden's  Don  Sebastian. 

Imputing  it  to  the  natural  aauciness  of  a  pedant, 
they  made  him  eat  his  words.  L' Estrange. 

Homer,  to  express  a  man  both  timorous  and  saucy, 
makes  use  of  a  kind  of  point,  namely,  that  he  had 
the  eyes  of  a  dog,  but  the  heart  of  a  deer. 

Addiion's  Spectator. 

The  foolish  old  poet  says  that  the  souls  of  some 
women  are  made  of  sea  water :  this  has  encouraged 
my  sanccboi  to  be  witty  upon  me.  /rf. 


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A  trumpet  behaved  himself  very  saucily.  Addison. 

This  might  make  all  other  servants  challenge  the 
same  liberty,  and  grow  pert  upon  their  masters  ;  and, 
when  this  sauciness  became  universal,  what  less  mis- 
chief could  be  expected  than  an  old  Scythian  re- 
bellion 1  Collier  on  Pride. 


SAVE,  v.  «.,  v.  n.,  &  adv.* 
SA'VER,  n.  s. 
SA'VING,  adj.,  adv.,  &  n.  s. 
SA'VINGLY,  adv. 
SA'VIOUR,  n.  s. 


French  sauver ; 

Lat.    salvo.      To 

.  make     or     keep 

safe ;     reserve ; 

spare;     salve; 


embrace  opportunely ;  preserve  from  eternal 
death ;  to  be  chief:  a  saver  or  saviour  is  one 
who  preserves  ;  rescues  ;  keeps  ;  the  Redeemer 
of  mankind  :  saving,  frugal ;  parsimonious ;  and 
as  an  adverb  with  exception  in  favor  of :  as  a 
noun-substantive  an  escape  of  expense  ;  excep- 
tion :  savingly  agrees  with  saving  as  an  adjective. 
He  shall  not  feel  quietness,  he  shall  not  lave  of 
that  which  he  desired.  Job  xx.  20. 

One  shall  cry  unto  him,  yet  cannot  he  answer,  nor 
save  him  out  of  his  troubles.  f*a.  xlvi.  7. 

We  are  not  of  them  who  draw  back  unto  perdition  ; 
but  of  them  that  believe  to  the  saving  of  the  soul. 

Heb.  x.  39. 

They  were  manifoldly  acknowledged  the  savers  ot 
that  country.  Sidney. 

But  being  all  defeated,  save  a  few,        ' 
Rather  than  fly,  or  be  captived  herself  she  slew. 

Spenser. 

All  this  world's  glory  seemeth  vain. 
And  all  their  shows  but  shadows,  saving  me.       Id. 

Whatsoever  we  read  in  Scripture  concerning  the 
endless  love  and  saving  mercy  which  God  showeth 
towards  his  church,  the  only  proper  subject  thereof 
is  this  church.  Hooker. 

There  are  some  that  will  be  saved,  and  some  that 
will  be  damned.  Shakspeare. 

All  the  conspirators,  save  only  he, 
Did  that  they  did  in  envy  of  great  Cssar.  Id. 

Brass  ordnance  saveth  in  the  quantity  of  the  mate- 
r  al,  and  in  the  charge  of  mounting  and  carriage. 

Bacon. 

He  never  put  down  a  near  servant,  save  only 
Stanley,  the  lord  chamberlain.         Id.   Henry  VII. 

It  is  a  great  saving  in  all  such  lights,  if  they  can 
be  made  as  fair  and  light  as  others,  and  yet  last 
longer.  Bacon. 

By  nature  far  from  profusion,  and  yet  a  greater 
sparer  than  a  saver ;  for  though  he  had  such  means 
to  accumulate,  yet  his  garrisons  and  his  feastings 
soaked  his  exchequer.  Wotton. 

His  merits  save  them.  Milton. 

How  build,  unbuild,  contrive 
To  save  appearances :  how  gird  the  sphere 
With  centrick  and  eccentrick.  Id. 

How  have  I  then  with  whom  to  hold  converse, 
Save  with  the  creatures  which  I  made?  //. 

So  judged  he  man,  both  judge  and  Saviour  sent.  Id. 

We  may  be  confident  whatever  God  does  is  in- 
tended for  our  good,  and  whatever  we  interpret  other- 
wise we  can  get  nothing  by  repining,  nor  save  any 
thing  by  resisting.  Temple. 

The  circling  streams,  once  thought  but  pools  of 

blood, 
From  dark  oblivion  Harvey's  name  shall  save. 

Dryden. 

Will  you  not  speak  to  save  a  lady's  blush  1      Id. 
Laws  of  arms  permit  each  injured  man 
To  make  himself  a  saver  where  he  can.  Id, 

Contend  not  with  those  that  are  too  strong  for  us, 
but  still  with  a  saving  to  honesty  ;  for  integrity  must 
be  supported  against  all  violence.  V  [-'strange. 


Saving  the  reverence  due  to  so  great  a  man,  1 
doubt  not  but  they  did  all  creep  out  of  their  holes. 
Ray  on  the  Creation. 

Silvio,  finding  his  application  unsuccessful,  was 
resolved  to  make  a  saving  bargain  ;  and,  since  he 
could  not  get  the  widow's  estate,  to  recover  what  he 
had  laid  out  of  his  own.  Addison. 

By  reducing  interest  to  four  per  cent,  there  was  a 
considerable  saving  to  the  nation.  Id. 

However  consonant  to  reason  his  precepts  ap- 
peared, nothing  could  have  tempted  men  to  acknow- 
ledge him  as  their  God  and  Saviour,  but  their  being 
firmly  persuaded  of  the  miracles  he  wrought.  Id. 

He  who  feareth  God,  and  worketh  righteousness, 
and  perseveres  in  the  faith  and  duties  of  our  religion, 
shall  certainly  be  saved.  Rogers. 

She  loved  money  ;  for  she  was  saving,  and  applied 
her  fortune  to  pay  John's  clamorous  debts. 

Arbuthnot's  History  of  John  Bull. 
They  meanly  pilfer,  as  they  bravely  fought, 
Now  save  a  nation,  and  now  nave  a  groat.         Pope. 

The  same  persons,  who  were  chief  confidents  to 
Cromwell,  foreseeing  a  restoration,  seized  the  castles, 
in  Ireland,  just  saving  the  tide,  and  putting  in  a  stock 
of  merit  sufficient.  Swift. 

Who  dares  affirm  this  is  no  pious  age, 
When  charity  begins  to  tread  the  stage  1 
When  actors,  who  at  best  are  hardly  savers, 
Will  give  a  night  of  benefit  to  weavers?          Id. 
Be  saving  of  your  candle.       -  Id. 

Will  no  superior  genius  snatch  the  quill, 
And  save  me  on  the  brink  from  writing  ill  1   Young. 

SAVE,  a  large  river  of  Austrian  Illyria,  rising 
about  six  miles  to  the  south  of  Villach,  and  flow- 
ing through  a  part  of  Styria  and  Croatia.  After 
leaving  the  latter,  it  separates  Sclavonia  from 
Turkey,  till  it  joins  the  Danube,  between  Semlin 
and  Belgrade.  Its  course  is  at  first  winding ;  and 
it  frequently  overflows  its  banks.  It  is,  however, 
of  great  importance  to  the  trade  of  all  the  coun- 
tries through  which  it  passes,  and  is  the  medium 
by  which  the  corn  and  tobacco  of  the  Bannat 
and  neighbouring  provinces  are  interchanged. 

SAVENDROOG,  a  celebrated  but  unhealthy 
fortress  of  the  Mysore,  Hindostan.  It  is  situated 
on  the  summit  of  an  immense  rock,  half  a  mile 
in  perpendicular  height,  and  surrounded  by  a 
thick  wood.  It  was  considered  by  the  natives 
impregnable ;  but  was  taken  by  storm,  without 
the  loss  of  a  man,  by  the  British,  in  1791.  It 
was  used  by  Hyder  Aly  and  Tippoo  Sultan  as  a 
state  prison.  Long.  77°  29'  E.,  lat.  12°  56'  N. 

SA VERNE,  a  well  built  town  in  Alsace,  de- 
partment of  the  Lower  Rhine.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Sarre,  and  has  a  castle,  formerly  the  residence 
of  the  bishops  of  Strasburg.  Saverne  has  a  great 
trade  in  woollens,  leather,  hardware,  pottery,  and 
tobacco,  almost  all  manufactured  in  the  town  ; 
and  the  surrounding  country  is  productive  in 
wine.  The  town  contains  a  college,  an  hospital, 
and  6000  inhabitants.  Twenty-two  miles  W.N.W. 
of  Strasburgh. 

SAVILE  (Sir  George),  afterwards  marquis  of 
Halifax,  was  born  about  1630;  and,  some  time 
after  his  return  from  his  travels,  was  created  ? 
peer,  in  consideration  of  his  own  and  his  father'5 
merits.  He  was  a  strenuous  opposer  of  the  bill 
of  exclusion ;  but  proposed  such  limitations  of 
the  duke  of  York's  authority  as  should  disable 
him  from  doing  any  harm  either  in  church  or 
state,  as  the  taking  out  of  his  hands  all  power  in 


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ecclesiastical  matters,  the  disposal  of  the  public 
money,  and  the  power  of  making  peace  and  war; 
and  lodging  these  in  the  two  houses  of  parlia- 
ment. After  that  bill  was  rejected  in  the  house 
of  lords,  he  pressed  them,  though  without  suc- 
cess, to  proceed  to  the  limitation  of  the  duke's 
power ;  and  began  by  moving  that,  during  the 
king's  life,  he  might  be  obliged  to  live  500  miles 
out  of  England.  In  August  1682  he  was  created 
a  marquis,  and  soon  after  made  lord  privy-seal. 
Upon  king  James's  accession  he  was  made  presi- 
dent of  the  council ;  but,  on  his  refusal  to  con- 
sent to  the  repeal  of  the  test,  he  was  dismissed 
from  all  public  employments.  In  that  assembly 
of  the  lords  which  met  after  king  James's  with- 
drawing himself  the  first  time  from  Whitehall, 
he  was  chosen  president ;  and  upon  the  king's  re- 
turn from  Feversham  he  was  sent,  with  the  earl 
of  Shrewsbury  and  lord  Delamere,  from  the 
prince  of  Orange,  to  order  his  majesty  to  quit 
the  palace  at  Whitehall.  In  the  convention- 
parliament  he  was  chosen  speaker  of  the  house 
of  lords,  and  strenuously  supported  the  motion 
for  the  vacancy  of  the  throne,  and  the  conjunc- 
tive sovereignty  of  the  prince  and  princess ;  upon 
whose  accession  he  was  again  made  privy -seal. 
Yet,  in  1689,  he  quitted  the  court,  and  became 
a  zealous  opposer  of  the  measures  of  government 
till  his  death,  in  April  1695.  He  wrote,  The 
Anatomy  of  an  Equivalent ;  a  Letter  to  a  Dis- 
senter; a  Rough  Draught  of  a  new  Model  at 
Sea ;  and  Maxims  of  State ;  all  in  one  volume 
8vo.  He  also  published  the  character  of  king 
Charles  II.,  8vo. ;  the  Character  of  Bishop  Bur- 
net,  and  Historical  Observations  upon  the  Reigns 
of  Edward  I.,  II.,  III.,  and  Richard  II.,  with 
Remarks  upon  their  faithful  Counsellors  and 
false  Favorites. 

SAVILE,  or  SAVILLE  (Sir  Henry),  was  born  at 
Bradley,  near  Halifax,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1549. 
He  was  entered  of  Merlon  College,  Oxford  in 
1561,  where  he  took  the  degrees  in  arts,  and  was 
chosen  fellow.  When  he  proceeded  M.  A.,  in 
1570,  he  read  for  that  degree  on  the  Almagest  of 
Ptolemy.  In  1578  he  travelled  into  France  and 
other  countries ;  and  at  his  return  was  made  tutor 
in  the  Greek  to  queen  Elizabeth,  who  had  a  great 
esteem  for  him.  In  158.5  he  was  made  warden 
of  Merton  College,  which  he  governed  thirty- 
six  years  with  great  honor,  and  fmproved  it  by 
all  the  means  in  his  power.  In  1596  he  was 
chosen  provost  of  Eton  College.  In  1619  he 
founded  in  the  university  of  Oxford  two  profes- 
sorships in  geometry  and  in  astronomy ;  which 
he  endowed  with  a  salary  of  £160  a-year  be- 
sides a  legacy  of  £600  to  purchase  more  lands 
for  the  same  use.  He  also  furnished  a  library 
with  mathematical  books,  near  the  mathematical 
school,  for  the  use  of  his  professors ;  and  gave 
£100  to  the  mathematical  chest  of  his  own  ap- 
pointing :  adding  afterwards  a  legacy  of  £40  a- 
year  to  the  same  chest,  to  the  university,  and  to 
his  professors  jointly.  He  likewise  gave  £120 
towards  the  new  building  of  the  schools,  besides 
several  rare  MSS.  and  printed  books  to  the  Bod- 
leian library  ;  and  a  quantity  of  Greek  types  to 
the  printing-press  at  Oxford.  After  a  life  spent  in 
the  encouragement  of  science  and  literature  in 
general,  he  died  at  Eton  College  the  19th  of 


February,  1622,  in  the  seventy-third  year  of  his 
age,  and  was  buried  in  the  chapel.  The  highest 
encomiums  are  bestowed  on  him  by  all  the 
learned  of  his  time  :  by  Casaubon,  Alercerus, 
Meibomius,  Joseph  Scaliger,  and  bishop  Mon- 
tague ;  who  in  his  Diatribae  upon  Selden's  His- 
tory of  Tythes,  styles  him,  'that  magazine  of 
learning,  whose  memory  shall  be  honorable 
amongst  not  only  the  learned,  but  the  righteous' 
forever.'  His  publications  are,  1.  Four  Books 
of  the  Histories  of  Cornelius  Tacitus,  and  the 
Life  of  Agricola;  with  Notes  upon  them,  in 
folio,  dedicated  to  queen  Elizabeth  in  1581.  2.  A 
View  of  certain  Military  Matters,  orCommmen- 
taries  concerning  Roman  Warfare,  1598.  3. 
Rerum  Anglicarum  Scriptores  Post  Bedam,  &c. 
1596.  4.  The  Works  of  St.  Chrysostom,  in 
Greek,  in  8  vols.  folio,  1613.  Several  editions 
of  this  work  were  afterwards  published  in  Paris. 
5.  In  1618  he  published  a  Latin  Work,  written 
by  Thomas  Bradwardin,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, against  Pelagius,  entitled  De  Causa  Dei 
contra  Pelagium,  et  de  Virtute  Causarum  ;  to 
which  he  prefixed  the  life  of  Bradwardin.  6. 
'In  1621  he  published  a  collection  of  his  own 
Mathematical  Lectures  on  Euclid's  Elements,  in 
4to.  —  7.  Oratio  Coram  Elizabetha  Regina,  Ox- 
oniae  Habita,  anno  1592.  Oxford  1658,  4to. 
8.  He  translated  into  Latin  King  James's  Apology 
for  the  Oath  of  Allegiance.  He  also  left  several 
MSS.  behind  him,  written  by  order  of  king 
James  ;  all  which  are  in  the  Bodleian  library. 
Four  of  his  letters  to  Camden  are  published  by 
Smith,  among  Camden's  Letters,  1691,  4to. 

SAVIN,  in  botany.     See  JUNIPERUS. 

SAVIOUR,  ORDER  OF  ST.,  a  religious  order  of 
the  Romish  church,  founded  by  St.  Bridget, 
about  the  year  1445,  and  so  called  from  its  being 
pretended  that  our  Saviour  himself  declared  its 
constitution  and  rules  to  the  foundress.  It  is 
principally  founded  for  religious  women,  who 
pay  a  particular  honor  to  the  holy  virgin  ;  but 
there  are  some  monks  of  the  order,  to  adminis- 
ter the  sacrament  and  spiritual  assistance  to  the 


SAUL,  Heb.  blKBT,  i.e.  asked,  the  son  of 
Kish,  a  rich  man  of  Gibeah,  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  the  first  king  of  Israel.  Saul's  fruit- 
less journey  seeking  his  father's  asses  ;  his  meet- 
ing with  the  prophet  Samuel  ;  the  interesting 
particulars  foretold  to  him,  with  his  anointing  as 
king,  about  A.  A.  C.  1095,  or  A.  M.  2909  ;  his 
prophesying  with  the  young  prophets  ;  his  ap- 
pointment by  the  lot  ;  his  modesty  in  hiding 
himself;  his  first  victory  over  the  Amorites; 
his  rash  sacrifice  in  the  absence  of  Samuel;  his 
equally  rash  curse  ;  his  victories  over  the  Philis- 
tines and  Amalekites  ;  his  sparing  of  king  Agag, 
with  the  judgment  pronounced  against  him  for 
it  ;  his  jealousy  and  persecution  of  David  ;  his 
barbarous  massacre  of  the  priests  and  people  of 
Nob;  his  repeated  confessions  of  his  injustice  to 
David  ;  his  consultation  of  the  witch  of  En-dor  ; 
with  his  defeat  and  suicide,  are  recorded  in 
1  Sam.  ix  —  xxxi.  He  reigned  forty  years,  and 
died  A.  M.  2949 

SAUMUR,  a  central  town  of  France,  in 
Anjou,  situated  on  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Loire,  over  which  it  has  two  bridges,  the  one 


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from  the  northern  bank  to  an  island  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  the  other  from  the  island  to  the  southern 
bank.  The  former  was  much  injured  in  the  re- 
volutionary war;  but  the  latter,  consisting  of 
twelve  elliptical  arches,  each  of  sixty  feet  span, 
is  still  one  of  the  finest  structures  of  the  kind  in 
France.  The  principal  street,  built  on  a  line 
with  this  bridge,  contains  the  theatre,  and  various 
other  elegant  buildings.  The  castle,  situated  on 
an  eminence  which  commands  the  town,  is  a  very 
ancient  building,  and  is  used  as  a  depot  for  mi- 
litary stores.  The  cavalry  barracks  are  spacious 
and  handsome,  and  the  town  contains  several 
squares  and  Roman  and  Celtic  antiquities.  Its 
chief  attraction,  however,  is  the  beauty  of  the 
surrounding  scenery.  Saumur  was  formerly  forti- 
fied, and  has  long  been  noted  for  Protestantism. 
In  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  the  governor  of  this 
part  of  France,  Duplessis  Mornay,  founded  here 
a  Protestant  academy,  much  resorted  to  during 
the  seventeenth  century.  It  has  manufactures  of 
linen,  woollens,  leather,  and  some  trade  in  wine 
and  brandy.  Saumur  was  the  birthplace  of 
madame  Dacier.  The  road  to  Tours  is  along 
the  banks  of  the  Loire,  on  the  great  mound 
called  the  Leve.  Twenty-seven  miles  south-east 
of  Angers,  and  thirty-eight  W.  S.  W.  of  Tours. 

SAUNDERS,  in  botany  and  dyeing.  See 
PTEROCARPUS  SANTALUM. 

SAUNDERSON  (Dr.  Robert),  an  eminent 
preacher,  born  at  Rotherham  in  Yorkshire,  in 
1587.  He  attended  the  grammar-school  at  Ro- 
therham, where  he  made  such  rapid  proficiency 
that  at  thirteen  he  was  sent  to  Lincoln  College, 
Oxford.  In  1608  he  was  appointed  logic  reader. 
He  took  orders  in  1611,  and  was  promoted  suc- 
cessively to  several  benefices.  Archbishop  Laud 
recommended  him  to  king  Charles  I.  as  a  pro- 
found casuist,  who  appointed  him  one  of  his 
chaplains  in  1631.  The  king  regularly  attended 
his  sermons,  and  said  that  'he  carried  his  ears  to 
hear  others,  but  his  conscience  to  hear  Saunder- 
son.'  In  1642  Charles  created  him  regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Oxford  and  canon  of  Christ 
Church;  but  in  1648  he  was  ejected  by  the 
visitors  from  the  parliament.  When  the  parlia- 
ment proposed  the  abolition  of  the  episcopal 
form  of  church-government,  Charles  desired  him 
to  take  the  subject  under  his  consideration.  He 
accordingly  wrote  a  treatise  entitled  Episcopacy 
as  Established  by  law  in  England  not  Prejudicial 
to  Regal  Power.  At  the  request  of  the  celebrated 
Boyle,  who  sent  him  a  present  of  £50,  Saunder- 
son  published  his  book  De  Conscientia.  On  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.  he  recovered  his  pro- 
fessor^hip  and  canonry,  and  soon  after  was  made 
bishop  of  Lincoln.  During  the  two  years  and  a 
half  in  which  he  possessed  this  new  office,  he 
spent  a  considerable  sum  in  augmenting  poor 
vicarages,  in  repairing  the  palace  at  Bugden,  &c. 
He  died  January  29th,  1663,  in  his  seventy- 
sixth  year.  1.  In  1615  he  published  Logicae 
Artis  Compendium,  which  was  the  system  of 
lectures  he  had  read  in  the  University.  2.  Ser- 
mons, amounting  to  thirty-six,  printed  in  1681, 
folio,  with  the  author's  life  by  Walton.  3.  Nine 
Cases  of  Conscience  Resolved ;  1678,  8vo.  4. 
De  Juramenti  Obligatione.  This  book  was 
translated  into  English  by  Charles  I.  while  a 


prisoner  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  printed  in 
London  in  1665,  8vo.  5.  De  Obligatione  Con- 
scientiae.  6.  Censure  of  Mr.  Antony  Ascham, 
and  of  his  book  of  the  Confusions  and  Revolu- 
tions of  Government.  7.  Pax  Ecclesiee,  con- 
cerning Predestination,  or  the  Five  Points.  8. 
Two  Discourses  in  Defence  of  Archbishop 
Usher's  Writings. 

SACNDERSON  (Dr.  Nicolas),  born  at  Thurlstone 
in  Yorkshire  in  1682,  lost  his  sight  by  the 
small-pox  before  he  was  a  year  old.  But  never, 
theless  he  was  initiated  into  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
man authors  at  a  free  school  at  Penniston 
After  spending  some  years  studying  the  lan- 
guages, his  father,  who  was  in  the  excise,  began 
to  teach  him  arithmetic.  He  soon  surpassed  his 
father ;  and  made  long  and  difficult  calculations 
without  any  sensible  marks  to  assist  his  memory. 
At  eighteen  he  was  taught  the  principles  of  Al- 
gebra and  geometry  by  Richard  West,  esq.,  of 
Undoorbank,  who,  though  a  gentleman  of  fortune, 
yet,  being  strongly  attached  to  mathematical 
learning,  undertook  his  education.  Saunderson 
was  also  assisted  in  his  mathematical  studies  by 
Dr.  Nettleton.  These  two  gentlemen  read  books 
to  him  and  explained  them.  Some  of  his  friends, 
who  had  remarked  his  perspicuous  manner  of 
communicating  his  ideas,  proposed  that  he  should 
attend  the  university  of  Cambridge  as  a  teacher 
of  mathematics.  This  proposal  was  immediately 
put  in  execution ;  and  he  was  conducted  to 
Cambridge,  in  his  twenty-fifth  year,  by  Mr.  Joshua 
Dunn,  a  fellow-commoner  of  Christ's  College. 
The  subject  of  his  lectures  was  the  Principia 
Mathematica,  the  Optics,  and  Arithmetica  Uni- 
versalis  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  he  was  attended 
by  a  very  numerous  audience.  When  Whiston 
was  removed  from  his  professorship,  Saunderson 
was  universally  allowed  to  be  the  man  best  qua- 
lified for  the  succession.  The  heads  of  the  uni- 
versity applied  to  their  chancellor,  the  duke  of 
Somerset,  who  procured  the  royal  mandate  to 
confer  upon  him  the  degree  of  A.  M.  He  was 
then  elected  Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics 
in  November  1711.  He  now  devoted  his  whole 
time  to  his  lectures.  When  George  II.,  in  1728, 
visited  the  university  of  Cambridge,  he  ex- 
pressed a  desire  to  see  professor  Saunderson. 
He  waited  upon  his  majesty  in  the  senate  house, 
and  was  there,  by  the  king's  command,  created 
LL.D.  He  was  admitted  F.R.S.  in  1736. 
He  was  naturally  of  a  vigorous  constitution ;  but 
his  sedentary  life  at  length  rendered  him  scor- 
butic. He  died  on  the  19th  of  April,  1739,  aged 
fifty-seven.  He  wrote  a  system  of  algebra,  which 
was  published  in  2  vols.  4to.  at  London,  after 
his  death  in  1740,  at  the  expense  of  the  Uni- 
versity. Dr.  Saunderson  invented  for  his  own 
use  a  Palpable  Arithmetic ;  that  is,  a  method 
of  performing  operations  in  arithmetic  solely  by 
the  sense  of  touch.  In  the  cabinet  of  medals,  at 
Cambridge,  he  could  single  out  the  Roman 
medals  with  the  utmost  correctness ;  he  could 
Iso  perceive  the  slightest  variation  in  the  atmos- 
phere. When  he  walked,  he  knew  when  he 
passed  by  a  tree,  a  wall,  or  a  house.  He  made 
these  distinctions  from  the  different  way  his  face 
was  affected  by  the  motion  of  the  air.  In  his 
youth  he  had  been  a  performer  on  the  flute  ;  and 


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made  such  proficiency,  that,  if  he  had  cultivated 
his  talents  in  this  way,  he  would  probably  have 
been  as  eminent  in  music  as  he  was  in  mathe- 
matics. He  recognised  not  only  his  friends,  but 
even  those  with  whom  he  was  slightly  acquainted, 
by  the  tone  of  their  voice. 

SAUNTER,  v.  n.     Fr.  alter  a  la  salute  terre. 
from  idle  people  who  roved  about  the  country, 
and  asked  charity  under  pretence  of  going  to  the 
holy   land ;    or   sans   terre,   having   no    settled 
home.    To  wander  about  idly  ;  loiter  ;  longer. 
Tell  me,  why  tauniering  thus  from  place  to  place 
I  meet  thee,  Naevolus.  with  clouded  face  ?  Dryden. 

The  cormorant  is  still  iauj\tering  by  the  sea-side, 
to  see  if  he  can  find  any  of  his  brass  cast  up. 

L'Ettrange. 

Though  putting  the  mind  upon  an  unusual  stress 
that  may  discourage,  ought  to  be  avoided  ;  yet  this 
must  not  run  it  into  a  lazy  sauntering  about  ordinary 
things.  Lock*. 

So  the  young  squire,  when  first  he  comes 
From  country  school  to  Will's  or  Tom's, 
Without  one  notion  of  his  own, 
He  MMntert  wildly  up  and  down.  Prior. 

Here  tauntering  apprentices  O'IT  Otway  weep.  Gay. 

The  brainless  stripling 

Spells  uncouth  Latin,  and  pretends  to  Greek  ; 
A  taitnteriny  tribe  !  such  born  to  wide  estates, 
With  yea  and  no  in  senates  hold  debates.  Tkkel. 

Led  by  my  hand,  he  taitntered  Europe  round, 
And  gathered  every  vice  in  every  ground.  Dunciad. 

SAVONA,  at  one  time  a  place  of  great  trade 
in  the  north-west  of  Italy,  was,  in  1648,  half  de- 
stroyed by  an  explosion  of  1000  barrels  of  gun- 
powder, which  had  been  deposited  in  the  citadel. 
Since  then  it  has  suffered  both  from  pestilence 
and  war.  The  principal  articles  of  trade  are 
silk,  wool,  and  fruit ;  and  heavy  iron  ware,  such 
as  ships'  anchors.  Savona  was  the  birth-place  of 
popes  Sixtus  IV.  and  Julius  II.  Columbus  was 
for  some  time  a  resident  here.  In  1745  sixteen 
French  and  Spanish  vessels,  laden  with  military 
stores,  and  lying  in  the  harbour,  were  sunk  by 
the  bombs  of  a  British  squadron.  In  1746  the 
king  of  Sardinia  took  the  town;  and  in  181U 
and  1811  pope  Pius  VII.  resided  here  some 
time  during  his  dispute  with  Buonaparte.  In- 
habitants 10,000.  Twenty  miles  W.S.W.  of 
Genoa,  and  sixty  north-east  of  Nice. 

SAVONAROLA  (Jerome),  a  celebrated  Ita- 
lian monk,  born  at  Ferrara  in  1452,  and  de- 
scended from  a  noble  family.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-two  he  assumed  the  habit  of  a  Dominican 
friar,  without  the  knowledge  of  his  parents,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  that  order  by  his  piety 
and  ability  as  a  preacher  at  Florence.  He  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  faction  which  opposed 
the  family  of  the  Medici.  He  explained  the 
Apocalypse,  and  pointed  out  a  prophesy  which 
foretold  the  destruction  of  his  opponents.  He 
predicted  a  renovation  of  the  church,  and  de- 
claimed with  much  severity  against  the  clergy 
and  the  court  of  Rome.  Alexander  VI.  excom- 
municated him,  and  prohibited  him  from  preach- 
ing. He  derided  the  anathemas  of  the  pope ; 
yet  he  forbore  preaching  for  some  time,  and  then 
resumed  his  employment  with  more  applause 
than  ever.  The  pope  and  the  Medici  family 
then  thought  of  attacking  him  with  his  own  wea- 
pons. Savonarola  having  posted  up  a  thesis  as 
a  subject  of  disputation,  a  Franciscan,  by  their 


instigation,  offered  to  prove  it  heretical.     The 
Franciscan  was  seconded  by  his  brother  friars, 
and  Savonarola  by  his  brethren.     To  convince 
their  antagonists  of  the  superior  sanctity  of  Savo- 
narola, one  of  the  Dominicans  offered   to  walk 
through  a  fire :  and,  to  prove  his  w  ickedness,  a 
Franciscan  agreed  to  the  same  experiment.    The 
multitude,  eager  to  witness  so  extraordinary  a 
spectacle,  urged  both  parties  to  come  to  a  deci- 
sion;   and  the  magistrates  were  constrained   to 
give  their  consent.     Accordingly,  Saturday  the 
7th  of  April,  1498,  was  fixed  for  the  trial.     On 
that  day  the  champions  appeared  ;  but  when  they 
saw  one  another  in  cold  blood,  and  beheld  the 
wood  in  flames,  they  were  anxious  to  escape  the 
imminent  danger  into  which   they  had    rashly 
thrown  themselves.     The  Dominican  pretended 
he  could  not  enter  the  flames  without  the  host 
in  his  hand.      This  the  magistrates  refused   to 
allow;  and  the  Dominican's  fortitude  was  not 
put  to  the  test.     The  Franciscans  incited  the 
multitude  against  their  opponents,  who  accord- 
ingly assaulted  their  monastery,  broke  open  the 
gates,   and   entered  by    force.     Upon  this,  the 
magistrates   brought  Savonarola  to  trial   as  an 
impostor.     He  was  put  to  the  torture,  and  ex- 
amined ;    and   in  the   answers   which   he  gave 
fully  evinced  that  he  was  a  fanatic.    He  boasted 
of  having  frequent  conversations  with  God  ;  and 
his  brother  friars  were  credulous  enough  to  be- 
lieve him.     John  Francis  Picus,  earl  of  Miran- 
dula,  who  wrote  his  life,  assures  us  that  the  devils 
which  infested  the  convent  of  the  Dominicans 
trembled  at  the  sight  of  fiiar  Jerome.    At  length 
pope  Alexander  VI.  sent  the  chief  of  the  Domi- 
nicans, with  bishop  Romolino,  to  degrade  him 
from  holy  orders,  and  to  deliver  him  up  to  the 
secular  judges  with  his  two   fanatical  associates. 
They  were  condemned  to  be  hanged  and  burned 
on  the  23d  of  May,  1498.  Savonarola  submitted 
to  the  execution  of  the  sentence  with  ereat  firm- 
ness and  devotion,  and  without  uttering  a  word 
respecting  his  innocence  or  his  guilt.     He  was 
forty-six  years  of  age.     Immediately  after  his 
death,  his  Confession  was  published  in  his  name. 
It  contained  many  extravagancies,  but  nothing 
to  deserve  so  horrid  a  punishment.       His  adhe- 
rents did  not  fail  to  attribute  to  him  the  power 
of  working  miracles  ;  and  so  strong  a  veneration 
had  they  for  their  chief  that  they  preserved  with 
pious  care  any  parts  of  his  body  which  they 
could  snatch  from  the  flames.     The  earl  of  Mi- 
randula,  the  author  of  his  life,  has  described  him 
as   an    eminent   saint.     He  gravely  informs  us 
that  his  heart  was  found  in  a  river;  and  that  he 
had  a  piece  of  it  in  his  possession,  which  had 
been  very  useful  in  curing  diseases,  and  ejecting 
demons.     Savonarola  has  also  been  defended  by 
F.  Quetif,   Bzovius,  Baron,  and  other  religious 
Dominicans.      He  wrote  a  prodigious  number 
of  books.     He  has  left,   1.  Sermons  in  Italian: 
2.  A   treatise  entitled   Triumphus   (Jrucis ;     3. 
Eruditorum   Confessorum ;  and    several  others. 
His  works  have  been  published  at  Leyden  in  b 
vols.  12mo. 

SA'VOR,  n.s.,  v.n.  &  v.  a.-\      Fr.    sai-fur. 

^A'VORII.Y,  adv.  f  Ascent ;  odor; 

SA'VOR  ix  ESS,  «•  s.  £  taste:  to  have 

SA'VORY,  tidj.  )    a  particular 

taste;   betoken:    to   like;    relish;   the   adverb, 


SAV 


337 


SAU 


noun-substantive,  and  adjective  corresponding. 

Savoury  meat,  such  as  my  father  loveth.    Genesis. 

Thou  savourest  not  the  things  that  be  of  God. 

Matthew. 

What  tavour  is  better,  if  physick  be  true, 
For  places  infected,  than  wormwood  and  rue  ? 

Tusser. 

This  ripping  of  ancestors  is  very  pleasing,  and  sa- 
roureth  of  good  conceit  and  some  reading. 

Spenser  on  Ireland. 

Wisdom  and  goodness  to  the  vile  seem  vile  ; 
Filths  savour  but  themselves.  Sliakspeare. 

The  duke's  answers  to  his  appeachments  are  very 
diligently  and  civilly  couched  ;  and,  though  his  heart 
was  big,  yet  they  all  savour  of  an  humble  spirit. 

Wotton. 

Benzo  calls  its  smell  a  tartareous  and  hellish  sa- 
vour. Abbot. 

If  'twere  a  secret  that  concerned  my  life, 
This  boldness  might  become  thee  ; 
But  such  unnecessary  rudeness  savours 
Of  some  design.  Denham's  Sophy. 

That  savours  only  of  rancour  and  pride.     Milton. 
The  pleasant  savoury  smell 

So  quickened  appetite,  that  I 

Could  not  but  taste !  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

That  Jews  stink  naturally,  that  is,  that  there  is 
in  their  race  an  evil  savour,  is  a  received  opinion  we 
know  not  how  to  admit.  Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

This  mufti  is  some  English  renegado,  he  talks  so 
favourilu  of  toaping.  Drydf.ns  Don  Sebastian. 

The  collation  he  fell  to  very  s<ivourily.     L' Estrange. 

A  director  influence  from  the  sun  gives  fruit  a 
better  savour  and  a  greater  worth.  Smith. 

I  have  rejected  every  thing  that  savours  of  party. 

Addisim. 

Truffles,  which  have  an  excellent  oil,  and  a  vola- 
tile salt  of  a  grateful  savour,  are  heating. 

Arbuthnot  on  Diet. 

SAVOY,  a  duchy  of  the  north-west  part  of 
the  continental  states  of  Sardinia,  extending  from 
lat.  45°  8'  to  46°  28'  N.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
vest  by  France,  on  the  east  by  Piedmont.  Its 
form  is  oblong,  its  length  from  north  to  south 
being  ninety-four  miles,  its  general  breadth  be- 
tween sixty  and  seventy.  Its  superficial  extent 
is  about  3800  square  miles ;  its  population  about 
450,000. 

The  scenery  of  Savoy,  less  remarkable  for 
beauty  than  for  grandeur,  produces  in  the  mind 
of  the  spectator  feelings  of  awe,  and  even  terror. 
From  the  bleak  tops  of  the  mountains  the  view 
is  infinitely  diversified:  the  bottom  of  the  valley 
is  strewed  with  cottapes,  fields,  and  vineyards ; 
verdant  pastures  extend  along  the  base,  and 
through  a  considerable  part  of  the  ascent :  here 
succeed  forests,  often  of  great  length ;  while  the 
summit  is  crowned  with  snow  and  ice.  Savoy  is 
the  region  of  Mount  Blanc,  Mount  St.  Bernard, 
Mount  Cenis,  Mount  Iseran,  Mount  Valaison, 
and  Mount  Toumet,  all  connected,  forming  the 
stupendous  barrier  between  Savoy  and  Piedmont. 
The  roads  are  often  impassable  for  carriages, 
and  burdens  are  generally  carried  on  the  backs 
of  horses  or  mules.  Wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye, 
and  hemp,  are  produced  in  the  valleys  :  and  the 
pasturage  enables  the  agriculturists  to  send  num- 
bers of  fine  cattle  into  Piedmont  and  the  Mila- 
nese. The  exports  are  chiefly  raw  produce,  such 
as  cheese,  butter,  hemp,  tanned  skins,  and  wool. 
The  transit  trade  between  France  and  Italy  is 
earned  on  chiefly  by  the  new  road  across  Mount 
VOL.  XLV  " 


Cenis  :  the  manufactures  are  confined  to  a  few 
coarse  linens,  tanning,  hardware,  pottery,  and  a 
little  paper. 

The  Savoyards  have  a  brown  complexion,  from 
their  frequent  exposure  to  the  air,  and  live  chiefly 
in  the  country ;  for  except  Chambery,  their  ca- 
pital, there  is  no  town  of  5000  inhabitants.  From 
the  simplicity  of  their  manners,  and  their  fru- 
gality and  sobiiety,  they  have,  by  some  writers, 
been  compared  to  the  Germans,  as  described  by 
Tacitus.  An  uninstructed,  they  are  at  the  same 
time  an  uncorrupted  people.  The  language  in 
common  use  is  a  mixture  of  French  and  Italian. 
The  Savoyards  quit  their  native  mountains,  in 
the  same  way  as  the  Welsh  or  the  Scottish  High- 
landers, and  are  remarked  for  pursuing  a  va- 
riety of  petty  callings.  '  The  Savoyards,'  says 
Mr.  Galette,  a  late  observer,  '  are  good-natured, 
gentle,  plain  in  their  manners,  simple  in  their 
affection,  faithful,  and  honest.  Improvidence 
is  a  striking  feature  in  their  national  character, 
and  is  as  strong  in  the  nobleman  as  the  peasant. 
They  are  always  in  debt ;  and  I  really  shoul- 
not  think  it  possible  to  name  three  persons  among 
a  hundred,  taken  at  random,  whose  property 
would;  be  free  from  incumbrance.  They  are  un- 
thinkingly liberal  and  generous  ;  yet  they  cannot 
bring  themselves  to  pay  what  they  owe !  If  you 
happen  to  have  a  claim  for  £5  on  a  Savoyard, 
he  will,  very  probably,  spend  £100  in  giving 
you  and  your  whole  family  a  hearty  hospitable 
reception,  for  months,  but  the  poor  £5  will  not 
be  forthcoming  after  all.  The  laws,  with  respect 
to  debtors,  are  the  worst  in  Europe ;  they  are 
framed  in  such  a  manner  as  effectually  to  pre- 
vent strangers  from  lending  pecuniary  assistance 
to  the  natives,  even  on  the  best  landed  security.' 
On  the  whole,  this  country  is  very  far  behind 
the  rest  of  Europe,  and  seems  to  belong  to  ano- 
ther century,  or  to  another  quarter  of  the  globe. 

Savoy  (derived  from  the  Latin  Sabaudia)  was 
the  country  of  a  well  known  tribe  of  Celtic  ori- 
gin, the  Allobroges,  who  were  subjugated  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus.  Their  country  formed  a  part 
of  the  great  province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis, 
and  remained  in  possession  of  the  Romans  during 
several  centuries ;  a  length  of  possession  which 
accounts  for  the  numerous  remains  of  Roman 
antiquities  found  in  different  parts.  After  various 
changes,  it  was  erected,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century,  into  a  county.  In  the  fif- 
teenth century  it  became  a  dukedom,  and  had  a 
large  accession  of  power  in  the  acquisition  of 
Piedmont.  The  ducal  family,  as  we  have  seen 
in  the  article  SARDINIA,  acquired  the  royal  title 
in  1719,  and  with  it  nearly  its  present  domi- 
nions. 

SAVOY,  in  botany.     See  BRASSICA. 

SAURIN  (James),  a  celebrated  preacher,  born 
at  Nismes  in  1677,  and  the  son  of  a  Protestant 
lawyer  of  eminence.  He  applied  to  his  studies 
with  great  success  ;  but  at  length  he  relinquished 
them  for  the  profession  of  arms.  In  1694  he 
made  a  campaign  as  a  cadet  in  lord  Galloway's 
company,  and  soon  afterwards  obtained  a  pair 
of  colors  in  the  regiment  of  colonel  Renault, 
which  served  in  Piedmont.  But,  the  duke  of  Sa- 
voy having  made  peace  with  France,  he  returned 
to  Geneva,  and  resumed  the  study  of  philosophy 

Z 


SAU 


338 


SAU 


and  theology,  under  Turretin  and  other  profes- 
sors. In  1700  he  visited  Holland,  then  came 
to  England,  where  he  remained  for  several  years, 
and  married.  In  1705  he  returned  to  the  Hague, 
where  he  fixed  his  residence,  and  preached  with 
the  most  unbounded  applause.  His  sermons, 
especially  those  published  during  his  life,  are 
distinguished  for  justness  of  thought,  and  an  ele- 
gant unaffected  style.  Saurin  died  on  the  30th 
of  December,  1730,  aged  fifty-three.  He  wrote 
1.  Sermons,  in  12  vols.  8vo.  and  12mo.  2.  Dis- 
courses Historical,  Critical,  and  Moral,  on  the 
most  memorable  Events  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament.  This  is  his  greatest  and  most  valua- 
ble work.  It  was  printed  first  in  2  vols.  folio. 
Beausobre  and  Roques  undertook  a  continuation 
of  it,  and  increased  it  to  4  vols.  3.  The  State  of 
Christianity  in  France,  1725, 8vo.  4.  An  Abridg- 
ment of  Christian  Theology  and  Morality,  in  the 
form  of  a  Catechism,  1722,  8vo.  He  after- 
wards published  an  abridgment  of  this  work.  5. 
His  Dissertation  on  the  Expediency  of  some- 
times disguising  the  Truth  raised  a  multitude  of 
enemies  against  him.  In  this  discourse  his  plan 
was  to  state  the  arguments  of  those  who  affirm 
that,  in  certain  cases,  it  is  lawful  to  disguise 
truth,  and  the  answers  of  those  who  maintained 
the  contrary.  He  does  not  determine  the  ques- 
tion, but  seems,  however,  to  incline  to  the  first 
opinion.  He  was  immediately  attacked  by  seve- 
ral adversaries,  and  a  long  controversy  ensued ; 
but  his  doctrines  and  opinions  were  at  length 
publicly  approved  of  by  the  synods  of  Campen 
and  of  the  Hague. 

SAURIN  (Joseph),  a  geometrician  of  the  Aca- 
demy of  Sciences  at  Paris,  born  at  Courtouson, 
in  the  principality  of  Orange,  in  1659.  His  fa- 
ther, who  was  a  minister  at  Grenoble,  was  his 
first  preceptor.  He  made  rapid  progress  in  his 
studies,  and  was  admitted  minister  of  Eure,  in 
Dauphiny,  when  very  young ;  but,  having  made 
use  of  some  violent  expressions  in  one  of  his  ser- 
mons, he  was  obliged  to  quit  France  in  1683. 
He  retired  to  Geneva,  and  thence  to  Berne, 
where  he  obtained  a  considerable  living;  but 
soon  after  repaired  to  Holland.  He  returned 
afterwards  to  France,  and  surrendered  himself 
lo  Bossuet  bishop  of  Meaux,  who  obliged  him  to 
make  a  recantation  of  his  errors.  He  was  favor- 
ably received  by  Louis  XIV.,  obtained  a  pension 
from  him,  and  was  treated  by  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  with  the  most  flattering  respect.  At 
that  time  (1717)  geometry  formed  his  principal 
occupation.  He  adorned  the  Journal  des  Sea- 
vans  with  many  excellent  treatises ;  and  he  added 
to  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  many  interesting 
papers.  These  are  the  only  works  which  he  has 
left.  He  died  in  Paris  December  29th,  1737, 
in  his  seventy-eighth  year,  of  a  fever. 

SAUROMAT^E.    See  S  ARM  AT*. 

SAURURUS,  in  botany,  lizard's  tail,  a  genus 
of  the  tetragynia  order  and  heptandria  class  of 
plants ;  natural  order  second,  piperitae  :  CAL.  a 
catkin,  with  uniflorous  scales:  COR.  none;  ger- 
mina  four  and  four  monospermous  berries. 

SAUSSURE  (Horace  Benedict),  de,  was  born 
in  Geneva  in  1740.  His  earliest  passion  was 
botany  :  his  father  was  a  scientific  agriculturalist ; 
and  a  variegated  soil,  abundant  in  plants  of  dif- 


ferent kinds,  invites  the  inhabitant  of  the  banks 
of  the  Leman  to  cultivate  that  agreeable  science. 
This  taste  produced  an  intimacy  between  De 
Saussure  and  the  great  Haller.  De  Saussure 
was  induced  also  to  study  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
by  his  connexion  with  Ch.  Bonnet,  who  had 
married  his  aunt,  and  who  soon  set  a  just  value 
on  the  rising  talents  of  his  nephew.  Bonnet 
was  then  employed  on  the  leaves  of  plants.  De 
Saussure  studied  these  organs  of  vegetables  also, 
and  he  published  the  result  of  his  researches, 
under  the  title  of  Observations  on  the  Bark  of 
Leaves.  This  small  work,  which  appeared  soon 
after  1760,  contains  new  observations  on  the 
epidermis  of  leaves,  and  in  particular  on  the 
miliary  glands  by  which  they  are  covered.  About 
that  period,  the  place  of  professor  of  philosophy 
falling  vacant,  it  was  conferred  upon  De  Saus- 
sure, who  was  then  only  twenty-one  years  of  age. 
At  that  time  the  two  professors  of  philosophy 
at  Geneva  taught  physics  and  logic  alternately. 
De  Saussure  discharged  this  double  task  with 
equal  success.  For  physics,  however,  he  had 
the  greatest  taste,  and  they  conducted  him  to  the 
study  of  chemistry  and  mineralogy.  He  then 
began  his  travels  through  the  mountains  ;  not  now 
to  examine  their  vegetable  productions,  but  to 
study  their  geological  character.  During  the 
first  fifteen  or  twenty  years  of  his  professorship 
he  employed  himself  by  turns  in  discharging  the 
duties  of  his  office,  and  in  traversing  the  different 
Alpine  ranges  near  Geneva.  He  even  extended 
his  excursions  on  one  side  as  far  as  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine,  and  on  the  other  to  Piedmont.  At 
the  same  time  he  undertook  a  journey  to  Au- 
vergne,  to  examine  there  the  extinguished  vol- 
canoes, and  another  to  Paris,  England,  and  Hol- 
land. After  that  he  visited  Italy  and  Sicily. 
In  1779  he  published  the  first  volume  of  his 
Travels  through  the  Alps;  which  contains  a 
minute  description  of  the  environs  of  Geneva, 
and  an  excursion  as  far  as  Chamouni,  a  village 
at  the  bottom  of  Mont  Blanc.  Amidst  his  nu- 
merous excursions  through  the  Alps,  and  at  the 
time  of  the  political  troubles  of  Geneva  in  1782, 
he  made  his  experiments  on  hygrornetry,  which 
he  published  in  1783,  under  the  title  of  Essays 
on  Hygrornetry.  In  1786  De  Saussure  resigned 
the  professor's  chair,  which  he  had  filled  for 
about  twenty-five  years,  to  his  pupil  and  fellow- 
laborer  Pictet.  The  second  volume  of  his  Tra- 
vels was  published  in  1786.  It  contains  a  de- 
scription of  the  Alps  around  Mont  Blanc,  and 
also  some  interesting  experiments  on  electricity, 
and  a  description  of  his  electrometer.  Some 
years  after  the  publication  of  the  second  volume 
of  his  Travels,  he  was  admitted  as  a  foreign  as- 
sociate of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris.  De 
Saussure  was  the  founder  of  the  Genevese  So- 
ciety of  Arts,  over  which  he  presided  till  thelast 
moment  of  his  life  ;  and  one  of  his  fondest  wishes 
was  the  preservation  of  this  useful  establishment. 
By  his  fatiguing  labors  in  the  council  of  Five 
Hundred,  of  which  he  was  a  member,  and  after- 
wards in  the  National  assembly,  his  health,  how 
ever  began  to  be  deranged,  and  in  1794  he  was 
almost  deprived  of  the  use  of  his  limbs  by  a  stroke 
of  the  palsy.  But  his  mind  still  preserved  its 
activity;  and  after  that  accident  he  revised  the 


SAW 


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two  last  volumes  of  his  Travels,  which  appeared 
in-1796.  They  contain  an  account  of  his  excur- 
sions to  the  mountains  of  Piedmont  and  Switzer- 
land, and  in  particular  of  his  journey  to  the  sum- 
mit of  Mont  Blanc.  It  was  also  during  his  illness 
that  he  directed  the  experiments  made  on  the 
height  of  the  bed  of  the  Arve,  and  that  he  pub- 
lished Observations  on  the  Fusibility  of  Stones 
by  the  Blow-pipe,  which  were  inserted  in  the 
Journal  de  Physique.  Having  gone  for  the  sake 
of  his  health  to  the  baths  of  Plombiers,  he  still  ob- 
served the  mountains  at  a  distance,  and  caused 
to  be  brought  to  him  specimens  of  the  strata 
which  he  perceived  in  the  steepest  rocks.  He  had 
announced  that  he  would  conclude  his  travels 
with  some  ideas  on  the  primitive  state  of  the 
earth  ;  but  the  more  he  acquired  new  facts,  and 
the  more  he  meditated  on  the  subject,  the  more 
uncertain  did  his  opinions  become  in  regard  to 
those  grand  revolutions  which  preceded  the  pre- 
sent epoch.  Though  the  state  of  his  health  be- 
gan gradually  to  become  worse,  the  French 
government  appointed  him  professor  of  philoso- 
phy at  the  Special  School  of  Paris;  but  his 
strength  was  exhausted.  On  the  22d  of  March, 
1799,  he  terminated  his  brilliant  career  at  the 
age  of  fifty-nine.  Saussure  was  not  only  the  au- 
thor of  many  Essays,  and  Papers,  relating  to 
natural  history,  but  displayed  his  ingenuity  by 
the  construction  of  a  thermometer  for  measuring 
the  temperature  of  water  at  various  depths,  of  a 
hygrometer,  to  determine  the  quantity  of  aqueous 
vapor  in  the  air,  of  a  eudiometer  to  ascertain 
the  purity  of  the  atmosphere,  of  an  electrometer, 
mi  anemometer,  and  other  philosophical  instru- 
ments. He  had  a  most  extensive  correspondence 
\\  ith  men  of  science. 

SAVU,  an  island  in  the  eastern  seas,  described 
by  Cook  as  twenty  miles  in  length ;  in  the  mid- 
dle are  hills  of  a  considerable  height.  It  is  re- 
presented both  by  captain  Cook  and  by  M. 
Labillarde  as  presenting  an  enchanting  prospect 
from  the  sea.  '  The  principal  trees  of  this  island,' 
says  our  great  navigator,  '  are  the  fan-paim,  the 
cocoa-nut,  tamarind,  limes,  oranges,  and  man- 
goes ;  and  other  vegetable  productions  are  maize, 
Guinea-corn,  rice,  millet,  calevances,  and  water- 
melons. We  saw  also  one  sugar-cane,  and  a 
few  kinds  of  European  garden  stuff,  particularly 
celery,  marjoram,  fennel,  and  garlic.  For  the 
supply  of  luxury,  it  has  betel,  areca,  tobacco, 
cotton,  indigo,  and  a  small  quantity  of  cinnamon, 
which  seems  to  be  planted  here  only  for  curiosity. 
There  are,  however,  several  kinds  of  fruit  besides 
those  which  have  been  already  mentioned.  The 
tame  animals  are  buffaloes,  sheep,  goats,  hogs, 
fowls,  pigeons,  horses,  asses,  dogs,  and  cats  ; 
and  of  all  these  there  is  great  plenty.  The  sheep 
are  of  the  kind  which  in  England  are  called 
Bengal  sheep,  and  differ  from  ours  in  many  par- 
ticulars. The  fowls  are  chiefly  of  the  game 
breed,  and  large,  but  the  eggs  are  remarkably 
small.  Of  the  fish  which  the  sea  produces  here 
we  know  but  little  :  turtles  are  sometimes  found 
upon  the  coast,  and  are  by  these  people,  as  well 
as  all  others,  considered  as  a  dainty.  The  people 
are  rather  under  than  above  the  middling  size  ; 
the  women  especially  are  remarkably  short,  and 
squat  built ;  their  complexion  is  a  dark  brown, 


and  their  hair  universally  black  and  lank.  The 
men  are  in  general  well  made,  vigorous,  and 
active,  and  have  a  greater  variety  in  the  make  and 
disposition  of  their  features  than  usual;  the 
countenances  of  the  women  are,  on  the  contrary, 
all  alike.  The  men  fasten  their  hair  up  to  the 
top  of  their  heads  with  a  comb ;  the  women  tie 
it  behind  in  a  club,  which  is  very  far  from  be- 
coming. Both  sexes  eradicate  the  hair  from 
under  the  arm,  and  the  men  do  the  same  with 
their  beards,  for  which  purpose  the  better  sort 
always  carry  a  pair  of  silver  pincers,  hanging  by 
a  string  round  their  necks ;  some,  however, 
suffer  a  very  little  hair  to  remain  upon  their  up- 
per lips ;  but  this  is  always  kept  short.  The 
dress  of  both  sexes  consists  of  cotton  cloth,  which 
being  dyed  blue  in  the  yarn,  and  not  uniformly 
of  the  same  shade,  is  in  clouds  or  waves  of  that 
color,  and  even  in  our  eye  had  not  an  inelegant 
appearance.  This  cloth  they  manufacture  them- 
selves; and  two  pieces,  each  about  two  yards 
long  and  a  yard  and  a  half  wide,  make  a  dress. 
Almost  all  the  men  had  their  names  traced  upon 
their  arms  in  indelible  characters  of  a  black 
color  ;  and  the  women  had  a  square  ornament  of 
flourished  lines  impressed  in  the  same  manner, 
just  under  the  bend  of  the  elbow.  The  houses  of 
Savu  are  all  built  upon  the  same  plan,  and  differ 
only  in  size,  being  large  in  proportion  to  the  rank 
and  riches  of  the  proprietor.  Some  are  400  feet 
long,  and  some  are  not  more  than  twenty ;  they  are 
all  raised  upon  posts  or  piles  about  four  feet  high. 
When  the  natives  of  this  island  were  first 
formed  into  a  civil  society  is  not  certainly  known, 
but  at  present  it  is  divided  into  five  principali- 
ties or  nigrees :  Laai,  Seba,  Regecua,  Timo,  and 
Massara,  each  of  which  is  governed  by  its  re- 
spective rajah  or  king.  The  religion  of  these 
people,  according  to  Mr.  Lange's  information,  is 
an  absurd  kind  of  Paganism,  every  mau  choos- 
ing his  own  god,  and  determining  for  himself 
how  he  should  be  worshipped,  so  that  there  are 
almost  as  many  gods  and  modes  of  worship  as 
there  are  people.  In  their  morals,  however,  they 
are  said  to  be  irreproachable.'  Long.  122°  30' 
E.,  lat.  10°  35'  S. 

SAUVAGES  (Francis  Boissier),  de,  an  emi- 
nent French  physician,  born  in  1706.  His  abili- 
ties procured  him  the  professorships  of  medicine 
and  botany  in  the  university  of  Montpellier.  His 
works  are  very  numerous.  The  principal  are, 
1.  Theoria  Febris,  1738,  12mo. :  2.  Nosologi.i 
Methodica;  5  vols.  8vo.  1763:  3.  Physiologiae 
Mechanics  Elementa;  1755, 12mo. 

SAUVAGESIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants  : 
COR.  pentapetalous  and  fringed  :  CAL.  pentaphyl- 
lous ;  the  nectarium  the  same,  having  its  leaves 
placed  alternately  with  the  petals :  CAPS,  unilo- 
cular.  Species  one ;  a  West  Indian  plant. 

SAW,  n.  s.  Sax.  raja;  Belg.  saeghe  ;  Goth. 
saga.  A  saying ;  maxim ;  proverb. 

Good  king,  that  must  approve  the  common  saw  : 
Thou  out  of  Heaven's  benediction  comest 
To  the  warm  sun  !  Shafcspeare.  King  Lear. 

His  weapons,  holy  saws  of  sacret  writ     Shaktpeare. 

Strict  age  and  sour  severity, 

With  their  grave  saws  in  slumber  lie.  Milton. 

Z  2 


340 


SAWING. 


SAW,  n.  f.  &  v.  a.  -\  Sax.  rz%z,  or  pje,  of 
SAW'DUST,  n.  s.  J  Goth.sega,to  cut;  Fr.  scie. 
SAW'PIT,  \A  dentated  instrument 

SAW  WREST,  i  which  cuts  by  attrition: 

SAWYER.  J  to  use   such   an    instru- 

ment :  saw-dust  is  the  dust  it  makes :  saw-pit, 
a  pit  for  the  sawing  of  timber :  saw -wrest  an  in- 
strument used  in  sharpening  saws :  sawyer,  a 
man  whose  trade  is  to  saw  timber. 

They  were  stoned,  they  were  tawn  asunder. 

Hebrew*. 

A  carpenter  after  he  hath  sawn  down  a  tree,  and 
wrought  it  handsomely,  sets  it  in  a  wall. 

Wild.  xiii.  11. 

Let  them  from  forth  a  sawpit  rush  at  once 
With  some  diffused  frong.  Shakspeare. 

The  roach  is  a  leather  mouthed  fish,  and  has  »aw- 
like  teeth  in  his  throat.  Walton'*  Angler. 

It  is  an  incalescency,  from  a  swift  motion,  such  as 
that  of  running,  threshing,  or  tawing. 

Kay  on  the  Creation. 

Then  saws  were  toothed,  and  sounding  axes  made. 

Dryden. 

Rotten  sawdust,  mixed  with  earth,  enriches  it  very 
much.  Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

They  colour  it  by  laying  it  in  a  tawpit  that  hath 
oak  tawduit  therein.  Id. 

With  the  saw-wrest  they  set  the  teeth  of  the  saw  ; 
that  is,  they  put  one  of  the  notches  of  the  wrest  be- 
tween the  first  two  teeth  on  the  blade  of  the  saw,  and 
then  turn  the  handle  horizontally  a  little  about  upon 
the  notch  towards  the  end  of  the  saw ;  and  that  at 
once  turns  the  first  tooth  somewhat  towards  you, 
and  the  second  tooth  from  you. 

Moxon's  Mechanical  Exercise. 

The  pit-saw  is  used  by  joiners,  when  what  they 
have  to  do  may  be  as  soon  done  at  home  as  send  it 
to  the  sawyers.  Id. 

If  I  cut  my  finger,  I  shall  as  certainly  feel  pain 
as  if  my  soul  was  co-extended  with  the  limb,  and 
had  a  piece  of  it  saum  through.  Collier. 

If  the  membrane  be  fouled  by  the  taivilust  of  the 
bone,  wipe  it  off  with  a  sponge.  Wiicman. 

If  they  cannot  cut, 
His  taws  are  toothless,  and  his  hatchets  lead.  Pope. 

SAWING.  This  is  practically  regarded  ns  a 
distinct  business  from  the  trades,  in  which  the 
saw  is  not  only  a'very  useful,  but  necesary  im- 
plement, snch  as  those  of  the  carpenter,  cabinet- 
maker, cooper,  &c.  The  saw  is  an  instrument 
which  serves  to  cut  into  pieces  several  solid 
matters;  as  wood,  stone,  ivory,  &c.  The  best 
saws  are  of  tempered  steel,  ground  bright  and 
smooth ;  those  of  iron  are  only  hammer-har- 
dened; hence  the  first,  besides  their  being  stiffer, 
are  likewise  found  smoother.  They  are  known 
1o  be  well  hammered  by  the  stiff  bending  of  the 
blade ;  and  to  be  well  and  evenly  ground  by  their 
bending  equally  in  a  bow.  The  edge  in  which 
are  the  teeth  is  always  thicker  than  the  back, be- 
cause the  back  is  to  follow  the  edge.  The  teeth 
are  cut  and  sharpened  with  a  triangular  file,  the 
blade  of  the  saw  being  first  fixed  in  a  whetting- 
bloclt.  After  they  have  been  filed,  the  teeth  are 
set,  that  is,  turned  out  of  the  right  line,  that  they 
may  make  the  kerf  or  fissure  the  wider,  that  the 
back  may  follow  the  better.  The  teeth  are  al- 
ways set  ranker  for  coarse  cheap  stuff  than  for 
hard  and  fine,  because  the  ranker  the  teeth  are 
set  the  more  stuff  is  lost  in  the  kerf.  The  saws 
by  which  marble  and  other  stones  are  cut  have 


no  teeth  :  these  are  generally  very  large,  and  are 
stretched  out  and  held  even  by  a  frame.  The 
lapidaries,  too,  have  their  saw,  as  well  as  the 
workmen  in  mosaic;  but  of  all  mechanics  none 
have  so  many  saws  as  the  joiners  ;  the  chief  are, 
1.  The  pit-saw,  which  is  a  large  two-handed 
saw,  used  to  saw  timber  in  pits ;  this  is  chiefly 
used  by  the  sawyers.  2.  The  whip-saw,  which 
is  also  two-handed,  used  in  sawing  such  large 
pieces  of  stuff  as  the  hand-saw  will  not  easily 
reach.  3.  The  hand-saw,  which  is  made  for  a 
single  man's  use,  of  which  there  are  various 
kinds  ;  as  the  bow,  or  frame  saw,  which  is  fur- 
nished with  cheeks  :  by  the  twisted  cords  which 
pass  from  the  upper  parts  of  these  cheeks,  and 
the  tongue  in  the  middle  of  them,  the  upper 
ends  are  drawn  closer  together,  and  the  lower 
set  further  apart.  4.  The  tennon  saw,  which, 
being  very  thin,  has  a  back  to  keep  it  from  bend- 
ing. 5.  The  compas^  saw,  which  is  very  small, 
and  its  teeth  usually  not  set;  its  use  is  to  cut  a 
round,  or  any  other  compass  kerf :  hence  the 
edge  is  made  broad,  and  the  back  thin,  that  it 
may  have  a  compass  to  turn  in. 

The  surgeons  use  a  saw  to  cut  off  bones  :  this 
should  be  very  small  and  light,  in  order  to  be 
managed  with  the  greater  ease  and  freedom,  the 
blade  exceedingly  fine,  and  the  teeth  exquisitely 
sharpened,  to  make  its  way  more  gently,  and  yet 
with  great  expedition. 

Saws  are  now  generally  used  by  butchers  in  se- 
parating the  bones  of  the  meat :  the  divisions  by 
the  saw  are  neater  than  those  by  the  chopper,  and 
there  is  a  certain  saving,  as  the  chopper  splinters 
bones,  the  parts  of  which  cannot  be  included  in 
the  weight. 

The  pit-saw  is  that  which  is  chiefly  used  in 
the  employment  properly  denominated  sawing. 
The  teeth  are  set  rank  for  coarse  work,  so  as  to 
make  a  fissure  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 
To  perform  the  work,  the  timber  is  laid  on  a 
frame  over  an  oblong  pit,  called  the  saw-pit;  and 
it  is  cut  by  means  of  a  long  saw  fastened  in  a 
frame,  which  is  worked  up  and  down  by  two 
men,  the  one  standing  on  the  wood  to  be  cut,  and 
the  other  in  the  pit.  As  they  proceed  in  their 
work  they  drive  wedges,  at  proper  distances  from 
the  saw,  to  keep  the  fissure  open,  which  enables 
the  saw  to  move  with  freedom.  This,  though  a 
profitable,  is  a  very  laborious  employment,  and 
hence  have  been  introduced  saw-mills,  which, 
in  different  countries,  are  worked  by  different 
means,  as  by  men,  by  horses,  by  water,  by  wind, 
or  by  steam. 

A  saw-mill,  worked  by  men,  consists  of  several 
parallel  saws,  which  are  made  to  rise  and  fall 
perpendicularly  by  means  of  mechanical  motion. 
In  this  case  a  very  few  hands  are  necessary  to 
carry  on  the  operation,  to  push  forward  the 
pieces  of  timber,  which  are  either  laid  on  rollers, 
or  suspended  by  ropes,  in  proportion  as  the 
sawing  advances.  We  shall,  however,  give  a 
more  detailed  account  of  the  saw-mills  as  used 
in  various  parts  of  the  world.  The  history  of 
the  invention  of  sawing  is  curious,  and  may  be 
inserted. 

In  early  periods  of  society  the  trunks  of  trees 
were  split  with  wedges,  into  as  many,  and  a? 
thin  pieces  as  possible  ;  and  if  it  was  necessary 


SAWING. 


341 


to  have  them  still  thinner  they  were  hewn,  by 
some  sharp  instrument,  on  both  sides,  to  die 
proper  size.  This  simple  but  wasteful  manner 
of  making  boards  has  been  still  continued  in  some 
places,  to  the  present  time.  Peter  the  Great,  of 
Russia,  endeavoured  to  put  a  stop  to  it,  by  for- 
bidding hewn  deals  to  be  transported  on  the 
river  Neva.  The  wood-splitters  perform  their 
work  more  expeditiously  than  sawyers,  and  split 
timber  is  much  stronger  than  that  which  has 
been  sawn ;  for  the  fissure  follows  the  grain  of 
the  wood,  and  leaves  it  whole ;  whereas  the  saw, 
which  proceeds  in  the  line  chalked  out  for  it, 
divides  the  fibres,  and  by  these  means  lessens 
its  cohesion  and  strength.  Split  timber,  indeed, 
turns  out  often  crooked  and  warped  ;  but,  in 
many  purposes  to  which  it  is  applied,  this  is  by 
no  means  prejudicial ;  and  the  fault  may  some- 
times be  amended.  As  the  fibres,  however,  re- 
tain their  natural  strength  and  direction,  thin 
boards  particularly  can  be  bent  much  better. 
This  is  a  great  advantage  in  making  pipe-staves, 
and  in  forming  various  implements  of  the  like 
kind. 

Our  common  saw,  which  needs  only  to  be 
guided  by  the  hand  of  the  workman,  however 
simple  it  may  be,  was  not  known  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  America  when  they  were  subdued  by  the 
Europeans.  The  inventor  of  this  instrument  has, 
by  the  Greeks,  been  inserted  in  their  mythology, 
with  a  place  among  those  whom  they  have 
honored  as  the  greatest  benefactors  of  the  earliest 
ages.  By  some  he  is  called  Talus,  and  by  others 
Perdix.  Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  to  Daeda- 
lus, but  Hardouin,  in  the  passage  where  he  does 
SK>,  reads  Talus  rather  than  Daedalus.  Diodorus 
Nculus,  Apollodorus,  and  others,  name  the  in- 
ventor Talus.  He  was  the  son  of  Daedalus's 
sister;  and  was,  by  his  mother,  placed  under 
the  tuition  of  her  brother,  to  be  instructed  in  his 
art.  Having,  it  is  said,  once  found  the  jaw-bone 
of  a  snake,  he  employed  it  to  cut  through  a 
small  piece  of  wood  ;  and,  by  these  means,  was 
induced  to  form  a  like  instrument  of  iron,  that 
is,  a  saw.  This  invention,  which  greatly  facili- 
tates labor,  excited  the  envy  of  his  master,  and 
instigated  him  to  put  Talus  to  death  privatdy. 
\V  e  are  told  that,  being  asked,  when  he  was 
burying  the  body,  what  he  was  depositing  in  the 
earth,  he  replied,  '  A  serpent.'  This  suspicious 
answer  discovered  the  murder ;  and  thus,  adds 
the  historian,  a  snake  was  the  cause  of  the  inven- 
tion, of  the  murder,  and  of  its  being  found  out. 

The  saws  of  the  Grecian  carpenters  had  the 
same  form,  and  were  made  in  the  like  ingenious 
manner  as  ours  are  at  present.  This  is  fully 
shown  by  a  painting  still  preserved  among  the 
antiquities  of  Herculaneum.  Two  genii  are  re- 
presented at  the  end  of  a  bench,  which  consists  of  a 
long  table  that  rests  upon  two  four-footed  stools. 
The  piece  of  wood  which  is  to  be  sawn  through 
is  secured  by  cramps.  The  saw  with  which  the 
genii  are  at  work  has  a  perfect  resemblance  to 
our  frame  saw.  It  consists  of  a  square  frame, 
having  in  the  middle  a  blade,  the  teeth  of  which 
stand  perpendicularly  to  the  plane  of  the  frame. 
The  piece  of  wood  which  is  to  be  sawn  extends 
beyond  the  end  of  the  bench,  and  one  of  the 
workmen  appears  standing,  and  the  other  sitting 


on  the  ground.  The  arms,  in  which  the  blade 
is  fastened,  have  the  same  form  as  that  given  to 
them  at  present.  In  the  bench  are  seen  holes, 
in  which  the  cramps  that  hold  the  timber  are 
struck,  and  the  ends  of  them  reach  below  the 
boards  that  form  the  top  of  it. 

The  most  beneficial  and  ingenious  improve- 
ment of  this  instrument  was,  without  doubt,  the 
invention  of  saw-mills ;  which  are  now  generally 
driven  either  by  steam, by  water,  or  by  the  wind. 
Mills  of  the  first  kind  were  erected  so  early  as 
the  fourth  century,  in  Germany,  on  the  small 
river  Roeur  or  Raer,  for  though  Ausonius  speaks 
of  water-mills  for  cutting  stone,  and  not  timber, 
it  cannot  be  doubted  that  these  were  invented 
later  than  mills  for  cutting  out  deals,  or  that  both 
kinds  were  erected  at  the  same  time.  Pliny  con- 
jectures that  the  mill  for  cutting  stone  was  in- 
vented in  Caria ;  at  least  he  knew  no  building 
incrusted  with  marble  of  greater  antiquity  than 
the  palace  of  king  Mausolus,  at  Halicarnassus. 
This  edifice  is  celebrated  by  Vitruvius  for  the 
beauty  of  its  marble  ;  and  Pliny  gives  an  account 
of  the  kinds  of  sand  used  for  cutting  it  ;  for  it  is 
the  sand,  he  says,  and  not  the  saw,  which  pro- 
duces that  effect.     The  latter  presses  down  the 
former,  and  rubs  it  against  the  marble  ;  and  the 
coarser  the  sand  is,  the  longer  will  be  the  time 
required  to  polish  the  marble  which  has  been  cut 
by  it.     Notwithstanding  these  facts  there  is  no 
account  in  any  of  the  Greek  or  Roman  writers 
of  a  mill  for  sawing  wood ;  and,  as  the  writers  of 
modern  times  speak  of  saw-mills  as  new  and  un- 
common, it  would  seem  that  the  oldest  construc- 
tion of  them  has  been  lost,  or  that  some  important 
improvement  has   made   them   appear  entirely 
new.     Becher  says  that  saw-mills  were  invented 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  In  this  he  erred  ;  for 
when  settlers  were  conveyed  to  the  island  of  Ma- 
deira, which  was  discovered  in  1420,  saw-mills 
were  erected  also,  for  the  purpose  of  sawing  into 
planks  the  various  species  of  excellent  timber 
with  which  the  island  abounded,  and  which  were 
afterwards  transported  to  Portugal.     About  the 
year  1427  the  city  of  Breslau  had  a  saw-mill, 
which  produced  a  yearly  rent  of  three  marks  ; 
and  in  1490  the  magistrates  of  Erfurt  purchased 
a  forest,  in  which  they  caused  a  saw-mill  to  be 
erected,  and  they  rented  another  mill  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood besides.      Norway,  which  is  covered 
with  forests,  had  the  first  saw-mill  about  the  year 
1530.      This  mode  of  manufacturing  timber  was 
called  the  new  art ;  and,  because  the  exportation^ 
of  deals  was  by  these  means  increased,  that  cir- ' 
cumstance  gave  occasion  to  the  deal-tithe,  intro 
duced  by  Christian  III.  in  the  year  1545.    Soon 
after  the  celebrated  Henry  Canzau  caused  the 
first  mill  of  this  kind  to  be  built  in  Holstein.  In 
1552  there  was  a  saw-mill  at  Joachimsthal,  which 
as  we  are  told,  belonged  to  Jacob  Geusen,  ma- 
thematician.    In  the  year  1555  the  bishop  of 
Ely,  ambassador  from  Mary  queen  of  England 
to  the  court  of  Rome,  having  seen  a  saw-mill  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Lyons,  the  writer  of  his 
travels  thought  it  worthy  of  a  particular  descrip- 
tion.    In  the  sixteenth  century,  however,  there 
were  mills  with  different  saw-blades,  by  which  a 
plank  could  be  cut  into  several  deals  at  the  same 
time.  The  first  saw-mill  \>as  erected  in  Holland. 


34-J 


SAWING. 


at  Saardam,  in  the  year  1596;  and  the  invention 
of  it  is  ascribed  to  Cornelius  Cornelissen.  Per- 
haps he  was  the  6rst  person  who  built  a  saw- 
mill at  that  place,  which  is  a  village  of  great 
trade,  and  has  still  a  great  many  saw-mills, 
though  the  number  of  them  is  becoming  daily 
less ;  for  within  the  last  thirty  years  100  have 
been  given  up.  The  first  mill  of  this  kind  in 
Sweden  was  erected  in  the  year  1653.  At  pre- 
-  ent  that  kingdom  possesses  the  largest  perhaps 
ever  constructed  in  Europe,  where  a  water-wheel, 
twelve  feet  broad,  drives  at  the  same  time  seven- 
ty-two saws. 

In  England  saw-mills  had  at  first  the  same 
lute  that  printing  had  in  Turkey,  the  ribbon- 
loom  in  the  dominions  of  the  church,  and  the 
crane  in  Strasburg.  When  attempts  were  made 
to  introduce  them  they  were  violently  opposed, 
because  it  was  apprehended  that  the  sawyers 
would  be  deprived  by  them  of  their  means  of 
getting  a  subsistence.  For  this  reason  it  was 
found  necessary  to  abandon  a  saw-mill  erected 
by  a  Dutchman  near  London,  in  1663  ;  and  in 
the  year  1700,  when  one  Houghton  laid  before 
the  nation  the  advantages  of  such  a  mill,  he  ex- 
pressed his  apprehension  that  it  might  excite  the 
rage  of  the  populace.  What  he  dreaded  was 
actually  the  case  in  1767  or  1768,  when  an  opu- 
lent timber-merchant,  by  the  desire  and- approba- 
tion of  the  Society  of  Arts,  caused  a  saw-mill, 
driven  by  wind,  to  be  erected  at  Lamehouse,  under 
the  direction  of  James  Mansfield,  who  had 
learned,  in  Holland  and  Norway,  the  art  of  con- 
structing and  managing  machines  of  that  kind. 
A  mob  assembled  and  pulled  the  mill  to  pieces ; 
but  the  damage  was  made  good  by  the  nation, 
;iud  some  of  the  rioters  were  punished.  A  new 
mill  was  afterwards  erected,  which  was  suffered 
to  work  without  any  molestation,  and  which  gave 
occasion  to  the  erection  of  others.  It  appears, 
however,  that  this  was  not  the  only  mill  of  the 
kind  then  in  Britain ;  for  one  driven  also  by  wind 
had  been  built  at  Leith,  in  Scotland,  some  years 
before. 

Saw-mills,  as  they  are  now  constructed,  are  of 
two  kinds,  acccording  as  the  saws  employed  af- 
fect their  operation  by  a  circular  or  by  a  recipro- 
cating motion.  Circular  saw-mills  are  the  most 
simple  in  their  construction.  At  a  manufactory 
for  hollow  masts,  on  the  Surrey  side  of  Westmin- 
ster bridge,  are  several  of  them.  In  one  of  the 
simplest,  a  wheel  is  turned  by  a  horse,  which 
gives  motion  to  a  pinion  on  a  horizontal  shaft ;  a 
spur-wheel  is  fixed  on  the  shaft,  and  turns  a  pi-  ' 
in  on  on  another  horizontal  shaft,  ou  which  a 
wheel  is  fixed  in  the  room  above  the  machine, 
and  the  bearings  for  the  gudgeons  of  the  shaft 
are  supported  on  the  joists  of  the  floor :  by 
means  of  an  endless  strap  passing  round  this 
wheel,  and  round  a  pulley  on  the  spindle  of  the 
Circular  saw,  a  rapid  motion  is  given  to  the  saw  : 
it  is  fixed  on  a  spindle  by  a  shoulder,  against 
which  it  is  held  by  another  moveable  shoulder 
pressed  tight  by  its  nut,  on  the  end  of  the  spin- 
dles which  is  tapped  into  a  screw  to  receive  it. 
The  saw  has  a  circular  hole  through  the  middle 
fitting  tight  upon  the  spindle,  so  as  to  cause  them 
to  turn  together.  The  ends  of  the  spindle  are 
pointed,  and  that  point  nearest  the  saw  works  in 


a  hole  made  in  the  end  of  a  screw,  screwed  in  a 
bench  of  stout  planks,  and  well  braced  together; 
the  other  turns  in  a  similar  screw  passed  through 
a   cross   beam  mortised   between  two    vertical 
beams  extending  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling : 
one  of  the  beams  can  be  raised  or  lowered  in  its 
mortises  by  wedges  put  both  above  and  below  its 
tenons.     In  order  to  adjust  the  plane  of  the  saw 
to  the  plane  of  the  bench,  there  is  a  long  parallel 
ruler,  which  can  be  set  at  any  distance  from  the 
saw,  and  fixed  by  means  of  screws  going  through 
circular  grooves  cut  through  the  bench.  In  using 
the  machine,  the  ruler  is   to  be  set  the  proper 
distance  from  the  saw  of  the  piece  of  wood  to  be 
cut,   and  as  thp  saw  turns  round,  a  workman 
slides  the  end  of  a  piece  of  wood  to  it,  keeping, 
its  edge  against  the  guide  or  ruler,  that  it  may 
cut  straight.     We  have  witnessed  the  operation, 
which  is  as  neat  as  it  is  expeditious  and  ingeni- 
ous.    When  the  saw  requires  sharpening,  one  of 
the  screws  at  the  end  of  its  spindle  must  he  turn- 
ed back :  the  spindle  and   saw  can  be  then  re- 
moved, and  may  be  fixed  in  a  common  vice  to 
whet  it,  in  the  same  manner  as  a  common  saw ; 
the  outsides  of  the  teeth  are  not  filed  to  leave  a 
surface  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  saw,  but 
inclined  to  it,  and   in   the  same  direction  that 
each  tooth  so  filed  is  bent  in  the  setting;  by  this 
means,  the  saw,  when  cutting,  first  takes  away 
the  wood  at  the  two  sides  of  the  kerf,  leaving  a 
ridge  in  the  middle  of  it,  the  use  of  which  is  to 
keep  the  saw  steady  in  a  right  line,  that  it  may 
not  have  a  tendency  to  get  out  of  the  straight 
line  in  any  place  where  the  wood  is  harder  at 
one  side  than  on  the  other.     The  most  important 
machinery  of  this  kind  that  we  have  seen  is,  un- 
questionably, at  Portsmouth,  for  the  manufac- 
turing of  ships'  blocks. 

The  great  cross-cutting  mw  may  be  thus  des- 
scribed. — The  tree  subjected  to  the  action  of  this 
machine  is  placed  on  a  long  frame  or  bench 
raised  a  little  from  the  floor,  and  at  the  end  of  it 
is  erected  a  frame,  composed  of  vertical  posts 
and  cross  timber,  in  the  manner  of  a  small  and 
low  door-way;  through  this  frame  the  end  ot 
the  tree  is  drawn  by  the  capstan  above-mentioned 
its  end  projecting  as  much  from  the  surface  of 
the  frame  as  is  intended  to  be  cut  off;  and  it  i< 
fastened  in  the  frame  from  rolling  sideways,  by  n. 
lever,  which  can  be  readily  made  to  press  upon 
it  and  hold  it  down.  The  saw  itself  is  a  straight 
blade,  fixed  into  a  wooden  handle  or  pole  at 
each  end,  to  lengthen  it ;  one  of  these  handles  u 
connected  by  a  joint  to  the  upper  end  of  a  lever, 
bent  like  an  L,  and  having  its  centre  beneath  the 
floor :  the  horizontal  arm  of  the  lever  is  connect- 
ed by  a  spear-rod,  with  a  crank  on  the  end  of  a 
spindle  near  the  ceiling  of  the  room,  the  motion 
of  which  is  regulated  by  a  fly-wheel.  By  this 
means  the  saw  has  a.reciprocating  motion  from 
right  to  left,  nearly  in  a  horizontal  position,  and 
exactly  across  the  log  it  is  to  cut  oft,  imitating 
in  its  motion  the  carpenter's  hand-saw,  consider 
ing  his  arm  as  the  arm  of  the  bent  or  L  lever 
The  teeth  of  the  saw  are  of  course  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  blade,  and  are  sloped  so  as  to  cut  iit 
drawing  towards  the  lever.  It  rises  and  falls 
freely  upon  its  joint  at  the  end  of  the  lever,  and 
can  be  lifted  up  hy  the  handle,  at  tin- 


S     A     X     E. 


343 


end  of  the  blade,  to  take  it  off  its  work,  which  it 
follows  up  by  its  own  weight.  The  machine 
being  at  rest  is  prepared  for  work,  by  fixing  the 
log  in  the  frame  as  before  mentioned,  so  that  the 
surface  of  the  frame  intersects  the  log  at  the 
place  where  it  is  intended  to  be  cross-cut.  The 
saw,  which  was  before  lifted  up  by  its  handle, 
to  be  clear  above  the  log,  is  now  suffered  to  rest 
upon  it,  in  the  place  where  the  cut  is  to  be 
made ;  and,  to  guide  it  at  first  setting  in,  the 
back  of  the  saw  is  received  in  a  saw  kerf,  made 
in  the  end  of  a  piece  of  board,  which  is  attached 
to  the  frame  over  the  saw,  but  slides  up  and 
down  in  a  groove  to  reach  the  saw  at  any  height, 
according  to  the  thickness  of  the  log  lying  be- 
neath it.  Being  thus  prepared,  the  machine  is 
put  in  action  by  a  rope  or  strap  which  turns  the 
fly-wheel  and  its  crank.  This,  giving  a  vibration 
to  the  bent  or  L  lever,  causes  the  saw  to  recipro- 
cate horizontally  across  the  tree,  until  it  cuts  it 
through  :  it  follows  up  its  cut  by  its  own  weight 
alone,  but  the  attendant  can  at  any  time  lift  up 
the  saw  from  its  work,  though  its  motion  conti- 
nues, by  means  of  a  rope  which  suspends  the 
handle  of  the  saw,  when  required.  As  the  saw 
gets  into  the  tree  it  quits  the  guide  above-men- 
tioned, which  becomes  the  less  necessary  as  the 
saw  goes  deeper ;  a  saw  having  no  tendency  to 
alter  its  first  course,  when  cutting  across  the 
grain  of  the  wood.  We  admire  the  simplicity  of 
this  machine,  which  nevertheless  executes  its 
work  with  much  accuracy  and  expedition.  It 
might  be  very  usefully  employed  in  many  situa- 
tions where  great  manual  labor  is  spent  in  cross- 
cutting  large  logs  of  timber. 

The  cross-cutting  circular  saw. — This  machine 
is  for  similar  purposes,  and  stands  close  by  the 
former.  It  is  a  circular  saw,  whose  spindle  is  so 
mounted  as  to  move  in  any  direction  parallel  to 
itself;  the  saw  all  the  while  continuing  in  the 
same  plane,  and  revolving  rapidly  upon  its  axis, 
cuts  the  wood  it  is  presented  to,  and  as  it  admits 
of  being  applied  at  first  on  one  side,  and  then  on 
another  side  of  the  tree,  a  saw  of  moderate  di- 
mensions will  be  sufficient  to  divide  larger  trees 
than  could  otherwise  be  done  by  it. 

The  great  reciprocating  saw  for  cutting  up  trees 
lengthwise. — In  this  machine  the  saw  works  ver- 
tically :  it  has  an  horizontal  carriage,  on  which 
the  timber  is  fastened ;  this  passes  through  a 
vertical  frame  with  grooves,  in  which  another 
frame  slides  up  and  down  in  the  manner  of  a 
window-sash,  and  has  the  saw  stretched  in  it. 
The  saw-frame  is  moved  up  and  down  by  means 
of  a  crank  on  an  axis  beneath  the  floor,  which 
is  turned  by  means  of  an  endless  rope.  At 
every  time  the  saw  rises  and  falls,  it  turns  a  rat- 
chet-wheel round,  by  means  of  a  click,  a  few 
teeth;  and  this  has  on  its  axis  a  pinion,  working 
a  rack  attached  to  the  carriage  of  the  tree,  which 
by  this  means  is  advanced  :  at  every  stroke,  the 
saw  makes  a  proper  quantity  for  another  cut. 
The  saw-frame  is  adapted  to  hold  several  saws 
parallel  to  each  other,  for  sawing  a  tree  into  se- 
veral boards  at  once,  when  required. 

Saw-mills,  for  cutting  blocks  of  stone,  are 
moved  horizontally.  When  a  completely  cylin- 
drical pillar  is  to  be  cut  out  of  one  block  of 
stone,  ;he  first  thing  will  be  to  ascertain  in  the 


block  the  position  of  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  : 
then  lay  the  block  so  that  such  axis  shall  be 
parallel  to  the  horizon,  and  let  a  cylindrical 
hole  of  from  one  to  two  inches  diameter  be 
bored  entirely  through  it.  Let  an  iron  bar, 
whose  diameter  is  rather  less  than  that  of  this 
tube,  be  put  through  it,  having  just  room  to  slide 
freely  to  and  fro  as  occasion  may  require.  Each 
end  of  this  bar  should  terminate  in  a  screw,  on 
which  a  nut  and  frame  may  be  fastened.  The 
nut-frame  should  carry  three  flat  pieces  of  wood 
or  iron,  each  having  a  slit  running  along  its  mid- 
dle nearly  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  a 
screw  and  handle  must  be  adapted  to  each  slit; 
by  these  means  the  frame-work  at  each  end  of 
the  bar  may  readily  be  so  adjusted  as  to  form 
equal  isosceles  or  equilateral  triangles;  the  iron 
bar  will  connect  two  corresponding  angles  of 
these  triangles,  the  saw  to  be  used  two  other 
corresponding  angles,  and  another  bar  of  iron, 
or  of  wood,  the  two  remaining  angles,  to  give 
sufficient  strength  to  the  whole  frame.  This  con- 
struction, it  is  obvious,  will  enable  the  workmen 
to  place  the  saw  at  any  proposed  distance  from 
the  hole  drilled  through  the  middle  of  the  block  ; 
and  then,  by  giving-the  alternating  motion  to  the 
saw-frame,  the  cylinder  may  at  length  be  cut 
from  the  block,  as  required.  This  method  was 
first  pointed  out  in  the  collection  of  machines 
approred  by  the  Paris  academy.  If  it  were  pro- 
prosed  to  saw  a  conic  frustum  from  such  a 
block,  then  let  two  frames  of  wood  or  iron  be 
fixed  to  those  parallel  ends  of  the  block  which 
are  intended  to  coincide  with  the  bases  of  the 
frustum,  circular  grooves  being  previously  cut  in 
these  frames  to  correspond  with  the  circumfer- 
ences of  the  two  ends  of  the  proposed  frustum  ; 
the  saw  being  worked  in  these  grooves  will  mani- 
festly cut  the  conic  surface  from  the  block.  This 
is  the  contrivance  of  Sir  George  Wright. 

The  best  method  of  drilling  the  hole  through 
the  middle  of  the  proposed  cylinder  seems  to  be 
this: — On  a  carriage,  running  upon  four  low 
wheels,  let  two  vertical  pieces  (each  having  a 
hole  just  large  enough  to  admit  the  borer  to  play 
freely)  be  fixed  two  or  three  feet  asunder,  and  so 
contrived  that  the  pieces  and  holes  to  receive 
the  borer  may,  by  screws,  &c.,  be  raised  or  low- 
ered at  pleasure,  while  the  borer  is  prevented 
from  sliding  to  and  fro  by  shoulders  upon  its 
bar,  which  are  larger  than  the  holes  in  the  verti- 
cal pieces,  and  which,  as  the  borer  revolves, 
press  against  those  pieces.  Let  a  part  of  the 
boring-bar  between  the  two  vertical  pieces  be 
square,  and  a  grooved  wheel  with  a  square  hole 
of  a  suitable  size  be  placed  upon  this  part  of  the 
bar ;  then  the  rotatory  motion  may  be  given  to 
the  bar  by  an  endless  band,  which  shall  pass  over 
this  grooved  wheel  and  a  wheel  of  a  much  larger 
diameter  in  the  same  plane,  the  latter  wheel 
being  turned  by  a  winch  handle  in  the  usual  way. 
As  the  boring  proceeds,  the  carriage  with  the 
borer  may  be  brought  nearer  the  block,  by  levers 
and  weights,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  pipe- 
making. 

SAXE  (Maurice,  count),  was  born  in  1696. 
He  was  the  natural  son  of  Frederick  Augustus  II., 
elector  of  Saxony,  and  king  of  Poland,  and  of 
the  countess  of  Konigsmarc,  a  Swedish  lady, 


344 


S    A    X     E. 


celebrated  for  her  wit  and  beauty.     He  was  edu- 
cated   witli   Frederick  Augustus,   the    electoral 
prince,  afterwcii'iis  King  of  Poland.      He  served 
his  first  campaign  in  the  army  commanded  by 
prince  Eugene  and  the  duke  of  Marlborough, 
when  only  twelve  years  old.    He  signalised  him- 
self at  the  sieges  of  Tournay  and  Mons,   and 
particularly  at  the  battle  of  Malplaquet.    During 
the  campaign  of  1710   prince  Eugene  and  the 
duke  of  Marlborough  paid  many  public  enco- 
miums to  his  merit.     Next  year  the  young  count 
accompanied  the  king  of  Poland  to  the  sie-je 
of  Stralsund,  the  strongest  place  in  Pomerania, 
and  displayed  the  greatest  intrepidity.  He  swam 
across  the  river  in  sight  of  the  enemy,  with  a 
pistol  in  his  hand.     His  valor  shone  no  less  con- 
spicuously on  the  bloody  day  of  Gaedelbusck, 
w'here  he  commanded  a  regiment  of  cavalry.  He 
had  a  horse  killed  under  him,  after  he  had  three 
times  rallied  his  regiment,  and  led  them  on  to 
the    charge.      Soon    after   that   campaign,   his 
mother  prevailed  on  him  to  marry  the  countess  of 
Lubin,  a  lady  both    rich   and  beautiful.     This 
union   lasted   but   a  short   time.     In  1721   the 
count  procured  a  dissolution  of  the  marriage  ;  a 
step  of  which  he  afterwards  repented.     In  1717 
'  he  went  to  Hungary,  where  the  emperor  had  an 
army   of    15,000   men    under    prince    Eugene. 
Young  count  Saxe  was  present  at  the  siege  of 
Belgrade,  and  at  a  battle  which  the  prince  gained 
over  the  Turks.     On  his  return  to  Poland,  in 
1718,  he  was  made  a  knight  of  the  golden  eagle. 
The  wars  in  Europe  being  concluded    by   the 
treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Possarowitz,  count  Saxe 
went  to  France.      He  spent  his  time  during  the 
peace,  in  studying  mathematics,  fortification,  and 
mechanics.    At  sixteen  he  invented  a  new  exer- 
cise,   which    was   taught   in   Saxony   with   the 
greatest  success.     Having  obtained  a  regiment  in 
France,  in  1722,  he  formed  it  according  to  his 
new  plan.     In  1726  the  states  of  Courland  chose 
him  for  their  sovereign.      But  both  Poland  and 
Russia  rose  in  arms  to  oppose  him.     The  czarina 
wished  to  bestow  the  duchy  on  prince  Menzikoff'. 
MenzikofT  sent  800  Russians  to  the  new  chosen 
duke  in  his  palace.     Count  Saxe,  who  had  only 
sixty  men,  defended  himself  with  astonishing  in- 
trepidity.    The  siege  was  raised,  and   the  Rus- 
sians obliged  to  retreat.     Soon  after  he  retired 
to  Usmaiz,  and  prepared  to  defend  his  people 
against  the  two  hostile   nations.      Here  he  re- 
mained   with  only   300   men,  till  the  Russian 
general  approached  at  the  head  of  4000  to  force 
his  retreat.      That  general  invited  the  count  to  a 
conference,  during  which  he  intended  to  surprise 
him,  and   take  him  prisoner.      The  count,  in- 
formed  of  the   plot,    avoided   the   conference. 
About  this  time  he  wrote  to  France  for  men  and 
money.      Madame  le  Couvreur,  a  famous  ac- 
tress, pawned  her  jewels  and  plate,  and  sent  him 
40,000  livres.      The   count,   unable  to  defend 
himself  against  Russia  and  Poland,  was  obliged 
in  1729  to  leave  his  new  dominions  and  retire 
into  France.      Count  Saxe,  thus   stript  of  his 
territories,  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  ma- 
thematics.   He  composed  also,  in  thirteen  nights, 
and  during  the  intervals  of  an   ague,  his  Reve- 
ries, which  he  corrected  afterwards.      The  death 
t'f  the  king  of  Poland  his  father,  in  1733,  kindled 


a  r  ew  war  in  Europe.  His  brother,  the  elector 
of  Saxony,  offered  him  the  command  of  al. 
his>  forces,  but  he  preferred  the  French  service, 
and  repaired  to  the  duke  of  Berwick,  who  was 
encamped  on  the  Rhine.  The  count,  at  the  head 
of  a  regiment  of  grenadiers,  forced  the  enemy's 
lines,  and  by  his  bravery  decided  the  victory. 
He  behaved  at  the  siege  of  Philipsburg  with 
no  less  intrepidity.  For  these  services  he  was,  in 
1734,  rewarded  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  Peace  was  concluded  in  1736  ;  but  the 
death  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  kindled  a  new 
war.  Prague  was  besieged  by  the  count  in  174  i 
near  the  e«d  of  November,  and  taken  by  assault. 
The  conquest  of  Egra  followed  a  few  days  after : 
and  Charles  VII.  wrote  a  congratulatory  letter 
to  Saxe  with  IMS  own  hand,  in  1744  he  \vas 
made  marshal  of  France,  and  commanded  a  part 
of  the  French  army  in  Flanders.  During  that 
campaign  he  displayed  the  greatest  military 
conduct.  Though  the  enemy  was  superior  in 
number,  he  watched  their  motions  so  skilfully 
that  they  could  do  nothing.  In  January  1745 
an  alliance  was  concluded  at  Warsovia,  betwcei. 
the  queen  of  Hungary,  the  king  of  England, 
and  the  states  of  Holland.  He  went  soon  after, 
though  exceedingly  ill,  to  take  the  command  of 
the  French  army  in  the  Low  Countries.  \Vher 
the  battle  of  Fontenoy  was  fought,  M.  Saxe  was 
at  the  point  of  death,  yet  he  caused  himself  to  be 
put  into  a  litter,  and  carried  round  all  the  posts. 
During  the  action  he  mounted  on  horseback 
though  very  weak.  The  victory  of  Fontenoy, 
owing  entirely  to  his  vigilance  and  capacity,  was 
followed  by  the  reduction  of  Tournay,  Bruges, 
Ghent,  Oudenarde,  Ostend,  Ath,  and  Brussels  : 
this  last  city  was  taken  on  the  28th  of  February 
1746  ;  and  very  soon  after  the  king  sent  to  the 
marshal  a  letter  of  naturalisation  in  the  most 
flattering  terms.  The  succeeding  campaigns 
gained  him  additional  honors.  After  the  victory 
of  Raucoux,  which  he  gained  on  the  lltli  of  Octo- 
ber 1746,  the  king  of  France  made  him  a  present 
of  six  pieces  of  cannon.  He  was,  on  the  12tli  of 
January  1747,  created  marshal  of  all  the  French 
armies,  and,  in  1748,  commander-general  of  all 
those  parts  of  the  Netherlands  which  he  had  con- 
quered. Holland  now  began  to  tremble  for  her 
safety.  Maestricht  and  Bergen  op  Zoom  had  al- 
ready fallen,  and  nothing  but  misfortunes  seemed 
to  attend  the  further  prosecution  of  the  war.  The 
states  general  therefore  offered  terms  of  peace, 
which  were  accepted,  and  a  treaty  concluded  on 
the  18th  of  October  1748.  M.  Saxe  retired  to 
Chambord,  a  country  seat  which  the  king  of 
France  had  given  him.  Sometime  after  he  went 
to  Berlin,  and,  on  his  return  to  France,  he  spent 
his  time  among  men  of  learning,  artists,  and  phi- 
losophers. He  died  of  a  fever,  on  the  30lh  of 
November  1750,  aged  fifty-four.  His  life  had 
been,  he  said,  an  excellent  dream.  He  was  re- 
markably careful  of  the  lives  of  his  men.  One 
day  a  general  officer  was  pointing  out  to  him  a 
post  which  would  have  been  of  great  use.  It 
will  only  cost  you,  says  he,  a  dozen  grenadiers. 
That  would  do  very  well,  replied  the  marshal, 
were  it  only  a  dozen  lieutenant-generals.  He  had 
been  educated  and  died  in  the  Lutheran  re- 
ligion. His  heart  wa<  put  into  a  silver  giitbox, 


SAXONS. 


34: 


and  Louis  XV.  was  at  the  charge  of  his  funeral. 
His  corpse  was  interred  with  great  splendor  in 
the  Lutheran  church  of  St.  Thomas,  at  Strasburg, 
on  the  8th  of  February,  1751.  The  best  edition 
of  his  Reveries  was  printed  at  Paris  1757,  in  2 
vols.  4to.  It  was  compared  with  the  originaf 
MS.  in  the  king's  library.  It  is  accompanied 
with  many  designs  exactly  engraved,  and  a  Life 
of  the  Author.  M.  d'Espagnac  published  the 
count's  life,  in  2  vols.  12mo. 

SAXIFRAGA,  saxifrage,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  digynia  order  and  decandria  class  of 
plants;  natural  order  thirteenth,  succulentas  : 
'••  \ L.  cjuinquepartite :  COR.  pentapetalous  :  CAPS. 
birostrated,  umlocular,  andpolyspermous.  There 
are  thirty-eight  species;  of  which  the  most  re- 
markable are  these : — 

1.  S.   granulata,   or  white   saxifrage,  which 
^rows  naturally  in  the  meadows  in  many  parts  of 
England.     The  roots  of  this  plant  are  like  grains 
of  corn,  of  a  reddish  color  without ;  from  which 
arise  kidney-shaped  hairy  leaves,  standing  upon 
pretty  long  foot-stalks.     The  stalks  are  thick,  a 
foot  high,  hairy,  and  furrowed  ;  these  branch  out 
from  the  bottom,  and  have   a  few  small  leaves 
like  those  below,  which  sit  close  to  the  stalk  : 
the  flowers  terminate  the  stalk,  growing  in  small 
clusters ;  they  have  five  white  petals,  enclosing 
ten  stamina  and  the  two  styles.      There  is  a  va- 
riety of  this  with  double  flowers,  which  is  very 
ornamental. 

2.  S.    oppositifolia   grows   naturally  on  the 
Alps,  Pyrenees,  and  Helvetian  mountains:  it  is 
also  found  pretty  plentifully  growing  upon  Ingle- 
borough  Hill  in  Yorkshire,  Snowdon  in  Wales, 
and  some  other  places.      It  is  a  perennial  plant, 
with  stalks  trailing  upon  the  ground,  and  are  sel- 
dom more  than  two  inches  long,  garnished  with 
small  oval  leaves  standing  opposite,  which  lie 
over  one  another  like  the  scales  of  a  fish  :  they 
are  of  a  brown-green  color,  and  have  a  resem- 
blance of  heath.      The  flowers  are  produced  at 
the  end  of  the  branches,  of  a  deep  blue  ;  and  tnus 
make  a  pretty  appearance  during  their  continu- 
ance, which  is  great  part  of  March  and  the  be- 
ginning of  April. 

3.  S.  punctata,  London  pride,  grows  naturally 
on  the  Alps,  and  also  in  great  plenty  on  a  moun- 
tain of  Ireland  called  Mangerton  in  the  county 
of  Kerry.    The  roots  of  this  are  perennial ;  the 
leaves  are  oblong,  oval,  and  placed  circularly  at 
bottom.      They  have  broad,  flat,  furrowed  foot- 
stalks, and  are  deeply  crenated  at  their  edges, 
which  are  white.      The  stalk  rises  a  foot  high,  is 
of  a  purple  color,  stiff,  slender,  and  hairy.     It 
sends  out  from  the  side  on  the  upper  part  several 
.short  foot-stalks,  which  are  terminated  by  white 
flowers  spotted  with  red. 

4.  S.  pyramidata,  mountain  heath,  with  a  py- 
ramidal stalk,  grows  naturally  on  the  mountains 
of  Italy.    The  leaves  are  tongue-shaped,  gathered 
into  heads,  rounded  at  their  points,  and  have  car- 
tilaginous and  sawed   borders.     The  stalk  rises 
two  feet  and  a  half  high,  branching  out  near  the 
ground,  forming  a  natural  pyramid  to  the  top. 
The     flowers    have    five   white    wedge-shaped 
petals,  and   ten   stamina,  placed   circularly  the 
length   of    the    tube,   terminated   by   roundish 
purple  summit?.     When  these  plants  are  strong, 


they  produce  very  large  pyramids  of  flowers, 
which  make  a  fine  appearance.  All  these  spe- 
cies are  easily  propagated  by  offsets,  or  by  part- 
ing their  roots. 

SAXTFRAGE,  n.  s.  )       Fr.   saxifrage  ;  Lat. 

SAXIFRA'GOUS,  adj.  }  saxum  and  /range.  A 
plant :  dissolvent  of  the  stone.  See  below. 

Saxifrage,  quasi  saxum  frangere,  to  break  the 
stone,  is  applicable  to  any  thing  having  this  property  ; 
but  it  is  a  term  most  commonly  given  to  a  plant, 
from  an  opinion  of  its  medicinal  virtues  to  this  effect. 

Quincy. 

Because  goat's  blood  was  found  an  excellent  me- 
dicine for  the  stone,  it  might  be  conceived  to  be  able 
to  break  a  diamond  ;  and  so  it  came  to  be  ordered 
that  the  goats  should  be  fed  on  saxifragout  herbs, 
and  such  as  are  conceived  of  power  to  break  the 
stone.  Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

SAXO  GRAMMATICUS,  descended  from  an  il- 
lustrious Danish  family,  was  born  about  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  Stephen,  in  his 
edition  of  Saxo  Grammaticus,  printed  at  Soroe, 
asserts  that  he  must  have  been  alive  in  1156,  but 
cannot  ascertain  the  exact  place  and  time  of  his 
birth.  On  account  of  his  learning,  Saxo  was 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  Grammaticus. 
He  was  provost  of  the  cathedral  church  of 
Roskild,  and  warmly  patronised  by  the  learned 
and  warlike  Absolon,  the  celebrated  archbishop 
of  Lunden,  at  whose  instigation  he  wrote  the 
History  of  Denmark.  His  epitaph,  a  dry  pane- 
gyric in  bad  Latin  verses,  gives  no  account  of  the 
era  of  his  death,  which  happened,  according  to 
Stephens,  in  1204.  His  history,  consisting  of 
sixteen  books,  begins  from  the  earliest  accounts  o 
the  Danish  annals,  and  concludes  with  the  yeat 
1 186.  The  first  part,  which  relates  to  the  origin 
of  the  Danes,  and  their  ancient  kings,  is  full  of 
fables;  but  the  last  eight  books, and  particularly 
those  which  regard  the  events  of  his  own  times 
deserve  the  utmost  credit.  He  wrote  in  Latin : 
the  style,  if  we  consider  the  barbarous  age  in 
which  he  flourished,  is,  in  general,  elegant. 
Mallet,  in  his  Histoire  de  Dannemarc,  vol.  i.  p 
182,  says  that  Sperling,  a  writer  of  great  erudi- 
tion, has  proved,  in  contradiction  to  the  asser- 
tions of  Stephens  and  others,  that  Saxo  Gram- 
maticus was  secretary  to  Absolon  ;  and  that  the 
Saxo,  provost  of  Roskild,  was  another  person, 
and  lived  earlier. 

SAXONS,  the  natives  of  Saxony,  ancient  and 
modern.  The  ancient  Saxons  were  a  brave  but 
fierce  people.  The  Britons,  or  inhabitants  of 
South  Britain,  being  deserted  by  the  Romans, 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  and 
threatened  with  utter  extirpation  by  the  Scots 
and  Picts,  invited  the  Saxons  over  from  Germany 
to  assist  and  defend  them ;  in  consequence  of 
which  a  numerous  body  of  them  came  over 
under  Hengist  and  Horsa,  A.  D.  449  or  450  ; 
and,  repeated  emigrations  of  fresh  adventurers 
successively  arriving  afterwards,  they  soon  con- 
quered and  divided  all  South  Britain,  since 
called  England,  into  seven  kingdoms,  commonly 
denominated  the  Saxon  heptarchy.  'See  ENG- 
LAND. With  regard  to  the  history  of  the  Saxons, 
previous  to  the  fourth  century,  we  have  very  few 
particulars.  '  The  Saxons,'  says  Mr.  Whitaker, 
'  have  been  derived  by  our  historians  from  very 


346 


SAXONS. 


different  parts  of  the  globe ;  India,  the  north  of 
Asia,  and  the  forests  of  Germany.  And  their 
appellation  has  been  equally  referred  to  very  dif- 
ferent causes ;  the  name  of  their  Indian  progeni- 
tor, the  plundering  disposition  of  their  Asiatic 
fathers,  and  the  short  hooked  weapons  of  their 
warriors.'  But  the  real  origin  of  the  Saxons,  and 
the  genuine  derivation  of  their  name,  seem  clearly 
to  be  these: — In  the  earlier  period  of  the  Gallic 
history,  the  Celtae  of  Gaul  crossed  the  Rhine  in 
considerable  numbers,  and  planted  various  colo- 
nies in  the  regions  beyond  it.  Thus  the  Volcae 
Tectosages  settled  on  one  side  of  the  Hercynian 
forest  and  about  the  banks  of  the  Neckar ;  the 
Helvetii  upon  another,  and  about  the  Rhine 
and  Maine ;  the  Boii  beyond  both ;  and  the  Se- 
nones  in  the  heart  of  Germany.  Thus  also  we 
see  the  Treviri,  the  Nervii,  the  Suevi,  and  the 
Marcomanni,  the  Quadi,  the  Venedi,  and  others 
in  that  country  ;  all  plainly  betrayed  to  be  Gallic 
nations  by  the  Gallic  appellations  which  they 
bear,  and  all  together  possessing  the  greatest  part 
of  it.  And,  even  as  late  as  the  conclusion  of  the 
first  century,  we  find  one  nation  on  the  eastern 
side  of  this  great  continent  actually  speaking  the 
language  of  Gaul,  and  another  upon  the  northern 
using  a  dialect  nearly  related  to  the  British. 
But  as  all  the  various  tribes  of  the  Germans  are 
considered  by  Strabo  to  be  ytvr\aioi  ToXarat,  or 
genuine  Gauls  in  their  origin ;  so  those  particu- 
%  larly,  who  lived  immediately  beyond  the  Rhine, 
and  are  asserted  by  Tacitus  to  be  indubitably 
native  Germans,  are  expressly  denominated  ToXa- 
TCU,  or  Gauls,  by  Diodorus,  and  as  expressly  de- 
clared by  Dio  to  have  been  distinguished  by  the 
equivalent  appellation  of  Celts  from  the  earliest 
period.  And  the  broad  line  of  nations,  which 
extended  along  the  ocean,  and  reached  to  the 
borders  of  Scythia,  was  all  known  to  the  learned 
in  the  days  of  Diodorus  by  the  same  significant 
appellation  of  TaXarot,  or  Gauls.  Of  these,  the 
most  noted  were  the  Si-Cambri  and  Cimbri; 
the  former  being  seated  near  the  channel  of  the 
Rhine,  and  the  latter  inhabiting  the  peninsula  of 
Jutland.  The  denominations  of  both  declare  their 
original,  and  show  them  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  common  stock  of  the  Celtae,  and  to  be 
of  the  same  Celtic  kindred  with  the  Cimbri  of  our 
own  Somersetshire,  and  theCymbri  or  Cambrians 
of  our  own  Wales.  The  Cimbri  are  accordingly 
denominated  Celtae  by  Strabo  and  Appian  :  and 
they  are  equally  asserted  to  be  Gauls  by  Diodo- 
rus; to  be  the  descendants  of  that  nation  which 
sacked  the  cily  of  Rome,  plundered  the  temple 
of  Delphi,  and  subdued  a  great  part  of  Europe 
and  some  of  Asia.  Immediately  to  the  south  of 
these  were  the  Saxons, extending  from'the  isthmus 
of  the  Chersonesus  to  the  current  of  the  Elbe ; 
and  they  were  equally  Celtic  in  their  origin  as 
their  neighbours.  They  were  denominated  Am- 
brones,  as  well  as  Saxons ;  and,  as  such,  are  in- 
cluded by  Tacitus  under  the  general  appellation 
of  Cimbri,  and  comprehended  by  Plutarch  under 
the  equal  one  of  Celto-Scythae.  The  name  of  Am- 
brones  appears  particularly  to  have  been  Gallic  ; 
being  common  to  the  Saxons  beyond  the  Elbe, 
and  the  Ligurians  in  Cisalpine  Gaul ;  as  both 
found,  to  .their  surprise,  on  the  irruption  of  the 
former  into  Italy  with  the  Cimbri.  And,  what  is 


equally  su  rprising,  and  has  been  equally  unnoticed 
by  the  critics,  the  Welsh  distinguish  England  by 
the  name  of  Loegr  or  Liguria,  even  to  the  presen* 
moment.  In  that  irruption,  these  Saxons,  Am- 
brones,  or  Ligurians,  composed  a  body  of  more 
than  30,000  men,  and  were  principally  concerned 
in  cutting  to  pieces  the  large  armies  of  Manlius 
and  Caepio.  Nor  is  the  appellation  of  Saxons 
less  Celtic  than  the  other.  It  was  originally  the 
same  with  the  Belgic  Suessones  of  Gaul ;  the 
capital  of  that  tribe  being  now  entitled  Soissons 
by  the  French,  and  the  name  of  the  Saxons  pro- 
nounced Saisen  by  the  Welsh,  Sason  by  the  Scots, 
and  Saisenach  or  Saxsenath  by  the  Irish.  And  the 
Suessones  or  Saxones  of  Gaul  derived  their  own 
appellation  from  the  position  of  their  metropolis 
on  a  river,  the  stream  at  Soissons  being  now  de- 
nominated the  Aisne,  and  formerly  the  Axon; 
Uess-on,  or  Axon,  importing  only  waters,  or  a 
river,  and  S-uess-on  or  S-ax-on  the  waters  of  the 
river.  The  Suessones,  therefore,  are  actually  de- 
nominated the  Uessones  by  Ptolemy ;  and  the 
Saxones  are  actually  entitled  the  Axones  by 
Lucan.  These,  with  their  brethren  and  allies  thv 
Cimbri,  having  been  more  formidable  enemies 
to  the  Romans  by  land  than  the  Samnites,  Car- 
thaginians, Spaniards,  Gauls,  or  Parthians,  in  the 
second  century  applied  themselves  to  navigation, 
and  became  nearly  as  terrible  by  sea.  They  soon 
made  themselves  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
British  isles  by  their  piracies  in  the  northern 
channels,  and  were  denominated  by  them  Loch- 
lyn  or  Lochlynach;  lucd-lyn  signifying  the 
people  of  the  wave,  and  the  D  being  quiescent 
in  the  pronunciation.  They  took  possession  of 
the  Orkney  Islands,  which  were  then  merely  large 
shoals  of  land,  uncovered  with  woods,  and  over- 
grown with  rushes ;  and  they  landed  in  the  north 
of  Ireland,  and  ravaged  the  country.  Before 
the  middle  of  the  third  century  they  made  a 
second  descent  upon  the  latter,  disembarked  a 
considerable  body  of  men,  and  designed  the 
absolute  subjection  of  the  island.  Before  the 
conclusion  of  it,  they  carried  their  naval  opera- 
tions to  the  south,  infested  the  British  Channel 
with  their  little  vessels,  and  made  frequent  de- 
scents upon  the  coasts.  And  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  acting  in  conjunction  with  the 
Picts  of  Caledonia  and  the  Scots  of  Ireland,  they 
ravaged  all  the  east  and  south-east  shores  of  Bri- 
tain, began  the  formal  conquest  of  the  country, 
and  finally  settled  their  tictorious  soldiery  in 
Lancashire. 

The  division  of  Germany  into  circles  took 
place  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
when  the  large  tract  of  country  known  vaguely 
by  the  name  of  Saxony,  was  formed  into  three 
circles,  Westphalia,  Upper  Saxony,  and  Lower 
Saxony.  Upper  might  with  more  propriety  have 
been  styled  Eastern  Saxony,  being  bounded  by 
Poland,  Silesia,  and  Lusatia  on  the  east,  and  by 
Bohemia  and  Franconia  on  the  south.  Its  ex- 
tent was  about  43,000  square  miles  ;  its  popula- 
tion about  4,000,000.  It  comprised  the  electo- 
rates of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  the  duchy  of 
Pomerania,  and  a  number  of  small  principalities. 
The  name  of  Upper  is  to  be  understood  as  im- 
plying a  surface  of  such  comparative  elevation 
as  to  cause  several  rivers  (the  Elbe,  Spree,  and 


SAXONY. 


347 


o'heis)  to  flow  to  the  westward  towards  Lower 
Saxony.  That  country,  which  might  have  been 
termed  Western  Saxony,  had  Westphalia  and  the 
Rhine  to  the  west,  and  Sleswick  with  the  Baltic 
to  the  north.  Its  area  contained  26,000  square 
miles,  and  comprised  the  electorate  of  Hanover, 
the  duchies  of  Mecklenburs,  Brunswick,  and 
llolstein,  the  free  towns  of  Hamburgh,  Bremen, 
Lubeck,  with  a  number  of  small  states.  In  1806 
the  distinction  of  circles  was  finally  abolished, 
and  the  names  of  Upper  and  Lower  Saxony  are 
now  of  use  only  in  history. 

SAXONY,  a  modern  kingdom  of  Europe,  is 
situated  towards  the  north-east  of  Germany,  and 
bounded  on  the  south  by  Bohemia,  and  on  the 
north  by  the  Prussian  states.  Previous  to  1814 
it  contained  2,000,000  of  inhabitants  (exclusive 
of  the  part  of  Poland  subject  to  this  crown) ;  but 
it  was  reduced  by  the  congress  of  Vienna.  At 
present  its  divisions,  extent  and  population,  are, 


Square 
miles. 

Population. 

Circle  of  Meissen 
Leipsic 
Erzgebirge 
Vogtland 
Part   of  Merseburg 
Upper  Lusatia 

1600 
1460 
2175 
700 
73 
1180 

300,000 
207,000 
460,000 
90,000 
10,000 
170,000 

Total 

7188 

1,237,000 

1  lie  length  of  Saxony  is  140  miles,  its  greatest 
breadth  about  seventy-five. 

No  part  of  Europe  in  the  same  latitude  enjoys 
a  milder  climate.  Towards  the  north-east  of  the 
frontier  line,  and  in  a  quarter  where  the  lofty 
langeof  the  Erzgebirge  is  succeeded  by  a  lower, 
called  the  Wohlische  Kamm,  the  Elbe  issues 
from  Bohemia.  The  other  considerable  rivers 
are  the  two  Elsters,  the  two  Muldas,  and  the 
Queiss,  all  rising  in  the  south  of  Saxony,  and 
flowing  northward,  but  not  navigable  here.  The 
Elbe,  on  the  other  hand,  is  navigable,  and,  by 
its  course  through  the  centre  of  the  country, 
affords  a  noble  conveyance  for  merchandise.  The 
mountainous  districts  in  the  south  contain  exten- 
sive forests,  which  are  kept  up  with  care  as  the 
supply  of  fuel  for  the  mines.  Coal  and  turf  are 
used  for  domestic  fuel.  In  the  southern  and 
mountainous  parts  the  valleys  only  are  well  cul- 
tivated ;  but  in  the  level  districts,  particularly  the 
circles  of  Meissen  and  Leipsic,  the  products  are 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  other  grain,  tobacco  and 
bops.  Vines  are  found  in  a  few  situations. 

The  number  of  sheep  is  large,  and  great  care 
has  been  bestowed  on  the  Merino  rams,  first  im- 
ported about  the  year  1768;  the  Saxon  wool, 
indeed,  has  been  rendered,  by  good  management, 
the  best  in  Germany.  Hogs  are  also  numerous. 

Few  countries  equal  Saxony  in  mineral  riches. 
The  rocks  of  the  Erzgebirge  furnished  Werner 
with  the  facts  on  which  he  founded  a  system  of 
geology.  The  basis  of  the  Erzgebirge  is  granite, 
covered  by  gneiss,  mica,  and  clay  slate  in  suc- 
cession. Between  these  are  strata,  containing 


metallic  ores.  The  rocks,  called  in  this  country 
weiss-stein  (white-rock),  contain  a  variety  of 
heterogeneous  substances,  such  as  feldtspar,  mica, 
garnet,  and  cyanite.  Basalt  is  found  in  various 
parts,  towering  above  the  others  in  lofty  polygo- 
nal columns.  The  topaz  occurs  frequently,  and 
there  are  found  also  chrysolites,  amethysts,  chal- 
cedonies, cornelians,  agates,  jasper,  garnets,  and 
tourmalins ;  serpentine,  asbest,  amianthus,  ba- 
rytes,  and  fluates  of  lime.  The  porcelain  clay 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Meissen  is  well  known  ; 
here  are  also  fullers'-earth,  terra-sigillata,  and 
other  argillaceous  minerals.  There  are  also  a 
few  silver  mines.  The  lofty  primitive  mountains 
abound  in  iron  ;  the  secondary  in  copper  and 
lead.  Next  to  these  are  arsenic,  cobalt,  anti- 
mony, manganese,  zinc,  sulphur,  alum,  vitriol, 
and  borax. 

The  manufactures  and  trade  are  of  great  ex- 
tent, and  are  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  Eng- 
land. The  weaving  of  linen  is  an  employment 
of  old  date,  and  is  carried  on  in  almost  every 
village  of  the  kingdom,  but  more  particularly  in 
Upper  Lusatia,  at  Zittau,  Bautzen,  and  Herrnhut. 
Woollens  are  likewise  manufactured  extensively, 
and  cotton  spinning  and  weaving  on  a  good 
scale.  The  machinery  used  in  Saxony,  though 
inferior  to  the  English,  has  of  late  years  been 
much  improved;  labor  also  is  cheap.  There 
are  silk  manufactures  on  a  small  scale  at  Leipsie 
and  other  towns.  Tanneries  are  more  general, 
and  paper  manufactories  are  not  inconsiderable. 
Every  town  of  consequence  has  its  breweries 
and  distilleries.  The  manufactures  connected 
with  the  mines  are  of  course  of  considerable  ex- 
tent. At  Dresden  there  are  foundries  of  cannon 
and  balls.  Cobalt  is  made  into  smalts  and  blue 
dye  in  several  towns  in  the  mining  district ;  other 
places  are  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  verdi- 
gris and  green  dye. 

The  exports  from  Saxony  consist  in  wool  and 
minerals ;  linen,  yarn,  woollens,  and  lace.  The 
imports  are  silk,  flax,  cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  wine, 
and  in  certain  seasons  corn.  The  most  trading 
place  is  Leipsic,  which  is  remarkable  both  for 
its  half-yearly  fairs,  and  for  being  the  centre  of 
the  book  trade. 

Saxony  reckons  among  its  inhabitants  a  great 
majority  of  Lutherans,  but  the  reigning  family 
have  been  Catholics  since  1697.  The  institutions 
for  education  in  this  country  are  numerous  and 
well  conducted,  it  being  a  common  remark  that 
in  no  country,  except  Scotland  and  the  Pays  de 
Vaud,  are  the  lower  classes  so  generally  taught 
to  read  and  write.  In  no  country  of  equal  ex- 
tent is  the  number  of  printing  and  book  estab- 
lishments so  great.  Halle  now  belongs  to  Prussia, 
but  Leipsic  remains  to  Saxony,  and  maintains 
its  reputation.  The  German  character  predomi- 
nates among  this  people,  as  is  evinced,  among 
other  things,  by  the  minuteness  with  which  they 
too  often  treat  an  insignificant  subject ;  also  in 
the  more  creditable  points  of  the  general  modesty 
of  their  females. 

The  revenue  of  Saxony,  after  defraying  all 
local  expenses,  probably  exceeds  £1,000,000 
sterling,  and  Saxony  has  long  been  burdened 
with  a  national  debt.  The  army,  which  in  this 
country  was  never  large  in  proportion  to  its  po- 


348 


SAXONY. 


pulation,  is  on  a  peace  establishment  of  12,000 
men,  the  best  disciplined  part  of  whom  are 
cavalry  and  artillery. 

After  being,  during  many  centuries,  an  electo- 
rate, Saxony  was  formed  in  1 806  into  a  kingdom, 
in  consequence  of  the  occupancy  of  Prussia  by 
Buonaparte.  This  change  of  title  was  not  accom- 
panied by  an  extension  of  prerogative,  the  sove- 
reign continuing  to  share  the  legislative  functions 
with  the  states.  The  states  are  divided  into  two 
houses,  viz.  the  prelates  and  nobles  in  one,  and 
in  the  other  the  country  gentry  and  deputies  of 
the  towns.  The  higher  offices  of  administration 
are  entrusted  to  a  cabinet  council,  a  board  of 
finance,  a  military  board,  a  high  court  of  appeal 
for  judicial  questions,  and  an  upper  consistory 
for  ecclesiastical.  Each  circle  has  a  court  of 
justice,  and  offices  for  the  transaction  of  provin- 
cial business.  The  peasantry  are  here  in  the 
enjoyment  of  complete  personal  freedom. 

The  king,  as  a  member  of  the  Germanic  con- 
federation, has  the  fourth  rank  in  the  smaller, 
and  four  votes  in  the  larger  assembly.  J 

Saxony  remained  neutral  in  the  war  of  1740 
between  Prussia  and  Austria.  In  that  of  1756 
she  was  tempted  to  take  part  by  Austria ;  but,  in- 
stead of  an  accession  of  territory,  she  saw  her  do- 
minions ravaged  and  many  of  her  subjects  ruined. 
The  peace  of  1763  left  her  country  loaded  with 
an  enormous  debt.  In  the  war  of  1 793  the  con- 
tingent furnished  by  Saxony  against  France 
was  not  large,  and  no  decided  part  was  taken  in 
the  war,  until  1806,  when  the  elector  sent  all 
his  troops  to  the  support  of  the  king  of  Prussia. 
The  overthrow  of  that  power  enabled  Buona- 
parte to  attach  the  Saxons  to  his  cause.  The 
title  of  elector  was  changed  to  that  of  king. 
Prussian  Poland  was  added  to  the  Saxon  domi- 
nions, and  in  1809  was  nearly  doubled  by  ces- 
sions from  Austria.  But  these  acquisitions  led 
to  disastrous  results.  The  Russians  re-occupied 
Poland  in  the  beginning  of  1813,  and,  joined  by 
the  Prussians,  made  Saxony  the  scene  of  the 
great  struggle  against  Buonaparte.  Many  of  the 
people,  however,  flattered  themselves  that  their 
attachment  to  the  cause  of  Germany,  evinced  by 
the  defection  of  their  troops  from  the  French 
army  on  the  18th  October,  would  secure  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  territory.  The  interval  between  the 
battle  of  Leipsic  and  the  decision  of  the  congress 
of  Vienna  (nearly  eighteen  mouths)  was  balanced 
between  hope  and  fear,  and  cruel  was  the  disap- 
pointment of  the  Saxons,  on  finding  that  the 
northern  and  eastern  part,  containing  no  less 
than  850,000  inhabitants,  was  to  be  transferred 
to  Prussia.  The  king  protested  against  this  dis- 
memberment; but,  dreading  bloodshed,  he 
thought  proper  to  acquiesce. 

SAXONY,  a  province  of  the  Prussian  states, 
situated  to  the  west  of  Brandenburgh,  and  north 
of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony.  It  comprises  almost 
the  whole  of  the  cessions  made  by  the  latter 
power  at  the  congress  of  Vienna,  the  principali- 
ties to  the  north  of  the  duchy  of  Anhalt,  and  to 
the  west  of  the  rivers  Elbe  and  Havel ;  so  that 
the  whole  now  forms  an  area  of  9830  square 
miles,  with  more  than  1,000,000  of  inhabi- 
tants. It  is  divided  into  the  governments  of 
Magdeburg,  Merseburg,  and  Erfurt,  and  form*  a 


distinct  military  division;  the  chief  town  is 
Madgeburg. 

This  province  is  in  general  level,  the  only 
hills  being  part  of  the  Hartz,  in  the  south-west 
corner,  and  a  detached  part  of  the  Thuringiaa 
forest.  The  rest  is  varied  only  by  insignificant 
elevations.  The  soil,  however,  varies,  being  in 
some  places  dry  and  sandy,  and  in  others  a 
heavy  loam.  No  part  of  the  Prussian  states 
possesses  a  more  fertile  land  and  good  husban- 
dry. There  are  some  large  forests,  but  in  the 
far  greater  part  wood  is  scarce.  The  objects  of 
cultivation  are  corn,  hemp,  flax,  and  chicory  for 
making  coffee.  Pit  coal  and  metals  are  found  in 
the  mountains  of  the  Hartz;  porcelainx clay  in 
the  level  ground  in  the  south ;  but  the  product 
hitherto  most  profitable  is  salt  obtained  from 
brine  springs  by  evaporation.  The  richest  of 
these  springs  is  in  the  government  of  Merseburg, 
where  it  is  often  difficult  to  find  pure  water  for 
drinking.  The  inhabitants  are  almost  all  Protes- 
tants, except  in  the  little  district  called  the 
Eichsfeld.  Having  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  an 
enlightened  government,  both  under  Prussia  ana 
Saxony,  they  are  in  general  active  and  industr 
ous.  The  commerce  is  insignificant. 

SAY,  v.  a.,  v.  n.  &  n.  s. )    Sax.  j-ecjan ;  Belg. 

SAY'ING,  n.  *.  $  seggan;  Teut.  sagen. 

To  speak ;  utter  in  words  ;  allege ;  repeat :  to 
pronounce ;  utter ;  relate  :  as  a  noun-substantive, 
a  speech,  and  (abridged  from  ASSAY)  a  sample  ; 
trial :  saying  is  an  expression  ;  a  word ;  a  proverb. 

And  hise  britheren  seiden  to  him,  passe  fro  hennis, 
and  go  into  Judee,  that  also  thi  disciplis  seen  thi 
werkis  that  thou  doist.  WiclifJon.  7. 

Speak  unto  Solomon  ;  for  he  will  not  say  thee  nay. 

1  Kings. 

He  said  moreover,  I  have  somewhat  to  say  unto 
thee  ;  and  she  said,  Say  on.  Id. 

Say  nothing  to  any  man,  but  go  thy  way.    Mark. 
Moses  fled  at  this  saying,  and  was  a  stranger  in 
Midian.  Acts. 

Then  shall  be  said  or  sung  as  follows. 

i  Common  Prayer. 

So  good  a  say  invites  the  eye, 
A  little  downward  to  espy 
The  lively  clusters  of  her  breast.  Sidney. 

Say  it  out,  Diggon,  whatever  it  hight.      Spenter 
With  flying  speed,  and  seeming  great  pretence, 
Came  messenger  with  letters  which  his  message  said. 

Faerie  Queene. 

Some  obscure  precedence,  that  hath  tofore  been 
«ain.  Shaktpeare. 

Since  thy  outside  looks  so  fair  and  warlike, 
And  that  thy  tongue  some  say  of  breeding  breathes, 
By  rule  of  knighthood  I  disdain.  Id. 

I  thank  thee,  Brutus, 

That  thou  hast  proved  Lucilius  s  saying  true.      Id. 
The  council-table  and  star-chamber  hold,  as  Thu- 
cydides  said  of  the  Athenians,  for  honourable  that 
which  pleased,  and  for  just  that  which  profited. 

"larendon. 

Many  are  the  taking*  of  the  wise, 
Extolling  patience  as  the  truest  fortitude.     Milton. 

Say  first  what  cause 
Moved  our  grand  parents  to  fall  off !  Id. 

King  John  succeeded  his  said  brother  in  the  king- 
dom of  England  and  duchy  of  Normandy.  Hale. 

This  gentleman  having  brought  that  earth  to  th« 
publick  '(ay  masters,  and  upon  their  being  unable  to 


SAY 

bring  it  to  fusion,  or  make  it  fly  away,  he  had  pro- 
cured a  little  of  it,  and  with  a  peculiar  flux  separated 
a  third  part  of  pure  gold.  Boyle. 

Others  try  to  divert  the  troubles  of  other  men  by 
pretty  and  plausible  sayings,  such  as  this,  that  if  evils 
are  long,  they  are  but  light.  Tiliotson. 

After  all  can  be  said  against  a  thing,  this  will  still 
be  true,  that  many  things  possibly  are  which  we 
know  not  of. 

The  lion  here  has  taken  his  right  measures,  that 
is  to  say,  he  has  made  a  true  judgment.  L'Estrange. 

We  poetick  folk,  who  must  restrain 
Our  measured  sayings  in  an  equal  chain, 
Have  troubles  utterly  unknown  to  those, 
Who  let  their  fancy  loose  in  rambling  prose.  Prior. 

The  sacred  function  can  never  be  hurt  by  their 
tayings,  if  not  first  reproached  by  our  doings. 

Atterbury. 

And  who  more  blest,  who  chained  his  country  ;  say, 
:JT  he  whose  virtue  sighed  to  lose  a  day  7  Pope. 

He  no  sooner  said  out  his  say.,  but  up  rises  a  cun- 
ning snap.  Jd. 

Say,  Stella,  feel  you  no  content, 
Reflecting  on  a  life  well  spent  1  Swift. 

Of  some  propositions  it  may  be  difficult  to  tay 
whether  they  affirm  or  deny ;  as  when  we  say,  Plato 
was  no  fool.  Watts. 

SAY  (Samuel),  an  English  dissenting  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  1675.  After  acting  as  chap- 
*ain  and  preacher  in  Andover  and  Yarmouth,  he 
was  settled  at  Lowestofft  for  eighteen  years. 
He  next  became  colleague  to  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Baxter,  at  Ipswich,  for  nine  years,  and  at  last, 
in  T734,  succeeded  the  celebrated  Dr.  Edmund 
Calamy  at  Westminster  ;  where  he  died  April 
12th,  1743,  aged  sixty-eight.  A  volume  of  his 
poems  was  published  in  4to.,  1743,  with  two 
essays  in  prose,  On  the  Harmony,  Variety,  and 
Power  of  Numbers ;  which  have  been  much 
admired.  These  were  published  for  the  benefit 
of  his  daughter.  He  wrote  several  other  tracts. 
SAY,  in  commerce,  a  kind  of  serge  much  used 
abroad  for  linings,  and  by  the  religious  for  shirts ; 
with  us  it  is  used  for  aprons  by  several  sorts  of 
artificers,  being  usually  dyed  green. 

SAYANSKIE,  a  chain  of  mountains  in  Sibe- 
ria, forming  a  prolongation  of  the  Altai,  and  a 
line  of  separation  between  Siberia  and  Chinese 
Tartary.  They  extend  between  the  Upper 
Yenisei  and  the  lake  Baikal,  and  consist  chiefly 
of  naked  rocks  of  a  red  granite.  They  are  di- 
vided into  two  ranges,  one  of  which,  bordering 
on  the  Yenisei,  derives  its  name  from  that  river, 
the  other  from  the  city  of  Krasnoiarsk. 

SAYPAN,  one  of  the  Ladrone  Islands,  about 
twenty  miles  in  circumference.  According  to 
some  it  does  not  afford  the  same  refreshments  to 
ships  that  touch  there  as  Tinian,  though  Anson, 
by  whom  it  was  visited,  says  that  it  presents  an 
aspect  not  in  any  respect  less  agreeable.  Voy- 
agers in  general  agree  in  giving  Tinian  the  pre- 
ference to  Saypan,  both  in  regard  to  extent  and 
beauty.  Long.  145°  55'  E.,  lat.  15°  13'  N. 

SBIRRI,  from  Ital.  sbirri,  an  archer,  a  name 
given  to  a  class  of  armed  police  in  Italy,  re- 
sembling the  French  gens'd'armes  in  every  thing 
but  their  usefulness.  They  patrole  with  a  large 
cocked  hat,  armed  with  a  fusil,  pistols,  and  in- 
variably with  a  poniard.  They  are  under  the 
immediate  command,  and  subject  to  the  orders 
of,  the  different  intendants  or  governors  of  pro- 
vinces, and,  in  small  towns,  under  those  of  the 


SCA 

magistrates.  The  sbirri  are  employed  like  our 
Bow  Street  officers,  in  taking  up  thieves  ana 
assassins,  whom  they  are  authorised  to  lodge  in 
the  different  prisons,  and  at  whose  execution 
they  must  personally  attend.  These  men  are,  in 
general,  despised,  and  not  much  feared  by  the 
people ;  they  are  often  accused  of  being  in  com- 
munication with  the  leaders  of  the  various  gangs 
of  robbers  and  assassins  that  infest  Italy,  parti- 
cularly the  Appennine  mountains-. 

SCAB,  n.  s.     ~\      Sax.  pcaeb  ;    Ital.  scabbia  ; 

SCABB'ED,  adj.  f  Lat.  scabies.   An  incrustation 

SCABB'Y,  i  formed  over  a  sore ;  a  dis- 

SCA  BIOUS.  J  ease  of  animals  :  the  adjec- 
tives all  follow  the  sense  of  the  noun-substantive. 

Her  writhled  skin,  as  rough  as  mapple  rind, 
So  scabby  was,  that  it  would  have  loathed  all  woman- 
kind. Faerie  Qiieene. 
What's  the  matter  you  dissentious  rogues, 

That  rubbing  the  poor  itch  of  your  opinion, 

Make  yourselves  scabs  1      Shakspeare.   Coriolanus. 

I  would  thou  did'st  itch  from  head  to  foot,  and  I 
had  the  scratching  of  thee,  I  would  make  thee  the 
loathsomest  scab  in  Greece.  Shakspeare. 

The  briar  fruit  make  those  that  eat  them  scabbed. 

Bacon. 

That  free  from  gouts  thou  may'st  preserve  thy  care, 
And  clear  from  scabs  produced  by  freezing  air. 

Dryden. 

To  you  such  scabb'd  harsh  fruit  is  given,  as  raw 
Young  soldiers  at  their  exercising  gnaw.  Id. 

A  scabby  tetter  on  their  pelts  will  stick. 

When  the  raw  rain  has  pierced  them  to  the  quick. 

Id. 

One  of  the  usurers,  a  head  man  of  the  city,  took 
it  in  dudgeon  to  be  ranked,  cheek  by  joul,  with  a 
scab  of  a  currier.  L'Estrange. 

In  the  spring  scabious  eruptions  upon  the  skin 
were  epidemical,  from  the  acidity  of  the  blood. 

Arbuthnot  on  Air. 

This  vap'ring  scab  must  needs  devise 
To  ape  the  thunder  of  the  skies.  Swift. 

If  the  grazier  should  bring  me  one  wether  fat  and 
well  fleeced,  and  expect  the  same  price  for  a  whole 
hundred,  without  giving  me  security  to  restore  ray 
money  for  those  that  were  lean,  shorn,  or  scabby,  I 
would  be  none  of  his  customer.  Id. 

SCAB'BARD,  n.  s.  Germ,  schap — Junius  » 
Goth,  skalpen.  The  sheath  of  a  sword. 

Enter  fortune's  gate, 

Nor  in  thy  scabbard  sheath  that  famous  blade, 
'Till  settled  be  thy  kingdom  and  estate.       Fairfax. 

What  eyes !  how  keen  their  glances  !  you  do  well 
to  keep  'em  veiled  ;  they  are  too  sharp  to  be  trusted 
out  o'  th'  scabbard.  Dryden's  Spanish  Fryar. 

SCA-BIOSA,  scabious,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  monogynia  order  and  tetrandria  class  of 
plants,  natural  order  forty-eighth,  aggregate , 
Common  CAL.  polyphyllous ;  proper,  double 
superior;  the  receptacle  paleaceous  or  naked. 
The  most  remarkable  species  are, — 

1.  S.  arvensis,  the  meadow  scabious,  which 
grows  naturally  in  many  places  of  Britain.     It 
has  a  strong,  thick,  fibrous  root,  sending  out 
many  branching  stalks,  which  rise  to  the  height 
of  three  feet.     The  lower  leaves  are  sometimes 
almost  entire,  and  at  others  they  are  cut  into 
many    segments   almost   to   the   midrib.      The 
flowers  are  produced  upon  naked  foot-stalks  at 
the  end  of  the  branches ;  they  are  of  a  purple 
color,  and  have  a  faint  odor. 

2.  S  succisa,  or  devil's  bit,  grows  naturally  in 


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woods  and  moist  places.  This  has  a  short  tap- 
root, the  end  of  which  appears  as  if  it  was 
bitten  or  cut  off,  whence  the  plant  has  its  name. 
The  leaves  are  open  and  spear-shaped,  and 
smooth ;  the  stalks  are  single,  about  two  feet 
high,  garnished  with  two  leaves  at  each  joint ; 
they  generally  send  out  two  short  foot-stalks 
from  their  upper  joint,  standing  opposite,  which 
are  terminated  by  purple  flowers.  Both  these 
have  been  recommended  as  aperient,  sbdonfic, 
and  expectorant ;  but  the  present  practice  has  no 
dependence  on  them. 

SCA'BROUS,  adj.  Fr.  scabreus;  Lat.  sca- 
tter. Rough  ;  rugged ;  poir  ed  on  the  surface  ; 
harsh. 

Lucretius  is  scabrous  and  rougo  in  these  ;  he  seeks 
them,  as  some  do  Chaucensms,  which  were  better 
expunged.  Ben  Jonson. 

Urine,  black  and  bloody,  is'occasioned  by  sorae- 
jhing  sharp  or  scabrous  wounding  the  small  blood- 
vessels ;  if  the  stone  is  smooth  and  well  bedded,  this 
may  not  happen.  Arbuthnot. 

SCABWORT.     See  SCABIOSA. 

SC .-UVULA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order  and  pentandria  class  of  plants  :  COR. 
monopetalous  ;  the  tube  slit  longitudinally  ;  the 
Iwrder  quinquefid  and  lateral.  The  fruit  is  a 
plum  inferior  and  monospermous  ;  the  nucleus 
bilocular.  Species  three,  natives  of  India. 

SCAF'FULD,  n.  s.  }       French    eschafaut; 

SCAF'FOLDAGE,  >of  Lat.   scabellwn.     A 

SCAF'FOLDING.  j  temporary  stage  or  gal- 

lery :  particularly  the  stage  erected  for  the  exe- 
cution of  malefactors  :  the  other  two  substantives 
are  synonymous. 

Fortune,   smiling  at  her  fortune  therein,  that  a 
scaffold  of  execution  should  grow  a  scaffold  of  coro- 
nation. Sydney. 
Pardon 

The  flat  unraised  spirit,  that  hath  dared 

On  this  unworthy  scaffold  to  bring  forth 

So  great  an  object.  Shahspeare.  Henry  V. 

A  strutting  player  doth  think  it  rich 
To  hear  the  wooden  dialogue  and  sound, 
Twixt  his  stretch 'd  footing  and  the  tcaffoldage. 

Shahspeare. 

These  outward  beauties  are  but  the  props  and 

scaffolds 
On  which   we  built  our  love,   which,  now  made 

perfect, 
Stands  without  these  supports.        Denham's  Sophy. 

The  throng 
On  banks  and  scaffolds  under  sky  might  stand. 

Milton. 

Send  forth  your  lab'ring  thought ; 
Let  it  return  with  empty  notions  fraught, 
Of  airy  columns  every  moment  broke, 
Of  circling  whirlpools,  and  of  spheres  of  smoke : 
Yet  this  solution  but  once  more  affords 
New  change  of  terms  and  scaffolding  of  words. 

Prior. 

What  are  riches,  empire,  power, 
But  steps  by  which  we  climD  to  rise,  and  reach 
Our  wish  ?  and,  that  obtained,  down  with  the  scaf- 
folding 
Of  sceptres  and  of  thrones.  '     Congreve. 

Sickness,  contributing  no  less  than  old  age  to  the 
shaking  down  this  scaffolding  of  the  body,  may  dis- 
cover the  inward  structure.  Popt. 

Sylla  added  three  hundred  commons  to  the  senate  ; 
then  abolished  the  office  of  tribune,  as  being  only  a 


icaff'i>ld   to  tyranny,  whereof  he    had  no  further  use. 

Swift. 

SCAGLIULA,  in  architecture,  a  kind  of  Ita- 
lian composition  in  imitation  of  marble,  variously 
colored  according  to  the  species  the  artist  in- 
tends to  represent.  It  is  laid  on  brick  in  the 
manner  of  stucco,  and  worked  off  with  iron 
tools,  or  formed  by  moulds  into  friezes,  architec- 
tural borders,  &c.  This  manufacture  was  intro- 
duced into  this  country  by  Mr.  Coade,  and  is 
now  carried  on  with  great  success. 

SCALA  (Bartolomeo),  an  eminent  Italian 
writer,  who  flourished  when  literature  was  reviv- 
ing in  Europe.  He  was  born  about  1424,  and 
was  the  only  son  of  a  miller ;  but,  going  early  to 
Florence,  Cosmo  de  Medicis  gave  him  education. 
He  studied  the  law ;  became  LL.D.,  and  fre- 
quented the  bar.  Un  Cosmo's  death,  in  1464, 
Peter  de  Medicis  employed  him  in  the  service 
of  the  republic,  in  the  most  important  negocia- 
tions.  In  1471  he  was  made  a  citizen  of  Flo- 
rence;  in  1472  he  was  ennobled  and  made 
chancellor.  In  1484  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy 
to  pope  Innocent  VIII.,  whom  he  pleased  so 
well  that  the  pope  made  him  a  Roman  knight 
and  senator.  He  published  some  of  his  orations, 
among  which  were  the  following: — 1.  Pro  Im- 
peraioriis  militaribus  signis  dandis  Constantio 
Sfortiae  imperatori;  1481;  2.  Apologia  contra 
vituperatores  Florentiae;  1496,  folio;  3.  De 
Historia  Florentina ;  Libri  iv.  4.  Vita  di  Vita- 
liani  Borromeo ;  Rome,  1677,  4to.  He  died  in 
Florence  in  1497. 

SCALA  NOVA,  the  old  Neapolis,  a  well  built 
sea-port  town  of  Asia  Minor,  three  leagues  from 
the  site>  of  the  ancient  Ephesus.  The  fortifica- 
tions are  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  cir- 
cumference. To  the  north  is  a  suburb,  in  which 
alone  the  Christians  are  permitted  to'  dwell. 
The  population  is  reckoned  by  Tournefort,  at 
1000  Turkish  families,  600  Greek,  ten  Jew,  and 
sixty  Armenian.  The  town  carries  on  a  consi- 
derable trade  in  grain,  coffee,  and  cloth,  from 
Egypt,  Smyrna,  and  Salonica.  The  neighbour- 
hood yields  a  considerable  quantity  of  wine. 
Forty  miles  south  of  Smyrna. 

SCALADE',  n.  $.  >       Fr.  scalade ;  Span,  sca- 

SCALA'DO.  J  lada,  from  Latin  scala,  a 

ladder.  A  storm  given  to  a  place  by  raising 
ladders  against  the  walls. 

What  can  be  more  strange  than  that  we  should 
within  two  months  have  won  one  town  of  importance 
by  tcalado,  battered  and  assaulted  another,  and  over- 
thrown great  forces  in  the  field  ?  Bar  on . 

Thou  raiscdst  thy  voice  to  record  the  stratagems, 
the  arduous  exploits,  and  the  nocturnal  scalade  of 
needy  heroes,  the  terror  of  your  peaceful  citizens. 

Arbuthnot's  History  of  John  Bull. 

SCA  LA  no,  or  SCALADE,  in  the  art  of  war,  is 
an  assault  made  on  the  wall  or  rampart  of  a 
city,  or  other  fortified  place,  by  means  of  lad- 
ders, without  carrying  on  works  in  form,  to 
secure  the  men. 

SCA'LARY,  adj.  From  Lat.  scala.  Pro- 
ceeding by  steps  like  those  of  a  ladder. 

He  made  at  nearer  distances  certain  elevated 
places  and  scahtry  ascents,  that  they  might  better 
ascend  or  mount  their  horses.  Browne 


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SCALD,  v.  a.,  n.  s.,  &  adj.  }     Span,  csculder  ; 
SCALD'IIEAD,  n.  s.  >Ital.  scaldare  ;  of 

SCALL.  y  Lat.  culidus.    To 

burn  with  hot  liquor  :  scurf  on  the  head  :  paltry ; 
sorry :  scurvy  :  scaldhead,  a  leprous  disease  of 
the  head  :  scall  is  leprosy  ;  morbid  baldness. 
It  is  a  dry  scall,  a  leprosy  upon  the  head. 

Lev.  xiii.  30. 
Upon  thy  bald  hede  maist  thou  have  the  scall. 

Chaucer. 

Her  head  altogether  bald, 
Was  overgrown  with  scurff  and  filthy  scald. 

Spenser. 
O  majesty  ! 

When  thou  dost  pinch,  thy  bearer,  thou  dost  sit 
Like  a  rich  armour  worn  in  heat  of  day 
That  scalds  with  safety.          Shakspeare.  Henry  IV. 

Saucy  lictors 

Will  catch  at  us  like  strumpets,  and  scald  rhymers 
Ballad  us  out  o'tune.  Shakspeare. 

Here  the  blue  flames  of  scalding  brimstone  fall, 
Involving  swiftly  in  one  ruin  all.  Cowley. 

That  I  grieve,  'tis  true  ; 
But  'tis  a  grief  of  fury,  not  despair  ! 
And,  if  a  manly  drop  or  two  fall  down, 
It  scalds  along  my  cheeks,  like  the  green  wood, 
That,    sputt'ring  in   the  flame,  works  outward  into 

tears.  Dryden's  CLeomenes. 

It  depends  not  on  his  will  to  persuade  himself, 
that  what  actually  scalds  him,  feels  cold.  Locke. 

In  Oxfordshire  the  sour  land  they  fallow  when 
the  sun  is  pretty  high,  which  they  call  a  scalding 
fallow.  Mortimer. 

Warm  cataplasms  discuss  ;  but  scalding  hot  may 
confirm  the  tumour  :  heat,  in  general,  doth  not 
resolve  and  attenuate  the  juices  of  a  human  body  ; 
for  too  great  heat  will  produce  concretions. 

Arbulhnot  on  Aliments. 

The  serum  is  corrupted  by  the  infection  of  the 
touch  of  a  salt  humour,  to  which  the  scab,  pox,  and 
scaldhead  are  referable.  Flayer. 

The  best  thing  we  can  do  with  Wood  is  to  scald 

him  ; 

For  which  operation  there's  nothing  more  proper 
Than  the  liquor  he  deals  in,  his  own  melted  copper. 

Swift. 

SCALD  CREAM,  sometimes  also  called  clouted 
cream,  a  method  of  preparing  cream  for  butter. 
Mr.  Feltham  gives  the  following  account  of  it : — 
The  purpose  of  making  scald  cream  is  for  but- 
ter superior  to  any  which  can  be  procured  from 
the  usual  raw  cream,  being  preferable  for  flavor 
and  keeping.  As  leaden  cisterns  would  not 
answer  for  scalding  cream,  the  dairies  mostly 
adopt  brass  pans,  which  hold  from  three  to  five 
gallons  of  the  milk  ;  and  that  which  is  put  into 
those  pans  one  morning  stands  till  the  next, 
when,  without  disturbing  it,  it  is  set  over  (on  a 
trivet)  a  steady  brisk  wood  fire,  devoid  of  smoke, 
where  it  is  to  remain  from  seven  10  fifteen 
minutes,  according  to  the  size  of  the  pan,  or  the 
quantity  in  it :  the  precise  time  for  removing  it 
from  the  fire  must  be  particularly  attended  to, 
which  is,  when  the  surface  begins  to  wrinkle  or 
to  gather  in  a  little,  showing  signs  of  boiling ; 
it  is  then  instantly  to  be  taken  off,  and  placed 
in  the  dairy  until  the  next  morning,  when  the 
fine  cream  is  thrown  up,  and  may  be  taken  for 
the  table,  or  for  butter,  into  which  it  is  now 
soon  converted  by  stirring  it  with  the  hand. 
Some  know  when  to  remove  it  from  the  fire  by 
sounding  the  pan  with  the  finger,  it  being  then 


less  sonorous ;  but  this  is  only  acquired  by  ex- 
perience. Dr.  Hales  observes  that  this  method 
of  preparing  milk  will  take  off  the  taste  it 
sometimes  acquires  from  the  cows'  feeding  on 
turnips,  cabbages,  &c. 

SCALDS,  in  the  history  of  literature,  a  name 
given  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
countries  to  their  poets  ;  in  whose  writings  their 
history  is  recorded.  See  BARDS. 

SCALE,  n.  s.  &u.  «.  Sax.  r-cale  ;  Belg.  schael ; 
Island,  skal ;  Goth.  skal.  A  balance  ;  the  dish 
of  a  balance :  hence  the  sign  Libra  :  to  measure  ; 
compare. 

If  thou  tak'st  more 

Or  less  than  a  just  pound,  if  the  scale  turn 
But  in  the  estimation  of  a  hair, 
Thou  diest.  Shakspeare.   Merchant  of  Venice. 

Here's  an  equivocator,  that  could  swear,  in  both 
the  scales,  against  either  scale.  Sha/tspeare. 

You  have  found, 

Scaling  his  present  bearing  with  his  past, 
That  he's  your  fixed  enemy.  Id.  Coriolaniu. 

The  world's  scales  are  even  ;  when  the  main 
In  one  place  gets,  another  quits  again.     Cleveland. 

Juno  pours  out  the  urn,  and  Vulcan  claims 
The  scales,  as  the  just  product  of  his  flames. 

Creech. 

Long  time  in  even  scale 
The  battle  hung.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

The  scales  are  turned,   her  kindness  weighs  no 

more 

Now  than  my  vows.  Waller. 

In  full  assemblies  let  the  crowd  prevail ; 

I  weigh  no  merit  by  the  common  scale, 

The  conscience  is  the  test.  Dryden. 

If  we  consider  the  dignity  of  an  intelligent  being, 
and  put  that  in  the  scales  against  brute  inanimate  mat- 
ter, we  may  affirm,  without  overvaluing  human  nature, 
that  the  soul  of  one  virtuous  and  religious  man  is  of 
greater  worth  and  excellency  than  the  sun  and  his 
planets.  Bentley's  Sermons. 

Collect  at  evening  what  the  day  brought  forth, 
Compress  the  sum  into  its  solid  worth, 
And,  if  it  weigh  the  importance  of  a  fly, 
The  scales  are  false,  or  algebra  a  lie.  Cowper. 

SCALE,  n.s.,  v.a.  &  v.  n.")   Fr.  escaille  ;  Lat. 

SCALED,  adj.  > squama.    The  la- 

SCALY.  j  mina  of   a   fish's 

coat ;  any  thing  exfoliated  or  disquamated  :  to 
strip  of  scales ;  to  pare  off  a  surface :  the  adjec- 
tives signify  squamous ;  having  scales :  to  peel 
off  in  thin  particles. 

Raphael  was  sent  to  scale  away  the  whiteness  of 
Tobit'seyes.  Tab.  iii.  17. 

Half  my  Egypt  was  submerged,  and  made 
A  cistern  for  scaled  snakes. 

Shakspeare.  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 

Those  that  cast  their  shell  are  the  lobster  and 
crab :  the  old  skins  are  found,  but  the  old  shells 
never ;  so  as  it  is  like  they  scale  off,  and  crumble 
away  by  degrees.  Bacon. 

He  puts  him  on  a  coat  of  mail, 

Which  was  made  of  a  fish's  scale.  Drayton. 

Take  jet  and  the  scales  of  iron,  and  with  a  wet  fea- 
ther, when  the  smith  hath  taken  an  heat,  take  up  the 
scales  that  fly  from  the  iron,  and  those  scales  von 
should  grind  upon  your  painter's  stone.  Peacham. 

The  river  horse  and  scaly  crocodile.  Milton. 

Standing  aloof,  with  lead  they  bruise  the  scales, 
And  tear  the  flesh  of  the  incensed  whales.    Waller. 

His  awful  summons  they  so  soon  obey  ; 
So  hear  the  scaly  herd  when  Proteus  blows, 
And  so  to  pasture  follow  through  the  sea.   Dryhn. 


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352 


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I/  all  the  mountains  were  tcaled,  and  the  earth 
tv.ade  even,  the  waters  would  not  overflow  its  smooth 
surface.  Burnet. 

A  scaly  fish  with  a  forked  tail.  Woodward. 

When  a  scale  of  bone  is  taken  out  of  a  wound, 
burning  retards  the  separation.  Sharp's  Surgery. 

SCALE,  n.s.  8c  v.  a.  Lat.  scala.  A  ladder; 
means  of  ascent ;  the  act'  of  storming  by  lad- 
ders ;  regular  gradation  ;  series  of  musical  or 
other  degrees,  or  notes  ;  any  thing  marked  at 
equal  distances  :  to  climb  by  ladders  ;  to  mount. 

Often  have  I  scaled  the  craggy  oak, 
All  to  dislodge  the  raven  of  her  nest : 
How  have  I  wearied,  with  many  a  stroke, 
The  stately  walnut-tree,  the  while  the  rest 
Under  the  tree  fell  all  for  nuts  at  strife  !       Spenser. 

They  assailed  the  breach,  and  others  with  their 
scaling  ladders  scaled  the  walls. 

Knollet's  History  nf  the  Turks. 
They  take  the  flower  o'  the  Nile 
By  certain  scale  i'  the  pyramid :  they  know 
By  the  height,  the  lowness,  or  the  mean,  if  dearth 
Or  foizon  follow. 

Shakspeare.     Antony  and  Cleopatra. 
'    Love  refines 

The  thought,  and  heart  enlarges  ;  hath  his  seat 
In  reason,  and  is  judicious  ;  is  the  scale 
By  which  to  heavenly  love  thou  mayest  ascend. 

Milton. 

Others  to  a  city  strong 

Lay  siege,  encamped  ;  by  battery,  scalt,  and  mine 
Assaulting.  Id.  Paradise  Lost. 

The  map  of  London  was  set  out  in  the  year  1658, 
oy  Mr.  Newcourt,  drawn  by  a  icale  of  yards. 

Graunt. 

Heaven  with  these  engines  had  been  scaled, 
When  mountains  heaped  on  mountains  failed. 

Walter. 

The  bent  of  his  thoughts  and  reasonings  run  up 
and  down  this  scale,  that  no  people  can  be  happy  but 
under  good  governments.  Temple. 

When  the  bold  Typhaeus  scaled  the  sky, 
And  forced  great  Jove  from  his  own  heaven  to  fly, 
The  lesser  gods  all  suffered.  Dryden. 

The  scale  of  the  creatures  is  a  matter  of  high  specu- 
lation. Grew. 

On  the  bendings  of  these  mountains  the  mark  of 
several  ancient  scales  of  stairs  may  be  seen,  by  which 
they  used  to  ascend  them.  Addison  on  Italy. 

We  believe  an  invisible  world,  and  a  scale  of 
spiritual  beings,  all  nobler  than  ourselves. 

Bentley's  Sermons, 

All  the  integral  parts  of  nature  have  a  beautiful 
analogy  to  one  author,  and  to  their  mighty,  original, 
whose  images  are  more  or  less  expressive,  according 
to  their  several  gradations  in  the  smle  of  beings. 

Chetfne's  Philosophical  Principles. 

Far  as  creation's  ample  range  extends, 
The  scale  of  sensual  mental  powers  ascends.    Pope. 

SCALE,  a  mathematical  instrument  consisting 
of  several  lines  drawn  on  wood,  brass,  silver, 
&c.,  and  variously  divided  according  to  the  pur- 
poses it  is  intended  to  serve  ;  whence  it  acquires 
various  denominations,  as  the  plain  scale,  dia- 
gonal scale,  plotting  scale,  &c. 

SCALE,  in  architecture  and  geography,  a  line 
divided  into  equal  parts,  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
a  map  or  draught,  to  serve  as  a  common  measure 
to  all  the  parts  of  the  building,  or  all  the  dis- 
tances and  places  of  the  map. 

SCALE,  in  music,  sometimes  denominated  a 
gamut,  a  diagram,  a  series,  an  order,  a  diapason. 
It  consists  of  the  regular  gradations  of  sound, 


by  which  a  composer  or  performer  whether  m 
rising  or  descending  may  pass  from  any  given 
tune  to  another.  These  gradations  are  seven. 
When  this  order  is  repeated,  the  first  note  of  the 
second  is  consentaneous  with  the  lowest  note  of 
the  first ;.  the  second  of  the  former  with  the  se- 
cond of  the  latter ;  and  so  through  the  whole 
octave.  The  second  order,  therefore,  is  justly 
esteemed  only  a  repetition  of  the  first.  For 
this  reason  the  scale  among  the  moderns  is  some- 
times limited  to  an  octave ;  at  other  times  ex- 
tended to  the  compass  of  any  particular  voice  or 
instrument.  It  likewise  frequently  includes  all 
the  practical  gradations  of  musical  sound,  or  the 
whole  number  of  octaves  employed  in  compo- 
sition or  execution,  arranged  in  their  natural 
order.  See  Music. 

SCALIGER  (Julius  Caesar),  a  learned  critic, 
born  at  the  castle  of  Ripa,  in  the  Veronese,  in 
1484;  and  said  by  himself  to  have  been  de- 
scended from  the  ancient  princes  of  Verona. 
He  learned  the  Latin  tongue  in  his  own  country  ; 
and  in  his  twelfth  year  was  presented  to  the  em- 
peror Maximilian,  who  made  him  one  of  his 
pages.  He  served  that  emperor  seventeen  years, 
and  gave  signal  proofs  of  his  valor  and  conduct 
in  several  expeditions.  He  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Ravenna  in  April  1512,  in  which  he 
lost  his  father  Benedict  Scaliger,  and  his  brother 
Titus ;  on  which  his  mother  died  with  grief : 
when,  being  reduced  to  necessitous  circumstances, 
he  entered  into  the  order  of  the  Franciscans,  and 
applied  himself  to  study  at  Bologna ;  but  soon 
after  took  arms  again,  and  served  in  Piedmont. 
At  which  time  a  physician  persuaded  him  to 
study  physic,  which  he  did  at  his  leisure  hours, 
and  also  learned  Greek  ;  and  at  last  the  gout  d-- 
termined  him,  at  forty  years  of  age,  to  abandon 
a  military  life.  He  soon  after  settled  at  Agen, 
where  he  was  naturalised  in  1528,  married,  and 
applied  himself  seriously  to  his  studies.  !!•• 
learned  first  the  French  tongue ;  and  then  made 
himself  master  of  the  Gascon,  Italian,  Spanish, 
German,  Hungarian,  and  Sclavonian.  Mean- 
while he  supported  his  family  by  the  practice  of 
physic.  He  did  not  publish  any  of  his  works 
till  he  was  forty-seven  years  of  age;  when  he 
.soon  gained  a  name  in  the  republic  of  letters. 
He  had  a  graceful  person,  and  a  strong  memory. 
He  died  of  a  retention  of  urine  in  1558.  He 
wrote  in  Latin,  1.  A  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Poe- 
try. 2.  Exercitations  against  Cardan :  which 
works  are  much  esteemed.  3.  Commentaries  on 
Aristotle's  History  of  Animals,  and  on  Theo- 
phrastus  on  Plants.  4.  Some  Treatises  on  Physic. 
5.  Letters,  Orations,  Poems,  and  other  works  in 
Latin. 

SCALIGER  (Joseph  Justus),  one  of  the  most 
learned  critics  and  writers  of  his  time;  the  son 
of  the  above,  was  born  at  Agen,  in  France,  in 
1540.  He  studied  in  the  college  of  Bourdeaux, 
after  which  his  father  employed  him  in  tran- 
scribing his  poems ;  by  which  he  obtained  such 
a  taste  for  poetry  that  before  he  was  seventeen 
years  old  he  wrote  a  tragedy  upon  the  subject 
of  Oedipus.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1559,  with  a 
design  to  apply  himself  to  the  Greek  language 
For  this  purpose  he  for  two  months  attended  the 
lectures  of  Turnebus  ;  and  afterwards  shut  him- 


SCA 


3,53 


SCA 


self  up,  and  by  constant  application  for  two 
years  gained  a  perfect  knowledge  of  that  lan- 
guage ;  after  which  he  applied  to  the  Hebrew, 
which  he  learned  by  himself  with  great  facility. 
He  made  no  less  progress  in  the  sciences ;  and 
his  writings  procured  him  the  reput\tion  of  one 
of  the  greatest  men  of  the  age.  He  embraced 
the  reformed  religion  at  twenty-two  years  of  age. 
In  1563  he  attached  himself  to  Lewis  Casteig- 
nier  de  la  Roch  Pazay,  whom  he  attended  in 
several  journeys ;  and  in  1593  was  offered  the 
place  of  honorary  professor  of  the  university  of 
Leyden,  which  he  accepted.  He  died  of  a 
dropsy  in  that  city  in  1609.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  temperance ;  and  was  never  married.  He 
published  many  works,  the  principal  of  which  are, 
1.  Notes  on  Seneca's  Tragedies,  on  Varro,  Au- 
sonius,  Pompeius  Festus,  &c.  2.  Latin  Poems. 
3.  A  Treatise  de  Emendatione  Temporum.  '  4. 
Eusebius's  Chronicle  with  Notes.  .  5.  Canones 
Isagogici;  and  many  other  works.  The  collec- 
tions entitled  Scaligeriana  were  collected  from 
his  conversations  by  one  of  his  friends ;  and, 
being  ranged  into  alphabetical  order,  were  pub- 
lished by  Isaac  Vossius. 

SCAL'LOP,  n.  s.  Fr.  escalop.  A  fish  with  a 
hollow  pectinated  shell. 

So  the  emperour  Caligula, 
That  triumphed  o'er  the  British  sea, 
Engaged  his  legions  in  fierce  bustles 
With  periwincles,  prawns,  and  muscles, 
And  led  his  troops  with  furious  gallops, 
To  charge  whole  regiments  of  scallops.       Hudibras. 

The  sand  is  in  Scilly  glistering,  which  may  be  oc- 
casioned from  freestone  mingled  with  white  scallop 
shells.  Mortimer. 

SCALLOP,  in  ichthyology.  See  PECTEN.  In 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  the  great  scallop  shell 
is  made  use  of  for  the  skimming  of  milk.  In 
old  times  it  had  a  more  honorable  place  ;  being 
admitted  into  the  halls  of  heroes,  and  was  the 
cup  of  their  festivity  when  the  tribe  assembled 
in  the  hall  of  thei-  chieftain. 

SCALMARTIN  ROCKS,  rocks  of  Ireland,  on 
the  coast  of  Down  county,  Ulster,  in  the  harbour 
of  Donaghadee.  Though  they  are  so  smooth 
that  vessels  seldom  suffer  on  them,  yet  in  high 
tides  and  storms  they  are  dangerous. 

SCALP,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Belg.  schelpe,  a  shell ; 
Ital.  scalpo.  The  skull  or  cranium  ;  to  take  off 
the  scalp. 

High  brandishing  his  bright  dew-burning  blade, 
Upon  his  crested  scalp  so  sore  did  smite, 
That  to  the  scull  a  yawning  wound  it  made. 

Faerie  Queene. 

White  beards  have  armed  their  thin  and  hairless 


Against  thy  majesty.  Shakspeare.  Richard  II. 

The  hairy  scalps 

Are  whirled  aloof,  while  numerous  trunks  bestrow 
The  ensanguined  field.  Phillips. 

If  the  fracture  be  not  complicated  with  a  wound 
of  the  sca/f),  or  the  wound  is  too  small  to  admit  of 
the  operation,  the  fracture  must  be  laid  bare  by 
taking  away  a  large  piece  of  the  scalp. 

Sharp's  Surgery. 

We  seldom  inquire  for  a  fracture  of  the  skull  by 
tcalping,  but  that  the  scalp  itself  is  contused. 

Sharp. 

SCALPA,   one  of   the   Western    Islands   of 
Scotland,  lying  in  the  sound  between  the  Isle  of 
VOL   XIX 


Sky  and  Pomona,  about  five  miles  long  and  from 
two  to  three  broad.  It  is  barren  and  rocky,  in 
the  highest  part  of  it,  is  a  rock  of  petrified 
moss,  in  which  are  a  variety  of  shells ;  and  great 
quantities  of  shells  are  found  several  feet  under 
ground.  It  lies  one  mile  east  of  Sky. 

SCALPA  FLOW,  a  large  expanse  of  water  among 
the  Orkney  Islands,  resembling  a  small  sea,  about 
fifty  miles  in  circumference;  surrounded  by 
twelve  islands,  through  which  are  several  out- 
lets to  the  Pentland  Frith,  Atlantic  and  German 
Oceans.  During  war  it  is  a  great  thoroughfare 
for  vessels  coming  north ;  and  abounds  with 
safe  harbours  and  road-steads  for  vessels  of  the 
largest  size.  The  chief  entrance  from  the  west 
is  through  Hoy-mouth,  and  from  the  east  through 
Holme  Sound.  The  tide  at  its  entrance  into 
Scalpa  Flow  is  remarkably  rapid,  but  soon  sub- 
sides. 

A  SCALPEL  is  a  kind  of  knife  used  in  ana- 
tomical dissections  and  operations  in  surgery. 

SCALPING,  in  military  history,  a  barbarous 
custom  practised  by  the  American  Indians,  of 
taking  off  the  tops  of  the  scalps  of  their  enemies' 
skulls  with  their  hair  on.  They  preserve  them 
as  trophies  of  their  victories,  and  are  rewarded 
by  their  chiefs  according  to  the  number  of  scalps 
they  bring  in. 

SCAMANDER,  or  SCAMANDROS,  a  celebrated 
river  of  Troas,  rising  at  the  east  end  of  Mount 
Ida,  and  running  into  the  sea  below  SigaeurrK 
Homer  says  it  was  called  Xanthus  by  the  gods. 
The  goddesses  Juno,  Minerva,  and  Venus,  are 
fabled  to  have  bathed  in  it,  previous  to  their  ap- 
pearing before  Paris,  in  the  contest  for  the  golden 
apple.  The  Simois  runs  into  it.  It  was  a  cus- 
tom among  the  Phrygian  brides  to  bathe  them- 
selves before  marriage  in  this  river.  But  this 
superstitious  ceremony  was  abrogated,  in  conse- 
quence of  Cimon  an  Athenian's  having  assumed 
the  disguise  of  a  river  god,  and  deflowering  Ca- 
lirrhoe,  a  noble  virgin,  at  that  time  betrothed. 
'  The  origin  of  this  river,'  says  Dr.  Clarke,  '  is  not 
like  the  source  of  ordinary  streams,  obscure  and 
uncertain ;  of  doubtful  locality  and  indetermi- 
nate character ;  ascertained  with  difficulty,  among 
various  petty  subdivisions  in  swampy  places,  or 
amidst  insignificant  rivulets,  falling  from  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  same  mountain,  and  equally 
tributary ;  it  bursts  at  once  from  the  dark  womb 
of  its  parent,  in  all  the  greatness  of  the  divine 
origin  assigned  to  it  by  Homer.  Our  ascert,  as 
we  drew  near  to  the  source  of  the  river,  became 
steep  and  stony.  Lofty  summits  towered  above 
us,  in  the  greatest  style  of  Alpine  grandeur ;  the 
torrent,  in  its  rugged  bed  below,  all  the  while 
foaming  upon  our  left.  Presently  we  entered 
one  of  the  sublimest  natural  amphitheatres  the 
eye  ever  beheld  ;  and  here  the  guides  desired  us 
to  alight.  The  noise  of  waters  silenced  every 
other  sound.  Huge  craggy  rocks  rose  perpen- 
dicularly to  an  immense  height;  whose  sides 
and  fissures  to  the  very  clouds,  concealing  their 
tops,  were  covered  with  pines,  growing  in  every 
possible  direction,  among  a  variety  of  evergreen 
shrubs,  wild  sage,  hanging  ivy,  moss,  and  creep- 
ing herbage.  Enormous  plane-trees  waved  their 
vast  branches  above  the  torrent.  As  we  ap- 
proached its  deep  gulf,  we  beheld  several  cas- 

9.  A 


SCA 

cades  all  of  foam,  pouring  impetuously  from 
chasms  in  the  naked  face  of  a  perpendicular 
rock.  It  is  said  the  same  magnificent  cataract 
continues  during  all  seasons  of  the  year,  wholly 
unaffected  by  the  casualties  of  rain  or  melting 
snow.' 

SCAMANDER,  in  fabulous  history,  the  son  of 
Corybas  and  Demodice,  who  brought  a  colony 
from  Crete  into  Phrygia,  and  settled  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Ida,  where  he  established  the  festivals 
of  Cybele.  Being  afterwards  drowned  in  the 
Xanthus,  the  river  was  named  after  him.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Teucer:  Diod.  4. 

SCAM'BLE,  v.  n.  Ital.  scambilarc,  from  Lat. 
scambus.  To  be  turbulent  or  rapacious ;  to 
scramble. 

Have  fresh  chaff  in  the  bin, 
And  somewhat  to  scamble  for  hog  and  for  hen. 

Tnsser. 

Scambling,  out  facing,  fashion-mongering  boys 
That  lie,  and  cog,  and  flout,  deprave  and  slander. 

Shakspeare. 

He  was  no  sooner  entered  into  the  town  but  a 
scumbling  soldier  clapt  hold  of  his  bridle,  which  he 
thought  was  in  a  begging  or  a  drunken  fashion. 

Wotton. 

Some  scambling  shifts  may  be  made  without  them. 

More. 

My  wood  was  cut  in  patches,  and  other  parts  of  it 
scambled,  and  cut  before  it  was  at  its  growth. 

Mortimer. 

SCAMMO'NIATE,  adj.  From  scammony. 
Made  with  scammony,  a  resinous  juice. 

It  may  be  excited  by  a  local  scammnniate,  or  other 
acrimonious  medicines.  Wiseman's  Surgery. 

SCAMMONY,a  resinous  gum,  brought  into  this 
country  from  Aleppo,  in  light  spongy  masses, 
easily  friable,  of  a  shining  ash- color  verging  to 
black  ;  when  powdered  of  a  light  gray  or  whitish 
color :  an  inferior  sort  is  brought  from  Smyrna, 
in  more  compact  ponderous  pieces,  of  a  darker 
color,  and  full  of  sand  and  other  impurities. 
This  juice  is  chiefly  of  the  resinous  kind  ;  proof 
spirit  totally  dissolves  it,  the  impurities  only 
being  left.  It  has  a  faint  unpleasant  smell,  and 
a  bitterish,  somewhat  acrimonious  taste.  Scam- 
mony is  an  efficacious  and  strong  purgative. 
Some  have  condemned  it  as  unsafe,  and  laid 
sundry  ill  qualities  to  its  charge;  the  principal 
of  which  is,  that  its  operation  is  uncertain,  a  full 
dose  proving  sometimes  ineffectual,  whilst  at 
others  a  much  smaller  one  occasions  dangerous 
hypercatharses.  This  difference  is  owing  to  the 
different  circumstances  of  the  patient,  and  not 
to  any  ill  quality  or  irregularity  of  operation  of 
the  medicine :  where  the  intestines  are  lined 
with  an  excessiye  load  of  mucus,  the  scammony 
passes  without  exerting  itself  upon  them  ;  where 
the  natural  mucus  is  deficient,  a  small  dose  of 
this  or  any  other  resinous  cathartic  irritates  and 
inflames.  Many  have  endeavoured  tn  abate  the 
force  of  this  drug,  and  correct  its  imaginary  vi- 
ruknce,  by  exposing:  it  to  the  fume  of  sulphur, 
dissolving  it  in  acid  juices,  &c. ;  but  this  can 
only  destroy  a  part  of  the  medicine,  without 
altering  the  rest.  Scammony  in  substance,  judi- 
ciously managed,  needs  no  corrector:  if  tritu- 
rated with  sugar  or  almonds,  it  bfchmes  snffi- 
Iv  ife  and  mild.  It  m,<v  likewise  be  dis- 
solved by  figuration  in  a  .ti<.n:  cleioftion  pt 


SOA 

liquorice,  and  then  poured  off  from  the  fa?ces  ; 
the  college  of  Wirtemberg  assures  us  that  by 
this  treatment  it  becomes  mildly  purgative,  with- 
out any  inconveniences  ;  and  that  it  also  proves 
inoffensive  to  the  palate.  The  common  dose  is 
from  three  to  ten  grains.  According  to  the  ana- 
lysis of  Vogel,  Scammony  consists  of 


Aleppo. 

Smyrna. 

Resin     

60 

29 

Oum      

3 

8 

Extractive        .... 

2 

5 

Vegetable    debris  and  ^ 
earth    .     .     .     .      J 

35 

58 

100 

100 

SCAMOZZI  (Vincent),  a  celebrated  Italian 
architect  and  writer,  born  at  Vicenza  in  l.'i.vj. 
He  travelled  through  most  parts  of  Europe,  ami 
was  much  employed  in  the  chief  cities  of  Italy. 
He  wrote  a  celebrated  work,  entitled  Idea  del'hi 
Architecture  Universale,  2  vols.  folio,  Venice, 
1615.  He  died  at  Venice  in  1616,  aged  sixty- 
four. 

SCAM'PER,  v.n.  Goth.  sJcampa;  Ital.so/;«- 
pare.  To  fly  with  speed  or  trepidation. 

A  fox  seized  upon  the  fawn,  and  fairly  scampered 
away  with  him.  L'Estrange. 

Be  quick,  nay,  very  quick,  or  he'll  approach, 
And,  as  you're  scampering,  stop  you  in  your  coach. 

King. 

You  will  suddenly  take  a  resolution,  in  your  cabi- 
net of  Highlanders,  to  scamper  off  with  your  new 
crown.  Addison . 

Close  behind  his  heel 

Now  creeps  he  slow  ;  and  now,  with  many  a  frisk 
Wide-scampering,  snatches  up  the  drifted  snow 
With  ivory  teeth,  or  ploughs  it  with  his  snout ; 
Then  shakes  his  powdered  coat,  and  barks  for  joy. 

Camper. 

SCAN,  v.  a.  Fr.  scandre ;  Lat.  scando.  To 
examine  a  verse  by  counting  the  feet :  examine 
nicely  or  formally. 

So  he  goes  to  heaven, 
And  so  am  I  revenged  :  that  would  be  scanned. 

Shaktpeare.  Hamlet. 

The  rest  the  great  architect 
Did  wisely  to  conceal ;  and  not  divulge 
His  secrets  to  be  scanned  by  them,  who  ought 
Rather  admire.  Milton  $  Paradise  Lost 

They  scan  their  verses  upon  their  fingers.   Walsh. 

Sir  Roger  exposing  his  palm,  they  crumbled  it 
into  all  shapes,  and  diligently  scanned  every  wrinkle 
that  could  be  made  in  it.  Addinm. 

Every  man  has  guilt,  which  he  desires  should  not 
DC  rigorously  scanned  ;  and  therefore,  by  the  rule  of 
charity  and  justice,  ought  not  to  do  that  which  he 
should  not  suffer.  Government  of  the  Tongue. 

One  moment  and  one  thought  migtit  let  him  tcan 
Tin'  varions  turns  of  life,  and  fickle  state  of  man. 

Prior. 

The  actions  of  men  in  high  stations  are  all  con- 
spicuous, and  liable  to  be  scanned  and  sifted. 

Atterltury. 

At  the  final  reckoning,  when  all  men's  actions 
shall  l>e  scanned  and  judged,  the  great  King  shall 
pass  liis  sentence,  according  to  th«  good  men  have 
done,  or  neglected  to  do  (alumy. 


SCA 

SCAN'DAL,  M.  s.  &  v.  a.  -v    Fr.  scandale ;  Lat. 
SCAN'DALIZE,  v.  a.  I  scandalwn ;    Greek 

SCAN'DALOUS,  adj.  >  OKavSaXoV.  Op- 

SCAN'DALOUSLY,  adv.        i  probrium ;  offence 

SCAN'DALOUSNESS,  n.s.  J  given  by  the  faults 
of  others ;  aspersion ;  calumny :  to  charge  falsely ; 
reproach :  this  is  also  sometimes  the  sense  of  scan- 
dalize; at  others  it  means  to  offend  by  some  sup- 
posed crime :  the  adjective,  adverb,  and  noun- 
substantive  follow  the  senses  of  scandal. 

I  demand  who  they  are  whom  we  scandalize  by 
using  harmless  things  !  Among  ourselves  that  agree 
in  this  use,  no  man  will  say  that  one  of  us  is  offen- 
sive and  scandalous  unto  another.  Hooker. 

Nothing  scandalous  or  offensive  unto  any,  especi- 
ally unto  the  church  of  God  :  all  things  in  order,  and 
with  seemliness.  M. 

If  black  scandal,  or  foul-faced  reproach, 
Attend  the  sequel  of  your  imposition, 
Your  mere  enforcement  shall  acquittance  me 
From  all  the  impure  blots  and  stains  thereof. 

Shakspeare.   Richard  III. 

I  do  fawn  on  men,  and  hug  them  hard, 
And  after  tcandal  them.  Id.  Julius  Ceetar. 

Something  savouring 

Of  tyranny,  which  will  ignoble  make  you, 
Yea,  scandalous  to  the  world.       Id.   Winter'*  Tale. 
Thou  do'st  appear  to  scandalize 
The  publick  right  and  common  cause  of  kings. 

Daniel. 

It  had  the  excuse  of  some  bashfulness,  and  care 
not  to  scandalise  others.  Hammond  on  Fundamentals. 

Whoever  considers  the  injustice  of  some  ministers, 
in  those  intervals  of  parliament,  will  not  be  scanda- 
lized at  the  warmth  and  vivacity  of  those  meetings. 

Clarendon. 

His  lustful  orgies  he  enlarged 
Even  to  the  hill  of  scandal,  by  the  grove 
Of  Moloch  homicide.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

My  known  virtue  is  from  scandal  free, 
And  leaves  no  shadow  for  your  calumny.    Dryden. 

Many  were  scandalized  at  the  personal  slander 
and  reflection  flung  out  by  scandalizing  libellers. 

Addison. 

In  the  case  of  scandal,  we  are  to  reflect  how  man 
ought  to  judge.  Rogers';  Sermons. 

You  know  the  scandalous  meanness  of  that  pro- 
ceeding, which  was  used.  Pope. 

Shun  their  fault,  who,  scandalously  nice, 
Will  needs  mistake  an  author  into  vice.  Id. 

His  discourse  at  table  was  scandalously  unbecoming 
the  dignity  of  his  station  ;  noise,  brutality,  and  ob- 
sceneness.  Sicift. 

SC  AND  ALUM  MAGNATUM,  in  law,  is  a  de- 
famatory speech  or  writing,  to  the  injury  of  a 
person  of  rank ;  for  which  a  writ,  that  bears  this 
name,  is  granted  for  the  recovery  of  damages. 

SCANDERBEG,  the  surname  of  George  Cas- 
triot,  king  of  Albania,  a  province  of  Turkey  in 
Europe.  He  was  delivered  up  wilh  his  three  elder 
brothers  as  hostages,  by  their  father,  to  Amurath 
TI.,  sultan  of  the  Turks,  who  poisoned  his  brothers, 
but  spared  him  on  account  of  his  youth,  being 
likewise  pleased  with  his  juvenile  wit  and  hand- 
some person.  In  a  short  time  he  became  one  of 
the  most  renowned  generals  of  the  age ;  and,  re- 
volting from  Amurath,  he  joined  Hunniades,  a 
most  formidable  enemy  of  the  Turks.  He  de- 
feated the  sultan's  army,  took  Amu  rath 's  secre- 
tary prisoner,  obliged  him  to  sign  and  seal  an 
order  to  the  governor  of  Croia,  the  capital  of 
Albania,  to  deliver  up  the  citadel  and  city  to  the 


SCA 


bearer  of  that  order,  in  the  name  of  the  sultan. 
Witli  this  forced  order  he  repaired  to  Croiu ; 
and  recovered  the  throne  of  his  ancestors,  and 
maintained  the  independency  of  his  country 
against  the  numerous  armies  of  Amurath  and 
his  successor  Mohammed  II.,  who  was  obliged 
to  make  peace  with  him  in  1461.  He  then  went 
to  the  assistance  of  Ferdinand  of  Arragon,  at  the 
request  of  pope  Pius  II.,  and  by  his  assistance 
Ferdinand  gained  a  complete  victory  over  his 
enemy  the  count  of  Anjou.  Scanderbeg  died  in 
1467. 

SCANDINAVIA,  a  general  name  for  the 
countries  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark 
The  inhabitants  of  these  countries,  in  former 
times,  were  excessively  addicted  to  war.  From 
their  earliest  years  they  applied  themselves  to 
the  military  art,  and  accustomed  themselves  to 
cold,  fatigue,  and  hunger.  Even  the  very  sports 
of  youth  and  childhood  were  dangerous.  They 
consisted  in  taking  frightful  leaps,  climbing  up 
the  steepest  rocks,  righting  naked  with  offensive 
weapons,  wrestling  with  the  utmost  fury ;  so  that 
it  was  usual  to  see  them  terrible  in  the  combat 
at  the  age  of  fifteen.  At  this  early  age  the  young 
men  became  their  own  masters ;  when  they  re- 
ceived a  sword,  a  buckler,  and  a  lance.  This 
ceremony  was  performed  at  some  public  meet- 
ing. One  of  the  principal  men  of  the  assembly 
named  the  youth  in  public ;  after  which  he  was 
obliged  to  provide  for  his  own  subsistence,  and 
was  either  now  to  live  by  hunting,  or  by  joining 
in  some  incursion  against  the  enemy.  Great 
care  was  taken  to  prevent  the  young  men  from 
too  early  connexions  with  the  female  sex ;  and 
indeed  they  could  have  no  hope  to  gain  the  af- 
fection of  the  fair,  but  in  proportion  to  the  cou- 
rage and  address  they  had  shown  in  their  military 
exercises.  Accordingly,  in  an  ancient  song,  we 
find  Bartholin,  king  of  Norway,  extrenre'y  sur- 
prised that  his  mistress  should  prove  unkind,  as 
he  could  perform  eight  different  exercises.  The 
children  were  generally  born  in  camps;  and, 
being  inured  from  their  infancy  to  behoid  nothing 
but  arms,  effusion  of  blood,  and  slaughter,  they 
imbibed  the  cruel  disposition  of  their  fathers; 
and,  when  they  broke  forth  upon  other  nations, 
behaved  rather  like  furies  than  human  creatures. 
The  laws  of  this  people,  in  some  measure,  re- 
sembled those  of  the  ancient  Lacedemonians. 
They  knew  no  virtue  but  bravery,  and  no  vice 
but  cowardice.  The  greatest  penalties  were  in- 
flicted on  such  as  fled  from  battle.  The  laws  of 
the  ancient  Danes  declared  such  persons  infa- 
mous, and  excluded  them  from  society.  Amontr 
the  Germans,  cowards  were  sometimes  suffocated 
in  mud  ;  after  which  they  were  covered  over  with 
hurdles,  to  show,  says  Tacitus,  that  though  the 
punishment  of  crimes  should  be  public,  there  are 
certain  degrees  of  cowardice  and  infamy  which 
ought  to  be  buried  in  oblivion.  Frotho  king  oi 
Denmark  enacted,  by  law,  that  whoever  solicited 
an  eminent  post,  ought  upon  all  occasions  to 
attack  one  enemy,  to  face  two,  to  retire  only  one 
step  back  from  three,  and  never  to  make  an 
actual  retreat  till  assaulted  by  four.  The  rules 
of  justice  were  adapted  and  warped  to  these 
prejudices.  War  was  looked  upon  as  a  real  act 
of  justice,  and  force  was  thought  to  be  an  i&con- 

2  A2 


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testable  title  over  the  weak,  and  a  visible  mark 
that  God  had  intended  them  to  be  subject  to  the 
strong.  Lastly,  their  religion,  by  annexing  eter- 
nal happiness  to  the  military  virtues,  gave  the 
utmost  possible  degree  of  vigor  to  that  propensity 
which  these  people  had  for  war,  and  to  their 
contempt  of  death,  of  which  many  instances  are 
recorded.  Harold,  surnamed  Blaatand,  or  Blue- 
tooth, a  king  of  Denmark,  who  lived  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  ninth  century,  had  founded  on  the 
coasts  of  Pomerania  a  city  named  Julin  or 
Jomsburg.  In  this  colony  it  was  forbidden  to 
mention  the  word  fear,  eren  in  the  most  immi- 
nent dangers.  No  citizen  of  Jomsburg  was  to 
yield  to  any  number  of  enemies,  however  great. 
The  sight  of  inevitable  death  was  not  to  be  an 
excuse  for  showing  the  smallest  apprehension. 
Neither  was  this  intrepidity  peculiar  to  the  inha- 
bitants of  Jomsburg ;  it  was  the  general  character 
of  all  the  Scandinavians.  To  die  with  his  arms 
in  his  baud  was  the  ardent  wish  of  every  free 
man ;  and  the  high  idea  which  they  had  of  this 
kind  of  death  led  them  to  dread  such  as  pro- 
ceeded from  old  age  and  disease.  The  warriors 
who  found  themselves  lingering  in  disease,  often 
availed  themselves  of  their  few  remaining  mo- 
ments to  shake  off  life,  by  a  way  that  they  sup- 
posed to  be  more  glorious.  Some  of  them  would 
be  carried  into  a  field  of  battle  that  they  might 
die  in  the  engagement ;  others  slew  themselves. 
Many  procured  this  melancholy  service  to  be 
performed  by  their  friends,  who  considered  it  as 
a  most  sacred  duty. 

SCANDIX,  shepherd's  needle,  or  Venus  comb, 
in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  digynia  order,  and  pen- 
tandria  class  of  plants;  natural  order  forty -fifth, 
umbellate :  COR.  radiating ;  the  fruit  subulated ; 
the  petals  emarginated ;  the  florets  of  the  disc 
frequently  male.  The  most  remarkable  species 
is  the 

S.  odorata,  with  angular  furrowed  seeds.     It 
is  a  native  of  Germany,  and  has  a  very  thick 
perennial  root,  composed  of  many  fibres  of  a 
sweet  aromatic  taste,  like  aniseed,  from  which 
come  forth  many  large  leaves  that  branch  out 
somewhat  like  those  of  fern,  whence  it  is  named 
sweet  fern.    The  stalks  grow  four  or  five  feet 
high,  are  fistulous  and  hairy;  the  flowers  are 
disposed  in  an  umbel  at  the  top  of  the  stalk,  are 
of  a  white  color,   and  have  a  sweet  aromatic 
scent.    This    species   is  easily   propagated    by 
seeds,  which,  if  permitted  to  scatter,  will  supply 
an  abundance  of  young  plants,  that  may  be  put 
into  any  part  of  the  garden,  and  require  no  care. 
SCANIA,  or  SCHONEN,  a  province  of  South 
Gothland,  Sweden,  bounded  on  the  south  by  the 
Baltic,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Sound.     The 
latter  separates  it  from   Denmark.     Its   )  -ngth 
from  north  to  south  is  above  sixty-five  mi.  »s,  its 
breadth  from  east  to  west  above  fifty.     It  com- 
prises the  most  pleasant,  as  well  as  most  fertile, 
country  in  Sweden ;  and  consists  of  gentle  emi- 
nences, which,  in  the  interior,  are  covered  with 
wood,  and  of  fertile  plains  and  valleys,  producing 
abundance  of  corn  and  pasturage.     Cattle  and 
horses  are  considerably  larger  here  than  in  the 
northern  provinces  of  Sweden.     The  principal 
mineral  products  are  alum,  sulphur,  coal,  chalk, 
and  lead.     The  inhabitants  also  export  oak  tim- 


ber, hemp,  and  cordage,  as  well  as  horses,  sheep,  • 
and  cattle.  The  fisheries  are  productive.  Scania 
was  in  remote  ages  independent;  it  was  after- 
wards in  the  possession  of  Denmark,  but  was 
ceded  to  Sweden,  along  with  the  adjoining 
provinces  of  Blekingen  and  Halland,  at  the 
peace  of  lloschild,  in  1658.  The  Danes  at- 
tempted to  re-conquer  it  after  the  adventures  of 
Charles  XII. ;  but  an  army  of  50,000  peasants 
baffled  their  attempts.  It  is  now  divided  into 
the  provinces  or  hens  of  Christianstadt  and 
Malmohus.  Population  260,000. 

SCANNING,  in  poetry,  the  measuring  of  verse 
by  feet,  in  order  to  see  whether  or  not  the  quan- 
tities  be  duly  observed.     Thus   an  hexameter 
verse  is  scanned  by  resolving  it  into  six  feet ;  a 
pentameter,  by  resolving  it  into  five  feet,  &c. 
SCANT,  v.a.,adj.,  8c  adv.^\    Sax.  jerceanan« 
SCAN'TV,  adj.  to   break ;   Goth. 

SCAN'TILY,  adv.  \dumt.    To  limit; 

SCAN'TINESS,  n.  s.  1  straiten  :  the  ad- 

SCANT'LET,  '  jective     signifies 

SCANT'LING,  scarce ;    limited  : 

SCANT'LY,  adv.  hence  not  liberal ; 

SCANT'NESS,  n.  s.  J  wary:  as  an  ad- 

verb (obsolete),  scarcely  ;  hardly :  scanty  is  nar- 
row ;  confined  ;  small :  hence  poor ;  not  copious 
or  full ;  sparing:  the  adverb  and  noun-substan- 
tive corresponding  :  scantlet  and  scantling  sig- 
nify a  small  piece  or  pattern  ;  a  small  or  given 
quantity  :  scantly  is  synonymous  with  scant, 
adverb,  and  scantness  with  scan  i  ness. 

You  think 

I  will  youi  serious  and  great  business  scant, 
For  she  is  with  me.  Shakspeare.  Othello. 

From  this  time, 
Be  somewhat  tcanter  of  your  maiden  presence. 

Shtikipeare. 
He  spoke 

Scantily  of  me,  when  perforce  he  could  not 
But  pay  me  terms  of  honour.  Id. 

The  success, 

Although  particular,  shall  give  a  scantling 
Of  good  or  bad  unto  the  general.  Id. 

The  people,  beside  their  travail,  charge,  and  long 
attendance,  received  of  the  bankers  scant  twenty 
shillings  for  thirty.  Camden's  Remains. 

England,  in  the  opinion  of  the  popes,  was  pre- 
ferred, because  it  contained  in  the  ecclesiastical  divi- 
sion two  large  provinces,  which  had  their  several 
legati  nati ;  whereas  France  had  tcantly  one.  Id. 

They  need  rather  to  be  scanted  in  their  nourish- 
ments than  replenished  to  have  them  sweet. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 

White  is  a  penurious  colour,  and  where  moistuie 
is  «cant .-  so  blue  violets,  and  other  flowers,  if  the* 
be  starved,  turn  pale  and  white.  .Bacon. 

He  was  a  man  fierce,  and  of  no  evil  disposition, 
saving  that  he  thought  scantiness  of  estate  too  great 
an  evil.  Ilayward. 

A  single  violet  transplant : 
The  strength,  the  colour,  and  the  size, 

All  which  before  was  poor  and  scant, 
Redoubles  still  and  multiplies.  Donne. 

A  wild  pamphlet,  beside  other  malignities,  would 
tcant  allow  him  to  be  a  gentleman.  Wotlvn. 

We  want  read  in  any  writer,  that  there  have  been 
seen  any  people  upon  the  south  coast. 

Abbot's  Description  of  the  World. 
Reduce  desires  to    narrow  scantlings  and   small 
pioportions.  Taylor's  Rule  of  Holy  Living. 


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357 


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To  find  out  that, 

In  such  a  tcant  allowance  of  star-light, 
Would  over  task  the  best  land-pilot's  art.     Milton. 

While  the  world  was  but  thin,  the  ages  of  man- 
kind were  longer  ;  and,  as  the  world  grew  fuller,  so 
their  lives  were  successively  reduced  to  a  shorter 
scantlet,  till  they  came  to  that  time  of  life  which  they 
now  have.  Hale. 

Looking  on  things  through  the  wrong  end  of  the 
perspective,  which  scants  their  dimensions,  we  neglect 
and  contemn  them.  Glanville't  Scepsis. 

Did  we  but  compare  the  miserable  scantnest  of  our 
capacities  with  the  vast  profundity  of  things,  truth 
and  modesty  would  teach  us  wary  language.  Id. 

I  am  scanted  in  the  pleasure  of  dwelling  on  your 
actions.  Dryden. 

Virgil  has  sometimes  two  of  them  in  a  line  ;  but 
the  scantineis  of  our  heroic  verse  is  not  capable  of 
receiving  more  than  one.  Id. 

A  scemtliny  of  wit  lay  gasping  for  life,  and  groan- 
ing beneath  a  heap  of  rubbish.  Id. 

My  eager  love,  I'll  give  myself  the  lye  ; 
The  very  hope  is  a  full  happiness. 
Yet  scant  ly  measures  what  1  shall  possess-.          Id. 
Tis  hard  to  find  out  a   woman  that's  of  a  just 


.  What  can  'scape  the  eye 

Of  God  all-seeing'?  Mtitor. 

Thou  lurk'st 

In  valley  or  green  meadow,  to  way-lay 
Some  beauty  rare,  Calisto,  Clymene ; 
Too  long  thou  laid'st  thy  scapes  on  names  adored.  Id. 

Could  they  not  fall  unpity'd  on  the  plain, 
But  slain  revive,  and,  taken,  scape  again?  Dryden. 

SCAPE-GOAT,  in  Jewish  antiquity,  the  goat 
which  was  set  at  liberty  on  the  day  of  solemn 
expiation.  For  the  ceremonies  on  this  occasion, 
see  Levit.  xvi.  5,  6,  fcc.  Some  say  that  a  piece 
of  scarlet  cloth,  in  form  of  a  tongue,  was  tied  on 
the  forehead  of  the  scape-goat. — Hoff.  Lex.  Univ. 
in  voc.  Lingua.  Many  have  been  the  disputes 
among  the  interpreters  concerning  the  meaning 
of  the  word  scape-goat ;  or  rather  of  Azazel,  for 
which  scape-goat  is  put  in  our  version  of  the 
Bible.  Spencer  believes  Azaz.el  to  be  a  proper 
name,  viz.  that  of  the  evil  spirit,  to  which  he 
conceives  the  goat  to  have  been  devoted.  He 
observes  that  the  ancient  Jews  used  to  substi- 
tute the  name  Samael  for  Azazel ;  and  many  of 
them  have  ventured  to  affirm  that  at  the  feast  of 


icantKng  for  her  age,  hnmour,  and  fortune,  to  make     '  »"'  v,-  T  -A.    « 

a  wife  ff  L'Estrange.      expiation  they  were  obliged  to  otler  a  gift  to  Sa- 

in this  narrow  scantling  of  capacity,  we  enjoy  but     mael  to  obtain  his  favor.     Thus  arso  the  goat, 
one  pleasure  at  once.  Locke. 

As  long  as  one  can  increase  the  number,  he  will 
think  the  idea  he  hath  a  little  too  scanty  for  positive 
infinity.  Id. 

Their  language  being  scanty  and  accommodated 
only  to  the  few  necessaries  of  a  needy  simple  life, 
had  no  words  in  it  to  stand  for  a  thousand.  Id. 

Alexander  was  much  troubled  at  the  scanti«e«  of 
nature  itself,  that  there  were  no  more  worlds  for  him 
to  disturb.  South. 

There  remained  few  marks  of  the  old  tradition,  so 
they  had  narrow  and  scanty  conceptions  of  Provi- 
dence. Woodward. 
O'er  yonder  hill  does  scan*  the  dawn  appear. 

Gay. 

Now  scantier  limits  the  proud  arch  confine, 
And  scarce  are  seen  the  prostrate  Nile  and  Rhine : 
A  small  Euphrates  through  the  piece  is  rolled 
And  little  eagles  wave  their  wings  in  gold.       Pope. 

They  with  such  scanty  wages  pay 
The  bondage  and  the  slavery  of  years.        Swift. 
In   illustrating  a   point  of  difficulty,  be  not  too 
scanty  of  words,  but  rather  become  copious  in  your 
language.  Watts. 

A.  Patriots,  alas !  the  few  that  can  be  found, 
Where  most  they  flourish  upon  English  ground, 
The  country's  need  have  scantily  supplied, 
And  the  last  left  the  scene  when  Chatham  died. 

Cowper. 

SCAPE,  v.  a.,  v.  n.,  &  n.  s.  Contracted  from 
escape.  To  miss  ;  avoid  ;  shun  ;  not  to  incur  ; 
to  fly  ;  get  away  :  an  escape. 

What,  have  I  scaped  love-letters  in  the  holyday 
time  of  my  beauty,  and  am  I  now  a  subject  for  them  1 

Shaktpeare. 

I  spoke  of  most  disastrous  chances, 
Of  hair-breadth   scapes    in    the    imminent    deadly 
breach.  Id. 

No  natural  exhalation  in  the  sky, 
No  scape  of  nature,  no  distempered  day, 
But  they  will  pluck  away  its  natural  cause, 
And  call  them  meteors,  prodigies,  and  signs.       Id. 

Having  purposed  falsehood,  you 
Can  have  no  way  but  falsehood  to  be  true  ! 
Vain  lunatick,  against  these  «•«;*«  I  could 
Dispute,  and  conquer,  if  I  would.  Donne. 


sent  into  the  wilderness  to  Azazel,  was  under- 
stood to  be  a  gift  or  oblation.  Some  Christians 
have  been  of  the  same  opinion.  But  Spencer 
thinks  that  the  genuine  reasons  of  the  ceremony 
were,  1.  That  the  goat,  loaded  with  the  sins  of 
the  people,  and  sent  to  Azazel,  might  be  a  sym- 
bolical representation  of  the  miserable  condition 
of  sinners.  2.  God  sent  the  goat  thus  loaded  to 
the  evil  daemons,  to  show  that  they  were  impure* 
thereby  to  deter  the  people  from  any  conversa- 
tion or  familiarity  with  them.  3.  That  the  goat 
sent  to  Azazel,  sufficiently  expiating  all  evils, 
the  Israelites  might  the  more  willingly  abstain 
from  the  expiatory  sacrifices  of  the  Gentiles. 
Le  Clerc  is  of  opinion  that  Azazel  was  the  name 
of  a  place,  either  a  mountain  or  a  cliff,  at  which 
the  goat  waited,  and  thence,  as  the  rabbins  say, 
was  cast  down  and  slain.  But  the  most  common 
opinion  is,  that  Azazel  is  a  name  given  to  the 
goat  itself,  on  account  of  its  being  let  go,  as 
being  derived  from  TJ?  gnez  or  az,  goat,  and  *?lb 
azel,  he  hath  gone  away.  Thus  it  was  under- 
stood by  our  translators,  who  render  it  scape- 
goat ;  the  Septuagint  likewise  render  it  aTroiroft- 
<uoc,  and  the  Vulgate  emissarius. 

SCAPEMENT,  in  clock  and  watch  work,  a 
general  term  for  the  method,  whatever  it  may  be, 
of  communicating  the  impulse  of  the  wheels  to 
the  pendulum  or  balance.  The  ordinary  scape- 
ments  consist  of  the  swing-wheel  and  pallets 
only ;  but  modern  improvements  have  added 
other  levers  or  detents,  chiefly  for  the  purposes  of 
diminishing  friction,  or  for  detaching  the  pendu  - 
lum  from  the  pressure  of  the  wheels  during  part 
of  the  time  of  its  vibration.  See  WATCHES. 

SCAPULA,  n.  s.  Lat.  scapula.  The  shoulder 
blade. 

The  heat  went  off  from  the  parts,  and  spread 
up  higher  to  the  breast  and  scapula.  Wiseman. 

The  humours  dispersed  through  the  branches  of 
the  axillary  artery  to  the  scaputary  branches. 

Id.  of  Ulcers. 

The  viscera  were  counterpoised  with  the  weight  of 
the  tcapular  part.  Derham . 


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,  in  anatomy.     See  ANATOMY. 

(John),  the  reputed  author  of  a 
Greek  lexicon,  noted  only  for  a  gross  act  of 
literary  fraud.  Being  employed  by  Henry  Ste- 
phens as  a  corrector  to  his  press,  while  he  was 
publishing  his  Thesaurus  Linguae  Graecae,  Scapula 
extracted  those  words  and  explications  which  he 
reckoned  most  useful,  comprised  them  in  one 
volume,  and  published  them  as  an  original  work, 
with  his  own  name.  The  compilation  and  print- 
ing of  the  Thesaurus  had  cost  Stephens  immense 
labor  and  expense ;  but  it  was  so  much  admired 
by  those  learned  men  to  whom  he  had  shown  it, 
and  seemed  to  be  of  such  essential  importance  to 
the  acquisition  of  the  Greek  language,  that  he 
reasonably  hoped  his  labor  would  be  rewarded 
by  success,  and  the  money  he  had  expended 
would  be  repaid  by  a  rapid  and  extensive  sale. 
Hut,  before  his  work  came  abroad,  Scapula's 
abridgment  appeared ;  which,  from  its  size  and 
price,  was  quickly  purchased,  while  the  Thesau- 
rus itself  lay  neglected  in  the  author's  hands. 
The  consequence  was,  a  bankruptcy  on  the  part 
of  Stephens,  while  he  who  had  occasioned  it  was 
enjoying  the  fruits  of  his  treachery.  Scapula's 
Lexicon  was  first  printed  in  1570,  in  4to.  It 
was  afterwards  enlarged  and  published  in  folio, 
and  has  gone  through  several  editions.  Its  suc- 
cess is,  however,  not  owing  to  its  superior  merit, 
but  to  its  price  and  commodious  size.  Stephens 
charges  the  author  with  omitting  many  important 
articles.  He  accuses  him  of  misunderstanding 
and  perverting  his  meaning ;  and  of  tracing  out 
absurd  and  trifling  etymologies,  which  he  himself 
had  been  careful  to  avoid.  Doctor  Busby  would 
never  permit  his  scholars  at  Westminster  School 
to  make  use  of  Scapula's  lexicon. 

SCAPULAR,  in  anatomy,  the  name  of  two  pairs 
of  arteries,  and  as  many  veins. 

SCAPULAR,  or  SCAPULARY,  a  part  of  the  habit 
of  several  religious  orders  in  the  church  of  Rome, 
worn  over  the  gown  as  a  badge  of  peculiar  vene- 
ration for  the  Blessed  Virgin.  It  consists  of  two 
narrow  slips  or  breadths  of  cloth  covering  the 
back  and  the  breast,  and  hanging  down  to  the 
feet.  The  devotees  of  the  scapulary  celebrate 
their  festival  on  the  10th  of  July. 

SCAR,  n.  s.  8c  v.  a.  Fr.  escarre  ;  Gr.  ((rgapa. 
A  mark  made  by  a  hurt ;  a  cicatrix  :  to  mark  in 
this  way. 

Yet  I'll  not  shed  her  blood, 
Nor  tear  that  whiter  skin  of  tier's  than  snow, 
And  smooth  as  monumental  alabaster.    Shabtpeare. 

Scratch  thee  but  with  a  pin,  and  there  remains 
Some  tear  of  it.  Id.  As  You  Like  It. 

The  soft  delicious  air, 
To  heal  the  scars  of  these  corrosive  fires, 
Shall  breathe  her  bairn.  Milton. 

It  may  be  struck  out  of  the  omnisciency  of  God, 
and  leave  no  tear  nor  blemish  behind.  More. 

This  earth  had  the  beauty  of  youth  and  blooming 
nature,  and  not  a  wrinkle,  scar,  or  fractuie  on  all  its 
body.  But-net. 

In  a  hemorrhage  from  the  lungs,  stypticks  are  of- 
ten insignificant ;  and  if  they  could  operate  upon  the 
affected  part,  so  far  as  to  make  a  scar,  when  that  fell 
off,  the  disease  would  return.  Arbuthnot  on  Diet. 

The  boughs  <*ave  way.  and  did  not  tear 
My  limbs  ;  ana  I  found  strength  to  bear 
Mv  wounds,  already  scarr'd  with  cold— 
My  bonds  forbade  to  loose  my  hold.  Byron. 


SCAR'AB,  n.  s.  l"r.  scarabee  ;  Lat.  scarabgus. 
A  beetle;  an  insect  with  sheathed  wings. 

A  small  scarab  is  bred  in  the  very  tips  of  elm- 
leaves  :  these  leaves  may  be  observed  to  be  dry  and 
dead,  as  also  turgid,  in  which  lieth  a  dirty,  whitish, 
rough  maggot,  from  which  proceeds  a  beetle. 

Derham's  Physico-  Theoli-gy. 

SCARAB./EUS,  the  beetle,  in  zoology,  a  genus 
of  insects  of  the  coleoptera  order.  The  antenna? 
are  of  a  clavated  figure,  and  fissile  longitudi- 
nally :  the  legs  are  frequently  dentated.  See 
ENTOMOLOGY.  The  wing-cases  prevent  the  va- 
rious injuries  their  real  wings  might  sustain  by 
rubbing  or  crushing  against  the  sides  of  their 
abode.  These,  though  they  do  not  assist  flight, 
yet  keep  the  internal  wings  clean  and  even,  and 
produce  a  loud  buzzing  noise  when  the  animal 
rises  in  the  air.  The  scarabseus  sacer  is  very 
often  found  on  Egyptian  monuments.  It  is  re- 
presented on  the  Isiac  table;  and  is  frequent 
among  hieroglyphics  :  it  passed  as  the  symbol 
of  immortality,  and  as  the  emblem  of  the  sun. 
Another  species  was  consecrated  to  Isis,  and  in- 
dicated the  moon ;  its  two  horns  resembling  the 
crescent  of  that  planet.  According  to  Caylus, 
the  Egyptians  were  in  the  constant  habit  of 
giving  the  shape  of  the  scarabaeus  to  their  amu- 
lets or  rings. 

1.  S.  capricornus,  the  small  gilded  Capricorn, 
is  of  a  true  gold  color,  but  in  some  lights  has  a 
cast  of  green    and  purple.     It   is   often   found 
among  reeds  by  the  banks  of  rivers  (Lister).    A 
variety  of  this  species^  but  which  Lister  makes  a 
distinct  species,  called  the  yellow  Capricorn,  hus 
a  large  black  spot  on  each  of  the  cases  of  the 
wings.      It   is   found   among   the   dry    hay   in 
April. 

2.  S.  carnifex,  which  the  Americans   call  the 
tumble-dung,  is  all  over  of  a  dusky  black,  and, 
though  not  much  larger  than  the  common  black 
beetle,  is  the  strongest  of  the  beetle  kind.  Their 
excellent  smell  directs  them  in  flights  to  excre- 
ments, which  they  form  into  round  balls  or  pel- 
lets, in  the  middle  of  which  they  lay  an  egg. 
These  pellets,  in  September,  they  convey  three 
feet  deep  in  the  earth,  where  they  lie  till  the  ap- 
proach of  spring,  when  the  eggs  are  hatched  and 
burst  their  nests,  and  the  insects  find  their  w;i\ 
out  of  the  earth.    They  assist  each  other  with 
indefatigable  industry  in   rolling  these  globular 
pellets  to  the  place  where  they  are  to  be  buried. 
This  they  perform  willi   the  tail    foremost    by 
shoving  along  the  ball  with  their  hind  feet.  They 
are  always  accompanied  by  other  beetles  of  a 
larger  size,  and  of  a  more  elegant  structure  and 
color.  The  breast  of  this  is  covered  with  a  shield 
of  a  crimson  color,  and  shining  like  metal ;  the 
head  is  of  the  like  color,  mixed  with  green ;  and 
on  the  crown  of  the  head  stands  a  shining  bl;ick 
horn,    bending   backwards.      Hence   these   are 
called  the  kings  of  the  beetles,  though  they  par 
take  of  the  same  dirty  drudgery  with  the  rest. 

3.  S.  cerambyx,  the  musk  beetle,  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  Jhe  English  beetles.  The  male 
is  much   smaller  than  the  female,  and   is  of  a 
mixed  color  of  purple  and  gold  ;  the  female  i:- 
more  of  a  green  color;  the  horns  of  the  mal»- 
also  consist  of  longer  joints  ;  and  in  both 

the  horns  hang  over  the  back,  ai>H   .-"•«   'r-nffei 


SCA 


3,59 


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lltan  the  whole  body.  They  are  found  among 
old  willows,  and  often  in  the  very  wood.  They 
are  most  numerous  in  July.  They  make  a 
mournful  sound  when  taken.  See  ENTOMOLOGY. 

4.  S.  Hercules,  the  elephant  beetle,  is  the 
largest  of  this  kind  hitherto  known ;  and  is 
found  in  South  America,  particularly  in  Guinea 
and  Surinam,  as  well  as  about  the  river  Oro- 
nooko. 

SCAR'AMOUCH,  n.  s.  Fr.  escaramouche, 
A  buffoon  in  motley  dress. 

It  makes  the  solemnities  of  justice  pageantry,  and 
the  bench  reverend  puppets,  or  scaramouches  in 
scarlet.  Collier. 

SCARBOROUGH,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  in 
the  North  Riding,  seated  on  a  steep  rock,  almost 
inaccessible  except  towards  the  west.  On  the 
top  of  this  rock  is  a  large  green  plain,  with  two 
wells  of  fresh  water  springing  out  of  the  rock. 
The  town  is  well  built ;  the  principal  streets  are 
spacious  and  well  paved,  and  the  houses  in  ge- 
neral have  a  handsome  appearance.  A  fine  range 
of  buildings  on  the  cliff,  commands  a  charming 
view.  There  is  a  commodious  quay,  and  one 
of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  kingdom  ;  to  which 
belong  many  ships  employed  in  the  coal  trade, 
from  Newcastle  to  London.  The  harbour  is  pro- 
tected by  vast  piers,  extending  a  considerable 
way  into  the  sea.  A  barrack  has  been  erected 
here,  with  a  strong  battery  of  eighteen-pounders 
to  protect  the  shipping.  Scarborough  has  an 
excellent  hospital  for  the  widows  of  poor  sea- 
men, maintained  by  a  rate  on  vessels,  and  a 
small  deduction  from  seamen's  wages ;  also  an 
asylum  for  aged  and  infirm  persons;  an  ami- 
cable society  for  clothing  and  educating  about 
seventy  boys  and  girls ;  a  Lancasterian  school, 
and  numerous  other  benevolent  institutions.  It 
is  a  town  corporate,  governed  by  two  bailiffs,  a 
recorder,  two  coroners,  four  chamberlains,  and 
thirty-six  common  councilmen,  and  has  sent  two 
members  to  parliament  since  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward I.  who  are  elected  by  the  corporation.  It 
has  been  principally  frequented  on  account  of 
its  mineral  waters,  called  the  Scarborough  Spa. 
The  spring  was  under  the  cliff,  part  of  which  fell 
down  in  1 737,  and  the  water  was  lost ;  but,  in 
clearing  away  the  ruins  to  rebuild  the  wharf,  it 
was  recovered.  These  waters  are  chalybeate  and 
purging.  When  they  are  poured  out  of  one  glass 
into  another,  they  throw  up  a  number  of  air 
bubbles  ;  and  if  they  are  shaken  for  some  time 
in  a  phial  close  stopped,  and  the  phial  be  sud- 
denly opened  before  the  commotion  ceases,  they 
emit  an  elastic  vapor,  with  an  audible  noise, 
which  shows  that  they  abound  in  carbonic  acid 
gas.  At  the  fountain  they  have  a  brisk,  pungent, 
chalybeate  taste ;  but  they  lose  their  chalybeate 
virtues  by  exposure  and  by  keeping.  A  person 
resides  at  the  spa  during  the  season,  and  receives 
a  subscription  from  each  person,  one-eighth  of 
which  goes  to  the  water  servers,  &c.,  and  the 
rest  to  the  corporation.  Assemblies  and  balls 
are  held  at  Scarborough  as  at  Tunbridge.  See 
MINERAL  WATERS. 

SCARCE,  adj.  &  adv.-\    Ital.  scarso  ;  of  Lat. 

SCARCE' LY,  adv.  f  careo.     Scanty  ;    not 

SCARCE'NESS.  n.  s.         I  plentiful;  rare :  scan- 

SCAR'CITY.  'tily;    hardly;     with 


difficulty :  this  is  also  the  sense  of  scarcely : 
scarceness  and  scarcity  mean  want,  scantiness, 
smallness  of  quantity  ;  rareness. 

A  thing  which  we  so  little  hoped  to  see,  that  even 
they  which  beheld  it  Jone  scarcely  believed  their  own 
senses.  Hooker. 

They  that  find  fault  with  our  store,  should  be  least 
willing  to  reprove  our  scarcity  of  thanksgivings.  Id. 

When  we  our  betters  see  bearing  our  woes, 
We  scarcely  think  our  miseries  our  foes.  Shakspeare 

Scarcity  aud  want  shall  shun  you  ; 
Ceres'  blessing  so  is  on  you.  Id. 

You  neither  have  enemies,  nor  can  scarce  have 
any.  Dryden. 

He  scarcely  knew  him,  striving  to  disown 
His  blotted  form,  and  blushing  to  be  known.  Id. 

Raphael  writes  thus  concerning  his  Galatea  : — 
To  paint  a  fair  one,  'tis  necessary  for  me  to  see  many 
fair  ones  ;  but,  because  there  is  so  great  a  scarcity  of 
lovely  women,  I  am  constrained  to  make  use  of  one 
certain  idea,  which  I  have  formed  in  my  fancy. 

Id.  Dufresnoy. 

A  Swede  will  no  more  sell  you  his  hemp  for  less 
silver,  because  you  tell  him  silver  is  scarcer  now  in 
England,  and  therefore  risen  one-fifth  in  value,  than 
a  tradesman  of  London  will  sell  his  commodity 
cheaper  to  the  Isle  of  Man,  because  money  is  tcarce 
there.  Locke. 

Corn  does  not  rise  or  fall  by  the  differences  of 
more  or  less  plenty  of  money,  but  by  the  plenty  and 
scarcity  that  God  sends.  Id. 

Age,  which  unavoidably  is  but  one  remove  from 
death,  and  consequently  should  have  nothing  about 
it  but  what  looks  like  a  decent  preparation  for  it, 
scarce  ever  appears,  of  late  days,  but  in  the  high 
mode,  the  flaunting  garb,  and  utmost  gaudery  of 
youth.  South. 

The  scarcest  of  all  is  aPescennius  Niger  on  a  me- 
dallion well  preserved.  Addison. 

In  this  grave  age,  when  comedies  are  few, 
We  crave  your  patronage  for  one  that's  new, 
And  let  the  scarceness  recommend  the  fare.  Id. 

They  drink  very  few  liquors  that  have  not  lain  in 
fresco,  insomuch  that  a  scarcity  of  snow  would  raise 
a  mutiny  at  Naples.  Id. 

Since  the  value  of  an  advantage  is  enhanced  by 
its  scarceness,  it  is  hard  not  to  give  a  man  leave  to 
love  that  most  which  is  most  serviceable. 

Collie)-  on  Pride. 

SCARE,  v*.  a.  ~\      Italian,  scorare — Skinner ; 
SCARE'CROW,    >  Goth,   skoar,    fright — Thom- 
SCARE'FIRE.     j  son.      To   frighten;   terrify; 
to  strike  with  sudden  fear  :  the  compounds  cor- 
responding. 

Thereat  the  scarecrow  waxed  wond'rous  proud, 
Through  fortune  of  his  first  adventure  fair, 
And  with  big  thundering  voice  reviled  him  loud. 

Spenser. 

They  have  scared  away  two  of  my  best  sheep, 
which,  I  fear,  the  wolf  will  sooner  find  than  the 
master.  Shakspeare. 

We  must  not  make  a  scarecrmo  of  the  law, 
Setting  it  up  to  fear  the  birds  of  prey, 
And  let  it  keep  one  shape,  'till  custom  make  it 
Their  pearch,  and  not  their  terrour.  Id. 

Many  of  those  great  guns,  wanting  powder  and 
shot,  stood  but  as  cyphers  and  sra  recruit's.  Raleigh. 

Scarecrows  are  set  up  to  keep  birds  from  corn  and 
fruit ;  and  some  report  that  the  head  of  a  wolf,  whole, 
dried,  and  hanged  up  in  a  dove-house,  will  scare 
away  vermin.  Bacon. 

The  wing  of  the  Irish  was  so  grievously  either 
galled  or  icared  therewith,  that,  being  strangers. 


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and  in  a  manner  neutrals,  they  had  neither  good 
heart  to  go  forward,  nor  good  liking  to  stand  still, 
nor  good  assurance  to  tun  away.  Haytoard. 

The  drum  and  trumpet,  by  their  several  sounds, 
serve  for  many  kind  of  advertisements ;  and  bells 
serve  to  proclaim  a  $carefire,  and  in  some  places  wa- 
ter-breaches. Holder. 

A  scarecrow  set  to  frighten  fools  away.     Dryden. 
Let  wanton  wives  by  death  be  scar'd : 

But,  to  my  comfort,  I'm  prepar'd.  Prior. 

One  great  reason  why  men's  good  purposes  so  of- 
ten fail,  is,  that  when  they  are  devout,  or  scared, 
they  then  in  the  general  resolve  to  live  religiously. 
Calamy's  Sermons. 

SCARF,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  )      Fr.  escharfe.     Any 
SCARF'SKIN.  \  thing  that  hangs  loose 

upon  the  shoulders  or  dress  :  the  epidermis. 

The  matrons  flung  their  gloves, 
Ladies  and  maids  their  scarfs  and  handkerchiefs, 
Upon  him  as  he  passed.        Shakspeare.  Coriolanus. 

Will  you  wear  the  garland  about  your  neck,  or 
under  your  arm  like  a  lieutenant's  scarf? 

Shakspeare. 

My  sea-gown  icarf  about  me  in  the  dark 
Groped  I  to  find  them  out.  Id.  Hamlet. 

How  like  a  younker,  or  a  prodigal 
The  icarfed  bark  puts  from  her  native  bay, 
I  lugg'd  and  embraced  by  the  strumpet  wind !      Id. 

Come,  feeling  night, 
Scarf  up  the  tender  eye  of  pitiful  day.  Id. 

Iris  there,  with  humid  bow, 
Waters  the'  odorous  banks,  that  blow 
Flowers  of  more  mingled  hew 
Than  her  purfled  scarf  can  shew.  Milton. 

Titian,  in  his  triumph  of  Bacchus,  having  placed 
Ariadne  on  one  of  the  borders  of  the  picture,  gave 
her  a  scarf  of  a  vermilion  colour  upon  a  blue  dra- 
pery. Dryden. 

The  ready  nymphs  receive  the  crying  child  ; 
They  swathed  him  with  their  scarfs.  Id. 

My  learned  correspondent  writes  a  word  in  defence 
of  large  scarves.  Spectator. 

The  scarfskin,  being  uppermost,  is  composed  of 
several  lays  of  small  scales,  which  lie  thicker  ac- 
cording as  it  is  thicker  in  one  part  of  the  body  than 
another :  between  these  the  excretory  ducts  of  the 
miliary  glands  of  the  true  skin  open.  Cheyne. 

Put  on  your  hood  and  *carf,  and  take  your  plea- 
sure. Swift. 

SCARFING,  a  term  in  carpentry,  by  which 
is  meant  the  joining  of  two  beams  of  wood  toge- 
ther to  increase  the  length.  See  CARPENTRY. 

SCARFSKIN.     See  ANATOMY. 

SCAR'IFY,  v. a.        }     Fr.   scarcer;  Latin 

SCARIFICA'TION,  n.  s-  Sscari/rro.    To  let  blood 

SCAR'IFIER.  J  by    incisions    of   the 

skin  :  the  act  of  doing  so  :  the  agent  or  instru- 
ment. 

Hippocrates  tells  you,  that,  in  applying  of  cups, 
the  scarification  ought  to  be  made  with  crooked  in- 
struments. Arbuthnut. 

Washing  the  salts  out  of  the  eschar,  and  scari- 
fying  it,  I  dressed  it.  Wiseman's  Surgery. 

You  quarter  foul  language  upon  me,  without 
knowing  whether  1  deserve  to  be  cupped  and  wvm- 
jted  at  this  rate.  Spectator. 

SCAR'LET,  n.s.  St.  adj.  Fr.  escarlate  ;  Ital. 
tcarlato.  A  color  compounded  of  red  and  yel- 
low ;  cloth  dyed  with  a  scarlet  color ;  of  this 
color. 


If  we  live  thus  tamely, 
To  be  thus  jaded  by  a  piece  of  tcarlet, 
Farewel  nobility.  Shakspeare.  Henry  VIII. 

I  conjure  thee, 
By  hei  high  forehead,  and  her  scarlet  lip. 

Shalupeare. 

The  Chinese,  who  are  of  an  ill  complexion,  being 
olivaster,  paint  their  cheeks  scarlet.  Bacon. 

As  a  bull 

Amid'  the  circus  roars ;  provoked  from  far 
By  sight  of  scarlet  and  a  sanguine  war.         Dryden. 
The  scarlet  honour  of  your  peaceful  gown.        Id. 
Would  it  not  be  insufferable  for  a  learned  profes- 
sor, and   that  which  his  scarlet  would  blush  at,  to 
have  his  authority  of  forty  years  standing  in  an  in- 
stant overturned  ?  Locke. 

SCARLET  (see  DYEING),  in  painting  in  water 
colors,  minium  mixed  with  a  little  vermilion 
produces  a  good  scarlet;  but  if  a  flower  in  a 
print  is  to  be  painted  a  scarlet  color,  the  lights 
as  well  as  the  shades  should  be  covered  with 
minium,  and  the  shaded  parts  finished  with  car- 
mine, which  will  produce  an  admirable  scarlet. 

SCARLET  is  a  beautiful  bright  red  color  given 
to  cloth,  either  by  a  preparation  of  kermes,  or 
more  completely  by  the  American  cochineal. 
Professor  Beckmann,  in  the  second  volume  of  his 
History  of  Inventions,  has  drawn  the  following 
conclusions: — 1.  That  scarlet,  or  the  kermes 
dye,  was  known  in  the  east  in  the  earliest  ages, 
before  Moses,  and  was  a  discovery  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians in  Palestine.  2.  Tola  was  the  ancient 
Phoenician  name  used  by  the  Hebrews,  and  even 
by  the  Syrians  ;  for  it  is  employed  by  the  Syrian 
translator,  Isaiah,  chap.  i.  ver.  18.  Among  the 
Jews,  after  their  captivity,  the  Aramaaan  word 
zehorti  was  more  common.  3.  The  Arabs  re- 
ceived the  name  kermes,  with  the  dye,  from  Ar- 
menia and  Persia,  where  it  was  indigenous,  and 
had  been  long  known ;  and  that  name  banished 
the  old  name  in  the  east,  as  the  name  scarlet  has  in 
the  west.  About  1643  a  Fleming  named  Kepler 
established  the  first  dye-house  for  scarlet  in  Eng- 
land, at  the  village  of  Bow,  near  London  ;  and 
on  that  account  the  color  was  called,  at  first,  by 
the  English,  the  Bow  dye.  In  1667  another 
Fleming,  named  Brewer,  invited  to  England  by 
king  Charles  II.  with  the  promise  of  a  large  sa- 
lary, brought  this  art  to  great  perfection.  There 
are  three  kinds  of  scarlet :  one,  called  Venetian 
scarlet,  dyed  with  hermes ;  another,  dyed  with 
cochineal ;  and  the  third  with  gum  lac.  The  first 
of  these  is  chiefly  used  for  tapestry,  and  is  re- 
markably permanent. 

SCARLET  FEVER.     See  MEDICINE. 

SCAR'MAGE,  or  J      For   skirmish.    Spen- 

SCAR'MOGE,  n.  s.      j  ser. 

Such  cruel  game  my  scarnages  disarms ; 
Another  war,  and  other  weapons,  I 
Do  love,  when  Love  does  give  his  sweet  alarms. 

Spenser. 

SCARPANTO,  or  Koje,  the  ancient  Carpa- 
thos,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  between 
Candia  and  Rhodes.  It  is  for  the  most  part 
rocky  and  mountainous,  but  contains  several 
good  harbours,  iron  mines,  and  quarries  of  marble. 
Long.  26°  50*  E.,  lat.  35°  44'  N. 

SCARRON  (Paul),  a  famous  French  burlesque 
writer,  was  the  son  of  a  counsellor  in  parliament, 


SCA  u 

and  was  born  in  Paris  about  the  end  of  1610,  or 
beginning  of  1611.  His  father  marrying  a  se- 
cond wife,  he  was  compelled  to  assume  the 
ecclesiastical  habit.  At  the  age  of  twenty-four 
he  visited  Italy,  and  after  his  return  to  Paris 
continued  a  life  of  reckless  dissipation.  But  in 
1638  while  attending  the  carnival  at  Mens,  of 
which  place  he  was  a  canon,  having  dressed 
himself  as  a  savage,  his  singular  appearance  ex 
cited  the  curiosity  of  the  children  of  the  town. 
They  followed  him  in  multitudes,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  take  shelter  in  a  marsh,  and  this  wet 
and  cold  situa  ion  produced  a  numbness  which 
totally  deprived  him  of  the  use  of  his  limbs, 
which  he  never  again  recovered.  He  took  up 
his  residence  in  Paris,  and  the  loss  of  his  health 
was  followed  by  the  loss  of  his  fortune,  in  a  law- 
suit with  his  step-mother;  and  mademoiselle  de 
Hautefort,  compassionating  his  misfortunes,  pro- 
cured for  him  an  audience  of  the  queen.  The 
poet  requested  to  have  the  title  of  valetudinarian 
to  her  majesty.  The  queen  smiled,  and  Scarron 
considered  the  smile  as  the  commission  to  his 
new  office.  Cardinal  Mazarine  gave  him  a  pen- 
sion of  500  crowns ;  but  that  minister  having 
received  disdainfully  the  dedication  of  his  Ty- 
phon,  the  poet  immediately  wrote  a  Mazarinade, 
and  the  pension  was  withdrawn.  He  then  at- 
tached himself  to  the  prince  of  Conde,  and  cele- 
brated his  victories.  He  at  length  formed  the 
extraordinary  resolution  of  marrying,  and  was 
accordingly,  in  1651,  married  to  madame  d'Au- 
bigne  (afterwards  the  celebrated  madame  de 
Maintenon),  then  only  sixteen  years  of  age.  '  At 
that  time,'  says  Voltaire,  '  it  was  considered  as  a 
great  acquisition  for  her  to  gain  for  a  husband  a 
man  who  was  disfigured  by  nature,  and  very  little 
enriched  by  fortune.'  She  restrained  by  her  mo- 
desty his  indecent  buffooneries,  and  the  literary 
men  who  had  formerly  resorted  to  his  house 
again  frequented  it.  But  he  lived  with  so  little 
economy  that  his  income  was  soon  reduced  to  a 
small  annuity,  and  what  he  styled  his  marqui- 
sate  of  Quinet,  i.  e.  the  profits  of  his  publica- 
tions, which  were  printed  by  one  Quinet.  Though 
Scarron  wrote  comedies,  he  had  not  patience  to 
study  the  rules  of  dramatic  poetry.  It  was  the 
fashion  of  the  times  to  pillage  the  Spanish  writers. 
Scarron  was  acquainted  with  that  language,  and 
he  found  it  easier  to  use  materials  already  pre- 
pared, than  to  invent  new  subjects.  The  great  suc- 
cess of  his  Jodelet  Maitre  was  a  great  allurement 
to  him.  The  comedians  who  acted  it  requested 
more  of  his  productions.  They  were  written 
with  little  toil,  and  procured  him  large  sums. 
Christina,  queen  of  Sweden,  when  she  visited 
Paris,  was  anxious  to  see  Scarron.  '  I  permit  you,' 
said  she  to  Scarron,  '  to  fall  in  love  with  me. 
The  queen  of  France  has  made  you  her  valetu- 
dinarian, and  I  create  you  my  Roland  '  Scarron 
did  not  long  enjoy  that  title  ;  as  he  died  on  the 
14th  of  October,  1660,  aged .  fifty-one.  His 
works  have  been  collected  and  published  by 
Bruzen  de  la  Martiniere,  in  10  vols.  12mo.,  1737. 
These  are,  1.  The  ./Eneid  travestied,  in  eight 
books.  2.  Typhou,  or  the  Gigantomachia.  3. 
Many  comedies;  as  Jodelet,  or  the  Master 
Valet;  Jodelet  cuffed ;  Don  Japhet  d'Armenie  ; 
The  Scholar  of  Salamanca.  He  also  wrote  other 


til  SCA 

pieces  in  verse.  4.  His  Comic  Romance,  in 
prose,  merits  attention.  It  is  written  with  much 
humor  and  purity  of  style.  5.  Spanish  Novels 
translated  into  French.  6.  A  volume  of  Letters. 
7.  Poems ;  consisting  of  Songs,  Epistles,  Stanzas, 
Odes,  and  Epigrams.  Scarron  can  raise  a  laugh 
on  the  most  serious  subjects ;  but  his  sallies  are 
rather  those  of  a  buffoon  than  the  effusions  of  in- 
genuity and  taste.  He  is  continually  falling 
into  the  mean  and  the  obscene. 

SCATH,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.  >      Sax.    j-ceafcan,  j-ca- 

SCATH'FUL,  adj.  $<San.     To    waste;    da- 

mage ;  destroy :  the  damage  or  waste  done :  the 
adjective  corresponding.  Both  the  verb  and 
noun  are  now  obsolete. 

The  ear  that  budded  fair  is  burnt  and  blasted, 
And  all  my  hoped  gain  is  turned  to  scath.    Spenser. 

He  bore  a  spiteful  mind  against  king  Edward,  doing 
him  all  the  scath  that  he  could,  and  annoying  his 
territories.  Id. 

They  placed  them  in  Rhodes,  where  daily  doing 
great  scath  to  the  Turk,  the  great  warrior  Soliman, 
with  a  mighty  army,  so  overlaid  them,  that  he  won 
the  island  from  them.  Knottes. 

A  bawbling  vessel  was  he  captain  of, 
For  shallow  draught,  and  bulk  unprizable, 
\\ith  which  such  scatliful  grapple  did  he  make, 
That  very  envy,  and  the  tongue  of  loss, 
Cried  fame  and  honour  on  him.  Shakspeare. 

Still  preserved  from  danger,  harm,  and  scath, 
By  many  a  sea  and  many  an  unknown  shore. 

Fairfax. 

As  when  Heaven's  fire 

Hath  scathed  the  forest  oaks,  or  mountain  pines, 
With  singed  top  their  stately  growth,  though  bare 
Stands  on  the  blasted  heath.  Milton's  Paradite  Lost. 

SCATTER,  v.  a.       }   Sax.  rcaterian;  Belg. 
SCAT'TERINGLY,  adv.  l-schatteren.     To   throw 
SCAT'TERLING,  n.  s.    j  loosely   about ;   sprin- 
kle ;  squander :  the  adverb  corresponding  :  scat- 
terling  is  a  vagabond  ;  one  that  has  no  home  or 
settled  habitation.     An  elegant  word,  says  John- 
son, but  disused. 

Samuel  came  not  to  Gilgal,  and  the  people  were 
Mattered  from  Saul.  1  Sam.  xiii.  8. 

A  king  that  sitteth  in  the  throne  of  judgment, 
scaltereth  away  all  evil  with  his  eyes.  Prov.  xx.  8. 

Such  losels  and  scatterlings  cannot  easily,  by  any 
ordinary  officer,  be  gotten,  when  challenged  for  any 
such  fact.  Spenser. 

Sound  diffuseth  itself  in  rounds  ;  but  if  that  which 
would  scatter  in  open  air  be  made  to  go  into  a  canal, 
it  gives  greater  force  to  the  sound.  Bacon. 

The  Spaniards  have  here  and  there  scatteringly, 
upon  the  sea-coasts,  set  up  some  towns.  Abbot. 

Adam  by  this  from  the  cold  sudden  damp 
Recovering,  and  his  scattered  spirits  returned. 

Milton. 

Those  drops  of  prettiness,  scattering  i/  sprinkled 
amongst  the  creatures,  were  designed  to  defecate  and 
exalt  our  conceptions,  not  to  inveigle  or  detain  our 
passions.  Boyle. 

Why  should  my  muse  enlarge  on  Libyan  swains, 
Their  scattered  cottages  and  ample  plains  1  Dryden. 

Teach  the  glad  hours  to  scatter,  as  they  fly, 
Soft,  quiet,  gentle  love,  and  endless  joy.         Prior. 

Corruption,  still 

Voracious,  swallowed  what  the  liberal  hand 
Of  beauty  scattered  o'er  the  savage  year.      Thomson. 

The  sun 

Shakes    from    his    noon-day    throne    the   scattering 
clouds.  M 


SCE 


362 


SCAVENGER,  n.  s.  From  Sax.  rcapan,  to 
shave,  perhaps  to  sweep.  Once  a  petty  magis- 
trate, whose  province  was  to  keep  the  streets 
clean :  now  the  laborer  employed  in  removing 
filth. 

Since  it  is  made  a  labour  of  the  mind,  as  to  inform 
men's  judgments,  and  move  their  affections,  to  re- 
solve difficult  places  of  Scripture,  to  decide  and  clear 
off  controversies,  I  cannot  see  how  to  be  a  butcher, 
scavenger,  or  any  other  such  trade  does  at  all  qualify 
men  for  this  work.  Smith. 

Fasting  's  Nature's  scavenger.  Baynard. 

Dick  the  tcavenger,  with  equal  grace, 
Flirts  from  his  cart  the  mud  in  Walpole's  face. 

Swift. 

SCAURUS  (M.  ^Emilius),  a  Roman  consul, 
who  distinguished  himself  by  his  eloquence  at 
the  bar,  as  well  as  by  his  victories  in  Spain  as  a 
general.  He  was  sent  against  Jugurtha,  but  was 
suspected  of  having  been  bribed  by  that  monarch. 
He,  however,  conquered  the  Ligurians,  and, 
during  his  censorship,  built  the  Milvian  bridge 
at  Rome,  and  paved  the  ./Emilian  road.  He 
wrote  several  books,  particularly  his  own  life, 
but  none  of  them  are  extant. 

SCAURUS  (M.  JEmilius),  son  of  the  preceding, 
is  famous  for  having  a  erected  a  large  and  grand 
theatre  at  Rome,  while  he  was  acdile.  It  was  so 
capacious  that  it  would  contain  30,000  specta- 
tors ;  it  was  supported  by  360  columns  of  mar- 
ble, and  adorned  with  3000  brazen  statues. 

SCEL'ERAT,  n.s.  Lat.  sceleratus.  A  vil- 
lain ;  a  wicked  wretch.  A  word  introduced 
unnecessarily  from  the  French  by  a  Scottish 
author. 

SceUratt  can  by  no  arts  stifle  the  cries  of  a  wound- 
ded  conscience.  Cheyne. 

SCELERATUS,  in  Roman  antiquity,  the 
name  given  a  street  in  Rome,  formerly  called 
Cypriiis,  from  the  horrible  wickedness  of  Tullia, 
the  wife  of  Tarquin  II.,  who  ordered  her  cha- 
rioteer to  drive  her  chariot  over  the  body  of  her 
wounded  father.  See  ROME.  Also  the  name  of 
a  plain  at  Rome,  near  the  Colline  gate,  so 
named  from  the  Vestal  Minucia  being  buried 
alive  in  it  for  adultery. 

SCENE',  n. «.  J      Fr.  scene ;  Lat.  scxna  ;  Gr. 

SCF.X'ERY.  J  oKnvrj.  The  stage ;  a  theatre 
of  dramatic  poetry:  hence  the.  general  ap- 
pearance of  any  action ;  a  display ;  a  series ; 
part  of  a  play  :  the  words  are  nearly  synony- 
mous. 

The  king  is  set  from  London,  and  the  icene 
Is  now  transported  to  Southampton.        ShaJispeart. 

The  alteration  of  scenes  feeds  and  relieves  the  eye, 
before  it  be  full  of  the  same  object.  Bacon. 

Cedar  and  pine,  and  fir  and  branching  palm, 
A  sylvan  scene  ;  and  as  the  ranks  ascend 
Shade  above  shade,  a  woody  theatre 
Of  stateliest  view.  Milton. 

To  make  a  more  perfect  model  of  a  picture,  is,  in 
the  language  of  poets,  to  draw  up  the  scenary  of  a 
play.  Dryden. 

A  mute  tcene  of  sorrow,  mixt  with  fear  : 
Still  on  the  table  lay  the  unfinished  cheer.  Id. 

If  his  characters  were  good, 

The  scenes  entire,  and  freed  from  noise  and  blood, 
The  action  great,  yet  circumscribed  by  time, 
The  words  not  forced,  but  sliding  into  rhinie, 
He  thought,  in  hitting  these  his  business  done.     Id. 

He  must  gain  a  relish  of  the  works  of  nature,  and 


SCE 

be  conversant  in  the  various  sceiutry  of  a  country 
life.  Additon. 

Eternity  !  thou  pleasing,  dreadful  thought ! 
Through  what  variety  of  untried  beings, 
Through  what  new  scenes  and  changes  must  we  pass ! 

Id. 

Say,  shepherd  say,  are  these  reflections  true  ? 
Or  was  it  but  the  woman's  fear  that  drew 
This  cruel  scene,  unjust  to  love  and  you  ?         Prior. 

Our  author  would  excuse  these  useful  scenes 
Begotten  at  his  entrance.  Grtmville. 

The  progress  of  the  sound,  and  the  scenary  of  the 
bordering  regions,  are  imitated  from  JEn.  vii.  on  the 
sounding  the  horn  of  Alecto.  Pope. 

To  complete 

The  tcene  of  desolation,  stretched  around 
The  grim  guards  stand.  Thomson. 

Tis  well,  if  looked  for  at  so  late  a  day, 
In  the  last  scene  of  such  a  senseless  play, 
True  wisdom  will  attend  his  feeble  call, 
And  grace  his  action  ere  the  curtain  fall.     Cotcper. 

SCENE,  in  its  primary  sense,  denoted  a  place 
where  dramatic  pieces  and  other  public  shows 
were  exhibited.  The  original  scene  for  acting 
of  plays  was  as  simple  as  the  representations 
themselves ;  it  consisted  only  of  a  plain  plot  of 
ground  proper  for  the  occasion,  which  was  in 
some  degree  shaded  by  the  neighbouring  trees, 
whose  branches  were  made  to  meet  together,  and 
their  vacancies  supplied  with  boards,  sticks,  and 
the  like ;  and,  to  complete  the  shelter,  these  were 
sometimes  covered  with  skins,  and  sometimes 
with  only  the  branches  of  other  trees,  newly  cut 
down  and  full  of  leaves.  Afterwards  more 
artificial  scenes,  or  scenical  representations,  were 
introduced,  and  paintings  used  instead  of  the 
objects  themselves.  Scenes  were  then  of  three 
sorts;  tragic,  comic,  and  satiric.  The  tragic 
scene  represented  stately  magnificent  edifices, 
with  decorations  of  pillars,  statues,  and  other 
things  suitable  to  the  palaces  of  kings.  The 
comic  exhibited  private  houses  with  balconies 
and  windows,  in  imitation  of  common  buildings ; 
and  the  satiric  was  the  representation  of  groves, 
mountains,  dens,  and  other  rural  appearances ; 
and  these  decorations  either  turned  on  pivots,  or 
slid  along  grooves. 

SCENE  is  also  a  part  or  division  of  a  dramatic 
poem.  Thus  plays  are  divided  into  acts,  and 
acts  are  subdivided  into  scenes.  Whenever, 
therefore,  a  new  actor  appears,  or  an  old  one 
disappears,  the 'action  is  changed  into  other 
hands;  and  therefore  a  new  scene  then  com- 
mences. 

SCEN'ICK,  adj.  Fr.  scenique,  from  scene. 
Dramatic;  theatrical. 

With  ictnich  virtue  charm  the  rising  age.     Anon. 

SCENOGRAPH'ICAL,  adj.  )      Gr. 

SCENOGRAPH'ICALLY,  adv.        $     and 
Drawn  in  perspective. 

If  the  workman  be  skilled  in  perspective,  more 
than  one  face  may  be  represented  in  our  diagram 
scenographically.  Mortimer. 

SCENT, n.  *.  &  v.a.  Fr.  sentir,  to  smell ;  Ital. 
sentire.  The  power  of  smelling ;  the  smell ;  the 
object  of  smell ;  chase  by  the  smell :  to  smell ; 
to  perfume. 

Belman  cried  upon  it  at  the  meerest  loss, 
And  twice  to-day  picked  out  the  dullest  scent. 

Shaktpeart. 


SCEPTICS, 


363 


The  plague,  they  report,  hath  a  scent  of  the  smell 
of  a  mellow  apple.  Bacon. 

Good  scents  do  purify  the  brain, 
Awake  the  fancy,  and  the  wits  refine.  Davit. 

Exulting,  'till  he  finds  their  nobler  sense 
Their  disproportioned  speed  does  recompense ; 
Then  curses  his  conspiring  feet,  whose  scent 
Betrays  that  safety  which  their  swiftness  lent. 

Deiiham. 
Partake 
The  season,  prime  for  sweetest  scents  and  airs. 

Milton. 

So  scented  the  grim  feature,  and  upturned 
His  nostrils  wide  into  the  murky  air, 
Sagacious  of  his  quarry  from  so  far.  Id. 

He  gained  the  observations  of  innumerable  ages, 
and  travelled  upon  the  same  scent  into  -(Ethiopia. 

Temple. 

I?alm,  from  a  silver  box,  distilled  around, 
Shall   all   bedew   the  roots,   and  scent  the  sacred 
ground.  Dryden. 

Actaeon  spies 

His  opening  hounds,  and  now  he  hears  their  cries  ; 
A  generous  pack,  01  to  maintain  the  chase, 
Or  snuff  the  vapour  from  the  scented  grass. 

Addiiim. 
Cheerful  health, 

His  duteous  handmaid,  through  the  air  improved, 
With  lavish  hand  diffuses  scents  ambrosial.     Prior. 

A  hunted  hare  treads  back  her  mazes,  crosses  and 
confounds  her  former  track,  and  uses  all  possible 
methods  to  divert  the  scent.  Watts. 

The  crystal  waters  round  us  fa' 
The  merry  birds  are  lovers  a', 
The  scented  breezes  round  us  blaw, 

A'  wandering  w'  me  Davie.  Burns. 

SCEPTICS,  an  ancient  sect  of  philosophers, 
founded  by  Pyrrho,  who,  according  to  Laertius, 
had  various  other  denominations.  From  their 
master  they  were  called  Tyrrhenians  ;  from  the 
distinguishing  tenets  or  characteristic  of  their 
philosophy  they  derived  the  name  of  Apo- 
retici,  from  aTroptiv,  to  doubt;  from  their 
hesitation  they  were  called  ephetici,  from 
nrfxiiv,  to  stay  or  keep  back ;  and  lastly,  they 
were  called  zetetici,  or  seekers,  from  their  never 
getting  beyond  the  search  of  truth.  That  the 
sceptical  philosophy  is  absurd  can  admit  of  no 
dispute  in  the  present  age;  and  that  many  of 
the  followers  of  Pyrrho  carried  it  to  the  most 
ridiculous  height  is  no  less  true.  But  we  can- 
not believe  that  he  himself  was  so  extravagantly 
sceptical  as  has  sometimes  been  asserted,  when 
we  reflect  on  the  particula-s  of  his  life,  which 
are  still  preserved,  and  the  respectful  manner  in 
\\hich  we  find  him  mentioned  by  his  contempo- 
raries, and  writers  of  the  first  name  who  flourish- 
ed soon  after  him.  The  truth,  as  far  as  at  this 
distance  of  time  it  can  be  discovered,  seems  to 
be,  that  he  learned  from  Democritus  to  deny  the 
real  existence  of  all  qualities  in  bodies,  except 
those  which  are  essential  to  primary  atoms,  and 
that  he  referred  every  thing  else  to  the  percep- 
tions of  the  mind  produced  by  external  objects ; 
in  other  words,  to  appearance  and  opinion.  All 
knowledge  of  course  appeared  to  him  to  depend 
on  the  fallacious  report  of  the  senses,  and  conse- 
quently to  be  uncertain ;  and  in  this  notion  he 
•u'ns  confirmed  by  the  general  spirit  of  the  Eleatic 
school  in  which  he  was  educated.  He  was  fur- 
ronfirmed  in  his  scepticism  by  the  subtilties 
"i  thfl  Dinlectic  schools,  m  which  te  had  l-nu 


instructed  by  the  son  of  Stilpo;  choosing  to 
overturn  the  cavils  of  sophistry  by  recurring 
to  the  doctrine  of  universal  uncertainty,  and  thus 
breaking  the  knot  which  he  could  not  unloose ; 
for,  being  naturally  and  habitually  inclined  to 
consider  immoveable  tranquillity  as  the  great 
end  of  all  philosophy,  he  was  easily  led  to  de- 
spise the  dissensions  of  the  dogmatists,  and  to 
infer,  from  their  endless  disputes  the  uncertainty 
of  the  questions  on  which  they  debated  ;  contro 
versy,  as  it  has  often  happened  to  others,  becom- 
ing also  with  respect  to  him  the  parent  of  scep- 
ticism. Pyrrho's  doctrines,  however  new  and 
extraordinary,  were  not  totally  disregarded.  lie 
was  attended  by  several  scholars,  and  succeeded 
by  several  followers,  who  preserved  the  memory 
of  his  tenets.  The  most  eminent  of  his  follow- 
ers was  Timon,  in  whom  the  public  succession 
of  professors  in  the  Pyrrhonic  school  terminated. 
In  the  time  of  Cicero  it  was  almost  extinct, 
having  suffered  much  from  the  jealousy  of  the 
dogmatists,  and  from  a  natural  aversion  in  the 
human  mind  to  acknowledge  total  ignorance,  or 
to  be  left  in  absolute  darkness.  The  disciples  of 
Timon,  however,  still  continued  to  profess  scep- 
ticism, and  their  notions  were  embraced  privately 
at  least  by  many  others.  The  school  itself  was 
afterwards  revived  by  Ptolemaeus,  a  Cyrenian, 
and  was  continued  by  /Enesidemus,  a  contempo- 
rary of  Cicero,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Pyrrhonic  philosophy,  the  heads 
of  which  are  preserved  by  Photius.  A  system 
of  philosophy  thus  founded  on  doubt,  and 
clouded  with  uncertainty,  could  neither  teach 
tenets  of  any  importance,  nor  prescribe  a  certain 
rule  of  conduct ;  and  accordingly  we  find  that 
the  followers  of  scepticism  were  guided  entirely 
by  chance.  As  they  could  form  no  certain  judg- 
ment respecting  good  and  evil,  they  accidentally 
learned  the  folly  of  eagerly  pursuing  any  apparent 
good,  or  of  avoiding  any  apparent  evil ;  and  their 
minds  of  course  settled  into  a  state  of  undisturbed 
tranquillity,  the  grand  postulatum  of  their  sys- 
tem. In  the  schools  of  the  sceptics  we  find  ten 
distinct  topics  of  argument  urged  in  support  of 
the  doctrine  of  uncertainty;  with  this  precau- 
tion, however,  that  nothing  could  be  positively 
asserted,  either  concerning  their  number  or  their 
force.  These  arguments  chiefly  respect  objects 
of  sense ;  they  place  all  knowledge  in  appearance ; 
and,  as  the  same  things  appear  very  different  to 
different  people,  it  is  impossible  to  say  which 
appearance  most  truly  expresses  their  real  na- 
ture. They  likewise  say  that  our  judgment  is 
liable  to  uncertainty  from  the  circumstance  or 
frequent  or  rare  occurrence,  and  that  mankind 
are  continually  led  into  different  conceptions 
concerning  the  same  thing  by  custom,  law,  fabu- 
lous tales,  and  established  opinions.  On  all 
these  accounts  they  think  every  human  judgment 
is  liable  to  uncertainty ;  and  concerning  any 
thing  they  can  only  assert  that  it  seems  to  be, 
not  that  it  is  what  it  seems.  This  doubtful  rea- 
soning, if  reasoning  it  may  be  called,  the  sceptics 
extended  to  all  the  sciences  in  which  they  dis- 
covered nothing  true,  or  which  could  be  abso- 
lutely asserted.  In  all  nature,  in  physics, 
morals,  and  theology,  they  found  contradictory 
opinions  ;IIK!  in<  n-hensihle 


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phenomena.  In  physics  the  appearances  they 
thought  might  be  deceitful ;  and,  respecting  the 
nature  of  God  and  the  duties  of  morality,  men 
were,  in  their  opinion,  equally  ignorant  and  un- 
certain. But  scepticism  has  not  been  confined 
to  the  ancients  and  to  the  followers  of  Pyrrho. 
Numerous  sceptics  have  arisen  in  modern  times, 
varying  in  their  principles,  manners,  and  character, 
as  chance,'prejudice,  vanity  ,weakness,  or  indolence 
prompted  them.  The  great  object,  however, 
which  they  seem  to  have  had  in  view  was  to  over- 
turn, or  at  least  to  weaken,  the  evidence  of  analo- 
gy, experience,  and  testimony;  some  of  them 
have  even  attempted  to  show  that  the  axioms  of 
geometry  are  uncertain,  and  its  demonstrations 
inconclusive.  Most  of  our  readers  must  be  well 
acquainted  with  the  essays  of  Hume,  and  with 
the  able  confutations  of  them  by  doctors  Reid, 
Campbell,  Gregory,  and  Beattie,  who  have  like- 
wise exposed  the  weakness  of  the  sceptical  rea- 
sonings of  Des  Cartes,  Malbranche,  and  other 
philosophers  of  great  fame  in  the  same  school. 
SCEP'TRE,  n.  s.  I  Fr.  sceptre ;  Lat.  scep- 
SCEP'TERED,  adj.  $  trum.  The  ensign  of 
royalty  borne  in  the  hand  :  the  adjective  corres- 
ponding. 

Nor  shall  proud  Lancaster  usurp  ray  right, 
Nor  hold  the  sceptre  in  his  childish  fist. 

Shakspeare. 

How,  best  of  kings,  do'st  thou  a  sceptre  bear  ! 
How,  best  of  poets,  do'st  thou  laurel  wear ! 
But  two  things  rare  the  fates  had  in  their  store, 
And  gave  thee  both,  to  shew  they  could  no  more. 

Ben  Jensen. 

The  court  of  Rome  has,  in  other  instances,  so 
well  attested  its  good  menagery,  that  it  is  not  credi- 
ble crowns  and  sceptres  are  conferred  gratis. 

Decay  of  Piety. 

T  sing  the  man  who  Judah's  sceptre  bore 
In  that  right  hand  which  held  the  crook  before. 

Cowley. 

The  parliament  presented  those  acts  which  were 
prepared  by  them  to  the  royal  sceptre,  in  which  were 
some  laws  restraining  the  extravagant  power  of  the 
nobility.  Clarendon. 

The  sceptered  heralds  call 
To  council,  in  the  city-gates. 

Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

A  shilling  dipt  in  the  bath  may  go  for  gold  among 
the  ignorant,  but  the  sceptres  on  the  guinea  show 
the  difference.  Dryden. 

To  Britain's  queen  the  sceptered  suppliant  bends, 
To  her  his  crowns  and  infant  race  commends. 

Ticket. 
The  Lily's  height  bespoke  command, 

A  fair  imperial  flower ; 
She  seemed  designed  for  Flora's  hand, 

The  tceptre  of  her  power.  Cowper. 

Became  religion,  and  the  heart  ran  o'er 
With  silent  worship  of  the  great  of  old  ! — 
The  dead  but  sceptered  sovereigns,  who  still  rule 
Our  spirits  from  their  urns.  Byron. 

The  SCEPTKE  is  a  kind  of  royal  staff,  or  ba- 
toon,  born  on  solemn  occasions  by  kings,  as  a 
badge  of  their  command  and  authority.  Nicod 
derives  the  word  from  the  Greek  <r*ij7rrpov,  which 
he  says  originally  signified  'a  javelin,'  which 
the  ancient  kings  usually  bore  as  a  badge  of  their 
authority.  But  aKnirrpov  does  not  properly  sig- 
nify a  javelin,  but  a  staff  to  rest  upon,  from 
'  I  lean  upon.'  Accordingly,  in  the  sim- 


plicity of  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world,  the  scep- 
tres of  kings  were  no  other  than  long  walking 
staves:  and  Ovid,  in  speaking  of  Jupiter,  des- 
cribes him  as  resting  on  his  sceptre  (Met.  i.  v. 
178).  The  sceptre  is  an  ensign  of  royalty  of 
greater  antiquity  than  the  crown.  The  Greek 
tragic  and  other  poets  put  sceptres  in  the  hands 
of  the  most  ancient  kings  they  ever  introduce. 
Justin  observes  that  the  sceptre,  in  its  original, 
was  an  hasta,  or  spear.  He  adds,  that,  in  the 
most  remote  antiquity,  men  adorned  the  hasta; 
or  sceptres  as  immortal  gods ;  and  that  it  was> 
upon  this  account,  that,  even  in  his  time,  they 
still  furnished  the  gods  with  sceptres. — Nep- 
tune's sceptre  is  his  trident.  In  process  of 
time,  the  king's  sceptre  became  covered  with 
ornaments  in  copper,  ivory,  gold,  or  silver,  and 
also  with  symbolical  figures.  The  sceptre  borne 
by  the  Roman  emperors,  as  on  their  medals,  8cc., 
is  surmounted,  when  these  princes  are  in  the  con- 
sular habit,  with  a  globe  topped  by  an  eagle. 
Phocas  is  imagined  to  have  been  the  first  who 
added  a  cross  to  his  sceptre ;  and  his  successors 
even  substituted  the  former  emblem  for  the 
latter,  bearing  ornamented  crosses  alone.  Richard 
Cceur  de  Lion  held  in  his  right  hand  a  golden 
sceptre  surmounted  by  a  cross,  and,  in  his  left, 
a  golden  baton,  topped  by  the  figure  of  a  dove. 
Tarquin  the  Elder  was  the  first  who  assumed 
the  sceptre  among  the  Romans.  Le  Gendre 
tells  us,  that,  in  the  first  race  of  the  French 
kings,  the  sceptre  was  a  golden  rod,  almost  al- 
ways of  the  same  height  with  the  king  who  bore 
it,  and  crooked  at  one  end  like  a  crozier.  Fre- 
quently instead  of  a  sceptre,  kings  are  seen  on 
medals  with  a  palm  in  their  hand. 

SCHAAF  (Charles),  a  learned  German,  born 
at  Nuys,  in  the  electorate  of  Cologn,  in  16lf>. 
His  father  was  major  in  the  army  of  the  land- 
grave of  Hesse-Cassel.  He  studied  divinity  at 
Duisbourg;  and,  having  acquired  the  oriental 
languages,  became  professor  in  that  university  in 
1677.  In  1679  he  was  invited  to  Leyden  in  the 
same  capacity,  where  he  settled  and  died  in 
1729,  of  an  apoplexy.  He  published  several 
works  on  oriental  learning ;  of  which  the  prin- 
cipal is  his  Grammatica  Chaldaiaca  et  Syriaca. 

SCH./EFFERA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  te- 
trandria  order,  and  dicecia  class  of  plants  :  CAT  . 
quadripetalous :  COR.  quadripetalous,  quinquepe- 
talous,  and  often  wanting ;  the  fruit  is  a  bilocu- 
lar  berry  with  one  seed.  Of  this  there  are  two 
species : 

1 .  S.  completa,  and  S.  latiflora,  both  natives 
of  Jamaica;  and  growing  in  the  lowlands  near 
the  sea. 

SCH7ESBURG,  a  district  of  Transylvania, 
belonging  to  the  Saxons,  lying  along  the  great 
Kockel.  It  contains  210  square  miles,  with 
about  20,000  inhabitants.  Though  hilly,  it  has 
no  high  mountains,  and  is  divided  into  the  Up- 
per and  Lower  Circles,  both  of  which  have  good 
pasturage  and  vines. 

SCHJESBURG,  or  SEGESVAR,  a  town  of  Transyl- 
vania, situated  near  the  Great  Kockel.  It  is 
divided  into  the  Upper  and  Lower  Town.  The 
former  stands  on  a  hill,  nearly  250  feet  in  height, 
and  is  fortified  ;  the  latter  is  built  on  the  plain, 
and  open.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Lutherans, 


SCH 


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and  have  here  four  churches,  with  a  gymnasium. 
The  principal  employments  are  the  weaving  of 
linen,  and  spinning  cotton.  The  environs  pro- 
duce vines  and  other  fruit.  The  present  town 
was  begun  in  1178;  but  several  ruins,  and  a 
number  of  medals  found,  show  that  it  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Romans.  Forty-seven  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Clausenburg,  and  120  north-east  of  Temesvar. 
Inhabitants  6000. 

SCHAFFBAUSEN,  a  fine  town  in  the  north 
of  Switzerland,  situated  near  the  frontiers  of 
Suabia,  on  the  Rhine.  Its  buildings  are  the 
large  parish  church  of  St.  John,  an  academy 
with  seven  professors,  besides  other  teachers, 
the  town  library,  town-hall,  and  market  house. 
The  transit  trade  of  this  place  has  long  been 
considerable,  owing  chiefly  to  its  situation  about 
a  league  above  the  celebrated  cataract  of  the 
Rhine,  which  necessitates  all  the  goods  brought 
down  the  river  to  be  landed  here.  The  manu- 
factures are  of  silk,  cotton,  and  leather,  and  are 
considerable,  and  the  wine  raised  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood forms  also  an  article  of  export.  A 
wooden  bridge  of  ingenious  construction,  is  here 
thrown  across  the  Rhine,  and  forms  the  only 
channel  of  communication  between  this  town 
and  the  rest  of  Switzerland.  It  is  360  feet  in 
length,  and  consists  of  two  very  wide  arches. 
It  was  first  erected  in  1758,  after  the  repeated 
destruction  by  inundations  of  the  preceding 
stone  bridge ;  and  though  burnt  by  the  French 
troops,  in  their  retreat  in  1799,  has  been  rebuilt. 
Twenty-five  miles  west  of  Constance,  and  fifty 
east  by  north  of  Bale. 

SCHAFFHAUSEN,  a  canton  in  the  north  of 
Switzerland,  with  an  extent  of  170  square  miles, 
a  number  of  small  hills,  but  no  mountains,  ex- 
cept one  called  the  Randen.  The  climate  is 
temperate,  the  soil  various,  and  the  products 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  vines  and  other  fruits.  The 
towns  and  manufactures  are  inconsiderable.  The 
inhabitants  are,  with  few  exceptions,  Calvinists. 
Population  32,000. 

SCHALCKEN  (Godfrey),  an  eminent  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Dort  in  1643.  He  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Gerard  Douw,  whose  style  he  adopted. 
He  resided  some  time  in  London,  and  painted 
the  portrait  of  king  William  III.  by  candle  light, 
the  king  holding  the  candle.  He  was  equally 
eminent  in  history.  He  died  in  1706. 

SCHATEN  (Nicolas),  a  learned  Jesuit,  who 
flourished  in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  wrote 
several  works,  but  that  for  which  he  is  most  ce- 
lebrated is  his  History  of  Lower  Germany.  It 
is  esteemed  very  correct,  and  abounds  with  in- 
teresting researches.  He  died  about  1697. 

SCHATZK,  a  town  in  the  interior  of  Euro- 
pean Russia,  in  the  government  of  Tambov,  on 
Schata.  It  has  a  considerable  traffic  in  hemp, 
hardware,  and  silk.  Ninety-six  miles  north  of 
Tambov,  and  2 16  south-east  of  Moscow.  Inha- 
bitants 5700.  Long.  41°  56'  E.,  lat.  54°  26'  N. 

SCH  AU  EN  BURG,  a  district  of  Hesse,  in 
the  north-west  of  Germany,  situated  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  rest  of  the  elector's  territories, 
and  consisting  of  the  south  and  east  parts  of  the 
principality  of  Schauenburg-Lippe.  Its  area  is 
about  210  square  miles.  It  is  in  general  level 
and  fertile.  In  its  government  it  is  independent 


of  the  other  states  of  the  electorate.  Population 
24,000. 

SCHAUENBURG,     Of     ScHAUMBURG-LlPPF.,       a 

principality  of  the  German  empire,  in  West- 
phalia, worth  about  £22,000  annually,  bounded 
by  Hanover,  Prussian  Westphalia,  and  the  pro- 
vince of  Schauenburg  belonging  to  Hesse-Cassel. 
Its  extent  is  above  210  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion 24,000.  The  soil  is  fertile,  both  for  tillage 
and  pasturage.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
thread  and  linen. 

SCHED'ULE,  n.  s.  Fr.  schedule ;  Lat.  sche- 
dula.  A  small  scroll ;  a  list  or  inventory. 

The  first  published  schedules  being  brought  to  a 
grave  knight,  he  read  over  an  unsavory  seatence  or 
two,  and  delivered  back  the  libel.  Houker. 

I  will  give  out  ichedutes  of  my  beauty  ;  it  shall  be 
inventoried,  and  every  particle  and  utensil  labelled  to 
my  will.  Shahspeare. 

All  ill,  which  all 

Prophets  or  poets  spake,  and  all  which  all 
Be  annexed  in  schedule  unto  this  by  me, 
Fall  on  that  man !  Donne. 

A  SCHEDULE  is  a  scroll  of  paper  or  parchment 
annexed  to  a  will,  lease,  or  other  deed ;  contain- 
ing an  inventory  of  goods,  or  some  other  matter 
omitted  in  the  body  of  the  deed.  The  word  is  a 
diminution  of  the  Latin  scheda,  or  Greek  (r^iSy, 
a  leaf  or  piece  of  paper. 

SCHEELE  (Charles  William),  an  eminent 
Swedish  chemist,  born  in  1742,  at  Stralsund. 
When  very  young  he  received  the  usual  educa- 
tion at  a  private  school ;  and  at  a  very  early  age 
showed  a  strong  desire  to  follow  the  profession 
of  an  apothecary.  With  Mr.  Bauch,  an  apothe- 
cary at  Gottenburg,  he  passed  an  apprentice- 
ship of  six  years,  and  laid  the  first  foundation  of 
his  knowledge.  Among  the  various  books  which 
he  read,  on  chemical  subjects,  Runckel's  Labor- 
atory was  his  favorite.  He  repeated  many  of  the 
experiments  in  that  work  privately  in  the  night, 
when  the  rest  of  the  family  were  asleep.  A  friend 
of  Scheele's  had  also  excited  his  attention  to  ex- 
periments in  chemistry  by  advising  him  to  rea<l 
Neuman's  Chemistry.  After  his  departure  from 
Gottenburgh  in  1765  he  obtained  a  place  witli 
Kalstrom,  an  apothecary  at  Malmo.  In  1767  he 
went  to  Stockholm,  and  in  1773  to  Upsal,  where 
he  had  free  access  to  the  University  Laboratory 
Here  also  he  commenced  the  friendship  which 
subsisted  between  him  and  Bergman.  During 
his  residence  at  this  place,  Prince  Henry  of 
Prussia,  accompanied  by  the  duke  of  Sunder- 
land,  visited  Upsal,  and  went  to  see  the  Acade- 
mical Laboratory,  and  Scheele  was  appointed  by 
the  university  to  exhibit  some  chemical  experi- 
ments to  them ;  and  he  showed  some  of  the  most 
curious  processes  in  chemistry.  In  1777  Schee'e 
was  appointed  by  the  Medical  College  to  be 
apothecary  at  Roping,  where  he  showed  his 
abilities.  When  he  was  at  Stockholm  he  dis- 
covered the  fluoric  acid ;  and  whilst  at  Upsal,  he 
made  many  experiments  to  prove  its  properties. 
At  the  same  place  he  began  his  series  of  experi- 
ments on  manganese.  At  Koping  he  finished 
his  Dissertation  on  Air  and  Fire ;  a  work  which 
the  celebrated  Bergman  most  warmly  recom- 
mended in  the  friendly  preface  which  he  wrote 
for  it.  The  theory  which  Scheele  endeavours  to 


SCH 


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prove  in  this  treatise  is,  that  fire  consists  of  pure 
air  and  phlogiston.  The  author's  merit  in  this 
work  was  sufficient  to  obtain  the  approbation  of 
the  public  ;  as  the  ingenuity  displayed  in  hand- 
ling so  delicate  a  subject,  and  the  many  new  and 
valuable  observations  dispersed  through  the  trea- 
tise, justly  entitled  the  author  to  that  fame  which 
his  book  procured  him.  The  English  translation 
is  enriched  with  the  notes  of  Richard  Kirwan. 
Scheele  now  diligently  emplpyed  himself  in  con- 
tributing to  the  Transactions  of  the  Academy  at 
Stockholm.  He  first  pointed  out  a  new  way  to  pre- 
pare the  salt  of  benzoin.  In  the  same  year  he  dis- 
covered that  arsenic,  prepared  in  a  particular  man- 
ner, partakes  of  all  the  properties  of  an  acid,  and 
has  its  peculiar  affinities  to  other  substances.  In  a 
Dissertation  on  Flint,  Clay,  and  Alum,  he  clearly 
overturned  Beaume's  opinion  of  the  identity  of  the 
siliceous  and  argillaceous  earths.  He  published 
also  an  Analysis  of  the  Human  Calculus.  He 
published  an  excellent  dissertation  on  the  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  oether.  His  investigation  of  the 
coloring  matter  in  Prussian  blue,  the  means  he 
employed  to  separate  it,  and  his  discovery  that 
alkali,  sal  ammoniac,  and  charcoal,  mixed  toge- 
ther, will  produce  it,  are  strong  marks  of  his  pe- 
netration and  genius.  The  valuable  discoveries 
of  this  great  philosopher,  many  of  which  are  to 
be  found  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society 
at  Stockholm,  are  too  numerous  for  us  to  attempt 
to  give  a  list  of  them.  Most  of  his  essays  have 
been  published  in  French  by  madame  Picardet, 
and  M.  Morveau  of  Dijon.  Dr.  Beddoes  also 
made  a  very  valuable  English  translation  of  the 
greater  part  of  Seheele's  dissertations,  to  which 
he  has  added  some  useful  and  ingenious  notes. 
His  last  dissertation  was  his  very  valuable  obser- 
vations on  the  acid  of  the  gall-nut.  See  GALLIC 
ACID.  The  character  of  Scheele,  as  a  chemist, 
is  too  generally  established  to  need  any  eulogium. 
He  mixed  but  little  with  society ;  as,  when  his 
profession  permitted  him,  he  was  employed  in 
his  experimental  enquiries.  His  chemical  appa- 
ratus was  neither  neat  nor  convenient ;  his  labo- 
ratory was  small  and  confined  ;  nor  was  he  par- 
ticular in  regard  to  the  vessels  which  he  employed 
in  his  experiments,  so  that  it  is  surprising  how 
such  discoveries,  and  such  elegant  experiments, 
could  have  been  made  under  such  disadvantages. 
He  understood  none  of  the  modern  languages 
except  the  German  and  Swedish ;  so  that  he  was 
compelled  to  wait  till  discoveries  were  conveyed 
to  him  through  the  slow  channel  of  translation. 
An  offer  was  made  to  him  of  an  annuity  of  £300 
if  he  would  settle  in  this  country;  but  death  put 
an  end  to  this  project.  He  died  in  May  1786. 

SCHEFFER  (John),  a  learned  German,  born 
at  Strasburg  in  1621 .  He  became  eminent  as  a 
critic  on  Greek  and  Latin  authors.  Being  obliged 
to  leave  his  native  country  on  account  of  the 
wars  in  1648  he  retired  to  Sweden,  where  queen 
Christina  was  patronising  all  men  of  letters.  He 
was  soon  after  professor  of  eloquence  and  poli- 
tics at  Upsal ;  honorary  professor  royal  of  the 
law  of  nature  and  nations  ;  and  assessor  of  the 
royal  college  of  antiquities ;  and  at  last  librarian 
of  the  university  of  Upsal.  He  published  seve- 
ral learned  works ;  particularly  De  Militia  Na- 
vali  Veterum.  He  died  in  1679. 


SCHEGKIUS  (James),  a  learned  German 
physician  and  professor,  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, born  at  Schorndorf,  in  the  duchy  of  Wir- 
temberg.  He  was  first  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  in  Tubingen ;  and  afterwards  profes- 
sor of  medicine  for  thirteen  years.  He  wrote 
several  works  on  philosophy,  medicine,  and  the- 
ology ;  of  which  the  most  celebrated  is  his  work 
De  Animae  Principatu ;  an  cordi,  an  cerebrae,  tri- 
buendus. 

SCHEINER  (Christopher),  a  German  mathe- 
matician, astronomer,  and  Jesuit,  eminent  as  the 
first  who  discovered  spots  on  the  sun,  was  born 
at  Schwaben  in  the  territory  of  Middleheim  in 
1575.  He  first  discovered  these  dark  places  on 
the  sun's  disk  in  1611,  and  made  observations 
on  these  phenomena  at  Rome,  until  at  length, 
reducing  them  to  order,  he  published  them  in 
one  volume  folio  in  1630.  He  wrote  also  other 
tracts,  relating  to  mathematics  and  philosophy, 
and  died  in  1690. 

SCHELDT,  or  SCHELDE,  a  large  river  of  the 
Netherlands,  which,  rises  in  the  French  depart- 
ment of  the  Aisne,  and  flows  in  a  northerly 
direction  by  Cambray,  Boucham,  and  Denain,  to 
Valenciennes,  where  it  becomes  navigable.  From 
Valenciennes  it  diverges  to  Conde  and  Tournay, 
inclining  to  the  north-east,  after  which  it  flows 
nearly  north,  passes  Oudenarde,  and  reaches 
Ghent,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Lys.  From 
Ghent  it  winds  to  Antwerp ;  and,  being  now 
swelled  into  a  wide  river,  becomes  divided  into 
the  two  branches  of  East  and  West  Scheldt,  both 
of  which  discharge  themselves  into  the  German 
Ocean.  It  is  of  a  slow  current,  hence  well  called 
by  Goldsmith  '  the  lazy  Scheldt,'  and  of  a  small 
body  of  fresh  water,  but  in  the  lower  part  of  its 
course,  of  great  importance  to  navigation.  The. 
Dutch,  to  increase  the  commerce  of  Amsterdan  . 
kept  it  long  blocked  by  two  forts.  It  has  been 
free  only  since  1795.  The  number  of  merchair 
vessels  that  entered  it  in  1815  was  1000,  oe 
which  500  where  British.  The  whole  length  of 
its  course  is  about  200  miles. 

SCHELESTADT,  or  SCHLETTSTADT,  a  town 
in  the  east  of  France,  department  of  the  Lower 
Rhine,  on  a  canal  that  communicates  with  the 
Ille.  It  is  covered  on  one  side  by  marshes,  and 
on  the  other  it  is  strongly  fortified.  It  has  some 
manufactures  of  tobacco,  caps,  stockings,  salt- 
petre, potash,  soap,  and  earthenware.  The  art  of 
glazing  earthenware  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
here.  It  was  confirmed  to  France  at  the  peace 
of  Westphalia  in  1648.  Population  7500. 
Twenty-five  miles  south-west  of  Strasburg. 

SCHELLINKS  (William),  an  eminent  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1631.  He  painted 
history  and  landscapes,  but  chiefly  excelled  in 
sea  pieces.  His  chief  work  is  a  picture  of 
Charles  II.  embarking  for  England,  at  the  Resto- 
ration ;  in  which  the  figures  are  well  grouped. 
He  died  in  1678.  \ 

SCHELLINKS  (Daniel),  a  younger  brother  of 
William,  was  born  at  Amsterdam  in  1633.  He 
was  also  reputed  a  good  landscape  painter.  He 
died  in  1701. 

SCHEME,  n.  s.  ^     Gr.  ffxtipa.  A  plan ;  com- 

SCIIF/MER,  >bination   of  various   things 

SCHE'MATISM.     j  into  one  view  or  design;  a 


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3b7 


SCH 


system ;    a  combination  of  the   aspects  of  the 
heavenly  bodies. 

It  is  a  scheme  and  face  of  heaven, 

As  th'  aspects  are  disposed  this  even.    Hudibras. 

It  hath  embroiled  astrology  in  the  erection  of 
wliemes,  and  the  judgment  of  death  and  diseases. 

Browne. 

Were  our  senses  made  much  quicker,  the  appear- 
ance and  outward  scheme  of  things  would  have  quite 
another  face  to  us,  and  be  inconsistent  with  our 
well-being.  Locke. 

He  forms  the  well  concerted  scheme  of  mischief ; 
Tis  fix'd,  'tis  done,  and  both  are  doomed  to  death. 

Rowe. 

The  haughty  monarch  was  laying  schemes  for  sup- 
pressing the  ancient  liberties,  and  removing  the  an- 
cient boundaries  of  kingdoms.  Atterbury. 

The  stoical  scheme  of  supplying  our  wants  by  lop- 
ping off  our  desires,  is  like  cutting  off  our  feet  when 
we  want  shoes.  Swift. 

Every  particle  of  matter,  whatever  form  or  schema- 
tism it  puts  on,  must  in  all  conditions  be  equally  ex- 
tended, and  therefore  take  up  the  same  room. 

Creech. 

Hope  calculates  its  schemes  for  a  long  and  durable 
life  ;  presses  forward  to  imaginary  points  of  bliss, 
and  grasps  at  impossibilities ;  and  consequently  very 
often  ensnares  men  into  beggary,  ruin,  and  disho- 
nour. Addison. 

SCHEMNITZ,  or  SELMECZ-BANJA,  a  well- 
built  and  large  mining  town  of  Hungary,  stands  in 
the  midst  of  the  most  picturesque  scenery,  a  few 
miles  from  the  Raab,  and  contains  a  number  of 
good  houses  and  tolerably  wide  streets.  It  con- 
tains, including  the  suburb  of  Bela-Banja,  about 
23,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  12,000  are  employed 
about  the  mines  of  Schemnitz,  the  most  extensive 
in  Hungary.  The  extent  of  ground  containing 
the  ores  is  calculated  at  five  or  six  miles  square, 
and  includes  the  town,  which  is  undermined. 
The  works  are  now  at  a  great  depth,  the  old 
tunnel  for  drawing  off  the  water  being  nearly 
11 00  feet  below  the  surface,  and  the  new  still 
lower.  Schemnitz  is  a  favorable  situation  for  a 
mining  school,  and  there  has  been  here  one  of 
celebrity  since  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. A  fund  for  experiments  is  allowed  by 
government.  Forty-six  miles  north  of  Gran, 
and  eighty-three  east  north  of  Presburg. 

SCHE'SIS,  n.  s.  Gr.  e^mc.  Habitude; 
state  of  any  thing  with  respect  to  other  things. 

Tf  that  mind  which  has  existing  in  itself  from  all 
eternity  all  the  simple  essences  of  things,  and  conse- 
quently all  their  possible  scheies  or  habitudes,  should 
ever  change,  there  would  arise  a  new  tchesis  in  the 
mind,  which  is  contrary  to  the  supposition.  Norris. 

SCHEUCHZERIA,  in  botany,  lesser  flower- 
ing rush,  a  genus  of  the  trigynia  order,  and  hex- 
andria  class  of  plants ;  natural  order  fifth,  tripe- 
taloideae :  CAL.  sexpartite  :  COR.  none ;  styles 
none:  CAPS,  three  inflated  and  monospermous. 
Species  one  only,  a  native  of  Europe. 

SCHIAVONA (Andrew),  a  celebrated  painter, 
born  at  Sebenico,  in  Dalmatia,  in  1522.  His 
parents  were  so  poor  that  they  could  not  pro- 
cure him  a  master ;  but,  being  merely  employed 
as  a  servant  about  a  painter's  shop,  he  rose  by 
the  force  of  his  own  genius  to  a  high  degree  of 
fame.  He  showed  great  taste  in  his  drapery  and 
the  attitudes  of  his  figures.  He  died  at  Venice 
in  1582. 


SCHICKARD  (William),  professor  of  He- 
brew in  the  university  of  Tubingen,  was  born 
in  1592.  He  wrote  various  learned  works  :  as. 
1.  A  Hebrew  Grammar  entitled  Horologium 
Schickardi ;  2.  De  Jure  Regio  Judaeorum,  Leip- 
sic,  1 674,  4to. ;  3.  Series  Regum  Persia,  Tubing. 
1621,  4to.  He  died  of  the  plague  in  1635,  aged 
forty-three. 

SCHIDONE  (Bartholomew),  an  eminent  his- 
tory and  portrait  painter,  born  at  Modena  in 
1560.  He  studied  in  the  school  of  the  Caracci, 
but  adopted  the  style  of  Corregio.  His  genius 
was  great,  but  he  lost  its  advantages  by  gaming. 
He  died  in  1616. 

SCHIECH.     See  SHEIK. 

SCHIEDAM,  a  considerable  town  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  South  Holland,  situated  on  the 
river  Schie,  a  short  way  from  its  influx  into  the 
Maese.  It  is  noted  for  its  very  numerous  distil- 
leries of  gin  (Hollands),  of  which  there  are  no 
less  than  200  in  the  town.  This  article  forms 
its  chief  export;  but  the  inhabitants  take  part 
also  in  the  herring  fishery.  Population  9000. 
Schiedam  has  a  small  harbour,  and  is  four  miles 
west  of  Rotterdam,  and  six  south  by  east  of 
Delft. 

SCHILLER  (Frederick),  was  born  November 
10th,  1759,  at  Marbach  in  Wirtemberg,  where 
his  father  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  service  of  the 
duke.  While  a  boy  Schiller  was  distinguished 
by  uncommon  ardor  of  imagination;  and  he  was 
sent  to  the  military  school  at  Stuttgard  called 
Charles's  Academy.  Schiller  was  originally 
destined  for  the  profession  of  surgery,  and 
prosecuted  that  study  with  great  zeal,  especially 
anatomy  and  physiology,  which  opened  an  ex- 
tensive field  to  his  highly  inquisitive  mind.  His 
first  publication  was  his  Robbers,  which  was  or- 
dered to  be  suppressed,  principally  on  account 
of  the  following  passage: — 'This  ruby  I  drew 
from  the  finger  of  a  ninister  whom  I  threw 
down  at  the  feet  of  his  sovereign  in  the  chase. 
By  adulation  he  had  raised  himself  from  the  low- 
est rank  to  be  the  favorite  of  the  prince;  the  fall 
of  his  neighbour  was  the  means  of  his  greatness, 
and  the  tears  of  orphans  assisted  in  his  elevation. 
This  diamond  I  took  from  another  of  the  crew, 
who  sold  honors  and  offices  to  the  highest  bidder, 
and  pushed  from  his  door  the  dejected  patriot.' 
It  will  be  recollected  that  Schiller  lived  in  the 
same  country  where  Schubart  languished  for 
eight  years  of  horror  in  the  fortress  of  Hohenas- 
perg.  Schiller,  therefore,  did  not  think  it  advis- 
able to  await  the  decision  of  his  own  fate,  espe- 
cially as  he  had  inserted  an  obnoxious  poem  on 
tyranny  in  Schubart's  chronicle.  He  fled  to 
Manheim.  Here  he  at  first  had  recourse  to  his 
surgical  attainments  for  a  subsistence.  He  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  a  regiment,  till  his  friends 
opened  for  him  a  career  more  adapted  to  his 
talents,  and  procured  him  the  post  of  dramatist 
to  the  theatre  of  Manheim.  The  fruits  of  this 
appointment  are,  The  Conspiracy  of  Fiesko,  and 
Intrigue  and  Love.  The  Rhenish  Thalia  like- 
wise deserves  to  be  mentioned.  Schiller  however 
was  not  quite  contented  with  his  situation ;  and, 
without  other  fortune,  the  fortune  of  his  genius 
inspired  him  with  confidence  in  himself,  and  his 
fame  t,rave  him  reason  to  hope  that  he  should 


SCII 


3C8 


SCH 


everywhere  meet  with  friends.  He  left  Manheim 
for  Mentz,  where  he  had   the  good  fortune  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  duke  of  Weimar,  to 
whom  he  read  the  first  act  of  his   Don  Carlos. 
Soon   after   this   interview   he    visited  Saxony, 
where   Dresden  captivated  him  by  its  treasures 
of  art,  its  rich  library,  and  the  men  of  genius 
whom  he  found  there.     His  Don  Carlos,  which 
he  continued  during  his  residency  at  Dresden, 
was  soon  interrupted.     He  began  to  read  every 
thing  that  related  to  Philip;  the  library  of  Dres- 
den  afforded  him  abundant  materials ;  and   he 
became  imperceptibly  so  deeply  interested  that 
he   neglected  poetry   for  a  time,  aud  attended 
solely  to  history,  to  which  we  are  indebted  for 
his  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands  from  the  Spanish 
Government.     At  Leipsic,  or  rather  at  Gohlis, 
a  charming  village  near  that  city,  where  he  pass- 
ed a  summer  with  M.  Goschin,  he   continued 
and  completed  his  Don  Carlos.      From  Leipsic 
Schiller  removed  to  Weimar,  where  Wei  land, 
whom  he   for  a  Jime  assisted  in  the  publica- 
tion of  the  German  Mercury,  received  him  with 
cordiality.     Some  years  afterwards  Schiller  was 
appointed   professor   of  history   at   Jena,    and 
taught  that  science  with  almost  unexampled  ap- 
plause.   That  he  might  be  able  to  study  and  to 
labour  with  less  interruption,  he   reversed  the 
order  of  nature.    However  singular  it  may  appear, 
it  is  not  the  less  true,  that  at  the  evening  he 
might  be  found  at  his  breakfast,  and  at  midnight 
deeply  engaged  in  business.    The  stamp  of  mid- 
night is  in  fact  strikingly  impressed  on  many  of 
his  compositions.    At  length,  however,  Goethe 
invited  him  back  to  Weimar,  where  he  composed 
his  Maid  of  Orleans,  of  the  first  representation 
of  which  at  Leipsic  the  following  account   is 
given  by  an  eye-witness  and  a  friend  of  Schil- 
ler:  'I  repaired,'  says  he, ' from  Lauchstadt  to 
Leipsic,  and  should  not  have  repented  the  jour- 
ney, had  I  only  witnessed  the  respect  paid  to 
Schiller,  in  a  manner  perhaps  unparalleled  in 
the  annals  of  the  German  stage.     Notwithstand- 
ing the  heat,  the  house  was  crowded  almost  to 
suffocation.     No  sooner  had  the  curtain  dropped 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  first  act,  than  a  thousand 
voices  exclaimed,  as  with  one  mouth,    '  Long 
live  Frederick  Schiller !'  and  the  sound  of  drums 
and  of  trumpets  joined  in  this  expression  of  uni- 
versal applause.    The  modest  author  returned 
thanks  from  his   box  with  a  bow,  but  all  the 
spectators  had  not  been  able  to  obtain  a  sight  of 
the  object  of  their  admiration.     You  may  there- 
fore conceive  how,  when  the  play  was  over,  all 
thronged  out  of  the  house  to  see  him.     The  ex- 
tensive space  from  the  theatre  to  the  Ranstadt 
gate  was  crowded  with  people.     He  came  out, 
and  in  a  moment  a  passage  was  cleared.     '  Hats 
off !'  exclaimed  a  voice ;  the  requisition  was  uni- 
versally complied  with  ;  and  thus  the  poet  pro- 
ceeded through  multitudes  of  admiring  specta- 
tors, who  all  stood  uncovered,  while  parents  in 
the  back  ground  raised  their  children  in  their 
arms,  and  cried,  That  is  Schiller.'    This  distin- 
guished writer  died  in  1805. 

SCHILLING  (Diebold),  a  native  cf  Soleure, 
in  Switzerland,  the  gretfier  of  a  tribunal  in  Berne, 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  He  wrote  in  the  Ger- 
man language,  A  History  of  the  War  between 


the  Swiss  and  Charles  le  Temeraire,  Duke  of 
Burgundy ;  which  was  published  at  Berne  in 
1743,  in  folio.  The  author  was  present  in  almost 
all  the  battles  he  describes. 

SCHINUS,  in  botany,  Indian  mastic,  a  genus 
of  the  decandria  order,  and  dioecia  class  of  plants ; 
natural  order  forty-third,  dumosae  :  MALE  CAL. 
quinquefid ;  the  petals  five :  FEMALE,  flower  the 
same  as  in  the  male ;  the  berry  tricoccous. 
Species  two,  natives  of  Peru  and  Brasil. 

SCHISM,  n.s.  •}      Fr.   schisnte ;    Gr. 

SCHISMAT'ICAL,  adj.       ioxiapa.     A   separa- 

SCHISMAT'ICALLY,  adv.  I  tion   or   division   in 

SCUIS'MATIC,  n.  s.  J  the  church  :  the  de- 
rivatives corresponding. 

No  known  heretick  nor  tchismatick  should  be  suf- 
fered to  go  into  those  countries.  Bacon. 

Set  bounds  to  our  passions  by  reason,  to  our  er- 
rours  by  truth,  and  to  our  schisms  by  charity. 

King  Char  Us. 

By  these  tumults  all  factions,  seditions,  and  schis- 
matical  proposals  against  government,  ecclesiastical 
and  civil,  must  be  backed.  Id. 

Thus  you  behold  the  schistnatick's  bravadoes  : 
Wild  squeaks  in  squibs,  and  Calamy  in  grenado's. 

Kutlo: 

Oppose  schisms  by  unity,  hypocrisy  by  sober  piety, 
and  debauchery  by  temperance.  Sprat". 

Here  bare  anathemas  fall  but  like  so  many  bruta 
fulmina  upon  the  obstinate  and  schismatical,  who  are 
like  to  think  themselves  shrewdly  hurt  by  being  cut 
off  from  that  body  which  they  chuse  not  to  be  of, 
and  so  being  punished  into  a  quiet  enjoyment  of 
their  beloved  separation.  South. 

When  a  schism  is  once  spread,  there  grows  at  length 
a  dispute  which  are  the  schismaticks :  in  the  sense  of 
the  law  the  tchism  lies  on  that  side  which  opposes 
itself  to  the  religion  of  the  state.  itoj/t. 

The  schismaticks  united  in  a  solemn  league  and 
covenant  to  alter  the  whole  system  of  spiritual  go- 
vernment. Id. 

SCHISM  is  chiefly  used  of  separations  happen- 
ing from  diversity  of  opinions  among  people  pre- 
viously of  the  same  religion  and  faith.  Among 
ecclesiastical  authors,  the  great  schism  of  the  west 
is  that  which  happened  in  the  times  of  Clement 
VII.  and  Urban  VI.,  which  divided  the  church 
for  forty  or  fifty  years,  and  was  at  length  ended 
by  the  election  of  Martin  V.,  at  the  council  of 
Constance.  The  Romanists  number  thirty-four 
schisms  in  their  church.  They  bestow  the  name 
English  schism  on  the  reformation  of  religion 
in  this  kingdom.  Some  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land apply  the  term  schism  to  the  separation 
of  the  nonconformists,  viz.  the  presbyterians,  in- 
dependents, and  anabaptists,  for  further  reform- 
ation. 

SCHLICHTINGIUS  (Jonas,  De  Bukowic), 
a  Unitarian  author,  born  in  Poland  in  1596 ; 
where  he  preached  till  he  was  expelled  by  the 
diet  of  Warsaw,  in  1647.  He  then  retired  to 
Muscovy,  and  settled  at  Zullichaw ;  where  he 
died  in  1661.  His  works  were  printed  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1766. 

SCHMIDT  (Erasmus),  a  learned  German, 
born  at  Delitzch  in  Misnia,  in  1560.  He  be- 
came professor  of  Greek  and  mathematics  at 
Wirtemberg,  where  he  taught  these  sciences  with 
great  reputation  for  many  years,  and  died  in  1637 
He  published  an  edition  of  Pindar,  with  a  Latin 


sen 


369 


SCH 


version  and  a  commentary  in  4to.  1616;  also 
editions  with  learned  notes  of  Lycophron,  Diony- 
sius,  Perienetes,  and  Hesiod ;  which  last  was 
published  at  Geneva  in  1693. 

SCHNEEBERG,  a  town  of  Saxony,  fifty- 
three  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Dresden,  and  seven 
W.  N.  W.  of  Schwarzenberg.  It  contains  4400 
inhabitants  ;  has  several  public  schools,  and  some 
manufactures,  of  which  that  of  smalts  is  the 
largest  in  Saxony  :  others  are  connected  with  the 
neighbouring  mines.  The  quantity  of  gold  ex- 
tracted from  these  is  said  to  have  been  formerly 
considerable.  At  present  the  chief  products  of 
the  mines  are  silver,  cobalt,  bismuth,  iron,  some 
tin  and  lead. 

SCIIOEFFER  (Peter),  a  German  painter, 
who  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  was  one  of  the  latest  improvers  of 
the  art,  by  the  discovery  of  the  matrix  in  type- 
founding. 

SCIIOENOBATES,(from  the  Greek,  <TXOH>OC, 
a  rope,  and  /Satvw,  I  walk),  a  name  which  the 
Greeks  gave  to  their  rope-dancers :  by  the  Ro- 
mans called  funambuli.  The  schcenobates  were 
slaves  whose  masters  profited  by  entertaining 
the  people  with  their  feats  of  activity.  Mer- 
curial is  de  arte  gymnastica,  lib.  iii.  gives  us  five 
figures  of  schcenobates  engraven  after  ancient 
stones. 

SCHOENUS,  in  botany,  bastard  Cyprus, 
marsh,  or  round  rush,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia 
order,  and  triandria  class  of  plants  ;  natural  order 
third,  calamariae.  The  glumes  are  paleaceous, 
univalved,  and  thickset :  COR.  none ;  and  only 
one  roundish  seed  between  the  glumes.  Species 
forty,  natives  chiefly  of  the  Cape. 

SCHOEPFLIN  (John  Daniel),  a  learned  Ger- 
man, born  at  Sulzburg,  in  the  Brisgaw,  in  1694, 
He  became  professor  of  history  in  the  Lutheran 
university  of  Strasburg.  He  was  offered  the 
same  professorship  at  Francfort  on  the  Oder,  at 
Upsal  in  Sweden,  at  the  famed  university  of 
Leyden,  and  was  invited  to  Petersburg,  by  the 
czarina  to  be  historiographer  imperial,  but  he 
preferred  Strasburg.  In  1725  he  pronounced 
a  congratulatory  oration  in  the  name  of  the  uni- 
versity before  king  Stanislaus,  on  the  marriage 
of  his  daughter  with  the  king  of  France ;  which 
was  printed  with  some  other  tracts.  He  died  at 
Stra>burg  in  1771. 


SCHOL'AR,  ».«. 
SCHOL'ARSHIP, 
SCHOLAS'TIC,  adj. 
SCHOLAS'TICALLY, 
SCHOOL,  n.  s.  &w.  a. 
SCHOOL'BOY, 

ScHOOL'DAy, 

SCHOOL'FELLOW, 

SCHOOL'HOUSE, 

SCHOOL'MAX, 

SCHOOL'MASTER, 

SCHOOL'MISTRF.SS 


Fr.  ecolier;  lat.scho- 
laris,  scholar.      A  dis- 
ciple; one  who  learns 
of  a  master:  hence  both 
j  a  man  of  real  literary 
!  attainments    or    excel- 


ciliousness:    the  compounds  do  not  appear  to 
need  explanation. 

Una  her  besought  to  be  so  good 

As  in  her  virtuous  rules  to  school  her  knight. 

Faerie  Queent. 

Fair  Una  'gan  Fidelia  fair  request, 
To  have  her  knight  unto  her  schoolhouse  placed. 

Spenter. 

Many  times  that  which  deserveth  approbation 
would  hardly  find  favour,  if  they  which  propose  it 
were  not  to  profess  themselves  icholars,  and  followers 
of  the  ancients.  Hooker. 

The  favour  of  proposing  there,  in  convenient  sort, 
whatsoever  ye  can  object,  which  thing  I  have  known 
them  to  grant,  of  tcholattick  courtesy  unto  strangers, 
never  hath  nor  ever  will  be  denied  you.  Id. 

Adrian  VI.  was  some  time  schoolmaster  to  Charles 
V.  Knolles. 

He's  gentle,  never  schooled,  and  yet  learned. 

Sliukspeare. 

You  shall  go  with  me  ; 
I  have  some  private  schooling  for  you  both.          Id. 

Schoolboys'  tears  take  up 
The  glasses  of  my  sight.  Id. 

Is  all  forgot? 
All  schooldays  friendship,  childhood,  innocence  1  IV. 

My  cousin  William  is  become  a  good  scholar:  he 
is  at  Oxford  still,  is  he  not?  Id. 

1,  thy  schoolmaster,  have  made  thee  more  profit 
Than  other  princes  can,  that  have  more  time 
For  vainer  hours,  and  tutors  not  so  careful.          Id. 

The  king,  though  no  good  tchoolman,  converted 
one  of  them  by  dispute.  Bacon. 

If  a  man's  wit  be  not  apt  to  distinguish  or  find 
differences,  let  him  study  the  schoolmen.  Id. 

To  spend  too  much  time  in  studies,  is  sloth  ;  to 
make  judgment  wholly  by  their  rules,  is  the  humour 
of  a  scholar :  they  perfect  nature,  and  are  perfected 
by  experience.  Id. 

Sir  Francis  Bacon  was  wont  to  say,  that  those 
who  left  useful  studies  for  useless  scholastick  specu- 
lations, were  like  the  Olympick  gamesters,  who  ab- 
stained from  necessary  labours,  that  they  might  be 
fit  for  such  as  were  not  so.  Id. 

The  ancient  sophists  and  rhetoricians  lived  till 
they  were  an  hundred  years  old  ;  and  so  likewise 
did  many  of  the  grammarians  and  schoolmasters,  as 
Orbilius.  Id. 

No  crazed  brain  could  ever  yet  propound, 
Touching  the  soul,  so  vain  and  fond  a  thought ; 

But  some  among  these  masters  have  been  found, 
Which  in  their  schools  the  self-same  thing  had  taught. 

Dames. 

He  grins,  smacks,  shrugs,  and  such  an  itch  en- 
dures, 

As  'prentices  or  schoolboys,  which  do  know 
Of  some  gay  sport  abroad,  yet  dare  not  go.  Donne. 
To  schoolmen  I  bequeath  my  doubtfulness, 

My  sickness  to  physicians.  Id. 

Scholastic  education,   like  a  trade,  does  so  fix 


f  lence,  and  a  pedant,  a    man  in  a  particular  way,  that  he  is  not  fit  to  judge 
"  mere    man    of  books  :     of  any  thing  that  lies  out  of  that  way. 

Burners  TVieon/. 

The  first  principles  of  Christian  religion  should 
not  be  farced  with  school  points  and  private  tenets. 

Sounder-son. 

My  end  being  private,  I  have  not  expressed   my 
conceptions  in  the  language  of  the  schools.       Digbii. 
I  would  render  this  intelligible  to  every  rationa, 
man,  however  little  versed  in  scholastic  learning. 

Id.  on  Bodies. 

Let  no  man  be  less  confident  in  his  faith,  con- 
cerning the  great  blessings  God  designs  in  these  di- 
vine mysteries,  by  reason  of  any  difference  in  the 

2  B 


scholarship         follows 
only  what  may  be  called 
the  good  sense  :  scho- 
J  lastic     and     scholasti- 

cally,  all  the  senses  of  scholar :  a  school  is  a 
house  or  establishment  devoted  to  instruction 
and  discipline;  a  state  or  mode  of  instruction; 
hence  a  particular  system,  and  hence  the  theolo- 
gical system  of  those  ages  immediately  following 
the  Fathers :  to  school  is,  to  instruct,  train,  lec- 
ture ;  treat  with  disdainful  superiority  or  super- 
VOT.  \|\. 


SCH 


370 


SCH 


seveiaJ  tchools  of  Christians,  concerning  the  conse- 
quent blessings  thereof.  Taylor. 

This  same  scholar's  fate  res  angusta  domi,  hinders 
the  promoting  of  learaing.  H'ilkint. 

This  place  should  be  school  and  university,  not 
needing  a  remove  to  any  other  house  of  scholarship. 

Mitt  on. 

Both  sides  charge  the  other  with  idolatry,  and 
that  is  a  matter  of  conscience,  and  not  a  tcholastick 
nicety.  Stillingjieet. 

Their  age  the  same,  their  inclinations  too. 
And  bred  together  in  one  school  they  grew.  Dryden. 
School  your  child, 

And  ask  why  God's  anointed  he  reviled.         Id. 

Thy  flattering  method  on  the  youth  pursue  ; 
Joined  with  his  schoolfellows  by  two  and  two : 
Persuade  them  first  to  lead  an  empty  wheel, 
In  length  of  time  produce  the  laboring  yoke.      Id. 

Such  precepts  1  have  selected  from  the  most  con- 
siderable which  we  have  from  nature,  that  exact 
schoolmistress.  Id. 

A  man  may  find  an  infinite  number  of  propositions 
in  books  of  metaphysicks,  school  divinity,  and  natural 
philosophy,  and  know  as  little  of  God,  spirits,  or 
bodies,  as  he  did  befpre.  Locke. 

The  emulation  of  ichoolftlloirt  often  puts  life  and 
industry  into  young  lads.  Id. 

To  watch  occasions  to  correct  others  in  their  dis- 
course, and  not  slip  any  opportunity  of  shewing 
their  talents,  scholars  are  most  blamed  for.  Id. 

A  father  may  see  his  children  taught,  though  he 
himself  does  not  turn  schoolmaster.  South'*  Sermons. 

No  moralists  or  casuists,  that  treat  tcholastically 
of  justice  hut  treat  of  gratitude,  under  that  general 
head  as  a  part  of  it.  South. 

The  tchotars  of  the  Stagyrite, 

Who  for  the  old  opinion  fight, 

Would  make  their  modern  friends  confess 

The  difference  but  from  more  to  less.  Prior. 

My  fchwlmistress,  like  a  vixen  Turk, 

Maintains  a  lazy  husband  by  our  work.         Gay. 

If  this  be  schooling,  it  is  well  for  the  considerer  : 
111  engage  that  no  adversary  of  his  shall  in  this 
sense  ever  school  him.  Atterbury. 

Unlearned,  he  knew  no  schoolman '*subtle  art ; 
No  language,  bat  the  language  of  the  heart.    Pope. 

It  pitied  my  very  heart  to  think  that  a  man  of  my 
master's  understanding,  and  great  tcholarship,  who 
had  a  book  of  his  own  in  print,  should  talk  so  out- 
rageously. Id. 

Once  he  had  heard  a  schoolboy  tell, 
How  Semele  of  mortal  race 
By  thunder  died.  Swift. 

Writers  on  that  subject  have  turned  it  into  a  com- 
position of  hard  words,  trifles,  and  subtilties,  for  the 
mere  use  of  the  schools,  and  that  only  to  amuse  men 
with  empty  sounds.  ]\'atts. 

Men  of  nice  palates  could  not  relish  Aristotle,  as 
he  was  drest  up  by  the  schoolmen.  Baker. 

Warped  by  the  world  in  Disappointment's  tdiool, 
In  words  too  wise,  in  conduct  there  a  fool : 
Too  firm  to  yield,  and  far  too  proud  to  stoop, 
Doomed  by  his  very  virtues  for  a  dupe, 
He  cursed  those  virtues  as  the  cause  of  ill, 
And  not  the  traitors  who  betrayed  him  still.   Byron. 

A  SCHOLIAST,  or  commentator,  is  a  gram- 
marian who  writes  scholia,  or  notes,  &c.,  upon 
ancient  authors  who  have  written  in  the  learned 
languages. 

SCHOUON,  n.  t.~\      Lat.  scholium.  A  note; 
SCH  o  LI  CM,  fan  explanatory  observa- 

SCHO'LIAST,|  ition:   Hooker  only  uses 

STHO'LY.  J  scholy    in    this     sense : 

scholiast  is  a  writer  of  such  notes. 


Hereunto  have  I  added  a  certain  gloss  or  scfioliwn, 
for  the  exposition  of  old  words,  and  harder  phrases, 
which  manner  of  glossing  and  commenting  will  seem 
strange  in  our  language.  Spenser. 

That  tcholy  had  need  of  a  very  favourable  reader, 
and  a  tractable,  that  should  think  it  plain  construc- 
tion, when  to  be  commanded  to  the  word,  and 
grounded  upon  the  word,  are  made  all  one.  Hooker. 

The  title  of  this  satyr,  in  some  ancient  manu- 
scripts, was  the  reproach  of  idleness ;  though  in 
others  of  the  scholiasts,  'tis  inscribed  against  the 
luxury  of  the  rich.  Drijdeit. 

What  Gellius  or  Stobaeus  cooked  before, 
Or  chewed  by  blind  old  scholiast*  o'er  and  o'er. 

Poie. 

Some  cast  all  their  metaphysical  and  moral  learn- 
ing into  the  method  of  mathematicians,  and  briug 
every  thing  relating  to  these  abstracted  or  practical 
sciences  under  theorems,  problems,  postulates,  «-/j<>- 
liumi,  and  corollaries.  Wmttt, 

SCHOMBERG  (Frederick  Armand  duke  of) 
a  distinguished  officer,  the  son  of  count  Schom- 
berg,  by  an  English  lady,  daughter  of  lord  Dud- 
ley, was  born  in  1608.  He  entered  into  the 
military  life  under  Frederick  Henry  prince  of 
Orange,  and  served  under  his  son  William  II. 
of  Orange.  He  then  repaired  to  the  court  of 
France,  where  his  reputation  was  so  well  esta- 
blished that  he  obtained  the  government  of 
Gravelines,  Furnes,  and  the  adjacent  countries. 
The  French  court  soon  after  sent  Schomberg  to 
assist  the  Portuguese  against  the  Spaniards, 
which  he  effectually  did.  The  court  of  Spain 
was  compelled  to  solicit  peace  in  1668,  and 
to  acknowledge  the  right  of  the  house  of 
Braganza  to  the  throne  of  Portugal.  For  his 
services  he  was  created  count  Mentola  in  Por- 
lugal ;  and  a  pension  of  £5000  was  bestowed 
upon  him,  with  the  reversion  to  his  heirs.  In 
1673  he  came  over  to  England  to  command  the 
army ;  but,  the  English  being  then  disgusted  with 
the  French  nation,  Schomberg:  was  suspected; 
and  therefore  returned  to  France,  which  he  soon 
left,  and  went  to  the  Netherlands.  In  June 
1676  he  compelled  the  prince  of  Orange  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Maastricht ;  and  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  mareschal  of  France.  Upon  the  revo- 
cation of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  when  the  perse- 
cution commenced  against  the  Protestants, 
Schomberg,  who  was  of  that  persuasion,  request- 
ed leave  to  retire  into  his  own  country.  This 
was  refused ;  but  he  was  permitted  to  take  re- 
fuge in  Portugal,  where  he  had  reason  to  expect 
he  would  be  kindly  received  on  account  of  past 
services.  But  the  bigotry  of  the  Portuguese, 
though  it  did  not  prevent  them  from  accepting 
assistance  from  a  heretic  when  their  kingdom 
was  threatened  with  subversion,  would  not  per- 
mit them  to  give  him  shelter  when  he  came  for 
protection.  The  inquisition  interfered,  and 
obliged  the  king  to  send  him  away.  He  then 
went  to  Holland,  and  the  elector  of  Brandenburg 
made  him  governor  of  Ducal  Prussia,  and  com- 
mander in  chief  of  his  forces.  When  the  prince 
of  Orange  sailed  to  England,  to  take  possession 
of  its  crown,  Schomberg  obtained  permission 
from  the  elector  to  accompany  him.  In  April 
1689  he  was  made  K.  G.,  and  naturalised  by  act 
of  parliament ;  and  in  May  following  was  cre- 
ated a  baron,  earl,  marquis,  and  duke  of  Eng- 


land,  by  the  title  of  baron  Teys,  earl  of  Brent- 
t'ord,  marquis  of  Harwich,  and  duke  of  Schom- 
nerg.  The  house  of  commons  voted  to  him 
£i 00,000,  as  a  reward  for  his  services.  Of  this 
he  only  received  a  small  part ;  but  after  his  death 
a  pension  of  £5000  a  year  was  bestowed  upon 
his  son.  In  August  1689  he  was  sent  to  Ireland 
to  reduce  that  kingdom.  When  he  arrived  he 
fbi;nd  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  consisting 
only  of  12,000  foot  and  2000  horse,  while  king 
James  commanded  an  army  three  times  as  nu- 
merous. Schomberg  thought  it  dangerous  to  en- 
gage with  so  superior  a  force,  and,  being  disap- 
pointed in  his  promised  supplies  from  P'ngland, 
remained  on  the  defensive.  He  posted  himself 
at  Dundalk,  about  five  or  six  miles  from  James, 
who  was  encamped  at  Ardee.  For  six  weeks  he 
remained  in  this  position,  without  attempting  to 
give  battle,  while,  from  the  wetness  of  the  sea- 
son, he  lost  nearly  the  half  of  his  army.  Schom- 
berg was  much  blamed  for  not  coming  to  action; 
but  had  he  risked  an  engagement,  and  been  de- 
feated, Ireland  would  have  been  lost.  At  the 
famous  battle  of  the  Boyne,  which  decided  the 
fate  of  James,  Schomberg  passed  the  river  at  the 
head  of  his  cavalry,  defeated  eight  squadrons, 
and  broke  the  Irish  infantry.  When  the  French 
Protestants  lost  their  commander,  Schomberg 
went  to  rally  and  lead  them  on  to  charge.  While 
thus  engaged,  a  party  of  king  James's  guards 
passed  Schomberg  in  attempting  to  rejoin  their 
own  army.  They  attacked  him  with  great  fury, 
and  gave  him  two  wounds  in  the  head.  The 
wounds  were  not  dangerous,  but  the  French  Pro- 
testants, thinking  their  general  was  killed,  fired 
upon  the  guards,  and  shot  him  dead.  He  was 
buried  in  St.  Patrick's  cathedral. 

SCHONBURG,  a  county  of  Saxony,  which 
belonged  to  Bohemia  till  the  treaty  of  Teschen, 
in  1779,  when  it  was  ceded  to  Saxony.  It  ad- 
joins the  circles  of  Leipsic  and  the  Erzgebirge, 
has  an  extent  of  about  340  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  61,000. 

A  SCHOOL  is  a  public  place,  wherein  the  lan- 
guages, the  arts,  or  sciences  are  taught.  See 
EDUCATION.  The  Latin  schola,  according  to 
Du  Cartge,  signifies  discipline  and  correction ; 
he  adds  that  it  was  anciently  used,  in  general, 
for  all  places  where  several  persons  met  together, 
to  study,  converse,  or  do  any  other  matter.  Ac- 
cordingly, there  were  scholae  palatinae,  being  the 
several  posts  wherein  the  emperor's  guards  were 
placed  ;  schola  scutariorum,  schola  gentilium, 
&c.  At  length  the  term  passed  also  to  civil  ma- 
gistrates ;  and,  accordingly,  in  the  code  we  meet 
with  schola  chartulariorum,  schola  agentium,  &c. ; 
and  even  to  ecclesiastics,  as  schola  cantorum, 
schola  sacerdotum,  &c. 

SCHOONER,  in  naval  ajjjairs,  a  small  vessel 
with  two  masts,  whose  main-sail  and  fore-sail 
are  suspended  from  gaffs,  reaching  from  the  mast 
towards  the  stern,  and  stretched  out  below  by 
booms,  whose  foremost  ends  are  hooked  to  an 
iron,  which  clasps  the  mast  so  as  to  turn  therein 
as  upon  an  axis,  when  the  after-ends  are  swung 
from  one  side  of  the  vessel  to  the  other. 

SCHOREL  (John),  a  Flemish  painter,  who 
•was  also  a  musician  and  1'nguist,  born  in  1495, 
at  Schore  in  Holland.  He  studied  under  Al- 

y  — 


•1  SCH 

bert  Durer ;  and  travelled  into  Germany,  where 
a  friar  prevailed  on  him  to  accompany  him  to 
Jerusalem,  where  he  painted  several  relics  of  an- 
tiquity. On  his  return  he  visited  Venice  and 
Rome,  where  pope  Adrian  VI.  appointed  him 
superintendent  of  the  buildings  at  Belvidere. 
On  Adrian's  death  he  returned  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  refused  an  offer  from  Francis  I.  of 
France,  to  settle  in  Paris.  He  died  in  1562. 

SCHORNDORF,a  neat  town  of  Wirtemberg, 
on  the  Rems,  seventeen  miles  east  of  Stutgard. 
The  chief  manufacture  is  coarse  woollens.  The 
environs  have  always  been  noted  for  their  wine. 
Inhabitants  3500. 

SCHOTIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of  plants ;  na- 
tural order  thirty-third,  lomentaceae :  CAL.  semi- 
quinquefid :  COR.  with  five  petals,  which  are 
equal ;  the  tube  is  turbinated,  carneous,  and  per- 
sistent. The  legumen  pedicellated,  and  contains 
two  seeds ;  there  is  only  one  species,  viz. 

S.  speciosa,  the  African  lignum  vitse. 

SCHOTTUS  (Andrew),  a  learned  Jesuit, 
born  at  Antwerp,  in  1552.  He  studied  at  Lou- 
vain,  and  afterwards  went  to  Paris ;  whence  lie 
travelled  into  Spain,  and  became  professor  of 
Greek  at  Toledo.  He  published  several  tracts, 
and  died  at  Antwerp  in  1629. 

SCHOTTUS  (Gaspar),  professor  of  mathematics, 
at  Wirtemberg,  who  first  published  an  account 
of  Guericke's  discovery  of  the  Air-pump,  in 
1657,  in  a  work  entitled  Mechanica  Hydraulico- 
Pneumatica.  In  1664  he  published  a  more  full 
account  of  it,  in  his  Technica  Curiosa,  a  curious 
collection  of  all  the  wonderful  experiments,  &c., 
then  known  in  Europe. 

SCHOUTEN'S  ISLAND,  an  island  on  the  east 
coast  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  consisting  almost 
entirely  of  lofty  black  mountains,  separated  by 
deep  reaches. 

SCHOUWEN,  an  island  of  the  province  ol 
Zealand,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt.  Its  extent, 
fifteen  miles  in  length  and  five  in  breadth,  was 
formerly  greater,  a  part  of  it  having  been  over- 
flowed by  the  sea.  In  1809  it  was  occupied 
by  the  British  forces.  The  chief  town  is  Zie- 
rikzee. 

SCHREVELIUS  (Cornelius),  a  laborious 
Dutch  critic  and  writer,  born  at  Haerlem,  in 
1615;  who  has  given  the  public  some  editions 
of  the  ancient  authors  more  elegant  than  correct : 
his  Greek  Lexicon  is  esteemed  the  best  of  all 
his  works.  He  died  in  1667. 

SCHROETER  (John  Samuel),  an  eminent 
musician  born  in  Saxony.  He  came  to  London 
in  1774,  with  his  father,  who  was  also  a  musi- 
cian, but  of  no  great  eminence.  But  young 
Schroeter  improved  himself  under  the  famous 
Emanuel  Bach  ;  and  some  time  after  composed 
a  set  of  Lessons  for  the  Piano-forte,  which  Na- 
pier published,  and  paid  him  liberally  for  the 
copyright.  This  raised  his  fame,  and  procured 
him  several  scholars.  After  the  publication  of 
his  first  set  of  Concertos,  he  obtained  the  lead  in 
all  musical  entertainments.  About  this  time  he 
married  a  young  lady,  who  was  his  pupil,  through 
whom  he  became  entitled  to  a  large  fortune;  but 
her  friends  threatening  him  with  the  terrors  of 
the  court  of  chancery,  he  gave  up  his  claim,  for 

2  B  2 


SCH 


372 


SCH 


an  annuity  of  £500,  with  this  condition,  thut  he 
should  perform  no  more  in  public.  But  the 
prince  of  Wales  not  long  after  appointed  him 
one  of  his  band  of  music  with  a  liberal  salary. 
His  last  Set  of  Sonatas,  with  an  elegant  accom- 
paniment for  the  violin  and  violincello,  were 
composed  at  the  desire  of  the  prince,  to  whom  it 
was  dedicated.  He  died  in  1785. 

SCHULTENS  (Albert),  professor  of  Hebrew 
and  of  the  eastern  languages  at  Leyden,  was 
born  at  Groningen,  where  he  studied  till  1706, 
and  continued  his  studies  at  Leyden  and  Utrecht. 
He  at  length  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  Ara- 
bic ;  in  which  he  made  great  progress.  A  short 
time  after  he  became  minister  of  Wassenar,  and 
two  years  after  professor  of  the  eastern  tongues  at 
Franeker.  At  length  he  was  invited  to  Leyden, 
where  he  taught  Hebrew  and  the  eastern  lan- 
guages with  great  reputation  till  his  death,  in 
1750.  Hig  principal  works  are,  1.  A  Commen- 
tary on  Job,  2  vols.  4to.  2.  A  Commentary  on 
the  Proverbs.  3.  Vetus  et  regia  via  Hebraizandi. 
4.  Animadversiones  Philologies  et  Critics  ad 
varia  loca  Veteris  Testamenti.  5.  A  Treatise  on 
Hebrew  roots.  6.  An  excellent  Hebrew  gram- 
mar, &c.  Schultens  discovered  in  his  works 
sound  criticism  and  much  learning.  He  main- 
tained, in  opposition  to  Gousset  and  Driessen, 
that  to  have  a  perfect  knowledge  of  Hebrew  it 
is  necessary  to  join  with  it,  not  only  the  Chaldee 
and  Syriac,  but  more  particularly  the  Arabic. 

SCHUMEG,  orSoMOGYi-VARMEGYE,  a  pala- 
tinate of  Hungary,  between  the  Balaton  lake  and 
the  Drave.  Its  area  is  2430  square  miles  ;  ge- 
nerally level,  and  in  many  places  marshy,  and 
unhealthy.  The  inhabitants  are  of  very  various 
/•aces,  and  there  are  many  Jews.  The  county 
takes  its  name  from  the  old  castle  of  Somogy  or 
Schumeg,  but  the  chief  town  is  Kaposvar.  Po- 
pulation 170,000. 

SCHUMLA,  SCHUMNA,  or  CIUMLA,  a  large 
and  very  strong  town  in  the  north-east  of  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  on  the  road  from  Constantinople 
to  Wallachia.  It  is  situated  in  the  province  of 
Silistria,  about  fifty  miles  south  of  the  Danube, 
which  is  here  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course.  It  is 
supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient  Mar- 
cianopolis.  In  general  not  well  built,  it  still 
contains  many  handsome  mosques  and  baths.  Its 
castle  is  one  of  the  chief  Turkish  posts  (indeed 
the  principal  one)  between  Adrianople  and  the 
Russian  frontier.  The  importance  of  this  place 
altogether  has  never  been  more  decidedly  evinc- 
ed than  in  the  recent  struggle  for  the  possession 
of  it,  between  Russia  and  Turkey.  The  popu- 
lation, as  in  other  Turkish  towns,  is  unascertained 
by  any  ancient  register,  but  is  said  to  amount  to 
30,000.  Its  trade  consists  chiefly  in  the  wine 
of  the  country,  the  manufacture  of  hardware,  and 
in  consequence  of  German  cloth  being  cheap  here 
in  the  manufacture  of  cloth  for  the  Turkish  me- 
tropolis. From  the  marshy  nature  of  the  neigh- 
bouring country,  strangers,  it  is  said,  cannot 
remain  here  even  a  few  days  without  being  seized 
with  intermittent  fever.  The  great  natural  fea- 
tures of  this  part  of  Turkey  are  the  Danube  and 
the  long  mountain  range  of  Balkan,  the  ancient 
1  hi  imis.  They  extend  from  west  to  east,  in  a 
direction  nearly  parallel,  at  a  distance  of  about 


100  miles ;  and  Schumla  stands  halfway  between 
them.  On  the  east,  at  the  distance  of  seventy 
miles,  is  the  Euxine ;  on  the  west  the  interior  of 
Bulgaria. 

SCHUYLKILL,  a  rirer  of  Pennsylvania, 
United  States,  which  rises  in  Luzerne  county, 
north-west  of  the  Kittatinny  mountains,  through 
which  it  passes,  runs  south-east  into  the  Dela- 
ware, six  miles  below  Philadelphia.  It  is  140 
miles  long,  and  navigable  for  boats  for  ninety. 
The  Tulpehocken,  a  navigable  stream,  flows  into 
the  Schuylkill  one  mile  and  a  half  above  Reading. 
There  are  falls  on  the  river  five  miles  above  Phi- 
ladelphia, and  Swedes  falls  a  little  below  Nor- 
ristown.  A  canal,  connecting  the  Swatara  with 
the  Tulpehocken  will  unite  the  waters  of  the 
Schuylkill  with  those  of  the  Susquehannah. 

SCHWALBEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  an- 
giospermia  order,  and  didynamia  class  of  plants  : 
CAL.  quadrifid,  with  a  superior  lobe  ;  the  lower- 
most longest,  and  emarginated.  Species  one 
only,  a  North  American  plant,  with  a  fine  dark 
red  flower. 

SCHWARTS,  or  SCHWARTZ  (Cornelius),  an 
eminent  history  painter,  born  at  Ingolstadt  in 
1550,  who  was  distinguished  by  the  appellation 
of  the  German  Raphael.  He  learned  the  first 
principles  of  the  art  in  his  own  country,  but  fi- 
nished his  studies  at  Venice;  when  he  not  only 
made  the  works  of  Titian  his  models,  but  re- 
ceived some  personal  instructions  from  that  il- 
lustrious master.  His  performances  were  soon 
in  high  esteem,  and  he  was  invited  by  the  elec- 
tor of  Bavaria  to  his  court,  and  appointed  his 
principal  painter.  He  died  in  1594 ;  and  his 
most  capital  works,  as  well  in  fresco  as  in  oil, 
are  in  the  palace  at  Munich,  and  in  the  churches 
and  convents. 

SCHWARTZ  (Bartholemew  or  Bertholet),  a  na- 
tive of  Friburg  in  Germany,  who  flourished  in 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  and  is 
remarkable  for  being  the  discoverer  of  gunpow- 
der, in  1320. 

SCHWARTZ  (Christian  Frederick),  a  missionary 
to  the  East  Indies,  born  at  Somienburg,  in  the 
Newmarck,  October  26th,  1726,  went  to  Halle 
in  1746,  and  entered  at  the  University,  by  the 
advice  of  the  ex-missionary  Schulze.  When  he 
had  continued  his  oriental  studies  for  a-year  and 
a  half,  he  was  persuaded  to  go  out  to  the  East  and 
proceeded  to  England  with  two  other  gentlemen 
destined  for  the  same  service  :  in  July  1750  they 
arrived  at  Tranquebar.  Mr.  Schwartz,  in  1767, 
was  taken  into  the  service  of  the  English  Society 
for  the  promotion  of  Christian  knowledge,  when 
he  removed  to  Trichinopoly  ;  and  there  and  at 
Tanjore  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life.  At 
both  places  he  also  received  from  the  govern- 
ment of  Madras  £l  00  a-year,  as  garrison  preacher, 
which  sum  he  is  said  to  have  expended  in 
building  a  church  at  Trichinopoly,  &c.  He  was 
held  in  high  esteem  by  the  Hindoos ;  and  the 
rajah  of  Tanjore  made  him  tutor  to  his  son.  He 
died  February  13th,  1796,  at  Tanjore,  and  his 
body  was  interred  in  his  own  church. 

.SCIIWARTZENBERG,  a  small  principality 
of  Franconia,  in  the  dominions  of  Bavaria.  Its 
nrea  is  somewhat  less  than  100  square  miles 
The  prevailing  religion  is  Lutheran.  The  prince? 


5CE 


373 


SCI 


•>f  this  house  ave  flesv-ended  Horn  one  of  the  oldest 
families  in  Franconia,  and  owe  their  revenue  and 
political  power  less  to  this  principality  than  to 
their  extensive  domains  in  Bohemia  and  other 
parts  of  Germany.  The  total  population  on  their 
estates,  or  in  towns  in  which  they  hold  property, 
is  computed  at  130,000.  The  head  of  the  house 
was  made  a  prince  of  the  empire  in  1670,  but 
mediatised  in  1806. 

SCHWARTZBURG,  a  district  in  the  interior 
of  Germany,  divided  into  two  counties.  One  of 
them  adjoining  Saxe-Gotha,  the  other,  farther  to 
the  south,  is  near  the  Russian  province  of  Erfurt. 
The  area  of  the  whole  is  1166  square  miles;  very 
hilly,  but  interspersed  with  fertile  valleys,  ex- 
tending along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  The  forests 
are  extensive,  and  contain  mines  of  iron,  alum, 
and  cobalt ;  also  quarries  of  marble,  freestone, 
and  slate.  The  manufactures  are  insignificant. 
The  princes  of  Schwartzburg  are  of  great  anti- 
quity, and  divided  into  the  two  branches  of 
Sondershausen  and  Rudolstadt,  residing  respec- 
tively at  the  towns  of  these  names.  Both  are 
members  of  the  Germanic  body,  under  the  con- 
stitution of  1815  ;  and  the  territories  of  both  are 
nearly  equal  in  population  and  income  (that  is 
each  numbers  about  50,000  subjects).  Each 
county  has  its  cabinet,  its  treasury,  and  its  dis- 
tinct courts  of  justice. 

SCHWEIDNITZ,  a  principality  of  the  Prus- 
sian province  or  government  of  Reichenbach, 
bounded  on  the  south  by  Bohemia,  and  includ- 
ing a  territorial  extent  of  not  quite  1000  square 
miles,  partly  hilly, and  partly  level :  it  produces 
corn  in  large  quantities  ;  and  the  flocks  of  sheep 
and  manufacturing  villages  are  numerous.  In- 
habitants 180,000. 

SCHWEITZ,or  SCHWYTZ,  a  canton  of  Swit- 
zerland, lying  contiguous  to  the  lakes  of  Zug 
and  Lucerne.  Its  extent  is  about  466  square 
miles,  surrounded  by  Alpine  mountains,  between 
which  are  a  few  valleys.  The  chief  mountains 
are  Rigi  in  the  south-west  corner,  above  6000 
feet  in  height ;  Pragel  in  the  south-east,  above 
5,500 ;  and  Mytten,  situated  between  the  two, 
of  6300  feet.  The  soil  and  climate  of  course  are 
fitter  for  pasturage  than  for  tillage.  Manufac- 
tures are  almost  unknown.  Inhabitants  about 
30,000.  Here,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  the  standard  of  the  Swiss  liberty  was 
first  erected,  and  this  petty  canton  had  the 
honor  of  giving  a  name  to  the  confederation,  and 
the  inhabitants  made  a  spirited  but  unavailing 
resistance  to  the  French  in  1798,  and  suffered 
severely  in  1799,  when  Switzerland  became  the 
theatre  of  war. 

SCHWENKFELDIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of 
the  monogynia  order,  and'  pentandria  class  of 
plants:  CAL.  quinquefid :  ron.  funnel-shaped: 
stigma  parted  into  five :  the  berry  quinquelocu- 
lar,  with  a  number  of  seeds.  Of  this  there  are 
three  species,  viz.  S.  aspera,  and  S.  cinerea,both 
uatives  of  Guiana.  S.  hirta  is  a  native  of  Ja- 
maica. The  leaves  of  all  of  them  are  remarkably 
rough,  and  stick  to  the  fingers  or  clothes. 

SCHWENKIA.in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mo- 
nogynia order,  and  diandria  class  of  plants  :  COR. 
almost  equal,  plaited  at  the  throat,  and  glandu- 
lous ;  there  are  three  barren  stamina  :  CAPS,  bi- 


locular  and  pojygperruous.     Species  one  only,  a 
Guiana  plant. 

SCHWERIN,  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of 
Mecklenburg-Scbwerin,  is  situated  on  the  west 
side  of  the  lake  of  this  name,  and  surrounded 
with  a  rampart.  It  is  divided  into  the  Old  Town, 
the  New  Town,  the  Moor,  and  the  suburbs. 
The  grand  ducal  palace  is  situated  on  an  island 
in  the  lake :  it  is  fortified,  and  communicates 
with  the  town  by  a  draw-bridge ;  its  ornaments 
are  the  picture  gallery  and  park.  Of  Schwerin, 
the  chief  buildings  and  institutions  are  the  high 
church,  formerly  a  cathedral,  two  other  Lutheran 
churches,  a  Catholic  church,  poor  house,  orphan 
house,  infirmary,  and  synagogue.  The  manufac- 
tures are  trifling:  but  brewing  and  distilling  are 
carried  on  to  some  extent.  In  1759  this  town 
was  taken  by  the  Prussians,  after  a  bombard- 
ment, and  laid  under  a  heavy  contribution  ;  and 
occupied  in  1806  by  the  French.  Population 
8500.  Sixty  miles  east  of  Hamburgh,  and  seven- 
teen south  of  Wismer. 

SCIACCA,  or  XACCA,  a  large  sea-port  on  the 
south-west  of  Sicily,  in  the  Val  di  Mazzara, 
called  anciently  Thermae  Selinuntise,  from  the 
warm  baths  on  the  east  side  of  the  town.  It  is 
situated  at  the  foot  of  St.  Calagere,  and  has  a 
good  appearance  from  a  distance.  It  is  still  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall,  and  contains  12,000  inha- 
bitants. 

SCI7ENA,  in  ichthyology,  a  genus  belonging 
to  the  order  of  thoracici.  The  membrane  of  the 
gills  has  six  rays  ;  the  opercula  and  whole  head 
are  scaly.  There  are  five  species,  the  following 
is  the  most  worthy  of  notice  : 

S.  umbra,  sea-crow,  or  umbre,  of  a  black 
color,  in  shape  resembling  a  perch  :  ventral  and 
anal  fins  black,  as  if  dyed  with  ink ;  back  va- 
riegated with  undulatinsr  lines,  of  dark  brown  and 
blue;  snout  sharp ;  mouth  capacious.  This  fish 
is  caught  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  sold  undt  r 
the  name  of  umbrino  in  the  markets  of  Rome. 

SCIATHER'ICAL,  adj.  I       Fr.   sciaterigue  ; 

SCIATHER'IC.  i  Greek  <ma0>jpticoc. 

Belonging  to  a  sun-dial. 

There  were  also,  from  great  antiquity,  tciatheretical 
or  sun-dials,  by  the  shadow  of  a  stile  or  gnomon 
denoting  the  hours ;  an  invention  ascribed  unto 
Anaximenes  by  Pliny.  Browne. 

SCIATICA,  n.s.-)     Fr.   sciatique;  Lat.  is- 

SCIAT'IC,  ychiadica  vassio.    The  hip 

SCIAT'ICAL,  adj.     J  gout. 

Thou  cold  sciatica, 

Cripple  our  senators,  that  their  limbs  may  halt 
As  lamely  as  their  manners.        Shakspeare.   Timon. 

The  Scythians,  using  continual  riding,  were  gene- 
rally molested  with  the  »ciatica  or  hip-gout. 

Browne' »  Vulgar  Errovrt. 

In  obstinate  sciatical  pains,  blistering  and  cau- 
teries have  been  found  effectual.  Arbuthnot. 

Racked  with  iciatich,  martyred  with  the  stone, 
Will  any  mortal  let  himself  alone  1  Pope. 

SCI'ENCE,n.s,         -\      Fr.  science;    Latin 

SCIEN'TTAL,  adj.  txcientin.  Knowledge; 

SCIENTIFIC,  £  that  part  of  ourknow- 

SCIENTIF'ICALLY,  adv.  /  ledge  which  is  built 
on  principles  in  particular.  See  below  :  scien- 
tial means  productive  of  science :  scientific 
pertaining  to, or  indicating  or  producing  demon- 
strative knowledge  :  the  adverb  corresponding. 


374 


SCILLY     ISLES. 


No  science  doth  make  known  the  6rst  principles 
whereon  it  buildeth ;  but  they  are  always  taken  as 
plain  and  manifest  in  themselves,  or  as  proved  and 
granted  already,  some  former  knowledge  having  made 
them  evident.  Hooker. 

I  present  you  with  a  man 
Cunning  in  music  and  the  mathematicks, 
To  instruct  her  fully  in  those  sciences.  Shakspeare. 

If  we  conceive  God's  sight  or  tcience,  before  the 
creation,  to  be  extended  to  all  and  every  part  of  the 
world,  seeing  every  thing  as  it  is,  his  prescience  or 
foresight  of  any  action  of  mine,  or  rather  his  science 
or  sight,  from  all  eternity,  lays  no  necessity  on  any 
thing  to  come  to  pass,  more  than  my  seeing  the  sun 
move  hath  to  do  in  the  moving  of  it.  Hammond. 

No  where  are  there  more  quick,  inventive,  and 
penetrating  capacities,  fraught  with  all  kind  of  scien- 
tijical  knowledge.  Hoteel. 

From  the  tree  her  step  she  turned ; 
But  first  to  reverence  done,  as  to  the  power 
That  dwelt  within ;  whose  presence  had  infused 
Into  the  plant  tciential  sap,  derived 
From  nectar,  drink  of  gods.  Milton's  Paradise  Loit. 

The  indisputable  mathematicks,  the  only  tcience 
Heaven  hath  yet  vouchsafed  humanity,  have  but  few 
votaries  among  the  slaves  of  the  Stagirite. 

Glancille's  Scepsis. 

Natural  philosophy  proceeding  from  settled  prin- 
ciples, therein  is  expected  a  satisfaction  from  scienti- 
Jical  progressions,  and  such  as  beget  a  sure  or  rational 
relief.  Browne'*  Vulgar  Errours. 

Science  perfects  genius,  and  moderates  that  fury 
of  the  fancy  which  cannot  contain  itself  within  the 
bounds  of  reason.  Dryden. 

The  systems  of  natural  philosophy  that  have  ob- 
tained are  to  be  read  more  to  know  the  hypotheses, 
thaa  with  hopes  to  gain  there  a  comprehensive,  sci- 
tntijical  and  satisfactory  knowledge  of  the  works  of 
nature.  Locke. 

Sometimes  it  rests  upon  testimony,  because  it  is 
easier  to  believe  than  to  be  scientifically  instructed. 

Id. 

No  man,  who  first  traffics  into  a  foreign  country 
has  any  scientifick  evidence  that  there  is  such  a  coun- 
try, but  by  report,  which  can  produce  no  more  than 
a  moral  certainty ;  that  is,  a  very  high  probability, 
and  such  as  there  can  be  no  reason  to  except  against. 

South. 

Good  sense,  which  only  is  the  gift  of  Heav'n, 
And,  though  no  science,  fairly  worth  the  sev'n.  Pope. 
So  you  arrive  at  truth,  though  not  at  science. 

Berkley. 

SCIENCE,  in  philosophy,  denotes  any  doctrines 
deduced  from  self  evident  principles.  Sciences, 
according  to  Locke,  may  be  properly  divided  as 
follows  : — 1.  The  knowledge  of  things,  their 
constitutions,  properties,  and  operations ;  this,  in 
a  little  more  enlarged  sense  of  the  word,  may  be 
called  fvaiKr),  or  natural  philosophy  ;  the  end  of 
which  is  speculative  truth.  See  PHILOSOPHY 
and  PHYSICS.— 2.  The  skill  of  rightly  applying 
these  powers,  irpaKTuci].  The  most  considerable 
under  this  head  is  ethics,  which  is  the  seeking  out 
those  rules  and  measures  of  human  actions  that 
lead  to  happiness,  and  the  means  to  practise  them 
(see  MORAL  PHILOSOPHY)  ;  and  the  next  is  me- 
chanics, or  the  application  of  the  powers  of  na- 
tural agents  to  the  uses  of  life.  See  Mi  i  HANK  s. 
3.  The  doctrine  of  signs,  anjitiowriKi) ;  the  most 
usual  of  which  being  words,  it  is  aptly  enough 
termed  logic.  See  Locic.  This,  says  Mr. 
Locke,  seems  to  be  the  most  general,  as  well  as 
natural,  division  of  the  objects  of  our  iinder^.uul- 


ing  ;  for  a  man  can  employ  his  thoughts  about 
nothing  but  either  the  contemplation  of  things 
themselves  for  the  discovery  of  truth ;  or  about 
the  things  in  his  own  power,  which  are  his  ac- 
tions, for  the  attainment  of  his  own  ends  :  or  the 
signs  the  mind  makes  use  of  both  in  the  one  and 
the  other,  and  the  right  ordering  of  them  for  its 
clearer  information.  All  which  three,  viz.  things 
as  they  are  in  themselves  knowable,  actions  as 
they  depend  on  us  in  order  to  happiness,  and  the 
right  use  of  sisns  in  order  to  knowledge,  being 
toto  caelo  different,  they  seem  to  be  the  three  great 
provinces  of  the  intellectual  world,  wholly  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  one  from  another. 

SCILLA,  the  squill,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
monogynia  order  and  hexandria  class  of  plants, 
natural  order  tenth,  coronariae:  COR.  hexapetalous 
and  deciduous;  the  filaments  filiform.  The  most 
remarkable  species  is  the 

S.  maritima,  or  sea  onion,  whose  roots  are  used 
in  medicine.  Of  this  there  are  two  sorts,  one 
with  a  red  and  the  other  with  a  white  root ; 
which  are  supposed  to  be  accidental  varieties,  but 
the  white  are  generally  preferred  for  medicinal 
use.  The  roots  are  large,  somewhat  oval-shaped, 
composed  of  many  coats  lying  over  each  other 
like  onions  ;  and  at  the  bottom  come  out  several 
fibres.  From  the  middle  of  the  root  arise  several 
shining  leaves,  which  continue  green  all  the 
winter,  and  decay  in  the  spring.  Then  the  flower 
stalk  comes  out,  which  rises  two  feet  high,  and  is 
naked  half  way,  terminating  in  a  pyramidal 
thyrse  of  flowers,  which  are  white,  composed  of 
six  petals,  which  spread  open  like  the  points  of 
a  star.  This  grows  naturally  on  the  sea  shores, 
and  in  the  ditches,  where  the  sak  water  flows 
with  the  tide.  Sometimes  the  roots  which  are 
bought  for  use  put  forth  their  stems  and  produce 
flowers,  as  they  lie  in  the  druggists'  shops.  This 
root  is  very  nauseous  to  the  taste,  intensely 
bitter,  and  so  acrimonious,  that  it  ulcerates  the 
skin  if  much  handled.  Taken  internally,  it  pow- 
erfully stimulates  the  solids,  and  promotes  urine, 
sweat,  and  expectoration.  If  the  dose  is  consi- 
derable,it  proves  emetic  and  purgative.  It  yields 
the  whole  of  its  virtues  to  aqueous  aud  vinous 
menstrua,  and  likewise  to  vegetable  acids. 

SCILLY  ISLES,  a  cluster  of  small  islands 
and  rocks  situated  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
nearly  ten  leagues  west  of  the  Land's  End.  These 
islands  were  first  called  Cassiterides,  or  the  Tin 
Isles,  from  their  being  rich  in  that  metal.  Strabo 
says  these  islands  were  ten  in  number,  lying 
close  together,  of  which  only  one  was  uninha- 
bited ;  the  people  led  an  erratic  life,  lived  upon 
the  produce  of  their  cattle,  wore  an  under  gar- 
ment which  reached  down  to  their  ankles,  and 
over  that  another,  both  of  a  black  color,  girt 
round  a  little  below  the  breast  with  a  girdle,  and 
walked  with  staves  in  their  hands.  The  riches  of 
these  islands  were  tin  and  lead,  which,  with  the 
skins  of  their  cattle,  they  exchanged  with  the 
Phoenicians  for  earthenware,  salt,  and  utensils 
made  of  brass.  Other  ancient  writers  style 
these  islands  Hesperides,  from  their  western  situ- 
a'ion,  and  Oestrymnides,  asserting  that  the  land 
was  extremely  fertile,  as  well  as  full  of  mines; 
and  that  the  people,  though  very  brave,  wero  ad  - 
«li-  t.  '1  to  commerce,  and  boldlv  passed  tlu 


SCILLY     ISLES 


375 


in  their  leather  coats.  The  Romans  were  ex- 
ceedingly desirous  to  obtain  a  share  in  this  com- 
merce, which  the  Phoenicians  as  carefully  la- 
bored to  prevent,  by  concealing  their  navigation 
to  these  islands.  At  length,  however,  the  Ro- 
mans prevailed ;  and  Publius  Crassus,  coming 
thither,  was  so  well  pleased  with  the  industry 
and  manners  of  the  people,  that  he  taught  them 
various  improvements,  as  well  in  working  their 
mines,  which  till  that  time  were  but  shallow,  as 
in  carrying  their  merchandise  to  different  markets. 
We  find  them  called  in  the  itinerary  of  Antoninus, 
Sigdelcs  ;  bySulpitius,  Siller.ae;  and  by  Solinus 
they  are  termed  Silures.  All  we  know  of  them 
after  this  period  is.  that  their  tin  trade  con- 
tinued, and  that  sometimes  state  prisoners  were 
exiled  hither  as  well  as  to  other  islands.  When 
the  legions  v.ere  withdrawn,  and  Britain  with  its 
dependencies  left  in  the  power  of  the  natives, 
these  islands  shared  the  same  lot  with  the  rest. 
As  to  the  appellation  which  from  this  period  pre- 
vailed, the  ordinary  way  of  writing  it  is  Sully ; 
in  records  we  find  it  spelt  Silly,  Siiley,  or  Scilley ; 
but  we  are  told  the  old  British  appellation  was 
Sulleh,  or  Sylleh,  which  signifies  rocks  conse- 
crated to  the  sun.  Nothing  is  recorded  of  them 
from  the  fifth  to  the  tenth  century.  It  is,  how- 
ever, supposed,  that  within  this  space  they  were 
almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  attended  with 
a  sinking  of  the  earth,  by  which  most  of  their 
lowlands,  and  of  course  the  greatest  part  of  their 
improvements  were  covered  by  the  sea,  and  those 
rich  mines  of  tin  which  had  rendered  them  so 
famous  swallowed  up  in  the  deep.  They  have  a 
tradition  in  Cornwall,  that  a  very  extensive  tract 
of  country  called  the  Lioness,  in  the  old  Cornish 
Lethousow,  supposed  to  lie  between  that  coun- 
try and  Scilly,  was  thus  lost ;  and  many  con- 
current circumstances  render  this  probable.  In 
reference  to  these  islands,  the  case  is  still 
stronger ;  for  at  low  ebbs  their  stone  enclosures 
are  still  visible  from  almost  all  the  isles.  The 
fertility  of  the  islands  is  mentioned  in  all  the  an- 
cient accounts.  There  is  mention  made  of  a 
breed,  of  wild  swine,  and  the  inhabitants  had 
great  plenty  of  fowl  and  fish.  But,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fertility  of  the  country,  it  was  but  thinly 
peopled,  because  they  were  liable  to  be  often 
spoiled  by  French  or  Spanish  pirates.  In  time 
of  war,  the  importance  of  these  islands  is  con- 
spicuous. In  1651  Sir  John  Grenville  took 
shelter  in  them  with  the  remains  of  the  Cornish 
cavaliers.  The  depredations  committed  by  his 
frigates  soon  made  it  evident  that  Scilly  was  the 
key  of  the  English  commerce ;  and  the  clamors 
of  the  merchants  thereupon  rose  so  high  that  the 
parliament  was  forced  to  send  a  fleet  of  fifty  sail, 
with  a  great  body  of  land  forces  on  board,  under 
Sir  George  Ayscue  and  admiral  Blake,  who,  with 
great  difficulty,  and  considerable  loss,  made 
themselves  masters  of  Trescaw  and  Brehar; 
where  they  erected  those  lines  and  fortifications 
near  the  remains  of  the  old  fortress  called 
Oliver's  Castle.  But  at  length  they  granted  Sir 
John  Grenville  a  most  honorable  capitulation,  as 
the  surest  means  to  recover  places  of  such  conse- 
quence. On  the  22nd  of  October,  1707,  several 
ships  were  wrecked  on  these  rocks.  It  was  thick 
<bggy  weather,  and  the  night  was  extremely  dark, 


when  the  British  fleet  under  Sir  Cloudesley  Sho- 
vel, returning  from  an  unsuccessful  expedition 
against  Toulon,  mistaking  these  rocks  tor  land, 
struck  upon  them.  The  Association,  in  which  Sir 
Cloudesley  was,  with  his  lady's  two  sons,  several 
other  persons  of  distinction,  and  800  brave  men, 
struck  first,  and  went  immediately  to  the  bottom  : 
the  Eagle,  under  captain  Hancock,  soon  shared 
the  same  fate :  the  Romney  and  the  1'ircbrand 
were  also  lost,  but  the  two  captains  and  twenty- 
five  meu  were  saved.  The  rest  of  the  fleet  es- 
caped, having  notice  of  the  fate  of  these  ships. 
There  are  five  of  these  islands  now  inhabited. 
The  largest  of  these  is  St.  Mary's,  which  is  two 
miles  and  a  half  in  length,  about  one  mile  and  a 
half  in  breadth,  and  between  nine  and  ten  miles 
in  compass.  On  the  west  side  there  projects 
an  isthmus.  Beyond  this  there  is  a  peninsula, 
which  is  very  high ;  and  upon  which  stands  Star 
Castle,  built  in  1593,  with  some  outworks  and 
batteries.  On  these  there  are  upwards  of  sixty 
pieces  of  cannon  mounted  ;  and  for  the  defence 
of  which  there  is  a  garrison.  Under  the  castle 
barracks  and  lines  stands  Hugh  Town,  built  so 
low  as  to  be  subject  to  inundations.  A  mile 
within  land  stands  Church  Town,  which,  besides 
the  church  consists  of  a  few  houses  only,  with  a 
court  house.  About  two  furlongs  east  of  this 
lies  the  Old  Town,  where  there  are  more  houses, 
and  some  of  them  very  convenient  dwellings. 
Treslaw  lies  two  miles  directly  north  of  St. 
Mary's.  It  was  formerly  styled  St.  Nicholas's 
Island  ;  and  was  at  least  as  large  as  St.  Mary's, 
though  at  present  about  half  the  size.  The  re- 
mains of  the  abbey  are  yet  visible.  There  are 
about  ten  stone  houses,  with  a  church,  which 
compose  the  Dolphin  Town ;  an  old  castle  built 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  called  Oliver's 
Castle  ;  and  a  block-house  raised  out  of  the  ruins 
of  that  castle.  This  island  is  noted  for  producing 
plenty  of  the  finest  samphire,  and  the  only  tin 
works  that  are  now  visible  are  found  in  it. 
A  mile  to  the  east  of  Trescaw,  and  about  two 
miles  from  the  most  northern  part  of  St.  Mary's' 
lies  the  isle  of  St.  Martin's,  not  much  inferior 
in  size  to  that  of  Trescaw.  St.  Martin's  produces 
corn,  affords  the  best  pasture  in  these  islands 
and  feeds  a  great  number  of  sheep.  St.  Agnes, 
which  is  also  called  the  Light-house  Island,  lies 
nearly  three  miles  south-west  of  St.  Mary's  :  and 
is,  though  small,  well  cultivated,  fruitful  in  corn 
and  grass. — The  only  inconvenience  is  the  want 
of  good  water;  the  great  advantage  consists  in 
having  several  good  coves  or  small  ports,  where 
boats  may  lie  in  safety.  The  light-house  is  the 
principal  ornament  and  great  support  of  the 
island,  which  stands  on  the  most  elevated  ground, 
built  with  stone  from  the  foundation  to  the  lan- 
tern, which  is  fifty-one  feet  high.  Brehar,  or, 
as  pronounced,  Bryer  Island,  lies  north-west  of 
St.  Mary's,  and  west  of  Trescaw,  to  which,  when 
the  sea  is  very  low,  they  sometimes  pass  over  on 
the  sand.  It  is  very  mountainous,  abounds  with 
sea  and  land  fowls,  excellent  samphire,  and  a 
great  variety  of  medical  herbs.  The  air  of  these 
islands  is  equally  mild  and  pure ;  their  winters 
are  seldom  subject  to  frost  or  snow.  When  the 
former  happens  it  lasts  not  long;  and  the  latter 
never  lies  upon  the  ground.  The  heat  of  their 


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376 


SCI 


summers  is  much  abated  by  sea-breezes.  They 
are  indeed  frequently  incommoded  by  sea  fogs, 
but  these  are  not  unwholesome.  The  soil  is  very 
good,  and  produces  grain  of  all  sorts  (except 
wheat,  of  which  they  had  anciently  plenty)  in 
large  quantities.  They  still  raise  a  little  wheat, 
but  the  bread  made  of  it  is  unpalatable.  They 
eat,  for  this  reason,  chiefly  what  is  made  of  bar- 
ley. Potatoes  prosper,  and  roots  of  all  kinds, 
pulse,  and  sallads,  grow  well ;  dwarf  fruit-trees, 
gooseberries,  currants,  raspberries,  &c.,  under 
proper  shelter,  thrive  exceedingly ;  but  they  have 
no  trees.  They  have  wild  fowls  of  all  sorts,  from 
the  swan  to  the  snipe;  and  a  particular  kind 
called  the  hedge  chicken,  which  is  not  inferior  to 
the  ortolan  :  also  tame  fowls,  puffins,  and  rabbits, 
in  great  numbers.  Their  black  cattle  are  small, 
but  well  tasted,  though  they  feed  upon  sea-weed. 
Their  horses  are  small,  but  strong  and  lively. 
They  have  also  large  flocks  of  fine  sheep,  whose 
fleeces  are  good,  and  their  flesh  excellent.  St. 
Mary's  harbour  is  very  safe  and  capacious,  having 
that  island  on  the  south  ;  the  eastern  islands, 
with  that  of  St.  Martin,  on  the  east ;  Trescaw, 
Brehar,  and  Samson,  to  the  north  ;  St.  Agnes, 
and  several  small  islands,  to  the  west.  Ships 
ride  here  in  three  to  five  'athoms  water,  with 
good  anchorage.  Into  this  harbour  there  are 
four  inlets,  viz.  Broad  Sound,  Smith's  Sound, 
St.  Mary's  Sound,  and  Crow  Sound  ;  so  that 
hardly  any  wind  can  blow  with  which  a  ship  of 
150  tons  cannot  safely  sail  through  one  or  other 
of  them,  Crow  Sound  only  excepted,  where  they 
cannot  pass  at  low  water,  but  at  high  tide  there 
is  from  ^ixteen  to  twenty-four  feet  in  this  pas- 
sage. There  are  also  two  other  harbours,  viz. 
New  Grynsey,  which  lies  between  Brehar  and 
Trescaw,  where  ships  of  300  tons  may  ride 
securely;  and  Old  Grynsey,  between  Trescaw, 
St.  Helen's,  and  Theon,  for  smaller  ships.  The 
former  is  guarded  by  the  batteries  at  Oliver's 
Castle ;  the  latter  by  the  blockhouse  on  the  east 
side  of  Trescaw,  called  Dover.  In  this  harbour, 
and  in  all  the  little  coves  of  the  several  isles,  pro- 
digious quantities  of  mackerel  may  be  caught  in 
their  season ;  also  soal,  turbot,  and  plaice ;  and 
ling,  which,  from  its  being  a  thicker  fish,  mel- 
lower, and  better  fed,  is  very  justly  preferred  to 
*ny  caught  nearer  our  own  coasts.  Salmon,  cod, 
and  pollock,  are  in  great  plenty,  and  pilchards  in 
vast  abundance.  The  alga  marina,  fucus  or  sea 
weed,  serves  to  feed  both  their  small  and  great 
cattle,  manures  their  lands,  is  burned  into  kelp, 
is  sometimes  preserved,  sometimes  pickled,  and 
is  in  many  other  respects  very  beneficial  to  the 
inhabitants.  The  civil  government  is  adminis- 
tered by  the  court  of  twelve  ;  in  which  the  com- 
mander in  chief,  the  proprietors'  agent,  and  the 
chaplain,  have  their  seats  in  virtue  of  their 
offices  :  the  other  nine  are  chosen  by  the  people. 
These  decide  or  compromise  all  differences ;  and 
punish  small  offences  by  fines,  whippings,  &c. ; 
except  for  the  soldiers,  there  is  no  prison  in  the 
islands.  But,  in  case  of  capital  offences,  the 
criminals  may  be  transported  to  the  county  of 
Cornwall,  and  there  brought  to  justice.  The 
great  importance  of  these  islands  arises  from  their 
advantageous  situation,  as  looking  equally  into 
St.  George's  Channel,  which  divides  Great  Bri- 


tain from  Ireland,  and  the  English  Channel, 
which  separates  Britain  from  France.  For  this 
reason,  most  ships  bound  from  the  south- 
ward strive  to  make  the  Scilly  Islands,  to  steer 
their  course  with  greater  certainty.  It  is  very 
convenient  also  for  vessels  to  take  shelter  amongst 
them ;  which  prevents  their  being  driven  to 
Milford  Haven,  or  some  port  in  Ireland,  if  the 
wind  is  strong  at  east ;  or,  if  it  blows  hard  at 
north-west,  from  being  forced  back  into  some  of 
the  Cornish  harbours,  or  even  on  the  French 
coasts. 

SCIMITAR,  n.  s.  See  CIMETER.  A  short 
sword  with  B  convex  edge. 

I'll  heat  his  blood  with  Greekish  wine  to-night, 
Which  with  my  scimitar  I'll  cool  to-morrow. 

Shakspeare. 

SCINTILLATION,  n.  s.  Lat.  scintillatio. 
The  act  of  sparkling ;  sparks  emitted. 

He  saith  the  planets'  scintillation  is  not  seen,  be- 
cause of  their  propinquity.  Glanville's  Scepiis. 

These  scintillations  are  not  the  accension  of  the  air 
upon  the  collision  of  two  hard  bodies,  but  rather  the 
inflammable  effluences  discharged  from  the  bodies 
collided.  Browne, 

With  airy  lens  the  scattered  rays  assault ; 
And  bend  the  twilight  round  the  dusky  vault ; 
Ride,  with  broad  eye  and  scintillating  hair, 
The  rapid  fire-ball  through  the  midnight  air. 

Darwin. 

SCIO,  the  ancient  Chios,  an  island  of  the 
Grecian  Archipelago,  thirty  miles  in  length,  from 
ten  to  eighteen  in  breadth,  and  ninety  in  circum- 
ference, composed  of  high  mountains,  which  are 
rendered,  by  the  industry  of  the  inhabitants, 
very  productive.  The  plain,  extending  for  some 
leagues  round  the  town,  is  celebrated  for  its  ex- 
traordinary beauty  and  fertility.  Here  also  are 
some  quarries  of  a  reddish  freestone.  The  air 
is  good,  though,  from  its  great  communication 
with  other  places,  it  is  much  exposed  to  the 
plague.  Corn  raised  is  not  sufficient  for  the 
consumption,  and  herbage  is  so  scarce  that  they 
give  their  cotton  shrubs  to  the  cattle  after  the 
cotton  is  gathered,  and  preserve  the  dried  leaves 
of  the  vines  for  them  in  winter.  This  want 
renders  all  animal  food  dear,  except  goat's  flesh. 
See  GREECE. 

Scio,  the  capital  of  the  above  island,  situated 
in  a  shallow  bay  on  its  eastern  coast.  Here  is  a 
good  road  for  the  largest  shipping,  and  a  mole, 
which  forms  a  tolerable  harbour.  The  castle  is 
a  large  Venetian  fort,  which  has  been  used  as  a 
place  of  confinement  for  state  prisoners.  To  the 
east  of  the  present  city  is  the  Palaio  Castro,  or 
old  town.  The  population  is  stated  at  35,000. 
Long.  25°  54'  E.,  lat.  38°  23'  N. 

SCI'OLIST,  n.  s.  Lat.  sciolus.  One  who 
knows  many  things  superficially. 

I  could  wish  these  sciolout  zelotists  had  more  judg- 
ment joined  with  their  zeal.  Howel. 

Twas  this  vain  idolizing  of  authors  which  gave 
birth  to  that  silly  vanity  of  impertinent  citations ; 
these  ridiculous  fooleries  signify  nothing  to  the  more 
generous  discerners,  but  the  pedantry  of  the  affected 
sciolists.  Glanville'i  Sstptii 

These  passages  were  enough  to  humble  the  pre- 
sumption  of  our  modern  sciolists,  if  their  pride  were 
not  as  great  as  their  ignorance.  Temple. 


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377 


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SCIOM'ACHY,  n.  s.  Fr.  schiamac hie ;  Gr. 
OKia  and  pax*]-  Battle  with  a  shadow.  It 
should  be  written  sciamachy. 

To  avoid  this  sciomachy,  or  imaginary  combat  of 
words,  let  me  know,  Sir,  what  you  mean  by  the  name 
of  tyrant?  Coicley. 

SCI'ON,  n.  s.  Fr.  scion.  A  small  twig  taken 
from  one  tree  to  be  engrafted  into  another. 

Sweet  maid,  we  marry 
A  gentle  scion  to  the  wildest  stock  ; 
And  make  conceive  a  bark  of  baser  kind 
11  y  bud  of  nobler  race.   Shakspeare.     Winter'*  Tale. 

.March,  is  drawn,  in  his  left  hand  blossoms,  and 
soiois  upon  his  arm.  Peacham. 

The  scions  are  best  of  an  old  tree . 

Mortimer  t  Husbandry. 

SCIOPPIUS  (Caspar),  a  learned  German 
writer  of  the  seventeenth  century,  born  at  Neu- 
mark,  in  the  Upper  Palatinate,  in  1576.  He 
studied  at  the  university,  and,  at  the  age  of  six- 
teen, became  an  author.  He  abjured  the  system 
of  the  Protestants,  and  became  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic about  1559.  He  possessed  all  those  qualities 
which  fitted  him  for  making  a  distinguished 
figure  in  the  literary  world ;  imagination,  me- 
mory, profound  learning,  and  invincible  impu- 
dence. But  he  neither  showed  respect  to  his 
superiors,  nor  decency  to  his  equals.  Joseph 
Scaliger,  above  all  others,  was  the  object  of  his 
satire.  That  learned  man,  having  drawn  up  the 
history  of  his  own  family,  and  deduced  its 
genealogy  from  princes,  was  severely  attacked 
and  ridiculed  by  Scioppius.  Scaliger  in  his  turn 
wrote  a  book  entitled  The  Life  and  Parentage  of 
Caspar  Scioppius.  This  inflamed  Scioppius 
still  more :  he  collected  all  the  calumnies  thrown 
out  against  Scaliger,  and  formed  them  into  a 
huge  volume.  He  treated  with  great  contempt 
James  I.,  king  of  England,  in  his  Ecclesiasticus, 
&c  ,  and  in  his  Collyrium  Regium  Britannia 
Regi,  graviter  ex  oculis  laboranti  munere  mis- 
sum.  He  had  also  the  audacity  to  abuse  Henry 
IV.  of  France  in  a  most  scurrilous  manner,  on 
which  account  his  book  was  burned  at  Paris. 
Provoked  by  his  insolence  to  their  sovereign,  the 
servants  of  the  English  ambassador  assaulted 
him  at  Madrid,  and  chastised  him  severely.  For 
his  furious  assaults  upon  the  most  eminent  men 
he  was  called  the  Cerberus  of  literature.  He 
died  on  the  19th  November,  1649,  aged  seventy- 
four,  at  Padua,  the  only  retreat  which  remained 
to  him.  400  books  are  ascribed  to  him,  which 
discover  great  genius  and  learning.  The  chief 
of  these  are,  1.  Verisimilium  Libri  IV.  1596,  in 
8vo.  2.  Commentarius  de  Arte  Critica,  1661, 
in  8vo.  3.  De  sua  ad  Catholicos  Migratione, 
1660,  in  8vo.  4.  Notationes  Criticae  in  Phae- 
drurn,  in  Priapeia,  Patavii,  1664,  in  8vo.  5. 
Suspectarum  Lectionum  Libra  V.  16G4,  in  8vo. 
6.  Classicum  belli  sacn,  1619,  in  4to.  7.  Colly- 
liura  regium,  1611,  in  8vo.  8.  Grammatica 
Philosophica,  1644,  in  8vo.  9.  Relatio  ad  Reges 
et  Principes  de  Stratagematibus  Societatis  Jesu, 
1641,  in  12mo.  This  last  was  published  under 
the  name  of  Alphonso  de  Vargas. 

SCIOTO,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  which 
rises  in  Ohio,  near  the  sources  of  the  Sandusky. 
Its  course  is  east  by  south ;  and  it  passes  by 
Columbus,  Cocleville,  and  Chillicothe,  and  runs 


into  the  Ohio,  at  Portsmouth,  in^lat.  38°  34'  N., 
352  miles  below  Pittsburg.  It  is  navigable  for 
large  keel  boats  to  Columbus,  and  for  canoes 
almost  to  its  head.  There  is  a  convenient  port- 
age between  it  and  the  Sundusky  of  four  miles. 

SCIPIO,  the  cognomen  of  a  celebrated  family 
in  ancient  Rome,  who  were  a  branch  of  the  Cor- 
nelian family,  and  by  their  bravery  and  other 
virtues  rose  to  the  highest  honors  in  the  republic. 
This  surname  was  derived  from  scipio,  a  staff", 
because  one  of  their  ancestors  had  led  his  father 
when  blind,  and  been  to  him  as  a  walking  staff. 

SCIPIO  (Cnseus  Cornelius),  Asina,  was  consul 
A.  U.  C.  492,  and  498.  During  his  first  consul- 
ship he  was  defeated  in  a  naval  battle,  and  lost 
seventeen  ships;  but  in  493  he  took  Aleria,  in 
Corsica,  and  defeated  the  Carthaginians  under 
Hauno,  in  Sardinia,  took  200  of  their  ships,  and 
the  city  of  Panormum  in  Sicily. 

SCIPIO  (Cnseus),  and  SCIPIO  (Publius),  sons 
of  Asina.  In  the  beginning  of  the  second  Punic 
war  Publius  was  sent  with  an  army  into  Spain 
to  oppose  Hannibal ;  but,  hearing  that  Hannibal 
had  gone  to  Italy,  he  endeavoured  by  quick 
marches  to  stop  him.  Hannibal,  however,  de- 
feated him  near  the  Ticinus,  where  he  would  have 
lost  his  life  had  not  his  son  (afterwards  the  famed 
Africanus)  bravely  defended  him.  He  again 
went  into  Spain,  where  he  gained  several  memo- 
rable victories  over  the  Carthaginians  and  inha- 
bitants. His  brother  Cnseus  shared  the  command 
with  him,  but,  though  at  first  successful,  their 
confidence  proved  their  ruin.  The/  divided 
their  army,  and  soon  after  Publius  was  furiously 
assailed  by  the  Carthaginians  under  Mago  and 
the  two  Asdrubals.  Publius  was  killed,  and 
his  army  cut  to  pieces.  The  victors  immediately 
fell  upon  Cnaeus,  from  whom  30,000  Celtiberians 
had  just  revolted.  He  retired  to  a  hill  and  de- 
fended himself  bravely,  but  was  overpowered  by 
numbers. 

SCIPIO  (Publius  Cornelius),  surnamed  Afri- 
canus, was  the  son  of  Publius.  He  first  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battle  of  Ticinus,  as  above 
mentioned  ;  and,  after  the  fatal  battle  of  Cannae, 
when  some  Romans  proposed  to  abandon  Italy 
to  the  victors,  he  made  his  countrymen  swear 
eternal  fidelity  to  Rome,  and  enact  that  the  first 
who  should  repeat  such  a  proposal  should  be 
put  to  death.  So  early  as  in  his  twenty-first  year 
he  was  made  sedile.  On  the  slaughter  of  the 
Roman  armies  under  his  father  and  uncle,  Scipio 
was  sent  to  avenge  their  deaths  ;  and  within  four 
years  he  expelled  the  Carthaginians  from  Spain, 
and  reduced  it  to  a  Roman  province.  After  these 
signal  victories  he  was  called  home  to  defend 
Rome  against  Hannibal,  but  gave  it  as  his  opi- 
nion that  Hannibal  could  only  be  conquered  in 
Africa.  On  this  he  was  elected  consul  and  sent 
to  Africa,  where  his  conquests  were  as  rapid  as 
in  Spain  ;  the  Carthaginians  under  Asdrubal 
were  totally  routed  ;  and  Hannibal  called  .home 
from  the  gates  of  Rome.  These  two  great  gene- 
rals met  soon  after,  but  could  come  to  no  terms 
of  agreement.  The  battle  of  Zama  was  therefore 
fought,  where  Scipio  was  so  successful  that 
20,000  Carthaginians  were  killed,  and  as  many 
made  prisoners ;  while  the  Romans  lost  only 
2000.  Peace  was  demanded,  and  granted,  but 


SCI 


378 


SCI 


upon  the  most  humiliating  terms.  On  his  return 
to  Rome  Scipio  was  honored  with  a  triumph,  and 
with  the  agnomen  of  Africanus.  In  the  conquest 
of  Spain  a  princess  of  uncommon  beauty  was 
taken  prisoner.  Scipio,  hearing  that  she  had 
been  betrothed  to  a  young  Spanish  prince,  not 
only  restored  her  inviolate  to  her  parents  and 
lover,  but  sent  rich  presents  along  with  her.  By 
his  generous  conduct  he  made  not  only  that 
prince,  but  Masinissa,  Syphax,  and  others,  the 
friends  of  Rome.  He  married  Emilia,  daughter 
of  the  celebrated  Paulus  .Emilius,  who  fell  at 
the  battle  of  Cannae;  and  died  at  his  country 
seat  at  Ldternum,  about  A.  A.  C.  181,  aged  only 
fifty-one.  His  widow  raised  a  mausoleum  to 
his  memory,  and  placed  upon  it  his  statue  with 
that  of  Ennius.  The  Romans  venerated,  when 
dead,  the  virtues  of  the  man  they  were  unjustly 
jealous  of  when  living. 

SCIPIO  (Lucius  Cornelius),  surnamed  Asiaticus, 
was  the  brother  of  the  preceding,  and  accompa- 
nied him  in  his  expeditions  into  Spain  and 
Africa.  He  was  rewarded  with  the  consulship 
for  his  services,  A.  U.  C.  562 :  and  was  sent 
against  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria;  whom,  with 
the  assistance  and  advice  of  his  brother  Africa- 
nus, he  completely  defeated  in  a  battle  at  Mag- 
nesia, near  Sardis,  wherein  Antiochus  lost  50,000 
infantry  and  4000  cavalry,  and  soon  after  sub- 
mitted. On  his  return  to  Rome,  Scipio  was 
decreed  a  triumph  and  the  surname  of  Asiaticus. 
But,  notwithstanding  his  victories  and  disinterest- 
ed conduct,  Cato  the  censor  accused  him  of  hav- 
ing received  money  from  Antiochus,  which  he 
had  not  accounted  for.  This  produced  an 
enquiry,  and  a  prejudiced  judge  decided  against 
Scipio  and  his  two  lieutenants.  But,  upon  con* 
fiscating  his  property,  the  whole  effects  of  Scipio 
did  not  amount  to  near  the  sum  he  was  charged 
with.  His  friends  and  tenants,  in  this  distress, 
made  him  liberal  offers,  which  he  generously 
declined.  He  was  soon  sent  to  settle  the  disputes 
between  Eumenes  and  Seleucus,  which  he  ac- 
complished; and,  on  his  return,  the  Romans, 
ashamed  of  their  former  injustice,  rewarded  his 
merits  with  such  uncommon  liberality,  that 
Asiaticus  was  enabled  to  celebrate  games  in  ho- 
nor of  his  victory  for  ten  successive  days.  He 
died  about  A.  A.  C.  170. 

SCIPIO  (Publius  Cornelius),  jEmilianus,  the 
son  of  Paulus  yEmilius,  the  conqueror  of  Perseus, 
was  adopted  by  his  cousin  Publius  Cornelius 
Scipio,  the  son  of  Scipio  Africanus  and  .Emilia. 
He  first  appeared  in  the  Roman  army  under  his 
father ;  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  legionary 
tribune  in  Spain,  where  he  killed  a  Spanish  giant, 
and  obtained  a  mural  crown  at  the  siege  of  In- 
tercatia.  Soon  after  he  was  made  icdile,  and 
elected  consul,  though  under  the  usual  age  qua- 
lifying for  these  high  offices.  He  was  then  sen 
to  Africa  to  finish  the  third  Punic  war,  which  he 
carried  on  and  completed,  till  he  had  accom- 
plished the  inhuman  decree  of  Cato  and  the 
senate,  by  the  total  destruction  of  that  city 
republic,  and  people,  A.  A.  C.  147.  .'Emilianus 
is  said,  in  the  midst  of  his  victory,  to  have  wept 
over  the  miseries  of  this  unfortunate  people;  it 
had  been  better  had  he  saved  them.  Another 
commission,  equally  horrible  and  bloody,  the 


same  Scipio  was,  a  few  years  after  this,  employ- 
ed by  the  senate  to  execute  upon  the  brave  but 
unfortunate  inhabitants  of  Numantia  in  Spain  ; 
and  which  he  executed  with  equal  success  and 
equal  horrors,  A.  A.  C.  133.  For  these  conquests 
j-Emilianus  was  honored  with  two  triumphs,  and 
the  double  titles  of  Africanus  junior,  and  Nu- 
mantinus.  Yet  his  popularity  was  short.  He 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  people  by  vindi- 
cating the  murder  of  his  cousin  and  brother-in- 
law,  their  favorite,  Tiberius  Gracchus.  He  was 
afterwards  accused  by  his  enemies  of  aspiring  to 
the  dictatorship.  Not  long  after  he  was  found 
strangled  in  his  bed  ;  which  was  said  to  have 
been  done  by  the  triumviri,  PapiriusCarbo,  Caius 
Gracchus,  and  Fulvius  Flaccus,  on  account  of 
his  opposition  to  the  Sempronian  Law  ;  and  bis 
wife  Sempronia  was  accused  of  having  admitted 
the  assassins  into  his  bed  chamber.  This  murder 
was  committed  A.  A.  C.  128. 

SCIPIO  (C.  Cornelius,  Nasica),  was  the  son  of 
Cnaeus  Scipio.  He  was  at  first  refused  the  con- 
sulship, though  supported  by  the  interest  of 
Africanus,  but  afterwards  obtained  it ;  when  he 
was  sent  against  the  Boii,  whom  he  conquered, 
and  was  decreed  a  triumph.  He  was  also  suc- 
cessful in  an  expedition  into  Spain.  It  is  re- 
corded to  his  honor,  that  when  the  image  of  the 
goddess  Cybele  was  brought  from  Phrygia,  the 
senate  decreed,  that  one  of  their  body,  who  was 
most  eminent  for  purity  of  morals,  should  be 
delegated  to  meet  the  goddess  at  Ostia,  and 
Nasica  was  appointed,  as  best  suiting  that  cha- 
racter. Nasica  also  distinguished  himself  as  an 
orator,  and  the  friend  of  persecuted  virtue,  by  his 
zeal  in  confuting  the  invidious  calumnies  invent- 
ed against  his  relations  Africanus  and  Asiaticus. 

SC1RPUS,  in  botany,  rush  grass,  a  genus  of 
the  monogynia  order,  and  triandria  class  of 
plants,  natural  order  third,  calamariae :  glumes 
paleaceous,  and  imbricated  all  round :  COR. 
none,  and  only  one  beardless  seed.  Species 
sixty-seven,  nine  of  which  are  common  in  the 
bogs  and  marshes  of  our  own  country. 

SCI'RRUS,"  n.  s.  Fr.  scirrhe.  This  should 
be  written  skirrhus,  says  Johnson,  not  merely 
because  it  comes  from  mcippo'c,  but  because  c  in 
English  has  before  e  and  i  the  sound  of  *.  See 
SKEPTICK.  An  indurated  gland. 

Any  of  these  three  may  degenerate  into  a  scirrhus, 
and  that  scirrhtu  into  a  cancer.  Witeman. 

How  they  are  to  be  treated  when  they  are  strum- 
ous,  tcirrhous,  or  cancerous,  you  may  see.  Id. 

The  difficulty  of  breathing,  occasioned  by  tchirrho- 
ritiet  of  the  glands,  is  not  to  be  cured. 

Arbuthnt>t  on  Ditt. 

SCIRRHUS,  in  surgery  and  medicine,  is  a  hard 
tumor  of  any  part  of  the  body,  void  of  pain,  and 
exceedingly  apt  to  degenerate  into  cancers.  See 
SURGERY. 

SCIS'SOR,  n.  s.,  or'j      This  word  is  varions- 

SCIS'SORS,  I  ly  written,  as  it  is  sup- 

SCIS'SIBLE,  adj.         I  posed  to  be  derived  by 

SCIS'SILE,  [different    writers;       of 

SCIS'SION,  n.  s.  I  which    some  write  c«- 

SCIS'SVRE.  J  sors,  from  c<e-do  or   in- 

cido ;  others    scissors,   from   scindo ,    and  some 

cisars,    cizars,   or  scissars,   from    Fr.    ciseatu ; 

Thomson  says  Fr.  ciseuux,  from  Lat.  scindo.      A 


S  C  I  U  R  U  S. 


379 


small  pair  of  shears :  scissible  and  scissile  mean 
capable  of  being  cut  by  any  instrument  of  this 
kind  :  scission,  the  act  of  cutting :  scissure,  the 
cut  made. 

His  beard  they  have  singed  off  with  brands  of 

fire; 

And  ever,  as  it  blazed,  they  threw  on  him 
Great  pails  of  puddled  mire  to  quench  the  hair  : 
My  master  preaches  patience  to  him,  and  the  while 
His  man  with  scissors  nicks  him  for  a  fool. 

Shakspeare. 

The  differences  of  impressible  and  not  impressible, 
scissible  and  not  scistible,  and  many  other  passions  of 
matter,  are  plebeian  notions.  Bacon. 

The  breach  seems  like  the  zcissures  and  ruptures  of 
an  earthquake,  and  threatens  to  swallow  all  that  at- 
tempt to  close  it,  and  reserves  its  cure  only  for 
omnipotence.  Decay  of  Piety. 

Wanting  the  scissars,  with  these  hands  I'll  tear, 
If  that  obstruct  my  flight,  this  load  of  hair.    Prior. 

\\  hen  the  lawyers  and  tradesmen  brought  extra- 
vagant bills,  Sir  Roger  wore  a  pair  of  scissars  in  his 
pocket,  with  which  he  would  snip  a  quarter  of  a  yard 
off  nicely.  Arbnthnot. 

Animal  fat  is  a  sort  of  amphibious  substance,  scis- 
lihle  like  a  solid,  and  resolvable  by  heat.  Id. 

IVerves  may  be  wounded  by  scission  or  puncture  : 
the  former  way  they  are  usually  cut  through,  and 
wholly  cease  from  action,  H'iseman't  Surgery. 

SCIURUS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  diandria  class  of  plants  :  CAL. 
quinquedentate  :  coil,  bilabiated  :  the  filaments 
are  barren  :  CAPS,  five,  and  joined  together : 
bivalved,  unilocular,  with  one  seed.  Of  this 
there  is  only  one  species,  viz. 

S.  aromatica,  a  native  of  Guiana. 

SCIURUS,  in  zoologj,  the  squirrel,  a  genus  of 
quadrupeds  belonging  to  the  order  of  glires.  It 
has  two  fore-teeth  in  each  jaw,  the  superior  ones 
shaped  like  wedges,  and  the  inferior  ones  sharp 
pointed.  Some  species  of  this  genus  are  pro- 
vided with  hairy  membranes  extended  from  the 
fore  to  the  hind  legs,  by  which  they  are  enabled 
to  bear  themselves  in  the  air,  when  leaping  from 
one  tree  to  another  ;  from  this  circumstance  the 
genus  is  very  properly  broken,  into  two  subdivi- 
sions, distinguished  by  the  want  or  possession  of 
this  membrane.  The  former  are  called  sciuri 
scandentes,  or  climbing  squirrels;  the  latter 
petauri,  or  flying  squirrels.  Mr.  Kerr  enumerates 
thirty-one  species,  and  twelve  varieties  of  the 
former ;  and  eight  species  with  two  varieties  of 
the  latter.  The  following  are  the  chief: — 

1.  S.  Abyssinicus,  th«  Abyssinian  squirrel,  is 
of  a  rusty  black  color  on  the  back;  the  fore  feet 
and  belly  gray  ;  the  tail  one  foot  and  a  half  long. 
It  inhabits  Abyssinia.     It  is  thrice  the  size  of  the 
common  species  ;  the  nose  and  soles  of  the  feet 
are  flesh-colored.     One  was  purchased  by  The- 
venot  in  Arabia  from  an  Abyssinian.     It  was 
good-natured  and  sportive  ;  eat  of  every  thing  but 
flesh,  and  cracked  the  hardest  almonds. 

2.  S.  EPstuans,  the  Brasilian  squirrel,  is  of  a 
dusky  color,  tinged  with  yellowish  on  the  upper 
part  of  the   body  ;  the   inside    of  the    legs  and 
belly   yellow,  with    a   white    stripe   along  the 
middle  of  the  belly  ;  the  tail  is  round  and  an- 
nulated  with  black  and  yellow.     They  inhabit 
Brasil  and   Guiana.     The   ears  are  plain   and 
roundish,  the  fur  soft,  the  head  and  body  eight 
inches,  the  tail  ten. 


3.  S.  albipes,   the  white-legged  squirrel,  has 
ears  slightly  tufted  with  black  hair ;  the  head, 
upper  parts  of  the  body,  sides,  and  toes,  reddish 
brown  ;  the  under  parts  and  legs  white,  as  well 
as  the  face,  nose,  under  side  of  the  neck,  inside 
of  the  ears,  breast,  belly,  fore  legs,  and  inside  of 
the  hind  thighs;  the  tail  is  long  and  covered  with 
dusky  hair,  much  shorter  than  in  the  common 
species.    They  inhabit  Ceylon. 

4.  S.  anomalus,  the  Georgian  squirrel,  is  of  a 
yellow  color,  mixed  with  dusky  on  the  upper 
parts  and  tail ;  the  under  parts  a  dull  tawny ; 
the  ears  plain  and  rounded,  flame  yellow,  whitish 
within ;  the  circumference  of  the  mouth  is  white ; 
the  tip  of  the  nose  black ;  the  cheeks  tawny ;  the 
whiskers  and  region  of  the  eyes  dusky.     This 
species  is  larger  than  the  common  squirrel ;  they 
inhabit  Georgia  in  Asia. 

5.  S.  bicolar,  the  Javan  squirrel,  has  the  upper 
parts  of  the  body  black,  the  under  tawny ;  the 
thumbs  are  provided  with  large  round  flat  nails ; 
the  ears   are   plain,   hairy,  and  sharp  pointed. 
The  head  and  body  are  about  a  foot  long ;  the 
tail  is  a  foot,  tipt  with  black ;  the  under  parts 
are  light  brown ;  the  hind  feet  black ;  the  claws 
on  the  fore  feet  sharp,  except  the  nail  on  the 
fifth  toe ;  the  thumbs  are  very  short.     They  in- 
habit Java. 

6.  S.  Capensis,  the  Cape  squirrel,  is  of  a  pale 
ferruginous  color  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body, 
mixed  with  black ;  with  a  white  line  from  the 
shoulder,  along  each  side ;  the  tail  is  black  in 
the  middle,  and  hoary  at  the  sides ;  the  ears  are 
scarcely  apparent,  whence   M.  Pennant  calls  it 
the  earless  dormouse.     This  species  never  climbs  ' 
trees,  but  burrows  in  the  ground,  forming  a  warm 
nest,  with  a  round  hole;  in  which  it   lodges, 
closing   up   the   orifice.     It  feeds    on   bulbous 
roots,  especially  potatoes ;  it  is  very  tame,  and 
never  offers  to  bite;  walks  on  its  hind  feet;  often 
lies  flat  on  its  belly,  and  flirts  up  its  tail.     The 
head  is  flat,  with  a  blunt  nose,  full  black  eyes, 
divided  upper  lip,  and  long  whiskers;  the  belly 
and  feet  a  dirty  white ;  there  is  a  white  line 
above  each  eye ;  the  toes  are  long  and  distinct, 
with  a  large  knob  on  each  foot  for  a  thumb  ;  the 
claws  are  long ;  the  hind  legs  black  and  naked 
behind.     It  is  the  size  of  the  common  squirrel, 
but  much  broader  and  flatter.     They  are  found 
near  Mount  Sneeberg,  800  miles  north  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

7.  S.  cinereus,  the  gray  squirrel,  with  plain 
ears ;  hair   of  a   dull  gray   color,   mixed  with 
black,  and  often  tinged  with  dirty  yellow  ;  belly 
and  inside  of  the  legs  white;  tail  long,  bushy, 
gray,   and   striped  with  black;   size   of  a  half 
grown  rabbit.     It  inhabits  the  woods  of  northern 
Asia,  North  America,  Peru,  and  Chili ;  is  very 
numerous  in  North  America,  and  does  incredible 
damage  to  the  plantations  of  maize,  running  up 
the  stalks  and  eating  the  young  ears ;  they  are 
proscribed  by  the  provinces,  and  a  reward  of 
threepence  per  head  given  for  every  one  that  is 
killed.      They  make  their  nests  in  hollow  trees, 
with  moss,  straw,  wool,  &c.,  feed  on  maize  in  the 
season,  and  on  pine-cones,  acorns,  and  mast  of 
all  kinds;  form  holes  undeiground,  and  there 
deposit  a  large  stock  of  winter  piovision ;  de- 
scend  from  the  trees,  and  visit  their  magazines 


380 


S  C  I  U  R  U  S. 


when  in  want  of  meat ;  are  particularly  busy  at 
the  approach  of  bad  weather ;  during  the  cold 
season  keep  in  their  nest  for  several  days  toge- 
ther ;  seldom  leap  from  tree  to  tree,  only  run  up 
and  down  the  bodies ;  their  hordes  are  often  de- 
stroyed by  swine ;  and,  when  their  magazines  are 
covered  with  deep  snow,  the  squirrels  often 
perish  for  want  of  food ;  they  are  not  easily  shot, 
nimbly  changing  their  place  when  they  see  the 
gun  levelled  ;  have  the  actions  of  the  common 
squirrel ;  are  easily  tamed ;  and  their  flesh  is 
esteemed  very  delicate.  Their  furs,  which  are 
imported  under  the  name  of  petit-gris,  are  valu- 
able, and  used  as  linings  to  cloaks. 

8.  S.  erythraeus,  the  ruddy  squirrel,  is  of  a 
yellow  color,  mixed  with  dusky,  on  the  upper 
parts ;   the  under  parts  blood-red   mixed    with 
tawny ;  the  tail  the  same,  with  a  longitudinal 
blackish  stripe;  the  ears  slightly  tufted.     It  is 
larger  than  the  common  squirrel;  the  fore  paws 
have  a  large  protuberance  instead  of  a  thumb. 
They  inhabit  India. 

9.  S.  flavus,  the  fair  squirrel,  with  the  body 
and  tail  of  a  flaxen  color ;  of  a  very  small  size, 
with  plain  round  ears  and  rounded  tail.     Inhabits 
the  woods  near  Amadabad,  the  capital  of  Guze- 
rat,  in  great  abundance,  leaping  from  tree  to  tree. 
Linn6  says  it  is  an  inhabitant  of  Carthagena  in 
South  America. 

10.  S.  Hudsonius,  the  Labradore  squirrel,  is  of 
a  ferruginous  color  along   the  back,  the  sides 
paler,   and   the   belly   ash   color   mottled  with 
black ;  the  tail  is  like  the  back,  but  barred  and 
tipped  with  black;  the  ears   are   plain.     It  is 
smaller  than  the  common  squirrel,  and  apt  to 
vary  in  color  to  a  gray.    They  inhabit  the  pine 
forests  of  Labradore,  and  round  Hudson's  Bay. 

11.  S.  Indicus,  the  Bombay  squirrel,  is  of  a 
dull  purple  color  on  the  head,  back,  sides,  and 
upper  parts  of  the  legs  and  thighs ;  the  belly 
and    lower   parts    yellow ;    the   tail   tipt  with 
orange ;  the  ears  tufted.    The  head  and  body 
are   sixteen   inches    long;    the    tail    seventeen. 
They  inhabit  India,  near  Bombay. 

12.  S.  Madagascarensis,  the  Madagascar 
squirrel,  in  the  slowness  of  its  pace  and  general 
manners  resembles  the  sloth ;  but  in  the  form  of 
its  tail,  the  number  and  form  of  its  toes,  five  on 
each  foot,  and  the  number  and  arrangement  of 
its  teeth,  it  is  more  nearly  allied  to  the  squirrel. 
It  lives  in  holes  under  ground ;  is  slothful,  timid, 
and  sleeps  much;  it  feeds  chiefly  on  worms, 
picked  from  the  hollows  of  trees  by  its  toes. 
The  middle  toe  on  the  fore  feet  is  very  long  and 
naked;  the  thumb  on  the  hind  feet  has  a  flat 
rounded  nail.  The  ears  are  large,  flattened, 
black,  and  covered  thickly  with  rough  hair ;  the 
face  has  two  bunches  of  hair  above  the  eyes,  on 
the  nose  and  cheeks,  and  under  the  chin ;  the 
fur  is  of  two  sorts,  an  under  downy  fleece-like 
wool,  of  a  pale  tawny,  with  longer  straight  black 
hairs  intermixed,  the  face  and  throat  are  of  a  pale 
whitish  tawny  color ;  the  tail  is  flattened,  about 
eighteen  inches  long,  covered  with  thick  set  white 
hair  from  the  base  to  the  middle,  and  the  rest 
black  ;  the  toes  on  the  fore  paws  are  long  ;  four 
of  the  claws  on  the  hind  feet  are  hooked  and 
sharp-pointed.  They  inhabit  the  east  side  of 
Madagascar. 


13.  S.  maximus,  the  Malabar  squirrel,  is  of  a 
red  brown  color  on  the  upper  parts  ;  the  under 
parts  and  tail  black ;  the  ears  lightly  tufted,     it 
is  about  the  size  of  a  large  cat ;  has  small  erect 
ears,  long  hair,  strong  black  claws ;  and  a  small 
protuberance  instead   of  a   thumb  on  the  fore 
paws,  with  a  flat  nail.     Thev  inhabit  the  Malabar 
coast,  and    province   of  Mane   in   India ;  feed 
chiefly  on  the  milk  of  the  cocoa  nut,  and  have  a 
loud  sonorous  voice. 

14.  S.  niger,  the  black  squirrel,  with   plain 
ears  ;  sometimes  wholly  black,  but  often  marked 
with  white  on  the  nose,  the  neck,  or  end  of  the 
tail ;  the  tail  shorter  than  that  of  the  cinereus, 
the  body  equal.     They  inhabit  the  north  of  Asia, 
North  America,  and  Mexico;  breed  and  asso- 
ciate in  separate  troops  ;  are  equally  numerous 
with    the   cinereus,    commit   as    great   ravages 
among  the  maize,  make  their  nests  in  the  same 
manner,  and  form  magazines  for  winter  food. 
The  finest  are  taken  near  the  lake  Baikal,  which 
are  the  best  in  all  Siberia ;  these  continue  black 
the  whole  year,  the  others  grow  rusty  in  sum- 
mer. 

15.  S.  palmarum,  the  palm  squirrel,  is  of  a 
mixed  black  and  red  color,  with  three  longitu- 
dinal yellow  stripes  on  the  back  and  sides;  the 
tail  is  encircled  with  coarse  dirty  yellow  hair, 
and  is  barred  with  black. — Shreber.     This  spe- 
cies inhabit  the  hot  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa  ; 
live  much  on  cocoa  nuts,  and  are  fond  of  the 
sury,  or  palm  wine,  whence  the  Dutch  call  them 
suricatsjie,  or  little  cats  of  the  sury.     They  are 
only  three  inches  long ;  the  tail  is  as  long,  and 
is  carried  erect,  the  ears  are  short,  broad,  and 
fringed  with  hair  -At  the  edges ;  an  obscure  pale 
yellow  stripe  runs  along  the  back,  and  othei  two 
on  each  side.     The  hair  on  the  head,  back,  and 
sides,  is  a  mixed  black  and  red  ;  on  the  thighs 
and  legs  redder;  on  the  belly  pale  yellow. 

16.  S.  petaurus  australis,  the  southern  flying 
squirrel,  is  the  largest  and  most  elegant  of  all  the 
flying  squirrels ;  its  most  remarkable  characteris- 
tic is  the  rounded  thumbs  or  great  toes  of  the 
hind  feet,  which  are  furnished  with  a  flattened 
nail,  while  all  the  other  toes,  five  to  each  foot, 
have  sharp  hooked  claws ;  the  two  toes  next  this 
are  united  by  the  skin,  but  have  separate  claws; 
the  color  is  a  fine  sable,  or  deep  gray-brown,  on 
the  upper  parts,  darkest  on  the  middle  of  the 
back,  and  the  under  parts  are  nearly  white ;  the 
edges  of  the  membrane  are  somewhat  scalloped, 
and  of  a  lighter  color ;  the  fur  is  exquisitely  soft 
and  beautiful ;  the  tail  is  long  and  bushy,  thickly 
clothed  with  very  soft  loose  hair,  longest  towards 
the  outer  end  ;  the  ears  are  longish,  and  there  is 
a  black  streak  over  each  eye.    They  inhabit  New 
South  Wales. 

17.  S.  petaurus  petaurista,  the  Indian  flying 
squirrel,  or  flying  cat,  has  a  tail  longer  than  the 
body,  flattened,  and  very  full  of  long  hair.    This 
species   is   eighteen   inches  long  from  nose  to 
rump ;  the  head  is  rounded ;  the  whiskers  and 
claws  are  black ;  the  female  has  six  teats  on  tho 
breast  and  belly  ;  the  eyes  have  long  narrow  pv 
pils  like  those  of  a  cat.   They  inhabit  the  island* 
of  the  Indian  Ocean.     There  are  two  varieties. 

18.  S.  petaurus  sagitta,  the  arrow  or  Java  fly- 
ing squirrel,  with  a  small  round  head,  cloven 


S  C  I  U  R  U  S. 


381 


upper  lip ;  small  blunt  ears,  two  small  warts  at 
the  utmost  corner  of  each  eye,  with  hairs  grow- 
ing out  of  them :  neck  short :  four  toes  on  the 
fore  feet,  and,  instead  of  a  thumb,  a  slender  bone 
two  inches  and  a  half  long,  lodged  under  the 
lateral  membrane,  serving  to  stretch  it  out : 
thence  to  the  hind  legs  extends  the  membrane, 
which  is  broad,  and  a  continuation  of  the  skin 
of  the  sides  and  belly  :  there  are  five  toes  on  the 
hind  feet ;  and  on  all  the  toes  sharp  compressed 
bent  claws  :  the  tail  is  covered  with  long  hairs 
disposed  horizontally ;  color  of  the  head,  body, 
and  tail,  a  bright  bay,  in  some  parts  inclining  to 
orange :  breast  and  belly  of  a  yellowish-white : 
length,  from  nose  to  tail,  eighteen  inches ;  tail 
fifteen.  They  inhabit  Java,  and  others  of  the 
Indian  islands  :  leap  from  tree  to  tree  as  if  they 
flew,  and  will  catch  hold  of  the  boughs  with  their 
tails.  Niewhoff,  p.  354,  describes  this  under  the 
name  of  the  flying  cat,  and  says  the  back  is  black. 

19.  S.  petaurus  volans,  the  European  flying 
squirrel,  has  round  naked  ears,  full  black  eyes, 
and  a  lateral  membrane  from  the  fore  to  the  hind 
legs :  tail  with  long  hairs  disposed  horizontally, 
longest  in  the  middle ;  its  color  above,  a  brownish 
ash,  beneath,  white  tinged  with  yellow.     They 
are  much  less  than  the  common  squirrel :  inhabit 
Finland,  Lapland,  Poland,  Russia,  and  North 
America;  live  in  hollow  trees;  sleep  in  the  day; 
during  the  night  are  very  lively  ;  are  gregarious, 
numbers  being  found   in  one  tree;   leap  from 
bough  to  bough,  sometimes  at  the  distance  of 
ten  yards.     This   action   has   improperly   been 
called  flying,  but  the  animal  cannot  go  in  any 
other  direction  than  forward ;   and   even   then 
cannot  keep  an  even  line,  but  sinks  considerably 
before  it  can  reach  the  place  it  aims  at :  sensible 
of  this,  the  squirrel  mounts  the  higher  in  propor- 
tion to  the  distance  it  wishes  to  reach  :  when  it 
would  leap,  it  stretches  out  the  fore-legs,  and, 
extending  the  membranes,  becomes  specifically 
lighter  than  it  would  otherwise  be,  and  thus  is 
enabled  to   spring  farther  than  other  squirrels 
that  have  not  this  apparatus.     When  numbeis 
leap  at  a  time,  they  seem  like  leaves  blown  off 
by  the  wind.    Their  food  is  the  same  as  the  other 
squirrels.     They  are  easily  tamed ;   and  bring 
three  or  four  young  at  a  time. 

20.  S.  petaurus  volucella,  the  American  flying 
squirrel,  is  of  a  brownish  color  on  the  upper 
parts  ;  the  belly  white,  tinged  with  yellow;  the 
tail  is  flattened,  broadest  at  the  middle,  and  ends 
in  a  point.     This  species  is  easily  tamed  ;  it  is 
about  five  inches  long  from  nose  to  rump,  with 
a  round  tail  of  four  inches ;  the  head  is  thickish ; 
the  eyes  are  black,  large,  and  prominent;  the 
ears  roundish,  transparent,  almost  naked,  of  a 
brownish   ash  color;   the  whiskers  black,   and 
longer  than  the  head  ;  the  neck  is  short.     The 
fur  is  very  fine  and  soft,  of  an  ash  color,  with 
white  tips  on  the  upper  parts ;  on  the  lower, 
white  and  ash  all  around.     The  membrane  ex- 
tends from  the  ears  to  the  fore  and  hind  legs, 
adhering  as  far  as  to  the  toes ;  it  includes  a  pecu- 
liar bone  which  is  attached  to  the  wrist,  and 
helps  to  stretch  it  out  in  flying ;  on  the  hind  legs 
it  extends  to  the  ancles.     By  this  membrane  the 
animal  supports  itself  in  the  air,  as  if  flying,  for 
a  considerable  way ;  and  it  swims  nearly  in  the 


same  manner.  This  species  inhabit  the  tempe- 
rate and  warm  parts  of  North  America,  living  in 
societies  in  the  woods,  and  feeding  on  fruits  and. 
seeds,  which  they  procure  in  the  evening,  as  they 
sleep  much  during  the  day. 

21.  S.striatus,  the  ground-squirrel,  with  plain 
ears ;  ridge  of  the  back   marked  with  a  black 
streak;    each   side   with   a   pale  yellow  stripe, 
bounded  above  and  below  with  a  line  of  black  : 
head,  body,  and  tail,  of  a  reddish  brown ;  the 
tail  the  darkest ;  breast  and  belly  white ;  nose 
and  feet  pale  red ;  eyes  full.     They  inhabit  the 
north  of  Asia,  but  are  found  most  numerous  in 
the  forests  of  North  America.     They  never  run 
up  trees  except  they  are  pursued,  and  find  no 
other  means  of  escaping ;  they  burrow  and  form 
their  habitations   under  ground,   with  two  en- 
trances, that  they  may  get  access  to  the  one  in 
case  the  other  is  stopped  up.    Their  retreats  are 
formed  with  great  skill,  in  form  of  a  long  gallery, 
with  branches  on  each  side,  each  of  which  ter- 
minates in  an  enlarged  chamber,  as  a  magazine 
to  store  their  winter  provisions  in ;  in  one  they 
lodge  the  acorns,  in  another  the  maize,  in  a  third 
the  hickory  nuts,  and  in  the  last  their  favorite 
food  the  chinquapin  chestnut.   They  very  seldom 
stir  out  during  winter,  as  long  as  their  provisions 
last ;  but,  if  these  fail,  they  will  dig  into  cellars 
where  apples  are  kept,  or  barns  where  maize  is 
stored,  and  do  a  great  deal  of  mischief;  but  at 
that  time  the  cat  destroys  great  numbers,  and  is 
as  great  an  enemy  to  them  as  to  mice.     During 
the  maize  harvest  they  are  very  busy  in  biting 
off  the  ears,  and  filling  their  mouths  so  full  with 
the  corn  that  their  cheeks  are  quite  distended. 
They  give  great  preference  to  certain  food ;  for  if, 
after  filling  their  mouths  with  rye,  they  happen 
to  meet  with  wheat,  they  fling  away  the  first, 
that  they  may  indulge  in  the  last.   They  are  very 
wild,  bite  severely,  and  are  scarcely  ever  tamed ; 
the  skins  are  of  little  use,  but  are  sometimes 
brought  over  to  line  cloaks. 

22.  S.  vulgaris,  the  common  squirrel,  has  ears 
terminated  with  long  tufts  of  hair ;  large,  lively, 
black  eyes ;  head,  body,  legs,  and  tail,  of  a  bright 
reddish  brown ;  breast  and  belly  white  ;  hair  on 
each  side  the  tail  lies  flat.     In  Sweden  and  Lap- 
land it  changes,  in  winter,  into  gray.     In  Russia 
it  is  sometimes  found  black.     In  many  parts  of 
England  there  is  a  beautiful  variety,  with  milk- 
white  tails.     This  species  inhabit  Europe  and 
North  America,  the  northern  and  the  temperate 
parts  of  Asia :  and  a  variety  is  even  found  as  far 
south  as  the  isle  of  Ceylon.    It  is  a  lively,  active 
animal ;  lives  always  in  woods :  in  the  spring, 
the  female  is  seen  pursued  from  tree  to  tree  by 
the  males,  feigning  an  escape  from  their  em- 
braces ;  makes  its  nest  of  moss  and  dried  leaves 
between  the  fork  of  two  branches  ;  brings  from 
three  to  seven  young  at  a  time ;  has  two  holes  to 
its  nest;  stops  up  that  on  the  side  the  wind  blows, 
which  was  remarked  by  Pliny ;  lays  in  a  hoard 
of  winter  provision,  such  as  nuts,  acorns,  &c. ; 
in  summer,  feeds  on  buds  and  young  shoots  ;  is 
particularly  fond  of  those  of  fir,  and  the  young 
cones ;  sits  up  to  eat,  and  uses  its  fore-feet  as 
hands  ;  covers  itself  with  its  tail ;  leaps  to  a  sur- 
prising distance;  when  disposed  to  cross  a  river, 
a  piece  of  wood  often  serves  as  its  boat,  its  tail 


SCL 


382 


SCL 


forming  the  sail.  Boys  frequently  nurse  this 
beautiful  and  active  animal  under  cats.  'There 
are  three  creatures,  the  squirrel,  the  field-mouse, 
and  the  bird  called  the  nuthatch,  which  live 
much  on  hazel  nuts ;  and  yet  they  open  them 
eac  h  in  a  different  way.  The  first,  after  rasping 
off  the  small  end,  splits  the  shell  in  two  with  his 
long  fore  feet,  as  a  man  does  with  his  knife  ;  the 
second  nibbles  a  hole  with  his  teeth,  as  regular 
as  if  drilled  with  a  wimble,  and  yet  so  small  that 
one  would  wonder  how  the  kernel  can  be  ex- 
tracted through  it :  while  the  last  pecks  an  ir- 
regular ragged  hole  with  its  bill ;  but  as  this  artist 
has  no  paws  to  hold  the  nut  firm  while  he  pierces 
it,  like  an  adroit  workman  he  fixes  it,  as  it  were  in 
a  vice,  in  some  cleft  of  a  tree,  or  in  some  crevice, 
when,  standing  over  it,  he  perforates  the  stubborn 
shell.'— White's  Selborne.  They  are  preyed  on 
by  martins  and  other  animals  of  the  mustela  and 
viverra  tribes :  also  by  serpents  and  birds  of  prey. 
Mr.  Kerr  describes  six  varieties. 

23.  S.  vulpinus,  the  vulpine  or  fox  squirrel, 
of  the  planter,  is  of  a  large  size,  and  ruddy 
color,  mixed  with  black  and  dirty  white,  and  has 
plain  ears.  It  inhabits  Virginia,  and  is  the  size 
of  a  small  rabbit.  The  fur  is  coarse ;  the  throat 
and  insides  of  the  thighs  and  legs  are  black  ;  the 
tail  is  shorter  than  that  of  the  common  squirrel ; 
and  of  a  dull  yellow  color,  mixed  with  black 
and  reddish  at  the  tip,  as  are  also  the  ears. 

SCLAVI,  or  SLAV i,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Sclavonia  or  Slavonia.  This  name  originally 
signified  illustrious. 

SCLAVONIA,  a  province  in  the  south  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  which,  in  official  documents, 
bears  the  title  of  the  kingdom  of  Sclavonia.  It 
is  long  and  narrow,  the  Drave  and  Danube  run- 
ning along  its  northern  frontiers,  and  separating 
it  from  Hungary ;  while  the  Save,  also  a  great 
river,  extends  along  its  southern  confines,  divid- 
ing it  from  Turkey.  Its  area  is  about  6600  square 
miles ;  population  about  530,000.  It  lies  be- 
tween 45°  and  46°  of  N.  lat.;  and,  being  a 
frontier  province,  its  inhabitants  are  exempt  from 
taxes,  but  subject  (see  the  article  HUNGARY)  to 
military  duty.  The  mountainous  tracks  are  bar- 
ren in  dry  years,  and  in  the  low  "grounds  there 
are  many  districts  too  marshy  for  cultivation ; 
but  the  greatest  part  of  the  country  produces 
wheat,  barley,  maize,  flax,  hemp,  and  madder. 
The  fruits  are  chestnuts,  plums,  and  vines ;  also 
figs,  almonds,  and  other  products  of  a  warm 
climate.  The  forests  contain  the  finest  oak. 
Domestic  animals  are  reared  with  little  care,  and 
vast  numbers  of  hogs  are  found  in  the  woods. 
Of  wild  animals,  the  bear,  the  wolf,  the  fox,  the 
polecat,  and  the  vulture  are  common.  Equal 
mischief  is  experienced  from  insects,  which  mul- 
tiply surprisingly  in  the  heats  of  summer,  and  it 
sometimes  happens  that  a  continuance  of  south- 
erly winds  brings  a  swarm  of  locusts  from  Tur- 
key. The  mineral  treasures  of  Sclavonia  have 
not  been  explored.  The  only  minerals  known  to 
exist  in  large  quantities  are  salt,  limestone,  sul- 
phur and  coal.  The  manufactures  are  insigni- 
ficant. 

Sclavonia  formed  part  of  the  ancient  Illyria, 
and  derives  its  present  name  from  a  tribe  of 
Sclavi  or  Slavi,  wlm  settled  here  in  the  sixth 


century.  Then  the  Venetians,  having  acquired 
possession  of  Dalmatia,  extended  their  conquests 
hither.  It  remained  alternately  subject  to  them 
and  to  the  Hungarians,  until  overrun  by  the 
Turks,  in  whose  possession  it  continued  about 
170  years. 

SCLERANTHUS,  in  botany,  German  knot- 
grass, or  Knawel,  a  genus  of  the  digynia  order, 
and  dodecandria  class  of  plants ;  natural  order 
twenty-second,  caryophylleifi :  CAL.  monophyl- 
lous:  COR.  none:  there  are  two  SEEDS  contained 
in  the  calyx  ;  species  three,  natives  of  this 
country. 

SCLERIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  tetran- 
dria  order,  and  monoecia  class  of  plants  ;  natural 
order  fourth,  gramina  :  CAL.  a  gluma,  with  from 
two  to  six  valves;  the  flowers  are  numerous; 
the  SEEDS  a  sort  of  nut,  small,  oblong,  and  shin- 
ing. There  are  six  species,  all  natives  of  the 
West  Indies. 

SCLEROTIC,  adj.  Fr.  sclerotique  ;  Gr. 
<TK\i)poc.  Hard ;  an  epithet  of  one  of  the 
coats  of  the  eye. 

The  ligaments  observed  in  the  inside  of  the  scle* 
rotick  tunicles  of  the  eye,  seive  instead  of  a  muscle, 
by  their  contraction,  to  alter  the  figure  of  the  eve. 
Ray  on  the  Creation. 

SCOFF,  v.  n.  &  n.  s.  i        Belgic     schoppen  ; 

SCOFF'ING,  n.  s.  >Goth.s£uip.     To  treat 

SCOFF'IXGLY,  adv.  J  with  insolent  ridicule, 
or  contumelious  language,  with  at :  the  noun- 
substantive  and  adjective  corresponding. 

With  scarf's  and  scorns,  and  contumelious  taunts, 
In  open  market-place  produced  they  me. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  VI. 

Sell  when  you  can  ;  you  are  not  for  all  markets  : 
Cry  the  man  mercy,  love  him,  take  his  offer  ; 
Foul  is  the  most  foul,  being  found  to  be  a  scoffer. 

Shakspeare. 

Of  two  noblemen  of  the  west  of  England,  the 
one  was  given  to  scoff,  but  kept  ever  royal  cheer  in 
his  house ;  the  other  would  ask  of  those  that  had 
been  at  his  table,  Tell  truly,  was  there  never  a  flout 
or  dry  blow  given  ?  Bacon . 

There  is  no  greater  argument  of  a  light  and  incon- 
siderate person,  than  prophanely  to  tcoff  at  religion. 

Tillotson. 

Our  answer,  therefore,  to  their  reasons  is  No  ;  to 
their  scoffs,  nothing.  Holder. 

Consider  what  the  apostle  tells  these  tcoffers  they 
were  ignorant  of ;  not  that  there  was  a  deluge,  but 
he  tells  them  that  they  were  ignorant  that  the  heavens 
and  the  earth  of  old  were  so  and  so  constituted. 

Burnet't  Theo,y  of  the  Earth. 

How  could  men  surrender  up  their  reason  to  flat- 
tery, more  abusive  and  reproachful  than  the  rudest 
Ktiffls,  and  the  sharpest  invectives?  South. 

Such  is  love. 

And  such  the  laws  of  this  fantastic  empire, 
The  wanton  boy  delights  to  bend  the  mighty, 
And  ico/sat  the  vain  wisdom  of  the  wise.     Rou-e. 

Divers  have  hoarded  themselves  among  these  pro- 
fane icofen,  not  that  they  are  convinced  by  their  rea- 
sons, but  terrified  by  their  contumelies. 

Government  of  the  Tongue. 

Aristotle  applied  this  hemistick  scojfingly  to  the  sy- 
cophants at  Athens.  Broome. 

Some  little  souls,  that  have  got  a  smattering  of  as- 
tronomy or  chemistry  for  want  of  a  due  acquaint- 
ance with  other  sciences,  make  a  scoff"  at  them  all,  in 
comparison  of  the'.r  favourite  science  Watt*. 


SCOLOPAX. 


383 


SCOLD,  v.  n.  &  H.S.  Saxon  rcyh>;  Belgic 
scholden.  To  quarrel  clamorously  and  rudely  ; 
rate  with  the  tongue;  a  scold  is  a  skilful,  or 
properly  a  practised  person  in  the  use  of  that 
weapon. 

Pardon  me,  'tis  the  time  that  ever 
I'm  forced  to  scold.  Shakspeare.   Coriolamu. 

They  attacked  me,  some  with  piteous  moans, 
others  grinning,  and  only  shewing  their  teeth,  others 
ranting,  and  others  scolding  and  reviling. 

Stillingfle".t. 

Sun-burnt  matrons  mending-  old  nets  ; 
Now  singing  shrill,  and  scolding  oft  between  ; 
Scolds  answer  foul-mouthed  scolds.  Su-ift. 

For  gods,  we  are  by  Homer  told, 
Can  in  celestial  language  scold.  Id. 

A  shrew  in  domestick  life  is  now  become  a  tcold  in 
politicks.  Addison's  Freeholder. 

SCOLOPAX,  in  ornithology,  a  genus  of  birds 
belonging  to  the  order  of  grallae.  The  back  is 
cylindrical,  obtuse,  and  longer  than  the  head  ; 
the  nostrils  are  linear :  the  face  is  covered ;  and 
the  feet  have  four  toes.  There  are  numerous 
species,  of  which  the  following  are  a  selection  : 

1.  S.  aegocephala,  the  godwit,  weighs  twelve 
ounces  and  a  half,  the  length  is  sixteen  inches  ; 
the  breadth  twenty-seven ;  the  bill  is  four  inches 
long,  turns  up  a  little,  black  at  the  end,  the  rest 
a  pale  purple ;  from  the  bill  to  the  eye  is  a  broad 
white  stroke  ;  the  feathers  of  the  head,  neck,  and 
back,  are  of  a  light  reddish  brown,  marked  in 
the  middle  with  a  dusky  spot;    the  belly  and 
vent  feathers  white,  the  tail  regularly  barred  with 
black  and  white.     The  six  first  quill-feathers  are 
black ;  their  interior  edges  of  a  reddish  brown ; 
the  legs  in  some  are  dusky,  in  others  of  a  grayish 
blue,  which  perhaps  may  be  owing  to  different 
edges ;  the  exterior  toe  is  connected  as  far  as  the 
first  joint  of  the  middle  toe  with  a  strong  ser- 
rated   membrane.      The   male   is  distinguished 
from    the   female   by  some   black  lines  on  the 
breast  and  throat.     These  birds  are  taken  in  the 
fens,  in  the  same  season  and  in  the  same  manner 
with  the  ruffs  and   reeves  (see  TKINGA);   and 
when  fattened  are  esteemed  a  great  delicacy,  and 
sell   for  2s.  6rf.  or  5s.  a  piece.     A  stale  of  the 
same  species  is  placed  in  the  net.     They  appear 
in  small  flocks  on  our  coast  in  September,  and 
continue  with  us  the  whole  winter  ;  they  walk  on 
the  open  sands  like  the  curlew,  and  feed  on  insects. 

2.  S.  arquata,  the  curlew,  frequents  our  sea- 
coasts  and  marshes   in  winter,  in  large  flocks, 
walking 'on  the  open  sands  ;    feeding  on  shells, 
frogs,  crabs,  and  other  marine  insects.     In  sum- 
mer they  retire  to  the  mountainous  and  unfre- 
quented parts  of  the  country,  where  they  pair 
and  breed.     Their  eggs  are  of  a  pale  olive  color, 
marked  with  irregular  but  distinct  spots  of  pale 
brown.     Their  flesh  is  very  rank  and  fishy  ;  they 
differ  much  in  weight  and  size ;    some  weighing 
thirty-seven  ounces,  others  not  twenty-two :  the 
length  of  the  largest  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  twenty- 
rive  inches ;  the  breadth  three  feet  five  inches ; 
the  bill  is  seven  inches  long :    the   head,  neck, 
and  coverts  of  the  wings,  are  of  a  pale  brown ; 
the  middle  of  each  feather  black  ;  the  breast  and 
belly  white,  marked  with  narrow  oblong  black 
lines  :  the  back  is  white,  spotted  with  a  few  black 
strokes  :   the   quill  feathers  are  black,  but  the 
inner  webs  spotted  with  white ;  the  tail  is  white, 
tinged   with   red,   and   beautifully  bam fl    v.  i'l. 


black ;  the  legs  are  long,  strong,  and  of  a  bluish 
gray  color :  the  bottoms  of  the  toes  flat  and 
broad,  to  enable  it  to  walk  on  the  soft  mud  in 
search  of  food. 

3.  S.  calidris,  the  red-shank,  is  found  on  most 
of  our  shores  ;    in  the  winter  time  it  conceals  it- 
self in  the  gutters,  and  is  generally  found  single, 
or  at  most  in  pairs.     It  breeds  in  the  fens  and 
maishes,  and  flies  round  its  nest  when  disturbed, 
making  a  noise  like  a  lapwing.     It   lays    four 
eggs,  whitish  tinged  with  olive,  marked  with  ir- 
regular spots  of  black  chiefly  on  the  thicker  end. 
It  weighs  five  ounces  and  a  half:    the  length  is 
twelve  inches,  the  breadth  twenty-one ;  the  bill 
nearly  two  inches  long,  red  at  the  base,  black  to- 
wards the  point.     The  head,  hind  part  of  the 
neck,  and  scapulars,  are  of  a  dusky  ash-color, 
obscurely  spotted  with  black ;  the  back  is  white, 
sprinkled  with  black  spots;    the  tail  elegantly 
barred  with  black  and  white ;   the  cheeks,  under 
side  of  the  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the  breast 
are  white,  streaked  downward  with  dusky  lines ; 
the  belly  white ;  the  exterior  webs  of  the  quill- 
feathers  are  dusky ;  the  legs  long,  and  of  a  fine 
bright  orange  color ;    the  utmost  toe  connected 
to  the  middle  toe  by  a  small  membrane ;    the 
inmost  by  another  still  smaller. 

4.  S.  gallinago,  the  common  snipe,  the  length 
to  the  end  of  the  tail  is  nearly  twelve  inches ;  the 
breadth  about  fourteen ;  the  bill  is  three  inches 
long,  of  a  dusky  color,  flat  at  the  end,  and  often 
rough  like  shagreen  above  and  below.     The  head 
is  divided  lengthways  with  two  black  lines,  and 
three  red,  one  of  the  last  passing  over  the  mid- 
dle of  the  head,  and  one  above  each  eye :    be- 
tween the  bill  and  the  eyes  is  a  dusky  line ;  the 
chin  is  white ;    the  neck  is  varied  with  brown 
and  red.     The  scapulars  are  beautifully  striped 
lengthways  with  black  and  yellow ;    the  quill- 
feathers  are  dusky ;  but  the  edge  of  the  first  is 
white,  as  are  the  tips  of  the  secondary  feathers : 
the  quill-feathers  next  the  back  are  barred  with 
black  and   ^ale  red  ;  the  breast  and   belly  are 
white ;  the  coverts  of  the  tail  are  long,  and  al- 
most cover  it ;    they  are  of  a  reddish-brown  co- 
lor.    The  tail  consists  of'fourteen  feathers,  black 
on  their  lower  part,  then  crossed  with  a  broad 
bar  of  deep  orange,  another  narrow  one  of  black ; 
and  the  ends  white  or  pale  orange.     The  legs 
pale  green  ;  the  toes  divided  to  their  origin.     In 
the  winter  time  snipes  are  very  frequent  in  all 
marshy  and   wet  grounds,  where  they   lie  con- 
cealed in  the  rushes,  &c.     In  summer  they  dis- 
perse to  different  parts,  and  are  found   in  the 
midst  of  the  highest  mountains  as  well  as  of  the 
low  moors ;    their  nest  is  made  of  dried  grass ; 
they  lay  four  eggs  of  a  dirty  olive  color,  marked 
with  dusky    spots.      When   they  are   disturbed 
much,  particularly  in  the  breeding  season,  they 
soar  to  a  vast  height,  making  a  singular  bleating 
noise  ;  and,  when  they  descend,  dart  down  with 
vast  rapidity :  it  is  also  amusing  to  observe  the 
cock,  while  his  mate  sits  on  her  eggs,  poise  him- 
self on  her  wings,  making  sometimes  a  whistling 
and  sometimes  a  drumming  noise.     Their  food 
is  the  same  with   that  of  the  woodcock  ;    their 
flight  very  irregular  and  swift,  and  attended  with 
a  shrill  scream.    These  birds  are  found  in  every 
quarter  of  the  glol>e,  and  in  very  various  cli- 
mates. 


SCO 


384 


SCO 


5.  S.  glottis,  the  greenshank,  is  in  length  to  the 
end  of  the  tail  fourteen  inches ;    to  that  of  the 
toes  twenty  ;  its  breath  twenty-fire.     The  bill  is 
two  inches  and  a  half  long ;  the  upper  mandible 
black,  straight,  and  very  slender ;   the  lower  re- 
flects a  little  upwards  ;  the  head  and  upper  part 
of  the  neck  are  ash-colored,  marked  with  small 
dusky  lines  pointing  down ;  over  each  passes  a 
white  line ;  the  coverts,  the  scapulars,  and  upper 
part  of  the  back,  are  of  a  brownish  ash-color ; 
the   quill-feathers   dusky,   but  the   inner  webs 
speckled  with  white  ;    the  breast,  belly,  thighs, 
and  lower  part  of  the  back,  are  white;  the  tail 
is  white,  marked  with  undulated  dusky  bars : 
the  inner  coverts  of  the  wings  finely  crossed  with 

•  double  and  treble  rows  of  a  dusky  color.  It  is 
a  bird  of  an  elegant  shape,  and  small  weight  in 
proportion  to  its  dimensions,  weighing  only  six 
ounces.  The  legs  are  very  long  and  slendw, 
and  bare  two  inches  above  the  knees.  The  ex- 
terior toe  is  united  to  the  middle  toe,  as  far  as 
the  second  joint,  by  a  strong  membrane  which 
borders  their  sides  to  the  very  end. — These 
birds  appear  on  the  English  coast  and  wet 
grounds  in  the  winter  time  in  but  small  num- 
bers. 

6.  S.  rusticola,  the  woodcock,  during  summer 
inhabits  the  Alps  of  Norway,  Sweden,  Polish 
Prussia,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  :  they 
all  retire  from  those  countries  the  beginning  of 
winter,  as  soon  as  the  frosts  commence ;  which 
force  them  into  milder  climates,  where  the  ground 
is  open,  and  adapted  to  their  manner  of  feeding. 
They  live  on  worms  and   insects,  which  they 
search  for  with  their  long  bills  in  soft  grounds 
and  moist  woods. — Woodcocks  generally  arrive 
here   in  flocks,  taking   advantage  of  the  night 
or  a  mist :  they  soon  separate ;   but,  before  they 
return  to  their  native  haunts,  pair.     They  feed 
and    fly   by   night ;   beginning    their    flight   in 
the  evening,  and  return  the  same  way  to  their 
day  retreat.     They   leave  England  in  the  end 
of  February   or    beginning  of  March;   though 
they  sometimes  continue   longer.    These   birds 
appear  in  Scotland  first  on  the  eastern  coasts, 
and   make   their  progress    from   east  to  west. 
Our  species  of  woodcock  is  unknown  in  North 
America :  but  a  kind  is  found  that  has  the  ge- 
neral appearance  of  it ;  but  is  scarcely  half  the 

•size,  and  wants  the  bars  on  the  breast  and  belly. 
The  length  nearly  fourteen  inches ;  and  the 
breadth  twenty-six ;  the  bill  is  three  inches 
long,  dusky  towards  the  end,  reddish  at  the 
base ;  tongue  slender,  long,  sharp,  and  hard 
at  the  point ;  the  eyes  large,  and  placed  near 
the  top  of  the  head,  that  they  may  not  be 
injured  when  the  birds  thrusts  its  bill  into  the 
ground  ;  from  the  bill  to  the  eyes  is  a  black  line; 
the  forehead  is  a  reddish  ash-color  ;  the  crown  of 
the  head,  the  hind  part  of  the  neck,  the  back, 
the  covert  of  the  wings,  and  the  scapulars,  are 
prettily  barred  with  a  ferruginous  red,  black,  and 
gray  ;  but  on  the  head  the  black  predominates  : 
the  quill  feathers  are  dusky,  indented  with  red 
itnjks.  The  chin  is  of  a  pale  yellow  ;  the  whole 
under  side  of  the  body  is  of  a  dirty  white, 
marked  with  numerous  transverse  lines  of  a 
dusky  color.  The  tail  consists  of  twelve  fea- 
thers, dusky  or  'ilack  on  the  one  web,  and  marked 


with  red  on  the  other ;  the  tips  above  am  ash- 
colored,  below  white.  The  legs  and  toes  am 
livid;  the  latter  divided  almost  to  their  very 
origin,  having  only  a  very  small  web  between  the 
middle  and  interior  toes ;  as  those  of  the  two 
species  of  snipes  found  in  England. 

SCOLOPENDRA,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  in- 
sects belonging  to  the  order  of  aptera.  The  feet 
are  very  numerous,  being  as  many  on  each  side  as 
there  are  joints  in  the  body  ;  the  antennae  are  se- 
taceous :  there  are  two  jointed  pappi,  and  the 
body  is  depressed. — These  insects  are  very  for- 
midable and  noxious  in  the  warm  countries, 
where  they  grow  to  the  length  of  a  quarter  of  a 
yard  or  more,  though  in  this  climate  they  seldom 
grow  above  an  inch  long.  The  scolopendra  is 
also  called  the  centipes  from  its  number  of  feet. 
In  the  East  Indies  it  grows  to  six  inches  in 
length,  and  as  thick  as  a  man's  finger :  it  con- 
sists of  many  joints ;  and  from  each  joint  pro- 
ceeds a  leg  on  each  side  :  they  are  covered  with 
hair,  and  seem  to  have  no  eyes  ;  but  there  are 
two  feelers  on  the  head,  with  which  they  find 
out  the  way  they  are  to  pass  :  the  head  is  very 
round,  with  two  small  sharp  teeth,  with  which 
they  inflict  wounds  that  are  very  painful  and 
dangerous.  Some  of  the  species  live  in  holes  in 
the  earth ;  others  under  stones,  and  among  rotten 
wood  ;  so  that  the  removing  of  these  is  exceed- 
ingly dangerous  in  the  countries  where  the  scolo- 
pendrae  breed.  The  scolopendra  forficata  is  the 
largest  in  this  country,  of  a  dun  color,  smooth, 
and  composed  of  nine  scaly  segments,  without 
reckoning  the  head.  The  feet  are  fifteen  in  num- 
ber on  each  side,  and  the  last  longer  than  the 
rest,  and  turned  backwards,  form  a  kind  of  forky 
tail.  The  antennae  are  twice  the  length  of  the 
head,  and  consist  of  forty-two  short  segments. 
The  insect's  progressive  motion  is  very  quick,  and 
sometimes  serpentine.  It  is  found  under  stones 
on  the  ground,  under  flower-pots  and  garden 
boxes. 

SCOLYMUS,  in  botany,  golden  thistle;  a 
genus  of  the  polygamia  aequalis  order,  and  syn- 
genesia  class  of  plants ;  natural  order  forty-ninth, 
compositae :  receptacle  paleaceous  :  CAL.  imbri- 
cated and  prickly,  without  any  pappus.  Species 
three,  natives  of  Barbary  and  the  United  States 
of  Europe.  ^ 

SCOMBER,  the  mackerel,  in  ichthyology,  a 
genus  belonging  to  the  order  of  thoracici.  The 
head  is  smooth  and  compressed,  and  there  are 
seven  rays  in  the  gill  membrane.  There  are 
twenty-two  species ;  the  most  remarkable  are  the 
following  : — 

1.  S.  communis,  the  common  mackerel,  a 
summer  fish  of  passage  that  visits  our  shores  in 
vast  shoals.  It  is  less  useful  than  other  species 
of  gregarious  fish,  being  very  tender,  and  unfit 
for  carriage  ;  but  it  may  be  preserved  by  pickling 
and  salting.  See  FISHERY.  It  was  greatly  es- 
teemed by  the  Romans,  because  it  furnished  the 
garum,  a  sort  of  pickle  that  gave  a  high  relish  to 
their  sauces ;  and  was  also  used  medicinally. 
This  fish  is  easily  taken  by  a  bait ;  but  the  best 
time  is  during  a  fresh  gale  of  wind,  which  is 
thence  called  a  mackerel  gale.  In  the  spring 
the  eyes  of  mackerel  are  almost  covered  with  a 
white  film ;  during  which  period  they  are  half 


blind.  This  film  grows  in  winter,  and  is  cast 
the  beginning  of  summer.  It  is  not  often  that  a 
mackerel  exceeds  two  pounds  in  weight,  yet 
there  have  been  instances  of  some  that  weighed 
upwards  of  five.  The  nose  is  taper  and  sharp 
pointed ;  the  eyes  large ;  the  jaws  of  an  equal 
length  ;  the  teeth  small,  but  numerous.  The 
form  of  this  fish  is  very  elegant.  The  body  is  a 
little  compressed  on  the  sides  :  towards  the  tail 
it  grows  very  slender,  and  a  little  angular.  It  is 
a  most  beautiful  fish  when  alive  ;  nothing  can 
equal  the  brilliancy  of  its  color,  which  death  im- 
pairs, but  does  not  wholly  obliterate. 

2.  S.  thunnus,  the  tunny.  These  fish  are 
caught  in  nets,  and  amazing  quantities  are  taken  ; 
for  they  come  in  vast  shoals,  keeping  along  the 
shores.  They  frequent  our  coasts,  but  not  in 
shoals,  like  the  tunnies  of  the  Mediterranean. 
They  are  not  uncommon  in  the  lochs  on  the 
west  coast  of  Scotland  ;  where  they  come  in 
pursuit  of  herrings ;  and  often  during  night 
strike  into  the  nets,  and  do  considerable  damage. 
When  the  fishermen  draw  them  up  in  the  morn- 
ing, the  tunny  rises  at  the  same  time  towards  the 
surface,  ready  to  catch  the  fish  that  drop  out. 
On  perceiving  it,  a  strong  hook,  baited  with  a 
herring  and  fastened  to  a  rope,  is  instantly  flung 
out,  which  the  tunny  seldom  fails  to  take.  As 
soon  as  hooked  it  loses  all  spirit ;  and  after  a 
very  little  resistance  submits  to  its  fate.  It  is 
dratted  to  the  shore  and  cut  up,  either  to  be 
sold  fresh  to  people  who  carry  it  to  the  country 
markets,  or  preserved  salted  in  large  casks.  The 
pieces,  when  fresh,  look  exactly  like  raw  beef; 
but  when  boiled  turn  pale,  and  have  something 
of  the  flavor  of  salmon.  One  mentioned  by  Mr. 
Pennant  weighed  460lbs.  The  fish  was  seven 
feet  ten  inches  long :  the  greatest  circumference 
five  feet  seven ;  the  least  near  the  tail  one  foot 
six.  The  body  was  round  and  thick,  and  grew 
suddenly  very  slender  towards  the  tail,  and  near 
that  part  was  angular.  The  irides  were  of  a 
plain  green;  the  teeth  very  minute.  The  tail 
was  in  form  of  a  crescent;  and  two  feet  seven 
inches  between  tip  and  tip.  The  skin  on  the 
back  was  smooth,  very  thick,  and  black.  On 
the  belly  the  scales  were  visible.  The  color  of 
the  sides  and  belly  was  silvery,  tinged  with  caeru- 
lean  and  pale  purple :  near  the  tail  marbled  with 
gray.  On  the  coast  of  Scotland  they  are  called 
mackrelsture ;  mackrel,  from  being  of  that  genus  ; 
and  sture,  from  the  Danish  stor,  great. 

SCOMM,  n.  s.  From  Lat.  scomma.  A  buf- 
foon. A  word  well  out  of  use. 

The  scomms,  or  buffoons  of  quality  are  wolvish  in 
conversation.  L'Estrange. 

SCONCE,  n.s.  Teut.  schantz;  Goth:  skyu, 
to  cover.  A  fort;  bulwark;  wall  protection;  a 
•candlestick  for  a  wall. 

Such  fellows  are  perfect  in  the  great  commanders' 
names,  and  they  will  learn  you  by  rote  where  ser- 
vices were  done  ;  at  such  and  such  a  sconce,  at  such 
a  breach.  Shakspeare.  Henry  V. 

\Vhy  does  he  suffer  this  rude  knave  now  to  knock 
him  about  the  sconce  with  a  dirty  shovel,  and  will 
not  tell  him  of  this  action  of  battery  1  Id.  Hamlet. 

Golden  tcwices  hang  upon  the  walls, 
To  light  the  costly  suppers  and  the  balls. 

Drwlen's  Luc. 
VOL.  XIX,— PART  2. 


SCO 

Triumphant  Umbriel,  on  a  sconce's  height. 
Clapped  his  glad  wings,  and  sat  to  view  the  fight. 

Pope. 
Put  candles  into  sconces. 

Swift's  Directions  to  the  Butler. 

SCONE,  or  SCOON,  an  ancient  town  of  Scot- 
land, in  Perthshire,  remarkable  for  being  the 
place  where  the  kings  were  anciently  crowned. 
Here  was  once  an  abbey  of  great  antiquity,  which 
was  burnt  by  the  reformers  at  Dundee.  Kenneth 
II.  upon  his  conquest  of  the  Picts  in  the  ninth 
century,  having  made  Scone  his  principal  resi- 
dence, delivered  his  laws,  called  the  Macalpine 
laws,  from  a  tumulus  named  the  Mote  Hill  of 
Scone.  The  old  palace  was  begun  by  the  earl  of 
Gowrie  ;  but  was  completed  by  Sir  David  Mur- 
ray of  Gospatric,  the  favorite  of  king  James  VI., 
to  \vhom  that  monarch  had  granted  it ;  and  the 
new  possessor,  in  gratitude  to  his  benefactor,  put 
up  the  king's  arms  in  several  parts  of  the  house. 
It  is  built  around  two  courts.  The  dining  room 
is  large  and  handsome  ;  and  has  an  ancient  and 
magnificent  chimney  piece,  and  the  king's  arms, 
with  this  motto  : — 

Nobis  hsec  invicta  miserunt  centum  sex  proavi. 

Beneath  are  the  Murray  arms.  In  a  small  bed- 
chamber is  a  medly  scripture  piece  in  needle- 
work, with  a  border  of  animals,  pretty  well  done, 
the  work  of  queen  Mary  during  her  confinement 
in  LochLeven  Castle.  The  gallery  is  about  155 
feet  long,  the  top  arched,  divided  into  compart- 
ments filled  with  paintings  in  water  colors.  Till 
the  destruction  of  the  abbey,  the  kings  of  Scot- 
land were  crowned  here,  sitting  in  the  famous 
marble  chair  which  Edward  I.  transported  to 
Westminster  Abbey,  to  the  great  mortification  of 
the  Scots,  who  looked  upon  it  as  a  kind  of  palla- 
dium. Charles  II.,  before  the  battle  of  Wor- 
cester, was  crowned  in  the  chapel.  The  old 
pretender  resided  for  some  time  at  Scone  in  1715; 
and  his  son  paid  it  a  visit  in  1745.  Such  was  the 
palace  of  Scone,  till  about  the  year  1803,  that 
part  of  it  was  taken  down  and  rebuilt  in  a  more 
modern  style  by  the  earl  of  Mansfield.  The 
modern  house,  including  a  very  small  portion  of 
the  ancient  palace,  forms  one  of  the  most  magni- 
ficent houses  in  Scotland.  The  church  erected 
in  1784  was  taken  down,  and  anew  one  built  in 
1804  upon  the  same  plan,  decorated  with  an  an- 
cient family  seat  of  the  Stormont  family,  the 
ancestors  of  the  earl  of  Mansfield,  of  very  curious 
workmanship.  Scone  consists  of  two  streets, 
one  of  them  very  wide,  and  lies  forty-one  miles 
north  of  Edinburgh,  and  two  from  Perth. 

SCOOP,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Fr.  escape ;  Swedish 
scop ;  Belg.  schoepe.  A  kind  of  large  ladle  ;  a 
vessel  with  a  long  handle  used  to  throw  out 
liquor;  a  surgical  instrument:  to  use  a  scoop; 
to  make  hollow  or  like  a  scoop. 

As  by  the  brook  he  stood, 
He  scooped  the  water  from  the  crystal  flood. 

Id. 


They  turn  upside  down,  hops  on  malt-kilns,  when 
almost  dry,  with  a  scoop.         Mortimer' t  Husbandry. 

It  much  conduces  how  to  scare 
The  little  race  of  birds,  that  hop 
From  spray  to  spray,  scooping  the  costliest  fruit, 
Insatiate,  undisturbed.  Philipt. 

2  C 


SCO 


386 


SCO 


A  spectator  would  think  this  circular  mound  had 
been  actually  scooped  out  of  that  hollow  space. 

Spectator. 

Her  fore-feet  are  broad,  that  Sue  may  scuot>  away 
much  earth  at  a  time.  Addisou. 

Those  carbuncles  the  Indians  will  sct>.y,  so  as  *o 
hold  above  a  pint  Arhutknot  on  Ccins. 

Endeavour  with  thy  scoop,  or  fingers,  to  force  the 
stone  outwards.  Sharp's  Surgery. 

The  genius  of  ths  place 

Or  helps  the  ambitious  hill  the  heaven  to  scale, 
Or  scoops  in  circling  the  theatre's  vale.  Pope. 

Melted  Alpine  snows 

The  mountain  cisterns  fill,  those  ample  stores 
Of  water  tcooped  among  the  hollow  rocks. 

Thornton. 

SCOPARIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  tetrandria  class  of  plants,  na- 
tural order  fortieth,  personatne :  CAL.  quadripar- 
tite :  COR.  the  same,  and  rotaceous :  CAPS,  uni- 
locular,  bivalved,  and  polyspermous. 

SCOPAS,  a  celebrated  Grecian  architect  and 
sculptor,  a  native  of  Ephesus,  according  to  Lem- 
priere.  He  flourished  about  A.  A.  C.  430.  He 
built  the  famous  Maasoleum  for  Q.  Artemisia, 
which  was  esteemed  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world.  See  ARTEMISIA.  But  his  chief  work 
was  a  statue  of  Venus,  which  he  carried  to 
Rome,  where  it  was  esteemed  superior  even  to 
that  of  Praxiteles. 

SCOPE,  n.  s.  Lat.  scopus.  Aim ;  intention ; 
drift:  room;  space;  liberty. 

The  scope  of  all  their  pleading  against  man's  au- 
thority is  to  overthrow  such  laws  and  constitutions 
in  the  church,  as  depending  thereupon,  if  they  should 
therefore  be  taken  away,  would  leave  neither  face 
nor  memory  of  church  to  continue  long  in  the  world. 

Hooker. 
Now  was  time 
To  aim  their  counsels  to  ths  fairest  scope. 

Hubbard's  Tale. 
Your  scope  is  as  mine  own, 
So  to  enforce  or  qualify  the  laws, 
As  to  your  soul  seems  good. 

Shakspeare.  Measure  for  Measure. 
His  coming  hither  hath  no  further  scope 
Than  for  his  lineal  royalties,  and  to  beg 
Infranchisement  immediate  on  his  kneee. 

Id.  Richard  II. 
Ah,  cut  ray  lace  asunder, 

That  my  pent  heart  may  have  some  scope  to  beat, 
Or  else  I  swoon  with  this  dread  killing  news. 

Sltaktpeare. 

Sith  'twas  my  fault  to  give  the  people  scope, 
Twould  be  my  tyranny  to  strike  and  gall  them 
For  what  I  bid  them  do.  Id. 

As  surfeit  is  the  father  of  much  fast, 
So  every  scope,  by  the  immoderate  use, 
Turns  to  restraint.  Id. 

We  should  impute  the  war  to  the  scape  at  which 
it  airaeth.  Raleigh. 

The  scopes  of  land  granted  to  the  first  adventurers 
were  too  large,  and  the  liberties  and  royalties  were 
too  great  for  subjects.  Davies  on  Ireland. 

He,  in  what  he  counsels,  and  in  what  excels, 
Mistrustful,  grounds  his  courage  on  despair 
A  nd  utter  dissolution,  as  the  scope 
Of  all  his  aim.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

An  heroick  poet  is  not  tied  to  a  bare  representa- 
tion of  what  is  true,  but  that  he  might  let  himself 
loose  to  visionary  objects,  which  may  give  him  a 
freer  scope  for  imagination.  Dryden. 


Had  t'ae  whole  s:upe  of  the  author  been  answer- 
able to  his  title,  he  would  have  only  undertaken 
to  prove  what  every  man  is  convinced  of;  but  the 
drift  of  the  pamphlet  is  to  stir  up  our  compassion 
towards  the  rebels.  Addison. 

These  theorems  being  admitted  into  opticks,  there 
would  be  scope  enough  of  handling  that  science  vo- 
luminously, after  a  new  manner  ;  not  only  by  teach- 
ing those  things  which  tend  to  the  perfection  of  vi- 
sion, but  also  by  determining  mathematically  all 
kinds  of  phenomena  of  colours  which  could  be"  pro- 
duced by  refraction.  Newton's  Optu-ki. 

SCOPOL1A,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  oc- 
tandria  order,  and  gynandria  class  of  plants  ; 
natural  order  eleventh,  sannentacese :  TAL.  di- 
phyllous  :  COR.  quadrifid  :  the  antherae  coalesce 
in  two  columns,  one  placed  above  the  other.  Ot' 
this  there  is  only  one  species,  viz.  S.  composita. 

SCORBUTICAL,  adj. }       Fr.   scarbutiyue  ; 

SCORBTJ'TIC,  £  Lat.  scorbutuf.  Dis- 

SCOUBU'TICALLY,  adv.  j  eased  with  scurvy  : 
the  adverb  corresponding. 

Violent  purging  hurts  scorbutic  constitutions ; 
lenitive  substances  relieve.  Arbutluwt. 

A  person  about  forty,  of  a  full  and  xcorbutical 
body,  having  broke  her  skin,  endeavoured  the  curing 
of  it ;  but,  observing  the  ulcer  sanious,  I  proposed 
digestion.  II  i.<r»mn. 

A  woman  of  forty,  Korbutictillti  and  hydropically 
affected,  having  a  sordid  ulcer,  put  herself  into  my 
hand.  Id. 

SCORCE,  n.  s.  Used  by  Spenser  for  dis- 
course, or  power  of  reason :  in  imitation  perhaps 
of  the  Italians. 

Lively  vigour  rested  in  his  mind, 
And  recompensed  him  with  a  better  scarce ; 
Weak  body  well  is  changed  for  mind's  redoubled 
force.  Faerie  Qurene. 

SCORCH,  v.  a.  &  v.  n.  Saxon  j-concne'o  ; 
Belg.  schrocken,  burnt.  To  burn  superficially  : 
be  dried  up  or  thus  burnt. 

Power  was  given  to  scorch  men  with  fire. 

Revelations  xvi.  8. 
Fire  scorcheth  in  frosty  weather. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 
The  same  that  left  thee  by  the  cooling  stream, 
Safe  from  sun's  heat,  but  scorched  with  beauty's  beam. 

Fairfax. 

The  swarthy  Africans  complain 
To  sec  the  chariot  of  the  sun 
So  nigh  their  scorching  country  run.        Roscommon. 

You  look  with  such  contempt  en  pain, 
That  languishing  you  conquer  more  ; 
So  lightnings  which  in  storms  appear 
Scorch  more  than  when  the  skies  are  clear.    Waller. 

I  rave, 

And,  like  a  giddy  bird  in  dead  of  night, 
Fly  round  the  fire  that  scorches  me  to  death. 

Dryden. 

The  love  was  made  in  Autumn,  and  the  hunting 
followed  properly  when  the  heats  of  that  scorching 
country  were  declining.  Id. 

Scatter  a  little  mungy  straw  or  fern  amongst  your 
seedlings,  to  prevent  the  roots  from  scorching,  and 
to  receive  the  moisture  that  falls. 

Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

The  same  beams  that  shine,  scorch  too.  South. 
He,  from  whom  the  nations  should  receive 
Justice  and  freedom,  lives  himself  a  slave  ; 
Tortured  by  cruel  change  of  wild  desires, 
Lashed  by  mad  rage,  and  scorched  bv  brutal  fires. 

Prior. 


SCO 


387 


SCORDISCJE,  or  SCORDISCI,  an  ancient 
people  of  Pannonia  and  Thrace,  infamous  for 
their  barbarity  during  the  reiens  of  the  Roman 
emperors.  They  not  only  sacrificed  their  pri- 
soners to  their  gods,  but  drank  their  blood.  —  Liv. 
Flor.  Strabo. 

SCORDTUM,  or  water  germander,  in  botany, 
is  a  species  of  teucriura. 

SCORE,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Tsl.  skora  ;  Goth,  skor, 
a  mark  or  notch.  A  notch,  or  long  incision  ;  a 
line  drawn;  account  kept;  reason;  sake:  to 
murk  or  set  down  in  account. 

Hast  thou  appointed  where  the  sun  should  rise, 
And  with  her  purple  light  adorn  the  skies  1 
Scored  out  the  bounded  sun's  obliquer  ways, 
That  he  on  all  might  spread  his  equal  rays  ? 


Our  forefathers  had  no  other  books  but  the  score 
and  the  tally  :  thou  hast  caused  printing  to  be  used. 

Shakspeare.   Henry  VI. 
He's  worth  no  more  : 
They  say  he  parted  well,  and  paid  his  score. 

Id.  Macbeth. 

That  thou  dost  love  her,  strikes  some  scores  away 
From  the  great  compt. 

Id.  All's  Well  That  Ends  Well. 
He  had  been  prentice  to  a  brewer, 
But  left  the  trade  ;  as  many  more 
Have  lately  done  on  the  same  score.       Htuifbras. 
Universal  deluges  have  swepfall  away  except  two 
or  three  persons  who  begun  the  world  again  upon  a 
new  score.  Tillotton. 

Your  follies  and  debauches  change 
With  such  a  whirl,  the  poets  of  your  age 
Are  tired,  and  cannot  score  'em  on  the  stage  ; 
Unless  each  vice  in  short-hand  they  indite, 
Kven  as  notcht  prentices  whole  sermons  write. 

Dryd-'ii  . 

You  act  your  kindness  on  Cydaria's  score.        Id. 
A  lion   that   had  got  a   politick   fit  of  sickness, 
wrote  the  fox  word  how  glad  he  should  be  of  his 
company,  upon  the  score  of  ancient  friendship. 

L'Ettrange. 

Does  not  the  air  feed  the  flame?  And  does  not 
the  flame  warm  and  enlighten  the  air  1  Does  not  the 
earth  quit  scores  with  all  the  elements,  in  the  fruits 
that  issue  from  it?  South. 

If  your  terms  are  moderate,  we'll  never  break  off 
upon  that  tcore.  Collier  on  Pride. 

Kings  in  Greece  were  disposed  by  their  people 
upon  the  score  of  their  arbitrary  proceedings. 

Stcift. 

Madam,  I  know  when 

Instead  of  five  you  scored  me  ten.  Id. 

SCORE,  n.  s.  Sax.  j-con.  Twenty  ;  because 
twenty,  being  a  round  number,  was  distinguished 
on  tallies  by  a  long  score. 

How  many  score  of  miles  may  we  well  ride 
'Twixt  hour  and  hour  ?      Shat\*peare.   Cymbeline. 
The  fewer  still  you  name,  you  wound  the  more  ; 
Bond  is  hut  one,  but  Harpax  is  a  score.  Pope. 

For  some  scores  of  lines  there  is  a  perfect  absence 
of  that  spiiit  of  poesy.  Watts. 

O  bid  him  never  tie  them  mair 
Wi'  wicked  strings  o'  hemp  or  hair  ! 
But  ca'  them  out  to  park  or  hill, 
An'  let  them  wander  at  their  will  ; 
So  may  his  flock  increase,  an'  grow 
To  scores  o'  lambs,  an'  packs  o'  woo'  !    Burns. 
SCO'RIA,  n.  s.     Lat.  scoria.     Dross  ;  recre- 
ment. 

By  the  fire  they  emit  many  drossy  and  scorious 
parts.  Browne. 


The  scoria,  or  vitrified  part,  whu-h  most  metals, 
when  heated  or  melted,  do  continually  protrude  to 
the  surface,  and  which,  by  covering  the  metals  in 
form  of  a  thin  glassy  skin,  causes  these  colours,  is 
much  denser  tfian  water.  Newton's  Opticks. 

SCORIA,  among  metallurgists,  is  the  dross  of 
metals  in  fusion ;  or  the  glass  often  produced 
by  melting;  metals  and  ores:  when  cold  it  is 
brittle,  and  not  dissoluble  in  water. 

SCORIFICATION,  the  art  of  reducing  a 
body  either  entirely,  or  in  part,  into  scoriae.  It 
is  used  by  metallurgists,  in  order  that  any  metal, 
imprisoned  in  a  solid  body,  may,  on  account  of 
its  weight,  descend  and  separate  itself  from  it, 
and  finally,  if  that  be  required  by  itself  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  converted  into  scoriae.  It  is 
often  proper  to  make  this  scorification  in  a  vessel 
that  may  absorb  the  scoriae,  and  retain  only  the 
metallic  part  of  the  mass.  See  CUPEL  and 
ASSAYING. 

SCORN,  v.  a.,  v.  n.,  &-\      French   escorne.r  ; 

SCORN'ER,   n.s.    [n.s.   9  Span,  escannir ;  Ital. 

SCORN'H:L,  adj.  fscornare.       To   des- 

SCORN'FULLY,  adv.  J  pise  ;  slight ;  revile  ; 
to  scoff;  disdain;  neglect :  the  noun  substantive, 
adjective,  and  adverb,  corresponding. 

My  friends  tcorn  me ;  but  mine  eye  poureth  out 
tears  unto  God.  Jt>b  xvi.  20. 

Our  soul  is  filled  with  the  scorning  of  those  that 
are  at  ease,  and  with  the  contempt  of  the  proud. 

Pstilm  cxxiii.  4. 

Surely  he  scorneth  the  scorner,  but  he  giveth  grace 
unto  the  lowly.  Proverbs. 

He  that  sitteth  in  the  heavens  shall  laugh  them  to 
scorn  ;  the  Lord  shall  have  them  in  derision. 

Psalms.   Common  Prayer. 

If  he  do  fully  prove  himself  the  honest  shepherd 
Menalcas  his  brother  and  heir,  I  know  no  reason 
why  you  should  think  scorn  of  him.  Sidney. 

They  are  very  active ;  vigilant  in  their  enterprises, 
present  in  perils,  and  great  (corners  of  death. 

Spenser  on  Ireland. 

He  said  mine  eyes  were  black,  and  my  hair  black  ; 
And,  now  I  am  remembered,  scorned  at  me. 

Shakfpeare. 

We  were  better  parch  in  Afric's  sun 
Than  in  the  pride  and  salt  scorn  of  his  eyes.         Id. 

He  used  us  scornfully;  he  should  have  showed  us 
His  marks  of  merit,  wounds  received  for's  country. 

Id. 

Diogenes  was  asked  in  scorn,  What  was  the 
matter  that  philosophers  haunted  rich  men,  and  not 
rich  men  philosophers  1  He  answered,  because  the  one 
knew  what  they  wanted,  the  others  did  not.  Bacon. 

I've  seen  the  morning's  lovely  ray 
Hover  o'er  the  new-born  day 
With  rosy  wings  so  richly  bright, 
As  if  he  scorned  to  think  of  night.          Crashaio. 
This  my  long  sufferance,  and  my  day  of  grace, 
They  who  neglect  and  scorn  shall  never  taste  ; 
But  hard  be  hardened,  blind  be  blinded,  more. 

Milton. 

Is  it  not  a  most  horrid  ingratitude  thus  to  make  a 
scorn  of  him  that  made  us  ?  Tillntson. 

Every  sullen  frown  and  bitter  scorn 
But  fanned  the  fuel  that  loo  fast  did  burn. 

Dry  den. 

The  enamoured  deity 

The  scornful  damsels  shuns.  Id. 

The  tcorner  should  consider,  upon  the  sight  of  a 
cripple,  that  it  was  only  the  distinguishing  mercy  of 
heaven  that  kept  him  from  being  one  too. 

L'Ettrange. 
2  C  2 


388 


SCORPIO. 


For  Xumidia's  grown  a  sc.n-n  amoriij  the  nations, 
A  breach  of  publick  vows.  Additon's  Cato. 

They,  in  the  tcomer's  or  the  judge's  seat, 
Dare  to  condemn  the  virtue  which  they  hate.   Prior. 

With  him  I  o'er  the  hills  had  run, 
Scornful  of  winter's  frost  and  summer's  sun.       Id. 

The  sacred  rights  of  the  Christian  church  are 
scornfully  trampled  on  in  print,  under  an  hypocritical 
pretence  of  maintaining  them.  Atterbury's  Hermans. 

Fame,  that  delights  around  the  world  to  stray, 
Scorns  not  to  take  our  Argos  in  the  way.          Pope. 

SCORP/ENA,  in  ichthyology,  a  genus  of 
fishes,  of  the  order  thoracici  The  head  is  large 
and  sharp  ;  the  eyes  are  near  each  other ;  there 
are  teeth  in  the  jaws,  palate,  and  fauces ;  and 
there  are  seven  rays  in  the  membrane  of  the  gill. 
The  species  are  three ;  viz. 

1.  S.  horrida,  2.  S.  porcus,  and  3.  S.  scrofa. 
The  largest  of  these  is  the  S.  scrofa,  of  which 
the  following  are  the  distinguishing  characters  : — 
Lower  lip  having  two  cirri ;  head  large ;  eyes 
enormous,  pupil  black,  iris  yellow  or  reddish, 
with  four  brown  rays,  above  which  are  three 
cirri ;  mouth  large ;  cheeks  and  lower  jaw  cir- 
rous ;  jaws  equal ;  the  tongue  and  palate  armed 
with  sharp,  recurved  teeth ;  aperture  of  the  gills 
large,  the  cover  with  two  large  and  many  smaller 
spines ;  back  brown ;  fins  bluish,  the  rays  va- 
ried, yellow,  and  brown,  and  mostly  forked. 
This  fish  inhabits  the  Atlantic,  Mediterranean, 
and  Northern  Seas ;  it  grows  from  three  to  four 
yards  long,  and  is  a  most  voracious  fish,  preying 
not  only  on  other  fishes,  but  also  on  sea-birds  ; 
body  whitish-tawny,  spotted  with  brown,  and 
covered  with  large  scales ;  the  flesh  is  eaten  in 
Italy.  This  fish  is  called  by  the  people  of  Corn- 
wall father-lasher. 

SCORP^NA  is  also  the  name  of  another  fish 
caught  in  many  parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  It 
seldom  grows  to  more  than  a  pound  weight.  Its 
body  is  long,  but  not  flatted,  and  is  moderately 
thick.  Its  head  is  extremely  large,  and  is  armed 
with  prickles,  and  it  grows  gradually  less  from 
thence  to  the  tail.  The  prickles  about  the  head 
are  accounted  venomous,  and  the  fishermen 
usually  cut  them  off  as  soon  as  the  fish  is  caught. 
Its  tail  is  rounded  at  the  end.  The  belly  and 
belly-tins  are  reddish. 

SCORPIO,  in  entomology,  a  genus  of  insects 
belonging  to  the  order  of  aptera.  It  has  eight 
feet,  besides  two  frontal  claws ;  the  eyes  are 
eight  in  number,  three  on  each  side  of  the  thorax, 
and  two  on  the  back.  It  has  two  claw-shaped 
palpi,  a  long  jointed  tail,  with  a  pointed  weapon 
at  the  extremity ;  it  has  likewise  two  combs 
situated  between  the  breast  and  abdomen.  See 
ENTOMOLOGY.  There  are  several  species,  all 
natives  of  warm  climates.  Of  all  the  classes  of 
noxious  insects,  the  scorpion  is  the  most  terrible, 
whose  size  among  the  insects  is  enormous,  and 
its  sting  often  fatal.  In  several  parts  of  the 
continent  of  Europe  it  is  but  too  well  known, 
though  it  seldow  grows  above  four  inches  long ; 
but  in  the  warm  tropical  climates  it  is  seen  a 
foot  in  length,  and  in  every  respect  as  large  as  a 
lobster,  which  it  somewhat  resembles  in  shape. 
The  scorpion's  head  seems,  as  it  were,  jointed  to 
tlie  breast,  in  the  middle  of  which  are  seen  two 
eyes:  and  a  little  more  forward  two  eyes  more, 


placed  in  the  fore  part  of  the  bead ;  these  eyes 
are  so  small  that  they  are  scarcely  perceivable  : 
and  it  is  probable  the  animal  has  but  little  oc- 
casion for  seeing.     The  mouth  is  furnished  with 
two  jaws ;  the  undermost  is  divided  into  two, 
and  the  parts  notched  into  each  other,  with  which 
it  breaks  its  food,  and  thrusts  it  into  its  mouth; 
these  the  scorpion  can  at  pleasure  pull  back  into 
its  mouth,  so  that  no  part  of  them  can  be  seen. 
On  each  side  of  the  head  are  two  arms,  each 
composed  of  four  joints;    the  last  of  which  is 
large,  -,vith  strong  muscles,  and  formed  in  the 
manner  of  a  lobster's  claw.      Below  the  breast 
are  eight  legs,  each  divided  into  six  joints  ;  the 
two  hindmost  of  which  are  each  provided   with 
two  crooked  claws,  and  here  and  there  covered 
with  hair.     The  belly  is  divided  into  seven  little 
rings ;    from  the  lowest  of  which  is  continued  a 
tail   composed  of  six  joints,  which  are  bristly, 
and  formed  like  little  globes,  the  last  being  armed 
with  a  crooked  sting.     This  is  that  fatal  instru- 
ment which  renders  this  insect  so  formidable ;  it 
is  long,  pointed,  hard,  and  hollow ;  it  is  pierced 
near  the  base  by  two  small  holes,  through  which, 
when  the  animal  stings,  it  ejects  a  drop  of  poi- 
son, which  is  white  and  caustic.     The  reservoir 
in  which  this   poison  is  formpcl  and  kept   is  a 
small  bladder  near  the  tail.     If  this  bladder  be 
greatly  pressed  the  venoi..  will  be  seen  issuing 
out  through  the  two  holes  above  mentioned  ;  so 
that  it  appears,  that  when  the  animal  stings,  the 
bladder  is  pressed,  and  the  venom  issues  through 
the  two  apertures  into  the  wound.     Galen  ob- 
serves that  a  person  who  had  not  witnessed  the 
fact  would  not  suppose  that  so  small  an  injury 
as  the  sting  of  a  scorpion,  or  the  bite  of  a  poi-' 
sonous  spider,  could  produce  the  violent  effects 
which  they  do  in   the  whole  body.      He  says 
the  aculeus  or  sting  of  a  scorpion  ends   in  the 
minutest  point ;  and  has  no  perforation  through 
which   any    poison    can   pass    into  the  wound. 
Yet,  he  says,  we  must  suppose  the  venom  to 
be   some  spiritual    substance   or   moisture,    in 
which  a  great  power  is  concentrated  in  a  small 
compass.     '  Before  I  had  an  opportunity,'  says 
Dr.  Moseley,    'of  examining  this  subject,  my 
respect  for  the  opinion  of  Galen  made  me  doubt 
the  accuracy  of  Leuwenhoek,  Redi,  Mead,  and 
others,  who  assert  that  there  is  an  aperture  near 
the  cuspis  of  a  scorpion's  sting  ;  and  that  through 
this  aperture  a  liquid  poison  is  injected  when  a 
wound  is  inflicted.    Repeated  experiments,  with 
the  best  glasses,  have  never  enabled  me  to  dis- 
cover any  foramen  or  opening  whatever.'    There 
are  few  animals  more  formidable,  or  more  truly 
mischievous,  than  the  scorpion.     As  it  takes  re- 
fuge in  a  small    place,  and   is  generally  found 
sheltering  in    houses,  it  must  frequently  stin>,' 
those  among  whom  it  resides.     In  some  of  the 
towns  of  Italy,  and  in  France,  in  the  ci-devant 
province  of  Languedoc,  it  is  a  terrible  enemy  ; 
but  its  malignity  in    Europe   is   trifling,  when 
compared  to  what  the  natives  of  Africa  and  th- 
east   are    known   to   experience.      In    Batavia, 
where  they  grow  twelve  inches  long,  there  is  no 
removing   any   piece  of  furniture    without   the 
utmost  danger  of  being  stung  by  them.   Bostnan 
assures  us  that  along  the  Gold  Coast  they  are 
often  found  larger  than  a  lobster ;  and  thjit  thuit 


SCORPIO. 


389 


sting  is  inevitably  fatal.  In  Europe,  however, 
they  are  by  no  means  so  large,  so  venomous,  or 
so  numerous.  The  general  size  of  this  animal 
does  not  exceed  two  or  three  inches.  Mauper- 
tuis,  who  made  several  experiments  on  the  scor- 
pion of  Languedoc,  found  it  by  no  means  so 
invariably  dangerous  as  had  till  then  been  repre- 
sented. He  provoked  one  of  them  to  sting  a 
dog  in  three  places  of  the  belly,  where  the  ani- 
mal was  without  hair.  In  about  an  hour  after 
the  poor  animal  appeared  greatly  swollen,  and 
became  very  sick ;  he  then  cast  up  whatever  he 
had  in  his  bowels,  and  for  about  three  hours  con- 
tinued vomiting  a  whitish  liquid.  The  belly 
was  always  greatly  swollen  when  the  animal  be- 
gan to  vomit ;  but  this  operation  always  seemed 
to  abate  the  swelling,  which  alternately  swelled, 
and  was  thus  emptied  for  three  hours  successively. 
The  poor  animal  after  this  fell  into  convulsions, 
bit  the  ground,  dragged  himself  along  upon  his 
fore  feet,  and  at  last  died,  five  hours  after  being 
bitten.  He  was  not  partially  swollen  round  the 
place  which  was  bitten,  as  is  usual  after  the 
sting  of  a  wasp  or  a  bee ;  but  his  whole  body 
was  inflated,  and  there  only  appeared  a  red  spot 
on  the  places  where  he  had  been  stung.  Some 
days  after,  however,  the  same  experiment  was 
tried  upon  another  dog,  and  even  with  more 
aggravated  cruelty,  yet  the  dog  seemed  in  no 
way  affected  by  the  wounds ;  but,  howling  a  lit- 
tle when  he  received  them,  continued  alert  and 
well  after  them  ;  and  soon  after  was  set  at  liberty 
without* showing  the  smallest  symptoms  of  pain. 
So  far  was  this  poor  creature  from  being  terrified 
•at  the  experiment,  that  he  left  his  own  master's 
house  to  come  to  that  of  the  philosopher,  where 
he  had  received  more  plentiful  entertainment. 
The  same  experiment  was  tried  by  fresh  scorpions 
upon  seven  other  dogs,  and  upon  three  hens  ; 
but  no  deadly  symptom  ensued.  Hence  it 
appears,  that  many  cirsumstances,  which  are 
utterly  unknown,  must  contribute  to  give  efficacy 
to  the  scorpion's  venom.  In  the  trials  made  by 
Maupertuis  he  employed  scorpions  of  both  sexes, 
newly  caught  and  seemingly  vigorous  and  active. 
These  experiments  may  serve  to  show  that  many 
of  the  boasted  antidotes  which  are  given  for  the 
cure  of  the  scorpion's  sting,  owe  their  success 
rather  to  accident  than  their  own  efficacy.  They 
only  happened  to  cure  when  their  sting  was  no 
way  dangerous  ;  but  in  cases  of  actual  malignity 
they  might  probably  be  utterly  unserviceable. 
The  scorpion  of  the  tropical  climates,  being  much 
larger  than  the  former,  is  probably  much  more 
venomous.  Helbigius,  however,  who  resided 
for  many  years  in  the  east,  assures  us  that  he 
was  often  stung  by  the  scorpion,  and  never  re- 
ceived any  material  injury  from  the  wound ;  a 
painful  tumor  generally  ensued,  but  he  always 
cured  it  by  rubbing  the  part  with  a  piece  of  iron 
or  stone,  as  he  had  seen  the  Indians  practise  be- 
fore him,  until  the  flesh  became  insensible. 
Seba,  Moore,  and  Bosman,  however,  give  a  very 
different  account  of  the  scorpion's  malignity  ; 
and  assert  that,  unless  speedily  relieved,  the 
wound  becomes  fatal.  No  animal  in  the  creation 
seems  endued  with  such  an  irascible  nature; 
they  have  often  been  seen,  when  taken  and  put 
inio  a  place  of  security,  to  exert  all  their  rage 


against  the  sides  of  the  glass  vessel  that  contained 
them.  They  will  attempt  to  sting  a  stick  when 
put  near  them,  and  attack  a  mouse  or  a  frog, 
while  those  animals  are  far  from  offering  any  in- 
jury. Maupertuis  put  three  scorpions  and  a 
mouse  into  the  same  vessel  together,  and  they 
soon  stung  the  little  animal  in  different  places. 
The  mouse,  thus  assaulted,  stood  for  some  time 
upon  the  defensive,  and  at  last  killed  them  all, 
one  after  another.  He  tried  this  experiment,  in 
order  to  see  whether  the  mouse,  after  it  had 
killed,  would  eat  the  scorpions ;  but  the  little 
quadruped  seemed  satisfied  with  the  victory,  and 
even  survived  the  severity  of  the  wounds  it  had 
received.  Wolkemar  tried  the  courage  of  the 
scorpion  against  the  tarantula,  and  enclosed 
several  of  both  kinds  in  glass  vessels  for  that 
purpose.  The  spider  at  first  used  all  its  efforts 
to  entangle  the  scorpion  in  its  web,  which  it  im- 
mediately began  spinning ;  but  the  scorpion 
rescued  itself  from  the  danger,  by  stinging  its 
adversary  to  death ;  it  soon  after  cut  off,  with  its 
claws,  all  the  legs  of  the  spider,  and  then  sucked 
all  the  internal  parts  at  its  leisure.  The  fierce 
spirit  of  this  animal  is  equally  dangerous  to  its 
own  species,  for  scorpions  are  the  cruellest  ene- 
mies to  each  other.  Maupertuis  put  about  100 
of  them  together  in  the  same  glass ;  and  they 
scarcely  came  into  contact  before  they  began  to 
exert  all  their  rage  in  mutual  destruction  ;  there 
was  nothing  to  be  seen  but  one  universal  car- 
nage, without  any  distinction  of  age  or  sex ;  so 
that  in  a  few  days  there  remained  only  fourteen, 
which  had  killed  and  devoured  all  the  rest. 
He  next  enclosed  a  female  scorpion,  big  with 
young,  in  a  glass  vessel,  and  she  was  seen  to 
devour  them  as  fast  as  they  were  excluded ;  there 
was  but  one  only  of  the  number  that  escaped  the 
general  destruction,  by  taking  refuge  on  the  back 
of  its  parent ;  and  this  soon  after  revenged  the 
cause  of  its  brethren,  by  killing  the  old  one  in 
its  turn.  Such  is  the  terrible  and  unrelenting 
nature  of  this  insect.  It  is  even  asserted  that, 
when  driven  to  an  extremity,  the  scorpion  will 
destroy  itself.  The  following  experiment  was 
ineffectually  tried  by  Maupertuis : — '  But,'  says 
Mr.  Goldsmith,  '  I  am  so  well  assured  of  it  by 
many  eye-witnesses,  who  have  seen  it  both  in 
Italy  and  America,  that  I  have  no  doubt  remain 
ing  of  its  veracity.  A  scorpion  newly  caught  is 
placed  in  the  midst  of  a  circle  of  burning  char- 
coal, and  thus  an  egress  prevented  on  every  side  ; 
the  scorpion,  as  I  am  assured,  runs  for  about  a 
minute  round  the  circle,  in  hopes  of  escaping;  but, 
finding  that  impossible,  it  stings  itself  on  th« 
back  of  the  head,  and  in  this  manner  the  un- 
daunted suicide  instantly  expires/  This,  how- 
ever, wants  further  confirmation.  The  male  and 
female  of  this  insect  are  very  easily  distinguish- 
able ;  the  male  being  smaller  and  less  hairy.  The 
female  brings  forth  her  young  alive,  and  perfect 
in  their  kind.  Redi,  having  bought  a  quantity 
of  scorpions,  selected  their  females,  which  by 
their  size  and  roughness,  were  easily  distinguish- 
able from  the  rest,  and  putting  them  in  separate 
glass  vessels,  he  kept  them  for  some  days  without 
food.  In  about  five  days  one  of  them  brought 
forth  about  thirty-eight  young  ones,  well  shaped, 
and  of  a  milk  white  color,  which  changed  every 


SCO 


390 


SCO 


day  more  and  more  into  a  dark  rusty  hue.  Ano- 
ther female,  in  a  different  vessel,  brought  forth 
twenty-seven  of  the  same  color,  and  the  day 
following  the  young  ones  seemed  all  fixed  to  the 
back  and  belly  of  the  female.  For  near  a  fort- 
night all  these  continued  alive  and  well,  but 
afterwards  some  of  them  died  daily,  until,  in 
about  a  month,  they  all  died  except  two.  Were 
it  worth  the  trouble,  these  animals  might  be  kept 
living  as  long  as  curiosity  should  think  proper. 
Their  chief  food  is  worms  and  insects  ;  and  upon 
a  proper  supply  of  these  their  lives  might  be 
lengthened  to  their  natural  extent.  How  long 
that  may  be  we  are  not  told ;  but  if  we  may  argue 
from  analogy,  it  cannot  be  less  than  seven  or 
eight  years ;  and  perhaps,  in  the  larger  kind 
double  that  duration.  As  they  have  somewhat 
the  form  of  the  lobster,  so  they  resemble  that 
animal  in  casting  their  shell,  or  more  properly 
their  skin;  since  it  is  softer  by  far  than  the  co- 
vering of  the  lobster,  and  set  with  hairs,  which 
grow  from  it  in  great  abundance,  particularly  at 
the  joinings.  The  young  lie  in  the  womb  of  the 
parent,  each  covered  up  in  its  own  membrane, 
to  the  number  of  forty  or  fifty,  and  united  to 
each  other  by  an  oblong  thread,  so  as  to  exhibit 
altogether  the  form  of  a  chaplet.  It  seems  pro- 
bable that  captivity  produces  that  unnatural  dis- 
position in  the  scorpion  which  induces  it  to 
destroy  its  young ;  since,  at  liberty,  it  is  found 
to  protect  them  with  unceasing  assiduity. 

SCORPIO,  the  scorpion,  in  astronomy,  the 
eighth  sign  of  the  zodiac,  denoted  by  the  charac- 
ter m.  See  ASTRONOMY. 

SCOR'PION,  n.  s.  French  scorpion  ;  Latin 
scorpio.  A  reptile  resembling  a  small  lobster, 
with  a  very  venomous  sting. 

I\Iy  father  hath  chastised  you  with  whips,  but  I 
will  chastise  you  with  scorpions.  1  Kings  xii.  11. 

Well,  forewarning  winds 
Did  seem  to  say,  seek  not  a  scorpion's  nest. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  VI. 
Full  of  icorpimu  is  my  mind,  dear  wife.  Id.  Macbeth. 

The  squeezing  crab  and  stinging  scorpion  shine. 

Dryden. 

SCORPION.    See  SCORPIO. 

SCORPION  GRASS  is  a  species  of  scorpiurus. 

SCORPIURUS,  the  caterpillar,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  decandria  order,  and  diadelphia 
class  of  plants,  natural  order  thirty-second,  pa- 
pilionaceae ;  legume  contracted  by  incisions  on 
the  inside  betwixt  every  two  seeds  revoluted 
round.  There  are  four  species,  the  most  remark- 
able of  which  is — 

S.  vermiculata,  a  native  of  Italy  and  Spain. 
It  is  an  annual  plant,  with  trailing  herbaceous 
stalks,  which  at  each  joint  have  a  spatular-shaped 
leaf  with  a  long  foot-stalk.  From  the  wings  of 
the  leaves  come  out  the  foot-stalks  of  the  flowers, 
which  sustain  at  the  top  one  yellow  butterfly 
flower,  succeeded  by  a  thick  twisted  pod,  hav- 
ing the  size  and  appearance  of  a  larger  cater- 
pillar, from  whence  it  had  this  title.  This  has 
long  been  preserved  in  the  gardens  of  this  coun- 
try, more  on  account  of  its  odd  shape  than  for 
any  great  beauty.  It  is  propagated  by  sowing 
the  seeds  on  a  bed  of  light  earth ;  and,  when  the 
plants  come  up,  they  must  be  kept  free  from 
weeds  and  thinned,  so  that  there  nrny  be  a  foot 
distance  between  thorn. 


SCORZA  (Senibald),  an  eminent  Italian  pain- 
ter and  engraver,  born  at  Vollagio,  in  1590.  He 
engraved  after  the  designs  of  the  celebrated  Albert 
Durer,  with  great  accuracy.  As  a  painter  he 
excelled  in  representing  animals  and  flowers. 
He  died  in  1631,  aged  forty-one. 

SCORZONERA,  viper-grass,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  polygamia  ajqualis  order,  and  syn- 
genesia  class  of  plants :  natural  order  forty- 
ninth,  composite  ;  receptacle  naked  ;  pappus 
like  a  plum :  CAL.  imbricated,  with  scales  mem- 
branaceous  on  their  margins.  The  most  remark- 
able species  is  the — 

S.  Hispanica,  the  Spanish,  or  common  viper- 
grass.  It  is  cultivated  in  the  gardens  of  this 
country,  both  for  culinary  and  medicinal  pur- 
poses. The  root  is  carrot-shaped,  about  the 
thickness  of  a  finger,  covered  with  a  dark  brown 
skin,  is  white  within,  and  has  a  milky  juice.  The 
stalk  rises  three  feet  high,  is  smooth,  branching 
at  the  top,  and  garnished  with  a  few  narrow 
leaves,  whose  base  half  embraces  the  stalk.  The 
flowers  are  of  a  bright  yellow  color,  and  termi- 
nate the  stalks  in  scaly  empalements  composed 
of  many  narrow  tongued-shaped  hermaphrodite 
florets,  lying  over  each  other  like  the  scales  of 
fish,  and  are  of  a  bright  yellow  color.  After 
these  are  decayed,  the  germen,  which  sits  in  the 
common  empalements,  turns  to  oblong  cor- 
nered seeds,  having  a  roundish  ball  of  feathered 
down  at  the  top.  This  plant  is  propagated  by 
seeds  ;  and  must  be  carefully  thinned  and  kept 
free  from  weeds,  otherwise  the  plants  will  be 
weak.  The  roots  of  the  scorzonera  were  for- 
merly much  celebrated  for  their  alexipharmic  , 
virtues,  and  for  throwing  out  the  small-pox ; 
but  have  now  almost  entirely  lost  their  charac- 
ter; however,  as  they  abound  with  an  acrid 
juice,  they  may  sometimes  be  of  use  for  strength- 
ening the  viscera,  and  promoting  the  fluid  secre- 
tions. 

SCOT  (Michael),  of  Balwirie,  a  learned  Scot- 
tish author  of  the  thirteenth  century.  He  made 
the  tour  of  France  and  Germany ;  and  was  re- 
ceived with  distinction  at  the  court  of  the  empe- 
ror Frederic  II.  He  was  skilled  in  languages ; 
and  translated  into  Latin,  from  the  Arabic,  the 
history  of  animals,  by  the  celebrated  physician 
Avicenna.  He  published  the  whole  of  the 
works  of  Aristotle  with  notes.  He  wrote  a  work 
on  The  Secrets  of  Nature ;  also  a  tract  On  the 
Nature  of  the  Sun  and  Moon.  He  there  speaks 
of  the  grand  operation  of  the  alchymists,  and  is 
exceedingly  solicitous  about  the  projected  pow- 
der, or  the  philosopher's  stone.  He  likewise 
published  Mensa  Philosophica,  a  treatise  on 
astrology  and  chiromancy.  He  was  much  ad- 
mired in  his  day,  and  was  even  suspected  of 
magic;  and  had  Roger  Bacon  and  Cornelius 
Agrippa  for  his  panegyrists. 

SCOT  (Reginald),  a  writer  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  studied  at  Hart  Hall,  in  tlio  Irii- 
versity  of  Oxford ;  after  which  he  retired  to 
Smeethe,  where  he  lived  a  studious  life,  and  died 
in  1599.  He  published  The  perfect  Platform  of 
a  Hop-gurden,  and  The  Discovery  of  Witch- 
craft; in  which  he  showed  that  the  relations 
concerning  magicians  and  witches  are  chimerical. 
This  work  was  not  only  censured  by  kiir^.hmirs 
I.  in  his  Dsrmonologv,  but  by  several  eminent 


SCO 


391 


SCO 


divines;  and  all  the  copies  of  it  that  could  be 
found  were  burnt. 

SCOT,  n.  s.  Fr.  scot.  Shot;  payment; 
scot  and  lot,  parish  payments. 

'Twos  time  to  counterfeit,  or  that  hot  termagant 
Scot  had  paid  me  scot  and  lot  too. 

Sluikspeare.   Henry  IV. 

The  chief  point  that  has  puzzled  the  freeholders, 
as  well  as  those  that  pay  scut  and  lot,  for  about  these 
six  months,  is,  Whether  they  would  rather  be  go- 
verned by  a  prince  that  is  obliged  by  law  to  be 
good,  or  by  one  who,  if  he  pleases,  may  plunder  or 
imprison!  Addison. 

Protogenes,  historians  note, 
Lived  there  a  burgess,  scot  and  lot.      Prior. 

SCOT  AND  LOT  is  a  customary  contribution 
laid  upon  all  subjects  according  to  their  abilities. 
Whoever  were  assessed  in  any  sum,  though  not 
in  equal  proportions,  were  said  to  pay  scot  and 
lot. 

SCOTAL,  or  SCOTALE,  is  where  an  officer  of 
a  forest  keeps  an  ale-house  within  the  forest,  by 
color  of  his  office,  making  people  come  to  his 
house,  and  there  spend  their  money  for  fear  of 
his  displeasure.  We  find  it  mentioned  in  the 
charter  of  the  forest,  cap.  8.  '  Nullus  forresta- 
rius  facial  Scotallas,  vel  garbas  colligat,  vel  ali- 
quam  collectam  faciat,'  &c.  The  word  is  com- 
pounded of  scot  and  ale,  and  by  transposition 
of  the  words  is  otherwise  called  aleshot. 

SCOTCH,  v.  a.  Qu.  Lat.  quota).  To  cut 
with  shallow  incision. 

He  was  too  hard  for  him  ;  directly  before  Corioli, 
he  scoicht  and  notcht  him  like  a  carbonado. 

Shahspeare.  Coriolanvs. 

We'll  heat  'em  into  Bench  holes ;  I  have  yet 
room  for  six  scotches  more. 

Id.  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 

Give  him  four  scotches  with  a  knife,  and  then  put 
into  his  belly,  and  these  scotches,  sweet  herbs. 

Walton's  Angler. 

Children  being  indifferent  to  any  thing  they  can 
do,  dancing  and  scotch  hoppers  would  be  the  same 
thing  to  them.  Locke. 

SCOT  I  (Latin),  the  Scots,  the  ancient  inha- 
bitants of  Scotland,  mentioned  as  distinct  from 
the  Picts,  so  early  as  by  Claudian  de  Hon.  3. 
Cons.  v. 

SCOTIA,  NOVA,  or  NEW  SCOTLAND,  a  name 
that  has  been  given  to  those  British  settlements 
in  North  America,  situated  between  43°  and  46° 
lat.  N.  and  between  60°  and  67°  long. W., bounded 
by  the  St.  Laurence  on  the  north,  by  the  gulf  of 
St.  Laurence  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  east, 
by  the  same  ocean  on  the  south.,  and  by  Canada 
and  New  England  on  the  west.  In  1784  this 
province  was  divided  into  two  governments. 
See  our  article  NORTH  AMERICA,  chap.  III.  The 
trade  between  Great  Britain  and  these  provinces 
consists  in  the  export  of  linen,  woollens,  and 
fishing  gear  chiefly,  for  £30,000  a- year,  and  the 
import  of  lumber  and  fish  for  £40,000. 

The  Isle  of  Sable,  twenty-five  leagues  distant 
from  Cape  Canso,  the  north-east  point  of  Nova 
Scotia,  is  composed  entirely  of  sand-hills,  in  the 
shape  of  sugar-loaves,  140  feet  high,  and  white 
as  milk  with  white  transparent  stones  :  it  is  of  a 
semicircular  shape,  being  ten  leagues  in  circxiit, 
hut  very  narrow.  On  the  north,  or  concave 
side,  is  a  shallow  lake,  five  leagues  in  circum- 
ivKT.ce,  ii'id  comnr'iiio  :'irv.;  with  the  sea.  It 


has  no  port,  but  has  some  ponds  of  fresh  water, 
and  produces  juniper,  blue-berry  bushes,  grass, 
and  vetches.  Many  vessels  have  been  wrecked 
on  this  island,  and  the  people  have  perished  of 
hunger.  In  order  to  render  it  less  dangerous, 
the  government  of  Halifax,  in  1809,  sent  a  party 
of  people  to  settle  on  it,  in  order  to  show  fires 
during  bad  nights,  and  to  afford  assistance  to 
those  who  may  be  shipwrecked  on  it. 

The  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  was  first  settled 
by  the  French  in  1604,  who  gave  it  the  name  of 
Acadia.  Their  original  establishment  was  at 
Port  Francois,  on  the  west  coast,  and  the  first 
colonists  occupied  themselves  solely  in  trading 
with  the  Indians  for  furs,  or  procuring  them  by 
the  chase  themselves.  The  vicinity  of  the  Bri- 
tish colonies  of  New  England,  however,  pro- 
duced here,  as  well  as  at  Canada,  a  destructive 
concurrence  in  the  Indian  trade ;  and  on  the 
part  of  the  Acadians,  similar  attempts  to  irritate 
the  Indians  against  the  English,  while  the  latter 
retorted  on  the  French  settlements,  whenever  the 
disputes  between  the  two  nations  in  Europe  per- 
mitted them  to  commence  open  hostilities.  After 
being  taken  by  the  English,  and  restored  several 
times,  Acadia  was  finally  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
by  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  Very  few  English, 
however,  settled  on  it,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  change  of  name  to  Nova  Scotia,  no  alteration 
was  made  in  the  government ;  the  French  colo- 
nists being  maintained  in  possession  of  their 
laws  and  religion,  and  were  besides  permitted  to 
remain  neuter  in  any  wars  between  France  and 
England.  In  1746  the  French  attempting  to 
regain  possession  of  the  province,  and  the  colo- 
nists breaking  their  neutrality,  the  British  go- 
vernment determined  to  colonise  it  efficiently, 
and  at  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748)  the 
disbanded  officers  and  soldiers  were  encouraged 
to  emigrate  thither  by  grants  of  land  according 
to  their  respective  ranks.  These  encouragements 
induced  3750  persons  to  embark  for  the  colony 
in  1749,  who  founded  the  city  of  Halifax.  The 
French  colonists,  fearing  a  persecution  from  the 
new  government  and  colonists,  on  account  of 
their  religion,  and  being  also  encouraged  by  the 
Canadian  government,  generally  retired  from 
Nova  Scotia  to  that  province,  while  the  English, 
equally  anxious  to  get  rid  of  them,  removed  the 
remainder  to  the  other  English  colonies.  In 
1769  the  population  of  the  colony  had  increased 
to  26,000  persons,  by  emigrations  from  England 
and  Germany  ;  and  in  the  same  year  its  exports 
amounted  to  £30,000.  The  American  war  still 
farther  increased  the  population,  by  the  emigra- 
tion of  loyalists  from  the  insurgent  colonies,  and 
gave  an  extraordinary  impulse  to  its  commerce 
and  cultivation,  by  the  demands  of  the  British 
fleets  and  armies. 

SCOTISTS,  a  sect  of  school  divines  and  phi- 
losophers, thus  called  from  their  founder  J.  Duns 
Scotus,  a  cordelier,  who  maintained  the  immacu- 
late conception  of  the  Virgin,  orthatshewasborn 
without  original  sin,  in  opposition  toThomasAqui- 
nus  and  the  Thomists.  TheScotistsandThomists 
disagreed  about  the  nature  of  the  divine  co-ope- 
ration with  the  human  will,  the  measure  of  divine 
grace  that  is  necessary  to  salvation,  and  other  ab- 
struse and  minute  question?,  which  it  is  needless 
to  enumerate. 


392 


SCOTLAND. 


SCOTLAND,  an  ancient,  and  long  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom  of  Great  Britain,  is  situated, 
exclusive  of  its  islands,  between  54°  37'  and 
58°  42'  N.  lat.,  and  between  1°  47'  and  6°  7'  W. 
long,  from  London.  It  contains  thirty-three 
counties,  and  is  bounded  south  by  the  Solway 
frith,  and  the  rivers  Esk,  Lark,  Liddel,  and 
Tweed  ;  on  the  east  and  north  by  the  Northern 
Ocean  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  waters  of  the 
Atlantic.  Its  greatest  length  due  north  and 
south  is  275  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  147 
miles ;  but  its  breadth  is  extremely  various,  and 
in  one  place  does  not  exeeed  thirty-six  miles. 
The  superficial  area  of  the  mainland  is  said  to 
amount  to  25,520  square  miles,  494  square  miles 
of  fresh  water  lakes,  and  5000  square  miles 
of  salt-water  lochs,  or  lakes.  The  islands, 
comprising  the  Hebrides  on  the  west,  and  the 
Orkneys  and  Zetland  isles  towards  the  north, 
comprehend  an  area  of  4224  square  miles. 
I.  HISTORY  OF  SCOTLAND  UNTIL  THE  WITH- 

DRAWMENT  OF    THE    ROMANS.' — It  is    difficult    tO 

give  any  satisfactory  account  of  the  origin  of  the 
appellation  of  Scots,  from  which  the  country 
has  derived  its  name.  The  conjectures  of  the 
most  eminent  antiquaries  serve  rather  to  perplex 
than  to  clear  up  the  difficulty.  All  that  we 
know  with  certainty  concerning  this  appellation 
is,  that  it  was  at  first  a  term  of  reproach,  framed 
by  enemies,  rather  than  assumed  by  the  nation. 
The  Highlanders,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Scots,  are  absolutely  strangers  to  the  name,  and 
have  been  always  so.  All  those  who  speak  the 
Gaelic  language  call  themselves  Albanich  or 
Gael,  and  their  country  Alba  or  Gaeldochd  ; 
whence  Caledonia,  the  most  ancient  name  of  the 
country.  The  Picts,  who  possessed  originally 
the  northern  and  eastern,  and  in  a  later  period 
also  the  more  southern,  division  of  North  Bri- 
tain, were  at  first  more  powerful  than  the  Cale- 
donians of  the  west.  It  is  therefore  probable 
that  the  Picts  were  ready  to  traduce  and  ridicule 
their  weaker  neighbours  of  Argyle.  These  two 
nations  spoke  the  same  language,  the  Gaelic. 
In  that  language  Scot,  or  Scode,  signifies  a  corner 
or  small  division  of  a  country.  Accordingly, 
a  corner  of  North  Britain  is  the  very  name  which 
Giraldus  Cambrensis  gives  the  little  kingdom  of 
Argyle,  which  the  six  sons  of  Muredus  king  of 
Ulster  were  said,  according  to  his  information,  to 
have  erected  in  Scotland.  Scot  in  Gaelic  is 
much  the  same  with  little  or  contemptible  in 
English.  Others  observe,  that  in  the  same  lan- 
guage the  word  Scuit  signifies  a  wanderer,  and 
suppose  that  this  may  have  been  the  origin  of 
the  narr.e  of  Scot ;  a  conjecture  which  they 
think  is  countenanced  by  a  passage  in  Amianus 
.Marcellinus  (1.  xxvii.),  who  characterises  the 
men  by  the  epithet  of  per  diversa  vagantes,  i.  e. 
roaming.  On  the  whole  it  appears,  that  for 
some  one  of  the  reasons  couched  under  the  above 
disparaging  epithets,  their  sneering  neighbours, 
the  Picts  or  the  Britons,  may  have  given  the 
appellation  of  Scots  to  the  ancestors  of  the  Scot- 


tish nation.  At  what  time  the  inhabitants  of  the 
west  of  Scotland  became  distinguished  by  this 
name  is  uncertain.  Porphyrius  the  philosopher 
is  the  first  who  mentions  them,  about  A.  D.  267; 
and  towards  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century 
we  find  them  mentioned  with  other  British  na- 
tions, by  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  in  the  passage 
above  referred  to.  The  territory  of  the  ancient 
Scots,  before  the  annexation  of  Pictavia,  com- 
prehended all  that  side  of  Caledonia,  which  lies 
on  the  north  and  western  ocean,  from  the  frith 
of  Clyde  to  the  Orkneys.  Towards  the  east  their 
dominions  were  divided  from  the  Pictish  territo- 
ries by  the  high  mountains  which  run  from  Dum- 
barton to  the  frith  of  Tain.  In  process  of  time, 
the  Scots,  under  the  reign  of  Kenneth,  the  son 
of  Alpin,  became  so  powerful  as  to  subdue  their 
neighbours  the  Picts,  and  gave  their  own  deno- 
mination to  all  Caledonia,  Pictavia,  and  Valentia ; 
all  which  are  now  comprehended  under  the  ge- 
neral name  of  Scotland. 

The  origin  of  the  Scots  has  been  warmly  dis- 
puted by  many  antiquaries  of  note  ;  particularly 
by  Macpherson  and  Whitaker.  The  first  con- 
tends that  they  are  of  Caledonian,  the  latter  that 
they  are  of  Irish  extraction.  The  Scots  seem  to 
have  been  originally  descended  from  Britons  of 
the.  south,  or  from  Caledonians,  who,  being 
pressed  forward  by  new  colonies  from  Gaul,  till 
they  came  to  the  western  shore  of  Britain,  passed 
over  into  Ireland,  probably  about  100  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era.  About  A.  D.  320  they 
returned  atjain  into  Britain ;  or  at  least  a  larue 
colony  of  them,  under  the  conduct  of  Fergus, 
and  settled  on  the  western  coasts  of  Caledonia, 
from  whence  they  had  formerly  migrated.  As 
early  as  the  year  340,  we  find  them  associated 
with  the  Picts  in  their  expeditions  to  the  Roman 
province ;  and,  for  ninety  or  100  years  after,  their 
ravages  are  frequently  mentioned  by  the  Roman 
and  British  writers.  The  historians  of  Scotland, 
like  those  of  all  other  nations,  assume  too  great 
an  antiquity  for  their  countrymen.  By  them  the 
reign  of  Fergus,  the  first  Scottish  monarch,  is 
placed  in  A.  A.  C.  330.  He  was  the  son  of  Far- 
quhard,  an  Irish  prince  ;  and  was  called  into  Scot- 
land by  the  Caledonians,  to  assist  them  against 
the  southern  Britons,  with  whom  they  were  then 
at  war.  Having  landed  on  one  of  the  Ebudae  or 
western  isles,  he  had  a  conference  with  the  Cale- 
donians, whose  language  and  manners  he  found 
to  be  the  same  with  those  of  his  countrymen. 
Having  then  landed  in  Scotland,  and  taken  the 
field  at  the  head  of  his  new  allies,  he  engaged 
the  Britons  under  their  king  Coilus.  Victory 
declared  in  favor  of  the  Scots ;  Coilus  was  de- 
feated and  killed  :  and  from  him  the  province  of 
Kyle  first  received  its  name.  After  this  Fergus 
was  declared  king  of  the  Scots,  with  the  solem- 
nity of  an  oath.  But  having  been  recalled  to 
Ireland,  to  quiet  some  commotions  there,  he  was 
drowned  by  a  sudden  tempest  on  his  return,  at  a 
place  in  Ireland  called  from  him  Carrick-Fergus, 
i.  e.  Fergus's  Rock,  in  the  year  305  B.  C. 


IJ? 


X     V 


SCOTLAND. 


393 


Fergus  I.  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Feri- 
tharis, to  the  prejudice  of  his  two  sons,  Ferlegus 
and  Mainus.  This  was  in  conformity  with  a 
law,  by  which  it  was  ordained  that,  whilst  the 
children  of  their  kings  were  infants,  one  of  their 
relations,  who  was  reckoned  the  most  fit  for  the 
government,  should  be  raised  to  the  throne,  but 
that  after  his  death  the  sovereignty  should  return 
to  the  sons  of  the  former  king.  But  Ferlegus, 
impatient  for  the  crown,  demanded  it  from  his 
uncle.  The  dispute  being  referred  to  an  assem- 
bly of  the  states,  Feritharis  was  confirmed  on 
the  throne,  and  Ferlegus  would  have  been  con- 
demned for  sedition  had  not  his  uncle  interposed. 
However,  he  was  imprisoned  ;  but,  having  made 
his  escape,  he  fled  first  to  the  Picts  and  then  to 
the  Britons,  to  excite  them  against  Feritharis. 
With  both  he  failed  in  accomplishing  his  pur- 
pose ;  but,  his  uncle  being  afterwards  stabbed  in 
his  bed,  the  suspicion  fell  upon  Ferlegus,  who 
was  thereupon  set  aside  from  the  succession, 
and  died  in  obscurity,  the  throne  being  conferred 
upon  his  brother  Mainus.  Mainus  succeeded 
his  uncle  A.  A.  C.  291,  and  is  celebrated  for  a 
peaceable  and  just  reign  of  twenty-nine  years ; 
and  a  treaty  with  Crinus  king  of  the  Picts.  He 
died  in  262,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Dor- 
nadil,  who  was  a  great  hunter,  and"  instituted  the 
laws  of  hunting  in  this  country.  He  died  in 
233  B.  C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Nothat ;  who  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  reign, 
B.C.  213,  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  Reuther 
his  nephew  ;  upon  which  the  latter  was  immedi- 
ately invested  with  the  sovereignty.  A  bloody 
war  ensued  with  the  Picts,  in  which  both  parties 
were  reduced  to  the  last  extremities,  and  glad  to 
conclude  a  peace,  which  continued  many  years. 
Reuther  died  in  187  B.  C.,  the  26th  of  his  reign, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Reutha ;  who 
is  said  to  have  encouraged  trade  and  manufac- 
tures, and  to  have  received  an  embassy  of  learned 
men  from  Ptolemy  king  of  Egypt.  He  died 
171  B.C.,  and  left  the  throne  to  his  son  Thereus, 
who,  proving  a  tyrant,  was  banished,  and  died 
at  York  in  161.  His  brother  Josina  succeeded, 
and  cultivated  the  arts  of  peace ;  studying  me- 
dicine and  botany,  Sec.  He  reigned  twenty-four 
years,'and  died  137  B.C.,  when  his  son  Finnan 
succeeded.  He  is  celebrated  as  a  wise  monarch, 
and  in  his  reign  we  find  the  first  beginnings  of 
the  Scottish  parliament;  as  he  enacted  that  kings 
should  do  nothing  without  the  consent  of  their 
grand  council. 

Finnan  died  in  his  thirtieth  year,  107  B.  C., 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Durstus,  who, 
proving  a  cruel  tyrant,  was  killed  in  battle  by 
his  nobles,  in  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Even  I.,  who  was 
a  wise  monarch ;  and  successfully  assisted  the 
Picts  against  the  Britons.  Even  died  in  his 
nineteenth  year  B.  C.  79,  when  the  crown  was 
usurped  by  his  bastard  son  Gillus,  who  murdered 
the  two  sons  of  Durstus,  but  was  killed  in  battle 
two  years  after.  In  77  B.C.  Even  II.,  the 
nephew  of  Finnan,  succeeded  Gillus,  and  built 
the  towns  of  Innerlochy  and  Inverness.  He 
overcame  Belus  king  of  the  Orkneys,  who  had 
invaded  Scotland,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Eder,  in  30  B.  C.,  in  whose  time  Julius  Ca^ar 


invaded  the  southern  parts  of  this  island.     Eder 
is  said  to  have  assisted  the  Britons  against  the 
common  enemy.     lie   was   succeeded,    after  a 
reign  of  forty-eight  years,  by  his  son  Even  III., 
in  the  year  12  B.C.,  who  is  represented  as  a 
monster  of  cruelty  apd  lust.     Nor  was  he  less 
remarkable  for  his  rapaciousness,  which  at  last 
occasioned  a  rebellion  :  he  was  dethroned,  im-  . 
prisoned,  and  put  to  death  in  his  seventh  year, 
4  B.  C.     Even  was  succeeded  by  Metellanus, 
nephew  of  Ederus,  a  wise  and  good  king,  who 
reigned  prosperously  thirty-nine  years  in  peace, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  sister's  son,  the  famous 
Caractacus,  A.  D.  35,  who    is    celebrated    by 
Boece,    Fordun,    Monipenny,    Buchanan,    and 
all  our  other  ancient  historians,  as  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  Scottish  monarchs.     See  CARAC- 
TACUS.    The  Scottish  historians   insist  that  his 
fame  for  wisdom,  courage,  and  riches  (accumu- 
lated during  the  peaceable  reign  of  his  uncle), 
being  very  great,  he  was  invited  by  the  Britons 
to  assist  them  in  expelling  the  Romans,  and  that 
upon  his   arrival  at  York,  to  which  the  Britons 
had  retired  after  a  defeat,  he  was  elected  general 
of  the  combined  troops  of  the  Britons,  Scots, 
and    Picts;   who,    though   equally    brave    and 
numerous,  amounting  to  60,000  men,  were  de- 
feated by  the  Romans  in  three  different  battles  ; 
in  the  last  of  whifh,  Caractacus's  queen,  daugh- 
ter, and  brother,  were  taken  prisoners  by  Vespa- 
sian ;  and  soon    after  he  himself  was  betrayed 
to  the  Romans  by  his  step-mother  Cai  tismandua, 
and  carried  prisoner  to  Rome.     Being  afterwards 
restored,  with  his  relations,  they  add  that  Caracta- 
cus reigned  in  peace  till  A.  D.  55,  when  he  died. 
Caractacus   was    succeeded    by    his    brother 
Corbred    I.    who    punished    the    treachery    of 
Cartismandua    by    burying    her    alive.      Cor- 
bred's  sister,  the  famous  Woada,  or  Voadicea, 
being  married  to  the  king  of  the  Britons,  and 
shamefully   used  by  the    Romans,   being   her- 
self  whipped,     and    her     daughters    violated, 
Corbred   raised  an  army    of  Scots  and  Picts, 
expelled  the  Romans  out  of  the  north  of  Eng- 
land, and  took  Berwick.     About  this  time  the 
Scots  were  joined  by  a  numerous  tribe  of  the 
Murrays    from    Moravia,   under   their   general 
Roderic,  who  assisted  them   in  their  wars,  re- 
ceiving the  county  of  Murray  in  reward  of  their 
bravery.     After  this  Woada  raised  an  army  of 
5000  females,  it  is  said,  to  revenge  the  cause  of 
her  sex,  who,  joining  the  combined  forces,  de- 
feated the   Romans,  and  killed  7000  of  them. 
But  Suetonius  coming  soon  after,  with  a  fresh 
body  of  10,000  troops,  the  combined  army  was 
defeated,  and  Woada  killed  herself.     Corhred 
returned  to  Scotland,  where  he  died  in  peace  in 
the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign,  A.  1).  72  ;  and 
was  succeeded  by  Dardanus,  nephew  of  Metel- 
lanus ;  who,  proving  a  cruel  tyrant,  was  beheaded 
by  his  nobles  A.  D.  76.     He  was  succeeded  by 
Corbred  II.,  sirnamed  Galdus,  and  called  by  the 
Roman  historians  Galgacus,  in  whose  reign  the 
invasion  by  Agricola  happened.     Agricola  hav- 
ing  completed   the   conquest   of   the   southern 
parts,  and  in  a  great  measure  civilised  the  inha- 
bitants, formed  a  like  plan  with  regard  to  Scot- 
land.    At  this  time  the  Caledonians  were  ren- 
dered more  formidable  than  ever  they  had  been; 


394 


SCOTLAND. 


by  the  accession  of  great  numbers  from  the 
south ;  for,  though  the  Romans  had  civilised  the 
greatest  part,  many  of  those  savage  warriors, 
disdaining  the  pleasures  of  a  peaceable  life,  re- 
tired to  the  northward,  where  the  martial  dispo- 
sition of  the  Scots  better  suited  their  inclination. 
The  utmost  efforts  of  valor,  however,  were  not 
proof  against  the  discipline  of  the  Roman  troops 
and  the  experience  of  their  commander.  In  the 
third  year  Agricola  had  penetrated  as  far  as  the 
river  Tay;  but  the  particulars  of  his  progress 
are  not  recorded.  In  the  fourth  he  built  a  line 
of  forts  between  the  friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde, 
to  exclude  the  Caledonians  from  the  south  parts 
of  the  island ;  and  the  year  after  he  subdued 
those  parts  which  lay  to  the  south  and  west  of 
his  forts,  viz.  the  counties  of  Galloway,  Can- 
tyre,  and  Argyle,  which  were  then  inhabited  by 
a  people  called  Cangi,  who,  as  Tacitus  ex- 
pressly informs  us,  had  never  before  been 
known  to  the  Romans.  Agricola  still  pur- 
sued the  same  prudent  measures  by  which  he 
had  already  secured  the  possession  of  such  a 
large  tract  of  country,  advancing  slowly,  and 
building  forts  as  he  advanced,  to  keep  the  people 
in  obedience.  The  Scots,  though  commanded 
by  their  king,  who  is  said  to  have  been  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  manner  of  fighting  and  disci- 
pline of  the  Romans,  were  yet  obliged  to  re- 
treat ;  but  at  last,  finding  that  the  enemy  made 
such  progress  as  endangered  the  subjugation  of 
the  whole  country,  he  resolved  to  cut  off  their 
communication  with  the  southern  parts,"and  like- 
wise to  prevent  all  possibility  of  a  retreat  by 
sea.  Agricola  then  divided  his  troops  into  three 
bodies,  having  a  communication  with  each  other. 
Upon  this,  Galgacus  resolved  to  attack  the  weak- 
i  -t  of  the  three,  which  consisted  only  of  the 
ninth  legion,  and  lay  at  that  time  at  a  place 
called  Lochore,  about  two  miles  from  Loch- 
Leven  in  Fife.  The  attack  was  made  in  the 
night :  and,  as  the  Romans  were  both  unpre- 
pared and  inferior  in  number,  the  Scots  pene- 
trated into  the  heart  of  their  camp, .and  were 
making  a  great  slaughter,  when  Agricola  de- 
tached some  light  armed  troops  to  their  assist- 
ance ;  by  whom  the  Caledonians  in  their  turn 
were  routed,  and  forced  to  fly  to  the  marshes 
and  inaccessible  places,  where  the  enemy  could 
not  follow  them.  This  engagement  has  been 
magnified  by  the  Roman  historians  into  a  vic- 
tory, though  it  can  scarcely  be  admitted  from  the 
testimonies  of  other  historians.  The  Romans, 
however,  certainly  advanced  very  considerably, 
and  the  Scots  as  constantly  retreated,  till  they 
came  to  the  foot  of  the  Grampian  mountains, 
where  the  Caledonians  resolvea  to  make  their 
last  stand.  In  the  eighth  year  of  the  war,  Agri- 
cola  advanced  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
where  he  found  the  enemy  ready  to  receive  him. 
Tacitus  has  recorded  a  speech  of  Galgacus,  which 
some  think  he  fabricated  for  him,  in  which  he 
sets  forth  the  aspiring  disposition  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  encourages  his  countrymen  to  defend 
themselves  vigorously,  as  knowing  that  every 
thing  valuable  was  at  stake.  A  desperate  en- 
gagement ensued.  In  the  beginning  the  Britons 
had  the  advantage  by  the  dexterous  manage- 
ment of  their  bucklers;  but  Agricola  having 


ordered  three  Tungrian  and  two  fiatavian  co- 
horts, armed  with  short  swords,  and  embossed 
bucklers  terminating  in  a  point,  to  attack  the 
Scots,  who  were  armed  with  long  swords,  the 
latter  soon  found  these  weapons  useless  in  a  close 
encounter ;  and  as  their  bucklers  only  covered  a 
small  part  of  their  bodies,  they  were  easily  cut 
in  pieces  by  their  adversaries.  The  most  for- 
ward of  their  cavalry  and  charioteers  fell  back 
upon  their  infantry,  and  disordered  the  centre  ; 
but,  the  Britons  endeavouring  to  out-flank  their 
enemies,  the  Roman  general  opposed  them  with 
his  horse ;  and  the  Caledonians  were  at  last 
routed  with  great  slaughter,  and  forced  to  fly 
into  the  woods,  whither  the  Romans  pursued 
with  so  little  caution  that  numbers  of  tliem 
were  cut  off.  Agricola,  however,  having  ordered 
his  troops  to  proceed  more  regularly,  prevented 
"the  Scots  from  attacking  and  cutting  off  his  men 
in  separate  parties,  as  they  had  expected ;  so 
that  this  victory  proved  the  greatest  stroke  to  the 
Caledonians  that  they  had  hitherto  received. 
This  battle  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
fought  in  Strathern,  half  a  mile  south  from  the 
kirk  of  Comrie ;  but  others  imagine  the  place 
to  have  been  near  Fortingal  Camp,  a  place 
somewhat  farther  on  the  other  side  of  the  Tay 
Great  as  this  victory  was  it  seems  not  to  have 
been  productive  of  any  solid  or  lasting  advant- 
age to  the  Romans;  as  Agricola,  instead  of 
putting  an  end  to  the  war  by  the  immediate  con- 
quest of  all  Caledonia,  retreated  into  the  coun- 
try of  the  Foresti,  commonly  supposed  t 
Forfarshire,  though  others  imagine  it  to  have 
been  the  county  of  Fife.  Here  he  receive-! 
hostages  from  part  of  the  Caledonians;  and 
ordered  part  of  his  fleet  to  sail  round  Britain, 
that  they  might  discover  whether  it  was  an 
island  or  a  continent.  The  Romans  no  sooner 
had  left  that  part  of  the  country  than  the  Cale- 
donians demolished  all  the  forts  they  had  raised  : 
and,  Agricola  being  soon  after  recalled  by  I)o- 
mitian,  the  further  progress  of  the  Roman  arms 
was  stopped,  Galgacus  proving  superior  to  any 
of  the  successors  of  that  general.  Galgacus  or 
Corbredus  reigned  peaceably  after  this,  till  A.  D. 
110,  when  he  died,  in  the  thirty-fifth  year  of  his 
reign. 

From  the  time  of  Agricola  to  that  of  Adrian, 
we  know  little  of  the  affairs  of  Scotland,  except- 
ing that  Lugtacus  succeeded  his  father  in  110, 
and  proving  a  cruel  tyrant  was  killed  by  his  no- 
bles, A.  D.  113.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
cousin  Mogbllus,  in  whose  rei^n  Adrian  came 
into  Britain.  During  this  internal  the  Scots 
must  have  entirely  driven  the  Romans  out  of 
their  country,  'and  reconquered  all  that  tract 
which  lay  between  Agricola's  chain  of  forts  and 
Carlisle  on  the  west,  and  Newcastle  of  Tinmouth 
Bar  on  the  east,  which  Adrian,  on  visiting  Bri- 
tain, fixed  as  the  north  boundary  of  the  Roman 
dominions.  Here  he  built  a  wall  between  the 
mouth  of  the  Tine  and  the  Solway  Frith,  to  shut 
out  the  barbarians ;  which  did  not  answer  the 
purpose,  as  it  was  only  built  of  turf,  and  guard- 
ed by  no  more  than  18,000  men.  See  ADRIAN'S 
WALL.  On  the  departure  of  Adrian,  he  left 
Julius  Severus  as  his  lieutenant ;  but  he  carrifl 
his  arms  to  the  north  of  Adrian'?  wall:  and  this 


SCOTLAND. 


395 


long  interval  of  peace  gave  so  much  security  to 
Mogallus  that  he  degenerated  into  a  tyrant,  and 
was.  murdered  by  his  nobles.  The  only  instance 
of  his  tyranny  which  is  recorded,  however,  is  a 
law  by  which  it  was  enacted  that  the  estates  of 
such  as  were  condemned  should  be  forfeited  to 
his  exchequer,  without  any  part  thereof  being 
allotted  to  their  wives  and  children ;  an  act 
which  subsists  almost  in  its  full  force  to  this  day 
in  Great  Britain  and  the  best  regulated  Euro- 
pean governments.  Mogallus  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Conarus,  A.  D.  149,  who,  following  his 
father's  bad  example,  was  deposed  and  died  in 
jail,  A.  D.  163.  His  cousin  Ethod, or  Ethodius 
I.,  succeeded  him,  who  proved  a  good  monarch, 
and  was  successful  in  several  battles  against  the 
Romans,  under  Victorinus,  Trebellus,  and  Per- 
tinax ;  yet  was  treacherously  murdered  by  a 
harper,  in  his  thirty-third  year,  A.  D.  195.  The 
harper  was  tortured  to  death.  Satrael,  Ethod's 
brother,  succeeded  him,  but  becoming  tyrannical 
he  was  killed  by  a  courtier,  in  his  fourth  year, 
A.  D.  199;  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Donald  I.  In  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  the 
proprietor  Lollius  Urbius  drove  the  Scots  far  to 
the  northward,  and  repaired  the  chain  of  forts 
built  by  Agricola,  which  lay  between  the  Carron 
on  the  Frith  of  Forth  and  Dunglass  on  the  Clyde. 
These  were  joined  together  by  turf  walls,  and 
ormed  a  much  better  defence  than  the  wall  of 
Adrian.  However,  after  Antoninus's  death,  Corn- 
modus  having  recalled  Calpurnius-Agricola,  an 
;i')lu  commander,  who  kept  the  Scots  in  awe,  a 
more  dangerous  war  broke  out  than  had  ever 
been  experienced  by  the  Romans  in  that  quar- 
ter. The  Scots,  having  passed  the  wall,  put  all 
the  Romans  they  could  meet  with  to  the  sword : 
but  they  were  soon  repulsed  by  Ulpius  Marcel- 
lus,  a  general  of  consummate  abilities,  whom 
Commodus  sent  into  the  islands.  In  a  short 
time  the  tyrant  also  recalled  this  able  com- 
mander. After  his  departure,  the  Roman  disci- 
pline in  Britain  suffered  a  total  relaxation ;  the 
soldiery  grew  mutinous,  and  great  disorders  en- 
sued :  but  these  were  all  happily  removed  by  the 
arrival  of  Clodius  Albinus,  a  person  of  great 
skill  and  experience  in  military  affairs.  His 
presence  for  some  time  restrained  the  Scots 
within  proper  bounds :  but,  a  civil  war  breaking 
out  between  him  and  Severus,  Albinus  crossed 
over  to  the  continent  with  the  greatest  part  of 
the  Roman  forces  in  Britain;  and,  meeting  his 
antagonist  at  Lyons,  a  dreadful  battle  ensued, 
in  which  Albinus  was  defeated,  and  his  army 
cut  in  pieces.  See  ROME.  The  absence  of  the 
Roman  forces  gave  encouragement  to  the  Scots 
to  renew  their  depredations,  which  they  did  with 
such  success  that  this  emperor  became  appre- 
hensive of  losing  the  whole  island ;  on  which  he 
determined  to  go  in  person  and  quell  these  trou- 
blesome enemies.  The  army  he  now  collected 
was  far  more  numerous  than  any  the  Romans 
had  ever  sent  into  Britain  ;  and,  being  com- 
manded by  such  an  able  general  as  Severus,  the 
Scots  must  have  been  very  hard  pressed.  The 
particulars  of  this  important  expedition  are  very 
imperfectly  related ;  however,  we  are  assured 
that  Severus  lost  a  vast  number  of  men,  it  is  said 
not  less  than  50,000,  in  his  march  through  Scot- 


land. Yet  he  penetrated  to  the  most  northern 
extremity  of  the  island,  and  obliged  the  enemy 
to  yield  up  their  arms.  On  his  return,  he  built 
a  much  stronger  fortification  to  secure  the  fron- 
tiers against  the  enemy  than  had  ever  been  done 
before,  and  which,  in  some  places,  coincided 
with  Adrian's  wall,  but  extended  farther  at  each 
end.  But,  in  the  mean  time,  the  Scots  provoked 
by  the  brutality  of  the  emperor's  son  Caracalla, 
whom  he  had  left  regent  in  his  absence,  again 
took  arms  :  on  which  Severus  himself  took  the 
field,  with  a  design  to  extirpate  the  whole  nation ; 
for  he  gave  orders  to  his  soldiers  '  not  to  spare 
even  the  child  in  the  mother's  belly.'  But  his 
death,  which  happened  soon  after,  put  a  stop  to 
the  execution  of  his  revenge ;  and  his  son  Cara- 
calla ratified  the  peace  with  the  Scots.  During 
all  these  important  transactions  Scotland  was 
governed  by  Donald  I.,  who  was  the  first  Chris- 
tian king  of  this  country.  He  also  first  coined  gold 
and  silver,  and  died  in  his  18th  year,  A.  D.  216. 
Donald  was  succeeded  by  Ethodius  II.,  the 
son  of  Ethodius  I.,  who,  acting  tyrannically,  was 
killed  by  his  guards,  A.  D.  231.  His  son  Athi- 
rco  succeeded,  and,  pursuing  similar  measures, 
was  deserted  by  his  nobles,  and  killed  himself 
in  his  twelfth  year,  A.  D.  242.  His  successor 
Nathalocus,  behaving  also  tyrannically,  was 
killed  by  his  nobles  in  his  eleventh  year,  A.  D. 
253.  He  was  succeeded  by  Findocus,  the  son 
of  Athirco,  who  proved  a  good  monarch,  but 
was  killed  at  a  hunting,  by  the  instigation  of  his 
brother  Carausius,  in  his  eleventh  year,  A.  D.  264. 
His  other  brother  Donald  II.  succeeded,  but 
reigned  only  one  year,  being  killed  in  battle  by 
Donald  III.,  lord  of  the  Isles,  who  usurped  the 
throne,  and  reigned  twelve  years,  but  was  killed 
by  Crathilinthus,  the  son  of  Findocus,  A.  D. 
277,  who  proved  a  good  monarch.  Mean  time 
his  uncle  Carausius  had  acquired  great  fame  by 
his  repeated  victories  over  the  Romans,  and  was 
elected  king  of  the  Britons.  See  CARAUSIUS 
and  ENGLAND.  Crathilinthus  died  in  his  twenty- 
fourth  year,  A.  D.  301,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin  Fincormachus,  a  brave  and  pious 
prince,  who  assisted  Octavius,  king  of  the  Bri- 
tons, in  a  successful  battle  against  the  Romans, 
wherein  16,000  Romans  were  slain,  and  15,000 
Britons ;  for  which  service  Westmoreland  and 
Cumberland  were  ceded  to  Scotland.  He  died 
in  his  forty-seventh  year,  A.  D.  348,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Romachus  nephew  of  Crathilin- 
thus, who,  for  his  cruelty,  was  beheaded  by  the 
nobles,  A.  D.  351.  Angusian,  another  nephew, 
succeeded,  and  proved  a  good  prince,  but  was 
killed  in  battle,  A.  D.  354 ;  and  succeeded  by 
Fincormachus,  a  third  nephew  of  Crathilinthus, 
who  reigned  well  and  conquered  the  Picts,  but 
was  treacherously  murdered,  A.  D.  357,  by  two 
Picts,  who  were  tortured  to  death.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Eugene  I.,  under  whom  the 
Roman  and  Pictish  forces  were  united  against 
the  Scots.  The  Picts  were  commanded  by  their 
king,  named  Hungus,  and  the  Romans  by  Max- 
imus,  who  murdered  Valentinian  III.,  and  after- 
wards assumed  the  empire.  The  allies  defeated 
Eugene  in  the  county  of  Galloway  ;  but,  Maxi- 
inus  being  obliged  to  return  southward  on  ac- 
count of  an  insurrection,  the  Picts  were  in  their 


396 


SCOTLAND. 


turn  defeated  by  the  Scots.  Next  year,  however, 
Maxima*  marched  against  the  Scots;  who,  being 
now  reduced  to  extremity,  brought  into  the  field 
not  only  all  the  men  capable  of  bearing  arms, 
but  the  women  also.  In  this  engagement  the 
Picts  would  have  been  utterly  defeated,  had  they 
not  been  supported  by  the  Romans ;  but  Eugene 
being  killed,  with  the  greatest  part  of  his  nobi- 
lity, the  Scots  were  defeated  ;  and  so  well  did 
the  conquerors  improve  their  victory,  that  their 
antagonists  were  at  last  totally  driven  out  of  the 
country.  Some  of  them  took  refuge  in  the 
.Ebudae  Islands,  and  some  in  Scandinavia,  but 
most  of  them  fled  to  Ireland,  whence  they  made 
frequent  descents  upon  Scotland. 

The  Picts  were  at  first  highly  pleased  with  the 
victory  they  had  gained  over  their  antagonists  ; 
but  being  commanded  to  adopt  the  laws  of  the 
Romans,  and  to  choose  no  king  who  was  not 
sent  them  from  Rome,  they  began  to  repent  of 
their  having  contributed  to  the  expulsion  of 
the  Scots ;  and  in  the  year  404,  when  Aistulphus 
king  of  the  Goths  sent  over  a  body  of  exiled 
Scots  to  Britain,  under  Fergus,  the  son  of  Er- 
thus,  and  grandson  of  Ethodius,  brother  of  Eu- 
gene I.,  the  Picts  immediately  joined  .them 
against  the  common  enemy.  The  consequence 
was,  that  the  Britons  were  pushed  to  the  last  ex- 
tremity ;  and  the  Romans  being  obliged,  by  the 
inundation  of  northern  barbarians  who  poured  in 
upon  them,  to  recal  their  forces  from  Britain,  the 
inhabitants  were  reduced  to  a  most  miserable 
situation.  In  the  time  of  Fergus  II.  they  were 
obliged  to  give  up  all  the  country  which  lies 
north  of  Adrian's  wall.  Fergus  II.  is  celebrated 
as  not  only  a  brave  but  a  pious  prince  :  but, 
though  often  successful  against  the  Romans,  he 
was  at  last  killed  in  battle  by  them,  in  his  six- 
teenth year,  A.  D.  420.  His  son  Eugene  II. 
succeeded  him,  and  imitated  his  virtues.  He 
obtained  several  victories  over  the  Romans  and 
their  British  allies.  In  his  reign  Graham,  the 
founder  of  the  family  of  that  name,  who  was  of 
the  blood  royal,  and  whose  daughter  was  married 
to  Fergus  II.,  performed  many  brave  exploits, 
and  destroyed  part  of  Antoninus's  Wall,  thence 
called  Graham's  Dike.  In  the  seventh  year  of 
Eugene  the  Romans  were  expelled  out  of  Scot- 
land, after  a  bloody  battle ;  and  soon  after  left 
the  island.  Eugene  died  in  his  thirty-first  year, 
A.  D.  451,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dongard  his 
brother.  It  was  in  Eugene's  reign  that  the  Bri- 
tons were  reduced  so  low,  that  they  were  obliged 
to  write  that  remarkable  letter  to  Rome  entitled 
'  the  groans  of  the  Britons.'  This,  however,  not 
being  attended  with  success,  the  Britons  were 
obliged  to  call  in  the  Saxons  to  their  assistance. 
By  these  new  allies  the  Scots  were  defeated  in  a 
great  battle,  and  their  king  Dongard  drowned 
in  the  Humber,  A.  D.  457,  which  put  a  stop 
for  some  time  to  these  incursions.  Hitherto  we 
have  seen  the  Scots  very  formidable  enemies  to 
the  southern  Britons.  But,  when  the  Saxons  be- 
came the  enemies  of  the  Britons,  the  Scots 
joined  in  a  strict  alliance  with  the  latter;  neither 
does  it  appear  that  this  league  was  ever  dissolved, 
though  the  united  efforts  of  the  Scots  and  Bri- 
lons  were  not  sufficient  to  preserve  the  indepen- 
dency of  the  latter. 


II.  HISTORY  OF  SCOTLAND  TO  THE  REIGN  ur 
KENNETH  II.— A   series  of  inonarchs  followed, 
of  whom  little  is  recorded.     Dongard  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Constantine   I.,  who,  he- 
coming   tyrannical,   was  killed  by  one   of   his 
nobles,  whose  daughter  he  had   ravished  :  A.  D 
479,  in  his  twenty-second  year.     Congal  I.  the 
son  of  Dongard  succeeded  him,  who  conquered 
the  Britons  in  a  bloody  battle,  wherein  20,000 
Britons,  with   Guythel  prince   of  Wales,  were 
slain.     He    had    afterwards   some    other  battles 
with  the  Britons  and  Saxons,  wherein  little  was 
gained  by  either  party.     He  died  in  his  twenty- 
second  year,  A.  D.  501,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Conranus,  who  also  carried  on  a  war 
against  the  Saxons,  and,  along  with   the  Picts, 
assisted  first  king  Ambrosius,  and  afterwards  the 
celebrated  king  Arthur  against  them  with  con- 
siderable   success.      This    excellent    monarch, 
however,  after  all  his  victories,  was  murdered  by 
traitors  in  his  own  chamber,  A.  D.  335,  in   his 
thirty-fourth  year.     Conranus  was  succeeded  by 
Eugene   III.,  whose    reign    was    uncommonly 
peaceable.     He  died  in  his  twenty-third  year, 
A.  D.  558,  and   was  succeeded  by   his  brother 
Congal  II.,  who  was  a  pious  prince,  and  uied  in 
his  eleventh  year,  A.  D.  569.     His  brother  Kin- 
natel    succeeded,   and   reigned    well   the    short 
time  he  lived,  which  was  only  one  year.     He 
was  succeeded  by  Aidanus,  the  son  of  Conramis, 
who    joined    the    Britons   against    the   Saxons. 
He   died    iu    the   thirty-fifth   year  of  his  age, 
A.  D.  605;  an;l  was  succeeded   by  Kenneth  I., 
the  son  of  Congal  II.,  who  only  reigned  one 
year,  and   was  succeeded  by  Eugene  IV.,  the 
son  of  Aidanus,  in  606.     He  reigned  in  peace, 
instituted  good  laws,  and   died   in  his   fifteenth 
year,  A.  D.  621.     He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Ferquhard  I.,  who,  being  a  vicious  tyrant,  \\  as 
deposed  by  his  nobles,  and  put  in  prison,  where 
he  killed  himself,  in  his  eleventh  year,  A.  D.  632. 
His  son  Donald  IV.  succeeded  him,  and  proved 
a  pious  and  peaceable  monarch,  but  was  unfor- 
tunately drowned  in  Loch  Ta,  while  fishing,  in 
his  fourteenth  year,  A.  D.  646.     He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Ferquhard  II.,  who  was 
infamous  for  his  avarice ;  and  died  in  his  eigh- 
teenth year,  A.  D.  664,  by  the  bite  of  a  wolf. 
Malduinus,  the  son  of  Donald  IV'.,  succeeded, 
and  was  esteemed  a  pious  and  just  sovereign ; 
but  his  queen,  becoming  jealous  of  him,  strangled 
him  in  bed,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  reign, 
A.  D.  684 ;  for  which  she  and  her  accomplices 
in  the  murder  were  burnt.     Eugene  V.,  Maldu- 
in's  brother,  succeeded  him,  and  proved  a  valiant 
monarch.      He   obtained   a   great  victory   over 
F.dfred,  king  of  Northumberland,  who  was  killed 
with  10,000  Saxons,  and  their  ally  Bredius  king 
of  the  Picts  fled.     Eugene  died  in  his  fourth 
year,  A.  D.  688.     Eugene  VI.,  the  son  of  Ferqu- 
hard  II.,  succeeded  him,  and   maintained  the 
character  of  a  religious  and  peaceable  monarch. 
He  only  reigned  nine  years,  dying  in  697.    Am- 
berkeleth,  the  son  of  Aidan,  succeeded,  but  was 
killed  in  battle  by  an  arrow,  in  his  second  year. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Eugene  VII., 
who  made  peace   with   Garnard,   king   of  the 
Picts,  who  married  his  daughter  Spontana ;  but 
she  was  murdered  the  year  following,  in  bed,  by 


SCOTLAND. 


397 


two  assassins,  who  had  intended  to  kill  her  hus- 
band. Eugene  endowed  several  churches,  and 
died  in  his  sixteenth  year,  A.  I).  715.  Murdach, 
the  son  of  Amberkeleth,  succeeded,  and  culti- 
vated peace  so  successfully  that  he  got  all  dif- 
ferences settled  during  his  reign,  among  the 
Britons,  Scots,  Picts,  and  Saxons.  He  also 
built  Whithorn.  The  venerable  Bede  flourished 
in  his  time.  See  BEDA.  Murdach  died  in  his 
sixteenth  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  Etsinus,  or 
Ethwin,  the  son  of  Eugene  VII.  A.  D.  730,  who 
had  a  peaceable  and  prosperous  reign  of  thirty- 
one  years.  Eugene  VIII.,  the  son  of  Murdach, 
succeeded  him,  A.  D.  76t,  and  began  his  reign 
with  an  act  of  justice,  by  executing  Donald  lord 
of  the  Isles,  and  the  earl  of  Galloway,  for  their 
crimes ;  but  soon  after  degenerated  so  greatly 
himself,  that  his  nobles  conspired  against  and 
killed  him,  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign.  Fer- 
gus III.,  the  son  of  Etsinus,  succeeded  Eugene 
in  764,  and  married  Ethiolia,  daughter  of  the 
king  of  the  Picts ;  but,  in  the  third  year  of  his 
reign,  neglecting  her  for  other  women,  she  mur- 
dered him  ;  and  his  servants  being  taken  up  on 
suspicion,  she  came  into  the  court,  confessed  the 
murder,  and  stabbed  herself.  Fergus  III.  was 
succeeded  by  Solvathius,  the  son  of  Eugene 
VIII.  in  767 ;  who  married  a  daughter  of  the 
king  of  the  Britons,  and  preserved  his  kingdom 
in  peace  and  prosperity  for  twenty  years,  when 
he  died  of  the  gout,  lie  was  succeeded  by  the 
celebrated  Achaius,  the  son  of  Etliwin,  in  787; 
who,  after  quelling  some  insurrections  in  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  entered  into  a  treaty  of  per- 
petual amity  with  Charles  the  Great,  king  of 
France,  and  emperor  of  Germany,  which  treaty 
continued  to  be  observed  inviolably  between 
the  two  nations,  till  the  accession  of  James  VI. 
to  the  throne  of  England.  Achaius  strength- 
ened this  alliance  still  farther,  by  marrying  a 
daughter  of  Charlemagne,  and  by  sending  his 
brother  William,  with  several  noblemen,  and 
4000  troops,  to  assist  Charles  in  his  various  wars, 
wherein  they  acquired  great  honor,  upon  which 
our  ancient  historians  expatiate  very  largely; 
and  inform  us  that,  along  with  these  troops, 
Achaius  sent  two  learned  clerks,  John  and  Cle- 
ment, who  gave  the  Parisians  their  first  taste  for 
learning,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Uni- 
versity (  f  Pans ;  and  they  add  that  John  was 
afterwards  sent  to  Pavia,  to  establish  learning 
in  Italy. 

After  this  Achaius  reigned  in  peace,  and  died 
of  age,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  reign  ; 
leaving  one  son,  named  Alpinus,  by  his  second 
queen  Fergusia,  sister  of  Ilungus,  king  of  the 
Picts ;  which  connexion  afterwards  proved  the 
foundation  of  the  Scottish  king's  claim  upon  the 
Pictish  crown.  Meantime  Congal  II.,  nephew 
of  Achaius,  succeeded  him,  according  to  the 
Scottish  rule,  A.  D.  819.  He  died  in  the  fifth 
year  of  his  short  but  peaceful  reign ;  and  was 
succeeded  by  Dongal,  the  son  of  Solvathius,  in 
824.  Meantime  a  horrible  scene  of  murder  and 
incest  was  acted  in  the  royal  family  of  the  Picts. 
Dorstologus,  their  king,  was  murdered  by  his 
brother  Eganus,  who  married  his  brother's  widow 
Brensia,  who  soon  after  murdered  him  in  his  bed 
to  avenge  the  death  of  her  first  husband.  The 


murder  of  these  two  princes  gave  rise  to  the  next 
remarkable  event  in  the  history  of  Scotland,  viz. 
the  war  with  the  Picts.  The  occasion  of  the 
quarrel  was,  that  Dongal  king  of  Scotland 
claimed,  in  the  name  of  prince  Alpinus,  by  a 
former  embassy,  a  right  to  the  Pictish  throne; 
which,  however,  was  rejected  by  the  Picts  :  upon 
which  both  parties  had  recourse  to  arms ;  but, 
when  every  thing  was  ready  for  the  campaign, 
Dongal  was  drowned  in  crossing  the  river  Spey, 
in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign,  A.  D.  731.  At 
this  time  the  dominions  of  the  Scots  compre- 
hended the  western  islands,  together  with  the 
counties  of  Argyle,  Knapdale,  Kyle,  Kintyre, 
Lochaber,  and  a  part  of  Breadalbane  ;  while  the 
Picts  possessed  all  the  rest  of  Scotland,  and  part 
of  Northumberland ;  so  that  the  Picts  seem  to 
have  been  by  much  the  most  powerful  people  of 
the  two.  However  the  Scots  appear  to  have  been 
superior  in  military  skill;  for  Alpin,  the  succes- 
sor of  Dongal,  having  engaged  the  Pictish  army 
near  Forfar,  after  an  obstinate  engagement  de- 
feated them,  and  killed  their  king,  though  not 
without  the  loss  of  a  great  number  of  his  own 
men.  The  Picts  chose  Brudus,  the  son  of  their 
forme* king,  to  succeed  him  ;  but  soon  after  de- 
posed and  put  him  to  death  on  account  of  his 
stupidity  and  indolence.  His  brother  Kenneth 
shared  the  same  fate  on  account  of  his  cowardice; 
till  at  last  another  Brudus,  a  brave  and  spirited 
prince,  ascended  the  throne.  Having  raised  a 
powerful  army,  he  began  with  offering  terms  of 
peace  to  the  Scots ;  which,  however,  Alpin  re- 
jected, and  insisted  upon  a  total  surrender  of  his 
crown.  Brudus  on  this  endeavoured  to  procure 
the  assistance  of  Edwin  king  of  Northumberland. 
Edwin  accepted  the  money ;  but,  pretending  to 
be  engaged  in  other  wars,  he  refused  the  assist- 
ance which  he  had  promised.  Brudus,  not  dis- 
mayed by  this  disappointment,  marched  resolutely 
against  his  enemies  ;  and  the  two  armies  came  to 
an  engagement  near  Dundee.  The  superior 
skill  of  the  Scots  in  military  affairs  was  about 
to  have  decided  the  victory  in  their  favor,  when 
Brudus  used  the  following  stratagem  to  preserve 
his  army  from  destruction  : — He  caused  all  his 
attendants,  and  even  the  women  who  attended 
his  army,  to  assemble  and  show  themselves  at  a 
distance,  as  a  powerful  reinforcement  coming  to 
the  Picts.  This  struck  the  Scots  with  such  a 
panic  that  all  the  efforts  of  Alpin  could  not  re- 
cover them  ;  and  they  were  accordingly  defeated 
with  great  slaughter.  Alpin  himself  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  soon  after  beheaded  by  order  of 
the  conqueror.  This  execution  happened  at  a 
place  now  called  Pit-alpy,  but  in  former  times' 
Bas- Alpin,  which  in  the  Gaelic  language  signi- 
fies the  death  of  Alpin ;  or,  as  Monipenny  has  it, 
Pas-Alpin,  i.e.  the  head  of  Alpin.  His  head 
was  afterwards  stuck  upon  a  pole,  and  exposed 
on  a  wall. 

Alpin  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Kenneth  II., 
A.  D.  834,  who,  being  a  brave  and  enterprising 
prince,  resolved  to  take  a  most  severe  revenge 
for  his  father's  death.  The  Scots,  however, 
were  so  dispirited  by  their  late  defeat  that  they 
were  exceedingly  averse  to  any  renewal  of  the 
war ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Picts  were 
so  much  elated,  that  they  made  a  law,  by  which 


398 


SCOTLAND. 


it  became  death  for  any  man  to  propose  peace 
with  the  Scots,  whom  they  resolved  to  extermi- 
nate ;  and  some  of  the  nobility  were  expelled 
the  council  on  account  of  their  opposition  to 
this  law.  The  consequence  was  that  civil  dissen- 
sions took  place  among  them,  and  a  bloody 
battle  was  fought  between  the  opposite  parties 
before  the  Scots  had  thought  of  making  any  far- 
ther resistance.  By  these  distractions  Brudus, 
•who  had  in  vain  endeavoured  to  appease  them, 
was  so  much  affected  that  he  died  of  grief,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Drusken.  The 
new  prince  also  failed  in  his  endeavours  to  ac- 
commodate the  civil  differences ;  so  that  the 
Scots,  by  gaining  so  much  respite,  at  last  began 
to  recover  their  courage;  and  some  of  them, 
having  ventured  into  the  Pictish  territories,  car- 
ried off  Alpin's  bead  from  Abernethy,  the  capital 
of  their  dominions.  In  the  mean  time  Kenneth 
gained  over  the  nobility  to  his  side  by  the  fol- 
lowing stratagem ;  which,  however  ridiculous, 
is  not  incredible,  if  we  consider  the  superstition 
of  that  age.  Having  invited  them  to  an  enter- 
tainment, the  king  introduced  into  the  hall  where 
they  slept  a  person  clothed  in  a  robe  made  of  the 
skins  of  fishes,  which  made  such  a  lumirAns  ap- 
pearance in  the  dark  that  he  was  mistaken  for  an 
angel  or  some  supernatural  messenger.  To  add 
to  their  terror  he  denounced,  through  a  speaking- 
trumpet,  the  most  terrible  judgments  if  war  was 
not  immediately  declared  against  the  Picts,  the 
murderers  of  the  late  king.  In  consequence  of 
this  celestial  admonition  war  was  immediately 
renewed  with  great  vigor.  The  Picts  were  not 
deficient  in  their  preparations,  and  had  now  pro- 
cured some  assistance  from  England.  The  first 
battle  was  fought  near  Stirling ;  where  the  Picts, 
being  deserted  by  their  English  auxiliaries,  were 
utterly  defeated.  Drusken  escaped  by  the  swift- 
ness of  his  horse,  and  a  few  days  after  made  ap- 
plication to  Kenneth  for  a  cessation  of  hostilities ; 
but,  as  the  Scottish  monarch  demanded  a  sur- 
render of  all  the  Pictish  dominions,  the  treaty 
was  instantly  broken  off.  Kenneth  pursued  his 
good  fortune,  and  conquered  the  counties  of 
-Mi-arns,  Angus,  and  Fife;  but,  as  he  marched 
against  Stirling,  he  received  intelligence  that 
these  counties  had  again  revolted,  and  cut  off  all 
the  garrisons  which  he  had  left,  and  that  Drusken 
was  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army  in  these 
parts.  On  this  Kenneth  hastened  to  oppose  him, 
and  a  negociation  again  took  place.  The  result 
was  still  unfavorable.  Kenneth  insisted  on  an 
absolute  surrender  of  the  counties  of  Fife, 
M earns,  and  Angus ;  which  being  refused,  both 
parties  prepared  for  a  decisive  battle.  The  en- 
gagement was  very  bloody  and  desperate,  the 
Picts  fighting  like  men  in  despair.  Drusken  re- 
newed the  battle  seven  times,  but  at  last  was  en- 
tirely defeated  and  killed,  and  the  counties  in 
dispute  became  the  immediate  property  of  the 
conqueror.  Kenneth  did  not  fail  to  improve 
his  victory  by  reducing  the  rest  of  the  Pictish 
territories  ;  which  he  is  said  to  have  done  with 
the  greatest  cruelty,  and  even  to  have  totally  ex- 
terminated the  inhabitants.  The  capital,  called 
Camelon  (supposed  to  have  been  Abernethy), 
held  out  four  months  ;  but  was  at  last  taken  by 
surprise,  and  every  living  creature  destroyed. 


This  was  followed  by  the  reduction  of  the  Maiden 
Castle,  now  that  of  Edinburgh  ;  which  was 
abandoned  by  the  garrison,  who  fled  to  Northum- 
berland. After  the  reduction  of  these  imposiant 
places  the  rest  of  the  country  made  no  great  re- 
sistance, and  Kenneth  became  mister  i>: 
whole  kingdom  of  Scotland  in  the  p.  i  sent  titent 
of  the  word. 

III.  HISTORY  OF  SCOTLAND  FROM  THE  COX- 
QUEST     OF     THE      PlCTS     UNTIL    THE     DEATH     OF 

ALEXANDER  III. — Besides  this  war  with  the 
Picts,  Kenneth  is  said  to  have  been  successful 
against  the  Saxons,  though  of  these  wars  we 
have  very  little  account.  Having  reigned  ten 
years  in  peace  after  his  subjugation  of  the  Picis, 
and  composed  a  code  of  laws  for  the  good  of  his 
people,  Kenneth  died  of  a  fistula,  at  Fort  Teviot, 
near  Duplin,  in  Perthshire,  A.  D.  854.  Before 
his  time  the  seat  of  the  Scottish  government  had 
been  in  Argyleshire  ;  but  he  removed  it  to  Scone, 
by  transferring  thither  the  famous  black  stone, 
supposed  to  be  the  palladium  of  Scotland,  and 
which  was  afterwards  carried  off  by  Edward  I. 
of  England,  and  lodged  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
Kenneth  II.,  surnamed  the  Great  by  some  his- 
torians, was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Donald 
V.,  who  is  represented  as  a  man  of  the  worst 
character  ;  so  that  the  remaining  Picts,  who  had 
fled  out  of  Scotland  were  encouraged  to  apply  to 
the  Saxons  for  assistance,  promising  to  make 
Scotland  tributary  to  the  Saxon  power  after  it 
should  be  conquered.  This  proposal  was  ac- 
cepted, and  the  confederates  invaded  Scotland 
with  a  powerful  army,  and  took  the  town  of  Ber- 
wick ;  however,  they  were  soon  after  defeated 
by  Donald,  who  took  also  their  ships  and  pro- 
visions. This  capture  proved  their  ruin  ;  for, 
some  of  the  ships  being  loaded  with  wine,  the 
Scots  indulged  themselves  so  much  with  that 
liquor  that  they  became  incapable  of  defending 
themselves  ;  the  consequence  of  this  was  th.it 
the  confederates,  rallying  their  troops,  attacked 
them  in  that  state  of  intoxication.  The  Scots 
were  defeated  with  excessive  slaughter ;  20,000 
of  them  lay  dead  on  the  spot,  the  king  and  his 
principal  nobility  were  taken  prisoners,  and  all 
the  country  from  the  Tweed  to  the  Forth  became 
the  property  of  the  conquerors.  Still,  however, 
the  conquerors  were  unable  to  pursue  their  vic- 
tory farther,  and  a  peace  was  concluded,  on  con- 
dition that  the  Saxons  should  be  masters  of  all 
the  conquered  country.  Thus  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  became  the  southern  boundaries  of  the 
Scottish  dominions.  It  was  agreed  that  the 
Forth  should  from  that  time  forward  be  called 
the  Scots  Sea  ;  and  it  was  made  capital  for  any 
Scotchman  to  set  his  foot  on  English  ground. 
They  were  to  erect  no  forts  near  the  English  con- 
fines, to  pay  an  annual  tribute  of  £1000,  and  to 
give  up  sixty  of  the  sons  of  their  chief  nobility 
as  hostages.  A  mint  \vas  erected  by  the  Saxon 
prince  named  Osbreth,  at  Stirling;  and  a  cross 
raised  on  the  bridge  of  that  place,  with  the  fol- 
lowing inscription,  implying  that  this  place  was 
the  boundary  between  Scotland  and  England : — 

Anglos  a  Scotis  separat  crux  ista  reraotis  : 
Anna  hie  slant  Bruti  slant  Scoti  sub  hac  cruce  tuti. 

After  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty,  so  humiliating 


SCOTLAND. 


399 


to  the  Scots,  the  Picts,  finding  that  their  interest 
had  been   entirely  neglected,  fled  to   Norway, 
while  those  who  remained  in  England  were  mas- 
sacred.    Donald  shared  the  common  fate  of  un- 
fortunate princes,  being  dethroned  and  shut  up 
in  prison,  where  he  killed  himself,  in  858.     But 
the  character  of  Donald,  and  the  whole  account 
of  these  transactions,  rests  on  the  credit  of  a 
single  author,  namely  Boece;  for  other  writers 
represent  Donald  as  a  hero,  and  successful  in 
his  wars;  but  the  obscurity  in  which  the  whole 
of  this  period  of  Scottish  history  is  involved 
renders  it  impossible  to  determine  these  matters. 
Donald  V.  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Con- 
stantine  II.,  the  son  of  Kenneth  II.,  in  whose 
reign  Scotland  was  first  invaded  by  the  Danes, 
who  proved  such  formidable  enemies  to  the  Eng- 
lish. This  invasion  was  occasioned  by  some  exiled 
Picts  who  fled  to  Denmark,  where  they  prevailed 
upon  the  king  of  that  country  to  send  his  two 
brothers,  Hunger   and   Hubba,   to  recover   the 
Pictish    dominions   from    Constantine.      These 
princes  landed  on  the  coast  of  Fife,  where  they 
committed    the    most    horrid    barbarities,   not 
sparing  even  the  ecclesiastics  who  had  taken  re- 
fuge in  the  island  of  May  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Forth.     Constantine  defeated  one  of  the  Danish 
armies  commanded  by  Hubba,  near  the  water  of 
Leven ;  but  was  himself  defeated  and  taken  pri- 
soner by  Hungar,  who  caused  him  to  be  behead- 
ed at  a  place  since  called  theJDevil's  Cave,  in 
874.     This   unfortunate   action  cost   the  Scots 
10,000  men;  but  the  Danes  seem  not  to  have 
purchased  their  victory  very  easily,  as  they  were 
obliged  immediately  afterwards  to  abandon  their 
conquests,  and  retire  to  their  own  country.  How- 
tver  the  Danish  monuments  that  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  Fife  leave  no  room  to  doubt  that  many 
bloody  scenes  had  been  acted  here  between  the 
Scots  and  Danes  besides  that  above  mentioned. 
Constantine  II.  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
1-tl),  or  his  son,  as  Monipenny  styles  him,  sur- 
numed  the  Swift-footed,  from  his  agility.    Being 
devoted  to  luxury,  his  nobles  took  him  and  put 
him  in  prison,  where  he  died  the  third  day  after 
of  melancholy,  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign, 
A.  D.  876.      He  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  the 
son    of   Dongal,  contemporary  with  Alfred    of 
England,  and  both  princes  deservedly  acquired 
the  surname  of  Great.     The  Danes  at  their  de- 
parture had  left  the  Picts  in  possession  of  Fife. 
Against   them    Gregory   immediately   marched, 
and  quickly  drove  them  into  the  north  of  Eng- 
land, where  their  confederates  were  already  mas- 
ters of    Northumberland    and  York.     In   their 
way  thither  they  threw  a  garrison  into  the  town 
of  Berwick;  but  this  was  presently  reduced  by 
Gregory,  who  put  to  the  sword  all  the  Danes, 
but  spared  the  lives  of  the  Picts.    From  Berwick 
Gregory  pursued  the  Danes  into  Northumber- 
land, where  he  defeated  them,  and  passed  the 
winter  in  Berwick.     He  then  marched  against 
the  Cumbrians,  who,  being  mostly  Picts,  were 
in  alliance  with  the  Danes.  Them  he  easily  over- 
came, and  obliged  to  yield  up  all  the  lands  they 
had  formerly  possessed  belonging  to  the  Scots, 
at  the  same  time  that  he  agreed  to  protect  them 
from  the  Danes.   In  a  short  time,  however,  Con- 
stantine the  king  of  the  Cumbrians  violated  the 


convention  he  had  made,  and  invaded  Annan- 
dale  ;  but  was  defeated  and  killed  by  Gregory 
near  Lochmaben.  After  this  victory  Gregory 
reduced  the  counties  of  Cumberland  and  West- 
moreland, which,  it  is  said,  were  ceded  to  him 
by  Alfred  the  Great;  and  indeed  the  situation 
of  Alfred's  affairs  at  this  time  renders  such  a 
cession  probable.  Gregory  next  engaged  in  a 
war  with  the  Irish,  to  support  Donach,  an  Irish 
prince,  against  two  rebellious  noblemen.  The 
Irish  were  the  first  aggressors,  and  invaded  Gal- 
loway ;  but,  being  repulsed  with  great  loss,  Gre- 
gory went  ovei  to  Ireland  in  person,  where  the 
two  chieftains,  who  had  been  enemies  to  each 
other  before,  HOW  joined  their  forces  to  oppose 
the  common  enemy.  The  first  engagement 
proved  fatal  to  one  of  their  chiefs  named  Brian, 
who  was  killed  with  a  great  number  of  his  fol- 
lowers. After  this  victory  Gregory  reduced 
Dundalk  and  Drogheda.  On  his  way  to  Dublin 
he  was  opposed  by  a  chieftain  named  Corneil, 
who  shared  the  fate  of  his  confederate,  being  also 
killed,  and  his  army  entirely  defeated.  Gregory 
then  became  guardian  to  the  young  prince  whom 
he  came  to  assist,  appointed  a  regency,  and 
obliged  them  to  swear  that  they  would  never 
admit  into  the  country  either  a  Dane  or  an  Eng- 
lishman without  his  consent.  Having  then  placed 
garrisons  in  the  strongest  fortresses,  he  returned 
to  Scotland,  where  he  built  the  city  of  Aberdeen  ; 
and  died  in  894,  at  his  castle  of  Dundore  in  the 
Garioch,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign. 

Gregory  was  succeeded  by  Donald  VI.  the 
son  of  Constantine  II.,  who  imitated  the  virtues 
of  his  predecessor.  The  Scottish  historians 
unanimously  agree  that  Northumberland  was  at 
that  time  in  the  hands  of  their  countrymen ; 
while  the  English  as  unanimously  affirm  that  it 
was  subject  to  the  Danes,  who  paid  homage  to 
Alfred.  Be  this  as  it  will,  however,  Donald 
continued  to  live  on  good  terms  with  the  English 
monarch,  and  sent  him  a  body  of  forces,  who 
proved  of  considerable  advantage  to  him  in  his 
wars  with  the  Danes.  The  clans  of  the  Murrays 
and  Rosses  having  invaded  each  other,  and  com- 
menced a  bloody  civil  war,  Donald  came  upon 
them  with  a  great  army,  and  punished  the  ring- 
leaders in  903.  He  died  at  Forres  in  905.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Constantine  III.,  the  son  of 
Eth,  who  married  a  daughter  of  the  prince  of 
Wales ;  he  also  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the 
Danes  against  the  English.  The  reason  of  this 
confederacy  was  that  the  English  monarch,  Ed- 
ward the  Elder,  finding  the  Scots  in  possession 
of  the  northern  counties  of  England,  made  such 
extravagant  demands  upon  Constantine  as 
obliged  him  to  ally  with  the  Danes  to  preserve 
his  dominions  in  security.  However,  the  league 
subsisted  only  for  two  years,  after  which  the 
Danes  found  it  more  for  their  advantage  to  re- 
sume their  ancient  friendship  with  the  English. 
Constantine  afterwards  appointed  the  presump- 
tive heir  to  the  Scottish  crown,  Malcolm,  or 
according  to  some  Eugene,  the  son  of  the  late 
king  Donald  VI.,  prince  of  the  southern  coun- 
ties, on  condition  of  his  defending  them  against 
the  attacks  of  the  English.  The  young  prince 
had  soon  an  opportunity  of  exerting  his  valor  : 
but,  not  behaving  with  the  requisite  caution,  he 


400 


SCOTLAND. 


.was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  almost  all  his  army, 
he  himself  being  carried  wounded  out  of  the 
field;  and,  in  consequence  of  this  disaster,  Con- 
stantine  was  obliged  to  do  homage  to  Edward 
for  the  possessions  he  had  to  the  south  of  the 
Scottish  boundary.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Athelstan,  the  son  of  Edward  the  Elder, 
the  northern  Danes  were  encouraged  by  some 
conspiracies  formed  against  that  monarch  to 
throw  off  the  yoke ;  and  their  success  was  such 
that  Athelstan  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Sithrac 
the  Danish  chief,  and  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
marriage.  Sithrac,  however,  did  not  long  survive 
iis  nuptials ;  and  his  son  Guthred,  endeavouring 
to  throw  off  the  English  yoke,  was  defeated,  and 
obliged  to  fly  into  Scotland.  This  brought  on  a 
series  of  hostilities  between  the  Scots  and  En- 
glish, which  in  938  issued  in  a  general  engage- 
ment. At  this  time  the  Scots,  Irish,  Cumbrians, 
and  Danes,  were  confederated  against  the 
English.  The  Scots  were  commanded  by  their 
king  Constantine,  the  Irish  by  Anlaf,  the  brother 
of  Guthred  the  Danish  prince,  the  Cumbrians  by 
their  own  sovereign,  and  the  Danes  by  Froda. 
The  generals  of  Athelstan  were  Edmund  his 
brother,  and  Turketii  his  favorite.  The  English 
attacked  the  entrenchments  ot'  the  confederates, 
where  the  chief  resistance  they  met  with  was 
from  the  Scots.  Constantine  was  in  the  utmost 
danger  of  being  killed  or  taken  prisoner,  but  was 
rescued  by  the  bravery  of  his  soldiers  ;  however, 
after  a  most  obstinate  engagement,  the  confede- 
rates were  defeated  with  such  slaughter  that  the 
slain  are  said  to  have  been  innumerable.  The 
consequence  was,  that  the  Scots  were  deprived 
of  all  their  possessions  south  of  the  Forth;  and 
Constantine,  quite  dispirited  by  his  misfortune, 
resigned  the  crown  to  Malcolm,  and  retired  to 
the  monastery  of  the  Culdees  at  St.  Andrews, 
where  he  became  a  canon,  and  died  five  years 
after,  in  943.  The  distresses  which  the  English 
sustained  in  their  subsequent  wars  with  the 
Danes  gave  the  Scots  an  opportunity  of  retriev- 
ing their  affairs;  and  in  944  Malcolm  I.,  the 
successor  of  Constantine,  was  invested  with  the 
sovereignty  of  Northumberland,  on  condition  of 
his  holding  it  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of  England, 
and  assisting  in  defence  of  the  northern  border. 
Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty,  Malcolm 
going  to  the  county  of  Moray,  to  settle  some  dis- 
turbances, was  treacherously  murdered  in  the 
ninth  year  of  his  reign.  The  murderers  were  all 
apprehended,  tortured,  and  put  to  death.  Mal- 
colm was  succeeded  by  his  son  Indulfus,  A.  D. 
952.  In  this  reign  the  Danes  became  extremely 
formidable  by  their  invasions,  which  they  now 
renewed  with  greater  fury  than  ever,  being  exas- 
perated by  the  friendship  subsisting  between  the 
Scots  and  English  monarchs.  Ilaquin,  king  of 
Norway,  also  attempted  an  invasion,  but  was  de- 
feated by  Indulfus.  The  first  descent  of  the 
Danes  was  upon  East  Lothian,  where  they  were 
soon  expelled,  but  crossed  over  to  Fife.  Here 
they  were  again  defeated,  and  driven  out ;  and 
so  well  had  Indulfus  guarded  the  coasts  that 
they  could  tiot  find  an  opportunity  of  landing ; 
till,  having  seemed  to  steer  towards  their  own 
country,  the  Scots  were  thrown  off  their  guard, 
and  the  Danes  on  a  sudden  made  good  their  land- 


ing at  Cullen,  in  Banffshire.  Here  Indulfus  soon 
came  up  with  them,  attacked  their  camp,  and 
drove  them  towards  their  ships  ;  but  was  killed 
in  an  ambuscade,  into  which  he  fell  during  his 
pursuit,  in  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Duffus  the  son  of  Malcolm  1.  A.  D. 
961,  to  whom  historians  gave  an  excellent  cha- 
racter; but,  after  a  reign  of  five  years,  he  was 
murdered  in  966.  He  was  succeeded  by  Culen 
the  son  of  Indulfus,  who  had  been  nominated 
prince  of  Cumberland,  in  his  father's  lifetime,  as 
heir-apparent  to  the  throne.  He  is  represented 
as  a  very  degenerate  prince ;  and  is  said  to  have 
given  himself  up  to  sensuality  in  a  manner  al- 
most incredible,  being  guilty  of  incontinence  not 
only  with  women  of  all  ranks,  but  even  with  his 
own  sisters  and  daughters.  The  people  in  the 
mean  time  were  fleeced  to  support  the  extrava- 
gance and  luxury  of  their  prince.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  an  assembly  of  the  states  was 
convened  at  Scone  for  the  resettling  of  the  go- 
vernment ;  but  on  his  way  thither  Culen  was  as- 
sassinated in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  near  the 
village  of  Mothven,  by  Rohard,  or  llodard, 
thane  of  Fife,  whose  daughter  he  had  debauched. 
The  provocations  which  Culen  had  given  to  his 
nobility  seem  to  have  rendered  them  totally  un- 
tractable  and  licentious ;  which  gave  an  occa- 
sion to  a  remarkable  revolution  in  the  reign  of 
Kenneth  III.,  who  succeeded  Culen,  A.  D.  970. 
This  prince,  being  a  man  of  great  resolution, 
began  with  relieving  the  common  people  from 
the  oppressions  of  the  nobility,  which  were  now 
intolerable ;  and  this  plan  he  pursued  with  so 
much  success  that,  having  nothing  to  fear  from 
the  great  barons,  he  ordered  them  to  appear  be- 
fore him  at  Lanerk ;  but  the  greatest  part,  con- 
scious of  their  demerits,  did  not  attend.  The 
king  so  well  dissembled  his  displeasure  that 
those  who  came  were  quite  charmed  with  his  af- 
fability, and  the  noble  entertainment  he  gave 
them  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  when  an  assem- 
bly was  called  next  year,  the  guilty  were  en- 
couraged to  appear  as  well  as  the  innocent.  No 
sooner  had  this  assembly  met,  however,  than  the 
place  of  meeting  was  beset  with  armed  men. 
The  king  then  informed  them  that  none  had  any 
thing  to  apprehend,  excepting  such  as  had  been 
notorious  offenders ;  and  these  he  ordered  to  be 
immediately  taken  into  custody,  telling  them 
that  their  submitting  to  public  justice  must  be 
the  price  of  their  liberty.  They  were  obliged  to 
accept  the  king's  offer,  and  the  criminals  were 
punished  according  to  their  deserts.  About  this 
time  Edgar,  king  of  England,  finding  himself 
hard  pressed  by  the  Danes,  found  means  to 
unite  the  king  of  Scotland  and  the  prince  of 
Cumberland  along  with  himself  in  a  treaty  against 
the  Danes ;  which  gave  occasion  to  a  report 
that  Kenneth  had  become  tributary  to  the  king 
of  England.  This,  however,  is  utterly  denied  by 
all  the  Scottish  historians;  who  affirm  that 
Kenneth  cultivated  a  good  correspondence  with 
Edgar,  both  because  he  expected  assistance  in 
defending  his  coasts,  and  because  he  intended 
entirely  to  alter  the  mode  of  succession  to  the 
throne.  About  this  time  the  Danes  made  a 
dreadful  invasion.  Their  original  intention 
seems  to  have  been  to  land  on  some  part  of  the 


SCOTLAND. 


401 


English  coasts ;  but,  finding  them  probably  too 
well  guarded,  they  landed  at  Montrose  in  Scot- 
land, committing  every  where  the  most  dreadful 
ravages.  Kenneth  at  that  time  was  at  Stirling, 
and  quite  unprepared  ;  however,  having  collect- 
ed a  handful  of  troops,  he  cut  off  many  of  the 
enemy  as  they  were  straggling  up  and  down, 
but  could  not  prevent  them  from  besieging  Perth. 
Nevertheless,  as  the  king's  army  constantly  in- 
creased, he  re-solved  to  give  the  enemy  battle. 
The  scene  of  this  action  was  at  Lu nearly,  near 
Perth.  The  king  is  said  to  have  offered  ten 
pounds  in  silver,  or  the  value  of  it  in  land,  for 
the  head  of  every  Dane  which  should  be  brought 
him  ;  and  an  immunity  from  all  taxes  to  the  sol- 
diers who  served  in  his  army,  provided  they 
should  be  victorious ;  but,  notwithstanding  the 
utmost  efforts  of  the  Scots,  their  enemies  fought 
so  desperately  that  Kenneth's  army  fled,  and 
must  have  been  totally  defeated,  had  not  the 
fugitives  been  stopped  by  a  yeoman,  named 
Thomas,  and  his  two  sons,  who  were  coming  up 
to  the  battle.  Buchanan  and  Boece  inform  us, 
that,  these  countrymen  were  ploughing  in  a  field 
hard  by  the  scene  of  action,  and,  perceiving  that 
their  countrymen  fled,  they  loosed  their  oxen, 
and  made  use  of  the  yokes  as  weapons,  with 
which  they  first  obliged  their  countrymen  to 
stand,  and  then  fell  upon  their  enemies.  The 
fight  was  now  renewed  with  such  fury  on  the 
part  of  the  Scots,  that  the  Danes  were  utterly 
defeated;  and,  after  the  battle,  the  king  rewarded 
Thomas  with  the  barony  of  Errol,  in  the  Carse  of 
Cowrie,  ennobled  his  family,  and  gave  them  an 
armorial  bearing  of  a  bloody  yoke  in  a  field,  al- 
luding to  the  rustic  weapons  with  which  they 
had  achieved  this  glorious  exploit;  and  gave 
him  also  the  surname  of  Hay,  because,  when 
weary  with  the  fatigue  of  his  exertions,  he  had 
said  Oh  Hay  !  After  this  Kenneth  stained  all 
his  glory  by  poisoning  prince  Malcolm,  lord  of 
Cumberland,  &c.,  the  heir  apparent  of  the 
crown  :  and,  to  secure  the  succession  more  effec- 
tually in  his  own  family,  prevailed  on  the  states 
to  make  the  succession  hereditary,  without  re- 
gard to  infancy  or  age.  After  this,  either  the 
king's  conscience  persuaded  him,  or  the  super- 
stition of  the  times  invented  the  story,  that  he 
heard  a  voice  from  heaven,  threatening  him  and 
his  son  with  vengeance  for  the  murder  of  the 
prince.  In  either  case  the  threatening  was  ful- 
filled. In  994  Kenneth  was  murdered  by  a  lady 
named  Fenella,  whose  son  he  had  caused  to  be 
put  to  death.  The  murder  was  perpetrated  in 
Fenella's  castle,  at  Fettercairn,  in  the  Mearns, 
where  she  had  persuaded  the  king  to  pay  her  a 
visit,  by  an  automaton  image  of  the  king  ia 
brass,  which  held  out  a  golden  apple  in  its  hand  ; 
which  Fenella  desired  the  king  to  take,  but  he 
had  no  sooner  dftie  so,  than  the  internal  springs 
moved  a  cross-bow  held  by  the  image,  and  shot 
the  king  through  the  body.  His  attendants 
waited  long  near  the  place;  but.  being  at  length 
tired  out,  they  broke  open  the  doors,  and  found 
their  king  murdered;  upon  whicVi  they  laid  the 
castle  in  ashes ;  but  Fenella  had  escaped  by  a 
posteirv 

The    throne   was  then   seized    by  a   usurper 
named  Coustantine  IV.  the  son  of  Culen,  who, 
VOL.  XIX 


being  killed  in  battle  at  Cramond,  after  a  remit 
of  a  year  and  a  half,  was  succeeded  by  Crim,  the 
son  of  king  Duffus  ;  and  he  again  was  defeated 
and  killed  by  Malcolm  the  son  of  Kenneth,  the 
lawful  heir  of  the  Scottish  throne,  A.  D.  10U4. 
After  this  victory,  however,  Malcolm  did  noi 
immediately  assume  the  sovereignty;  but  asked 
the  crown  from  the  nobles,  although,  by  the  law 
passed  in  the  reign  of  Kenneth,  the  succession 
to  the  throne  of  Scotland  was  now  hereditary. 
This  they  immediately  granted,  and  Malcolm 
was  crowned  king,  A.  D.  1004.  He  joined  him- 
self in  alliance  with  the  king  of  England ;  and 
proved  so  successful  against  the  Danes  in 
England,  that  Sweno  their  king  resolved  to  di- 
rect his  whole  force  against  him  by  an  invasion 
of  Scotland.  His  first  attempt,  however,  proved 
very  unsuccessful ;  all  his  soldiers  being  cut  in 
pieces,  except  some  few  who  escaped  to  their 
ships,  while  the  loss  of  the  Scots  amounted  to 
only  thirty  men.  But  in  the  mean  time,  Duncan 
priace  of  Cumberland,  having  neglected  to  pay 
his  homage  to  the  king  of  England,  the  latter  in- 
vaded that  country  in  conjunction  with  the  Danes 
Malcolm  took  the  field  against  them,  and  defeat- 
ed both  ;  but  while  he  was  thus  employed  in  the 
south,  a  new  army  of  Danes  landed  in  the  north 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Spey.  Malcolm  advanced 
against  them  with  an  army  much  inferior  in 
number;  and  his  men,  neglecting  every  thing 
but  the  blind  impulses  of  fury,  were  almost  all 
cut  to  pieces  :  Malcolm  himself  being  desperately 
wounded.  By  this  victory  the  Danes  were  so 
much  elated  that  they  sent  for  their  wives  and 
children,  intending  to  settle  in  this  country.  The 
castle  of  Nairn,  then  thought  almost  impregnable 
fell  into  their  hands ;  and  the  towns  of  Elgin  anc. 
Forres  were  abandoned  both  by  their  garrisons 
and  inhabitants.  The  Scots  were  every-where 
treated  as  a  conquered  people,  and  employed  in 
the  most  servile  offices  by  the  haughty  conquerors  ; 
who,  to  render  the  castle  of  Nairn,  as  they 
thought,  absolutely  impregnable,  cut  through  the 
small  isthmus  which  joined  it  to  the  land.  All 
this  time,  however,  Malcolm  was  raising  forces 
in  the  southern  counties ;  and,  having  at  last 
got  an  army  together,  he  came  up  with  the  Danes 
at  Murtloch,  near  Balveney,  which  appears  at 
this  day  to  have  been  a  strong  Danish  fortifica- 
tion. Here  he  attacked  the  enemy  ;  but,  having 
the  misfortune  to  lose  three  of  his  general 
olh'cers,  he  was  again  obliged  to  retreat.  How- 
ever, the  Danish  general  happening  to  be  killed 
in  the  pursuit,  the  Scots  were  encouraged  to 
renew  the  fight  with  such  vigor  that  they  ob- 
tained at  last  a  complete  victory;  but  suffered  so 
much  that  they  were  unable  to  derive  from  it  all 
the  advantages  which  might  otherwise  have 
accrued.  On  the  news  of  this  ill  success,  Sweno 
ordered  two  fleets,  one  from  England  and  ano- 
ther from  Norway,  to  make  a  descent  upon 
Scotland,  under  Camus,  one  of  his  most  re- 
nowned generals.  The  Danes  attempted  to  land 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Forth ;  but,  finding  every 
place  there  well  fortified,  they  were  obliged  to 
move  farther  northward,  and  effected  their  pur- 
pose at  Redhead  in  Angus-shire.  The  castle  of 
Brechin  was  first  besieged  ;  but,  meeting  with  a 
stout  resistance  there,  they  laid  the  town  and 

2  D 


402 


SCOTLAND. 


church  in  ashes.  Thence  they  advanced  to  the 
village  of  Panbride,  and  encamped  at  a  place 
called  Karbuddo.  Malcolm  in  the  mean  time 
was  at  hand  with  his  army,  and  encamped  at  a 
place  called  Barr,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  which 
both  parties  prepared  to  decide  the  fate  of  Scot- 
land ;  for,  as  Moray  and  the  northern  provinces 
were  already  in  the  possession  of  the  Danes,  it 
was  evident  that  a  victory  at  this  time  must  put 
them  in  possession  of  the  whole.  The  engage- 
ment was  desperate,  and  so  bloody  that  the 
rivulet  which  proceeds  from  Loch  Tay  is  said  to 
have  had  its  waters  dyed  with  the  blood  of  the 
slain  ;  but  at  last  the  Danes  gave  way  and  fled. 
There  was  at  that  time  in  the  army  of  Malcolm, 
a  young  prince  of  the  name  of  Keith,  who  com- 
manded a  colony  of  the  Catti,  a  German  tribe, 
who  settled  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  gave 
name  to  Caithness.  He  pursued  Camus;  and, 
having  overtaken  him,  engaged  and  killed  him  ; 
but  another  Scottish  officer  coming  up,  disputed 
with  Keith  the  glory  of  the  action.  While  the 
dispute  lasted  Malcolm  came  up ;  who  suffered 
them  to  decide  it  by  single  combat.  In  this 
second  combat  Keith  proved  also  victorious,  and 
killed  his  antagonist.  The  dying  person  con- 
fessed the  justice  of  Keith's  claim ;  and  Malcolm 
dipping  his  finger  in  his  blood  marked  the  shield 
of  Keith  with  three  strokes,  pronouncing  the 
words  Veritas  vincit,  Truth  overcomes,  which 
has  ever  since  been  the  armorial  bearing  and 
motto  of  the  family  of  Keith.  The  shattered 
remains  of  the  Danish  forces  reached  their  ships; 
but  being  driven  back  by  contrary  winds,  and 
provisions  becoming  scarce,  they  put  ashore  500 
men  on  the  coast  of  Buchan,  to  procure  them 
some  food :  but,  their  communication  with  the 
ships  being  soon  cut  off,  they  fortified  themselves 
as  well  as  they  could,  and  made  a  desperate  resis- 
tance; but  at  last  were  all  put  to  the  sword. 
The  place  where  this  massacre  happened  is  still 
called  Crudane ;  being  probably  an  abbreviation 
of  Cruor  Danorum,  i.  e.  the  blood  of  the  Danes, 
a  name  imposed  on  it  by  the  ecclesiastics  of  those 
days.  Svveno,  not  yet  discouraged,  sent  his  son 
Canute,  afterwards  king  of  England,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  warriors  of  that  age  (see  CANUTE), 
into  Scotland,  with  an  army  more  powerful  than 
any  that  had  yet  appeared.  Canute  landed  in 
Buchan  ;  and,  as  the  Scots  were  much  weakened 
by  such  a  long  continued  war,  Malcolm  thought 
proper  to  act  on  the  defensive.  But  the  Scots, 
who  now  thought  themselves  invincible,  de- 
manded to  be  led  on  to  a  general  engagement. 
Malcolm  complied  with  their  desire, and  a  battle 
ensued  ;  in  which,  though  neither  party  had  much 
reason  to  boast  of  victory,  the  Danes  were  so  much 
reduced  that  they  willingly  concluded  a  peace  on 
the  following  terms,  viz.— That  the  Danes  should 
immediately  depart  Scotland;  that  as  long  as 
Malcolm  and  Sweno  lived  neither  of  them 
should  wage  war  with  the  other,  or  help  each 
other's  enemies ;  and  that  the  field  in  which  the 
battle  was  fought  should  be  set  apart  and  conse- 
crated for  the  burial  of  the  dead.  These  stipula- 
tions were  punctually  fulfilled  by  Malcolm,  who 
built  in  the  neighbourhood  a  chapel  dedicated  to 
Olaus,  the  tutelar  saint  of  these  northern  nations. 
After  all  these  glorious  exploits,  and  bfC-oming 


the  second  legislator  in  the  Scottish  nation,  Mal- 
colm is  said  to  have  stained  the  latter  part  of  his 
reign   with   avarice    and   oppression ;    in   con- 
sequence of  which  he  was  murdered  at  the  age 
of  eighty,  after   he   had    reigned   above   thirty 
years.     This  assassination  was  perpetrated  %vhen 
he  was  on  his  way  to  Glammis.      His  own  do- 
mestics are  said  to  have  been  privy  to  the  mur- 
der, and  to  have  fled  along  with  the  conspirators ; 
but,  in  passing  the  lake  of  Forfar  on  the  ice,  it 
gave  way  with  them,  and  they  were  all  drowned, 
their   bodies  being  discovered  some  days  after. 
This  account   is   confirmed    by   the   sculptures 
upon  some  stones  erected  near  the  spot ;  one  of 
them  which  is  still  called  Malcolm's  gravestone, 
and  all  of  them  exhibit  some  rude  representa- 
tions of  the  murder  and  the  fate  of  the  assassins. 
Malcolm  II.  was  succeeded  in   1034  by  his 
grandson  Duncan  I.,  but  he  is  said  to  have  had 
another  grandson,  by  a  daughter  named  Dowoda, 
viz.  the  famous  Macbeth ;  though  some  are  of 
opinion  that  Macbeth  was   not  the  grandson  of 
Malcolm,  but  of  Fenella  who  murdered  Ken- 
neth  III.      The  first  years  of  Duncan's   reign 
passed  in  tranquility,  but  domestic  broils  soon 
took  place  on  the  following  occasion.     Banquo, 
thane  of   Lochaber,  and  ancestor  to  the   royal 
family  of  Stuart,  acled  then  in  the  capacity  of 
steward  to  Duncan,  by  collecting  his  rents  ;  but, 
being  very  rigid  in  the  execution  of  his  office,  he 
was  way-laid,  robbed,  and  almost  murdered.    Or' 
this  outrage  Banquo  complained,  as  soon  as  he  re- 
covered of  his  wounds  and  could  appear  at  court. 
The  robbers  were  summoned  to  surrender  them- 
selves to  justice;  but,  instead  of  obeying,  thev 
killed  the  messenger.  Macbeth  represented  this  in 
such  strong  terms  that  he  was  sent  witli  an  army 
to  reduce  the  insurgents,  who  had  already  de- 
stroyed many  of  the  king's  friends.      This  com- 
mission he  performed  with  such  success  that  the 
rebel    chief  put   an  end  to  his  own  life ;  after 
which  Macbeth  sent  his  head  to  the  king,  and 
then  proceeded  with  the  utmost  severity  against 
the  insurgents,  who  were  composed  of  Irishmen, 
Islanders,  and  Highlanders.      This  insurrection 
was  scarcely  quelled,  when   the  Danes  landed 
again  in  Fife  ;  and  Duncan  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  an  army,  having   the  thanes  Macbeth 
and   Banquo  serving  under  him.    The  Danes 
were  commanded  by  Sweno  king  of  Norway,  and 
eldest  son  of  Canute.      He  proceeded  with  all 
the  barbarity  customary  with  his  nation,  putting 
to  death  men,  women,  and  children,  who  fell  in 
his  way.     A  battle  was  fought  between  the  two 
nations  near  Culross,  in  which  the  Scots  were 
defeated  ;  but  the  Danes  purchased  their  victory 
so  dearly  that  they  could  not  improve  it ;  and 
Duncan  retreated  to   Perth,  while  Macbeth  was 
sent  to  raise  more  forces.      In  the  mean  time 
Sweno  laid  siege  to  Perth,  whfch  was  defended 
by  Duncan  and  Banquo.      The  Danes  were  so 
much  distressed  for  want  of  provisions,  that  they 
at  last  consented  to  treat  of  a  peace,  provided 
the   pressing  necessities  of  the  army  were  re- 
lieved.     The  Scottish  historians  inform  us  that 
this  treaty  was  set  on  foot  to  amuse  Svveno,  and 
gain  time  for  the  stratagem  which  Duncan  was 
preparing.      This  was  no  other  than  a  barbarous 
contrivance   of  infusing   intoxicating  herbs  into 


SCOTLAND. 


403 


t!:e  liquors  that  were  sent  along  with  the  other 
provisions  to  the  Danish  camp.  These  sopo- 
rifics had  their  intended  effect ;  and,  while  the 
Danes  were  under  their  influence,  Macbeth  and 
Banquo  broke  into  their  camp,  where  they  put 
all  to  the  sword,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that 
some  of  Sweno's  attendants  carried  him  on  board 
the  only  ship  of  all  the  fleet  that  returned  to 
Norway.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  a 
fresh  body  of  Danes  landed  at  Kiughorn,  in 
Fifeshire;  but  they  were  entirely  defeated  by 
Macbeth  and  Banquo.  Such  of  the  Danes  as 
escaped  fled  to  their  ships ;  but  before  they  de- 
parted they  obtained  leave  to  bury  their  dead  in 
Inchcolm,  a  small  island  lying  in  the  Forth, 
where  one  of  their  monuments  is  still  to  be  seen. 
Thus  ended  the  formidable  invasions  of  the 
Danes;  after  which  Duncan  applied  himself  to 
the  administration  of  justice,  and  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  manners  of  his  subjects.  Macbeth, 
however,  who  had  obtained  great  reputation  by 
his  success  against  the  Danes,  began  to  form  am- 
bitious designs,  and  to  aspire  to  the  crown  itself. 
The  fables  relating  to  his  usurpation  are  so  well 
known,  from  the  tragedy  composed  by  Shak- 
speare  which  bears  the  name  of  Macbeth,  that 
we  need  not  take  notice  of  them  ;  but  only  men- 
tion the  fact,  that  Duncan,  not  knowing  he  had 
so  dangerous  an  enemy  near  his  person,  was 
murdered  at  Inverness,  in  the  sixth  year  of  his 
reign,  by  Macbeth,  who  succeeded  him  in  the 
throne,  A.  D.  1040.  During  the  greatest  part  of 
the  reign  of  the  usurper,  Malcolm,  the  true  heir 
to  the  crown  of  Scotland,  kept  close  in  his  prin- 
cipality of  Cumberland,  without  any  thoughts 
of  ascending  his  father's  throne.  Macbeth  for 
some  time  governed  with  moderation,  and 
enacted  some  excellent  laws,  but  at  last  became 
a  tyrant.  Becoming  jealous  of  Banquo,  the 
most  powerful  subject  in  his  dominions,  he  in- 
vited him  to  an  entertainment,  and  caused  him 
to  be  treacherously  murdered.  His  son  Fleance 
was  destined  to  the  same  fate,  but  escaped  to 
Wales.  After  him  Macduff,  the  thane  of  Fife, 
was  the  most  powerful  person  in  Scotland  ;  for 
which  reason,  Macbeth  determined  to  destroy 
him.  But  Macduff,  understanding  this,  fled  to 
France;  and  Macbeth  cruelly  put  to  death  his 
wife  and  infant  children,  and  sequestrated  his  es- 
tate. Macduff  vowed  revenge,  and  encouraged 
Malcolm  to  attempt  to  dethrone  the  tyrant. 
Macbeth  opposed  them  with  his  whole  force ; 
but,  being  defeated  in  a  pitched  battle,  he  took 
refuge  in  the  most  inaccessible  places  of  the 
Highlands,  where  he  defended  himself  for  two 
years;  but  in  the  mean  time  Malcolm  was  ac- 
knowledged king  of  Scotland,  and  crowned  at 
Scone,  A.  D.  1055.  The  war  between  Macbeth 
and  the  new  king  continued  for  two  years  after 
the  coronation  of  the  latter  ;  but  at  last  he  was 
killed  in  a  sally  by  Macduff.  However,  the 
public  tranquillity  did  not  end  with  his  life.  His 
followers  elected  one  of  his  kinsmen  named 
Lullach,  surnamed  the  Idiot,  to  succeed  him  : 
but  he,  unable  to  withstand  Malcolm,  \\ithdrew 
to  the  north,  where,  being  pursued,  he  was  killed  at 
Essey,  in  Strathbogie,  after  a  rei<jn  of  four  months. 
Malcolm  being  now  established  on  the  throne, 
A.  D.  1057,  began  with  rewarding  Macduff  tor 


his  great  services ;  and  conferred  upon  his 
family  four  extraordinary  privileges: — 1.  That 
they  should  place  the  king  in  his  chair  of  state 
at  the  coronation.  2.  That  they  should  !<>ad  the 
van  of  all  the  royal  armies.  3.  That  they  should 
have  a  regality  within  themselves  :  and,  4.  That 
if  any  of  Macduff's  family  should  happen  to  kill 
a  nobleman  unpremeditatedly,  he  should  pay 
twenty-four  marks  of  silver,  and  if  a  plebeian, 
twelve.  The  king's  next  care  was  to  reinstate  in 
their  father's  possessions  all  the  children  who 
had  been  disinherited  by  the  late  tyrant;  which 
he  did  in  a  convention  of  his  nobles  held  at 
Forfar.  In  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
Malcolm  was  engaged  in  a  dangerous  war  with 
England,  the  occasion  of  which  was  as  follows  : 
On  the  death  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  Harold 
II.  seized  the  throne  of  England,  to  the  preju- 
dice of  Edgar  Atheling  the  true  heir  to  the 
crown.  However,  he  created  him  earl  of  Ox- 
ford, and  treated  him  with  great  respect;  but,  on 
the  defeat  and  death  of  Harold,  William  disco- 
vered some  jealousy  of  Edgar.  Soon  after, 
William  having  occasion  to  pay  a  visit  to  his  do- 
minions in  Normandy,  he  appointed  Edgar  to 
attend  him,  along  with  some  other  noblemen 
whom  he  suspected  to  be  in  his  interest;  but,  on 
his  return  to  England,  he  found  the  people  in  a 
state  of  such  disaffection  to  his  government,  that 
he  proceeded  with  great  severity,  and  great  num- 
bers of  his  subjects  were  obliged  to  take  refuge 
in  Cumberland  and  the  southern  parts  of  Mal- 
colm's dominions.  Edgar  had  two  sisters,  Mar- 
garet and  Christina :  these,  with  his  two  chief 
friends,  Gospatric  and  Marteswin,  soon  made 
him  sensible  how  precarious  his  life  was  under 
such  a  jealous  tyrant,  and  persuaded  him  to  make 
preparations  for  flying  into  Hungary  or  some 
foreign  country.  Edgar  accordingly  set  sail  with 
his  mother  Agatha,  his  two  sisters,  and  a  great 
train  of  Anglo-Saxon  noblemen ;  but  by  stress 
of  weather  was  forced  into  the  Frith  of  Forth, 
where  the  illustrious  exiles  landed  at  the  place 
since  called  the  Queen's  Ferry.  Malcolm  no 
sooner  heard  of  their  landing  than  he  paid  them 
a  visit  in  person ;  and  at  this  visit  became 
enamoured  of  the  princess  Margaret.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  the  chief  of  Edgar's  party  re- 
paired to  the  court  of  Scotland.  William  soon 
made  a  formal  demand  of  Edgar;  and,  on  Mal- 
colm's refusal,  declared  war  against  him.  William 
was  the  most  formidable  enemy  the  Scots  had 
ever  encountered,  as  having  not  only  the  whole 
force  of  England,  but  of  Normandy  at  his  com- 
mand. However,  as  he  had  tyrannised  most  un- 
mercifully over  his  English  subjects,  they  were 
much  more  inclined  to  assist  his  enemies  than 
himself;  and  he  even  found  himself  obliged  to 
give  up  the  county  of  Northumberland  to  Gos- 
patric, who  had  followed  Edgar,  up6n  condition 
of  his  making  war  on  the  Scots.  This  nobleman 
accordingly  invaded  Cumberland ;  in  return  for 
which  Malcolm  ravaged  Northumberland  in  a 
dreadful  manner,  carrying  off  an  immense  booty, 
and  inviting  the  Irish  and  Danes  to  join  him : 
for  even  at  this  time  the  Danes  kept  up  their 
claims  upon  the  crown  of  England.  The  Irish 
were  also  interested  in  advancing  the  cause  of 
Harold's  three  sons,  who  had  put  themselves 

2  D  2 


404 


SCOT  L  A  N  D. 


under  iheir  protection  ;  besides  their  view  to  ob- 
tain plunder.  However,  as  all  these  views  tended 
to  the  destruction  of  William's  power,  a  union 
was  formed  against  him  ;  but,  when  they  came  to 
stipulations,  the  parties  disagreed.  The  three 
sons  of  Harold,  with  a  body  of  Irish,  made  a  de- 
scent upon  Somersetshire,  and  defeated  a  body 
of  English ;  but  the  Irish  having  obtained  an 
opportunity  of  acquiring  some  booty  immedi- 
ately retired  with  it.  The  Danes  landed  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Humber  from  forty  small  ships, 
where  they  were  joined  by  Edgar  and  his  party ; 
and  had  the  allies  been  unanimous,  it  is  probable 
that  William's  government  would  have  been 
overthrown.  By  this  time  the  latter  had  taken 
from  Gospatric  the  earldom  of  Northumberland, 
and  given  it  to  Robert  Cummin  one  of  his  Nor- 
man barons ;  but  the  Northumbrians  having 
joined  Gospatric,  and  received  the  Danes  as 
their  countrymen,  murdered  Cummin  and  all  his 
followers  at  Durham.  After  this  they  laid  siege 
to  the  forts  built  by  William  in  Yorkshire  :  but, 
not  being  able  to  reduce  them,  the  English, 
Scots,  and  Danes,  united  their  forces,  and  took 
the  city  of  York,  and  put  the  garrison  of 
3000  Normans  to  the  sword ;  this  success 
was  followed  by  many  incursions  and  ravages, 
in  which  the  Danes  and  Northumbrians  ac- 
quired great  booty.  It  soon  appeared,  how- 
ever, that  these  allies  had  the  interest  of  Edgar 
no  more  at  heart  than  the  Irish  :  and  that  all  the 
dependence  of  this  forlorn  prince  was  upon  Mal- 
colm and  the  few  Englishmen  who  had  followed 
his  fortune :  for  the  booty  was  no  sooner  obtained 
than  the  Danes  retired  to  their  ships,  and  the 
Northumbrians  to  their  habitations.  In  the  mean 
time  William,  having  raised  a  considerable  army, 
advanced  northwards.  He  first  took  a  severe 
revenge  upon  the  Northumbrians  ;  then  reduced 
the  city  of  York,  and  put  to  death  a  great  number 
of  the  inhabitants ;  when,  perceiving  that  dan- 
ger was  still  threatened  by  the  Danes,  he  bribed 
them  with  a  sum  of  money  to  depart  to  their  own 
country.  Malcolm  was  now  left  alone  to  en- 
counter this  formidable  adversary ;  and,  finding 
himself  unable  to  oppose  so  great  a  force,  with- 
drew to  his  own  dominions,  where  he  remained 
for  some  time  upon  the  defensive.  His  second 
invasion  took  place  in  1071,  while  William  was 
employed  in  quelling  an  insurrection  in  Wales. 
He  is  said  at  this  time  to  have  behaved  with  the 
greatest  cruelty.  Bursting  into  England  by  Cum- 
berland he  ravaged  Teesdale  ;  and  at  a  place 
called  Hundreds-keld  massacred  several  English 
noblemen,  with  all  their  followers.  Thence  he 
marched  to  Cleveland,  in  the  north  riding  of 
Yorkshire ;  which  he  also  ravaged  with  the  ut- 
most cruelty,  sending  back  the  booty  with  part 
of  the  army  to  Scotland  :  after  which  he  pillaged 
the  bishopric  of  Durham,  where  he  is  said  not  to 
have  spared  the  most  sacred  edifices.  Meanwhile 
Gospatric,  to  whom  William  had  again  ceded 
Northumberland,  attempted  to  make  a  diversion 
in  his  favor  by  invading  Cumberland ;  but,  being 
defeated  by  Malcolm,  he  was  obliged  to  shut 
himself  up  in  Bamborough  castle ;  while  the 
latter  returned  in  triumph  to  Scotland,  where  he 
married  the  princess  Margaret,  who  proved  a 
most  excellent  queen.  In  1072  William,  having 


greatly  augmented  his  army,  in  liis  turn  invaded 
Scotland.  The  particulars  of  the  war  are  un- 
known; but  it  ended  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
Scots,  as  Malcolm  agreed  to  pay  him  homage. 
The  English  historians  contend  that  the  homage 
was  for  the  whole  of  his  dominions  ;  but  the 
Scots  with  more  show  of  reason  affirm  that  it 
was  only  for  those  he  possessed  south  of  the 
Tweed.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  a  cross 
was  erected  at  Stanmore  in  Richmondshire,  witli 
the  arms  of  both  kings,  to  serve  as  a  boundary 
between  the  possessions  of  William  and  the  feu- 
dal dominions  of  Malcolm.  Part  of  this  monu- 
ment, called  Re-cross,  or  rather  Roy-cross,  or 
the  cross  of  the  kings,  was  entire  in  the  days  of 
Camden.  This  peace  produced  the  greatest 
alteration  in  the  manners  of  the  Scots.  What 
chiefly  contributed  to  this  was  the  excellent  dis- 
position of  queen  Margaret,  who  was,  for  that 
age,  a  pattern  of  piety  and  politeness  :  and  next 
to  this  was  the  number  of  foreigners  who  had 
settled  in  Scotland  ;  among  whom  were  some 
Frenchmen.  Malcolm  himself,  also,  was  far 
from  being  averse  to  a  reformation,  and  even  set 
the  example.  During  her  husband's  absence  in 
England  queen  Margaret  had  chosen  for  her 
confessor  one  Turgot,  whom  she  also  made 
her  assistant  in  her  intended  reformation.  She 
began  with  new-modelling  her  own  court;  into 
which  she  introduced  the  offices,  furniture,  and 
manner  of  living,  common  in  the  more  polite 
nations  of  Europe;  dismissing  from  her  service 
all  who  were  noted  for  immorality  and  impiety. 
Turgot  she  charged,  on  pain  of  her  displeasure, 
to  give  his  real  sentiments  on  the  state  of  the 
kingdom,  and  was  ir.tbrmed  by  him  that  faction 
reigned  among  the  nobles,  rapine  among  the 
commons,  and  licentiousness  among  all  ranks. 
Above  all,  he  complained  that  the  kingdom  was 
destitute  of  a  learned  clergy.  This  the  queen 
represented  to  her  husband,  and  prevailed  upon 
him  to  set  about  the  work  of  reformation  ;  in 
which,  however,  he  met  with  considerable  oppo- 
sition. The  Scots,  accustomed  to  oppress  their 
inferiors,  thought  all  restrictions  of  their  power 
were  as  many  steps  towards  their  slavery.  The 
introduction  of  foreign  offices  and  titles  confirmed 
them  in  this  opinion  ;  and  such  a  dangerous  in- 
surrection happened  in  Moray  and  some  of  the 
northern  counties,  that  Malcolm  was  obliged  to 
march  against  the  rebels.  He  found  them  indeed 
very  formidable ;  but  they  were  so  much  intimi- 
dated by  his  resolution,  that  they  intreated  the 
clergy  who  were  among  them  to  intercede  with 
the  king.  Malcolm  received  their  submission, 
but  refused  to  grant  an  unconditional  pardon, 
lie  gave  all  the  common  people  indeed  leave  to 
return  to  their  habitations,  but  obliged  the  higher 
ranks  to  surrender  themselves  to  his  pleasure. 
Many  of  the  most  guilty  were  put  to  daath,  or 
had  their  estates  confiscated.  This  severity 
checked  the  rebellious  spirit  of  the  Scots  ;  upon 
which  Malcolm  returned  to  his  plans.  Still, 
however,  he  found  himself  opposed  even  in  those 
abuses  which  were  most  obvious  and  glaring, 
and  durst  not  entirely  abolish  many  odious  cus- 
toms. In  those  days  the  Scots  were  without  the 
practice  of  saying  grace  after  meals,  till  it  was 
introduced  by  Margaret,  who  gave  a  glass  of 


SCOTLAND. 


405 


wine  to  those  who  remained  at  the  roya!  liible 
and  heard  tlie  thanksgiving;  which  gave  rise  to 
the  term  of  the  gi  \ce-drink.  Besides  this,  the 
terms  of  the  duration  of  Lent  and  Easter  were 
fixed  ;  the  king  and  queen  bestowed  large  alms 
on  the  poor,  and  the  latter  washed  the  feet  of  six 
or  their  number ;  many  churches,  monasteries, 
&c.,  were  erected,  and  the  clerical  revenues  aug- 
mented. In  1077  Malcolm  again  invaded  Eng- 
land ;  but  with  what  success  is  not  well  known, 
in  1088,  after  the  death  of  the  conqueror,  he 
;iL.nin  espoused  the  cause  of  Edgar  Etheling.  At 
the  time  of  Edgar's  arrival  Malcolm  was  at  the 
head  of  a  brave  and  well  disciplined  army,  with 
which  he  penetrated  a  great  way  into  the  country 
of  the  enemy ;  and,  it  is  said,  returned  home 
with  an  immense  booty.  William  resolved  to 
revenge  the  injury,  and  prepared  great  arma- 
ments both  by  sea  and  land  for  the  invasion  of 
Scotland.  His  success,  however,  was  not  answer- 
able to  his  preparations.  His  fleet  was  dashed 
to  pieces  by  storms,  and  almost  all  on  board 
perished.  Malcolm  had  also  laid  waste  the 
country  through  which  his  antagonist  was  to 
pass,  in  such  an  effectual  manner  that  William 
lost  a  great  part  of  his  troops  by  fatigue  and 
famine  ;  and,  when  he  arrived  in  Scotland,  found 
himself  in  a  situation  very  little  able  to  resist 
Malcolm,  who  was  advancing  with  a  powerful 
army.  In  this  distress  Rufus  had  recourse  to 
Robert  de  Mowbray  earl  of  Northumberland, 
who  dissuaded  him  from  venturing  a  battle,  but 
advised  him  by  all  means  to  open  a  negociation 
through  the  English  noblemen  who  resided  with 
Malcolm.  Edgar  undertook  the  negociation,  on 
condition  of  his  being  restored  to  his  estates  in 
England.  Malcolm  had  never  yet  recognised 
the  right  of  W'illiam  Rufus  to  the  throne  of  Eng- 
land, and  therefore  refused  to  treat  with  him  as 
a  sovereign  prince ;  but  offered  to  enter  into  a 
negociation  with  his  brother  Robert,  surnamed 
Curt-hose,  from  the  shortness  of  his  legs.  The 
two  princes  accordingly  met ;  and  Malcolm, 
having  shown  Robert  the  disposition  of  his  army, 
offered  to  cut  off  his  brother  William,  and  to 
pay  to  him  the  homage  he  had  been  accustomed 
to  pay  to  the  Conqueror  for  his  English  domi- 
nions. But  Robert  generously  answered  that  he 
had  resigned  to  William  his  right  of  primogeni- 
ture in  England ;  and  that  he  had  even  become 
one  of  William's  subjects  by  accepting  of  an 
English  estate.  An  interview  with  William  then 
followed  ;  in  which  it  was  agreed  that  the  king 
of  England  should  restore  to  Malcolm  all  his 
southern  possessions,  for  which  he  should  pay 
the  same  homage  he  had  been  accustomed  to  do 
to  the  Conqueror,  that  he  should  restore  to  Mal- 
colm twelve  disputed  manors,  and  give  him  like- 
wise twelve  merks  of  gold  yearly,  besides 
restoring  to  Edgar  all  his  English  estates.  This 
treaty  was  concluded  in  Lothian,  according  to 
the  English  historians  ;  but  at  Leeds  in  York- 
shire, according  to  the  Scots.  However  William 
considered  the  terms  as  so  very  dishonorable  that 
he  resolved  not  to  fulfil  them.  Soon  after  his 
departure  Edgar  and  Robert  began  to  press  him 
to  fulfil  his  engagements  ;  but,  receiving  only 
evasive  answers,  they  passed  over  into  Normandy. 
After  their  departure  William  applied  himself 


to  the  fortification  of  his  northern  boundaries, 
especially  Carlisle,  which  had  been  destroyed 
by  the  Danes  200  years  before  As  this  place 
lay  within  the  feudal  dominions  of  Malcolm,  he 
complained  of  William's  proceedings  as  a  breach 
of  the  late  treaty ;  and  soon  after  repaired  to  the 
English  court  at  Gloucester  that  he  might  have  a 
personal  interview  with  the  king,  and  obtain  re- 
dress. On  his  arrival  William  refused  him  ad- 
mittance to  his  presence  without  paying  him 
homage.  Malcolm  offered  this  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  had  been  done  by  his  predecessors,  that  is, 
on  the  confines  of  the  two  kingdoms ;  but,  this 
being  rejected  by  William,  Malcolm  returned  to 
Scotland  in  a  rage,  and  again  prepared  for  war. 
The  first  of  Malcolm's  military  operations  now 
proved  fatal  to  him;  but  the  circumstances  of 
his  death  are  variously  related.  According  to 
the  Scottish  historians,  having  laid  siege  to  Aln- 
wick,  he  reduced  the  place  to  such  straits  that  a 
knight  came  out  of  the  castle,  having  the  keys  on 
the  point  of  a  spear,  and,  pretending  that  he  de- 
signed to  lay  them  at  Malcolm's  feet,  ran  him 
through  the  eye  with  the  spear  as  soon  as  he  came 
within  reach.  Prince  Edward,  the  king's  eldest 
son,  was  mortally  wounded  in  attempting  to  re- 
venge his  father's  death.  The  English  historians, 
on  the  other  hand,  contend  that  the  Scots  were 
surprised  in  their  camp,  their  army  entirely  de- 
feated, and  their  king  killed.  On  this  occasion 
the  Scottish  historians  also  inform  us  that  the 
family  of  Piercy  received  its  name;  the  knight 
who  killed  the  Scottish  king  having  been  sur- 
named Pierce-eye,  from  the  manner  in  which  he 
gave  that  monarch  the  fatal  stroke.  Queen  Mar- 
garet, who  was  at  that  time  lying  ill  in  the  castle 
of  Edinburgh,  died  four  days  after  her  husband. 
On  the  death  of  Malcolm  Canmore,  which 
happened  in  the  year  1093,  the  throne  was 
usurped  by  his  brother,  Donald  Bane,  or  Do- 
nald VII.,  who,  notwithstanding  the  great  virtues 
and  glorious  achievements  of  the  late  king,  had 
been  at  the  head  of  a  strong  party  during  the 
whole  of  his  reign.  The  usurper,  giving  way  to 
the  barbarous  prejudices  of  himself  and  his  coun- 
trymen, expelled  out  of  the  kingdom  all  the  fo- 
reigners whom  Malcolm  had  introduced.  Edgar 
himself  had  long  resided  at  the  English  court, 
where  he  was  in  high  reputation ;  and,  by  his 
interest  there,  found  means  to  rescue  his  nephew 
young  Edgar,  the  king  of  Scotland's  eldest  son, 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  usurper  Donald  Bane. 
The  favor  he  showed  to  him,  however,  produced 
an  accusation  against  himself,  as  if  he  designed 
to  adopt  young  Edgar  as  his  son,  and  set  him  up 
as  a  pretender  to  the  English  throne.  This  ac- 
cusation was  preferred  by  an  Englishman  whose 
name  was  Orgar  ;  but,  as  no  legal  proofs  could 
be  obtained,  the  custom  of  the  times  rendered  a 
single  combat  between  the  parties  unavoidable. 
Orgar  was  one  of  the  strongest  and  most  active 
men  in  the  kingdom ;  but  the  age  and  infirmities 
of  Edgar  allowed  him  to  be  defended  by  ano- 
ther. For  a  long  time  none  could  be  found  who 
would  enter  the  lists  with  this  champion ;  but  at 
last  one  Godwin  of  Winchester,  whose  family 
had  been  nnder  obligations  to  Edgar  or  his  an- 
cestors, offered  to  defend  his  cause.  Orgar  was 
overcome  and  killed  ;  and,  when  dyjng,  confess 


406 


SCOTLAND. 


ed  the  falsehood  oJ'  nis  accusation.  The  con- 
queror obtained  all  the  lands  of  his  adversary, 
and  William  lived  ever  afterwards  on  terms  of 
the  strictest  friendship  with  Edgar.  This  combat, 
trifling  as  it  may  seem  to  us,  produced  very  con- 
siderable effects.  The  party  of  Edgar  and  his 
brothers  (who  had  likewise  taken  refuge  at  the 
English  court)  revived  in  Scotland  to  such  a 
degree  that  Donald  was  obliged  to  call  in  the 
Danes  and  Norwegians  to  his  assistance.  In 
order  to  engage  them  more  effectually,  the 
usurper  yielded  up  to  them  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  islands  ;  but,  when  hio  iww  allies  came 
to  his  assistance,  they  behaved  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  become  more  intolerable  to  the  Scots  than 
ever  the  English  had  been.  This  discontent  was 
greatly  increased  when  it  was  found  that  William 
designed  to  place  on  the  throne  of  Scotland  a 
natural  son  of  the  late  Malcolm,  named  Duncan, 
who  had  served  with  reputation  in  the  English 
armies.  Donald  attempted  to  maintain  himself 
on  the  throne  by  the  assistance  of  his  Norwegian 
allies ;  but,  being  abandoned  by  the  Scots,  he 
was  obliged  to  fly  to  the  isles,  to  raise  more 
forces  :  in  the  meantime  Duncan  II.  was  crown- 
ed at  Scone  with  the  usual  solemnity.  The  Scots 
were  now  greatly  distressed  by  two  usurpers  who 
contended  for  the  kingdom.  One  of  them  how- 
ever was  soon  despatched.  Malpedir,  thane  of 
Mearns,  surprised  Duncan  in  the  castle  of  Mon- 
teith,  and  killed  him ;  after  which  he  replaced 
Donald  VII.  on  the  throne.  But  the  affection 
of  the  Scots  was  by  this  time  entirely  alienated 
from  Donald,  and  a  manifest  intention  of  calling 
in  young  Edgar  prevailed.  To  prevent  this, 
Donald  offered  the  young  prince  all  that  part  of 
Scotland  which  lay  south  of  the  Forth  ;  but  the 
terms  were  rejected,  and  the  messengers  who 
brought  them  were  put  to  death  as  traitors.  The 
king  of  England  also,  dreading  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Norwegians,  interposed  in  young 
Edgar's  favor,  and  gave  Atheling  the  command 
of  an  army  to  restore  him.  Donald  prepared  to 
oppose  his  enemies  with  all  the  forces  he  could 
raise ;  but,  deserted  by  the  Scots,  he  was  obliged 
to  flee;  and  his  enemies  pursued  him  so  closely 
that  he  was  soon  taken.  Being  brought  before 
Edgar,  he  ordered  his  eyes  to  be  put  out,  and 
condemned  him  to  perpetual  banishment,  in 
which  he  died  some  time  after.  The  credulous 
historians  of  this  period  tell  us  that  this  revolu- 
tion was  owing  to  St.  Cuthbert,  who  appeared  to 
Edgar,  informing  him  that  he  should  prove  vic- 
torious, if  he  received  his  banner  from  the  hands 
of  the  canons  ;  which  he  accordingly  did.  Dur- 
ing his  reign  a  strict  friendship  subsisted  between 
the  courts  of  England  and  Scotland  ;  owing  to  the 
marriage  of  Henry  I.  of  England  with  the 
princess  Matilda,  sister  to  Edgar.  This  has 
given  occasion  to  the  English  historians  to  assert, 
that  Edgar  held  the  kingdom  rf  Scotland  as  a 
feudatory  of  Henry.  A  seal  has  been  forged  of 
Ede^ar  sitting  on  horseback,  with  a  sword  in  his 
right  hand,  and  a  shield  on  his  left  arm,  with  a 
border  of  France :  this  last  circumstance  is  a 
sufficient  proof  of  the  forgery.  After  a  reign  of 
nine  years,  Edgar  died  at  Dundee,  in  1107  ;  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Alexander  I.  sur- 
named  the  Fierce,  from  the  impetuosity  of  his 


temper.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne,  how- 
ever, the  Scots  were  so  ignorant  of  his  true  cha- 
racter, on  account  of  his  appearance  of  piety  and 
devotion,  that  the  northern  parts  of  the  kingdom 
were  soon  filled  with  bloodshed,  by  the  wars  of 
the  chieftains.  Alexander  immediately  raised  an 
army,  and,  marching  into  Moray  and  Ross-shire, 
attacked  the  insurgents  separately ;  and,  having 
subdued  them  all,  put  great  numbers  of  them  to 
death.  He  then  set  himself  to  reduce  the  exor- 
bitant power  of  the  nobles.  A  remarkable  in- 
stance of  this  appeared  on  his  return  from  this 
expedition.  In  passing  through  the  Mearns,  he 
met  with  a  widow  who  complained  that  her  hus- 
band and  son  had  been  put  to  death  by  the 
young  earl  their  superior.  Alexander  imme- 
diately alighted  from  his  horse,  aud  swore  that 
he  would  not  remount  him  till  lie  had  enquired 
into  the  justice  of  the  complaint;  and,  finding 
it  to  be  true,  the  offender  was  hanged  on  the 
spot.  These  vigorous  proceedings  prevented  all 
attempts  at  rebellion  ;  but  produced  many  con- 
spiracies among  the  profligate  part  of  his  sub- 
jects. The  most  remarkable  of  these  took  place 
while  the  king  was  engaged  in  building  the  castle 
of  Bal-Edgar,  so  called  in  memory  of  his  bro- 
ther, who  had  laid  the  foundation.  It  was  si- 
tuated in  the  Carse  of  Cowrie,  which  formerly 
belonged  to  Donald  Bane,  but  came  to  the 
crown,  either  by  donation  or  forfeiture.  The  con- 
spirators bribed  one  of  the  king's  chamberlains  to 
introduce  them  at  night  into  tl>e  royal  bed- 
chamber; but  Alexander,  alarmed  at  the  noise, 
drew  his  sword  and  killed  six  of  them  :  after 
which,  by  the  help  of  a  knight  named  Alexander 
Carron,  he  escaped  the  danger,  by  fleeing  into 
Fife.  The  conspirators  chiefly  resided  in  the 
Mearns,  to  which  Alexander  once  more  repaired, 
at  the  head  of  an  army  ;  but  the  rebels  retreated 
northwards,  and  crossed  the  Spey.  The  kinj 
pursued  them  across  that  river,  defeated  them, 
and  brought  to  justice  all  that  fell  into  his  hands. 
In  this  battle  Carron  distinguished  himself  so 
eminently  that  he  obtained  the  name  of  Skrim- 
geour  or  Scrimzeour,  i.  e.  skirmisher  or  fighter. 
The  next  remarkable  transaction  of  Alexander's 
reign  was  his  journey  into  England,  where  he 
visited  Henry  I.,  whom  he  found  engaged  in  a 
war  with  the  Welsh.  Henry  had  planted  a  co- 
lony of  Flemings  on  the  borders  of  the  princi- 
pality, to  keep  that  turbulent  people  in  awe,  as 
well  as  to  introduce  into  his  kingdom  the  manu- 
factures for  which  the  Flemings  were  famous. 
The  Welsh,  jealous  of  this  colony,  invaded  Eng- 
land ;  where  they  defeated  the  earl  of  Chester 
and  Gilbert  Strongbow,  the  two  most  powerful 
of  the  English  subjects.  Alexander,  in  virtue  of 
the  fealty  which  he  had  sworn  for  the  English 
possessions,  readily  agreed  to  lead  an  army  into 
Wales.  There  he  defeated  one  of  the  chieftains, 
and  reduced  him  to  great  straits ;  but  could  not 
prevent  him  from  escaping  to  Griffith,  prince  of 
North  Wales,  with  whom  he  was  closely  allied. 
Henry  also  marched  against  the  enemy,  but  with 
much  worse  success  in  the  field  than  Alexander; 
for  he  lost  two-thirds  of  his  army,  with  almost  his 
whole  bagu;n>'e,  by  fatigue,  famine,  and  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Welsh.  This  loss,  however,  he  made 
up  i;  some  measure  by  his  policy;  for  having 


SCOTLAND. 


407 


raised  a  jealousy  between  the  two  Welsh  chiefs, 
he  induced  them  to  conclude  a  peace,  but  not 
without  restoring  all  his  lands  to  the  one,  and 
paying  a  considerable  sum  of  money  to  the 
other.  Alexander  married  Sibylla,  daughter  of 
William  duke  of  Normandy ;  but  died  without 
issue  in  1124,  after  a  reign  of  seventeen  years, 
and  was  buried  at  Dunfermline. 

Alexander,  dying  a  bachelor,  was  succeeded 
by  his  youngest  brother  David  ;  who  interfered 
in  the  affairs  of  England,  and  took  part  with  the 
empress  Maud  in  the  civil  war  she  carried  on 
with  Stephen.  In  1136  David  met  his  antago- 
nist at  Durham ;  but,  as  neither  party  cared  to 
venture  an  engagement,  a  negociation  took  place, 
and  a  treaty  was  concluded.  This,  however,  was 
not  long  observed  ;  for,  in  1137,  David  again  in- 
vaded England,  defeated  Stephen  at  Roxburgh, 
and  forced  him  to  retreat  precipitately,  after 
losing  one-half  of  his  army.  Next  year  he  re- 
newed his  invasion ;  and,  though  he  himself  was 
a  man  of  great  mildness  and  humanity,  he  suffer- 
ed his  troops  to  commit  such  outrages  as  firmly 
united  the  English  in  opposition  to  him.  His 
grand  nephew  William  cut  in  pieces  the  vanguard 
of  the  English  army  at  Clithero;  after  which  he 
ravaged  the  country  with  such  cruelty  that  the 
inhabitants  became  exasperated  beyond  measure 
against  him.  New  associations  were  entered  into 
against  the  Scots  ;  and  the  English  army,  receiv- 
ing great  reinforcements  from  the  southward, 
advanced  to  Northallerton,  where  the  famous 
standard  was  produced.  The  body  of  this 
standard  was  a  kind  of  box  which  moved  upon 
wheels,  from  which  arose  the  mast  of  a  ship  sur- 
mounted by  a  silver  cross,  and  round  it  were 
hung  the  banners  of  St.  Peter,  St.  John  de  Be- 
verly, and  St.  Wilfred.  Standards  of  this  kind 
were  common  at  that  time  on  the  continent ;  and 
so  great  confidence  had  the  English  in  this 
standard  that  they  now  thought  themselves  in- 
vincible. They  had,  however,  a  much  more 
solid  ground  of  confidence,  as  being  much  better 
armed  than  their  antagonists.  The  armies  met 
at  a  place  called  Culton  Moor.  The  first  line  of 
the  Scots  army  was  composed  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Galloway,  Carrie,  Kyle,  Cunningham,  and 
Renfrew.  These,  by  some  historians,  are  called 
Picts,  and  are  said  to  have  had  a  prince  of  their 
own,  who  was  a  feudatory  to  David.  The  second 
line  consisted  of  Lothian  men,  by  which  we  are 
to  understand  the  king's  subjects  in  England  as 
well  as  the  south  of  Scotland,  together  with  the 
English  and  Normans  of  Maud's  party.  The 
third  line  was  formed  of  the  clans  under  their 
different  chieftains,  but  who  were  subject  to  no 
regular  command,  and  were  always  impatient  to 
return  to  their  own  country  when  they  had  ac- 
quired any  booty.  The  English  soldiers,  having 
ranged  themselves  round  their  standard,  dis- 
mounted from  their  horses,  to  avoid  the  long 
Jances  which  the  first  line  of  the  Scottish  army 
carried.  Their  front  line  was  intermixed  with 
archers ;  and  a  body  of  cavalry,  ready  for  pur- 
suit, hovered  at  some  distance.  The  Picts,  besides 
their  lances,  made  use  of  targets  ;  but,  when  the 
English  closed  with  them,  they  were  soon  disor- 
dered and  driven  back  upon  the  centre,  where 
David  commanded  in  person.  His  son  made  a 


gallant  resistance,  but  was  at  last  forced  to 
yield  :  the  last  line  seems  never  to  have  been  en- 
gaged. David,  seeing  the  victory  decided  against 
him,  ordered  some  of  his  men  to  save  themselves 
by  throwing  away  their  badges,  which  it  seems 
Maud's  party  had  worn,  and  mingling  with  the 
English;  after  which  he  himself,  with  his  shat- 
tered forces,  retreated  towards  Carlisle.  The 
English  historians  say  that  in  this  battle  the 
Scots  were  totally  defeated,  with  the  loss  of 
10,000  men  ;  but  this  seems  not  to  be  the  case, 
as  the  English  did  not  pursue,  and  the  Scots 
were  in  a  condition  for  carrying  on  the  war  next 
year.  However,  there  were  now  no  great  ex- 
ploits performed  on  either  side ;  and  a  peace 
was  concluded,  by  which  Henry,  prince  of  Scot- 
land, was  put  in  possession  of  Huntingdon  and 
Northumberland,  and  took  an  oath  of  fealty  to 
Stephen.  David  built  no  fewer  than  fifteen 
abbeys :  viz.  at  Holyrood-house,  Kelso,  Jedburgh, 
Melrose,  Newbottel,  Cambuskenneth,  Dundren- 
nan,  Holm-Cultrane,  Kinloss,  Dunfermline, 
Holme  in  Cumberland,  Carlisle,  North  Berwick, 
and  two  at  Newcastle ;  and  founded  four  bishop- 
rics. His  son  prince  Henry  died  before  him, 
leaving  three  sons  and  three  daughters.  David, 
called  also,  from  his  piety,  St.  David,  continued 
faithful  to  his  niece  the  empress  as  long  he  lived; 
and  died  at  Carlisle  in  1153,  after  a  glorious 
reign  of  above  twenty-nine  years. 

David  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Malcolm 
IV.,  surnamed  the  Maiden,  on  account  of  his 
continence.  He  suppressed  several  rebellions, 
banished  many  of  the  turbulent  Murrays,  built 
the  abbeys  of  St.  Andrew's  and  Cupar  in  Angus, 
and  died  at  Jedburgh,  in  the  twelfth  year  of  his 
reign,  A.  D.  1165.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  William  I.,  surnamed  the  Lion,  who  im- 
mediately entered  into  a  war  with  Henry  II.  of 
England,  on  account  of  the  earldom  of  Northum- 
berland, which  had  been  given  up  by  Malcolm; 
but  Henry,  finding  his  affairs  in  a  very  embar- 
rassed situation,  consented  to  yield  up  this 
county  on  William's  paying  him  homage,  rather 
than  continue  the  miseries  of  war.  In  1172  he 
attempted  to  avail  himself  of  tne  unnatural  war 
which  Henry's  sons  carried  on  against  their 
father,  and  invaded  England.  He  divided  his 
army  into  three  columns ;  the  first  of  which  laid 
siege  to  Carlisle ;  the  second  he  himself  led  into 
Northumberland  ;  and  the  king's  brother,  David, 
advanced  with  the  third  into  Leicestershire.  Wil- 
liam reduced  the  castles  of  Burgh,  Appleby, 
Warkworth,  and  Garby,  and  then  joined  that 
division  of  his  army  which  was  besieging  Carlisle. 
The  place  was  already  reduced  to  such  straits 
that  the  governor  had  agreed  to  surrender  it  by  a 
certain  day,  provided  it  was  not  relieved  before 
that  time;  on  which  the  king,  leaving  some 
troops  to  continue  the  siege,  invested  a  castle 
with  some  of  the  forces  he  had  under  his  com- 
mand, at  the  same  time  sending  a  strong  rein- 
forcement to  his  brother  David ;  by  which  means 
he  himself  was  left  with  a  very  small  army,  when 
he  received  intelligence  that  a  strong  body  of 
English  under  Robert  de  Stuterville  and  his  son 
were  advancing  to  surprise  him.  William,  sen- 
sible of  his  inability  to  resist  them,  retired  to 
Alnwick,  to  which  he  instantly  laid  siege;  but 


408 


SCOTLAND. 


acted  in  such  a  careless  manner  that  his  enemies, 
having  dressed  a  party  of  their  soldiers  in  Scot- 
tish habits,  took  him  prisoner,  and  carried  him, 
with  his  feet  tied  under  the  belly  of  a  horse,  to 
Richmond  Castle.  He  was  then  carried  in 
chains  before  Henry  to  Northampton,  and  or- 
dered to  be  transported  to  the  castle  of  Falaise  in 
Normandy,  where  he  was  shut  up  with  other 
state  prisoners.  Soon  after  this  an  accommoda- 
tion took  place  between  Henry  and  his  sons,  and 
the  prisoners  on  both  sides  were  set  at  liberty, 
William  only  excepted,  who  bore  his  confinement 
with  great  impatience.  Of  this  Henry  took  the 
advantage,  to  make  him  pay  homage  for  the 
whole  kingdom  of  Scotland,  and  acknowledge 
that  he  held  it  only  as  a  feu  of  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land ;  and,  as  a  security,  he  was  obliged  to  de- 
liver into  the  hands  of  Henry  all  the  principal 
forts  in  Scotland :  viz.  the  castles  of  Roxburgh, 
Berwick,  Jedburgh,  Edinburgh  and  Stirling; 
William  at  the  same  time  agreeing  to  pay  the 
English  garrisons  which  were  put  into  these 
castles.  David,  the  king's  brother,  and  twenty 
barons,  who  were  present  at  the  signing  of  this 
shameful  convention,  were  put  into  the  hands  of 
Henry  as  hostages  for  William's  good  faith  ;  after 
which  the  king  was  set  at  liberty,  and  returned  to 
Scotland.  The  affairs  of  Scotland  were  now  in 
the  greatest  confusion.  The  people  of  Galloway, 
at  the  head  of  whom  were  two  princes,  called 
Othred  and  Gilbert,  had  taken  the  opportunity 
of  asserting  their  independency  on  the  crown  of 
Scotland  ;  and,  having  expelled  all  the  Scottish 
officers  out  of  the  country,  they  demolished  the 
forts  which  William  had  erected,  and  put  to 
death  all  the  foreigners.  But,  a  quarrel  ensuing 
between  them,  Othred  was  murdered  by  Gilbert, 
who  applied  to  Henry  for  protection.  Henry,  to 
give  all  possible  sanction  to  the  convention  be- 
twixt him  and  William,  summoned  him  to  meet 
him  and  his  son  at  York.  William  obeyed  the 
summons,  and  along  with  him  appeared  all  the 
great  nobility  and  landholders;  who  confirmed 
the  convention  of  Falaise,  swore  fealty  to  Henry, 
and  put  themselves  and  their  country  under  his 
protection.  In  the  mean  time  Gilbert,  who  was 
at  the  head  of  the  rebels  in  Galloway,  had  of- 
fered to  put  himself  and  bis  people  under  the 
protection  of  Heury,  and  to  pay  to  him  '2000 
merks  of  silver  yearly,  with  500  cows  and  as 
many  hogs ;  but  Henry,  that  he  might  oblige  his 
new  feudatory  William,  refused  to  have  any  con- 
cern with  Gilbert.  On  this  William  ordered  his 
general  Gilchrist  to  march  against  him  ;  which  he 
did  with  such  success  that  Gilbert  was  entirely 
defeated,  and  Galloway  again  reduced  under  the 
dominion  of  Scotland.  Very  soon  after  this  vic- 
tory Gilchrist  fell  under  the  king's  displeasure  on 
the  following  occasion  :  He  had  married  Matilda, 
sister  to  William  ;  and,  on  suspicion  or  proof  of 
her  incontinence,  put  her  to  death  at  a  village 
called  Maynes,  near  Dundee.  The  king,  being 
highly  displeased  at  such  a  gross  affront  to  him- 
self, summoned  Gilchrist  to  take  his  trial  for  the 
murder;  hut,  as  the  general  did  not  choose  to 
make  his  appearance,  his  estates  were  confiscated, 
his  castles  demolished,  and  himself  banished.  He 
took  refuge  in  England  ;  but  as  it  had  been  agreed 
in  the  convention  between  William  and  Henry 


that  the  one  should  not  harbour  the  traitorous 
subjects  of  the  other,  Gilchrist  was  forced  to 
return  to  Scotland  with  his  two  sons.  There 
they  were  exposed  to  all  the  miseries  of  indi- 
gence, and  in  perpetual  fear  of  being  discovered, 
so  that  they  were  obliged  to  skulk  from  place  to 
place.  William,  on  his  return  from  an  expedi- 
tion against  a  usurper  whom  he  had  defeated, 
observed  three  strangers,  who,  though  disguised 
like  rustics,  appeared  to  be  above  the  vulgar  rank. 
William  was  confirmed  in  this  apprehension  by 
seeing  them  strike  out  of  the  high  road,  and  en- 
deavour to  avoid  notice.  He  ordered  them  to  be 
seized  and  brought  before  him.  The  oldest,  who 
was  Gilchrist  himself,  fell  upon  his  knees  before 
him,  and  gave  such  a  detail  of  his  misfortunes,  as 
drew  tears  from  the  eyes  of  all  present ;  and  the 
king  restored  him  to  his  former  honors  and  es- 
tates. From  the  family  of  this  Gilchrist  that  of 
the  Ogilvies  is  descended.  The  Scots  continued 
in  subjection  to  the  English  until  the  accession  of 
Richard  I.  This  monarch,  being  a  man  of  ro- 
mantic valor,  zealously  undertook  an  expedition 
into  the  Holy  Laud  against  the  Turks.  That  he 
might  secure  the  quiet  of  his  dominions  in  his 
absence,  he  determined  to  make  the  king  of  Scot- 
land his  friend  ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  bethought 
nothing  could  be  more  acceptable  than  releasing 
him  and  his  subjects  from  that  subjection  which 
even  the  English  themselves  considered  as  unjust. 
However,  he  determined  not  to  lose  this  oppor- 
tunity of  supplying  himself  with  a  sum  of  money, 
which  was  absolutely  necessary  in  such  an  ex- 
pensive and  dangerous  undertaking.  He  there- 
fore made  William  pay  him  10,000  merks  for  this 
release  ;  after  which  he  entered  into  a  convention, 
which  is  still  extant,  acknowledging  that  '  all 
the  conventions  and  acts  of  submission  from 
William  to  the  crown  of  England  had  been  ex- 
torted from  him  by  unprecedented  writings  and 
duresse.'  This  transaction  happened  in  1189. 
The  generosity  of  Richard  met  with  a  grateful 
return  from  William;  for  when  Richard  was 
imprisoned  by  the  emperor  of  Germany  in  his 
return  from  the  Holy  Land,  the  king  of  Scotland 
sent  an  army  to  assist  his  regency  against  his  re- 
bellious brother  John,  who  had  wickedly  usurped 
the  throne  of  England.  For  this  Richard  owned 
bis  obligation  in  the  highest  degree;  and  the  two 
monarcbs  continued  in  friendship  as  long  as 
Richard  lived.  Some  differences  happened  with 
king  John  about  the  possession  of" Northumber- 
land and  other  northern  counties;  but  these  were 
all  finally  adjusted,  to  the  mutual  satisfaction  of 
both  parties ;  and  William  continued  a  faithful 
ally  of  the  English  monarch  till  his  death,  which 
happened  in  1214,  after  a  reign  of  forty-nine 
years. 

William  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander 
II.,  a  youth  of  sixteen.  He  revived  his  claim  to 
Northumberland  and  the  other  northern  counties 
of  England ;  but  John,  supposing  that  he  had 
now  thoroughly  subdued  the  English,  not  only 
refused  to  consider  the  demands  of  Alexander, 
but  made  preparations  for  invading  Scotland. 
John  had  given  all  the  country  between  Scotland 
and  the  river  Tees  to  Hugh  de  Baliol  and  another 
nobleman,  upon  condition  of  their  defending  it 
against  the  Scots.  Alexander  f»'ll  upon  Nor- 


SCOTLAND- 


409 


thumberland,  which  he  easily  reduced,  while  John 
invaded  Scotland.     Alexander  retired  to   Mel- 
rose  to  defend  his  own  country ;    upon  which 
John  burnt  the   towns  of  Wark,  Alnwick,  and 
Morpeth,  and  took  the  strong  castles  of  Roxburgh 
and  Berwick.     He  next  plundered  the  abbey  of 
Coldingham,  reduced  Dunbar  and  Haddington, 
ravaging  the  country  as  he  passed  along.    His 
next  operation  was  directed  against  Edinburgh  ; 
but,  being  opposed  by  Alexander  at  the  head  of 
an  army,  he  precipitately  marched  back.     Alex- 
ander pursued,  and  John,  to  cover  his  retreat, 
burnt  the  towns  of  Berwick   and  Coldingham. 
In  this  retreat  John  set  his  men  an  example  of 
barbarity,  by  setting  fire  every  morning  to  the 
house  in  which  he  had  lodged  the   preceding 
night.     In  short,  such  desolation  did  he  spread 
all  around  him,  that  Alexander  found   it  impos- 
sible to  continue  his  pursuit;  for  which  reason 
lie  marched  west%vard,  and  invaded  England  by 
the  way  of  Carlisle.     This  town  he  took  and  for- 
tified ;  after  which  he  marched  south  as  far  as 
Richmond,  receiving  homage  from  all  the  great 
oarons  as  he  went  along.     At  Richmond  he  was 
again  stopped  by  John's  ravages,  and  obliged  to 
return  through  Westmoreland  to  his  own  domi- 
nions.   When  the  English  barons  found  it  neces- 
sary to  put  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
Louis,  son  to  the  king  of  France,  that  prince, 
among   other    acts    of   sovereignty,    summoned 
Alexander  to  do  him  homage ;    but  the  latter, 
being  then  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Carlisle,  which 
had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  king  John,  could  not 
attend.     In  a  short  time  Alexander  found  him- 
self obliged  to  abandon   this   enterprise;    after 
which  he  laid  siege  to  Barnard  castle;  but,  being 
baffled  here  also,  marched   southwards  through 
the  whole  kingdom  of  England,  and  met  Louis 
at  London  or  Dover,  where  the  prince  confirmed 
to  him  the  rights  to  Northumberland,  Cumber- 
land, and  Westmoreland.     He  continued  a  faith- 
ful ally  to  Louis  and  the  barons  in  their  wars 
with  John;  and  in  1216  brought  a  fresh  army  to 
their  assistance,  when  their  affairs  were  almost 
desperate.     This   once   more   turned   the   scale 
against  John  ;  but,  he  soon  after  dying,  the  Eng- 
lish easily  became  reconciled  to  the  government 
of  Henry  III.,  and  the  party  of  Louis  dwindled 
every  day,  till  at  last  he  was  obliged  to  drop  all 
thoughts  of  being  king  of  England.     As  long  as 
Louis  continued  in  England,  Alexander  proved 
faithful  to  his* interest ;  but  in   1217  he  was  on 
such  good  terms  with  Henry  as  to  demand  his 
eldest  sister,  the  princess  Jane  or  Joan,  for  a 
wife.     His  request  was  granted,  and  in  1221  he 
espoused  the   princess,   while   his  eldest  sister 
Margery  was  married  to  Hubert  de  Burgh,  jus- 
ticiary of  England,   and    his  second   sister   to 
Gilbert  earl  marshal,  the  two  greatest  subjects  in 
England.      As  long  as  the    queen  of  Scotland 
lived,  a  perfect  harmony  subsisted  between  the 
Scots  and  English  ;  but  in  1239  queen  Joan  died 
without  children,  and  Alexander  soon  after  mar- 
ried Mary,  the  daughter  of  Egelrand  de  Courcy, 
a  young  and  beautiful  French  lady,  by  whom  he 
had   a  son  named  Alexander,  in  1241.     From 
this  time  a  coolness  took  place  between  the  two 
courts,  and  many  differences  arose  ;  but  no  hos- 
tilities were  commenced  on  either  side  during  the 


life  of  Alexander,  who  died  in  1249,  in  the  thirty- 
fifth  year  of  his  reign. 

Immediately  after  the  death  of  his  father, 
Alexander  III.  took  possession  of  the  throne. 
He  is  the  first  of  the  Scottish  kings  of  whose 
coronation  we  have  any  particular  account.  The 
ceremony  was  performed  by  the  bishop  of  St. 
Andrew's,  who  girded  the  king  with  a  military 
belt,  probably  as  an  emblem  of  his  temporal  juris- 
diction. He  then  explained  in  Latin,  and  after- 
wards in  Gaelic,  the  laws  and  oaths  relating  to 
the  kingdom  ;  and  the  monarch  received  them 
all  with  great  appearance  of  joy,  as  he  also  did 
the  benediction  and  ceremony  of  coronation. 
After  the  ceremony  was  performed,  a  Highlander 
repeated  on  his  knees  before  the '  throne,  in 
Gaelic,  the  genealogy  of  Alexander  and  his  an- 
cestors, up  to  Fergus  I.,  or  perhaps  Gathelus. 
In  1250  the  king,  though  only  ten  years  of  age, 
was  married  to  the  daughter  of  Henry,  who  now 
thought  it  a  proper  opportunity  to  cause  him  to 
do  homage  for  the  whole  kingdom  of  Scotland. 
But  Alexander,  notwithstanding  his  youth,  re- 
plied with  great  sense  and  modesty  that  his 
business  in  England  was  matrimony ;  that  he  had 
come  thither  under  Henry's  protection  and  invi- 
tation ;  and  that  he  was  no  way  prepared  to 
answer  such  a  difficult  question.  Henry  seems 
to  have  been  encouraged  to  make  this  attempt  by 
the  distracted  state  of  the  Scottish  affairs  at  that 
time  ;  for,  during  the  minority  of  the  king,  the 
nobility  threw  every  thing  into  confusion  by  their 
dissensions.  The  Cummins  were  now  become 
exceedingly  powerful;  and  Alexander  II.  is 
blamed  by  Buchanan  for  allowing  them  to  obtain 
such  an  exorbitant  degree  of  power,  by  which 
they  were  enabled  almost  to  .shake  the  founda- 
tions of  government.  Though  the  king  had  r  - 
fused  to  do  the  homage  required  of  him,  they 
imagined  that  Henry's  influence  was  now  too 
great ;  and,  fearing  bad  consequences  to  them- 
selves, they  withdrew  from  York,  leaving  Henry 
in  full  possession  of  his  son-in-law's  person 
Henry,  however,  to  show  that  he  deserved  all  the 
confidence  which  could  be  reposed  in  him,  pub- 
licly declared,  that  he  dropped  all  claim  of  su- 
periority with  regard  to  the  crown  of  Scotland, 
and  that  he  would  ever  afterwards  act  as  the 
father  and  guardian  of  his  son-in-law ;  confirm- 
ing his  assurances  by  a  charter.  Yet,  when 
Alexander  returned  to  Scotland,  he  found  they 
had  made  a  strong  party  against  his  English 
connexions.  They  now  exclaimed  that  Scot- 
land was  no  better  than  a  province  of  England ; 
and,  having  gained  almost  all  the  nobility  over  to 
this  opinion,  they  kept  the  king  and  queen  an 
state  prisoners  in  the  castle  of  Edinburgh.  Henry 
got  intelligence  of  these  proceedings;  and  his 
queen  privately  sent  a  physician  whom  she  could 
trust,  to  enquire  into  her  daughter's  situation. 
Having  got  admittance  into  the  young  queen's 
presence,  she  gave  him  a  most  lamentable  account 
of  her  situation.  She  said  that  the  place  of  their 
confinement  was  very  unwholesome,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  their  health  was  in  imminent 
danger;  and  that  they  had  no  concern  in  the 
affairs  of  government.  Historians  inform  us 
that  the  Cummins  usurped  the  whole  power  of 
the  state.  Henry  did  not  well  know  how  to  act. 


410 


SCOTLAND. 


If  he  proceeded  at  once  to  v'olent  measures,  he 
was  afraid  of  the  lives  of  his  daughter  and  son- 
in-law;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  by  a  more 
cautious  conduct,  he  left  them  exposed  to  the 
wicked  attempts  of  those  who  kept  them  in 
thraldom,  some  of  whom,  he  knew,  had  designs 
on  the  crown.  By  advice  of  the  Scottisli  roy- 
alists, among  whom  were  the  earls  of  Dunbar, 
Fife,  Stratherne,  Carrick,  and  Robert  Bruce, 
Henry  assembled  his  military  tenants  at  York, 
whence  he  himself  advanced  to  Newcastle,  where 
he  published  a  manifesto,  disclaiming  all  designs 
against  the  peace  or  independency  of  Scotland ; 
declaring  that  the  forces  which  had  been  col- 
lected at  York  were  designed  to  maintain  both; 
and  that  all  he  meant  was  to  hare  an  interview 
with  the  king  and  queen  upon  the  borders.  From 
Newcastle  he  proceeded  to  Wark,  where  he  pri- 
vately despatched  the  earl  of  Gloucester,  with 
his  favorite  John  Mansel,  and  a  train  of  trusty 
followers,  lo  gain  admission  into  the  castle  of 
Edinburgh,  which  was  then  held  by  John  Baliol 
and  Robert  Ross,  noblemen  of  great  influence 
both  in  England  and  Scotland.  The  earl  and 
Mansel  gained  admittance  into  the  castle,  in  dis- 
guise, on  pretence  of  their  being  tenants  to  Baliol 
and  Ross ;  and  their  followers  obtained  access  on 
the  same  account,  without  suspicion,  till  they 
were  sufficiently  numerous  to  have  mastered  the 
garrison,  had  they  met  with  resistance.  The  queen 
immediately  informed  them  of  the  thraldom  and 
tyranny  in  which  she  had  been  kept ;  and  among 
other  things  declared  that  she  was  still  a  virgin, 
as  her  jailors  obliged  her  to  sleep  separate  from 
her  husband.  The  English,  being  masters  of  the 
castle,  ordered  a  bed  to  be  prepared  that  very 
night  for  the  king  and  queen  ;  and  Henry,  hear- 
ing of  the  success  of  his  party,  sent  a  safe  con- 
duct for  the  royal  pair  to  meet  him  at  Alnwick. 
Robert  Ross  was  summoned  by  Henry  to  answer 
for  his  conduct ;  but,  throwing  himself  at  the 
king's  feet,  he  was  punished  only  by  the  seques- 
tration of  his  estate,  as  was  John  Baliol,  by  a 
heavy  fine,  which  the  king  of  England  reserved 
entirely  to  his  own  use.  Alexander  and  his  queen 
were  attended  to  Alnwick  by  the  heads  of  their 
party ;  aud  when  they  arrived  it  was  agreed  that 
Henry  should  act  as  his  son-in-law's  guardian ; 
in  consequence  of  which  several  regulations 
were  made  to  suppress  the  exorbitant  power 
of  the  Cummins.  That  ambitious  family,  how- 
ever, were  all  this  time  privately  strengthen- 
ing their  party  in  Scotland,  though  they  out- 
wardly appeared  satisfied  with  the  arrangements 
made.  This  rendered  Alsxander  secure  ;  so  that, 
being  off  his  guard,  he  was  surprised  when  asleep 
in  the  castle  of  Kinross,  by  the  earl  of  Menteith, 
who  carried  him  to  Stirling.  The  Cummins  were 
joined  in  this  treason  by  Sir  Hugh  Abernethy,  Sir 
David  Lochore,  and  Sir  Hugh  Barclay ;  and,  in 
the  mean  time,  the  whole  nation  was  thrown  into 
the  utmost  confusion.  The  great  seal  was  forcibly 
taken  from  Robert  Stuterville,  substitute  to  the 
chancellor  the  bishop  of  Dunkeld  ;  the  estates  of 
the  royalists  were  plundered ;  and  even  the 
churches  were  not  spared.  The  king  at  last  was 
delivered  by  the  death  of  the  earl  of  Monteith, 
who  is  said  to  have  been  poisoned  by  his  wife 
to  gratify  her  passion  for  a  young  English  gentle- 


man named  John  Russel.  The  earl  died  at  a 
juncture  very  critical  for  Scotland,  and  his  death 
disconcerted  all  the  schemes  of  his  party,  which 
never  aftervards  could  make  head  against  the 
royalists.  Alexander,  being  thus  restored  to  the 
exercise  of  regal  authority,  acted  with  great  wi«- 
dom  and  moderation.  He  pardoned  the  Cum- 
mins and  their  adherents,  upon  their  submitting 
to  his  authority ;  after  which  he  applied  him- 
self to  the  regulation  of  his  other  affairs ;  but  a 
storm  was  now  ready  to  break  upon  him  from 
another  quarter.  The  usurper  Donald  Bane, 
brother  to  Malcolm  Canmore,  had  engaged  to  de- 
liver up  the  isles  of  Orkney  and  Shetland  to  the 
king  of  Norway,  for  assisting  him  in  making 
good  his  pretensions  to  the  crown  of  Scotland. 
Haquin,  the  king  of  Norway,  at  this  time  alleged 
that  these  engagements  extended  to  the  deliver- 
ing up  the  islands  of  Bute,  Arran,  and  others  in 
the  Frith  of  Clyde,  as  belonging  to  the  Western 
isles  ;  and,  as  Alexander  would  not  comply  with 
these  demands,  Haquin  appeared  with  a  fleet  of 
160  sail,  having  on  board  20,000  troops,  who 
landed  and  took  the  castle  of  Ayr.  Alexander 
immediately  despatched  ambassadors  to  treat 
with  Haquin ;  but  the  latter,  flushed  with  suc- 
cess, would  hearken  to  no  terms.  He  made 
himself  master  of  the  isles  of  Bute  and  Arran  ; 
after  which  he  passed  over  to  Cunningham. 
Alexander  divided  his  army  into  three  bodies : 
The  first  was  commanded  by  Alexander,  high 
steward  of  Scotland  (the  great  grandfather  of 
Robert  II.),  and  consisted  of  the  Argyle,  Athol, 
Lenox,  and  Galloway  men.  The  second  was 
composed  of  the  inhabitants  of  Lothian,  Fife, 
Merse,  Berwick,  and  Sterling,  under  Patrick  earl 
of  Dunbar.  The  king  himself  led  the  centre, 
which  consisted  of  the  inhabitants  of  Perthshire, 
Angus,  Mearns,  and  the  northern  counties.  Ha- 
quin, who  was  an  excellent  commander,  disposed 
his  men  in  order  of  battle,  and  the  engagement 
began  at  a  place  called  Largs.  Both  parties 
fought  with  great  resolution  ;  but  at  last  the  Nor- 
wegians were  defeated  with  dreadful  slaughter, 
no  fewer  than  16,000  of  them  being  killed  on  the 
spot.  The  remainder  escaped  to  their  ships; 
which  were  so  completely  wrecked,  the  day 
after,  that  Haquin  could  scarcely  find  a  vessel  to 
carry  him  with  a  few  friends  to  Orkney,  where  he 
soon  after  died  of  grief.  In  consequence  of  this 
victory,  Owen  king  of  the  Isle  of  Man  sub- 
mitted to  Alexander ;  and  his  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  several  other  princes  of  the  Norwegians. 
Haquin's  son,  Magnus,  a  wise  and  learned 
prince,  soon  after  arrived  in  Scotland  with  fresh 
reinforcements,  and  proposed  a  treaty ;  but 
Alexander,  instead  of  listening  to  an  accommo- 
dation, sent  the  earls  of  Buchan  and  Murray, 
with  Alan  the  chamberlain,  and  a  considerable 
body  of  men  to  the  Western  Islands,  where  they 
put  to  the  sword  some  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
hanged  their  chiefs  for  having  encouraged  the 
Norwegian  invasion.  In  the  mean  time  Magnus 
returned  to  Norway  :  where  a  treaty  was  at  last 
concluded  between  him  and  Alexander.  By  this 
Magnus  renounced  all  right  to  the  contested 
islands ;  Alexander  at  the  same  time  consenting 
to  pay  him  1000  merks  of  silver  in  the  space  of 
two  years,  and  100  yearly  ever  after,  as  an  ac- 


SCOTLAND. 


411 


knowledgment  for  these  islands.  To  cement  the 
friendship  more  firmly,  a  marriage  was  concluded 
between  Margaret  the  daughter  of  Alexander,  and 
Eric  the  son  and  heir  of  Magnus,  who  was  also  a 
child ;  and,  some  years  after,  when  the  parties 
were  of  proper  age,  the  marriage  was  consum- 
mated. From  tliis  time  to  the  accession  of  Ed- 
ward I.  of  England,  we  find  nothing  remarkable 
in  the  history  of  Scotland.  That  prince,  how- 
ever, proved  a  more  cruel  enemy  to  this  country 
than  it  had  ever  experienced.  Alexander  was 
present  at  the  coronation  of  Edward,  who  was 
then  newly  arrived  from  the  Holy  Land,  where 
he  had  been  on  a  crusade.  Soon  after  this 
Alexander  paid  him  homage  for  his  English  es- 
tates; particularly  for  the  lands  and  lordship  of 
Penrith  and  others,  which  Henry  had  given  him 
along  with  his  daughter.  He  proved  an  excel- 
lent ally  to  Edward  in  his  wars  against  the 
French  ;  and  the  latter  passed  the  charter  by 
which  he  acknowledged  that  the  services  of  the 
king  of  Scotland  in  those  wars  were  not  in  con- 
sequence of  his  holding  lands  in  England,  but 
as  an  ally  to  his  crown.  Even  at  this  time, 
however,  Edward  had  formed  a  design  on  the 
liberties  of  Scotland  ;  for,  in  the  charter  just 
mentioned,  he  inserted  a  salvo,  acknowledging 
the  superiority  by  which  he  reserved  his  right  to 
the  homage  of  the  king  of  Scotland,  when  it 
should  be  claimed  by  him  or  his  heirs.  The 
bishop  of  Norwich  suggested  this  salvo  :  and 
this  was  the  reason  why  Alexander  would  not 
perform  the  homage  in  person,  but  left  it  to 
be  performed  by  Robert  Bruce  earl  of  Carrick ; 
Alexander  standing  by,  and  expressly  declaring 
that  it  was  only  paid  for  the  lands  he  held  in 
England.  No  acts  of  hostility,  however,  took 
place  during  the  life  of  Alexander,  who  was 
killed  on  the  19th  of  March,  1285,  in  the  forty- 
fifth  year  of  his  age,  by  his  horse  rushing  down 
the  black  rock  near  Kinghorn  as  he  was  hunting. 
IV.  HISTORY  OF  SCOTLAND  TO  THE  DEATH  OF 
JAMES  V. — Both  before  and  after  the  death  of 
Alexander,  the  great  subjects  of  Scotland 
seemed  to  have  been  sensible  of  Edward's  am- 
bitious designs.  On  the  marriage  of  Margaret 
with  Eric  prince  of  Norway,  the  states  of  Scot- 
land passed  an  act  obliging  themselves  to  receive 
her  and  her  heirs  as  queen  and  sovereigns  of  Scot- 
land. Edward  at  that  time  was  in  no  condition 
to  oppose  this  measure,  in  which  the  Scots  were 
unanimous;  and  therefore  contented  himself 
with  forming  factions  among  the  leading  men  of 
the  country.  Under  pretence  of  resuming  the 
cross,  he  renewed  his  intrigues  at  the  court  of 
Rome,  and  demanded  leave  from  the  pope  to 
collect  the  tenths  in  Scotland  ;  but  his  holiness 
replied  that  he  could  make  no  such  grant  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  government  of  Scotland. 
On  the  death  of  Margaret,  queen  of  Norway,  her 
daughter,  in  consequence  of  the  act  above-men- 
tioned, was  recognised  by  the  states  as  queen  of 
Scotland.  As  she  was  then  but  two  years  old, 
they  came  to  the  resolution  of  excluding  from  all 
share  in  the  government,  not  only  Edward  I. 
but  their  queen's  father ;  and  they  accordingly 
established  a  regency  from  among  their  own 
number,  consisting  of  the  six  following  noble- 
men ;  viz.  Robert  Wishart  bishop  of  Glasgow, 


Sir  James  Cummin  of  Badenoch,  senior,  James 
lord  high  steward  of  Scotland,  who  were  to  have 
the  superintendancy  of  all  that  part  of  Scot- 
land which  lies  south  of  the  Forth ;  William 
Fraser  bishop  of  St.  Andrew's,  Duncan  M'DufF 
earl  of  Fife,  and  Alexander  Cummin  earl  of  Bu- 
chan,  who  were  to  hare  the  direction  of  all 
affairs  north  of  that  river.  With  these  arrange- 
ments Eric  was  exceedingly  displeased,  as  con- 
sidering himself  as  the  only  rightful  guardian  of 
his  own  child.  He  therefore  cultivated  a  good 
correspondence  with  Edward,  from  whom  he 
had  received  considerable  pecuniary  favors ; 
and,  perceiving  that  the  states  of  Scotland  were 
unanimous  in  excluding  all  foreigners  from  the 
management  of  their  concerns,  he  fell  in  with 
the  views  of  the  king  of  England,  and  named 
commissioners  to  treat  with  those  of  Edward  upon 
the  Scottish  affairs.  These  negotiations  terminated 
in  a  treaty  of  marriage  between  the  queen  of 
Scotland  and  Edward  prince  of  Wales,  young 
as  they  both  were.  This  alarmed  the  states  of 
Scotland,  who  resolved  not  to  suffer  their  queen 
to  be  disposed  of  without  their  consent.  It  was 
therefore  agreed  by  the  commissioners  on  both 
sides,  to  acquaint  them  with  the  result  of  their 
conference,  and  to  demand  that  a  deputation 
should  be  sent  up  for  settling  the  regency  of 
Scotland,  or,  in  other  words,  for  putting  the  so- 
vereign power  into  the  hands  of  the  two  kings. 
As  the  two  parties,  however,  were  within  the 
prohibited  degrees  of  consanguinity,  being  first 
cousins,  a  dispensation  was  applied  for  to  pope 
Boniface,  who  granted  it  on  the  condition  that 
the  peers  of  Scotland  consented  to  the  match. 
Though  the  Scottish  nobility  were  very  much 
against  this  match,  they  could  not  refuse  their 
consent  to  it  when  proposed  by  the  father  and 
grand-uncle  of  their  young  queen.  They  there- 
fore appointed  the  bishops  of  St.  Andrew's  and 
Glasgow,  with  Robert  Bruce  lord  of  Annandale, 
and  John  Cummin,  to  attend  as  their  deputies, 
but  with  a  salvo  to  all  the  liberties  and  honors  of 
the  realm  of  Scotland  ;  to  which  Edward  agreed. 
These  deputies  met  at  Salisbury  with  those  of 
England  and  Norway ;  and  it  was  at  last  agreed, 
1.  That  the  young  queen  should  be  sent  from 
Norway  (free  of  all  marriage  engagements)  into 
England  or  Scotland.  2.  That  if  the  queen 
came  to  England  she  should  be  at  liberty  to  re- 
pair to  Scotland  as  soon  as  the  distractions  of 
that  kingdom  should  he  settled  :  that  she  should, 
on  her  arrival  in  her  own  dominions,  be  free  of 
all  matrimonial  contracts ;  but  that  the  Scots 
should  engage  not  to  dispose  of  her  in  marriage 
without  her  father's  or  Edward's  consent.  3.  The 
Scottish  deputies  promised  to  give  such  security 
as  the  Norwegian  commissioners  should  require, 
that  the  tranquillity  of  the  nation  should  be  set- 
tled before  her  arrival.  4.  That  the  commissioners 
of  Scotland  and  Norway,  joined  with  commis- 
sioners from  England,  should  remove  such  re- 
gents and  officers  of  state  in  Scotland  as  should 
be  suspected  of  disaffection,  and  place  others  in 
their  stead.  If  the  Scott.sh  and  Norwegian  com- 
missioners should  disagree  on  that  or  any  other 
head  relating  to  the  government  of  Scotland,  the 
decision  was  to  be  left  to  the  arbitration  of  Enar- 
lish  commissioners.  The  party  of  Edward  was 


412 


SCOTLAND. 


now  so  strong  in  Scotland  that  no  opposition 
was  made  to  the  late  agreement,  in  a  parliament 
held  at  Brechin  to  deliberate  upon  the  settle- 
ment of  the  kingdom.  It  is  uncertain  whether 
he  communicated  in  form  to  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment the  pope's  dispensation  for  the  marriage ; 
but  they  highly  approved  of  it  upon  certain  con- 
ditions to  which  Edward  was  previously  to 
agree  ;  but  the  latter,  without  waiting  to  perform 
any  condition,  immediately  sent  for  the  young 
queen  from  Norway.  This  exceedingly  displeased 
Eric,  who  was  not  inclined  to  put  his  daughter 
into  the  hands  of  a  prince  whose  sincerity  he 
suspected,  and  therefore  shifted  off  the  depar- 
ture of  the  princess  till  he  should  hear  farther 
from  Scotland.  Edward,  alarmed  at  this,  had 
again  recourse  to  negociation ;  and  ten  articles 
were  at  last  drawn  up,  in  which  the  Scots  took 
all  imaginable  precautions  for  the  safety  and  in- 
dependency of  their  country.  These  articles 
were  ratified  by  Edward  on  the  28th  of  August, 
1289;  yet,  even  after  the  affair  of  the  marriage 
was  fully  settled,  he  lost  no  time  in  procuring  as 
strong  a  party  as  he  could.  At  the  head  of  these 
were  the  bishop  of  St.  Andrew's  and  John 
Baliol.  That  prelate,  while  he  was  in  England, 
was  highly  caressed  by  Edward,  from  whom  he 
had  great  expectations  of  preferment ;  and  Ba- 
liol, having  great  estates  in  England,  considered 
the  latter  as  his  sovereign.  The  bishop,  on  his 
return  to  Scotland,  acted  as  a  spy  for  Edward, 
and  carried  on  with  him  a  secret  correspon- 
dence, informing  him  of  all  public  transactions. 
It  appears  from  this  correspondence  that  the 
Scots  were  far  from  being  unanimous  as  to  the 
marriage.  Bruce  earl  of  Annandale  suspected 
that  the  young  queen  was  dead  ;  and,  soon  after 
Michaelmas  1290,  assembled  a  body  of  forces, 
and  was  joined  by  the  earl  of  Mar  and  Athol. 
Intelligence  of  these  commotions  was  carried  to 
Edward  by  Baliol ;  and  the  bishop  of  St.  An- 
drew's advised  Edward,  in  case  the  report  of  the 
queen's  deatli  should  prove  true,  to  march  a  body 
of  troops  towards  Scotland,  to  secure  such  a 
successor  as  he  thought  proper.  Edward,  in  the 
mean  time,  consented  to  allow  ambassadors  to 
be  sent  from  Scotland  to  bring  over  the  young 
queen ;  previous  to  which  he  appointed  the 
bishop  of  Durham  to  be  lieutenant  in  Scotland 
for  the  queen  and  her  future  husband ;  and  all 
the  officers  there,  both  civil  and  military,  obliged 
themselves  to  surrender  their  employments  and 
fortresses  to  the  king  and  queen  (that  is,  to  Ed- 
ward) immediately  on  their  arrival  in  Scotland. 
But,  while  the  most  magnificent  preparations 
were  making  for  the  reception  of  the  young 
queen,  certain  intelligence  of  her  death  was  re- 
ceived. 

The  Scots  were  thrown  into  the  utmost  conster- 
nation by  the  news  of  their  queen's  death  ;  while 
Edward  was  as  well  prepared  as  if  he  had  known 
what  was  to  happen.  The  state  of  Scotland  at 
this  time  indeed  was  to  the  last  degree  deplor- 
able. The  act  of  succession  established  by  the 
late  king  had  no  farther  operation,  being  deter- 
mined by  the  death  of  the  queen  ;  and,  since  the 
crown  was  rendered  hereditary,  there  was  no 
precedent  by  which  it  could  be  settled.  The 
Scots,  in  general,  however,  turned  their  eyes 


upon  the  posterity  of  David  earl  of  Huntingdon, 
brother  to  the  two  kings,  Malcolm  IV.  and  Wil- 
liam I.,  both  of  whom  died  without  lawful  issue. 
The   earl   had   three   daughters ;    Margaret,  the 
eldest,  was  married  to  Alan  lord  of  Galloway ; 
the  only  issue  of  which  marriage  was  Dervegi), 
wife  to   John  Baliol,  who  had  a  son  John,  a 
competitor  for  the  crown.     The  second  daughter, 
Isabella,   was   married   to   Robert  Bruce;   and 
their  son  Robert  was  a  candidate  likewise.     The 
third  daughter,  Ada,  had  been  married  to  Henry 
Hastings,  an  English   nobleman.      John  Hast- 
ings, the  son  of  this  marriage,  was  a  third  com- 
petitor ;  but,  as  his  claim  was  confessedly   the 
worst  of  the  three,  he  only  put  in  for  a  third  of 
the  kingdom,  on  the   principle  that  his   mother 
was  joint-heir   with   her  two   sisters.      Several 
other  claimants  now  started  up.     Florence  earl 
of  Holland  pretended  to  the  crown,  in  right  of 
his  great-grandmother  Ada,  the  eldest  lawful  sister 
of  king  William ;  as  did  Robert  de  Pynkeny, 
in  the  right  also  of  his  great-grandmother  Mar- 
jory, second  sister  of  king  William.     Six  other 
claimants    appeared,    very    absurdly    founding 
upon  their  descent  from  bastards  of  king  Wil- 
liam and  Alexander  II.  and  III.     John  Cummin 
lord  of  Badenoch  derived  his  claim  from  a  more 
remote  source,  viz.  Donald  Bane,  who  usurped 
the  crown  about  200  years  before  this  time ;  but 
he  was  willing  to  resign  in  favor  of  John  Baliol. 
The  latter  indeed  had  surely  the  best  right ;  and, 
had  the  succession  been  regulated  as  it  now  is 
in  all  hereditary  kingdoms,  he  would  undoubt- 
edly have  carried  it.     Bruce  and  Hastings,  how- 
ever, pleaded  that  they  were  preferable,  not  only 
to  John  Baliol  the  grandchild  of  Margaret,  but 
also  to  Dervegil  her  daughter  and  his  mother, 
for  the   following   reason  :    Dervegil  and  they 
were   equally  related   to   their  grandfather  earl 
David  :  she  was  indeed  the  daughter  of  his  eldest 
daughter ;  but  she  was  a  woman,  they  were  men ; 
and  the  male  in  the  same  degree  ought  to  suc- 
ceed to  sovereignties,  in  their  own  nature  impar- 
tible, preferably  to  the  female.     Notwithstanding 
this  number  of  candidates,  however,  it  was  soon 
perceived  that  the  claims  of  all  of  them  might 
be  cut  off,  excepting  two,  viz.  Baliol  and  Bruce, 
of  whom  the  former  had  the  preference  with 
respect  to  hereditary  right,  and  the  latter  as  to 
popularity.     Baliol  had  strongly  attached  him- 
self to  Edward's  party ;  which,  being  by  far  the 
most  powerful  in  Scotland,  gave  him  a  decided 
superiority  over  Bruce.      The  event  was  that 
Edward,  by  his  own  party  most  probably,  was 
appointed  to  decide  between  the  two  compe- 
titors.    It  soon  appeared,  however,  that  Edward 
had  no  mind  to  adjudge  the  crown  to  any  person 
but  himself;  for,  in  an  assembly  held  at  Norham 
on  the  10th  of  May  1291,  Brabanzon  the  chief 
justice  of  England  informed  the  members :  '  That 
his  master  was  come  thither  in  consideration  of 
the  state  of  the  realm  of  Scotland,  which  was 
then  without  a  king,  to  meet  them,  as  direct  so- 
vereign of  that  kingdom,  to  do  justice  to  the 
claimants  of  his  crown,  and  to  establish  a  solid 
tranquillity  among  his  people ;  that  it  was  not 
his  intention  to  retard  justice,  nor  to  usurp  the 
riqht  of  any  body,  or  to  infringe  the  liberties  of 
the  kingdom  of  Scotland,  but  to  render  to  every 


SCOTLAND. 


413 


one  his  due.  And,  to  the  end  this  might  be  done 
with  the  more  ease,  he  required  the  assent  of 
the  states  ex  abundante,  and  that  they  should 
own  him  as  direct  sovereign  of  the  kingdom ; 
offering,  upon  that  condition,  to  make  use  of 
their  counsels  to  do  what  justice  demanded.' 
The  deputies  were  astonished  at  this  declaration, 
and  replied  that  they  were  by  no  means  pre- 
pared to  decide  on  Edward's  claim  of  superi- 
ority ;  but  that  Edward  ought  previously  to 
judge  the  cause  between  the  two  competitors, 
and  require  homage  from  him  whom  lie  should 
choose  to  be  king.  Edward  gave  them  till  next 
day  to  consider  of  his  demand.  Accordingly, 
on  that  day,  the  assembly  was  held  in  Norham 
church,  where  the  deputies  from  Scotland  in- 
sisted upon  giving  no  answer  to  Edward's  de- 
mands, which  could  be  decided  only  by  the 
whole  community  ;  representing  that  numbers  of 
the  noblemen  and  prelates  were  absent,  and  that 
they  must  have  time  to  know  their  sense  of  the 
affair.  On  this  Edward  gave  them  three  weeks ; 
which  interval  he  employed  in  multiplying  claim- 
ants to  the  crown,  and  in  flattering  each  with 
hopes,  if  he  would  acknowledge  his  superiority. 
But  when  the  assembly  met,  according  to  appoint- 
ment, on  the  2d  of  June,  they  found  the  place 
of  meeting  surrounded  by  a  numerous  army  of 
English.  Edward  had  employed  the  bishop  of 
Durham  to  draw  up  the  historical  evidence  of 
his  right  to  the  crown  of  Scotland ;  which  has 
since  been  published.  In  this  paper  mention  is 
made  of  the  fealty  and  homage  performed  by 
the  kings  of  Scotland  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings 
of  England ;  but  no  evidence  is  brought  of  any 
such  homage  being  performed.  As  to  the  hom- 
age performed  by  the  kings  of  Scotland,  from  the 
time  of  William  the  Conqueror  to  that  of  the 
dispute  between  Bruce  and  Baliol,  the  Scots 
never  denied  it ;  but  they  contended  with  jus- 
tice that  it  was  performed  for  the  lands  held  of 
the  crown  of  England ;  and  that  it  was  as  far 
from  any  relation  to  a  fealty  performed  for  the 
crown  of  Scotland,  as  the  homage  paid  by  the 
English  monarchs  to  the  crown  of  France  was 
from  all  relations  to  the  crown  of  England. 
With  regard  to  the  homage  paid  by  William  to 
Henry  II.,  it  was  not  denied  that  he  performed 
it  for  the  whole  kingdom  of  Scotland  :  but  they 
pleaded  that  it  was  void,  because  it  was  extorted 
when  William  was  a  prisoner;  and  they  pro- 
duced Richard  I.'s  charters,  which  pronounced 
it  compulsive  and  iniquitous.  But  Edward  was 
by  no  means  disposed  to  examine  into  the  me- 
rits of  these  arguments.  Instead  of  this,  he 
closeted  the  several  pretenders  to  the  crown  ; 
and,  having  found  them  all  ready  to  comply  with 
his  measures,  he  drew  up  the  following  charter 
of  recognition  to  be  signed  by  them  all :  '  To 
all  who  shall  hear  this  present  letter :  We  Flo- 
rence earl  of  Holland,  Robert  de  Bruce  lord  of 
Annandale,  John  Baliol  lord  of  Galloway,  John 
Hastings  lord  of  Abergavenny,  John  Cummin 
lord  of  Badenoch,  Patrick  de  Dunbar  earl  of 
March,  John  Vesci  for  his  father  Nicholas  Soulis, 
and  William  de  Ross,  greeting  in  the  Lord : 
Whereas  we  intend  to  pursue  our  right  to  the 
kingdom  of  Scotland;  and  to  declare,  challenge, 
and  aver  the  same  before  him  that  has  most 


power,  jurisdiction,  and  reason  to  try  it ;  and 
the  noble  prince  Edward,  by  the  grace  of  God 
king  of  England,  &c.,  having  informed  us,  by 
good  and  sufficient  reasons,  that  to  him  belongs 
the  sovereign  seigniory  of  the  same  :  We  there- 
fore promise  that  we  will  hold  firm  and  stable 
his  act;  and  that  he  shall  enjoy  the  realm  to 
whom  it  shall  be  adjudged  before  him.  In  wit- 
ness whereof,  we  have  set  our  seals  to  this  writ- 
ing, made  and  granted  at  Norham,  the  Tuesday 
after  the  Ascension,  in  the  year  of  Grace  1291.' 
Edward  then  declared,  by  the  mouth  of  his 
chancellor,  that  although,  in  the  dispute  which 
was  arisen  between  the  several  claimants,  touch- 
ing the  succession  to  the  kingdom  of  Scotland, 
he  acted  in  quality  of  sovereign,  in  order  to 
render  justice  to  whomsoever  it  was  due ;  yet 
he  did  not  thereby  mean  to  exclude  himself  from 
that  hereditary  right  which  in  his  own  person  he 
might  have  to  that  crown,  and  which  right  he  in- 
tended to  assert  and  improve  when  he  should 
think  fit:  and  the  king  himself  repeated  this 
protestation  with  his  own  mouth  in  French.  The 
candidates  were  then  severally  called  upon  by 
the  English  chancellor  to  know  whether  they 
were  willing  to  acknowledge  Edward's  claim  of 
superiority  over  the  crown  of  Scotland,  and  to 
submit  to  his  award  in  disposing  of  the  same ; 
which  being  answered  in  the  affirmative,  they 
were  then  admitted  to  prove  their  rights.  But 
this  was  mere  matter  of  form  ;  for  all  the  force 
of  England  was  then  assembled  on  the  borders 
to  support  the  claims  of  Edward,  and  nothing 
now  remained  but  to  furnish  him  with  a  suffi 
cient  pretence  for  making  use  of  it.  Observing 
that  the  Scots  were  not  so  unanimous  as  they 
ought  to  be  in  recognising  his  superiority,  and 
that  the  submission,  which  the  candidates  had 
signed,  was  not  sufficient  to  carry  it  into  exe- 
cution, Edward  demanded  that  all  the  forts  in 
Scotland  should  be  put  into  his  possession, 
that  he  might  resign  them  to  the  successful 
candidate.  Though  nothing  could  be  more 
shameful  than  a  tame  compliance  with  this  last 
demand  of  Edward,  the  regency  of  Scotland 
without  hesitation  yielded  to  it  also.  Gil- 
bert de  Umfraville  alone,  who  had  the  com- 
mand of  the  castles  of  Dundee  and  Forfar,  re- 
fused to  deliver  them  up,  until  he  should  be 
indemnified  by  the  states,  and  by  Edward  him- 
self, from  all  penalties  of  treason  which  he  might 
be  in  danger  of  incurring.  But,  though  Edward 
had  thus  got  into  his  hands  the  whole  power  of 
the  nation,  he  did  not  think  proper  to  determine 
every  thing  by  his  own  authority.  Instead  of 
this,  he  appointed  commissioners,  and  promised 
to  grant  letters  patent  declaring  that  sentence 
should  be  passed  in  Scotland.  It  had  been  all 
along  foreseen  that  the  great  dispute  would  be 
between  Bruce  and  Baliol ;  and,  though  the  plea 
of  Cummin  was  judged  frivolous,  yet  he  was  a 
man  of  too  much  influence  to  be  neglected,  and 
he  agreed  tacitly  to  resign  it  in  favor  of  Baliol. 
Edward  accordingly  made  him  the  compliment 
of  joining  him  with  Baliol  in  nominating  forty 
commissioners.  Bruce  was  to  name  forty  more ; 
and  the  names  of  the  eighty  were  to  be  given  in 
to  Edward  in  three  days ;  after  which  the  king 
was  to  add  to  them  twenty-four  of  his  own 


414 


SCOTLAND. 


choosing.  The  place  and  time  of  meeting  were 
left  in  their  own  option.  They  unanimously 
pitched  upon  Berwick  for  the  place  of  meeting ; 
but,  as  they  could  not  agree  about  the  time, 
Edward  appointed  the  2d  of  August  following. 
Soon  after  this  the  regents  resigned  their  com- 
missions to  Edward  ;  but  he  returned  them,  with 
powers  to  act  in  his  name ;  and  nominated  the 
bishop  of  Caithness  to  be  chancellor  of  Scotland ; 
joining  in  the  commission  with  him  Walter  de 
Hemondesham  an  Englishman,  and  one  of  his 
own  secretaries.  Still,  however,  he  met  with 
great  difficulties.  Many  of  his  own  nobles,  par- 
ticularly the  earl  of  Gloucester,  were  by  no  means 
fond  of  increasing  the  power  of  the  English  mo- 
narch by  the  acquisition  of  Scotland  ;  and  there- 
fore threw  such  obstacles  in  his  way  that  he  was 
again  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  negociation  and 
intrigue,  and  at  last  to  delay  the  meeting  until 
the  2d  of  June  in  1292  ;  but  during  this  interval, 
that  he  might  the  better  reconcile  tlie  Scots  to 
the  loss  of  their  liberty,  he  proposed  a  union  of 
the  two  kingdoms ;  and  for  this  he  issued  a  writ 
by  virtue  of  his  superiority.  The  commissioners 
having  met  on  the  2d  of  June,  1292,  ambassadors 
from  Norway  presented  themselves  in  the  assem- 
bly, demanding  that  their  master  should  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  number  of  their  claimants,  as 
father  and  next  heir  to  the  late  queen.  This 
demand  too  was  admitted  by  Edward,  after  the 
ambassadors  had  acknowledged  his  superiority 
over  Scotland ;  after  which  he  proposed  that  the 
claims  of  Bruce  and  Baliol  should  be  previously 
examined,  but  without  prejudice  to  those  of  the 
other  competitors.  This  being  agreed  to,  he 
ordered  the  commissioners  to  examine  by  what 
laws  they  ought  to  proceed.  The  discussion  of 
this  question  was  attended  with  such  difficulty, 
and  the  opinions  on  it  were  so  various,  that  Ed- 
ward once  more  adjourned  the  assembly  to  the 
12th  of  October  following;  when  the  commis- 
sioners urged  that  Edward  ought  to  give  justice 
conformable  to  the  usage  of  the  two  kingdoms  ; 
but  that,  if  no  certain  laws  or  precedents  could 
be  found,  he  might,  by  the  advice  of  his  great 
men,  enact  a  new  law.  The  succession  to  the 
kingdom,  they  said,  might  be  awarded  in  the 
same  manner  as  to  other  estates  and  great  baro- 
nies. Upon  this,  Edward  ordered  Bruce  and 
Baliol  to  be  called  before  him,  and  both  of  them 
urged  their  respective  pleas,  and  answers,  to  the 
following  purpose:  Bruce  pleaded,  1.  That 
Alexander  II.,  despairing  of  heirs  of  his  own 
body,  had  declared  that  he  held  him  to  be  the 
true  heir,  and  offered  to  prove  by  the  testimony 
of  persons  still  alive  that  he  declared  this  with 
the  advice  and  in  the  presence  of  the  good  men 
of  his  kingdom.  Alexander  III.  also  had  de- 
clared to  those  with  whom  he  was  intimate,  that, 
failing  issue  of  his  own  body,  Bruce  was  his  right 
heir.  The  people  of  Scotland  had  also  taken  an 
oath  for  maintaining  the  succession  of  the  nearest 
in  blood  to  Alexander  III.,  who  ought  of  ritrht 
to  inherit,  railing  Margaret  the  maiden  of  Nor- 
way and  her  issue. — Baliol  answered  that  nothing 
could  be  concluded  from  the  acknowledgment 
of  Alexander  II.;  for  that  he  left  heirs  of  his 
body ;  but  made  no  answer  to  what  was  said  of 
the  sentiments  of  Alexander  III.,  and  of  the  oath 
made  by  the  Scottish  nation  to  maintain  th«  suc- 


cession. 2.  Bruce  pleaded  that  the  right  o» 
reigning  ought  to  be  decided  according  to  the 
natural  law,  by  which  kings  reign  ;  and  not  ac- 
cording to  any  law  or  usage  in  force  between 
subject  and  subject :  that,  by  the  law  of  nature, 
the  nearest  collateral  in  blood  has  a  right  to  the 
crown  ;  but  that  the  constitutions  which  prevail 
among  vassals  bind  not  the  lord,  much  less  the 
sovereign  :  that  although  in  private  inheritances, 
which  are  divisible,  the  eldest  female  heir  has  a 
certain  prerogative,  it  is  not  so  in  a  kingdom 
that  is  indivisible;  there  the  nearest  heir  of  blood 
is  preferable  whenever  the  succession  opens. — 
To  this  Baliol  replied  that  the  claimants  were 
in  the  court  of  their  lord  paramount ;  and  that 
he  onght  to  give  judgment  in  this  case,  as  in  the 
case  of  any  other  tenements,  depending  on  his 
crown,  that  is,  by  the  common  law  and  usage 
of  his  kingdom,  and  no  other.  That,  by  the  laws 
and  usages  of  England,  the  eldest  female  heir  is 
preferred  in  the  succession  to  all  inheritances, 
indivisible  as  well  as  divisible.  3.  It  was  unjed 
by  Bruce  that  the  manner  of  succession  to  the 
kingdom  of  Scotland  in  former  times  made  for 
his  claim ;  for  that  the  brother,  as  being  nearest 
in  degree,  was  wont  to  be  preferred  to  the  son 
of  the  deceased  king.  Thus,  when  Kenneth 
Macalpin  died,  his  brother  Donald  was  pre- 
ferred to  his  son  Constantine,  aud  this  was  con- 
firmed by  several  other  authentic  instances  in 
the  history  of  Scotland. — Baliol  answered  that, 
if  the  brother  was  preferred  to  the  son  of  the 
king,  the  example  proved  against  Bruce ;  for 
that  the  son,  not  the  brother,  was  the  nearest  in 
degree.  He  admitted  that  after  the  death  of 
Malcolm  III.  his  brother  usurped  the  throne : 
but  he  contended  that  the  son  of  Malcolm  com- 
plained to  his  liege  lord  the  king  of  England, 
who  dispossessed  the  usurper,  and  placed  the  son 
of  Malcolm  on  the  throne ;  that  after  the  death 
of  that  son  the  brother  of  Malcolm  III.  again 
usurped  the  throne;  but  the  king  of  England 
again  dispossessed  him,  and  raised  Edgar,  the 
second  son  of  Malcolm,  to  the  sovereignty.  4. 
Bruce  pleaded  the  example  of  other  countries, 
particularly  Spain  and  Savoy,  where  the  son 
of  the  second  daughter  excluded  the  grandson 
of  the  eldest  daughter. — Baliol  answered  that 
examples  from  foreign  countries  were  of  no  im- 
portance ;  for  that  according  to  the  laws  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  where  kings  reign  by  suc- 
cession in  the  direct  line,  and  earls  and  barons 
succeed  in  like  manner,  the  issue  of  the  younger 
sister,  although  nearer  in  degree,  excludes  not 
the  issue  of  the  eldest  sister,  although  more  re- 
mote ;  but  the  succession  continues  in  the  direct 
line.  5.  Bruce  pleaded  that  a  female  ought 
not  to  reign,  as  being  incapable  of  governing  : 
that  at  the  death  of  Alexander  III.  the  mother 
of  Baliol  was  alive;  and,  as  she  could  not  reign, 
the  kingdom  devolved  upon  him,  as  being  the 
nearest  male  heir  of  the  blood  royal.  But  to  this 
Baliol  replied  that  Bruce's  argument  was  incon- 
sistent with  his  claim  :  for  that,  if  a  female  ought 
not  to  reign,  Isabella  the  mother  of  Bruce  ought 
not,  nor  must  Bruce  himself  claim  through  her 
Besides  Bruce  himself  had  sworn  fealty  to  a 
female,  the  maiden  of  Norway.  The  arguments 
being  thus  stated  on  both  sides,  E«lwanl  de- 
manded an  answer  from  the  council  a-;  to  the 


SCOTLAND. 


415 


merits  of  the  competitors.  He  also  put  the  fol- 
lowing question  to  them :  by  the  laws  and 
usages  of  both  kingdoms,  does  the  issue  of  the 
eldest  sister,  though  more  remote  in  one  degree, 
exclude  the  issue  of  the  second  sister,  though 
nearer  in  one  degree?  or  ought  the  nearer  in 
one  degree,  issuing  from  the  second  sister,  to 
exclude  the  more  remote  in  one  degree  issuing 
from  the  eldest  sister  ?  To  this  it  was  answered 
unanimously,  that  by  the  laws  and  usages  of 
both  kingdoms,  in  every  heritable  succession, 
the  more  remote  in  one  degree,  lineally  descended 
from  the  eldest  sister,  was  preferable  to  the 
nearer  in  degree  issuing  from  the  second  sister. 
In  consequence  of  this  Bruce  was  excluded  from 
the  succession;  upon  which  he  entered  a  claim 
for  one-third  of  the  kingdom :  but  being  baffled 
in  this  also,  the  kingdom  of  Scotland  being 
determined  an  indivisible  fee,  Edward  ordered 
John  Baliol  to  have  seisin  of  Scotland ;  with 
this  caveat,  however,  '  That  this  judgment  should 
not  impair  his  claim  to  the  property  of  Scot- 
land.' 

After  so  many  disgraceful  and  humiliating 
concessions  on  the  part  of  the  Scots,  John  Ba- 
liol was  crowned  king  at  Scone,  on  the  30th  of 
November,  1292 ;  and  finished  the  ceremony 
by  doing  homage  to  the  king  of  England.  All 
his  submissions,  however,  could  not  satisfy 
Edward,  as  long  as  the  least  shadow  of  inde- 
pendence remained  to  Scotland.  A  citizen  of 
Berwick  appealed  from  a  sentence  of  the  Scottish 
judges  appointed  by  Edward,  in  order  to  carry 
his  cause  into  England.  But  this  was  opposed 
by  Baliol,  who  pleaded  a  promise  made  by  the 
English  monarch,  that  he  should  '  observe  the 
laws  and  usages  of  Scotland,  and  not  withdraw 
any  causes  from  Scotland  into  his  English 
courts.'  Edward  replied,  that  it  belonged  to 
him  to  hear  the  complaints  made  against  his  own 
ministers ;  and  concluded  with  asserting  his 
right,  not  only  to  try  Scottish  causes  in  England, 
but  to  summon  the  king  of  Scotland,  if  neces- 
sary, to  appear  before  him  in  person.  Baliol 
had  not  spirit  to  resist ;  and  therefore  signed  a 
most  disgraceful  instrument,  by  which  he  de- 
clared that  all  the  obligations  which  Edward  had 
come  under  were  already  fulfilled,  and  therefore 
that  he  discharged  them  all.  Edward  now 
thought  proper  to  give  Baliol  some  marks  of  his 
favor,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  was  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Isle  of  Man ;  "  but  it  soon 
appeared  that  he  intended  to  exercise  his  own 
rights  in  the  most  provoking  manner.  Malcolm 
earl  of  Fife  had  two  sons,  Colban  his  heir,  and 
another  who  is  constantly  mentioned  in  history 
by  the  family  name  of  Macduff. — It  is  said  that 
Malcolm  put  Macduff  in  possession  of  the  lands 
of  Reres  and  Crey.  Malcolm  died  in  1266; 
Colban  his  son  in  1270;  Duncan  the  son  of 
Colban  in  1288.  To  this  last  earl,  his  son  Dun- 
can, an  infant,  succeeded.  During  the  nonage 
of  this  Duncan,  grand-nephew  of  Macduff,  Wil- 
liam, bishop  of  St.  Andrew's,  guardian  of  the 
earldom,  dispossessed  Macduff.  He  complained 
to  Edward ;  who,  having  ordered  his  cause  to  be 
tried,  restored  him  again  to  possession.  Matters 
were  in  this  state  when  Baliol  held  his  first  par- 
liament at  Scone,  on  the  10th  of  February,  1292, 


when  Macduff  was  cited  to  answer  for  having 
taken  possession  of  the  land  of  Reres  and  Crey. 
As  his  defences  did  not  satisfy  the  court,  he  was 
condemned  to  imprisonment ;  but  an  action  was 
reserved  to  him  against  Duncan,  when  he  should 
come  of  age,  and  against  his  heirs.  In  all  his 
defence,  it  is  surprising  that  Macduff  should 
have  omitted  his  strongest  argument,  viz.  that 
the  regents,  by  Edward's  authority,  had  put  him 
in  possession,  and  that  Baliol  had  ratified  all 
things  under  Edward's  authority.  However,  as 
soon  as  he  was  set  at  liberty,  he  petitioned  Ba- 
liol for  a  rehearing  ;  but,  this  being  refused,  he 
appealed  to  Edward,  who  ordered  Baliol  to  ap- 
pear before  him  in  person  on  the  25th  of  March, 
1293  :  and,  as  Baliol  did  not  obey  this  order,  he 
summoned  him  again  to  appear  on  the  14th  of 
October.  In  the  mean  time  the  English  par- 
liament drew  up  certain  standing  orders  in 
cases  of  appeal  from  the  king  of  Scots.  One  of 
these  regulations  provided,  '  that  no  excuse  of 
absence  should  ever  be  received  either  from  the 
appellant,  or  the  king  of  Scotland  respondent ; 
but  that  the  parties  might  have  counsel  if  they 
demanded  it.'  Though  Baliol  had  not  the  cou- 
rage to  withstand  the  second  summons  of  Ed- 
ward, he  behaved  with  considerable  resolution  at 
the  trial.  The  cause  of  Macduff  being  come  on, 
Edward  asked  Baliol  what  he  had  to  offer  in  his 
own  defence;  to  which  he  replied,  <  I  am  king 
of  Scotland.  To  the  complaint  of  Macduff,  or 
to  ought  else  respecting  my  kingdom,  I  dare  not 
make  answer  without  advice  of  my  people.' — • 
Edward  affected  surprise  at  this  refusal,  after  the 
submissions  which  Baliol  had  already  made  him; 
but  the  latter  steadily  replied,  '  In  matters  re- 
specting my  kingdom,  I  neither  dare  nor  can 
answer  in  this  place,  without  the  advice  of  my 
people.'  Edward  then  desired  him  to  ask  a  far- 
ther adjournment,  that  he  might  advise  with  the 
nation.  But  Baliol,  perceiving  that  his  doing 
so  would  imply  an  acquiescence  in  Edward's 
right  of  requiring  his  personal  attendance  on  the 
English  courts,  made  answer,  'That  he  would 
neither  ask  a  longer  day,  nor  consent  to  an  ad- 
journment.'— It  was  then  resolved  by  the  par- 
liament of  England  that  the  king  of  Scotland 
had  offered  no  defence ;  that  he  had  made  eva- 
sive and  disrespectful  answers  ;  and  that  he  was 
guilty  of  manifest  contempt  of  the  court.  To 
make  recompense  to  Macduff  for  his  imprison- 
ment, he  was  ordered  damages  from  the  king  of 
Scots,  and  it  was  also  determined  that  Edward 
should  enquire,  according  to  the  usages  of  the 
country,  whether  Macduff  recovered  the  tene- 
ments in  question  by  the  judgment  of  the  king's 
court,  and  whether  he  was  dispossessed  by  the 
king  of  Scots.  The  three  principal  castles  of 
Scotland,  with  the  towns  wherein  they  were 
situated,  and  the  royal  jurisdiction  thereof,  were 
further  ordered  to  be  taken  into  the  custody  of 
the  king,  and  there  remain  until  the  king  of  Scots 
should  make  satisfaction  for  his  contempt  and 
disobedience.  Before  this  judgment  was  pub- 
licly intimated,  Baliol  is  said  to  have  addressed 
Edward  in  the  following  words : — '  My  lord,  I 
am  your  liege-man  for  the  kingdom  of  Scotland ; 
that  whereof  you  have  lately  treated  respects  my 
people  no  less  than  myself :  I  therefore  pray  you 


416 


SCOTLAND. 


to  delay  it  until  I  have  consulted  my  people, 
lest  I  be  surprised  through  want  of  advice  : 
they  who  are  now  with  me  neither  will  nor  dare 
advise  me  in  absence  of  the  rest  of  my  kingdom. 
After  I  have  advised  with  them,  I  will  in  your 
first  parliament  after  Easter  report  the  result,  and 
do  to  you  what  I  ought.'  In  consequence  of 
this  address,  Edward,  with  consent  of  Macduff, 
stopped  all  proceedings  till  the  day  after  the 
feast  of  Trinity,  1294.  But  before  this  term 
Edward  was  compelled  to  suspend  all  his  pro- 
ceedings by  a  war  which  broke  out  with  France. 
In  a  parliament  held  this  year  by  Edward  the 
king  of  Scotland  appeared,  and  consented  to 
yield  up  the  whole  revenues  of  his  English  es- 
tates for  three  years  to  assist  Edward  against  his 
enemy.  He  was  also  requested  and  ordered  by 
Edward  to  extend  an  embargo  laid  upon  the 
English  vessels  all  over  Scotland ;  this  embargo 
to  endure  until  the  king  of  England's  further 
pleasure  should  be  known.  He  also  requested 
him  to  send  some  troops  for  an  expedition  into 
Gascony,  and  required  the  presence  and  aid  of 
several  of  the  Scottish  barons.  The  Scots,  how- 
ever, eluded  these  demands  of  Edward,  by  pre- 
tending that  they  could  not  bring  any  consider- 
able force  into  the  field  :  and,  unable  to  bear  his 
tyranny  any  longer,  negociated  an  alliance  with 
Philip  of  France.  Having  assembled  a  parlia 
ment  at  Scone,  they  prevailed  upon  Baliol  to 
dismiss  all  the  Englishmen  whom  he  maintained. 
They  then  appointed  a  committee  of  twelve,  four 
bishops,  four  -earls,  and  four  barons,  by  whose 
advice  every  thing  was  to  be  regulated ;  and,  if 
we  may  credit  the  English  historians,  watched 
the  conduct  of  Baliol  himself,  and  detained  him 
in  a  kind  of  honorable  captivity.  However, 
they  could  not  prevent  him  from  delivering  up 
the  castles  of  Berwick,  Roxburgh,  and  Jedburgh, 
to  the  bishop  of  Carlisle;  in  whose  custody 
they  were  to  remain  during  the  war  between 
England  and  France.  Notwithstanding  this, 
Baliol  concluded  the  alliance  with  Philip ;  by 
which  it  was  stipulated  that  the  latter  should 
give  in  marriage  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  count 
of  Anjou  to  Baliol's  son  ;  it  was  also  provided 
that  Baliol  should  not  marry  again  without  the 
consent  of  Philip.  The  king  of  Scotland  en- 
gaged to  assist  Philip  in  his  wars  at  his  own 
expense,  and  with  his  whole  power,  especially  if 
Edward  invaded  France;  and  Philip  on  his  part 
engaged  to  assist  Scotland,  in  case  of  an  English 
invasion.  Elated  with  the  hopes  of  assis- 
tance from  France,  the  Scots  now  invaded  Cum- 
berland with  a  large  army,  and  laid  siege  to 
Carlisle.  The  men  abandoned  the  place ;  but  the 
women  mounted  the  walls,  and  drove  the  assail- 
ants from  the  attack.  Another  incursion  into 
Northumberland  proved  almost  as  disgraceful. 
Their  whole  exploits  consisted  in  burning  a  nun- 
nery at  Lamely,  and  a  monastery  at  Corebridge, 
though  dedicated  to  their  patron  St.  Andrew  ; 
but,  having  attempted  to  storm  the  castle  of 
Harbottle,  they  were  repulsed  with  loss.  In  the 
mean  time  Edward  with  an  army  equal  in  num- 
ber to  that  of  the  Scots,  but  much  superior  on 
account  of  its  discipline,  invaded  the  east  coast 
of  Scotland.  Berwick  had  either  not  been  de- 
livered according  to  pro:*  ise,  or  had  been  re- 


sumed by  the  Scots,  and  was  now  defended  by  a 
numerous  garrison.  Edward  assaulted  it  by  sea 
and  land.  The  ships  which  began  the  attack 
were  all  either  burnt  or  disabled  ;  but  Edward, 
having  led  on  his  army  in  person,  took  the  place 
by  storm,  and  cruelly  butchered  the  inhabitants, 
to  the  number  of  8000,  without  distinction  of 
sex  or  age.  In  this  town  there  was  a  building 
called  the  Red-hall,  which  certain  Flemings  pos- 
sessed by  the  tenure  of  defending  it  at  all  times 
against  the  king  of  England.  Thirty  of  these 
maintained  their  ground  for  a  whole  day  against 
the  English  army ;  but  at  night,  the  building 
being  set  on  fire,  all  of  them  perished  in  the 
flames.  The  same  day  the  castle  capitulated  ; 
the  garrison,  consisting  of  2000  men,  marched 
out  with  all  the  honors  of  war,  after  having 
sworn  never  to  bear  arms  against  England.  In 
the  mean  time,  Baliol,  by  the  advice  of  his  par- 
liament, solemnly  and  openly  renounced  his  alle- 
giance to  Edward,  sending  the  following  declara 
tion  : — 'To  the  magnificent  prince,  Edward,  by 
the  grace  of  God  king  of  England,  John,  by  the 
same  grace,  king  of  Scotland.  Whereas  you, 
and  others  of  your  kingdom,  you  not  l>un.r 
ignorant,  or  having  cause  of  ignorance,  by  yoinr 
violent  power,  have  notoriously  and  frequently 
done  grievous  and  intolerable  injuries,  con- 
tempts, grievances,  and  strange  damages  against 
us,  the  liberties  of  our  kingdom,  and  against 
God  and  justice ;  citing  us,  at  your  pleasure, 
upon  every  slight  suggestion,  out  of  our  king- 
dom :  unduly  vexing  us ;  seizing  our  castles, 
lands,  and  possessions,  in  your  kingdom  ;  un- 
justly, and  for  no  fault  of  ours,  taking  the  goods 
of  our  subjects,  as  well  by  sea  as  land,  and  cur- 
rying them  into  your  kingdom  ;  killing  our  mer- 
chants, and  others  of  our  kingdom  ;  carrying  our 
subjects  and  iirjprisoning  them  :  for  the  reforma- 
tion of  which  things,  we  sent  our  messengers  to 
you,  which  remain  not  only  unredressed,  but 
there  is  every  day  an  addition  of  worse  things  to 
them ;  for  now  you  are  come  with  a  great  army 
upon  the  borders,  for  the  disinheriting  us  and 
the  inhabitants  of  our  kingdom ;  and,  proceed- 
ing, have  inhumanly  committed  slaughter,  burn- 
ings, and  violent  invasions,  as  well  by  sea  as 
land :  we  not  being  able  to  sustain  the  said  in- 
juries, grievances,  and  damages  any  longer,  nor 
to  remain  in  your  fealty  or  homage,  extorted  by 
your  violent  oppression,  we  restore  them  to  you, 
for  ourself  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  our  king- 
dom, as  well  for  the  lands  we  hold  of  you  in 
your  kingdom  as  for  your  pretended  government 
over  us.'  Edward  was  presented  with  this  re- 
nunciation by  the  hands  of  the  intrepid  Henry, 
abbot  of  Aberbrothwick ;  and,  as  it  was  favor- 
able to  his  political  views,  he  received  it  rather 
with  contempt  than  anger.  '  The  foolish  traitor,' 
said  he  to  the  abbot,  'since  he  will  not  come  to 
us,  we  will  go  to  him.'  The  abbot  had  been 
persuaded  by  his  enemies,  of  whom  he  had 
many  in  Scotland,  to  present  this  letter,  in  hopes 
that  Edward  would  have  put  him  to  death ;  but 
he  had  address  enough  to  escape  safe  out  of  his 
hands,  without  receiving  any  other  answer. 
Though  this  scheme  of  renunciation  had  been 
concerted  some  time  before,  declaration  was  not 
sent  to  Edward  till  after  the  taking  of  Berwick. 


SCOTLAND. 


41: 


The  fete  of  Scotland,  however,  after  it,  was  soon 
decided.  The  earl  of  March  had  taken  part 
with  Edward,  but  the  countess  betrayed  his 
castle  of  Dunbar  into  the  hands  of  the  Scots. 
Edward  sent  a  chosen  body  of  troops  to  recover 
the  place.  The  whole  force  of  Scotland  opposed 
them  on  the  heights  above  Dunbar;  but  leaving 
their  advantageous  post,  and  pouring  down  on 
their  enemies  in  confusion,  they  were  dispersed 
and  defeated.  The  castle  of  Dunbar  surren- 
dered at  discretion  ;  that  of  Roxburgh  followed 
the  same  example ;  the  castle  of  Edinburgh 
surrendered  after  a  short  siege;  and  Stirling  was 
abandoned.  The  Scots,  in  the  mean  time,  were 
guilty  of  the  greatest  extravagancies.  During  a 
short  interval  between  the  loss  of  Berwick  and 
(he  defeat  at  Dunbar,  an  order  was  made  for  ex- 
pelling all  the  English  ecclesiastics  who  held 
I  eneSces  in  England ;  all  the  partizans  of  Eng- 
land, and  all  neutrals,  were  declared  traitors,  and 
ilicir  estates  confiscated.  But  the  great  suc- 
cesses of  Edward  soon  put  an  end  to  these  im- 
potent acts  of  fury.  Baliol  was  obliged  to 
iir.plore  the  mercy  of  the  conqueror.  Divested 
of  his  royal  ornaments,  and  bearing  a  white  rod 
in  his  hand,  he  performed  a  most  humiliating 
penance ;  confessing  that  by  evil  and  false 
counsel,  and  through  his  own  simplicity,  he  had 
grievously  offended  his  liege  lord.  He  recapitu- 
lated his  various  transgressions,  in  concluding  an 
alliance  with  France,  while  at  enmity  with  Eng- 
land ;  in  contracting  his  son  with  the  niece  of 
the  French  king ;  in  renouncing  his  fealty ;  in 
attacking  the  English  territories,  and  in  resisting 
Edward.  He  acknowledged  the  justice  of  the 
English  invasion  and  conquest ;  and  therefore 
he,  of  his  own  free  consent,  resigned  Scotland, 
its  people,  and  their  homage  to  his  liege  lord 
Edward,  2nd  of  July  1296. 

Edward  pursued  his  conquests,  the  barons 
every  where  crowding  in  to  swear  fealty  to 
him,  and  renounce  their  allegiance  with  France. 
His  journey  ended  at  Elgin,  whence  he  re- 
turned southward  ;  and,  as  an  evidence  of  his 
having  made  an  absolute  conquest  of  Scotland, 
he  carried  off  from  Scone  the  wooden  chair  in 
which  the  kings  were  wont  to  be  crowned. 
Some  of  the  charters  belonging  to  the  abbey 
were  carried  off,  and  the  seals  torn  from  others. 
On  the  28th  of  August,  1296,  Edward  held  a  par- 
liament at  Berwick,  where  he  received  the  fealty 
of  the  clergy  and  laity  of  Scotland.  Among 
those  who  professed  their  allegiance  at  this  par- 
liament was  Robert  Bruce  the  younger,  earl  of 
Carrick.  After  this  Edward  took  the  most  ef- 
fectual methods  of  securing  his  new  conquest. 
He  ordered  the  estates  of  the  clergy  to  be  re- 
stored ;  and,  having  received  the  fealty  of  the 
widows  of  many  of  the  Scottish  barons,  he  put 
them  in  possession  of  their  jointure  lands,  and 
even  made  a  decent  provision  for  the  wives  of 
many  of  his  prisoners.  Yet,  though  in  every 
thing  he  behaved  with  great  moderation  towards 
the  Scots,  he  committed  the  government  of  cer- 
tain districts,  and  of  the  chief  castles  in  the  south 
of  Scotland,  to  his  English  subjects,  of  whose 
fidelity  and  vigilance  he  thought  himself  assured. 
To  conciliate  the  affections  of  the  clergy,  he 
granted  to  the  Scottish  bishops  for  ever  the  pri- 
VOL.  XIX. 


vilege  of  bequeathing  their  effects  by  will,  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  privilege  was  enjoyed  by 
the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  England.  In 
honor  of  the  '  glorious  Confessor  St  Cuthbert,' 
he  gave  to  the  monks  of  Durham  an  annual  pen- 
sion of  £40,  payable  out  of  the  revenues  of  Scot- 
land. At  last,  having  settled  every  thing,  as  he 
thought,  in  tranquillity,  he  departed  for  Eng- 
land with  all  the  exultation  of  a  conqueror.  The 
tranquillity  established  by  Edward,  however, 
was  of  short  duration.  The  government  of 
Scotland  at  that  time  required  many  qualities 
which  his  vicegerents  possessed  not.  Warrene, 
earl  of  Surrey,  who  had  been  appointed  governor, 
took  up  his  abode  in  England,  on  pretence  of 
recovering  his  health.  Cressingham,  the  treasurer, 
was  avoluptuous,  proud,  and  selfish  ecclesiastic  ; 
while  Ormesby,  the  justiciary,  was  hated  for  his 
severity.  Under  these  officers  the  administration 
of  Edward  became  more  and  more  feeble  ;  bands 
of  robbers  infested  the  highways,  and  the  Eng- 
lish government  was  universally  despised.  At 
this  critical  moment  arose  Sir  William  Wallace, 
the  hero  of  the  Scottish  poets,  by  whom,  indeed, 
his  real  exploits  are  so  much  obscured  that  it  i; 
difficult  to  give  an  authentic  relation  of  them. 
He  was  the  younger  son  of  Wallace  of  Ellerslit, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paisley.  Having  been 
outlawed  for  some  offence  (supposed  to  have 
been  the  killing  of  an  Englishman),  he  'asso- 
ciated with  a  few  companions  of  fortunes  equally 
desperate.  Wallace  himself  was  endowed  %\  ith 
great  strength  and  courage,  and  an  active  and 
ambitious  spirit ;  by  his  affability,  eloquence, 
and  wisdom,  he  maintained  an  authority  over 
the  rude  and  undisciplined  multitudes  who 
flocked  to  his  standard.  In  May  1297  he  began 
to  infest  the  English  quarters  ;  and,  being  suc- 
cessful in  his  predatory  incursions,  his  party  be- 
came more  numerous,  and  he  was  joined  by  Sir 
William  Douglas.  With  their  united  forces 
these  two  allies  attempted  to  surprise  Ormesby 
the  justiciary,  while  he  held  his  court  at  Scone; 
but  he  saved  himself  by  a  precipitate  flight. 
After  this  the  Scots  roved  over  the  whole  country, 
assaulted  castles  and  massacred  the  English. 
Their  party  was  joined  by  many  persons  of  rank ; 
among  whom  were  Robert  Wishart  bishop  of 
Glasgow,  the  Steward  of  Scotland,  and  his  brother 
Alexander  de  Lindesay,  Sir  Richard  Lund  in, 
and  Sir  Andrew  Moray  of  Bothwell.  Young 
Bruce  would  have  been  a  vast  accession  to  the 
party  ;  for  he  possessed  all  Carrick  and  Annan- 
dale,  so  that  his  territories  reached  from  the 
frith  of  Clyde  to  Sol  way ;  but  the  wardens  of 
the  western  marches  of  England  suspected  his 
fidelity,  and  summoned  him  to  Carlisle.  He 
obeyed,  and  made  oath  on  the  consecrated  host, 
and  on  the  sword  of  Becket,  to  be  faithful  and 
vigilant  in  the  cause  of  Edward ;  to  prove  his 
sincerity  he  invaded  the  estate  of  Sir  William 
Douglas,  and  carried  off  his  wife  and  children. 
However,  he  instantly  repented  of  what  he  had 
done :  '  I  trust,'  said  he,  '  that  the  pope  will  ab- 
solve me  from  an  extorted  oath ;'  on  which  he 
abandoned  Edward,  and  joined  the  Scottish 
army.  All  this  time  Edward  was  in  France, 
not  in  the  least  suspecting  an  insurrection  among 
people  whom  he  imagined  he  had  thoroughly 

2  E 


418 


SCOTLAND. 


subdued.  As  soon  as  he  received  the  intelligence 
he  ordered  the  earl  of  Surrey  to  suppress  the 
rebels;  but  he,  declining  the  command  on  ac- 
count of  his  health,  resigned  it  to  his  nephew, 
lord  Henry  Percy.     A  great  army,  some  say  no 
fewer  than  40,000   men,  was   now  assembled, 
with  which   Percy  marched   against   the  Scots. 
He  found  them  encamped  at  Irvine,  with  a  lake 
in  their  front,  and  their  flanks  secured  by  en- 
trenchments, so  that  they  could  not  be  attacked 
without  the  utmost  danger.    The  Scots,  however, 
ruined  every  thing  by  their  dissensions.  Wallace 
was  envied  on  account  of  his  many  accomplish- 
ments, and   his   companions  began  to  suggest 
that  an  opposition  to  the  English  could  only  be 
productive  of  farther  national  destruction.     Sir 
Richard  Lundin,  an  officer  of  great  rank,  openly 
formed  a  hostile  party,  and  went  over  to  Edward 
with  all  his  followers.     He  attempted  to  justify 
his  treachery,  by  saying,  '  I  will  remain  no  lon- 
ger of  a  party  that  is  at  variance  with    itself.' 
Other  leaders  entered  into  a  negociation  with 
the    English.       Bruce,    the    steward,    and    his 
brother  Alexander  de  Lindesay,  and  Sir  William 
Douglas,  acknowledged  their  offences,  and  made 
submissions  to  Edward.    This  scandalous  treaty 
seems  to  have  been  negociated  by  the  bishop  of 
Glasgow,  and  their  recantation  is  recorded  in  the 
following  words : — '  Be  it  known  to  all   men  : 
whereas  we,  with  the  commons  of  our  country, 
did  rise  in  arms  against  our  lord  Edward,  and 
against  his  peace,  in  his  territories  of  Scotland 
and  Galloway,  did  burn,  slay,  and  commit  divers 
robberies ;  we,  therefore,  in  our  own  name,  and 
in  the  name  of  all  our  adherents,  agree  to  make 
every  reparation  and  atonement  that  shall  be 
required  by  our  sovereign  lord  ;  reserving  always 
what  is  contained  in  a  writing  which  we  have 
procured  from  Sir  Henry  Percy  and  Sir  Robert 
Clifford,  commanders  of  the  English  forces ;  at 
Irvine,  9th  of  July,  1297.'     To  this  instrument 
was  subjoined  '  Escrite  a  Sire  Willaume ;'  the 
meaning  of  which  Lord  Hailes  supposes  to  be, 
that  the  barons  had  notified  to  Sir  William  Wal- 
lace their  having  made  terms  of  accommodation 
for  themselves   and   their  party.     Edward   ac- 
cepted the  submission  of  the  Scottish  barons  who 
had  been  in  arms,  and  granted  liberty  to  those 
whom  he  had  jnade  prisoners  in  the  course  of 
the  former  year,  on  condition  that  they  should 
serve  him  in  his  wars  against  France.    The  in- 
constancy of  Bruce,  however,  was  so  great  that 
acknowledgments   of   submission    or    oaths   of 
fealty  were  not  thought  sufficiently  binding  on 
him ;  for  which  reason  the  bishop  of  Glasgow, 
the  steward,  and  Alexander  de  Lindesay,  became 
sureties  for  his  loyalty  and  good  behaviour,  until 
he  should  deliver  his  daughter  Marjory  as  an 
hostage.     Wallace  alone  refused  to  be  concerned 
in  these  shameful  submissions  ;  and,  with  a  few 
resolute  followers,  resolved  to  submit  to  every 
calamity  rather  than  give  up  the  liberty  of  his 
country.     The  barons  had  undertaken  to  procure 
his  submission  as  well  as  their  own  ;  but,  finding 
that  to  be  impossible,  the  bishop  of  Glasgow  and 
Sir  William   Douglass  voluntarily  surrendered 
themselves  prisoners  to  the  English.      Edward, 
however,  ascribed   this  surrender,   not   to   any 
honorable  motive  but  to  treachery.     He  asserted 


that  Wishart  repaired  to  the  castle  of  Roxburgh 
under  pretence  of  yielding  himself  up,  but  with 
the  concealed   purpose  of  forming  a  conspiracy 
to  betray  that  castle  to  the  Scots ;  and,  in  proof 
of  this,  appealed  to  intercepted  letters.     On  the 
other  hand,  Wallace,  ascribing  the  bishop's  con- 
duct to  traitorous  pusillanimity,   plundered  his 
house,  and  carried  off  his  family  captives.     Im- 
mediately after  the  defection  of  the  barons  at 
Irvine,  Wallace,  with  his  band  of  determined 
followers,  attacked  the  rear  of  the  English  army, 
and  plundered  their  baggage;  but  was  obliged 
to  retire,  with  the  loss  of  1000  men.     He  then 
found  himself  deserted  by  almost  all  the  men  of 
eminence  and  property.     His   army,   however, 
increased  considerably  by  the  accession  of  num- 
bers of  inferior  rank,  and  he  again  began  to  act 
on  the  offensive.     While  he  employed  himself 
in  besieging  the  castle  of  Dundee,  he  was  in- 
formed that  the  English  army  approached   Stir- 
ling.     Wallace,  having  charged  the  citizens  of 
Dundee,  under  the  pain  of  death,  to  continue  the 
blockade  of  the  castle,  hastened  with   all   his 
troops  to  guard  the  important  passage  of  the 
Forth  ;  and  encamped  behind  a  rising  ground  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  abbey  of  Cambusken- 
neth.      Brian    Fitz  Allan   had   been  appointed 
governor  of  Scotland  by  Edward  ;  but  Warrene, 
who  waited  the  arrival  of  his  successor,  remained 
with  the  army.     Imagining  that  W'allace   might 
be  induced  by  fair  means  to  lay  down  his  arms, 
he  despatched  two  friars  to  the  Scottish  camp, 
with  terms  of  capitulation,    '  Return,'  said  Wal- 
lace, '  and  tell  your  masters,  that  we  came  not 
here  to  treat,  but  to  assert  our  right,  and  to  set 
Scotland  free.     Let  them  advance,  they  will  find 
us  prepared.'     The  English,  provoked  at  this 
answer,  demanded  impatiently  to  be  led  on  to 
battle.    Sir  Richard  Lundin  remonstrated  against 
the  absurdity  of  making  a  numerous  army  pass 
by  a  long   narrow   bridge   in   presence   of  the 
enemy.      He  told  them  that  the  Scots  would 
attack  them  before  they  could  form  on  the  plain 
to  the  north  of  the  bridge,  and  thus  certainly  de- 
feat them  ;  at  the  same  time  he  offered  to  show 
them  a  ford,  which,  having  crossed  with  500  horse 
and  a  chosen  detachment  of  infantry,  he  pro- 
posed to  come  round  upon  the  rear  of  the  enemy, 
and  by  this  diversion  facilitate  the  operations  of 
the  main  body.    But,  this  proposal  being  rejected, 
the  English  army  began  to  pass  over;  which  was 
no  sooner  perceived  by  Wallace,  than  he  rushed 
down  upon  them,  and  broke  them  in  a  moment. 
Cressingham  the  treasurer  was  killed,  and  many 
thousands  were  slain  on  the  field,  or  drowned  in 
their  flight.    The  loss  of  the  Scots  would  have 
been  inconsiderable,  had  it  not  been  for  that  of 
Sir  Andrew  Moray,  the  intimate  friend  and  com- 
panion of  Wallace,  who  was  mortally  wounded 
in  the  engagement.     The  Scots  are  said  to  have 
treated  the  dead  body  of  Cressingham  with  the 
utmost  indignity. 

The  victory  at  Stirling  was  followed  by  the 
surrender  of  Dundee  castle  and  other  praces  ot 
strength  in  Scotland  ;  and  at  the  same  time  the 
Scots  took  possession  of  Berwick,  which  the 
English  had  evacuated.  But  as  a  famine  now 
t»ok  place  in  Scotland  by  the  bad  seasons  and 
miseries  of  war,  Wallace  marched  with  his  \\hole 


SCOTLAND. 


419 


army  into  England,  that  he  might  in  some  mea- 
sure relieve  the  necessities  of  his  countrymen  by 
plundering  the  enemy.     This  expedition  lasted 
three   weeks,   during    which     time    the   whole 
country  from  Cockermouth  and  Carlisle  to  the 
Elates  of  Newcastle  was  laid  waste,  with  all  the 
fury  of  revenge  and  rapacity ;  though  Wallace  en- 
deavoured, as  far  as  possible,  to  repress  the  licen- 
tiousness   of  his    soldiers.      In    1298   Wallace 
assumed    the   title  of  '  Governor  of  Scotland,' 
in  name  of  king  John,  and  by  consent  of  the 
Scottish  nation;  but  in  what  manner  this  office 
was   obtained  is  now  in  a  great   measure  un- 
known.    In  a  parliament  which  he  convoked  at 
Perth  he  was  confirmed  in  his  authority;  and 
under  this  title  he  conferred  the  constabulary  of 
Dundee  on  Alexander  Scrirageour  and  his  heirs, 
on  account  of  his  faithful  aid  in  bearing   the 
royal  standard  of  Scotland.    This  grant  is  said  to 
have  been  made  with  the  consent  and-  approba- 
tion of  the  Scottish  nobility,  29th  March  1298. 
From  this  period,  however,  we  may  date  the  very 
great  jealousy  which  took  place  between  Wallace 
and   the   nobles   of  his    party.      His   elevation 
wounded   their    pride ;   his    great   services   re- 
proached their  inactivity  in  the   public  cause; 
and    thus   the  counsels   of  Scotland  were  per- 
plexed with  distrust  and  envy,  when  almost  its 
very  existence  depended  on  unanimity.   In  June 
1298  Edward,  who   had  all  this  time  been  in 
Flanders,  returned  to  England,  and  summoned 
the  Scottish  barons,  under  pain  of  rebellion,  to 
attend  him  in  parliament ;  and,  on  their  disobey- 
ing his  summons,  he  advanced  with  his  army 
towards  Scotland.     His  main  force,  commanded 
by  himself,  assembled,  at  Berwick ;  but  a  body  of 
troops,  under  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  having  landed 
in  the  north  of  Fife,  were  defeated  with  great  loss 
by  Wallace,  on  the  12th  of  June.     The  same 
month   Edward  invaded  Scotland  by  the  way  of 
the  eastern  borders.     No  place  resisted  him  ex- 
cept the  castle  of  Dirleton.    After  a  resolute  de- 
fence, it  surrendered  to  Anthony  Beck,  bishop  of 
Durham.   Meanwhile  the  Scots  were  assembling 
all   their   strength   in   the   interior   part  of  the 
country.     Few  barons  of  eminence  repaired  to 
the  national  standard.     They  whose  names  are 
recorded,  were  John  Comyn  of  Badenoch,  the 
younger;  Sir  John  Stewart  of  Bonkill,  brother  to 
The  Steward  ;  Sir  John  Graham  of  Abercorn  ; 
and  Macduff,  the  grand  uncle  of  the  young  earl 
of  Fife.     Robert    Bruce   again  acceded  to  the 
Scottish  party ;  and  with  his  followers  guarded 
the  important  castle  of  Ayr,  which  kept  the  com- 
munication open  with    Galloway,   Argyleshire, 
and  the  isles.     The  aim  of  Edward  was  to  pene- 
trate into  the  west,  and  there  to  terminate  the 
war.     He  appointed  a  fleet,  with  provisions,  to 
proceed  to  the  frith  of  Clyde,  and  await  his  ar- 
rival in  those  parts.     This  precaution  was  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  the  subsistence  of  his  numer- 
ous army  in  a  country  impoverished  and  waste. 
Waiting  for  accounts  of  the  arrival  of  his  fleet, 
he  established  his  head  quarters  at  Temple-liston, 
between   Edinburgh   and    Linlithgow.     In    the 
mean  time  a  dangerous  insurrection  arose  in  his 
camp.     He  had  bestowed  a  donative  of  wine 
among  his  soldiers  ;  they  became  intoxicated  ;  a 
national  quarrel  ensued.      In   this   tumult    the 


Welsh  slew  eighteen  English  tcclesiastics.     The 
English  hoi-semen    rode   in  among  the  Welsh, 
and  revenged  this  outrage  with  great  slaughter : 
and  the  Welsh,  in  disgust,  separated  themselves 
from  the  army.    It  was  reported  to  Edward  that 
they  had  mutinied,  and  gone  over  to  the  Scots  : 
'  I   care   not,'    said    Edward,    dissembling   the 
danger,   '  let  my  enemies  go  and  join  my  ene- 
mies ;   I  trust  that  in  one  day  I  shall  chastise 
them    all.'     Edward  was  now  placed  in   most 
critical  circumstances.     As  the  fleet  with  pro- 
visions had  been  detained  by  contrary  winds, 
he  could  not  venture  to  advance,  neither  could 
he  .subsist  any  longer  in  his  present  quarters. 
To  retreat  would  have  sullied  the  glory  of  his 
arms,  and  exposed  him  to  the  obloquy  and  mur- 
murs of  a  discontented  people.    Yet  he  submitted 
to  this  hard  necessity  :  and  commanded  his  army 
to  return  to  the  eastern  borders.   At  this  moment 
intelligence  arrived  that  the  Scots  were  advanced 
to  Falkirk.     Edward  instantly  marched  against 
them.     His  army  lay  that  night  in  the  fields. 
While  Edward  slept  on  the  ground,  his  war- 
horse  struck  him  and  broke  two  of  his  ribs.   The 
alarm  arose  that  the  king  was  wounded.     They 
who  knew  not  the  cause,  repeated  the  cry,  '  The 
king  is  wounded ;  there  is  treason  in  the  camp ; 
the  enemy  is  upon  us.'     Edward  mounted  on 
horseback,   and    by  his   presence  dispelled  the 
panic.     With  a  fortitude  of  spirit  superior  to 
pain,  he  led  on  his  troops  :  and  at  break  of  day 
the  Scottish  army  was  descried,  forming  on  a 
stony  field,  at  the  side  of  a  small  eminence,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Falkirk.     Wallace  ranged 
his  infantry  in  four  bodies.     The  archers,  com- 
manded by  Sir  John  Stewart,  were  placed  in  the 
intervals.    The  horse,  amounting  to  no  more  than 
1000,  were  at  some  distance  in  the  rear.    On  the 
front  of  the  Scots  lay  a  morass.     Having  drawn 
up  his  troops  in  this  order,  Wallace  pleasantly 
said,   '  Now   I   have   brought  you  to  the  ring, 
dance  according  to  your  skill.'     Edward  placed 
his  chief  confidence  in  the  numerous  and  for- 
midable body  of  horsemen  whom  he  had  selected 
for  the  Scottish  expedition.     These  he  ranged  in 
three  lines.     The  first  was  led  by   Bigot,  earl 
marshal,  and  the  earls  of  Hereford  and  Lincoln ; 
the  second  by  the  bishop  of  Durham,  having 
under  him  Sir  Ralph  Basset  of  Drayton;  the 
third,  intended  for  a  reserve,  was  led   by  the 
king  himself.    His  infantry  probably  were  drawn 
up  behind,  to  support  the  cavalry,  and  to  annoy 
the  Scots  with  their  arrows.     Bigot,  at  the  head 
of  the  first  line,  rushed  on  to  the  charge.     He 
was  checked  by  the  morass,  which  in  his  im- 
petuosity he  had  overlooked.     This  obliged  him 
to  incline  to  the  solid  ground  on  his  left,  towards 
the  right  flank  of  the  Scottish  army.   The  bishop 
of  Durham,  who  led  the  second  line,  inclined  to 
the   right,   turned   the   morass,    and    advanced 
towards  ihe  left  flank  of  the  Scottish  array.     He 
proposed  to  halt  till  the  reserve  should  advance. 
'  To  mass,  Bishop,'  cried  Basset,  and  instantly 
charged.     The  shock  of  the  English  cavalry  on 
each  side  was  violent,  and  gallantly  withstood  by 
the  Scottish  infantry  ;  but  the  Scottish  cavalry, 
dismayed  at  the  number  and  force  of  the  English 
men   at   arms,    immediately   quitted    the   field. 
Stewart,  while  giving  orders  to  his  archers,  was 

2  1-.  2 


420 


SCO  T  L  A  N  D. 


thrown  from  his  horse  and  slain.  His  archers 
crowded  round  his  body  and  perished  with  him. 
Often  did  the  English  strive  to  force  the  Scottish 
circle.  '  They  could  not  penetrate  into  that  wood 
of  spears,'  as  one  of  their  historians  speaks.  By 
repeated  charges,  the  outermost  ranks  were 
brought  to  the  ground.  The  English  infantry 
incessantly  galled  the  Scots  with  showers  of 
stones  and  arrows.  Macduff  and  Sir  John  Gra- 
ham fell.  At  length  the  Scots  were  broken  by 
the  numbers  and  weight  of  the  English  cavalry, 
and  the  rout  became  universal.  The  number  of 
the  Scots  slain  in  this  battle  must  hare  been 
very  great.  As  is  commonly  the  case,  it  is  exag- 
gerated by  the  historians  of  the  victors,  and  re- 
duced too  low  by  those  of  the  vanquished.  On 
the  side  of  the  English  the  loss  was  inconsider- 
able. The  only  persons  of  note  who  fell  were 
Brian  le  Jay,  master  of  the  English  Templars, 
and  the  prior  of  Torphichen  in  Scotland,  a  knight 
of  another  order  of  religious  soldiery.  The  Scots 
in  their  retreat  burnt  the  town  and  castle  of  Stir- 
ling. Edward  repaired  the  castle,  and  made  it  a 
place  of  arms.  He  then  marched  to  the  west. 
At  his  approach,  Bruce  burnt  the  castle  of  Ayr, 
and  retired.  Edward  would  have  pursued  him 
into  Carrick ;  but  the  want  of  provisions  stopped 
his  further  progress.  He  turned  into  Annandale, 
took  Bruce's  castle  of  Lochmaben,  and  then  de- 
parted out  of  Scotland  by  the  western  borders. 
Here  may  be  remarked  the  fatal  precipitancy  of 
the  Scots.  If  they  had  studied  to  protract  the 
campaign,  instead  of  hazarding  a  general  action 
at  Falkirk,  they  would  have  foiled  the  whole 
power  of  Edward,  and  reduced  him  to  the  neces- 
sity of  an  inglorious  retreat.  In  1299  Edward 
released  John  Baliol,  the  unfortunate  king  of 
Scotland,  whom  he  had  kept  close  prisoner  ever 
since  1296.  Before  this  time  Baliol  had  used 
the  most  disgraceful  methods  to  recover  his 
liberty.  He  had  solemnly  declared  that  '  he 
would  never  have  any  intercourse  with  the  Scots ; 
that  he  had  found  them  a  false  and  treacherous 
people ;  and  that  he  had  reason  to  suspect  them 
of  an  intention  to  poison  him.'  However,  not- 
withstanding all  his  protestations,  Edward  still 
detained  him  in  captivity ;  but  at  last  released 
him  at  the  mediation  of  the  pope,  though  after  a 
singular  form.  He  ordered  the  governor  of  Dover 
to  convey  him  to  the  French  coast,  and  there  to 
deliver  him  to  the  papal  nuncio,  '  with  full  power 
to  the  pope  to  dispose  of  Baliol  and  his  English 
estate.'  In  consequence  of  which  he  was  con- 
veyed to  Witsand,  delivered  to  the  nuncio  in 
presence  of  a  notary  and  witnesses,  and  a  receipt 
taken  for  his  person.  Notwithstanding  this  ab- 
ject state,  however,  the  Scots  continued  to  own 
him  for  their  king,  and  to  assert  their  national 
independency :  and,  though  the  misfortune  at 
Falkirk  had  deprived  them  of  a  very  considerable 
extent  of  territory,  they  were  still  in  possession 
of  the  whole  country  beyond  the  Forth,  as  well 
as  the  county  of  Galloway. 

By  general  consent  William  Lamberton,  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrew's,  Robert  Bruce  earl  of 
Carrick,  and  John  Cummin  the  younger,  were 
chosen  guardians  of  Scotland  in  the  name  of 
Baliol.  Wallace  at  this  time  was  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  a  private  man ;  nor  had  he  any  longer 


the  command  of  the  Scots  armies,  nor  any  share 
in  their  councils.  The  new  guardians  undertook 
to  reduce  the  castle  of  Stirling,  and  Edward  pre- 
pared to  defend  it.  The  Scots  posted  themselves 
at  the  Torwood,  and  chose  their  ground  so  ju- 
diciously that  Edward  could  scarcely  have  raised 
the  siege  without  dislodging  them;  which,  find- 
ing it  impossible  for  him  to  do,  he  returned  home 
in  disgust.  Next  year  he  invaded  Scotland  on 
the  west  side,  wasted  Annandale,  and  reduced 
Galloway;  but  the  Scots,  being  taught  by  ex-  ' 
perience  to  avoid  a  general  action,  chose  their 
posts  with  such  skill  that  Edward  could  not 
penetrate  farther ;  and  the  same  year  a  truce  was 
concluded  with  the  Scots,  to  continue  till  Whit- 
sunday 1301.  This  year  a  new  competitor  ap- 
peared for  the  crown  of  Scotland.  Boniface 
VIII.,  in  a  bull  directed  to  Edward,  averred 
that  Scotland  belonged  anciently,  and  did  still 
belong,  to  the  holy  see ;  and  supported  his  ex- 
travagant claim  by  some  strange  authorities, 
such  as,  that  Scotland  had  been  miraculously 
converted  by  the  relics  of  St.  Andrew  ;  after 
which  he  proceeded  to  show  the  futility  of  Ed- 
ward's pretensions,  and  that  Scotland  never  had 
any  feudal  dependence  on  England.  He  required 
Edward  to  set  at  liberty  all  the  Scottish  ecclesi- 
astics, particularly  Wishart  bishop  of  Glasgow, 
and  to  remove  his  officers  from  the  patrimony  of 
the  church  :  '  But,'  added  he,  '  should  you  have 
any  pretensions  to  the  whole,  or  any  part  of 
Scotland,  send  your  proctors  to  me  within  six 
months ;  I  will  hear  and  determine  according  to 
justice;  I  take  the  cause  under  my  own  peculiar 
cognizance.'  This  interposition  of  the  pope  hafF 
probably  been  procured  by  Scottish  emissaries 
at  the  court  of  Rome;  but,  however  ridiculous 
his  pretensions  might  be,  they  afforded  matter  of 
very  serious  consideration  to  Edward.  After 
spending  a  whole  winter  in  deliberations,  Ed- 
ward and  his  parliament  made  separate  answers 
to  the  pope-  The  answer  of  the  parliament 
stated  that  '  All  England  knew  that,  ever  since 
the  first  establishment  of  this  kingdom,  its  kings 
had  been  liege-lords  of  Scotland.  At  no  time  had 
the  kingdom  of  Scotland  belonged  to  the  church. 
In  temporals  the  kings  of  England  are  not  amena- 
ble to  the  see  of  Rome.  We  have  with  one  voice  re- 
solved that,  as  to  temporals,  the  king  of  England 
is  independent  of  Rome ;  that  he  shall  not  suffer 
his  independency  to  be  questioned ;  and  therefore 
that  he  shall  not  send  commissioners  to  Rome. 
Such  is,  and  such,  we  trust  in  God,  ever  will  be, 
our  opinion.  We  do  not,  we  cannot,  permit  our 
king  to  follow  measures  subversive  of  that  go- 
vernment which  we  have  sworn  to  maintain,  and 
which  we  will  maintain.'  The  king  entered  into 
a  more  full  refutation  of  the  pope's  arguments ; 
and  having,  as  he  thought,  answered  them  suf- 
ficiently, marched  again  into  Scotland  ;  but,  by 
the  mediation  of  France,  another  truce  was  con- 
cluded, to  last  till  St.  Andrew's  day  1302.  After 
the  expiration  of  the  truce,  Edward  sent  an  ami) 
into  Scotland,  under  John  de  Seagrave.  Tins 
general  divided  his  troops  into  three  bod.es; 
but,  keeping  them  so  far  distant  that  they  could 
not  support  each  other,  they  were  all  engaged 
and  defeated  in  one  day  by  the  Scots,  near  Ros- 
lin.  This,  however,  was  the  last  successful  ex- 


S  C  O  1  L  A  N  D. 


421 


ploit  of  the  Scots  at  this  period.  The  pope 
deserted  them,  and  the  king  of  France  concluded 
a  peace  with  England,  in  which  all  mention  of 
the  Scots  was  industriously  avoided ;  so  that 
t!iey  were  left  alone  to  bear  the  whole  weight 
of  Edward's  resentment,  who  now  invaded  their 
country  in  person  with  a  mighty  army.  He  met 
with  no  resistance  in  his  progress,  except  from 
the  castle  of  Brechin,  which  was  commanded  by 
Thomas  Maul,  a  brave  and  experienced  officer. 
He  held  out  for  tsventy  days  against  the  whole 
power  of  the  English  army  ;  but  at  last,  being 
mortally  wounded,  the  place  capitulated.  Thence 
Edward  proceeded  northward,  according  to  some 
historians,  as  far  as  Caithness.  He  then  returned 
towards  the  south,  and  wintered  in  Dunfermline. 
Here  was  an  abbey  of  the  Benedictines,  a  build- 
ing so  spacious  that,  according  to  an  English 
historian,  three  sovereign  princes,  with  all  their 
retinue,  might  have  been  lodged  within  its  pre- 
cincts, and  the  Scottish  nobles  often  held  their 
assemblies  here.  The  English  soldiers  utterly 
demolished  this  magnificent  fabric.  The  only  for- 
tress that  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Scots 
was  the  castle  of  Stirling,  where  Sir  William 
Oliphant  commanded.  To  protect  this  single 
place  of  refuge,  Comyn  assembled  all  his  forces. 
He  posted  his  army  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
river,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stirling,  there  to 
make  the  last  stand  for  the  national  liberty.  The 
Scots  fondly  imagined  that  Edward  would  at- 
tempt to  force  the  passage,  as  the  impetuous 
Cressingham  had  attempted  in  circumstances 
not  dissimilar.  But  the  prudence  of  Edward 
frustrated  their  expectations.  Having  discovered 
a  ford  at  some  distance,  he  crossed  the  river  at 
the  head  of-  his  whole  cavalry.  The  Scots  gave 
way,  and  dispersed  themselves.  All  resources 
but  their  own  coura«e  had  long  failed  them ;  that 
iast  resource  failed  them  now,  and  they  hastened 
to  conciliate  the  favor  of  the  conqueror.  Pre- 
vious to  this  Bruce  had  surrendered  himself  to 
John  de  St.  John,  the  English  warden.  Comyn 
and  his  followers  now  submitted  to  Edward. 
They  stipulated  for  their  lives,  liberties,  and  es- 
tates ;  reserving  alwnys  to  Edward  the  power  of 
inflicting  pecuniary  mulcts  on  them  as  he  should 
see  fit.  From  the  general  conditions  of  this  sti- 
pulation, the  following  persons  were  excepted  : 
VVishart,  bishop  of  Glasgow,  the  Steward,  Sir 
John  Soulis,  David  de  Graham,  Alexander  de 
Lindesay,  Simon  Fra*er,  Thomas  Bois,  and  Wal- 
lace. With  respect  to  them,  it  was  provided 
that  the  bishop  of  Glasgow,  the  Steward,  and 
Soulis,  should  remain  in  exile  for  two  years,  and 
should  not  pass  to  the  north  of  Trent;  thatGra- 
ham  and  Lindesay  should  be  banished  from 
Scotland  for  six  months ;  that  Fraser  and  Bois 
should  be  banished  for  three  years  from  all  the 
dominions  of  Edward,  and  should  not  be  per- 
mitted, during  that  space,  to  repair  to  the  terri- 
*ories  of  France.  '  As  for  \Villiam  Wallace,  it 
is  agreed,  that  he  shall  render  himself  up  at  the 
wiii  and  mercy  of  our  sovereign  lord  the  king, 
if  it  shall  seem  good  to  him.'  These  were  all 
the  conditions  that  the  Scottish  nation  stipulated 
for  the  man  who  had  vanquished  the  English  at 
Stirling,  who  had  expelled  them  from  Scotland, 
and  who  had  once  set  his  coun'rv  free  !  But 


Wallace  scorned  submission.  He  lived  a  free- 
man ;  a  freeman  he  was  resolved  to  die.  Fraser, 
who  had  too  oft  complied  with  the  times,  now 
caught  the  same  heroic  sentiments.  But  their 
endeavours  to  rouse  their  countrymen  were  vain. 
The  season  of  resistance  was  past.  Wall  ice 
perceived  that  there  remained  no  more  hope  ; 
and  sought  out  a  place  of  concealment,  where 
eluding  the  vengeance  of  Edward,  he  might 
silently  lament  o\'t  his  fallen  country.  Edward 
now  assembled  at  St.  Andrew's  what  is  called  a 
parliament,  where  Wallace,  Fraser,  and  the  gar- 
rison of  Stirling,  were  summoned  to  appear; 
and  sentence  of  outlawry  was  pronounced  against 
them.  Edward  then  prepared  to  besiege  the 
castle  of  Stirling;  and,  foreseeing  that  the  reduc- 
tion of  this  place  would  be  attended  with  diffi- 
culty, stripped  the  abbey  of  St.  Andrew's  of  the 
lead  which  covered  it,  in  order  to  employ  the 
metal  in  bullets  for  his  battering  machines.  Oli- 
phant was  solemnly  summoned  to  surrender,  but 
in  vain.  Edward  drew  out  all  his  artillery, 
and  battered  the  walls  with  stones  of  200  Ibs. 
weight.  The  besieged,  however,  defended  them- 
selves with  obstinacy,  and  killed  a  great  number 
of  the  English ;  but  at  last  they  were  obliged  to 
surrender;  and  Edward,  lookins  upon  the  con- 
quest of  Scotland  as  now  complete,  set  out  for 
York,  and  thence  to  Lincoln. 

Edward,  though  he  had  thus  met  with  all  the 
success  he  could  desire  in  his  expeditions  against 
the  Scots,  could  not  but  perceive  that  his  domi- 
nion over  them  must  be  very  precarious,  as  long 
as  he  held  them  in  subjection  as  a  conquered 
people.  He  resolved  therefore  once  more  to  re- 
new his  attempts  for  an  union  of  the  two  king- 
doms. He  began  with  taking  into  favor  the 
bishop  of  Glasgow,  Robert  Bruce,  and  John 
Mowbray,  who,  next  to  Bruce  and  the  Cummings, 
were  the  most  powerful  of  the  greatest  of  the 
Scottish  nobility.  To  them  he  recommended 
the  settling  the  affairs  of  their  country,  but  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  leave  it  in  his  power  to  effect 
the  proposed  union  with  England.  This  scheme, 
however,  was  by  no  means  agreeable  to  Bruce, 
who  had  now  no  other  competitor  for  the  crown 
but  Cumming,  who  was  in  a  great  measure  inca- 
pable of  opposing  his  designs ;  neither  indeed 
could  it  ever  be  made  agreeable  to  the  bulk  of 
the  nation ;  and  therefore  came  to  nothing  at  last. 
Scotland,  however,  was  subdued.  Its  inhabitants 
had  renounced  every  idea  of  asserting  their  li- 
berty, and  only  strove  to  make  their  court  to  the 
conqueror.  Wallace  alone  still  remained  an 
exception.  Edward,  who  had  received  into  fa- 
vor those  who  had  proved  traitors  over  and  over 
again,  showed  a  mean  revenge  against  the  only 
man  who  discovered  a  steady  and  honorable 
spirit,  and  whose  friendship  seemed  worth  the 
courting.  Ralph  de  Haliburton,  a  prisoner, 
offered  his  assistance  for  discovering  Wallace ; 
and  for  this  purpose  was  granted  a  temporary 
liberty;  but  what  he  did  in  this  very  dishonor- 
able employment  is  unknown.  Certain  it  is  that 
Wallace  was  discovered  and  betrayed  into  the 
hands  of  the  English  by  Sir  John  Menteith 
This  celebrated  and  heroic  patriot  was  arraigned 
at  Westminster  a<  a  traitor  to  Edward,  and  as 
having  burnt  villages,  stornu  d  castles,  and 


422 


SCOTLAND, 


slaughtered  many  subjects  of  England.  Wa'.- 
lace  denied  his  ever  having  been  a  traitor,  and 
indeed  with  truth  ;  for  he  had  always  been  the 
avowed  enemy  of  Edward,  and  had  not  at 
any  time  owned  allegiance  to  him.  But  what- 
ever his  defence  might  have  been  it  was  of  no 
avail  with  a  judge  who  had  resolved  on  his  de- 
struction. Wallace  was  condemned  to  die  a 
traitor's  death,  and  the  sentence  was  executed 
with  the  utmost  rigor  !  In  his  last  moments  he 
asserted  that  independency  which  a  degenerate 
nation  had  renounced.  His  head  was  placed  on 
a  pinnacle  at  London,  and  his  mangled  limbs 
were  distributed  over  the  kingdom. 

After  the  death  of  Wallace,  Edward  thought 
of  nothing  but  settling  the  affairs  of  Scotland 
as  a  conquered  country  ;  however,  he  took  care  to 
preserve  the  ancient  forms  so  far  as  was  consistent 
with  the  dependent  state  of  the  nation.  It  has 
been  said,  indeed,  that  Edward  abrogated  all  the 
Scottish  laws  and  customs,  and  endeavoured  to 
substitute  the  English  in  their  stead ;  but  this  is 
denied  by  others.  Lord  Hales  gives  at  length 
the  record  with  respect  to  these  laws,  for  which 
we  refer  the  inquisitive  reader  to  his  work.  An 
indemnity  was  now  granted  to  the  Scots  upon 
certain  conditions.  Various  fines  were  imposed 
from  one  to  five  years  rent  of  the  estates  of  the 
delinquents.  The  person  taxed  was  to  pay  half 
his  income  annually ;  and  thus  Umfraville,  taxed 
in  five  years  rent,  was  allowed  ten  years  to  dis- 
charge the  fine.  There  was  an  express  reserva- 
tion to  Edward  of  all  the  royal  demesnes  which 
Baliol  might  hare  alienated.  There  was  also  an 
exception  for  those  who  were  already  in  custody, 
and  those  who  had  not  yet  submitted.  Thus, 
after  a  long  and  obstinate  contest,  was  Scotland 
wholly  reduced  under  the  dominion  of  Edward. 
Within  four  months,  however,  that  system  was 
overthrown,  which  the  incessant  labor  of  fifteen 
years  had  established  by  craft,  dissimulation, 
and  violence,  with  a  waste  of  treasure,  and  the 
effusion  of  much  blood.  The  causes  of  this 
event  are  related  as  follows  : — Dervegil  of  Gal- 
loway had  a  son,  John  Baliol,  and  a  daughter 
named  Marjory.  John  Comyn  was  the  son  of 
Marjory,  and,  setting  Baliol  aside,  was  heir  to 
the  pretensions  of  Dervegil.  He  had  for  many 
years  maintained  the  contest  against  Edward ; 
but  at  last  laid  down  his  arms,  and  swore  fealty 
to  the  conqueror ;  and,  as  Baliol  had  repeatedly 
renounced  all  pretensions  to  the  crown  of  Scot- 
land, Comyn  might  now  be  considered  as  the 
rightful  heir.  His  riTal  in  power  and  pretensions 
was  Bruce,  earl  of  Carrick.  This  young  noble- 
man's grandfather,  the  competitor,  had  patiently 
acquiesced  in  the  award  of  Edward.  His  father, 
yielding  to  the  tunes,  had  served  under  the  Eng- 
lish banners.  But  young  Bruce  had  more  ambi- 
tion, and  a  more  restless  spirit.  In  his  earlier 
years  he  acted  upon  no  regular  plan.  By  turns 
the  partisan  of  Edward,  and  the  ricegerent  of 
Baliol,  he  seems  to  have  forgotten  or  stifled  his 
pretensions  to  the  crown.  But  his  character  de- 
veloped itself  by  degrees,  and  in  maturer  age 
1  ecame  firm  and  consistent.  According  to  the 
traditionary  report,  Bruce  made  the  following 
1  roposal  to  Comyn  : — '  Support  my  title  to  the 
crown,  and  I  will  give  you  my  estate  ;  or  give 
me  yo»r  estate,  a-  d  1  will  support  your's.'  The 


conditions  were  properly  drawn  out  and  signed 
by  both  parties ;  bxit  Comyn,  either  through  fear 
or  treachery,  revealed  the  whole  to  Edward.  On 
this  the  king  showed  Bruce  the  letters  of  his  ac- 
cuser, and  questioned  him  closely  ;  but  the  latter 
found  means  to  pacify  him  by  mild  and  judicious 
answers.  Notwithstanding  this,  however,  Ed- 
ward still  suspected  him,  though  he  dissembled 
his  sentiments,  until  he  should  get  the  brothers 
of  Bruce  into  his  power.  The  king,  having  drank 
freely  one  evening,  informed  some  of  his  lords  that 
he  had  resolved  to  put  Bruce  to  death  next  day. 
The  earl  of  Gloucester,  hearing  this  resolution, 
sent  a  messenger  to  Bruce  with  twelve  pence 
and  a  pair  of  spurs,  as  if  he  had  meant  to  restore 
what  he  had  borrowed.  Bruce  understood  the 
meaning  of  his  message,  and  prepared  for 
flight.  The  ground  was  covered  with  snow, 
which  would  have  discovered  his  flight  ;  but 
he  ordered,  it  is  said,  his  farrier  to  invert  the 
shoes  of  his  horses,  and  immediately  set  out  for 
Scotland,  in  company  with  his  secretary  and 
groom.  In  his  way  he  observed  a  foot  passen- 
ger whose  behaviour  seemed  to  be  suspicious, 
and  whom  he  soon  discovered  to  be  the  bearer 
of  letters  from  Comyn  to  the  English  monarch, 
urging  the  death  or  immediate  imprisonment  of 
Bruce.  The  latter,  filled  with  resentment,  imme- 
diately beheaded  the  messenger,  and  set  forward 
to  Lochmaben,  where  he  arrived  -he  seventh  <!;iy 
after  his  departure  from  London.  Soon  after  this 
he  repaired  to  Dumfries,  where  Comyn  happened 
at  that  time  to  reside.  Bruce  requested  an  inter- 
view with  him  in  the  convent  of  the  Minorites, 
where  he  reproached  him  with  his  treachery. 
Comyn  gave  him  the  lie,  and  Bruce  instantly 
stabbed  him ;  after  which  he  hastened  out  of  the 
convent  and  called  '  to  horse.'  His  attendants, 
Lindesay  and  Sirkpatrick,  perceiving  him  pale, 
and  in  extreme  agitation,  enquired  how  it  \\;is 
with  him  ?  '  111,'  replied  Bruce,  '  1  doubt  1  have 
slain  Comyn.'  '  You  doubt,'  cried  Kirkpatrick  ; 
on  saying  which,  he  rushed  into  the  place  where 
Comyn  lay,  and  instantly  despatched  him.  Sir 
Robert  Comyn,  a  relation,  attempted  to  deft  ml 
his  kinsman,  and  shared  his  fate.  Bruce  had 
now  gone  so  far  that  it  was  in  vain  to  think  of 
retracting ;  and  therefore  set  himself  in  opposi- 
tion to  Edward  in  good  earnest.  The  justiciaries 
were  then  holding  their  court  at  Dumfries  ;  who, 
hearing  what  had  happened,  imagined  their  own 
lives  to  be  in  danger,  and  barricaded  the  doors. 
Bruce  ordered  the  house  to  be  set  on  fire  :  upon 
which  they  surrendered  ;  and  Bruce  granted 
them  leave  to  depart  out  of  Scotland  without 
molestation.  The  above  account  of  this  catas- 
trophe, taken  from  the  Scottish  historians,  seems 
probable  ;  but  those  of  the  English  writers  differ 
in  many  particulars.  Lord  Hales  supposes  both  to 
be  wrong,  and  that  the  true  circumstances  of  the 
quarrel  are  unknown.  The  death  of  Comyn  af- 
fected the  Scots  variously,  according  to  their  dif- 
ferent views  and  interests.  The  relations  of  the 
deceased  viewed  it  as  a  cruel  assassination,  and 
joined  with  Edward  in  schemes  of  revenue. 
Some,  who  wished  well  to  the  peace  of  thwir 
country,  thought  it  was  better  to  submit  quietly 
to  the  English,  than  to  attempt  a  revolution, 
which  could  not  be  effected  without  much  danger 
and  bloodshed  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 


SCOTLAND. 


423 


friends  of  Bruce  now  saw  the  necessity  they 
were  under  of  proceeding  to  the  coronation  of 
the  new  king  without  loss  of  time.  The  cere- 
mony was  therefore  performed  at  Scone  on  the 
25th  of  March,  130G,  in  presence  of  two  earls, 
the  bishops  of  Andrew's  and  Glasgow,  the  abbot 
of  Scone,  John  de  Athol,  and  John  de  Meuteith. 
It  had  been  customary,  since  the  days  of  Mac- 
beth, for  one  of  the  family  of  Fife  to  put  the 
crown  on  the  king's  head ;  and  Bruce  found  the 
prepossession  of  the  Scots  in  favor  of  this  cir- 
cumstance so  strong  that  he  was  obliged  to  seek 
fur  an  expedient  to  satisfy  them.  Macduff,  the 
tMil  of  Fife,  was  at  that  time  in  England,  where 
he  had  married  a  near  relation  of  Edward.  His 
sister  was  wife  to  the  earl  of  Buchan,  one  of  the 
heads  of  the  family  of  Comyn,  and  consequently 
the  determined  enemy  of  Robert.  But,  by  an 
uncommon  effort  of  female  patriotism,  she  post- 
poned all  private  quarrels  to  the  good  of  her 
country,  and,  in  her  husband's  absence,  repaired, 
with  all  his  warlike  accoutrements,  to  Bruce,  to 
whom  she  delivered  them  up,  and  placed  the 
crown  upon  his  head.  This  crown  is  said  to 
have  been  made  by  Conyers,  an  Englishman,  who 
narrowly  escaped  being  punished  for  it  by  Ed- 
ward. 

The  king  of  England  received  intelligence  of 
these  proceedings  with  astonishment;  and  with- 
out delay  sent  a  body  of  troops  under  Aymer 
de  Valence,  earl  of  Pembroke,  to  suppress  the 
alleged  rebellion.  Bruce  omitted  nothing  for 
his  defence.  He  had  always  been  considered 
by  his  countrymen  as  an  accomplished  young 
nobleman,  firmly  attached  to  Edward's  person 
and  government ;  and  confided  in  as  such  by 
those  independent  patriots  who  joined  Wallace. 
But  their  utmost  confidence  was  now  gained  by 
his  rendering  himself  so  obnoxious  to  Edward 
that  no  possibility  of  a  reconciliation  was  left ; 
and  he  soon  saw  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army. 
^  ith  these  Bruce  formed  a  camp  at  Methven, 
near  Perth,  the  head-quarters  of  the  enemy ;  but 
knowing  the  disadvantage  under  which  he  labored 
from  the  inexperience  of  his  men,  he  resolved  to 
act  upon  the  defensive.  The  English  general 
sent  Bruce  a  challenge  to  fight  him,  which  was 
accepted  ;  but  the  day  before  the  battle  was  to 
have  been  fought  by  agreement,  the  Scots  were 
attacked  by  surprise,  and  totally  defeated.  Bruce 
behaved  with  the  greatest  valor,  and  had  three 
horses  killed  under  him.  Being  known  by  the 
slaughter  which  he  made,  John  Mowbray,  a  man 
of  great  courage  and  resolution,  rushed  upon 
him,  and  catching  hold  of  his  horse's  bridle, 
cried  out,  '  I  have  hold  of  the  new  made  king !' 
but  he  was  delivered  by  Christopher  Seaton. 
After  the  battle  many  prisoners  were  hanged 
and  quartered.  This  disaster  almost  gave  the 
finishing  stroke  to  the  affairs  of  Bruce.  He  now 
found  himself  deserted  by  a  great  part  of  his  fol- 
lowers. The  English  had  taken  prisoners  great 
numbers  of  women  whose  husbands  followed 
him  ;  and  all  those  were  now  ordered,  on  pain 
of  death,  to  return  to  their  husbands.  Thus  was 
Bruce  burdened  with  a  number  of  useless  adhe- 
rents, and  found  it  hard  to  subsist.  The  conse- 
quence \\as  that  most  of  his  men  departed  with 
their  fam!L«,  so  that  in  a  few  days  his  force 


was  reduced  to  500.  With  these  he  retreated 
to  Aberdeen,  where  he  was  met  by  his  brother 
Sir  Neil,  his  wife,  and  a  number  of  other  ladies, 
the  latter  of  whom  he  persuaded  to  retire  to  his 
castle  of  Kildrummey,  under  the  protection  of 
Sir  Neil  Bruce  and  the  earl  of  Athol.  In  the 
mean  time  the  desertion  among  Bruce's  troops 
continued,  so  that  now  he  had  with  him  not 
more  than  200  men ;  and,  as  winter  was  coming 
on,  he  resolved  to  go  into  Argyleshire,  where  Sir 
Neil  Campbell's  estate  lay.  In  his  way  thither 
he  encountered  incredible  difficulties  ;  and,  some 
of  his  followers  being  cut  off  at  a  place  called 
Dairy,  the  rest  were  so  disheartened  that  they 
all  forsook  him,  excepting  Sir  Gilbert  Hay,  Sir 
James  Douglas,  and  a  few  domestics.  Bruce, 
however,  kept  up  the  spirits  of  his  little  party 
by  recounting  to  them  the  adventures  of  princes 
and  patriots  in  circumstances  similar  to  his  owa. 
Having  crossed  Lochlomond  in  a  small  crazy 
boat,  he  was  discovered  by  his  trusty  friend  the 
earl  of  Lenox,  who  had  been  proscribed  in  Eng- 
land, and  now  lived  in  a  kind  of  exile  on  his 
own  estate.  The  meeting  between  these  friends 
was  very  affecting,  and  drew  tears  from  the  eyes 
of  all  present.  Lenox,  who  had  heard  nothing 
of  Bruce's  misfortunes,  furnished  him  and  his 
half-famished  attendants  with  plenty  of  provi- 
sions  ;  but  being  soon  made  sensible  that  it  was 
impossible  for  them  to  live  in  a  place  where 
they  were  well  known,  and  surrounded  by  ene- 
mies, Bruce  resolved  to  seek  out  some  more  safe 
habitation.  For  this  purpose  Sir  Neil  Campbell 
had  already  provided  shipping ;  but  our  adven- 
turers had  scarcely  set  sail,  when  they  were  pur- 
sued by  a  large  squadron  of  the  enemy's  rleet. 
The  bark  which  carried  the  earl  of  Lenox 
escaped  with  the  utmost  difficulty  to  Cantire, 
where  Bruce  was  already  landed;  and,  at  their 
meeting,  both  agreed  they  would  never  after- 
wards be  separated.  In  the  mean  time  Edward, 
having  compromised  some  differences  with  his 
English  subjects,  resumed  his  old  project  of 
entirely  subduing  Scotland ;  and  his  intention 
appears  to  have  been  to  divide  the  lands  of  such 
as  he  suspected  of  disaffection  among  his  Eng- 
lish followers.  He  ordered  a  proclamation  to  be 
issued,  that  all  who  had  any  title  to  the  honor 
of  knighthood,  either  by  heritage  or  estate, 
should  repair  to  Westminster  to  receive  all  mi- 
litary ornaments,  their  horses  excepted,  from 
his  royal  wardrobe.  As  the  prince  of  Wales 
came  under  this  denomination,  he  was  the  first 
who  underwent  the  ceremony ;  which  gave  him 
a  right  to  confer  the  like  honor  on  the  sons  of 
above  300  of  the  chief  nobility  and  gentry  of 
England.  The  prince  then  repaired,  at  the  head 
of  this  gallant  train,  to  Edward ;  who  received 
them,  surrounded  by  his  nobility,  in  the  most 
solemn  manner.  The  king  then  made  a  speech 
on  the  treachery  of  the  Scots,  whose  entire  de- 
struction he  vowed.  He  declared  his  resolution 
of  once  more  heading  his  army  in  person  ;  and 
desired,  in  case  of  his  death,  that  his  body  might 
be  carried  to  Scotland,  and  not  buried  till  signal 
vengeance  was  taken  on  the  perfidious  nation. 
Having  then  ordered  all  present  to  join  him 
within  fifteen  days,  with  their  attendants  and 
military  equipages,  he  prepared  for  his  journey 


424 


SCOTLAND 


northward.     He  entered  the  country  soon  after 
Bruce's  defeat  at  Methven      The  army  was  di- 
vided into  two  bodies ;  one  commanded  by  the 
king,   the   other  by  the   prince  of  Wales,  and, 
under  him,  by  the  earls  of  Lancaster  and  Here- 
ford, with  orders  to   proceed   northwards,  and 
penetrate  into  the  countries  where  the   interest 
of  Bruce  was  strongest.     As  he  passed  along, 
Edward  caused  all  that  fell  into  his  hands,  whom 
he  suspected  of  favoring  Bruce's  party,  to  be 
immediately  executed.    The  bishop  of  Glasgow 
was  the  only  exception  to  this  barbarity  :  he  was 
taken,  but  had  his  life  spared  on  account  of  his 
function.     In  the  mean  time,  as  the  prince  of 
Wales  continued  his  march,  Bruce's  queen  began 
to  be  alarmed  for  her  safety.     She  was  advised 
to  take  sanctuary  at  the  shrine  of  St.  Duthac  in 
Rossshire ;  but  there  she  was  made  prisoner  by 
William  earl  of  Ross,  who  was  of  the  English 
party.  By  Edward's  order  she  was  sent  to  Lon- 
don ;  her  daughter,  who  was  taken  at  the  same 
time,  being  shut  up  in  a  religious  house.     The 
directions  for  the  entertainment  of  the  queen  are 
still  preserved.     She  was  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
manor  of  Brustewick ;  to  have  a  waiting-woman 
and  a  maid-servant,  advanced  in  life,  sedate,  and 
of  good  conversation:  a  butler,  two  men  ser- 
vants, and  a  foot-boy  for  her  chamber,  '  sober, 
not  riotous,'  to  make  her  bed ;  three  greyhounds 
when  she  inclines  to  hunt;  venison,  fish,  and 
the  fairest  house  in  the  manor.    In  1308  she  was 
removed  to  another  prison ;  in  1312  she  was 
removed  to  Windsor  Castle,  20s.  per  week  being 
allowed  for  her  maintenance.     In  1314  she  was 
committed  to  Rochester   Castle,  and  was  not 
set  at  liberty  till  the  close  of  that  year.     The 
only  fortress  which  Bruce  possessed  in  Scotland 
was  the  castle  of  Kildrummy ;  and  it  was  soon 
besieged  by  the  earls  of  Lancaster  and  Hereford. 
( >ne  Osburn  treacherously  burnt  the  magazine ; 
by  which  means  the  garrison,  destitute  of  provi- 
sions,  was  obliged  to  surrender  at  discretion. 
The  common  soldiers  were   hanged ;  Sir  Neil 
Bruce  and  the  earl  of  Athol  were  sent  prisoners 
to  Edward,  who  caused  them  to  be  hanged  on  a 
gallows  fifty  feet  high,  and  then  beheaded  and 
burnt.      The    countess   of    Buchan,   who    had 
crowned  king  Robert,  was  taken  prisoner ;  as 
was  lady  Mary  Bruce,  the  king's  sister.     Some 
historians  say  that   Edward  ordered  these  two 
ladies   to  be   shut  up   in   wooden   cages,  one 
to  be  hung  over  the  walls  of  the  castle  of  Rox- 
burgh, and   the   other  over  those  of  Berwick, 
as  public  spectacles :  but  lord   Hales  tells  us 
that  the  countess  of  Buchan  was  put  into  close 
confinement  in  the  castle  of  Berwick.    About 
this  time,  also,   many  others  of  Bruce's   party 
were  put  to  death  ;  among  whom  were  Thomas 
and  Alexander  Bruce,  two  of  the  king's  brothers, 
and  John  Wallace,  brother  to  the  celebrated  Sir 
^N  illiam.     Bruce  himself,  in  the  mean  time,  was 
in  such  a  despicable  situation  that  it  was  thought 
he  never  more  could  give  disturbance ;  it  was 
even  reported  that  he  was  dead.       All  his  mis- 
fortunes, however,  could  not  intimidate  him,  or 
prevent  his  meditating  a  most  severe    revenge 
upon  the  destroyers  of  his  family.     He  first  re- 
moved to  the  castle  of  Dumbarton,  where  he  was 
hospitably  received  and  entertained  by  Angus 


lord  of  Kintyre :  but,  suspecting  that  he  was  not 
safe  there,  he  sailed  in  three  days  to  Rachrin,  a 
small  island  on  the  Insh  coast,  where  he  secured 
himself  effectually  from  the  pursuit  of  his  ene- 
mies.    It  was  during  his  stay  in  this  island  that 
the  report  of  his  death  was  generally  propagated. 
Notwithstanding  this,  his  party  increased  consi- 
derably ;  even  when  he  landed  on  this  island, 
he  was  attended  by  300  men.     However,  after 
having  lived  secluded  for  some  time,  being  ap- 
prehensive that  the  report  of  his  death  might  be 
generally  credited  among  his  friends,  it  was  re- 
solved to  attempt  the  surprise  of  a  fort  held  by 
the  English  under  Sir  John  Hastings,  on  the  isle 
of  Arran.     This  was  performed  with  success  by 
his  two  friends  Douglas  and  Sir  Robert  Boydy 
who  put  the  greatest  part  of  the  garrison  to  the 
sword.      The  king,    hearing  of    their   success,. 
passed  over  into  Arran ;  but,  not  knowing  where 
his  people  resided,  is  said  to  have  found  them 
out  by  blowing  a  horn.     He  then  sent  a  trusty 
servant,  one  Cuthbert,  into  his  own  county  of 
Carrick ;  with  orders,  in  case  he  found  it  well 
affected  to  his  cause,  to  light  a  Are  on  a  certain 
point  near  his  castle  of  Tunberry,   whence  it 
could   be   discerned  in  Arran.     Bruce  and  his 
party  perceived  the  signal,  as  they  thought,  and 
immediately  put  to  sea.    Their  voyage  took  up 
but  little  time ;  and,  as  Bruce  had  now  400  men 
along  with  him,  he  resolved  immediately  to  act 
on  the  offensive.     His  first  exploit  was  to  sur- 
prise his  own  castle  of  Tunberry,    which   had 
been  given,  along  with  Bruce's  estate,  to  lord 
Henry  Percy.     Him  he  drove  out,  along  with 
the  English  garrison  ;  but,  in  the  mean  time,  he 
met  with  his  servant  Cuthbert,  who  gave  him 
disagreeable   intelligence.     This  man  had  met 
with  very  little  encouragement  in  Scotland ;  in 
consequence  of  which  he  had  not  lighted  the  fire 
agreed   upon   as  a  signal  of  his  success,   that 
which  Bruce  had  observed  having  been  kindled 
by  accident.     He  also  told  him  that  the  English 
were  in  full  possession  of  the  country.     Soon 
after  this  the  king  was  joined  by  a  lady  of  for- 
tune, who  brought  along  with  her  forty  warriors. 
By  her  he  was  first  particularly  informed  of  the 
miserable  fete  of  his  family  and  relations  ;  which, 
instead  of  disheartening,  animated  him  the  more 
with  a  desire  of  revenge.     However,  he  did  not 
immediately   attempt  any  thing,    but   allowed 
Douglas  to  make  an  effort  for  the  recovery  of 
his  estate  of  Douglasdale.     In  this  expedition 
Douglas  was  joined  by  one  Thomas  Dickson,  a 
man  of  considerable  fortune,  and  who  gave  him 
intelligence  concerning  the  state  of  the  country. 
By  his  advice  he  kept  himself  private  till  Palm 
Sunday,  when  he  and  his  followers  with  covered 
armor  repaired  to  St.  Bride's  church,  where  the 
English  were   attending    divine  service.     The 
latter  were  surprised,  but  made  a  brave  defence; 
until  being  overpowered  by  numbers  they  were 
obliged  to  yield.     Douglas,  without  farther  re- 
sistance, took  possession  of  his  own  castle,  which 
he  found  well  furnished  with  arms,  provisions, 
and  money.     He  destroyed  all  that  he  could  not 
carry  with  him,  and  also  the  castle  itself,  where 
he  knew  that  he  must  have  been  besieged  had 
he  kept  it.     While  Bruce  and  his  friends  were 
thus  signalising  themselves,  and  struggling  with 


SCOTLAND. 


425 


the  English  under  so  many  disadvantages,  they 
met  with  many  difficult  adventures  related  by 
the  Scottish  historians  ;  but,  as  it  is  now  impos- 
sible to  distinguish  the  true  from  the  false,  we 
shall  pass  over  the  greater  part  in  silence,  con- 
fining ourselves  only  to  those  facts  which  are 
important  and  well  authenticated.  In  1307  the 
earl  of  Pembroke  advanced  into  the  west  of 
Scotland  to  encounter  Bruce.  The  latter  did 
not  decline  the  combat;  and  Pembroke  was 
defeated.  Three  days  after  this,  Bruce  defeated 
with  great  slaughter  another  English  general 
named  Ralph  de  Monthermer,  and  obliged  him 
to  fly  to  the  castle  of  Ayr.  The  king  laid  siege 
to  the  castle  for  some  time,  but  retired  at  the 
approach  of  succors  from  England.  This  year 
the  English  performed  nothing,  except  burning 
the  monastery  at  Paisley.  Edward,  however, 
resolved  still  to  execute  his  utmost  vengeance 
on  the  Scots,  though  he  had  long  been  retarded 
by  a  dangerous  indisposition.  He  was  now  so 
weak,  however,  that  he  could  advance  no  far- 
ther than  six  miles  in  four  days ;  after  which  he 
expired  in  sight  of  Scotland,  which  he  had  so 
often  devoted  to  destruction.  With  his  dying 
breath  he  gave  orders  that  his  body  should  ac- 
company his  army  into  Scotland,  and  remain 
unburied  until  the  country  was  totally  subdued  ; 
but  his  son  caused  it  to  be  deposited  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

The  death  of  such  an  inveterate  enemy  to  the 
Scottish  name  could  not  fail  of  raising  the  spirits 
of  Bruce  and  his  party ;  and  the  inactive  and 
timid  behaviour  of  his  successor  Edward  II. 
contributed  not  a  little  to  give  them  fresh  cou- 
rage. After  having  granted  the  guardianship  of 
Scotland  to  his  favorite  Piers  de  Gaveston,  earl 
of  Pembroke,  whom  his  father  had  lately  banish- 
ed, he  advanced  to  Cumnock,  on  the  frontiers  of 
Ayrshire,  and  then  retreated  into  England  ;  con- 
ferring the  office  of  guardian  of  Scotland  upon 
John  de  Bretagne,  earl  of  Richmond,  a  fortnight 
after  he  had  bestowed  it  upon  Gaveston.  He 
was  no  sooner  gone  than  Bruce  invaded  Gallo- 
way. The  inhabitants  refusing  to  follow  his 
standard,  he  laid  waste  the  country  ;  but  was 
defeated  and  obliged  to  retire  northwards  by  the 
guardian.  In  the  north  he  overran  the  country 
without  opposition ;  and  soon  began  to  move 
southwards  again  to  repair  his  late  disaster.  He 
was  encountered  by  Comyn,  earl  of  Buchan, 
with  an  undisciplined  body  of  English,  whom 
he  entirely  defeated  and  dispersed.  But  about 
this  time  he  was  seized  with  a  grievous  distem- 
per, which  weakened  him  so  much  that  no  hopes 
were  left  of  his  recovery.  In  this  enfeebled 
situation  he  was  attacked  by  the  earl  of  Buchan 
and  John  Mowbray,  an  English  commander,  who 
had  assembled  a  body  of  troops.  The  armies 
met  at  Inverary  in  Aberdeenshire.  Bruce  was 
too  weak  to  support  himself,  and  therefore  was 
held  upon  horseback  by  two  attendants ;  but  he 
had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  his  enemies  totally 
defeated,  and  pursued  with  great  slaughter  for 
many  miles :  it  is  reported  that  the  agitation  of 
his  spirits  on  that  day  proved  the  means  of 
curing  him  of  his  disease.  This  battle  was 
fought  on  the  22nd  of  May,  1308.  The  king  of 
Scotland  now  lock  revenge  of  his  enemies,  after 


the  manner  of  that  barbarous  age,  by  wast- 
ing the  county  of  Buchan  with  fire  and  sword  ; 
and  his  success  had  so  raised  his  character  that 
many  of  the  Scots  who  had  hitherto  adhered  to 
the  English  cause  now  came  over  to  him.  Ed- 
ward, the  king's  brother,  invaded  Galloway,  and 
defeated  the  inhabitants  of  that  country.  John 
de  St.  John,  an  English  commander,  with  1500 
horsemen,  attempted  to  surprise  him  ;  but  Ed- 
ward, having  received  timely  information  of  his 
designs,  ordered  the  infantry  to  entrench  them- 
selves strongly,  while  he  himself,  with  fifty  horse- 
men well  armed,  under  cover  of  a  >ick  mist, 
attacked  his  enemies  and  put  them  to  flight. 
After  this  he  reduced  all  the  fortresses  in  the 
country,  and  totally  expelled  the  English.  About 
this  time  also,  Douglas,  when  roving  about  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Tweedale,  surprised  and 
made  prisoners  Thomas  Randolph  the  king's 
nephew,  and  Alexander  Stewart  of  Bonkil,  who 
had  hitherto  continued  inimical  to  the  interests 
of  Robert.  Randolph  was  conducted  to  the 
king,  but  talked  to  him  in  a  haughty  strain; 
upon  which  his  uncle  put  him  into  close  con- 
finement. The  next  exploit  of  Robert  was 
against  the  lord  of  Lorn,  a  division  of  Argyle- 
shire.  It  was  this  nobleman  who  had  reduced 
the  king  to  such  straits  after  his  defeat  at  Meth- 
ven ;  and  he  now  resolved  to  take  ample  re- 
venge. Having  entered  the  country,  the  king 
arrived  at  a  narrow  pass,  where  the  troops  of 
Lorn  lay  in  ambush.  This  pass  had  a  high 
mountain  on  the  one  side,  and  a  precipice 
washed  by  the  sea  on  the  other;  but  Robert 
having  ordered  Douglas  to  make  a  circuit  and 
gain  the  summit  of  the  mountain  with  part  of 
the  army,  he  entered  himself  with  the  rest.  He 
was  immediately  attacked  ;  but  Douglas  with 
his  men  rushed  down  the  hill,  and  decided  the 
victory  in  favor  of  the  king;  who  soon  after  took 
the  castle  of  Dunstaffnage,  the  chief  residence 
of  this  nobleman.  While  Robert  and  his  asso- 
ciates were  thus  exciting  the  admiration  of  their 
countrymen  by  their  exploits,  the  English  were 
so  unsettled  and  fluctuating  in  their  counsels 
that  their  party  knew  not  how  to  act.  Edward 
still  imagined  that  there  was  a  possibility  of 
reconciling  the  Scots  to  his  government ;  and 
for  this  purpose  he  employed  William  de  Lam- 
by  rton,  bishop  of  St.  Andrew's,  who,  after 
having  been  taken  prisoner,  and  carried  from 
one  place  of  confinement  to  another,  had  at  last 
made  such  submissions  as  procured  first  his 
liberty  and  then  the  confidence  of  Edward. 
This  ecclesiastic,  having  taken  a  most  solemn 
oath  of  fidelity  to  the  English  monarch,  now 
resolved  to  ingratiate  himself,  by  publishing 
against  Robert  and  his  adherents  a  sentence  of 
excommunication,  which  had  been  resolved  on 
long  before.  This,  however,  produced  no  effect ; 
and  the  event  was  that  in  1309,  through  the 
mediation  of  the  king  of  France,  Edward  con- 
sented to  a  truce  with  the  Scots.  This  pacific 
disposition,  however,  lasted  not  long.  The  truce 
was  scarcely  concluded  when  Edward  charged 
the  Scots  with  violating  it,  and  summoned  the 
barons  to  meet  him  in  arms  at  Newcastle;  yet, 
probably  being  doubtful  of  the  event  of  the  war, 
lie  empowered  Robert  de  Umfraville.  and  three 


SCOTLAND. 


others,  to  conclude  a  new  truce ;  declaring,  how- 
ever, that  he  did  this  at  the  request  of  Philip 
king  of  France,  as  his  dearest  father  and  friend, 
but  who  was  in  no  sort  to  be  considered  as  the 
ally  of  Scotland.  The  new  negociations  were 
soon  interrupted.  They  were  again  renewed  ; 
and,  in  the  beginning  of  1310,  the  truce  was 
concluded,  but  entirely  disregarded  by  the  Scots. 
The  progress  of  Bruce  now  became  alarming. 
The  town  of  Perth,  a  place  at  that  time  of  great 
importance,  was  threatened ;  and,  to  relieve  it, 
Edward  ordered  a  fleet  to  sail  up  the  river  Tay; 
he  also  commanded  the  earl  of  Ulster  to  assem« 
ble  a  body  of  troops  at  Dublin,  and  thence  to 
invade  Scotland ;  his  own  barons  were  ordered 
to  meet  him  in  arms  at  Berwick.  About  the 
end  of  September  he  entered  Scotland  ;  passed 
from  Roxburgh  through  the  forest  of  Selkirk  to 
Biggar ;  thence  he  penetrated  into  Renfrew ; 
and,  turning  back  by  the  way  of  Linlithgow,  he 
retreated  to  Berwick,  where  he  continued  inactive 
eight  months.  During  this  invasion,  Robert  had 
carefully  avoided  a  battle  with  the  English,  well 
knowing  that  an  invasion  undertaken  in  autumn 
would  ruin  the  heavy  armed  cavalry,  on  which 
the  English  placed  their  chief  dependence. 
His  cause  was  also  favored  by  a  scarcity  which 
prevailed  at  this  time  in  Scotland ;  for,  as  maga- 
zines and  «ther  resources  of  modern  war  were 
then  unknown,  the  English  army  were  greatly 
retarded  in  their  operations,  and  found  it  impos- 
sible to  subsist  in  the  country.  The  spirit  of 
enterprise  had  now  communicated  itself  to  all 
ranks  of  people  in  Scotland.  In  1311  the  castle 
of  Linlithgow  was  surprised  by  a  poor  peasant, 
named  William  Binnock.  The  English  garrison 
were  secure,  and  kept  but  a  slight  guard ;  of 
which  Binnock  being  informed,  concealed  eight 
resolute  men  in  a  load  of  hay,  which  he  had 
been  employed  to  drive  into  the  castle.  With 
these,  as  soon  as  the  gate  was  opened,  he  fell 
upon  the  feeble  guard,  and  became  master  of  the 
place ;  which  was  dismantled  by  Robert,  as  well 
as  all  the  other  castles  taken  in  the  course  of  the 
war.  Edward  now  resolved  to  invade  Scotland 
again ;  and  for  this  purpose  ordered  his  army  to 
assemble  at  Roxburgh.  But  Robert,  not  con- 
tented with  acting  on  the  defensive,  resolved 
in  his  turn  to  invade  England.  He  accordingly 
entered  that  country,  and  cruelly  ravaged  the 
bishopric  of  Durham.  He  returned  loaded  with 
spoil,  and  laid  siege  to  Perth.  .'  fter  remaining 
six  weeks  before  that  place,  he  raised  the  siege, 
but  returned  in  a  few  days,  and,  having  provided 
scaling  ladders,  approached  the  works  with  a 
chosen  body  of  infantry.  In  a  dark  night  he 
made  the  attack  ;  and,  having  waded  through  the 
ditch,  though  the  water  stood  to  his  throat,  he 
was  the  second  man  who  reached  the  top  of  the 
walls.  The  (own  was  then  soon  taken ;  after 
which  it  was  plundered  and  burnt,  and  the  for- 
tifications levelled  with  the  ground,  on  the  8th 
of  January,  1312. 

Edward  was  now  become  weary  of  the  war, 
and  renewed  his  negociations  for  a  truce ;  but 
they  still  came  to  nothing.  Robert  again  in- 
vaded England  ;  burnt  great  part  of  the  city  of 
Durham ;  and"  even  threatened  to  besiege  Ber- 
VM<  l  w-K^ro  tt-«  v;~~  ^f  ^ngland  had  for  the 


time  fixed  his  residence.  He  next  reduced  the 
castles  of  Butel,  Dumfries,  and  Dalswinton,  with 
many  other  fortresses.  The  castle  of  Roxburgh, 
a  place  of  the  utmost  importance,  then  fell  into 
his  hands.  The  walls  were  scaled  while  the 
garrison  was  revelling  on  the  eve  of  Lent.  They 
retreated  into  the  inner  tower ;  but  their  gover- 
nor a  Frenchman,  having  received  a  mortal 
wound,  capitulated.  Randolph,  the  king's 
nephew,  was  now  received  into  favor,  and  began 
to  distinguish  himself  in  the  cause  of  his  coun- 
try. He  blockaded  the  castle  of  Edinburgh  so 
closely  that  all  communication  with  the  neigh- 
bouring country  was  cut  oft'.  The  place  was 
commanded  by  one  Leland,  a  knight  of  Gas- 
cony  ;  but  the  garrison,  suspecting  his  fidelity, 
imprisoned  him  in  a  dungeon,  and  chose  another 
commander  in  his  stead.  One  William  Frank 
presented  himself  to  Randolph,  and  informed 
him  how  the  walls  might  be  scaled.  This  man 
in  his  youth  had  resided  in  the  castle;  and, 
having  an  intrigue  with  a  woman  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, had  been  accustomed  to  descend  the 
wall  during  the  night,  by  means  of  a  ladder  of 
ropes ;  whence,  by  a  steep  and  difficult  path,  he 
arrived  at  the  foot  of  the  rock.  Randolph  him- 
self, with  thirty  men,  undertook  therefore  to  scale 
the  castle  walls  at  midnight.  Frank  was  their 
guide,  who  still  retained  a  perfect  memory  of 
the  path,  and  who  first  ascended  the  wall.  But, 
before  the  whole  party  could  reach  the  summit, 
an  alarm  was  given,  the  garrison  ran  to  arms, 
and  a  desperate  combat  ensued.  The  English 
fought  valiantly  till  their  commander  was  killed  ; 
after  which  they  threw  down  their  arms.  Leland, 
the  former  governor,  was  released  from  his  con- 
finement, and  entered  into  the  Scottish  service. 
In  1313  king  Robert  found  the  number  of  Ins 
friends  still  increasing.  He  was  now  joined  I  y 
the  earl  of  Athol,  who  had  lately  obtained  a  trn'itt 
of  lands  from  Edward.  This  year,  through  the 
mediation  of  France,  the  conferences  for  a  truce 
were  renewed.  These,  however,  did  not  retard 
the  military  operations  of  the  Scots.  Cumberland 
was  invaded  and  laid  waste ;  the  miserable  inhabit- 
ants besought  Edward's  protection ;  who  com- 
mended their  fidelity,  and  desired  them  to  defend 
themselves.  In  the  mean  time  Robert,  leaving 
Cumberland,  passed  over  into  the  Isle  of  Man, 
which  he  totally  reduced.  Edward  found  great 
difficulties  in  raising  the  supplies  nece^nry  for 
carrying  on  the  war;  but  at  last  overcame  all  these, 
and  by  the  beginning  of  1314  was  prepared  to 
invade  Scotland  with  a  large  army.  In  March  he 
ordered  his  ships  to  be  assembled  for  the  invasion; 
invited  to  his  assistance  Eth  O'Connor,  chief  of 
the  Irish  of  Connaught,  and  twenty-six  other 
Irish  chiefs;  summoned  them  and  his  subjects 
in  Ireland  to  attend  his  standard,  and  gave  the 
command  of  these  auxiliaries  to  the  earl  of  II- 
ster.  His  barons  were  summoned  to  meet  him 
at  Berwick  on  the  12th  of  June,  and  22,000  foot 
soldiers,  from  the  different  counties  of  England 
and  Wales,  were  required  by  proclamation  to 
assemble  at  Wark.  In  the  mean  time  the  suc- 
cesses of  the  Scots  continued.  Edward  Bruce 
had  reduced  the  castles  of  Rutherglen  and  Dun- 
dee, and  laid  siege  to  the  castle  of  Stirling.  The 
governor  agreed  to  surrender,  if  he  was  not  re- 


SCOTLAND. 


427 


lieved  before  the  24th  of  June,  1314  :  and  to 
this  Edward  agreed,  without  consulting  his  bro- 
ther. The  king  was  highly  displeased  with  this 
/ash  treaty,  which  interrupted  his  own  operations, 
allowed  the  English  time  to  assemble  their  ut- 
most force,  and  at  last  obliged  him  either  to  raise 
the  siege,  or  to  put  all  on  the  event  of  a  single 
battle.  However,  he  resolved  to  abide  by  the 
agreement,  and  to  meet  the  English  by  the  ap- 
pointed day.  Having  ordered  a  general  rendez- 
vous of  his  forces  between  Falkirk  and  Stirling, 
he  found  their  number  to  amount  to  somewhat 
more  that  30,000,  besides  upwards  of  15,000  of 
an  undisciplined  rabble  that  followed  the  camp. 
He  determined  to  wait  the  English  in  afield  which 
had  the  burn  or  brook  of  Bannock  on  the  right 
and  Stirling  on  the  left.  His  chief  dread  was 
the  strength  and  number  of  the  English  cavalry, 
and  these  he  took  every  method  to  oppose.  The 
banks  of  the  Bannock  were  steep  in  many  places, 
and  the  ground  between  it  and  Stirling  was 
partly  covered  with  wood.  The  king  commanded 
many  pits,  of  about  a  foot  in  breadth  and  two 
or  three  feet  deep,  to  be  dug  in  all  places  where 
cavalry  could  have  access.  From  the  description 
given  of  them,  by  the  historians  of  those  times, 
there  seem  to  have  been  many  rows  of  them, 
with  narrow  intervals.  They  were  carefully  co- 
vered with  brushwood  and  sod,  so  that  they 
would  easily  be  overlooked  by  a  rash  and  impe- 
tuous»enemy.  He  also  made  use  of  caltrops,  to 
annoy  the  horses.  On  the  23d  of  June  the  Scots 
received  intelligence  of  the  approach  of  Edward, 
and  prepared  to  decide  the  fate  of  their  country. 
The  front  of  their  army  extended  fiom  the  Ban- 
nockburn  nearly  to  St.  Ninians,  almost  upon  the 
line  of  the  present  turnpike  road  from  Stirling 
to  Kilsyth ;  and  the  stone  in  which  the  king  is 
said  to  have  fixed  his  standard  is  still  to  be  seen. 
Robert  commanded  all  his  soldiers  to  fight  on 
foot.  He  gave  the  command  of  the  centre  to 
Douglas  and  Walter,  the  grand  steward  of  Scot- 
land ;  his  brother  Edward  had  the  command  of 
the  right  wing,  and  Randolph  of  the  left  ;  the 
king  himself  taking  charge  of  the  reserve,  which 
consisted  of  the  men  of  Argyle,  Carrick,  and  the 
islanders.  In  a  valley  to  the  rear,  west  of  a  ris- 
ing ground,  now  called  Gilles'  Hill,  he  placed 
the  baggage,  and  all  the  useless  attendants  of  his 
army.  Randolph  was  commanded  to  be  vigilant 
in  preventing  the  English  from  throwing  suc- 
cors into  the  castle  of  Stirling ;  but  800  horse- 
men, commanded  by  Sir  Robert  Clifford,  made 
a  circuit  by  the  low  grounds  to  the  east,  and  soon 
approached  the  castle.  The  king,  perceiving 
their  motions,  chid  Randolph  for  his  inadver- 
tency, on  which  the  latter  hasted  to  encounter 
that  body.  As  he  advanced,  the  English  wheeled 
to  attack  him.  Randolph  drew  up  his  men  in  a  cir- 
cular form,  presenting  their  spears  on  every  side. 
At  the  first  onset  Sir  William  Daynecourt,  an 
English  commander  of  distinguished  valor,  was 
killed  ;  but  Randolph,  who  had  only  a  small 
party  with  him,  was  surrounded  on  all  sides. 
Douglas  perceived  his  danger,  and  requested 
the  king  to  let  him  go  to  his  assistance  ;  Robert 
at  first  refused,  but  afterwards  consented  with  re- 
luctance. Douglas  set  out  without  delay ;  but 
as  he  approached  he  saw  the  English  falling  into 


disorder ;  upon  which  he  called  on  his  men  to 
stop,  and  not  diminish  the  glory  of  Randolph 
and  his  men  byshning  their  victory.  Robert 
was  in  front  of  the  line  when  the  English  ap- 
peared. He  was  meanly  dressed,  with  a  crown 
above  his  helmet,  and  a  battle-axe  in  his  hand. 
Henry  de  Bohun,  an  English  knight,  armed  cap- 
a-pee,  rode  forward  to  encounter  him.  Robert 
struck  his  antagonist  so  violently  with  his  bat- 
tle-axe that  he  cleft  him  down  to  the  chi  ; 
after  which  the  English  vanguard  retreated  in 
confusion.  The  Scottish  generals  blamed  their 
king  for  his  rashness  in  thus  encountering  Bohun, 
and  he  himself,  conscious  of  the  justice  of  their 
charge,  only  replied,  '  I  have  broken  my  good 
battle-axe.'  On  Monday,  the  24th  of  June,  the 
whole  English  army  moved  on  to  the  attack. 
The  van,  consisting  of  archers  and  lancemen, 
was  commanded  by  Gilbert  de  Clare,  earl  of 
Gloucester,  nephew  to  the  English  king,  and 
Humphry  de  Bohun,  constable  of  "England ;  but 
the  ground  was  so  narrow  that  the  rest  of  the 
army  had  not  sufficient  room  to  expand  itself;  so 
that  it  appeared  to  the  Scots  as  consisting  of  one 
great  compact  body.  The  main  body  was  brought 
up  by  Edward  in  person,  attended  by  Aymer  de 
Valence  earl  of  Pembroke,  and  Sir  Giles  d'Ar- 
gentine,  two  experienced  commanders.  Maurice, 
abbot  of  Inchaffray,  placing  himself  on  an  emi- 
nence, celebrated  mass  in  the  sight  of  the  Scot- 
tish army.  He  then  passed  along  the  front,  bare- 
footed, with  a  crucifix  in  his  hands,  and  in  few 
words  exhorted  the  Scots  to  fight  for  their  rights 
and  liberty.  The  Scots  fell  down  on  their  knees, 
which  being  perceived  by  Edward,  he  cried  out, 
'  They  yield  !  See,  they  implore  mercy.'  '  They 
do,'  answered  Umfraville,  one  of  his  com- 
manders, '  they  do  implore  mercy  but  not  from 
us.  On  that  field  they  will  be  victorious  or  die.' 
As  both  parties  were  violently  exasperated 
against  each  other,  the  engagement  began  with 
great  fury.  The  king  of  Scotland,  perceiving 
that  his  troops  were  grievously  annoyed  by  the 
English  archers,  ordered  Sir  Robert  Keith  the 
marischal,  with  a  few  armed  horsemen,  to  make  a 
circuit,  and  attack  the  archers  in  flank.  This 
was  instantly  accomplished ;  and,  as  the  weapons 
of  the  archers  were  useless  in  a  close  encounter, 
they  could  make  very  little  resistance,  at  the 
same  time  that  their  flight  spread  disorder 
through  the  whole  army.  Robert  now  advanced 
with  the  reserve ;  the  whole  English  army  was 
in  the  utmost  confusion ;  for  the  defeat  of  the 
archers  had  decided  the  victory  in  favor  of  the 
Scots.  The  young  and  gallant  earl  of  Glouces- 
ter attempted  to  rally  the  fugitives,  but  was 
thrown  from  his  horse  and  cut  in  pieces,  which 
increased  the  general  confusion.  At  this  critical 
moment,  the  numerous  attendants  on  the  Scot- 
tish camp,  promoted  by  curiosity,  or  the  desire 
of  plunder  issued  from  their  retirement.  The 
English  mistook  them  for  a  body  of  fresh  troops 
coming  to  the  assistance  of  their  enemies,  and 
fled  with  precipitation  on  all  sides.  Many 
sought  refuge  among  the  rocks  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Stirling  castle,  and  many  were  drowned 
in  the  rivers.  Pembroke  and  Sir  Giles  d'Argen- 
tine  had  never  quitted  Edward  during  the  ac- 
tion ;  but  now,  seeing  the  battle  irretrievably 


428 


SCOTLAND. 


lost,  Pembroke  constrained  the  king  to  quit  the 
field.  D'Argentine  refused  to  fly.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  valor,  and  had  a  high  reputation 
in  Scotland.  He  is  said  to  have  thrice  encoun- 
tered two  Saracen  warriors  at  once  in  Palestine, 
and  to  have  killed  both  his  adversaries  each  time. 
His  valor  now  availed  him  but  little  ;  for,  rush- 
ing into  the  midst  of  the  Scottish  army,  he  was 
instantly  cut  in  pieces.  Douglas,  with  sixty 
horsemen,  pursued  Edward  close.  At  the 
Torwood  he  met  Sir  Lawrence  Abernethy,  who 
was  hastening  to  the  English  rendezvous  with 
twenty  horsemen.  The  latter  soon  abandoned 
the  cause  of  the  vanquished,  aud  joined  Doug- 
las in  the  pursuit  of  Edward,  who  fled  to  Lin- 
lithgow.  He  had  scarcely  arrived  there,  when 
he  was  alarmed  by  the  approach  of  the  Scots, 
and  again  obliged  to  fly.  Douglas  and  Aberne* 
thy  followed  him  with  such  assiduity,  that  (as 
lord  Hales  says)  ne  vel  mingendi  locus  concede- 
retur  ;  but,  notwithstanding  their  utmost  efforts, 
Edward  got  safe  to  Dunbar,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived by  the  earl  of  March,  who  protected  him 
till  he  could  be  conveyed  by  sea  to  England, 
where  he  met  with  a  more  horrible  death  than  if 
he  had  been  killed  in  battle.  Such  was  the  de- 
cisive victory  of  Bannockburn,  the  greatest  defeat 
the  English  ever  sustained  from  the  Scots.  On 
the  side  of  the  latter  no  persons  of  note  were 
slain,  except  Sir  William  Vipont  and  Sir  Walter 
Ross,  the  favorite  of  Edward  Bruce ;  and  so 
grievously  was  Edward  afflicted  by  the  death  of 
this  man,  that  he  exclaimed,  '  O  that  this  day's 
work  were  undone,  so  Ross  had  not  died  ! '  On 
the  English  side  were  slain  twenty-seven  barons 
and  bannerets,  and  twenty-two  taken  prisoners  ; 
of  knights  there  were  killed  forty-three,  and  sixty 
taken  prisoners ;  of  esquires  there  fell  700 ;  but 
the  number  of  the  common  men  who  were  killed 
or  taken  was  never  known  with  any  certainty. 
See  BANNOCK-BURN.  The  Welsh  who  had  served 
in  the  English  army  were  scattered  over  the 
country,  and  cruelly  butchered  by  the  Scottish 
peasants  ;  the  .English,  who  had  taken  refuge 
among  the  locks  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stir- 
ling, surrendered  at  discretion ;  the  castle  was 
surrendered,  and  the  privy-seal  of  England  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  king  of  Scots.  The  spoils 
of  the  English  camp  were  immense,  and,  along 
with  the  ransom  of  the  many  noble  prisoners  who 
fell  into  their  hands,  greatly  enriched  the  con- 
querors. Robert  showed  much  generosity  in  his 
treatment  of  the  prisoners.  He  set  at  liberty  Ralph 
de  Monthermer  and  Sir  Marmaduke  Twerge, 
two  officers  of  high  rank,  without  ransom  ;  and 
by  humane  and  generous  offices  alleviated  the 
misfortunes  of  the  rest.  The  dead  bodies  of  the 
earl  of  Gloucester  and  lord  Clifford  were  sent  to 
England,  that  they  might  be  interred  by  their 
friends.  There  was  one  Bastan,  a  Carmelite 
friar  and  poet,  whom  Edward  is  said  to  have 
brought  with  him  in  his  train,  to  be  spectator  of 
his  achievements,  and  to  record  his  triumphs. 
It  Man  was  made  prisoner,  and  obliged  to  cele- 
brate the  victory  of  Robert  over  the  English. 
This  he  did  in  wretched  Latin  rhymes,  which, 
however,  procured  his  liberty.  After  the  battle 
of  Bannockburn,  the  earl  of  Hereford  retreated 
to  the  castle  u(  Bothwell,  where  he  was  besieged 


by  Edward  Bruce,  and  soon  obliged  to  surren- 
der. He  was  exchanged  for  the  wife,  sister,  ami 
daughter  of  the  king,  the  young  earl  of  Mar, 
and  the  bishop  of  Glasgow. 

The  terror  of  the  English  after  the  defeat  at 
Bannockburn  is  almost  incredible.  Walsingham 
asserts  that  many  of  them  revolted  to  the  Scots, 
and  assisted  them  in  plundering  their  own  coun- 
try. '  The  English,'  says  he,  '  were  so  bereaved 
of  their  wonted  intrepidity,  that  100  of  that  na- 
tion would  have  fled  from  two  or  three  Scotch- 
men.' Edward  Bruce  and  Douglas  entered 
England  on  the  east  side,  ravaged  Northumber- 
land, and  laid  the  bishopric  of  Durham  under 
contribution.  Thence  they  proceeded  to  Rich- 
mond, laid  Appleby  and  some  other  towns  in 
ashes,  and  returned  home  laden  with  plunder. 
Edward  summoned  a  parliament  at  York,  to  con- 
cert means  for  the  public  security ;  and  appointed 
the  earl  of  Pembroke  to  be  guardian  of  the  coun- 
try between  the  Trent  and  the  Tweed.  Robert, 
however,  sent  ambassadors  to  treat  of  peace; 
but  the  Scots  were  too  much  elated  with  their 
good  fortune  to  make  concessions,  and  the  Eng- 
lish were  not  yet  sufficiently  humbled  to  yield  to 
all  their  demands.  The  ravages  of  war  were  re- 
newed, and  the  Scots  continued  their  incursions 
into  England,  and  levied  contributions  in  different 
places.  In  1315  the  English  affairs  seemed  to 
revive.  The  Scots  indeed  plundered  Durham  and 
Hartlepool ;  but  they  were  repulsed  from  Car- 
lisle, and  failed  in  an  attempt  on  Berwick.  The 
Irish  of  Ulster,  oppressed  by  the  English  govern- 
ment, implored  the  assistance  of  Robert,  and 
offered  to  acknowledge  his  brother  Edward  as 
their  sovereign ;  who  accordingly  landed  at 
Carrickfergus  on  the  25th  of  May,  1315,  with 
6000  men.  This  was  an  enterprise  evidently 
beyond  the  power  of  Scotland  to  accomplish. 
However,  there  were  motives  which  induced 
Robert  to  consent.  The  offer  of  a  crown  in- 
flamed the  ambition  of  Edward  Bruce,  whose 
impetuous  valor  made  no  account  of  difficulties, 
however  great.  It  might  have  been  deemed  un- 
generous, and  perhaps  impolitic,  to  have  rejected 
the  proposals  of  the  Irish  for  the  advancement  of 
his  brother,  to  whom  the  king  owed  more  than 
he  could  repay.  Besides,  the  invasion  of 
Ireland  seemed  a  proper  expedient  for  dividing 
the  English  forces.  But  the  issue  proved 
unfortunate.  The  king  himself  had  gone  over  into 
Ireland,  to  assist  his  brother  in  attempting  the 
subjection  of  that  country ;  and  during  his  ab- 
sence the  English  had  made  several  attempts  to 
disturb  the  tranquillity  of  Scotland.  The  earl  of 
Arundel  invaded  the  forest  of  Jedburgh  with  a 
numerous  army  ;  but,  being  drawn  into  an  am- 
buscade by  Douglas,  he  was  defeated  with  great 
loss.  Edmund  de  Caillaud,  a  knight  of  Gascony 
and  governor  of  Berwick,  invaded  and  wasted 
Teviotdale ;  but,  while  he  was  returning  home, 
loaded  with  spoil,  he  was  attacked,  defeated, 
and  killed  by  Douglas.  Soon  after  this  intelli- 
gence was  conveyed  to  Douglas  that  one  Robert 
Neville  had  boasted  that  he  would  encounter 
him  whenever  he  saw  his  banner  displayed. 
Douglas  soon  gave  him  an  opportunity.  He 
advanced  towards  Berwick,  displayed  his  banner 
and  burnt  some  villages.  Neville,  provoked  a 


S  C  O  T  L  A  N  D. 


429 


these  ravages,  took  the  field,  encountered  Dou- 
glas, was  defeated  and  killed.  By  sea  the  English 
invaded  Scotland,  and  anchored  ott'lnverkeithing 
in  tlie  frith  of  Forth,  where  they  soon  after  landed ; 
500  men,  under  the  earl  and  sheriff  of  Fife,  at- 
tempted to  oppose  their  landing,  but  were  in- 
timidated by  the  number  of  their  enemies. 
William  Sinclair,  bishop  of  Dunkeld,  happened 
to  meet  the  fugitives ;  and  having,  by  his  re- 
proaches, obliged  them  to  rally,  he  led  them  on 
u^ain  to  the  charge,  and  drove  the  English  to 
their  ships  with  considerable  loss.  For  this  ex- 
ploit Robert  conferred  the  title  of  the  king's 
bishop  on  Sinclair ;  and  he  was  long  venerated 
!•>•  his  countrymen  on  this  account.  In  1317, 
after  king  Robert  had  returned  from  his  Irish 
expedition,  a  bull  was  issued  by  pope  John 
XXII.  commanding  a  two  years'  truce  between 
England  and  Scotland,  under  pain  of  excom- 
munication. Two  cardinals  were  sent  into  Bri- 
tain to  make  known  his  commands ;  and  they 
were  empowered  to  inflict  the  highest  spiritual 
censures  on  Robert  Bruce,  or  whomsoever  else 
they  thought  proper.  About  the  beginning  of 
September  1317  two  messengers  were  sent  to 
Robert  by  the  cardinals.  The  king  gave  them  a 
gracious  reception ;  and,  after  consulting  with 
his  barons,  answered  that  he  very  much  desired 
a  perpetual  peace,  by  the  mediation  of  the  cardi- 
nals, or  any  means.  He  allowed  the  open  letters 
from  the  pope,  which  recommended  peace,  to  be 
read  in  his  presence,  and  listened  to  them  with 
due  respect;  but  he  would  not  receive  the 
sealed  letters  addressed  to  Robert  Bruce,  gover- 
nor of  Scotland,  alleging  that  there  might  be 
many  of  his  barons  whose  names  were  Robert 
Bruce,  and  that  these  barons  might  have  some 
share  in  the  government.  Unless,  therefore,  the 
letters  were  addressed  to  him  as  king  of  Scotland, 
he  could  not  receive  them  without  advice  of  his 
parliament,  which  he  promised  immediately  to 
assemble  on  the  occasion.  The  messengers  at- 
tempted to  apologise  for  the  omission  of  the  title 
of  king.  '  The  holy  church  was  not  wont,'  they 
said,  'during  the  dependence  of  a  controversy, 
to  write  or  say  any  thing  which  might  be  inter- 
preted as  prejudicial  to  the  claims  of  either  of 
the  contending  parties.'  '  Since  then,'  answered 
the  king,  '  my  spiritual  father  and  my  holy  mother 
would  not  prejudice  the  cause  of  my  adversary, 
by  bestowing  on  me  the  appellation  of  king 
during  the  dependence  of  the  controversy,  they 
ought  not  to  have  prejudiced  my  cause  by  with- 
drawing that  appellation  from  me.  I  am  in  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom  of  Scotland ;  all  my 
people  call  me  king;  and  foreign  princes  address 
me  under  that  title ;  but  it  seems  that  my  parents 
are  partial  to  their  English  son.  Had  you  pre- 
sumed to  present  letters  with  such  an  address  to 
any  other  sovereign  prince,  you  might  perhaps 
have  been  answered  in  a  harsher  style ;  but  1 
reverence  you  as  the  messengers  of  the  holy  see." 
The  messengers,  quite  abashed  with  this  reply, 
requested  that  he  would  consent  to  a  temporary 
cessation  of  hostilities;  but  to  this  he  declared 
that  he  never  would  consent,  while  the  English 
daily  invaded  and  plundered  his  people.  His 
counsellors  told  the  messengers  that  the  dis- 
respectful omission  was  owing  to  the  intrigues  of 


the  English  at  the  court  of  Rome,  and  hinted 
that  they  had  received  this  intelligence  from 
Avignon.  When  the  messengers  had  informed 
the  cardinals  of  these  proceedings,  the  latter  de- 
termined to  proclaim  the  papal  truce  in  Scotland  ; 
in  which  hazardous  office  they  employed  Adam 
Newton,  guardian  of  the  monastery  of  Minorities 
at  Berwick,  who  was  charged  with  letters  to  the 
clergy  of  Scotland,  particularly  to  the  bishop  of 
St.  Andrew's.  The  monk  found  the  king  en- 
camped with  his  army  in  a  wood  near  Old  Cam- 
bus,  making  preparations  for  assaulting  Berwick. 
Personal  access  was  denied  to  the  king ;  but  the 
monk  proclaimed  the  truce  by  the  authority  of 
the  pope.  The  king  sent  him  for  answer  that 
he  would  listen  to  no  bulls  till  he  was  treated  as 
king  of  Scotland,  and  had  made  himself  master 
of  Berwick.  The  monk,  terrified  at  this  answer, 
requested  either  a  safe  conduct  to  Berwick,  or 
permission  to  pass  into  Scotland,  and  deliver  his 
letters  to  the  Scottish  clergy.  Both  were  refused ; 
and  he  was  commanded  to  leave  the  country  in- 
stantly. He  set  out  for  Berwick,  but  in  his  way 
thither  was  attacked  by  robbers,  01  some  who 
pretended  to  be  so.  By  them  he  was  stripped 
and  robbed  of  all  his  parchments,  together  with 
his  letters  and  instructions;  the  robbers  also  tore 
the  pope's  bull.  In  1318  king  Robert  proceeded 
in  his  enterprize  against  Berwick.  A  citizen  of 
Berwick,  named  Spalding,  having  been  ill  used 
by  the  governor,  resolved  to  revenge  himself; 
and  therefore  wrote  a  letter  to  a  Scottish  lord, 
whose  relation  he  had  married,  offering  on  a 
certain  night  to  betray  the  town.  The  nobleman 
communicated  this  important  intelligence  to  the 
king,  who  commanded  him  to  repair  to  a  certain 
place  with  a  body  of  troops  ;  to  which  place  he 
also  gave  separate  orders  to  Douglas  and  Ran- 
dolph to  repair  at  the  same  hour,  each  with  a 
body  of  troops  under  his  command.  The  forces, 
thus  cautiously  assembled,  marched  to  Berwick, 
and,  assisted  by  Spalding,  scaled  the  walls, 
making  themselves  masters  of  the  place  in  a  few 
hours.  The  garrison  of  the  cattle,  perceiving 
that  the  number  of  Scots  was  but  small,  made  a 
desperate  sally  with  the  men  who  had  fled  into 
the  castle  from  the  town  ;  but,  liter  an  obstinate 
conflict,  they  were  defeated  and  driven  back, 
chiefly  by  the  extraordinary  valor  of  a  young 
knight,  named  Sir  William  Keith,  of  Galston, 
on  the  28th  March  1318.  King  Robert  no 
sooner  heard  of  the  success  of  his  forces  against 
the  town  than  he  hastened  to  lay  siege  to  the 
castle  of  Berwick,  which  was  soon  obliged  to 
.apitulate;  after  which  the  Scots  entered  Nor- 
thumberland, and  took  the  castles  of  Wark, 
Ilarbottle,  and  Mitford. 

In  May  1318  they  again  invaded  England, 
and  penetrated  into  Yorkshire,  burning,  in  their 
progress,  the  towns  of  Northallerton,  Borough- 
bridge,  Scarborough,  and  Skipton  in  Craven, 
and  forcing  the  inhabitants  of  Rippon  to  redeem 
themselves  by  paying  1000  merks ;  after  which 
they  returned  to  Scotland  with  much  booty ; 
and,  as  an  English  historian  expresses  it,  'driving 
their  prisoners  before  them  like  flocks  of  sheep.' 
This  year  the  interposition  of  the  pope  was  again 
obtained  against  Robert ;  and  the  two  cardinals- 
residing  in  England  were  commanded  to  excom- 


430 


SCOTLAND. 


municate  Robert  Bruce  and  his  adherents,  on 
account  of  his  treatment  of  the  messengers  of 
the  holy  see,  and  his  assault  of  Berwick,  after  a 
truce  had  been  proclaimed  by  the  papal  authority. 
This  sentence  was  accordingly  put  in  execution: 
and,  on  messengers  being  sent  from  Scotlarid  to 
Rome,  to  procure  a  reversal  of  the  sentence, 
Edward  despatched  the  bishop  of  Hereford,  and 
Hugh  d'Espencer  the  elder,  to  inform  his  holiness 
of  certain  intercepted  letters  which  had  been 
written  from  Avignon  to  Scotland  ;  upon  which 
the  pope  ordered  all  the  Scots  residing  at  Avig- 
non, and  all  of  that  place  who  had  corresponded 
with  Scotland,  to  be  taken  into  custody.  The 
most  remarkable  transaction  of  this  year,  how- 
ever, was  the  defeat  and  death  of  Edward  Bruce 
in  Ireland.  His  body  was  quartered,  and  distri- 
buted for  a  public  spectacle  over  that  country  : 
his  head  was  presented  to  Edward  by  John  lord 
Birmingham,  the  commander  of  the  English 
army.  In  the  mean  time  Edward,  who  had  sum- 
moned a  parliament  to  meet  at  Lincoln,  was 
obliged  to  prorogue  it  on  account  of  the  Scottish 
invasion,  and  to  assemble  an  army  at  York  for 
the  defence  of  England.  At  Michaelmas  it  was 
determined,  in  a  parliament  held  at  London, 
that  every  city  and  town  in  England  should  fur- 
nish a  certain  proportion  of  men  completely 
armed.  Thus  a  considerable  body  of  troops  was 
raised ;  but,  when  they  assembled  at  York,  their 
party  animosities  and  mutual  distrust  rose  to 
such  a  height  that  a  considerable  number  of 
them  were  sent  back  to  their  habitations.  In 
1319  Edward,  having- succeeded  so  well  with  the 
court  of  Rome,  made  similar  attempts  with  other 
powers,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Scottish  nation. 
Accordingly  he  requested  the  earl  of  Flanders  to 
prohibit  the  Scots  from  entering  his  country  ;  but 
to  this  request  he  received  for  reply,  that '  Flan- 
ders was  the  common  country  of  all  men ;  I  can- 
not prohibit  any  merchants  from  trafficking 
thither,'  said  the  earl, '  for  such  prohibition  would 
prove  the  ruin  of  my  people.'  Edward,  on  this, 
once  more  determined  to  have  recourse  to  war; 
and  with  this  view  commanded  his  army  to  as- 
semble at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  on  the  24th  of 
July  1319 ;  but  first  requested  the  prayers  of  the 
clergy  for  success,  and  demanded  from  them  a 
sum  of  money  by  way  of  loan.  Every  thing 
being  now  in  readiness,  the  English  army  ap- 
proached Berwick,  then  under  the  care  of  Walter, 
grand  steward  of  Scotland.  This  nobleman  had 
long  apprehended  an  attack  from  the  English, 
and  bad  taken  his  means  of  defence  accordingly. 
The  English  however,  confiding  in  their  numbers, 
made  a  general  assault ;  but  were  repulsed  on 
the  7th  September,  after  an  obstinate  contest. 
Their  next  attempt  was  on  the  side  towards  the 
river.  At  that  time  the  walls  of  Berwick  were  of 
inconsiderable  height ;  and  it  was  proposed  to 
bring  a  vessel  close  to  them,  whence  the  troops 
might  enter  by  a  drawbridge.  But  the  Scots 
annoyed  the  assailants  so  much  that  they  could 
not  bring  this  vessel  within  the  proper  distance; 
and  at  the  ebb  of  the  tide  it  grounded,  and  was 
burnt.  The  English  had  then  recourse  to  a  new- 
invented  engine  which  they  called  a  sow.  In 
many  particulars  it  resembled  the  testudo  arietaria 
of  the  ancients.  It  was  a  large  fabric  of  timber 


well-roofed,  having  stages  within  it,  and  in  height 
surpassing  the  wall  of  the  town.  It  was  moved 
upon  wheels,  and  served  for  the  double  purpose 
of  conducting  the  miners  to  the  foot  of  the  wall, 
and  armed  men  to  the  storm.  But  this  machine 
was  counteracted  by  one  constructed  by  John 
Crab,  a  Flemish  engineer.  This  was  a  kind  of 
moveable  crane,  by  which  great  stones  might  be 
raised,  and  then  let  fall  upon  the  enemy.  The 
English  made  a  general  assault  on  the  quarter 
towards  the  sea,  as  well  as  on  the  land  side  ;  so 
that  the  garrison,  exhausted  by  continual  fatigue, 
could  scarcely  maintain  their  posts.  The  great 
engine  moved  on  to  the  walls  :  at  length  a  huge 
stone  struck  it  with  such  force  that  the  beams 
gave  way,  and,  the  Scots  pouring  down  combus- 
tibles upon  it,  it  was  burnt.  The  English,  how- 
ever, still  continued  the  attack.  The  steward, 
with  a  reserve  of  100  men,  went  from  post  to 
post,  relieving  those  who  were  wounded  or  unfit 
for  combat.  One  soldier  of  the  reserve  only  re- 
mained with  him  when  an  alarm  was  given  that 
the  English  had  burnt  a  barrier  at  the  port  called 
St.  Mary's,  possessed  themselves  of  the  draw- 
bridge, and  fired  the  gate.  The  steward  hastened 
thither,  called  down  the  guard  from  the  rampart, 
ordered  the  gate  to  be  set  open,  and  rushed  out 
upon  the  enemy.  A  desperate  combat  ensued, 
and  continued  till  the  close  of  the  day,  when  the 
English  commanders  withdrew  their  troops. 
Notwithstanding  this  brave  defence,  it  was  evi- 
dent that  the  town  could  not  hold  out  long ;  and 
Robert  could  not,  with  any  probability  of  suc- 
cess, attack  the  fortified  camp  of  the  English. 
He  therefore  determined  to  make  a  powerful  di- 
version in  England.  By  order  of  the  king  15,000 
men  entered  England  by  the  western  marches, 
and  laid  waste  Yorkshire.  The  archbishop  of 
York  hastily  collected  a  numerous  body  of  com- 
mons and  ecclesiastics,  with  whom  he  encoun- 
tered the  Scots  at  Mitton,  near  Borough-Bridge, 
in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire :  but  the 
English  were  instantly  routed,  and  3000  left 
dead  on  the  field  :  a  great  part  of  those  who  fled 
perished  in  the  river  Swale.  In  this  action 
300  ecclesiastics  are  said  to  have  lost  their 
lives. 

The  news  of  this  successful  inroad  alarmed 
the  besiegers  of  Berwick.  The  barons  whose 
estates  lay  to  the  southward  remote  from  the 
Scottish  depredations  were  eager  for  continuing 
the  siege.  But  they  were  opposed  by  those  of 
the  north ;  who  were  no  less  eager  to  abandon 
the  enterprise,  and  return  to  the  defence  of  their 
own  country.  With  them  the  earl  of  Lancaster 
concurred  in  opinion ;  who,  understanding  that 
his  favorite  manor  of  Pontefract  was  exposed  to 
the  ravages  of  the  Scots,  departed  with  all  his 
adherents.  Edward,  upon  this,  drew  off  the 
remainder  of  his  army,  and  attempted  to  inter- 
cept Randolph  and  Doughs  ;  but  they  eluded 
him,  and  returned  in  safety  to  Scotland.  The 
failure  of  this  last  attempt  induced  Kdward  seri- 
ously to  think  of  peace ;  and  accordingly  a 
truce  was  concluded  on  the  21st  of  December 
1319;  which  interval  of  tranquillity  the  Scots 
made  use  of  to  address  a  manifesto  to  the  pope. 
This  was  drawn  up  in  a  spirited  manner,  and 
made  a  very  considerable  impression  in  the 


C  O  T  L  A  N  D. 


431 


councils  of  the  pontiff.  The  pope,  seeing  that 
Robert  would  not  be  terrified  into  submission, 
ordered  Edward  to  make  peace  with  him  in  the 
l>est  manner  he  could.  A  negociation  was  ac- 
cordingly set  on  foot,  which  soon  terminated  in- 
effectually ;  the  truce  was  not  renewed,  and  in 
1322  a  mutual  invasion  took  place.  The  Scots 
penetrated  into  Lancashire  by  the  western 
marches  ;  and,  after  plundering  the  country,  re- 
turned home  with  an  immense  booty;  while 
Edward  made  great  preparations  for  an  expedi- 
tion into  Scotland,  which  took  place  in  August. 
In  this,  however,  he  was  unsuccessful.  Robert 
had  caused  all  the  cattle  to  be  driven  off,  and  all 
the  effects  of  value  to  be  removed  ;  fixing  his 
camp  at  Culross,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Frith 
of  Forth.  His  orders  for  removing  the  cattle 
were  so  punctually  obeyed  that  the  only  prey 
which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  was  a 
single  lame  bull.  Edward,  however,  penetrated 
nearly  as  far  as  Edinburgh  ;  but,  his  provisions 
being  consumed,  many  of  his  soldiers  perished 
for  want,  and  he  was  obliged  at  last  to  retire. 
On  their  return,  his  soldiers  burnt  the  abbeys  of 
llolyrood,  Melrose,  Dryburgh,  &c.,  and  killed 
many  of  the  monks  ;  but,  when  they  returned  to 
England,  and  again  enjoyed  a  plentiful  living, 
they  indulged  in  such  excesses  as  were  produc- 
tive of  a  great  mortality.  One  English  historian 
says,  almost  one-half  of  the  great  army  which 
Edward  had  brought  from  England  with  him 
were  destroyed  either  by  hunger  or  gluttony. 
As  soon  as  the  English  retired,  they  were  pur- 
sued by  the  Scots,  who  laid  siege  to  the  castle  of 
Norhain.  Edward  lay  at  the  abbey  of  Biland 
in  Yorkshire,  with  a  body  of  troops  advantage- 
ously posted  near.  The  Scots  attempted  to  sur- 
prise the  king,  and  it  was  with  the  utmost  diffi- 
culty that  he  escaped  to  York,  leaving  to  the 
enemy  all  his  baggage  and  treasure.  The  Eng- 
lish camp  was  supposed  to  be  accessible  only  by 
a  narrow  pass,  but  Douglas  undertook  to  force 
it,  and  Randolph  presented  himself  as  a  volun- 
teer in  this  dangerous  service,  under  his  friend 
Douglas.  The  Highlanders  and  men  of  the 
Isles  climbed  the  precipice  on  which  the  English 
camp  stood,  and  the  enemy  were  driven  out 
with  great  loss.  The  Scots  pursued  them  to  the 
gates  of  York,  wasted  the  country  without  con- 
trol, and  returned  home  unmolested.  Edward, 
disheartened  by  repeated  losses,  agreed  to  a  ces- 
sation of  arms,  from  the  30th  of  March  1 323, 
until  the  12th  of  June  1336.  It  was  stipulated 
that,  during  its  continuance,  no  new  fortresses 
should  be  erected  in  Cumberland,  north  of  the 
Tyne,  or  in  the  counties  of  Berwick,  Roxburgh, 
or  Dumfries  ;  and  by  a  singular  article  it  was 
provided  that,  '  Bruce  and  the  people  of  Scot- 
land might  procure  absolution  from  the  pope ; 
but,  in  case  there  was  no  peace  concluded  before 
the  expiration  of  the  truce,  that  the  sentence  of 
excommunication  should  revive.'  The  treaty 
was  ratified  by  Robert,  as  king  of  Scotland,  7th 
of  June  1323.  Robert's  next  care  was  to  recon- 
cile himself  to  the  church,  and  to  obtain  from 
the  pope  the  title  of  king,  which  had  been  so 
long  denied  him;  this  at  last, with  difficulty,  was 
obtained.  A  son  was  born  this  year  to  the  king 
f  Scotland  ut  Dunfermline,  and  named  Daud. 


But  scarcely  had  this  future  hero  come  into  the 
world,  when  a  rival  began  to  appear.  John 
Baliol  had  lorn;  been  dead ;  but  left  a  son  named 
Edward,  heir  to  his  pretensions.  The  young 
prince  had  resided  on  his  paternal  estate  in  Nor- 
mandy, neglected  and  forgotten;  but  in  1324 
was  called  to  the  court  of  England,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  setting  him  up  as  a  rival  to  young  David 
Bruce.  The  negociations  for  peace,  however, 
still  went  on ;  but  the  commissioners  made  little 
progress,  by  reason  of  the  demands  for  feudal 
sovereignty  still  made  by  the  English.  The  re- 
conciliation with  the  church  was  also  broken  off, 
by  the  Scots  keeping  possession  of  Berwick. 
Tnis  had  been  taken  during  the  papal  truce;  and 
Robert  chose  still  to  lie  under  the  sentence  of 
excommunication  rather  than  to  part  with  such 
an  important  fortress. 

In  the  beginning  of  1327  Edward  II.  was 
deposed  and  barbarously  murdered.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Edward  III.,  then  in  his 
fifteenth  year,  who  renewed  the  negociations  for 
peace,  and  ratified  the  truce  which  his  father  had 
made ;  but  hearing  that  the  Scots  had  resolved 
to  invade  England,  if  a  peace  was  not  imme- 
diately concluded,  he  summoned  his  barons  to 
meet  him  in  arms  at  Newcastle,  and  fortified 
York.  We  are  not  informed  why  the  Scots  at 
this  time  disregarded  the  truce ;  however,  on  the 
15th  of  June  1327,  Douglas  and  Randolph  in- 
vaded England  by  the  western  marches,  with  an 
army  of  20,000  horsemen.  Against  them  Ed- 
ward led  an  army,  consisting  at  the  lowest  cal- 
culation of  30,000  men,  who  assembled  at  Dur- 
ham on  the  1 3th  of  July.  The  Scots  proceeded 
with  the  utmost  cruelty,  burning  and  destroying 
every  thing  as  they  went  along ;  and  on  the 
18th  of  the  same  month  the  English  discovered 
them  by  the  smoke  and  flames  which  marked 
their  progress.  They  marched  forward  in  order 
of  battle  towards  the  quarter  where  the  smoke 
was  perceived  ;  but,  meeting  with  no  enemy  for 
two  days,  they  concluded  that  the  Scots  had  re- 
tired. Disencumbering  themselves  then  of  their 
heavy  baggage,  they  resolved  by  a  forced  march 
to  reach  the  river  Tyne,  and,  by  posting  them- 
selves on  the  north  bank,  to  intercept  the  enemy 
on  his  return.  On  the  20th  of  July  the  cavalry, 
having  left  the  infantry  behind,  crossed  the  river 
at  Halydon :  but,  before  the  rest  of  the  army 
could  come  up,  the  river  was  so  swelled  by  sud- 
den rains  that  it  could  no  longer  be  forded ; 
thus  the  English  troops  remained  divided  for 
several  days,  without  any  accommodation  for 
quarters,  and  in  the  greatest  want  of  provisions 
and  forage.  The  soldiers  now  began  to  murmur ; 
and  it  was  resolved  again  to  proceed  south- 
wards. The  king  proclaimed  a  reward  of  lands, 
to  the  value  of  £100  yearly  for  life,  to  the  person 
who  should  first  discover  the  enemy  'on  dry 
ground,  where  they  might  be  attacked;'  and 
many  knights  and  esquires  swam  across  the  river 
on  this  strange  errand.  The  army  continued  its 
march  for  three  days  without  any  news  of  the 
Scots  ;  but  on  the  fourth  accounts  of  them  were 
brought  by  Thomas  Rokesby,  esq.,  who  reported 
that,  '  the  Scots  had  made  him  prisoner ;  but 
that  their  leaders  understanding  his  business  had 
set  him  at  liberty;  saying,  that  they  had  remain- 


432 


SCOTLAND. 


ed  for  eight  days  on  the  same  ground,  as  ignorant 
of  the  motions  of  the  English  as  ttie  English 
were  of  theirs,  and  that  they  were  desirous  and 
ready  to  combat.'  With  this  man  for  their  guide, 
the  English-  soon  came  in  view  of  the  Scots. 
They  were  advantageously  posted  on  a  rising 
ground,  having  the  river  Were  in  front,  and  their 
flanks  secured  by  rocks  and  precipices.  The 
English  dismounted  and  advanced,  hoping  to 
allure  the  Scots  from  their  strong  post ;  but  in 
vain.  Edward  then  sent  a  herald  to  Randolph 
and  Douglas,  with  a  message  in  the  style  of  chi- 
valry :  '  Either,'  says  he,  '  suffer  me  to  pass  the 
river,  and  leave  me  room  for  ranging  my  forces ; 
or  do  you  pass  the  river,  and  I  will  leave  you 
room  to  range  yours ;  and  thus  shall  we  fight  on 
equal  terms.'  To  this  the  Scottish  commanders 
answered,  'We  will  do  neither.  On  our  road 
hither  we  have  burnt  and  spoiled  the  country  ; 
and  here  we  are  fixed  while  to  us  it  seems  good, 
if  the  king  of  England  is  offended,  let  him  come 
over  and  chastise  us.'  The  armies  continued  in 
sight  of  each  other  for  two  days ;  after  which 
the  English,  understanding  that  their  enemies 
were  distressed  for  provisions,  resolved  to  main- 
tain a  close  blockade,  and  to  reduce  them  by  fa- 
mine. Next  day,  however,  they  were  surprised 
to  find  that  the  Scots  had  secretly  decamped,  and 
taken  post  two  miles  up  the  river  in  ground  still 
stronger,  and  of  more  difficult  access.  The 
English  encamped  opposite  to  them  near  Stan- 
hope park.  At  midnight  Douglas  undertook  a 
most  desperate  enterprise.  With  200  horsemen 
he  approached  the  English  camp,  and  entered  it 
under  the  guise  of  a  chief  commander  calling 
the  rounds.  Having  thus  eluded  the  sentinels, 
he  passed  on  to  the  royal  quarters,  overthrew 
every  thing  that  opposed  him,  and  furiously  as- 
saulted the  king's  tent.  The  domestics  of  Ed- 
ward desperately  defended  their  master ;  and  his 
chaplain  with  many  others  of  his  household  were 
slain.  However,  the  king  himself  escaped ;  and 
Douglas,  disappointed  of  his  prey,  rushed 
through  the  enemy,  and  effected  a  retreat  with 
inconsiderable  loss.  The  following  day  the 
English  learned  from  a  prisoner  that  orders  had 
been  issued  in  the  Scottish  camp  for  all  men  to 
hold  themselves  in  readiness  that  evening  to  fol- 
low the  banner  of  Douglas;  on  which,  appre- 
hending an  attack  in  the  night,  they  prepared  for 
battle,  lighting  great  fires,  and  keeping  a  strict 
watch ;  but  in  the  morning  they  were  informed 
by  two  trumpeters,  whom  they  had  taken  prison- 
ers, that  the  Scots  had  decamped  before  mid- 
night, and  were  returning  to  their  own  country. 
This  report  they  could  scarcely  credit,  and  the 
army  remained  for  some  hours  in  order  of  bat- 
tle :  but  at  length  some  scouts,  having  crossed 
the  river,  returned  with  certain  intelligence  that 
the  Scottish  camp  was  deserted  :  which,  when 
Edward  was  assured  of,  he  burst  into  tears  ;  for 
the  enterprise,  which  thus  terminated  in  disap- 
pointment and  dishonor,  had  cost  an  immense 
sum.  His  foreign  auxiliaries  in  particular  con- 
sisted of  heavy-armed  cavalry ;  and  they  were 
now  so  much  worn  out  that  they  could  scarcely 
move  :  the  few  living  horses  were  become  unser- 
viceable, in  a  campaign  of  three  weeks  ;  so  that 
they  were  obliged  to  procure  horses  to  convey 


them  to  the  south  of  England.  Edward,  having 
rested  at  Durham  for  some  days,  inarched  to 
fork,  where  he  disbanded  his  army.  Barbour,  a 
Scottish  historian,  relates  that  there  was  a  morass 
in  the  rear  of  the  Scottish  camp,  which  he  calls 
the  two  mile  morass  ;  that  the  Scots  made  a  way 
over  it  with  brushwood,  removing  it  as  they 
went  along,  that  the  English  might  not  pursue 
them  by  the  same  way.  The  English  narratives 
are  filled  with  descriptions  of  the  strange  ap- 
pearance of  the  deserted  camp  of  the  Scots. 
Their  pursuers  found,  we  are  told,  a  number  01 
skins  stretched  between  stakes,  which  served  for 
kettles  to  boil  their  meat ;  and  for  bread  each 
soldier  carried  along  with  him  a  bag  of  oatmeal, 
of  which  he  made  cakes,  toasting  them  upon 
thin  iron  plates,  which  appear  to  have  been  part 
of  their  armour.  On  the  return  of  Douglas 
and  Randolph,  the  king  led  his  army  against  the 
eastern  borders,  and  besieged  the  castle  of  Nor- 
ham.  However,  in  1328,  Edward,  wearied  out 
with  continued  losses  and  disappointments,  con- 
sented to  a  perpetual  peace  between  the  two  king- 
doms on  the  condition — 1.  That  the  stone  on 
which  the  kings  of  Scotland  were  wont  to  sit  at 
the  time  of  their  coronation,  should  be  restored  to 
the  Scots.  2.  The  king  of  England  engaged  to 
employ  his  good  offices  at  the  papal  court  for 
obtaining  a  revocation  of  all  spiritual  processes 
depending  before  the  holy  see  against  the  king  of 
Scots,  or  against  his  kingdom.  3.  For  these 
causes,  and  to  make  reparation  for  the  ravages 
committed  in  England  by  the  Scots,  the  king  of 
Scots  was  to  pay  30,000  merks  to  the  king  of 
England.  4.  Restitution  was  to  be  made  of  the 
possessions  belonging  to  ecclesiastics  in  either 
kingdom,  whereof  the  war  might  have  deprived 
them.  5.  But  there  was  not  to  be  any  resti- 
tution made  of  inheritances  which  had  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  king  of  England  or  of 
the  king  of  Scots,  by  reason  of  the  war  be- 
tween the  two  nations,  or  through  the  forfeiture 
of  former  possessors.  6.  Joanna,  sister  of  the 
king  of  England,  was  to  be  given  in  marriage  to 
David,  the  son  and  heir  to  the  king  of  Scots ; 
the  king  of  Scots  providing  the  princess  in  a 
jointure  of  £'2000  yearly,  secured  on  lands  and 
rents.  7.  If  either  of  the  parties  failed,  in  per- 
forming these  conditions,  he  was  to  pay  £2000 
of  silver  to  the  papal  treasury.  This  peace,  ra- 
tified at  Northampton,  is  styled  ignominious  by 
the  English  historians,  and  the  marriage  of  the 
Scottish  prince  to  the  king  of  England's  sister, 
that  base  marriage  ;  because  thus  all  pretensions 
to  sovereignty  over  Scotland  were  given  up. 
The  marriage  of  the  infant  prince  was  celebrated 
on  the  12th  of  July  1328.  On  the  7th  of  June, 
1329,  died  Robert  Bruce,  unquestionably  the 
greatest  of  the  Scottish  monarchs.  His  death 
seems  to  have  been  occasioned  by  the  excessive 
fatigues  of  military  service ;  and  his  disease, 
called  by  historians  of  those  times  a  leprosy,  was 
probably  an  inveterate  scurvy,  occasioned  by  his 
mode  of  living.  He  died  at  the  age  of  fifty-five. 
He  was  married  to  Isabella,  daughter  of  Donald 
the  tenth  earl  of  Mar ;  by  whom  he  had  a 
daughter  named  Marjory,  married  to  Walter,  the 
grand  steward  of  Scotland  ;  whose  husband  died 
in  1326.  The  second  wife  of  Robert  was  Elizu- 


SCOTLAND. 


433 


beth,  the  daughter  of  Aymer  de  Burgh,  earl  of 
Ulster.  By  her  he  had  a  son,  David  II.;  a 
daughter  named  Margaret,  married  to  William 
earl  of  Sutherland ;  another,  named  "Matilda, 
married  to  Thomas  Isaac,  esq. ;  and  Elizabeth, 
married  to  Sir  Walter  Oliphant  of  Gask.  Pie 
had  also  a  natural  son  named  Robert.  That 
king  Robert  I.  was  a  man  of  unquestionable  vir- 
tue and  humanity,  as  well  as  unequalled  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  military  art,  is  evident  from 
many  particulars  already  related.  The  only 
questionable  part  of  his  character  is  his  severe 
punishment  of  a  conspiracy  formed  against  him 
in  1320;  a  relation  of  which,  to  avoid  interrupt- 
ing our  detail  of  more  important  matters,  we  de- 
ferred till  now. — The  chief  of  the  conspirators 
were  William  de  Soulis,  whose  ancestor  had  been 
a  candidate  for  the  crown ;  the  countess  of 
Sirathern,  and  some  other  persons  of  rank.  The 
countess  discovered  the  plot ;  after  which  Soulis 
confessed  the  whole,  and  was  punished  with 
perpetual  imprisonment ;  as  well  as  the  countess, 
notwithstanding  her  having  made  the  discovery, 
('ilbert  de  Malyerb  and  John  de  Logie,  both 
knights,  and  Richard  Brown,  esq.,  were  put  to 
death  as  traitors :  but  the  person  most  lamented 
v.-as  Sir  David  de  Brechin,  for  his  bravery 
styled  the  flower  of  chivalry.  He  was  nephew 
to  the  king,  and  had  served  with  great  reputation 
against  the  Saracens.  To  him  the  conspirators, 
after  having  exacted  an  oath  of  secrecy,  revealed 
their  designs.  He  condemned  their  undertaking, 
and  refused  to  share  in  it ;  but  did  not  discover 
it,  on  account  of  the  oath  he  had  taken.  Yet  for 
this  concealment  he  was  tried  as  a  traitor,  con- 
demned and  executed,  without  regard  to  his  per- 
sonal merit  or  his  relation  to  the  king.  The  con- 
spirators were  tried  before  the  parliament  at 
Scone  in  1 320 ;  and  this  session,  in  which  so 
much  blood  was  shed,  was  long  remembered 
under  the  name  of  the  black  parliament. 

After  the  death  of  Robert  I.  the  administra- 
tion was  assumed  by  Randolph,  in  consequence 
of  an  act  passed  in  1318,  by  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed regent  in  case  of  the  king's  death.  In 
his  new  character  he  behaved  himself  in  a  most 
exemplary  manner :  and  by  impartially  discharg- 
ing the  duties  of  his  station,  and  rigidly  adminis- 
tering justice,  he  secured  jnost  perfectly  the 
public  tranquillity.  The  severe  exercise  of  jus- 
tice was  now  rendered  not  only  necessary  but 
indispensable.  During  a  long  course  of  war, 
the  people  had  been  accustomed  to  plunder  and 
bloodshed ;  and,  having  now  no  English  ene- 
mies to  employ  them,  they  robbed  and  murdered 
one  another.  Randolph  repressed  these  crimes 
by  making  the  counties  liable  for  the  robberies 
committed  within  their  bounds.  He  gave  orders 
for  severely  punishing  all  vagabonds,  and 
obliged  them  to  work  for  their  livelihood ;  mak- 
ing proclamation  that  no  man  should  be  ad- 
mitted into  any  town  or  borough,  who  could  not 
earn  his  bread  by  his  labor.  These  regulations 
were  attended  with  the  most  salutary  effects.  A 
fellow  who  had  secreted  his  own  plough  irons, 
pretending  that  they  were  stolen,  being  detected 
by  the  sheriff's  officers,  was  instantly  hanged.  A 
certain  man,  having  killed  a  priest,  went  to 
Rome,  and  obtained  absolution  from  the  pope  ; 
VOL.  XIX. 


after  which  he  boldly  returned  to  Scotland. 
Randolph  ordered  him  to  be  tried,  and,  on  his 
conviction,  to  be  executed :  '  because,'  said  he, 
'  although  the  pope  may  grant  absolution  from 
the  spiritual  consequence  of  sin,  he  cannot  screen 
offenders  from  civil  punishment.'  King  Robert, 
just  before  his  death,  had  desired  that  his  heart 
might  be  deposited  in  our  Saviour's  sepulchre  at 
Jerusalem  ;  and  on  this  errand  the  great  comman- 
der, Douglas,  was  employed,  who  set  sail  in  June, 
1330,  with  a  numerous  and  splendid  retinue.  He 
anchored  off  Sluys  in  Flanders,  the  great  empo- 
rium of  the  Netherlands,  where  he  expected  to 
find  companions  in  his  pilgrimage ;  but,  learn- 
ing that  Alphonso  XI.  the  young  king  of  Leon 
and  Castile,  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  Osmyn 
the  Moor,  he  could  not  resist  the  temptation  of 
fighting  against  the  enemies  of  Christianity.  He 
met  with  an  honorable  reception  at  the  court  of 
Spain,  and  readily  obtained  leave  to  enter  into 
what  was  thought  the  common  cause  of  Christ- 
ianity. The  Moors  were  defeated ;  but  Douglas, 
giving  way  to  his  impetuous  valor,  pursued  the 
enemy  too  eagerly,  and,  throwing  among  them 
the  casket  which  contained  the  heart  of  his  sove- 
reign, cried  out,  '  Now  pass  thou  onward  as 
thou  wast  wont;  Douglas  will  follow  thee  or 
die.'  The  fugitives  rallied  and  surrounded 
Douglas ;  who,  with  a  few  of  his  followers,  was 
killed  in  attempting  to  rescue  Sir  Walter  St. 
Clair  of  Roslin.  His  body  was  brought  back 
to  Scotland,  and  interred  in  the  church  of 
Douglas.  His  countrymen  styled  him  the  good 
Sir  James  Douglas.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest 
commanders  of  the  age;  and  is  said  to  have 
been  engaged  in  seventy  battles,  fifty-seven  of 
which  he  gained,  and  was  defeated  in  thirteen. 

In  November  1331  Edward  Baliol  began  to 
renew  his  pretensions  to  the  crown  of  Scotland, 
about  the  time  that  David  II.  and  his  consort 
Johanna  were  crowned  at  Scone.  This  year 
differences  began  also  to  arise  with  England.  It 
had  been  provided,  by  an  article  of  the  treaty  of 
Northampton,  that '  Thomas  lord  Wake  of  Ledel, 
Henry  de  Beaumont,  called  earl  of  Buchan,  and 
Henry  de  Percy,  should  be  restored  to  their  es- 
tates, of  which  the  king  of  Scots,  by  reason  of  the 
war  between  the  two  nations,  had  taken  posses- 
sion.' This  article  had  been  executed  with  re- 
spect to  Percy,  but  not  to  the  other  two  ;  and, 
though  Edward  had  repeatedly  complained  of 
this  neglect,  he  obtained  no  satisfaction.  Lord 
Hales  has  some  judicious  remarks  on  this  omis- 
sion, which  he  ascribes  to  the  political  foresight 
of  Randolph.  The  disinherited  barons  now  re- 
solved to  invade  Scotland,  though  their  force  con 
sisted  of  only  3000  infantry,  and  400  men  at  arms. 
Edward  would  not  permit  them  to  enter  Scot- 
land by  the  usual  way,  as  he  himself  did  not  yet 
choose  openly  to  take  part  in  their  quarrel. 
They  were  therefore  obliged  to  take  shipping, 
and  landed  at  a  place  called  Ravenspur,  or  Ra- 
vensburgh,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Humber,  long 
ago  overwhelmed  by  the  sea.  Randolph,  hav- 
ing intelligence  of  the  English  preparations,  had 
marched  an  army  to  the  frontiers  of  East  Lo 
thian  ;  but,  being  afterwards  informed  of  the 
naval  armament,  he  marched  northwards;  but 
died  at  Musselburgh,  on  the  20th  of  July  1332. 

2  F 


434 


SCOTLAND 


Donald,  earl  of  Marr,  a  man  whose  only  merit 
consisted  in  his  being  relate J  to  the  royal  family, 
was  chosen  to  succeed  him  in  the  regency.  Ed- 
ward, in  the  mean  time,  fell  upon  a  most  curious 
expedient  to  show  the  justice  of  his  cause.  In 
March  1332  he  had  published  a  prohibition  for 
any  person  to  infringe  the  treaty  of  Northampton : 
yet  the  disinherited  lords  had  been  suffered  to 
embark,  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  invading 
Scotland,  after  this  prohibition  was  published. 
After  they  were  gone,  Henry  de  Percy  was  em- 
powered to  punish  those  who  should  presume  to 
array  themselves  in  contempt  of  his  prohibition  ; 
and  because  he  understood  that  the  Scots  were 
arming,  in  order  to  repel  those  invaders  who:r. 
Edward  had  indirectly  sent  against  them,  he  em- 
powered Henry  de  Percy  to  arm  against  them. 
On  the  31st  of  July  Edward  Baliol  and  his  as- 
sociates landed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  King- 
horn,  on  the  Forth  ;  routed  the  earl  of  Fife,  who 
opposed  them;  and  marched  next  day  to  Dun- 
fermline.  Having  then  ordered  his  fleet  to  wait 
for  him  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tay,  he  proceeded 
northwards,  and  encamped  on  the  Miller's  acre 
at  Forteviot,  with  the  river  Earn  in  front.  Here 
his  situation  was  extremely  dangerous,  and  his 
destruction  seemed  inevitable.  The  earl  of  Marr 
was  encamped  with  a  numerous  army  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  river  Earn,  near  Duplin ; 
and  another,  nearly  as  numerous,  had  advanced 
from  the  south,  through  the  Lothians  and  Stir- 
lingshire, and  fixed  its  quarters  at  Auchterarder, 
eight  miles  west  of  Forteviot.  Historians  differ 
as  to  the  number  of  the  two  armies.  Fordun 
says  that  the  regent  had  with  him  30,000  men, 
and  the  earl  of  March  as  many  ;  and  that  Baliol 
had  between  500  and  600  men  at  arms,  that  is, 
horsemen  completely  armed.  Hemingford  reckons 
each  of  the  Scottish  armies  at  40,000,  and  Ba- 
liol's  at  500  armed  men.  Knyghton  says  that 
Baliol,  when  he  landed  in  Fife,  had  300  armed 
men,  and  3000  more  of  different  sorts  ;  but  that 
he  had  in  all  only  2500  men  in  his  camp  at 
Earn.  In  this  desperate  situation  the  English 
general  formed  a  design  of  attacking  the  Scots 
in  their  camp.  They  were  directed  to  a  ford  by 
Andrew  Murray  of  Tullibardine.  The  Scots 
kept  no  watch,  but  abandoned  themselves  to  in- 
temperance and  riotous  mirth ;  while  their  ene- 
mies, led  by  Alexander  Mowbray,  crossed  the 
river  at  midnight.  Ascending  a  rising  ground, 
they  came  unperceived  on  the  right  flank  of  the 
Scottish  army,  and  made  a  dreadful  slaughter. 
At  the  first  attack,  young  Randolph  hasted  with 
300  men  at  arms  to  oppose  the  enemy  ;  and 
being  seconded  by  Murdoch  earl  of  Monteith, 
Alexander  Fraser,  and  Robert  Bruce,  natural  son 
to  the  late  king,  he  gave  a  check  to  the  English, 
and  maintained  the  combat  on  equal  terms.  But 
now  the  regent  himself,  "along  with  the  whole 
multitude,  rushed  forward  to  battle  without  the 
least  order;  so  that,  "while  the  hindmost  pressed 
on,  the  foremost  were  thrown  down  and  trodden 
upon.  The  slaughter  lasted  many  hours,  and  the 
remains  of  this  vast  army  were  utterly  dispersed. 
Many  men  of  eminence  were  killed ;  among 
whom  were  Donald  earl  of  Marr,  author  of  the 
whole  catastrophe;  Thomas  earl  of  Moray,  Mur- 
doch earl  of  Monteith  K<>1,.  rt  carl  of  Carrick, 


Alexander  Fraser,  and  Robert  Bruce.  The 
slaughter  of  the  infantry  and  of  the  men  at  arms 
was  very  great ;  and  the  most  probable  accounts 
make  it  2000  men  at  arms,  and  upwards  of 
13,000  common  soldiers.  The  loss  of  the  I'.n/ 
lish  was  inconsiderable.  The  day  after  this  vic- 
tory, Baliol  took  possession  of  Perth ;  and,  ap- 
prehending an  attack  from  the  earl  of  March, 
caused  the  ditch  to  be  cleared,  and  the  town  to 
be  fortified  with  palisadoes.  The  first  informa- 
tion which  the  earl  received  of  this  dreadful  de- 
feat was  from  a  soldier,  who  fled  mortally  wound- 
ed, and  had  time  only  to  show  his  wounds,  and 
expire.  The  earl,  on  his  arrival  at  the  field  of 
battle,  found  a  dreadful  confirmation  of  the  sol- 
dier's intelligence ;  but,  instead  of  taking  any 
E roper  measures,  he  and  his  men  hurried  on 
eadlong  to  Perth,  actuated  only  by  a  blind  im- 
pulse to  revenge.  At  first  they  designed  to  as- 
sault the  place ;  next  they  determined  to  reduce 
it  by  famine.  This,  however,  could  not  be  done 
unless  the  Scots  had  been  masters  at  sea.  One 
John  Crab,  a  Flemish  engineer  (who  had  distin- 
guished himself  by  destroying  the  famous  engine 
called  the  sow  at  the  siege  of  Berwick),  had  con- 
tinued for  many  years  to  annoy  the  English  on  the 
eastern  coasts.  After  the  blockade  of  Perth  was 
formed,  he  came  with  ten  vessels  to  the  month 
of  the  Tay,  where  the  English  fleet  was.  and  took 
the  ship  belonging  to  Henry  de  Beaumont ;  but 
soon  after  all  his  ten  vessels  were  burnt  by  the 
English  in  a  general  engagement.  After  this  the 
blockade  of  Perth  was  raised,  the  earl  of  March 
disbanded  his  army,  and  Edward  Baliol  was 
crowned  king  of  Scotland  at  Scone,  on  the  24th 
of  September  1332. 

The  new  monarch  was  no  sooner  put  in  pos 
session  of  the  kingdom  than  he  left  Perth  in  the 
hands  of  the  earl  of  Fife,  while  he  himself  repair- 
ed to  the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom.  But 
the  party  of  king  David  was  far  from  being  ex- 
tinguished. Baliol  was  scarcely  gone,  when 
Perth  was  surprised,  and  its  fortifications  razed, 
by  James  Fraser,  Simon  Fraser,  and  Robert 
Keith.  The  earl  of  Fife  was  made  prisoner, 
with  his  family  and  vassals.  Andrew  Murray  of 
Tullibardine,  who  had  directed  the  English  to  a 
ford  on  the  Earn,  was  put  to  death  as  a  traitor. 
Such  of  the  Scots  as  still  adhered  to  the  interest 
of  their  infant  prince  chose  Sir  Andrew  Murray 
of  Bothwell  regent.  He  was  a  brave  and  active 
man,  but  had  not  as  yet  sufficient  force  to  attempt 
any  thing  considerable.  In  the  mean  time.  li.i- 
liol  behaved  in  a  most  scandalous  manner.  At 
Roxburgh,  he  made  a  solemn  surrender  of  the 
liberties  of  Scotland;  acknowledged  Edward  for 
his  liege  lord  ;  and  became  bound  to  put  him  in 
possession  of  the  town,  castle,  and  territory  of 
Berwick,  and  of  other  lands  on  the  marches, 
extending  in  all  to  the  yearly  value  of  £2000, 
'on  account,' as  the  instrument  bears,  S 
great  honor  and  emoluments  which  we  have 
procured  through  the  sufferance  of  our  lord  tho 
king,  and  by  the  powerful  and  acceptable  aid 
which  we  have  received  fiom  his  good  subjects.* 
He  also  proffered  to  marry  the  princess  Johanna, 
whom  he  considered  as  only  betrothed  to  David 
Bruce,  and  to  add  £500  to  her  jointure;  an<l 
this  under  the  penalty  of  £10,000  to  be  appro- 


SCOTLAND. 


435 


priated  as  a  portion  to  the  lady,  or  otherwise  dis- 
posed of  for  her  behoof.  He  farther  engaged  to 
provide  for  the  maintenance  of  David  Bruce  as 
the  king  of  England  should  advise  ;  and,  lastly, 
he  became  bound  to  serve  Edward  in  all  his  wars, 
excepting  in  England,  Wales,  and  Ireland,  for 
the  space  of  a  year  together,  with  200  men  at 
arms.  Afterwards,  Edward  having  engaged  to 
maintain  him  on  the  throne  of  Scotland,  Baliol 
bound  himself  to  serve  him  in  all  his  wars  what- 
ever. Though  the  greatest  part  of  the  nation 
submitted  to  this  shameful  treaty,  it  roused  the 
indignation  of  those  who  wished  well  to  their 
country.  John,  the  second  son  of  Randolph, 
now  earl  of  Moray  by  the  death  of  his  brother  ; 
Archibald,  the  youngest  brother  of  the  renowned 
Douglas ;  together  with  Simon  Fraser,  assem- 
bled a  body  of  horsemen  at  Moffat  in  Annan- 
dale  ;  and,  suddenly  traversing  the  country, 
assaulted  Baliol  unexpectedly  at  Annan.  His 
brother  Henry  made  a  gallant  resistance  for  some 
time;  but  was  at  last  overpowered  with  numbers, 
and  killed,  with  several  other  persons  of  distinc- 
tion. Baliol  himself  escaped  almost  naked,  with 
scarcely  a  single  attendant,  and  fled  to  England. 
After  his  departure,  the  Scots  began  to  make  de- 
predations on  the  English  frontiers.  Edward 
issued  a  proclamation,  in  which  he  solemnly 
averred  that  the  Scots,  by  their  hostile  depre- 
dations, had  violated  the  peace  of  Northampton. 
Baliol,  in  the  meantime,  being  joined  by  some 
English  barons,  returned  to  Scotland  ;  took  and 
burnt  a  castle  where  Robert  de  Colville  com- 
manded ;  and,  establishing  his  quarters  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Roxburgh,  began  to  make  pre- 
parations for  besieging  Berwick.  Just  after  his 
arrival,  Archibald  Douglas,  with  3000  men,  in- 
vaded England  by  the  western  marches,  plunder- 
ed the  country,  and  carried  off  much  booty ;  in 
revenge  for  which,  Sir  Anthony  de  Lucy  made 
an  inroad  into  Scotland,  defeated  and  took  pri- 
soner Sir  William  Douglas,  celebrated  in  his- 
tory by  the  appellation  of  the  knight  of  Liddes- 
dale,  whom  Edward  caused  to  be  put  in  irons. 
About  the  same  time,  Sir  Andrew  Murray  the 
regent  attacked  Baliol,  with  a  view  to  discomfit 
him  before  the  reinforcements  which  he  expected 
out  of  England  could  arrive.  A  sharp  conflict 
ensued  at  Roxburgh,  in  which  the  regent,  attempt- 
ing to  rescue  a  soldier,  was  taken  prisoner ;  and 
thus  Scotland  was  at  once  deprived  of  its  two 
ablest  commanders.  Archibald  Douglas  was  now 
declared  regent ;  and  Edward  prepared  to  invade 
Scotland.  He  ordered  possession  to  betaken  of 
the  Isle  of  Man  in  his  own  name  ;  and  soon  after 
made  it  over  to  Sir  William  Montague,  who  had 
some  claim  of  inheritance  in  it.  The  chief  design 
of  Edward,  however,  was  to  obtain  possession  of 
Berwick,  which  had  been  ceded  to  him  by  Baliol. 
This  appeared  to  the  Scots  a  place  of  no  less 
importance  than  it  did  to  Edward ;  and  there- 
fore they  took  all  the  precautions  in  their  power 
to  prevent  the  loss  of  it.  The  earl  of  March  was 
appointed  to  command  the  castle,  and  Sir  Wil- 
liam Keith  the  town.  The  Scots  made  an  ob- 
stinate defence.  At  length  the  regent,  with  a 
numerous  army,  appeared  in  the  neighbourhood. 
He  endeavoured  to  convey  succors  into  the 
town,  or  to  provoke  the  enemies  to  quit  the  ad- 


vantage of  the  ground,  and  engage  in  battle. 
But  all  his  efforts  were  in  vain ;  the  English 
obstructed  every  passage,  and  stood  on  the  de- 
fensive. The  regent  then  entered  Northumber- 
land, wasted  the  country,  and  even  assaulted 
Bamborough  castle,  where  Philippa  the  young 
queen  of  England  resided.  He  fondly  imagined 
that  Edward  III.  would  have  abandoned  the 
siege  of  Berwick,  as  his  father  did,  in  similar 
circumstances.  Edward  nevertheless  persevered 
in  his  enterprise.  During  a  general  assault,  the 
town  was  set  on  fire,  and  great  part  of  it  con- 
sumed. The  inhabitants  having  experienced 
the  evils  of  a  siege,  and  dread  ing  the  worse  evils 
of  a  storm,  implored  the  earl  of  March  and  Sir 
William  Keith  to  seek  terms  of  capitulation.  A 
truce  was  obtained ;  and  it  was  agreed  that  the 
town  and  castle  should  be  delivered  up  on  terms 
fair  and  honorable,  unless  succors  arrived  be- 
fore the  hour  of  vespers  on  the  19th  of  July. 
By  the  treaty,  Sir  William  Keith  was  allowed  an 
interview  with  the  regent.  He  found  him  with 
his  army  in  Northumberland ;  urged  the  neces- 
sity of  his  return ;  and  showed  him  that  Ber- 
wick, if  not  instantly  relieved,  was  lost  for  ever. 
Persuaded  by  his  importunities,  the  regent  re- 
solved to  combat  the  English,  and  either  to  save 
Berwick  or  lose  the  kingdom.  On  the  afternoon 
of  the  19th  of  July  the  regent  prepared  for  bat- 
tle. He  divided  his  army  into  four  bodies.  The 
first  was  led  by  John  earl  of  Moray,  the  son  of 
Randolph ;  but,  as  he  was  young  and  inexperi- 
enced in  war,  James  and  Simon  Fraser,  soldiers 
of  approved  reputation,  were  joined  with  him  in 
the  command.  The  second  body  was  led  by  the 
steward  of  Scotland,  a  youth  of  sixteen,  under 
the  inspection  of  his  uncle  Sir  James  Stewart  of 
Rosyth.  The  third  body  was  led  by  the  regent 
himself,  having  with  him  the  earl  of  Carrick  and 
other  barons  of  eminence.  The  fourth  body,  or 
reserve,  appears  to  have  been  led  by  Hugh  earl 
of  Ross.  The  numbers  of  the  Scottish  army  on 
that  day  are  variously  reported  by  historians. 
The  continuator  of  Hemingford  says,  that,  be- 
sides earls  and  other  lords  or  other  great  barons, 
there  were  fifty-five  knights,  1100  men  at  arms, 
and  13,500  of  the  commons  lightly  armed, 
amounting  in  all  to  14,655.  With  him  Knygh- 
ton  concurs,  when  his  narrative  is  cleared  from 
the  errors  of  transcribers.  The  English  were 
advantageously  ]K>sted  on  a  rising  ground  at 
Halydon,  with  a  marshy  hollow  in  their  front. 
Baliol  had  the  command  of  one  of  the  wings. 
It  had  been  provided  by  the  treaty  of  capitula- 
tion '  That  Berwick  should  be  considered  as  re- 
lieved, in  case  200  men  at  arms  forced  their 
passage  into  the  town.'  This  the  Scottish  men 
at  arms  attempted  ;  but  Edward,  aware  of  their 
purpose,  opposed  them  in  person,  and  repulsed 
them  with  great  slaughter.  The  Scottish  army 
rushed  on  to  a  general  attack ;  but  they  had  to 
descend  into  the  marshy  hollow  before  mounting 
the  eminences  of  Halydon.  After  having  strug- 
gled with  the  difficulties  of  the  ground,  and  after 
having  been  incessantly  galled  by  the  English 
archers,  they  reached  the  enemy.  Although  fa- 
tigued and  disordered,  they  fought  as  it  became 
men  who  had  conquered  under  Robert  Bruce. 
The  English,  with  equal  valor,  had  great  advan- 

2  F  2 


436 


SCO  T  L  A  N  D 


tages  of  situation,  and   were  better  disciplined. 
The  earl  of  Ross  led    the  reserve  to  attack  in 
flank  that  wiiiic  where  Baliol  commanded ;  but 
he   was   repulsed  and  slain.     There   fell    with 
him  Kenneth  earl  of  Sutherland,  and  Murdoch 
earl  of  Monteith.     In  the  other  parts  of  the  field 
the  events  were  equally  disastrous.     The  regent 
received  a  mortal  wound,  and  the  Scots  every 
where  gave  way.     In   the  field,  and  during  a 
pursuit  for  many  miles,  the  number  of  slain  and 
prisoners  was  so  great,  that  few  of  the  Scottish 
army  escaped.     Besides  the  earls  of  Ross,  Su- 
therland, and   Monteith,  there  were  among  the 
slain  Malcolm  earl  of  Lenox,  an  aged  baron,  who 
had  been  one  of  the  foremost  to  repair  to  the 
standard  of  Robert  Bruce,  and  whose  exertions 
were  for  his  country ;  Alexander  Bruce  earl  of  Car- 
rick,  who  atoned  for  the  short  defection  from  the 
family  of  his  benefactor ;  John  Campbell  earl  of 
Atnole,  nephew  of  the  late  king ;  James  Fraser, 
and  Simon   Fraser ;   John  Graham,  Alexander 
Lindesay,  Alan  Stewart,  and  many  other  persons 
of  eminent  rank.     The  Steward  had  two  uncles, 
John  and  James.     John  was  killed,  and  James 
mortally   wounded   and   made   prisoner.     Two 
other  Stewarts  fought  at  this  battle ;  viz.  Alan  of 
Dreghorn,  paternal  ancestor  of  king  Charles  I. 
and  James  of  Rosyth,  maternal  ancestor  of  Oliver 
Cromwell.     The  regent,  mortally  wounded,  and 
abandoned  on  the  field  of  battle,  only  lived  to 
see  his  army  routed  and  himself  a  prisoner.  This 
victory  was  obtained  with  very  inconsiderable 
loss.     The  English  historians  say,  that  on  their 
side  there  were  killed  one  knight,  one  esquire, 
and  twelve  foot  soldiers.     Nor  will  this  appear 
altogether  incredible,  as  the  English  ranks  re- 
mained unbroken,  and  their  archers,  at  a  secure 
distance,  incessantly  annoyed   the  Scottish   in- 
fantry.    According  to  capitulation,  the  town  and 
castle   of   Berwick  surrendered.     The   English 
king  took  twelve  hostages  for  the  fidelity  of  the 
citizens.     Thus  was  the  whole  of  Scotland  re- 
duced under  the  subjection  of  Baliol,  excepting 
a  few  fortresses;  so  that  it  became  necessary  to 
provide  for  the  safety  of  the  young  king  and 
queen.      Accordingly,  they  were   conveyed   to 
France,  where  they  were  honorably  entertained. 
Meanwhile,  Baliol  employed  himself  in  making 
new  concessions  to  his  liege  lord  Edward  ;  and 
in  1 334  the  work  of  submission  was  completed 
by  a  solemn  instrument  drawn   up  by  Baliol,  in 
which  he  surrendered  great  part  of  the  Scottish 
dominions,  to  be  for  ever  annexed  to  the  crown 
of  England.    In  this  instrument  Baliol  said,  that 
'  he  had  formerly  become  bound  to  make  a  grant 
to  Edward  of  lands  on  the  marches,  to  the  amount 
of  £2000  lands ;  that   the  Scottish  parliament 
had  ratified  his  obligation ;  and  that  he  had  ac- 
cordingly surrendered  Berwick  and  its  territory ; 
and  now,  for  completely  discharging  his  obliga- 
tion, he  made  an  absolute  surrender  to  the  Eng- 
lish crown  of  the  forests  of  Jedburgh,  Selkirk, 
and    Etterick;    of  the  counties   of  Roxburgh, 
Peebles,  and  Dumfries  ;  together  with  the  county 
of  Edinburgh,  and  the  constabularies  of  Linlith- 
gow  and  Haddington.'    This  extraordinary  sur- 
render was  made  with  so  much   precipitation, 
that  Baliol  forgot  to  except  his  own   private  es- 
tate out  of  it.     This,  however,  was   restored  to 


him  by  Edward.  At  the  same  time,  Baliol  did 
homage,  and  swore  fealty,  '  for  the  whole  king- 
dom of  Scotland  arid  the  isles  adjacent.' 

A  quarrel   now  arose  among  the  disinherited 
lords,  to  whom  this  revolution  had  been  owinii. 
which  produced  the  worst  consequences  to  the 
interest  of  Baliol.      The  brother  of  Alexander 
Mowbray  died,  leaving  only  daughters.     Mow- 
bray  having  claimed  a  preference  to  his  nieces, 
Baliol  put  him  in  possession  of  the  inheritance  : 
when   Henry   Beaumont  earl  of  Buchan,    and 
David  Strathbogie  or   Hastings,  earl  of  Athol, 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  ladies ;  but,  perceiving 
that  their  solicitations  were  not  heard,  they  left 
the  court  in  disgust,  and  retired  to  their  castles 
August  1334.     Baliol  soon  perceived  his  error 
in  offending  these  two  powerful   lords  ;  and,  to 
regain   their   favor,    dismissed    Mowbray,  and 
conferred  on  Da?id   Strathbogie  the  whole  es- 
tates of  the  young  Steward  of  Scotland.     Thus 
he   alienated   the   affections    of  Mowbray,  and 
added  to  the  influence  of  the  earl  of  Athol,  who 
was   by   far  too  powerful  before.     About  this 
time  Sir  Andrew   Murray  of  Bothwell,  having 
regained    his  freedom,  began  to  assemble   tlie 
friends  of  liberty,  and  was  immediately  joined 
by  Mowbray.     In  a  moment  every  thing;  was  in 
confusion.      Geoffery    Mowbray,    governor     of 
Roxburgh,  revolted;  Henry  Beaumont  was  be- 
sieged in   his  castle  of  Dundarc  by  Murray  and 
Mowbray,  and  forced  to  surrender,  but  was  al- 
lowed to  depart  into  England.     Richard  Talhot, 
endeavouring  to  pass  into  England  with  a  body 
of  troops,  was  defeated  and  taken   prisoner  by 
Sir  William  Keith  of  Galston.     The  Steward  of 
Scotland,  who  had   lain  concealed  in  the  Isle  of 
Bute  since  the  battle  of  Halydon,  passed  over  to 
the  castle  of  Dunbarton,  which  was  still  remaining:, 
to  king  David.     With  the  assistance  of  Doupii 
Campbell,  of  Lochow,  he  made  himself  master 
of  the  castle  of  Dunoon  in  Cowal.     His  tenants 
of  the  isle  of  Bute  attacked  and  stew  Alan  Lile 
the  governor,  and  presented  his  head  to  their 
master.     John  the  son  of  Gilbert,  governor  of 
the  castle  of  Bute,  was  made  prisoner  in  the  ac- 
tion.    He  ordered  the  garrison  to  surrender,  and 
attached  himself  to  the  Scottish  interest.     En- 
couraged by  these  successes,  the  Steward  entered 
his  ancient  inheritance  of   Renfrew,  and  com- 
pelled the  inhabitants  to  acknowledge  the  sove- 
reignty of  David.     Godfrey  Ross,  the  governor 
of  Ayrshire,   submitted   to  the  Steward.     The 
earl  of  Moray  returned  from  France,  whither  he 
had  fled  after  the  battle  of  Halydon,  and  was 
acknowledged  regent  along  with    the  Steward. 
The  earl,  having  raised  a  body  of  troops,  marched 
against  the  earl  of  Athol,  compelled  him  to  re- 
tire into    Lochaber,  and  at  last  to   surrender; 
after  which  he  embraced   the  party  of  the  con- 
querors.    Baliol  was  now  obliged  to  retire  again 
into  England,  to  solicit  assistance  from  Edward  ; 
and  this  was  readily  granted.     Edward  himself 
took  the  field  at  a  very  unfavorable  season  for 
militnry  enterprises.     His  army  was  divided  into 
two  parts.     With  the  one  he  wasted  Lothian, 
while  Baliol  did  the  like  in  Annandale  with  the 
other ;  and,  in  the  mean  time,  Patrick  earl  of 
March    renounced    his   allegiance  to  England ; 
sensible  that,  though  the  kings  of  England  main- 


SCOTLAND. 


437 


tained  him  in  an  independency  dangerous  to 
Scotland,  they  wou  d  never  permit  him  to  be- 
come formidable  in  a  country  which  they  them- 
selves possessed.  The  year  1335  is  remarkable 
for  the  siege  of  Lochlevon  castle  by  the  English, 
tinder  John  de  Strivelin.  This  fort  was  built  on 
a  small  island,  very  difficult  of  access.  The 
English  commander  erected  a  fort  in  the  ceme- 
tery of  Kinross ;  and  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
lake,  whence  runs  the  river  Leven,  he  raised  a 
strong  and  lofty  bulwark,  by  which  he  hoped  to 
lay  the  island  under  water,  and  oblige  the  garri- 
son to  surrender.  But  four  Scottish  soldiers, 
having  approached  the  bulwark  undiscovered, 
pierced  it  so  dexterously  that  the  waters,  rushing 
out  with  a  prodigious  force,  overflowed  part  of 
the  English  camp ;  and  the  garrison,  sallying 
out  during  the  confusion,  stormed  and  plundered 
the  fort  at  Kinross.  At  this  time,  the  English 
commander,  with  many  of  his  soldiers,  happened 
to  be  absent  at  Dunfermline,  celebrating  the  fes- 
tival of  St.  Margaret.  On  his  return,  he  swore 
that  he  would  never  desist  till  he  had  taken  the 
place,  and  put  the  garrison  to  the  sword ;  how- 
ever, his  utmost  efforts  were  at  last  baffled,  and 
he  was  obliged,  notwithstanding  his  oath,  to  de- 
sist. In  the  mean  time,  the  regents  assembled  a 
parliament  at  Dairsy,  near  Cupar  in  Fife;  but 
no  plan  of  defence  could  be  determined  upon, 
from  the  animosities  and  factions  among  the 
barons.  Through  the  mediation  of  the  French, 
terms  of  peace  were  proposed  ;  but,  being  re- 
jected by  the  English,  Edward  again  invaded 
Scotland,  cruelly  ravaging  the  country  with  one 
army,  while  Baliol  and  the  earl  of  Warren  did 
the  same  with  another.  Soon  after  this  invasion, 
count  Guy  of  Namur  landed  at  Berwick  with  a 
considerable  number  of  men  at  arms  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  English.  He  advanced  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Edinburgh  ;  but  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  the  earls  of  March  and  Mo- 
ray, and  Sir  Alexander  Ramsay.  In  this  en- 
gagement one  Richard  Shaw,  a  Scottish  esquire, 
was  singled  out  by  a  combatant  in  the  army  of 
count  Guy,  and  both  pierced  each  other  with 
their  spears ;  the  stranger,  being  stripped,  was 
discovered  to  be  a  woman.  The  earl  of  Moray 
treated  Guy  with  the  greatest  respect,  not  only 
allowing  him  and  the  remainder  of  his  troops  to 
depart  from  Scotland  without  molestation,  but 
even  attending  him  to  the  borders,  accompanied 
by  William  Douglas  and  his  brother  James.  On 
his  return,  William  de  Pressen,  warden  of  the 
castle  and  forest  of  Jedburgh,  attacked  and  de- 
feated his  party ;  James  Douglas  was  killed,  the 
earl  himself  taken  prisoner,  and  carried  into 
England.  Thus  was  the  Scottish  nation  once 
more  reduced  to  the  brink  of  ruin.  Alexander 
and  Geoffery  Mowbray,  and  some  others,  pre- 
tending powers  from  '  the  earl  of  Athol,  and 
Robert  the  Steward  of  Scotland,'  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Edward  at  Perth  ;  the  substance  of 
which  was,  that  all  the  Scots  should  receive 
pardon,  and  have  their  fees,  lands,  and  offices 
restored,  excepting  those  who  by  common  assent 
in  parliament  should  be  excluded.  The  liber- 
ties of  the  church,  and  the  ancient  laws  and 
usages  of  Scotland,  were  to  remain  in  full  force. 
Al!  offices  were  to  be  fi!l<:d  with  Scotsmen,  ex- 


cepting that  the  king  should  appoint  whom   he 
pleaded  within  his  regalities. 

Ine  earl  of  Athol  now  began  to  persecute 
with  the  utmost  fury  those  who  wished  well  to 
the  freedom  of  Scotland.  With  3000  men  he 
besieged  the  castle  of  Kildrummy,  which  had 
hitherto  been  the  great  refuge  of  king  David's 
party.  Sir  Andrew  Murray  of  Bothwell  re- 
solved to  attempt  the  rescue  of  his  wife  and 
family,  who  were  shut  up  in  it.  With  1100  men 
he  surprised  Athol  in  the  forest  of  Kilblain. 
The  earl's  men,  seized  with  a  panic,  fled ;  on 
which  their  commander,  refusing  to  accept  of 
quarter,  was  killed.  Sir  Andrew  Murray  then 
assembled  a  parliament  at  Dunfermline,  where 
he  was  immediately  appointed  regent.  In  1336 
the  king  of  England,  perceiving  that  the  Scots 
were  taken  under  the  patronage  of  France,  re- 
solved to  invade  their  country,  and  crush  them 
at  once  before  they  could  have  assistance  from 
their  allies.  In  this  expedition  he  penetrated  as 
far  as  Inverness  ;  but  the  Scots,  under  Sir  An- 
drew Murray,  avoided  a  general  action;  so  that 
Edward  could  effect  nothing  of  consequence. 
The  inhabitants  of  Aberdeen  attacked  one  Tho- 
mas Rosheme,  who  landed  at  Dunottar.  They 
were  defeated  ;  but  Rosheme  fell  in  the  action. 
Edward  chastised  the  vanquished  severely,  and 
burned  the  town.  He  then  began  to  repair  the 
castles  whose  fortifications  had  been  demolished 
by  king  Robert.  He  put  in  a  state  of  defence 
the  castles  of  Dunottar,  Kinclevin,  Lawrieston, 
Stirling,  Bothwell,  Edinburgh,  and  Roxburgh ; 
greatly  augmented  the  fortifications  of  Perth, 
and  left  a  considerable  body  of  troops  in  the 
place.  The  Scots  reduced  these  castles  as  soon 
as  Edward  was  departed;  and  in  1337,  under 
Sir  Andrew  Murray,  invaded  Cumberland.  No 
great  exploits,  however,  were  now  performed  on 
either  side.  Edward,  making  preparations  for 
invading  France,  had  little  leisure  to  attend  to 
the  affairs  of  Scotland  ;  and  the  Scots,  divided 
among  themselves,  and  destitute  of  those  leaders 
under  whom  they  had  acquired  so  much  glory, 
could  not  now  annoy  their  enemies.  The  most 
remarkable  transaction  was  the  siege  of  the 
castle  of  Dunbar,  belonging  to  the  earl  of 
March.  The  English  commander  was  the  earl 
of  Salisbury.  The  earl  of  March  was  absent ; 
but  his  wife,  the  daughter  of  Randolph,  com- 
monly called  Black  Agnes,  undertook  to  de- 
fend it  in  her  husband's  absence.  The  English 
again  employed  their  huge  machine  called  a  sow, 
mentioned  in  our  account  of  the  siege  of  Ber- 
wick :  it  met  with  the  same  fate  as  formerly ;  a 
huge  stone,  let  fall  upon  it  from  the  top  of  the 
walls,  crushed  it  to  pieces.  The  English,  baffled 
in  every  attack,  turned  the  siege  into  a  blockade  ; 
bjut,  Sir  Alexander  Ramsay  having  entered  it  with 
forty  resolute  men,  the  garrison  made  a  sally, 
and  cut  in  pieces  the  advanced  guard  of  the 
enemy.  The  English,  disheartened  by  so  many 
misfortunes,  abandoned  the  enterprise.  In  1338 
Sir  Andrew  Murray  the  regent  died,  and  was 
succeeded  in  his  office  by  Robert  the  Steward  of 
Scotland.  In  1339  he  reduced  the  town  of 
Perth  and  the  castle  of  Stirling ;  and  gained 
over  to  the  Scottish  interest  William  Bullock, 
governor  of  the  castle  of  Coupar :  after  which. 


438 


SCOTLAND. 


having  expelled  the  enemy  from  every  post  north 
of  the  Forth,  he  employed  himself  in  settling  the 
affairs  of  the  nation.  In  1341  the  castle  of 
Edinburgh  was  surprised  by  Sir  William  Bul- 
lock. According  to  his  appointment,  one  Wal- 
ter Currie  of  Dundee  privately  received  into  his 
ship  the  knight  of  Liddesdale,  with  William 
Fraser,  Joachim  of  Kinbuch,  and  200  resolute 
men.  Currie  cast  anchor  in  Leith  road,  pre- 
tending to  be  an  English  shipmaster,  who  had  a 
cargo  of  wine  and  provisions,  with  which  he 
proposed  to  furnish  the  commander  of  the  castle. 
His  barrels  and  hampers  were  brought  to  the 
castle-gate,  and  suddenly  thrown  down  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  obstruct  the  shutting  of  it.  Currie 
and  his  men  then  slew  the  sentinels ;  and  the 
knight  of  Liddesdale,  with  a  party  wiio  lurked 
in  the  neighbourhood,  rushed  in,  overpowered 
the  garrison,  and  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  place.  On  the  4th  of  March,  this  year,  the 
king  and  queen  arrived  from  France,  and  landed 
at  Bervie  in  Kincardineshire.  In  1342  Sir  Alex- 
ander Ramsay  took  the  strong  fortress  of  Rox- 
burgh ;  for  which  important  service  the  king 
bestowed  on  him  the  charge  of  sheriff  of  Teviot- 
dale,  then  held  by  William  Douglas  of  Liddes- 
dale. The  king's  liberality  proved  fatal  to  Ram- 
say, for  from  that  time  Douglas  became  his  im- 
placable enemy  ;  and  having,  after  a  pretended 
reconciliation,  unexpectedly  surprised  him  with 
three  of  his  friends,  he  put  these  instantly  to 
death,  carrying  off  Ramsay  himself  to  his  castle 
of  the  Hermitage,  where  he  caused  him  to  be 
starved  in  a  most  barbarous  manner.  The  un- 
happy man  was  confined  in  a  room,  over  which 
was  a  heap  of  wheat;  a  few  grains  of  which 
were  let  fall  every  day  though  a  hole,  not  as 
many  as  would  support  life,  but  as  would  pro- 
tract it  for  a  time,  and  make  him  longer  sensible 
of  the  agonies  of  hunger ;  in  this  miserable 
situation  he  survived  seventeen  days.  About  the 
same  time,  Sir  William  Bullock  was  put  to  death 
by  Douglas  in  a  similar  manner ;  nor  was  king 
David  in  a  capacity  to  punish  such  atrocious 
cruelties.  In  the  mean  time  David,  having 
raised  a  powerful  army,  prepared  to  take  a 
severe  revenge  of  the  English,  from  whom  he 
had  suffered  so  much.  Edward  was  then  in 
France,  but  commanded  Baliol  to  raise  all  the 
militia  beyond  the  Trent :  which  order,  however, 
produced  but  little  effect ;  so  much  was  the 
mean-spirited  prince  despised  by  the  English. 
David  invaded  and  ravaged  Northumberland; 
but  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  of  Newcastle, 
which  was  commanded  by  Sir  John  Nevil,  an 
excellent  officer.  Exasperated  at  this  repulse, 
David  entered  the  bishopric  of  Durham,  which 
he  ravaged  in  the  most  cruel  manner.  However, 
on  the  approach  of  Edward  with  a  powerful 
army,  the  Scots  retired  ;  and  a  two  years  truce 
was  agreed  upon.  This  pacification  was  but 
short-lived.  In  1345  the  Scots  again  prepared 
to  invade  England,  while  Edward  took  all  ne- 
cessary measures  for  opposing  them ;  but  they 
ravaged  Westmoreland,  and  burnt  several  towns. 
The  year  ended  with  a  new  truce,  and  hostilities 
wtre  not  renewed  till  1346,  when  David  entered 
Kiiuland  with  an  army  of  50,000  men  His  first 
'•\ploit  was  the  taking  of  the  fortress  of  Liddel, 
awl  massacring  all  who:n  he  found  in  it.  The 


commander,  Sir  Walter  Selby,  capitulated  .vith 
a  Scottish  knight  for  his  life ;  but,  the  bargain 
being  disapproved  of  by  David,  he  barbarously 
ordered  two  of  Selby's  sons  to  be  strangled  in 
his  presence,  and  then  the  father's  head  to  be 
cut  off.  Thence  the  Scots  marched  to  Lancroft, 
which  they  plundered ;  then,  passing  into  Nor- 
thumberland, they  pillaged  the  priory  of  Ilexham, 
but  spared  the  town,  to  serve  as  a  magazine. 
Three  other  towns,  Corbridge,  Durham,  and 
Darlington,  were  spared  for  the  same  reason.  In 
his  march  to  Durham,  he  would  have  made  the 
county  a  desert,  had  not  some  of  the  monks  paid 
him  a  contribution  of  £1000  to  spare  their  es- 
tastes :  however,  according  to  Knyghton,  every 
Englishman  who  fell  into  David's  hands  was  put 
to  death,  unless  he  could  redeem  his  life  by 
paying  threepence.  To  put  a  stop  to  the  cruel- 
ties of  this  invader,  the  queen  of  England,  in 
her  husband's  absence,  assembled  a  powerful 
army,  which  was  divided  into  four  bodies  ;  the 
first  commanded  by  lord  Henry  Percy ;  the 
second  by  the  archbishop  of  York  ;  the  third  by 
the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  the  lord  Mowbray,  and  Sir 
Thomas  Rokeby  ;  and  the  fourth  and  principal 
division  by  Edward  Baliol.  The  king  of  Scot- 
land headed  a  chosen  battalion,  of  the  flower  of 
his  nobility,  and  the  French  auxiliaries.  The 
high  steward  of  Scotland  headed  the  second  line ; 
and  the  third  was  commanded  by  the  earls  of 
Moray  and  Douglas.  While  the  English  were 
approaching,  lord  Douglas  and  Sir  David  Gra- 
ham skirmished  with  them,  but  were  defeated 
with  the  loss  of  500  men.  The  general  engage- 
ment began  between  the  archers  on  each  side, 
but,  the  English  being  superior  in  the  use  of  the 
bow,  the  steward  of  Scotland  advanced  to  the 
relief  of  his  countrymen.  The  English  archers,  un- 
able to  bear  his  attack,  fell  back  upon  lord  Henry 
Percy's  division,  which  was  thus  put  in  confu- 
sion, and  would  have  been  totally  defeated,  had 
not  Baliol  advanced  to  their  relief  with  a  body 
of  4000  horse.  The  steward  was  then  obliged 
to  retire;  by  which  means  the  flank  of  that  di- 
vision commanded  by  David,  and  which  was 
then  engaged  with  another  line  of  the  English, 
was  left  exposed  to  an  attack.  Baliol  perceived 
the  advantage ;  and,  without  pursuing  the 
steward,  attacked  the  king's  division,  which  was 
immediately  cut  in  pieces.  David  was  left  with 
about  eighty  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  but  still 
maintained  the  fight  with  obstinacy  ;  nor  would 
he  yield,  even  when  wounded  in  the  head  \\  iih 
an  arrow,  expecting  to  be  delivered  by  the 
steward,  and  that  line  of  his  army  which  was 
still  entire  under  the  lords  Moray  and  Douglas. 
At  last,  finding  himself  totally  overpowered,  he 
attempted  to  retreat,  but  was  overtaken  by  a 
party  under  one  John  Copeland.  This  captain, 
endeavouring  to  seize  the  king,  had  two  of  his 
teeth  struck  out  by  a  blow  of  his  gauntlet ;  but 
at  last  the  king  was  obliged  to  give  up  his  sword, 
and  surrender  himself.  After  he  was  taken, 
Baliol  attacked  and  totally  routed  that  division 
of  the  Scottish  army  which  had  hitherto  re- 
mained entire  under  the  lords  Moray  and 
Douglas.  In  this  battle  the  Scots  lost  a  great 
number  of  their  nobility,  and  15,000  soldiers. 
Many  persons  of  distinction  were  also  taken 
along  with  the  king  ;  ami  had  it  not  been  th.it 


SCOTLAND. 


439 


the  escape  of  the  Scots  was  favoured  by  the 
avarice  of  the  English  soldiers,  who  neglected 
the  pursuit  to  plunder,  scarcely  a  single  Scots- 
111. in  would  have  returned. 

David  was  carried  to  the  castle  of  Bambo- 
rough,  where  he  was  kept  with  so  much  privacy 
that  for  some  time  it  was  not  known  where  he 
was,  or  that  he  had  been  taken  prisoner.  As  soon 
as  the  truth  was  known,  the  queen  of  England 
demanded  the  royal  prisoner  from  Copeland; 
but  the  latter  positively  refused  to  part  with  him 
even  to  the  queen,  unless  she  could  produce  an 
order  to  that  purpose  under  Edward  s  hand  and 
seal.  This  resolute  behaviour  was  resented  by 
the  queen,  and  a  complaint  made  to  the  king  ; 
in  consequence  of  which  Copeland  was  sum- 
moned to  appear  before  Edward,  when  he  re- 
signed David  to  the  custody  of  lord  Nevil.  The 
English  monarch,  then  in  France,  approved  of 
all  that  he  had  done,  rewarded  him  with  £500 
u-yeur,  and  sent  him  back  to  England  honored 
with  knighthood.  David  was  then  escorted  by 
Copeland,  attended  by  20,000  men,  from  the 
castle  of  Ogle  in  Northumberland,  till  lord 
Nevil,  by  indenture,  delivered  him  to  Sir  Tho- 
mas llokeby  sheriff  of  Yorkshire.  In  the 
same  pompous  manner  he  was  conducted  all  the 
way  to  London,  which  he  entered  on  a  black 
courser.  lie  was  received  in  the  capital  with 
the  greatest  solemnity  by  the  lord  mayor  and 
aldermen,  the  city  companies  under  arms  lining 
all  the  streets  through  which  he  passed,  and  the 
houses  being  loaded  with  spectators  who  ex- 
pressed a  generous  concern  for  his  captivity. 
Being  arrived  at  the  tower,  he  was  delivered,  by 
indenture  likewise,  to  the  custody  of  the  con- 
stable, lord  John  Darcy,  on  the  2d  of  January, 

1347.  Baliol,  now  encouraged  by  the  misfortune 
of  his  rival,  made  an  effort  once  more  to  establish 
himself  on  the  throne  of  Scotland;  and,  before 
the  end  of  the  year,  reduced  the  castles  of  Her- 
mitage and  Roxburgh,  the  forest  of  Etteric,  the 
Merse,  with  the  counties  of  Annandale,  Teviot- 
dale,    and   Tweeddale.      The   Scots   continued 
faithful  to  their  king,  notwithstanding  his  mis- 
fortune, and  chose  the  steward  for  the  guardian 
of  the  kingdom.      He  behaved  with  a  prudence 
equal  to  the  high  station  he  filled ;  but  the  pro- 
gress of  Baliol  was  so  rapid  that  it  is  scarcely 
probable  he  could  have  maintained  his  ground, 
had  not  Edward   again  consented  to  a  truce; 
which,  however,  seems  to  have  been  ill  observed 
on  the  part  of  the  Scots.      In  fact,  though  both 
the  Scottish  and  English  historians  are  silent  as 
to  particulars,  we  find  that,  about  the  end  of 

1348,  all  Scotland  was   recovered  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  English,  excepting  Berwick,  Rox- 
burgh, Hermitage,  and  Lanark,  which  was  part 
of  Baliol's  hereditary  estate,  and  defended  by 
him  with  an  army.      The  Scottish  historians  in- 
form us  that  the  English,  in  revenge  for  the  da- 
mages done  to  their  country  by  the  breach  of  the 
peace,  proclaimed  a  tournament  and  other  mi- 
litary exercises  at  Berwick,  to  which  they  invited 
the  Scots;  but,  in  their  way  thither,  the  latter  fell 
into  an  ambuscade  and  were  all  cut  in  pieces. 
The  years  1349  and  1350  were  remarkable  only 
for  a  dreadful  plague  which  invaded  Scotland, 
after  ha  -ing  ravaged  the  continent  of  Europe. 


According  to  Fordun,  one-third  of  the  people  of 
Scotland  perished  at  this  time.  The  patients' 
flesh  swelled  exceedingly,  and  they  died  in  two 
days'  illness ;  but  the  mortality  chiefly  affected 
the  middling  and  lower  ranks.  The  same  dread- 
ful calamity  continued  throughout  the  years 
1351  and  1352;  occasioning  a  cessation  of  arms 
not  only  in  Scotland,  but  throughout  all  Europe. 
All  this  time  king  David  remained  a  prisoner  in 
England;  for,  though  several  treaties  had  been 
proposed,  they  had  come  to  nothing,  as  Edward 
insisted  upon  being  indemnified  for  the  ravages 
the  Scots  had  committed  in  his  territories.  At 
last  it  was  proposed  that  the  king  of  Scotland 
should  be  set  at  liberty,  on  paying  90,000  merks 
for  his  ransom,  by  equal  proportions,  within  nine 
years  ;  with  other  conditions  seemingly  not  un- 
reasonable, but  which  we  need  not  specify,  as 
the  whole  were  rejected  by  the  Scottish  nobility , 
and,  in  1355,  war  was  recommenced  with  Eng- 
land, at  the  instigation  of  France,  who  sent 
40,000  crowns  to  Scotland  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses. With  this  sum  the  guardian,  having 
raised  an  army,  once  more  took  the  field ;  but 
not  before  the  English  had  destroyed  the  Lo- 
thians  and  Douglasdale.  A  battle  was  fought  on 
Nisbet  Moor ;  in  which  the  English,  being  drawn 
into  an  ambuscade,  were  totally  defeated.  The 
next  attempt  of  the  Scots  was  against  Berwick, 
which  they  designed  to  surprise  by  an  escalade. 
They  met,  however,  with  such  a  vigorous  resis- 
tance, that  many  persons  of  distinction  were 
killed.  However,  the  attack  proved  successful ; 
but  the  acquisition  was  of  no  importance  as  the 
castle  held  out.  Edward,  in  the  mean  time, 
hearing  of  the  loss  of  the  town,  hurried  back 
from  France  to  London.  Here  he  staid  but 
three  days,  and  marched  northward  to  raise  the 
siege.  He  reached  Durham  on  the  23rd  of  De- 
cember, 1355,  where  he  appointed  all  his  mili- 
tary tenants  to  meet  him  on  the  1st  of  January, 
1356.  On  the  14th  he  arrived  before  Berwick, 
which  was  instantly  retaken ;  but  the  Scots  were 
allowed  to  return  home.  Baliol  now  perceiving 
that  Edward  meant  not  to  establish  him  on  the 
throne  of  Scotland,  but  to  retain  in  his  own 
possession  as  many  places  of  that  country  as  he 
could,  came  to  the  resolution  of  giving  up 
quietly  to  the  king  of  England  all  his  claims  to 
Scotland.  This  indeed  was  only  a  form,  as  he 
was  not  then  possessed  of  any  part  of  it.  How- 
ever, the  ceremony  was  performed  at  Roxburgh  ; 
and  Baliol  presented  his  crown  and  some  earth 
and  stones  by  way  of  investiture.  Baliol,  in  re- 
turn, was  to  have  a  revenue  of  £2000  a-year ; 
and,  as  Edward  was  at  the  head  of  an  excellent 
army,  he  had  little  doubt  of  forcing  the  Scots 
to  submit.  The  affairs  of  Scotland  were  now  in 
a  very  critical  situation,  and  it  was  necessary  to 
gain  time.  Edward  was  therefore  amused  with 
a  negociation ;  and  to  this  he  the  more  willingly 
listened,  as  he  was  waiting  for  his  fleet,  from 
which  he  had  great  expectations.  A  little  time, 
however,  discoTered  the  deceit.  The  Scots 
plainly  told  Edward  that  they  would  die  rather 
than  submit  to  his  demands  ;  and  he,  in  return, 
threatened  a  dreadful  revenge.  His  fleet  in  the 
mean  time  arrived  in  the  Frith  of  Forth ;  the 
mariners  destroyed  and  pillaged  all  that  was 


440 


SCOTLAND. 


within  their  reach,  without  sparing  even  the  sa- 
cred edifices,  carrying  off  the  statues  of  the 
blessed  virgin,  loading  the  monks  with  chains, 
and  committing  every  kind  of  sacrilege.  Ed- 
ward had  by  this  time  marched  as  far  as  Had- 
dington,  but  was  obliged  to  receive  provisions 
all  the  way  from  his  fleet ;  for  the  Scots  had  de- 
solated the  country.  During  his  march  his 
army  was  harassed,  and  his  foragers  cut  off,  so 
that  he  was  reduced  to  extreme  distress ;  and  at 
last,  his  fleet  being  totally  destroyed  by  a  storm, 
he  was  obliged  to  return  to  England.  In  the 
mean  time  the  prince  of  Wales,  who  had  been 
left  by  his  father  to  carry  on  the  war  in  France, 
defeated  and  took  prisoner  John  king  of  France 
at  the  battle  of  Poictiers.  In  this  battle  were 
3000  Scots,  who  had  gone  over  as  auxiliaries  to 
the  French  monarch,  and  who  suffered  ex- 
tremely. However  the  success  of  Edward,  in- 
stead of  rendering  him  haughty,  seemed  to  have 
a  contrary  effect ;  and,  by  the  mediation  of  pope 
Innocent  V.,  a  truce  for  two  years  was  concluded 
with  France,  in  which  the  Scots  were  compre- 
hended. During  this  interval  the  ransom  of  the 
king  of  Scots  was  settled  at  100,000  merks,  to 
be  paid  in  ten  years ;  for  which  twenty  hostages 
were  to  be  given.  In  consequence  of  this 
treaty,  David  obtained  his  liberty  in  1358,  and 
Edward  laid  aside  all  hopes  of  ever  subduing 
Scotland.  As  for  Baliol,  he  was  now  sunk  in 
oblivion  ;  and  it  is  not  known  what  became  of 
him,  or  when  he  died.  David,  though  restored 
to  liberty,  found  himself  greatly  embarassed  with 
the  payment  of  such  a  large  sum  for  his  ransom ; 
the  kingdom  of  Scotland  being  then  in  a  most 
miserable  and  exhausted  condition.  After  send- 
ing his  queen,  and  going  into  England  himself, 
he  could  obtain  no  greater  favor  than  a  respite 
of  a  few  months  for  the  payment  of  the  second 
moiety  ;  so  that  he  was  at  last  constrained  to  ask 
assistance  from  France.  This  could  scarcely  be 
expected  in  the  distressed  situation  of  that  king- 
dom ;  however,  it  was  at  last  agreed  that  60,000 
merks  should  be  paid  to  Scotland,  in  case  the 
Scots  would  consent  to  renew  the  war  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Neither  party,  however,  kept  their 
word ;  and  David,  being  still  greatly  distressed 
about  the  remainder  of  his  ransom,  at  last  en- 
tered into  a  very  extraordinary  negociation  with 
Edward,  by  which  he  consented  that  the  king  of 
England  should  be  his  successor  to  the  throne  of 
Scotland.  But  this  negociation  was  defeated 
through  the  invincible  hatred  which  the  Scots 
bore  to  an  English  governor.  David  then,  being 
entirely  unable  to  discharge  the  remainder  of  his 
ransom,  was  obliged  to  enter  into  a  new  treaty; 
by  which  the  kingdom  of  Scotland  became  in- 
debted to  Edward  in  the  sum  of  £100,000  ster- 
ling, to  be  paid  by  equal  proportions  within 
twenty-five  years,  during  which  there  should  be 
a  truce  within  the  two  nations.  From  this  time 
we  meet  with  little  more  of  any  moment  in  the 
reign  of  David.  After  the  death  of  his  queen 
Johanna,  the  sister  of  Edward,  he  married  a 
Scottish  woman  of  mean  birth,  named  Margaret 
Ix>gie ;  but  by  neither  of  his  wives  had  he  any 
children.  Queen  Margaret  he  divorced  on  what 
pretence  is  not  known;  but  she  left  the  king- 
dom, and  complained  personally  to  the  pope, 


who  treated  her  as  David's  lawful  wife,  and  en 
joined  him  to  receive  her  as  such  under  the  most 
severe  penalties  ;  but  Margaret  never  returned 
to  Scotland,  and,  on  the  22d  of  February,  1371, 
David  himself  died,  leaving  the  kingdom  to  his 
nephew  Robert  Stewart,  the  first  of  that  family 
who  sat  on  the  throne  of  Scotland. 

On  the  accession  of  Robert  II.  an  assembly  of 
the  states  was  held,  in  which  it  was  resolved 
that  he  should  be  crowned  at  Scone;  and,  to  pre- 
vent all  future  disputes  concerning  the  succes- 
sion, a  particular  act  was  framed,  by  which  the 
kingdom  was  secured  to  Rodert  and  his  heirs. 
Being  thus  established  on  the  throne,  he  endea- 
voured to  renew  the  war  with  the  English,  to  re- 
cover from  them  the  town  of  Berwick,  and  some 
other  places  on  the  borders.  In  this,  however, 
he  failed  ;  and,  as  £56,000  of  David's  ransom 
still  remained  unpaid,  Robert  bound  himself  to 
discharge  it  at  the  rate  of  4000  marks  every  mid- 
summer. He  then  proposed  an  alliance  with 
France;  but,  the  terms  demanded  by  that  king- 
dom being  that  Scotland  should  be  obliged 
to  make  war  with  England  whenever  France 
should  require  it,  Robert  would  not  consent 
to  such  a  condition.  A  new  treaty,  there- 
fore, was  entered  into,  by  which  it  was  pro- 
vided that  neither  Scotland  nor  France  should 
be  obliged  to  make  war  with  England  ;  and, 
by  another  clause,  that  the  dispensation  or 
authority  even  of  the  pope  himself  should 
never  free  the  kings  or  kingdoms  of  I" ranee  and 
Scotland  from  the  obligations  they  lay  under 
to  assist  one  another  as  often  as  required,  in 
opposition  to  the  kingdom  of  England.  In  case 
of  a  competition  for  the  crown  of  Scotland,  the 
king  of  France  and  his  heirs  were  to  take  care 
that  no  English  influence  was  used;  but  shou  <l 
with  all  his  power  defend  and  assist  the  kirr* 
established  by  the  Scotch  laws.  Lastly,  it  was 
agreed  that  no  Frenchman  should  ever  serve  for 
wages  or  otherwise  against  Scotland,  nor  any 
Scotsman  against  France.  This  last  article  oc- 
casioned a  recal  of  all  the  Scots  from  the  English 
armies,  which  Edward  looked  upon  to  be  a 
prelude  to  invasion.  He  accordingly  issued 
writs  for  assembling  all  the  militia  in  the  north 
of  England.  At  this  time  an  invincible  hatred 
subsisted  between  the  neighbouring  people  of 
both  nations,  which  extended  not  only  through 
the  lower  ranks,  but  the  higher  classes  also.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  borders,  indeed,  paid  very 
little  regard  to  the  orders  of  their  respective  sove- 
reigns ;  so  that  hostilities  .were  committed  by 
them  daily  upon  each  other,  even  when  then 
peace  between  the  nations.  They  had  established 
with  one  another  certain  conventions,  which  have 
been  since  collected,  by  the  name  of  Border 
laws :  the  families  of  Douglas  and  Percy,  and 
their  adherents  in  particular,  whose  estates  lay 
contiguous  to  one  another,  were  at  perpetual 
variance.  It  had  been  common  for  the  borderers 
of  both  kingdoms,  during  a  truce,  to  frequent 
each  other's  fairs :  and  a  servant  of  the  carl  of 
March  had  been  killed  in  a  fray  about  this 
time  at  Roxburgh,  which  was  still  in  tne  hands 
of  the  English.  Justice  for  this  murder  was  de- 
manded from  lord  Percy,  but  he  slighted  tlv 
complaint.  On  this  the  earl  of  March,  with  \.\< 


SCOTLAND. 


441 


rother  the  earl  of  Moray,  assembling  their  fol- 
lowers, entered  the  next  fair  that  was  held  in 
Roxburgh,  plundered  and  burnt  the  town,  and 
killed  all  the  En-jlish  who  fell  into  their  hands. 
The  English  borderers  were  ordered  to  lay  waste 
the  lands  of  the  earl  of  March  ;  but  in  their  way 
thither  destroyed  the  castle  of  Sir  John  Gordon, 
a  man  of  great  property  in  the  south  of  Scotland. 
Sir  John  in  his  turn  invaded  England,  whence 
he  drove  oft"  a  large  booty  in  cattle,  and  a  num- 
ber of  prisoners.  In  his  retreat  he  was  attacked 
by  a  body  of  fresh  troops  under  Sir  John  Lish- 
burn,  at  a  place  called  Caram.  An  obstinate 
encounter  followed.  The  Scots  were  five  times, 
repulsed ;  but  at  last  they  renewed  the  charge 
with  such  fury  that  they  made  Lishburn,  his 
brother,  and  several  other  persons  of  distinction, 
prisoners,  with  all  their  surviving  soldiers.  On 
this  lord  Percy  with  7000  men  encamped  at 
Dunse,  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  but  was  obliged 
to  retire.  In  the  mean  time  Musgrave,  the  gover- 
nor of  Berwick,  who  had  been  ordered  to  join 
Percy  with  a  detachment  from  the  garrison,  was 
on  his  march  intercepted,  defeated,  and  taken 
prisoner  by  Sir  John  Gordon ;  after  which  the 
border  war  became  general.  The  issue  of  these 
disturbances  is  but  little  known  ;  however,  in 
1 377,  we  find  them  raging  with  more  violence 
than  ever.  The  fair  of  Roxburgh  was  once  more 
the  scene  of  action,  and  the  town  was  again 
burnt  down  by  the  Scots.  Lord  Percy,  who  was 
now  earl  of  Northumberland,  resolved  to  take 
signal  vengeance.  He  ravaged  the  Scottish  bor- 
ders, particularly  the  earl  of  March's  estate,  for 
three  days,  at  the  head  of  10,000  men.  Some 
time  after  this  the  Scottish  insurgents  became 
powerful  enough  to  surprise  Berwick  ;  which, 
however,  was  quickly  retaken  by  the  English, 
who  soon  after  invaded  Scotland.  In  this  expe- 
dition, however,  they  succeeded  so  ill  that  Percy 
desisted  from  his  expedition.  The  Scots  then 
began  hostilities  by  sea,  under  one  Mercer,  an 
experienced  sailor ;  but  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  English  with  all  his  fleet.  In  1379  Eng- 
land was  afflicted  with  a  dreadful  plague,  of 
which  the  Scots  took  advantage  to  invade  the 
country,  killing  and  plundering  the  defenceless 
inhabitants  without  mercy.  This  predatory  war 
continued,  generally  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
English,  till  the  beginning  of  November  1380, 
when  a  truce  was  concluded  for  a  year.  This 
truce,  like  the  others,  was  but  indifferently  ob- 
served ;  so  that,  in  1383,  new  negociations  were 
set  on  foot ;  but,  in  1 3R4,  the  war  was  renewed 
with  greater  fury  than  ever.  In  spring  the  earls 
of  March  and  Douglas  took  the  castle  of  Loch- 
maben,  and  intercepted  a  rich  convoy  which  the 
English  were  sending  to  Roxburgh ;  burnt  to 
the  ground  the  castle  of  Wark,  and  committed 
such  devastations  in  the  north  of  England  that 
several  gentlemen  offered  to  resign  their  estates 
to  Richard  II.  because  they  were  not  able  to  de- 
i'end  them  against  the  Scots.  The  duke  of  Lan- 
raster  entered  Scotland  at  the  head  of  an  army  ; 
but  the  inhabitants  had  removed  every  thing 
valuable,  so  that  he  marched  on  to  Edinburgh 
without  accomplishing  any  thing  of  consequence. 
On  his  return  he  was  harassed  by  flying  parties 
of  Scots,  who  destroyed  a  considerable  :i 


of  his  men.  This  year,  also, .  the  French  sent  a 
body  of  auxiliaries  into  Scotland.  The  earls  of 
Northumberland  and  Nottingham  entered  Scot- 
land with  an  army  of  10,000  horse  and  6000 
archers  ;  but  retired,  after  having  committed  de- 
vastations in  the  southern  counties.  The  Scots 
revenged  themselves  by  laying  waste  all  the 
northern  part  of  England  to  the  gates  of  New- 
castle. Berwick  was  taken  by  the  Scots,  and 
soon  after  surrendered  for  2000  merks.  A  truce 
was  then,  as  usual,  concluded ;  but  in  the  mean 
time  king  Robert  was  meditating  a  severe  blow 
against  the  English.  The  duke  of  Burgundy, 
having  come  to  the  possession  of  the  estate  of  his 
father-in-law  the  earl  of  Flanders,  claimed  the 
sovereignty  of  the  town  of  Ghent ;  but  the  people 
refused  to  submit  to  him,  and  in  this  refusal 
were  protected  by  king  Richard  II.  of  England. 
On  this  the  duke  of  Burgundy  proposed  to  the 
French  court  to  invade  England  in  concert  with 
the  Scots.  A  fleet  was  accordingly  fitted  out  at 
Sluys ;  on  board  of  which  John  de  Vienne,  the 
French  admiral,  embarked,  carrying  along  with 
him  £50.000  in  gold,  which  the  duke  of  Burgun- 
dy advanced  to  be  distributed  in  Scotland,  where 
the  admiral  arrived  safe  with  2000  auxiliaries, 
of  whom  500  were  men  at  arms.  400  suits  of 
complete  armour  were  brought  along  with  them. 
to  be  distributed  among  the  bravest  of  the  Scots, 
who  were  for  a  short  time  elated  with  the  great 
attention  which  had  been  paid  them  by  the 
French  king ;  but  in  the  mean  time,  the  Flemings 
having  revolted,  the  French  abandoned  the  Scots 
to  sustain  the  whole  weight  of  the  English  re- 
sentment, that  they  themselves  might  employ 
their  arms  in  Flanders.  King  Richard  took  tlie 
field  with  a  more  numerous  army  than  had  ever 
been  mustered  in  England  before.  Hostilities 
were  begun  by  the  Scots,  who,  according  to  cus- 
tom, invaded  the  northern  parts  of  England,  and 
carried  off  a  considerable  booty;  however,  in 
their  retreat,  they  were  in  danger  of  being  cut 
off  by  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  had  been  sent 
with  an  army  to  intercept  them.  The  English 
army  proceeded  northwards,  but  could  not  ac- 
complish any  thing,  the  country  being  desolated, 
till  they  came  to  Edinburgh,  which  they  laid  in 
ashes.  Being,  however,  incessantly  harassed  by 
parties  of  the  enemy,  they  were  obliged  to  retreat. 
In  1378,  after  a  short  truce,  the  war  was  renewed 
with  fresh  fury.  Northumberland  and  West- 
moreland were  ravaged  by  the  earls  of  Fife  and 
Douglas,  and  lord  Nithisdale  defeated  a  body  of 
3000  English  ;  after  which  he  formed  a  plan  of 
invading  Ireland,  the  inhabitants  of  which  had 
of  late  been  very  active  against  the  Scots.  In 
1388  Douglas  obtained  permission  to  raise  a 
body  of  forces  for  his  invasion ;  and,  having 
landed  in  safety,  defeated  the  Irish,  plundered 
the  town  of  Carliogford,  and  loaded  fifteen  ships 
with  the  booty.  Thence  the  Scots  sailed  to  the 
Isle  of  Man,  which,  in  like  manner,  was  plundered 
and  laid  waste;  after  which  they  returned  with 
their  booty  to  Lock  Rian  in  Scotland.  Encou- 
raged by  their  success  Robert  determined  to  pro- 
ceed on  a  more  enlarged  plan.  Having  assem- 
bled a  parliament  at  Aberdeen,  a  double  invasion 
of  England  was  resolved  upon.  Two  armies  were 
raised  consisting  cf  25,000  men  each,  the  one 


442 


SCOTLAND. 


under  the  earls  of  Monteith  and  Fife,  Douglas, 
lord  of  Galloway,  and  Alexander  Lindesay  ;  the 
other  under  the  earls  of  Douglas,  March,  Craw- 
ford, Moray,  the  lord  high  constable  of  Scotland, 
and  other  persons  of  rank.  The  former  entered 
Cumberland,  and  the  latter  Northumberland, 
ooth  which  countries  they  laid  waste,  and  both 
armies  were  to  meet  within  ten  miles  of  New- 
castle. The  English  were  thrown  into  the  greatest 
consternation.  Newcastle  was  defended  by  the 
earl  of  Northumberland,  whose  age  and  infirmi- 
ties rendered  him  incapable  of  taking  the  field ; 
but  his  place  was  abundantly  supplied  by  his 
two  sons  Henry  and  Ralph,  the  former  of  whom 
is  known  in  English  history  by  the  name  of 
Hotspur.  The  town  was  garrisoned  by  the  flower 
of  the  English  nobility  and  gentry,  as  well  as  the 
inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  counties,  who  had 
fled  thither  for  refuge.  Douglas  selected  2000 
foot  and  400  horsemen  out  of  the  two  armies, 
and  encamped  on  the  north  side  of  the  town, 
with  a  view  of  storming  it  next  day.  In  the 
meantime  he  was  challenged  by  Hotspur  to  fight 
him  hand  to  hand,  with  sharp  ground  spears,  in 
sight  of  both  armies.  Douglas  accepted  the 
challenge,  and  Percy  was  unhorsed  the  first  en- 
counter, and  obliged  to  take  refuge  within  the 
portcullis  of  the  town  ;  whence  Douglas  brought 
off  his  antagonist's  lance,  with  a  pennon  affixed 
to  it,  and  swore  in  his  hearing  that  he  would 
carry  it  into  Scotland.  Next  day  Douglas  at- 
tempted to  storm  the  town  ;  but,  being  repulsed 
in  the  attack,  he  decamped  in  the  night.  Percy, 
breathing  furious  revenge,  pursued  and  overtook 
the  Scots  at  Otterburn.  His  arrival  was  quite 
unexpected,  so  that  the  principal  commanders 
of  the  Scottish  army  were  sitting  down  to  sup- 
per unarmed.  The  soldiers,  however,  were  in- 
stantly prepared  for  battle;  but,  in  the  hurry 
necessarily  attending  a  surprise  of  this  kind, 
Douglas  forgot  to  put  on  his  cuirass.  Both 
leaders  encouraged  their  men  by  the  most  ani- 
mating speeches;  and  both  parties  waited  for  the 
rise  of  the  moon,  which  happened  that  night  to 
be  unusually  bright.  The  battle  being  joined  on 
the  moon's  first  appearance,  the  Scots  beean  to 
?ive  ground,  but,  being  rallied  by  Douglas,  who 
fought  with  a  battle-axe,  the  English,  though 
greatly  superior  in  numbers,  were  totally  routed  ; 
1200  were  killed  on  the  spot,  and  100  persons 
of  distinction,  among  whom  were  the  two  Percies, 
were  made  prisoners  by  Keith,  marischal  of  Scot- 
land. On  the  side  of  the  Scots  the  greatest  loss 
was  that  of  the  brave  earl  Douglas,  who  was 
killed  in  consequence  of  going  to  battle  without 
his  armour.  This  single  combat  between  Douglas 
and  Percy,  and  the  subsequent  battle,  gave  rise 
to  the  celebrated  ballad  of  Chevy  Chace.  See 
OTTERBURN.  In  the  mean  time  the  bishop  of 
Durham  marched  towards  Newcastle  with  an 
army  of  10,000  men  ;  but  was  informed  by  the 
runaways  of  Percy's  defeat,  on  the  21st  of  July 
1388.  In  a  council  of  war  it  was  resolved  to 
pursue  the  Scots,  whom  they  hoped  easily  to 
vanquish,  as  being  wearied  with  the  battle  of  the 
preceding  day,  and  laden  with  plunder.  The 
earl  of  Moray,  who  commanded  in  chief,  having 
called  a  consultation  of  his  officers,  resolved  to 
venture  a  battle.  The  prisoners  were  almost  as 


numerous  as  the  whole  Scottish  army  ;  however 
the  generals  required  no  more  of  them  than  their 
words  of  honor  that  they  should  continue  inac- 
tive during  the  battle,  and  remain  priscners  still. 
This  condition  being  complied  with,  the  Scots 
drew  out  their  army  for  battle.  Their  rear  was 
secured  'by  marshes,  and  their  flanks  by  large 
trees  which  they  had  felled.  In  short  their  ap- 
pearance was  so  formidable  that  the  English, 
dreading  to  encounter  a  resolute  enemy  so  strongly 
secured,  retired  to  Newcastle,  leaving  the  Scots 
at  liberty  to  continue  their  march  to  their  own 
country.  Robert  being  now  oppressed  with  age, 
so  that  he  could  no  longer  end'iie  the  fatigues  of 
government,  the  administration  of  affairs  devolved 
upon  his  second  son  the  earl  of  Fife ;  for  his 
eldest  son  was  by  nature  indolent,  and  besides 
lame  by  an  unlucky  blow  he  had  received  from 
a  horse.  Early  in  the  spring  of  1389  he  invaded 
England  with  success;  but  the  same  year  a  truce 
was  concluded,  to  last  from  the  19th  of  June 
1389  to  the  16th  of  August  1392  ;  in  \vhich  the 
allies  of  both  crowns  were  included.  This  truce 
was  violently  opposed  by  the  nobility,  who  sus- 
pected their  king  of  being  too  much  under  French 
influence.  Upon  this  the  court  of  France  sent 
over  ambassadors  to  persuade  the  nobilitv  to 
comply  ;  informing  them  that,  in  case  of  a  refu- 
sal, they  could  expect  no  assistance  either  of  men 
or  money  from  the  continent.  With  difficulty 
they  prevailed,  and  peace  between  England  and 
Scotland  was  once  more  restored.  Scarcely, 
however,  was  this  truce  finished,  when  the  peace 
of  the  nation  was  most  scandalously  violated  by 
Robert's  third  son,  Alexander,  earl  of  Buchan. 
This  prince,  having  a  quarrel  with  the  bishop  of 
Murray,  burnt  down  the  fine  cathedral  of  l-'luin, 
which  has  been  called  by  historians  the  ornament 
of  the  north  of  Scotland.  The  king  for  this  crime 
caused  his  son  to  be  imprisoned;  and  a  civil 
war  would  have  been  the  consequence  had  it  not 
been  for  the  veneration  which  the  Scots  retained 
for  their  old  king.  However  they  did  not  long 
enjoy  their  beloved  monarch;  for  he  died  on  the 
19th  of  April  1390,  in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of 
his  age,  and  the  nineteenth  of  his  reign. 

On  the  death  of  Robert  II.  the  crown  devolved 
upon  his  eldest  son  John  ;  but  the  name  being 
thought  unpropitious,  from  the  unfortunate  reigns 
of  the  three  Johns  of  Scotland,  England,  and 
France,  he  changed  it  for  that  of  Robert,  though 
he  was  still  called  by  the  commonalty  Robert 
John  Fernzier.  He  had  been  married  to  Anna- 
bella,  the  daughter  of  Sir  John  Drummond,  an- 
cestor to  the  noble  family  of  Perth ;  and  \\;is 
crowned  along  with  his  consort  at  Scone,  on  the 
13th  of  August,  1390.  He  confirmed  the  truce 
with  England,  and  renewed  the  league  with 
France  ;  but  the  beginning  of  his  reign  was  dis- 
turbed by  the  wars  of  the  petty  chieftains  with 
each  other.  Duncan  Stewart,  son  to  Alexander, 
earl  of  Buchan,  who  had  died  in  prison,  assem- 
bling his  followers  under  pretence  of  reve- 
his  father's  death,  laid  waste  the  county  of  An- 
gus. Walter  Ogilvy,  the  sheriff  of  Angus,  at- 
tempting to  repel  the  invaders,  was  killed,  with 
his  brother  and  sixty  of  their  followers.  The  king 
then  gave  a  commission  to  the  earl  of  Crawford 
to  suppress  them,  which  he  soon  did,  and  most 


SCOTLAND. 


41,3 


of  them  were  either  killed  or  executed.  The  fol- 
lowers of  the  earl  of  Buchan  were  composed  of 
the  wildest  Highlanders,  distinguished  by  the  title 
of  Catterenes,  which  answers  to  that  of  banditti 
or  robbers.  They  seem  to  have  lived,  like  the 
Arabs,  entirely  by  plunder;  and  they  or  their 
ancestors  had  emigrated  from  the  Western  Isles 
and  from  Ireland.  The  lands  they  inhabited 
were  never  cultivated  till  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  earl  of  Crawford's  success 
against  the  followers  of  Buchan  encouraged 
Robert  to  intrust  him  with  a  commission  for 
subduing  other  insurgents.  The  most  remarkable 
of  these  were  the  Clan  Chattan  and  Clan  Kay. 
As  both  these  tribes  were  numerous  and  brave, 
Crawford  was  afraid  that  they  might  unite  against 
him  as  a  common  enemy.  He  proposed,  there- 
fore, that  the  two  rival  clans  should  each  choose 
thirty  men,  to  determine  their  differences  by  the 
sword  without  any  other  weapon.  The  king  and 
his  nobility  were  to  be  spectators  of  the  combat ; 
the  conquered  clan  were  to  be  pardoned  for  all 
their  former  offences,  and  the  conquerors  honored 
with  the  royal  favor.  This  proposal  was  readily 
accepted,  and  the  North  Inch  of  Perth  was  to  be 
the  scene  of  action.  But,  upon  mustering  the 
combatants,  it  was  found  that  one  of  the  clan 
Chattan  had  absented  himself.  It  was  proposed 
to  balance  this  difference  by  withdrawing  one  of 
the  combatants  from  the  clan  Kay ;  but  not  one 
of  them  could  be  prevailed  on  to  resign  his  place. 
At  last  one  Henry  Wynd,  a  saddler,  though  no 
way  connected  with  either  party,  offered  to  sup- 
ply the  place  of  him  that  was  absent,  on  con- 
dition of  his  receiving  a  French  crown  of  gold 
(about  7s.  6d.  of  our  money)  ;  which  was  imme- 
diately paid  him.  The  combat  then  began  with 
incredible  fury  ;  but  at  last,  through  the  superior 
valor  and  skill  of  Henry  Wynd,  victory  declared 
in  favor  of  the  clan  Chattan.  Only  ten  of  the 
conquerors  besides  Wynd  were  left  alive,  and  all 
of  them  desperately  wounded.  Of  the  clan  Kay 
only  one  remained  ;  and  he  having  received  no 
hurt  escaped  by  swimming  across  the  Tay. 
W'hile  these  internal  broils  were  going  on,  the 
truce  which  had  lately  been  concluded  with  Eng- 
land was  so  ill  observed  that  it  became  necessary 
to  enter  into  fresh  negociations.  These  had  little 
effect.  The  borderers  on  both  sides  had  been  so 
accustomed  to  ravage  and  plunder  that  they 
could  not  live  in  quiet.  Robert  also  was  thought 
to  be  too  much  attached  to  the  king  of  England. 
He  had  introduced  the  new  title  of  duke,  which 
he  bestowed  first  on  the  prince  royal ;  but,  making 
an  offer  of  that  honor  to  one  of  the  heads  of  the 
Douglas  family,  it  was  rejected  with  disdain. 
That  powerful  family  had  never  lost  sight  of  an 
ancient  claim  they  had  upon  the  castle  of  Rox- 
burgh, which  was  still  in  the  possession  of  the 
Knglish;  and  this  year  the  son  of  the  earl  of 
Douglas,  Sir  William  Stewart,  and  others,  broke 
down  the  bridge  of  Roxburgh,  plundered  the 
town,  and  destroyed  the  forage  and  corn  there 
and  in  the  adjacent  country.  The  English  ap- 
plied for  satisfaction  ;  but  obtained  none,  as  the 
confusion  which  involved  the  kingdom  by  the 
deposition  and  murder  of  Richard  II.,  and  the 
accession  of  Henry  IV.,  prevented  them  from 
having  recourse  to  arms,  the  only  argument  to 


which  the  Scottish  patriots  in  those  days  would 
listen.  No  sooner  was  the  catastrophe  or'  Richard 
known  in  Scotland  than  the  Scots  resolved  to 
avail  themselves  of  it ;  and  invading  the  north 
parts  of  England,  demolished  the  castle  of  Wark, 
and  laid  the  neighbouring  country  under  con- 
tribution. The  situation  of  Henry's  affairs  did 
not  admit  of  his  resenting  this  insult.  He  con- 
tented himself  with  nominating  his  brother,  the 
earl  of  Westmoreland,  to  treat  with  the  Scots 
about  a  truce  of  peace ;  or,  if  that  could  not  be 
obtained,  to  make  a  mutual  agreement  that  the 
towns  of  Dumfries  in  Scotland,  and  Penrith  in 
England,  should  be  free  from  hostilities  during 
the  war.  To  this  proposal  the  Scots  paid  no 
regard;  and  being  now  encouraged  by  the  court 
of  France,  who  resented  the  deposition  of 
Richard,  they  renewed  their  ravages  in  England. 
In  t400  Henry  called  a  parliament  to  consult  on 
the  best  means  of  repelling  the  Scottish  invasions; 
and  in  this  he  was  greatly  assisted  by  the  divi- 
sions of  the  Scots  among  themselves.  Prince 
David,  duke  of  Rothesay,  the  heir-apparent  of 
the  crown,  was  now  grown  up  to  man's  estate,  and 
it  was  thought  proper  to  provide  a  suitable  con- 
sort for  him.  The  king  scandalously  offered  him 
to  the  lady  whose  father  could  give  him  the 
highest  price.  The  earl  of  March  was  the  highest 
bidder ;  and  advanced  a  considerable  sum  in 
ready  money,  on  condition  that  his  daughtei 
should  become  the  royal  bride.  This  sordid  mate! 
was  opposed  by  Douglas,  who  proposed  his  owi. 
daughter,  the  lady  Margery.  So  degenerated  was 
the  court  of  Scotland,  at  this  time,  that  neither  the 
king  nor  the  duke  of  Rothesay  opposed  this  pro 
posal  of  a  new  match,  because  it  was  to  be  pur 
chased  with  a  fresh  sum ;  and  they  even  re- 
fused to  indemnify  the  earl  of  March  for  the. 
money  he  had  already  advanced.  As  the  duke 
of  Albany  sided  with  Douglas,  a  council  of  the 
nobility  was  privately  assembled,  which  annulled 
the  contract  of  the  lady  Elizabeth  Dunbar,  the 
earl  of  March's  daughter,  in  favor  of  the  lady 
Margery,  daughter  to  the  earl  of  Douglas ;  but 
without  taking  any  measures  for  repaying  the 
money  to  the  earl  of  March.  The  continuator  of 
Fordun  informs  us  that  the  earl  of  Douglas  paid 
a  larger  sum  for  his  daughter's  fortune  than  that 
which  had  been  advanced  by  the  earl  of  March, 
and  that  the  earl  of  Douglas's  daughter  was  mar- 
ried to  the  duke  of  Rothesay :  that,  before  the 
marriage  was  celebrated,  March  demanded  that 
the  money  he  had  advanced  should  be  reim- 
bursed ;  but,  receiving  an  unsatisfactory  answer, 
he  declared  that,  as  the  king  had  not  fulfilled  his 
bargain,  he  would  bring  unexpected  calamities 
upon  the  country.  Accordingly  he  fled  into  Eng- 
land, leaving  his  castle  of  Dunbar  to  the  custody 
of  his  nephew  Robert  Maitland,  who  soon  after 
put  it  into  the  hands  of  the  earl  of  Douglas,  called 
in  history  Archibald  the  Grim,  from  the  sternness 
of  his  visage.  As  soon  as  Robert  heard  of  the 
revolt  of  the  earl  of  March,  he  sent  ambassadors 
demanding  back  his  subject ;  but  the  request  was 
disregarded.  On  the  other  hand,  the  earl  of 
March  demanded  repossession  of  the  castle  of 
Dunbar,  pleading  that  he  had  committed  no  act 
of  treason,  but  had  come  to  England  under  a  safe 
conduct  from  king  Henry,  on  purpose  to  nego- 


444 


SCOTLAND. 


ciate  his  private  affairs,  but  this  request  was  dis- 
regarded ;  upon  which  he  sent  for  all  his  family 
and  followers  to  England,  where  they  joined  him 
in  great  numbers.     This  produced  a  war  between 
the  two  kingdoms.     The  earl  of  March,  with 
Henry  Percy,  surnamed  Hotspur,  invaded  Scot- 
land,  penetrating   as   far  as    Haddington,    and 
carrying  off  great  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  into 
captivity.     Thence  they  went  to  Peebles,  and 
then  to  Linton,  ravaging  the  country  all  the  way 
as  they  passed  along.     They  next  besieged  the 
castle  of  Hales,  and  took  several  of  the  neigh- 
bouring forts ;  but  Archibald  the  Grim,  or  his 
son,  having  raised  an  army  against  them,  they 
were  struck  with  terror,  and  fled  to  Berwick,  to 
the  gates  of  which  they  were  pursued  by  the 
Scots.    At  this  time  the  Scottish  admiral,  Sir 
Robert  Logan,  was  at  sea  with  a  squadron  ;  but 
miscarried  iu  an  attempt  he  made  upon  some 
English  ships  of  war  that  protected  their  fleet 
when  fishing  upon  the  coast  of  Scotland.     After 
this  the  English  plundered  the  Orkney  Islands  ; 
which,  though  belonging  to  the  crown  of  Nor- 
way, were  at  that  time  governed,  or  rather  farmed, 
by  Sinclair  the   Scottish   earl   of  Orkney   and 
Caithness.     All  this  time  the  earl  of  March  con- 
tinued under  the  protection  of  the  king  of  Eng- 
land.    He  had  received  repeated  invitations  to 
return  to  his  allegiance :  but,  all  of  them  being 
rejected,  he  was  proclaimed  a  traitor ;  and  the 
Scottish  governor  made  a  formal  demand  of  him 
from  king  Henry.     With  this  the  latter  not  only 
refused  to  comply,  but  renewed  his  league  with 
the  lord  of  the  isles.    On  the  25th  of  July,  1400, 
the  earl  of  March  renounced  his  homage,  fealty, 
and  service,  to  the  king  of  Scotland,  and  trans- 
ferred them  to  Henry  by  a  formal  indenture.  For 
this  he  was  rewarded  with   a  pension  of  500 
merks  sterling,  and  the  manor  of  Clipestone  in 
Sherwood  forest.     Henry  now  began  to  revive 
the  claim  of  homage  from  the  kings  of  Scotland, 
and  even  to  meditate  the  conquest  of  the  king- 
dom.    He  had  indeed  many  reasons  to  hope  for 
success ;  from  the  weakness  of  the  Scottish  govern- 
ment, the  divided  state  of  the  royal  family,  and 
the  dissensions  among  the  chief  nobility.    Before 
he  set  out  on  his  journey  he  received  a  letter  from 
the  duke  of  Rothesay,  full  of  reproaches  on  ac- 
count of  the  presumptuous  letters  which  Henry 
had  addressed  to  Robert  and  his  nobility.    The 
letter  was  addressed  by  the  duke,  '  To  his  ad- 
versary of  England,'  as  the  Scots  had  not  yet 
recognised  the  title  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  crown 
of  England.    Towards  the  end  of  it  the  duke  de- 
sired Henry,  to  avoid  the  effusion  of  Christian 
blood,  to  fight  him  in  person  with  two,  three,  or 
100  noblemen  on  a  side.     But  this  challenge 
produced  no  other  answer  from  Henry  than  that 
'  he  was  surprised  that  the  duke  of  Rothesay 
should  consider  noble  blood  as  not  being  Chris- 
tian, since  he  desired  the  effusion  of  the  one, 
and  not  of  the  other.'     Henry  arrived  at  heith 
on  the  very  day  on  which  he  had  appointed  the 
Scottish   nobility  to   meet   him   and  pay   their 
homage,  and  conclude  a  peace  between  the  two 
/  crowns.  He  flattered  the  English  with  a  promise 
of  raising  the  power  and  glory  of  their  country 
to  a  higher  pitch  than  it  had  ever  reached.  Under 
this  pretext  he  seized  upon  the  sum  of  £350,000 


in  ready  money,  beside;   as  much  in  plate  and 
jewels,  which  had  been  left  by  Richard   II.   in 
the  royal  treasury.    He  raised  also  vast  contribu- 
tions on  the  clergy  and  nobility,  and  likewise  on 
the  principal  towns  and  cities.     At  last,  finding 
that  neither  his  vast  preparations,  nor  the  interest 
of  the  earl  of  March,  had  brought  any  of  the 
Scots  to  his  standard,  he  formed  the  siege  of 
Edinburgh  castle,  which  was  defended  by  the  duke 
of  Rothesay.     The  duke  of  Albany,  brother  to 
king  Robert,  was  then  in  the  field  with  an  army, 
and  sent  a  letter  to  king  Henry,  promising  that, 
if  he  would  remain  where  he  was  for  six  days, 
he  would  give  him  battle,  and  force  him  to  raiMj 
the  siege,  or  lose  his  life.    When  this  was  written 
the  duke  was  at  Calder-muir;  and  Henry  was  so 
much  pleased  with  the  letter  that  he  presented 
the  herald  who  delivered  it  with  his  upper  gar- 
ment, and  a  chain  of  gold ;  promising,  on  his 
royal  word,  that  he  would  remain  where  he  was 
until   the   day   appointed.      On    this   occasion, 
however,   the   duke    forfeited  his   honor  (if  in- 
deed the  villain  had  any  to  forfeit) ;  for  he  suf- 
fered six  days  to  elapse  without  making  any  at- 
tempt on  the  English  aimy.    Henry  in  the  mean 
time,  pushed  on  the  siege  of  Edinburgh  castle; 
but  met  with  a  most  vigorous  resistance  from  the 
duke  of  Rothesay.     At  the  same  time  he  \va< 
informed  that  the  Welsh  were  on  the  point  of 
rebellion   under   their   famous   chieftain   Owen 
Glendower.     He  knew   also  that  many  of  the 
English  were  highly  dissatisfied  with  his  title  to 
the  crown  ;  and  that  he  owed  his  peaceable  pos- 
session  of  it  to   the  moderation  of  the  earl  of 
March,  who  was  the  real  heir  to  the  unfortunate 
Richard,  but  a  nobleman  of  no  ambition.     Tor 
these  reasons  he  raised  the  siege  of  Edinburgh 
castle,  and  returned  to  England.  He  then  agreed 
to  a  truce  for  six  weeks,  but  which  was  alier- 
terwards  prolonged  for  a  year,  by  commissioners 
of  the  two  crowns,  who  met  at  Kelso.     In  1401 
Scotland  suffered  a  great  loss  by  the  death  of 
Trail,  archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's,  a  most  exem- 
plary patriot,  and  a  person  of  great  influence. 
Archibald  Douglas  the    Grim  had  died  some 
time  before,  and  his  loss  also  was  now  severely 
felt;  for  the  king  himself,  naturally  feeble,  and 
quite  disabled  by  his  age  and  infirmities,  lived 
sequestered    from   the    world      This   year   also 
queen  Annaoella  died,  so  that  none  remained  who 
might  be  able  to  heal  those  divisions  which  pre- 
vailed among  the  royal  family.     Robert  duke  of 
Albany,  a  man  of  great  ambition,  was  an  enemy 
to   the  duke   of  Rothesay,  the   heir-apparent ; 
and  endeavoured  to  impress  his  father  with  a 
bad  opinion  of  him.     This  prince,  however,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  chargeable  with  no  misde- 
meanor of  consequence.    One  Ramorgny,  a  man 
of  the  vilest  principles,  but  an  attendant  on  the 
duke  of  Rothesay,  had  won  his  confidence  ;  and, 
perceiving  how  much  he  resented  the  conduct  of 
his  uncle  the  duke  of  Albany,  had  the  villany  to 
suggest  to  the  prince  the  despatching  him  by 
assassination.  This  infamous  proposal  the  prince 
rejected  with  such  horror  and  displeasure,  that 
the  villain,  being  afraid  he  would  disclose  it  to 
the  duke  of  Albany,   informed  the  latter,  undci 
the  seal  of  the  most  inviolable  secrecy,  that  the 
prince  intended  to  murder  him  ;  upon  which  the 


SCOTLAND. 


445 


<iukc,  and  William  Lindsay  of  Rossay,  his  asso- 
ciate, resolved  upon  the  prince's  death.  By 
practising  upon  the  dealing  king,  Lindsay  and 
Uamorgny  obtained  a  writ  directed  to  the  duke 
ot  Albany,  empowering  him  to  arrest  his  son, 
and  to  keep  him  under  restraint.  The  same 
traitors  had  previously  possessed  the  prince  with 
an  apprehension  that  his  life  was  in  danger,  and 
had  persuaded  him  to  seize  the  castle  of  St. 
Andrew's.  He  was  riding  thither  with  a  small 
attendance,  when  he  was  arrested  between  the 
towns  of  Nidi  and  Stratirum  (according  to  the 
continuator  of  Fordun),  and  hurried  to  the  very 
castle  of  which  he  was  preparing  to  take  posses- 
sion. The  duke  of  Albany,  and  the  earl  of 
Douglas,  who  was  likewise  the  prince's  enemy, 
were  then  at  Culross,  waiting  the  event ;  of 
which  they  were  no  sooner  informed,  than  they 
ordered  a  strong  body  of  ruffians  to  carry  the 
royal  captive  from  the  castle;  which  they  did, 
after  clothing  him  in  a  russet  cloak,  and  com- 
mitting him  to  the  custody  of  two  execrable 
wretches,  John  Selkirk  and  John  Wright,  who 
were  ordered  by  the  duke  of  Albany  to  starve 
him  to  death.  According  to  Buchanan  his  fate 
was  for  some  time  prolonged  by  the  compassion 
of  one  of  his  keeper's  daughters,  who  thrust  him 
oatcakes  through  the  chinks  of  his  prison  walls, 
and  a  woman  who,  being  a  wet  nurse,  found 
means  to  convey  part  of  her  milk  to  him  through 
a  small  tube.  Both  these  charitable  females 
were  detected,  and  put  to  death.  The  prince 
himself  died  on  Easter-eve,  his  hunger,  it  is  said, 
having  impelled  him  to  devour  part  of  his  own 
flesh.  In  the  mean  time  Robert,  being  yet  ig- 
norant of  the  shocking  murder,  had  consented  to 
renew  hostilities  with  England.  On  the  expira- 
tion of  the  truce,  Henry  sent  a  commission  to  the 
carls  of  Northumberland  and  Westmoreland,  to 
offer  the  Scots  any  terms  they  could  reasonably 
desire;  but  every  offer  of  this  kind  was  rejected. 
The  earl  of  March  had  received  another  pension 
from  Henry,  on  condition  of  his  keeping  on  foot  a 
certain  number  of  light  troops  to  act  against  the 
Scots ;  and  so  effectually  did  these  now  annoy 
their  enemies  that  the  earl  of  Douglas  was 
obliged  to  take  the  field.  By  dividing  his  men 
into  small  parties,  he  repressed  the  depredations 
of  the  invaders;  and  Thomas  Haliburton,  the 
commander  of  one  of  the  Scottish  parties, 
made  incursions  into  England  as  far  as  Bambo- 
roush,  whence  he  returned  with  a  considerable 
booty.  This  encouraged  another  chieftain,  Pa- 
trick Hepburn,  to  make  a  similar  attempt ;  but, 
being  elated  with  success,  he  remained  too  long 
:n  the  enemy's  country ;  so  that  the  earl  of  March 
sent  a  detachment  to  intercept  him.  This  pro- 
duced a  desperate  encounter,  in  which  Hepburn 
was  killed ;  the  flower  of  the  youth  of  Lothian, 
who  had  attended  him,  were  cut  off,  and  scarcely 
a  single  Scotchman  remained  unwounded.  On 
the  news  of  this  disaster,  the  earl  of  Douglas  ap- 
plied for  assistance  to  the  duke  of  Albany.  He 
v.  as  immediately  furnished  with  a  considerable 
m  my,  consisting  of  10,000,  or  13,000  ;  but,  ac- 
re rding  to  the  English  historians,  of  20,000  men. 
IWrdoch,  the  sen  of  the  duke,  attended  the  earl 
t'n  this  expedition,  as  did  also  the  earlb  of  Moray, 
AnjitiS,  ( ;ikney,  and  manyithers  of  the  chief 


nobility,  with  eighty  knights.  The  Scots  on  tin 
occasion  conducted  themselves  with  the  same 
imprudence  they  had  done  before.  Having  pe- 
netrated too  far  into  the  country,  they  were  in- 
tercepted by  the  English  on  their  return,  and 
obliged  to  engage  at  a  place  called  Homeldon, 
under  great  disadvantages.  The  consequence 
was  that  they  were  utterly  defeated,  and  almost 
the  whole  army  either  killed  or  taken.  Henry 
Hotspui,  to  whom  this  victory  was  chiefly  owing, 
resolving  to  pursue  the  advantage  he  had  gained, 
entered  the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and 
laid  siege  to  a  castle  called  Cocklawys,  on  the 
borders  of  Teviotdale.  The  castle  was  for  some 
time  bravely  defended  ;  but  at  last  the  governor 
entered  into  a  treaty,  by  which  it  was  agreed  to 
deliver  up  the  castle,  if  it  was  not  relieved  by 
the  king  or  governor  in  six  weeks;  during  which 
time  no  additional  fortifications  were  to  be  made. 
But,  while  the  English  were  retiring,  one  of 
Percy's  soldiers  pretended  that  the  Scots  had 
broke  the  capitulation  by  introducing  a  mattock 
into  the  place.  The  governor,  hearing  of  this 
charge,  offered  to  fight  any  Englishman  who 
should  engage  to  make  it  good.  A  champion 
was  accordingly  singled  out,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  Scotchman  ;  and  the  English  army  retired 
according  to  agreement.  The  matter  then  being 
debated  in  the  Scottish  council,  it  was  resolved 
to  send  relief  to  the  castle.  Accordingly  the 
duke  of  Albany,  with  a  powerful  army,  set  out 
for  the  place  ;  but,  before  he  came  there,  certain 
news  were  received  of  the  defeat  and  death  of 
Hotspur,  at  Shrewsbury.  In  1404  king  Henry, 
anxious  for  a  peace  with  Scotland,  renewed  ne- 
gotiations for  that  purpose.  These,  however, 
not  being  attended  with  success,  hostilities  were 
continued,  but  without  any  remarkable  transac- 
tion. In  the  mean  time  king  Robert  was  in- 
formed of  the  miserable  fate  of  his  eldest  son  the 
duke  of  Rothesay  ;  but  was  unable  to  resent  it 
by  executing  justice  on  the  monster  Albany. 
After  giving  himself  up  to  grief,  therefore,  for 
some  time,  he  resolved  to  provide  for  the  safety 
of  his  second  son  James,  by  sending  him  into 
France ;  and  the  young  prince  took  shipping 
with  all  imaginable  secrecy  at  the  Bass,  under 
the  care  of  the  earl  of  Orkney.  On  his  voyage 
he  was  taken  by  an  English  privateer  off  Flam- 
borough  Head,  and  brought  before  Henry.  The 
English  monarch  having  examined  the  attendants 
of  the  prince,  they  told  him  they  were  carrying 
the  prince  to  France  for  his  education.  '  1  un- 
derstand the  French  tongue,'  replied  Henry, 
'  and  your  countrymen  ought  to  have  been  kiwi 
enough  to  have  trusted  me  with  their  prince's 
education.'  He  then  committed  the  prince  and 
his  attendants  close  prisoners  to  the  tower  of 
London.  The  news  of  this  disaster  arrived  at 
the  castle  of  Rothesay  in  the  Isle  of  Bute  (the 
place  of  Robert's  residence)  while  the  kin?  \%as 
at  supper ;  and  the  news  threw  him  into  such  an 
agony  of  grief  that  he  died  in  three  days,  the 
29th  of  March  1405,  after  having  reigned  about 
fifteen  years. 

By  the  death  of  Robert,  and  the  captivity  of 
the  prince,  all  the  power  devolved  upon  the 
duke  of  Albany,  who  was  appointed  regent  by  a 
convention  of  the  states  assembled  at  Scone. 


SCOTLAND. 


The  allegiance  of  the  people,  however,  to  their 
captive  prince  could  not  be  shaken  ;  so  that  the 
-egent  was  oU'iged  to  raise  an  army  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rescuing  him.  Henry  summoned  all 
his  military  tenants,  and  made  great  preparations  ; 
but,  having  agreed  to  treat  of  a  final  peace  with 
Ireland  and  the  lord  of  the  Isles,  the  regent  laid 
hold  of  this  as  a  pretence  for  entering  into  a  new 
negociation  with  the  English  monarch ;  and  a 
truce  was  concluded  for  a  year.  In  consequence 
of  this,  Rothesay,  king  at  arms,  was  appointed 
commissary  general  for  the  king  and  kingdom 
of  Scotland  ;  and  in  that  quality  repaired  to  the 
court  of  England.  When  prince  James  was 
taken,  there  had  been  a  truce,  however  ill  ob- 
served, subsisting  between  the  two  nations. 
Rothesay  produced  the  record  of  this  truce, 
which  provided  that  the  Scots  should  have  a  free 
navigation ;  and,  in  consequence  of  this,  he  de- 
manded justice  of  the  captain  and  crew  of  the 
privateer  who  had  taken  the  prince.  Henry  or- 
dered the  matter  to  be  enquired  into;  but  the 
English  brought  their  complaints  as  well  as  the 
Scots  ;  and  the  claims  of  both  were  so  intricate 
that  the  examination  fell  to  the  ground,  but  at 
the  same  time  the  truce  was  prolonged.  In  the 
end  of  1409,  or  the  beginning  of  1410,  the  war 
was  renewed  with  England,  and  Henry  prepared 
to  strike  the  fatal  blow  which  he  had  long  medi- 
tated against  Scotland.  He  had  entered  into  a 
league  with  the  lord  of  the  Isles,  where  a  consi- 
derable revolution  then  happened.  Walter  Les- 
ley had  succeeded  to  the  estate  and  honors  of  the 
earl  of  Ross,  in  the  right  of  his  wife,  who  was  the 
heir.  By  that  marriage,  he  had  a  son  named 
Alexander,  who  succeeded  him  ;  and  a  daughter 
Margaret,  who  was  married  to  the  lord  of  the 
Isles.  This  Alexander  had  married  one  of  the 
regent's  daughters ;  and,  dying  young,  he  left 
behind  him  an  only  daughter,  Euphan,  who  was 
deformed,  and  became  a  nun  at  North  Berwick. 
Her  grandfather,  the  regent,  procured  from  her 
a  resignation  of  the  earldom  of  Ross,  to  which 
she  was  undoubted  heir,  in  favor  of  John  earl  of 
Buchan,  but  in  prejudice  of  Donald  lord  of  the 
Isles,  who  was  the  son  of  Margaret,  sister  to  the 
earl  Alexander,  and  consequently  the  nearest  heir 
to  the  estate  after  the  nun.  Donald  applied  for 
redress;  but,  his  suit  being  rejected,  he,  with  his 
brother  John,  fled  into  England,  where  he  was 
graciously,  received  by  king  Henry.  According 
to  the  instructions  given  him  by  the  English  mo- 
narch, Donald  returned  to  his  own  dominions  in 
the  Isles,  where  he  raised  an  army,  and,  passing 
over  into  Ross-shire,  violently  seized  on  the  es- 
tate in  dispute.  He  was  soon  at  the  head  of 
10,000  Highlanders,  with  whom  he  marched  into 
the  province  of  Moray,  and  thence  to  Strathbogie 
and  Garioch,  which  he  laid  under  contribution. 
Advancing  towards  Aberdeen,  with  a  view  to 
pay  his  troops  with  the  plunder  of  that  city, 
which  was  then  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  he 
was  met  by  the  earl  of  Marr,  whom  the  regent 
had  employed  to  command  against  him,  at  a  vil- 
lage called  Harlaw,  near  Aberdeen.  A  fierce 
engagement  ensued,  in  which  great  numbers 
were  killed  on  both  sides,  and  the  victory  re- 
mained uncertain ;  but  Donald  finding  himself  in 
the  midst  of  an  enemy's  country,  where  he  could 


raise  no  recruits,  began  to  retreat  next  day  ;  and, 
the  shattered  state  of  the  royal  arm;'  preventing 
him  from  being  pursued,  he  escaped  to  his  own 
dominions  ;  where  in  a  short  time  he  submitted, 
and  swore  allegiance  to  the  crown  of  Scotland. 
In  the  mean  time  Henry  continued  the  war,  and 
refused  to  renew  the  truce,  though  frequently  so 
licited.  He  had  now,  however,  sustained  a  ereai 
loss  by  the  defection  of  the  earl  of  March,  who 
had  gone  over  to  the  Scots.  This  nobleman,  on 
his  return  to  Scotland,  had  been  fully  reconciled 
to  the  Douglas  family,  and  now  strove  to  distin- 
guish himself  in  the  cause  of  his  country  ;  a  cir- 
cumstance which,  together  with  the  countenance 
shown  the  Scots  by  the  court  of  France,  and  ;i 
bull  published  by  the  pope  in  their  favor,  con- 
tributed to  reduce  Henry  to  reason :  we  hear  of 
no  more  hostilities  between  the  two  nations  till 
after  the  death  of  the  English  monarch,  which 
happened  in  1413. 

In  1415,  the  truce  being  expired,  the  Scots 
made  great  preparations  for  besieging  Berwick  ; 
but  nothing  was  done  during  the  campaign,  but 
the  burning  of  Penrith  by  the  Scots,  and  Dum- 
fries by  the  English.  Next  year  a  truce  was 
agreed  uponr  and  a  treaty  entered  into  for  the 
ransom  of  king  James;  which  was  so  far  ad- 
vanced that  the  English  king  agreed  to  his  visit- 
ing Scotland,  provided  he  engaged  to  forfeit 
£100,000  sterling  in  case  of  his  failure  to  return 
by  a  certain  day.  For  reasons  now  unknown, 
this  treaty  was  broken  off,  and  vast  preparations 
were  made  for  a  new  invasion  of  Scotland ; 
which,  however,  was  executed  with  so  little 
success,  that  it  became  known  among  the  com- 
mon people  of  Scotland  by  the  name  of  the  fule 
raid.  In  1420  died  Robert  duke  of  Albany, 
regent  of  Scotland,  at  the  age  of  eighty ;  and 
such  was  the  veneration  which  the  Scots  had  for 
his  memory,  notwithstanding  his  villany,  that  his 
post  of  regent  was  conferred  upon  his  eldest  son 
Murdoch.  The  war  with  England  was  now  dis- 
continued ;  but  in  France  Henry  V.  met  with 
the  greatest  opposition  £rora  the  Scots  auxilia- 
ries, insomuch  that  he  proclaimed  all  the  Scots 
in  the  service  of  the  Dauphin  rebels  against  their 
lawful  sovereign.  Soon  after  this  the  town  and 
castle  of  Melun  being  obliged  to  capitulate,  one 
of  the  articles  was,  that  all  the  English  and 
Scots  in  the  place  should  be  resigned  to  the  ab- 
solute disposal  of  the  king  of  England  ;  when 
he  caused  twenty  Scottish  soldiers  who  were  found 
in  the  place  to  be  hanged.  In  1421  Henry  re- 
turned to  England,  and  with  him  James  the 
Scottish  king.  On  his  arrival  there,  he  was  in- 
formed that  the  Scots,  under  the  earl  of  Douglas, 
had  made  an  irruption  into  England,  where  they 
had  burnt  Newark,  but  had  been  forced  to  re- 
turn to  their  own  country  by  a  pestilence,  though 
a  new  invasion  was  daily  expected.  Instead  of 
resenting  this  insult,  Henry  invited  the  earl  of 
Douglas  to  a  conference  at  York  ;  in  which  the 
latter  agreed  to  serve  him  during  life,  by  sea  and 
land,  against  all  living,  except  his  own  liege  lord 
the  king  of  Scotland,  with  200  foot  and  as  many 
horse ;  the  king  of  England,  in  the  mean  time, 
allowing  an  annual  revenue  of  £200  for  paying 
his  expenses.  A  new  negociation  was  also  now 
set  on  foot  for  the  ransom  of  kin?  James  ;  but 


SCO  T  L  A  N   1>. 


447 


he  did  not  obtain  his  liberty  till  1424.  Henry 
V.  was  then  do;id  ;  find,  none  of  his  generals 
being  able  to  supply  his  place,  the  English  power 
in  France  began  to  decline.  They  then  became 
sensible  how  necessary  it  was  to  be  at  peace  with 
Scotland.  James  was  therefore  highly  caressed, 
and  at  his  own  liberty  within  certain  bounds. 
The  English  even  consulted  him  about  the  man- 
ner of  conducting  the  treaty  for  his  ransom  ;  and 
one  Dougal  Urummond,  a  priest,  was  sent  with 
a  safe  conduct  for  the  bishop  of  Glasgow,  chan- 
cellor of  Scotland,  Dunbar  earl  of  March,  John 
Montgomery  of  Androssan.,  Sir  Patrick  Dunbar 
of  Bele,  Sir  Robert  Lauder  of  Edrington,  &c., 
to  have  an  interview  at  Pomfret,  with  their 
master  the  captive  king,  and  there  to  treat  of 
their  common  interests.  Most  of  these  noble- 
men and  gentlemen  had  before  been  nominated 
to  treat  with  the  English  about  their  king's  re- 
turn ;  and  Dougal  Drummond  seems  to  have 
been  a  domestic  favorite  with  James.  Hitherto 
the  Scottish  king  had  been  allowed  an  annual 
revenue  of  £700;  but,  while  he  was  making 
ready  for  his  journey,  his  equipage  and  atten- 
dants were  increased  to  those  befitting  a  sove- 
reign ;  and  he  received  a  present  from  the 
English  treasury  of  £lOO.  That  he  might  ap- 
pear in  a  way  suitable  to  his  dignity,  at  every 
stage  were  provided  relays  of  horses,  fish,  flesh, 
and  fowl,  with  cooks  and  other  servants  for  fur- 
nishing the  most  sumptuous  entertainments.  In 
this  meeting  at  Pomfret,  James  acted  as  a  kind 
of  a  mediator  between  England  and  his  own  sub- 
jects, to  whom  he  fully  laid  himself  open ;  but, 
in  the  mean  time,  the  English  regency  issued  a 
commission  for  settling  the  terms  upon  which  he 
was  to  be  restored,  if  he  arid  his  commissioners 
should  lay  a  proper  foundation  for  such  a  treaty. 
The  instructions  the  commissioners  received 
were  dated  at  Westminster,  July  6th,  1423; 
but  we  need  not  quote  them,  as  nothing  defini- 
tive was  concluded  at  this  time,  but  that  another 
meeting  should  be  held  at  York.  This  accord- 
ingly took  place,  and  the  chief  articles  proposed 
were  agreed  to.  The  English  commissioners 
were,  Thomas  bishop  of  Durham,  chancellor  of 
England,  Philip  bishop  of  Winchester,  Henry 
Percy  earl  of  Northumberland,  and  Mr.  John 
Wodeham.  On  the  10th  of  September  they 
came  to  the  following  agreement  with  the  Scot- 
tish commissioners: — 1.  That  the  king  of  Scot- 
land and  his  heirs,  as  an  equivalent  for  his  enter- 
tainment in  England,  should  pay  to  the  king  of 
England  and  his  heirs,  at  London,  in  the  church 
of  St.  Paul,  by  equal  proportions,  the  sum  of 
£40,000  sterling.  2.  That  the  first  payment 
of  10,000  merks,  should  be  made  six  months 
after  the  king  of  Scotland's  entering  his  own 
kingdom  ;  that  the  like  sum  should  be  paid  next 
year,  and  so  on  for  six  years,  when  the  whole 
would  be  cleared;  unless,  after  payment  of 
40,000  merks,  the  last  payment  of  10,000  should 
be  remitted.  3.  That  the  king  of  Scotland,  be- 
fore entering  his  own  kingdom,  should  give 
sufficient  hostages  for  his  performance.  4.  That 
the  king  of  Scotland  should  be  at  Branspath,  or 
Durham,  by  the  1st  of  March,  where  he  should 
be  attended  by  the  nobles  of  his  blood,  and  other 
subjects,  to  fix  the  number  and  quality  of  the 


hostages.  5.  That,  to  cement  and  perpetuate 
the  amity  of  the  two  kingdoms,  the  governors  of 
Scotland  should  send  ambassadors  to  London, 
with  power  to  conclude  a  contract  of  marriage 
between  the  king  of  Scotland  and  some  lady  of 
the  first  quality  in  England.  (James,  it  is  pro- 
bable, had  already  fixed  his  choice  upon  the  lady 
Joan,  daughter  to  the  earl  of  Somerset,  who  was 
son  to  John  of  Gaunt  duke  of  Lancaster,  by  his 
second  marriage ;  but  he  paid  his  people  the 
compliment,  not  only  of  consulting  their  opinion, 
but  of  concluding  the  match.)  The  commis- 
sioners, after  their  agreement  at  York,  proceeded 
towards  London,  and  Thomas  Somerville  of 
Carnwath,  with  Walter  Ogilvy,  were  added  to 
their  number.  Being  arrived  at  that  capital, 
they  ratified  the  former  articles,  and  undertook 
for  their  king,  that  he  should  deliver  his  hostages 
to  the  king  of  England's  officers,  in  the  city  of 
Durham,  before  the  last  day  of  March  ;  that  he 
should  also  deliver  to  the  said  officers  four  obli- 
gatory letters,  for  the  whole  sum  of  £40,000 
from  the  four  burghs  of  Edinburgh,  Perth,  Dun- 
dee, and  Aberdeen  ;  that  he  should  give  his 
obligatory  letter  to  the  same  purpose,  before  re- 
moving from  Durham,  and  should  renew  the 
same  four  days  after  his  arrival  in  his  own  king- 
dom ;  that  the  hostages  might  be  changed  from 
time  to  time  for  others  of  the  same  fortune  and 
quality,  and  that,  if  any  of  them  should  die  in 
England,  others  should  be  sent  thither  in  their 
room.  The  marriage  of  James  with  the  lady 
Joan  Beaufort  was  celebrated  in  the  beginning 
of  February,  1424.  The  young  king  of  England 
presented  him  with  a  suit  of  cloth  of  gold  for 
the  ceremony ;  and  the  next  day  he  received  a 
legal  discharge  of  £10,000  to  be  deducted  from 
the  £40,000  at  which  his  ransom  was  fixed.  The 
ceremony  being  performed,  the  king  and  queen 
set  out  for  Durham,  where  the  hostages  were 
waiting ;  and  arrived  at  his  own  dominions, 
along  with  the  earl  of  Northumberland  and  the 
chief  of  the  northern  nobility,  who  attended  him 
with  great  pomp.  On  the  20th  of  April,  the 
same  year,  he  was  crowned  at  Scone.  During 
the  dependence  of  the  treaty  for  James's  release, 
the  Scots  had  emigrated  to  France  in  such  num- 
bers that  no  fewer  than  15,000  of  them  appeared 
in  arms  under  the  duke  of  Touraine. 

On  his  return,  James  found  himself  in  a  disa- 
greeable situation.  The  great  maxim  of  the  duke 
of  Albany,  when  regent,  had  been  to  maintain 
himself  in  power  by  exempting  the  lower  class 
of  people  from  taxes.  This  plan  had  been  con- 
tinued by  his  son  Murdoch ;  but,  as  the  latter  was 
destitute  of  his  father's  abilities,  the  people 
abused  their  happiness,  and  Scotland  became 
such  a  scene  of  rapine  that  no  commoner  could 
say  he  had  a  property  of  his  own.  The  Stewart 
family,  on  their  accession,  were  possessed  of  a 
very  considerable  patrimonial  estate,  indepen- 
dent of  the  standing  revenues  of  the  crown, 
which  consisted  chiefly  of  customs,  wards,  and 
reliefs.  The  revenues  of  the  paternal  estate  be- 
longing to  James,  had  they  been  regularly  trans- 
mitted to  him,  would  have  more  than  maintained 
him  in  a  splendor  equal  to  his  dignity,  while  he 
was  in  England  ;  nor  would  he  in  that  case 
have  had  any  occasion  for  an  allowance  from 


44S 


SCOTLAND. 


the  kino;  of  England.  But,  as  the  duke  of  Al- 
bany never  intended  that  his  nephew  should 
return,  he  parcelled  out  among  his  favorites  the 
estate  of  the  family  in  such  a  manner  that  James 
found  all  his  patrimonial  revenues  gone,  and 
many  of  them  in  the  hands  of  his  best  friends. 
This  circumstance,  of  itself  sufficiently  disa- 
greeable, was  attended  with  two  others,  which 
tended  to  make  it  more  so.  The  one  was  that 
the  hostages  which  had  been  left  for  the  king's 
ransom  in  England,  being  all  of  them  persons  of 
the  first  rank,  were  attended  by  their  wives, 
families,  children,  and  equipages,  which  rivalled 
those  of  the  same  rank  in  England,  and  drew 
much  ready  money  out  of  the  nation.  The  other 
circumstance  was,  the  expense  of  the  Scottish 
army  in  France  ;  where  Charles,  who  had  never 
been  in  a  condition  to  support  it,  was  now  re- 
duced to  the  utmost  necessity;  while  the  re- 
venues of  James  himself  were  both  scanty  and 
precarious.  To  remedy  these  inconveniences, 
therefore,  the  king  obtained  from  his  parliament 
an  act,  obliging  the  sheriffs  of  the  respective 
counties  to  enquire  what  lands  and  estates  had 
belonged  to  his  ancestors  David  II.,  Robert  II., 
and  Robert  III.;  and  he  formed  a  resolution  of 
resuming  these  lands  wherever  they  could  be 
discovered.  At  this  time  many  of  the  most  il- 
lustrious personages  in  the  kingdom  were  ar- 
rested, and  the  duke  of  Albany,  his  two  sons, 
and  the  earl  of  Lennox  the  duke's  father-in-law, 
were  put  to  death.  James  proceeded  with  great 
spirit  to  reform  the  abuses  which  had  pervaded 
every  department  of  the  state,  and  warmly  pro- 
tected and  encouraged  learning  and  learned 
men.  He  himself  wrote  some  poetry;  and  in 
music  was  so  excellent  a  composer,  that  he  has 
been  with  good  reason  regarded  as  the  father  of 
Scottish  music.  He  introduced  organs  into  his 
chapels,  and  a  much  better  style  of  architecture 
into  all  the  public  buildings.  He  was  also  a 
warm  patron  of  the  useful  arts:  in  short,  be  did 
more  towards  the  civilisation  of  his  people  than 
had  been  done  by  any  of  his  predecessors.  In 
the  mean  time  the  truce  continued  with  Eng- 
land. James,  however,  seemed  not  to  have  any 
inclination  to  enter  into  a  perpetual  alliance  with 
that  kingdom.  Ou  the  contrary,  in  1428,  he  en- 
tered into  a  treaty  with  France  ;  by  which  it  was 
agreed  that  a  marriage  should  be  concluded  be- 
tween the  dauphin  of  France,  afterwards  Louis 
XL,  and  the  young  princess  of  Scotland  ;  and  so 
great  was  the  necessity  of  Charles  VII.  for  troops 
at  that  time,  that  he  demanded  only  6000  forces 
as  a  portion  for  the  princess.  The  rest  of  the 
reign  of  James  was  spent  in  reforming'  abuses, 
curbing  the  authority  of  the  great  barons,  and 
recovering  the  royal  estates.  In  this,  however, 
he  used  so  much  severity  that  lie  was  at  last 
murdered  in  1437.  The  perpetrators  of  this  re- 
gicide were  the  earl  of  Athol  ;  Robert  Graham 
who  was  connected  with  the  earl,  and  discon- 
tented on  account  of  his  losing  the  estate  of 
Strathern;  and  Robert,  grandchild  and  heir  to 
Athol,  and  one  of  the  king's  domestics.  The 
king  had  dismissed  his  army,  without  even  re- 
serving to  himself  a  body  guard,  and  was  at 
supper  in  the  Dominican  convent  of  the  Black 
friars  near  Perth :  Graham  had  for  some  time 


been  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  outltws,  and 
brought  a  party  of  them  to  Perth  in  the  dead  of 
the  night,  posting  them  near  the  convent.  Walter 
Stratton,  one  of  the  king's  cupbearers,  on  bring- 
ing some  wine  to  the  king  while  at  supper,  per- 
ceived armed  men  in  the  passage,  and  gave  the 
alarm,  when  he  was  immediately  killed.  Ca- 
tharine Douglas,  one  of  the  queen's  maids  of 
honor,  ran  to  bolt  the  outer  door;  but  the  bar 
was  taken  off  by  Robert  Stuart;  and,  the  lady 
thrusting  her  arm  into  the  staple,  it  was  instantly 
broken.  Patrick  Dunbar,  brother  to  the  earl  of 
March,  was  killed  in  attempting  to  defend,  his 
sovereign,  and  the  queen  received  two  wounds 
in  attempting  to  interpose  herself  betwixt  her 
husband  and  the  assassins.  James  defended 
himself  as  long  as  he  could  ;  but  was  over- 
powered at  last  after  receiving  twenty-eight 
wounds. 

The  crown  now  devolved  upon  his  son  James 
II.,  at  that  time  only  seven  years  of  age.  A. 
parliament  was  immediately  called  by  the  queen- 
mother,  at  which  the  most  cruel  punishments 
were  decreed  to  the  murderers  of  the  late  king. 
The  crime,  no  doubt,  deserved  an  exemplary 
punishment ;  but  the  barbarities  inflicted  on 
some  of  those  wretches  are  shocking  to  relate. 
Within  less  than  six  weeks  after  the  death  of  the 
kin*:,  all  of  them  were  brought  to  Edinburgh, 
arraigned,  condemned,  and  executed  ;  the  c-ari 
of  Athol  and  Robert  Graham  undergoing  the 
most  cruel  torments,  such  as  pinching  with  hot 
irons,  dislocation  of  the  joints,  Sec.  The  earl  of 
Athol  had,  besides,  a  crown  of  red  hot  iron  put 
on  his  head,  and  was  afterwards  cut  up  alive, 
his  heart  taken  out,  and  thrown  into  a  fire. 
/Eneas  Sylvius,  the  pope's  nuncio,  who  beheld 
them,  said  on  this  occasion  that  he  was  at  a  UK; 
to  determine  whether  the  crime  committed  by 
the  regicides  or  the  punishment  inflicted  upon 
them  was  the  greatest.  As  the  late  king  had 
prescribed  no  form  of  a  regency,  in  case  of  hi< 
death,  the  settlement  of  the  government  bo. 
a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  Archibald  eail  of 
Douglas,  who  had  been  created  duke  of  Tou- 
raine  in  France,  was  by  far  the  greatest  subject 
in  the  realm  ;  but  as  he  had  not  been  a  favorite, 
and  the  people  were  now  disgusted  with  regen- 
cies, he  was  not  formally  appointed  to  the 
administration,  though  he  in  fact  enjoyed  the  su- 
preme power  as  long  as  he  lived  ;  which,  how- 
ever, was  but  a  short  time.  He  died  the  same 
year  (1438);  and  Sir  Alexander  Livingstone  of 
Callendar  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  as 
governor  of  the  kingdom,  that  is,  to  have  the  ex- 
ecutive power,  while  William  Crichton,  as  chan- 
cellor, had  the  direction  of  the  civil  courts.  Tins 
was  a  most  unfortunate  partition  of  power  for 
the  public.  The  governor  and  chancellor  quar- 
relled ;  the  latter  took  possession  of  the  king's 
person  and  the  castle  of  Edinburgh,  to  neither  of 
which  he  had  any  right ;  while  the  former  had 
on  his  side  the  queen  mother,  a  woman  of  intrigue 
and  spirit.  Her  son  was  shut  up  in  the  castle 
of  Edinburgh ;  and  in  a  short  lime  there  was 
no  appearance  either  of  law  or  government.  The 
governor's  edicts  were  counteracted  by  those  of 
the  chancellor  in  the  king's  name,  and  those  who 
obeyed  the  chancellor  were  punished  by  the 


SCOTLAND. 


449 


governor  ;  while  the  young  earl  of  Douglas,  with 
his  numerous  followers  and  dependents,  was  a 
declared  enemy  of  both  parties.  The  queen- 
mother  demanded  access  to  her  son,  which  Crich- 
ton  could  not  deny  her;  and  she  was  accordingly 
admitted,  with  a  small  train,  into  the  castle.  She 
played  her  part  so  well,  and  dissembled  with  so 
much  art,  that  the  chancellor,  imagining  that  she 
had  become  a  convert  to  his  cause,  treated  her 
with  unbounded  confidence.  Pretending  that 
she  had  vowed  a  pilgrimage  to  the  white  church 
at  Buchan,  she  recommended  the  care  of  her 
son's  person,  till  her  return,  to  the  chancellor, 
in  the  most  affectionate  terms ;  but,  in  the  mean 
time,  she  secretly  sent  him  to  Leith,  packed  up 
in  a  clothes  chest;  and  both  she  and  James  were 
received  at  Stirling  by  the  governor  before  the 
escape  was  known.  As  every  thing  had  been 
managed  in  concert  with  Livingstone,  he  called 
together  his  friends,  and  laying  before  them  the 
tyrannical  behaviour  of  the  chancellor,  it  was 
resolved  to  besiege  him  in  the  castle  of  Edin- 
burgh, the  queen  promising  to  open  her  own 
granaries  for  the  use  of  the  army.  In  the  mean 
time,  the  chancellor  anticipating  the  storm,  and 
applying  to  the  earl  of  Douglas,  that  haughty 
nobleman  answered  him  that  he  was  preparing 
to  exterminate  both  parties.  The  siege  of  Edin- 
burgh castle  being  formed,  the  chancellor  de- 
manded a  parley,  and  to  have  a  personal  inter- 
view with  the  governor ;  which  the  latter,  who 
knew  the  sentiments  of  Douglas,  readily  agreed 
to.  Common  danger  united  them,  and  the  chan- 
cellor resigning  to  the  other  the  custody  of  the 
castle  and  the  king's  person,  with  the  highest 
professions  of  duty  and  loyalty,  the  two  compe- 
titors swore  an  inviolable  friendship.  Next  day 
the  king  cemented  their  union,  by  confirming 
both  in  their  respective  charges.  The  lawless 
example  of  the  earl  of  Douglas  encouraged  the 
other  great  landholders  to  gratify  their  private 
animosities,  sometimes  at  the  expense  of  their 
honor,  as  well  as  their  humanity  :  and  a  family 
difference  having  occurred  between  Sir  Allan 
Stuart  of  Darnley,  and  Thomas  Boyd  of  Kilmar- 
nock ;  it  was  settled  that  both  parties  should 
come  to  a  peaceable  agreement  at  Polmaisthorn, 
between  Linlithgow  and  Falkirk,  where  Stuart 
was  treacherously  murdered  by  his  enemy.  His 
death  was  revenged  by  his  brother,  Sir  Alexander 
Stuart  of  Beilmouth,  who  challenged  Boyd  to  a 
pitched  battle,  the  principals  being  each  attended 
by  a  small  army.  The  conflict  was  fierce  and 
bloody,  eacli  party  retiring  in  its  turn,  and 
charging  with  fresh  fury ;  but  at  last  victory  de- 
clared for  Stuart,  the  bravest  of  Boyd's  atten- 
dants being  cut  off  in  the  field.  About  this  time 
the  islanders,  under  two  of  their  chieftains, 
Lauchlan  Maclean  and  Murdoch  Gibson,  noto- 
rious freebooters,  invaded  Scotland,  and  ravaged 
the  province  of  Lenox.  They  were  opposed  by 
John  Colcuhoun  of  Luss,  whom  they  slew,  some 
say  treacherously,  and  others  in  an  engagement 
at  Lochlomond,  near  Inchmartin.  After  this  the 
robbers  became  more  outrageous  than  ever :  all 
the  laboring  hands  in  the  kingdom  being  engaged 
in  domestic  broils,  and  a  dreadful  famine  en- 
sued, attended,  as  usual,  by  a  pestilence.  James 
IT.  was  now  about  ten  years  of  age ;  and  the 
VOL.  XIX. 


wisest  part  of  the  kingdom,  agreed  that  the  pub- 
lic distresses  were  owing  to  a  total  disrespect  of 
the  royal  authority.  The  young  earl  of  Douglas 
never  had  fewer  than  1000,  and  sometimes  2000 
horse  in  his  train,  lie  pretended  to  be  indepen- 
dent of  the  king  and  the  law;  that  he  had  a 
right  of  judicature  upon  his  own  large  estates; 
and  that  he  was  entitled  to  the  exercise  of  royal 
power.  He  gave  protection  to  thieves  and  mur- 
derers, affecting  to  brave  the  king,  made  knights, 
and,  according  to  some  writers,  endowed  certain 
noblemen,  of  his  own  dependents,  with  a  power 
of  sitting  in  parliament.  The  queen-mother  was 
not  wholly  guiltless  of  those  abuses.  She  had 
fallen  in  love  with,  and  married  Sir  James  Stuart, 
commonly  called  the  Black  Knight  of  Lorn, 
brother  to  the  lord  of  that  title,  and  a  descendant 
of  the  house  of  Darnley.  Affection  for  her 
husband  caused  her  to  renew  her  political  in- 
trigues ;  her  interest  inclined  towards  the  party 
of  the  Douglasses.  The  governor  sought  to 
strengthen  his  authority  by  restoring  the  exercise 
of  the  civil  power.  The  conduct  of  lord  Cal- 
lendar  was  not  so  defensible,  either  as  to  pru- 
dence or  policy.  When  the  queen  expressed  her 
desire  that  her  husband  might  be  admitted  to 
some  part  of  the  administration,  the  governor 
threw  both  him  and  his  brother  lord  Lorn  into 
prison,  on  a  charge  of  disloyal  practices.  The 
queen,  being  offended  at  this,  was  herself  con- 
fined to  a  mean  apartment  in  the  castle  of  Stir- 
ling ;  and  a  convention  of  the  states  was  called 
to  judge  in  what  manner  she  was  to  be  pro- 
ceeded against.  The  case  was  difficult ;  nor  is 
it  probable  that  the  governor  would  have  carried 
matters  to  such  extremity,  had  he  not  had  strong 
evidences  of  her  illegal  behaviour.  She  was 
obliged  to  dissemble  her  resentment,  by  profess- 
ing before  the  states  that  she  had  always  been 
entirely  innocent  of  her  husband's  practices. 
Upon  making  this  purgation  (as  Lindsay  calls 
it)  she  was  released,  with  her  husband  and  his 
brother,  being  bailed  by  the  chancellor  and  the 
lord  Gordon,  who  became  sureties  for  their  good 
behaviour  in  the  penalty  of  4000  merks.  The 
govenior  was  afterwards  accused  of  many  arbi- 
trary and  partial  acts :  but  if  we  consider  his 
situation,  and  the  violence  of  the  parties,  it  was 
almost  impossible,  consistently  with  his  own 
safety,  to  have  exerted  the  virtues  either  of  pa- 
triotism or  moderation.  The  chancellor  was 
piqued  at  the  small  regard  which  the  governor 
pajd  to  his  person  and  dignity,  and  secretly 
connected  himself  with  the  queen-mother.  The 
king  and  his  mother  continued  at  Stirling ; 
where  the  governor,  on  pretence  of  consulting 
the  public  safety,  and  that  of  the  king's  person, 
maintained  a  strong,  guard.  The  queen-mother 
represented  this  to  her  son  as  a  restraint  upon 
his  liberty;  and,  obtaining  his  consent  to  put 
himself  into  the  chancellor's  hands,  the  latter,  a 
man  of  activity  and  courage,  crossing  the  Forth  in 
the  dark  with  a  strong  body  of  horse,  surrounded 
the  king  as  he  was  hunting  :  and,  when  some  of 
the  guards  offered  to  dispute  the  possession  of 
his  person,  Sir  William  Livingston,  the  gover- 
nor's eldest  son,  restrained  them,  and  suffered 
the  king  to  depart.  This  happened  when  the 
governor  was  absent  from  Stirling  ;  and  the  clian- 

2  G 


450 


SCOTLAND. 


cellor  entered  Edinburgh  at  the  head  of  4000 
horse,  where  the  king  and  he  were  joyfully  re- 
ceived. The  governor  showed  no  emotion  at 
what  had  happened  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  invited 
the  chancellor  to  an  interview,  to  settle  all  differ- 
ences. Lord  Douglas,  however,  continued  to  brave 
both  parties.  He  demanded  by  his  ambassadors, 
Malcolm  Fleming  of  Cumbernauld,  and  Allan 
Lawder,  the  investiture  of  the  sovereignty  of  Tou- 
raine  from  Charles  VII.  of  France  ;  which,  being 
readily  granted,  served  to  increase  his  insolence. 
The  first-fruits  of  the  accommodation  between 
the  two  great  officers  of  state  was  the  holding  of 
a  parliament  at  Edinburgh,  for  redressing  the 
public  disorders;  and  encouragement  was  given 
to  all  persons  who  had  been  injured  by  Douglas 
to  make  their  complaints.  The  numbers  which 
on  that  occasion  resorted  to  Edinburgh  were  in- 
credible ;  parents,  children,  and  women,  de- 
manding vengeance  for  the  murder  of  their  rela- 
tions, or  the  plunder  of  their  estates;  till,  by  the 
multiplicity  of  their  complaints,  they  became 
without  remedy,  none  being  found  bold  enough 
to  encounter  the  earl,  or  to  endeavour  to  bring 
him  to  a  fair  trial.  The  parties,  therefore,  were 
dismissed  without  relief,  and  it  was  resolved  to 
proceed  with  that  haughty  noble  in  a  different 
manner.  Letters  were  written  to  him  by  the 
governor  aud  chancellor  in  the  name  of  the 
states,  requesting  him  to  appear  with  his  friends 
in  parliament,  and  to  take  that  lead  in  public  af- 
fairs to  which  they  were  entitled  by  their  high 
rank  and  possessions:  and  the  manner  in  which 
these  letters  were  penned  operated  effectually 
on  his  vanity,  and  made  the  earl  consider  them 
as  proceeding  from  the  inability  of  the  govern- 
ment to  continue  the  administration  of  affairs 
without  him.  Without  suspecting  that  any  man 
in  Scotland  would  be  so  bold  as  to  attack  him, 
he  wrote  to  the  chancellor  and  governor  that  he 
intended  to  set  out  for  Edinburgh:  when  the 
chancellor,  on  pretence  of  doing  him  honor, 
met  him  on  his  journey ;  and,  inviting  him  to 
the  castle  of  Crichton,  entertained  him  there  for 
some  days.  The  chancellor  had  not  only  re- 
moved the  earl's  suspicion,  but  had  made  him  a 
kind  of  convert  to  patriotism,  by  painting  to  him 
the  miseries  of  his  country,  and  the  glory  that 
must  redound  to  him  and  his  friends  in  removing 
them.  He  therefore  attended  the  chancellor  to 
Edinburgh  ;  and,  being  admitted  into  the  castle, 
dined  at  table  with  the  king.  Towards  th'e  end 
of  the  entertainment,  a  bull's  head,  the  certain 
prelude  of  immediate  death,  was  served  up.  The 
earl  and  his  brother  started  to  their  feet,  and  en- 
deavoured to  escape  ;  but  the  armed  men,  rush- 
ing in,  overpowered  them,  and,  tying  their  hands 
and  those  of  Sir  Malcolm  Fleming  with  cords, 
they  were  carried  to  the  hill  and  beheaded.  The 
young  king  endeavoured,  with  tears,  to  procure 
their  pardon ;  for  which  he  was  severely  checked 
by  his  unrelenting  chancellor. 

In  1443  the  king,  being  arrived  at  the  age  of 
fourteen,  declared  himself  out  of  the  years  of 
minority,  and  took  upon  himself  the  adminis- 
tration of  affairs.  He  appears  to  have  been  a 
prince  of  great  spirit  and  resolution ;  and  he  had 
occasion  for  it.  Having  appointed  one  Robert 
.Sempil  of  Fulwood  governor  of  the  castle  of 


Dumbarton,  he  was  killed  by  one  Galbreath  (a 
noted  partizan  of  the  earl  of  Douglas),  who 
seized  upon  the  government  of  the  castle.  The 
young  earl  of  Douglas,  rinding  himself  not  sup- 
ported by  the  chief  branches  of  his  family,  be- 
gan to  think  his  safest  course  would  be  to  return 
to  his  duty.  He  accordingly  repaired  to  the 
king  at  Stirling;  and,  throwing  himself  at  his 
feet,  implored  his  pardon.  The  king,  finding 
that  he  insisted  on  no  terms  but  that  of  pardon, 
and  that  he  had  unconditionally  put  himself  into 
his  power,  not  only  granted  his  request,  but 
made  him  the  partner  of  his  councils.  James 
had  always  disliked  the  murder  of  the  earl  of 
Douglas  and  his  brother ;  and  the  chancellor,  per- 
ceiving the  ascendancy  which  this  earl  was  daily 
gaining  at  court,  thought  it  high  time  to  provide 
for  his  own  safety.  He  therefore  resigned  the 
great  seal,  and  retired  to  the  castle  of  Edin- 
burgh, the  custody  of  which  he  pretended  had 
been  granted  to  him  by  the  late  King  during  his 
life,  or  till  the  present  king  should  arrive  at  the 
age  of  twenty-one.  Lord  Callendar,  who  knew 
himself  equally  obnoxious  as  Crichton,  and  that 
he  could  not  maintain  his  footing  by  himself, 
resigned  likewise  all  his  posts,  but  kept  posses- 
sion of  the  castle  of  Stirling.  As  both  this  and 
that  of  Edinburgh  were  royal  forts,  the  two 
lords  were  summoned  to  surrender  them  ;  but, 
instead  of  complying,  they  justified  their  con- 
duct by  the  great  power  of  their  enemies,  who 
had  been  so  lately  at  the  head  of  robbers  and 
outlaws ;  but  promised  to  surrender  themselves 
to  the  king  as  soon  as  he  was  of  lawful  age. 
This  answer  being  deemed  contumacious,  the 
chancellor  and  the  late  governor,  with  his  two 
sons  Sir  Alexander  and  Sir  James  Livingston, 
were  proclaimed  traitors  in  a  parliament  sum- 
moned to  meet  at  Stirling.  In  another  parlia- 
ment held  at  Perth  the  same  year,  an  act  was 
passed  that  all  the  lands  and  goods  which  had 
belonged  to  the  late  king  should  be  possessed  by 
the  present  to  the  time  of  his  lawful  age.  This 
act  was  levelled  against  the  late  governor  and 
chancellor,  who  were  accused  of  having  alien- 
ated to  their  own  uses,  or  to  those  of  their 
friends,  a  great  part  of  the  royal  effects  and 
jewels ;  and,  their  estates  being  confiscated,  the 
execution  of  the  sentence  was  committed  to 
John  Forrester  of  Corstorphin,  and  other  adhe- 
rents of  the  earl  of  Douglas.  The  sentence 
threw  the  whole  nation  into  a  flame.  The  castle 
of  Crichton  was  besieged;  and,  being  surren- 
dered upon  the  display  of  the  royal  banner,  it 
was  levelled  with  the  ground.  It  soon  appeared 
that  the  governor  and  chancellor,  the  latter  espe- 
cially, had  many  friends  ;  and  in  particular  Ken- 
nedy bishop  of  St.  Andrew's,  nephew  to  James 
I.,  who  sided  with  them  from  the  drea»'  and  ha- 
tred they  bore  to  Douglas.  Crichton  thus  soon 
found  himself  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  men  ; 
and,  while  Forrester  was  carrying  fire  and  sword 
into  his  estates  and  those  of  the  late  governor, 
his  own  lands  and  those  of  the  Douglasses  were 
overrun.  Corstorphin,  Abercorn,  Blackness, 
and  other  places  were  plundered  ;  and  Crichton 
carried  off  from  them  more  booty  than  he  and 
his  adherents  had  lost.  Douglas  was  so  much 
exasperated  by  the  great  losses  he  had  sustained, 


SCOTLAND. 


451 


that  he  engaged  his  friends,  the  earl  of  Crawford 
and  Alexander  Ogilvy  of  Innerquharity,  to  lay 
waste  the  lands  of  the  bishop  of  St.  Andrew's, 
whom  he  considered  as  the  chief  support  of  the 
two  ministers.     This  prelate  was  not  more  con- 
siderable by  his  high  birth  than   he  was  vene- 
rable for  his  virtue ;  and  had,  from  a  principle 
of  conscience,  opposed  the  earl  of  Douglas  and 
his  party.     Being  conscious  he  had  done  nothing 
that  was   illegal,  he  first  admonished  the  earl  of 
Crawford  and  his  coadjutor  to  desist  from  de- 
stroying his  lands ;  but,  finding  his  admonitions 
ineffectual,  he  laid  the  earl  under  excommuni- 
cation.    That  nobleman  was  almost  as  formi- 
dable in  the  northern,  as  Douglas  had  been  in 
the  southern  parts  of  Scotland.    The  Benedictine 
monks  of  Aberbrothick  had  chosen  Alexander 
Lindsay,  his  eldest  son,  to  be  judge  of  their 
temporalities,  until  Lindsay  proved  so  charge- 
able, by  the  number  of  his  attendants  and  his 
high  manner  of  living,  to  the  monks,  that  their 
chapter  removed  him  from  his  post,  and  substi- 
tuted in  his  place  Alexander  Ogilvy  of  Inner- 
quharity, guardian  to  JoWn  Ogilvy  of   Airley, 
who  had  an  hereditary  claim  upon  the  bailiwic. 
This,  notwithstanding  their  former  intimacy,  cre- 
ated an  irreconcileable  difference  between   the 
two    families.     Each    competitor    strengthened 
himself  by  calling  in  the  assistance  of  his  friends ; 
and  the  lord  Gordon  taking  part  with  the  Ogil- 
vies,  to  whom  he  was  paying  a  visit,  both  par- 
ties immediately  mustered  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Aberbrothick.     The  earl  of  Crawford,  who 
was  at  Dundee,  immediately  posted  to  Aberbro- 
thick, and,  placing  himself  between  the  two  ar- 
mies, demanded  an  interview  with  Ogilvy  ;  but, 
before  his  request  could  be  granted,  he  was  kil- 
led by  a  common  soldier.     His  death  exasperated 
his  friends ;  and  a  bloody  conflict  ensued,  which 
ended  to  the  advantage  of  the  Lindsays,  that  is, 
the  earl  of  Crawford's  party.     On  that  of  the 
Ogilvies  were  killed  Sir  John  Oliphant  of  Aber- 
dalgy,  John  Forbes  of  Pitsligo,  Alexander  Bar- 
clay  of    Gartley,    Robert   Maxwel    of   Teling, 
Duncan  Campbell  of  Campbellfether,  William 
Gordon  of  Burrowfield,  and  others.     With  these 
gentlemen,  about  500  of  their  followers  are  said 
to  have  fallen.      Innerquharity  was  taken  pri- 
soner, and  carried  to  the  earl  of  Crawford's  house 
at  Finhaven,  where  he  died  of  his  wounds ;  but 
lord  Gordon  escaped  by  the   swiftness   of  his 
horse.     This  battle  seems  to  have  kindled  the 
flames  of  civil  discord  all  over  the  kingdom. 
No  regard  was  paid  to  the  magistracy,  nor  to  any 
but  the  clergy.     The  most  numerous,  fiercest, 
and  best  allied  family  wreaked  its  vengeance  on 
its  foes,  either  by  force  01  treachery  ;  and  the 
enmity  that  actuated   the   parties   stifled  every 
sentiment  of  honor  and  humanity.     The  Lind- 
says, secretly  abetted  by  the  earl  of    Douglas, 
curried   fire   and   sword  through  the  estates  of 
their  enemies ;  and  all  the  north  of  Scotland  pre- 
sented scenes  of  murder  and  devastation.     In 
the  west,  Robert   Boyd  of  Duchal,  governor  of 
Dumbarton,  treacherously  surprised   Sir  James 
Stuart  of  Achmynto,  and   treated  his  wife  with 
such  inhumanity  that  she  expired  in  three  days 
in   Dumbarton  castle.      The  castle  of  Dunbar 
was  taken  by  Patrick  Hepburn  of  Hales.     Alex- 


ander Dunbar  dispossessed  the  latter  of  his  castle 
of  Hales;  but  it  was  retaken  by  the  partisans  of 
the  earl  of  Douglas,  whose  tenants  in  Annandale 
behaved  with   peculiar  fierceness   and   cruelty. 
At  lust  the  gentlemen   of   the   country,  uncon- 
nected with  these  robbers  and  murderers,  shut 
themselves  up  in  their  several  houses ;  each  of 
which  in  those  days  was  a  petty  fortress,  victu- 
alled, and   provided  in  the   best  manner  they 
could.     This  seems  to  have  been  the  h'rst  nW- 
sure    that    composed   the   public   commotions. 
The  earl  of  Douglas  was  sensible  that  the  clergy 
and  the  disinterested  part  of  the  kingdom  con- 
sidered him   as   the  source   of    the   calamities 
which  the  nation  suffered  ;  and  that  James  him- 
self would  soon  be  of  the  same  opinion.     He 
therefore  sought  to  avail  himself  of  the  juncture, 
by  forming  secret  but  strong  connexions  with 
the  earls  of  Crawford,  Ross,  and  other  great  no- 
blemen, who  wanted  to  see  their  feudal  power 
restored.     The  queen  dowager  and  her  husband, 
during  this  public  confusion,  had  retired  to  the 
castle  of   Dunbar,  while  it  was  in  Hepburn's 
possession,  where  she  died  soon  after.      She  left 
by  her  second  husband  three  sons ;  John,  who 
in  1455  was  made  earl  of  Athole ;  James,  who 
in   1469,  was  created   earl  of  Buchan;  and  An- 
drew who  became  bishop  of  Murray.     As  the 
earl  of  Douglas  was  an  enemy  to  the  queen- 
dowager's  husband,  the  latter  retired  to  England, 
where  he  obtained  a  pass  to  go  abroad ;  but, 
being  taken  at  sea  by  Flemish  pirates,  died  in 
confinement.     The  great  point  between  the  king 
and   Sir  William  Crichton,  whether  the   latter 
should  give  up  the  castle  to  his   majesty,  re- 
mained still  undecided  ;  and   by  the  advice  of 
the  earl  of  Douglas,  who  had  been  created  lord- 
lieutenant  of  the  kingdom,  it  had  now  suffered 
a  nine  months'  siege.     Crichton  and  his  follow- 
ers were  offered  a  full  indemnity  for  past  of- 
fences, and  restoration  to  the  king's  favor  :  when 
he  accepted  of  the  conditions,  but  refused  to  act 
in  any  public  capacity  till  they  were  confirmed 
by  a  parliament.      This  was  soon  held  at  Perth, 
and  he  was  restored  to  his  estate  and  honors. 
By   this   reconciliation   between    Douglas    and 
Crichton,  the  former  was  left  at  full  liberty  to 
prosecute  his  revenge   against   lord   Callendar, 
the  late  governor,  and  this  he  did  with  rigor. 
The   governor  himself,  Sir  James  Dundass  of 
Dundass,  and  Sir  Robert  Bruce  of  Clackman- 
nan, were  forced  to  save  their  lives  by  the  loss 
of  their  estates ;  but  they  were  sent  prisoners  to 
the  castle  of  Dumbarton.     Alexander,  the  go- 
vernor's eldest  son,  and  two  other  gentlemen  of 
his  name  and  family,  were  condemned  to  los.~ 
their  heads.     Lindsay  gives  an  extract  of  the 
speech  which  Alexander  Livingston,  one  of  the 
most  accomplished  gentlemen  of  his  time,  made 
upon  the  scaffold,  in  which  he  complained  with 
great  bitterness  of  the  cruel  treatment  his  father, 
himself, and  friends  had  undergone;  and  that  he 
suffered  by  a  packed  jury  of  his  enemies. 

The  king  being  about  eighteen  years  of  age, 
it  was  now  thought  proper  that  a  suitable  con- 
sort should  be  provided  for  him  ;  and,  after  va- 
rious consultations,  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Arnold 
duke  of  Gueldres,  was  chosen,  at  the  recommen- 
dation of  Charles  VII.  of  France.  This  produced 

2  G  2 


452 


SCOTLAND. 


an  immediate  rupture  with  England.  The  earls 
of  Salisbury  and  Northumberland  entered  Scot- 
land at  the  head  of  two  armies.  The  former 
burnt  the  town  of  Dumfries,  as  the  latter  did 
that  of  Dunbar;  while  Sir  John  Douglas  of 
Balveuy  made  reprisals  by  plundering  the 
county  of  Cumberland,  and  burning  Alnwick. 
Upon  the  return  of  the  English  to  their  own 
country,  additional  levies  were  made,  and  a 
fresh  invasion  of  Scotland  was  resolved  upon 
under  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  who  had  a 
lieutenant,  whom  the  Scots,  from  the  bushiness 
and  color  of  his  beard,  called  Magnus  with  the 
red  mane.  He  was  an  excellent  officer,  having 
been  trained  in  the  French  wars ;  and  is  said  to 
have  demanded  no  other  recompense  for  his  ser- 
vices, from  the  English  court,  than  that  he  should 
enjoy  all  he  could  conquer  in  Scotland.  The 
Scots,  in  the  mean  time,  had  raised  an  army 
commanded  by  George  Douglas  earl  of  Ormond, 
and  under  him  by  Wallace  of  Craigie,  with  the 
lords  Maxwell  and  Johnston.  The  English,  having 
passed  Solway  Frith,  ravaged  all  that  part  of  the 
country  which  belonged  to  the  Scots;  but,  hear- 
ing that  the  earl  of  Ormond  was  approaching, 
called  in  their  parties,  and  fixed  their  camp  on 
the  banks  of  the  Sark.  Their  advanced  guard 
was  commanded  by  Magnus  ;  their  centre  by  the 
earl  of  Northumberland ;  and  theii  iear,  which 
was  composed  of  Welsh,  by  Sir  John  Penning- 
ton,  an  officer  of  courage  and  experience.  The 
right  wing  of  the  Scots  was  commanded  by 
\Vallace,  the  centre  by  the  earl  of  Ormond,  and 
their  left  wing  by  the  lords  I\iaxwell  and  John- 
ston. Before  the  battle,  the  earl  of  Ormond 
endeavoured  to  inspire  his  men  with  high  re- 
sentment against  the  English,  who,  he  said, 
had  treacherously  broken  the  truce.  The  signal 
being  given,  the  Scots  under  Wallace  rushed  for- 
ward upon  their  enemies ;  but,  as  usual,  were 
received  by  so  terrible  a  discharge  from  the  Eng- 
lish archers  that  their  impetuosity  must  have 
been  stopped,  had  not  their  brave  leader  put 
them  in  mind  that  their  forefathers  had  always 
been  defeated  in  distant  fights  by  the  English, 
and  that  they  ought  to  trust  only  to  their  swords 
and  spears.  They  obeyed,  and  broke  in  upon 
the  English,  commanded  by  Magnus,  with  such 
fury  as  soon  fixed  the  fortune  of  the  day  on  the 
side  of  the  Scots.  The  slaughter  (for  both  parties 
fought  with  the  utmost  animosity)  fell  chiefly  upon 
the  division  commanded  by  Magnus,  who  was 
killed,  together  with  the  whole  of  his  body  guard 
of  picked  soldiers.  Sir  John  Pennington's  divi- 
sion, with  that  under  the  earl  of  Northumber- 
land, was  likewise  routed  ;  and  the  whole  Eng- 
lish army,  struck  by  the  loss  of  their  champion, 
fled  towards  the  Solway  ;  where,  the  river  being 
swelled  by  the  tide,  numbers  of  them  were 
drowned.  The  loss  of  the  English  in  slain 
amounted  to  at  least  3000  men.  Among  the  pri- 
soners were  Sir  John  Pennington,  Sir  Ilobert 
Harrington,  and  the  earl  of  Northumberland's 
eldest  son,  the  lord  Percy,  who  lost  his  own 
liberty  in  forwarding  his  father's  escape.  Of 
the  Scots  about  600  were  killed ;  but  none  of 
note  excepting  the  brave  Wallace,  who  died 
three  months  after  of  his  wounds.  The  booty 
on  this  occasion  is  said  to  have  been  greater 


than  any  that  had  fallen  to  the  Scots  since  t'i  j 
buttle  of  Bannockburn.  The  rest  of  the  hi>tory 
of  this  reign  is  almost  entirely  a  relation  of  the 
cabals  and  conspiracies  of  the  nobles  and  other 
chiefs.  The  earl  of  Douglas  had  entered  into  a 
confederacy  with  the  earls  of  Crawford,  Morav, 
and  Ross,  and  appeared  on  all  occasions  with 
such  a  train  of  followers  as  bade  defiance  to  the 
royal  power.  This  insolence  was  detested  by  tin- 
wiser  part  of  the  nation;  and  Maclellan,  who 
was  nephew  to  Sir  Patrick  Gray,  captain  of  tic- 
king's guard,  refused  to  give  any  attendance 
upon  the  earl.  This  inoffensive  behaviour  was 
by  the  latter  considered  as  a  kind  of  treason, 
and  seizing  upon  Maclellan 's  house  and  person, 
he  sent  him  prisoner  to  the  castle  of  Dougla--. 
As  Maclellan  was  a  gentleman  of  great  worth 
and  reputation,  his  uncle  Sir  Patrick  applied  to 
James  in  his  favor;  who  wrote  and  signed  a, 
letter  for  his  release  :  and,  upon  Gray's  delivering 
this  letter  to  Douglas  at  his  castle,  the  latter 
seemed  to  receive  it  with  the  highest  respect, 
and  to  treat  Gray  with  hospitality ;  but  in  the 
mean  time  he  gave  private  orders  that  Maclel- 
lan's  head  should  be  struck  off,  and  his  body 
exposed  upon  the  green  before  the  castle.  After 
dinner  the  earl  told  Gray  that  he  was  ready  to 
obey  the  king's  commands;  and,  conducting  him 
to  the  green,  showed  him  the  lifeless  trunk. 
Upon  this  Gray  mounted  his  horse,  and,  trusting 
to  his  swiftness  for  safety,  was  pursued  by  the 
earl's  attendants  to  the  gates  of  Edinburgh.  The 
conspiracy  against  James's  government  was  now 
no  longer  a  secret.  The  lords  Balveny  and  Ha- 
milton, with  such  a  number  of  other  barons  and 
gentlemen,  had  acceded  to  it,  that  it  was  thought 
to  be  more  powerful  than  all  the  force  the 
king  could  bring  into  the  field.  Even  Crichton 
advised  James  to  dissemble.  The  confederates, 
entered  into  a  solemn  bond  and  oath  never  to 
desert  one  another :  all  who  did  not  enter  into 
this  association  were  treated  as  enemies  to  the 
public  ;  their  lands  were  destroyed,  their  effects 
plundered,  and  they  themselves  imprisoned  or 
murdered.  Drummond  says  that  Douglas  was 
now  able  to  bring  40,000  men  into  the  field  ; 
and  that  his  intention  was  to  have  usurped  the 
crown.  When  James  invited  him  to  a  confer- 
ence in  the  castle  of  Stirling,  he  offered  to  com- 
ply, provided  he  had  a  safe  conduct ;  which  was 
expedited  in  the  form  and  manner  required. 
The  earl  began  his  inarch  with  his  usual  great 
retinue,  and  arrived  at  Stirling  on  Shrove  Tues- 
day, lie  was  received  by  the  king  as  if  he  had 
been  the  best  of  his  friends,  and  admitted  to  sup 
with  his  majesty,  while  his  attendants  were  dis- 
persed in  the  town.  The  entertainment  being 
over,  the  king  told  the  earl,  '  That,  as  he  was 
now  of  age,  he  was  resolved  to  be  the  father  of 
all  his  people,  and  to  take  the  government  into 
his  own  hands ;  that  he,  therefore,  had  no  reason 
to  be  under  any  apprehensions  from  his  old  ene- 
mies Callendar  and  Crichton  ;  that  there  was  no 
occasion  to  form  any  confederacies,  as  the  law 
was  ready  to  protect  him  ;  and  that  he  was  wel- 
come to  the  principal  direction  of  affairs  under 
the  crown,  and  to  the  first  place  in  the  royal 
confidence ;  nay,  that  all  former  offences  done 
by  himself  and  his  friends  should  be  pardoned.' 


SCOTLAND. 


453 


This  speech  was  the  very  reverse  of  what  the 
carl  of  Douglas  expected.       It  rendered  him, 
indeed,  the  first  subject  of  the  kingdom ;  but 
still  he  was  controlable  by  the  civil  law.      In 
short,  upon  the  king's  peremptorily  putting  the 
question  to  him,  he  not  only  refused  to  dissolve 
the  confederacy,  but  upbraided  the  king  for  his 
government.      This  produced  a  passionate   re- 
joinder ton    the  part  of  James;    but   the    earl 
represented  that  he  was  under  a  safe  conduct, 
and  that  the  nature  of  the  confederacy  was  such 
that  it  could  not  be  broken  but  by  the  common 
consent  of  all  concerned.  The  king  insisted  upon 
his  setting  the  example;  and,  the  earl  continuing 
more  and   more  obstinate,  James  stabbed  him 
\vith  his  dagger,  and  armed  men,  rushing  into 
the  room,  finished  the  slaughter.  After  the  death 
of  the  earl  of  Douglas  the  confederacy  came  to 
nothing.     The  insurgents  excused  themselves  as 
being  too  weak  for  such  an  enterprise  ;  and  were 
contented  with  trailing  the   safe  conduct  at  a 
horse's  tail,  and  proclaiming  by  trumpets  and 
horns  the  king  a  perjured  traitor.     They  pro- 
ceeded no  farther,  and  each  departed  to  his  own 
habitation,  after  agreeing  to  assemble  with  fresh 
forces  about  the  beginning  of  April.  James  lost 
no  time   in   improving  this  shoit  respite ;  and 
found  the  nation  in  general  much  better  disposed 
in  his  favor  than  he  had  reason  to  expect.     The 
intolerable  oppressions  of  the  great  barons  made 
his  subjects  esteem  the  civil  far  preferable  to  the 
feudal  subjection,  and  even  the  Douglasses  were 
divided  among  themselves;  for  the  earl  of  An- 
gus and   Sir  John  Douglas   of  Dalkeith   were 
among  the  most  forward  of  the  royalists.  James 
at  the  same  time  wrote   letters   to  the  earl  of 
Huntly,  to  all  the  noblemen  who  were  not  par- 
iius  in  the  confederacy,  and  to  the  ecclesiastics, 
ii.'fore  the  effect  of  those  letters  could  be  known, 
insurgents  had   returned  to  Stirling  (where 
••s  still  kept  himself  upon  the  defensive); 
ited   their  insolence,   and  the  opprobrious 
ueiit  of  his  safe  conduct;  and  at  last  plun- 
dered the  town,  and  laid   it   in   ashes.    Being 
iil    unable  to  take  the  castle,  partly  through 
their  own  divisions,  and  partly  through  the  di- 
versity of  their  operations,  they  left  Stirling,  and 
destroyed   the   estate  of  Sir   John   Douglas  of 
Dalkeith,  whom   they  considered  as   a   double 
traitor.     They  then  besieged  his   castle;  but  it 
\v;is  so  bravely  defended  by  Parick  Cockburn,  a 
gentleman  of  the  family  of  Langton,  that  they 
raised    the   siege.     All    this  time  the  unhappy 
countrjf  was   suffering  the  most  cruel  devasta- 
tions ;  for  matters  were  now  come  to  such  ex- 
tremity that  it  was  necessary  for  every  man  to 
be  a  royalist  or  a  rebel.  The  king  was  obliged  to 
keep  on  the  defensive ;  and,  though  he  had  ven- 
tured to  leave  the  castle  of  Stirling,  he  was  in  no 
condition  to  face  the  rebels.     They  were  in  pos- 
session of  all  the  strong  passes  by  which  his 
friends  were  to  march  to  his  assistance  ;  and  he 
even  consulted  with  his  attendants  on  the  means 
of  escaping  to  France,  where  he  was  sure  of  an 
hospitable  reception.    He  was  diverted  from  that 
resolution   by  bishop  Kennedy  and  the  earl  of 
Angus,  who  was  himself  a  Douglas,  and  pre- 
vailed upon  to  wait  for  the  event  of  the  earl  of 
'.I'intly's  attempts.     This  nublouian,   who  was 


descended  from  the  Seatons,  but  by  marriage  in- 
herited the  great  estates  of  the  Gordons  in  the 
north,  had  raised  an  army  for  James,  to  whose 
family  he  and  his  ancestors,  by  the  Gordons  as 
well  as  the  Seatons,  had  been  always  devoted. 
James  was  not  mistaken  in  the  high  opinion  he 
had  of  Huntly ;  and  in  the  mean  time  he  issued 
circular  letters  to  the  chief  ecclesiastics  and  bo- 
dies politic  of  his  kingdom,  setting  forth  the  ne- 
cessity he  was  under  to  proceed  as  he  had  done, 
and  his  readiness  to  protect  all  his  loyal  subjects 
against  the  power  of  the  Douglasses  and  their 
rebellious  adherents.     Before  those  letters  could 
have  any  effect,  the  rebels  had   plundered  the 
defenceless  houses  and  estates  of  all  who  were 
not  in  their  confederacy.    The  indignation  which 
the  public  had  conceived  against  the  king,  for 
the  violation  of  his  safe  conduct,  began  now  to 
subside;    and   the   behaviour    of   his   enemies 
seemed   to  justify   what    had  happened.     The 
forces  he  had  assembled  being  unable,  as  yet,  to 
act  offensively,  he  resolved  to  wait  for  the  earl 
of  Huntly,  who  by  this  time  was  at  the  head  of 
a  considerable  army,  and  had  begun  his  march 
southwards.  He  had  been  joined  by  the  Forbeses, 
Ogilvies,  Leslies,  Grants,  Irvings,  and  other  rela- 
tions and  dependents  of  his  family  ;  but,  having 
advanced  as  far  as  Brechin,  he  was  opposed  by 
the  earl  of  Crauford,  the  chief  ally  of  the  earl  of 
Douglas,  who  commanded  the  people  of  Angus, 
and  all  the  adherents  of  the  rebels  in  the  neigh- 
bouring counties,  headed  by  foreign  officers.  The 
two  armies  joining  battle,  on  the  18th  of  May, 
victory  was  for  some  time  in  suspense ;  till  one 
Coloss  of  Bonnymoon,  or  Balnamuin,  on  whom 
Crauford  had  great  dependence,  but  whom  he 
had  imprudently  disobliged,   came  over  to  the 
royalists  with  the  division  he  commanded,  which 
was  the   best  armed  part  of  Crauford's   army. 
His  defection  gave  the  fortune  of  the  day  to  the 
earl  of  Huntly,  as  it  left  the  centre  flank  of  Crau- 
ford's army  entirely  exposed.     He  himself  lost 
one  of  his  brothers;  and  fled  with  another,  Sir 
John  Lindesay,  to  his  house  at  Finhaven,  where 
he  declared,  '  That  he  would  be  content  tore- 
main  seven  years  in  hell,  to  have  in  so  timely  a 
season  done  the  king  his  master  that  service  the 
earl  of  Huntly  had  performed,   and  carry  that 
applause  and  thanks  he  was  to  receive  from  him.' 
No  author  informs  us  of  the  loss  of  men  on  either 
side,  though  all  agree  that  it  was  very  consider- 
able upon  the  whole.    The  earl  of  Huntly  lost 
two  brothers,  William  and   Henry ;  and  to  in- 
demnify him  for  his  services,  and  for  the  presents 
he  had  made  to  his  followers,  the  king  gave  him 
the  lands  of  Badenoch  and  Lochaber.  The  battle 
of  Brechin    was   not   immediately    decisive   in 
favor  of  the  king,  but  proved  so  in  its  conse- 
quences.    The  earl  of  Moray,  a  Douglas  like- 
wise, took   advantage   of  Huntly's   absence   to 
harass  and  ravage  the  estates  of  all  the  royalists 
in  the  north ;  but  Huntly,  returning  from  Bre- 
chin with  his  victorious  army,  drove  the  enemy 
into  his  own  county  of  Moray,  and  afterwards 
expelled  him  even   thence.      James   was   now 
encouraged,  by  the  advice  of  his  kinsman  bishop 
Kennedy,  to  proceed  against   the   rebels    in  a 
leu.il  manner,  by  holding  a  parliament  at  Edin- 
burgh, to  which  the  confederated    lords   were 


454 


SCOTLAND. 


summoned ;  and,  upon  their  non-appearance, 
declared  traitors.  This  proceeding  seemed  to 
make  the.  rebellion  rage  more  fiercely  ;  and  at 
last  the  confederates  disowned  their  allegiance  to 
James.  The  earls  of  Douglas,  Crauford,  Or- 
mond,  Moray,  the  lord  Balveny,  Sir  James 
Hamilton,  and  others,  signed  public  manifestoes, 
which  were  pasted  on  the  doors  of  the  principal 
churches,  importing  '  that  they  were  resolved 
never  to  obey  any  command  or  charge,  nor 
answer  any  citation  for  the  time  coming ;  because 
the  king,  so  far  from  being  a  just  master,  was  a 
bloodsucker,  a  murderer,  a  transgressor  of  hos- 
pitality, and  a  surpriser  of  the  innocent.'  These 
atrocious  proceedings  did  no  service,  however, 
to  their  cause.  The  earl  of  Huntly  continued 
victorious  in  the  north,  where  he  and  his  follow- 
ers, in  revenge  for  the  earl  of  Moray's  having 
burnt  his  castle  of  Huntly,  ravaged  all  Moray's 
estate  north  of  the  Spey.  When  he  came  to 
Forres,  he  burnt  one  side  of  the  town  because  it 
belonged  to  the  earl,  and  spared  the  other,  the 
property  of  his  own  friends.  James  thought 
himself,  from  the  behaviour  of  Douglas  and  his 
adherents,  now  warranted  to  come  to  extremi- 
ties ;  and,  marching  into  Annandale,  he  carried 
tire  and  sword  through  all  the  estates  of  the 
Douglasses.  The  earl  of  Crauford  destroyed 
the  lands  of  the  people  of  Angus,  and  of  all 
others  who  had  abandoned  him  at  the  battle  of 
Brechin.  James,  returning  from  Annandale  to 
Edinburgh,  marched  northwards  to  Angus,  to 
reduce  the  earl  of  Crauford,  who  had  hitherto 
deferred  throwing  himself  at  the  king's  feet,  only 
in  hopes  that  better  terms  might  be  obtained 
from  James  for  himself  and  his  party.  Perceiv- 
ing that  the  earl  of  Douglas's  obstinacy  had  put 
an  end  to  all  hopes  of  a  treaty,  he  resolved  to 
make  a  merit  of  breaking  the  confederacy,  by 
being  the  first  to  submit.  James,  having  arrived 
in  Angus,  was  continuing  his  march  through  the 
country,  when  the  earl  and  some  of  his  chief 
followers  fell  on  their  knees  before  him  on  the 
road,  bare-headed  and  bare-footed ;  the  earl 
acknowledging  his  crimes,  and  imploring  forgive- 
ness. James  was  then  attended  by  his  chief 
counsellors,  particularly  bishop  Kennedy.  He 
asked  their  advice;  which  proving  merciful, 
James  promised  to  the  earl  and  his  followers 
restitution  of  all  their  estates  and  honors.  The 
earl,  in  gratitude,  before  the  king  left  Angus, 
joined  him  with  a  troop  of  his  friends  and  fol- 
lowers ;  and,  attending  him  to  the  north,  was 
extremely  active  in  suppressing  all  the  remains 
of  the  rebellion  there.  The  submission  of  the 
earl  of  Crauford  was  followed  by  that  of  the 
earl  of  Douglas ;  but  he  soon  resumed  his  rebel- 
lious practices,  and  in  1454  raised  an  army  to 
fight  against  the  king.  The  king  erected  his 
standard  at  St.  Andrew's,  marched  thence  to 
Falkland,  and  ordered  all  the  forces  of  Fife, 
Angus,  Strathern,  &c.,  to  rendezvous  at  Stirling; 
which  they  did  to  the  number  of  30,000. 
Douglas  assembled  his  forces,  which  amounted 
to  40,000,  some  say  60,000  men,  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Carron,  between  Stirling  and  Aber- 
corn.  Bishop  Kennedy  had  advised  the  king  to 
divide  his  enemies  by  offering  them  pardon 
separately  ;  and  thus  in  a  few  days  the  earl  was 


deserted  by  all  his  numerous  army,  excepting 
about  100  of  his  nearest  friends  and  domestics, 
with  whom  he  retired  towards  England.  How- 
ever, in  his  journey  southward,  he  raised  a  con- 
siderable body  of  forces,  consisting  of  his  own 
tenants,  of  outlaws,  robbers,  and  borderers,  with 
whom  he  renewed  his  depredations  on  the  loyal 
subjects  of  the  king.  He  was  opposed  by  the 
earl  of  Angus,  who  continued  firm  in  the  royal 
cause.  An  engagement  ensued  at  Ancrum  muir; 
where  Douglas  was  entirely  defeated,  and  he 
himself  with  great  difficulty  escaped  to  an  adja- 
cent wood.  His  estates  were  afterwards  forfeited 
to  the  king.  The  rest  of  the  reign  of  James  II. 
was  spent  in  internal  regulations  for  the  good  of 
his  people.  He  was  killed  in  1460  at  the  siege 
of  Roxburgh  castle,  by  the  bursting  of  a  cannon. 
This  siege  he  had  undertaken  in  favor  of  the 
queen  of  England,  wife  of  Henry  VI.,  who, 
after  losing  several  battles,  and  being  reduced  to 
distress,  was  obliged  to  apply  to  him  for  relief. 
The  nobility  who  were  present  concealed  his 
death  for  fear  of  discouraging  the  soldiers ;  and 
in  a  few  hours  after  the  queen  appeared  in  the 
camp,  and  presented  her  young  son  James  III. 
as  their  king. 

James  III.  was  not  quite  seven  years  of  age  at 
his  accession  to  the  crown.  The  administration 
devolved  on  his  mother,  who  pushed  the  siege  of 
Roxburgh  castle  with  so  much  vigor  that  the 
garrison  capitulated  in  a  few  days ;  after  which 
the  army  ravaged  the  country,  and  dismantled 
the  castle  of  VVark.  In  1466  negociations  were 
begun  for  a  marriage  between  the  young  king 
and  Margaret  princess  of  Denmark ;  and  in 
1468  the  following  conditions  were  stipulated; — 
1.  That  the  annual  rent  hitherto  paid  for  the 
northern  isles  of  Orkney  and  Shetland  should  be 
for  ever  remitted  and  extinguished.  2.  That 
king  Christian  I.  should  give  60,000  florins  of 
gold  for  his  daughter's  portion,  whereof  10,000 
should  be  paid  before  her  departure  from  Den- 
mark ;  and  that  the  islands  of  Orkney  should  be 
made  over  to  the  crown  of  Scotland  by  way  of 
pledge  for  the  remainder;  with  this  proviso  that 
they  should  return  to  that  of  Norway  after  com- 
plete payment.  3.  That  king  James  should,  in 
case  of  his  dying  before  the  said  Margaret,  leave 
her  in  possession  of  the  palace  of  Linlithgow, 
and  castle  of  Down,  in  Monteith,  with  all  their 
appurtenances,  and  the  third  part  of  the  ordi- 
nary revenues  of  the  crown,  to  be  enjoyed  by 
her  during  life.  4.  But,  if  she  chose  to  return  to 
Denmark,  that  in  lieu  of  the  said  liferent,  pa- 
lace, and  castle,  she  should  accept  of  120,000 
florins  of  the  Rhine;  from  which  sum  the 
50,000  due  for  the  remainder  of  her  portion 
being  deduced  and  allowed,  the  islands  of  Ork- 
ney should  be  reannexed  to  the  crown  of  Nor- 
way. When  these  articles  were  agreed  upon, 
Christian  found  himself  unable  to  fulfil  his  part 
of  them.  Being  then  engaged  in  an  unsuccess- 
ful war  with  Sweden,  he  could  not  advance  the 
10,000  florins  which  he  had  promised  to  pay 
down  as  part  of  his  daughter's  fortune.  He 
was  therefore  obliged  to  apply  to  the  plenipo- 
tentiaries to  accept  of  2000,  and  to  take  a 
farther  mortgage  of  the  isles  of  Shetland  for  the 
other  8000.  The  Scottish  plenipotentiaries,  of 


SCOTLAND. 


450 


whom  Boyd,  earl  of  Arran,  was  one,  gratified 
him  in  this  request;  and  this  concession  is 
thought  to  have  proved  fatal  to  the  earl.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  his  father  was  beheaded  for  trea- 
sonable practices  alleged  to  have  been  committed 
long  before,  and  for  which  he  produced  a  par- 
liamentary indemnity  to  no  purpose ;  the  earl 
himself  was  divorced  from  his  wife,  the  king's 
sister,  and  obliged  to  live  in  perpetual  exile, 
while  the  countess  was  married  to  another.  In 
1476  those  misfortunes  began  to  come  on  James 
which  afterwards  terminated  in  his  ruin.  He 
had  made  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Albany,  go- 
vernor of  Berwick ;  and  had  entrusted  him  with 
very  extensive  powers  upon  the  borders,  where  a 
violent  propensity  for  the  feudal  law  still  con- 
tinued. The  Humes  and  the  Ilepburns,  then 
the  most  powerful  subjects  in  those  parts,  could 
not  brook  the  duke  of  Albany's  greatness,  espe- 
cially after  he  had  forced  them,  by  virtue  of  a 
late  act,  to  part  with  some  of  the  estates  which 
had  been  granted  them  in  this  and  the  preced- 
ing reign.  The  pretended  science  of  judicial 
astrology,  by  which  James  was  incredibly  infa- 
tuated, was  the  most  effectual  engine  that  could 
work  their  purposes.  One  Andrew,  an  infamous 
impostor  in  that  art,  had  been  brought  over  from 
Flanders  by  James ;  and  he  and  Schevez,  then 
archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's,  concurred  in  per- 
suading James  that  the  Scottish  lion  was  to  be 
devoured  by  his  own  whelps  ;  a  prediction  that, 
to  a  prince  of  James's  turn,  seemed  of  certain 
accomplishment.  The  condition  to  which  James 
reduced  himself  by  his  belief  in  astrology  was 
truly  deplorable.  The  princes  upon  the  conti- 
nent were  smitten  with  the  same  infatuation; 
and  the  wretches  who  besieged  his  person  had 
no  safety  but  by  continuing  the  delusion  in  his 
mind.  According  to  Lindesay,  Cochran,  who 
had  some  knowledge  of  architecture,  and  had 
been  introduced  to  James  as  a  master  mason, 
privately  procured  an  old  woman,  who  pre- 
tended to  be  a  witch,  and  who  heightened  his 
terrors  by  declaring  that  his  brothers  intended  to 
murder  him.  James  believed  her;  and  the  un- 
guarded manner  in  which  the  earl  of  Mar  treated 
his  weakness,  exasperated  him  so  much,  that  the 
earl  was  arrested,  and  committed  to  the  castle  of 
Craig-miller;  whence  he  was  brought  to  the 
Canongate,  a  suburb  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  suf- 
fered death.  The  duke  of  Albany  w  as  at  the  castle 
of  Dunbar  when  his  brother  the  earl  of  Mar's  tra- 
gedy was  acted ;  and  James  could  not  be  easy 
without  having  him  likewise  in  his  power.  In 
hopes  of  surprising  him  he  marched  to  Dunbar; 
but  the  duke,  being  apprised  of  his  coming,  fled 
to  Berwick,  and  ordered  his  castle  of  Dunbar  to 
be  surrendered  to  the  lord  Evendale,  though  not 
before  the  garrison  had  provided  themselves  with 
boats  and  small  vessels,  in  which  they  escaped 
to  England.  He  ventured  to  come  to  Edin- 
burgh ;  where  James  was  so  well  served  with 
spies  that  he  was  seized,  and  committed  close 
prisoner  to  the  castle,  with  orders  that  he  should 
speak  with  none  but  in  the  presence  of  his 
keeper.  The  duke  had  probably  suspected  and 
provided  against  this  disagreeable  event ;  for  we 
are  told  that  he  had  agents,  who  every  day  re- 
paired to  the  castle,  as  if  they  had  come  from 


court,  and  reported  the  state  of  matters  between 
him  and  the  king,  while  his  keepers  were  pre- 
sent, in  so  favorable  a  light  that  they  made  no 
doubt  of  his  soon  regaining  his  liberty,  and  being 
readmitted  to  his  brother's  favor.  The  seeming 
negociation  at  last  went  on  so  prosperously,  that 
the  duke  gave  his  keepers  a  kind  of  a  farewell 
entertainment,  previous  to  his  obtaining  a  formal 
deliverance  ;  and  they  drank  so  immoderately 
that,  being  intoxicated,  they  gave  him  an  oppor- 
tunity of  escaping  over  the  castle  wall,  by  con- 
verting the  sheets  of  his  bed  into  a  rope.  Who- 
ever knows  the  situation  of  that  fortress  will  be 
amazed  at  the  boldness  of  this  attempt;  we  are 
told  that  the  duke's  valet,  the  only  domestic  he 
was  allowed  to  have,  making  the  experiment 
before  his  master,  broke  his  neck;  upon  which 
the  duke,  lengthening  the  rope,  slid  down  un- 
hurt, and  went  on  board  a  ship  which  his  friends 
had  provided,  and  escaped  to  France.  In  1482 
the  king  began  to  feel  the  bad  consequences  of 
taking  into  his  favor  men  of  worthless  characters. 
His  great  favorite  at  this  time  was  Cochran, 
whom  he  had  raised  from  a  low  station  to  the 
dignity  of  earl  of  Mar.  All  historians  agree 
that  this  man  made  a  most  infamous  use  of  his 
power.  He  obtained  at  last  a  liberty  of  coinage, 
which  he  abused  so  much  as  to  endanger  an  in- 
surrection ;  for  he  issued  a  base  coin  called  black 
money  by  the  common  people,  which  they  re- 
fused to  take  in  payments.  His  skill  in  archi- 
tecture had  first  introduced  him  to  James ;  but 
he  maintained  his  power  by  other  arts ;  for, 
knowing  that  the  king's  predominant  passion  was 
the  lovejof  money,  he  procured  it  by  the  meanest 
and  most  oppressive  methods.  James  haa  other 
favorites  still  less  worthy  of  the  royal  counte- 
nance ;  Hommil,  a  taylor ;  Leonard,  a  black- 
smith; Torfifan,  a  dancing-master;  and  some 
others.  The  favor  shown  to  these  men  gave  so 
much  offence  to  the  nobility  that,  after  some 
deliberation,  they  resolved  to  remove  the  king, 
with  some  of  his  least  exceptionable  domestics 
(but  without  offering  any  violence  to  his  person), 
to  the  castle  of  Edinburgh ;  and  to  hang  all  his 
worthless  favorites  over  Lauder  bridge,  the  com- 
mon place  of  execution.  Their  deliberation  was 
not  kept  so  secret  as  not  to  come  to  the  ears  of 
his  favorites,  who, suspecting  the  worst,  wakened 
James  before  day-break,  and  informed  him  of 
the  meeting.  He  ordered  Cochran  to  repair  to 
it,  and  to  bring  him  an  account  of  the  proceed- 
ings. According  to  Lindesay,  who  seems  to 
have  had  very  minute  information  as  to  this  event, 
Cochran .  rudely  knocked  at  the  door  of  the 
church,  just  after  the  assembly  had  finished  their 
consultation ;  and,  upon  Sir  Robert  Douglas  of 
Lochleven  informing  them  that  the  earl  of  Mar 
demanded  admittance,  the  earl  of  Angus  or- 
dered the  door  to  be  thrown  open ;  and,  rushing 
upon  Cochran,  'pulled  a  massy  gold  chain 
from  his  neck,  saying,  that  a  rope  would  be- 
come him  better;  while  Sir  Robert  Douglas 
stripped  him  of  a  costly  hunting  horn  he  wore 
by  his  side,  telling  him  he  had  been  too  long  the 
hunter  of  mischief.  Cochran,  astonished,  asked 
them  whether  they  were  in  jest  or  earnest,  but 
they  soon  convinced  him  they  were  in  earnest, 
by  pinioning  down  his  arms  with  a  halter.  The 


456 


SCOTLAND. 


earl  of  Angus,  with  some  of  the  chief  lords,  at- 
tended by  a  detachment  of  troops,  then  repaired 
to  the  king's  tent,  where  they  seized  his  other  fa- 
vorites, Thomas  Preston,   Sir  William  Rogers, 
James  Hommil,  William  Torfifan,  and  Leonard, 
and  upbraided  him  in  rude  terms  with  his  mis- 
conduct in  government,  and  even  in  private  life, 
fames  only  interceded  for  the  safety  of  a  young 
gentleman,  Ramsay  of  Balmain.     Cochran,  with 
his   other  favorites,  were  hanged   over  Lauder 
bridge  as  proposed,  and   he  himself  was  con- 
ducted, under   easy  restraint,   to  the   castle  of 
Edinburgh.     Though  confined,  he  here  behaved 
with  great  spirit ;  and  refused   to  pardon  those 
who  had  confined  him,  or  had  any  hand  in  the 
execution  at  Lauder.     At  last,  however,  he  was 
relieved  by  the  duke  of  Albany,  at  the  quail's 
desire,     lie  accomplished   his   del'vtrance,   as 
some  say,  by  surprising  the  castle  of  Edinburgh  ; 
others  say  the  gates  were  opened,  upon  a  formal 
requisition  made  by  two  heralds  ;  the  king  then 
repaired  to  the  abbey  of  llolyrond-house  with 
his  brother,  who  acted  now  as  his  first  minister. 
All  the  lords  who  were  near  the  capital  came  to 
pay  him  their  compliments ;  but  James  was  so 
much  exasperated  at  what  had  happened  that  he 
committed  sixteen  of  them  prisoners  to  the  castle. 
After  his  release  James  granted  a  patent  to  the  citi- 
zens of  Edinburgh,  and  enlarged  their  privileges. 
I  n  1487  he  finished  the  secret  negotiations  in  which 
!»e  had  engaged  with  Henry  VII.  king  of  Eng- 
land.    The  principal  articles  agreed  upon  be- 
iu'Uveen    the    two    monarchs   were,  That   kinj> 
James's  eldest  son  should  marry  Catherine,  the 
third  Daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  and  sister  to  the 
jirincess  Elizabeth,  then  queen  of  England  ;  and 
that  James,   who  was  now  a   widower,   should 
marry  queen  Elizabeth.      A  third  marriage  was 
also  to  be  concluded  between  the  duke  of  Rothe- 
say   ami  another  daughter  of  Edward  IV.     To 
complete  these  treaties,  and  end  all  controversies 
concerning  the  town  of  Berwick,  which  the  king 
of  Scotland  much  desired  to  possess,  a  congress 
was  to  be  held  tlie  ensuing  year.     In  the  mean 
lime  a  most  powerful  confederacy  was  formed 
against  the  king ;  the  origin  of  which   was  his 
passion  for  architecture.       Being  pleased  with 
the  situation  of  Stirling  castle,  he  resolved   to 
give  it  all  the  embellishments  which  art  could  be- 
stow ;  and  about  this  time  made  it  the  chief  place 
of  his  residence.     He  raised   within  it  a  hall, 
ivhich  at  that  time  was  deemed  a  noble  structure  ; 
and  a  college,  which  he  called  the  chapel  royal, 
endowed  with  an  archdeacon  who  was  a  bishop, 
u  subdean,  treasurer,  chanter,  &c.,  and  a  double 
set  of  the  other  officers  usually  belonging  to  such 
i  ii>titutions.      The  expenses  necessary  for  main- 
taining these  establishments  were  considerable, 
and  the  king  had  resolved  to  assign  the  revenues 
of  the  rich  priory  of  Coldingham   for  that  pur- 
pose.    This  priory  had  been  generally  held  by 
the  Hume  family,  who,  through  length  of  time, 
considered  it  as  their  property ;  they  therefore 
strongly  opposed  the  king's  intention.    The  dis- 
pute seems  to  have  lasted  some  years;  for  the 
former  parliament  passed  a  vote  annexing  the 
priory  to  the  king's  chapel  royal ;  and  the  par- 
liament of  this  year  had  passed  a  statute  strictly 
prohibiting  all  persons,  .spiritual  and  temporal, 


to  attempt  any  thing  directly  or  indirectly,  con- 
trary or  prejudicial  to  the  said  union  and  annex- 
ation. The  Humes  resented  their  being  stripped 
of  so  gainful  a  revenue,  the  loss  of  which  affected 
most  of  the  gentlemen  of  that  name  ;  and  they 
united  themselves  with  the  Hepburns,  another 
powerful  clan  in  that  neighbourhood,  in  an  asso- 
ciation, by  which  both  families  engaged  to  stand 
by  each  other,  and  not  to  suffer  any  prior  to  be 
received  for  Coldingham,  if  he  was  not  of  one 
of  their  surnames.  The  lords  Gray  and  Drum- 
mond  soon  joined  the  association;  as  did  many 
other  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  who  had  their 
own  causes  of  discontent.  Their  agents  gave 
ont,  that  the  king  was  grasping  at  arbitrary 
power ;  that  he  had  acquired  his  popularity  by 
deep  hypocrisy  ;  and  that  he  was  resolved  to  be 
signally  revenged  upon  all  who  had  any  hand  in 
the  execution  at  Lauder.  The  earl  of  Angus, 
who  was  the  soul  of  the  confederacy,  advised 
the  conspirators  to  apply  to  old  earl  of  Douglas 
to  head  them ;  but  that  nobleman  was  now  dead 
to  all  ambition,  and,  instead  of  encouraging  the 
conspirators,  pathetically  exhorted  them  to  break 
off  all  their  rebellious  connexions,  and  return  to 
their  duty.  Finding  he  could  not  prevail  with 
them,  he  wrote  to  all  the  numerous  friends  and 
descendants  of  his  family,  and  particularly  to 
Douglas  of  Cavers,  sheriff  of  Teviotdale,  dissuad- 
ing them  from  entering  into  the  conspiracy, 
some  of  his  letters  to  this  effect  are  still  extant. 
This  great  man  survived  the  application  but  a; 
short  time ;  for  he  died  without  issue  at  Lindores, 
on  the  15th  of  April,  1488;  and  in  him  ended 
the  first  branch  of  that  noble  house.  He  was 
remarkable  for  being  the  most  learned  of  all  the 
Scotch  nobility  of  his  time,  and  for  the  comeliness 
of  his  person. 

James  appears  to  have  been  no  stranger  to  the 
proceedings  of  the  conspirators  ;  but,  though  he 
dreaded  them,  he  depended  upon  the  protection 
of  the  law,  as  they  did  upon  his  pusillanimity. 
His  degeneracy  in  this  respect  is  remarkable. 
Descended  from  a  race  of  heroes,  he  was  the 
first  of  his  family  who  had  been  branded  with 
cowardice.  But  his  conduct  at  this  time  fully 
justifies  the  charge.  Instead  of  vigorously  sup- 
porting the  execution  of  the  laws  in  his  own 
person,  he  shut  himself  up  in  his  castle  of  Stir- 
ling, and  raised  a  body  guard  ;  the  command  of 
which  he  gave  to  Bothwel,  master  of  his  house- 
hold, lie  likewise  issued  a  proclamation,  for- 
bidding any  person  in  arms  to  approach  the 
court;  and  Bothwel  had  a  warrant  to  see  the 
same  put  into  execution.  Though  the  king's 
proceedings  in  all  this  were  perfectly  agreeable 
to  law,  yet  they  were  given  out  by  his  enemies 
as  so  many  indications  of  his  averson  to  the  no- 
bility, and  served  only  to  induce  them  to  parade 
the  country  in  more  numerous  bodies.  The 
connexions  entered  into  by  James  with  Henry 
alarmed  the  conspirators,  however,  and  made 
them  resolved  to  strike  the  great  blow,  before  he 
could  avail  himself  of  an  alliance  that  seemed  to 
place  him  above  all  opposition.  The  acquisition 
of  Berwick  to  the  crown  of  Scotland,  which  was 
looked  upon  to  be  as  good  as  concluded  ;  the 
marriage  of  the  duke  of  Rothesay  with  the 
'•itcr  of  the  dowager  and  sister  to  the  consort 


SCOTLAND. 


457 


queen  of  England ;  and,  above  all,  the  strict  har- 
mony which  reigned  between  -James  and  the 
states  of  his  kingdom,  rendered  them  in  a  man- 
ner desperate.  Besides  the  earl  of  Angus,  the 
earls  of  Argyle  and  Lennox  favored  the  conspi- 
rators ;  yet  their  success  may  be  said  to  have 
been  entirely  owing  to  his  English  connexions; 
which  they  made  use  of  to  affirm  that  Scotland 
was  soon  to  become  a  province  of  England,  and 
that  James  intended  to  govern  his  subjects  by 
an  English  force.  These  allegations  inclined 
many,  even  of  the  moderate  party,  to  their  cause ; 
and  they  soon  took  the  field,  and  appointed  their 
rendezvous  ;  until  all  the  south  of  Scotland  was 
in  arms.  James  continued  to  rely  upon  the  au- 
thority of  his  parliament ;  and  summoned,  in  the 
terms  of  law,  the  insurgents  to  answer  at  the 
proper  tribunals  for  their  breaches  of  the  peace. 
The  conspirators,  far  from  paying  any  regard  to 
his  citations,  tore  them  in  pieces,  buffeted  and 
otherwise  maltreated  the  messengers,  and  set  the 
laws  at  open  defiance.  Even  north  of  the  Forth, 
the  heads  of  the  houses  of  Gray  and  Drummond 
spread  the  spirit  of  disaffection  through  the  po- 
pulous counties  of  Fife  and  Angus  ;  but  the 
counties  north  of  the  Grampians  continued  firm 
in  their  duty.  The  duke  of  Rothesay  was  then 
A  promising  youth  about  fifteen  years  of  age ; 
and  the  subjecting  the  kingdom  of  Scotland  to 
that  of  England  being  the  chief,  if  not  the  only 
.  .uise  urged  by  the  rebels  for  their  appearing  in 
arms,  they  naturally  cast  their  eyes  upon  that 
prince,  as  his  appearance  at  their  head  would 
irive  strength  and  vigor  to  their  cause ;  and  in 
this  they  were  not  deceived.  James,  in  the 
mean  time,  finding  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
southern  provinces  were  either  engaged  in  the 
rebellion,  or  at  best  observed  a  cold  neutrality, 
embarked  on  board  of  a  vessel  which  was  then 
lying  in  the  frith  of  Forth,  and  passed  to  the 
north  of  that  river,  not  finding  it  safe  to  go  by 
land  to  Stirling.  Arriving  at  the  castle,  he  gave 
orders  that  the  duke  of  Rothesay  should  be  put 
under  the  care  of  Schaw,  of  Sauche,  whom  he 
had  made  its  governor,  charging  him  not  to  suf- 
fi>r  that  prince  on  any  account  to  depart  from  the 
fort.  The  rebels,  giving  out  that  James  had  fled 
to  Flanders,  plundered  his  equipage  and  baggage 
before  they  passed  the  Forth ;  and  thus  supplied 
themselves  with  a  large  sum  of  money,  which 
proved  of  the  utmost  consequence  to  their  affairs. 
They  then  surprised  the  castle  of  Dunbar,  and 
plundered  the  houses  of  every  man  to  the  south 
of  the  Forth  whom  they  suspected  of  being  a 
royalist.  James  was  all  this  time  making  a  pro- 
gress, and  holding  courts  of  justice  in  the  north, 
where  the  great  families  were  entirely  devoted  to 
his  service,  particularly  the  earls  of  Huntley, 
Kirol,  and  Marshal.  But  every  day  brought 
him  fresh  alarms  from  the  south.  The  conspira- 
tors, notwithstanding  the  promising  appearance 
of  their  affairs,  found,  that  in  a  short  time  their 
cause  must  languish,  and  their  numbers  dwindle, 
unless  they  wrre  furnished  with  fresh  pretexts, 
and  headed  by  a  person  of  the  greatest  authority. 
^  hile  they  were  deliberating  who  that  person 
should  be,  the  earl  of  Angus  boldly  proposed 
the  duke  of  Rothesay;  and  an  immediate  appli- 
i  .itioi;  \va<  made  to  Schaw,  the  young  prince's 


governor,  who  secretly  favored  their  cause,  and 
was  prevailed  upon  by  a  considerable  sum  of 
money  to  put  the  prince  into  their  hands,  and 
declare  for  the  rebels.  James,  having  ordered  all 
the  forces  of  the  north  to  assemble,  hurried  to 
Perth,  where  he  appointed  the  rendezvous  of  his 
army,  which  amounted  to  30,000  men.  Among 
the  other  noblemen  who  attended  him  was  the  fa- 
mous lord  David  Lindsay  of  the  Byres  (an  officer 
of  great  courage  and  experience,  having  long 
served  in  foreign  countries),  who  headed  3000 
foot  and  1000  horse,  mostly  raised  in  Fifeshire. 
Upon  his  approaching  the  king's  person,  he  pre- 
sented him  with  a  horse  of  remarkable  spirit  and 
beauty,  and  informed  his  majesty  that  he  might 
trust  his  life  to  his  agility  and  sure-footedness. 
The  lord  Ruthven,  who  was  sheriff  of  Strathern, 
and  ancestor  to  the  unfortunate  earls  of  Gowry, 
joined  James  at  the  head  of  3000  well  armed 
men.  The  whole  army  being  assembled,  James 
proceeded  to  Stirling  ;  but  was  astonished,  when 
he  was  not  only  denied  entrance  into  the  castle, 
but  saw  the  guns  pointed  against  his  person, 
and  understood,  for  the  first  time,  that  his  son 
was  at  the  head  of  the  rebels.  Schaw  pretended 
that  the  duke  of  Rothesay  had  been  carried  oft' 
against  his  will ;  but  the  king's  answer  was, 
'  Traitor,  thou  hast  deceived  me  ;  and  if  1  live  I 
shall  be  revenged  on  thee,  and  thou  shall  be  re- 
warded as  thou  hast  deserved.'  James  lay  that 
night  in  the  town  of  Stirling,  where  he  was  joined 
by  all  his  army ;  and,  understanding  the  rebels 
were  advancing,  he  formed  his  line  of  battle. 
The  earl  of  Athol,  his  uncle,  who  was  trusted  by 
both  parties,  proposed  an  accommodation ; 
which  was  effected,  according  to  Abercromby 
and  other  historians ;  but  the  terms  are  not  re- 
corded. The  earl  of  Athol  surrendered  himself  as  a 
hostage  into  the  hands  of  the  rebels.  James  was 
sensible  of 'the  advantage  which  public  clamor 
gave  to  his  enemies  ;  and  he  applied  to  the  kings 
of  France  and  England,  and  the  pope,  for  their  in- 
terposition. His  holiness  named'  Adrian  de  Cas- 
tello  for  his  nuncio  on  this  occasion,  and.the  two 
kings  threatened  to  rarse  troops  for  the  service  of 
James.  But  he,  by  a  strange  fatality,  left  the  strong 
castle  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  might  have  been  in 
safety  till  his  friends  reassembled  ;  and,  crossing 
the  Forth,  made  another  attempt  to  lie  admitted 
into  the  castle  of  Stirling.  Again  he  was  disap- 
pointed, and  informed  that  the  rebels  were  at 
Torwood  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  ready  to  give 
him  battle.  He  was  at  this  time  in  possession 
of  the  castle  of  Blackness  ;  his  admiral,  VVood, 
commanded  the  Forth  ;  and  his  loyal  subjects  in 
the  north  were  upon  their  march  to  join  him. 
Hawthornden  says  that,  while  he  remained  at 
Blackness,  he  was  attended  by  the  earls  of  Mont- 
rose,  Glencairn,  and  lords  Maxwell  and  Ruth- 
ven. To  give  his  northern  friends  time  to  join 
him,  he  proposed  a  negociation ;  but  that  was 
soon  at  end,  upon  the  rebels  peremptorily  re- 
quiring him  to  resign  his  crown  to  his  son,  that 
is,  to  themselves.  The  latter  had  been  inured  to 
war,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  borderers,  well  armed 
and  disciplined ;  in  which  they  had  the  advan- 
tage of  the  king's  Lowland  subjects,  who  were 
unaccustomed  to  arms.  The  forces  of  James 
were  at  Falkirk;  but  they  soon  passed  the  Car- 


458 


SCOTLAND. 


ron,  encamped  above  the  bridge  near  Torwood, 
and  made  such  dispositions  as  rendered  a  battle 
unavoidable.  He  was  encamped  at  a  small 
brook  named  Sauchie-burn,  near  the  same  spot 
of  ground  where  the  great  Bruco  had  defeated 
the  English  under  Edward  II.  The  earl  of 
Monteith,  the  lords  Erskine,  Graham,  Ruthven, 
and  Maxwell,  commanded  the  first  line  of  the 
king's  army.  The  second  was  commanded  by 
the  earl  of  Glencairn,  who  was  at  the  head  of 
the  Westland  and  Highland  men.  The  earl  of 
Crawford,  with  the  lord  Boyd  and  Lindsay  of 
Byres,  headed  the  rear,  wherein  the  kind's  main 
strength  consisted,  and  where  he  himself  ap- 
peared in  person,  completely  armed,  and  mounted 
upon  the  horse  which  had  been  presented  to  him 
by  Lindsay.  The  first  line  of  the  royalists 
obliged  that  of  the  rebels  to  give  way  ~,  but,  the 
latter  being  supported  by  the  Annandale  men 
and  borderers,  the  first  and  second  line  of  the 
king's  army  were  beat  back.  The  little  courage 
James  possessed  had  forsaken  him  on  the  first 
onset ;  and  he  put  spurs  to  his  horse,  intending 
to  gain  the  banks  of  the  Forth,  and  to  go  on 
board  one  of  Wood's  ships.  In  passing  through 
the  village  of  Bannockburn,  however,  a  woman 
who  was  filling  her  pitcher  at  a  brook,  frightened 
at  the  sight  of  a  man  in  armor  galloping  full 
speed,  left  it  behind  her ;  and,  the  horse  taking 
(right,  the  king  was  thrown  to  the  ground,  and 
carried,  bruised  and  maimed,  by  a  miller  into  his 
hovel.  He  immediately  called  for  a  priest  to 
make  his  confession ;  and,  the  rustics  demanding 
his  name  and  rank,  *  I  was,'  said  he,  '  your  king 
this  morning.'  The  woman,  running  to  the  door, 
called  in  a  priest  to  confess  the  king  :  being  in- 
troduced into  the  hovel,  he  saw  the  king  covered 
\\ith  a  coarse  cloth;  and,  kneeling  by  him,  he 
asked  James  whether  he  thought  he  could  recover 
if  medically  attended  ?  James  answering  in  the 
affirmative,  the  villain  pulled  out  a  dagger,  and 
.slabbed  him  to  the  heart.  Such  is  the  dark  ac- 
count given  of  this  prince's  unhappy  end.  The 
name  of  the  person  who  murdered  him  is  said 
to  have  been  Andrew  Borthwick,  a  priest,  one  of 
the  pope's  knights.  Some  pretend  that  the  lord 
Gray,  and  others  that  Robert  Stirling  of  Keir, 
was  the  regicide ;  and  even  Buchanan  is  uncer- 
tain as  to  the  name  of  the  person  who  gave  him 
the  fatal  blow. 

It  is  probable  that  the  royalists  lost  the  battle 
through  the  cowardice  of  James.  Even  after  his 
flight  his  troops  fought  bravely;  but  they  were 
discouraged  on  receiving  certain  accounts  of  his 
death.  The  prince,  young  as  he  was,  had  an 
idea  of  the  unnatural  part  he  was  acting,  and  be- 
fore the  battle  had  given  a  strict  charge  for  the 
safety  of  his  father's  person.  Upon  hearing  that 
he  had  retifed  from  the  field,  he  sent  orders  that 
none  should  pursue  him  ;  but  they  were  ineffec- 
tual, the  rebels  being  sensible  that  they  could 
have  no  safety  but  in  the  king's  death.  When  that 
was  certified,  hostilities  seemed  to  cease ;  nor  were 
the  loyalists  pursued.  The  number  of  slam 
must  have  been  considerable,  as  the  earl  of  Glen- 
cairn,  the  lords  Sempil,  Erskine,  and  Ruthven, 
and  other  gentlemen  of  great  eminence,  are 
mentioned.  As  to  the  duke  of  Rothesay,  who 
was  now  king,  he  appeared  inconsolable  when 


he  heard  of  his  father's  death ;  but  the  rebels 
endeavoured  to  efface  his  grief,  by  the  profusion, 
of  honors  they  paid  him  as  king.  Seeing  his 
remorse  and  anguish,  in  reflecting  on  the  un- 
natural part  he  had  acted,  they  became  apprehen- 
sive indeed  for  their  own  safety.  The  catastrophe 
of  James  HI.,  however,  was  not  yet  become 
public ;  and  it  was  thought  that  he  had  gone 
aboard  some  of  the  ships  belonging  to  Sir 
Andrew  Wood.  Willing  to  indulge  the  hope  as 
long  as  possible,  the  prince  desired  an  interview 
with  the  admiral ;  but  the  latter  refused  to  come 
on  shore,  unless  he  had  hostages  for  his  safety. 
These  being  delivered,  Sir  Andrew  waited  upon 
the  young  king  at  Leith.  He  had  by  messages 
assured  him  that  he  knew  nothing  of  his  father  ; 
and  had  even  offered  to  allow  his  ships  to  be 
searched  :  yet  such  was  the  anxiety  of  the  new 
king  that  tie  could  not  be  satisfied  till  he  had 
examined  him  in  person.  Young  James  had 
been  long  a  stranger  to  his  father.  When  Wood, 
therefore,  entered  the  room,  he  asked  him,  '  Are 
you  my  father?'  'I  am  not,'  replied  Wood, 
bursting  into  tears,  'but  I  was  your  father's 
true  servant,  and  while  I  live  I  shall  be  the  de- 
termined enemy  of  his  murderers.'  This  did 
not  satisfy  the  lords,  who  demanded  whether  he 
knew  where  the  king  was.  The  admiral  replied 
in  the  negative;  and  upon  their  questioning  him 
concerning  his  manoeuvres  on  the  day  of  battle, 
when  his  boats  were  seen  plying  backwards  and 
forwards,  he  told  them  that  he  and  his  brother 
had  determined  to  assist  the  king  in  person  ; 
but  all  they  could  do  was  to  save  some  of  the 
royalists.  '  I  would  to  God,'  says  he,  '  my 
king  was  there  safely  ;  for  I  would  defend  and 
keep  him  skaithless  from  all  the  traitors  who 
have  cruelly  murdered  him  ;  and  I  think  yet  to 
see  the  day  that  shall  behold  them  hanged  and 
drawn  for  their  demerits.'  This  spirited  decla- 
ration, and  the  freedom  with  which  it  was  de- 
livered, struck  the  guilty  part  of  the  council  with 
dismay ;  but  the  fear  of  sacrificing  the  hostages 
procured  Wood  his  freedom,  and  he  was  suffered 
to  depart.  When  he  came  on  board  his  fleet,  he 
found  his  brother  preparing  to  hang  the  two> 
lords  who  had  been  left  as  hostages ;  and  this 
would  certainly  have  been  their  fate,  had  the  ad- 
miral been  longer  detained. 

The  council  now  removed  to  Edinburgh,  where 
James  IV.  was  crowned  on  the  24th  of  June 
1487.  In  October  this  year  the  nobility,  and 
others  interested,  converted  themselves  into  a 
parliament,  and  passed  an  act  by  which  they 
were  indemnified  for  their  rebellion  against  their 
late  sovereign  ;  after  which  the  act  was  exempli- 
fied under  the  great  seal  of  Scotland,  that  it 
might  be  produced  in  their  justification,  if  called 
for  by  any  foreign  prince.  They  next  proceeded 
to  the  arduous  task  of  vindicating  their  rebellion 
in  the  eyes  of  the  public;  and  so  far  did  they 
gain  upon  the  new  king  by  flattery,  that  he  con- 
sented to  summon  the  lords  who  had  taken  part 
with  his  father,  before  the  parliament,  to  answer 
for  their  conduct.  In  consequence  of  this,  no 
fewer  than  twenty-eight  lords  were  cited  to  ap- 
pear at  Edinburgh  in  the  space  of  forty  days. 
The  first  upon  the  list  was  lord  David  Lindsay 
of  the  Byres,  who  was  called  upon  to  answer  for 


SCOTLAND. 


459 


the  cruel  coming  against  the  king  at  Bannock- 
burn  with  his  father,  giving  him  council  to  have 
devoured  the  king's  grace  here  present ;  and  to 
that  effect  giving  him  a  sword  and  a  good  horse 
to  fortify  him  against  his  son.'  Lord  Lindsay 
was  remarkable  for  the  bluntness  of  his  conver- 
sation and  the  freedom  of  his  sentiments  :  being 
irritated  _by  this  charge,  he  delivered  himself  in 
such  a  manner,  concerning  the  treason  of  the  re- 
bellious lords,  as  abashed  the  boldest  of  them  ; 
and,  as  they  were  unable  to  answer  him,  all  they 
could  do  was  to  press  him  to  throw  himself  upon 
the  king's  clemency ;  which  he  refused  to  do. 
His  brother,  Patrick  Lindsay,  undertook  to  be 
his  advocate,  and  apologised  upon  his  knees  for 
the  roughness  of  his  behaviour;  upon  which 
Lindsay  was  released,  on  entering  into  recogni- 
zance to  appear  again  at  an  appointed  day  :  how- 
ever, he  was  afterwards  sent  prisoner  by  the 
king's  order,  for  a  twelve-month,  to  the  castle  of 
Rothesay.  The  regicides  now  endeavoured  to 
gain  the  public  favor  by  affecting  a  strict  admi- 
nistration of  justice.  The  king  was  advised  to 
make  a  progress  through  the  kingdom,  attended 
by  his  council  and  judges ;  while,  in  the  mean 
time,  certain  noblemen  and  gentlemen  were  ap- 
pointed to  suppress  all  kinds  of  disorders  in  their 
own  lands  and  those  adjoining,  till  the  king  came 
to  the  age  of  twenty-one.  The  memory  of  the  late 
king  was  branded  in  the  most  opprobious  man- 
ner. All  justices,  sheriffs,  and  stewards,  who 
were  possessed  of  heritable  offices,  but  who  had 
taken  up  arms  for  him,  were  either  deprived  of 
them  for  three  years,  or  rendered  incapable  of 
possessing  them  for  ever.  All  the  young  nobi- 
lity, who  had  been  disinherited  by  their  fathers 
for  taking  arms  against  the  late  kinsr,  were,  by 
act  of  parliament,  restored  to  their  successions. 
At  last,  to  give  a  kind  of  proof  to  the  world 
that  they  intended  only  to  resettle  the  state  of 
the  nation,  without  prejudice  to  the  lower  ranks 
of  subjects,  who  did  no  more  than  follow  the 
examples  of  their  superiors,  it  was  enacted, 
'  That  all  goods  and  effects  taken  from  the  bur- 
gesses, merchants,  and  those  who  had  only  per- 
sonal estates,  or,  as  they  are  called  unlanded 
men,  since  the  battle  of  Stirling,  were  not  only 
to  be  restored,  but  the  owners  were  to  be  indem- 
nified for  their  losses  ;  and  their  persons,  if  in 
custody,  to  be  set  at  liberty.  Churchmen,  who 
were  taken  in  arms,  were  to  be  delivered  over  to 
their  ordinaries,  to  be  dealt  with  by  them  accord- 
ing to  the  law.'  The  castle  of  Dunbar  was 
ordered  to  be  demolished  ;  and  some  statutes 
were  enacted  in  favor  of  commerce,  and  for  the 
exclusion  of  foreigners.  These  last  acts  were 
passed  with  a  view  to  recompense  the  boroughs, 
who  had  been  very  active  in  their  opposition  to 
the  late  king.  Howevei  the  lords,  before  they 
dissolved  their  parliament,  thought  it  necessary 
to  give  some  public  testimony  of  their  disap- 
proving the  late  connexion  with  England.  It 
was  therefore  enacted,  '  That  as  the  king  was 
now  of  age  to  marry  a  noble  princess,  born  and 
descended  of  a  noble  and  worshipful  house,  an 
honorable  embassy  should  be  sent  to  the  realms 
of  France,  Britanny,  Spain,  and  other  places,  to 
conclude  the  matter.'  This  embassy  was  to  be 
splendid  :  and  to  consist  of  a  bishop,  an  earl,  or 


lord  of  parliament,  a  secretary,  clergyman,  and 
knight.  They  were  to  be  attended  by  fifty  horse- 
men ;  and  £5000  was  allowed  them  for  expenses  : 
they  were  empowered  to  renew  the  ancient 
league  between  France  and  Scotland ;  and,  in 
the  mean  time,  a  herald,  or,  as  he  was  called,  a 
trusty  squire,  was  sent  abroad  to  visit  the  several 
courts,  to  find  out  a  proper  match  for  the  king. 
One  considerable  obstacle,  however,  lay  in  the 
way  of  this  embassy.  The  pope  had  laid  under 
an  interdict  all  those  who  had  appeared  in  arms 
against  James  III. ;  and  the  party  who  now 
governed  Scotland  were  looked  upon  by  all  the 
powers  of  Europe  as  rebels.  The  embassy  was 
therefore  suspended  for  a  considerable  time,  and 
it  was  not  till  1491  that  the  pope  could  be  pre- 
vailed upon  to  take  off  the  interdict.  In  the 
mean  time  the  many  good  qualities  which  dis- 
covered themselves  in  the  young  king  began  to 
conciliate  the  affections  of  his  people.  Being 
considered,  however,  as  little  better  than  a  pri- 
soner in  the  hands  of  his  father's  murderers, 
several  of  the  nobility  made  use  of  that  as  a  pre- 
text for  taking  arms.  The  most  forward  of  these 
was  the  earl  of  Lennox,  who  with  2000  men 
attempted  to  surprise  the  town  of  Stirling ;  but, 
being  betrayed  by  one  of  his  own  men,  he  was 
defeated,  and  the  castle  of  Dumbarton,  of  which 
he  was  the  keeper,  taken  by  the  opposite  party. 
In  the  north,  the  earls  of  Huntley  and  Mar- 
shal, with  the  lord  Forbes,  complained  that 
they  had  been  deceived,  and  declared  their 
resolution  to  revenge  the  late  king's  death. 
Forbes,  having  procured  the  bloody  shirt  of  the 
murdered  prince,  displayed  it  on  the  point  ot 
a  lance,  as  a  banner  under  which  all  loyal  sub- 
jects should  enlist  themselves.  However,  after 
the  defeat  of  Lennox,  the  northern  chieftains 
found  themselves  incapable  of  marching  south- 
ward. The  cause  of  the  murdered  king  was 
next  undertaken  by  Henry  VII.  of  England, 
who  made  an  offer  to  Sir  Andrew  Wood  of  five 
ships  to  revenge  it.  The  admiral  accepted  the 
proposal ;  but  the  English  behaving  as  pirates, 
and  plundering  indiscriminately  all  who  came  in 
their  way,  he  thought  proper  to  separate  himself 
from  them.  Upon  this  James  was  advised  to 
send  for  the  admiral,  offer  him  a  pardon,  and  a 
commission  to  act  against  the  English  freebooters. 
Wood  accepted  of  the  king's  offer;  and,  being 
well  provided  with  ammunition  and  artillery,  he, 
with  two  ships  only,  attacked  the  five  English 
vessels,  all  of  which  he  took,  and  brought  their 
crews  prisoners  to  Leith.  This  conduct  of 
Wood  was  highly  resented  by  the  king  of  Eng- 
land. The  Scottish  admiral's  ships  had  been 
fitted  out  for  commerce  as  well  as  war,  and 
Henry  commanded  his  best  sea-officer,  Sir  Ste- 
phen Bull,  to  intercept  him  on  his  return  from 
a  commercial  voyage  to  Flanders.  Wood  had 
no  more  than  two  ships  with  him  :  the  English 
admiral  had  three ;  and  those  much  larger,  and 
carrying  a  greater  weight  of  metal.  The  English 
took  their  station  at  the  island  of  May,  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and,  having  come 
unawares  upon  the  enemy,  fired  two  guns  as  a 
signal  for  their  surrender.  The  Scottish  com- 
mander encouraged  his  men  as  well  as  he  could  ; 
and,  finding  them  determined  to  stand  by  him, 


460 


SCOTLAND. 


began  the  engagement  in  sight  of  numberless 
spectators  on  both  sides  of  the  Frith.  The  fight 
continued  all  that  day  and  was  renewed  with  re- 
doubled fury  in  the  morning ;  but,  in  the  mean 
time,  the  ebb-tide  and  a  south  wind  had  carried 
both  squadrons  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tay.  Here 
the  English  fought  under  great  disadvantages,  by 
reason  of  the  sand-banks ;  and,  before  they  could 
get  clear  of  them,  all  the  three  were  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  Scots,  who  earned  them  to  Dun- 
dee. Wood  treated  his  prisoners  with  humanity ; 
and,  having  afterwards  presented  them  to  king 
James,  the  latter  dismissed  them  not  only  with- 
out ransom,  but  with  presents,  and  a  letter  to 
king  Henry.  To  this  the  English  monarch  re- 
turned a  polite  answer ;  a  truce  was  concluded, 
and  all  differences  were  accommodated.  James 
all  this  time  had  continued  to  display  such  mo- 
deration in  his  government,  and  appeared  to 
have  the  advantage  of  his  subjects  so  much  at 
heart,  that  they  became  gradually  well  affected 
to  his  government,  and  in  1490  all  parties  were 
fully  reconciled  ;  the  next  year  the  happiness  of 
his  kingdom  was  completed  by  the  pope  taking 
off  his  interdict,  and  giving  the  king  absolution 
for  his  father's  death.  Tranquillity  being  thus 
restored,  the  negociations  concerning  the  king's 
marriage  began  to  take  place,  but  met  with  seve- 
ral interruptions.  In  1493  Henry  VII.  pro- 
posed a  match  between  James  and  his  cousin, 
the  princess  Catharine ;  but  this  was  treated  with 
contempt.  Henry  made  in  1495  another  offer 
of  alliance  with  James;  proposing  a  marriage 
betwixt  him  and  his  eldest  daughter  Margaret. 
This  proposal  was  accepted :  but,  at  the  time 
in  which  he  was  negociating  the  marriage, 
he  not  only  protected  Perkin  Warbeck,  the 
avowed  pretender  to  the  crown  of  Henry,  but 
invaded  England  on  his  account.  This  conduct 
was  highly  resented  by  the  English  parliament ; 
but  Henry  himself  forgave  even  this  insult,  and 
the  marriage  negociations  were  resumed.  The 
bride  was  not  more  than  ten  years  and  six 
months  old ;  and,  being  only  the  fourth  degree 
of  blood  from  James,  it  was  necessary  to  procure 
a  dispensation  from  the  pope.  This  being  ob- 
tained, a  treaty  of  perpetual  peace  was  concluded 
between  the  two  nations,  on  the  1st  of  July, 
1503,  being  the  first  that  had  taken  place  for  170 
years,  or  since  the  peace  of  Northampton,  be- 
tween Robert  I.  and  Edward  III.  One  of  the 
great  ends  that  Henry  had  in  view  in  promoting 
ihis  marriage  was  to  detach  James  from  the 
French  interest;  no  sooner,  therefore,  was  the 
treaty  signed,  than  he  wrote  to  his  son-in-law  to 
this  purpose ;  who,  however,  politely  declined  to 
I  reak  with  his  ancient  ally.  On  the  16th  of 
June,  the  royal  bride  set  out  from  Richmond  in 
company  with  her  father,  who  convoyed  her  as 
far  as  Collyweston,  the  residence  of  his  mother, 
the  countess  of 'Richmond.  After  passing  some 
days  there  the  king  resigned  his  daughter  to  the 
catc  of  the  earls  of  Surrey  and  Northumberland. 
On  the  borders  of  Scotland  a  number  of  her  re- 
tinue were  permitted  to  take  leave ;  but  those 
who  remained  still  made  a  royal  appearance. 
At  L'linberton  church  they  were  met  by  James, 
attended  by  a  numerous  train  of  his  nobility  and 
officers  of  state;  and  at  Kdinburgh  the  nuptials 


were  celebrated  with  the  greatest  splendor.  On 
this  occasion  the  Scots  vied,  we  are  told,  with 
the  most  extravagant  of  their  guests  in  luxury 
and  display.  After  the  celebration  of  the  nup- 
tials James  appears  to  have  enjoyed  a  tranquil- 
lity almost  unknown  to  any  of  his  predecessors  ; 
and  began  to  make  a  considerable  figure  among 
the  European  potentates.  But  the  magnificence 
of  his  court  and  embassies,  his  liberality  to 
strangers  and  to  learned  men,  his  costly  edifices, 
and,  above  all,  the  large  sums  he  laid  out  in 
ship-building,  brought  him  into  some  difficulties  ; 
and  he  so  far  attended  to  the  advice  and  example 
of  his  father-in-law  that  he  supplied  his  necessi- 
ties by  reviving  dormant  penal  laws,  particularly 
with  regard  to  wardships  and  old  titles  of  estates. 
Though  he  did  this  without  assembling  his  par- 
lament,  yet  he  found  agents  who  justified  his 
proceedings,  in  the  manner  of  the  English  minis- 
ters of  the  day,  Empsom  and  Dudley.  At  last, 
however,  touched  with  the  sufferings  of  his  sub- 
jects, he  ordered  all  prosecutions  to  be  stopped. 
He  even  went  farther  :  and,  sensible  of  the  detes- 
tation into  which  his  father-in-law's  avarice  had 
brought  himself  and  his  administration,  he 
ordered  the  ministers  who  had  advised  him  to- 
these  shameful  courses  to  be  imprisoned ;  and 
several  of  them  died  in  confinement.  About 
this  time  James  applied  himself  with  incredible 
assiduity  to  naval  affairs ;  one  ship  which  he 
built,  the  St.  Michael,  is  supposed  to  have  been, 
the  largest  then  in  the  world.  She  was  240  feet 
long,  thirty-six  wide  within  the  sides,  and  ten 
feet  thick.  She  carried  300  small  artillery, 
twelve  cannons,  and  1000  men.  The  expense 
was  £30,000.  He  worked  with  his  own  hands 
in  building  it,  and  Scotland  at  this  time  pro- 
duced excellent  seamen.  The  first  essay  of  his 
arms  by  sea  was  in  favor  of  his  kinsman  Joint 
of  Denmark.  This  prince  was  brother  to  Mar- 
garet queen  of  Scotland ;  and  ha;l  partly  been 
called  to  the  throne  of  Sweden,  and  partly  pos- 
sessed it  by  force.  He  was  opposed  by  the 
administrator  Sture,  whom  he  pardoned  after  he 
was  crowned.  Sture,  however,  renewing  his  re- 
bellion, and  the  Norwegians  revolting,  John  was 
forced  to  return  to  Denmark;  but  left  his  queen 
in  possession  of  the  castle  of  Stockholm,  which 
she  bravely  defended.  This  heroic  princess  be- 
came a  great  favorite  with  James;  and  several 
letters  that  passed  between  them  are  extant.  The 
king  of  Denmark,  next  to  the  French  monarch, 
was  the  favorite  ally  of  James.  It  appears,  from 
the  histories  of  the  north,  that  both  James  and 
his  father  had  given  assistance  to  him  in  reduc- 
ing the  Norwegians ;  and  he  resolved  to  become 
a  party  in  the  war  against  the  Swedes,  if  they 
continued  in  their  revolt.  Previous  to  this  he 
sent  an  ambassador  to  offer  his  mediation  be- 
tween John  and  his  subjects.  The  mediation 
was  accepted  and  the  negociations  opened  at 
Calmar.  The  deputies  of  Sweden  not  attending, 
John  prevailed  with  those  of  Denmark  and  Nor- 
way to  pronounce  sentence  of  forfeiture  against 
Sture  and  all  his  adherents.  In  the  mean  time 
the  siege  of  the  castle  of  Stockholm  \vas  pressed 
so  warmly  that  the  garrison  was  diminished  to  a 
handful,  destitute  of  all  kind  of  provisions;  so 
that  the  brave  queen  \\a-  Ibm  d  to  capilulale  ou 


SCOTLAND. 


461 


condition  that  she  should  be  suffered  to  depart 
for  Denmark ;  a  stipulation  perfidiously  violated 
by  Sture,  she  being  confined  in  a  monastery. 
On  this  occasion  James  resolved  to  employ  his 
maritime  power.  He  wrote  a  letter,  conceived 
in  the  strongest  terms,  to  the  archbishop  of  Up- 
sal,  the  primate  of  Sweden,  exhorting  him  to 
employ  all  his  authority  in  favor  of  the  king; 
and  another  to  the  Lubeckers,  threaten  ins  to  de- 
clare war  against  them,  as  well  as  the  Swedes,  if 
they  continued  to  assist  the  rebels.  According 
to  Hollingshed,  James,  in  consequence  of  king 
John's  application,  gave  the  command  of  an 
army  of  10,000  men  to  the  earl  of  Arran,  who 
replaced  John  upon  his  throne.  It  is  certain 
that,  had  it  not  been  for  James,  John  must  hare 
sunk  under  his  enemies.  Sture,  hearing  that  a 
considerable  armament  was  fitting  out  in  Scot- 
land, agreed  to  release  the  queen,  and  to  con- 
duct her  to  the  frontiers  of  Denmark ;  where  he 
died.  By  this  time  James's  armament,  which 
was  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Arran,  had  set 
sail ;  but,  perceiving  that  all  matters  were  ad- 
justed between  John  and  the  Swedes,  the  ships 
returned  sooner  than  James  expected,  '  which,' 
says  he,  in  a  letter  he  wrote  afterwards  to  the 
queen,  '  they  durst  not  have  done,  had  they  not 
brought  me  an  account  that  her  Danish  majesty 
was  in  perfect  safety.'  The  severity  of  John 
having  occasioned  a  fresh  revolt  James  again 
sent  a  squadron  to  his  assistance,  which  appeared 
before  Stockholm,  and  obliged  the  Lubeckers  to 
conclude  a  new  treaty.  James,  having  thus  dis- 
charged his  engagements  with  his  uncle,  turned 
his  attention  towards  the  Flemings  and  Hollan- 
ders, who  had  insulted  his  flag,  on  account  of  the 
assistance  he  had  afforded  the  duke  of  Gueldres. 
He  gave  the  command  of  a  squadron  to  Barton ; 
who  put  to  sea  and  treated  all  the  Dutch  and 
Flemish  traders  who  fell  into  his  hands  as 
pirates,  sending  their  heads  in  hogsheads  to 
James.  Soon  after  Barton  returned  to  Scot- 
land, and  brought  with  him  a  number  of  rich 
prizes.  James  was  then  so  much  respected  upon 
the  continent  that  no  resentment  was  shown 
either  by  the  court  of  Spain,  whose  subjects 
those  Netherlanders  were,  or  any  other  power  in 
Europe,  for  this  vigorous  proceeding.  The 
peace  with  England  continued  all  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII. ;  nor  did  our  Henry  VIII.,  though 
he  had  not  the  same  reason  as  his  father  to  con- 
ciliate the  Scots,  for  some  time  show  any  dispo- 
sition to  break  with  them.  A  breach,  however, 
did  soon  take  place.  About  thirty  years  before 
John  Barton,  a  relation  of  the  above  comman- 
der, was  taken  in  a  trading  vessel  by  two  Portu- 
guese captains;  and  Barton,  with  several  Scotch- 
men, were  killed  in  defending  their  property. 
The  action  was  esteemed  cowardly  as  well  as  pi- 
ratical, because  it  was  done  under  the  protection 
of  a  large  Portuguese  squadron.  The  ship  and  the 
remaining  part  of  the  crew,  with  the  cargo,  were 
carried  to  Portugal,  whence  no  redress  could  be 
obtained ;  and  James  III.  granted  letters  of 
marque  to  John  and  Robert  Bartons,  heirs  to  the 
Barton  who  had  been  murdered.  Upon  the 
accession  of  James  IV.  the  letters  of  marque 
were  recalled,  and  a  friendly  correspondence 
was  entered  into  between  James  and  the  king 


of  Portugal.  No  redress,  however,  was  to  be 
had  from  the  latter ;  and  Robert  Barton  being 
made  a  prisoner,  and  his  ship  a  prize,  was 
detained  in  Zealand,  till  James  procured  his 
deliverance  by  applying  in  his  favor  to  the 
emperor  Maximilian.  Sir  Andrew  Barton 
took  part  in  the  quarrel  ;  and,  having  ob- 
tained a  like  letter  of  marque,  he  made  dreadful 
depredations  on  the  Portuguese  trade.  Accord- 
ing to  English  authors,  he  also  plundered  many 
English  ships,  on  pretence  of  their  carrying 
Portuguese  property,  and  made  the  navigation 
of  the  narrow  seas  dangerous  to  Englishmen. 
The  court  of  London  received  daily  complaints 
of  his  depredations  ;  but,  Henry  being  averse  to 
quarrel  with  James,  these  complaints  were  heard 
with  coldness.  The  earl  of  Surrey  had  then  two 
sons ;  and  he  declared  to  Henry's  face  that,  while 
he  had  an  estate  that  could  furnish  out  a  ship, 
or  a  son  who  was  capable  of  commanding  one, 
the  narrow  seas  should  not  be  thus  infested. 
Henry  could  not  discourage  his  generous  offers ; 
and  letters  of  marque  were  accordingly  granted 
to  the  two  young  noblemen,  Sir  Thomas  and 
Sir  Edward  Howard.  The  prizes  that  Barton 
had  taken  had  rendered  his  ships  immensely  rich, 
consequently  they  were  heavy  laden,  and  unfit 
for  fighting ;  while  the  ships  of  the  Howards 
were  clean,  and  of  a  superior  force.  After  en- 
countering a  great  deal  of  foul  weather,  Sir 
Thomas  Howard  came  up  with  the  Lyon,  com- 
manded by  Sir  Andrew  Barton ;  and  Sir  Edward 
fell  in  with  the  Unicorn,  Barton's  other  ship. 
The  event  was  such  a<  might  be  expected  from 
the  inequality  of  the  match.  Barton  was  killed, 
while  he  was  animating,  with  his  whistle,  his 
men  to  hold  out  to  the  last ;  and  both  the  Scot- 
tish ships,  being  taken,  were  carried  in  triumph 
to  London.  James  could  never  forgive  the  loss 
of  this  brave  officer.  He  sent  to  demand  satis- 
faction; but  was  answered  that  Barton  and  his 
crew  were  lawless  pirates,  and  that  what  had 
been  done  against  them  ought  never  to  be  re- 
sented amongst  sovereign  princes.  James  as- 
serted that  Barton  was  no  pirate,  because  he 
bore  his  commission  ;  and  that  he  ought  to  have 
been  convicted  of  piratical  acts  before  he  was 
treated  as  guilty.  Henry  intimated  to  James 
that  he  was  willing  to  accommodate  the  affair  by 
way  of  negociation  ;  but  James  rejected  the  pro- 
posal with  disdain.  Various  negociations  took 
place  concerning  this  and  other  affairs  till  1513; 
when  James,  fully  resolved  upon  a  war  with 
England,  thought  it  highly  necessary  that  it 
should  have  the  sanction  of  his  parliament, 
which  he  accordingly  assembled.  The  young 
nobility  were  not  only  inspired  with  the  senti- 
ments of  James,  but  had  been  won  over  by  the 
French  ;  and  the  majority  of  them,  as  well  as  of 
the  clergy,  were  ripe  for  a  war  with  England. 
The  older  statesmen,  on  the  other  hand,  who 
saw  the  flourishing  state  of  Scotland,  arising 
from  a  long  peace,  dreaded  the  ruinous  conse- 
quences of  a  war.  The  queen  naturally  headed 
this  party ;  and  she  was  joined  by  the  earl  of 
Angus  and  the  sober  part  of  the  nobility.  But 
their  arguments  made  no  impression  on  James, 
who  had  received  a  present  from  Louis  XI.  of 
four  ships  laden  with  wine  and  flour,  and  two 


402 


SCOTLAND. 


ships  of  war  completely  equipped.  He  promised 
to  the  French  queen,  upon  his  honor,  that  he 
would  take  the  field  against  the  English;  and 
she  had  sent  him  a  fresh  letter,  gently  reproach- 
ing him  for  want  of  gallantry.  In  short,  the 
reasonings  of  the  wisest  and  best  part  of  the  no- 
bility were  over-ruled,  and  an  expedition  against 
England  was  resolved  on.  The  earl  of  Hume, 
who  was  chamberlain  of  Scotland,  was,  at  this 
juncture,  at  the  head  of  7000  or  8000  men,  with 
whom  he  committed  great  devastation  on  the 
English  borders.  Henry's  queen,  Catharine  of 
Spain,  whom  he  had  left  regent  of  his  dominions, 
issued  a  commission  of  array,  directed  to  Sir 
Thomas  Lovel,  K.  G.,  for  assembling  the  militia 
of  the  counties  of  Nottingham,  Derby,  Warwick, 
Leicester,  Stafford,  Rutland,  Northampton,  and 
Lincoln.  The  management  of  this  war,  however, 
was  chiefly  committed  to  the  earl  of  Surrey,  who 
assembled  the  militia  of  Chester,  Lancaster,  Nor- 
thumberland, Westmoreland,  Cumberland,  and 
the  bishopric  of  Durham.  Hume  had  by  this 
time  laid  great  part  of  Northumberland  waste; 
and  his  men  were  returning  home  laden  with 
booty.  The  earl  of  Surrey,  resolving  to  intercept 
them,  ordered  Sir  William  Bulmer  to  form  an 
ambush  with  1000  archers,  at  a  place  called 
Broomhouse.  Bulmer  executed  his  orders  with 
great  success.  The  archers  assaulted  the  Scots 
all  at  once,  and  made  such  good  use  of  their  ar- 
rows that  their  main  body  was  put  to  flight,  500 
killed,  and  400  taken,  with  lord  Hume's  stan- 
dard ;  the  greatest  part  of  the  plunder  being  re- 
covered at  the  same  time.  The  Scots  styled  this 
expedition  the  111  raid.  James  was  more  exaspe- 
rated than  ever  by  this  defeat,  and  continued  his 
preparations  for  inyading  England  with  addi- 
tional vigor.  His  queen  did  all  that  became  a 
prudent  wife  to  divert  him  from  his  purpose. 
She  endeavoured  to  work  upon  his  superstition, 
by  recounting  to  him  her  ominous  dreams.  James 
treating  these  as  mere  fictions  of  the  brain,  she 
had  receurse  to  other  arts.  While  he  was  waiting 
at  Linlithgow  for  the  arrival  of  his  army  from 
the  north  and  the  Highlands,  he  assisted  one 
afternoon  at  the  vespers  in  the  church  of  St. 
Michael.  Being  placed  in  one  of  the  canons' 
seats,  a  venerable  man  entered,  dressed  in  a  long 
garment  of  an  azure  color,  and  girded  round 
with  a  towel  or  roll  of  linen,  his  forehead  bald, 
and  his  yellow  locks  hanging  down  his  shoulders ; 
in  short,  he  was  dressed  and  formed  like  St. 
Andrew,  the  apostle  of  Scotland.  The  church 
being  crowded,  this  personage  made  his  way  to 
the  king's  seat ;  and,  leaning  over  it,  said,  '  Sire, 
I  am  sent  hither  to  intreat  you  for  this  time  to 
delay  your  expedition,  and  to  proceed  no  farther 
in  your  intended  journey ;  for,  if  you  do,  you 
shall  not  prosper  in  your  enterprise.  I  am 
further  charged  to  warn  you,  if  you  be  so  refractory 
a<  to  go  forward,  not  to  use  the  acquaintance, 
company,  or  counsel  of  women,  as  ye  tender  your 
honor,  life,  and  estate.'  After  delivering  these 
words  he  retired  through  the  crowd,  and  was 
seen  no  more,  though  diligent  enquiry  was 
made  after  him.  That  this  scene  was  enacted, 
seems  to  be  past  dispute;  for  Sir  David  Lindsay, 
who  was  then  a  young  man,  and  present  in  the 
church,  reported  it  both  to  Buchanan  and  Lind- 


say the  historians.  It  is  the  opinion  of  historians 
that  the  whole  was  a  contrivance  of  the  queen, 
to  wnose  other  afflictions  the  stings  of  jealousy 
were  now  added.  In  one  of  the  Scottish  inroads 
into  England,  one  Heron,  the  proprietor  of  the 
castle  of  Ford,  had  been  taken  piisoner  and  sent 
to  Scotland ;  where  he  was  detained  on  a  charge 
of  murder,  of  which  he  seems  to  have  been  inno- 
cent. The  English  historians  mention  this  as 
having  passed  after  James  entered  England ; 
but,  from  the  latter  part  of  the  supposed  phan- 
tom's speech,  it  is  probable  that  it  happened  be- 
fore ;  and  that  Heron's  wife  and  beautiful  daugh- 
ter had  been  for  some  time  soliciting  James  for 
his  deliverance.  Be  that  as  it  may,  James  was 
smitten  with  the  charms  of  the  daughter;  and 
her  mother,  who  was  a  most  artful  woman,  knew 
how  to  avail  herself  of  the  conquest.  Pretending 
that  she  had  interest  enough  to  procure  the  re- 
lease of  lord  Johnston  and  Alexander  Home, 
who  were  prisoners  in  England,  she  was  per- 
mitted by  James  to  keep  a  constant  corres- 
pondence with  the  earl  of  Surrey,  to  whom  she 
is  said  to  have  betrayed  all  James's  secrets  and 
measures. 

The  rendezvous  of  James's  army  was  at  the 
Barrow-muir,  to  which  James  repaired ;  and, 
having  given  orders  for  the  march  of  his  artil- 
lery, he  lodged  at  the  abbey  of  Holyrood  House. 
While  he  was  there,  another  attempt  was  made 
to  divert  him  from  his  purpose  of  invading 
England  :  but  James,  deaf  to  all  solicitations, 
mustered  his  army ;  and  on  the  22d  August 
passed  the  Tweed,  encamping  that  night  near 
the  banks  of  the  Twissel.  On  his  arrival  at 
Twisselhaugh,  on  the  14th,  he  called  an  as- 
sembly of  his  lords,  and  declared  that  the  heirs 
of  all  such  as  should  die  in  the  armyf  or  be 
killed  by  the  enemy  during  his  stay  in  England, 
should  have  their  wards,  relief,  and  marriages, 
of  the  king ;  who,  upon  that  account,  dispensed 
with  their  age.  This  was  the  crisis  of  that 
prince's  fate.  Abandoned  to  his  passion  for  his 
English  mistress,  she  prevailed  with  him,  at  her 
mother's  instigation,  to  trifle  away  his  time  for 
some  days ;  during  which  interval  the  junction 
of  the  English  army  was  formed.  The  earl  of 
Surrey,  the  English  general,  was  then  at  Pom- 
fret  ;  but  ordered  the  landholders  of  the  neigh- 
bouring counties  to  certify  to  him  in  writing 
what  number  of  men  each  could  furnish,  charg- 
ing them  to  be  ready  at  an  hour's  warning ;  and 
laid  his  plan  so  as  not  to  bring  his  army  into 
the  field  till  James  had  advanced  so  far  into 
England  as  to  render  it  difficult  for  him  to 
retire  without  a  battle.  This  precaution  assisted 
the  lady  Ford  in  persuading  James  that  there 
was  no  danger  in  the  delay.  In  the  mean  time 
the  earl  of  Surrey  ordered  the  governors  of  Ber- 
wick and  Norham,  the  two  strongest  places  on 
the  frontiers  of  England,  to  prepare  for  a  vigorous 
resistance ;  and  directed  them  to  certify  how 
long  they  could  hold  out ;  in  hopes  that,  if  they 
made  a  resolute  defence,  James  would  march 
on,  and  leave  them  in  his  rear.  The  governor 
of  Norham's  answer  was,  that  his  castle  was  so 
well  provided  as  to  leave  him  no  doubt,  in  case 
of  a  siege,  to  be  able  to  defend  it  till  king  Henry 
should  return  from  abroad  and  relieve  it  in  per 


SCOTLAND. 


463 


son.  James,  liowever,  besieged  it  on  the  25th 
of  August,  and  battered  it  so  furiously  that  lie 
took  it  by  capitulation  on  the  sixth  day.  James 
then  proceeded  to  the  castle  of  Etal,  belonging 
to  the  family  of  Manners,  which  he  took  and 
demolished  likewise,  as  he  also  did  \Vark,  and 
arrived  before  the  castle  of  Ford.  The  Scottish 
army  is  generally  allowed  to  have  consisted  of  at 
least  50,000  men  when  it  passed  the  Tweed.  At 
this  time  it  was  encamped  on  the  heights  of 
Cheviot,  in  the  heart  of  a  country  naturally  bar- 
ren, and  now  desolate  through  the  precautions 
taken  by  the  English  general.  Being  obliged  to 
extend  their  quarters,  for  the  benefit  of  subsistence, 
the  mercenary  part  of  them  had  acquired  a  con- 
siderable plunder,  with  which,  as  usual,  they  re- 
tired to  their  own  country,  as  many  more  d  d 
for  want  of  subsistence.  The  earl  of  Surrey  knew 
their  situation,  and  ordered  the  rendezvous  of 
his  army,  first  at  Newcastle,  and  then  near  Nor- 
ham,  having  certain  intelligence  of  the  vast  de- 
sertions daily  happening  in  the  Scottish  army. 
The  wetness  of  the  season  rendered  his  march, 
especially  that  of  the  artillery,  extremely  difficult; 
but,  being  joined  by  several  persons  of  distinc- 
tion, he  arrived  on  the  3d  of  September  at  Aln- 
wick,  where  he  was  reinforced  by  5000  hardy 
veteran  troops,  sent  from  the  English  army  on 
the  continent ;  so  that  his  army  now  consisted 
of  26,000  men,  all  completely  provided  for  the 
field.  James  having,  in  the  manifesto  which  he 
dispersed  on  his  entering  England,  given  the 
death  of  Barton  as  one  of  the  causes  of  his  in- 
vasion, the  lord-admiral  had  prevailed  with 
Henry  to  send  him  upon  this  service ;  and  he 
informed  James  by  a  letter  that  he  intended  to 
justify  the  death  of  that  pirate  in  the  front  of 
the  English  army.  By  this  time  the  army  of 
James  was,  by  desertion  and  other  causes,  re- 
duced to  less  than  half  its  numbers;  but  the 
chief  misfortune  attending  it  was  his  own  con- 
duct. His  indolence,  inactivity,  and  scandalous 
amours,  at  such  a  season,  had  disgusted  several 
of  his  greatest  and  best  fripnds ;  some  of  whom 
suspected  a  correspondence  between  the  English 
lady  and  the  earl  of  Surrey.  James  was  deaf  to 
all  their  remonstrances  ;  until  the  earl  of  Angus 
declared  that  he  was  resolved  to  return  home,  as 
he  foresaw  the  ruin  of  the  army  was  inevitable. 
He  accordingly  withdrew  to  Scotland,  but  left 
behind  him  his  two  sons.  Lord  Hume  and  the 
earl  of  Huntley  were  likewise  discontented.  The 
former  had  brought  his  men  into  the  field ;  but, 
according  to  some  historians,  with  a  design 
rather  to  betray  than  to  serve  James ;  but  Hunt- 
ley,  though  he  disliked  his  conduct,  remained 
firmly  attached  to  his  person.  The  defection  or 
backwardness  of  those  great  men  seemed  to  make 
no  impression  upon  James.  He  had  chosen  a 
strong  camp  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ford,  on 
the  side  of  a  mountain  called  Flodden  Hill ;  and 
separated  from  the  English  army  by  the  river 
Till.  This  advantageous  situation  put  the  earl 
of  Surry  under  great  difficulties  ;  for  it  rendered 
the  Scottish  army  inaccessible,  as  it  was  fortified 
by  artillery,  and  was  well  supplied  with  provi- 
sions. The  earl  drew  up  a  manifesto,  with  which 
he  charged  Rouge  Croix  herald,  who  was  at- 
tended by  a  trumpet.  It  contained  some  pro- 


posals for  an  exchange  of  prisoners,  which  seem.s 
to  have  been  calculated  to  give  the  lady  Ford 
the  more  credit  with  James  ;  but  concluded  with 
reproaches  for  his  perfidious  invasion  of  England, 
and  a  defiance  to  a  general  battle.     The  herald 
was  farther  charged  with  a  verbal  commission  to 
James,  that  the  earl  of  Surry  had   issued  orders 
that  no  quarter  should  be  given  to  any  of  the 
Scottish  army  but  the  king.     A  council  of  war 
was  called  on  this  occasion ;  in  which  the  earl 
of  Huntly  and  others  made  strong  remonstrances 
against  a  general  engagement.      Ti  ey  showed 
how  fatal  it  must  be  to  Scotland,  should  it  prove 
unsuccessful;  and  that  the  wisest  course  James 
could   follow  was  to  return  home,  where,  if  he 
was  pursued  by  the  enemy,  he  could   fight  to 
great  advantage.      Huntly,  however,  added  that 
he  was  equally  ready  to  share  in  his  majesty's 
danger  as  his  glory.     Other  noblemen,  and  the 
French  ambassador,  represented  a  retreat  as  dis- 
graceful to  the  nobility  of  Scotland  and  the  arms 
of  James,  and  used  many  romantic  arguments, 
which  but  loo  well  suited  with  the  king's  dispo- 
sition.    According  to  Drummond,  the  council 
were   of  opinion   that  the   king  should  imme- 
diately besiege  Berwick;  but  the  majority  were 
of  opinion  that  it  was  beneath  the  dignity  of 
James  to   fight  the  earl  of  Surry  at  that  noble- 
man's  requisition.       Patrick   lord   Lindsay   of 
Byres,  who  was   president  of  the   council,  ex- 
pressed himself  so  strongly  on  that  head,  that 
James,   in   a  passion,  is  said  by  the  historian 
Lindsay  to  have  sworn  that  if  he  lived  to  return 
to  Scotland  he   would  hang  that  nobleman  at 
his  own  gate.     He  ordered  Rouge  Croix  to  be 
called  in ;  and,   after   treating   him  \\iti    trr   i> 
politeness,  sent  a  message  to  the  earl  or  Surr 
by  one  of  his  own  heralds  (Islay),  importing  that 
he  would  give  the  English  battle  on   the  Friday 
following;  and  that  had  he  received  such  a  mes- 
sage from    the  earl  even  in  his  own  castle  of 
Edinburgh,  he  would  have  left  that,  and  all  other 
business,  to  have  fought  him.     With  this  mes- 
sage, a  manifesto,  in  vindication  of  James's  con- 
duct, was  sent  by  the  same  herald.     The  earl  of 
Surry,  who  was  then  so  infirm  that  he  was  car- 
ried about  in  a  sedan  or  chariot,  had   foreseen 
that  James  would  return  an  answer  by  one  of  his 
own  heralds;  but,  unwilling  that  he  should  ob- 
tain any  knowledge  of  the  situation  of  the  Eng- 
lish camp,  he  ordered  proper  persons  to  receive 
'  m  at  two  miles'  distance,  where  soon  after  he 
attended  in  person.     Islay  executed  his  commis- 
sion, and  the  English  general   dismissed   him, 
after  bestowing  great  compliments  upon  the  ho- 
nor and  courage  of  James.     The  earl  then  or- 
dered his  army  to  inarch  in  the  line  of  batt'e 
towards  Wollerhaugh.     There  he  was  joined  by 
Rouge  Croix,  who  gave  him  an  account  of  the 
strong  situation  of  the  Scottish  camp ;  but  the 
advanced   posts  of  the  English  army  were  then 
within  three  miles  of  the  enemy,  and  the  earl  of 
Surry  foi  nd    his    difficulties    daily   increasing. 
The  roads  were  broken  up,  the  swelling  of  the 
rivers  cut  him  off  from  the  necessary  communi- 
cations for  supplying  his  army,  and  nothing  but 
a  battle  could  save  him  either  from  being  dis- 
banded or  destroyed.     James  seems  to  have  so 
far  regarded  the  advice  of  his  wisest  counsellois, 


404 


SCOTLAND. 


as  not  to  abandon  his  strong  situation.  They 
endeavoured  to  persuade  him  that  it  was  suf- 
ficient for  his  honor,  if  he  did  not  decline  the 
battle  on  the  day  appointed ;  and  that  his  en- 
gagement did  not  bind  him  to  fight  upon  disad- 
vantageous ground.  The  Scots,  at  the  same  time, 
knew  of  their  enemy's  distresses  ;  and  warmly 
represented  to  their  king  that  he  wanted  nothing 
but  patience  to  be  victorious.  The  earl  of  Surry, 
however,  again  sent  Rouge  Croix  to  inform 
James  that  he  was  ready  to  give  him  battle, 
and  James  was  nettled  at  this  tacit  imputation 
upon  his  courage.  It  is  certain  that  he  neglected 
the  necessary  precautions  for  guarding  the  pas- 
sages of  the  Till,  which  the  English  crossed, 
partly  at  a  place  where  it  was  fordable,  and 
partly  at  a  bridge.  While  the  English  were 
passing  the  bridge,  Borthwick,  master  of  the 
Scottish  artillery,  fell  upon  his  knees,  and  begged 
permission  from  James  to  point  his  cannon 
against  them ;  but  James  answered  in  a  passion 
that  it  must  be  at  the  peril  of  his  (Borthwick's) 
head,  and  that  he  was  resolved  to  see  all  his 
enemies  that  day  on  the  plain  before  him  in  a 
body.  The  earl  of  Surry,  after  passing  the  Till, 
took  possession  of  Braxton,  which  lay  to  the 
right  of  the  Scottish  camp ;  and  by  that  ma- 
noeuvre cut  off  the  communication  of  his  enemies 
with  the  Tweed,  and  commanded  the  river  below 
Eton  castle.  The  Scottish  generals  saw  them- 
selves now  in  danger  of  being  reduced  to  the 
same  straits  in  which  their  enemies  had  been 
involved  two  days  before.  James  had  intelli- 
gence that  this  was  far  from  being  the  intention 
of  the  English  general ;  and  imagining  that  the 
latter's  intention  was  to  take  possession  of  a 
strong  camp  upon  a  hill  between  him  and  the 
Tweed,  which  would  give  the  English  a  farther 
command  of  the  country,  he  resolved  to  be  be- 
fore-hand with  the  earl,  and  gave  orders  for 
making  large  fires  of  green  wood,  that  the  smoke 
might  cover  his  march  along  the  height,  to  take 
advantage  of  that  eminence.  But,  while  this 
stratagem  concealed  his  march,  the  movements 
of  the  enemy  were  also  concealed  from  him : 
for,  when  he  came  to  the  brow  of  the  height,  he 
found  them  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle  on  the 
plain,  so  close  to  where  he  was  that  his  artillery 
must  overshoot  them.  A  battle  was  now  not 
only  unavoidable,  but  the  only  means  of  saving 
the  Scottish  army.  James's  person  was  so  dear 
to  his  troops  that  many  of  them  dressed  them- 
selves as  nearly  as  they  could  in  the  same  coats 
of  armour  and  with  the  same  distinctions  that 
James  wore  that  day.  His  generals  had  earnestly 
desired  him  to  retire  to  a  place  of  safety,  where 
he  would  be  secure  in  all  events ;  but  he  obsti- 
nately refused  to  follow  their  advice ;  and  on  the 
9th  of  September,  1513,  early  in  the  morning, 
dispositions  were  ordered  for  the  line  of  battle. 
The  command  of  the  van  was  allotted  to  the  earl 
of  liuntly ;  the  earls  of  Lennox  and  Argyle 
commanded  the  Highlanders  under  James  :  and 
the  earls  of  Crawford  and  Montrose  led  the 
body  of  reserve.  The  earl  of  Surry  gave  the 
command  of  his  van  to  his  son,  the  lord  admiral ; 
his  right  wing  was  commanded  by  his  other  son, 
Sir  Edward  Howard ;  and  his  left  by  Sir  Mar- 
tnaduke  Constable.  The  rear  was  commanded 


by  the  earl  himself,  lord  Dacres,  and  Sir  Edward 
Stanley.  Under  those  leaders  served  the  flower 
of  all  the  nobility  and  gentry  then  in  England. 
Lord  Hume  served  under  the  earls  of  Crawford 
and  Montrose,  and  Hepburn  earl  of  Bothwell 
was  in  the  rear.  The  first  movement  of  the  Eng- 
lish army  was  made  by  the  lord  admiral,  who 
suddenly  wheeled  to  the  right,  and  seized  a  pass 
at  Milford,  where  he  planted  his  artillery  so  as 
to  command  the  most  sloping  part  of  the  ascent 
where  the  Scots  were  drawn  up ;  and  it  put 
them  into  such  disorder  that  the  earl  of  Huntly 
found  it  necessary  to  attack  the  lord  admiral :  he 
drove  him  from  his  post;  and  the  consequence 
must  have  been  fatal  to  the  English,  had  not  his 
precipitate  retreat  been  covered  by  some  squa- 
drons of  horse  under  the  lord  Dacres,  which 
gave  the  admiral  an  opportunity  of  rallying. 
The  earl  of  Surry  now  advanced  to  the  front,  so 
that  the  English  army  formed  one  continued 
line,  which  galled  the  Scots  with  perpetual  dis- 
charges of  their  artillery  and  bows.  The  High- 
landers, as  usual,  impatient  to  come  to  a  close 
fight,  rushed  down  the  declivity  with  their  broad 
swords,  without  order  or  discipline,  and  before 
the  rest  of  the  army,  particularly  the  division 
under  lord  Hume,  advanced  to  support  them. 
Their  impetuosity,  however,  made  a  considera- 
ble impression  upon  the  main  battle;  and,  the 
king  bringing  up  the  earl  of  Both  well's  reserve, 
the  conflict  became  general.  By  this  time  the 
lord  admiral,  having  again  formed  his  men,  came 
to  the  assistance  of  his  father,  and  charged  the 
division  under  the  earls  of  Crawford  and  Mon- 
trose, who  were  marching  to  support  the  High- 
landers, among  whom  the  king  and  his  attendants 
were  fighting  on  foot :  while  Stanley,  making  a 
circuit  round  the  hill,  attacked  the  Highlanders 
in  the  rear.  Crawford  and  Montrose,  not  being 
seconded  by  the  Humes,  were  routed ;  and  thus 
all  that  part  of  the  Scottish  army  which  was  en- 
gaged under  the  king  was  completely  surrounded, 
by  the  division  of  the  English  under  Surry, 
Stanley,  and  the  admiral.  In  this  situation  James 
acted  with  a  coolness  not  common  to  his  temper. 
He  drew  up  his  men  in  a  circular  form,  and  their 
valor  more  than  once  opened  the  ranks  of  the 
English,  or  obliged  them  to  stand  aloof,  and 
again  have  recourse  to  their  bows  and  artillery. 
The  chief  of  the  Scottish  nobility  made  fresh 
attempts  to  prevail  with  James  to  make  his 
escape  while  it  was  practicable ;  but  he  obsti- 
nately continued  the  fight.  He  saw  the  earls  of 
Montrose,  Crawford,  Argyle,  and  Lennox,  fall 
by  his  side,  with  the  bravest  of  his  men  ;  and, 
darkness  now  coming  on,  he  himself  was  killed 
by  an  unknown  hand;  while  the  English,  igno- 
rant of  the  victory  they  had  gained,  had  actually 
retreated  from  the  field  of  battle,  with  a  dr-Lu 
of  renewing  it  next  morning.  This  disaster  \\;is 
evidently  owing  to  the  romantic  disposition  of 
the  king,  and  to  the  want  of  discipline  among 
his  soldiers ;  though  some  writers  have  ascribed 
it  to  the  treachery  of  lord  Hume.  Many  of 
James's  domestics  knew  and  mourned  over  his 
body  ;  and  it  appeared  that  he  had  received  t\vo 
mortal  wounds,  one  through  the  trunk  with  an 
arrow,  and  the  other  on  the  head  with  a  ball. 
11  is  coat  of  armour  was  presented  to  queen  Ci- 


SCO  T  L  A  X  D. 


465 


therine,  who  informed  her  husband,  then  in 
France,  of  the  victory  over  the  Scots.  The  loss 
on  both  sides,  in  this  engagement,  is  far  from 
being  ascertained  ;  though  Polydore  Virgil,  who 
Jived  at  the  time,  mentions  the  loss  of  the  Eng- 
lish at  5000,  and  that  of  the  Scots  at  10,000. 

After  the  death  of  James  IV.  the  administra- 
tion devolved  on  the  queen  dowager;  but  she 
being  pregnant,  and  unable  to  bear  the  weight  of 
government,  accepted  of  Beaton  archbishop  of 
Glasgow  and  chancellor  of  Scotland,  with  the 
earls  of  Huntly,  Angus,  and  Arran,  to  assist  her 
in  the  public  affairs.  Soon  after  her  husband's 
death  she  had  written  an  affecting  letter  to  her 
brother  the  king  of  England,  setting  forth  the 
deplorable  state  of  the  kingdom,  with  her  own 
condition,  and  imploring  his  friendship  and 
protection  for  herself  and  her  child.  The  letter 
seems  never  to  have  been  communicated  by 
Henry  to  his  council ;  but  he  answered  it,  and 
informed  his  sister  that  if  the  Scots  would  have 
peace  they  should  have  peace,  and  war  if  they 
chose  it.  '  He  added,'  says  Drummond,  '  that 
her  husband  had  fallen  by  his  own  indiscreet 
rashness,  and  foolish  kindness  to  France;  that  he 
regretted  his  death  as  his  ally,  and  should  be 
willing  to  prohibit  all  hostility  against  Scotland 
during  the  minority  of  her  son.'  For  a  remedy 
of  present  evils,  one  year  and  a  day's  truce  was 
agreed  to.  But,  though  Henry  might  grant  this 
truce  to  his  sister's  intreaty,  it  certainly  did  not 
become  a  national  measure;  for  it  appears  by  a 
letter  dated  two  years  after,  from  the  Scottish 
council  to  the  king  of  France,  published  by 
Rymer,  that  the  Scots  never  had  desired  a  truce. 
So  far  from  that,  the  French  influence,  joined  to 
a  desire  of  rerenge,  remained  so  strong  in  the 
kingdom  that,  after  the  meeting  of  the  parlia- 
ment, some  members  proposed  a  renewal  of  the 
war.  The  motion  was  indeed  over-ruled,  but 
they  could  not  be  brought  to  make  any  advances 
towards  Henry  for  a  peace ;  and  every  day  was 
now  big  with  public  calamity.  The  archbishopric 
of  St.  Andrew's  being  vacant,  three  competitors 
appeared  :  viz.  1.  Gawin  Douglas,  abbot  of  Aber- 
brothick;  2.  John  Hepburn,  prior  of  St.  An- 
drew's, a  bold,  avaricious,  restless,  but  shrewd 
and  sensible  priest ;  and,  3.  Forman,  bishop  of 
Moray  in  Scotland,  and  archbishop  of  Bourges 
in  France,  who  had  in  his  interest  not  only  the 
duke  of  Albany  (son  to  the  traitor  duke)  first 
prince  of  the  blood,  but  also  the  court  of  Rome; 
and,  having  received  the  pope's  bull  and  nomi- 
nation to  the  dignity,  he  was  considered  as  the 
legal  archbishop.  This  preference  discouraged 
Douglas  from  pursuing  his  pretensions ;  but 
Hepburn  being  supported  by  the  clan  of  his  own 
name,  and  by  the  Humes,  made  so  formidable 
a  head  against  his  rivals  that  none  could  be 
found  daring  enough  to  publish  the  papal  bull. 
The  earl  of  Hume,  however,  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  his  followers,  and,  notwithstanding  all 
the  opposition  given  by  the  Hepburns,  pro- 
claimed the  bull  at  the  cross  of  Edinburgh;  an 
undertaking  which  proved  that  the  earl  of  Hume 
had  more  power  than  the  queen  ;  but  Hepburn's 
resolution,  and  the  greatness  of  his  friends, 
obliged  Forman  to  agree  to  a  compromise.  Hep- 
burn was  advanced  to  the  see  of  Moray,  without 
VOL.  XIX. 


accounting  for  the  revenues  of  the  archbishopric 
which  he  had  received  during  its  vacancy  ;  and 
he  gave  Forman  a  present  of  3000  crowns,  to  b'> 
divided  among  his  friends  and  followers. 

In  April  1514  the   posthumous  son,  of  whom 
the  queen  had  been  delivered  in  Stirling  castle, 
was   by  the  bishop  of  Caithness  baptized  Alex- 
ander.    On  the  6th  of  August  she  was  married 
to  the  earl  of  Angus ;  than  which  nothing  could 
be  more  impolitic.     She  had  neither  consulted 
,her  brother  nor  the  States  of  Scotland  in  the 
match  ;  and  by  this  marriage  she  in  fact  resigned 
all  claim  to  the  regency.     But  the  Douglasses 
affirmed   that  the  states  might  lawfully  reinstate 
her  in  it ;  and  that  the  peace  of  the  kingdom 
required  it.     The  earl  of  Hume  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  opposition  to  this  proposal.     He 
dreaded  that  the  farther  aggrandisement  of  An- 
gus must  weaken  his  interest  on  the  borders  : 
and  he  was  joined  by  a  number  of  the  young 
nobility,  who,  though  otherwise  divided,  united 
against  Angus.     In  short,  the  general  opinion 
was,  that  the  Douglasses  were  already  too  great ; 
and  that,  should  the  queen  be  reinstated   in  the 
regency,  they  must  be  absolute.     It  was  added 
by  the  earl  of  Hume,  that,  now  the  queen  had 
-.nade  a  voluntary  abdication  of  it  by  her  mar- 
riage, it  ought  not  to  be  renewed.     At  last  the 
duke  of  Albany  was  chosen  regent.      He  was 
possessed  of  all  the  qualities  requisite;  nor  did 
he  disappoint  the  expectations  of   the   public. 
On  his  arrival  at  Glasgow,  he  took  upon  him  the 
titles  of  earl  of  March,  Marr,  Garioch,  lord  of 
Annandale,  and  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  regent  and 
protector   of    the    kingdom    of    Scotland.      At 
Edinburgh  he  was  received  in  form  by  the  three 
estates,  and  the  queen  met  him  at  some  distance 
from  the  town.     The  parliament  then  resumed 
"ts  session,  and  the  three  estates  took  an  oath  of 
obedience,  till  the  king,  then  an   infant  of  four 
years  old,  should  arrive  at  maturity.     The  first 
thing  at  which  the  regent  aimed  was  the  conci- 
liating the  differences  amongst  the  variors  con- 
tending families  in  the  kingdom ;  at  the  same 
time  that  he  suppressed  various  daring  robbers, 
one  of  whom  is  said  to  have  had  no  fewer  then 
800  attendants  in  his  career.     He  took  into  favor 
Hepburn  the  prior  of  St.  Andrew's,  whom  he 
consulted  for  information  concerning  the  state  of 
Scotland,  and  who  acquainted  him  with  all  the 
feuds  and  animosities  which  raged  among  the 
great  families.     He  represented  the  civil  power 
as  too  weak  to  curb  these  potent  chieftains :  and 
gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  regent's  adminis- 
tration ought  to  be  supported  by  foreign  arm?, 
meaning  those  of  France.     Hepburn  also  gained 
an  ascendancy  over  the  regent,  by  money  laid 
out  among  his  domestics,  by  a  fawning  and  plau- 
sible address,  and   well-directed  flatteries ;  and 
took  care  to  employ  this  ascendancy  to  destroy 
those  who  were  obnoxious  to  himself.     The  earl 
of  Hume  thus  became  obnoxious  to  the  regent, 
through  the  insinuations  of  Hepburn  ;  and  soon 
perceived  that  neither  he  nor  his  friends  were 
welcome  guests  at  court.     Alarmed  for  his  safety, 
he  resolved  to  form  a  party  with  the   queen- 
mother  and  her  new  husband  against  the  regent : 
a  scheme  in  which  both  readily  concurred.     In 
the  mean  time  the  regent  was  making  a  progress 

2  H 


466 


SCOTLAND. 


through  Scotland,  and  bloodj  feuds  were  raging 
among  the  nobles  :  but,  before  any  remedy  could 
be  applied  to  these  disorders,  he  was  informed  of 
the  schemes  of  the  queen-mother  and  her  party ; 
and  that  she  had  resolved  to  fly  into  England 
with  her  infants.  On  this  he  returned  to  Edin- 
burgh ;  set  out  at  midnight,  and  surprised  the 
castle  of  Stirling,  where  he  found  the  queen- 
mother  and  her  children.  The  regent,  after  this 
bold  step,  took  care  to  show  that  the  care  of  the 
royal  infants  was  his  chief  study.  As  he  himself 
uas  nearly  allied  to  the  crown,  to  remove  all 
suspicions,  he  committed  the  care  of  the  king 
and  his  brother  to  three  noblemen  of  the  most 
unexceptionable  character,  of  whom  one  was  the 
earl  of  Lennox.  They  were  appointed  to  attend 
the  princes  by  turns ;  to  whom  also  a  guard  of 
French  and  Scots  was  assigned  ;  and  the  queen- 
mother  was  left  at  liberty  to  reside  where  she 
pleased.  On  this  the  earl  of  Hume  retired  to 
his  own  estate ;  whence  he  was  soon  after  drawn, 
and  obliged  to  fly  into  England,  by  the  earls  of 
Arran  and  Lennox.  The  queen-mother  retired 
to  a  monastery  at  Coldstream ;  and  messengers 
were  despatched  to  the  court  of  England  to 
know  how  Henry  would  have  his  sister  disposed 
of.  He  ordered  the  lord  Dacres,  his  warden  of 
the  march.es,  to  attend  her  to  Harbottle  castle 
Northumberland ;  where  she  was  delivered  of 
her  daughter  the  lady  Mary  Douglas,  mother  of 
Henry  lord  Darnley,  father  of  James  VI.  The 
regent  sent  ambassadors  to  Henry,  to  vindicate 
his  own  conduct.  He  likewise  invited  the  queen 
to  return  to  Scotland ;  where  she  should  at  all 
times  be  admitted  to  see  her  children.  This 
offer,  however,  she  declined ;  and  set  out  for 
London,  where  she  was  affectionately  received 
by  her  brother.  But  in  the  mean  time  many 
disorders  were  committed  throughout  the  king- 
dom by  her  party ;  though,  by  the  interposition 
of  archbishop  Forman,  they  were  terminated 
without  bloodshed ;  and  the  earl  of  Angus  and 
others  returned  to  their  duty.  Lord  Hume  how- 
ever refused  to  surrender,  or  to  accept  of  the 
regent's  terms ;  and  was  of  consequence  declared 
a  traitor,  and  his  estate  confiscated.  All  this 
time  he  had  been  infesting  the  borders  at  the 
head  of  a  lawless  banditti ;  and  now  he  began 
to  commit  such  devastations  that  the  regent 
marched  against  him  at  the  head  of  1000  troops. 
Hume,  being  obliged  to  lay  down  his  arms,  was 
sent  prisoner  to  Edinburgh  castle ;  where  the 
regent  very  unaccountably  committed  him  to 
the  charge  of  his  brother-in-law  the  earl  of  Ar- 
ran. Hume  easily  gained  over  this  near  relation 
to  his  party  ;  and  both  of  them  in  October  1515 
escaped  to  the  borders,  where  they  soon  renewed 
hostilities.  Both  the  earls  were  now  proclaimed 
traitors,  but  Hume  was  allowed  fifteen  days  to 
surrender  himself.  This  short  interval  the  regent 
employed  in  quashing  the  rebellion,  for  which 
purpose  the  parliament  had  allowed  him  15,000 
men.  He  besieged  the  castle  of  Hamilton,  the 
earl  of  Arran's  chief  seat,  which  was  in  no  con- 
dition of  defence :  but  he  was  prevailed  upon 
by  Arran's  mother,  daughter  to  James  II.,  and 
his  own  aunt,  to  forbear  further  hostilities,  and 
to  pardon  her  son.  Arran  accordingly  submit- 
ted ;  but  the  public  tranquillity  was  not  restored. 


An  association  at  the  head  of  which  was  the  earl 
of  Moray,  the  king's  natural  brother,  had  been 
formed  against  the  earl  of  Iluntly.  That  no- 
bleman was  too  well  attended  to  fear  any  danger 
by  day ;  but  his  enemies  introduced  some  armed 
troops  in  the  night  into  Edinburgh.  On  this  a 
fierce  skirmish  ensued,  in  which  some  were 
killed  on  both  sides ;  but  farther  bloodshed  was 
prevented  by  the  regent,  who  confined  all  the 
lords  in  prison  till  he  had  brought  about  a  gene- 
ral reconciliation.  One  Hay,  who  had  been  very 
active  in  stirring  up  the  quarrels,  was  banished 
to  France;  and  only  the  earl  of  Hume  now  con- 
tinued in  arms.  In  1516  died  Alexander  duke 
of  Rothesay  ;  an  event  which  brought  the  regent 
one  degree  nearer  the  crown.  Negociations  were 
then  entered  into  about  prolonging  the  truce 
with  England ;  but,  Henry  insisting  upon  a  re- 
moval of  the  regent  from  his  place,  they  were 
dropped.  Finding,  however,  that  he  could  nei- 
ther prevail  on  the  parliament  as  a  body  to  dis- 
miss the  regent,  nor  form  any  party  of  any  con- 
sequence against  him,  he  at  last  consented  to  a 
prolongation  of  the  truce  for  a  year.  In  1517, 
the  affairs  of  the  regent  requiring  his  presence 
in  France,  he  resolved  before  his  departure  to 
remove  the  earl  of  Hume,  who  alone  continued 
to  disturb  the  public  tranquillity.  Under  pre- 
tence of  settling  some  differences  which  still  re- 
mained with  England,  he  called  a  convention  of 
the  nobility ,  and  sent  special  letters  to  the  earl 
of  Hume  and  his  brother  to  attend,  on  account 
of  their  great  knowledge  in  English  affairs. 
Both  of  them  obeyed  the  summons,  and  were 
seized  and  executed  as  soon  as  they  arrived  at 
Edinburgh.  By  this  severity  the  regent  lost  the 
affections  of  the  people  to  such  a  degree  that 
he  could  scarcely  get  their  places  supplied. 
That  of  lord-warden  of  the  marches  he  at  last 
gave  to  his  French  favorite  Sir  Anthony  D'Arcy ; 
and  that  of  lord  chamberlain  to  lord  Fleming. 
Soon  after  this  the  regent  levied  an  army,  on 
pretence  of  repressing  some  disturbances  on  the 
borders.  These  being  speedily  quelled,  he  seized 
on  his  return  upon  the  earl  of  Lennox,  and 
forced  him  to  deliver  up  his  castle  of  Dumbar- 
ton ;  not  choosing  to  leave  it,  during  his  absence, 
in  the  custody  of  a  nobleman  of  suspected  fide- 
lity ;  and,  from  similar  motives,  he  afterwards 
took  him  along  with  him  to  the  continent.  He 
then  procured  himself  to  be  nominated  ambas- 
sador to  France,  in  which  character  he  left  the 
kingdom,  having  committed  the  government  to 
the  archbishops  of  St.  Andrew's  and  Glasgow, 
the  earls  of  Arran,  Angus,  Huntly,  and  Argyle, 
with  the  warden  D'Arcy,  on  whom  was  his  chief 
dependence.  On  the  departure  of  the  regent, 
the  queen-mother  left  the  English  court ;  and 
arrived  with  a  noble  retinue  at  Berwick,  to  visit 
her  son.  Here  she  was  received  by  her  hus- 
band ;  for  whom  she  had  contracted  an  invin- 
cible aversion,  on  account  of  Tiis  infidelities  to 
her  bed.  However  she  suppressed  her  resent- 
ment, and  accompanied  him  to  Edinburgh. 
Here  she  demanded  access  to  her  son ;  but  was 
refused  by  D'Arcy.  Lord  Erskine,  however, 
who  was  one  of  those  to  whom  the  care  of  the 
young  king  was  committed,  conveyed  him  to  the 
castle  of  Craigmillar  (where  D'Arcy  had  no  ju- 


SCOTLAND. 


4G7 


risdiction),  on  pretence  that  the  plague  was  in 
Edinburgh;  and  there  the  queen  was  admitted; 
but  this  gave  such  offence  to  D'Arcy  that  lord 
Erskine  was  obliged  to  carry  back  the  king  to 
the  castle  of  Edinburgh,  where  all  further  access 
was  denied  to  his  mother.  In  short,  the  beha- 
viour of  this  favorite  was  on  all  occasions  so 
haughty  and  violent  that  he  rendered  himself 
universally  odious;  and  was  at  last  murdered 
with  all  his  attendants  in  his  way  to  Dunse, 
where  he  proposed  to  hold  a  court  of  justice. 
His  death  was  very  little  regretted ;  yet  his  mur- 
derers were  prosecuted  with  the  utmost  severity, 
and  several  persons  of  distinction  declared  rebels 
on  that  account.  Meanwhile,  the  regent  was 
treated  with  high  marks  of  distinction  in  France. 
The  king  showed  him  the  greatest  respect,  pro- 
mised to  assist  in  establishing  his  authority  in 
Scotland,  and  confirmed  the  ancient  league  be- 
tween the  two  kingdoms.  Soon  after  the  earl 
of  Lennox  arrived  from  France,  with  assurances 
of  assistance  from  the  king,  who  was  highly 
pleased  at  the  zeal  of  the  governors  in  punishing 
D'Arcy's  murderers ;  and  500  soldiers  arrived 
with  him,  to  reinforce  the  garrisons,  especially 
that  of  Dunbar.  All  this  time  the  queen-mothei 
continued  at  Edinburgh,  employing  herself  in 
attempts  to  procure  a  divorce  from  her  husband, 
under  pretence  of  his  having  been  previously 
contracted  to  another.  The  affairs  of  the  king- 
dom again  began  to  fall  into  confusion,  and  many 
murders  and  commotions  happened  continually. 
The  earl  of  Arran  had  the  chief  direction  in  the 
state;  but  Angus  had  still  great  interest,  and 
took  every  opportunity  to  oppose  him.  This 
produced  an  encounter  at  Edinburgh;  in  which 
victory  declared  for  Angus,  and  seventy-two  of 
the  routed  party  were  killed,  on  the  30th  ot 
April,  1519.  On  the  19th  of  November,  1521, 
the  regent  returned  from  France.  He  found 
the  kingdom  in  great  disorder.  The  earl  ot 
Angus  domineered  in  the  field,  but  his  anta- 
gonists outvoted  his  party  in  parliament. 
The  queen-mother,  who  had  fixed  her  affec- 
tions on  a  third  husband,  hated  all  parties  al- 
most equally;  but  joined  the  regent,  in  hopes  of 
his  depriving  the  other  two  of  power.  This 
happened  accordingly,  and  she  was  with  the  re- 
gent when  he  made  a  kind  of  triumphal  entry 
into  Edinburgh,  attended  by  many  persons  of  the 
first  rank.  The  earl  of  Angus  was  now  sum- 
moned to  appear  as  a  criminal ;  but  his  wife 
interceded  for  him,  because  he  gave  her  no  op- 
position in  the  process  of  divorce.  In  the  mean 
time  Henry  VIII.,  perceiving  that  the  Scots  were 
entirely  devoted  to  the  French  interest,  sent  a 
letter  full  of  accusations  against  the  regent, 
and  threats  against  the  nation,  if  they  did 
not  renounce  that  alliance.  No  regard  being 
paid  to  these  requisitions,  lord  Dacres  was 
ordered  to  proclaim  upon  the  borders,  that 
the  Scots  must  stand  to  their  peril,  if  they 
did  not  fall  in  with  his  measures  by  the  1st  of 
March,  1522.  This  producing  no  effect,  Henry 
seized  the  effects  of  all  the  Scots  residing  in 
England,  and  banished  them  his  dominions,  after 
marking  them,  according  to  bishop  Lesley,  with 
a  cross.  A  war  was  the  consequence;  and, 
on  the  30th  April,  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury, 


Henry's  steward  of  the  household,  and  K.  G., 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  against  the 
Scots  ;  and  lord  Dacres  made  an  inroad  as  far  as 
Kelso,  plundering  and  burning  wherever  he 
came.  The  regent  ordered  his  army  to  rendez- 
vous at  Iloslin ;  but  the  Scots,  remembering  the 
disaster  at  Flodden,  showed  an  extreme  aversion 
to  the  war,  and  told  the  regent  that,  though  they 
would  defend  themselves  if  they  were  attacked, 
they  would  not  engage  in  a  French  quarrel.  The 
regent  remonstrated,  but  without  effect;  and,  as 
the  malecontents  continued  obstinate,  he  was  in 
danger  of  being  left  by  himself,  when  the  queen 
mother  interposed,  and  prevailed  upon  lord  Da- 
cres to  agree  to  a  conference,  the  event  of  which 
was  a  renewal  of  the  negociations  for  peace.  The 
regent,  perceiving  that  he  had  lost  his  former  popu- 
larity, determined  to  revenge  himself ;  and  told 
those  whom  he  could  trust,  that  he  was  about  to 
return  to  France,  whence  he  should  bring  such  a 
force  by  sea  and  land  as  should  render  it  unne- 
cessary for  him  to  ask  leave  of  the  Scots  any 
more  to  invade  England.  Accordingly  he  em- 
barked for  France  on  the  25th  of  October,  pub- 
licly giving  out  that  he  should  return  the  ensuing 
August.  On  the  regent's  arrival  in  that  country, 
he  made  a  demand  of  10,000  foot  and  5000 
horse  for  carrying  on  the  war  against  England  ;  but 
the  situation  of  Francis  I.  did  not  then  allow  him 
to  spare  so  many,  though  he  was  daily  sending 
over  ships  with  men,  ammunition,  and  money, 
for  the  French  garrisons  in  Scotland.  At  last  it 
was  publicly  known  in  England  that  the  regent 
was  about  to  return  with  a  strong  fleet,  and  4000 
of  the  best  troops  of  France ;  upon  which  Henry 
determined,  if  possible,  to  intercept  him.  Sir 
William  Fits-Williams,  with  thirty-six  large 
ships,  was  ordered  to  block  up  the  French  squa- 
dron in  the  harbour  of  Finhead.  Sir  Anthonv 
Poyntz  cruised  with  another  in  the  Western  seas, 
as  Sir  Christopher  Dow  and  Sir  Henry  Shireburn 
did  in  the  northern  with  a  third  squadron.  The 
duke  of  Albany,  being  unable  to  cope  with  Fitz- 
Williams,  was  obliged  to  set  out  from  another 
port  with  twelve  ships,  having  some  troops  on 
board.  They  fell  in  with  Fitz-Williams's  squa- 
dron ;  two  of  their  ships  were  sunk,  and  the  rest 
driven  back  to  Dieppe.  Fitz-Williams  then 
made  a  descent  at  Treport,  where  he  burnt 
eighteen  French  ships,  and  returned  to  his  sta- 
tion off  Finhead.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  Fitz- 
Williams  appeared,  the  duke  disembarked  his 
soldiers,  as  if  he  had  intended  to  delay  his  expe- 
dition for  that  year ;  but  a  storm  soon  arising, 
which  obliged  the  English  fleet  to  return  to  the 
Downs,  the  regent  reimbarked  his  men,  and,  sail- 
ing by  the  western  coasts,  arrived  safe  in  Scot- 
land. All  this  time  the  earl  of  Surry  had  been 
carrying  on  the  most  cruel  and  destructive  war 
in  that  country ;  insomuch  that,  according  to 
cardinal  Wolsey,  '  there  was  left  neither  house, 
fortress,  village,  tree,  cattle,  corn,  nor  other  suc- 
cour for  man,'  in  Tweedale  and  March.  The 
regent's  return  did  not  immediately  put  a  stop 
to  these  devastations  ;  for  the  intestine  divisions 
in  Scotland  prevented  him  from  taking  the  field  ; 
his  party  was  weakened  by  his  long  absence,  and 
the  queen  mother  had  been  very  active  in 
strengthening  the  English  interest.  A  parlia- 

2    II  2 


468 


SCOTLAND. 


ment  was  called  in  1523,  where  it  was  debated, 
whether  peace  or  war  with  England  should 
take  place  ;  and  the  latter  was  determined  on. 
Henry  was  at  this  time  so  well  disposed  to  culti- 
vate a  friendship  with  Scotland  that  he  offered 
to  James  his  eldest  sister  Mary  in  marriage ;  but 
the  Scots,  animated  by  the  appearance  of  their 
French  auxiliaries,  and  corrupted  by  their  gold, 
rejected  all  terms,  and  resolved  upon  war.  How- 
ever, when  the  army  was  assembled,  and  had 
advanced  to  the  borders,  the  regent  found  the 
same  difficulty  he  had  formerly  experienced  ;  for 
they  flatly  refused  to  enter  England.  With  great 
difficulty  he  prevailed  upon  part  of  them  to  pass 
the  Tweed  ;  but,  not  meeting  with  success,  he 
was  obliged  to  return  to  Scotland,  which  at  this 
time  was  divided  into  four  factions.  One  of 
these  was  headed  by  the  regent,  another  by  the 
queen,  a  third  by  the  earl  of  Arran,  and  a  fourth  by 
Angus,  who  had  lived  as  an  exile  under  Henry's 
protection.  At  last  the  duke  of  Albany,  finding  all 
parties  united  against  him,  resigned  his  office  of 
regent ;  and  on  the  14th  of  March  in  that  year 
went  on  board  one  of  his  own  ships  for  France, 
whence  he  never  returned  to  Scotland.  He  did 
not  make  a  formal  abdication  of  his  government; 
indeed  he  requested  the  nobility,  whom  he  con- 
vened for  that  purpose,  to  enter  into  no  alliance 
with  England  during  his  absence,  which  he  said 
would  continue  no  longer  than  the  1st  of  Sep- 
tember following  ;  to  make  no  alteration  in  the 
government ;  and  to  keep  the  king  at  Stirling. 

The  nobility,  impatient  for  the  absence  of  the 
regent,  readily  promised  whatever  he  required 
but  without  any  intention  of  performing  it  ;  nor, 
indeed,  was  it  in  their  power ;  for  it  had  been 
previously  determined  that  James  himself  should 
now  take  the  administration  into  his  own  hands. 
According  to  Buchanan,  the  regent  had  no  sooner 
returned  to  France  than  Scotland  relapsed  into 
all  the  miseries  of  anarchy.  The  queen  dowager 
had  the  management  of  public  affairs,  but  her 
power  was  limited.  The  earl  of  Arran,  appre- 
hending danger  from  the  English,  entered  into 
the  views  of  the  French  party.  The  queen -mo 
ther's  dislike  to  her  husband  prevented  a  union 
^mong  those  who  were  in  the  English  interest ; 
and  Wolsey  restored  the  earl  of  Angus  to  all  his 
importance  in  Scotland.  The  queen,  therefore, 
had  no  other  way  left  to  keep  herself  in  power 
but  to  bring  her  son  into  action.  On  the  29th 
of  July,  therefore,  James  V.  removed  from  Stir- 
ling toHolyrood  House,  where  he  took  upon  him- 
self the  exercise  of  government,  convoking  the 
nobility,  and  obliging  them  to  swear  allegiance 
a  second  time.  The  truce  with  England  was 
now  prolonged,  and  the  queen's  party  carried 
all  before  them.  On  the  very  day  in  which  the 
last  truce  was  signed  with  England,  the  earl  of 
Angus  entered  Scotland.  He  had  been  invited 
from  his  exile  in  France  into  England  where  he 
was  caressed  by  Henry,  who  disregarded  all  his 
sister's  intreaties  to  send  him  back  to  France, 
and  now  resolved  to  support  him  in  Scotland. 
Yet,  though  his  declared  intention  in  sending  the 
farl  to  Scotland,  was,  that  the  latter  might  ba- 
lance the  French  party  there,  the  king  enjoined 
him  to  sue  for  a  reconciliation  with  his  wife,  and 
to  co-operate  with  the  earl  of  Arran,  who  now 


acted  as  prime  minister.  On  his  return,  how- 
ever, he  found  himself  excluded  from  all  share  in 
the  government,  but  soon  found  means  to  form 
a  strong  party  in  opposition  to  Arran.  In  the 
mean  time  ambassadors  were  sent  to  the  court  of 
England,  to  treat  of  a  perpetual  peace.  At  the 
same  time  a  match  was  proposed  between  the 
young  king  of  Scotland  and  Henry's  daughter. 
This  had  originally  been  a  scheme  of  Henry  him- 
self. The  ambassadors  arrived  in  London  on  the 
19th  December,  and  found  Henry  very  much  dis- 
posed both  to  the  peace  and  to  the  match.  Com- 
missioners were  appointed  to  treat  of  both  ;  but 
they  were  instructed  to  demand,  by  way  of  pre- 
liminary, that  the  Scots  should  renounce  their 
league  with  France,  and  that  James  should  be 
sent  for  education  to  England.  The  Scottish 
commissioners  declared  that  they  had  no  instruc- 
tions on  these  points ;  but  the  earl  of  Cassils 
offered  to  return  to  Scotland,  and  bring  a  defini- 
tive answer  from  'the  three  states ;  in  the  mean 
time  the  truce  was  prolonged  to  the  15th  ot 
May,  1525.  On  his  arrival  at  Edinburgh  he 
found  the  earl  of  Angus  the  leading  man  in  par- 
liament; by  whose  influence  it  was  determined 
that  the  Scots  should  renounce  their  league  with 
France,  and  substitute  in  place  of  it  a  similar 
league  with  England  ;  and  that  the  king  should 
be  brought  up  at  the  English  court,  till  he  wn* 
of  an  age  proper  for  marriage ;  but  at  the  same 
time  they  required  of  Henry  to  break  off  all  en- 
gagements with  Charles  V.,  who  was  the  bitter 
enemy  of  Francis,  and  at  that  time  detained  him 
prisoner.  To  this  Henry  returned  a  cold  answer, 
being  then  engaged  in  treaties  with  the  emperor, 
among  which  one  was  concerning  the  marriage 
of  the  princess  Mary.  However,  before  Cassils 
returned,  a  truce  of  two  years  and  a  half  was 
concluded.  But  now  the  queen  mother,  though 
she  had  always  been  a  warm  advocate  for  an  alli- 
ance between  the  two  nations,  yet  disliked  the 
means  of  bringing  it  about.  She  saw  her  hus- 
band's party  increasing  every  day  in  power  ;  so 
that  she  had  no  other  resource  than  keeping  pos- 
session of  the  king's  person,  whom  she  removed 
to  the  castle  of  Edinburgh.  Being  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  convening  a  parliament,  it  was  resolved 
to  hold  it  within  the  castle  ;  which,  being  an  un- 
constitutional measure,  the  earl  of  Arran  and 
his  party  complained.  They  be^an  with  remon- 
strances, but,  finding  them  ineffectual,  they 
formed  a  blockade  of  the  castle  with  2000  men, 
and  cut  off  all  communication  with  the  town  by 
means  of  trenches.  As  no  provisions  could  thus  be 
got  into  the  castle,  the  queen  ordered  some  of  the 
cannon  to  be  turned  against  the  town,  to  force 
the  citizens  to  put  an  end  to  the  blockade.  Se- 
veral shots  were  fired  ;  but.  when  all  things  ap- 
peared ready  for  a  civil  war,  matters  were  com- 
promised. It  was  agreed  that  the  king  should 
remove  out  to  the  palace  of  Holyrood  House  • 
whence  he  should  repair  with  all  possible  mag- 
nificence to  his  parliament,  in  the  house  where  it 
was  commonly  held  ;  and  there  a  finishing  hand 
was  to  be  put  to  all  differences.  This  agreement 
was  signed  on  the  25th  of  February,  1526.  The 
parliament  accordingly  met,  and  the  king's  mar- 
riage with  the  princess  of  England  was  confirmed  ; 
but  no  mention  was  made  of  his  being  sent  for 


SCOTLAND. 


469 


his  education  into  that  country ;  on  the  contrary, 
he  was  committed  to  the  care  of  eight  lords  of 
parliament.  These  were  to  have  the  custody  of 
the  king's  person,  every  one  his  month  succes- 
sively, and  the  whole  to  stand  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  state  ;  yet  with  this  limitation,  '  that 
the  king,  by  their  counsel,  should  not  ordain  or 
determine  any  thing  in  great  affairs  to  which  the 
queen,  as  princess  and  dowager,  did  not  give  her 
consent.'  This  partition  of  power,  by  giving  the 
queen  a  negative  in  all  public  matters,  soon 
threw  every  thing  into  confusion;  The  earl  of 
Angus,  by  leading  the  king  into  various  scenes 
of  dissipation,  gained  such  an  ascendancy  over 
him  that  he  became  totally  guided  by  him  ; 
while  the  queen  mother,  finding  that  she  could 
not  have  access  to  her  son  without  her  husband, 
whom  she  hated,  retired  with  her  domestics  to 
Stirling.  Thus  the  young  monarch  was  left  un- 
der the  sole  tuition  of  the  earl  of  Angus,  who 
made  a  very  bad  use  of  his  power,  engrossing 
all  the  places  of  honor  and  profit.  The  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrew's,  having  now  joined  the 
queen's  party,  advised  her  to  make  a  formal  de- 
mand upon  her  husband,  that  the  order  of  go- 
vernment which  had  been  settled  last  parliament 
should  take  place,  and  that  under  a  penalty  he 
should  set  the  king  at  liberty.  To  this  the  earl 
answered  that  '  having  been  sohighly  favored  by 
his  good  uncle  the  king  of  England,  and  that 
James  himself  being  under  great  obligations  to 
him,  neither  the  queen  nor  the  other  lords  need 
be  in  any  pain  about  him,  as  he  chose  to  spend 
his  time  with  the  earl  of  Angus  rather  than  with 
any  lord  in  the  kingdom.'  James,  however, 
perceived  that  he  was  in  fact  no  better  than  the 
earl's  prisoner,  and  resolved  to  recover  his  liberty. 
The  earls  of  Argyle  and  Arran  had  retired  from 
court,  and  were  living  on  their  own  estates;  but 
the  earl  of  Lennox  dissembled  his  sentiments  so 
well,  that  he  was  neither  suspected  by  the  earl  of 
Angus  nor  any  of  the  Douglas  family.  The 
king,  being  gained  upon  by  his  insinuating  beha- 
viour, opened  his  mind  to  him,  and  requested 
his  assistance  against  his  keepers.  At  the  same 
time  he  sent  letters  to  his  mother  and  her  party, 
by  some  domestics,  whom  Lennox  had  pointed 
out,  intreating  them  to  remove  him  from  the  earl, 
adding  that  if  this  could  not  be  done  by  any 
other  means  they  should  use  force.  On  receiving 
Uiis  letter  the  queen  and  her  party  assembled 
.heir  forces  at  Stirling,  and  began  their  march 
for  Edinburgh.  Angus,  on  the  oilier  hand,  pre- 
pared to  give  them  a  warm  reception,  but  to 
carry  along  with  him  the  king.  This  resolution 
being  made  known  to  the  queen-mother,  she.  was 
so  much  concerned  for  the  safety  of  her  son 
that  the  whole  army  was  disbanded ;  and  thus 
the  authority  of  the  earl  of  Angus  seemed  to  be 
more  established  than  ever.  Nothing,  indeed, 
•was  now  wanting  to  render  him  despotic  but  the 
possession  of  the  great  seal,  which  the  archbishop 
of  St.  Andrew's  had  carried  to  Dunfermline.  As 
no  deed  of  any  consequence  could  be  executed 
without  this,  he  prevailed  upon  the  king  to  de- 
mand it  by  special  message  ;  in  consequence  of 
which  the  archbishop  was  obliged  to  give  it  up. 
About  this  time  the  divorce  between  the  queen- 
mother  and  the  earl  took  place ;  which  increased 


the  dislike  of  James,  while  the  imprudence  of 
Angus  gave  every  day  fresh  disgust.  As  Angus 
knew  that  he  had  no  firm  support  but  in  the  at- 
tachment of  his  followers,  he  suffered  them  to 
rob  and  plunder  the  estates  of  his  opponents 
without  mercy.  These,  again,  did  not  fail  to 
make  reprisals  ;  so  that,  towards  the  end  of  1526, 
there  was  scarcely  an  appearance  of  civil  govern- 
ment in  Scotland.  Thus  the  court  became  al- 
most totally  deserted ;  every  nobleman  being 
obliged  to  go  home  to  defend  his  own  estate. 
Even  Angus  himself  shared  in  the  common 
calamity,  and  hence  was  frequently  obliged  to 
leave  the  king  to  the  custody  of  Lennox.  To 
this  nobleman  the  king  now  made  the  most 
grievous  complaints,  and  charged  him  to  con- 
trive some  plan  for  his  escape.  Lennox  accord- 
ingly recommended  to  him  the  baron  of  Buc- 
cleugh,  who  was  very  powerful  in  the  southern 
parts,  and  a  violent  enemy  to  Angus  and  the 
whole  family  of  Douglas.  To  him  he  gave  orders 
to  foment  the  disorders  in  the  southern  parts  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  require  the  king's  personal 
presence  to  compose  them.  Buccleugh  was  then 
to  attack  the  party,  and  take  the  king  by  force 
from  the  Douglasses.  This  scheme  was  put  in 
execution,  but  Buccleugh  was  defeated,  and  the 
attempt  proved  abortive.  After  this  the  earl  of 
Angus  behaved  towards  Lennox  with  such  indif- 
ference that  Lennox  openly  declared  against  him, 
and  advised  the  king  to  form  a  friendship  with 
the  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews.  This  was  accord- 
ingly done ;  but  the  interest  of  the  archbishop 
and  Lennox  was  overbalanced  by  that  of  Arran 
and  the  Hamilton  family,  whom  the  earl  of  Angus 
now  drew  over  to  his  party.  However,  the  earl 
of  Lennox,  having  received  powers  from  the 
king,  suddenly  retired  from  court,  and  published 
a  manifesto,  inviting  all  loyal  subjects  to  assist 
him  in  delivering  the  king  from  confinement. 
In  consequence  of  this  he  was  soon  joined  by  a 
numerous  army,  with  whom  he  advanced  towards 
Edinburgh.  Angus  assembled  his  adherents ; 
and  sent  orders  to  the  inhabitants  of  Edinburgh 
to  take  the  field  with  the  king  at  their  head. 
The  citizens  immediately  put  themselves  under 
arms  ;  but,  James  pretending  to  be  indisposed, 
Sir  George  Douglas,  brother  to  the  earl  of  An- 
gus, said,  '  Sir,  rather  than  our  enemies  should 
take  you  from  us,  we  will  lay  hold  of  your  per- 
son ;  and,  should  you  be  torn  in  piece?  in  th« 
struggJe,  we  will  carry  off  part  of  your  body. 
Upon  this  speech,  which  James  never  forgot,  he 
mounted  his  horse,  and  set  forward  to  Linlith- 
gow  at  a  slow  pace  ;  insomuch  that  Sir  George 
Douglas,  afraid  of  not  coming  in  time  to  succor 
his  brother,  made  use  of  many  insinuations  to 
push  James  on  to  the  field  of  battle.  Three  ex- 
presses arrived  from  the  earl  of  Angus  ;  the  first 
informing  his  brother  that  he  was  about  to  en- 
gage with  a  superior  army ;  the  second  that 
Angus  was  engaged  with  a  division  of  Lennox's 
army,  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Glencairn  ;  and 
that  Lennox  himself  was  engaged  with  the  Ha- 
miltons.  The  third  informed  him  that  Lennox, 
if  not  defeated,  was  on  the  point  of  being  so. 
Upon  receiving  this  last  news  James  hastened  to 
the  field  of  battle,  that  he  might  save  Lennox, 
and  put  an  end  to  the  bloodshed  ;  but  he  came 


470 


SCOTLAND. 


too  late ;  for  the  royal  party  was  already  defeated 
with  great  slaughter  ;  and  Lennox  himself,  after 
being  wounded  and  taken  prisoner,  was  mur- 
dered by  Sir  James  Hamilton.  On  the  night  of 
the  battle  the  king  was  removed  to  Linlithgow ; 
and,  though  he  was  under  the  greatest  grief  for 
the  fate  of  Lennox,  the  behaviuur  of  the  Doug- 
glasses  struck  him  with  such  terror  that  he  dis- 
sembled his  sentiments.  The  earl  of  Angus  led 
his  victorious  troops  into  Fife,  in  hopes  of  sur- 
prising the  queen  and  the  archbishop  of  St.  An- 
drews. The  queen,  on  the  news  of  his  approach, 
fled,  with  her  new  husband  Henry  Stuart,  brother 
to  lord  Evandale,  to  Edinburgh,  and  both  were 
admitted  into  the  castle.  The  archbishop  fled  to 
the  mountains,  where  he  was  obliged  to  keep 
cattle  as  a  shepherd.  Angus,  after  having  plun- 
dered the  castle  of  St.  Andrew's  and  the  abbey 
of  Dunfermline,  returned  in  triumph  in  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  prepared  to  besiege  the  castle  ; 
but  the  queen,  hearing  that  her  sen  was  among 
the  number  of  the  besiegers,  ordered  the  gates  of 
the  castle  to  be  thrown  open,  and  surrendered 
herself  and  her  husband  prisoners  to  James,  who 
was  advised  to  confine  them  to  the  castle.  After 
these  successes,  the  earl  of  Angus  established  a 
court  of  justice,  in  which  he  prosecuted  those 
who  had  opposed  him,  among  whom  was  the 
earl  of  Cassils.  He  was  offered  by  Sir  James 
Hamilton,  natural  son  to  the  earl  of  Arran,  the 
same  who  had  murdered  Lennox,  an  indemnity, 
if  he  would  own  himself  a  vassal  of  that  house ; 
but  this  condition  was  rejected.  Being  called  to 
his  trial,  and  accused  of  having  taken  arms 
against  the  king,  a  gentleman  of  his  name  and 
family,  who  was  his  advocate,  denied  the  charge, 
and  offered  to  produce  a  letter  under  James's 
own  hand  desiring  him  to  assist  in  delivering 
him  from  his  gaolers.  This  striking  evidence 
confounded  the  prosecutor  so  much  that  the 
earl  was  acquitted ;  but,  on  his  return  home,  he 
was  way-laid  and  murdered  by  one  Hugh  Camp- 
bell, at  the  instigation  of  Sir  James  Hamilton. 
During  these  transactions  in  the  south,  many  of 
the  Highland  clans  were  perpetrating  the  most 
horrid  scenes  of  rapine  and  murder.  The  state 
of  the  borders  was  little  better  than  that  of  the 
Highlands ;  but  it  engaged  the  attention  of  An- 
gus more,  as  he  had  great  interest  in  these  parts. 
Marching,  therefore,  against  the  banditti  which 
infested  these  parts,  he  soon  reduced  them  to  rea- 
son. His  power  seemed  now  to  be  firmly  estab- 
lished, insomuch  that  the  archbishop  of  St.  An- 
drews began  to  treat  with  Sir  George  Douglas,  to 
whom  he  offered  lucrative  leases  and  other  emo- 
luments, if  he  would  intercede  with  Angus  in  his 
favor.  This  was  readily  agreed  to;  and  the 
archbishop  was  allowed  to  return  in  safety  to  his 
palace  about  the  same  time  that  Angus  returned 
from  his  expedition  against  the  borderers.  No- 
thing was  then  to  be  seen  at  court  but  festivities 
of  every  kind,  in  which  the  queen-mother,  who 
\\as  now  liberated,  took  part;  and  she  was  after- 
wards suffered  to  depart  to  the  castle  of  Stirling, 
which  Angus  had  neglected  to  secure.  In  the 
mean  time  the  archbishop  invited  the  Douglasses 
to  spend  some  days  with  him  at  his  castle; 
which  they  accordingly  did,  and  carried  the  king 
with  them.  Here  James  dissembled  so 


well  that  Angus  thought  there  could  be  no  dan- 
ger in  leaving  him  in  the  hands  of  his  friends, 
till  he  should  return  to  Lothian  to  settle  some 
public  and  private  affairs.  He  left  the  king  in 
the  custody  of  his  uncle  Archibald,  his  brother 
Sir  George,  and  one  James  Douglas  of  Park- 
head,  captain  of  the  guards,  who  watched  the 
king  on  pretence  of  doing  him  honor.  The  earl 
was  no  sooner  gone  than  the  archbishop  sent  an 
invitation  to  Sir  George  Douglas,  desiring  him 
to  come  to  St.  Andrews,  and  there  put  the  last 
hand  to  the  leases.  This  was  so  plausible  that 
he  immediately  set  out  for  St.  Andrews  ;  while 
his  uncle  the  treasurer  went  to  Dundee,  where 
he  had  an  amour.  James,  thinking  this  the  best 
opportunity  for  an  escape,  resolved  to  attempt  it, 
and,  by  a  private  message,  apprised  his  mother  of 
his  design.  It  was  then  the  season  for  hunting, 
which  James  often  followed  in  the  park  of  Falk- 
land ;  and,  calling  for  his  forester,  he  told  him 
that,  as  the  weather  was  fine,  he  intended  to  kill  a 
stag  next  morning,  ordering  him  at  the  same  time 
to  summon  all  the  gentlemen  in  the  neigbour- 
hood  to  attend  him  with  their  best  dogs.  He  then 
called  for  his  chief  domestics,  and  commanded 
them  to  get  his  supper  early,  because  he  intended 
to  be  in  the  field  by  day-break  ;  and  talked  with 
the  captain  of  his  guard  of  nothing  but  the  ex- 
cellent sport  he  expected.  Meantime  he  had 
engaged  two  young  men,  the  one  a  page  of  his 
own,  the  other,  John  Hart,  a  helper  in  his 
stables,  to  attend  him  in  his  flight,  and  to  provide 
him  with  the  dress  of  a  groom  for  a  disguise.  Hav- 
ing taken  leave  of  his  attendants,  charging  them 
to  be  ready  early  in  the  morning,  and,  being  left 
alone,  he  stole  softly  out  of  his  bed-chamber,  went 
to  the  stable,  dressed  himself  in  his  disguise;  and 
he  and  his  companions,  mounting  the  three  best 
horses,  galloped  to  Stirling  castle ;  into  which  he 
was  admitted  soon  after  day-break.  He  com- 
manded all  the  gates  to  be  secured;  and,  the 
queen  having  previously  prepared  every  thing 
for  a  vigorous  defence,  orders  were  given  that 
none  should  be  admitted  into  the  castle  without 
the  king's  permission.  About  an  hour  after  the 
king  escaped  from  Falkland,  Sir  George  Doug- 
las returned ;  and,  being  assured  that  the  king 
was  asleep,  went  to  bed.  But  James  had  been 
seen  and  known  in  his  flight ;  for,  in  the  morn- 
ing, the  bailiff  of  Abernethy  informed  Sir  George 
that  the  king  had  passed  Stirling  bridge.  An 
express  was  despatched,  informing  Angus  of  all 
that  had  happened.  The  earl  quickly  repaired 
to  Falkland,  where  he  and  his  friends  resolved  to 
go  to  Stirling,  and  demand  access  to  the  king. 
James  by  this  time  had  issued  letters  to  the 
earls  of  Huntly,  Argyle,  Athol,  Glencairn, 
Monteith,  Ilothes,  and  Eglinton  ;  lords  Graham, 
Livingston,  Lindsay,  Sinclair,  Kuthven,  Drum- 
raond,  Evandale,  Maxwell,  and  Semple.  Before 
all  of  them  could  arrive  at  Stirling,  the  earl  of 
Angus  and  his  friends  were  upon  their  journey 
to  the  same  place ;  but  were  stopped  by  a  herald, 
commanding  them  not  to  approach  within  six 
miles  of  the  king's  residence.  On  this  the  earl 
deliberated  with  his  party  how  to  proceed.  Some 
were  for  marching,  and  taking  the  castle  by  sur- 
prise ;  but  that  was  found  to  be  impracticable. 
The  eatl  and  his  brother  therefore  resolved  to 


SCOTLAND. 


471 


make  a  show  of  submission  to  ^ie  king's  order  ; 
and  they  accordingly  went  to  Linlithgow.     By 
this  time  all  the  nobility  already  mentioned,  and 
many  others,  had  assembled  at   Stirling;    and 
James,  calling  them  to  council,  inveighed  against 
the  tyranny  of  the  Douglasses  with  acrimony, 
and  in  conclusion,  said,  '  Therefore  I  desire,  my 
lords,  that  I  may  be  satisfied  of  the  said  earl,  his 
kin,  and  friends.     For  I  vow  that  Scotland  shall 
not  hold  us  both,  while  I  be  revenged  on  him 
and    his.'      The   result  was   that   proclamation 
should  be   made,  renewing   the   order   for   the 
Douglasses  not  to  approach  the  court,  and  di- 
vesting the  earl  of  Angus  and  his  brother  of  all 
their  public  employments.     Such  was  the  mode- 
ration  of   the   assembly   that    by  their   advice 
James  ordered  the  earl  to  retire  to  the  north  of 
the  Spey  till  his  pleasure  should  be  known  ;  but 
his  brother  was  commanded  to  surrender  himself 
a  prisoner  in  the  castle  of  Edinburgh,  to  take 
his  trial  in  a  very  full  parliament,  to  be  held  in 
that  city  next  September.     The  earl  and  his  bro- 
ther considered  all  this  as  a  prelude  to  their  de- 
struction ;    and   resolved  to  surprise  the  city  of 
Edinburgh,  and  hold  it  against  the  king  and  par- 
liament, before  the  latter  could  assemble.     The 
royal  party  acted  with  great  spirit.     The  man- 
agement of  the  king's  escape,  his  reception  into 
Stirling,  the  fortifying  that  castle,  and  the  ready 
obedience  of  his  great  nobility,  some  of  whom 
attended  him  with  their  followers  before  they  re- 
ceived any  summonses,  are  proofs  of  wise  and 
spirited  deliberations.     It  was  to  be  expected 
that  the   Douglasses,  who  remained  assembled 
in  a  numerous  body,  would  make  the  attempt 
they  made ;    but  the  royalists  despatched  lord 
Maxwell  and  the  baron  of  Lochinvar  with  troops 
to  take  possession  of  the  city,  till  James  could 
arrive  with  2000  forces  to  their  relief.     Maxwell 
and  Lochinvar  made  such  despatch  that  they  were 
in  possession  of  the  city  when  the  Douglasses 
appeared  before  it,  and  repulsed  them  ;  while  a 
terrible  storm  had   scattered  the   troops  under 
James,  before  he  could  come  to  their  assistance, 
so  effectually,  that,  being  left  almost  without  at- 
tendants,  he   might   have    been   taken   by   the 
smallest  party  of  the  enemy.     Upon  the  retreat 
of  the  Douglasses  from  Edinburgh,  the  parlia- 
ment met ;    and  the  earl  of  Angus,  his  brother, 
Sir  George  Douglas,  his  uncle  Archibald  Doug- 
las, and  Alexander  Drummond  of  Carnock,  with 
some  of  their  chief  dependents,  were  indicted 
and  forfeited  in  absence  (none  of  them  appear- 
ing), for  '  assembling  of  the  king's  lieges,  with 
intention  to  have  assailed  his  person  ;  detaining 
of  the  king  against  his  will  and  pleasure,  and 
contrary  to  the  articles  agreed   upon,  for   two 
years  and  more ;  all  which  time  the  king  was  in 
fear  and   danger  of  his  life.'     One  Banantyne 
had  the  courage  to  plead  their  cause  against  these 
heinous  charges ;  but  so  exasperated  were  both 
the  king  and  parliament  against  them  that  the 
former  swore  he  never  would  forgive  them,  and 
the  latter  that  they  never  would  intercede  fer 
them.     Nor  was  it  deemed  sufficient  simply  to 
declare  their  resolution ;   but  the  solemnity  of 
oaths   was   added,   to  discourage   the   king    of 
England  from  continuing  the  applications  he  was 
daily  making  for  the  partlon  of  Angus;  and,  to 


extinguish  all  hopes  of  that  kind,  James  created 
his  mother's  third  husband  lord  Methven,  and 
gave  him  the  direction  of  his  artillery.     The  dis- 
grace and  forfeiture  of  the  Douglasses  having 
created  many  vacancies  in  the  state,  Gavin  Dun- 
bar,  archbishop  of   Glasgow,  and  tutor  to  the 
king,  was  nominated  lord  chancellor,  and  Robert 
Carncross,  a  person,  says  Buchanan,  more  emi- 
nent for  wealth  than  virtue,  was  made  treasurer ; 
but  he  was  soon  after  displaced  for  favoring  the 
Douglasses,   and   Robert  Barton   appointed   to 
succeed  him.     The  Douglasses  still  kept  their 
arms  ;  and,  being  joined  by  many  outlaws  and 
robbers  in  the  south,  they  ravaged  all  the  lands 
of  their  enemies,  carrying  their  devastations  to 
the  very  gates  of  Edinburgh.     A  commission  of 
lieutenancy  was  then  given  to  the  earl  of  Argyle 
and  lord  Hume,  who  did  great  service  in  pro- 
tecting the  country  from  the  outlaws.     Several 
villages,  however,  near  Edinburgh,  were  burnt ; 
and  all  the  provisions  the  Douglasses  could  find 
were  carried  off  to   their  castle  of  Tamtalian, 
which  served  as  their  head  quarters.     The  castle 
of  D  unbar  remained   still   in  the  hands  of  the 
duke  of  Albany's  garrison,  who  recognised  n  - 
master  but  him.    The  place  was  well  stored  with 
artillery  of  all  kinds;    and,  lying  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Tamtalian,  it  was  easy  to  transport 
them  to  the  siege ;  but  James  thought  he  had  no 
right  to  make  use  of  them  without  the  consent  of 
one  Maurice,  governor   of  the  castle.     Having 
summoned,  by  proclamation,  the  inhabitants  of 
Fife,  Angus,    Strathern,   Stirlingshire,   Lothian, 
Merse,    and    Teviotdale,    to    appear  at   Edin- 
burgh on  the  10th  of  December,  with  forty  days 
victuals,  to  assist  in  the  siege,  he  sent  three  no- 
blemen to  borrow  artillery  from  Maurice,  and 
to  remain  as  pledges  for  the  safe  redelivery  of  the 
same ;    and   they   were   accordingly   sent  him. 
This   delicacy  is   the  more   remarkable   as  the 
duke  of  Albany   had  given  orders   that   every 
thing  in  his  castle  should  be  at  the  king's  service. 
However  unanimous  the  parliament  might  appear 
against  the  Douglasses,  yet  James  was  but  ill 
seconded   in  this  attempt.     The  enemies  of  the 
Douglasses  had  impolitically  rendered  it  treason- 
able for  any  person  to  shelter  or  protect  the  earl 
of  Angus,  his  kinsmen,  or  followers.     This  pro- 
ceeding, in  a  country  where  the  Douglasses  had 
so  many  connexions,  carried  with  it  an  appear- 
ance of  cruelty  and  a  thirst  of  revenge,  especially 
as  James  had  chosen  such  a  season  for  carrying  on 
the  siege.     In  short,  after  battering   the  place 
for  some  days,  and   losing   one   Falconer,   his 
chief   engineer,  the  king  abandoned  his  enter- 
prise.    Before  this  time,  a  negociation  was  going 
forward  between  James  and  the  king  of  Eng- 
land;   which  proves  that  the  former  was  now 
rendered  placable  towards  the  Douglasses,  and 
was  the  reason  why  the  siege  was  suspended. 
The  truce  between  Scotland  and  England  was 
now  near  expiring  ;  and  Henry,  under  that  pre- 
tence, gave  a  commission  to  the  prior  of  Durham, 
Thomas  Magnus,  Sir  Anthony  Ughtred,  captain 
of    the   town   and  castle   of  Berwick,  William 
Frankelyn,  chancellor  of  Durham,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Tempest.     England  was  then  the  principal  ally 
of  Francis  against  the  emperor ;  and  this  gave  a 
handle  for  Francis  to  interpose  so  far  in  favor  of 


472 


SCOTLAND. 


the  Douglasses,  that  he  brought  James  to  con- 
sent to  a  preliminary  negociation  for  their  ob- 
taining a  secure  retreat  in  England. 

James  being  now  delivered  from  all  dread  of 
the  Douglasses,  and  under  no  control  from  any 
party,  showed  excellent  dispositions  for  govern- 
ment. Finding  that  the  borderers  were  renew- 
ing their  depredations,  he  resolved  to  strike  at 
the  root  of  an  evil  which  had  so  long  disgraced 
his  ancestors,  by  giving  no  quarter  to  the  chiefs 
of  these  robbers,  whose  residence  was  in  Liddes- 
dale.  This  was  the  more  necessary,  as  their  dar- 
ing attempts  had  exasperated  the  English  so 
much,  that  they  had  actually  burnt  a  town  in 
Teviotdale ;  and  had  killed  one  Robert  Kerr,  a 
man  of  some  consequence.  Two  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  Scottish  borderers  were  Cockburn  of  Ken- 
derlaw,  and  Adam  Scot,  commonly  called  the 
king  of  the  thieves.  Both  of  them  were  barons; 
and  had  been  so  inured  to  the  practice  that  they 
thought  there  was  no  crime  in  robbing ;  they 
therefore  appeared  publicly  in  Edinburgh ; 
where  James  ordered  them  to  be  apprehended, 
tried,  and  hanged.  He  next  proceeded  with 
great  firmness  against  many  noblemen  and  gen- 
tlemen, who  were  suspected  of  being  disaffected 
to  the  late  peace.  All  of  them  had  behaved 
with  great  loyalty,  and  some  of  them  had  done 
him  the  most  important  services.  Of  this  num- 
ber were  the  earl  of  Hume,  lord  Maxwell,  with 
the  barons  of  Buccleugh,  Farniherst,  Polwart, 
Johnston,  and  Mark  Kerr;  yet  so  zealous  was 
James  for  the  impartial  administration  of  justice 
that  he  ordered  them  all,  with  many  other  chiefs 
of  the  borderers,  to  be  sent  to  prison ;  where 
they  lay  till  they  entered  into  recognizances,  and 
found  bail  for  their  good  behaviour.  Of  all  the 
party  of  the  Douglasses,  none  of  any  note,  ex- 
cepting Alexander  Drummond  of  Carnock,  was 
suffered  to  return  home,  at  the  earnest  request 
of  the  ambassadors  and  the  treasurer  Barton. 
This  lenity  was  of  very  little  consequence  ;  for 
James  having  appointed  the  earl  of  Murray  to 
be  sole  warden  of  the  Scottish  marches,  with 
power  to  treat  with  the  earl  of  Northumberland, 
their  conferences  had  broken  off  on  account  of 
fresh  violences.  He  now  resolved  to  attempt  in 
person  what  his  predecessors  and  he  had  so  often 
failed  in  by  their  deputies.  As  he  was  known  to 
be  fond  of  hunting,  he  summoned  his  nobility 
to  attend  him  with  their  horses  and  dogs ;  which 
they  did  in  such  numbers,  that  his  hunting  reti- 
nue consisted  of  above  8000  persons,  two-thirds 
of  whom  were  well  armed.  This  preparation 
gave  no  suspicion  to  the  borderers,  as  hunting 
matches  in  those  days  commonly  consisted  of 
some  thousands  ;  and  James,  having  set  out  upon 
his  diversion,  is  said  to  have  killed  540  deer. 
Among  the  other  gentlemen  who  had  been  sum- 
moned to  attend  him  was  John  Armstrong  of 
Gilnockhall.  He  was  the  head  of  a  numerous 
clan,  who  lived  with  great  splendor  upon  the 
contributions  under  which  they  laid  the  English 
borderers.  He  was  himself  always  attended  by 
twenty-six  gentlemen  on  horseback,  well  mount- 
ed and  armed,  as  his  body  guards.  Having  re- 
ceived the  king's  invitation,  he  was  fond  of  dis- 
playing his  magnificence  to  his  sovereign  ;  and, 
•Hiring  himself  and  his  guard  more  pompously 


than  usual,  they  presented  themselves  before 
James,  from  whom  they  expected  some  particu- 
lar mark  of  distinction  for  their  services  against 
the  English,  and  for  the  protection  they  had 
always  given  to  their  countrymen  the  Scots.  On 
their  first  appearance  James,  not  knowing  who 
he  was,  returned  Armstrong's  salute,  imagining 
him  to  be  some  nobleman, ;  but,  upon  hearing 
his  name,  lie  ordered  him  and  his  followers  to 
be  immediately  apprehended,  and  hanged  upon 
the  spot.  Armstrong  begged  hard  for  his  life  ;  and 
offered  to  serve  the  king  in  the  field  with  forty 
horsemen,  besides  making  him-  large  presents  of 
jewels  and  money,  with  many  other  tempting  of- 
fers; but  the  king  was  inexorable.  These  and  some 
similar  executions  restored  peace  to  the  borders. 
Hitherto  we  have  considered  only  the  civil 
transactions  of  Scotland  ;  but  religion  will  now 
claim  a  considerable  share  of  our  attention.  The 
opinions  of  Luther  had  been  propagated  in  Bri- 
tain soon  4fter  his  preaching  in  1517.  They  had 
for  some  years  gained  ground,  and,  when  the 
contentions  began  between  James  and  his  no- 
bility, were  become  formidable  to  the  establish- 
ed religion.  James,  having  escaped  from  the 
hands  of  his  nobles  by  means  of  the  archbishop 
of  St.  Andrew's,  was  naturally  favorable  to 
the  clergy,  and,  as  they  opposed  the  reformation, 
became  a  zealous  persecutor.  On  the  other  hand 
the  nobility,  having  opposed  the  kins  and  clergy 
in  civil  affairs,  did  so  likewise  in  religion.  The 
clergy  finding  themselves  unequal  in  argument, 
had  recourse  to  more  violent  methods.  Rigor- 
ous inquisitions  were  made  after  heretics,  and 
fires  were  every  where  prepared  for  them.  'The 
first  person,'  says  Dr.  Stuart, '  who  was  called 
upon  to  suffer  for  the  reformed  religion  was  Pa- 
trick Hamilton,  abbot  of  Feme.  At  an  early 
period  of  life  he  had  been  appointed  to  this  ab- 
bacy ;  and,  having  imbibed  a  favorable  idea  of 
the  doctrines  of  Luther,  he  had  travelled  into 
Germany,  where,  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
most  eminent  reformers,  he  was  fully  confirmed 
in  their  opinions.  Upon  his  return  to  Scotland 
he  exposed  the  corruptions  of  the  church,  and 
insisted  on  the  advantages  of  the  tenets  which  he 
had  embraced.  A  conduct  so  bold,  and  the 
avidity  with  which  his  discourses  were  received 
by  the  people,  gave  an  alarm  to  the  clergy. 
Under  the  pretence  of  a  religious  and  friendly 
conference  he  was  seduced  to  St.  Andrew's  by 
Alexander  Campbell,  a  Dominican  friar,  wh-i 
was  instructed  to  remonstrate  with  him  on  the 
subject  of  the  reformation.  The  conversation 
they  held  only  served  to  establish  the  abbot  more 
firmly  in  his  sentiments,  and  to  inflame  his  zeal  to 
propagate  them.  The  archbishops  of  St.  An- 
drews and  Glasgow,  and  other  dignitaries  of  the 
church,  constituting  a  court,  called  him  to  appear 
before  them.  The  abbot  neither  lost  his  cour.ut , 
nor  renounced  his  opinions.  lie  was  convicted 
accordingly  of  heretical  pravity,  delivered  over 
to  the  secular  arm,  and  executed  in  1527.  His 
tenets  are  thus  enumerated  in  the  sentence : — 
4  Man  hath  no  free  will.  Man  is  in  sin  so  long 
as  he  liveth.  Children,  incontinent  after  their 
baptism,  are  sinners.  All  Christians,  that  be 
worlhie  to  be  called  Christians,  do  know  that 
they  are  in  grace.  No  man  is  justified  by  woi  k>, 


S  C  O  T  L  A  N  D. 


473 


but  by  faith  only-  Good  works  make  not  a  good 
man,  but  a  good  man  doth  make  goo-'  works; 
and  faith,  hope,  and  charity,  are  so  knit,  that  he 
that  hath  the  one  hath  the  rest ;  ana  he  that 
wanteth  the  one  of  them  wanteth  the  rest.' 
(Keith's  Hist.  p.  3).  This  reformer  had  not  at- 
tained the  twenty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  His 
youth,  his  virtue,  his  magnanimity,  and  his  suf- 
ferings, all  operated  in  his  favor  with  the  people. 
To  Alexander  Campbell,  who  insulted  him  at 
the  stake,  he  objected  his  treachery,  and  cited 
him  to  answer  for  his  behaviour  before  the  judg- 
ment seat  of  Christ.  And  this  persecutor,  a  few 
days  after,  being  seized  with  a  frenzy,  and  dying 
in  that  condition,  it  was  believed  and  affirmed 
with  confidence  that  Mr.  Hamilton  was  an  in- 
nocent man  and  a  martyr.  A  deed  so  affecting, 
from  its  novelty  and  circumstances,  excited 
throughout  the  kingdom  a  universal  indignation 
and  curiosity.  Particular  enquiries  were  made 
into  the  tenets  of  Hamilton.  Converts  to  the 
new  opinions  multiplied  in  every  quarter,  and  a 
partiality  to  them  began  to  prevail  even  among, 
the  Romish  clergy.  Alexander  Seton,  the  king's 
confessor,  inveighed  against  the  errors  and  abuses 
of  Popery  ;  neglected  in  his  discourses  all  men- 
tion of  purgatory,  and  pilgrimages,  and  saints ; 
and  recommended  the  doctrines  of  the  reformed. 
What  he  taught  was  impugned  ;  and,  his  bold- 
ness rising  with  contradiction,  he  defended 
warmly  his  opinions,  and  even  affirmed  that  in 
Scotland  there  were  no  true  and  faithful  bishops. 
A  sarcasm  so  just,  and  so  daring,  provoked  the 
whole  body  of  the  prelacy.  They  studied  to 
compass  his  destruction ;  and,  as  Mr.  Seton  had 
exhorted  the  king  to  a  greater  purity  of  life,  they 
iioped  to  conduct  him  to  the  stake  ;  but  he  fled 
into  England.  In  1533  Henry  Forest,  a  Bene- 
dictine friar,  who  adopted  the  reformed  doctrines, 
was  not  so  fortunate.  After  having  been  impri- 
soned for  some  time  in  the  tower  of  St.  An- 
drews, he  was  brought  to  trial,  condemned,  and 
burnt.  He  had  said  that  Mr.  Hamilton  was  a 
pious  man  and  a  martyr  ;  and  that  the  tenets  for 
which  he  suffered  might  be  vindicated.  This 
guilt  was  aggravated  by  the  discovery  that  friar 
Forest  was  in  possession  of  a  New  Testament  in 
the  English  language.  A  cruelty  so  repugnant 
to  the  feelings  of  mankind,  while  it  pleased  the 
pride  of  the  ecclesiastics,  was  destroying  their 
importance,  and  exciting  a  general  disposition 
in  the  people  to  adopt  the  principles  and  senti- 
ments of  the  reformed.  In  1534  archbishop 
James  Beaton  of  St.  Andrews,  though  remarka- 
ble for  prudence  and  moderation,  was  overawed 
by  his  nephew  and  coadjutor  David  Beaton  and 
by  the  clergy.  By  commission,  granted  by  him, 
persecutions  were  carried  on  with  violence. 
Many  were  driven  into  banishment,  and  many 
were  forced  to  acknowledge  what  they  did  not 
believe.  The  more  strenuous  and  resolute  were 
delivered  over  to  punishment.  Among  these  were 
two  private  gentlemen,  Norman  Gourlay  and 
David  Stratton.  They  were  tried  at  Holyrood 
House  before  the  bishop  of  Ross  ;  and,  refusing 
to  recant,  were  condemned.  King  James,  who 
was  present,  appeared  exceedingly  solicitous 
that  they  should  recant  their  opinions  ;  and  Strat- 
ton, upon  being  adjudged  to  the  fire,  having 


begqed  for  mercv,  was  about  to  receive  it,  when 
the  priests  proudly  pronounced  that  the  grace  o. 
the  sovereign  could  not  be  extended  to  a  crimi- 
nal whom  their  law  had  doomed  to  suffer.  A 
few  years  after,  the  bishops  having  assembled  at 
Edinburgh,  two  Dominican  friars,  Killor  and 
Beverage,  with  Sir  Duncan  Sympson  a  priest, 
Robert  Forrester  a  gentleman  of  Stirling,  and 
Thomas  Forest  vicar  of  Dolour  in  Perthshire, 
were  condemned  to  be  burnt  together.  At  Glas- 
gow a  similar  scene  was  acted  in  1539  ;  Hiero- 
nymus  Russel,  a  gray  friar,  and  a  young  gentle- 
man named  Kennedy,  were  accused  of  heresy 
before  the  bishop.  Russel,  when  brought  to  the 
stake,  displaying  a  deliberate  demeanor,  reason- 
ed gravely  with  his  accusers,  and  was  only  an- 
swered with  reproaches.  Mr.  Kennedy,  who 
was  not  yet  eighteen  years  of  age,  seemed  dis- 
posed to  disavow  his  opinions,  and  to  sink  under 
the  weight  of  cruel  affliction  ;  but,  the  exhorta- 
tion and  example  of*  Russel  awakening  his  cou- 
rage, his  mind  assumed  a  firmness  and  constancy, 
his  countenance  became  cheerful,  and  he  ex- 
claimed with  a  joyful  voice,  '  Now  I  defy  thee, 
death  ;  I  praise  my  God,  I  am  ready.'  James 
Beaton,  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  having  died 
about  this  time,  the  ambition  of  David  Beaton, 
his  coadjutor,  was  gratified  in  the  fullest  manner. 
He  had  before  been  created  a  cardinal,  and  was 
now  advanced  to  the  primacy  of  Scotland.  No 
Scottish  ecclesiastic  had  been  ever  invested  with 
greater  authority ;  and  the  reformers  had  every 
thing  to  fear  from  so  formidable  an  enemy. 
The  natural  violence  of  his  temper  had  swelled 
into  an  overbearing  insolence.  His  youth  had 
been  passed  in  scenes  of  policy  and  intrigue, 
which  gave  him  address  and  knowledge  of  men. 
He  was  dark  and  designing.  No  principles  of 
justice  were  any  bar  to  his  schemes  ;  nor  did  his 
heart  open  to  any  impressions  of  pity.  His 
ruling  passion  was  an  inordinate  love  of  power; 
and,  his  consequence  depending  upon  the  church 
of  Rome,  he  maintained  its  superstitions  with  the 
warmest  zeal.  He  seemed  to  take  a  delight  in 
perfidiousness  and  dissimulation ;  had  certainly 
no  religion ;  and  indulged  in  the  most  open  pro- 
fligacy of  manners.  In  connexion  with  these  de- 
fects he  possessed  a  persevering  obstinacy  in  pur- 
suing his  measures,  and  practised  all  the  arts 
necessary  to  advance  them.  He  was  scarcely 
invested  in  the  primacy  when  he  exhibited  his 
taste  for  magnificence,  and  his  aversion  to  the 
reformed.  He  proceeded  to  St.  Andrews  with 
an  uncommon  pomp  and  parade.  The  earls  of 
Iluntly,  Arran,  Marischal,  and  Montrose,  with 
the  lords  Fleming,  Lindsay,  Erskine,  and  Seton, 
honored  him  with  their  attendance;  and  there 
appeared  in  his  train  Gavin  archbishop  of  Glas- 
gow and  lord  high  chancellor,  four  bishops,  six 
abbots,  many  private  gentlemen,  and  a  vast  mul- 
titude of  the  inferior  clergy.  In  the  cathedral, 
from  a  throne  erected  by  his  command,  he  ha- 
rangued on  the  state  of  religion  and  the  church  to 
this  company  and  a  crowd  of  other  auditors.  He 
lamented  the  increase  of  heretics;  insisted  upon 
their  audacity:  and  urged  the  necessity  of actine 
against  them  with  rigor.  He  told  this  assembly 
that  he  had  cited  Sir  John  Borlhwick  to  appeal 
before  it  for  maintaining  tenets  of  faith  hostile 


474 


SCOTLAND. 


to  the  church,  and  for  dispersing  Heretical  books, 
and  he  desired  their  assistance  in  bringing  him 
to  justice.  Thirteen  articles  of  accusation  were 
accordingly  read  against  him  ;  but  he  neither 
appeared  personally  nor  by  any  agent  or  deputy. 
He  was  however  found  guilty;  and  the  cardinal, 
with  a  solemnity  calculated  to  strike  with  awe 
and  terror,  pronounced  sentence  against  him. 
His  goods  and  estate  were  confiscated  ;  and  a 
painted  representation  of  him  was  burnt  publicly. 
It  was  declared  that  every  office  of  humanity, 
comfort,  and  solacement  extended  to  him  should 
be  considered  as  criminal,  and  be  punished  with 
confiscations  and  forfeitures.  Sir  John  Borth- 
wick,  having  been  apprised  of  his  danger,  fled 
into  England,  where  he  was  kindly  received  by 
Henry  VIII.,  who  employed  him  in  negociations 
with  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany.  Car- 
dinal Beaton  perceived  with  concern  that  this 
act  of  severity  did  not  terrify  the  people.  New 
defections  from  the  church  were  announced.  An- 
drew Cunningham,  son  to  the  master  of  Glen- 
cairn,  James  Hamilton  brother  to  Patrick  Ha- 
milton the  martyr,  and  the  celebrated  George 
Buchanan  the  historian,  were  imprisoned  upon 
suspicion  of  heresy ;  and,  if  they  had  not  escaped, 
must  have  died  at  the  stake.  In  this  declining 
condition  of  popery  the  cardinal  held  many 
mournful  consultations  with  the  bishops.  All 
their  wisdom  was  employed  to  devise  methods 
to  support  their  power.  The  project  of  an  in- 
quisitorial court  was  conceived.  To  erect  this 
tribunal  they  allured  James  V.  with  the  hopes  of 
the  confiscation  and  spoils  which  might  enrich 
him,  from  the  persecution  and  punishment  of  the 
reformed.  He  yielded  to  their  solicitations,  and 
gave  them  the  sanction  of  his  authority.  A  for- 
mal commission  was  granted,  constituting  a  court 
of  enquiry  after  heretics,  and  nominating  for  its 
president  Sir  James  Hamilton  of  Fennard,  natural 
brother  to  the  earl  of  Arran.  The  officious  zeal 
of  this  man,  his  ambition,  and  thirst  of  blood, 
were  acceptable  in  a  high  degree  to  the  clergy ; 
and  to  this  bad  eminence  their  recommendation 
had  promoted  him.  Upon  the  slightest  suspicion 
he  was  allowed  to  call  any  person  before  him,  to 
scrutinise  into  his  creed,  and  to  absolve  or  to 
condemn  him.  A  tribunal  so  dreadful  could  not 
have  found  a  director  more  suited  to  it.  He  was 
in  haste  to  fill  the  prisons  with  culprits,  and  was 
marking  down  the  names  of  all  those  to  whom 
heresy  was  imputed  by  popular  report.  But, 
while  he  was  brooding  over  mischief,  and  multi- 
plying in  fancy  the  triumphs  of  his  wickedness, 
an  unexpected  turn  of  affairs  presented  him  in 
the  light  of  a  criminal,  and  brought  him  to  the 
scaffold.  The  brother  of  Mr.  Hamilton  the  mar- 
tyr, to  avoid  persecution,  had  been  obliged  to 
go  into  banishment ;  but,  by  the  intercession  of 
his  friends,  he  was  permitted  to  return  for  a 
short  time  to  his  own  country,  that  he  might 
regulate  the  affairs  of  his  family.  He  was  con- 
nected with  Sir  James  Hamilton,  and,  trusting 
to  the  ties  of  blood,  ventured  to  prolong  his  stay 
beyond  the  period  allotted  to  him.  Sir  James, 
willing  to  give  a  signal  example  of  severity,  and 
thus  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  priesthood, 
resolved  to  make  his  own  relation  the  first  victim 
of  his  power.  Mr.  Hamilton,  however,  being 


acquainted  with  the  most  private  machinations 
of  this  inquisitor,  despatched  his  son  to  the 
king,  who  was  about  to  pass  the  Forth  in  a 
barge,  and  entreated  him  to  provide  for  his  safety 
as  Sir  James  Hamilton  had  conspired  with  thf 
house  of  Douglas  to  assassinate  him.  James  V. 
being  at  variance  with  the  house  of  Douglas 
was  disposed  to  believe  every  thing  flagitious  of 
Sir  James  Hamilton.  He  ordered  the  young 
gentleman  to  go  with  expedition  to  Edinburgh, 
and  to  open  the  matter  to  the  privy -council ;  and  he 
furnished  him  with  the  ring  which  he  sent  to  them 
upon  these  important  occasions,  which  required 
their  address  and  activity.  Sir  James  Hamilton 
was  apprehended  and  imprisoned.  An  accusa- 
tion of  having  devised  the  king's  death  was  pre- 
ferred against  him.  His  defence  appeared  un- 
satisfactory. A  jury  of  men  of  rank  and 
character  pronounced  him  guilty ;  and,  being 
condemned  to  suffer  the  death  of  a  traitor,  he  lost 
his  head,  and  the  quarters  of  his  body  were  ex- 
posed on  the  gates  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh. 
The  clergy,  who  could  not  prevent  his  trial  and 
execution,  regretted  his  death,  but  did  not  ap- 
point a  successor  to  him  in  their  court  of  inqui- 
sition.'— Dr.  Gilbert  Stuart's  History  of  the 
Reformation. 

In  other  respects,  however,  James  showed 
great  concern  for  the  welfare  of  his  people. 
Being  dissatisfied  with  the  ordinary  administra- 
tion of  justice,  he  had  recourse  to  the  parliament 
of  Paris  for  a  model  of  the  like  institution  in 
Scotland.  Great  objections  lay  to  ambulatory 
courts  of  justice.  The  authority  of  the  heritable 
jurisdiction  was  almost  exclusive  of  all  law  ;  for, 
though  the  king  might  preside  in  them,  yet  he 
seldom  did  ;  and  appeals  to  the  council  were 
disagreeable  and  expensive.  The  institution  of 
the  lords  of  articles  threw  too  much  weight  into 
their  scale,  as  no  business  could  be  transacted  in 
parliament  but  what  they  prepared  ;  and  it  was 
in  the  power  of  the  king  to  direct  them  as  he 
pleased.  The  true  source  of  the  public  grievances 
in  matters  of  property  lay  in  the  disregard  shown 
to  the  excellent  acts  which  had  passed  during 
the  reigns  of  James  I.,  II.,  and  III.,  and  which 
bad  not  been  supported  in  the  late  reigns.  The 
evil  had  gathered  strength  during  the  minority 
of  James  V. ;  and  he  resolved  to  establish  a 
standing  jury  for  all  matters  of  law  and  equity, 
with  a  president,  who  was  to  be  the  mouth  of 
the  assembly.  On  the  13th  of  May,  this  year, 
as  we  find  by  a  curious  MS.  in  the  British  mu- 
seum, the  lords  of  the  articles  laid  before  the 
parliament  the  proposition  for  instituting  the 
court  of  session  in  the  following  words  : — '  Item, 
anent  the  second  artikel  concerning  the  order  of 
justice ;  because  our  sovereign  lord  is  maist  de- 
sirous to  have  an  permanent  order  of  justice  for 
the  universal  of  all  his  lieges ;  and  therefore 
tendis  to  institute  an  college  of  cunning  and 
wise  men  for  doing  and  administration  of  justice 
in  all  ciril  actions ;  and  therefore  thinke  to  be 
chosen  certain  persons  maist  convenient  and  qua- 
lified yair  (there),  to  the  number  of  fifteen  per- 
sons, half  spiritual,  half  temporal,  with  an  pre- 
sident.' In  1553  hostilities  were  recommenced 
with  England  ;  but,  after  some  slight  incursions 
on  both  sides,  a  truce  again  took  place.  The 


SCOTLAND. 


475 


chief  transactions  of  these  years,  however,  were 
the  negociations  for  the  king's  marriage.  Indeed 
there  is  scarcely  any  monarch  mentioned  in  history 
who  seems  to  have  had  a  greater  variety  of  choice, 
or  who  was  more  difficult  to  he  pleased.  The  si- 
tuation of  affairs  on  the  continent  of  Europe  had 
rendered  Scotland  a  kingdom  of  great  conse- 
quence, as  holding  the  balance  of  power  between 
France  and  England,  and  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many ;  and  each  of  the  rival  powers  endeavoured 
to  gain  the  favor  of  James  by  giving  him  a  wife. 
In  1534  king  Francis  offered  him  hrs  daughter; 
and  the  match  was  strongly  recommended  by 
the  duke  of  Albany,  who  was  still  living  in 
France.  The  same  year  the  imperial  ambassador 
arrived  in  Scotland,  and  presented,  in  the  name 
of  his  master,  the  order  of  the  golden  fleece  to 
James,  who  had  already  been  invested  with  that 
of  St.  Michael  by  Francis.  At  the  same  time  he 
offered  him  his  choice  of  three  princesses  ; 
Mary  of  Austria,  the  emperor's  sister,  and  widow 
of  Lewis  king  of  Hungary  ;  Mary  of  Portugal, 
the  daughter  of  his  sister  Eleanora  of  Austria ; 
or  Mary  of  England,  the  daughter  of  Catharine 
and  Henry.  Another  condition,  however,  was 
annexed  to  this  proposal ;  viz.  that,  to  suppress 
the  heresies  of  the  time,  a  council  should  be 
held  for  obviating  the  calamities  which  threat- 
ened the  Christian  religion.  These  proposals 
would  have  met  with  a  more  ready  acceptance 
from  James,  had  not  his  clergy  at  this  time 
been  disgusted  with  Charles  for  allowing  too 
great  a  latitude  to  the  Protestants  of  Germany. 
James,  in  his  answer,  returned  the  emperor 
his  polite  acknowledgments  for  the  splendid 
alliances  he  had  offered  him  :  touched  on  the 
proposal  of  the  council  as  being  a  measure 
rather  to  be  wished  for  than  hoped,  because 
it  ought  to  be  free  and  holy,  and  upon  the 
model  of  the  first  councils;  and  observed  that,  if 
such  a  council  could  be  obtained,  he  would  send 
ecclesiastics  to  it ;  but,  if  not,  every  prince  ought 
to  reform  the  errors  of  the  clergy  within  his  own 
dominions.  He  bewailed  the  obstinate  conduct 
of  his  uncle  in  his  divorce  and  marriage ;  and 
offered  his  best  offices  for  effecting  a  reconcilia- 
tion between  him  and  the  emperor,  wishing  that 
all  the  princes  of  Christendom  would  unite  their 
arms  against  their  common  enemy  the  Turks. 
He  hinted,  very  justly,  that  his  imperial  majesty 
had  offered  more  than  he  could  perform,  because 
his  cousin,  Mary  of  England,  was  not  at  his 
disposal.  That  it  would  be  impolitic  to  give  a 
preference  to  any  of  the  three  princesses,  all  of 
them  being  so  illustrious  and  deserving ;  but,  to 
show  how  much  he  valued  an  alliance  with  his 
imperial  majesty,  he  would  become  a  suppliant  to 
that  prince  for  his  niece,  daughter  to  Christian 
king  of  Denmark,  to  become  his  bride.  The 
ambassador's  answer  to  this  unexpected  request 
was  that  she  was  already  betrothed  to  the  count 
palatine.  But,  whether  the  emperor  had  any  right 
to  offer  the  English  princess  or  not,  it  is  agreed 
by  most  historians  that  he  was  offered  either 
Mary  or  Elizabeth  by  their  father  Henry  him- 
self. To  Mary  of  Bourbon,  the  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Vendosme,  he  is  said  to  have  been  con- 
tracted ;  but  for  some  reason  or  other  all  these 
matches  were  broken  off;  and  the  king  at  last 


went  to  France,  where  he  married  Magdalen  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Francis.  The  nuptials  were 
celebrated  at  Paris  in  1537,  with  great  magnifi- 
cence ;  arnd  among  other  things  served  up  by  way 
of  dessert  at  the  marriage  feast,  were  a  number  of 
covered  cups  filled,  it  is  said,  with  pieces  of  gold 
and  gold  dust,  the  product  of  Scotland,  which 
James  distributed  among  the  guests.  This  gold 
was  found  in  the  mines  of  Crawford  Moor,  then 
worked  by  the  Germans.  In  the  beginning  of 
May  the  royal  pair  embarked  for  Leith,  under 
convoy  of  four  large  ships  of  war,  and  landed 
on  the  28th  of  the  same  month.  The  joy  of  the 
Scots  was  universal,  but  it  was  of  short  continu- 
ance ;  for  the  young  queen  died  of  a  ferer  on 
the  22d  of  July  the  same  year.  King  James  did 
not  long  remain  a  widower ;  for  the  same  year 
he  sent  Beaton,  abbot  of  Arbroath,  to  treat  of 
his  second  marriage  with  a  French  lady,  Mary  of 
Guise,  duchess-dowager  of  Longueville.  In 
this  he  was  rivalled  by  his  uncle  Henry  VIII., 
but  not  before  James  had  been  contracted  to  her. 
Henry,  however,  not  only  insisted  upon  having 
this  lady  for  his  wife,  but  threw  out  some  menaces 
against  Francis,  because  he  would  not  comply 
with  his  request.  In  January,  1538,  she  was 
married  to  James,  and  escorted  to  Scotland  by 
the  admiral  of  France  with  a  considerable 
squadron,  both  James  and  Francis  being  sus- 
picious that  Henry  would  make  some  attempt  to 
intercept  the  royal  bride.  But  nothing  of  this 
kind  happened  :  and  she  landed  safely  at  Fife 
Ness ;  whence  she  was  conducted  to  the  king  at 
St.  Andrew's.  But,  while  James  was  thus  com- 
pleting his  domestic  arrangements,  he  was  in 
other  matters  showing  himself  a  bloody  tyrant. 
Some  differences  subsisted  between  the  families 
of  Gordon  and  Forbes  in  the  north.  The  heir 
of  the  house  last  mentioned  had  been  educated 
in  a  loose  dissipated  manner,  and  kept  company 
with  a  worthless  fellow  named  Strahan.  Having 
refused  this  favorite  something  he  had  asked,  the 
latter  attached  himself  to  Gordon  earl  of  Hunt- 
ly,  who,  it  is  said,  assisted  him  in  forging  a 
charge  of  treason  against  Forbes.  He  was  ac- 
cused of  intending  to  restore  the  Douglasses  to 
their  forfeited  estates  and  honors ;  which  impro- 
bable story  being  supported  by  some  venal  evi- 
dence, the  unhappy  young  man  was  condemned 
and  executed  as  a  traitor.  The  king  could  not 
but  see  the  injustice  of  this  execution ;  and,  to 
make  some  amends  for  it,  banished  Strahan  the 
kingdom.  Another  execution,  which  happened  a 
few  days  after,  was  even  more  inhuman.  The  earl 
of  Angus,  finding  that  he  could  not  regain  the  fa- 
vor of  the  king,  had  recourse  to  a  method  usual  in 
those  days  for  attracting  his  notice,  viz.  the  com- 
mitting of  depredations  on  the  borders.  This 
crime  was  sufficient  with  James  to  occasion  the 
death  of  his  innocent  sister,  the  dowager  lady  of 
Glammis.  She  had  been  courted  by  one  Lyon, 
whom  she  had  rejected  in  favor  of  a  gentleman 
of  the  name  of  Campbell.  Lyon,  exasperated 
at  his  repulse,  found  means  of  admittance  to 
James,  whom  he  filled  with  the  greatest  terrors 
on  account  of  the  practices  of  the  family  of  An- 
gus ;  and  at  last  charged  the  lady,  her  husband, 
and  an  old  priest,  with  a  design  of  poisoning  the 
king.  The  parties  were  all  remarkable  for  the 


476 


SCOTLAND. 


quiet  and  innocent  lives  they  led ;  and  this  cir- 
cumstance was  by  their  diabolical  accuser  turned 
to  their  prejudice,  by  representing  it  as  the  effect 
of  cunning.  However,  the  evidence  against  the 
lady  appeared  so  absurd  and  contradictory  that 
some  of  the  judges  were  for  dropping  the  prose- 
cution, and  others  for  recommending  her  case  to 
the  king  ;  but  the  majority  prevailed  to  have  it 
determined  by  a  jury,  who  brought  her  in  guilty ; 
and  she  was  condemned  to  be  burnt  alive  ou  the 
Castle-hill  of  Edinburgh.  The  defence  she  made 
would  have  done  honor  to  the  ablest  orator,  and 
undeniably  proved  her  innocence,  but,  though  it 
was  reported  to  James,  it  was  so  far  from  miti- 
gating her  sentence  that  it  was  aggravated  by  her 
husband  being  obliged  to  behold  her  execution. 
The  unhappy  man  endeavoured  to  make  his  way 
over  the  castle  wall  of  Edinburgh  ;  but,  the  rope 
proving  too  short,  he  was  dashed  in  pieces :  and 
lord  Glammis  her  son,  though  but  a  child,  was 
imprisoned  during  the  remainder  of  this  reign. 
The  old  priest,  though  put  to  the  torture,  con- 
fessed nothing,  and  was  freed.  Lyon,  like 
Strahan,  was  banished  the  kingdom.  Whether 
these  and  other  cruelties  had  affected  the  king's 
conscience,  or  whether  his  brain  had  been 
touched  by  the  distractions  of  the  different  par- 
ties is  unknown;  but  it  is  certain  that,  in  1540, 
he  began  to  live  retired:  his  palace  appeared 
like  the  cloistered  retreat  of  monks ;  his  sleep 
was  haunted  by' the  most  frightful  dreams,  which 
he  construed  into  apparitions ;  and  the  body  of 
Sir  James  Hamilton  seemed  continually  present 
to  his  eyes.  Perhaps  the  loss  of  his  two  sons, 
who  died  on  the  same  day  that  Sir  James  was 
executed,  might  have  contributed  to  bring  this 
man  more  remarkably  to  his  remembrance.  No 
doubt  it  added  to  the  gloom  of  his  mind  ;  and 
he  now  saw  his  court  abandoned  by  almost  all 
h»s  nobility.  At  last  James  was  in  some  degree 
roused  from  his  inaction,  by  the  preparations 
made  against  him  lf/y  his  uncle  Henry  Vlli.  of 
England.  Some  differences  had  already  taken 
place ;  to  accommodate  which  Henry  had  de- 
sired a  conference  with  James  at  York.  But 
this  the  latter,  by  the  advice  of  his  parliament, 
had  declined.  The  consequence  was  a  rupture 
between  the  two  courts,  and  the  English  had 
taken  twenty  of  the  Scots'  trading  vessels.  Henry 
threatened  to  revive  the  antiquated  claim  of  the 
English  superiority  over  Scotland,  and  had  given 
orders  for  a  formidable  invasion  of  the  Scottish 
borders.  He  complained  that  James  had  usurped 
the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith,  to  which  he 
had  added  the  word  Christian,  implying  that 
Henry  was  an  infidel :  but  the  kings  of  Scotland 
had,  some  time  before,  been  complimented  by  the 
papal  see  with  that  title.  James,  on  the  other 
hand,  threw  his  eyes  towards  Ireland,  the  north 
part  of  which  was  actually  peopled  with  inhabi- 
tants, who  owned  no  sovereign  but  the  king  of 
Scotland,  and  who  offered  to  serve  James  against 
the  English :  some  of  their  chiefs  having  re- 
paired to  Scotland,  and  done  homage  to  James, 
llenryhad  about  this  time  declared  himself  king 
•  if  Ireland,  of  which  he  was  before  only  styled  the 
lord ;  and  James  roundly  asserted  that  he  had  a 
(•referable  claim  to  at  least  one-half  of  that  island, 
u  hich  had  been  peopled  by  the  subjects  of  Scot- 


land. Though  the  Scottish  historians  of  this  reign 
take  very  little  notice  of  this  incident,  James  ap- 
pears to  have  been  very  tenacious  of  his  title; 
and  a  vast  intercourse  was  certainly  carried  on 
between  the  subjects  of  Scotland  and  the  northern 
Irish,  who  unanimously  acknowledged  James  for 
their  natural  sovereign.  Indeed,  this  was  the  only 
ground  of  quarrel  that  the  king,  with  the  least 
shadow  of  justice,  could  allege  against  Henry. 
His  parliament  being  met,  many  public-spirited 
acts  were  passed  ;  and,  before  the  assembly  was 
dissolved,  the  members  renewed  the  acts  against 
leasing  making;  by  which  is  meant  the  misrepre- 
senting of  the  king  to  his  nobles,  or  the  nobles  to 
their  king:  and  James,  to  dismiss  them  in  good 
humor,  passed  an  act  of  free  grace  for  all  crimes 
committed  in  his  minority;  the  earl  of  Angus, 
and  Sir  George  and  Sir  Archibald  Douglas  being 
excepted.  Henry,  after  cutting  off  the  head  of 
his  wife  Catharine  Howard,  married  and  divorced 
the  princess  Anne  of  Cleves,  and  found  himself 
either  deserted  or  distrusted  by  all  the  princes  on 
the  continent,  Protestant  as  well  as  Roman  catho- 
lic. James  and  his  clergy  jelled  greatly  on  this 
public  odium  incurred  by  Henry  ;  but  the  em- 
peror, having  again  quarrelled  with  Francis,  left 
Henry,  whose  dominions  they  had  threatened 
jointly  to  invade,  at  liberty  to  continue  his  pre- 
parations against  the  Scots.  He  first  ordered  his 
fleet,  then  the  most  formidable  of  any  in  the 
world,  to  make  fresh  descents  upon  Scotland. 
At  the  same  time  he  appointed  a  very  considera- 
ble army  to  rendezvous  upon  the  borders,  under 
Sir  Robert  Bowes,  the  earl  of  Angus,  and  his 
brothers  Sir  George  and  Sir  Archibald  Douglas. 
James  was  every  day  expecting  supplies  of 
money,  arms,  and  other  necessaries  from  Francis  ; 
but,  these  not  arriving,  he  reassembled  his  par- 
liament on  the  14th  of  March,  who  gratified  him 
in  all  his  demands.  Many  excellent  regulations 
were  made  for  the  internal  government,  peace, 
and  security  of  the  kingdom,  and  against  the 
exportation  of  money  instead  of  merchandise. 
Acts  were  passed  for  fortifying  and  embellishing 
the  town  of  Edinburgh,  and  for  better  supplying 
Scotland  with  wine.  The  royal  revenue  was 
increased  by  many  additional  estates ;  and  the 
last  hand  was  put  to  one  of  the  best  plans  for  a 
national  militia  that  perhaps  ever  appeared.  As 
yet,  excepting  in  the  disappointment  which 
Henry  met  wiih  from  his  nephew  in  not  meeting 
him  at  York,  he  had  no  grounds  for  commencing 
hostilities.  But  the  queen-mother  was  now  dead  ; 
and  consequently  the  connexion  between  James 
and  Henry  was  weakened.  Whatever  her  private 
character  might  have  been,  she  was  a  happy  in- 
strument of  preventing  bloodshed  between  the 
two  kingdoms.  She  was  buried  with  royal 
honors  at  Perth.  James,  to  all  appearance,  was 
at  this  time  in  a  most  desirable  situation.  His 
domain,  by  forfeitures  and  otherwise,  farexceeded 
that  of  any  of  his  predecessors.  He  could  com- 
mand the  purses  of  his  clergy;  had  large  sums 
of  ready  money  in  his  exchequer;  his  forts  were 
well  stored  and  fortified ;  and  he  was  now  daily 
receiving  remittances  of  money,  arms,  and  ammu- 
nition from  France.  All  this  show  of  happiness 
was  only  in  appearance;  for  the  affections  of  his 
nobility,  and  the  wiser  part  of  his  subjects,  were 


SCOTLAND. 


477 


now  alienated  from  him  more  than  ever,  by  his 
excessive  bigotry  and  superstition.  He  had  no- 
minated the  earl  of  Huntly  to  the  command  of 
his  army  on  the  borders,  consisting  of  10,000 
men  ;  and  his  lieutenant-general  was  Sir  Walter 
Lindsay  of  Torphichen,  who  had  seen  a  great 
deal  of  foreign  service,  and  was  esteemed  an  ex- 
cellent officer.  Huntly  acquitted  himself  admi- 
rably in  his  commission  ;  and  was  so  well  served 
by  his  spies  as  to  have  certain  intelligence  that 
the  English  intended  to  surprise  and  burn  Jed- 
burgh  and  Kelso.  The  English  army  under  Sir 
Robert  Bowes  and  the  Douglasses,  with  other 
northern  Englishmen,  continued  still  upon  the 
borders  ;  and  one  of  the  resolutions  the  Scottish 
nobility  and  gentry  had  come  to  was,  not  to 
attack  them  on  their  own  ground,  nor  to  act 
offensively,  unless  their  enemies  invaded  Scot- 
land. Huntly  being  informed  that  the  English 
had  advanced  on  the  24th  of  August  to  a  place 
called  Haldanrig,  and  that  they  had  destroyed 
great  part  of  the  Scottish  arid  debateable  lands, 
resolved  to  engage  them  :  and  the  English  were 
astonished  when  at  day  break  they  saw  the 
Scots  drawn  up  in  order  of  battle.  Neither 
party  could  now  retreat  without  fighting;  and 
Torphichen,  who  led  the  van,  consisting  of 
2000  of  the  best  troops  of  Scotland,  charged  the 
English  so  furiously  that  Huntly  gained  a  com- 
plete and  an  easy  victory.  Above  200  of  the 
English  were  killed,  and  600  taken  prisoners ; 
among  whom  were  their  general  Sir  Robert 
Bowes,  Sir  William  Mowbray,  and  about  sixty 
of  the  most  distinguished  northern  barons  ;  the 
earl  of  Angus  escaping  by  the  swiftness  of  his 
horse.  The  loss  of  the  Scots  was  inconsiderable. 
Meanwhile  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  having  raised 
a  great  army,  had  orders  to  march  northwards, 
and  to  disperse  a  manifesto,  complaining  of  James 
for  having  disappointed  him  of  his  interview  at 
York,  and  reviving  the  ridiculous  claim  of  supe- 
riority over  the  kingdom  of  Scotland.  It  was 
plain,  from  the  words  of  this  manifesto,  that 
Henry  was  still  placable  towards  James ;  and 
that  he  would  easily  have  dropped  that  claim,  if 
his  nephew  would  have  made  any  advances 
towards  a  reconciliation.  The  condition  of  James 
was  now  deplorable.  The  few  faithful  coun- 
sellors he  had  about  him,  such  as  Kirkaldy  of 
Grange,  then  lord  treasurer,  plainly  intimated 
that  he  could  have  no  dependence  on  his  nobles, 
as  he  was  devoted  to  the  clergy ;  and  James 
sometimes,  in  a  fit  of  distraction,  would  draw 
his  dagger  upon  the  cardinal  and  other  ecclesi- 
astics, when  they  came  to  him  with  fresh  propo- 
sitions of  murder  and  proscriptions,  and  drive 
them  out  of  his  presence.  But  he  had  no  con- 
stancy of  mind  ;  and  he  certainly  put  into  his 
pocket  a  bloody  scroll  that  had  been  brought  him 
by  his  priests,  beginning  with  the  earl  of  Arran, 
the  first  subject  of  the  kingdom.  In  one  of  his 
cooler  moments  he  appointed  lord  Erskine,  and 
some  others  of  his  nobility,  to  make  a  fresh  at- 
tempt to  gain  time;  and  Henry  even  conde- 
scended to  order  the  duke  of  Norfolk  (who  was 
then  advanced  as  far  as  York),  the  lord  privy 
seal,  ths  bishop  of  Durham,  and  others,  to  treat 
with  him.  The  conferences  were  short  and  un- 
successful. The  duke  bitterly  complained  that 


the  Scots  sought  only  to  amuse  him  till  the  sea- 
son for  action  was  over.  In  short,  he  considered 
both  them  and  Learmonth,  who  was  ordered  to 
attend  him,  as  so  many  spies,  and  treated  them 
accordingly.  It  was  the  21st  of  October  before 
he  entered  the  east  borders  of  Scotland.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Scottish  historians,  his  army  con- 
sisted of  40,000  men  ;  but  the  English  have  fixed 
it  at  20,000.  James  affected  to  complain  of  this 
invasion  as  unprovoked  ;  but  he  lost  no  time  in 
preparing  to  repel  the  danger.  The  situation  of 
his  nobility,  who  were  pressed  by  a  foreign  inva- 
sion on  the  one  hand  and  domestic  tyrants  on  the 
other,  induced  them  to  hold  frequent  consulta- 
tions; the  king,  who  was  encamped  with  his 
army  at  Falla  Moor,  hearing  of  this,  removed 
hastily  to  Edinburgh;  from  which  he  sent  orders 
for  his  army  to  advance,  and  give  battle  to  the 
duke  of  Norfolk.  The  answer  of  the  nobility  was, 
that  they  were  determined  not  to  attack  the  duke 
upon  English  ground;  but  that,  if  he  invaded 
Scotland,  they  knew  their  duty.  The  earl  of 
Huntly,  who  commanded  the  van  of  the  Scottish 
army,  consisting  of  10,000  men,  was  of  the 
same  opinion ;  but  no  sooner  did  Norfolk  pass 
the  Tweed  than  he  harassed  the  English  army, 
cut  off  their  foraging  parties,  and  distressed  them 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  duke  agreed  once 
more  to  a  conference  for  peace ;  which  was  ma- 
naged on  the  part  of  the  Scots  by  the  bishop  of 
Orkney  and  Sir  James  Learmonth  ;  but  nothing 
was  concluded.  The  English  general,  rinding  it 
now  impossible  to  prosecute  his  invasion,  re- 
passed  the  Tweed ;  and  was  harassed  in  his 
march  by  the  earl  of  Huntly,  who  desisted 
from  the  pursuit  when  his  enemies  gained 
English  ground.  James,  whose  army  at  this  time 
amounted  to  above  30,000  men,  continued  still 
at  Edinburgh,  from  which  he  sent  frequent  mes- 
sages to  order  his  nobility  and  generals  to  follow 
the  duke  of  Norfolk  into  England ;  but  these 
were  disregarded.  James  was  flattered  that  now 
he  had  it  in  his  power  to  be  revenged  for  all  the 
indignities  that  had  been  offered  by  England  to 
Scotland.  In  this  he  was  encouraged  by  the 
French  ambassador,  and  the  high  opinion  he  had 
of  his  own  trcops.  About  the  beginning  of  No- 
vember he  came  to  a  resolution  of  reassembling 
his  army,  which  was  disbanded  upon  the  duke  of 
Norfolk's  retreat.  This  project  appeared  so  fea- 
sible and  so  promising  that  several  of  the  nobili- 
ty fell  in  with  it,  particularly  lord  Maxwell,  the 
earls  of  Arran,  Cassils,  and  Glencairn.with  lords 
Fleming,  Somerville,  and  Erskine  :  others  repre- 
sented, but  in  vain,  that  the  arms  of  Scotland 
had  already  gained  sufficient  honor,  by  obliging 
the  powerful  army  of  the  English,  with  their 
most  experienced  general  at  their  head,  to  make 
a  shameful  retreat  before  a  handful ;  that  the 
force  of  Scotland  was  inferior  to  that  of  England ; 
and  that  an  honorable  peace  was  still  practicable. 
It  was  said,  in  reply  to  these  considerations,  that 
the  state  of  the  quarrel  was  now  greatly  altered  ; 
that  Henry  had  in  his  manifesto  declared  his  in- 
tention to  enslave  their  country ;  that  he  treated 
the  nobility  as  his  vassals;  that  the  duke  of  Nor- 
folk had  been  guilty  of  burning  the  dwellings  of 
the  defenceless  inhabitants,  by  hying  above 
twenty  villages  and  towns  in  ashes ;  and  that  no 


478 


SCOTLAND. 


Scotchman,  who  was  not  corrupted  by  Henry's 
gold,  would  oppose  the  king's  will.  The  last, 
perhaps,  was  the  chief  argument  that  prevailed 
on  lord  Maxwell,  a  nobleman  of  great  honor  and 
courage,  to  agree  to  carry  the  war  into  England 
by  Solway,  provided  he  was  at  the  head  of  10,000 
men.  It  was  at  last  agreed  that  the  earl  of  Arran 
and  the  cardinal  should  openly  raise  men,  as  if 
they  intended  to  enter  the  east  marches,  where 
they  were  to  make  only  a  feint,  while  lord  Max- 
well was  to  make  the  real  attempt  upon  the  west. 
Private  letters  were  every  where  circulated  to  raise 
the  men  who  were  to  serve  under  the  lord  Max- 
well ;  among  whom  were  the  earJs  of  Cassils  and 
Glencairn,  the  lords  Fleming,  Somerville,  Erskine, 
and  many  other  persons  of  great  consideration. 
James,  who  was  never  suspected  of  want  of  cou- 
rage, probably  would  have  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  this  expedition,  had  he  not  been  dissuaded 
from  it  by  his  priests  and  minions,  who  reminded 
him  of  the  consultations  at  Falla  Moor,  and  the 
other  treasonable  practices  of  the  nobility.  They 
added  that,  most  of  them  being  corrupted  by  the 
English  gold,  he  could  not  be  too  much  on  his 
guard.  He  was  at  last  persuaded  to  repair  to  the 
castle  of  Lochmaben  near  Carlaverock,  and  there 
to  wait  the  issue  of  the  inroad.  It  was  probably 
at  this  place  that  James  was  prevailed  on  to  come 
to  the  fatal  resolution  of  appointing  one  Oliver 
Sinclair,  a  son  of  the  house  of  Roslin,  and  a  fa- 
vorite minion  at  court,  to  command  the  army  in 
chief;  and  his  commission  was  made  out  accord- 
ingly. On  the  23d  of  November  the  Scots  began 
their  march  at  midnight;  and,  having  passed  the 
Esk,  all  the  adjacent  villages  were  seen  in  flames 
by  the  break  of  day.  Sir  Thomas  Wharton,  the 
English  warden  of  those  marches,  Dacres  and 
Mulgrave,  hastily  raised  about  500  men,  and  drew 
them  up  upon  an  advantageous  ground  ;  when 
Sinclair,  ordering  the  royal  banner  to  be  display- 
ed, and  being  mounted  on  the  shoulders  of  two 
tall  men,  produced  and  read  his  commission.  It 
is  impossible  to  conceive  the  consternation  into 
which  the  Scots  were  thrown  upon  this  occasion ; 
their  leaders  setting  the  example,  the  whole  army 
declared  that  they  would  rather  surrender  them- 
selves prisoners  to  the  English  than  submit  to 
be  commanded  by  such  a  general.  In  an  instant 
all  order  in  the  Scottish  army  was  broken  down  ; 
horse  and  foot,  soldiers  and  noblemen  and  pea- 
sants, were  intermingled.  The  English  general 
perceived  this  confusion  :  100  of  his  light-horse 
advanced ;  they  met  with  no  resistance  :  the 
nobles  were  the  first  who  surrendered  themselves 
prisoners  ;  and,  the  rest  of  the  English  advancing, 
they  obtained  a  bloodless  victory ;  for  even  the 
women  and  the  boys  made  prisoners  of  Scotch 
soldiers,  and  none  were  killed.  Lord  Herbert 
relates  the  circumstances  of  this  shameful  affair, 
and  agrees  with  the  Scottish  authorities  on  the 
whole  ;  but  mentions  that  only  800  common 
soldiers  were  made  prisoners.  The  chief  pri- 
soners were  the  earls  of  Cassils  and  Glencairn, 
the  lords  Maxwell,  Fleming,  Somerville,  Oli- 
phant,  and  Gray,  and  above  200  gentlemen. 
James  was  then  at  Carlaverock,  about  twelve 
miles  distant  from  the  place  of  action,  depressed 
in  his  spirits,  and  anxious  about  the  event  of  the 
expedition,  still  called  the  Raid  of  Solway  Moss. 


When  the  news  came,  and  that  the  earl  of  Arran 
and  the  cardinal  were  returned  to  Edinburgh, 
he  was  seized  with  an  additional  dejection  of 
mind,  which  brought  him  to  his  grave.  In  such 
a  situation  every  cruel  action  of  his  life  wound- 
ed his  conscience ;  and  he  at  last  sunk  into  a 
sullen  melancholy,  which  admitted  of  no  conso- 
lation. From  Carlarerock  he  removed  to  Falk- 
land ;  and  sometimes  expressed  himself  as  if  he 
thought  the  whole  body  of  his  nobility  were  in  a 
conspiracy  against  him.  The  presence  of  the 
few  attendants  who  were  admitted  into  his  cham- 
ber, and  who  were  the  wicked  instruments  of  his 
misconduct,  seemed  to  aggravate  his  sufferings, 
and  he  either  could  not  or  would  not  take  any 
sustenance.  His  death  being  now  inevitable, 
Beaton  approached  his  bed  side  with  a  paper,  to 
which  he  is  said  to  have  directed  the  king's  hand, 
pretending  that  it  was  his  last  will.  On  the  18th 
of  December,  while  James  was  in  this  deplorable 
state,  a  messenger  came  from  Linlithgow,  with  an 
account  that  the  queen  was  brought  to  bed  of  a 
daughter ;  and  the  last  words  he  was  distinctly 
heard  to  say  were,  '  It  will  end  as  it  began :  the 
crown  came  by  a  woman,  and  it  will  go  with 
one ;  many  miseries  approach  this  poor  king- 
dom :  Henry  will  either  master  it  by  arms,  or 
win  it  by  marriage.'  He  then  turned  his  face  to 
the  wall,  and  in  broken  ejaculations  pronounced 
the  word  Solway  Moss,  and  some  faint  expres- 
sions alluding  to  the  disgrace  which  the  Scots 
had  just  suffered  there.  In  this  state  he  lan- 
guished for  some  days ;  and  died  on  the  1 3th. 

V.  HISTORY  OF  SCOTLAND  UNTIL  THE  UNION 
OF  THE  SCOTTISH  AND  ENGLISH  CROWNS. — James 
V.  was  succeeded  by  his  infant  daughter  Mary. 
He  had  taken  no  steps  for  the  security  of  his 
kingdom,  so  that  ambitious  men  had  now  another 
opportunity  of  throwing  the  public  affairs  iivto 
confusion.  The  situation  of  Scotland  indeed  at 
this  time  was  very  critical.  Many  of  the  nobi- 
lity were  prisoners  in  England,  and*  those  who 
remained  at  home  were  factious  and  turbulent. 
The  nation  was  dispirited.  Commotions  were 
daily  excited  on  account  of  religion,  and  Henry 
VIII.  had  formed  a  design  of  adding  Scotland  to 
his  other  dominions.  By  a  testamentary  deed 
which  cardinal  Beaton  had  forged  in  the  name 
of  his  sovereign,  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the 
queen  and  governor  of  the  realm,  and  three  of 
the  principal  nobility  were  named  to  act  as  his 
counsellors  in  the  administration  The  nobility 
and  the  people,  however,  calling  in  question  the 
authenticity  of  this  deed,  which  he  could  not  es- 
tablish, the  cardinal  was  degraded ;  and  the 
states  ad'vanced  to  the  regency  James  Hamilton, 
earl  of  Arran,  whom  they  judged  to  be  entitled 
to  this  distinction,  as  the  second  person  in  the 
kingdom,  and  the  nearest  heir,  after  Mary,  to 
the  crown.  'The  disgrace  of  cardinal  Beaton,' 
Dr.  Stuart  observes,  '  might  have  proved  the  de- 
struction of  his  party,  if  the  earl  of  Arran  had 
been  endowed  with  vigor  of  mind  and  ability. 
But  he  was  too  indolent  to  gain  partizans,  and 
too  irresolute  to  fix  them.  Slight  difficulties 
filled  him  with  embarrassment,  and  gieat  ones 
overpowered  him.  His  enemies,  applying  them- 
selves to  the  timidity  of  his  disposition,  betrayed 
him  into  weaknesses;  and  the  esteem  which  his 


SCOTLAND. 


479 


gentleness  had  procured  him  in  private  life  was 
lost  in  the  contempt  attending  his  public  con- 
duct, which  was  feeble,  fluctuating,  and  incon- 
sistent. The  attachment  which  he  professed  for 
the  reformed  religion  drew  to  him  the  love  of  the 
people  ;  his  high  birth,  and  the  mildness  of  his 
virtues,  conciliated  their  respect ;  and,  from  his 
name  being  at  the  head  of  the  roll  of  heretics 
which  the  clergy  had  presented  to  the  late  king, 
a  sentiment  of  tenderness  was  mingled  with  his 
popularity.  His  conduct  corresponded,  at  first, 
with  the  impressions  entertained  in  his  favor. 
Thomas  Guillarae  and  John  Rough,  two  cele- 
brated preachers,  were  invited  to  live  in  his 
house  ;  and  he  permitted  them  to  declaim  openly 
against  the  errors  of  the  church  of  Rome.  They 
attacked  and  exposed  the  supremacy  of  the  pope, 
the  worship  of  images,  and  the  invocation  of 
saints.  Cardinal  Beaton  and  the  prelates  were 
exceedingly  provoked,  and  indefatigably  active 
to  defend  the  established  doctrines.  This  pub- 
lic sanction  afforded  to  the  reformation  was  of 
little  consequence,  however,  when  compared 
with  a  measure  which  was  soon  after  adopted  by 
Robeit  lord  Maxwell.  He  proposed  that  the 
liberty  of  reading  the  scriptures  in  the  vulgar 
tongue  should  be  permitted  to  the  people ;  and 
that,  for  the  future,  no  heretical  guilt  should  be 
inferred  against  any  person  for  having  them  in 
his  possession  or  for  making  use  of  them.  The 
regent  and  the  three  estates  acknowledged  the 
propriety  of  this  proposal.  Gavin  Dunbar  arch- 
bishop of  Glasgow,  and  chancellor  of  Scotland, 
protested,  indeed,  for  himselfand  for  the  church, 
that  no  act  on  this  subject  should  pass  and  be 
effectual,  till  a  provincial  council  of  all  the 
clergy  of  the  kingdom  should  consider  and  de- 
termine, whether  there  was  a  necessity  that  the 
people  should  consult  and  study  the  scriptures 
in  the  vulgar  tongue ;  but,  his  protestation  being 
disregarded,  the  bill  of  the  lord  Maxwell  was 
carried  into  a  law,  and  the  regent  made  it  gene- 
rally known  by  a  proclamation.  From  this  pe- 
riod copies  of  the  bible  were  imported  in  great 
numbers  from  England  ;  and,  men  allured  by  an 
appeal  so  flattering  to  their  reason,  were  proud 
to  recover  from  the  supine  ignorance  in  which 
they  had  been  kept  by  an  artful  priesthood.  To 
read  became  a  common  accomplishment ;  and 
books  were  multiplied  in  every  quarter,  which 
disclosed  the  pride,  the  tyranny,  and  the  absur- 
dities of  the  Romish  church  and  superstitions.' 
The  death  of  James  V.  proved  very  favorable  to 
the  ambitious  designs  of  Henry.  He  now  pro- 
posed a  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  by  the  mar- 
riage of  his  son  Edward  VI.  with  Mary  the 
young  queen  of  Scotland.  To  promote  this,  he 
released  the  noblemen  who  had  been  taken  pri- 
soners at  Solway,  after  having  engaged  them  on 
oath,  not  only  to  concur  in  promoting  the  alli- 
ance, but  to  endeavour  to  procure  him  the  charge 
and  custody  of  the  young  queen,  with  the  govern- 
ment of  her  kingdom,  and  the  possession  of  her 
castles.  The  earl  of  Angus,  and  his  brother,  who 
had  been  fifteen  years  in  exile,  accompanied 
them  to  Scotland,  and  brought  letters  from 
Henry  recommending  them  to  the  restitution  of 
their  honors  and  estates.  The  regent  was  in- 
clined to  favor  the  demands  of  persons  of  such 


eminent  station  ;  but,  though  the  states  were  in- 
clined to  the  marriage,  they  refused  to  permit 
the  removal  of  the  queen  into  England,  and  treat- 
ed with  contempt  the  idea  of  giving  the  govern- 
ment of  Scotland  and  the  care  of  the  castles  to 
the  king  of  England.  Sir  Ralph  Sadler,  the 
English  ambassador,  exerted  all  his  endeavours 
to  induce  the  regent  to  comply  with  the  requisi- 
tions of  his  master;  but  all  his  intrigues  were 
unsuccessful ;  and  Henry  at  last  authorised  the 
commissioners  to  consent  to  treaties  of  amity 
and  marriage,  on  the  most  favorable  terms  that 
could  be  procured.  In  consequence  of  these 
powers,  it  was  agreed  that  a  firm  peace  and  al- 
liance should  take  place  between  the  two  nations 
and  that  they  should  mutually  defend  and  pro 
tect  one  another  in  case  of  an  invasion.  The 
queen  was  to  remain  within  her  own  dominions 
till  she  was  ten  years  of  age ;  and  Henry  was 
not  to  claim  any  share  in  the  government.  Six 
nobles,  or  their  apparent  heirs,  were  to  be  surren- 
dered to  him  in  security  for  the  conveyance  of 
the  young  queen  into  England,  and  for  her  mar- 
riage with  prince  Edward,  as  soon  as  she  was  ten 
years  of  age.  It  was  also  stipulated  that,  though 
the  queen  should  have  issue  by  Edward,  Scotland 
should  retain  not  only  its  name,  but  its  laws  and 
liberties.  These  conditions,  however  advantage- 
ous to  Scotland,  yet  did  not  give  entire  satisfac- 
tion. Beaton,  who  had  been  imprisoned  on 
suspicion  of  treasonable  schemes,  and  was  now 
released  from  his  confinement  by  the  influence  of 
the  queen-dowager,  took  all  opportunities  of  ex- 
claiming against  the  alliance,  as  tending  to  de- 
stroy the  independency  of  the  kingdom.  He 
pointed  out  to  the  churchmen  the  dangers  which 
arose  from  the  prevalence  of  heresy,  and  urged 
them  to  unanimity  and  zeal.  Awakening  all 
their  fears  and  selfishness,  they  granted  him  a 
large  sum  of  money,  with  which  he  might  gain 
partizans  ;  the  friars  were  instructed  to  preach 
against  the  treaties  with  England  ;  and  fanatical 
men  were  instructed  to  display  their  rage  in  of- 
fering indignities  to  Sir  Ralph  Sadler.  Cardinal 
Beaton  was  not  the  only  antagonist  the  regent 
had  to  deal  with.  The  earls  of  Argyle,  Huntly, 
Bothwel,  and  Murray,  concurred  in  the  opposi- 
tion ;  and  having  collected  some  troops,  and  pos- 
sessed themselves  of  the  queen's  person,  they 
assumed  all  the  authority  of  the  government. 
They  were  joined  by  Matthew  earl  of  Lennox, 
who  was  made  to  hope  that  he  might  espouse  the 
queen-dowager  and  obtain  the  regency.  He  was 
also  inclined  to  oppose  the  earl  of  Arran,  from 
an  ancient  quarrel  between  their  families,  and 
from  a  claim  he  had  to  supersede  him,  both  in 
the  enjoyment  of  his  personal  estates  and  in  the 
succession  to  the  crown.  The  regent,  alarmed 
at  such  a  powerful  combination,  inclined  to  at- 
tend to  some  advances  made  him  by  the  queen- 
dowager  and  cardinal.  To  refuse  to  confirm  the 
treaties,  after  he  had  brought  them  to  a  conclu- 
sion, was,  however,  a  step  so  repugnant  to,pro- 
bity,  that  he  could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to 
adopt  it.  He  therefore,  in  a  solemn  manner,  rati- 
fied them  in  the  abbey-church  of  Holyrood  House, 
and  commanded  the  p;reat  seal  of  Scotland  to  be 
appended  to  them.  The  same  day  he  went  to 
St.  Andrews  and  issued  a  mandate  to  the  cardi- 


480 


SCOTLAND. 


nal,  requiring  him  to  return  to  his  allegiance. 
To  this  the  prelate  refused  to  pay  any  attention, 
or  to  move  from  his  castle  ;  upon  which  the  re- 
gent denounced  him  a  rebel,  and  threatened  to 
compel  him  to  submission  by  military  force. 
But,  in  a  few  daysafter,  the  pusillanimous  regent, 
meeting  with  Beaton,  forsook  the  interest  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  embraced  that  of  the  queen- 
dowaeer  and  of  France.  Being  in  haste  also  to 
reconcile  himself  to  the  church  of  Rome,  he  re- 
nounced publicly,  at  Stirling,  the  opinions  of  the 
reformed,  and  received  absolution  from  the 
hands  of  the  cardinal.  By  this  mean-spirited 
conduct  the  regent  exposed  himself  to  universal 
contempt,  while  cardinal  Beaton  usurped  the 
whole  authority.  The  earl  of  Lennox,  find- 
ing that  he  had  no  hopes  of  success  in  his 
suit  to  the  queen-dowager,  engaged  in  nego- 
ciations  with  Henry,  to  place  himself  at  the 
hoad  of  the  Scottish  lords  who  were  in  the  Eng- 
lish interest,  and  to  assert  the  cause  of  the  refor- 
mation. 

The  consequence  of  all  this  was  a  rupture 
with  England.  Henry  not  only  delayed  to  ratify 
the  treaties  on  his  part,  but  ordered  all  the  Scot- 
tish ships  in  the  harbour  of  England  to  be  taken 
and  confiscated.  This  violent  proceeding  in- 
rlamed  the  national  disgusts  against  the  English 
alliance ;  and  the  party  of  the  cardinal  and 
/  queen-dowager  thus  obtained  an  increase  of  po- 
pularity. Henry  himself,  however,  was  so  much 
accustomed  to  acts  of  outrage  and  violence,  that 
he  seemed  to  think  the  step  he  had  taken  a  matter 
of  no  moment ;  and  therefore  demanded  that  the 
hostages,  in  tprms  of  the  treaty  of  marriage, 
should  still  be  delivered  up  to  him.  But  the 
cardinal  and  regent  informed  his  ambassador, 
Sir  Ralph  Sadler,  that  from  their  own  authority 
Ihey  could  not  command  any  of  the  nobles  to 
be  committed  to  him  as  hostages ;  and  that  the 
offensive  strain  of  behaviour  assumed  by  the 
English  monarch  might  have  altered  the  senti- 
ments of  the  Scottish  parliament  with  regard  to 
a  measure  of  such  importance.  After  much 
altercation  the  conferences  were  broken  off:  and, 
as  the  lords  who  were  released  from  captivity 
had  promised  to  return  prisoners  to  England,  it 
now  remained  with  them  to  fulfil  their  promise. 
None  of  them,  however,  had  the  courage  to  do 
so,  excepting  the  earl  of  Cassils;  and  Henry, 
being  struck  with  his  punctilious  sense  of  honor, 
dismissed  him  loaded  with  presents.  Cardinal 
Beaton,  being  thus  in  possession  of  power,  took 
measures  to  secure  it.  The  coronation  of  the 
queen  was  celebrated  at  Stirling;  a  council  was 
chosen  to  direct  and  assist  the  regent  in  the 
greater  affairs  of  state,  at  the  head  of  which  was 
the  queen-dowager:  John  Hamilton,  abbot  of 
Paisley,  who  had  acquired  an  ascendancy  over 
the  regent,  was  promoted  to  the  privy  seal,  and 
made  treasurer  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  cardinal 
Beaton,  upon  the  request  of  the  regent  and  the 
three  estates,  accepted  the  office  of  lord  high  chan- 
cellor. After  the  flatteries  and  the  hopes  with 
which  the  earl  of  Lennox  had  been  amused,  the 
cardinal  had  reason  to  dread  the  utmost  warmth 
of  his  resentment.  He  had  therefore  written  to 
Francis  I.  giving  a  detail  of  the  critical  situation 
of  affairs  in  Scotland,  and  entreating  him  to  re- 
cal  to  France  the  earl  of  Lennox,  who  was  now 


interested  to  oppose  the  influence  and  operations 
of  the  queen-dowager.  But  the  indignation 
with  which  the  treachery  of  the  cardinal  had  in- 
flamed the  earl  of  Lennox  precipitated  him  into 
immediate  action,  and  defeated  the  intention 
of  this  artifice.  In  the  "hostile  situation  of 
his  mind  towards  Scotland,  an  opportunity  of 
commencing  hostilities  had  presented  itself. 
Five  ships  had  arrived  in  the  Clyde  from 
France,  loaded  with  warlike  stores,  and  having 
on  board  the  patriarch  of  Venice,  Peter  Conta- 
reni,  legate  from  Paul  III.,  with  La  Brosse,  and 
James  Mesnaige,  ambassadors  from  France ;  and 
30,000  crowns,  which  were  to  be  employed  in 
strenghthening  the  French  faction,  and  to  be  dis- 
tributed by  the  queen-dowager  and  the  cardinal. 
Prevailing  with  the  commanders  of  these  vessels, 
who  conceived  him  to  be  the  fast  friend  of  their 
monarch,  he  secured  this  money  for  his  own  use, 
and  deposited  the  military  stores  in  his  castle  of 
Dumbarton,  under  the  care  of  George  Stirling, 
the  deputy  governor,  who  at  this  time  was  en- 
tirely in  his  interests.  By  the  successful  appli- 
cation of  this  wealth  the  earl  of  Lennox  called 
forth  the  full  exertions  of  his  party  in  levying  a 
formidable  army,  witli  which  he  threatened  the 
destruction  of  the  regent  and  the  cardinal,  offer- 
ing them  battle  in  the  fields  between  Leith  and 
Edinburgh.  The  regent,  not  being  in  a  condition 
to  accept  the  challenge  of  his  rival,  had  recourse 
to  negociation.  Cardinal  Beaton  and  the  earl  of 
Huntly  proposed  terms  of  amity,  and  exerted 
themselves  with  so  much  address  that  the  earl 
of  Lennox,  losing  the  opportunity  of  chastising 
his  enemies,  consented  to  an  accommodation, 
and  indulged  anew  the  hope  of  obtaining  the 
queen-dowager  in  marriage.  His  army  was  dis- 
missed, and  he  threw  himself  at  the  feet  of  his  mis- 
tress, by  whom  he  was,  in  appearance,  favorably 
received;  but  many  of  his  friends  were  seduced 
from  him  under  different  pretences;  and  at  last, 
apprehending  his  total  ruin  from  some  secret  en- 
terprise, he  fled  to  Glasgow,  and  fortified  himself 
in  that  city.  The  regent  collecting  an  army 
marched  against  him  ;  and  having  defeated  his 
friend  the  earl  of  Glencairn,  in  a  bloody  encounter, 
was  able  to  reduce  the  place  of  strength  in 
which  he  confided.  In  this  ebb  of  his  fortune,  the 
earl  of  Lennox  had  no  hope  but  from  England. 
The  revolution  produced  in  the  political  state  of 
Scotland  by  the  arts  of  cardinal  Beaton,  while  it 
defeated  the  intrigues  of  Henry  VIII.,  pointed 
all  its  strength  against  the  progress  of  the  refor- 
mation. After  abandoning  his  old  friends,  the 
regent,  in  connexion  with  the  cardinal,  was  am- 
bitious to  undo  all  the  services  he  had  rendcn  d 
to  them.  The  three  estates  annulled  the  treaties 
of  amity  and  marriage,  and  empowered  commis- 
sioners to  conclude  an  alliance  with  France. 
The  regent  discharged  the  two  preachers  Guil- 
lame  and  Rough,  v%hom  he  had  invited  to  im- 
pugn the  doctrines  of  the  church  ;  and  he  drove 
back  into  England  many  pious  persons,  whose 
zeal  had  brought  them  to  Scotland,  to  explain 
and  advance  the  new  opinions.  He  caressed 
with  particular  respect  the  legate  whom  the  pope 
had  sent  to  discourage  the  marriage  of  the  young 
queen  with  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  to  promise 
his  assistance  against  the  enterprises  of  Henry 
VIII.  He  procured  an  act  of  parliament  to  be 


SCOTLAND. 


481 


passed  for  the  persecution  of  heretics;  and,  upon 
the  foundation  of  this  authority,  the  most  rigorous 
proceedings  were  concerted  against  the  reformed ; 
when  the  arms  of  England,  rousing  the  appre- 
hensions of  the  nation,  gave  the  fullest  employ- 
ment to  the  regent  and  his  counsellors.  In  the 
rage  and  anguish  of  disappointed  ambition,  the 
earl  of  Lennox  made  an  offer  to  assist  the  views 
of  the  king  of  England;  who,  treating  him  as  an 
ally,  engaged,  in  the  event  of  success,  to  give 
him  in  marriage  his  niece  lady  Margaret  Douglas, 
and  to  invest  him.  in  the  regency  of  Scotland. 
To  establish  the  reformation  in  Scotland,  to  ac- 
quire the  superiority  over  it  to  Henry  VIII.,  and 
to  effectuate  the  marriage  of  the  prince  of  Wales 
with  the  queen  of  Scots,  were  the  great  objects 
of  their  confederacy.  Henry,  though  engaged 
in  a  war  with  France,  which  required  all  his  mi- 
litary force,  could  not  resist  the  opportunity  to 
execute  his  vengeance  against  Scotland.  Edward 
Seymour  earl  of  Hartford  was  appointed  to  com- 
mand 10,000  men,  who  were  embarked  at  Tin- 
mouth,  about  a  fleet  of  200  ships,  under  the 
direction  of  Sir  John  Dudley,  lord  Lisle.  This 
army  landed  without  opposition  near  Leith, 
and  the  earl  of  Hertford  made  it  known  to  Sir 
Adam  Otterburn,  the  provost  of  Edinburgh,  that 
his  commission  empowered  him  to  lay  the  coun- 
try waste  and  desolate,  unless  the  regent  should 
deliver  up  the  young  queen  to  the  king  of  Eng- 
land. It  was  answered  that  every  extremity  of 
distress  would  be  endured,  before  the  Scottish  na- 
tion would  submit  to  so  ignominious  a  demand  : 
600  horse  from  Berwick,  under  lord  Evers,  now 
joined  the  earl  of  Hertford.  Leith  and  Edin- 
burgh, after  a  feeble  resistance,  yielded  to  the 
English  commander,  who  abandoned  them  to 
pillage,  and  then  set  fire  to  them.  A  cruel  de- 
vastation ensued  in  the  surrounding  villages  and 
country,  and  an  immense  booty  was  conveyed  on 
board  the  English  fleet.  But,  while  extreme 
terror  was  every  where  excited,  the  earl  of  Hert- 
ford reembarked  a  part  of  his  troops,  and  or- 
dered the  remainder  to  march  with  expedition 
to  the  frontiers  of  England.  The  regent,  assisted 
by  cardinal  Beaton  and  the  earls  of  Huntly, 
Ar_ryle,  Bothwel,  and  Murray,  was  active,  in  the 
mean  time,  to  collect  an  army,  and  to  provide 
for  the  security  of  the  kingdom.  He  felt,  there- 
fore, the  greatest  surprise  on  being  relieved  so 
unexpectedly  from  the  most  imminent  danger; 
and  an  expedition  conducted  with  so  little  dis- 
cernment did  not  advance  the  measures  of 
Henry  VIII.  To  accomplish  the  marriage  of  the 
young  queen  with  the  prince  of  Wales,  to 
possess  himself  of  her  person,  or  to  achieve  a 
conquest  over  Scotland,  were  all  circumstances 
apparently  within  the  reach  of  the  English  com- 
mander ;  and  yet,  in  the  moment  of  victory,  he 
neglected  to  prosecute  his  advantages,  and 
having  inflamed  the  animosities  of  the  Scottish 
nation,  by  a  display  of  the  passions  and  cruelty 
of  his  master,  left  them  to  recover  from  their 
disaster,  and  to  improve  their  resources.  The 
earl  of  Lennox,  taking  the  opportunity  of  the 
English  fleet,  went  to  consult  with  Henry  VIII. 
upon  the  desperate  state  of  his  affairs.  He  re- 
newed his  engagements  with  this  monarch  ;  and 
received  in  marriage  the  lady  Margaret  Douglas, 
VOL.  XIX. 


with  possessions  in  England.  Soon  after  he  ar- 
rived in  the  Frith  of  Clyde,  with  eighteen  ships 
and  600  soldiers,  that  he  might  secure  the  castle 
of  Dumbarton,  and  employ  himself  in  plunder- 
ing and  devastation.  But  George  Stirling,  to 
whom  the  castle  was  intrusted,  refused  to  surren- 
der it;  and  even  obliged  him  to  re-embark  his 
troops.  After  engaging  in  a  few  petty  incursions 
and  skirmishes,  he  returned  to  England.  In 
1544  Henry  consented  to  a  truce  ;  and  Scotland, 
says  Dr.  Stuart,  after  having  suffered  the  miseries 
of  war,  was  subjected  to  the  horrors  of  persecu- 
tion. The  regent  had  procured  an  act  of  par- 
liament for  the  persecution  of  the  reformed  ; 
and  the  cardinal,  to  draw  to  himself  an  ad- 
ditional splendor  and  power,  had  obtained  from 
the  pope  the  dignity  of  legate  a  latere.  A  visi- 
tation of  his  own  diocese  appeared  to  him  tin 
most  proper  method  of  commencing  the  pro- 
posed extirpation  of  heresy ;  and  he  carried 
with  him  in  his  train  the  regent,  and  many  per- 
sons of  distinction,  to  assist  in  his  judicatories, 
and  to  share  in  his  disgrace.  In  the  town  or' 
Perth  many  persons  were  accused  and  con- 
demned. The  most  trifling  offences  were  re- 
garded as  atrocious  crimes,  and  made  the  sub- 
jects of  prosecution  and  punishment.  Robert 
Lamb  was  hanged  for  affirming  that  the  invoca- 
tion of  saints  had  no  merit  to  save.  Willia  u 
Anderson,  James  Reynold,  and  James  Finlayson, 
for  having  abused  an  image  of  St.  Francis,  In- 
putting horns  upon  his  head.  James  Hunter, 
having  kept  them  company,  was  found  to  be 
equally  guilty,  and  hanged  likewise.  Helen  Stirke, 
having  refused,  when  in  labor,  to  invoke  the 
assistance  of  the  Virgin,  was  drowned.  Many  of 
the  burgesses  of  Perth,  being  suspected  of  heresy, 
were  sent  into  banishment ;  and  the  lord  Ruthven, 
the  provost,  was  upon  the  same  account  dismissed 
from  his  office.  The  cardinal  was  equally  strenu- 
ous in  persecuting  heresy  elsewhere.  But  the 
clamor  attending  the  executions  of  men  of  inferior 
station  was  now  lost  in  the  fame  of  the  martyrdom 
of  Mr.  Wishart ;  a  person  who,  while  he  was 
respectable  by  his  birth,  was  highly  eminent 
from  the  opinion  entertained  of  his  capacity  and 
endowments.  The  historians  of  the  protestant 
persuasion  have  spoken  of  this  reformer  in  terms 
of  the  highest  admiration.  They  extol  his  learn- 
ing as  extensive,  insist  on  the  extreme  candor 
of  his  disposition,  and  ascribe  to  him  the  ut- 
most purity  of  morals.  They  even  imputed  to 
him  the  spirit  of  prophecy.  It  may  be  suf- 
ficient to  affirm  that  George  Wishart  was  the 
most  eminent  preacher  who  had  hitherto  ap- 
peared in  Scotland.  His  mind  was  cultivated 
by  reflection  and  study,  and  he  was  amply  pos- 
sessed of  those  abilities  and  qualifications  which 
excite  the  passions  of  the  people.  His  ministry 
had  been  attended  with  the  most  flattering  suc- 
cess ;  and  his  courage  to  encounter  danger  grew 
with  his  reputation.  The  day  before  he  was 
apprehended,  he  said  to  John  Knox,  '  I  am 
weary  of  the  world,  since  I  perceive  that  men 
are  weary  of  God.'  He  had  already  reconciled 
himself  to  that  terrMe  death  which  awaited  him. 
He  was  found  in  the  house  of  Cockburn  of  Or- 
miston,  in  East  Lothian  ;  who,  refusing  to  deliver 
him  to  the  sen-ants  of  the  regent,  the  earl  of 

2  I 


482 


SCOTLAND. 


Bothwel,  the  sheriff  of  the  county,  required  that 
lie  should  be  entrusted  to  his  care,  and  promised 
liiat  no  injury  should  be  done  to  him.  But  the  autho- 
rity of  the  regent  and  his  counsellors  obliged  the 
earl  to  surrender  his  charge.  He  was  conveyed  to 
the  cardinal's  castle  at  St.  Andrews,  and  his  trial 
\v;is  hurried  on.  The  cardinal  and  the  clergy, 
proceeding  in  it  without  the  concurrence  of  the 
secular  power,  adjudged  him  to  be  burnt  alive*. 
In  the  circumstances  of  his  execution  there  ap- 
pears a  deliberate  and  most  barbarous  cruelty. 
NVhen  led  out  to  the  stake,  he  was  met  by  priests, 
who,  mocking  his  condition,  called  upon  him  to 
pray  to  the  virgin,  that  she  might  intercede  with 
her  Son  for  mercy  to  him.  '  Forbear  to  tempt 
me,  my  brethren,'  was  his  mild  reply.  A  black 
coat  of  linen  was  put  upon  him  by  one  execu- 
tioner, and  bags  of  powder  were  fastened  to  his 
body  by  another.  Some  pieces  of  ordnance 
were  pointed  to  the  place  of  execution.  He 
spoke  to  the  spectators,  intreating  them  to  re- 
member that  he  was  to  die  for  the  true  gospel  of 
Christ.  Fire  was  communicated  to  the  faggots. 
From  a  balcony  in  a  tower  of  his  castle,  which 
was  hung  with  tapestry,  the  cardinal  and  the  pre- 
lates, reclining  upon  rich  cushions,  beheld  the 
inhuman  scene.  This  insolent  triumph,  more 
than  all  his  afflictions,  affected  the  magnanimity 
of  the  sufferer.  He  exclaimed  that  the  enemy, 
who  so  proudly  solaced  himself,  would  perish  in 
a  few  days,  and  be  exposed  ignominiously  in  the 
place  which  he  now  occupied.  Cardinal  Beaton 
took  a  pleasure  in  receiving  the  congratulations 
of  the  clergy  upon  a  deed  which  it  was  thought 
would  fill  the  enemies  of  the  church  with  terror. 
But  the  indignation  of  the  people  was  more  ex- 
cited than  their  fears.  All  ranks  of  men  were 
disgusted  with  an  exercise  of  power  which  de- 
spised every  boundary  of  moderation  and  justice. 
The  prediction  of  Mr.  Wishart,  suggested  by  the 
general  odium  which  attended  the  cardinal,  was 
considered  by  the  disciples  of  this  martyr  as  the 
effusion  of  a  prophet ;  and  perhaps  gave  occa- 
sion to  the  assassination  that  followed.  Their 
complaints  were  attended  to  by  Norman  Lesley, 
the  eldest  son  of  the  earl  of  Rothes,  whom  the 
cardinal  had  treated  with  indignity,  though  he 
had  profited  by  his  services.  He  consented  to 
be  their  leader.  The  cardinal  was  in  his  castle 
of  St.  Andrews,  which  he  was  fortifying  after 
the  strongest  fashion  of  that  age.  The  conspira- 
tors, at  different  times,  early  in  the  morning  en- 
tered into  it.  The  gates  were  secured ;  and 
appointing  a  guard,  that  no  intimation  of  their 
proceedings  might  go  to  the  cardinal,  they  dis- 
missed from  the  castle  all  his  workmen  sepa- 
rately, to  the  number  of  100,  and  all  his  domes- 
tics, who  amounted  to  no  fewer  than  fifty  persons. 
The  eldest  son  of  the  earl  of  Arran,  whom  he 
kept  as  a  hostage  for  his  father's  behaviour,  was 
alone  detained  by  them.  The  prelate,  alarmed 
with  their  noise,  looked  from  his  window,  and 
was  informed  that  his  castle  was  taken  by  Nor- 
man Lesley.  It  was  in  vain  that  he  endeavoured 
to  secure  the  door  of  his  chamber  by  bolts  and 
chests.  The  conspirators  brought  fire,  and  were 
ready  to  apply  it,  when,  admitting  them,  he  im- 
plored their  mercy.  Two  of  them  struck  him 
nastily  with  their  swords.  But  James  Melvil, 
rebuking  their  passion,  told  them  that  this  work 


and  judgment  of  God,  though  secret,  ought  to  be 
done  with  gravity.  He  reminded  the  cardinal, 
in  general  terms,  of  the  enormity  of  his  sins, 
and  reproached  him  in  a  more  particular  man- 
ner with  the  death  of  Mr.  Wishart.  He  swore 
that  no  hopes  of  his  riches,  no  dread  of  his 
power,  and  no  hatred  to  his  person,  were  any 
motives  which  actuated  him ;  but  that  he  was 
moved  to  accomplish  his  destruction  by  the  ob- 
stinacy and  zeal  manifested  by  him  against 
Christ  Jesus  and  his  holy  gospel.  Wailing  for 
no  answer,  he.  thrust  the  cardinal  three  times 
through  the  body  with  his  dagger,  on  the  29th 
of  May,  1546.  The  rumor  that  the  castle  was 
taken  giving  an  alarm  to  the  inhabitants  of  St. 
Andrew's,  they  came  in  crowds  lo  gratify  their 
curiosity,  and  to  offer  their  assistance,  according 
to  the  sentiments  they  entertained.  The  adhe- 
rents and  dependents  of  the  cardinal  were  clamo- 
rous to  see  him  ;  and  the  conspirators,  carrying 
his  dead  body  to  the  very  window  from  which 
he  had  beheld  the  sufferings  of  Mr.  Wishart,  ex- 
posed it  to  their  view. 

The  truce,  in  the  mean  time,  which  had  been 
concluded  with  England  was  frequently  inter- 
rupted ;  but  no  memorable  battles  were  fought. 
Mutual  depredations  kept  alive  the  hostile  spirit 
of  the  two  kingdoms  ;  and  while  the  regent  was 
making  military  preparations,  which  gave  the 
promise  of  important  events,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
finished  between  England  and  France,  in  which 
Francis  I.  took  care  to  comprehend  the  Scottish 
nation.  In  this  treaty  it  was  stipulated  by  Henry 
that  he  was  not  to  wage  war  against  Scotland, 
unless  he  should  be  provoked  by  new  and  just 
causes  of  hostility.  But  the  murderers  of  cardi- 
nal Beaton,  apprehensive  of  their  safety,  had  de- 
spatched messengers  into  England  with  ap- 
plications to  Henry  for  assistance ;  and,  be- 
ing joined  by  more  than  120  of  their  friends, 
they  took  the  resolution  of  keeping  the  castle, 
and  of  defending  themselves.  Henry,  not- 
withstanding his  treaty  with  France,  resolved  to 
embrace  this  opportunity  of  augmenting  the  dis- 
turbances of  Scotland.  He  hastened  to  collect 
troops ;  and  the  regent  and  his  counsellors 
pressed  France  for  supplies  in  men  and  money, 
and  military  stores  and  artillery.  The  high 
places  which  the  cardinal  occupied  were  filled 
up  immediately  upon  his  death.  John  Hamil- 
ton, abbot  of  Paisley,  was  elected  archbishop  of 
St.  Andrews,  and  George  earl  of  Huntly  was 
promoted  to  be  chancellor.  By  these  officers 
the  regent  was  urged  to  proceed  with  vigor 
against  the  conspirators  ;  and  it  was  a  matter  of 
the  greatest  anxiety  to  him  lo  recover  his  eldest 
son,  whom  they  detained  in  custody.  The  clergy 
had,  in  the  most  solemn  manner,  pronounced  them 
to  be  accursed  ;  and  agreed  to  furnish,  for  four 
months,  a  monthly  subsidy  of  £3000  to  defray 
ihe  expense  of  reducing  them  to  obedience. 
The  queen  dowager  and  the  French  faction  were 
eager  at  the  same  time,  to  concur  in  avenging 
the  assassination  of  a  man  to  whose  counsels 
and  services  they  were  so  greatly  indebted.  And, 
that  no  dangerous  use  might  be  made  of  the  eldest 
son  of  the  earl  of  Arran,  who,  after  his  father, 
was  the  heir  of  the  monarchy,  an  act  of  parlia- 
ment was  passed,  excluding  him  from  his  birth- 
right while  he  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 


SCOTLAND. 


483 


enemies  of  his  country,  and  substituting  his  bro- 
thers in  his  place,  according  to  their  seniority. 
The  dark  politics  of  Henry  suggested  the  neces- 
sity of  this  expedient;  and  in  its  meaning  aud 
tendency  there  may  be  remarked  the  spirit  and 
greatness  of  a  free  people.  A  powerful  army 
laid  siege  to  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  and  con- 
tinued their  operations  during  four  months  ;  but 
no  success  attended  the  assailants.  The  fortifi- 
cations were  strong  ;  and  a  communication  with 
the  besieged  was  open  by  sea  to  the  king  of  Eng- 
land, who  supplied  them  with  arms  and  provi- 
sions. .  The  garrison  received  his  pay,  and  the 
principal  conspirators  had  pensions  from  him. 
In  return  for  his  generosity,  they  were  engaged 
to  promote  the  marriage  of  his  son  with  the  young 
queen ;  to  advance  the  reformation ;  and  to  keep 
in  custody  the  eldest  son  of  the  regent.  Nego- 
tiation succeeded  to  hostility ;  and  as  the  regent 
expected  assistance  from  France,  and  the  conspi- 
rators had  the  prospect  of  support  from  an  Eng- 
lish army,  both  parties  were  disposed  to  gain 
time.  A  treaty  was  entered  into,  in  which  the 
regent  engaged  to  procure  from  Rome  an  abso- 
lution to  the  conspirators,  and  to  obtain  to  them 
from  the  three  estates  an  exemption  from  prose- 
cutions of  every  kind.  Upon  the  part  of  the 
besieged,  it  was  stipulated,  that,  when  these  con- 
ditions were  fulfilled,  the  castle  should  be  sur- 
rendered, and  the  regent's  son  be  delivered  up  to 
him.  In  the  mean  time  Henry  VIII.  died  ;  and 
in  a  few  weeks  after  Francis  I.  also  paid  his 
debt  to  nature.  But  the  former,  before  his  death, 
had  recommended  the  prosecution  of  the  Scot- 
tish war;  and  Henry  II.,  the  successor  of  Fran- 
cis, was  eager  to  show  his  attention  to  the  ancient 
ally  of  his  nation.  When  the  absolution  arrived 
from  Rome,  the  conspirators  refused  to  consider 
it  as  valid  ;  and  an  expression  used  by  the  pope, 
implying  an  absurdity,  furnished  an  apology  foi 
their  conduct.  They  knew  that  the  counsellors 
of  Edward  VI.  were  making  vigorous  prepara- 
tions to  invade  Scotland ;  they  were  confident  of 
their  present  ability  to  defend  themselves;  and 
the  advocates  for  the  reformation  encouraged 
them.  The  latter  indeed,  in  the  mean  time, 
adopted  but  too  many  of  the*  intolerant  maxims 
of  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  many  of  them  con- 
gratulated the  conspirators  upon  what  they  called 
their  godly  deed  and  enterprise.  Rough,  who 
had  formerly  been  chaplain  to  the  regent,  en- 
tered the  castle  and  joined  them.  At  this  time 
also  John  Knox  began  to  distinguish  himself  in 
an  eminent  manner,  both  by  his  success  in  argu- 
ment, and  the  unbounded  freedom  of  his  dis- 
course; while  the  Roman  clergy,  every  where 
defeated  and  ashamed,  implored  the  assistance  of 
the  regent  and  his  council,  who  assured  them 
tnat  the  laws  against  heretics  should  be  put  in 
execution.' — Stuart's  History.  In  the  mean  time 
the  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  being  invested  by  a 
fleet  of  sixteen  sail  under  admiral  Strozzi  from 
France,  was  obliged  to  capitulate.  Honorable 
terms  were  granted  to  the  conspirators ;  but,  after 
being  conveyed  to  France,  they  were  cruelly 
used,  from  the  hatred  entertained  by  the  Catho- 
lics against"  the  Protestants.  Many  were  confined 
in  prisons  ;  and  others,  among  whom,  says  Dr. 
Stuart,  was  John  Knox,  were  sent  to  the  galleys. 


The  castle  itself  was  razed  to  the  ground.  The 
same  year,  1547,  Scotland  was  invaded  by  an 
English  army  under  the  duke  of  Somerset,  who 
had  been  chosen  protector  of  England  during 
the  minority  of  Edward  VI.  The  design  of  this 
invasion  was  to  oblige  the  Scots  to  comply  with 
the  scheme  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  conclude  a  mar- 
riage between  Edward  and  the  young  queen  of 
Scotland.  The  English  army  consisted  of  1 3,000 
men ;  besides  which  the  protector  had  a  fleet  of 
sixty  sail,  one-half  of  which  were  ships  of  war, 
and  the  others  were  vessels  laden  with  provisions 
and  military  stores.  On  the  other  hand,  the  re- 
gent opposed  him  with  an  army  of  40,000.  Be- 
fore the  commencement  of  hostilities,  however, 
the  duke  of  Somerset  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
government,  in  which  he  pressed  the  marriage 
with  such  powerful  arguments,  and  so  clearly 
showed  the  benefits  which  would  result  from  it  to 
both  nations,  that  the  regent  and  his  party,  who 
were  averse  to  peace,  thought  proper  to  suppress 
it,  and  to  circulate  a  report  that  the  English  had 
come  to  force  away  the  queen,  and  to  reduce  the 
kingdom  to  a  state  of  dependence.  All  hopes  of 
an  accommodation  being  thus  removed,  the  Eng- 
lish army  advanced  to  give  battle  to  the  Scots. 
They  found  the  latter  posted  in  the  most  advan- 
tageous situation,  around  the  villages  of  Mussel- 
burgh,  Inveresk,  and  Monkton  ;  so  that  he  could 
not  force  them  to  an  action,  at  the  same  time 
that  he  found  himself  in  danger  of  having  his 
communication  with  his  ships  cut  off,  which 
would  have  totally  deprived  his  army  of  the 
means  of  subsistence.  In  this  dangerous  si- 
tuation he  had  again  recourse  to  negociation, 
and  offered  terms  still  more  favorable  than  be- 
fore. He  now  declared  himself  ready  to  retire 
into  England,  and  to  make  ample  compensation 
for  the  injuries  committed  by  his  army,  if  the 
Scottish  government  would  promise  that  the 
queen  should  not  be  contracted  to  a  foreign 
prince,  but  should  be  kept  at  home  till  she  was 
of  age  to  choose  a  husband  for  herself,  with  the 
consent  of  the  nobility.  These  concessions  in- 
creased the  confidence  of  the  regent  so  much, 
that,  without  taking  advantage  of  the  strength  of 
his  situation,  he  resolved  to  come  to  a  general 
engagement.  The  protector  moved  towards 
Pinkey,  a  gentleman's  seat,  east  of  Musselburgh ; 
and  the  regent,  conceiving  that  he  meant  to  take 
refuge  in  his  fleet,  changed  the  strong  ground  in 
which  he  was  encamped.  He  commanded  his 
army  to  pass  the  Esk,  and  to  approach  the  Eng- 
lish forces,  which  were  posted  on  the  middle  of 
Faside  Hill.  The  earl  of  Angus  led  on  the  van  ; 
the  main  body  marched  under  the  regent ;  and 
the  earl  of  Huntly  commanded  in  the  rear.  It 
was  the  regent's  intention  to  seize  the  top  of  the 
hill.  The  lord  Gray,  to  defeat  this  purpose, 
charged  the  earl  of  Angus,  at  the  head  of  the 
English  cavalry.  They  were  received  upon  the 
points  of  the  Scottish  spears,  which  were  longer 
than  the  lances  of  the  English  horsemen,  and 
put  to  flight.  Tha  earl  of  Warwick,  more 
successful  with  his  command  of  infantry,  ad- 
vanced to  the  attack.  The  ordnance  from  the 
fleet  assisted  his  operations;  and  a  brisk  fire 
from  the  English  artillery,  which  was  planted  on 
a  rising  ground,  served  still  more  to  iniimifhte 

2   1  -2 


484 


SCOTLAND. 


the  Scottish  soldiery.  The  remaining  troops 
under  the  protector  were  moving  slowly  and  in 
the  best  order,  to  take  a  share  in  the  engage- 
ment. The  earl  of  Angus  was  not  well  supported 
by  the  regent  and  the  earl  of  Huntly.  A  panic 
spread  through  the  Scottish  army.  It  fled  in 
different  ways,  presenting  a  scene  of  the  greatest 
havoc  and  confusion.  Few  perished  in  the  fight ; 
but  the  chase  continuing  in  one  direction  to 
Edinburgh,  and  in  another  to  Dalkeith,  with  the 
utmost  fury,  a  prodigious  slaughter  was  made. 
The  loss  of  the  English  did  not  amount  to  500 
men;  but  10,000  soldiers  perished  on  the  side 
of  the  Scots.  A  multitude  of  prisoners  were 
taken  ;  and  among  these  the  earl  of  Huntly,  the 
lord  high  chancellor. 

Amidst  the  consternation  of  this  decisive  vic- 
tory, the  duke  of  Somerset  had  a  full  opportu- 
nity of  effectuating  the  marriage  and  union  pro- 
jected by  Henry  VIII.,  and  on  the  subject  of 
which  such  fond  anxiety  was  entertained  by  the 
English  nation.  But,  the  cabals  of  his  enemies 
threatening  his  destruction  at  home,  he  yielded 
to  the  necessities  of  his  ambition,  and  marched 
back  into  England.  He  took  precautions,  how- 
ever, to  secure  an  entry  into  Scotland,  both  by 
sea  and  land.  A  garrison  of  200  men  was  placed 
in  the  isle  of  St.  Kolumba  in  the  Forth,  and  two 
ships  of  war  were  left  as  a  guard  to  it.  A  gar- 
rison was  also  stationed  in  the  castle  of  Broughty, 
)n  the  mouth  of  the  Tay.  When  he  passed 
through  the  Merse  and  Teviotdale,  the  leading 
men  of  these  counties  repaired  to  him ;  and, 
taking  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  king  Edward, 
surrendered  their  places  of  strength.  Some  of 
these  he  demolished,  and  to  others  he  added 
new  fortifications.  Hume  castle  was  garrisoned 
with  200  men,  and  entrusted  to  Sir  Edward 
Dudley ;  and  he  posted  300  soldiers,  with  200 
pioneers,  in  the  castle  of  Roxburgh,  under  Sir 
Ralph  Bulmer.  The  only  resource  of  the  regent 
now  was  the  hope  of  assistance  from  France. 
The  young  queen  was  lodged  in  the  castle  of 
Dumbarton,  under  the  care  of  the  lords  Erskine 
and  Livingstone ;  and  ambassadors  were  sent  to 
Henry  II.  of  France,  acquainting  him  with  the 
disaster  at  Pinkey,  and  imploring  his  assistance. 
The  regent  had  asked  permission  from  the  pro- 
tector to  treat  of  peace,  and  the  earl  of  Warwick 
was  appointed  to  wait  for  them  at  Berwick ;  but 
none  were  ever  sent  on  the  part  of  Scotland. 
Hostilities  were  soon  recommenced  by  the  Eng- 
lish. Lord  Gray  led  an  army  into  Scotland, 
fortified  the  town  of  Haddington,  took  the  castles 
of  Yester  and  Dalkeith,  laid  waste  the  Merse 
and  the  counties  of  East  and  Mid-Lothian.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  June,  1548,  M.  De  Desse,  a 
French  officer  of  great  reputation,  landed  at 
Leith  with  6000  soldiers,  and  a  formidable  train 
of  artillery.  In  the  mean  time  the  regent  was  in 
disgrace  on  account  of  the  disaster  at  Pinkey  ; 
and  the  queen-dowager,  to  supersede  his  autho- 
rity, improved  this  circumstance  to  her  own  ad- 
vantage. As  her  power  and  interest  could  best 
be  supported  by  France,  she  resolved  to  enter 
into  the  strictest  alliance  with  that  kingdom.  It 
had  been  proposed  that  the  dauphin  of  France 
should  marry  the  queen  of  Scotland  ;  and  this 
proposal  now  met  with  many  partisans,  the  hos- 


tilities of  the  English  having  lost  a  great  number 
of  friends  to  the  cause  of  that  country.  1 1  was 
resolved  to  send  the  queen  immediately  to 
France,  which  would  remove  the  cause  of  the 
present  contentions,  and  her  subsequent  marriage 
with  the  dauphin  would  in  the  fullest  manner 
confirm  the  friendship  betwixt  the  two  nations. 
The  French  government  also  entered  deeply  into 
the  scheme :  and,  to  promote  it,  made  presents 
of  great  value  to  many  of  the  Scottish  nobility. 
The  regent  himself  was  gained  over  by  a  pension 
of  12,000  livres,  and  the  title  of  duke  of  Chatel- 
herault.  M.  de  Yilleg-agnoni,  who  commanded 
four  galleys  in  the  harbour  of  Leith,  making  a 
feint  as  if  he  intended  to  proceed  instantly  to 
France,  tacked  about  to  the  north,  and,  sailing 
round  the  isles,  received  the  queen  at  Dumbar- 
ton ;  whence  he  conveyed  her  to  France,  and 
delivered  her  to  her  uncles,  the  princes  of  Lor- 
raine, in  July,  1548.  The  siege  of  Haddington 
had  been  undertaken  as  soon  as  the  French 
auxiliaries  arrived,  and  was  now  conducted  with 
vigor.  To  reinforce  the  garrison  1500  horse 
advanced  from  Berwick;  but,  an  ambuscade 
being  laid  for  them,  they  were  almost  totally 
destroyed.  Another  body  of  English  troops, 
however,  which  amounted  only  to  300  persons, 
was  more  successful.  Eluding  the  vigilance  of 
the  Scots  and  the  French,  they  entered  Had- 
dington. and  supplied  the  besieged  with  ammu- 
nition and  provisions.  Lord  Seymour,  high 
admiral  of  England,  made  a  descent  upon  Fife 
with  1 200  men  and  some  pieces  of  artillery  ; 
but  was  driven  back  to  his  ships  with  great 
slaughter  by  James  Stuart,  natural  brother  to 
the  young  queen,  who  opposed  him  at  the  head 
of  the  county  militia.  A  second  descent  was 
made  by  him  at  Montrose ;  but,  being  equally 
unsuccessful  there,  he  left  Scotland  without 
performing  any  important  achievement.  Having 
collected  an  army  of  17,000  men,  and  adding 
to  it  3000  German  Protestants,  the  protector  put 
it  under  the  direction  of  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury. 
Upon  the  approach  of  the  English,  Desse,  though 
he  had  been  reinforced  with  1 5,000  Scots,  thought 
it  more  prudent  to  retreat  than  to  hazard  a  deci- 
sive battle.  He  raided  the  siege  of  Haddington, 
and  marched  to  Edinburgh.  The  earl  of  Shrews- 
bury did  not  follow  him  to  force  an  engagement : 
jealousies  had  arisen  between  the  Scots  and  the 
French.  The  insolence  and  vanity  of  the  latter, 
encouraged  by  their  superior  skill  in  military 
arts,  had  offended  the  quick  and  impatient  spirit 
of  the  former.  The  fretfulness  of  the  Scots  was 
augmented  by  the  calamities  inseparable  from 
war;  and,  after  the  conveyance  of  the  young 
queen  to  France,  the  peculiar  advantage  con- 
ferred upon  that  kingdom  by  this  transaction 
was  fully  understood,  and  appeared  highly  dis- 
graceful and  impolitic.  In  this  state  of  their 
humor  Desse  found  not  at  Edinburgh  the  re- 
ception he  expected.  The  quartering  of  his  sol- 
diers produced  disputes,  which  ended  in  an 
insurrection  of  the  inhabitants.  The  French 
fired  among  the  citizens.  Several  persons  of 
distinction  fell,  and  among  these  were  the  pro- 
vost of  Edinburgh  and  his  son.  The  national 
discontents  and  inquietudes  were  driven,  by  this 
event,  to  the  most  dangerous  extremity ;  and 


SCOTLAND. 


485 


Desse,  who  was  a  man  of  ability,  thought  of 
giving  employment  to  his  troops,  and  of  flatter- 
ing the  people  by  the  splendor  of  some  martial 
exploit.  The  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  after  supply- 
ing Haddington  with  troops,  provisions,  and  mi- 
litary stores,  retired  with  his  army  into  England. 
Its  garrison  was  in  the  enjoyment  of  security, 
and  unsuspicious  of  danger.  Marching  in  the 
night,  Desse  reached  this  important  post;  and, 
destroying  a  fort  of  observation,  prepared  to 
storm  the  main  gates  of  the  city,  when  the  garri- 
son took  the  alarm.  A  French  deserter  pointing 
a  double  cannon  to  the  thickest  ranks  of  the 
assailants,  the  shot  was  incredibly  destructive, 
and  threw  them  into  confusion.  In  the  height  of 
their  consternation,  a  vigorous  sally  was  made 
by  the  besieged.  Desse  renewed  the  assault  in 
the  morning,  and  was  again  discomfited.  He 
now  turned  his  arms  against  Broughty  castle; 
and,  though  unable  to  reduce  it,  yet  recovered 
the  neighbouring  town  of  Dundee,  which  had 
fallen  into  the  possession  of  the  enemy.  Hume 
castle  was  retaken  by  stratagem.  Desse  entered 
Jedburgh,  and  put  its  garrison  to  the  sword; 
ravaged  the  English  borders  in  different  incur- 
sions, and  obtained  several  petty  victories.  Leith, 
which  from  a  small  village  had  grown  into  a 
town,  was  fortified  by  him ;  and  the  island  of 
Inchkeith,  nearly  opposite  to  the  harbour,  being 
occupied  by  English  troops,  he  made  them  priso- 
ners, after  a  brisk  encounter.  His  activity  and 
valor  could  not,  however,  compose  the  discontents 
of  the  Scots ;  and,  the  queen -dowager  having  writ- 
ten to  Henry  II.  to  recall  him,  he  was  succeeded 
in  his  command  by  M.  de  Thermes,  who  was 
accompanied  into  Scotland  by  Monluc  bishop 
of  Valence,  a  person  highly  esteemed  for  his 
address  and  ability.  This  ecclesiastic  was  de- 
signed to  supply  the  loss  of  cardinal  Beaton, 
and  to  discharge  the  office  of  lord  high  chancellor 
of  Scotland.  But  the  jealousies  of  the  nation 
increasing,  and  the  queen-dowager  herself  sus- 
pecting his  ambition  and  turbulence,  he  soon  re- 
turned home.  De  Thermes  brought  with  him 
from  France  a  reinforcement  of  1000  foot,  2000 
horse,  and  100  men  at  arms.  He  erected  a  fort 
at  Aberlady,  to  distress  the  garrison  of  Hadding- 
ton, and  to  intercept  its  supplies.  At  Colding- 
ham  he  destroyed  a  troop  of  Spaniards  in  the 
English  pay.  Fast  castle  was  regained  by  sur- 
prise. Distractions  in  the  English  court  did  not 
permit  the  protector  to  act  vigorously  in  the 
war.  The  earl  of  Warwick  was  diverted  from 
marching  an  army  into  Scotland.  An  infectious 
distemper  had  broke  out  in  the  garrison  at  Had- 
dington ;  and  it  could  not  hold  out  for  any  time 
against  the  Scots.  The  earl  of  Rutland,  there- 
fore, with  a  body  of  troops,  entered  the  town ; 
and,  after  setting  fire  to  it,  conducted  the  garrison 
and  artillery  to  Berwick.  The  regent  was  soli- 
citous to  recover  the  other  places  still  in  the 
power  of  the  English.  De  Thermes  laid  siege 
to  Broughty  castle,  and  took  it.  He  then  be- 
sieged Lauder ;  and  the  garrison  was  about  to 
surrender  at  discretion,  when  the  news  arrived 
that  a  peace  was  concluded  between  France, 
England,  and  Scotland.  By  this  treaty  Henry  II. 
obtained  the  restitution  of  Boulogne  and  its  de- 
pendencies, which  had  been  taken  from  him  by 


the  king  of  England,  and  far  which  he  paid 
400,000  crowns.  No  opposition  was  to  be  given 
to  the  marriage  of  the  queen  of  Scotland  with 
the  dauphin :  the  fortresses  of  Lauder  and 
Douglas  were  to  be  restored  to  the  Scots,  and 
the  English  were  to  destroy  the  castles  of  Rox- 
burgh and  Eymouth.  After  the  ratifications  of 
the  articles,  the  queen-dowager  embarked  with 
Leon  Stozzi  for  France,  attended  by  many  of  the 
nobility.  Having  arrived  there,  she  communi- 
cated to  the  king  her  design  of  assuming  the 
government  of  Scotland,  and  he  promised  to 
assist  her.  But  the  jealousy  which  prevailed 
between  the  Scots  and  French  rendered  the  ac- 
complishment of  this  design  very  difficult.  To 
remove  the  regent  by  an  act  of  power  might  en- 
danger the  scheme  altogether;  but  it  might  be 
Kssible  to  persuade  him  to  resign  his  office, 
ir  this  purpose  intrigues  were  immediately 
commenced  ;  indeed  the  regent  himself  contri- 
buted to  promote  their  schemes  by  his  violent 
persecution  of  the  reformed.  The  peace  was 
hardly  proclaimed,  when  he  provoked  the  public 
resentment  by  an  action  of  sanguinary  insolence. 
Adam  Wallace,  a  man  of  simple  manners,  but 
of  gfeat  zeal  for  the  reformation,  was  accused  of 
heresy,  and  brought  to  trial  in  the  church  of  the 
Black  Friars  at  Edinburgh.  In  the  presence  of 
the  regent,  the  earl  of  Angus,  Huntly,  Glen- 
cairn,  and  other  persons  of  distinction  and  rank, 
he  was  charged  with  preaching  without  any  au- 
thority of  law,  with  baptizing  one  of  his  own 
children,  and  with  denying  the  doctrine  of  pur- 
gatory ;  and  it  was  strenuously  objected  to  him 
that  he  accounted  prayers  to  the  saints  and  the 
dead  to  be  a  useless  superstition ;  that  he  had 
pronounced  the  mass  to  bean  idolatrous  service; 
and  that  he  had  affirmed  that  the  bread  and  wine 
in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar,  after  the  words  of 
the  consecration,  do  not  change  their  nature,  but 
continue  to  be  bread  and  wine.  These  offences 
were  esteemed  too  terrible  to  admit  of  any  par- 
don.— The  earl  of  Glencairn  alone  protested 
against  his  punishment.  The  pious  sufferer  bore 
with  resignation  the  contumelious  insults  of  the 
clergy ;  and  by  his  courage  and  patience  at  the 
stake  recommended  the  opinions  he  had  em- 
braced. Other  acts  of  atrocity  and  violence 
stained  the  administration  of  the  regent.  In  his 
own  palace,  William  Crichton,  a  man  of  family 
and  reputation,  was  assassinated  by  lord  Semple. 
No  attempt  was  made  to  punish  the  murderer. 
His  daughter  was  the  concubine  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews,  and  her  tears  and  en- 
treaties were  more  powerful  than  justice.  John 
Melvil,  a  person  respectable  by  his  birth  and  his 
fortune,  had  written  to  an  English  gentleman,  re- 
commending to  his  care  a  friend  who  was  then  a 
captive  in  England.  This  letter  contained  no 
improper  information  in  matters  of  state ;  and 
no  suspicion  of  any  crime  against  Melvil  could 
be  inferred  from  it.  Yet  the  regent  brought  him 
to  trial  upon  a  charge  of  high  treason  ;  and,  for 
an  act  of  humanity  and  friendship,  he  was  con- 
demned to  lose  his  head.  The  estate  of  Melvil, 
forfeited  to  his  family,  was  given  to  David,  the 
youngest  son  of  the  regent. 

Amidst  the  amusements  of  the  French  court, 
the  queen-dowager  was  not  inattentive  to  the 


486 


SCOTLAND. 


scheme  of  ambition  which  she  had  projected. 
The  earls  of  Huntly  and  Sutherland,  Marischal 
and  Cassils,  with  lord  Maxwell,  and  other  per- 
sons of  eminence  who  had  accompanied  her  to 
France,  were  gained  over  to  her  interests.  Ro- 
bert Carnegie  of  Kinnaird,  David  Panter,  bi- 
shop of  Ross,  and  Gavin  Hamilton,  commendator 
of  Kilwinning,  being  also  at  this  time  in  that 
kingdom,  and  having  the  greatest  weight  with  the 
regent,  were  treated  with  a  most  punctilious  re- 
spect. Henry  declared  to  them  his  earnest  wish 
that  the  queen-dowager  might  attain  the  govern- 
ment of  Scotland.  In  case  the  regent  should 
consent  to  this  measure,  he  expressed  a  firm  in- 
tention that  no  detriment  should  happen  to  his 
consequence  and  affairs;  and  he  desired  them 
to  inform  him  that  he  had  already  confirmed  his 
title  of  duke  of  Chatelherault,  had  advanced  his 
son  to  be  captain  of  the  Scots  gendarmes  in 
France,  and  was  ready  to  tender  other  marks  of 
favor  to  his  family.  With  this  message,  Mr. 
Carnegie  was  sent  to  Scotland  ;  and  a  few  days 
after  he  was  followed  by  the  bishop  of  Ross. 
The  bishop,  being  a  man  of  eloquence  and  autho- 
rity, obtained  a  promise  from  the  regent  to  re- 
sign; and  for  this  service  he  received,  as  a 
recompense,  an  abbey  in  Poitou.  The  queen- 
dowager,  full  of  hopes,  now  prepared  to  return 
to  Scotland,  and  in  her  way  thither  made  use  of 
a  safe-conduct  obtained  from  Edward  VI.  by  the 
king  of  France.  The  English  monarch,  however, 
had  not  yet  forgot  the  beautiful  queen  of  Scotland  ; 
and  did  not  fail  to  urge  his  superiority  of  claim 
to  her  over  the  dauphin.  The  queen-dowager 
did  not  seriously  enter  upon  the  business:  only 
in  general  terms  complained  of  the  hostilities 
committed  by  the  English  ;  and  two  days  after 
this  conversation  she  proceeded  towards  Scot- 
land, where  she  was  conducted  by  the  earl  of 
Both  well,  lord  Hume,  and  some  other  noble- 
men, to  Edinburgh,  amidst  the  acclamations  of 
the  people.  She  had  not  long  been  returned 
to  the  capital,  when  the  bad  conduct  of  the 
regent  afforded  her  an  opportunity  of  exerting 
her  influence.  The  regent,  having  proposed 
a  judicial  circuit  through  the  kingdom,  under 
pretence  of  repressing  crimes  and  disorders,  mo- 
lested the  people  by  plunder  and  rapine.  Great 
fines  were  levied  for  offences  pretended  as  well 
as  real ;  and  the  protestants  in  particular  were 
the  objects  of  his  severity.  In  his  progress  he 
was  accompanied  by  the  queen  dowager ;  and, 
as  she  affected  to  behave  in  a  manner  directly 
opposite,  the  most  disagreeable  comparisons  were 
made  between  her  and  the  regent.  The  bishop 
of  Ross  did  not  fail  to  put  him  in  mind  of  his 
promise,  but  he  wished  still  to  continue  in 
power.  His  resolution,  however,  failed  him,  on 
the  intimation  of  a  parliamentary  enquiry  into 
his  administration.  An  agreement  with  the  queen 
dowager  then  took  place  ;  and  it  was  stipulated 
that  he  should  succeed  to  the  throne  upon  the 
death  of  the  queen  without  issue ;  that  nis  son 
should  enjoy  the  command  of  the  gendarmes ; 
that  no  enquiry  should  be  made  into  the  expen- 
diture of  the  royal  treasures  ;  that  no  scrutiny 
into  his  government  should  take  place;  and  that 
he  should  enjoy  in  the  most  ample  manner  his 
duchy  and  his  pension.  These  articles  were  ra- 


tified at  an  assembly  of  parliament,  and  the 
queen-dowager  was  formally  invested  with  the 
regency. 

Mary  of  Lorraine,  the  new  regent,  though  she 
had  with  great  difficulty  attained  the  summit  of 
her  wishes,  seemed  to  be  much  less  conversant 
in  the  arts  of  government  than  in  those  of  intrigue. 
She  was  scarcely  settled  in  her  new  office  when 
she  rendered  herself  unpopular  by  her  too  great 
attachment  to  France,  and  by  her  persecution  of 
the  Protestants.  She  was  entirely  guided  by  the 
counsels  of  her  brothers,  the  duke  of  Guise  and 
the  cardinal  of  Lorrain  ;  and  paid  a  devoted  at- 
tention to  those  of  M.  d'Oysel  the  French  am- 
bassador. Several  high  offices  were  filled  with 
Frenchmen,  which  excited  the  highest  resent- 
ment of  the  Scottish  nobility;  and  the  com- 
monalty were  instantly  prejudiced  against  her 
by  the  partiality  she  showed  to  the  Papists.  At 
first,  however,  she  enacted  many  salutary  laws  ; 
and,  while  she  made  a  progress  herself  through 
the  southern  provinces  of  the  kingdom  to  hold 
justiciary  courts,  she  endeavoured  to  introduce 
order  and  law  into  the  western  counties  and 
isles  :  first  by  the  earl  of  Huntly,  and  afterwards 
by  the  earls  of  Arcyle  and  Athol,  to  whom  she 
granted  commissions  for  this  purpose.  In  an- 
other improvement,  which  the  queen-regent  at- 
tempted by  the  advice  of  her  French  council, 
she  found  herself  opposed  by  her  own  people. 
It  was  proposed  that  the  possessions  of  every 
proprietor  of  land  in  the  kingdom  should  be 
valued  and  entered  into  registers  ;  and  that  a 
proportional  payment  should  be  made  by  each. 
The  application  of  this  fund  was  to  maintain  a 
regular  and  standing  body  of  soldiers.  This 
guard  or  army,  it  was  urged,  being  at  all  times 
in  readiness  to  march  against  an  enemy,  would 
protect  effectually  the  frontiers;  and  there  would 
no  longer  be  any  necessity  for  the  nobles  to  be 
continually  in  motion  on  every  rumor  of  hosti- 
lity or  incursion  from  English  invaders.  No 
art,  however,  or  argument  could  recommend 
these  measures.  A  perpetual  tax  and  a  standing 
army  were  conceived  to  be  the  genuine  charac- 
teristics of  despotism.  All  ranks  of  men  consi- 
dered themselves  insulted  and  abused  ;  and  300 
tenants  of  the  crown  assembling  at  Edinburgh, 
and  giving  way  to  their  indignation,  sent  their 
remonstrances  to  the  queen-regent  in  such  strong 
and  impressive  language  as  induced  her  to  aban- 
don the  scheme.  Yet  still  the  attempt  which 
she  had  made  left  an  impression  in  the  minds  of 
the  people.  They  suspected  her  to  be  a  secret 
enemy  to  their  government  and  liberties ;  and 
they  were  convinced  that  Henry  II.  was  engag- 
ing her  in  artifices  that  he  might  reduce  Scot- 
land to  be  a  province  of  France.  While  an 
alarm  about  their  civil  rights  was  spreading 
among  the  people,  the  Protestants  were  rising 
daily  in  their  spirit  and  in  their  hopes.  John 
Knox,  whose  courage  had  been  confirmed  by 
misfortunes,  and  whose  talents  had  improved  by 
exercise,  w?s  at  this  time  making  a  progress 
through  Scotland.  The  characteristic  peculiari- 
ties of  Popery  were  the  favorite  topics  of  his  de- 
clamation and  censure.  He  treated  the  mass,  in 
particular,  with  the  most  sovereign  contempt, 
representing  it  as  a  remnant  of  idolatry.  Many 


SCOTLAND. 


487 


of  the  nobility  and  gentry  afforded  him  counte- 
nance  and   protection.     They    invited  him   to 
preach  at  their  houses,  and  partook  with  him  in 
the  ordinances  of  religion   after   the   reformed 
method.      Religious   societies    and    assemblies 
were  held  publicly  in  defiance  of  the  Papists; 
and  celebrated  preachers  were  courted  with  assi- 
duity  to   officiate   in   particular    districts    and 
towns.     The  clergy  cited  him  to  appear  before 
them  at  Edinburgh,  in  the  church  of  the  Black- 
friars.    On  the  appointed  day  he  presented  him- 
self, with  a  numerous  attendance  of  gentlemen, 
who  were  determined  to  exert  themselves  in  his 
behalf.     The  priesthood  did  not  choose  to  pro- 
ceed in  his  prosecution ;  and  Knox,  encouraged 
by  this  symptom  of  their  tear,  took  the  resolu- 
tion to  explain  and   inculcate  his  doctrines  re- 
peatedly and  openly  in  the  capital.    In  1556  the 
earl  of  Glencairn  took  the  earl  Marischal  to  hear 
the  exhortations  of  this  celebrated  preacher ;  and 
they  were  so  much  affected  with  his  reasonings 
and  rhetoric  that  they  requested  him  to  address 
the  queen-regent  upon  the  subject  of  the  refor- 
mation of  religion.     In  compliance  with  this  re- 
quest, he  wrote  a  letter  in  terms  more  forcible 
than  pleasing,  and  the  earl  of  Glencairn  delivered 
it  with  his  own  hand,  in  the  expectation  that  some 
advantage  might  be  obtained  for  the  reformed. 
But  the  queen-regent  was  no  less  offended  with 
the  freedom  of  the  nobleman  than  of  the  preacher ; 
and,  after  perusing   the  paper,  she   gave  it  to 
James  Beaton,  archbishop  of  Glasgow,  with  an  ex- 
pression of  disdain :  '  Here,  my  lord,  is  a  pas- 
quil.'     Amidst  these  occupations  Knox  received 
an  invitation  to  take  the  charge  of  the  English 
congregation  at  Geneva ;  which  he  accepted.  The 
clergy  called  upon  him,  in  his  absence,  to  appear 
before   them,   condemned   him   to   death   as  a 
heretic,  and  ordered  him  to  be  burned  in  effigy. 
This  injurious  treatment  did  not  in  the  least  ob- 
struct the  progress  of  the  reformation.     Deser- 
tions were  made  from  popery  in  every  town  and 
village  ;  and  even  many  members  of  the  church, 
both  secular  and  regular,  were  forward  to  em- 
brace the  new  principles,  and  to  atone  for  their 
past  mistakes  by  the  bitterest  railleries  against 
the  corruptions  and  folly  of  the   Romish  faitn. 
The  priests  were  treated  in  all  places  with  ridi- 
cule and  contempt.     The  images,  crucifixes,  and 
relics,  which  served  to  rouse  the  decaying  fer- 
vors   of    superstition,   were    stolen    from    the 
churches,  and  trampled  under  foot.    The  bishops 
implored   the  assistance   of  the   queen   regent. 
Citations  were  given  to  the  preachers  to  appear 
in  their  defence.     They  obeyed ;  but  with  such 
a  formidable  retinue  that  it  was  with  difficulty 
she  was  permitted  to  apologise  for  her  conduct. 
James  Chalmers  of  Gaitgirth,  pressing  forward 
from  the  crowd,  addressed  himself  to  her :  '  We 
vow  to  God  that  the  devices  of  the  prelates  shall 
not  be  carried  into  execution.    We  are  oppressed 
to  maintain  them  in  their  idleness.     They  seek 
to  undo  and  murder  our  preachers  and  us ;  and 
we  are  determined  to  submit  no  longer  to  this 
wickedness.'     The  multitude,  applauding  this 
speech,  put  their  hands  to  their  daggers.      A 
trusty  messenger  was  despatched  to  Geneva,  in- 
viting John  Knox  to  return  to  his  own  country; 
but,  upon  further  consideration,  by  opposite  de- 


spatches, Knox  was  requested  to  delay  his  jour- 
ney for  some  time.     To  this  zealous  reformer 
their  unsteadiness  was  a  matter  of  serious  afflic- 
tion; and,  in  the  answer,  he  rebuked  them  with 
severity,  but  entreated  them  not  to  faint  under 
their  purposes,  from  apprehensions  of  danger. 
To  particular  persons  he  wrote  other  addresses  : 
and  to  all  of  them  the  greatest  attention  was  paid, 
In  1557  a  formal  bond  of  agreement,  which  ob- 
tained the  appellation  of  the  first  covenant,  was 
entered  into,  and  all  the  more  eminent  persons 
who  favored   the   reformation  were   invited   to 
subscribe  it.      The  earls  of  Argyle,  Glencairn, 
and   Morton,  with  the  lord  Lorn,  and  John  Ers- 
kine  of  Dun,  led  the  way  by  subscribing   it. 
AH  the  subscribers  to  this  deed,  renouncing  the 
superstitions  and  idolatry  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
promised  to  apply  continually  their  whole  power 
and  wealth,  and  even  to  give  up  their  lives,  to 
forward  and  establish  the  word  of  God.     They 
distinguished  the  reformed  by  calling  them  the 
Congregation  of  Christ ;  and,  by  the  opprobrious 
title  of  the  Congregation  of  Satan,  they  peculiar- 
ised  the  favorers  of  Popery.     After  the  leaders 
of  the  reformation  had  subscribed  the  first  cove- 
nant they  addressed  letters  to  Knox,  urging  in 
the  strongest  terms  his  return  to  Scotland ;  and, 
that  their  hopes  of  his  assistance  might  not  be 
disappointed,  they  sent  another  address  to  Cal- 
vin, the  celebrated  reformer,  begging  him  lo  join 
his  commands   to  their  entreaties.     The   arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews,  who  perceived  the  rising 
storm,  was  in  a  difficult  situation.     A  powerful 
combination  threatened  ruin  to  the  church ;  and 
he  had  separated  himself  from  the  politics  of  the 
queen-regent.     The  zeal  of  the  Roman  Catholics 
pointed  out  strong  measures  to  him;  and  his 
dispositions  were  pacific.     The  clergy  were  of- 
fended with  his  remissness.     The  reformers  de- 
tested  his  loose  principles,  fand  were   shocked 
with  the  depravity  of  his  life.     He   tried   the 
force  of  address  and  did  not  succeed.     He  then 
resolved  to  be  severe,  and  was  still  more  unsuc- 
cessful.    The  earl  of  Argyle  was  the  most  power- 
ful of  the  reformers.     To  allure  him  from  his 
party  the  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  employed 
Sir  David  Hamilton.     But  the  kindness  he  af- 
fected, and  the  advices  he  bestowed,  were  no 
compliment  to  this  nobleman ;  and  his  threats 
were  despised.     The  reformers,  instead  of  losing 
their  courage,  felt  a  sentiment  of  exultation  and 
triumph;  and  the  earl  of  Argyle  dying  about 
this  time  he  not  only  maintained  the  new  doc- 
trines in  his  last  moments,  but  entreated  his  son 
to  promote  the  public  preaching  of  the  gospel, 
and  the  utter  ruin  of  superstition  and  idolatry. 
At  length  the  archbishop  and  the  prelates  resolved 
on  a  furious  persecution  of  the  reformed.  Walter 
Mill,  a  priest,  having  been  long  under  the  sus- 
picion of  heresy,  was  carried  to  St.  Andrews, 
committed   to   prison,  and   accused  before  the 
archbishop  and  his  suffragans.     He  was  in  an 
extreme  old  age ;  and  had  struggled  all  his  life 
with  poverty.     He  sunk  not,  however,  under  the 
hardness  of  his  fate.     To  the  articles  of  his  accu- 
sation he  replied  with  signal   recollection  and 
fortitude.     The  firmness  of  his  mind,  in  the  ema- 
ciated state  of  his  body,  excited  admiration ;  and 
the   insults  of  his  enemies,  and  their  contempt 


488 


SCOTLAND. 


served  to  discover  his  superiority  over  them. 
When  the  clergy  declared  him  a  here'.ic  no  tem- 
poral judge  could  be  found  to  condemn  him  to 
the  fire.  He  was  respited  to  another  day ;  and 
such  great  sympathy  prevailed  for  his  misfor- 
tunes that  it  was  necessary  to  allure  one  of  the 
archbishop's  domestics  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
civil  power,  and  to  pronounce  the  sentence  of 
condemnation.  When  brought  to  the  stake  lie 
praised  God  that  he  had  been  called  to  seal  the 
truth  with  his  life;  and  he  conjured  the  peo- 
ple, as  they  would  escape  eternal  death,  not  to 
be  overcome  by  the  errors  and  the  artifices  of 
monks  and  priests,  abbots  and  bishops.  The 
barbarity  of  this  execution  affected  the  reformers 
with  inexpressible  horror.  Subscriptions  for 
mutual  defence  were  taken.  The  leaders  of  the 
reformation,  dispersing  their  emissaries  to  every 
quarter,  encouraged  the  vehemence  of  the  multi- 
tude. The  covenant  to  establish  a  new  form  of 
religion  extended  far  and  wide.  When  the 
leaders  of  the  reformation  were  apprised  of  the 
ardent  zeal  of  the  people,  and  considered  the 
great  number  of  subscriptions  which  had  been 
collected  in  the  different  counties  of  the  kingdom, 
they  assembled  to  deliberate  concerning  the  steps 
to  be  pursued.  It  was  resolved  that  a  public 
supplication  of  the  whole  body  of  the  Protestants 
should  be  presented  to  the  queen-regent ;  which, 
after  complaining  of  the  injuries  they  had  suf- 
fered, should  require  her  to  bestow  upon  them 
her  support  and  assistance,  and  urge  her  to  pro- 
ceed in  the  work  of  a  reformation.  To  explain 
their  full  meaning,  a  schedule,  containing  parti- 
cular demands,  was  to  be  presented  to  her  scru- 
tiny. To  Sir  James  Sandilands  of  Calder  they 
committed  the  important  charge  of  their  mani- 
festo and  articles  of  reformation.  His  character 
was  in  the  highest  estimation ;  his  services  to  his 
country  were  numerous ;  his  integrity  and  honor 
were  superior  to  all  suspicion  ;  and  his  age  and 
experience  gave  him  authority  and  reverence. 
The  petition  of  the  Protestants  was  expressed  in 
strong  but  respectful  terms.  They  told  the 
queen  regent  that,  '  though  they  had  been  pro- 
voked by  great  injuries,  they  had  yet,  during  a 
long  period,  abstained  from  assembling  them- 
selves, and  from  making  known  to  her  their  com- 
plaints. Banishment,  confiscation  of  goods,  and 
dwrth  in  its  most  cruel  shape,  were  evils  with 
which  the  reformed  had  been  afflicted  ;  and  they 
were  still  exposed  to  these  dreadful  calamities. 
Compelled  by  their  sufferings  they  presumed  to 
ask  a  remedy  against  the  tyranny  of  the  prelates 
and  the  estate  ecclesiastical.  They  had  usurped 
an  unlimited  dominion  over  the  minds  of  men. 
Whatever  they  commanded,  though  without  any 
sanction  from  the  word  of  God,  must  be  obeyed. 
Whatever  they  prohibited,  though  from  their 
own  authority  only,  it  was  necessary  to  avoid. 
All  arguments  and  remonstrances  were  equally 
fruitless  and  vain.  The  fire,  the  faggot,  and  the 
sword,  were  the  weapons  with  which  the  church 
enforced  and  vindicated  her  mandates.  By  these, 
•  •f  late  years,  many  of  their  brethren  had  fallen  ; 
and,  upon  this  account,  they  were  troubled  and 
wounded  in  their  consciences.  For,  conceiving 
ii!i:mse!ves  to  be  a  part  of  that  power  which  God 
had  established  in  this  kingdom,  it  was  their 


duty  to  have  defended  them,  or  to  have  concur- 
red with  them  in  an  open  avowal  of  their  com- 
mon religion.  They  now  take  the  opportunity 
to  make  this  avowal.  They  break  a  silence 
which  may  be  misinterpreted  into  a  justification 
of  the  cruelties  of  their  enemies  ;  and,  disdaining 
all  farther  dissimulation  in  matters  which  con- 
cern the  glory  of  God,  their  present  happiness, 
and  their  future  salvation,  they  demand  that  the 
original  purity  of  the  Christian  religion  shall  be 
restored,  and  that  the  government  shall  be  so 
improved  as  to  afford  to  them  a  security  in  their 
persons,  their  opinions,  and  their  property.' 
With  this  petition  of  the  Protestants  Sir  James 
Sandilands  presented  their  schedule  of  demands, 
or  the  preliminary  articles  of  the  reformation. 
They  were  in  the  spirit  of  their  supplication, 
and  of  the  following  tenor: — '  I.  It  shall  be  law- 
ful to  the  reformed  to  peruse  the  Scriptures  in 
the  vulgar  tongue ;  and  to  employ  also  their  na- 
tive language  in  prayer  publicly  and  in  private. 
II.  It  shall  be  permitted  to  any  person  qualified 
by  knowledge  to  interpret  and  explain  the  dif- 
ficult passages  in  the  Scriptures.  III.  The  elec- 
tion of  ministers  shall  take  place  according  to 
the  rules  of  the  primitive  church  ;  and  those  who 
elect  shall  enquire  diligently  into  the  lives  and 
doctrines  of  the  persons  whom  they  admit  to  the 
clerical  office.  IV.  The  holy  sacrament  of  bap- 
tism shall  be  celebrated  in  the  vulgar  tongue, 
that  its  institution  and  nature  may  be  the  more 
generally  understood.  V.  The  holy  sacrament 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  shall  likewise  be  adminis- 
tered in  the  vulgar  tongue ;  and  in  this  commu- 
nion, as  well  as  in  the  ceremonial  of  baptism, 
a  becoming  respect  shall  be  paid  to  the  plain 
institution  of  Christ  Jesus.  VI.  The  wicked  and 
licentious  lives  of  the  bishops  and  estate  ecclesi- 
astical shall  be  reformed  ;  and,  if  they  discharge 
not  the  duties  of  true  and  faithful  pastors,  they 
shall  be  compelled  to  desist  from  iheir  ministry 
and  functions.' 

The  queen-regent  now  found  it  necessary  to 
flatter  the  Protestants.  She  assured  them  by  Sir 
James  Sandilands,  their  orator  or  commissioner, 
that  every  thing  they  could  legally  desire  should 
be  granted  to  them  ;  and  that,  in  the  mean  tune, 
they  might,  without  molestation,  employ  the  vul- 
gar tongue  in  their  prayers  and  religious  exer- 
cises. But,  upon  the  pretence  that  no  encourage- 
ment might  be  given  to  tumults  and  riot,  she 
requested  that  they  would  hold  no  public  assem- 
blies in  Edinburgh  or  Leith.  The  Congregation, 
for  this  name  was  now  assumed  by  the  Protes- 
tants, were  transported  with  these  proofs  of  her 
regard ;  and,  while  they  sought  to  advance  still 
higher  in  her  esteem  by  the  inoffensive  quietness 
of  their  carriage,  they  were  encouraged  in  the 
undertaking  they  had  begun.  Nor  to  the  clergy, 
who  at  this  time  were  holding  a  provincial  coun- 
cil at  Edinburgh,  did  the  Congregation  scruple 
to  communicate  the  articles  of  the  intended  re- 
formation. The  latter  received  their  demands 
v*ith  a  storm  of  rage,  which  died  away,  however, 
in  innocent  debility.  1'pon  recovering  from 
their  passions,  they  offered  to  submit  the  con- 
troversy between  them  and  the  reformed  to  a 
public  disputation.  The  Congregation  did  not 
refuse  this  mode  of  trial  :  and  desired,  as  their 


SCOTLAND. 


489 


o'lly  conditions,  that  the  Scriptures  might  be 
considered  as  the  standards  of  orthodoxy  and 
:mtb,  and  that  those  of  their  brethren  who  were 
in  exile  and  under  persecution  might  be  permit- 
ted to  assist  them.  These  reasonable  requests 
were  not,  however,  complied  with ;  and  the 
church  would  allow  no  rule  of  right  but  the 
canon  law  and  its  own  councils.  Terms  of  re- 
conciliation were  then  offered  on  the  part  of  the 
estate  ecclesiastical.  It  held  out  to  the  Pro- 
testants the  liberty  of  praying  and  administering 
the  sacraments  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  if  they  would 
nay  reverence  to  the  mass,  acknowledge  purgatory, 
invoke  the  saints,  and  admit  of  petitions  for  the 
dead.  To  conditions  so  ineffectual  and  absurd 
the  Congregation  did  not  deign  to  return  any  an- 
swer. The  meeting  of  the  parliament  approached. 
The  parties  in  contention  were  agitated  with 
anxieties,  apprehensions,  and  hopes.  An  expec- 
tation of  firm  and  open  assistance  from  the  queen- 
regent  gave  courage  to  the  reformed;  and,  from 
the  parliamentary  influence  of  their  friends  in 
the  greater  and  the  lesser  baronage,  they  ex- 
pected the  most  important  services.  They  drew 
up  with  eagerness  the  articles  which  they  wished 
to  be  passed  into  a  law ;  and,  as  the  spirit  and  sense 
of  their  transactions  are  to  be  gathered  in  the 
completes!  manner  from  the  papers  which  were 
framed  by  themselves,  it  is  proper  to  attend  to 
them.  Their  petitions  were  few  and  explicit.  I. 
They  could  not,  in  consequence  of  principles 
which  they  had  embraced  from  a  conviction  of 
their  truth,  participate  in  the  Romish  religion.  It 
was  therefore  their  desire  that  all  the  acts  of 
parliament  giving  authority  to  the  church  to  pro- 
ceed against  them  as  heretics  should  be  abro- 
gated ;  or  at  least  that  their  power  should  be 
suspended  till  the  disputes  which  had  arisen 
were  determined  and  brought  to  a  conclusion. 
II.  They  did  not  mean  that  all  men  should  be 
at  liberty  to  profess  what  religion  they  pleased, 
without  the  control  of  authority.  They  consent- 
ed that  all  transgressors  in  matters  of  faith  should 
be  carried  before  the  temporal  judge.  But  it 
was  their  wish  that  the  clergy  should  have  only 
the  power  to  accuse ;  and  they  thought  it  con- 
formable to  justice  that  a  copy  of  the  criminal 
charge  should  be  lodged  with  the  party  upon 
trial,  and  that  a  competent  time  should  be  al- 
lowed him  to  defend  himself.  III.  They  insisted 
that  every  defence  consistent  with  law  should 
be  permitted  to  the  party  accused;  and  that 
objections  to  witnesses,  founded  in  truth  and 
reason,  should  operate  to  his  favor.  IV.  They 
desired  that  the  party  accused  should  have  per- 
mission to  interpret  and  explain  his  own  opi- 
nions ;  and  that  his  declaration  should  carry  a 
greater  evidence  than  the  deposition  of  any  wit- 
ness ;  as  no  person  ought  to  be  punished  for 
religion,  who  is  not  obstinate  in  a  wicked  or 
damnable  tenet.  V.  In  fine  they  urged  that  no 
Protestant  should  be  condemned  for  heresy, 
without  being  convicted  by  the  word  of  God,  of 
the  want  of  that  faith  which  is  necessary  to  sal- 
vation. The  congregation  presented  these  arti- 
cles to  the  queen-regent,  expecting  that  she 
would  not  only  propose  them  to  the  three  estates 
assembled  in  parliament,  but  employ  all  her  in- 
fluence to  recommend  them.  But,  finding  them- 


selves disappointed,  they  began  to  suspect  her 
sincerity ;  and  they  were  sensible  that  their  peti- 
tions, though  they  should  be  carried  in  parlia- 
ment, could  not  pass  into  a  law  without  her 
consent.  They  therefore  abstained  from  present- 
ing them :  but,  as  their  complaints  and  desires 
were  fully  known  in  parliament,  they  ordered  a 
solemn  declaration  to  be  read  there  in  their  be- 
half, and  demanded  that  it  should  be  inserted  in 
the  public  records.  In  this  declaration,  after 
expressing  their  regret  for  having  been  disap- 
pointed in  their  scheme  of  reformation,  they  pro- 
tested that  no  blame  should  be  imputed  to  them 
for  continuing  in  their  religion,  which  they  be- 
lieved to  be  founded  in  the  word  of  God ;  that 
no  danger  of  life,  and  no  political  pains,  should 
be  incurred  by  them,  for  disregarding  statutes 
which  support  idolatry,  and  for  violating  rites 
which  are  of  human  invention ;  and  that,  if  in- 
surrections and  tumults  should  disturb  the  realm, 
from  the  diversity  of  religious  opinions,  and  if 
abuses  should  be  corrected  by  violence,  all  the 
guilt,  disorder,  and  inconvenience  thence  arising, 
instead  of  being  applied  to  them,  sho  d  be  as- 
cribed solely  to  those  who  had  refused  a  timely 
redress  of  wrongs,  and  who  had  despised  peti- 
tions presented  with  the  humility  of  faithful 
subjects,  and  for  the  purposes  of  establishing  the 
commandments  of  God,  and  a  most  just  and  sa- 
lutary reformation.  The  three  estates  received 
this  protest  with  attention  and  respect ;  but  the 
intention  of  inserting  it  in  the  national  records 
was  abandoned  by  the  congregation  upon  a  for- 
mal promise  from  the  queen-regent  that  all  the 
matters  in  controversy  should  speedily  be 
brought  by  her  to  a  fortunate  issue.  While  the 
protestants  were  thus  making  the  most  vigorous 
exertions  in  behalf  of  their  spiritual  liberties, 
the  queen-regent,  to  establish  herself  the  more 
effectually,  used  every  effort  to  promote  the 
marriage  of  her  daughter  with  the  dauphin  of 
France.  In  1557  commissioners  were  appointed 
to  negociate  this  marriage  ;  but,  while  these  ne- 
gociations  were  going  on,  the  court  of  France 
acted  in  the  most  perfidious  manner.  At  the 
age  of  fifteen,  after  solemnly  ratifying  the  inde- 
pendency of  Scotland,  and  the  succession  of  the 
crown  in  the  house  of  Hamilton,  queen  Mary 
was  influenced  by  the  king  and  her  uncles,  the 
princes  of  Lorrain,  to  sign  privately  three  extra- 
ordinary deeds  or  instruments.  By  the  first  she 
conveyed  the  kingdom  of  Scotland  to  the  king 
of  France  and  his  heirs,  in  the  default  of  chil- 
dren of  her  own  body.  By  the  second  she  as- 
signed him,  if  he  should  die  without  children, 
the  possession  of  Scotland,  till  he  should  receive 
a  million  of  pieces  of  gold,  or  be  amply  re- 
compensed for  the  sums  expended  by  him  in  the 
education  of  the  queen  of  Scotland  in  France. 
By  the  third  she  confirmed  both  these  grants  in 
an  express  declaration  that  they  contained  the 
pure  and  genuine  sentiments  of  her  mind ;  and 
that  any  papers  which  might  be  obtained,  either 
before  or  after  her  marriage,  by  means  of  the 
Scottish  parliament,  should  be  invalid,  and  of  no 
force  nor  efficacy.  On  the  24th  of  April  the 
nuptials  were  celebrated  with  uncommon  pomp ; 
and  the  dauphin  Francis  was  allowed  to  assume 
the  title  of  king  of  Scotland. 


490 


SCOTLAND. 


The  French  court  demanded  for  the  dauphin 
the  crown  and  other  ensigns  of  royalty  belong- 
ing to  Scotland  ;  but  the  commissioners  had  no 
power  to  comply  with  the  request.     It  was  then 
desired   that,   when   they  returned    home,  they 
should  use   all   their   influence  to   procure  the 
crown  matrimonial  of  Scotland  for  the  dauphin. 
This  also  was  refused  ;  the  court  of  France  was 
disgusted;  and  four  of  the  commissioners  died, 
it  was  supposed  of  poison,  given  them  by  the 
princes  of  Lorrain.     This  subject,  however,  was 
pressed,  on  the  return  of  the  surviving  commis- 
sioners, by  the  king  of  France  himself,  the  queen 
of  Scotland,  and  the  queen-regent.     The  Pro- 
testants also  joined  their  interest,  hoping  thereby 
to  gain  over  the  queen  and  queen-regent  to  their 
party;  so  that  an  act  of  parliament  was  at  length 
passed,  by  which  the  crown    matrimonial  was 
given  to  the  dauphin  during  the  time  of  his  mar- 
riage with  queen  Mary;  but  without  any  preju- 
dice to  the  liberties  of  the  kingdom,  to  the  heirs 
of  her  body,  or  to  the  order  of  succession.  With 
so  many  restraints  it  is  difficult  to  see  the  advan- 
tages which  could  accrue  from  this  gift  so  ear- 
nestly sought  after ;  and  it  is  very  probable  that 
the  usurpations  of  France  in  consequence  of  it 
would  have  been  productive  of  many  disturb- 
ances ;  but  these  were  prevented  by  the  death  of 
Francis  II.,  in  December  1560.     But  before  this 
event  took  place,  Scotland  was,  by  the  intrigues 
of  France,  involved  in  confusion  on  another  ac- 
count. After  the  death  of  Mary  I.  queen  of  Eng- 
land, and  daughter  to  Henry  VrIII.,  the  princes 
of*  Guise  insisted  on  the  claim  of  Mary  queen  of 
Scots  to  the  crown  of  England,  in  preference  to 
that  of  Elizabeth,  whom  they  looked  upon  as 
illegitimate.     This  claim  was  supported   by  the 
king  of  France,  who  prevailed  with  the  queen  of 
Scots  herself  to  assume  the  title  of  queen   of 
England,  and  to  stamp  money  under  that  cha- 
racter.     The  arms  of  England  were  quartered 
with  those  of  France   and  Scotland ;  and  em- 
ployed as  ornaments  for  the  plate  and  furniture 
of  Mary  and  the  dauphin.      Thus  was  laid  the 
foundation  of  an  irreconcileable  quarrel  between 
Elizabeth  and  Mary  ;  and  to  this  we  may  ascribe 
the  inveteracy  with  which  the  former  persecuted 
the  unhappy  queen  of  Scotland  every  time  she 
had  it  in  her  power.  But,  while  they  imprudently 
excited  a  quarrel  with  England,  they  yet  more 
imprudently  quarrelled  also  with  the  majority  of 
the  people  of  Scotland.     As  Elizabeth  professed 
the  Protestant  religion,  it  was  easily  foreseen 
that  the  congregation,  or  body  of  the  reformed 
in  Scotland,  would  never  consent  to  act  against 
her  in  favor  of  a  popish  power;  and,  as  they 
could  not  be  gained,  it  was  resolved  to  destroy 
them  at  once  by  putting  to  death  all  their  leaders. 
The  queen  regent  gave  intimation  of  her  design 
to  re-establish  popjry  by  proclaiming  a  solemn 
observance  of  Easter,  receiving  the   sacrament 
according   to   the   Romish   communion  herself, 
and  commanding  all  her  household  to  receive 
it  in  the  same  manner.     She  next  expressed  her- 
self in  a  contemptuous  manner  against  the  re- 
formed, affirmed  that  they  had  insulted  the  royal 
dignity,  and  declared  her  intention  of  restoring 
it  to  its  ancient  lustre.  The  preachers  of  the  con- 
gregation were  next  cited  to  appear  at  Stirling  to 


answer   the   charges   which   might   be   brought 
against  them.     Alexander  earl  of  Glencaira,  and 
Sir  Hugh  Campbell  of  Louden,  were  deputed  to 
admonish  her  not  to  persecute  the  preachers  un- 
less they  had   been   obnoxious,  by   circulating 
erroneous  doctrines,  or  disturbing  the  peace  of 
government.     The  queen-regent,   in  a  passion, 
told  them  that  the  preachers  should  be  all  ba- 
nished Scotland  though  their  doctrines  were  as 
sound  as  those  of  St.  Paul.    The  deputies  urged 
her  former  kind  behaviour  and  promises;  but 
the  queen-regent  answered  that  '  the  promises 
of  princes  ought  not  to  be  exacted  with  rigor, 
and  that  they  were  binding  only  when  subservient 
to  their  conveniency  and  pleasure.'  To  this  they 
replied  that  in  such  a  case  they  could  not  look 
upon  her  as  their  sovereign,  and  must  renounce 
their  allegiance   as   subjects.     Soon   after  this 
transaction  the  queen-regent  received  the  news 
that  the  reformation  was  established  in  Perth. 
Lord  Ruthven,  the  provost  of  the  city,  was  sum- 
moned to  answer  for  this  innovation  ;  but  his 
reply  was  that  he  had  no   dominion  over  the 
minds  and  consciences  of  men.     The  provost  of 
Dundee,  being  ordered  to  apprehend  an  eminent 
preacher,  named  Paul  Methven,  sent  him  intel- 
ligence of  the  order  that  he  might  provide  for 
his   safety.      The    proclamation    for   observing 
Easter  was  every  where  despised  and  neglected, 
and   people  exclaimed  against  the  mass  as  an 
idol     New  citations,  in  the  mean  time,  had  been 
given  to  the  preachers  to  appear  at  Stirling.  They 
obeyed  the  summons  ;  but  attended  by  such  mul- 
titudes   that   the   queen-regent,   dreading   their 
power,  though  they  were  without  arms,  intreated 
Mr.  Erskine  of  Dun,  whom  they  had  sent  before 
as  a  deputy,  to  stop  their  march  ;  assuring  him 
that  all  proceedings  against  the  preachers  should 
be  stopped.  In  consequence  of  this  the  multitude 
dismissed  ;  yet,  when  the  day  came  on  which 
the  preachers  should  have  appeared,  the  queen- 
regent,     with    unparalleled    folly    as    well    as 
treachery,  caused  them  to  be  declared  traitors, 
and  proclaimed  it  criminal  to  afford  them  any 
subsistence.     Mr.  Erskine,  exasperated  by  this 
shameful  conduct,  hastened  to  the  congregation, 
apologised  for  his  conduct,  and  urged  them  to 
proceed  to  the  last  extremities.      At  this  critical 
period  also  John  Knox,  returning  from  Geneva, 
joined  the  Congregation  at  Perth,  and  pointed 
all  the  thunder  of  his  eloquence  against  idolatry. 
A  priest,  in  contempt  of  this  reformer's  rhetoric, 
prepared  immediately   after  his  sermon  to  say 
mass;  and,  opening  a  case  which  stood  upon  the 
altar,  displayed  the  images  of  the  saints.     The 
great  provocations  which  the  Protestants  had  re- 
ceived, joined  to  the  impious  passions   of  the 
multitude  thus  excited,  were  now  productive  of 
the  greatest  disorders.     Images  were  destroyed, 
monasteries  pulled  down,  and  their  wealth  either 
seized  by  the  mob  or  given  to  the  poor.     The 
celebrated  monasteries  of  the  Gray  and  Black 
Friars,  with  that  of  the  Carthusians,  were  attacked 
and   demolished.     The  example  of  Perth  was 
followed  by  Cupar  in  Fife ;  and,  similar  insur- 
rections being  apprehended  in  other  places,  the 
queen-regent  determined  to  punish  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Perth  in  the  most  exemplary  manner. 
But  the  gentlemen  of  Fife,  Angus,  and  Mearns 


SCOTLAND. 


49 


assembling  their  friends  and  dependents,  formed 
a  camp  near  Perth.  The  earl  of  Glencairn,  with 
admirable  celerity,  advanced  from  Ayrshire  with 
2500  men.  The  queen-dowager  also  collected 
an  army,  but,  being  opposed  by  such  a  formida- 
ble power  by  the  Protestants,  she  thought  proper 
to  conclude  an  agreement.  The  Protestants, 
however,  dreaded  her  insincerity  ;  and  therefore 
entered  into  a  second  covenant  to  stand  by  and 
defend  one  another.  Their  fears  were  not  vain. 
The  queen-regent  violated  the  treaty  almost  as 
soon  as  made,  and  began  to  treat  the  Protestants 
with  severity.  The  earl  of  Argyle,  and  the  prior 
of  St.  Andrew's,  who  about  this  time  began  to 
take  the  title  of  lord  James  Stuart,  now  openly 
headed  the  Protestant  party,  and  prepared  to 
collect  their  whole  strength.  The  queen-regent 
opposed  them  with  what  forces  she  had,  and 
which  indeed  chiefly  consisted  of  her  French 
auxiliaries ;  but,  being  again  afraid  of  coming  to 
an  engagement,  she  consented  to  a  truce  until 
commissioners  should  be  sent  to  treat  with  the 
lords  of  an  effectual  peace.  No  commissioners, 
however,  were  sent  oa  her  part ;  and  the  nobles, 
provoked  by  such  complicated  and  unceasing 
treachery,  resolved  to  push  matters  to  the  utmost 
extremity.  The  first  exploit  of  the  reformed  was 
the  taking  of  the  town  of  Perth,  where  the  queen- 
regent  had  placed  a  French  garrison.  The  mul- 
titude, elated  with  this  achievement,  destroyed 
the  palace  and  abbey  of  Scone,  in  spite  of  all  the 
endeavours  of  their  leaders,  and  even  of  Knox 
himself  to  save  them.  The  queen-regent,  ap- 
prehensive that  the  congregation  would  commit 
farther  ravages  to  the  southward,  resolved  to 
throw  a  garrison  into  Stirling;  but  the  earl  of 
Argyle  and  lord  James  Stuart  anticipated  her 
design,  and  arrived  there  the  very  day  after  the 
demolition  of  the  abbey  and  palace  of  Scone. 
The  people,  incapable  of  restraint,  and  provoked 
beyond  measure  by  the  perfidious  behaviour  of 
the  Catholic  parly,  demolished  all  the  monas- 
teries in  the  neighbourhood,  together  with  the 
fine  abbey  of  Cambuskenneth,  situated  on  the 
bank  of  the  Forth.  From  Stirling  they  went  to 
Linlithgow,  where  they  committed  their  usual 
ravages  upon  every  thing  that  they  reckoned 
relics  of  idolatry;  after  which  they  advanced  to 
Edinburgh :  the  queen-regent,  alarmed  at  their 
approach,  fled  to  Dunbar;  and  the  Protestants 
took  up  their  residence  in  Edinburgh. 

The  congregation,  having  thus  got  possession 
of  the  capital,  assumed  to  themselves  the  ruling 
power  of  the  kingdom,  appointing  preachers  in 
all  the  churches,  and  seized  the  mint,  with  all 
the  instruments  of  coinage.  The  queen-regent, 
unable  to  dispute  the  matter  in  the  field,  pub- 
lished a  manifesto,  in  which  she  set  forth  their 
seditious  behaviour,  commanding  them  to  leave 
Edinburgh  within  six  hours,  and  enjoining  her 
subjects  to  avoid  their  society  under  the  pain  of 
treason.  The  congregation  having  already  lost 
somewhat  of  their  popularity,  by  their  violent 
proceedings,  were  now  incapable  of  coping  with 
government.  As  they  had  not  established  them- 
selves in  any  regular  body,  or  provided  a  fund 
for  their  support,  they  felt  their  strength  decay, 
and  multitudes  of  them  returned  to  their  habita- 
tions. Those  who  remained  found  themselves 


obliged  to  vindicate  their  conduct;  and,  in  an 
address  to  the  regent,  to  disclaim  all  treasonable 
intentions.  Negociations  again  took  place, 
which  ended  abortively,  and  the  queen-regent, 
who  had  taker,  this  opportunity  of  collecting  her 
forces,  marched  against  the  congregation  on  the 
23d  of  July,  1559.  At  length  the  Protestants, 
finding  themselves  incapable  of  making  head 
against  their  enemies,  entered  into  a  negociation, 
by  which  all  differences  were  for  the  present  ac- 
commodated. The  terms  of  this  treaty  were, 
that  the  town  of  Edinburgh  should  be  open  to  the 
queen-dowage"r  and  her  attendants ;  that  the  pa- 
lace of  Holyrood  House  and  the  mint  should  be 
del'ivered  up  to  her  ;  that  the  Protestants  should 
be  subject  to  the  laws,  and  abstain  from  molest- 
ing the  Roman  Catholics  in  the  exercise  of  their 
religion.  On  the  queen's  part,  it  was  agreed, 
that  the  Protestants  should  have  the  free  exercise 
of  taeir  religion,  and  that  no  foreign  troops 
should  entei  the  city  of  Edinburgh.  Notwith- 
standing this  treaty,  the  reformed  had  no  confi- 
dence in  the  queen's  sincerity.  Having  heard 
of  the  death  of  Henry  IT.  of  France,  and  the  ac- 
cession of  Francis  II.  and  Mary  to  that  kingdom, 
they  seem  to  have  dreaded  more  danger  than 
ever.  They  now  entered  into  a  third  covenant; 
in  which  they  engaged  to  refuse  attendance  to 
the  queen-dowager,  in  case  of  any  message  or 
letter ;  and  that,  immediately  on  the  receipt  of 
any  notice  from  her  to  any  of  their  number,  it 
should  be  communicated  without  reserve,  and 
be  made  a  common  subject  of  scrutiny  and  de- 
liberation. It  was  not  long  before  they  had 
occasion  for  all  their  constancy  and  strength. 
The  queen-regent  repented  of  the  favorable  terms 
she  had  granted  the  reformed;  and,  being  denied 
the  favor  which  she  requested  of  saying  mass  in 
the  High  church  of  Edinburgh,  she  ordered  them 
to  be  every  where  disturbed  in  the  exercise  of 
their  religion.  In  this  imprudent  measure,  the 
quevn-regent  was  confirmed  by  letters  which 
now  came  from  Francis  and  Mary,  promising  a 
powerful  army  to  support  her.  The  envoy  who 
brought  these  despatches  also  carried  letters  to 
lord  James  Stuart,  now  the  principal  leader  of 
the  Protestants,  and  natural  brother  to  the  queen. 
These  letters  were  filled  with  reproaches  and 
menaces,  mixed  with  entreaties;  and  along  with 
them  the  envoy  delivered  a  verbal  message,  that 
the  king  fas  master  was  resolved  rather  to  ex- 
pend all  the  treasures  of  France  than  not  to  be 
reve-ged  on  the  rebellious  nobles  who  had  dis- 
turbed the  peace  of  Scotland.  Lord  James 
Stu:-i  was  not  tooe  frightened  by  these  menaces, 
lie  returned  a  cool  and  deliberate  answer,  apo- 
logising for  the  Protestants,  and  vindicating  them 
from  the  charge  of  rebellion ;  but  at  the  same 
time  intimating  his  full  resolution  of  continuing 
to  head  the  reformed,  as  he  had  already  done. 
The  letters  of  Francis  and  Mary  were  soon  fol- 
lowed by  1000  French  soldiers,  with  money  and 
military  stores ;  and  the  commander  was  imme- 
diately despatched  again  to  France,  to  solicit  the 
assistance  of  as  many  more  soldiers,  with  four 
ships  of  war,  and  100  men  at  arms.  But,  before 
he  could  set  out,  La  Bosse,  another  French 
commander,  arrived  with  2000  infantry;  and, 
that  the  congregation  might  be  defeated  not  only 


492 


S  C  O  T  L  A  N  D. 


by  arms  but  in  disputation,  the  same  ship  brought 
three  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  to  show  the  per- 
nicious tendency  of  the  new  doctrines.  Thus 
matters  were  pushed  beyond  all  hopes  of  recon- 
ciliation. The  nation  was  universally  alarmed 
on  account  of  the  introduction  of  French  troops, 
to  which  they  saw  no  end:  the  queen-regent  at- 
tempted to  quiet  the  minds  of  the  public  by  a 
proclamation  ;  but  their  fears  increased  the  more. 
The  congregation  assembled  at  Stirling,  where 
they  were  joined  by  the  earl  of  Arran,  and  soon 
after  by  his  father  the  duke  of  Chatelherault. 
They  now  deliberated  on  the  measures  to  be 
followed  with  the  queen-regent;  and  the  result 
of  their  consultations  was,  that  an  expostulatory 
letter  should  be  addressed  to  her.  This  was 
accordingly  done;  but,  as  the  queen  behaved 
with  her  usual  duplicity,  the  nobles  called  the 
people  to  arms:  mutual  manifestoes  were  pub- 
lished ;  and  both  parties  prepared  to  decide  the 
contest  by  the  sword.  The  congregation  having 
seized  Broughty  castle,  marched  thence  to  Edin- 
burgh. The  queen-regent  retired  to  Leith,  which 
she  had  fortified  and  filled  with  French  troops. 
Thither  the  nobles  sent  their  last  message  to  her, 
charging  her  with  a  design  to  overthrow  the  li- 
berties of  the  kingdom.  They  requested  her  to 
command  her  Frenchmen  and  mercenaries  to 
depart  from  Leith,  and  to  make  that  place  open 
and  patent,  not  only  to  the  inhabitants  who  had 
been  dispossessed  of  their  houses,  but  to  all  the 
inhabitants  of  Scotland.  They  declared  that  her 
denial  of  this  request  should  be  considered  by 
them  as  a  proof  of  her  intention  to  reduce  the 
kingdom  to  slavery ;  in  which  case  they  were 
determined  to  employ  their  utmost  power  to  pre- 
serve its  independency.  Two  days  after  this 
message  the  queen-regent  sent  to  them  the  lord 
Lyon,  whom  she  enjoined  to  tell  them  that  she 
considered  their  demand  not  only  as  presumptu- 
ous, but  as  an  encroachment  on  the  royal  autho- 
rity; that  it  was  an  indignity  to  her  to  be  dicta- 
ted to  by  subjects ;  that  Frenchmen  were  not  to 
be  treated  as  foreigners,  being  entitled  to  the 
same  privileges  with  Scotchmen ;  and  that  she 
would  neither  disband  her  troops,  nor  command 
the  town  of  Leith  to  be  made  open  and  patent. 
The  lord  Lyon  then,  in  the  name  of  the  queen- 
regent,  commanded  the  lords  of  the  congregation 
to  depart  from  Edinburgh  and  disperse  them- 
selves under  the  pain  of  high  treason.  The 
Protestants  irritated  by  this  answer,  after  some 
deliberation,  degraded  the  queen-regent ;  and 
to  this  purpose  the  nobility,  barons,  and  bur- 
gesses, all  agreed  in  subscribing  an  edict,  which 
was  sent  to  the  principal  cities  in  Scotland  and 
published  in  them. 

The  next  step  taken  by  the  'congregation  was 
to  summon  Leith  to  surrender;  but,  meeting  with 
defiance  instead  of  submission,  it  was  resolved 
to  take  the  town  by  scalade.  For  this  service 
ladders  were  framed  in  the  church  of  St.  Giles  ; 
a  business  which,  interrupting  the  preachers  in 
the  exercise  of  pubjic  worship,  made  them  prog- 
nosticate misfortune  and  miscarriage  to  the  con- 
gregation. In  the  displeasure  of  the  preachers 
the  common  people  found  a  source  of  complaint ; 
and  the  emissaries  of  the  queen-dowager  acting 
with  indefatigable  industry  to  divide  her  adver- 


saries, and  spread  chagrin  and  dissatisfaction 
among  them,  discontent,  animosity,  and  terror,, 
prevailed  to  a  great  degree.  The  duke  of  Clu- 
telherault  discouraged  many  by  his  example. 
Defection  from  the  Protestants  added  strength  to 
the  queen-dowager.  The  most  secret  deliberations 
of  the  confederated  lords  were  revealed  to  her. 
The  soldiery  were  clamorous  for  pay  ;  and  it  was 
very  difficult  to  procure  money  to  satisfy  their 
claims.  Attempts  to  soothe  and  appease  them, 
discovering  their  consequence,  engendered  muti- 
nies. They  put  to  death  a  domestic  of  the  earl 
of  Argyle,  who  endeavoured  to  compose  them  to 
order;  they  insulted  several  persons  of  rank  who 
discovered  a  solicitude  to  pacify  them  ;  and  they 
even  ventured  to  declare  that,  for  a  proper  re- 
ward, they  were  ready  to  suppress  the  reforma- 
tion, and  to  re-establish  the  mass.  It  was  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  give  satisfaction  to  the  Pro- 
testant soldiers.  The  lords  and  gentlemen  of 
the  congregation  collected  a  considerable  sum 
among  them ;  but  it  was  not  equal  to  the  exi- 
gency. The  avarice  of  many  withheld  what  they 
could  afford,  and  the  poverty  of  others  did  not 
permit  them  to  indulge  their  generosity.  It  was 
resolved  that  each  nobleman  should  surrender 
his  silver  plate  to  be  struck  into  money.  By  the 
address,  however,  of  the  queen-dowager,  the 
officers  of  the  mint  were  bribed  to  conceal,  or 
to  convey  to  a  distance,  the  stamps  and  instru- 
ments of  coinage.  A  gloomy  despair  gave  dis- 
quiet to  the  congregation,  and.  threatened  their 
ruin.  Queen  Elizabeth,  with  whose  ministers 
the  confederated  lords  maintained  a  correspon- 
dence at  this  time,  had  frequently  promised  them 
her  assistance ;  but  they  could  not  now  wait  the 
event  of  a  deputation  to  the  court  of  England. 
In  an  extremity  so  pressing  they  therefore  ap- 
plied for  a  sum  of  money  to  Sir  Ralph  Sadler 
and  Sir  James  Croft,  the  governors  of  Berwick; 
and  Cockburn  of  Ormiston,  who  was  entrust- 
ed with  this  commission,  obtained  from  them 
an  aid  of  4000  crowns.  Traitors,  however, 
in  the  councils  of  the  congregation,  having 
informed  the  queen-dowager  of  his  errand  and 
expedition,  the  earl  of  Bothwel,  by  her  order, 
intercepted  him  upon  his  return,  discomfited  his 
retinue,  and  made  a  prize  of  the  English  subsidy. 
To  rouse  the  spirit  of  the  party,  an  attack  was 
projected  upon  Leith,  and  some  pieces  of  artil- 
lery were  planted  against  it ;  but,  before  any 
charge  could  be  made,  the  French  soldiers  sallied 
out  to  give  battle  to  the  troops  of  the  congrega- 
tion, possessed  themselves  of  their  cannon,  and 
drove  them  back  to  Edinburgh.  A  report  that 
the  victors  had  entered  the  city  with  the  fugitives 
filled  it  with  disorder  and  dismay.  The  earl  of 
Argyle  and  his  Highlanders  hastened  to  recover 
the  honor  of  the  day,  and  harassed  the  French  in 
their  retreat.  This  petty  conflict,  while  it  elated 
the  queen-dowager,  served  to  augment  the 
despondence  of  the  Protestants.  Vain  of  their 
prowess,  the  French  made  a  new  sally  from 
Leith,  to  intercept  a  supply  of  provisions  and 
stores  for  the  congregation.  The  earl  of  Arran 
and  lord  James  Stuart  attacked  them,  and  obliged 
them  to  retire  ;  but,  pursuing  them  with  too 
much  heat,  a  fresh  body  of  French  troops  made 
its  appearance.  It  was  prudent  to  retreat,  but 


SCOTLAND. 


493 


difficult.  An  obstinate  resistance  was  made. 
It  was  the  object  of  the  French  to  cut  oft'  the 
soldiery  of  the  congregation  from  Edinburgh, 
and  by  these  means  to  divide  the  strength  of  that 
station.  The  earl  of  Arran  and  lord  James  Stuart 
had  occasion  for  all  their  address  and  courage. 
Though  they  were  able,  however,  to  effect  their 
escape,  their  loss  was  considerable,  and  the  victory 
was  manifestly  on'the  side  of  their  adversaries. 
About  this  time  William  Maitland  of  Lethington, 
secretary  to  the  queen-dowager,  withdrew  secretly 
from  Leith,  and  joined  himself  to  the  confede- 
rated nobles.  He  had  been  disgusted  with  the 
jealousies  of  the  French  counsellors,  and  was 
exposed  to  danger  from  having  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  the  reformed.  His  reception  was 
cordial,  and  corresponded  to  the  opinion  enter- 
tained of  his  wisdom  and  experience.  He  was 
skilled  in  business,  adorned  with  literature,  and 
accustomed  to  reflection ;  but  it  was  not  knbwn 
that  he  wanted  integrity.  The  accession  of  this 
statesman  to  their  party  could  not  console  the 
lords  of  the  congregation  for  the  unpromising 
aspect  of  their  affairs.  Those  who  affected  pru- 
dence retired  privately  from  a  cause  which  they 
accounted  desperate,  and  the  timorous  fled  with 
precipitation.  The  distrust  of  the  brethren  was 
infectious;  and  excited  the  ridicule  and  scorn  of 
the  partisans  of  the  queen-dowager.  In  this  dis- 
tress the  associated  nobles  resolved  to  abandon 
the  capital.  A  little  after  midnight  they  retired 
from  Edinburgh ;  and  so  great  was  the  panic 
that  they  marched  to  Stirling  without  any  stop. 
John  Knox,  who  had  accompanied  the  congre- 
gation to  Stirling,  anxious  to  restore  their  unani- 
mity and  courage,  addressed  them  from  the 
pulpit.  He  represented  their  misfortunes  as  the 
consequences  of  their  sins ;  and,  entreating  them 
to  remember  the  goodness  of  their  cause,  assured 
them  in  the  end  of  joy,  honor,  and  victory.  His 
popular  eloquence,  corresponding  to  all  their 
warmest  wishes,  diffused  satisfaction  and  cheer- 
fulness. They  passed  from  despair  to  hope.  A 
council  was  held,  in  which  the  confederated  no- 
bles determined  to  solicit,  by  a  formal  embassy, 
the  aid  of  queen  Elizabeth.  Maitland  of  Le- 
tliington  and  Robert  Melvil  were  chosen  to 
negociate  this  important  transaction ;  and  they 
received  the  fullest  instructions  concerning  the 
state  and  difficulties  of  the  congregation,  the 
tyrannical  designs  of  the  queen-dowager,  and  the 
danger  which  threatened  England  from  the  union 
of  Scotland  with  France.  The  queen  of  England 
determined  to  assist  the  reformers;  whose  leaders 
now  dispersed  themselves,  and  went  to  different 
parts  of  the  kingdom  to  exert  their  activity  for 
the  common  cause.  The  queen-dow'ager,  ima- 
gining that  the  lords  were  fled,  conceived  great 
hopes  of  being  able  to  crush  the  reformed  at 
once.  Her  sanguine  hopes,  however,  were  soon 
checked  on  hearing  that  queen  Elizabeth  was 
resolved  to  assist  them.  She  now  determined  to 
crush  her  enemies  before  they  could  receive  any 
assistance  from  England.  Her  French  troops 
took  the  road  to  Stirling,  and  wasted  in  their 
march  all  the  grounds  which  belonged  to  the 
favorites  of  the  reformation.  After  renewing 
their  depredations  at  Stirling  they  passed  the 
bridge;  and,  proceeding  along  the  side  of  the 


river,  exercised  their  cruelties  in  a  district  which 
had  distinguished  itself  by  an  ardent  zeal  against 
popery.  ,  While  the  terror  of  their  arms  was  thus 
diffusing  itself,  they  resolved  to  seize  the  town 
and  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  which  they  considered 
as  an  important  military  station,  and  as  a  conve- 
nient place  of  reception  for  the  auxiliaries  they 
expected  from  France.  But  lord  James  Stuart 
employed  himself  to  interrupt  their  progress  and 
retard  their  attempts ;  and,  to  keep  the  force  of 
the  Congregation  entire,  he  hazarded  no  action 
of  importance.  A  small  advantage  was  obtained 
by  the  French  at  Petticur  ;  and  they  took  King- 
horn.  Lord  James  Stuart,  with  500  horse  and 
100  foot,  entered  Dysart.  With  this  inconsider- 
able strength  he  proposed  to  act  against  an  army 
of  4000  men.  His  admirable  skill  in  military  affairs 
and  his  heroic  courage  were  eminently  displayed. 
During  twenty  days  he  prevented  the  inarch  of 
the  French  to  St.  Andrews,  intercepting  their 
provisions,  harassing  them  with  skirmishes,  and 
intimidating  them  by  the  address  and  boldness 
of  his  stratagems.  M.  d'Oysel,  enragad  and 
ashamed  to  be  disconcerted  by  a  body  of  men 
so  disproportioned  to  his  army,  exerted  himself 
with  vigor.  Lord  James  Stuart  was  obliged  to 
retire.  Dysart  and  Wemys  were  given  to  the 
French  troops  to  be  pillaged  ;  and,  when  d'Oysel 
was  in  full  march  to  St.  Andrews,  he  discovered 
a  powerful  fleet  bearing  up  the  Frith.  It  was  con- 
cluded that  the  supplies  expected  from  France 
were  arrived.  Guns  were  fired  by  his  soldiers, 
and  their  joy  was  indulged  in  all  its  extravagance. 
But  this  fleet  having  taken  the  vessels  which 
contained  their  provisions,  and  the  ordnance 
with  which  they  intended  to  improve  the  fortifi- 
cations of  the  castle  at  St.  Andrews,  a  period 
was  put  to  their  rejoicings.  Certain  news  was 
brought  that  the  fleet  they  observed  was  the  navy 
of  England,  which  had  come  to  support  the  con- 
gregation. A  consternation,  heightened  by  the 
giddiness  of  their  preceding  transports,  invaded 
them.  M.  d'Oysel  perceived  now  the  value  and 
merit  of  the  service  which  had  been  performed 
by  lord  James  Stuart ;  and,  thinking  no  more  of 
St.  Andrews  and  conquest,  fled  to  Stirling,  in  his 
way  to  Leith, from  which  he  dreaded  to  be  inter- 
cepted : — he  reached  that  important  station  after 
a  march  of  three  days.  A  formal  treaty  was  now 
concluded  between  the  lords  of  the  Congregation 
and  queen  Elizabeth. 

In  the  mean  time  the  queen  dowager  was  dis- 
appointed in  her  expectations  from  France.  The 
violent  administration  of  the  house  of  Guise  had 
involved  that  nation  in  troubles  and  distresses. 
Its  credit  was  greatly  sunk,  and  its  treasury  wns 
near  exhausted.  Persecutions,  and  the  spirit 
of  reaction,  produced  commotions  and  con- 
spiracies ;  and,  amidst  domestic  and  dangerous 
intrigues  and  struggles,  Scotland  failed  to  engage 
that  particular  distinction  which  had  been  pro- 
mised to  its  affairs.  It  was  not,  however,  ne- 
glected altogether.  The  count  de  Martigues  had 
arrived  at  Leith  with  1000  foot  and  a  few  horse. 
The  marquis  D'Elbeuf  had  embarked  for  it  wiih 
another  body  of  soldiers;  but,  after  losing  several 
ships  in  a  furious  tempest,  was  obliged  to  return 
to  the  haven  from  which  he  had  sailed.  In  this 
sad  reverse  of  fortune  many  forsook  the  queen- 


494 


SCO  T  L  A  X   D. 


dowager.  It  was  now  understood  that  the  Eng- 
•ish  army  was  upon  its  march  to  Scotland.  The 
Scottish  lords  who  had  preserved  a  neutrality, 
meditated  a  union  with  the  Protestants.  The 
earl  of  Huntly  gave  a  solemn  assurance  that  he 
would  join  them.  Proclamations  were  issued 
throughout  the  kingdom,  calling  upon  the  sub- 
jects of  Scotland  to  assemble  in  arms  at  Linlith- 
gow,  to  re-establish  their  ancient  freedom,  and 
to  assist  in  the  utter  expulsion  of  the  French 
soldiery.  The  English  fleet,  meanwhile,  under 
Winter  the  vice-admiral,  had  taken  and  destroyed 
several  ships,  had  landed  some  troops  upon  Inch- 
keith,  and  discomfited  a  body  of  French  merce- 
naries. Upon  these  acts  of  hostility,  the  princes 
of  Lorrain  despatched  the  chevalier  de  Seure  to 
queen  Elizabeth,  to  make  representations  against 
this  breach  of  the  peace,  and  to  urge  the  recall 
of  her  ships.  This  ambassador  affected  likewise 
to  negociate  concerning  the  evacuation  of  Scot- 
land by  the  French  troops,  and  to  propose 
methods  by  which  the  king  of  France  might  quar- 
ter the  arms  of  England  without  prejudice  to 
queen  Elizabeth.  But  to  prevent  the  execution 
of  vigorous  resolutions  against  the  queen- 
dowager,  and  to  gain  time,  were  the  only  objects 
he  had  in  view.  With  similar  intentions  Mouluc, 
bishop  of  Valence,  a  man  of  greater  address  and 
ability,  and  equally  devoted  to  the  house  of 
Guise,  was  also  sent  at  this  time  to  the  court  of 
England.  Queen  Elizabeth,  however,  and  her 
ministers,  were  too  wise  to  be  amused  by  artifice 
and  dexterity.  Lord  Grey  entered  Scotland 
with  an  army  of  1200  horse  and  6000  foot ;  and 
lord  Scroop,  Sir  James  Croft,  Sir  Henry  Percy, 
and  Sir  Francis  Lake  commmanded  under  him. 
By  an  inhuman  policy,  the  queen-dowager  had 
already  wasted  all  the  country  around  the  capi- 
tal. But  the  desolation  she  had  made,  while  it 
was  ruinous  to  the  Scottish  peasants,  affected  not 
the  army  of  England.  The  leaders  of  the  con- 
gregation had  provided  against  this  difficulty. 
The  duke  of  Chatelherault,  the  earls  of  Argyle, 
Glencairn,  and  Monteith,  the  lord  James  Stuart, 
and  the  lords  Ruthven,  Boyd,  and  Ochiltree, 
with  a  numerous  and  formidable  force,  joined  the 
English  commander  at  Preston.  Struck  with 
the  sad  condition  of  her  affairs,  despairing  of  a 
timely  and  proper  succor  from  France,  and  re- 
minded by  sickness  of  her  mortality,  the  queen- 
dowager  retired  from  Leith  to  the  castle  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  put  herself  under  the  protection  of 
lord  Erskine.  At  the  period  when  she  was 
appointed  to  the  regency  lord  Erskine  had 
received  from  the  three  estates  the  charge  of  this 
important  fortress,  with  the  injunction  to  hold  it 
till  he  should  know  their  farther  orders ;  and, 
giving  way  to  the  solicitations  of  neither  faction, 
he  had  kept  it  with  fidelity.  By  admitting  the 
queen-dowager,  he  yielded  to  sentiments  of 
honor  and  humanity,  and  yet  did  not  depart  from 
his  duty.  A  few  only  of  her  domestics  accom- 
panied her,  with  the  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews, 
the  bishop  of  Dunkeld,  and  the  earl  Marischal, 
The  confederated  nobles  now  assembled  at  Dal- 
keith  to  hold  a  council ;  and,  conforming  to 
those  maxims  of  prudence  and  equity  which, 
upon  the  eve  of  hostilities,  had  been  formerly 


exercised  by  them,  they  invited  the  queen- 
dowager  to  an  amicable  conclusion  of  the  present 
troubles.  In  a  letter  which  they  wrote  to  her 
they  called  to  her  remembrance  the  frequent 
manifestoes  and  messages  in  which  they  had 
pressed  her  to  dismiss  the  French  soldiery,  who 
had  so  long  oppressed  the  lower  ranks  of  the 
people,  and  who  threatened  to  reduce  the  king- 
dom itself  to  servitude.  The  aversion,  however, 
with  which  she  had  constantly  received  their 
suit  and  prayers  was  so  great  that  they  had 
given  way  to  a  strong  necessity,  and  had  intreated 
the  assistance  of  the  queen  of  England  to  expel 
these  strangers  by  force  of  arms.  But,  though 
they  had  obtained  the  powerful  protection  of  this 
princess,  they  were  yet  animated  with  a  becom- 
ing respect  for  the  mother  of  their  sovereign ; 
and,  abhorring  to  stain  the  ground  with  Chris- 
tian blood,  were  disposed  once  more  to  solicit 
the  dismission  of  these  mercenaries,  with  their 
officers  and  captains:  and,  that  no  just  objection 
might  remain  against  the  grant  of  this  their  last 
request,  they  assured  her  that  a  safe  passage  by 
land,  to  the  ports  of  England,  should  be  allowed 
to  the  French ;  or  that,  if  they  judged  it  more 
agreeable,  the  navy  of  queen  Elizabeth  should 
transport  them  to  their  own  country.  If  these 
proposals  should  be  rejected,  they  appealed  and 
protested  to  God  and  to  mankind,  that  no  motive 
of  malice,  or  hatred,  or  wickedness  of  any  kind, 
had  induced  them  to  employ  the  fatal  expedient 
of  arms ;  but  that  they  had  been  compelled  to 
this  distressful  remedy,  for  the  preservation  of 
their  commonwealth,  religion,  persons,  estates, 
and  posterity.  They  begged  her  to  waigh  the 
equity  of  their  petitions,  to  consider  the  incon- 
veniences of  war,  and  to  think  on  the  rest  and 
quiet  which  were  necessary  to  relieve  the  afflic- 
tions of  her  daughter's  kingdom ;  and  they  be- 
sought her  to  embalm  her  own  memory,  by  an 
immortal  deed  of  wisdom,  humanity,  and  jus- 
tice. To  give  authority  and  weight  to  the  letter 
of  the  associated  lords,  lord  Grey  directed  Sir 
George  Howard  and  Sir  James  Croft  to  wait 
upon  the  queen-dowager,  and  to  stipulate  the 
peaceable  departure  of  the  English  troops,  upon 
the  condition  that  the  French  mercenaries  were 
immediately  dismissed  from  her  service,  and  pro- 
hibited from  residing  in  Scotland.  Returning  no 
direct  answer  to  the  applications  made  to  her, 
she  desired  time  to  deliberate  upon  the  resolu- 
tion which  it  became  her  to  adopt.  This  equi- 
vocal behaviour  corresponded  with  the  spirit  of 
intrigue  which  had  uniformly  distinguished  the 
queen-dowager ;  and  it  is  probable  that  her  en- 
gagements with  France  did  not  permit  her  to  be 
explicit.  The  combined  armies  marched  towards 
Leith.  A  body  of  the  French,  posted  upon  a 
rising  ground,  called  Hawk  Hill,  disputed  their 
progress.  During  five  hours  the  conflict  was 
maintained  with  obstinate  valor.  At  length  the 
Scottish  horsemen  charged  the  French  with  a 
fury  which  they  were  unable  to  resist.  They 
fled  to  Leith  with  precipitation ;  and  might 
have  been  cut  off  from  it  altogether,  if  the 
English  cavalry  had  exerted  themselves :  300 
French  soldiers  perished  in  this  action,  and  a 
few  only  on  the  side  of  the  congregation.  Leith 


SCOTLAND. 


495 


was  invested.  The  pavilions  and  tents  of  the 
English  and  Scottish  nobility  were  planted  at 
llestalrig,  arid  around  it.  Trenches  were  cast ; 
and,  the  ordnance  from  the  town  annoying  the 
combined  armies,  a  mount  was  raised,  upon 
which  eight  cannons  were  erected.  A  continued 
fire  from  these,  against  St.  Anthony's  tower  in 
South  Leith,  being  kept  up  and  managed  with 
skill,  the  walls  of  this  fabric  were  shaken,  and 
the  French  found  it  necessary  to  dismount  their 
artillery.  Negligent  from  security,  and  appre- 
hensive of  no  attack,  the  English  and  Scottish 
officers  occupied  themselves  in  amusements,  and 
permitted  a  relaxation  of  military  discipline. 
The  French,  informed  of  this  levity,  made  a  sally 
from  Leith.  While  some  of  the  captains  were 
diverting  themselves  at  Edinburgh,  and  the 
soldiery  were  engaged  at  dice  and  cards,  they 
entered  the  trenches  unobserved,  and,  pushing 
their  advantage,  put  600  men  to  the  sword.  After 
this  slaughter,  the  Protestants  were  more  atten- 
tive to  their  affairs.  Mounts  were  built  at  proper 
distances,  which,  being  fortified  with  ordnance, 
served  as  places  of  retreat  and  defence  in  the 
event  of  sudden  incursions  ;  and  thus  they  con- 
tinued the  blockade  in  a  more  effectual  man- 
ner. The  army  under  the  marquis  D'Elbeuf, 
promised  so  often  to  the  queen-regent,  was  in 
vain  expected  by  her;  but  she  received,  at  this 
time,  supplies  in  money  and  military  stores  ;  and 
Monluc,  bishop  of  Valence,  though  defeated  in 
dexterity  by  Elizabeth  and  her  ministers,  had 
arrived  in  Scotland  to  try  anew  the  arts  of  nego- 
tiation. Conferences  were  held  by  him  with  the 
queen-dowager,  with  the  English  commanders, 
and  with  the  confederated  nobles ;  but  no  agree- 
ment could  be  concluded.  His  credentials  nei- 
ther extended  to  the  demolition  of  Leith,  nor  to 
the  recall  of  the  French  mercenaries  :  and,  though 
he  obtained  powers  from  his  court  to  consent  to 
the  former  of  these  measures,  they  were  yet 
burdened  with  conditions  which  were  disgraceful 
to  the  congregation ;  who,  in  the  present  pros- 
perous state  of  their  fortunes,  were  not  disposed 
to  give  up  any  of  the  objects  for  which  they  had 
struggled  so  long,  and  to  the  attainment  of 
which  they  now  looked  forward  with  a  settled 
hope.  Though  the  orations  of  Monluc  could 
not  overpower  the  stubborn  sense  of  the  congre- 
gation, yet  as  he  affected  to  give  them  admoni- 
tions and  warnings,  and  even  ventured  to  insult 
them  with  menaces,  they  appear  to  have  con- 
ceived a  high  indignation  against  him.  Under 
this  impulse,  and  that,  in  so  advanced  a  stage  of 
their  affairs,  they  might  exhibit  the  determined 
firmness  of  their  resolutions,  and  bind  to  them 
by  an  indissoluble  tie  the  earl  of  Huntly  and 
the  other  persons  who  had  joined  them  in  conse- 
quence of  the  English  alliance,  they  entered  into 
a  new  league  and  covenant,  more  solemn,  expres- 
sive, and  resolute,  than  any  which  they  had  yet 
subscribed.  The  nobles,  barons,  and  inferior 
persons,  v'io  were  parties  to  this  bond,  bound 
themselves  in  the  presence  of  Almighty  God,  as 
a  society,  and  as  individuals,  to  advance  and  set 
forward  the  reformation  of  religion,  and  to  pro- 
cure, by  every  possible  means,  the  true  preaching; 
of  the  Gospel,  with  the  proper  administration  of 
the  sacraments  and  other  ordinances.  Deeply 


affected,  at  the  same  time,  with  the  misconduct 
of  the  French  statesmen,  who  had  been  promoted 
to  high  offices ;  with  the  oppressions  of  the 
French  mercenaries,  whom  the  queen-dowager 
kept  up  and  maintained  under  the  color  of  au- 
thority ;  with  the  tyranny  of  their  captains;  and 
with  the  manifest  danger  of  conquest  to  which 
the  country  was  exposed,  by  different  fortifica- 
tions upon  the  sea-coast,  and  by  other  dangerous 
innovations  ;  they  promised  and  engaged,  gene- 
rally and  individually,  to  join  with  the  English 
army,  and  to  concur  in  an  honest,  plain,  and  un- 
reserved resolution  to  expel  all  foreigners  from 
the  realm,  as  oppressors  of  public  liberty  ;  that, 
by  recovering  the  ancient  rights,  privileges,  and 
freedom  of  their  nation,  they  might  live  for  the 
future  under  the  due  obedience  of  their  king  and 
queen,  be  ruled  by  the  laws  and  customs  of  the 
country,  and  by  officers  and  statesmen  born  and 
educated  among  them.  It  was  likewise  contracted 
and  agreed  by  the  subscribers  to  this  bond  and 
covenant  that  no  private  intelligence  by  writing 
or  message,  or  communication  of  any  kind,  should 
be  kept  up  with  their  adversaries.  When  the 
strong  and  fervid  sentiments  of  this  new  associa- 
tion were  communicated  to  the  queen-dowager, 
she  resigned  herself  to  sorrow.  Her  mind,  in- 
clined  to  despondence  by  the  increase  of  her 
malady,  felt  the  more  intensely  the  cruel  distrac- 
tions into  which  the  kingdom  had  been  driven 
by  the  ambition  of  France,  her  own  dealing 
affection  for  the  princes  of  Lorrain,  and  the  vain 
prognostications  of  flatterers.  In  the  agony  of 
passion  she  is  said  to  have  invoked  the  curse  of 
God  to  alight  upon  all  those  who  had  counselled 
her  to  persecute  the  preachers,  and  to  refuse  the 
petitions  of  the  most  honorable  portion  of  her  sub- 
jects. In  the  mean  time  the  siege  of  Leith  was  pro- 
secuted. But,  the  strength  of  the  garrison  amount- 
ing to  more  than  4000  soldiers,  the  operations  of 
the  besiegers  were  languid.  An  accidental  fire  in 
the  town,  which  destroyed  many  houses  and  a 
great  part  of  the  public  granary,  afforded  them 
an  opportunity  of  plying  their  artillery  with  some 
advantage;  and  a  few  days  after  they  made  n 
general  assault.  But  the  scaling-ladders  which 
were  applied  to  the  walls  being  too  short,  and 
Sir  James  Croft,  who  had  been  gained  to  the 
queen-dowager,  having  acted  a  treacherous  part, 
the  attempt  failed  of  success,  and  1000  men  were 
destroyed.  The  combined  armies,  however,  did 
not  lose  their  hopes.  The  English  and  Scots 
animated  the  constancy  of  one  another  ;  and  in 
the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  Berwick,  which 
was  now  made,  a  new  source  of  cordiality  opened 
itself.  Letters  also  had  come  from  the  duke  of 
Norfolk,  promising  a  powerful  reinforcement, 
giving  the  expectation  of  his  taking  upon  him 
the  command  of  the  troops  in  person,  and  order- 
ing his  pavilion  to  be  erected  in  the  camp.  Leith 
began  to  feel  the  misery  of  famine,  and  the 
French  to  give  themselves  to  despair.  The  be- 
siegers abounded  in  resources ;  and  the  arrival 
of  2000  men,  the  expected  reinforcement  from 
England,  gave  them  the  most  decisive  superiority 
over  their  adversaries.  Frequent  sallies  were 
made  by  the  garrison,  and  they  were  always  un- 
successful. Discouraged  by  defeats,  depressed 
with  the  want  of  provisions,  and  languishing 


496 


SCOTLAND. 


under  the  negligence  of  France,  they  were  ready 
to  submit  to  the  mercy  of  the  congregation. 
Amidst  these  distresses  the  queeri-dowasrfr, 
wasted  with  a  lingering  distemper  and  with  grief, 
expired  in  the  castle  of  Edinburgh.  A  few  days 
before  her  death  she  invited  to  her  the  duke  of 
Chatelherault,  lord  James  Stuart,  and  the  earls 
of  Argyle,  Glencairn,and  Marischal,  to  bid  them 
a  last  adieu.  She  expressed  to  them  her  sorrow 
for  the  troubles  of  Scotland,  and  made  it  her 
earnest  suit  that  they  would  consult  their  consti- 
tutional liberties,  by  dismissing  the  French  and 
English  from  their  country  ;  and  that  they  would 
preserve  a  dutiful  obedience  to  the  queen  their 
sovereign.  She  professed  an  unlimited  forgive- 
ness of  all  the  injuries  which  had  been  done  to 
her  ;  and  she  entreated  their  pardon  for  the 
offences  committed  against  them.  In  token  of 
her  kindness  and  charity  she  then  embraced 
them  by  turns,  while  the  tears  started  to  her 
eyes.  After  this  interview,  the  short  remaining 
portion  of  her  life  was  dedicated  to  religion  ;  and 
she  flattered  the  congregation  by  calling  John 
Willocks,  one  of  the  most  popular  of  their 
preachers,  to  assist  and  comfort  her  by  his  exhor- 
tations. He  made  long  discourses  to  her  about 
the  abominations  of  the  mass  ;  but  she  appears 
to  have  died  in  the  communion  of  the  Roman 
church ;  and  her  body,  being  transported  to 
France,  was  deposited  in  the  monastery  of  St. 
Peter,  at  Rheims,  in  Champagne,  where  her  sister 
Renee  was  abbess. 

The  death  of  the  queen-dowager,  at  a  period 
so  critical,  broke  altogether  the  spirit  of  the 
French  troops.  They  were  blocked  up  so  com- 
pletely that  it  was  almost  impossible  for  any  sup- 
plies to  reach  them  either  by  sea  or  land  ;  and 
France  had  delayed  so  long  to  fulfil  its  magnifi- 
cent promises  that  it  was  no  longer  in  a  capacity 
to  take  any  steps  towards  their  accomplishment. 
Its  internal  distress  and  disquiets  were  multi- 
plying. The  nobility,  impoverished  by  wars, 
were  courting  the  rewards  of  service,  and  strug- 
gling in  hostility :  the  clergy  were  avaricious, 
ignorant,  and  vindictive.  The  populace,  knowing 
no  trade  but  arms,  offered  their  swords  to  the 
insurgents.  Francis  II.  the  husband  of  Mary,  was 
without  dignity  or  understanding.  Catherine 
de  Medicis  his  mother  was  full  of  artifice  and 
falsehood  :  insurrections  were  dreaded  in  every 
province.  The  house  of  Guise  was  encompassed 
with  difficulties  and  trembling  with  apprehen- 
sions, so  that  they  could  not  think  of  persisting 
in  their  views  of  distant  conquests.  It  was 
chiefly  in  the  exemption  from  foreign  wars  that 
they  could  hope  to  support  their  own  greatness, 
and  apply  a  remedy  to  the  domestic  disturbances 
of  France.  It  appeared  to  Francis  and  Mary 
that  they  could  not  treat  in  a  direct  method  with 
the  congregation,  whom  they  affected  to  consider 
as  rebellious  subjects,  without  derogating  from 
their  dignity  ;  in  neprociating  for  a  peace,  there- 
fore, they  addressed  themselves  to  queen  Eliza- 
beth. They  granted  a  commission  to  John  Mon- 
luc,  bishop  of  Valence,  Nicholas  Relieve  bishop 
of  Amiens,  James  de  la  Brpsse,  Henry  Clentin 
lord  of  Oysel,  and  Charles  de  la  Rochefaucault 
lord  of  Randan ;  authorising  them  to  enter  into 
agreements  with  the  queen  of  England.  The 


English  commissioners  were  Sir  William  Cecil 
principal   secretary  of  state,   Nicholas  Wotton 
dean  of  Canterbury  and  York,  Sir  Ralph  Sadler, 
Sir  Henry  Percy,  and  Sir  Peter  Crew  ;  and  the 
powers  of  treaty  were  to  be  exercised  by  them 
all  in  conjunction,  or  by  four,  three,  or  two  of 
them.     The  plenipotentiaries  of  France,  though 
empowered  only  to  treat  with  England,  were  yet, 
by   a   separate   commission,   entrusted    also   to 
assure  the  congregation  that,  notwithstanding  the 
heinous   guilt   incurred    by  them,   Francis  and 
Mary  were  inclined  to  receive  them  into  favor 
upon  their  repentance  and  return  to  obedience; 
and  to   abstain  for  ever  from  all  enquiry  into 
their  conduct.     They  had  full  authority,  at  the 
same  time,  by  this  new  deed,  to  hear,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  commissioners  of  Elizabeuh,  their 
complaints,  and  to  grant,  with  their  consent,  the 
relief  which  appeared  most  proper  and  salutary. 
The  nobility  and  people  of  Scotland,  choosing  for 
their   representatives    lord   James    Stuart,    lord 
Ruthven,  and  Maitland  of  Lethington,  expressed 
their  willingness  to  concur  in   reasonable  mea- 
sures for  the  re-establishment  of  the  public  union 
and  tranquillity,  while,  by  a  formal  petition,  they 
enumerated  their  grievances,  claimed  a  redress 
of  them,  and  asked  a  uniform  protection  to  their 
constitution  and  laws.      To  this  petition  the  in- 
tercession of  queen  Elizabeth  effected  the  friendly 
atteution  of  Francis  and  Mary  ;  and  upon   the 
foundation  thus  concerted  Monluc  and  Randan, 
Cecil  and  Wotton,  the  acting  plenipotentiaries 
of  England  and  France,  drew  up  and  authenti- 
cated  the  celebrated  Deed  of  Relief  and  Con- 
cession, which  does  so  much  honor  to  l*ne  spirit, 
perseverance,  and  magnanimity  of  the  Scottish 
nation.  By  this  agreement  Francis  and  Mary  con- 
sented that  no  French  soldiers  or  foreign  troops 
should  ever  be  introduced  into  Scotland  with- 
out the  council  and  the  advice  of  the  three  estates. 
They  concurred  in  the  opinion  that  the  French 
mercenaries  should  be  sent  back  into  France, 
and  that  the  fortifications  of  Leith  should  be  de- 
molished; they  agreed  that  commissioners  should 
be  appointed  to  visit  Dunbar,  and  to  point  out 
the  works  there  which  ought  to  be  destroyed  : 
and  they  bound  themselves  to  build  no  new  for- 
tress or  place  of  strength  within  the  kingdom, 
and  to  repair  no  old  one  without  parliamentary 
authority.      They   consented   to   extinguish    all 
debts  which  had  been  contracted  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  French  and  Scottish  soldiery ;  ap- 
pointed the  estates  of  the  realm  to  hold  a  par- 
liament for  the  discussion    of  affairs   of  state; 
and  obliged  themselves  to  consider  the  acts  of 
this  assembly  as  valid  and  effectual.     They  con- 
firmed the  ancient  law  of  the  country,  which 
prohibited  the  princes  of  Scotland  from  making 
peace  or  war  without  the  advice  of  the  three 
estates.     It  was  agreed  by  them  that  the  three 
estates,  in  concurrence  with  the  queen,  should 
elect  a  council  for  the  administration  of  affairs 
during  her  majesty's  absence.  They  became  bound 
to  employ  the  natives  of  Scotland  in  the  manage- 
ment of  justice  both  civil  and  criminal,  in  the 
offices  of  chancellor,  keeperof  the  seals,  treasurer, 
comptroller,  and  in  other  similar  stations;  and 
to  abstain  from  the  promotion  of  all  foreigners 
to  places  of  trust  and  honor,  and  from  investing 


SCOTLAND. 


497 


any  clergyman  in  the  charge  of  affairs  of  the 
revenue.  They  further  determined  to  publish 
an  act  of  oblivion,  and  to  bury  for  ever  the  me- 
mory of  all  the  late  transactions.  They  concluded 
that  a  general  peace  and  reconciliation  should 
take  place  among  all  parties.  And  they  referred 
the  reparation  which  might  be  proper  to  compen- 
sate the  injuries  that  had  been  sustained  by 
bishops  and  ecclesiastics  to  the  judgment  of  the 
three  estates.  Upon  the  subject  of  reformation, 
the  plenipotentiaries  of  England  and  France  did 
not  choose  to  deliberate  and  deride,  although 
articles  with  regard  to  it  had  been  presented  to 
them  by  the  nobles  and  people.  They  referred 
this  delicate  topic  to  the  ensuing  meeting  of  the 
parliament ;  and  the  leaders  of  the  congregation 
engaged  that  deputies  from  the  three  estates 
should  repair  to  the  king  and  queen,  to  know 
their  intention  concerning  matters  of  such  high 
importance.  After  having  granted  these  conces- 
sions to  the  nobility  and  people  of  Scotland  upon 
the  part  of  their  respective  courts,  Monluc  and 
Randan,  Cecil  and  Wotton,  concluded  another 
deed  of  treaty  and  agreement.  By  this  it  was  de- 
termined that  the  English  and  French  troops 
should  depart  out  of  Scotland  ;  that  all  warlike 
preparations  should  cease ;  that  the  fort  of  Ey- 
mouth  should  be  razed,  in  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
Cambray ;  that  Francis  and  Mary  should  abstain 
from  bearing  the  title  and  arms  of  England  or 
Ireland';  that  it  should  be  considered  whether  a 
further  compensation  should  be  made  to  Eliza- 
beth for  the  injuries  committed  against  her;  and 
that  the  king  and  queen  of  Scots  should  be  fully 
and  sincerely  reconciled  to  the  nobility  and  the 
people  of  their  kingdom.  The  interests  of  Eng- 
land and  France  were  the  particular  objects  of 
this  agreement.  But,  though  the  concessions  to 
the  Protestants  were  not  inserted  in  it  at  full 
length,  an  express  reference  was  made  to  them; 
and  they  received  a  confirmation  in  terms  which 
could  not  be  misunderstood.  This  deed  recorded 
the  clemency  of  Francis  and  Mary  to  their  sub- 
jects of  Scotland,  the  extreme  willingness  of  the 
nobility  and  people  to  return  to  their  duty  and 
allegiance,  the  representation  they  had  offered  of 
their  grievance  and  the  request  of  queen  Eliza- 
beth that  redress  should  be  afforded  to  them  ; 
and  it  appealed  to  the  consequent  concessions 
which  had  been  stipulated  to  their  advantage. 
By  these  important  negociations  the  Protestants, 
while  they  humbled  France,  flattered  queen  Eli- 
zabeth ;  and,  while  they  acquired  a  power  to  act 
ii  the  establishment  of  the  reformation,  restored 
its  civil  constitution  to  Scotland.  The  exclusion 
v»f  foreigners  from  offices  of  state,  the  limitation 
*f  the  Scottish  princes  with  regard  to  peace  and 
war,  the  advancement  of  the  three  estates  to  their 
ancient  consequence,  and  the  act  of  oblivion  of 
all  offences,  were  acquisitions  most  extensively 
great  and  useful;  and,  while  they  gave  the  fullest 
security  to  tlie  reformed,  gratified  their  most  san- 
guine expectations. 

The  peace,  so  fortunately  concluded,  was  im- 
mediately proclaimed.  The  French  mercenaries 
embarked  for  their  own  country,  and  the  English 
fcrmy  took  the  road  to  Berwick.  Amidst  events 
so  joyful,  the  preachers  exhorted  the  confederated 
nobles  to  command  the  solemnity  of  a  thanks- 
VOL.  XIX. 


giving.  It  was  ordered  accordingly  ;  and,  after 
its  celebration,  the  commissioners  of  the  boroughs, 
with  several  of  the  nobility,  and  the  tenants  in 
capite,  were  appointed  to  choose  ministers  to 
preach  the  gospel  in  the  principal  towns  through- 
out the  kingdom.  John  Knox  was  called  to 
discharge  the  pastoral  functions  at  Edinburgh, 
Christopher  Goodman  at  St.  Andrews,  Adarn 
Heriot  at  Aberdeen,  John  Row  at  Perth,  Paul 
Methvcn  at  Jedburgh,  William  Christison  at 
Dundee,  David  Ferguson  at  Dunfermline,  and 
David  Lindsay  at  Leith.  That  the  business  of 
the  church  might  be  managed  with  propriety, 
superintendants  were  elected  to  preside  over  the 
ecclesiastical  affairs  of  provinces  and  distrirts. 
John  Spottiswood  was  named  the  superintendant 
for  Lothian,  Willocks  for  Glasgow,  John  Win- 
ram  for  Fife,  John  Erskine  of  Dun  for  Angus 
and  Mearns,  and  John  Carsewell  for  Argyle  and 
the  Isles.  This  gave  a  beginning  to  the  reformed 
church  of  Scotland.  Amidst  the  triumph  and 
exultation  of  the  Protestants,  the  meeting  of  the 
parliament  approached.  All  persons  who  had 
a  title  from  law,  or  from  ancient  custom,  to  at- 
tend the  great  council  of  the  nation,  were  called 
to  assemble  there  :  while  there  was  a  full  con- 
vention of  the  greater  barons  and  the  prelates, 
the  inferior  tenants  in  capite,  or  the  lesser  barons, 
upon  an  occasion  so  great,  instead  of  appearing 
by  representation,  came  in  crowds  to  give  per- 
sonally their  assistance  and  votes;  and  all  the 
commissioners  for  the  boroughs,  without  excep- 
tion, presented  themselves.  It  was  objected  to 
this  parliament,  when  it  was  assembled,  that  it 
could  not  be  valid,  since  Francis  and  Mary  were 
not  present,  and  had  not  empowered  any  person 
to  represent  them.  But,  by  the  terms  of  the  hue 
concessions  to  the  nobility  and  the  people,  they 
had  in  effect  dispensed  with  this  formality  ;  and 
the  objection,  after  having  been  agitated  witli 
heat  for  some  days,  was  rejected.  The  lords  of 
the  articles  were  then  chosen ;  and,  as  ihe  Pro- 
testant party  were  superior  to  the  popish  faction, 
they  were  careful  in  electing  the  members  of 
this  committee  to  favor  all  those  who  were  dis- 
posed to  forward  the  reformation.  The  first  ob- 
ject which  the  lords  of  the  articles  held  out  to  the 
parliament  was  the  supplication  of  the  nobility, 
gentry,  and  all  the  other  persons  who  professed 
the  new  doctrines.  It  required  that  the  Romish 
church  should  be  condemned  and  abolished.  It 
reprobated  transubstantiation,  (he  merit  of  works, 
papistical  indulgences,  purgatory,  pilgrimages, 
and  prayers  to  departed  saints ;  considering  them 
as  pestilent  errors,  and  as  fatal  to  salvation.  It 
demanded  that  all  those  who  should  teach  and 
maintain  them  should  be  exposed  to  correction 
and  punishment.  Also  that  a  remedy  should  be 
applied  against  the  profanation  of  the  holy  sacra- 
ments by  the  Roman  Catholics  ;  that  the  ancient 
discipline  of  the  church  should  be  restored  ;  that 
the  supremacy  and  authority  of  the  pope  should 
be  abolished ;  and  that  the  patrimony  of  the 
church  should  be  employed  in  supporting  the 
reformed  ministry,  in  the  provision  of  schools, 
and  in  the  maintenance  of  the  poor.  This  sup- 
plication of  the  Protestants  was  received  in  par- 
liament with  marks  of  the  greatest  respect.  The 
popish  doctrines  it  censured,  and  the  strong 

2  K 


493 


SCOTLAND. 


language  it  employed,  excited  no  dispute.  The 
nobility,  however,  and  the  lay  members,  did  not 
think  it  expedient  that  the  patrimony  of  the 
church,  in  all  its  extent,  should  be  allotted  to  the 
reformed  ministry,  and  the  support  of  schools 
and  the  poor.  Avoiding  therefore  any  explicit 
scrutiny  into  this  point,  the  parliament  gave  it  in 
charge  to  the  ministers  and  the  leading  men  of 
the  reformation,  to  draw  up  under  distinct  heads, 
the  substance  and  sense  of  those  doctrines  which 
ought  to  be  established  over  the  kingdom.  Within 
four  days  this  important  business  was  accom- 
plished. The  writing  or  instrument  to  which  the 
reformed  committed  their  opinions  was  termed 
4  The  Confession  of  Faith,  professed  and  believed 
by  the  Protestants  within  the  realm  of  Scotland.' 
(See  Knox's  Collection  of  Confessions  of  Faith, 
vol.  II.,  and  Slat.  Book  Parl.,  1567).  It  was 
read  first  to  the  lords  of  the  articles.  It  was 
then  read  to  the  parliament ;  and  the  prelates  of 
the  Romish  church  were  commanded,  in  the 
name  of  God,  to  make  publicly  their  objections 
to  the  doctrines  it  proposed.  They  preserved  a 
profound  silence.  A  new  diet  was  appointed  for 
concluding  the  transaction.  The  articles  of  the 
Confession  were  again  read  over,  and  the  votes 
of  the  parliament  were  called.  Of  the  temporal 
nobility,  three  only  refused  to  bestow  upon  it 
t:;eir  authority.  The  earl  of  Athol,  and  the  lords 
Somerville  and  Bothwel,  protested  that  '  they 
would  believe  as  their  fathers  had  done  before 
them.'  The  bishops  and  the  estate  ecclesiastical, 
from  a  consciousness  of  the  weakness  of  popery, 
seemed  to  have  lost  all  power  of  speech.  No 
dissent,  no  vote,  was  given  by  them.  '  It  is  long,' 
said  the  earl  Marisckal,  '  since  I  entertained  a 
jealousy  of  the  Romish  faith,  and  an  affection  to 
the  reformed  doctrines.  But  this  day  has  af- 
forded me  the  completest  conviction  of  the  false- 
hood of  the  one,  and  the  truth  of  the  other.  The 
bishops,  who  do  not  conceive  themselves  to  be 
deficient  in  learning,  and  whose  zeal  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  hierarchy  cannot  be  doubted,  have 
abandoned  their  religion,  and  their  interest  in  it,  as 
objects  which  admit  of  no  defence  or  justification.' 
All  the  other  constituent  members  of  this  great 
council  were  zealous  for  the  establishment  of  the 
reformation,  and  affirmed  the  propriety  of  its  doc- 
trines. Thus  the  high  court  of  parliament,  with 
great  deliberation  and  solemnity,  examined,  voted, 
and  ratified  the  confession  of  the  reformed  faith. 
A  few  days  after  the  establishment  of  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  the  parliament  passed  an  act 
against  the  mass  and  the  exercise  of  the  Romish 
worship.  It  ordained  that  all  persons  saying  or 
hearing  mass  should,  for  the  first  offence,  be  ex- 
posed to  the  confiscation  of  their  estates,  and  to 
a  corporal  chastisement,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
magistrates ;  that  for  the  second  offence  they 
should  be  banished  out  of  the  kingdom  ;  and, 
for  the  third,  they  should  incur  and  suffer  the 
pains  of  death.  This  fierceness,  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged, did  not  suit  the  generosity  of  vic- 
tory ;  and,  while  an  excuse  is  sought  for  it  in  the 
perfidiousness  of  the  Romish  priesthood,  it  es- 
capes not  the  observation  of  the  most  superficial 
historians  that  these  sererities  were  exactly  those 
of  which  the  Protestants  had  complained  so 
loudly,  and  with  so  much  justice.  By  another 


ordination  the  parliament,  after  having  declared 
that  the  pope  had  inflicted  a  deep  wound  upon 
the  sovereignty  and  government  of  Scotland,  by 
his  frequent  interferences  and  claims  of  power, 
decreed  that,  for  the  future,  his  jurisdiction  and 
authority  should  be  dead  and  extinct ;  and  that 
all  persons  maintaining  the  smallest  connexion 
with  him,  or  with  his  sect,  should  be  liable  to 
the  loss  of  honor  and  offices,  proscription,  and 
banishment.  These  memorable  and  decisive 
statutes  produced  the  overthrow  of  the  Romish 
religion.  To  obtain  to  these  proceedings  the 
approbation  of  Francis  and  Mary  was  an  object 
of  the  greatest  anxiety,  and  of  infinite  moment  to 
the  three  estates.  Sir  James  Sandilands,  lord  St. 
John,  was  therefore  appointed  to  go  to  France, 
and  to  express  to  the  king  and  queen  the  affection 
and  allegiance  of  their  subjects,  to  explain  what 
had  been  done  in  consequence  of  the  late  conces- 
sions and  treaty,  and  to  solicit  their  royal  ratifi- 
cation of  the  transactions  of  the  parliament.  The 
spirited  behaviour  of  the  congregation  had,  how- 
ever, exceeded  all  the  expectations  of  the  princes 
of  Lorraine ;  and  the  business  of  the  embassy, 
and  the  ambassador  himself,  though  a  man  of 
character  and  probity,  were  treated  not  only 
with  ridicule,  but  with  insult.  He  returned  ac- 
cordingly without  any  answer  to  his  commission. 
Instead  of  submitting  the  heads  of  a  reformation 
to  Francis  and  Mary,  by  a  petition,  the  parlia- 
ment had  voted  them  into  laws ;  and  from  this 
informality  the  validity  of  its  proceedings  has 
been  suspected :  but  it  is  observable  that  the 
Protestants  had  not  concealed  their  views  with 
regard  to  religion  and  the  abolition  of  Popery  ; 
that  in  the  grant  of  redress  and  concession,  and 
in  the  deed  of  treaty,  no  prohibition  was  made 
to  bar  the  establishment  of  the  reformation  ;  that 
a  general  authority  was  given  to  the  parliament 
to  decide  in  affairs  of  state ;  and  that  Francis  and 
Mary  were  solemnly  bound  to  authenticate  its 
transactions.  Though  a  formality  was  wanting, 
the  spirit  of  the  treaties  was  yet  respected  and 
maintained.  The  nation,  of  consequence,  im- 
puted the  conduct  of  Francis  and  Mary  to  po- 
litical reasons  suggested  by  the  princes  of  Lor- 
raine, and  to  the  artifices  of  the  Popish  clergy ; 
and  as  Elizabeth  did  not  refuse,  upon  her  part, 
the  ratification  of  the  agreements,  but  solicited 
and  pressed  the  French  court  to  adopt  the  same 
measure,  a  strength  and  force  were  thence  com- 
municated to  this  conclusion.  When  the  three 
estates  despatched  Sir  James  Sandilands  to 
France,  they  instructed  the  earls  of  Morton  and 
Glencairn,  with  Maitland  of  Lethington,  to  re- 
pair to  the  court  of  England.  By  these  ambas- 
sadors they  presented  to  Eli?abeth  their  respect- 
ful thanks  for  her  late  most  important  services; 
and,  while  they  solicited  the  continuance  of  her 
favor  and  protection,  entreated  that,  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  perpetual  peace  and  amity,  she 
would  be  pleased  to  take  in  marriage  the  earl  of 
Arran,  the  next  heir  after  his  father  to  the  Scottish 
monarchy.  The  queen  made  new  and  fervent 
protestations  of  her  regard,  and  promised  her 
warmot  aid  when  it  should  be  necessary,  in 
their  just  defence,  upon  any  future  occasion. 
She  spoke  in  obliging  terms  of  the  earl  of  Ar- 
ran ;  but,  as  she  found  in  herself  no  present  dis- 


SCOTLAND. 


49P 


position  to  marriage,  she  desired  that  lie  might 
consult  his  happiness  in  another  alliance.  She 
expressed  a  favorable  opinion  of  the  Scottish  no- 
bility ;  and,  as  a  demonstration  of  her  esteem, 
she  begged  them  to  consider  the  unanimity  of 
their  order  as  a  necessary  guard  against  the  am- 
bition and  the  artifices  of  the  enemies  of  their 
nation.  The  success  of  the  congregation,  though 
great  and  illustrious,  was  not  yet  completely 
decisive.  The  refusal  of  Francis  and  Mary  to 
ratify  their  proceedings  was  a  source  of  inquie- 
tude. The  Popish  party,  though  humbled,  was 
not  annihilated :  under  the  royal  protection  it 
might  soon  be  formidable.  Political  considera- 
tions might  arise,  not  only  to  cool  the  amity  of 
England,  but  even  to  provoke  its  resentment ; 
and  France,  though  it  could  now  transport  no 
army  against  Scotland,  might  soon  be  able  to 
adopt  that  expedient.  Severe  calamities  were 
still  therefore  to  be  dreaded.  In  the  narrowness 
of  their  own  resources  they  could  find  no  perma- 
nent security  against  the  rage  of  domestic  faction, 
and  the  strenuous  exertions  of  an  extensive  king- 
dom. While  the  anguish  of  melancholy  appre- 
hensions repressed  the  triumph  of  the  congrega- 
tion, the  event  which  could  operate  most  to  their 
interests  was  announced  to  them.  This  event 
•was  the  death  of  Francis  II.,  without  issue.  The 
tie  which  knit  Scotland  to  France  was  thus 
broken.  A  new  scene  of  politics  arose.  Cathe- 
rine de  Medicis,  the  queen-mother,  ruled  Charles 
IX.,  and  was  the  personal  enemy  of  the  queen  of 
Scots.  The  power  and  the  credit  which  Mary 
had  lent  to  her  uncles,  and  the  frequent  and 
humiliating  disappointments  which  the  queen- 
mother  had  suffered  from  her  influence  over 
Francis,  were  now  repaid  with  a  studied  neglect. 
In  the  full  perfection  of  her  charms,  with  two 
crowns  on  her  head,  and  looking  towards  a  third, 
she  felt  herself  to  be  without  grandeur  and  with- 
out consequence.  Leaving  a  court  where  she 
had  experienced  all  the  enjoyments  of  which 
humanity  is  susceptible,  she  retired  to  Rheims 
to  indulge  her  sorrow. 

In  the  humiliation  of  their  queen,  and  in  the 
change  produced  in  the  councils  of  France,  the 
Protestants  of  Scotland  found  every  possible 
encouragement  to  proceed  with  vigor  in  the  full 
establishment  of  the  reformed  doctrines.  After 
the  dissolving  of  the  parliament  they  turned  their 
attention  to  the  plan  of  policy  which  might  suit 
best  the  religion  for  which  they  had  contended. 
The  three  estates,  amidst  their  other  transactions, 
had  granted  a  commission  to  Messrs.  John  Win- 
ram,  John  Spottiswood,  John  Willocks,  John 
Douglas,  John  Row,  and  John  Knox,  to  frame 
and  model  a  scheme  of  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment. They  were  not  long  in  composing  the 
First  Book  of  Discipline ;  in  which  they  ex- 
plained the  uniformity  and  metlwx5  which  ought 
to  be  preserved  concerning  doctrine,  the  admin- 
istration of  the  sacraments,  the  election  and  pro- 
vision of  ministers,  and  the  policy  of  the  church. 
A  convention  of  the  estates  gave  its  sanction  to 
the  Presbyterian  scheme ;  but,  while  the  Book 
of  Discipline  sketched  out  a  policy  admired  for 
its  simplicity,  yet  it  required  that  the  patrimony 
and  the  rich  possessions  of  the  ancient  church 
should  be  allotted  to  the  new  establishment. 


The  reformers,  however,  so  successful  in  the 
doctrines  and  the  policy  they  had  proposed,  were 
here  very  unfortunate.  This  convention  of  the 
estates  did  not  pay  a  more  respectful  regard  to 
this  proposal  than  the  celebrated  parliament  had 
done,  which  demolished  the  mass  and  the  juris- 
diction of  the  see  of  Rome.  It  was  not  till  after 
long  and  painful  struggles  that  the  new  establish- 
ment was  able  to  procure  to  itself  a  becoming, 
or  even  necessary  provision  and  support.  The 
Romish  clergy  were  strenuous  to  continue  in  their 
possessions,  and  to  profit  by  them ;  and  the  nobles 
and  the  laity,  having  seized  upon  great  part  of  the 
property  of  the  church,  were  no  less  anxious  to 
retain  their  acquisitions.  The  aversion  enter- 
tained from  bestowing  riches  upon  the  Presby- 
terian establishment,  encouraged  the  ardor  which 
prevailed  for  advancing  all  the  other  views  and 
interests  of  the  reformed.  This  end  was  also 
promoted  by  the  insidious  policy  of  Catherine 
de  Medicis.  She  was  willing  to  increase  all  the 
difficulties  in  the  situation  of  the  queen  of  Scots 
and  her  subjects.  Upon  this  account  she  had 
engaged  Charles  IX.  to  despatch  M.  Noailles  to 
the  Scottish  parliament,  to  urge  it  in  strong  terms 
to  renew  the  ancient  league  between  the  two 
kingdoms,  to  dissolve  the  alliance  with  England, 
and  to  re-establish  over  Scotland  the  popish 
doctrines  and  the  popish  clergy.  A  new  meet- 
ing of  the  estates  was  assembled,  which  treated 
these  strange  requisitions  with  the  indignation 
they  merited.  M.  Noailles  was  instructed  to 
inform  his  sovereign  that  France  having  acted 
with  cruelty  and  perfidiousness  towards  the 
Scots,  by  attacking  their  independency  and 
liberties  under  the  pretence  of  amity  and  mar- 
riage, did  not  deserve  to  know  them  any  longer 
as  an  ally ;  that  principles  of  justice,  a  love  of 
probity,  and  a  high  sense  of  gratitude,  did  not 
permit  the  Scottish  parliament  to  break  the  con- 
federacy with  England,  which  had  generously 
protected  their  country  against  the  tyrannical 
views  of  the  French  court,  and  the  treacherous 
machinations  of  the  house  of  Guise ;  and  that 
they  were  never  to  acknowledge  the  popish 
clergy  to  be  a  distinct  order  of  men,  or  the  legal 
possessors  of  the  patrimony  of  the  church; 
since,  having  abolished  the  power  of  the  pope, 
and  renounced  his  doctrines,  they  could  bestow 
no  favor  or  countenance  upon  his  vassals  and 
servant"  To  this  council  of  the  estates  a  new 
supplication  was  presented  by  the  Protestants. 
They  departed  from  the  high  claim  which  they 
had  made  for  the  riches  and  patrimony  of  the 
popish  church;  and  it  was  only  requested  by 
them  that  a  reasonable  or  decent  provision 
should  be  allotted  to  the  true  preachers  of  the 
gospel.  This  application,  however,  was  treated 
with  neglect;  but,  amidst  the  anxiety  mani- 
fested by  the  nobles  and  the  tenants  of  the 
crown  to  hold  the  Presbyterian  clergy  in  subjec- 
tion and  in  poverty,  they  discovered  the  warm- 
est zeal  for  the  extension  and  continuance  of  the 
reformed  opinions.  For,  in  this  supplication  of 
the  Protestants,  an  ardent  desire  being  urged 
that  all  the  monuments  of  idolatry  which  re- 
mained should  be  utterly  destroyed,  the  fullest 
and  most  unbounded  approbation  was  given  to 
it.  An  act  accordingly  was  passed  which  com- 

2K2 


500 


SCOTLAND. 


mancled  that  every  abbey-church,  every  cloister, 
and  every  memorial  whatsoever  of  popery,  should 
be  finally  overthrown  and  demolished  ;  and  the 
care  of  this  popular  employment  was  committed 
to  those  persons  who  were  most  remarkable  for 
their  keenness  and  ardor  in  the  work  of  the  re- 
formation. Its  execution  in  the  western  coun- 
ties was  given  in  charge  to  the  earls  of  Arran, 
Argyle,  and  Glencairn;  lord  James  Stuart  at- 
tended to  it  in  the  more  northern  districts  ;  and, 
in  the  inland  divisions  of  the  country,  it  was 
intrusted  to  the  barons  in  whom  the  congregation 
had  the  greatest  confidence.  A  dreadful  devas- 
tation ensued.  The  populace,  armed  with  au- 
thority, spread  their  ravages  over  the  kingdom. 
The  churches  and  religious  houses  were  every 
where  defaced  or  pulled  to  the  ground ;  and 
their  furniture,  utensils,  and  decorations,  became 
the  property  of  the  invaders.  The  libraries  of 
the  ecclesiastics,  and  the  registers  of  their  trans- 
actions and  of  civil  affairs,  were  gathered  into 
heaps  and  burnt.  Religious  antipathy,  the 
sanction  of  law,  the  exhortation  of  the  clergy, 
the  hope  of  spoil,  and  the  ardor  to  put  the  last 
hand  to  the  reformation,  concurred  to  drive  the 
rage  of  the  people  to  its  wildest  fury.  The 
death  of  Francis  II.  having  left  his  queen  Mary 
ii  a  very  disagreeable  situation  in  France,  she 
now  began  to  think  of  returning  to  her  own 
country.  To  this  she  was  solicited  both  by  the 
Protestants  and  Papists ;  the  former  that  they 
might  gain  her  over  to  their  party  ;  and  the  lat- 
ter, hoping  that,  as  Mary  was  of  their  own  per- 
suasion, popery  might  be  re-established  in  Scot- 
land. For  this  deputation  the  Protestants  chose 
lord  James  Stuart,  and  the  Papists  John  Lesly, 
official  and  vicar-general  of  the  diocese  of  Aber- 
deen. The  latter  got  the  start  of  the  Protestant 
ambassador,  and  thus  had  the  opportunity  of 
first  delivering  his  message.  He  advised  her 
strongly  to  beware  of  lord  James  Stuart,  whom 
he  represented  as  a  man  of  unbounded  ambition, 
who  had  espoused  the  Protestant  cause  for  no 
•other  reason  than  that  he  might  advance  himself 
to  the  highest  employments  in  the  state;  nay, 
that  he  had  already  fixed  his  mind  on  the  crown. 
For  these  reasons  he  advised  that  lord  James 
should  be  confined  in  France  till  the  government 
of  Scotland  could  be  completely  established; 
but  if  the  queen  was  averse  to  this  measure,  he 
compelled  her  to  land  in  some  of  the  northern 
districts  of  Scotland,  where  her  friends  were 
most  numerous ;  in  which  case  an  army  of 
20,000  men  would  accompany  her  to  Edinburgh, 
to  restore  the  Popish  religion,  and  to  overawe 
her  enemies.  The  next  day  lord  James  Stuart 
waited  upon  her,  and  gave  an  advice  very  differ- 
ent from  that  of  Lesly.  The  surest  method  of 
preventing  insurrections,  he  said,  was  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  Protestant  religion ;  that  a 
standing  army  and  foreign  troops  would  certainly 
lose  the  affections  of  her  subjects ;  for  which 
reason  he  advised  her  to  visit  Scotland  without 
{niards  and  without  soldiers,  and  he  became 
Solemnly  bound  to  secure  their  obedience  to  her. 
To  this  advice  Mary,  though  she  distrusted  its 
author,  listened  with  attention ;  and  lord  James 
took  care  to  improve  the  favorable  opportunity; 
by  which  IIILMIIS  In-  obtained  a  promise  of  the 


earldom  of  Marre.  Before  Mary  set  out  from 
France  she  received  an  embassy  from  queen 
Elizabeth,  pressing  her  to  ratify  the  treaty  of 
Edinburgh,  in  which  she  had  taken  care  to  get  a 
clause  inserted  that  Francis  and  Mary  should 
for  ever  abstain  from  assuming  the  title  and  arms 
of  England  and  Ireland.  But  this  was  declined 
by  the  queen  of  Scotland,  who,  in  her  conference 
with  the  English  ambassadors,  gave  proof  of  her 
political  abilities.  Her  refusal  greatly  augmented 
the  jealousies  which  already  prevailed  between 
her  and  Elizabeth,  insomuch  that  the  latter  re- 
fused her  a  safe  passage  through  her  dominions. 
This  was  considered  by  Mary  as  a  high  indig- 
nity ;  she  returned  a  very  spirited  answer,  in- 
forming her  rival  that  she  could  return  to  her 
dominions  without  any  assistance  from  her,  or 
indeed  whether  she  would  or  not.  In  August 
1561  Mary  set  sail  from  Calais  for  Scotland. 
She  left  France  with  much  regret ;  and  at  night 
ordered  her  couch  to  be  brought  upon  deck, 
desiring  the  pilot  to  awaken  her  in  the  morning 
if  the  coast  of  France  should  be  in  view.  The 
night  proved  calm,  so  that  the  queen  had  an 
opportunity  once  more  of  indulging  herself  with 
a  sight  of  that  beloved  country ;  a  favorable 
wind  now  sprung  up,  and,  a  thick  fog  coming  on, 
she  escaped  a  squadron  of  men  of  war  which 
Elizabeth  had  sent  out  to  intercept  her :  on  the 
20th  of  August  she  landed  safely  at  Leith. 

Though  the  Scots  received  their  queen  with  the 
greatest  demonstrations  of  joy,  it  was  not  long  be- 
fore an  irreconcileable  quarrel  arose.  The  Pro- 
testant religion  was  now  established  all  over  the 
kingdom  ;  and  its  possessors  had  so  far  deviated 
from  their  own  principles,  or  what  ought  to  have 
been  their  principles,  that  they  would  grant  no 
toleration  to  the  opposite  party,  nor  even  to  the 
sovereign  herself.  Inconsequence  of  this,  when 
the  queen  attempted  to  celebrate  mass  in  her 
own  chapel  of  Holyrood  House,  a  violent  mob 
assembled,  and  it  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty 
that  lord  James  Stuart  and  other  persons  of  dis- 
tinction could  appease  the  tumult.  Mary  at- 
tempted to  allay  these  ferments  by  a  proclama- 
tion, in  which  she  promised  to  take  the  advice 
of  the  states  in  re'igious  matters ;  and,  in  the 
mean  time,  declared  it  to  be  death  for  any  per- 
son to  attempt  an  innovation  or  alteration  of  the 
religion  now  established  in  Scotland.  Against 
this  proclamation  the  earl  of  Arran  protested, 
and  told  the  herald  that  the  queen's  proclama- 
tion should  not  protect  her  attendants  and  ser- 
vants if  they  presumed  to  commit  idolatry  and 
to  say  mass.  John  Knox  declared  from  the 
pulpit  that  one  mass  was  more  terrible  to  him 
than  if  10,000  armed  enemies  had  landed  in  any 
part  of  the  kingdom  to  re-establish  popery.  The 
preachers  every  where  declaimed  against  idolatry 
and  the  mass;  keeping  up,  by  their  mistaken 
zeal,  a  spirit  of  discontent  and  sedition  through- 
out the  whole  kingdom.  Knox  was  called 
before  the  queen  to  answer  for  the  freedom  of 
his  speeches  ;  but  his  unbounded  boldness  gave 
Mary  much  disquiet.  The  freedoms,  however, 
which  were  taken  with  the  queen,  could  not  in- 
duce her  to  depart  from  the  plan  of  government 
which  she  had  laid  down.  To  the  Protestants 
she  resolved  to  pay  the  greatest  attention;  from 


SCOTLAND. 


501 


among  them  she  chose  her  privy  council,  and 
heaped  favors  upon  lord  James  Stuart,  who,  for 
his  activity  in  promoting  the  reformation,  was 
the  most  popular  man  in  the  kingdom  ;  while,  to 
her  courtiers  of  the  Roman  Catholic  persuasion, 
she  behaved  with  a  distant  formality.  In  the 
mean  time  the  difference  between  the  two  rival 
queens  became  every  day  greater.  The  queen 
of  Scotland  pressed  Elizabeth  to  declare  her 
the  nearest  heir  to  the  crown  of  England,  and 
Elizabeth  pressed  Mary  to  confirm  the  treaty  of 
Edinburgh.  With  this  the  latter  could  not 
comply,  as  it  would  in  fact  have  been  renouncing 
for  ever  the  title  to  that  crown  for  which  she  was 
so  earnestly  contending.  Endless  negociations 
were  the  consequence,  and  the  hatred  of  Eliza- 
beth to  Mary  continually  increased.  This  year 
the  queen  of  Scotland  amused  herself  by  making 
a  circuit  through  part  of  her  dominions.  From 
Edinburgh  she  proceeded  to  Stirling ;  thence  to 
Perth,  Dundee,  and  St.  Andrews.  Though 
received  every  where  with  the  greatest  acclama- 
tions and  marks  of  affection,  she  could  not  but 
remark  the  rooted  aversion  which  had  universally 
taken  place  against  popery ;  and,  upon  her 
return  to  Edinburgh,  her  attention  was  called  to 
an  exertion  of  this  zeal,  which  may  be  consi- 
dered as  highly  characteristic  of  the  times.  The 
magistrates  of  this  city,  after  their  election, 
enacted  rules,  according  to  custom,  for  the  go- 
vernment of  their  borough.  By  one  of  these 
acts,  which  they  published  by  proclamation,  they 
commanded  all  monks,  friars,  and  priests,  toge- 
ther with  all  adulterers  and  fornicators,  to  depart 
from  the  town  and  its  limits  within  twenty-four 
hours,  under  the  pains  of  correction  and  punish- 
ment. Mary,  interpreting  this  exertion  of  power 
to  be  a  usurpation  of  the  royal  authority  and  a 
violation  of  order,  displaced  the  magistrates, 
commanded  the  citizens  to  elect  others  in  their 
room,  and  granted  by  proclamation  a  plenary 
indulgence  to  all  her  subjects  not  convicted  of 
any  crime,  to  repair  to,  and  remain  in,  her 
capital  at  their  pleasure.  Besides  these  dis- 
turbances on  account  of  religion,  the  kingdom 
was  now  in  confusion  on  another  account.  The 
long  continuance  of  civil  wars  had  left  a  prone- 
ness  to  tumults  and  insurrections  every  where  ; 
and  thefts,  rapine,  and  licentiousness  of  every 
kind,  threatened  to  subvert  the  foundations  of 
civil  society.  Mary  made  considerable  prepara- 
tions for  the  suppression  of  these  disorders,  and 
appointed  lord  James  Stuart  her  chief  justiciary 
and  lieutenant.  He  was  to  hold  criminal  courts 
at  Jedburgh,  and  at  Dumfries.  To  assist  his 
operations  against  the  banditti,  who  were  armed, 
and  often  associated  into  bodies,  a  military  force 
was  necessary ;  but,  as  there  were  then  neither 
standing  army  nor  regular  troops  in  the  kingdom, 
the  county  of  Edinburgh  and  ten  others  were 
commanded  to  have  their  strength  in  readiness 
to  assist  him.  The  feudal  tenants,  and  the  allo- 
dial or  free  proprietors  of  these  districts,  in 
complete  armor,  and  with  provisions  for  twenty 
days,  were  appointed  to  be  subservient  to  the 
purposes  of  his  commission,  and  to  obey  his 
orders  in  establishing  the  public  tranquillity.  In 
this  expedition  he  was  attended  with  his  usual 
success.  He  destroyed  many  of  the  strong 


holds  of  the  banditti,  hanged  twenty  of  the 
most  notorious  offenders,  and  ordered  fifty  more 
to  be  carried  to  Edinburgh,  to  suffer  the  penal- 
ties of  the  law  for  their  rebellious  behaviour.  He 
entered  into  terms  with  lord  Grey  and  Sir  John 
Foster,  the  wardens  of  the  English  borders,  for 
the  mutual  benefit  of  the  two  nations;  and  he 
commanded  the  chiefs  of  the  disorderly  clans  to 
submit  to  the  queen.  In  the  mean  time  the 
queen  was  in  a  very  disagreeable  situation,  being 
suspected  and  disturbed  by  both  parties.  From 
the  concessions  she  had  made  to  the  Protestants, 
the  Papists  supposed  that  she  had  a  design  of 
renouncing  their  religion  altogether ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  Protestants  could  scarcely 
allow  themselves  to  believe  that  they  owed  any 
allegiance  to  an  idolater.  Disquiets  of  another 
kind  also  now  took  place.  The  duke  of  Chatel- 
herault,  having  left  the  Catholics  to  join  the 
opposite  party,  was  neglected  by  his  sovereign. 
Being  afraid  of  danger  he  fortified  the  castle  of 
Dumbarton,  which  he  resolved  to  defend ;  and, 
in  case  of  necessity,  to  put  himself  under  the 
protection  of  the  queen  of  England.  The  earl 
of  Arran  was  a  man  of  weak  abilities,  but  of 
boundless  ambition.  The  queen's  beauty  had 
made  an  impression  on  his  heart,  and  his  ambi- 
tion made  him  fancy  himself  the  fittest  person 
in  the  kingdom  for  her  husband.  But  his  fana- 
ticism, and  the  violence  with  which  he  had  op- 
posed the  mass,  disgusted  her.  He  bore  her 
dislike  with  an  uneasiness  that  preyed  upon  his 
intellects  and  disordered  them.  The  earl  of 
Bothwel  was  distinguished  chiefly  by  his  prodi- 
galities and  the  licentiousness  of  his  manners. 
The  earl  of  Marischal  had  every  thing  that  was 
honorable  in  his  intentions,  but  was  over  wary. 
The  earl  of  Morton  possessed  penetration  and 
ability,  but  was  attached  to  no  party  from  any 
principles  of  rectitude ;  his  own  interests  were 
the  motives  which  governed  him.  The  earl  of 
Huntly,  the  lord  chancellor,  was  unquiet,  varia- 
ble, and  vindictive.  The  earls  of  Glencairn 
and  Monteith  were  exceedingly  zealous  for  the 
new  opinions ;  and  this,  as  well  as  their  poverty, 
recommended  them  to  queen  Elizabeth.  Among 
courtiers  of  this  description  it  was  difficult  for 
Mary  to  make  a  selection  of  ministers  in  whom 
to  confide.  The  popularity  of  lord  James 
Stuart,  and  of  Maitland  of  Lethington,  had  early 
pointed  them  out  to  this  distinction ;  and 
hitherto  they  had  acted  to  her  satisfaction.  They 
were  each  of  eminent  capacity ;  but  the  former 
was  suspected  of  aiming  at  the  sovereignty ;  the 
latter  was  prone  to  duplicity ;  and  both  were 
more  connected  with  Elizabeth  than  became 
them  as  the  ministers  and  subjects  of  another 
sovereign.  Beside  the  policy  of  employing  and 
trusting  statesmen  who  were  Protestants,  and  the 
precaution  of  maintaining  a  firm  peace  with 
England,  Mary  had  it  also  at  heart  to  enrich  the 
crown  with  the  revenues  of  the  ancient  church 
A  convention  of  estates  was  assembled  to  deli- 
berate upon  this  measure.  The  bishops  were 
alarmed  with  their  perilous  situation.  They 
were  told  that  the  charge  of  the  queen's  house- 
hold required  an  augmentation;  and  that,  as  the 
rents  of  the  church  had  flowed  chiefly  from  the 
crown,  it  was  expedient  that  a  proportion  of 


502 


S  0  O  T  L  K  N  0. 


them  should  now  be  resumed  to  uphold  its 
splendor.  After  long  consultations,  the  prelates 
and  estate  ecclesiastical,  considering  that  they 
existed  merely  by  the  favor  of  the  queen,  con- 
sented to  resign  to  her  the  third  part  of  their 
benefices ;  with  the  reservation  that  they  should 
be  secured  during  their  lives  against  all  farther 
payments,  and  relieved  from  the  burden  of  the 
maintenance  of  the  reformed  clergy.  With  this 
offer  the  queen  and  the  convention  of  estates 
were  satisfied.  Rentals,  accordingly,  of  all  their 
benefices  throughout  the  kingdom,  were  ordered 
to  be  produced  by  the  ancient  ecclesiastics ;  the 
reformed  ministers,  superintendants,  elders,  and 
deacons,  were  enjoined  to  make  out  registers  of 
the  grants  necessary  to  support  their  establish- 
ment ;  and  a  power  of  judging  in  these  matters 
was  committed  to  the  queen  and  the  privy 
council.  While  the  prelates  and  estate  ecclesi- 
astical submitted  to  this  offer  from  the  necessity 
of  their  affairs,  it  was  by  no  means  acceptable 
to  the  reformed  clergy,  who  at  this  time  were 
holding  an  assembly.  It  was  their  wish  to  effect 
the  entire  destruction  of  the  ancient  establish- 
ment, to  succeed  to  a  large  proportion  of  their 
emoluments,  and  to  be  altogether  independent  of 
the  crown.  But  the  nobles  and  gentlemen  who 
had  promoted  the  reformation  thought  very 
differently.  To  give  too  much  of  the  wealth  of 
the  church  to  the  reformed  clergy  was  to  invest 
them  with  a  dangerous  power.  To  give  too 
great  a  proportion  of  it  to  the  crown  was  a  step 
still  more  dangerous.  At  the  same  it  was  equit- 
able that  the  ancient  clergy  should  be  maintain- 
ed during  their  lives ;  and  it  consisted  with  the 
private  interests  of  the  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
who  had  figured  during  the  reformation,  not  to 
give  consent  to  any  scheme  that  would  deprive 
them  of  the  spoils  of  which  they  had  already 
possessed  themselves  out  of  the  ruins  of  the 
church.  Thus  public  as  well  as  private  consi- 
derations contributed  to  separate  and  divide  the 
lay  protestants  and  the  preachers.  The  general 
assembly,  therefore,  was  not  successful  in  the 
views  which  had  called  them  together,  and  which 
they  submitted  to  the  convention  of  the  estates. 
Doubts  were  entertained  whether  the  church  had 
any  title  to  assemble  itself.  The  petition  for  the 
complete  abolition  of  idolatry,  or  for  the  utter 
prohibition  of  the  mass,  was  rejected.  The  re- 
quest that  Mary  would  give  authority  to  the 
book  of  discipline  was  not  only  refused,  but 
even  treated  with  ridicule.  The  only  point 
pressed  by  the  church,  which  attracted  any 
notice,  was  its  requisition  of  a  provision  or 
a  maintenance;  but  the  measure  invented 
for  this  end  was  in  opposition  to  all  its  warmest 
desires. 

This  measure,  however,  so  unpromising  to  the 
preachers  in  expectation,  was  found  to  be  still 
more  unsatisfactory  upon  trial.  The  wealth  of 
the  Romish  church  had  been  immense,  but  great 
invasions  had  been  made  upon  it.  The  fears  of 
the  ecclesiastics,  upon  the  overthrow  of  popery, 
induced  them  to  engage  in  fraudulent  transac- 
tions with  their  relations ;  in  consequence  of 
which  many  possessions  were  conveyed  from  the 
church  into  private  hands.  Long  leases  of  church- 
lands,  or  in  perpetuity,  were  granted  to  stra; 


Sales  also  of  ecclesias'icnl  property,  to  a  great 
extent,  had  been  made  by  the  incumbents  ;  and 
a  validity  was  supposed  to  be  given  to  these 
transactions  by  conrirmatkms  from  the  pope. 
Even  the  crown  had  contributed  to  make  im- 
proper dispositions  of  the  ecclesiastical  land 
revenues.  Laymen  had  been  presented  to  bishop- 
rics and  church-livings,  with  the  power  of  dis- 
posing of  the  territory  in  connexion  with  them, 
in  this  diffusion  of  the  property  of  the  church 
much  extensive  domain  came  to  be  invested  in 
the  'nobles  and  the  gentry.  From  these  causes, 
the  grant  of  the  third  of  their  benefices,  made  by 
the  ancient  ecclesiastics  to  the  queen,  with  the 
burden  of  maintaining  the  reformed  clergy,  \vas 
not  nearly  so  considerable  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected. But,  the  direction  of  the  scheme  being 
lodged  in  the  queen  and  the  privy-council,  the 
advantage  to  the  crown  was  still  greater  than  that 
bestowed  upon  the  preachers.  Yet  the  carry iii' 
the  project  into  execution  was  not  without  its 
inconveniences.  There  were  still  many  oppor- 
tunities for  artifice  and  corruption.  The  ecclesi- 
astics often  produced  false  rentals  of  their  bene- 
fices ;  and  the  collectors  for  the  crown  were  not 
always  faithful  to  their  trust.  The  complete 
produce  of  the  thirds  did  not  amount  to  a  great 
sum  ;  and  it  was  to  operate  to  the  expense's  of 
the  queen,  as  well  as  to  the  support  of  the 
preachers.  A  scanty  proportion  went  to  the 
latter;  and  yet  the  persons  chosen  to  fix  their 
particular  stipends  were  the  fast  friends  of  the 
reformation  ;  for  this  business  was  committed  to 
the  earls  of  Argyle  and  Morton,  lord  James 
Stuart,  and  Maitland  of  Lethington,  with  James 
Mackgill  the  clerk  register,  and  Sir  John  Ballen- 
den  the  justice-clerk  :  100  Scottish  merks  were 
deemed  sufficient  for  a  common  minister.  To 
clergymen  of  greater  interest,  or  who  exercised 
their  functions  in  more  extensive  parishes,  300 
merks  were  allotted;  and,  excepting  to  superin- 
tendants, this  sum  was  seldom  exceeded.  To 
the  earl  of  Argyle,  lord  James  Stuart,  and  lord 
Erskine,  who  had  large  ecclesiastical  revenues, 
their  thirds  were  usually  remitted  by  the  queen ; 
and,  upon  the  establishment  of  this  fund  or 
revenue,  she  also  granted  many  pensions  to  per- 
sons about  her  court  and  of  her  household.  The 
complaints  of  the  preachers  were  made  with  little 
decency.  To  a  mean  spirit  of  flattery  to  the 
reigning  power  they  imputed  the  defection  of 
their  friends ;  and  against  the  queen  they  were 
animated  with  the  bitterest  animosity.  The 
poverty  in  which  they  were  suffered  to  remain 
inflamed  all  their  passions,  and  inveterate  habits 
of  insult  fortified  them  into  a  contempt  of  au- 
thority. To  the  queen,  whose  temper  was  warm, 
the  rudeness  of  the  preachers  was  an  endless 
inquietude,  which,  while  it  fostered  her  religious 
prejudices,  had  the  good  effect  to  confirm  her 
constancy  to  her  friends.  Lord  James  Stuart, 
who  was  entitled  to  her  respect  and  esteem  from 
his  abilities,  and  his  proximity  to  her  in  blood, 
had  merited  rewards  and  honors  by  his  public 
services  and  the  vigor  of  his  counsels.  After  his 
successful  discharge  of  her  commission,  as  chief 
justiciary  and  lord  lieutenant,  she  could  not 
think  of  allowing  him  to  descend  from  these 
offices  without  bestowing  upon  him  a  solid  and 


SCOTLAND. 


503 


permanent  mark  of  her  favor.     She  advanced 
liim  into  the  rank  of  her  nobility,  by  conferring 
upon  him  the  earldom  of  Mar  ;  and  contributed 
to  augment  his  consequence  by  facilitating  his 
marriage  with  Agnes  the  daughter  of  the  earl  of 
Marischal;  and  the  ceremonial  of  this  alliance 
was  celebrated  with  a  magnificence  and  ostenta- 
tion so  extravagant  in  that  age  as  to  excite  the 
fears  of  the  preachers  lest  some  avenging  judg- 
ment should  afflict  the  land.     They  exclaimed 
with  virulence   against  his  riotous  feasting  and 
banquets  ;  and  especially  against  his  masque- 
rades.    In  fact  the  abilities  of  the  earl  of  Mar, 
the  ascendancy  he  maintained  in  the  councils  of 
his  sovereign,  and  the  distinctions  which  he  had 
acquired,  exposed  him  to  envy.     The  most  for- 
midable and  desperate  of  his  enemies  was  the 
earl  of  Huntly.     In  their  rivalship  for  power, 
many  causes  of  disgust  had  arisen.     The  one 
was  at  the  head  of  the  Protestants,  the  other  of 
the   papists.     Upon   the  death  of  Francis  II., 
llnntly  and  the  popish  faction  had  sent  a  depu- 
tation to  Mary,  inviting  her  to  return  to  Scotland, 
and  offering  to  support  her  with   an   army  of 
20,000  men.    His  oner  was  treated  with  civility, 
but  rejected.     The  invitation  of  the  Protestants, 
presented  by  the  earl  of  Mar,  was  more  acceptable 
to  her.     Huntly  had  advised  her  to  detain  his 
rival  in  confinement  in  France  till  the  Roman 
Catholic   religion   should  be   re-established    in 
Scotland.    This  advice  she  not  only  disregarded, 
but  treated  his  enemy  with  particular  civilities. 
Upon  her  arrival  in  Scotland,  Huntly  renewed 
his  advances,  offering  to  her  to  set  up  the  mass 
in  all  the  northern  counties.    He  even  conversed 
upon  this  subject  with  her  uncles  and  her  French 
courtiers.     Still  no  attention  was  paid  to  him. 
He  came  to  her  palace,  and  was  received  only 
witn    respect.      He   was   lord   high   chancellor 
without  influence,  and  a  privy  counsellor  with- 
out trust.    The  earl  of  Mar  had  her  confidence, 
and  was  drawing  to  him  the  authority  of  govern- 
ment.   These  were  cruel  mortifications  to  a  man 
of  high   rank,    inordinate    ambition,    immense 
wealth,   and   who   commanded   numerous   and 
warlike  retainers.     But   he   was  yet   to  feel   a 
stroke  still  more  severely  excruciating,  and  far 
more  destructive  of  his  consequence.     The  opu- 
lent estate  of  Mar,  which  Mary  had  erected  into 
an  earldom,  and  conferred  upon  his  rival,  had 
been  lodged  in  his  family  for  some  time.     He 
considered  it  as  his  property,  and  that  it  was 
never  to  be  torn  from  his  house.     This  blow  at 
once  insulted  most  sensibly  his  pride,  and  cut 
'most  fatally  the  sinews  of  his  greatness.     After 
employing  against  the  earl  of  Mar  those  arts  of 
detraction  and  calumny  which  are  so  common  in 
courts,  he  drew  up  a  formal  memorial,  in  which 
he  accused  him  of  aiming  at  the  sovereignty  of 
Scotland.  This  paper  he  presented  to  the  queen ; 
but,  the  arguments  with  which  he  supported  his 
charge  being  weak,  she  was  the  more  confirmed 
in  her  attachment  to  her  minister.    Huntly  then 
addressing  himself  to  the  earl  of  Bothwel,  a  man 
disposed  to  desperate  enterprises,  engaged  him  to 
attempt  to  involve  the  earl  of  Mar  and  the  house 
of  Hamilton   in   open   and  violent  contention. 
Bothwel  represented  to  Mar  the  enmity  which 
had  long  subsisted  between  him  and  the  house  of 


Hamilton.     It  was  an  obstacle  to  his  greatness  ; 
and  while  its  destruction  might  raise  him  to  the 
highest  pinnacle  of  power,  it  would  be  most  ac- 
ceptable  to   the   queen.      He   concluded   with 
making  an  unlimited  offer  of  his  services  in  the 
execution  of  this  flagitious  enterprise.     The  earl 
of  Mar,  however,  abhorring  the  baseness  of  the 
project,  rejected  his  advances.      Bothwel,  thus 
disappointed,  next  practised  with  the  house  of 
Hamilton  to  assassinate  the  earl,  whom  they  con- 
sidered as  their  greatest  enemy.      The  business, 
he  said,  might  be   performed  with  ease.     The 
queen  was  accustomed  to  hunt  in  the  park  of 
Falkland ;    and  there  Mar,  slenderly  attended, 
might  be  put  to  death ;  the  person  of  the  queen 
might  be  seized  ;  and,  by  detaining  her  in  cus- 
tody, a  sanction  might  be  given  to  their  crime. 
The   integrity   of  the  earl    of  Arran,   revolting 
against  this  conspiracy,   defeated  its  purposes. 
Dreading  the  perpetration  of  so  cruel  an  action, 
and  yet  sensible  of  the  resolute  determination  of 
his   friends,   he  wrote  privately  to  the  earl  in- 
forming him  of  his  danger.     But  the  answer  of 
Mar  to  this  letter,  thanking  him  for  his  intelli- 
gence,   being  intercepted  by   the  conspirators, 
Arran  was  confined  by  them  under  a  guard  in 
Kinneil  House.     He  escaped,  however,  and  dis- 
covered the  plot  to  the  queen.     But,  as  he  could 
produce  no  witnesses  or  written  vouchers,  he  of- 
fered  to   prove   his  information,    by   engaging 
Bothwel  in  single  combat.      And  though,  in  his 
examinations  before  the  privy  council,  his  love 
to  the  queen,  his  attachment  to  the  earl  of  Mar, 
the   atrocity  of  the  scheme  he    revealed,   and, 
above  all  his  concern  for  his  father,  the  duke  of 
Chatelherault,  threw  him  into  a  perturbation  of 
mind  which   expressed   itself  violently   in   his 
speech,  his  countenance,  and   his  actions ;  yet 
his  declarations  were  so  consistent  and  firm,  that 
it  was  thought  advisable  to  take  the  command  of 
the  castle  of  Dumbarton  from  the  duke  of  Cha- 
telherault,  to  confine  the  other  conspirators  to 
different  prisons,  and  to  await  the  farther  disco- 
coveries  which  might  be  made  by  accident  and 
time.     The  earl  of  Huntly,   inflamed  by  these 
disappointments,   invented   other   devices.     He 
excited  a  tumult  while  the  queen  and  the  earl  of 
Mar  were  at  St.  Andrews  with  only  a  few  at- 
tendants ;  imagining  that  the  latter  would  sally 
forth  to  quell  the  insurgents,  and  that  a  conve- 
nient opportunity  would  thus   be  afforded   foi 
putting   him  to   the   sword  without   detection. 
The  caution  of  Mar,  however,  defeating  the  pur- 
pose, he  ordered  some  of  his  retainers  to  attack 
him  in  the  evening  when   he  should  leave  the 
queen ;  but,  these  assassins  being  surprised  in 
their  station,   Huntly   affected   to  excuse   their 
being  in  arms  in  a  suspicious  place  and  at  a  late 
hour  by  frivolous  apologies.      About  this  period 
two  letters  were  received  by  Mary  from  the  pope 
and  the  cardinal  of  Lorrain,  in  consequence  of 
the  intrigues  of  the  earl  of  Huntly  and  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  faction.    They  pressed  her  to  con- 
sider  that,  while  this  nobleman  was  the  most 
powerful  of  her  subjects,  he  was  the  most  zealous 
in  the   interests  of  the  church  of  Rome.     They 
intreated  her  to  marry  Sir  John  Gordon  his  se- 
cond son ;   promised  her   money  and  military 
supplies,  if  she  would  set  herself  to  restore  the 


504 


SCOTLAND. 


ancient  religion  of  her  country ;  and  recom- 
mended it  to  her  to  destroy  the  more  zealous 
Protestants  about  her  court,  of  whom  a  roll  was 
transmitted  to  her,  which  included  the  name  of 
her  minister  the  earl  of  Mar.  These  letters  could 
not  have  reached  her  at  a  juncture  more  unfa- 
vorable for  their  success.  Mar,  to  whom  she 
communicated  them,  was  encouraged  to  proceed 
with  the  greatest  vigor  in  undermining  the  de- 
signs of  his  enemies.  New  incidents  exasperated 
the  animosities  of  his  enemies.  Sir  JohnGordon  and 
lord  Ogilvie,  having  a  private  dispute,  happened 
to  meet  each  other  in  the  High  Street  of  Edin- 
burgh. They  immediately  drew  swords ;  and, 
lord  Ogilvie  receiving  a  very  dangerous  wound, 
Sir  John  Gordon  was  committed  to  prison  by 
the  magistrates.  The  queen,  at  this  time  in 
Stirling,  was  informed  by  them  of  the  riot;  and, 
while  they  expressed  a  fear  lest  the  friends  of 
the  prisoner  should  rise  up  in  arms  to  give 
him  his  liberty,  they  mentioned  a  suspicion 
which  prevailed  that  the  partisans  of  lord  Ogil- 
vie were  to  assemble  themselves  to  vindicate  his 
quarrel.  The  queen,  after  commending  their  di- 
ligence, desired  them  to  watch  over  their  pri- 
soner ;  wished  that  the  law  should  take  its  course ; 
and  advised  them  to  rely  upon  the  earl  of  Mar 
for  their  protection.  Sir  John  Gordon,  however, 
escaped  from  his  confinement;  and,  flying  into 
Aberdeenshire,  filled  his  retainers  with  his  com- 
plaints, and  added  to  the  disquiets  of  his  father 
the  earl  of  Huntly.  The  queen,  upon  return- 
ing lo  Edinburgh,  held  a  consultation  with  her 
privy  council ;  and  soon  after  set  out  upon  a 
progress  to  the  northern  parts  of  her  kingdom. 
At  Aberdeen  she  was  met  by  lady  Huntly,  a  wo- 
man of  deep  dissimulation  and  of  refined  address, 
who  endeavoured  to  conciliate  her  affections,  was 
prodigal  of  flattery,  expressed  her  zeal  for  the 
popish  religion,  and  hinted  the  great  power  of 
her  husband.  She  then  interceded  with  the  queen 
for  forgiveness  to  her  son.  But  Mary  having 
told  her  that  this  favor  could  not  possibly  be 
granted  till  her  son  should  return  to  prison,  and 
submit  to  the  justice  of  his  country,  lady  Huntly 
engaged  that  he  should  do  so,  and  only  intreated 
that,  instead  of  Edinburgh,  he  should  be  con- 
fined in  the  castle  of  Stirling.  This  request  was 
complied  with ;  and  in  the  prosecution  of  the  bu- 
siness, a  court  of  justiciary  being  called,  Sir  John 
Gordon  made  his  appearance,  and  acknowledged 
himself  to  be  the  queen's  prisoner.  Lord  Glam- 
miswas  appointed  to  conduct  him  to  the  castle  of 
Stirling..  But,  upon  the  road  to  this  fortress,  he 
deceived  his  guards,  hastened  back,  and  gathering 
1000  horsemen  among  his  retainers,  entrusted 
his  security  to  the  sword.  In  the  mean  time 
the  queen  continued  her  progress.  The  earl  of 
Huntly  joined  himself  to  her  tram.  His  anxiety 
to  be  allowed  to  attend  her  to  his  house  of  Strath- 
bogy  was  uncommon.  The  intelligence  arrived 
of  the  escape  and  rebellion  of  Sir  John  Gordon. 
The  behaviour  of  the  father  and  the  .<*>n  awakened 
in  her  the  most  alarming  suspicions.  Assembling 
her  privy  council,  she,  with  their  advice,  com- 
manded her  heralds  to  chair,  r  Sir  John  Gordon 
and  his  adherents  to  return  to  their  allegiance 
and  to  surrender  up  to  her  their  houses  of  strength 
and  castles,  under  the  pains  of  lii-^h  treason  und 


forfeiture.  Disdaining  now  to  go  to  the  house  of 
the  earl  of  Huntly,  where  that  nobleman  had  made 
preparations  to  hold  her  in  captivity,  she  ad- 
vanced to  Inverness  by  a  different  rout.  In  the 
castle  of  Inverness  she  proposed  to  take  up  her 
residence  ;  but  Alexander  Gordon,  the  deputy 
governor,  a  dependent  of  the  family  of  Huntly, 
refused  to  admit  her.  Her  attendants  were  few 
in  numbei,  the  town  was  without  walls,  and  the 
inhabitants  were  suspected.  In  this  extremity, 
some  ships  in  the  river  were  kept  in  readiness  as 
a  last  refuge  ;  and  she  issued  a  proclamation 
commanding  all  her  loyal  subjects  in  those  parts 
to  repair  to  her  for  her  protection.  The  Erasers  and 
Monros  came  in  crowds  to  assist  her.  The  Clan 
Chattan,  though  called  to  arms  by  the  earl  of 
Iluntly,  forsook  his  standard  for  that  of  their  so- 
vereign, when  they  discovered  that  his  intentions 
were  hostile  to  her.  She  employed  them  in  lay- 
ing siege  to  the  castle,  which  surrendered  upon 
the  first  assault.  The  lives  of  the  soldiers  were 
spared,  but  the  deputy  governor  was  executed, 
and  the  queen  returned  to  Aberdeen.  To  punish 
the  earl  of  Iluntly  for  the  troubles  he  had  raised, 
a  measure  infinitely  humiliating  was  executed. 
The  earl  of  Mar  resigned  the  rich  estate  of  that 
name  to  lord  Erskine,  who  claimed  it  as  his 
right ;  and  received  in  recompense,  after  its 
erection  into  an  earldom,  the  territory  of  Murray, 
which  made  an  extensive  portion  of  the  posses- 
sions of  the  earl  of  Huntly.  Lady  Huntly  has- 
tened to  Aberdeen  to  offer  the  most  humble  sub- 
missions on  the  part  of  her  husband,  to  avert  the 
downfal  of  his  greatness.  But  all  access  to  the 
queen  was  refused ;  and  the  earl  of  Huntly  w;is 
summoned  to  appear  in  person  before  the  privy 
council,  to  answer  for  his  conduct,  and  to  make 
a  full  resignation  of  all  his  fortresses.  He  did 
not  present  himself,  and  was  declared  to  be  in 
open  rebellion.  A  new  proclamation  was  issued 
by  the  queen  to  collect  sufficient  numbers  to 
subdue  the  insurgents.  The  command  of  her 
troops  was  given  to  the  earl  of  Murray,  who 
put  them  instantly  into  motion.  Huntly  ad- 
vancing towards  Aberdeen  to  give  them  battle, 
was  informed  of  their  approach.  He  halted  at 
Corrichie,  hoping  for  a  decisive  victory.  The 
army  of  the  queen  was  the  most  numerous ;  but 
there  were  several  companies  in  it,  in  whom  lit- 
tle confidence  could  be  placed.  These  the  earl  • 
of  Murray  posted  in  the  front  of  the  battle,  to 
begin  the  attack.  They  recoiled  upon  him,  as  he 
expected  ;  but  a  resolute  band,  holding  out  their 
spears,  obliged  them  to  face  the  foe.  Their 
flight  made  Huntly  think  the  day  was  his  own.' 
He  therefore  ordered  his  soldiers  to  rush  upon 
the  enemy  sword  in  hand.  But,  when  they  came 
to  the  place  where  the  earl  of  Murray  had 
stationed  himself,  his  firm  battalion  put  a  stop 
to  their  progress.  In  a  panic  they  took  to  flight. 
The  earl  of  Huntly  was  killed  in  the  pursuit. 
Hi-;  .sons,  Sir  John  Gordon  and  Adam  Gordon, 
wore  made  prisoners,  with  the  principal  gentle- 
men who  had  assisted  him.  Mary,  upon  receiving 
the  tidings  of  this  success,  discovered  neither 
joy  nor  sorrow.  But  the  earl  of  Murray  and 
liis  party  were  not  yet  satisfied.  Sir  John  Gor 
don  was  brought  to  trial,  confessed  his  guilt, 
and  was  condemned  to  suffer  as  a  traitor.  Adam, 


SCOTLAND. 


505 


upon  account  of  his  tender  age,  was  pardoned  ; 
and  tines  were  levied  from  the  other  captives, 
according  to  their  wealth.  The  lord  Gordon, 
after  the  battle,  fled  to  his  father-in-law,  the  duke 
of  Chatelherault,  but  was  delivered  up  by  that 
nobleman.  He  was  convicted  of  treason,  and 
condemned  ;  but  the  queen  was  satisfied  with 
confining  him  in  prison.  The  body  of  the  earl 
of  Iluntly  was  carried  to  Edinburgh,  and  Kept 
unburied,  till  a  charge  of  high  treason  was 
brought  against  him  before  the  three  estates.  A  dis- 
play was  made  of  his  crimes,  and  parliament  pro- 
nounced his  guilt.  His  estates  were  forfeited  ;  his 
dignity,  name,  and  memory,  were  pronounced  ex- 
tinct ;  his  ensigns  armorial  were  torn  from  the  book 
tifarms  ;  and  his  posterity  were  rendered  unable  to 
enjoy  any  offices,  honor,  or  rank,  within  the  realm. 
While  these  scenes  were  transacting,  Mary, 
who  was  solicitous  to  establish  a  secure  amity 
between  the  two  kingdoms,  opened  a  negociation 
to  procure  an  interview  with  Elizabeth.  Secre- 
tary Maitland,  whom  she  employed,  met  with  a 
most  gracious  reception  at  the  court  of  London. 
The  city  of  York  was  appointed  as  the  place 
where  the  two  queens  should  express  their  mu- 
tual love  and  affection,  and  bind  themselves  to 
each  other  in  an  indissoluble  union  ;  the  day  of 
their  meeting  was  fixed  ;  the  fashion  and  articles 
of  their  interview  were  adjusted  ;  and  a  safe  con- 
duct into  England  was  granted  to  the  queen  of 
Scots  by  Elizabeth.  But  in  this  advanced  state 
of  the  treaty  it  was  unexpectedly  interrupted. 
The  disturbances  in  Trance,  the  persecution  of 
the  Protestants  there,  and  the  dangers  which 
threatened  the  reformed  countries,  required  Eli- 
zabeth to  be  upon  her  guard  against  the  machi- 
nations of  the  adversaries  of  her  religion.  Upon 
these  pretences  she  declined  for  a  season  the 
projected  interview  ;  sending  to  Mary,  with  this 
apology,  Sir  Henry  Sidney,  a  minister  of  ability, 
whom  she  instructed  to  dive  into  the  secret 
views  of  the  Scottish  queen.  This  was  a  severe 
disappointment  to  Mary;  but  Elizabeth  acted  in 
this  negociation  without  sincerity.  It  was  not 
her  interest  to  admit  into  her  kingdom  a  queen 
who  had  pretensions  to  her  crown,  who  might 
raise  the  expectations  of  her  Roman  Catholic 
sub  ects,  and  advance  herself  in  their  esteem; 
and  who  far  surpassed  her  in  beauty  and  the 
bewitching  allurements  of  conversation  and  be- 
haviour. Amidst  affairs  of  great  moment,  a  mat- 
ter of  smaller  consequence,  but  interesting  in  its 
circumstances,  deserves  to  be  recordetl.  Chate- 
lard,  a  gentleman  of  family  in  Dauphiny,  and  a 
relation  of  the  chevalier  de  Bayard,  had  been  in- 
troduced to  queen  Mary  by  lord  Damville,  the 
heir  of  the  house  of  Montmorency.  Polished 
manners,  vivacity,  attention  to  please,  the  talent  of 
making  verses,  and  an  agreeable  figure,  were  his 
recommendatirns.  He  became  necessary  in  all 
parties  of  pleasure  at  the  palace.  His  assiduities 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  queen,  and,  at  times, 
•^he  did  him  the  honor  to  dance  with  him.  But 
icr  politeness  and  condescension  insinuated  into 
him  other  sentiments  than  gratitude.  He  felt  the 
power  of  her  charms.  In  an  unhappy  moment 
he  entered  her  apartment,  and  concealed  himself 
under  her  bed.  \Vhile  the  queen  was  undressing 
uer  maids  discovered  him  and  gave  her  the  alarm. 


Chatelard  was  dismissed  with  disgrace,  but  soon 
after  pardoned.  The  frenzy,  however,  of  his  love 
compelling  him  to  repeat  his  crime,  it  was  no 
longer  proper  to  show  him  any  compassion.  The 
delicate  situation  of  Mary,  the  noise  of  these 
adventures,  and  the  rude  suspicions  of  her  sub- 
jects, required  that  he  should  be  tried  and 
punished.  He  was  accordingly  condemned  to 
lose  his  head;  and  the  sentence  was  executed. 
The  disagreeable  circumstances  in  which  Mary 
found  herself  involved  by  her  quarrel  with  Eli- 
zabeth, the  excessive  bigotry  and  overbearing 
spirit  of  her  Protestant  subjects,  together  with 
the  adventure  of  Chatelard,  and  the  calumnies 
propagated  in  consequence  of  it,  determined  her 
to  think  of  a  second  marriage.  Her  beauty  and 
expectations  of  the  crown  of  England,  with  what 
she  already  possessed,  brought  her  many  suitors 
She  was  addressed  by  the  king  of  Sweden,  the 
king  of  Navarre,  the  prince  of  Conde,  the  duke 
of  Ferrara,  prince  Charles  of  Spain,  the  arch- 
duke Charles  of  Austria,  and  the  duke  of  Anjou. 
Her  own  inclination  was  to  give  the  preference, 
among  these  illustrious  lovers,  to  the  prince  of 
Spain ;  but  her  determination  was  to  render  her 
decision  as  agreeable  as  possible  to  queen  Eliza- 
beth, the  English  nation,  and  the  Protestants  in 
both  kingdoms.  Her  succession  to  the  crown  cf 
England  was  the  object  nearest  her  heart;  and 
Elizabeth,  who  wished  to  prevent  her  from  mar- 
rying altogether,  contrived  to  impress  upon  he* 
mind  an  opinion  that  any  foreign  alliance  would 
greatly  obstruct  that  much  desired  event.  She 
therefore  pitched  upon  two  of  her  own  subjects, 
whom  she  successfully  recommended  as  fit 
matches  for  the  queen  of  Scots;  and  she  pro- 
mised that,  upon  her  acceptance  of  either  of 
them,  her  right  of  inheritance  should  be  en- 
quired into  and  declared.  Lord  Robert  Dud- 
ley, afterwards  earl  of  Leicester,  was  the  first 
person  proposed  ;  but,  except  a  manly  fare  and 
fine  figure,  he  had  not  one  quality  that  could 
recommend  him  to  the  Scottish  princess.  Mary 
received  this  suitor  with  composure,  but  was 
more  induced  to  treat  him  with  scorn  than  love. 
The  English  queen  then  recommended  to  Mary 
another  suitor,  lord  Darnley,  of  the  house  of 
Stuart,  whose  birth  was  almost  equal  to  her  own, 
and  whom  the  Scottish  princess  was  induced  to 
accept  as  a  husband  by  motives  which  we  have 
elsewhere  detailed.  See  MAUY.  Elizabeth,  how- 
ever, was  not  more  sincere  in  this  proposal  than 
in  the  former;  for,  after  permitting  Darnley,  and 
his  father,  the  earl  of  Lennox,  to  visit  Scotland, 
to  divert  the  attention  of  the  queen  from  the 
continent,  she  threw  every  possible  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  the  marriage.  When  Mary  was  so 
entangled  that  she  could  not  draw  back.  Eliza- 
beth intimated  her  disapprobation  of  that  mar- 
riage, which  she  herself  had  originally  planned 
and  forwarded  ;  and  her  whole  council  declared 
against  it.  John  Knox,  in  the  mean  time,  for- 
getting not  only  the  meek  and  peaceable  beha- 
viour of  a  Christian,  but  the  allegiance  of  a  sub- 
ject, interfered  with  the  marriage  of  his  soverei?n. 
Yet  the  principle  upon  which  he  acted  now 
forms  an  essential  part  of  the  British  constitu- 
tion, which  opressly  prohibits  the  king  01  any 
of  the  royal  family  from  marrying  a  Roman  Ca- 


506 


SCOTLAND. 


tholic.  As  Darnley  was  a  Papist  he  was  of  con- 
sequence execrated  by  the  whole  body  of  Pro- 
testants, laity  as  well  as  clergy  ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  was  supported  by  the  earls  of 
Athol  and  Caithness,  the  lords  Ruthven  and 
Hume,  and  the  whole  Popish  faction.  It  was 
exceedingly  unfortunate  for  the  queen,  that 
neither  lord  Darnley  himself,  nor  his  father,  the 
earl  of  Lennox,  had  any  talents  for  business ; 
and,  as  they  naturally  had  the  direction  of  the 
queen's  affairs,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  were 
very  ill  managed.  But  a  source  of  opposition, 
more  violerit  than  any  imperfections  of  their  own, 
arose  to  them  in  the  attachment  which  they  dis- 
covered to  a  person  upon  whom  the  queen  had 
of  late  bestowed  repeated  favors.  David  Rizzio, 
from  a  mean  origin,  raised  himself  to  distin- 
guished notice  in  Mary's  court.  He  was  born  at 
Turin,  where  his  father  earned  a  subsistence  as  a 
musician.  Varieties  of  situation  and  adventure, 
poverty  and  misfortunes,  had  taught  him  experi- 
ence. In  the  train  of  the  count  de  Morette,  the 
ambassador  from  the  duke  of  Savoy,  he  had  ar- 
rived in  Scotland.  The  queen,  desirous  to  com- 
plete her  band  of  music,  admitted  him  into  her 
service.  In  this  humble  station  he  had  the  dex- 
terity to  attract  her  attention ;  and  her  French 
secretary  falling  into  disgrace,  from  negligence 
and  incapacity,  he  was  promoted  to  his  office. 
A  necessary  and  frequent  admission  to  her  com- 
pany afforded  him  now  the  fullest  opportunity  to 
recommend  himself  to  her ;  and,  while  she  ap- 
proved his  manners,  she  was  sensible  of  his  fide- 
lity and  his  talents.  His  mind,  however,  was 
not  sufficiently  vigorous  to  bear  prosperity.  Am- 
bition grew  upon  him  with  preferment.  He  in- 
terfered in  affairs  of  moment,  intruded  himself 
into  the  conventions  of  the  nobles  at  the  palace, 
and  was  a  candidate  for  greatness.  The  queen 
consulted  with  him  upon  the  most  important 
business,  and  entrusted  him  with  real  power.  His 
suppleness  and  servility,  in  his  former  condition, 
were  exchanged  for  insolence,  ostentation,  and 
pride.  He  exceeded  the  most  potent  barons  in 
the  stateliness  of  his  demeanor,  the  sumptuous- 
ness  of  his  apparel,  and  the  splendor  of  his  reti- 
nue. The  nobles,  while  they  despised  his  low 
birth,  ard  detested  him  as  a  foreigner,  were  mor- 
tified with  his  grandeur,  and  insulted  by  his 
arrogance.  Their  anger  and  abhorrence  were 
driven  into  fury ;  and,  while  this  undeserving 
minion,  to  uphold  his  power,  courted  Darnley, 
and  with  officious  assiduities  advanced  his  suit 
with  the  queen,  he  hastened  not  only  his  own 
luin,  but  laid  the  foundation  of  public  calamity. 
To  the  earl  of  Murray  the  exaltation  of  Rizzio, 
so  offensive  in  general  to  the  nation,  was  pecu- 
liarly humiliating.  His  interference  for  the  earl 
of  Leicester,  the  partiality  he  entertained  for 
Elizabeth,  his  connexions  with  secretary  Cecil, 
and  the  favor  he  had  shown  to  Knox,  had  all 
contributed  to  create  in  Mary  a  suspicion  of  his 
integrity.  The  practices  of  Darnley  and  Rizzio 
were  thence  the  more  effectual ;  and  the  fullest 
weight  of  their  influence  was  employed  to  un- 
dermine his  power.  Mary,  aware  of  their  critical 
situation,  was  solicitous  to  add  to  her  strength. 
Bothwel,  who  had  been  imprisoned  for  conspir- 
ing against  the  life  of  the  earl  of  Murray,  and 


who  had  escaped  from  confinement, "was  recalled 
from  France  ;  the  earl  of  Sutherland,  an  exile  in 
Flanders,  was  invited  home  to  receive  his  par- 
don ;  and  George  Gordon,  the  son  of  the  earl  of 
Huntly,  was  admitted  to  favor,  and  was  soon 
reinstated  in  the  wealth  and  honors  of  his  family. 
As  soon  as  Bothwel  arrived,  the  earl  of  Murray 
insisted  that  he  should  be  brought  to  trial  for 
having  plotted  against  his  life.  This  was  agreed 
to  ;  and  on  the  day  of  trial  Murray  made  his  ap- 
pearance with  800  of  his  adherents.  Bothwel 
did  not  choose  to  contend  with  such  a  formida- 
ble enemy ;  he  therefore  fled  to  France,  and  left 
a  protestation  that  fear  of  violence  was  the  cause 
of  his  flight.  The  queen  commanded  the  judge 
not  to  pronounce  sentence.  Murray  complained 
of  her  partiality,  and  engaged  still  deeper  in 
cabals  with  queen  Elizabeth.  Darnley,  in  the 
mean  time,  pressed  his  suit  with  eagerness. 
The  queen  endeavoured  to  cause  Murray  to  sub- 
scribe a  paper  expressing  his  consent  to  her 
marriage ;  but  to  no  purpose.  However,  many 
of  the  nobility  did  subscribe  this  paper;  and  she 
ventured  to  summon  a  convention  of  the  estates 
at  Stirling,  to  whom  she  opened  the  business  of 
the  marriage ;  and  who  approved  of  her  choice, 
provided  the  Protestant  religion  should  continue 
to  be  the  establishment.  In  the  mean  time 
ambassadors  arrived  from  England,  with  a  mes- 
sage importing  Elizabeth's  entire  disapprobation 
of  the  queen's  marriage  with  lord  Darnley.  But 
to  these  ambassadors  Mary  only  replied  that 
matters  were  gone  too  far  to  be  recalled ;  and 
that  Elizabeth  had  no  cause  of  displeasure,  since, 
by  her  advice,  she  had  fixed  her  affections  not 
upon  a  foreigner,  but  upon  an  Englishman ;  and 
since  the  man  she  favored  could  boast  of  having 
in  his  veins  the  royal  blood  of  both  kingdoms. 
She  then  created  lord  Darnley  a  lord  and  a 
knight.  He  was  made  a  baron  and  a  banneret, 
and  styled  lord  Armanagh.  He  was  belted  earl 
of  Ross.  He  then  promoted  fourteen  gentle- 
men to  the  honor  of  knighthood,  and  did  homage 
to  the  queen,  without  any  reservation  of  duty 
to  the  crown  of  England,  where  his  family  had 
long  resided.  But  his  advancement  to  the  duke- 
dom of  Albany  was  delayed ;  and  this  was  so 
much  resented  by  him  that  he  threatened  to  stab 
lord  Ruthven  when  he  told  him  of  it.  In  the 
mean  time  the  meeting  of  parliament,  which  was 
to  determine  the  marriage,  was  approaching.  The 
earl  of  Murray,  encouraged  by  the  apparent  firm- 
ness of  Elizabeth,  and  alarmed  with  the  approba- 
tion bestowed  by  the  convention  on  the  queen's 
choice,  began  to  meditate  a  decisive  blow.  To 
inspirit  the  resentments  of  his  friends,  and  to  jus- 
tify the  violence  of  his  projects,  he  hinted  appre- 
hensions of  being  assassinated  by  lord  Darnley, 
and  he  avoided  to  go  to  Perth,  where  he  affirmed 
that  the  plot  against  him  was  to  be  carried  into 
execution.  He  courted  the  enemies  of  Darnley, 
and  he  united  to  him  in  a  confederacy  the  duke 
of  Chatelherault,  and  the  earls  of  Argyle,  Ruthven, 
and  Glencairn.  It  was  not  the  sole  object  of  their 
association  to  oppose  the  marriage.  They  medi- 
tated the  death  of  the  earl  of  Lennox  and  lord 
1  )arnley  ;  and,  while  the  queen  was  upon  the  road 
to  Callander  to  visit  lord  Livington,  they  pro- 
posed to  intercept  her  and  to  hold  her  in  cap- 


SCOTLAND. 


507 


tivify.  In  this  event,  Murny  was  to  advance 
liimself  into  ihe  government  of  the  kingdom, 
under  the  character  of  its  regent.  But,  Mary 
having  heard  of  their  conspiracy,  the  earl  of 
Athol  and  lord  Ruthven  raised  suddenly  300 
men  to  protect  her  in  her  journey.  Defeated  in 
this  scheme,  the  earl  of  Murray  and  his  asso- 
ciates did  not  relinquish  their  cabals ;  and  the 
iiation  was  filled  with  alarms  and  suspicions. 
Amidst  other  arts  employed  by  the  malcontents, 
they  insisted  upon  the  danger  which  threatened 
the  Protestant  religion  from  the  advancement  of 
lord  Darnley,  and  from  the  rupture  that  must  en- 
sue with  England.  Letters  were  dispersed  among 
the  Protestants,  reminding  them  of  what  God 
had  wrought  for  them  in  the  abolition  of  idolatry, 
and  admonishing  them  to  oppose  the  restoration 
of  the  mass.  A  supplication  was  presented  to 
the  queen,  complaining  of  idolaters,  and  insist- 
ing upon  their  punishment.  It  was  received 
with  unusual  respect ;  and  Mary  instructed  the 
popish  ecclesiastics  to  abstain  from  giving 
offence  of  any  kind  to  the  Protestants.  A  priest, 
however,  having  celebrated  mass,  was  taken 
by  them,  and  exposed  to  the  insults  of  the 
populace  at  the  market  place  of  Edinburgh,  in 
the  garments  of  his  profession,  and  with  the 
chalice  in  his  hand;  and,  the  queen  having  given 
a  check  to  this  tumultuous  proceeding,  the  Pro- 
testants were  confirmed  in  their  belief  that  she 
meant  to  overthrow  their  religion.  The  most 
learned  and  able  of  the  clergy  held  frequent 
consultations  together ;  and  the  general  assembly 
was  called  to  deliberate  upon  the  affairs  of  the 
church.  The  commissioners,  whom  they  sent  to 
ihe  queen,  were  ordered  to  demand  a  parlia- 
mentary ratification  of  their  desires.  They 
insisted  that  the  mass,  with  every  remain  of  po- 
pery, should  be  suppressed  throughout  the  king- 
dom ;  that,  in  this  reformation,  the  queen's  per- 
son and  household  should  be  included;  that  all 
papists  and  idolaters  should  be  punished  upon 
conviction  according  to  the  laws  ;  that  all  per- 
sons should  resort  to  the  churches  upon  Sunday, 
10  join  in  public  worship ;  that  an  independent 
provision  should  be  assigned  for  the  support  of 
the  clergy,  and  their  successors;  that  all  vacant 
benefices  should  be  conferred  upon  persons  qua- 
lified for  the  ministry ;  that  no  bishopric,  abbey, 
priory,  deanery,  or  other  living,  having  many 
churches,  should  be  bestowed  upon  a  single  per- 
son ;  but  that  each  church  should  be  provided 
with  a  minister;  that  the  glebes  and  manses 
should  be  allotted  for  the  ministers,  and  for  the 
reparation  of  churches;  that  all  lands,  which  of 
old  had  been  devoted  to  hospitality,  should  again 
be  made  subservient  to  it ;  that  the  lands  and 
rents  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  monks, 
with  the  annuities,  &c.,  should  be  employed  in 
the  maintenance  of  the  poor  and  the  upholding 
of  schools;  that  all  horrible  crimes  should  be 
punished ;  that  judges  should  be  appointed  in 
every  district;  and  that,  for  the  ease  of  the  labor- 
ing husbandmen,  some  order  should  be  devised 
concerning  a  reasonable  payment  of  the  tithes. 
To  these  requisitions  the  queen  made  an  answer 
full  of  moderation  and  humanity.  She  was  ready 
to  agree  with  the  tnree  estates  in  establishing  the 
reformed  religion  over  the  subjects  of  Scotland  ; 


and  she  was  steadily  resolved  not  to  throw  into 
hazard  the  life,  the  peace,  or  the  fortune,  of  any 
person  whatsoever  upon  account  of  his  opinions. 
As  to  herselfand  her  household,  she  was  persuaded 
that  her  people  would  not  urge  her  to  adopt 
tenets  in  contradiction  to  her  own  conscience, 
and  thereby  involve  her  in  remorse.  She  had 
been  nourished  and  brought  up  in  the  Romish 
faith  ;  she  conceived  it  to  be  founded  on  the  word 
of  God ;  and  she  was  desirous  to  continue  in  it. 
But,  setting  aside  her  belief  and  religious  duty, 
she  ventured  to  assure  them  that  she  was  con- 
vinced, from  political  reasons,  that  it  was  her 
interest  to  maintain  herself  firm  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  persuasion.  By  departing  from  it  she 
would  forfeit  the  amity  of  the  king  of  France, 
and  that  of  other  princes  who  were  now  strongly 
attached  to  her;  and  their  disaffection  could  not 
be  repaired  or  compensated  by  any  new  alliance. 
To  her  subjects  she  left  the  fullest  liberty  of 
conscience ;  and  they  could  not  surely  refuse  to 
their  sovereign  the  same  right  and  indulgence. 
With  regard  to  the  patronage  of  benefices,  it  was 
a  prerogative  and  property  which  itwould  ill  be- 
come her  to  violate.  Her  necessities,  and  the 
charge  of  her  royal  dignity,  required  her  to  return 
in  her  hands  the  patrimony  of  the  crown.  Afu-r 
the  purposes,  however,  of  her  station,  and  t!>o 
exigences  of  government,  were  satisfied,  she  could 
not  object  to  a  special  assignment  of  revenue  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  ministry ;  and,  on  the 
subject  of  the  other  articles  which  had  been  sub- 
mitted to  her,  she  was  willing  to  be  directed  by 
the  three  estates  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  concur 
in  the  resolutions  which  should  appear  to  them 
the  most  reasonable  and  expedient.  The  clergy, 
in  a  new  assembly,  expressed  high  displeasure 
at  this  answer  to  their  address.  They  told  the 
queen  that  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation, 
which  she  refused  to  adopt,  were  the  religion 
which  had  been  revealed  by  Jesus  Christ,  and 
taught  by  the  apostles.  They  required  of  her, 
therefore,  to  embrace  the  means  of  attaining  the 
truth  which  were  offered  to  her  in  the  preaching 
of  the  word,  or  by  the  appointment  of  public 
disputations  between  them  and  their  adversaries. 
The  errors  of  the  mass  were  placed  before  her 
in  all  their  deformity.  The  sayer  of  it,  the  ac- 
tion itself,  and  the  opinions  expressed  in  it,  were 
all  pronounced  to  be  equally  abominable.  To 
hear  the  mass,  or  to  gaze  upon  it,  was  to  commit 
the  complicated  crimes  of  sacrilege,  blasphemy, 
and  idolatry.  Her  delicacy  in  not  renouncing 
her  opinions  from  the  apprehension  of  offending 
the  king  of  France  and  her  other  allies  they 
ridiculed.  They  told  her  that  the  true  religion 
of  Christ  was  the  only  means  by  which  any  con- 
federacy could  endure  ;  and  that  it  would  bring 
to  her  the  friendship  of  the  King  of  kings.  As 
to  patronages  being  a  portion  of  her  patrimony, 
they  intended  not  to  defraud  her  of  her  rights ; 
but  it  was  their  judgment  that  the  superinten- 
dants  ought  to  make  a  trial  of  the  qualifications  of 
candidates  for  the  ministry  ;  and,  if  no  trials  or 
examinations  of  ministers  took  place,  the  church 
would  be  filled  with  misrule  and  ignorance.  And 
as  to  her  opinion,  that  a  suitable  assignment  should 
be  made  for  them,  they  begged  her  to  conde- 
scend to  adopt  a  proper  scheme  for  this  end,  .mJ 


508 


SCOTLAND. 


to  carry  it  into  execution ;  and  that,  taking  into 
a  due  consideration  the  other  articles  of  their 
demands,  she  would  study  to  comply  with  them, 
and  to  do  justice  to  the  religious  establishment 
of  her  people.  From  the  fears  of  the  people 
about  their  religion,  disturbances  and  insurrec- 
tions were  unavoidable;  and,  before  Mary  had 
given  her  answer  to  the  petitions  of  the  clergy, 
the  Protestants,  in  a  formidable  number  had 
marched  to  St.  Leonard's  Craig;  and,  dividing 
themselves  into  companies,  had  chosen  captains 
to  command  them.  But,  the  leaders  of  this  tu- 
mult being  apprehended,  it  subsided  by  degrees ; 
and  the  queen,  upon  the  intercession  of  the  ma- 
gistrates of  Edinburgh,  gave  them  a  free  pardon. 
To  quiet  the  apprehensions  which  had  gone 
abroad  of  her  inclination  to  overturn  the  reformed 
doctrines,  she  repeatedly  issued  proclamations, 
assuring  her  subjects  that  it  was  her  fixed  deter- 
mination not  to  disturb  any  person  upon  account 
of  his  religion  or  conscience  ;  and  that  she  would 
never  attempt  any  innovation  that  might  endanger 
the  public  tranquillity.  While  Mary  was  thus 
conducting  her  affairs  with  prudence,  the  earl  of 
Murray  and  his  confederates  continued  their  in- 
trigues. They  perceived  that  their  only  hope  of 
success  depended  upon  Elizabeth;  and, as  Ran- 
dolph had  promised  them  her  protection  and  as- 
sistance, they  addressed  a  letter  to  her,  explain- 
ing their  views  and  situation.  The  pretences  of 
hostility  to  their  sovereign,  upon  which  they 
affected  to  insist,  were  her  settled  design  to  over- 
turn the  Protestant  religion,  and  her  rooted  de- 
sire to  break  all  amity  with  England.  But  with 
her  support  and  aid  they  did  not  doubt  of  being 
able  to  advance  effectually  the  advantage  of  the 
two  kingdoms.  They  applied  not,  however,  for 
any  supply  of  troops.  Au  aid  from  her  treasury 
was  now  only  necessary ;  and  they  engaged  to 
bestow  her  bounty  in  the  manner  most  agreeable 
to  her  inclinations  and  her  interests.  The  plea- 
sure with  which  Elizabeth  received  their  appli- 
cation was  equal  to  the  aversion  she  had  con- 
ceived against  the  queen  of  Scots.  She  not  only 
granted  the  relief  they  requested,  but  assured 
them  by  Randolph  of  her  esteem  and  favor  while 
they  should  continue  to  uphold  the  reformed 
religion  and  the  connexion  of  the  two  nations. 
Flattered  by  her  assurances,  they  were  strenuous 
to  gain  partizans,  and  to  disunite  the  friends  of 
their  sovereign ;  and,  while  they  were  secretly 
preparing  for  rebellion,  they  disseminated  among 
the  people  the  tenets  that  a  Papist  could  not 
legally  be  their  king  ;  that  the  queen  was  not  at 
liberty  of  herself  to  make  the  choice  of  a  hus- 
band ;  and  that,  in  a  matter  so  weighty,  she 
Mght  to  be  entirely  directed  by  the  determina- 
jon  of  the  three  estates  in  parliament.  Eliza- 
*eth,  carrying  her  dissimulation  to  the  most 
criminal  extremity,  commanded  Randolph  to  ask 
an  audience  of  Mary  ;  and  to  counsel  her  to  har- 
bour no  suspicions  of  the  earl  of  Murray  and 
his  friends  ;  to  open  her  eyes  to  their  sincerity 
and  honor ;  and  to  call  to  mind  that,  as  their 
ienrices  had  hitherto  preserved  her  kingdom  in 
repose,  her  jealousies  of  them  might  kindle  it 
into  combustion,  make  the  blood  of  her  nobles  to 
flow,  and  cast  into  hazard  her  person  and  her 
frown.  Full  of  astonishment  at  a  message  so 


rude,  the  queen  of  Scots  desired  him  to  inform 
his  mistress  that  she  required  not  her  instruc- 
tions to  distinguish  between  patriotism  and 
treachery  ;  that  she  was  fully  sensible  when  her 
will  was  resisted  or  obeyed ;  and  that  she  pos- 
sessed a  power  which  was  more  than  sufficient  to 
repress  and  to  punish  the  crimes  of  her  subjects. 
The  English  resident  went  now  to  the  earl  of 
Lennox  and  the  lord  Darnley,  and  charged  them 
to  return  to  England.  The  former  expressed 
an  apprehension  of  the  severity  of  his  queen,  and 
sought  an  assurance  of  her  favor  before  he  could 
venture  to  visit  her  dominions.  The  latter,  ex- 
erting greater  fortitude,  told  him  that  he  acknow- 
ledged no  duty  or  obedience  but  to  the  queen  of 
Scots.  The  resident,  treating  this  answer  as  dis- 
respectful to  Elizabeth,  turned  his  back  upon 
lord  Darnley,  and  retired  without  bidding  him 
adieu.  This  behaviour  of  Elizabeth,  so  tierce 
and  so  perfidious,  was  well  calculated  to  con- 
firm all  the  intentions  of  Mary.  But,  while  the 
queen  of  Scots  was  eager  to  accomplish  her  mar- 
riage, she  was  not  inattentive  to  the  rising  trou- 
bles of  her  country.  The  parliament  which  she 
had  appointed  could  not  now  be  held  :  it  was 
therefore  prorogued  to  a  more  distant  day  ;  and 
the  violence  of  the  times  did  not  then  permit  it 
to  assemble.  By  letters  she  invited  to  her,  with 
all  their  retainers,  the  most  powerful  and  the 
most  eminent  of  her  subjects.  Bothwel  was 
recalled  anew  from  France  ;  and  by  general  pro- 
clamations she  summoned  to  her  standard  the 
united  force  of  her  kingdom.  The  castle  of 
Edinburgh  was  likewise  provided  amply  with 
stores  and  ammunition.  The  alacrity  with  which 
her  subjects  flocked  to  her  from  every  quarter 
assured  her  of  her  power  and  popularity ;  while 
it  struck  Murray  and  his  adherents  with  the 
danger  to  which  they  were  exposed.  On  the 
29th  of  July,  1565,  the  ceremony  of  marriage 
between  the  queen  and  lord  Darnley  was  per- 
formed. The  latter  had  been  previously  created 
duke  of  Albany.  The  day  before  the  marriage 
a  proclamation  was  published,  commanding  him 
to  be  styled  king  of  the  realm,  and  that  all 
letters  after  their  marriage  should  be  directed  in 
the  names  of  her  husband  and  herself.  The  day 
after  a  new  proclamation  was  issued  confirming 
this  act;  he  was  pronounced  king  by  the  sound 
of  trumpets,  and  associated  with  the  queen  in  her 
government :  a  measure  which  seems  to  have 
been  the  effect  of  the  extreme  attachment  the 
queen  had  for  her  husband,  which  did  not  per- 
mit her  to  see  that  it  was  an  infringement  of  the 
constitution. 

The  earl  of  Murray  remonstrated  that  a  king 
was  imposed  upon  the  nation  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  three  estates,  and  called  upon  the  na- 
tion to  arm  against  the  beginnings  of  tyranny. 
The  malcontents  were  quickly  in  arras;  but  their 
success  did  not  answer  their  expectations.  The 
majority  of  the  nation  were  satisfied  with  the 
good  intentions  of  their  sovereign,  and  she  her- 
self took  the  earliest  opportunity  of  crushing  the 
rebellion  in  its  infancy.  The  earl  of  Murray 
was  declared  a  traitor ;  and  similar  steps  were 
taken  with  other  chiefs  of  the  rebels.  She  then 
took  the  field  against  them  at  the  head  of  a  con- 
siderablo  army  ;  and,  having  driven  them  from 


SCOTLAND- 


109 


place  to  place,  obliged  them  at  last  to  take  refuge 
in  England.  Queen  Elizabeth  received  them 
with  that  duplicity  for  which  her  conduct  was  so 
remarkable.  Though  she  herself  had  counte- 
nanced, and  even  excited  them  to  revolt,  she  re- 
fused to  give  an  audience  to  their  deputies.  Nay, 
she  even  caused  them  to  emit  a  public  declara- 
tion, that  neither  she,  nor  any  person  in  her 
name,  had  ever  excited  them  to  their  rebellious 
practices.  Yet,  while  the  public  behaviour  of 
Elizabeth  was  so  acrimonious,  she  afforded  them 
a  secure  retreat  in  her  kingdom,  treated  the  earl 
of  Murray  in  private  with  respect  and  kindness, 
and  commanded  the  earl  of  Bedford  to  supply 
him  with  money.  Mary,  however,  resolved  to 
proceed  against  the  rebels  with  an  exemplary 
rigor.  The  submissions  of  the  duke  of  Chatel- 
herault  alone,  who  had  been  less  criminal  than  the 
rest,  were  attended  to.  But  even  the  favor  which 
he  obtained  was  precarious  and  uncertain  ;  for 
he  was  commanded  to  use  the  pretence  of  sickness, 
and  to  pass  for  some  time  into  foreign  countries. 
A  parliament  was  called  ;  and  a  summons  of 
treason  being  executed  against  the  earls  of  Ar- 
gyle,  Glencairn,  and  llothes,  with  others  of  the 
principal  rebels,  they  were  commanded  to  ap- 
pear before  the  three  estates;  in  default  of 
which  their  lives  and  estates  were  declared  to  be 
forfeited.  In  the  mean  time  Throgmorton  the 
English  ambassador  solicited  the  pardon  of  the 
rebels;  which  Mary  was  at  first  inclined  to 
grant.  However,  by  the  persuasion  of  the  court 
of  France,  she  was  not  only  induced  to  proceed 
against  them  with  rigor,  but  acceded  to  the 
treaty  of  Bayonne,  by  which  the  destruction  of 
the  Protestants  was  determined.  This  measure 
filled  the  whole  court  with  terror  and  dismay. 
The  rebels  were  acquainted  with  the  danger  of 
their  situation  ;  and,  being  now  driven  desperate, 
they  were  ready  to  engage  in  the  most  atrocious 
designs.  Unhappily,  the  situation  of  affairs  in 
Scotland  rendered  the  accomplishment  of  their 
purposes  but  too  easy.  Violent  disgusts  had 
taken  place  between  the  queen  and  her  husband. 
Her  fondness  had  been  excessive ;  but  she  soon 
perceived  that  the  qualities  of  his  mind  were 
not  proportioned  to  his  personal  accomplish- 
ments. He  was  proud,  disdainful,  suspicious, 
wilful,  giddy  and  obstinate,  insolent  and  mean. 
The  queen  iu  consequence  began  to  show  an  in- 
difference towards  him  ;  which  he  took  care  to 
augment,  by  showing  the  like  indifference  to- 
wards her,  and  engaging  in  low  intrigues  and 
amours,  indulging  himself  in  dissipation  and 
riot,  &c.  However,  the  desire  of  dominion  was 
his  ruling  passion ;  and  the  queer,  finding  his 
total  incapacity  for  exercising  his  power  to  any 
good  purpose,  had  excluded  him  from  it  altoge- 
ther. He  was  therefore  a  proper  object  for  the 
machinations  of  the  rebels,  and  readily  entered 
into  an  agreement  with  them  to  depose  the 
queen;  vainly  thinking  that  he  should  thus  se- 
ture  the  crown  to  himself.  However  as  the  par- 
Jiament  was  soon  to  assemble,  in  which  the  rebels 
lad  every  reason  to  believe  that  they  would  be 
tondemned  for  high  treason,  it  was  necessary 
lhat  the  kingdom  should  be  thrown  into  disorder 
before  that  time  came,  otherwise  their  fate  was 
inevitable.  Practising  on  the  imbecility  of  Darn- 


ley,  they  persuaded  him  that  a  criminal  corre- 
spondence subsisted  between  the  queen  and 
David  Rizzio.  Of  all  the  slanders  circulated 
against  queen  Mary,  this  appears  the  most  ridi- 
culous and  incredible ;  Rizzio  was  both  old  and 
of  very  unattractive  appearance.  But  the  king 
was  resolved  upon  his  destruction  ;  and  the  con- 
spirators hoped  thereby  not  only  to  get  an  in- 
demnity, but  to  effect  a  total  revolution  at  court, 
and  the  entire  humiliation  of  Bothwel,  Huntly, 
and  Athol,  who  were  the  associates  of  llizzio. 
However,  to  save  themselves,  they  engaged  the 
king  to  subscribe  abend,  affirming  that  the  pro- 
ject of  assassinating  Rizzio  was  altogether  of  his 
own  devising ;  acknowledging  that  he  had  soli- 
cited them  to  take  a  part  in  it,  from  the  appre- 
hensions that  resistance  might  be  made  to  him  ; 
and  agreeing,  upon  the  word  and  honor  of  a 
prince,  to  protect  and  secure  them  against  every 
hazard  and  injury  to  which  they  might  be  ex- 
posed from  the  achievement  of  his  enterprise. 
Having  procured  this  security,  and  having  al- 
lured the  earl  of  Lennox  the  king's  father  to  ap- 
prove of  their  measures,  they  adjusted  the  method 
of  the  projected  murder,  and  despatched  a  mes- 
senger to  the  English  frontier,  advertising  the 
earl  of  Murray  and  the  rebels  of  their  intention*, 
and  inviting  them  to  return  tothecourt.  Upon  the 
9th  of  March,  about  seven  o'clock  P.  M.  armed 
men,  to  the  number  of  500,  surrounded  the  pa- 
lace of  Holyrood.  The  earl  of  Morton  and  lord 
Lindsay  entered  the  court  of  the  palace,  with 
160  persons.  The  queen  was  in  her  chamber  at 
supper,  with  her  natural  sister  the  countess  of 
Argyle,  her  natural  brother  Robert  commendator 
of  Holyrood  House,  Bejon  of  Creich  master  of 
the  household,  Arthur  Erskine,  and  David 
Rizzio.  The  king,  entering  the  apartment,  seat- 
ed himself  by  her  side.  He  was  followed  by 
lord  Ruthven,  who  being  wasted  with  sickness, 
and  cased  in  armour,  exhibited  an  appearance 
that  was  hideous  and  terrible.  Four  ruffians  at- 
tended him.  In  a  hollow  voice  he  commanded 
Rizzio  to  leave  a  place  which  did  not  become 
him.  The  queen,  in  astonishment,  asked  the 
king  the  meaning  of  this  mysterious  enterprise. 
He  affected  ignorance.  She  ordered  Ruthveii 
from  her  presence  under  pain  of  treason  ;  declar- 
ing that,  if  Rizzio  had  committed  any  crime,  she 
would  produce  him  before  the  parliament,  and 
punish  him  according  to  the  laws.  Ruthven, 
drawing  his  dagger,  advanced  towards  Rizzio. 
The  queen  rose  to  make  an  exertion  of  her  au- 
thority. The  unfortunate  stranger  laid  hold  of 
her  garments,  crying  out  for  justice  and  mercy. 
Other  conspirators,  rushing  into  the  chamber, 
overturned  the  table,  and  increased  the  dismay 
and  confusion.  Loaded  pistols  were  presented 
to  (he  bosom  of  the  queen.  The  king  held  her 
in  his  arms.  George  Douglas,  snatching  the 
dagger  of  his  sovereign,  plunged  it  into  the  body 
of  Rizzio.  The  wounded  and  screaming  victim 
was  dragged  into  the  antichamber  ;  and  so  eager 
were  the  assassins  to  complete  their  work  that 
he  was  mangled  with  fifty-six  wounds.  While 
the  queen  was  pressing  the  king  to  gratify  her 
enquiries  into  the  meaning  of  a  deed  so  execra- 
ble, Ruthven  returned  into  their  presence.  She 
gave  a  full  vent  to  indignafion  and  reproach. 


510 


SCOTLAND. 


Ruthven,  with  an  intolerable  coldness  and  deli- 
Iteration,  informed  her  that  Rizzio  had  been  put 
to  death  by  the  counsel  of  her  husband,  whom  he 
had  dishonored ;  and  that  by  the  persuasion  of 
this  minion  she  had  refused  the  crown  matrimo- 
nial to  the  king,  had  engaged  to  re-establish  the 
ancient  religion,  had  resolved  to  punish  the  earl 
of  Murray  and  his  friends,  and  had  entrusted 
her  confidence  to  Bothwel  and  Huntly,  who 
were  traitors.  The  king,  taking  the  part  of 
Ruthven,  remonstrated  against  her  proceedings, 
and  complained  that  from  the  time  of  her  fami- 
liarity with  Rizzio  she  had  neither  regarded,  en- 
tertained, nor  trusted  him.  His  suspicions  and 
ingratitude  shocked  and  tortured  her.  His  con- 
nexion with  the  conspirators  gave  her  an  omin- 
ous anxiety.  Apprehensions  of  outrages  still 
more  atrocious  invaded  her.  In  these  agitated 
moments  site  did  not  lose  herself  in  the  helpless- 
ness of  sorrow.  The  loftiness  of  her  spirit  com- 
municated relief  to  her ;  and,  wiping  away  her 
tears,  she  exclaimed,  that  it  was  not  now  a  season 
for  lamentation,  but  for  revenge. 

The  earls  of  Huntly,  Bothwel,  and  Athol, 
lords  Fleming  and  Livingston,  and  Sir  James 
Balfour,  who  were  at  this  time  in  the  palace, 
found  all  resistance  to  be  vain.  Some  of  them, 
eluding  the  vigilance  of  Morton,  made  their  es- 
cape ;  and  others  were  allowed  to  retire.  The 
provost  and  magistrates  of  Edinburgh,  hearing  of 
the  tumult,  ordered  the  alarm  bell  to  be  rung. 
The  citizens  ran  in  crowds  to  enquire  into  the 
welfare  of  their  sovereign;  but  she  was  not  per- 
mitted to  address  them.  The  conspirators  told 
her  that,  if  she  presumed  to  make  any  harangue, 
they  would  '  cut  her  in  pieces,  and  cast  her  over 
the  walls.'  The  king  called  to  the  people  that 
she  was  well,  and  commanded  them  to  disperse. 
The  queen  was  shut  up  in  her  chamber,  uncer- 
tain of  her  fate,  and  without  the  consolation  or  at- 
tendance of  her  women.  In  the  morning  a  pro- 
clamation was  issued  by  the  kin?,  without  the 
knowledge  of  his  queen,  prohibiting  the  meeting 
of  the  parliament,  and  ordering  the  members  to 
retire  from  the  city.  The  rebellions  lords  now 
returned  from  England,  and  arrived  at  Edinburgh 
within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  assassination 
of  Rizzio.  The  queen,  knowing  of  how  much 
consequence  it  was  for  her  to  gain  the  earl  of 
Murray,  invited  him  to  wait  upon  her.  Not- 
withstanding die  extreme  provocation  which  she 
had  met  with,  Mary  so  far  commanded  her  pas- 
sions that  she  gave  him  a  favorable  reception. 
After  informing  him  of  the  rudeness  and  severity 
of  the  treatment  she  had  met  with,  the  queen  ob- 
served, that,  if  he  had  remained  in  friendship 
with  her  at  home,  he  would  have  protected  her 
against  such  excesses  of  hardship  and  insult. 
Murray,  with  an  hypocritical  compassion,  shed 
tears ;  while  the  queen  seemed  to  entertain  no 
doubt  of  his  sincerity,  but  gave  him  room  to 
hope  for  a  full  pardon  of  all  his  offences,  fn 
the  mean  time,  however,  the  conspirators  were 
consulting,  whether  they  should  hold  the  queen  in 
perpetual  captivity,  or  put  her  to  death ;  or  whe- 
ther they  should  content  themselves  with  com- 
mitting her  to  close  custody  in  Stirling  castle,  till 
they  should  obtain  a  parliamentary  sanction  to 
their  proceedings,  establish  the  Protestant  reli- 


gion by  the  total  overthrow  of  the  mass,  and 
invest  the  king  with  the  crown  matrimonial  ami 
the  government  of  the  kingdom.  Mary  now 
began  to  perceive  the  full  extent  of  her  wretched- 
ness ;  and  therefore,  as  her  last  resource,  ap- 
plied to  the  king,  whom  she  treated  with  all 
the  blandishments  of  her  sex.  The  king,  wh'», 
with  all  his  faults,  had  a  natural  facility  of  tem- 
per, was  easily  gained  over.  The  conspirators 
were  alarmed  at  his  coldness,  and  endeavoured 
to  fill  his  mind  with  fears  concerning  the  dupli- 
city of  his  wife ;  but,  finding  they  could  not  gain 
their  point,  they  at  last  began  to  treat  of'an  ac- 
commodation. The  king  brought  them  a  mes- 
sage, importing  that  Mary  was  disposed  to  bury 
in  ob'ivion  all  memory  of  their  transgressions  ; 
and  he  offered  to  conduct  them  into  her  presence. 
The  earls  of  Murray  and  Morton,  with  the  lord 
Ruthven,  attending  him  into  her  presence,  and, 
falling  on  their  knees  before  the  queen,  made  their 
apologies  and  submissions.  She  commanded 
them  to  rise ;  and  having  desired  them  to  recol- 
lect her  abhorrence  of  cruelty  and  rapaciousness, 
she  assured  them,  with  a  gracious  air,  that  instead 
of  designing  to  forfeit  their  lives,  and  possess 
herself  of  their  estates,  she  was  inclined  to  re- 
ceive them  into  favor,  and  to  give  a  full  pardon, 
not  only  to  the  nobles  who  had  come  from  I;.n_- 
land,  but  to  those  who  had  assassinated  David 
Rizzio.  They  were  accordingly  ordered  to  pre- 
pare the  bonds  for  their  security  and  forgive: 
which  the  queen  promised  to  take  the  earliest 
opportunity  of  subscribing;  but  in  the  mean 
time  the  king  observed  that  the  conspirators 
ought  to  remove  the  guards  which  they  hari 
placed  around  the  queen,  that  all  suspicion  ot 
restraint  might  be  taken  away.  This  measure 
could  not  with  any  propriety  be  opposed,  and 
the  gvards  were  therefore  dismissed  ;  upon  which 
the  queen,  that  very  night,  left  her  palace  at 
midnight,  and  took  the  road  to  Dunbar,  accoin 
panied  by  the  king  and  a  few  attendants.  The 
news  of  the  queen's  escape  threw  the  conspira- 
tors into  the  utmost  consternation ;  as  she  im- 
mediately issued  proclamations  foi  her  subjects 
to  attend  her  in  arms,  and  was  powerfully  sup- 
ported. They  sent  therefore  lord  Semple,  re- 
questing, with  the  utmost  humility,  her  subscrip- 
tion to  their  deeds  of  pardon  and  security  ;  but 
to  this  message  she  returned  an  unfavorable  an- 
swer, and  advanced  towards  Edinburgh  with  ai 
army  of  8000  men.  The  conspirators  now  fled 
with  the  utmost  precipitation.  Even  John 
Knox  retired  to  Kyle  till  the  storm  should  blow 
over.  On  the  queen's  arrival  at  Edinburgh,  a  privy 
council  was  instantly  called,  in  which  the  conspi- 
rators were  charged  to  appear  as  guilty  of  mur- 
der and  treason ;  their  places  of  strength  were 
ordered  to  be  given  up  to  the  officers  of  the 
crown  ;  and  their  estates  and  possessions  were 
made  liable  to  confiscation  and  forfeiture.  But, 
while  the  queen  was  thus  eager  to  punish  the 
conspirators,  she  was  sensible  that  so  many  of 
the  nobility,  by  uniting  in  a  common  cause, 
might  raise  a  powerful  party  in  opposition  to  her; 
for  which  reason  she  endeavoured  to  detach  the 
earl  of  Murray  from  the  rest,  by  making  him  of- 
f  i-s  of  pardon.  Sir  James  Melvil  accordingly 
I  ledged  himself  to  produce  his  pardon  and  that 


SCOTLAND. 


511 


•of  his  adherents,  if  he  would  separate  from  Mor- 
ton and  the  conspirators.  He  accordingly  be- 
came cold  and  distant  to  them,  and  exclaimed 
against  the  murder  as  a  most  execrable  action; 
but,  notwithstanding  his  affected  anger,  when  the 
conspirators  fled  to  England,  he  furnished  them 
with  letters  of  recommendation  to  the  earl  of 
Bedford.  After  the  flight  of  the  conspirators,  the 
king  thought  it  necessary  for  him  to  deny  his  hav- 
ing any  share  in  the  action.  He  therefore  em- 
braced an  opportunity  of  declaring  to  the  privy 
council  his  total  ignorance  of  the  conspiracy 
against  Rizzio ;  and  not  satisfied  with  this,  by 
public  proclamations  at  the  market-place  of  his 
capital,  and  over  the  whole  kingdom,  protested 
to  the  people  at  large  that  he  had  never  bestow- 
ed upon  it,  in  any  degree,  the  sanction  of  his 
command,  consent,  assistance,  or  approbation. 
In  the  mean  time  the  queen  granted  a  full  and 
ample  pardon  to  the  earls  of  Murray,  Argyle, 
Glencairn,  and  Rothes,  and  their  adherents  ;  but 
towards  the  conspirators  she  remained  inexora- 
ble. This  lenity,  to  Murray  especially,  proved 
a  source  of  the  greatest  inquietude  to  the  queen  ; 
for  this  nobleman,  blind  to  every  motive  of  ac- 
tion distinct  from  his  own  ambition,  began  to 
contrive  new  plots,  which,  though  disappointed 
for  a  time,  soon  operated  to  the  destruction  of 
the  queen,  and  almost  to  the  ruin  of  the  nation. 
In  1566  the  queen  was  delivered  of  a  prince,  who 
received  the  name  of  James.  This  happy  event, 
however,  did  not  extinguish  the  quarrel  betwixt  her 
and  the  king.  His  desire  to  intrude  himself  into  her 
authority,  and  to  fix  a  stain  upon  her  honor,  his 
share  in  the  murder  of  Rizzio,  and  his  extreme 
meanness  in  publicly  denying  it  afterwards, 
could  not  fail  to  impress  her  with  the  strongest 
sentiments  of  detestation  and  contempt.  Un- 
able, however,  totally  to  divest  herself  of  regard 
for  him,  her  behaviour,  though  cold  and  distant, 
was  yet  decent  and  respectful.  Castelnau,  am- 
bassador extraordinary  from  France,  endeavour- 
ed to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  ;  nor  were  his 
endeavours  altogether  ineffectual.  The  king  and 
queen  spent  two  nights  together;  and  proceeded, 
in  company  to  Meggatland  in  Tweedale,  to  enjoy 
the  diversion  of  the  chase,  attended  by  the  earls 
of  Huntly,  Bothwel,  Murray,  and  other  nobles. 
Thence  they  passed  to  Edinburgh,  and  then  took 
the  road  to  Stirling.  Had  the  king  been  endowed 
with  any  prudence,  he  would  have  made  the  best 
use  of  this  opportunity  to  have  regained  the 
affections  of  his  queen  ;  but,  instead  of  this, 
finding  that  he  was  not  immediately  entrusted 
with  power,  his  peevishness  suggested  to  him  a 
design  of  going  abroad.  To  M.  du  Croc,  the 
French  resident,  who  had  attended  Mary  at 
Stirling,  he  ventured  to  communicate  his  chime- 
rical project.  This  statesman  represented  to 
him  its  wildness  and  inefficacy;  and  could 
hardly  believe  that  he  was  serious.  His  father 
and  all  the  courtiers  endeavoured  to  dissuade 
him  from  it.  They  admonished  him  to  remem- 
ber that  his  flight  would  expose  him  to  every 
kind  of  ridicule  and  disgrace.  They  pointed  out 
•the  happiness  of  his  fortune,  and  counselled  him 
not  to  part  lightly  with  its  flattering  advantages. 
The  queen  herself,  taking  his  hand  into  her's, 
and  pressing  it  with  affection,  besought  him  to 


say  by  what  act  or  deed  she  had  unfortunately 
induced  him  to  conceive  so  fatal  a  purpose? 
Her  memory  did  not  reproach  her  with  any 
crime  or  indiscretion,  which  affected  his  honor 
or  her  integrity ;  yet,  if  she  had  undesignedly 
incurred  his  displeasure,  she  was  disposed  to 
atone  for  it :  and  she  begged  him  to  speak  freely. 
M.  du  Croc  then  asked  him  to  reveal  his  in- 
quietudes. But  all  this  attention  was  ineffectual. 
Obstinately  froward,  lie  refused  to  confess  that 
he  intended  any  voyage,  and  made  no  mention 
of  any  reasons  of  discontent.  He  acknowledged 
with  readiness  that  he  could  not  accuse  the 
queen  of  any  offence.  In  perturbation,  he  pre- 
pared to  retire  ;  and,  turning  to  her,  said, '  Adieu, 
madam  !  you  shall  not  see  me  for  a  long  time.' 
He  then  bowed  to  the  French  envoy  and  to  the 
lords  of  the  privy  council,  and  hastened  back  to 
Stirling,  leaving  the  queen  and  her  council  in 
astonishment.  They  resolved  to  watch  his  mo- 
tions, and  could  not  conjecture  what  step  he 
would  take.  Mary  despatched  a  courier  to  ad- 
vertise the  king  of  France  and  the  queen-mother 
of  his  conduct.  But  it  was  not  possible  that  a 
prince  so  meanly  endowed  with  ability  could 
make  any  impression  upon  her  allies.  He  was 
universally  odious ;  and  at  this  time  the  queen 
was  in  the  highest  estimation  with  the  great  body 
of  her  subjects.  After  passing  some  days  at 
Stirling,  he  addressed  a  letter  to  the  queen,  in 
which,  after  hinting  at  his  design  of  going  abroad, 
he  insinuated  his  reasons  of  complaint.  'He 
was  not  entrusted  by  her  with  authority,  and 
she  was  no  longer  studious  to  advance  him  to 
honor.  He  was  without  attendants ;  and  the 
nobility  had  deserted  him.'  Her  answer  was 
sensible  and  temperate.  She  called  to  his  re- 
membrance '  the  distinctions  she  had  conferred 
upon  him,  the  uses  to  which  he  had  put  the 
credit  and  reputation  accruing  from  them,  and 
the  heinous  offences  he  had  encouraged  in  her 
subjects.  Though  the  plotters  against  Rizzio 
had  represented  him  as  the  leader  of  their  enter- 
prize,  she  had  behaved  as  if  she  believed  not  his 
participation  in  the  guilt  of  that  project.  As 
to  the  defects  of  his  retinue,  she  had  uniformly 
offered  him  the  attendance  of  her  own  servants. 
As  to  the  nobility  they  were  the  supports  of  the 
throne,  and  independent  of  it.  Their  counte- 
nance was  not  to  be  commanded,  but  won. 
He  had  discovered  too  much  stateliness  to 
them ;  and  they  were  the  proper  judges  of 
their  own  deportment.  If  he  wished  for  conse- 
quence, it  was  his  duty  to  pay  them  attention  ; 
and,  whenever  he  should  conciliate  their  regard, 
she  would  be  happy  to  give  him  all  the  import- 
ance that  belonged  to  him.'  In  the  mean  time 
the  earls  of  Murray  and  Bothwel  were  indus- 
triously striving  to  widen  the  breach  between 
the  king  and  queen,  and  at  the  same  time  to  fo- 
ment the  division  between  the  king  and  his  nobles. 
The  earl  of  Morton  excited  disturbances  on  the 
borders;  and,  as  no  settled  peace  had  taken 
place  there  since  Mary's  marriage,  there  was  the 
greatest  reason  to  believe  that  he  would  succeed 
in  his  attempts.  Proclamations  were  therefore 
issued  by  the  queen  to  call  her  subjects  to  arms  : 
and  she  proceeded  to  Jedburgh  to  hold  justice- 
courts.  In  the  course  of  tin's  journey  she  was 


.11-2 


SCOTLAND. 


taken  dangerously  ill :  ;is  soon  as  she  was  able  to 
travel  she  visited  Kelso,  Werk  Castle,  Hume, 
Lang  ton,  and  VVedderburn.  The  licentious  bor- 
derers, on  the  first  news  of  her  recovery,  laid 
down  their  arms.  Being  desirous  to  take  a  view 
of  Berwick,  the  queen  advanced  to  it  with  an 
attendance  of  1000  horse.  Sir  John  Forster, 
the  deputy  warden  of  the  English  marches,  came 
forth  with  a  numerous  retinue,  and  conducted 
her  to  the  most  proper  station  for  surveying  it, 
and  paid  her  all  the  honors  in  his  power,  by  a 
salute  of  the  artillery,  and  other  demonstrations  of 
joy.  Continuing  her  journey,  she  passed  to  Ey- 
inouth,  Dunbar,  and  Tamtallan ;  proceeding 
thence  to  Craigmillar  Castle,  where  she  proposed 
to  remain  till  the  time  of  the  baptism  of  the 
princp,  which  was  to  be  celebrated  at  Stirling. 
During  her  severe  sickness  her  husband  had  kept 
himself  at  a  distance ;  but,  when  she  was  so  far 
recovered  as  to  be  out  of  danger,  he  made  his 
appearance ;  and,  being  received  with  some  cold- 
ness, he  retired  suddenly  to  Stirling.  This  cruel 
neglect  was  a  most  sensible  mortification  to  her. 
She  was  seized  with  a  settled  melancholy ;  and  in 
her  anguish  often  wished  for  death  to  put  a  pe- 
riod to  her  existence.  Her  nobles,  who  were  ca- 
balling against  her,  remarked  her  condition,  and 
took  advantage  of  it.  Bothwel,  who  had  already 
recommended  himself  by  his  services,  redoubled 
his  efforts  to  heighten  the  favor  which  these  ser- 
vices had  induced  her  to  conceive  for  him.  At 
this  time  he  sought  to  gain  the  affection  of  the 
queen,  with  a  view  to  marry  her  himself,  provid- 
ing a  divorce  from  her  husband  could  be  obtained, 
•which  was  now  become  the  subject  of  consulta- 
tion by  Murray  and  his  associates.  After  much 
deliberation  the  queen  herself  was  acquainted 
with  this  project ;  and  it  was  told  her  that,  pro- 
vided she  would  pardon  the  earl  of  Morton  and 
his  associates,  the  means  should  be  found  of 
effectuating  the  divorce.  This  was  urged  as  a 
nvitter  of  state  by  the  earls  of  Murray,  Lething- 
to»,  Argyle,  and  Huntly ;  and  the  queen  was  in- 
vited to  consider  it  as  an  affair  which  might  be 
managed  without  any  interference  on  her  part. 
The  queen  replied  that  she  would  listen  to  them, 
upon  condition  that  the  divorce  could  be  obtain- 
ed according  to  the  laws,  and  that  it  should  not 
be  any  way  prejudicial  to  her  son ;  but,  if  they 
meant  to  operate  their  purpose  by  a  disregard  to 
these  points,  they  must  not  think  any  more  of  it; 
for,  rather  than  consent  to  their  views,  she 
would  endure  all  the  torments,  and  abide  by  all 
the  perils,  to  which  her  situation  exposed  her. 
Lethington,  upon  this,  in  the  name  of  the  rest, 
engaged  to  deliver  her  from  her  husband,  with- 
out prejudice  to  her  son :  words  which  could  not 
be  understood  otherwise  than  as  pointing  at  mur- 
der. Lord  Murray,  added  he,  who  is  here  present, 
scrupulous  as  he  is,  will  connive,  and  behold  our 
proceedings  without  opening  his  lips.  The 
queen  is  said  immediately  to  have  made  answer, 
'  I  desire  that  you  will  do  nothing  from  which 
any  stain  may  be  fixed  upon  my  honor  or  con- 
science ;  and  I  therefore  require  the  matter  to 
rest  as  it  is,  till  God  of  his  goodness  send  relief. 
What  you  think  to  be  of  service  to  me  may  turn 
out  to  my  displeasure  and  harm.'  It  appears  that 
from  this  moment  a  plot  was  formed  by  Murray, 


Bothwel,  and  Lethington  against  the  life  of  Darn- 
ley,  and  by  some  of  them  probably  against  the 
queen  herself;  and  that  Morton,  who  with  the  other 
conspirators  against  Rizzio  had  received  a  pardon, 
was  closely  associated  with  them  in  their  nefarious 
designs.  That  profligate  peer  was,  in  his  way  to 
Scotland,  met  at  Whittingham  by  Bothwel  and 
the  secretary.  They  proposed  to  him  the  murder 
of  the  king,  and  required  his  assistance,  alleging 
that  the  queen  herself  consented  to  the  deed  :  to 
which  Morton  by  his  osvn  account  replied  that 
he  was  disposed  to  concur,  provided  he  were  sure 
of  acting  under  any  authority  from  her;  but  Both- 
wel and  Lethington,  having  returned  to  Edinburgh 
on  purpose  to  obtain  such  an  authority,  sent  him 
back  a  message,  that  the  queen  would  not  permit 
any  conversation  upon  that  matter.  In  the  mean 
time  preparations  were  made  for  the  baptism  of 
the  young  prince ;  to  assist  at  which  the  queen 
left  Craigmillar,  and  went  to  Stirling.  The  cere- 
mony was  performed  on  the  17th  of  December, 
1566.  He  was  called  Charles-James-James- 
Charles,  and  proclaimed  by  the  heralds  prince 
and  steward  of  Scotland,  duke  of  Rothesay,  earl 
of  Carrick,  lord  of  the  isles,  and  baron  of  Ren- 
frew. Amidst  the  scenes  of  joy  displayed  on  this 
occasion  the  king  showed  greater  folly  than  ever. 
Though  he  had  often  kept  at  a  greater  distance 
before,  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Stirling,  as  if 
he  had  meant  to  offend  the  queen,  and  to  expose 
their  quarrels:  chiefly  confining  himself  to  his 
chamber.  His  strange  behaviour,  however,  did 
not  give  the  public  any  favorable  idea  of  him  ; 
and,  as  the  earl  of  Murray  and  his  faction  took 
care  to  augment  the  general  odium,  no  court  was 
paid  to  him  by  foreign  ambassadors.  His  situa- 
tion, therefore,  was  exceedingly  uncomfortable; 
but,  though  he  must  have  been  conscious  of  its 
imprudence,  he  did  noi  alter  his  conduct.  In  a 
sullen  humor  he  left  Stirling,  and  proceeded  to 
Glasgow.  Here  he  fell  sick,  with  such  symp- 
toms as  seemed  to  indicate  poison.  He  was 
tormented  with  violent  pains,  and  his  body 
was  covered  with  pustules  of  a  bluish  color ;  so 
that  his  death  was  daily  expected.  Mary  did 
not  repay  his  coldness  to  her  by  negligence.  She 
set  out  immediately  for  Glasgow,  and  waited  on 
him  with  all  the  assiduity  of  an  affectionate  wife 
until  he  recovered;  after  which  she  returned 
with  him  to  Edinburgh;  and,  as  the  low  situa- 
tion of  the  palace  of  Holyrood  House  was  thought 
to  render  it  unhealthy,  the  king  was  lodged 
in  a  house  which  had  been  appointed  for  the 
superior  of  the  church  called  St.  Mary's  in  the 
Fields.  This  house  stood  upon  a  high  ground,  at 
the  back  of  that  ground  where  the  royal  infirmary 
now  stands,  and  in  a  salubrious  air ;  and  here 
she  staid  with  him  some  days.  Here  the  conspi- 
rators thought  proper  to  finish  their  plot  in  the 
most  execrable  manner.  On  the  10th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1567,  about  two  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the 
house  where  the  king  resided  was  blown  up  by 
gunpowder.  The  explosion,  alarming  the  inha- 
bitants, excited  a  general  curiosity,  and  brought 
multitudes  to  the  place  whence  it  proceeded.  The 
kin?  was  found  dead  and  naked  in  an  adjoining 
field,  with  a  servant  who  used  to  sleep  in  the 
same  apartment  with  him.  On  neither  was  there 
any  mark  of  fire  or  olber  external  injury.  Till  the 


SCOTLAND. 


513 


late  improvements  of  the  city,  when  all  incum- 
brances  were  cleared  away,  the  gate  in  the  old 
wall,  at  the  back  of  the  king's  house,  by  which  the 
conspirators  entered  and  returned  from  their 
bloody  business,  was  distinctly  visible,  though  long 
ago  built  up. 

The  queen  was  in  the  palace  of  Holyrood 
House,  taking  the  diversion  of  a  masked  ball, 
which  was  given  to  honor  the  marriage  of  a 
favorite  domestic,  when  the  news  of  the  king's 
death  was  brought  to  her.  She  showed  the  ut- 
most grief,  and  appeared  exasperated  to  the  last 
degree  against  the  perpetrators  of  a  deed  at  once 
so  shocking  and  barbarous.  The  most  express 
and  positive  orders  were  given  to  enquire  after 
the  perpetrators  by  every  possible  method.  A 
proclamation  was  issued  by  the  privy  council, 
assuring  the  people  that  the  queen  and  nobi- 
lity would  leave  nothing  undone  to  discover  the 
murderers  of  the  king.  It  offered  £2000,  and  an 
annuity  for  life,  to  any  person  who  should  give 
information  of  the  devisers,  counsellors,  and  per- 
petrators of  the  murder ;  and,  besides  this  reward, 
the  promise  of  a  full  pardon,  to  the  conspira- 
tor who  should  make  a  free  confession  of  his 
own  guilt,  and  that  of  the  confederates.  On  the 
fourth  day  after  this  proclamation  was  published 
a  placard  was  affixed  to  the  gate  of  the  city 
prison,  affirming  that  the  earl  of  Bothwel,  James 
Balfour,  David  Chalmers,  and  black  John  Spence, 
were  the  murderers.  No  name,  however,  was 
subscribed  to  this  intelligence,  nor  was  any  de- 
mand made  for  the  proffered  reward  ;  so  that  it 
was  difficult  to  know  whether  this  advertisement 
had  been  dictated  by  a  spirit  of  calumny  or  the 
love  of  justice.  In  the  mean  time  the  earl  of 
Murray  conducted  himself  with  his  usual  circum- 
spection and  artifice.  Upon  a  pretence  that  his 
wife  was  dangerously  sick  at  his  castle  in  Fife, 
he,  the  day  before  the  murder,  obtained  the 
queen's  permission  to  pay  a  visit  to  her.  Thus 
he  proposed  to  prevent  all  suspicion  whatever  of 
his  guilt.  He  was  so  full,  however,  of  the  in- 
tended project  that,  while  he  was  proceeding  on 
his  journey,  he  observed  to  the  person  who  ac- 
companied him,  '  This  night,  before  morning,  the 
lord  Darnley  shall  lose  his  life.'  When  the  blow 
was  struck,  he  returned  to  Edinburgh  to  carry  on 
his  practices.  Among  foreign  nations  the  domes- 
tic disputes  of  the  queen  and  her  husband  being 
fully  known,  it  was  with  the  greater  ease  that 
reports  could  be  propagated  to  her  disadvantage. 
To  France  letters  were  despatched,  expressing  in 
fervent  terms  her  participation  in  the  murder. 
In  England  the  ministers  and  courtiers  of  Eliza- 
beth could  not  flatter  that  princess  more  agree- 
ably, than  by  industriously  detracting  from  the 
honor  and  the  virtue  of  the  Scottish  queen. 
Within  her  own  dominions  a  similar  spirit  of 
outrage  exerted  itself,  and  not  without  success. 
Her  reconciliation  with  her  husband  was  inter- 
preted to  be  dissimulation  and  treachery.  The 
Protestant  clergy,  who  were  her  most  determined 
enemies,  possessed  a  leading  direction  among  the 
populace  ;  and  they  were  the  friends  and  the  par- 
lizans  of  the  earl  of  Murray.  Open  declamations 
from  the  pulpit  were  at  the  same  time  made 
against  Bothwel;  and  papers  were  dispersed 
making  the  queen  a  party  with  him  in  the  mur- 
VOL.  XIX. 


der.  Every  art  was  employed  to  provoke  the 
frenzy  of  the  people.  Voices,  interrupting  the 
silence  of  the  night,  proclaimed  the^  infamy  of 
Bothwel ;  and  portraits  of  the  regicides  were  cir- 
culated over  the  kingdom.  The  queen's  deter- 
mination, however,  to  scrutinize  into  the  matter 
was  unabated  ;  and  to  the  earl  of  Lennox,  the 
king's  father,  she  paid  an  attention  which  he 
could  only  have  expected  from  her  upon  an  emer- 
gency of  this  kind.  Having  pressed  her  by  letter 
to  the  most  diligent  enquiry  after  the  regicides, 
she  returned  an  answer  so  completely  to  his 
wishes  that  he  was  fully  convinced  of  the  sincerity 
and  rigor  with  which  she  intended  to  proceed 
against  them  ;  and  he  urged  her  to  assemble  the 
three  estates,  that  their  advice  might  direct  the 
order  and  manner  of  their  trial.  She  wrote  to 
him  that  an  assembly  of  the  estates  was  already 
proclaimed  ;  that*  it  was  her  earnest  and  deter- 
mined will  and  purpose  that  no  step  should  be 
neglected  that  could  conduce  to  the  execution  of 
justice :  and  that,  although  she  had  thought  it 
expedient  to  call  a  meeting  of  the  parliament  at 
this  juncture,  it  was  not  her  meaning  that  the  pro- 
ceedings against  the  regicides  should  be  delayed 
till  it  was  actually  assembled  :  adding  that  if  he 
would  condescend  to  mention  the  names  which, 
in  his  opinion,  were  most  suspicious,  she  would 
instantly  command  that  those  steps  should  be 
taken  which  the  laws  directed  and  authorised.  He 
in  return  named  the  earl  of  Bothwel,  James  Bal- 
four, David  Chalmers,  black  John  Spence,  Franjfp 
Sebastian,  John  de  Bourdeaux,  and  Joseph,  trre 
brother  of  David  Rizzio;  and  assured  her  majesty 
that  his  suspicions  of  these  persons  were  weighty 
and  strong.  In  reply  to  his  information,  Alary 
gave  him  her  solemn  promise  that  the  persons  he 
had  pointed  out  should  undergo  their  trial  in  con- 
formity to  the  laws,  and  that  they  should  be 
punished  according  to  the  measure  of  their  guilt : 
and  she  invited  him  to  leave  immediately  his  re- 
tirement, and  to  meet  her  at  her  court,  that  he 
might  witness  the  proceedings  against  them,  and 
the  zeal  with  which  she  was  animated  to  perform 
the  part  that  became  her.  While  the  queen  car- 
ried on  this  correspondence  with  the  earl  of 
Lennox  she  resided  partly  at  the  palace  of  lord 
Seton,  a  few  miles  from  her  capital,  and  partly  at 
Holyrood  House.  By  the  time  that  she  sent  her 
invitation  to  him  she  was  residing  in  her  capital. 
She  delayed  not  to  confer  with  her  counsellors, 
and  to  lay  before  them  the  letters  of  the  earl  of 
Lennox.  Bothwel  was  earnest  in  his  protestations 
of  his  innocence;  and  he  even  expressed  his  wish 
for  a  trial,  that  he  might  establish  his  integrity. 
No  facts  pointed  to  his  guilt;  there  had  appeared 
no  accuser  but  the  earl  of  Lennox  ;  and  no  wit- 
nesses had  been  found  who  could  establish  his 
criminality.  Her  privy  council  seemed  to  be 
firmly  persuaded  tliat  he  was  suffering  under  the 
malice  of  defamation.  Murray,  Morton,  and 
Lethington,  whatever  might  be  their  private  ma- 
chinations, were  publicly  his  most  strenuous  de- 
fenders; and  they  explained  the  behaviour  of 
the  earl  of  Lennox  to  be  the  effect  of  jealousy 
against  a  nobleman  who  had  outrun  him  so  far 
in  the  career  of  ambition.  But  though  all  the 
arts  of  Murray  and  Bothwel,  Morton  and  Le- 
thington, were  exerted  to  mislead  the  queen,  they 

2  L 


514 


SCOTLAND. 


were  not  able  to  withhold  her  from  adopting  the 
strain  of  conduct  which  was  the  most  proper  and 
honorable  to  her.  It  was  her  own  ardent  desire 
that  the  regicides  should  be  punished ;  she  had 
given  her  solemn  promise  to  the  earl  of  Lennox 
that  the  persons  whom  he  suspected  should  be 
prosecuted ;  and  amidst  all  the  appearances  in 
favor  of  Bothwel,  and  all  his  influence,  it  is  a 
striking  proof  of  her  honor,  vigor,  and  ability, 
that  she  could  accomplish  this  measure.  An  or- 
der, accordingly,  of  the  privy  council  was  made, 
which  directed  that  the  earl  of  Bothwel,  and  all 
the  persoss  named  by  Lennox,  should  be 
brought  to  trial  for  the  murder  of  the  king,  and 
that  the  laws  of  the  land  should  be  carried  into 
full  execution.  The  12th  of  April  was  appointed 
for  the  trial.  A  general  invitation  was  given  to  all 
persons  whomsoever  to  prefer  their  accusations. 
The  earl  of  Lennox  was  formally  cited  to  do 
himself  justice,  by  appearing  in  the  high  court 
of  justiciary,  and  by  coming  forward  to  make 
known  the  guilt  of  the  culprits.  In  the  mean 
time  it  was  thought  proper  to  repress  that  spirit 
of  outrage  that  had  manifested  itself  against  the 
queen.  No  discoveries,  however,  were  made, 
except  against  James  Murray,  brother  to  Sir 
William  Murray  of  Tullibardin,  who  at  different 
times  had  published  placards  injurious  to  her. 
He  was  charged  to  appear  before  the  privy  coun- 
cil ;  but,  refusing  to  obey  its  citation,  it  was 
made  a  capital  offence  for  any  commander  of  a 
vessel  to  convey  him  out  of  the  kingdom ;  and 
the  resolution  was  taken  to  punish  him  with  an 
exemplary  severity.  Effecting,  however,  his  es- 
cape, he  avoided  the  punishment  due  to  his  re- 
peated and  detestable  acts  of  calumny  and 
treason.  The  day  for  the  trial  of  Bothwel  ap- 
proached. The  conspirators,  notwithstanding 
their  power,  were  not  without  apprehensions. 
Their  preparations,  however,  for  their  safety  had 
been  anxious  ;  anjfk  among  other  practices,  they 
threw  the  earl  of  "Lennox  into  a  panic.  They 
were  favored  by  his  consciousness  of  his  unpo- 
pularity, and  his  want  of  strength,  by  his  timidity 
and  spirit  of  jealousy  :  by  the  time  he  had  reached 
Stirling,  in  his  way  to  Edinburgh,  his  fears  pre- 
dominated. He  was  uo  longer  in  haste  to  proceed 
against  the  regicides.  He  addressed  a  letter  to 
the  queen,  in  which  he  said  he  had  fallen  into 
such  sickness  that  he  could  not  travel ;  and  he 
affirmed  that  he  had  not  time  to  prepare  for  the 
trial  and  to  assemble  his  friends.  An  application 
for  the  delay  of  a  trial  so  important,  upon  the 
night  immediately  preceding  the  day  stated  for 
it,  for  reasons  of  no  force,  could  not  with  pro- 
priety be  attended  to.  The  privy  council  refused 
the  earl's  demand.  The  court  of  justiciary 
was  assembled.  The  earl  of  Argyle  acted  as 
lord  high  justiciar ;  and  was  aided  by  four 
assessors,  Robert  Pitcairn,  commendator  of 
Dumfermline,  and  lord  Lindsay ;  with  Mr. 
James  Macgill  and  Mr.  Henry  Balnaves,  two 
lords  of  the  session.  The  indictment  was  read, 
and  the  earls  of  Bot'iwel  and  Lennox  were  called 
upon ;  the  one  as  the  defender,  the  other  as  the 
accuser.  Bothwel,  who  had  come  to  the  court 
with  an  attendance  of  his  vassals,  and  a  band  of 
mercenary  soldiers,  presented  himself;  but  I^-n- 
nox  appeared  only  by  his  servant  Robert  L'un- 


nyngham  ;  who  after  apologising  for  the  earl's 
absence,  from  the  shortness  of  time  and  the  ab- 
sence of  his  friends,  desired  that  a  new  duy 
should  be  appointed  for  the  trial ;  and  protested 
that,  if  the  jury  should  now  enter  upon  the  busi- 
ness, they  would  incur  the  guilt  of  a  wilful  error, 
and  their  verdict  be  of  no  force.  This  remon- 
strance and  protestation  appeared  not  to  the  court 
of  sufficient  importance  to  interrupt  the  trial. 
They  paid  a  greater  respect  to  the  letters  of  the 
earl  of  Lennox  to  the  queen  insisting  upon  an 
immediate  prosecution,  and  to  the  order  of  the 
privy  council  consequent  upon  them.  The  jury, 
who  consisted  of  men  of  rank,  after  considering 
and  reasoning  upon  the  indictment  for  a  consi- 
derable time,  were  unanimous  in  acquitting 
Bothwel  of  all  share  and  knowledge  of  the  king's 
murder.  The  machinations,  however,  of  Morton 
were  so  apparent  that  the  earl  of  Caithness,  the 
chancellor  of  the  assize,  made  a  declaration,  in 
their  name  and  his  own,  that  no  wilful  error 
ought  to  be  imputed  to  them  for  their  verdict,  no 
proof,  vouchers,  or  evidence,  to  support  or  con- 
firm the  criminal  charge,  having  been  submitted 
to  them.  At  the  same  time  he  offered  a 
protestation,  for  himself,  that  there  was  a  mistake 
in  the  indictment,  the  9th  day  of  February,  in- 
stead of  the  10th,  being  expressed  in  it  as  the 
date  of  the  murder.  It  is  not  to  be  doubted 
but  that  this  flaw  in  the  indictment  was  a 
matter  of  design,  and  with  a  view  to  the  advan- 
tage of  Bothwel,  if  the  earl  of  Lennox  had 
made  his  appearance  against  him.  And  it  has 
been  remarked,  as  very  suspicious,  that  soldiers 
in  arms  should  have  accompanied  him  to  the 
court  of  justice ;  that,  during  the  trial,  the  earl 
of  Morton  stood  by  his  side,  to  countenance  and 
assist  him ;  and  that  the  four  assessors  to  the 
chief  justiciar  were  warm  and  strenuous  friends 
of  Murray's. 

Immediately  after  his  trial,  Bothwel  set  up  in 
a  conspicuous  place  a  writing,  subscribed  by 
him,  challenging  to  single  combat  any  person  of 
equal  rank  with  himself  who  should  dare  to  af- 
firm that  he  was  guilty  of  the  king's  murder.  To 
this  challenge  an  answer  was  published,  in  which 
the  defiance  was  accepted  upon  the  condition 
that  security  should  be  given  for  a  fair  and  equal 
conflict :  but,  no  name  being  subscribed  to  this 
paper,  no  step  was  taken  for  the  duel.  Two 
days  after  the  parliament  met :  and  there  the 
party  of  Bothwel  appeared  equally  formidable. 
The  verdict  in  his  favor  was  allowed  to  be  true 
and  just.  He  was  continued  in  his  high  offices; 
and  obtained  a  parliamentary  ratification  of  the 
place  of  keeper  of  Duubar  castle,  with  the  estates 
in  connexion  with  it ;  and  other  favors  were 
conferred  upon  Murray,  with  the  rest  of  the  no- 
bles suspected  as  accomplices  in  the  murder.  A 
very  short  time  after  the  acquitment  of  Bothwel 
he  began  to  give  a  greater  loose  to  his  ambition, 
and  conceived  hopes  of  gaining  the  queen  in 
marriage.  It  has  been  already  remarked  that  he 
had  insidiously  endeavoured  to  gain  her  affection 
during  the  lifetime  of  her  husband ;  but  the  recent 
death  of  the  king  in  such  a  shocking  manner, 
and  the  strong  suspicions  still  resting  upon  him, 
notwithstanding  his  acquittal,  prevented  him  from 
making  his  addresses  openly  to  her.  He  therefore 


SCOTLAND. 


515 


endeavoured  to  gain  the  nobility  over  to  his  side  ; 
which  having  done,  by  means  of  great  promises, 
he  invited  them  to  an  entertainment,  where  they 
agreed  to  ratify  a  deed  pointing  him  out  to  the 
queen  as  a  person  worthy  of  her  hand,  and  ex- 
pressing their  resolute  determination  to  support 
him  in  his  pretensions.  This  extraordinary  bond 
was  accordingly  executed ;  and  Murray's  name 
was  the  first  in  the  list  of  subscribers,  to  decoy 
others  to  sign  after  him  ;  but,  that  lie  might  ap- 
pear innocent  of  what  he  knew  was  to  follow, 
he  had,  before  any  use  was  made  of  the  bond, 
asked  and  obtained  the  queen's  permission  to  go 
to  France.  In  his  way  thither  he  visited  the 
court  of  Elizabeth,  where  lie  did  not  fail  to  con- 
firm all  the  reports  which  had  arisen  to  the  dis- 
advantage of  Mary  ;  and  he  now  circulated  the 
intelligence  that  she  was  soon  to  be  married  to 
Bothwel.  Her  partizans  in  England  were  exceed- 
ingly alarmed  ;  and  even  Elizabeth  herself  wrote 
to  her,  and  cautioned  her  not  to  afford  such  a 
mischievous  handle  to  the  malice  of  her  enemies. 
Mary,  upon  the  dissolution  of  the  parliament, 
had  gone  to  Stirling  to  visit  the  young  prince. 
Bothwel,  armed  with  the  bond  of  the  nobles, 
assembled  1000  horse,  under  the  pretence  of 
protecting  the  borders,  of  which  he  was  the 
warden ;  and,  meeting  her  upon  her  return  to 
her  capital,  dismissed  her  attendants,  and  carried 
her  to  his  castle  of  Dunbar.  The  arts  which  he 
there  used  to  effect  the  accomplishment  of  his 
wishes  are  mentioned  under  the  article  MARY. 
But  having  been  married  only  six  months  before 
to  lady  Jane  Gordon,  sister  to  the  earl  of  Hunt- 
ly,  it  was  necessary  to  procure  a  divorce  before 
he  could  marry  the  queen.  This  was  easily  ob- 
tained. The  parties  were  cousins  within  the 
prohibited  degrees,  and  had  not  obtained  a  dis- 
pensation from  Rome.  The  marriage  therefore, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  queen  and  her  Roman  Ca- 
tholic subjects,  was  illicit.  The  husband  had  also 
been  unfaithful ;  so  that  two  actions  of  divorce 
were  instituted.  The  lady  commenced  a  suit 
against  him  in  the  court  of  commissaries,  charging 
him  as  guilty  of  adultery  with  one  of  her  maids. 
The  earl  brought  a  suit  against  his  wife  before 
the  archbishop  of  St  Andrews,  upon  the  plea  of 
consanguinity.  By  both  courts  their  marriage 
was  decided  to  be  void ;  and  thus  two  sentences 
of  divorce  were  pronounced. 

Bothwel  now  conducted  the  queen  from  Dun- 
bar  to  her  capital.  But,  instead  of  attending  her 
to  her  palace  at  Holyrood  House,  his  jealousy 
and  apprehensions  induced  him  to  lodge  her  in 
the  castle  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  could  hold 
her  in  security  against  any  attempt  of  his  ene- 
mies. To  give  satisfaction,  however,  to  her 
people,  and  to  convince  them  that  she  was  no 
longer  a  prisoner,  a  public  declaration  upon  her 
part  appeared  to  be  a  measure  of  epexdiency. 
she  presented  herself,  therefore,  in  the  court  of 
session ;  the  lords  chancellor  and  president,  the 
judges,  and  other  persons  of  distinction,  being 
present.  After  observing  that  some  stop  had  been 
put  to  the  administration  of  justice  upon  account 
of  her  being  detained  at  Dunbar  against  her  will 
by  the  lord  Bothwel,  she  declared  that,  though  she 
had  been  highly  offended  with  the  outrage  offered 
her,  she  was  yet  inclined  to  forget  it.  His  cour- 


teousness,  the  sense  she  entertained  of  his  past 
services  to  the  state,  and  the  hope  with  which 
she  was  impressed  of  his  zeal  and  activity  for  the 
future,  compelled  her  to  give  him  and  his  accom- 
plices in  her  imprisonment  a  full  pardon.  She 
also  desired  them  to  take  notice  that  she  was 
now  at  her  liberty ;  and  that  she  proposed,  in 
consideration  of  his  merits,  to  take  an  early  op- 
portunity of  promoting  him  to  new  honors.  At 
length  the  order  was  given  for  the  proclamation 
of  the  banns  of  marriage  between  them,  and  Mr. 
John  Craig,  one  of  the  ministers  of  Edinburgh, 
was  desired  to  perform  this  business.  But,  though 
the  order  was  subscribed  by  thequeen,  he  refused 
his  compliance  without  the  authority  of  ihe 
church.  The  church,  after  long  reasonings, 
granted  him  permission  to  discharge  this  duty. 
But  his  scruples  were  not  yet  removed.  He 
protested  that,  in  obeying  their  desife,  he  should 
be  allowed  to  speak  his  own  sentiments  concern- 
ing the  marriage,  and  that  his  publishing  the 
banns  should  infer  no  obligation  in  him  to  offi- 
ciate in  the  solemnity.  In  his  congregation, 
accordingly,  before  a  crowded  audience,  and  in 
the  presence  of  several  noblemen  and  privy  coun- 
sellors, he  declared  that  the  marriage  of  the  queen 
and  the  earl  of  Bothwel  was  unlawful,  and  that 
he  was  prepared  to  give  his  reasons  for  this  opi- 
nion to  the  parties  themselves.  He  added  that, 
if  leave  to  do  this  was  denied  him,  he  would 
either  abstain  altogether  from  proclaiming  the 
banns,  or  take  the  liberty,  after  proclaiming  them, 
to  inform  his  people  of  the  causes  of  his  disap- 
probation of  the  marriage.  He  was  carried  be- 
fore the  lords  of  the  privy  council;  and  the  earl 
of  Bothwel  called  upon  him  to  explain  his  be- 
haviour. He  answered  that  the  church  had  pro- 
hibited the  marriage  of  persons  separated  for 
adultery  ;  and  that  the  divorce  between  him  and 
his  wife  must  have  been  owing  to  collusion; 
since  the  sentence  had  been  given  with  precipi- 
tation, and  since  his  new  contract  was  so  sud- 
den ;  and  he  objected  to  him  the  abduction  and 
ravishment  of  the  queen,  and  the  suspicion  of 
his  guilt  in  the  king's  murder.  This  bold  lan- 
guage drew  no  reply  from  Bothwel  that  was 
satisfactory  to  Mr.  Craig,  or  that  could  intimidate 
him.  He  proclaimed  in  his  church  the  banns 
of  the  marriage ;  but  he  told  the  congregation 
that  he  discharged  the  suggestions  of  his  con- 
science in  pronouncing  it  to  be  a  detestable  and 
scandalous  engagement.  He  expressed  the  sor- 
row he  felt  for  the  conduct  of  the  nobility  who 
seemed  to  approve  it  from  their  flattery  or  silence ; 
and,  addressing  himself  to  the  faithful,  he  be- 
sought them  to  pray  to  the  Almighty  that  he 
would  turn  a  resolution  intended  against  law, 
reason,  and  religion,  into  a  comfort  and  benefit 
to  the  church  and  the  kingdom.  These  freedoms 
were  too  great  to  pass  unnoticed.  Mr.  Craig 
was  ordered  anew  to  attend  the  privy  council ; 
and  he  was  reprimanded  with  severity  for  ex- 
ceeding the  bounds  of  his  commission.  He  had 
the  courage  to  defend  himself.  His  commission, 
he  said,  was  founded  in  the  word  of  God,  posi- 
tive law,  and  natural  reason  ;  and  upon  these 
topics  he  was  about  to  prove  that  the  marriage 
must  be  universally  foul  and  odious,  when  the 
earl  of  Bothwel  commanded  him  to  be  silent. 

2L  2 


516 


SCOTLAND 


The  privy  council,  struck  with  the  vigor  of  the 
man,  and  apprehensive  of  the  public  discontents, 
did  not  dare  to  inflict  any  punishment  upon  him ; 
and  this  victory  over  Bothwel,  while  it  heightened 
all  the  suspicions  against  him,  served  to  encou- 
rage the  enemies  of  the  queen,  and  to  undermine 
the  respect  of  her  subjects.  Mary,  before  she 
gave  her  hand  to  Bothwel,  created  him  duke  of 
Orkney.  The  ceremony  was  performed  in  a 
private  manner,  after  the  rules  of  the  popish 
church ;  but,  to  gratify  the  people,  it  was  like- 
wise solemnised  publicly  according  to  the  Pro- 
testant rites  by  Adam  Bothwel  bishop  of  Oskney, 
who  IKK!  renounced  the  episcopal  order  for  the 
Presbyterian.  It  was  celebrated  with  little 
pomp.  Many  of  the  nobles  had  retired  to  their 
seats  in  the  country ;  and  those  who  attended 
were  thoughtful  and  Sad.  Du  Croc,  the  French 
ambassador,  sensible  that  the  match  would  be 
displeasing  to  his  court,  refused  to  give  his  coun- 
tenance to  the  solemnity.  There  were  no  accla- 
mations of  the  people.  Mary  herself  was  not 
unconscious  of  the  imprudence  of  the  measure, 
and  looked  back  with  surprise  and  sorrow  to  the 
train  of  circumstances  which  had  conducted  her 
to  this  fatal  event.  Forsaken  by  her  nobles,  and 
imprisoned  at  Dunbar,  she  was  in  so  perilous  a 
situation  that  no  remedy  could  save  her  honor 
hut  death.  Her  marriage  was  the  immediate  and 
necessary  consequence  of  that  situation.  Melvil 
vindicates  her  on  this  principle,  and  even  lord 
Ilailes  apologises  for  her  by  observing  that  'after 
Mary  had  remained  a  fortnight  under  the  power 
of  a  daring  profligate  adventurer,  few  foreign 
princes  would  have  solicited  her  hand.'  But, 
after  making  every  allowance  for  her  situation 
and  circumstances,  it  was  a  most  imprudent  step, 
and  the  most  unjustifiable  action  of  her  whole 
life.  It  was  indeed  the  point  for  which  her  ene- 
mies had  labored  with  a  wicked  and  relentless 
policy. 

Mary  was  unfortunate  in  her  second  marriage, 
but  much  more  so  in  her  third.  Bothwel  had 
neither  talents  for  business  nor  affection  for  his 
wife.  Ambitious  to  the  last  degree,  he  sought 
only  to  establish  himself  in  power,  while  his 
fears  and  jealousies  made  him  take  the  most  im- 
proper means.  The  marriage  had  already  thrown 
the  nation  into  a  ferment;  and  the  least  im- 
proper exercise  of  power,  or  indeed  an  appear- 
ance of  it,  would  be  sufficient  to  ruin  them  both 
for  ever.  Perhaps  the  only  thing  which  at  this 
juncture  could  have  pacified  the  people,  would 
have  been  the  total  abolition  of  popery,  which 
they  had  often  required.  But  this  was  not 
thought  of.  Instead  of  taking  any  step  to  please 
the  people,  Bothwel  endeavoured  to  force  the 
earl  of  Mar  to  deliver  up  the  young  prince  to 
his  custody.  This  was  sufficient  to  make  the 
flame,  which  had  hitherto  been  smothered,  break 
out  with  all  its  violence.  It  was  universally  be- 
lieved that  Bothwel,  who  had  murdered  the 
fattier,  designed  to  kill  the  son  also,  and  the 
queen  was  thought  to  participate  in  all  his 
crimes.  The  earl  of  Murray  now  took  advan- 
tage of  the  queen's  unfortunate  situation  to  ag- 
grandise himself.  After  having  visited  the  KIILT- 
lish  court,  he  proceeded  to  France,  where  he 
assiduou.tly  disseminated  all  the  reports  against 


the  queen  which  were  injurious  to  her  reputation ; 
and  where,  without  being  exposed  to  sus- 
picion, he  was  able  to  maintain  a  close  cor- 
respondence with  his  friends  Morton  and  Le- 
thington,  and  to  inspirit  their  machinations.  His 
associates,  true  to  ins  ambition  and  their  own, 
had  promoted  all  the  schemes  of  Bothwel  upon 
the  queen  with  a  power  and  influence  which  had 
insured  their  success.  In  confederacy  with  the 
earl  of  Murray  himself,  they  had  conspired  with 
him  to  murder  the  king.  Assisted  with  the 
weight  of  the  earl  of  Murray  they  had  managed 
his  trial,  and  operated  the  verdict  which  ac- 
quitted him.  By  the  same  arts,  and  with  the 
same  views,  they  had  joined  with  him  to  procure 
the  bond  of  the  nobles,  recommending  him  to  the 
queen  as  a  husband,  asserting  his  integrity  and 
innocence,  recounting  his  noble  qualities,  and 
expressing  an  unalterable  resolution  to  support 
the  marriage  against  every  opposer  and  adversary, 
and  recording  a  wish  that  a  defection  of  its 
objects  should  be  branded  with  everlasting  igno- 
miny. When  the  end,  however,  was  accom- 
plished for  which  they  had  been  so  zealous,  and 
when  the  marriage  of  the  queen  was  actually 
celebrated,  they  were  in  haste  to  entitle  them- 
selves to  the  ignominy  which  they  had  imprecated. 
The  murder  of  the  king,  the  guilt  of  Bothwel, 
his  acquittal,  his  divorce,  and  his  marriage,  be- 
came the  topics  of  their  complaints  and  decla- 
mation. Upon  the  foundation  of  this  hated  mar- 
riage, they  ventured  to  infer  the  privity  of  the 
queen  to  all  his  iniquity  and  transactions ;  and 
this  step  seemed  doubtless,  to  the  mass  of  her 
own  subjects,  and  to  more  distant  observers,  a 
strong  confirmation  of  all  the  former  suspicions 
which  had  been  circulated  with  so  much  artifice. 
Their  imputations  and  devices  excited  against 
her,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  the  most  indig- 
nant and  humiliating  odium;  and,  amidst  the 
ruins  of  her  fame,  they  thought  to  bury  for 
ever  her  tranquillity  and  peace.  But,  while  this 
cabal  were  prosecuting  their  private  ends,  seve- 
ral noblemen,  not  less  remarkable  for  their  vir- 
tue than  their  rank,  were  eager  to  vindicate  the 
national  integrity  and  honor.  The  earl  of  Athol, 
upon  the  king's  murder,  had  retired  from  the 
court,  and  was  waiting  for  a  proper  season  to 
take  revenge  upon  the  regicides.  The  earl  of 
Mar,  uneasy  under  the  charge  of  the  young 
prince,  was  solicitous  to  make  himself  strong,  thai 
he  might  guard  him  from  injury.  Motives  so 
patriotic  and  honorable  drew  applause  and  par- 
tizans.  An  association  was  insensibly  formed  to 
punish  the  murderers  of  the  king,  and  to  protect 
the  person  of  the  prince.  Morton  and  Lething- 
ton  encouraged  and  promoted  this  combination.  A 
convention  was  appointed  at  Stirling,  for  consult- 
ing upon  the  measures  expedient  to  be  pursued. 
They  agreed  to  take  an  early  opportunity  to  ap- 
pear in  the  field  ;  and,  when  they  separated,  it 
was  to  collect  their  retainers, , and  to  inspirit  their 
passions.  Of  this  confederacy,  the  leading  men 
were  the  earls  of  Argyle,  Athol,  Morion,  Mar, 
and  Glencairn;  the  lords  Hume,  Semple,  and 
Lindsay;  the  barons  Kirkaldy  of  (irange,  Mur- 
ray of  Tullibardin,  and  Maitland  of  I*thington. 
The  earl  of  Bothwel  was  sensible  that  if  he  was 
to  sit  upon  the  throne  he  must  wade  to  it  through 


SCOTLAND. 


517 


blood.  By  his  advice,  two  proclamations  were 
issued  in  the  name  of  the  queen,  under  the  pre- 
tence of  suppressing  insurrections  and  depreda- 
tions upon  the  borders.  By  the  former  she 
called  together  in  arms,  upon  an  early  day,  the 
earls,  barons,  and  freeholders  of  the  districts  of 
Forfar  and  Perth,  Strathern,  and  Monteith, 
Clackmannan,  Kinross,  and  Fife.  By  the  latter 
she  charged  the  greater  and  lesser  baronage, 
with  all  the  inferior  proprietors  of  the  shires  of 
Linlithgow,  Edinburgh,  Haddington,  and  Ber- 
wick, to  prepare  immediately  for  war,  and  to 
keep  themselves  in  readiness  to  march  upon  her 
order.  These  military  preparations  added  to  the 
public  discontents.  The  rumors  against  the 
•queen  were  violent  and  loud.  It  was  said  that 
she  meant  to  overturn  the  constitution  and  the 
laws ;  that  she  had  been  careless  of  the  health  of 
her  son,  and  was  altogether  indifferent  about  his 
preservation;  that  she  had  separated  herself  from 
the  councils  and  assistance  of  her  nobles ;  and 
that  she  wished  to  make  her  will  the  only  rule  of 
her  government.  Agitated  with  the  hazardous 
state  of  her  affairs  she  published  a  new  procla- 
mation, in  which  she  employed  herself  to  refute 
these  accusations;  and  in  which  she  took  the  op- 
portunity to  express,  in  a  very  forcible  manner, 
not  only  her  attachment  to  her  people  and  the 
laws,  but  the  fond  affection  that  she  bore  to  the 
prince,  whom  she  considered  as  the  chief  joy  of 
her  life,  and  without  whom  all  her  days  would 
be  comfortless.  The  declarations  of  the  queen 
were  disregarded.  The  nobles  abounding  in 
vassals,  and  having  the  hearts  of  the  people, 
were  soon  in  a  situation  to  take  the  field.  They 
were  advancing  to  the  capital.  The  royal  army 
was  not  yet  assembled ;  and  the  queen  and 
Bothwel  suspected  that  the  castle  of  Edinburgh 
would  shut  its  gates  upon  them.  The  fidelity 
of  Sir  James  Balfour,  the  deputy  governor,  had 
been  staggered  by  the  practices  of  the  earl  of 
Mar  and  Sir  James  Melvill.  Mary  left  her  pa- 
lace of  Holyrood  House,  and  was  conducted  to 
Borthwick  Castle.  The  associated  lords,  informed 
of  her  flight,  took  the  road  to  this  fortress, 
with  2000  horse.  Lord  Hume,  by  a  rapid  march, 
presented  himself  before  it  with  the  division 
under  his  command  ;  but,  being  unable  to  guard 
all  its  avenues,  the  queen  and  Bothwel  effected 
their  escape  to  Dunbar,  where  the  strength,  of 
the  fortifications  gave  them  a  full  security  against 
a  surprise.  Upon  this  second  disappointment, 
the  nobles  resolved  to  enter  Edinburgh,  and  to 
augment  their  strength  by  new  partizans.  The 
earl  of  Huntly  and  lord  Boyd  were  here  on  the 
side  of  the  queen,  with  the  archbishop  of  St. 
Andrews,  the  bishop  of  Ross,  and  the  abbot  of 
Kilwinning.  They  endeavoured  to  animate  the 
inhabitants  to  defend  their  town  and  the  cause 
of  their  sovereign.  But  the  tide  of  popularity 
was  favorable  to  the  confederate  lords.  The 
magistrates  ordered  the  gates  of  the  city  to  be 
shut;  but  no  farther  resistance  was  intended. 
The  lords,  forcing  St.  Mary's  port,  found  an 
easy  admittance,  and  took  possession  of  the 
capital.  The  earl  of  Huntly  and  the  queen's 
friends  fled  to  the  castle  to  Sir  James  Balfour, 
who  had  been  the  confident  of  Bothwel,  and 
who  agreed  to  protect  them,  although  he  was 


now  concluding  a  treaty  with  the  insurgents. 
The  associated  lords  now  formed  themselves  into 
a  council,  and  circulated  a  proclamation.  By 
this  paper  they  declared  that  the  queen,  being 
detained  in  captivity,  was  neither  able  to  govern 
her  realm,  nor  to  command  a  proper  trial  to  be 
taken  of  the  king's  murder.  In  an  emergency 
so  pressing  they  had  not  despaired  of  their 
country,  but  were  determined  to  deliver  the 
queen  from  bondage,  to  protect  the  person  of 
the  prince,  to  revenge  the  murder  of  the  king, 
and  to  vindicate  the  nation  from  the  infamy  it 
had  hitherto  suffered  through  the  impunity  of 
the  regicides.  They  therefore  commanded  all 
the  subjects  of  Scotland  whatsoever,  and  the 
buigesses  and  inhabitants  of  Edinburgh  in  par- 
ticular, to  take  a  part  with  them,  and  to  join  in 
the  advancement  of  purposes  so  beneficial  and 
salutary.  Next  day  they  issued  another  procla- 
mation in  terms  still  stronger.  They  expressed 
their  persuasion  of  Bothwel's  guilt  in  the  rape 
and  seduction  of  the  queen,  and  in  the  king's 
murder,  to  accomplish  his  marriage ;  and  of  his 
design  to  murder  the  young  prince,  and  that  he 
was  collecting  troops  with  this  view.  Address- 
ing themselves,  therefore,  to  all  the  subjects  of 
the  realm,  whether  they  resided  in  counties  or  in 
boroughs,  they  invited  them  to  come  forward  to 
their  standard ;  and  threatened  all  who  should 
disobey  them  that  they  should  be  treated  as 
enemies  and  traitors.  Bothwel  in  the  mean 
time  was  not  inactive;  the  proclamations  of  the 
queen  had  brought  many  to  her  assistance ;  4000 
combatants  ranged  themselves  on  her  side,  and 
Bothwel  was  impatient  to  put  his  fortunes  to  the 
issue  of  a  battle.  He  left  the  strong  castle  of 
Dunbar,  where  the  nobles  were  not  prepared  to 
assail  him,  and  where  he  might  have  remained 
in  safety  till  they  dispersed  themselves;  for 
their  proclamations  were  not  so  successful  as 
they  had  expected ;  their  provisions  and  stores 
were  scanty ;  and  the  zeal  of  the  people,  unsup- 
ported by  prosperity,  would  soon  have  abated. 
Imprudent  precipitation  served,  them  in  a  most 
effectual  manner.  When  the  queen  had  reached 
Gladsmuir,  she  ordered  a  manifesto  to  be  read 
to  her  army,  and  to  be  circulated  among  her 
subjects.  By  this  paper  she  replied  to  the  pro- 
clamations of  the  confederated  nobles,  and 
charged  them  with  treachery  and  rebellion.  She 
treated  their  reasons  of  hostility  as  mere  pre- 
tence. As  to  the  king's  murder,  she  protested 
that  she  herself  was  fully  determined  to  revenge 
it,  if  she  could  be  so  fortunate  as  to  discover  its 
perpetrators.  With  regard  to  the  bondage  from 
which  they  were  so  desirous  to  relieve  her,  she 
observed  that  it  was  a  falsehood  so  notorious 
that  the  simplest  of  her  subjects  could  confute 
it ;  for  her  marriage  had  been  celebrated  in  a 
public  manner,  and  the  nobles  could  hardly  have 
forgotten  that  they  had  subscribed  a  bond  recom- 
mending Bothwel  to  be  her  husband.  With 
regard  to  the  industrious  defamations  of  this 
nobleman,  it  was  urged  that  he  had  discovered 
the  utmost  solicitude  to  establish  his  innocence. 
He  had  invited  a  scrutiny  into  his  guilt ;  the 
justice  of  his  country  had  absolved  him  ;  the 
three  estates  assembled  in  parliament  were  satis- 
fied with  the  proceedings  of  his  judges  and  jury; 


518 


SCOTLAND. 


and  he  had  offered  to  maintain  his  quarrel  against 
any  person  whatsoever  who  was  equal  to  him  in 
rank,  and  of  an  honest  reputation.  The  nobles, 
she  said,  to  give  a  fair  appearance  to  their  trea- 
son, pretended  that  Bothwel  had  schemed  the 
destruction  of  the  prince,  and  that  they  were  in 
arms  to  protect  him.  The  prince,  however,  was 
actually  in  their  own  custody ;  the  use  they 
made  of  him  was  that  of  a  screen  to  their 
perfidiousness ;  and  the  real  purposes  with 
which  they  were  animated  were  the  overthrow  of 
her  greatness,  the  ruin  of  her  posterity,  and  the 
usurpation  of  the  royal  authority.  She  therefore 
entreated  the  aid  of  her  faithful  subjects ;  and, 
as  the  prize  of  their  valorous  services  she  held 
out  to  them  the  estates  and  possessions  of  the 
rebels. 

The  associated  nobles,  pleased  at  the  approach 
of  the  queen,  put  themselves  in  motion.  In 
Edinburgh  they  had  gathered  an  addition  to 
their  force ;  and  the  Scottish  officer  who  com- 
manded the  companies  which  the  king  of  Den- 
mark was  permitted  to  enlist  in  Scotland  had 
been  gained  to  assist  them.  He  had  just  com- 
pleted his  levies,  and  he  turned  them  against  the 
queen.  The  nobles,  after  advancing  to  Mussel- 
burgh,  refreshed  their  troops.  Intelligence  was 
brought  that  the  queen  was  upon  her  march. 
The  two  armies  were  nearly  equal  in  numbers ; 
but  the  preference,  in  point  of  valor  and  disci- 
pline, belonged  decisively  to  the  soldiers  of  the 
nobles.  The  queen  posted  herself  on  the  top  of 
Carberrry  hill.  The  lords,  taking  a  circuit, 
seemed  to  be  retreating  to  Dalkeith,  but,  wheel- 
ing about,  they  approached  to  give  her  battle. 
They  were  ranged  in  two  divisions.  The  one 
was  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Morton  and  the 
lord  Hume ;  the  other  was  directed  by  the  earls 
of  Athol,  Mar,  and  Glencairn,  with  the  lords 
Lindsay,  Ruthven,  Semple,  and  Sanquhar.  Both- 
wel was  the  leader  of  the  royal  forces;  and 
there  served  under  him  the  lords  Seton,  Yester, 
and  Borthwick.  It  was  not  without  apprehen- 
sions that  Mary  surveyed  the  formidable  appear- 
anoe  of  her  enemies.  Du  Croc,  the  French 
ambassador,  hastened  to  interpose  his  good 
offices,  and  to  attempt  an  accommodation.  He 
assured  the  nobles  of  the  peaceful  inclination  of 
the  queen  ;  and  that  the  generosity  of  her  nature 
disposed  her  not  only  to  forgive  their  present 
insurrections,  but  to  forget  all  their  former  trans- 
gressions. The  earl  of  Morton  informed  him 
that  they  had  not  armed  themselves  against  the 
queen,  but  against  the  murderer  of  the  late  king ; 
and  that  if  she  would  surrender  him  up  to  them, 
or  command  him  to  leave  her,  they  would  return 
to  their  duty.  This  language  confounded  Du 
Croc.  He  conceived  that  all  negociation  was 
fruitless,  and  withdrew.  Mary  was  full  of  per- 
turbation and  distress.  It  was  with  infinite 
regret  that  she  considered  the  consequences  of 
her  situation  at  Dunbar.  Nor  had  his  behaviour 
since  her  marriage  contributed  to  allay  her  in- 
quietudes. The  violence  of  his  passions,  his 
suspicions,  and  his  guilt,  had  induced  him  to 
surround  her  with  his  creatures,  and  to  treat  her 
with  insult  and  indignity.  She  had  been  almost 
constantly  in  tears.  His  demeanor,  which  \\;ts 
generally  rude  and  indecent,  was  often  so 


savage  and  brutal  that  she  sometimes  was  tempt- 
ed to  commit  suicide.  Upon  his  account  she 
was  now  encompassed  with  dangers.  Her  crown 
was  in  hazard.  Under  unhappy  agitations,  she 
rode  through  the  ranks  of  her  army,  and  found 
her  soldiers  dispirited.  Whatever  respect  they 
might  entertain  for  her,  they  had  none  for  her 
husband.  His  own  dependents  only  were  wil- 
ling to  fight  for  him.  He  endeavoured  to 
awaken  the  royal  army  to  valor,  by  throwing 
down  the  gauntlet  of  defiance  against  any  of 
his  adversaries  who  should  dare  to  encounter 
him.  His  challenge  was  instantly  accepted  by 
Kirkaldy  of  Grange,  and  by  Murray  of  Tullibar- 
din.  He  objected  that  they  were  not  peers. 
The  lord  Lindsey  discovered  the  greatest  impa- 
tience to  engage  him,  and  his  offer  was  admitted ; 
but  the  queen  prohibited  the  combat.  All  the 
pride  and  hopes  of  Bothwel  sunk  within  him. 
His  soldiers,  in  small  parties,  were  secretly 
abandoning  their  standards.  It  was  equally 
perilous  to  the  queen  to  fight  or  to  fly.  The 
most  prudent  expedient  for  her  was  to  capitu- 
late. She  desired  to  confer  with  Kirkaldy  of 
Grange,  who  remonstrated  to  her  against  the 
guilt  and  wickedness  of  Bothwel,  and  counselled 
her  to  abandon  him.  She  expressed  her  willing- 
ness to  dismiss  him  upon  the  condition  that  the 
lords  would  acknowledge  their  allegiance  and 
continue  in  it.  Kiskaldy  passed  it  to  the  nobles, 
and  received  their  authority  to  assure  her  that 
they  would  honor,  serve,  and  obey  her  as  their 
princess  and  sovereign.  He  communicated  this 
intelligence  to  her.  She  advised  Bothwel  to 
provide  for  his  safety  by  flight;  and  Kirkaldy 
admonished  him  not  to  neglect  this  opportunity 
of  effecting  his  escape.  Overwhelmed  with 
shame,  disappointment,  terror,  remorse,  and 
despair,  this  miserable  victim  of  ambition  and 
guilt  turned  his  eyes  to  her  for  the  last  time. 
To  Kirkaldy  of  Grange  the  queen  stretched  out 
her  hand  ;  he  kissed  it ;  and,  taking  hold  of  the 
bridle  of  her  horse,  conducted  her  towards  the 
nobles.  They  were  approaching  her  with  be- 
coming reverence,  when  she  addressed  herself 
to  them  thus  : — '  I  am  come,  my  lords,  to  ex- 
press my  respect,  and  to  conclude  our  agree- 
ment ;  I  am  ready  to  be  instructed  by  the  wis- 
dom of  your  councils ;  arid  I  am  confident  that 
you  will  treat  me  as  your  sovereign.'  The  earl 
of  Morton,  in  the  name  of  the  confederacy,  ad- 
dressed her  in  these  words : — '  Madam,  you  are 
among  us  in  your  proper  place ;  and  we  will  pay 
to  you  as  much  honor,  service,  and  obedience, 
as  ever  in  any  former  period  was  offered  by  the 
nobility  to  the  princes  your  predecessors.' 

This  gleam  of  sunshine  was  soon  overcast. 
She  remained  not  many  hours  in  the  camp,  till 
the  common  soldiers,  instigated  by  her  enemies, 
presumed  to  insult  her  with  the  most  unseemly 
reproaches.  They  exclaimed  indignantly  against 
her  as  the  murderer  of  her  husband,  and  reviled 
her  as  a  lewd  adulteress,  and  in  language  the 
most  coarse  and  opprobrious.  The  nobility  for- 
got their  promises,  and  seemed  to  have  neither 
honor  nor  humanity.  She  had  changed  one  mi- 
serable scene  for  a  distress  that  was  deeper  and 
more  hopeless.  They  surrounded  her  with 
guards,  and  conducted  her  to  her  capital.  She 


SCOTLAND. 


519 


was  carried  along  its  streets,  and  shown  to  her 
people  in  captivity  and  sadness.     She  cried  out 
to  them  to  commiserate  and  protect  her.     They 
withheld  their  pity,  and  afforded  her  no  protec- 
tion.    Even  new  insults  were   offered    to   her. 
The  lowest  of  the  populace,  whom  the  declama- 
tions of  the  clergy   had  driven    into    rage  and 
madness,  vied  with  the  soldiery  in  the  licentious 
outrage  of  invective  and   execration.     She  be- 
sought Maitland  to  solicit  the  lords  to  repress 
the  insupportable  atrocity  of  her  treatment.  She 
conjured  him  to  let  them  know  that  she  would 
submit  herself  implicitly  to  the  determination  of 
the  parliament.  Her  intreaties  and  her  sufferings 
made  no  impression   upon   the   nobles.     They 
continued  the  savage  cruelty  of  their  demeanor. 
She   implored,   as  the  last  request   she   would 
prefer  to  them,  that  they  would  lead  her  to  her 
palace.  This  consolation,  too,  was  refused  to  her. 
They  wished  to  accustom  her  subjects  to  behold 
her  in  disgrace,  and  to  teach  them   to  triumph 
over  her  misfortunes.      In  the  most  mortifying 
and  afflicting  hour  she   had  ever  experienced, 
oppressed  with  fatigue,  and  disfigured  with  dust 
and  sorrow,  they  shut  her  up  in  the  house  of 
the  lord  provost :  leaving  her  to  revolve  in  her 
anxious  and  agitated  mind  the  indignities  she 
had  already  endured,  and  to  suffer  in  anticipa- 
tion the  calamities  they  might  yet  inflict  upon 
her.     The  malice  of  Morton  and  his  adherents 
was  still  far  from  being  gratified.     In  the  morn- 
ing, when  the  queen  looked  from  the  window 
of  the  apartment  to  which   she  had  been  con- 
fined, she  perceived  a  white  banner  displayed 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  fix  her  attention.  There 
was    delineated  upon  it  the  body   of   the  late 
king  stretched  at  the    foot  of  a  tree,  and  the 
prince  upon  his   knees  before  it,  with  a  label 
from  his  mouth,  containing  this  prayer,  '  Judge 
and  revenge  my  cause,  O  Lord !'  This  abomina- 
ble banner    revived    all   the   bitterness  of   her 
afflictions.     The  curiosity  of  the   people  drew 
them  to  a  scene  so  new  and  so  affecting.     She 
exclaimed  against  the  treachery  of  her  nobles ; 
and  she  begged  the    spectators  to   relieve  her 
from  their  tyranny.     The  eventful  story  of  the 
preceding  day  had    thrown    her  capital  into   a 
ferment.      The   citizens    of  a   better  condition 
crowded  to  behold  the  degraded  majesty  of  their 
sovereign.     Her  state  of  humiliation,  so  oppo- 
site to  the  grandeur  from  which  she  had  fallen, 
moved  them   with  compassion  and   sympathy. 
They  heard  her   tale,  and  were   filled  with  in- 
dignation.    Her  lamentations,  her  disorder,  her 
beauty,   all  stimulated  their  ardor  for  her  deli- 
verance.    It  was  announced  to  the  nobles  that 
the  tide  of  popular  favor  had   turned   towards 
the  queen.      They  hastened    to  appear   before 
her,  and  to  assure  her,  with  smiles  and   cour- 
tesy, that  they  were  immediately  to  conduct  her 
to  her  palace,  and  to  reinstate  her  in  her  royalty. 
Imposing  upon  her  credulous  nature,  and  that 
beautiful  humanity  which  characterised  her  even 
in  the   most  melancholy  situations  of  her  life, 
they   prevailed  with  her  to  inform  the  people 
that  she  was  pacified,  and  that  she  wished  them 
to  disperse  themselves.     They  separated  in  obe- 
dience to  her  desire.     The  nobles  now  conveyed 
her  to   Holyroocl   House..     But  nothing   could 


be  farther  from  their  intentions  than  her  re- 
establishment  in  li-berty  and  grandeur.  They 
held  a  council,  in  which  they  deliberated  con- 
cerning the  manner  in  which  they  ought  to 
dispose  of  her.  It  was  resolved  that  she  should 
be  confined  during  her  life  in  the  fortress  of 
Lochleven ;  and  they  subscribed  an  order  for  her 
commitment.  A  resolution  so  sudden,  so  per- 
fidious, and  so  tyrannical,  filled  Mary  with  the 
utmost  astonishment,  and  drew  from  her  the  most 
bitter  complaints  and  exclamations.  Kirkaldy  of 
Grange,  perceiving  with  surprise  the  lengths  to 
which  the  nobles  had  proceeded,  felt  his  honor 
alarmed  for  the  part  he  had  acted  at  their  desire. 
He  expostulated  with  them  upon  their  breach  of 
trust,  and  censured  the  extreme  rigor  of  the 
queen's  treatment.  They  counselled  him  to  rely 
upon  the  integrity  of  their  motives  ;  spoke  of  her 
passion  for  Bothwel  as  most  vehement,  and  in- 
sisted on  the  danger  of  intrusting  her  with  power. 
He  was  not  convinced  by  their  speeches ;  and 
earnestly  recommended  lenient  and  moderate 
measures.  They  assured  him  that  when  it  ap- 
peared that  she  detested  Bothwel,  and  had  ut- 
terly abandoned  his  interests,  they  would  think 
of  kindness  and  moderation.  But  this,  they 
urged,  could  hardly  be  expected ;  for  they  had 
recently  intercepted  a  letter  from  her  to  this  no- 
bleman, in  which  she  expressed,  in  the  strongest 
terms,  the  warmth  of  her  love,  and  her  fixed 
purpose  never  to  forsake  him.  This  letter  is 
such  a  palpable  forgery  that  Mr.  Hume  himself 
gives  it  up. 

Kirkaldy  was  desired  to  peruse  this  letter; 
and  he  pressed  them  no  longer  with  his  remon- 
strances. The  queen  sent  a  message  to  this  ge- 
nerous soldier,  complaining  of  the  cruelty  of  her 
nobles,  and  reminding  him  that  they  had  vio- 
lated their  engagements.  He  instantly  addressed 
an  answer  to  it,  recounting  the  reproaches  he 
had  made  to  them ;  stating  his  advice,  describ- 
ing the  surprise  with  which  he  had  read  her  in- 
tercepted letter ;  and  conjuring  her  to  renounce 
and  forget  a  most  wicked  and  flagitious  man, 
and,  by  this  victory  over  herself,  to  gain  the  love 
and  respect  of  her  subjects.  The  forgery  of  a 
letter  from  her  to  Bothwel  completed  the  amaze- 
ment of  the  queen.  So  unprincipled  a  contempt 
of  every  thing  that  is  most  sacred,  so  barbarous  a 
perseverance  in  perfidiousness  and  injustice, 
extinguished  every  sentiment  of  hope  in  her  bo- 
som. She  conceived  that  she  was  doomed  to 
inevitable  destruction,  and  sunk  under  a  pang 
of  unutterable  anguish.  The  lords  Ruthven  and 
Lindsay  arrived,  in  this  paroxysm  of  her  distress, 
to  inform  her  that  they  were  commanded  to  put 
in  execution  the  order  fo*  her  commitment.  They 
charged  her  women  to  take  from  her  all  her  or- 
naments and  her  royal  attire.  A  mean  dress  was 
put  upon  her ;  and  in  this  disguise  they  con- 
veyed her  with  precipitation  to  the  prison  ap- 
pointed for  her.  The  lords  Seton,  Yester,  and 
Borthwick,  endeavoured  to  rescue  her,  but 
failed  in  the  attempt.  She  was  delivered  over 
to  NYilliam  Douglas  the  governor  of  the  castle 
of  Lochleven,  who  had  married  the  mother  of 
the  earl  of  Murray,  and  was  himself  nearly  re- 
lated to  the  earl  of  Morton.  See  MARY.  Upon 
the  same  day  on  which  the  nobles  subscribed 


520 


SCOTLAND. 


the  order  for  the  imprisonment  of  the  queen, 
they  entered  into  a  bond  of  confederacy,  by 
which  they  bound  themselves  into  a  body  for  the 
strenuous  prosecution  of  their  quarrel.  They 
engaged  to  punish  the  murderers  of  the  king,  to 
examine  into  the  queen's  rape,  to  dissolve  her 
marriage,  to  preserve  her  from  the  bondage  of 
Bothwel,  to  protect  the  person  of  the  prince, 
and  restore  justice  to  the  realm.  An  oath  con- 
firmed their  reliance  upon  one  another ;  and, 
in  advancing  their  measures,  they  engaged  to 
expose  and  employ  their  lives,  kindred,  and 
fortunes.  But,  notwithstanding  all  the  pretended 
patriotism  of  the  rebels,  nothing  was  further 
from  their  intentions  than  to  prosecute  Bothwel 
and  restore  the  queen  to  her  dignity.  They  had 
already  treated  her  in  the  vilest  manner,  and 
allowed  Bothwel  to  escape,  when  they  might 
easily  have  apprehended  and  brought  him  to 
trial.  To  exalt  themselves  was  their  only  aim. 
Eleven  days  after  the  capitulation  at  Carberry 
Hill,  they  held  a  convention,  in  which  they  very 
properly  assumed  the  name  of  lords  of  the  se- 
cret council,  and  called  a  proclamation  for  ap- 
prehending Bothwel  as  the  murderer  of  the 
Jtjng;  offering  a  reward  of  1000  crowns  to  any 
person  who  should  bring  him  to  Edinburgh.  A 
search  had  been  made  for  the  murderers  of  the 
king  that  very  night  in  which  the  queen  was 
confined  in  Lochleven  castle.  One  Sebastian  a 
Frenchman,  and  captain  Blackader,  were  then 
apprehended ;  and  soon  after  James  Edmond- 
stone,  John  Blackader,  and  Mynart  Eraser,  were 
taken  up  and  imprisoned.  The  people  expected 
full  and  satisfactory  proofs  of  the  guilt  of  Both- 
wel, but  were  disappointed.  The  affirmation 
of  the  nobles  that  they  were  possessed  of  evi- 
dence which  could  condemn  him,  appeared  to 
be  no  better  than  a  pretence.  Sebastian  escaped  ; 
the  other  persons  were  put  to  the  torture,  and 
sustained  it  without  making  any  confession  that 
the  nobles  could  publish.  They  were  con- 
demned, however,  and  executed,  as  being  con- 
cerned in  the  murder.  In  their  dying  moments 
they  protested  their  innocence.  A  sanguine  hope 
was  entertained  that  captain  Blackader  would 
reveal  the  whole  secret  at  the  place  of  execu- 
tion, and  a  vast  multitude  of  spectators  were 
present.  No  information,  howe'ver,  could  be 
derived  from  what  he  said  with  regard  to  the 
regicides;  but,  while  he  solemnly  protested  that 
his  life  was  unjustly  taken  away,  he  averred  it 
as  his  belief  that  the  ^arls  of  Murray  and  Morton 
were  the  contrivers  of  the  king's  murder.  The 
lords  of  the  secret  council  now  proceeded  to  the 
greatest  enormities.  They  robbed  the  palace  of 
Holyrood  House  of  its  furniture  and  decora- 
tions ;  converted  the  queen's  plate  into  coin  ; 
and  possessed  themselves  of  her  jewels,  which 
were  of  great  value ;  and,  while  the  faction  com- 
mitted these  acts  of  robbery,  the  earl  of  Glen- 
cairn  with  solemn  hypocrisy  demolished  the 
altar  in  the  queen's  chapel,  and  defaced  and  de- 
stroyed all  its  pictures  and  ornaments.  These 
excessive  outrages,  however,  lost  them  the  favor 
of  the  people,  and  an,  association  was  formed  in 
favor  of  the  queen.  The  court  of  France,  as 
-non  a;  tin;  IK-WS  of  Mary's  imprisonment  ar- 
rived, ii.  -patched  M.  de  Villeroy  to  condole  with 


her  upon  her  misfortunes :  but  the  lords  of  tfie 
secret  council  would  not  admit  him  to  see  ner. 
The  earl  of  Murray  was  at  this  time  in  France  ; 
and  to  the  promises  of  this  treacherous  wretch 
the  king  trusted,  imagining  him  to  be  a  steady 
friend  to  the  unfortunate  queen.  Elizabeth  also 
pretended  friendship,  and  threatened  the  asso- 
ciated lords ;  but,  as  they  knew  her  insincerity, 
they  paid  no  regard  to  her  threats,  and  even  re- 
fused to  admit  her  ambassador  to  Mary's  pre- 
sence. From  all  these  appearances  of  friendship, 
Mary  derived  no  real  assistance.  On  the  24th 
of  July,  1567,  lord  Lindsay,  whose  imperious 
behaviour,  says  Dr.  Stuart,  approached  to  infamy, 
was  ordered  by  the  lords  to  wait  upon  the  queen 
at  Lochleven.  He  carried  with  him  three  deeds 
or  instruments,  and  was  ordered  to  compel  her 
to  subscribe  them.  By  the  first  she  was  to  re- 
sign her  crown  to  her  infant  son ;  by  the  second 
she  appointed  the  earl  of  Murray  regent  of  Scot- 
land; and,  by  the  third,  she  constituted  a  coun- 
cil to  direct  the  prince  till  this  nobleman  should 
arrive  in  Scotland,  or  in  the  event  of  his  death 
or  refusal  of  the  office.  On  the  part  of  the  queen 
all  resistance  was  vain.  Sir  Robert  Melvil  as- 
sured her  that  what  she  did  by  compulsion,  and 
in  a  prison,  could  not  bind  her;  as  did  also 
Throgmorton,  the  English  ambassador,  in  a  letter 
which  Sir  Robert  Melvil  brought  in  the  scab- 
bard of  his  sword.  Mary,  therefore,  forlorn  and 
helpless,  could  not  resist  the  barbarous  rudeness 
with  which  Lindsay  pressed  the  subscription  of 
the  papers,  though  she  would  not  read  them. 
Five  days  after,  the  lords  of  the  secret  council 
met  at  Stirling,  for  the  coronation  of  the  young 
prince.  A  protestation  was  made,  in  the  name 
of  the  duke  of  Chatelherault,  that  this  solemnity 
should  neither  prejudge  his  rights  of  succession, 
nor  those  of  the  other  princes  of  the  blood.  The 
young  prince  being  presented  to  them,  the  lords 
Lindsay  andRuthven  appeared,  and  in  the  name 
of  the  queen  renounced  in  his  favor  her  right  and 
title  to  the  crown,  gave  up  the  papers  they  had 
forced  her  to  subscribe,  and  surrendered  the 
sword,  sceptre,  and  royal  crown.  After  the 
papers  were  read,  the  earls  of  Morton,  Athol, 
Glencairn,  Mar,  and  Monteith,  with  the  master 
of  Graham,  the  lord  Hume,  and  Bothwel,  bishop 
of  Orkney,  received  the  queen's  resignation  in 
favor  of  her  son  in  the  name  of  the  three  estates. 
After  this  formality,  the  earl  of  Morton,  bending 
his  body,  and  laying  his  hand  upon  the  Scrip- 
tures, took  the  coronation  oath  for  the  prince, 
engaging  that  he  should  rule  according  to  the 
laws,  and  root  out  all  heretics  and  enemies  to  the 
word  of  God.  Adam  Bothwel  then  anointed 
the  prince  king  of  Scotland,  delivered  to  him 
the  sword,  and  sceptre,  and  put  the  crown  upon 
his  head.  In  the  procession  to  the  castle  from 
the  church,  where  the  inauguration  was  per- 
formed, and  where  John  Knox  preached  the  in- 
auguration sermon,  the  earl  of  Athol  carried  the 
crown,  Morton  the  sceptre,  Glencairn  the  sword, 
and  the  earl  of  Mar  carried  the  prince  in  his 
arms.  The  solemnities  received  no  countenance 
from  Elizabeth  ;  and  Throgmorton,  by  her  ex- 
press command,  was  not  present  at  them. 

Soon  after  this  ceremony  the  earl  of  Murray 
returned  from  France;   and  his  presence  gave 


SCOTLAND. 


521 


such  strength  to  his  faction  that  very  little  op- 
position could  be  given  by  the  partisans  of  Mary, 
who  were  desponding  for  want  of  a  leader.  A 
.ittle  time  after  his  arrival,  this  monstrous  hypo- 
crite and  traitor  waited  upon  his  distressed  and 
insulted  sovereign  at  Lochleven.  His  design 
was  to  get  her  to  desire  him  to  accept  of  the 
regency,  which  he  otherwise  pretended  to  de- 
cline. The  queen,  unsuspicious  of  the  deepness 
of  his  arts,  conscious  of  the  gratitude  he  owed 
to  her,  and  trusting  to  his  natural  affection,  and 
their  tie  of  a  common  father,  received  him  with 
a  tender  welcome.  She  was  in  haste  to  pour 
forth  her  soul  to  him  ;  and  with  tears  and  lamen- 
tations related  her  condition  and  her  sufferings. 
I  le  heard  her  with  attention ;  and  turned  occa- 
sionally his  discourse  to  the  topics  which  might 
lead  her  to  open  to  him  her  mind  without  dis- 
guise, in  those  situations  in  which  he  was  most 
anxious  to  observe  it;  but  her  distress  awakened 
not  his  tenderness.  He  seemed  to  be  in  sus- 
pense; and  from  the  guardedness  of  his  conver- 
sation she  could  gather  neither  hope  nor  fear. 
She  begged  him  to  be  free  with  her,  as  he  was 
her  only  friend.  He  yielded  to  her  entreaties  as 
if  with  pain  and  reluctance ;  and,  taking  a  com- 
prehensive survey  of  her  conduct,  described  it 
witli  all  the  severity  that  could  affect  her  most. 
He  could  discover  no  apology  for  her  misgovern- 
ment  and  disorders ;  and,  with  a  mortifying 
plainness,  he  pressed  upon  her  conscience  and 
her  honor.  At  times  she  wept  bitterly.  Some 
errors  she  confessed  ;  and  against  calumnies  she 
warmly  vindicated  herself.  But  all  she  could 
urge  in  her  behalf  made  no  impression  upon 
him  ;  and  he  spoke  to  her  of  the  mercy  of  God 
as  her  chief  refuge.  She  was  torn  with  appre- 
hensions, and  nearly  distracted  with  despair. 
He  dropped  some  words  of  consolation ;  and, 
after  expressing  an  attachment  to  her  interests, 
gave  her  his  promise  to  employ  all  his  conse- 
quence to  secure  her  life.  As  to  her  liberty,  he 
told  her  that  to  achieve  it  was  beyond  all  his 
efforts ;  and  that  it  was  not  good  for  her  to  desire 
it.  Starting  from  her  seat,  she  took  him  in  her 
arms,  and,  kissing  him  as  her  deliverer  from  the 
scaffold,  solicited  his  immediate  acceptance  of 
the  regency.  He  declared  that  he  had  many 
reasons  to  refuse  the  regency.  She  conjured  him 
not  to  abandon  her  in  the  extremity  of  her 
wretchedness.  There  was  no  other  method,  she 
said,  by  which  she  herself  could  be  saved,  her 
son  protected,  and  her  realm  rightly  governed. 
He  gave  way  to  her  anxiety  and  solicitations. 
She  besought  him  to  make  the  most  unbounded 
use  of  her  name  and  authority,  desired  him  to 
keep  for  her  the  jewels  that  yet  remained  with 
her,  and  recommended  it  to  him  to  get  an  early 
possession  of  all  the  forts  of  her  kingdom.  He 
now  took  his  leave  of  her,  and,  embracing  anew 
this  pious  traitor,  she  sent  her  blessing  with  him 
to  the  prince  her  son.  In  the  mean  time  the 
wi etched  earl  of  Bothwcl  was  struggling  with 
the  greatest  difficulties.  Sir  William  Murray 
and  Kirkaldy  of  Grange  had  put  to  sea  in  search 
of  him.  He  had  been  obliged  to  exercise  piracy 
for  subsistence  to  himself  and  his  followers.  His 
pursuers  came  upon  him  unexpectedly  at  the 
Orkney  Islands,  and  took  three  of  his  ships,  but 


he  himself  escaped.  Soon  after,  having  seized 
a  Turkish  trader  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  two 
ships  of  war  belonging  to  the  king  of  Denmark 
gave  chase  to  him  as  a  pirate.  An  engagement 
ensued,  in  which  Bothwel  was  taken.  His  offi- 
cers and  mariners  were  hanged  in  Denmark,  but 
Bcthwel  himself,  being  known  by  some  Scottish 
merchants,  had  his  life  spared.  He  was  thrown, 
however,  into  a  dungeon,  where  he  remained  ten 
years  ;  and  at  last  died  melancholy  and  distract- 
ed. The  regent  sent  commissioners  to  the  king 
of  Denmark  to  demand  him  as  a  prisoner ;  but 
that  prince,  considering  Murray  as  a  traitor  and 
usurper,  totally  disregarded  his  request.  The 
dreadful  fate  of  Bothwel  did  not  make  any  alter- 
ation in  the  situation  of  the  queen.  Her  ene- 
mies, bent  on  calumniating  her,  produced  letters, 
which  they  said  were  written  and  sent  by  her  to 
that  licentious  nobleman  during  the  life  of  the 
king.  These  letters  are  now  universally  admit- 
ted to  have  been  forged  by  the  rebels  themselves, 
who  practised  likewise  upon  some  servants  of 
Bothwel  to  accuse  the  queen  of  the  murder  of 
her  husband.  The  letters  for  some  time  gained 
credit;  but  the  confessions  of  the  servants  were 
all  in  her  favor.  When  on  the  scaffold,  they 
addressed  themselves  to  the  people ;  and,  after 
having  solemnly  declared  the  innocence  of  the 
queen,  they  protested  before  God  and  his  angels 
that  the  earl  of  Bothwel  had  informed  them  that 
the  earls  of  Murray  and  Morion  were  the  con- 
trivers of  the  king's  murder.  It  was  impossible 
that  such  transactions  as  these  could  advance  the 
popularity  of  the  regent.  His  unbounded  ambi- 
tion and  cruelty  to  his  sovereign  began  at  last  to 
open  the  eyes  of  the  nation ;  and  a  party  was 
forming  itself  in  favor  of  the  queen.  She  herself 
had  been  often  meditating  her  escape ;  and  she 
at  last  effected  it  by  means  of  a  young  gentle- 
man, George  Douglas,  brother  to  her  keeper, 
who  had  fallen  in  love  with  her.  On  the  second 
day  of  May  1568,  about  7  P.  M.  when  the 
keeper  was  at  supper  with  his  family,  George 
Douglas,  possessing  himself  of  the  keys  of  the 
castle,  hastened  to  her  apartment,  and  conducted 
her  out  of  prison.  Having  locked  the  gates  of 
the  castle,  they  immediately  entered  a  boat 
which  waited  for  them  ;  and,  being  rowed  across 
the  lake,  lord  Seton  received  the  queen  with  a 
chosen  band  of  horsemen  in  complete  armour. 
That  night  he  conveyed  her  to  his  house  of  Nid- 
drie  in  West  Lothian ;  where  having  rested  a 
few  hours,  she  set  out  for  Hamilton. 

The  escape  of  the  queen  threw  her  enemies 
into  the  greatest  consternation.  Many  forsook 
the  regent  openly,  and  still  more  made  their 
submissions  privately,  or  concealed  themselves. 
He  did  not,  however,  despond ;  but  resolved  to 
defend  himself  by  force  of  arms.  The  queen 
soon  found  herself  at  the  head  of  6000  men,  and 
the  regent  opposed  her  with  4000.  Mary,  how- 
ever, did  not  think  it  proper  to  risk  a  battle ; 
but  in  this  prudent  resolution  she  was  over-ruled 
by  the  impetuosity  of  her  troops.  A  battle  was 
fought  on  the  13th  of  May  1568,  at  Langside, 
near  Glasgow  ;  in  which  Mary's  army  was  de- 
feated, and  her  last  hopes  blasted.  The  unfor- 
tunate queen  fled  towards  Kirkcudbright,  where 
she  deliberated  on  the  plan  she  should  afterwards 


SCOTLAND. 


follow.  The  "result  of  her  deliberations  was  to 
take  the  worst  step  possible.  Notwithstanding 
all  the  pprfidy  which  she  had  found  in  Eliza- 
beth, Mary  could  not  think  that  she  would  now 
refuse  to  afford  her  a  refuge  in  her  dominions  ; 
and  therefore  determined  to  retire  into  England. 
To  this  she  had  been  solicited  by  Elizabeth  her- 
self during  her  confinement  in  Lochleven  castle ; 
and  she  now  resolved,  in  opposition  to  the  advice 
of  her  most  faithful  counsellors,  to  make  the 
fatal  experiment.  In  obedience  to  her  order, 
the  lord  Henries  addressed  a  letter  to  Mr.  Lauder, 
the  deputy-commander  at  Carlisle ;  and,  after 
detailing  her  defeat  at  Langside,  desired  to  know 
if  she  might  trust  herself  upon  English  ground. 
This  officer  wrote  instantly  an  answer,  that,  lord 
Scroop  the  warden  of  the  frontier  being  absent, 
he  could  not  give  a  formal  assurance  in  a  matter 
which  concerned  the  state  of  a  queen  ;  but  that 
he  weuld  send  by  post  to  his  court  to  know  the 
pleasure  of  his  sovereign ;  and  that,  if  in  the 
mean  time  any  necessity  should  force  Mary  to 
Carlisle,  he  would  receive  her  with  joy,  and  pro- 
tect her  against  her  enemies.  Mary,  however, 
before  the  messenger  returned,  had  embarked  in 
a  fishing  boat  with  sixteen  attendants.  In  a  few 
hours  she  landed  at  Workington  in  Cumberland, 
and  thence  proceeded  to  Cockermouth,  where 
she  continued  till  Mr.  Lauder,  having  assemb- 
led the  gentlemen  of  the  country,  conducted  her 
with  the  greatest  respect  to  the  castle  of  Carlisle. 
To  Elizabeth  she  announced  her  arrival  in  a  de- 
spatch, which  described  her  late  misfortunes  in 
general  and  pathetic  terms,  and  in  which  she 
expressed  an  earnest  solicitude  to  pay  her  a  visit 
at  her  court,  and  the  deep  sense  she  entertained 
of  her  friendship  and  generosity.  The  queen  of 
England,  by  obliging  and  polite  letters,  con- 
doled with  her  upon  her  situation,  and  gave  her 
assurances  of  all  the  favor  and  protection  that 
were  due  to  the  justice  of  her  cause.  But,  as 
they  were  not  accompanied  with  an  invitation  to 
London,  Mary  took  the  alarm.  She  thought  it 
expedient  to  instruct  lord  Fleming  to  repair  to 
France;  and  she  entrusted  lord  Herries  with  a 
most  pressing  remonstrance  to  Elizabeth.  Her 
anxiety  for  an  interview  to  vindicate  her  conduct, 
her  ability  to  do  so  in  the  most  satisfactory  man- 
ner, and  her  power  to  explain  the  ingratitude, 
the  crimes,  and  the  perfidy  of  her  enemies,  were 
urged  to  this  princess.  A  delay  in  the  state  of 
her  affairs  was  represented  as  nearly  equivalent 
to  absolute  destruction.  An  immediate  proof 
was  therefore  requested  from  Elizabeth  of  the 
sincerity  of  her  professions.  If  she  was  unwil- 
ling to  admit  into  her  presence  a  queen,  a  rela- 
tion, and  a  (friend,  she  was  reminded,  that,  as 
Mary's  entrance  into  her  dominions  had  been 
voluntary,  her  departure  ought  to  be  equally 
free  and  unrestrained.  She  valued  the  protec- 
tion of  the  queen  of  England  above  that  of  every 
other  potentate  upon  earth ;  but,  if  it  could  not 
be  granted,  she  would  solicit  the  amity,  and  im- 
plore the  aid  of  powers  who  would  commi- 
serate her  afflictions,  and  be  forward  to  relieve 
them.  Mary  likewise  gave  thanks  to  Elizabeth 
for  the  courtesy  with  which  she  had  hitherto  been 
treated  in  the  castle  of  Carlisle.  She  also  begged 
of  her  to  avert  the  cruelty  of  the  regent  from 


her  adherents,  and  to  engage  him  not  to  waste 
her  kingdom  with  hostility  and  ravages  ;  and  she 
paid  her  compliments  in  an  affectionate  letter  to 
secretary  Cecil,  and  asked  his  kind  offices  in 
extricating  her  from  her  difficulties.  But  the 
queen  of  England  was  not  to  be  moved  by  re- 
monstrances The  offer  of  Mary  to  plead  her 
cause  before  her,  and  to  satisfy  all  her  scruples, 
was  rejected.  Her  disasters  were  rather  a  matter 
of  exultation  than  of  pity.  The  deliberations  of 
the  English  queen,  and  those  of  her  statesman, 
were  not  directed  by  maxims  of  equity,  compas- 
sion, or  generosity.  They  considered  the  flight 
of  Mary  into  England  as  an  incident  that  was 
fortunate  for  them;  and  they  were  solicitous  to 
adopt  those  measures  which  would  enable  them 
to  draw  from  it  the  greatest  advantage.  They 
considered  all  the  possible  consequences  of  li- 
berating her,  of  restoring  her  to  her  throne,  and 
of  allowing  her  to  remain  at  liberty  in  England  ; 
and  how  they  might  affect  Scotland,  England, 
Ireland,  and  the  cause  of  the  Reformation  ;  and 
upon  the  whole  concluded  that  it  was  by  far  the 
wisest  expedient  to  keep  the  queen  of  Scots  in 
confinement,  to  invent  methods  to  augment  her 
distress,  to  give  countenance  to  the  regent,  and 
to  hold  her  kingdom  in  dependence  and  sub- 
jection. In  consequence  of  this  cruel  and  unjust 
resolution  Mary  was  acquainted  that  she  could 
not  be  admitted  into  Elizabeth's  presence  till 
she  had  cleared  herself  of  the  crimes  imputed 
to  her ;  she  was  warned  not  to  think  of  intro- 
ducing French  troops  into  Scotland  ;  and  it  was 
hinted  that  for  the  more  security  she  ought  to  be 
removed  farther  from  the  frontier.  This  mes- 
sage showed  Mary  the  imprudence  of  her  con- 
duct in  trusting  herself  to  Elizabeth;  but  the 
error  could  not  now  be  remedied.  She  was 
watched  to  prevent  her  escape,  and  all  her  re- 
monstrances were  vain.  The  earl  of  Murray  had 
offered  to  accuse  her ;  and  it  was  at  last  con- 
cluded that  Elizabeth  could  not,  consistently 
with  her  own  honor  and  the  tranquillity  of  her 
government,  suffer  the  queen  of  Scots  to  come 
into  her  presence,  to  depart  out  of  England,  or 
to  be  restored  to  her  dignity,  till  her  cause  should 
be  tried  and  decided.  An  order  was  given  to 
remove  her  from  Carlisle  castle  to  a  place  of 
strength  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  borders, 
to  confine  her  more  closely,  and  to  guard  against 
all  possibility  of  an  escape. 

In  consequence  of  these  extraordinary  transac- 
tions a  trial  took  place,  perhaps  the  most  re- 
markable for  its  injustice  of  any  recorded  in 
history.  Mary,  confined  and  apprehensive,  sub- 
mitted to  be  tried.  The  regent,  who  was  to  be 
the  accuser,  was  summoned  into  England,  and 
commissioners  were  appointed  on  both  sides. 
On  the  4th  of  October  the  commissioners  met  at 
York ;  and,  four  days  after,  the  deputies  of  the 
queen  of  Scots  were  called  to  make  known  their 
complaints.  They  related  the  most  material  cir- 
cumstances of  the  crnel  usage  she  had  received. 
Their  accusations  were  an  alarming  introduction 
to  the  business  in  which  the  'regent  had  em- 
barked; and,  notwithstanding  the  encouragement 
shown  to  him  by  Elizabeth,  he  was  assaulted  by 
apprehensions.  The  artifices  of  Maitland  addel 
to  his  alarms.  Instead  of  proceeding  instaniij  to 


SCOTLAND. 


523 


defend  himself,  or  to  accuse  the  queen,  lie  sought 
permission  to  relate  his  doubts  and  scruples  to 
the  English  commissioners.  In  his  own  name, 
and  with  the  concurrence  of  his  associates,  he 
demanded  to  know  whether  they  had  sufficient 
authority  from  Elizabeth  to  pronounce,  in  the 
case  of  the  murder,  Guilty  or  Not  guilty,  ac- 
cording to  the  evidence  that  should  be  laid  before 
them ;  whether  they  would  actually  exercise  this 
power  ;  whether,  in  the  event  of  her  criminality, 
their  sovereign  should  be  delivered  to  him  and 
his  friends,  or  detained  in  England  in  such  a 
way  as  that  no  danger  should  ensue  from  her  ac- 
tivity; and  whether,  upon  her  conviction,  the 
queen  of  England  would  allow  his  proceedings, 
and  those  of  his  party,  to  be  proper,  maintain 
the  government  of  the  young  king,  and  support 
him  in  the  regency,  in  the  terms  of  the  act  of 
parliament  which  had  confirmed  him  in  that 
office.  To  these  requisitions  it  was  answered, 
upon  the  part  of  the  English  deputies,  that  their 
commission  was  so  ample  that  they  could  enter 
into  and  proceed  with  the  controversy ;  and  that 
the  sovereign  would  not  restore  the  queen  of 
Scots  to  her  crown,  if  satisfactory  proofs  of  her 
crime  should  be  produced ;  but  that  they  knew 
not  in  what  manner  she  would  finally  conduct 
herself  as  to  her  person  and  punishment.  With 
regard  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  prince,  and  the 
regency  of  the  earl  of  Murray,  these  might  be 
canvassed  in  a  future  period.  These  replies  did 
not  please  the  regent  and  his  associates;  and 
they  requested  the  English  commissioners  to 
transmit  their  doubts  and  scruples  to  be  examined 
and  answered  by  Elizabeth.  But,  while  the  re- 
gent discovered  in  this  manner  his  apprehensions, 
he  yet  affirmed  that  he  was  able  to  answer  the 
charges  imputed  to  him  and  his  faction ;  and, 
this  being  in  a  great  measure  a  distinct  matter 
from  the  controversy  of  the  murder,  he  was  de- 
sired to  proceed  in  it.  He  pretended  that  Both- 
wel,  who  had  the  chief  concern  in  the  murder  of 
lord  Darnley,  possessed  such  credit  with  the 
queen,  that,  within  three  months  after  that  hor- 
rible event,  he  seized  her  person  and  led  her 
captive  to  Dunbar,  obtained  a  divorce  from  his 
wife,  and  married  her :  that  the  nobility,  being 
moved  with  his  crimes,  did  confederate  to  punish 
him,  to  relieve  her  from  the  tyranny  of  a  man 
who  had  ravished  her,  and  who  could  not  be  her 
husband,  and  to  preserve  the  life  of  the  prince: 
that,  having  taken  arms  for  these  purposes,  the 
earl  marched  against  them  ;  but  that,  proposing 
to  decide  the  quarrel  by  single  combat,  his  chal- 
lenge was  accepted  :  that  he  declined,  notwith- 
standing, to  enter  the  lists,  and  fled :  that  the 
queen,  preferring  his  impunity  to  her  own  honor, 
favored  his  escape  by  going  over  to  the  nobility : 
that  they  conducted  her  to  Edinburgh,  where 
they  informed  her  of  the  motives  of  their  pro- 
ceedings, requested  her  to  take  the  proper  steps 
against  him  and  the  other  regicides,  and  entreated 
her  to  dissolve  her  marriage,  to  take  care  of  her 
sou,  and  to  consult  the  tranquillity  of  her  realm : 
that  this  treatment  being  offensive  to  her  she 
menaced  them  with  vengeance,  and  offered  to 
surrender  her  crown,  if  they  would  permit  her 
to  possess  the  murderer  of  her  husband  ;  that 
her  inflexible  mind,  and  the  necessities  of  the 


state,  compelled  them  to  keep  her  at  a  distance 
from  him,  and  out  of  the  way  of  a  communica- 
tion with  his  adherents:  that  during  her  confine- 
ment, finding  herself  appointed  with  the  troubles 
of  royalty,  and  unfit  for  them  from  vexation  of 
spirit  and  the  weakness  of  her  body  and  intellect, 
she  freely,  and  of  her  own  will,  resigned  her 
crown  to  her  son,  and  constituted  the  earl  of 
Murray  to  the  regency ;  that  the  king  accordingly 
had  been  crowned,  and  Murray  admitted  to  the 
regency ;  that,  the  sanction  of  the  three  estates 
assembled  in  parliament  having  confirmed  these 
appointments,  a  universal  obedience  of  the  peo- 
ple had  ensued,  and  a  steady  administration  of 
justice  had  taken  place :  that  certain  persons, 
however,  envious  of  the  public  order  and  peace, 
had  brought  her  out  of  prison,  and  had  engaged 
to  subvert  the  government ;  that  they  had  been 
disappointed  in  their  wicked  attempts ;  and  that 
it  was  most  just  and  equitable  that  the  king  arid 
the  regent  should  be  supported  in  power,  in  op- 
position to  a  rebellious  and  turbulent  faction. 

This  apology,  so  imperfect,  so  impudent,  and 
so  irreconcileable  with  facts,  received  a  complete 
confutation  from  the  deputies  of  the  queen  of 
Scots.  To  take  arms  against  her  because  Both- 
wel  had  her  favor  was,  they  said,  a  lame  justifi- 
cation of  the  earl  of  Murray  and  his  friends; 
since  it  had  never  been  properly  manifested  to 
her  that  he  was  the  murderer  of  her  husband. 
He  had  indeed  been  suspected  of  this  crime ;  but 
had  been  tried  by  his  peers,  and  acquitted.  His 
acquittal  had  been  ratified  in  parliament,  and 
had  obtained  the  express  approbation  of  the 
party  who  were  now  so  loud  in  accusing  him, 
and  who  had  conspired  against  her  authority. 
These  rebels  had  even  urged  her  to  accomplish 
her  marriage  with  him,  had  recommended  him  as 
the  fittest  person  to  govern  the  realm,  and  had 
subscribed  a  bond  asserting  his  innocence,  and 
binding  themselves  to  challenge  and  punish  all 
his  adversaries  and  opponents.  They  had  never, 
either  before  or  after  the  marriage,  advertised  the 
queen  of  his  guilt,  till,  having  experience  of  their 
strength,  they  secretly  took  arms,  and  invested 
her  in  Borthwick  castle.  The  first  mark  of  their 
displeasure  was  the  display  of  warlike  banners. 
She  made  her  escape  to  Dunbar ;  and  they,  re- 
turning to  Edinburgh,  levied  troops,  issued  pro- 
clamations, took  the  field  against  her,  under  the 
pretence  of  delivering  her  from  his  tyranny,  and 
got  possession  of  her  person.  She  was  willing 
to  prevent  the  effusion  of  blood,  and  was  very 
far  from  preferring  his  impunity  to  her  honor. 
Kirkaldy  of  Grange,  in  obedience  to  instructions 
from  them,  desired  her  to  cause  him  to  retire,  and 
invited  her  to  pass  to  them  under  the  promise  of 
being  served  and  obeyed  as  their  sovereign.  She 
consented,  and  Kirkaldy  advised  Bothwel  to  de- 
part, and  assured  him  that  no  man  would  pursue 
him.  It  was  by  their  own  contrivance  that  he 
fled;  and  it  was  in  their  power  to  have  taken 
him  ;  but  they  showed  not  the  smallest  desire  to 
make  him  their  prisoner.  He  remained,  too,  for 
some  time  in  the  kingdom,  and  was  unmolested 
by  them  ;  and  it  was  not  till  he  was  upon  the 
seas  that  they  affected  to  go  in  search  of  him, 
When  she  surrendered  herself,  in  the  sight  of  their 
army,  the  earl  of  Morton  ratified  the  stipulations 


524 


SCOTLAND. 


of  Kirkaldy,  made  obeisance  to  her  in  their 
names,  and  promised  her  all  the  service  and 
honor  which  had  ever  been  paid  to  any  of  her 
predecessors.  They  were  not  faithful,  however, 
to  their  engagements.  They  carried  her  to  Edin- 
burgh, but  did  not  lodge  her  in  her  palace.  She 
was  committed  to  the  house  of  a  burgess,  and 
treated  with  the  vilest  indignities.  She  indeed 
broke  out  into  menaces,  and  threatened  them; 
nor  was  this  a  matter  either  of  blame  or  of 
wonder.  But  it  was  utterly  false  that  she  ever 
made  any  offer  to  give  away  her  crown,  if  she 
might  possess  Bothwel.  In  the  midst  of  her 
sufferings  she  had  even  required  them,  by  secre- 
tary Maitland,  to  specify  their  complaints,  and 
besought  them  to  allow  her  to  appear  in  parlia- 
ment, and  to  join  and  assist  in  seeking  a  remedy 
to  them  from  the  wisdom  of  the  three  estates. 
This  overture,  however,  so  salutary  and  submis- 
sive, they  absolutely  rejected.  They  were  ani- 
mated by  purposes  of  ambition,  and  had  not  in 
view  a  relief  from  grievances.  They  forced  her 
from  her  capital  in  the  night,  and  imprisoned  her 
in  Lochleven ;  and  there  they  affirm  that,  being 
exhausted  with  the  toils  of  government  and  the 
languors  of  sickness,  she,  without  constraint  or 
solicitation,  resigned  her  crown  to  her  son,  and 
appointed  the  earl  of  Murray  to  be  regent  during 
his  minority.  But  the  truth  could  neither  be 
concealed,  nor  overturned,  nor  palliated.  She 
was  in  the  vigor  of  youth,  unassailed  by  mala- 
dies, and  without  any  infirmity  that  could  induce 
her  to  surrender  the  government  of  her  kingdom. 
The  earl  of  Athol  and  the  barons  of  Tullibardin 
and  Lethington,  principal  men  of  their  council, 
sent  Sir  Robert  Melvil  to  her  with  a  ring  and 
presents,  with  a  recommendation  to  subscribe 
whatever  papers  should  be  laid  before  her,  as 
the  only  means  to  save  her  life,  and  with  an  as- 
surance that  what  she  did  under  captivity  could 
not  operate  any  injury  to  her.  Melvil,  too,  com- 
municated to  her  an  intimation  in  writing  from 
Sir  Nicholas  Throgmorton,  which  gave  her  the 
same  advice  and  die  same  assurance.  To  Sir 
Nicholas  Throgmorton  she  sent  an  answer,  in- 
forming him  that  she  would  follow  his  counsel ; 
and  enjoining  him  to  declare  to  his  mistress  her 
hapless  state,  and  that  her  resignation  of  her 
crown  was  constrained.  Nor  did  this  ambassador 
neglect  her  commission ;  and  it  was  a  popular 
persuasion  that  Elizabeth  would  have  marched 
an  army  to  her  relief,  if  she  had  not  been  intimi- 
dated by  the  threat  of  the  rebels  that  the  blood 
of  the  queen  of  Scots  would  be  the  wages  of  her 
soldiers.  It  was  also  not  to  be  contradicted 
that,  when  lord  Lindsay  presented  to  his  sove- 
reign the  instruments  of  resignation,  he  menaced 
her  with  a  closer  prison  and  a  speedy  death,  if 
she  should  refuse  to  subscribe  them.  It  was 
under  an  extreme  terror,  and  with  many  tears, 
that  she  put  her  name  to  them.  She  did  not  con- 
sider them  as  her  deeds ;  did  not  read  them  ;  and 
protested  that,  when  she  was  at  liberty,  she  would 
disavow  subscriptions  which  had  been  extorted 
from  her.  Even  Douglas,  the  keeper  of  Loch- 
leven, could  not  endure  to  be  a  witness  of  the 
violence  employed  against  her.  He  departed 
out  of  her  presence  that  he  might  not  see  her 
surrendrr  her  rights  against  her  will ;  and  he 


sought  and  obtained  from  her  a  certificate  thut 
he  was  not  accessory  to  this  compulsion  and 
outrage.  Nor  did  it  consist  with  the  slightest 
probability  that  she  would,  of  her  own  will  and 
accord,  execute  a  resignation  of  her  royal  estate, 
and  retain  no  provision  for  her  future  mainte- 
nance. Yet,  by  these  extraordinary  deeds,  the 
condition  to  which  she  was  reduced  was  most 
miserable  and  wretched ;  for  no  portion  what- 
ever of  her  revenue  was  reserved  to  her,  and  no 
security  of  any  kind  was  granted  either  for  her 
liberty  or  her  life. 

As  to  the  coronation  of  the  prince,  it  could 
have  no  validity,  as  being  founded  in  a  pretended 
and  forced  resignation.  It  was  also  defective  in 
its  form ;  for  there  were  in  Scotland  more  than 
100  earls,  bishops,  and  lords;  and  of  these  there 
did  not  assist  in  it  more  than  four  earls,  six  lords, 
one  bishop,  and  two  or  three  abbots.  Protesta- 
tions, too,  were  openly  made,  that  nothing  trans- 
acted at  that  period  should  be  prejudicial  to 
the  queen,  her  estate,  and  the  Mood-royal  of 
Scotland.  As  to  the  ratification  of  the  investiture 
of  the  young  prince,  and  the  regency  of  the  earl 
of  Murray  by  the  estates,  this  was  done  in  an  il- 
legal parliament.  The  principal  nobility,  too, 
objected  in  this  parliament  to  this  ratification. 
Protestations  were  made  before  the  lords  of  the 
articles,  as  well  as  before  the  three  estates,  to  in- 
terrupt and  defeat  transactions  which  were  in  a 
wild  hostility  to  the  constitution  and  the  laws. 
Neither  was  it  true  that  the  government  of  the 
king  and  the  regent  was  universally  obeyed,  and 
administered  with  equity  and  approbation  ;  for  a 
great  division  of  the  nobility  never  acknowledged 
any  authority  but  that  of  the  queen,  and  never 
held  any  courts  but  in  her  name ;  and  it  was  no- 
torious that  the  administration  of  the  usurpers 
had  been  marked  and  distinguished  by  enormous 
cruelties  and  oppressions.  Many  honorable  fami- 
lies and  loyal  subjects  had  been  persecuted  to 
ruin,  and  plundered  of  their  wealth,  to  gratify 
the  retainers  and  soldiers  who  upheld  this  inso- 
lent domination ;  and  murder  and  bloodshed, 
theft  and  rapine,  were  prevalent  to  a  degree  un- 
heard of  for  many  ages.  Upon  all  these  accounts 
it  was  inferred  that  Elizabeth  ought  to  support 
the  queen  of  Scots,  to  restore  her  to  her  crown, 
and  to  overthrow  the  power  of  a  most  unnatural 
and  rebellious  faction.  To  these  facts  the  re- 
gent did  not  pretend  to  make  any  objection; 
and,  though  required  by  the  English  commis- 
sioners to  produce  sounder  and  better  reasons  for 
his  treatment  of  the  queen,  he  did  not  advance 
any  thing  in  his  own  behalf.  He  even  allowed  the 
charges  of  treason  and  usurpation  to  be  pressed 
against  him,  without  presuming  to  answer.  This 
surprising  behaviour,  which  might  readily  have 
been  construed  into  .an  acknowledgment  of  his 
guilt,  proceeded  from  some  conferences  which 
he  had  with  the  duke  of  Norfolk.  This  noble- 
man was  a  zealous  partizan  for  the  succession  of 
Mary  to  the  English  crown.  He  was  of  opi- 
nion that  his  mistress,  while  she  wished  to  gra- 
tify her  animosity  and  jealousies  against  the 
queen  of  Scots,  was  secretly  resolved,  by  fixing 
a  stain  upon  her,  to  exckide  her  from  t!ie  suc- 
cession, and  to  involve  her  son  in  her  (li»_rr .10.- 
He  wa>  isiger  to  defeat  a  purpose  which  he  con 


SCOTLAND. 


525 


ceived  to  be  not  only  unjust  in  itself,  but  highly 
detrimental  to  his  country  ;  and  he  observed  with 
pleasure  that  Maitland  of  Lethington  was  favor- 
able to  Mary.  To  this  statesman  he  expressed 
his  surprise  that  the  regent  could  think  of  an 
attempt  so  blameable  as  that  of  criminating  his 
sovereign.  If  Mary  had  really  given  offence,  by 
mistakes,  it  yet  was  not  the  business  of  a  good 
subject  industriously  to  hold  her  out  to  scorn. 
Anxious  and  repeated  conferences  were  held  by 
them ;  and  at  length  it  was  formally  agreed 
that  the  regent  should  not  accuse  the  queen  of 
Scots ;  and  that  the  duke  in  return  should  pro- 
tect him  in  the  favor  of  Elizabeth,  and  secure 
him  in  the  possession  of  his  regency.  But,  while 
the  regent  engaged  himself  in  this  intrigue  with 
the  duke  of  Norfolk,  he  was  still  desirous  of 
gratifying  the  resentments  of  Elizabeth,  and  of 
advancing  his  own  interests  by  undermining 
secretly  the  reputation  of  his  sovereign.  He  in- 
structed Maitland,  George  Buchanan,  James 
Macgill,  and  John  Wood,  to  go  to  the  duke  of 
Norfolk,  the  earl  of  Sussex,  and  Sir  Ralph  Sad- 
ler, and  to  communicate  to  them,  as  private  per- 
sons, and  not  in  their  character  of  commissioners, 
the  letters  to  Bothvvel,  and  the  other  proofs  upon 
which  he  affirmed  the  guilt  of  the  queen  of  Scots. 
He  desired  that  they  would  examine  these  pa- 
pers, give  their  opinion  of  them  to  Elizabeth, 
and  inform  him  whether  she  judged  them  suffi- 
cient evidences  of  Mary's  concern  in  the  murder 
of  her  husband.  If  this  should  be  her  opinion, 
he  testified  his  own  readiness,  and  that  of  his 
associates,  to  swear  that  the  papers  were  genuine, 
and  of  the  hand-writing  of  the  queen.  By  this 
operation,  he  was  solicitous  to  establish  his 
vouchers  as  incontestable,  and  as  testimonies  of 
record. 

The  commissioners  examined  his  papers,  and 
heard  the  comments  of  Buchanan  and  his  other 
assistants;  but  they  do  not  seem  to  have  be- 
stowed credit  upon  them.  They  described 
them,  however,  to  Elizabeth;  pointed  out  the 
places  of  them  which  were  strongest  against 
Mary ;  and  allowed  that  their  force  and  mean- 
ing were  very  great  if  genuineness  could  be  de- 
monstrated. But  of  their  genuineness  they 
acknowledged  that  they  had  no  other  evidence 
than  stout  assertions,  and  the  offer  of  oaths. 
The  earl  of  .Sussex,  in  a  private  despatch  to 
secretary  Cecil,  does  more  than  insinuate,  that 
he  thought  Mary  would  be  able  to  prove  the 
letters  palpable  forgeries ;  and,  with  respect  to 
the  murder  of  the  king,  he  declares  in  plain 
terms,  that,  from  all  he  could  learn,  Murray  and 
his  faction  would,  upon  a  judicial  trial,  be  found 
by  '  proofs  hardly  to  be  denied,'  more  criminal 
in  that  charge  than  the  queen.  Elizabeth  and 
her  ministers,  upon  the  receipt  of  such  de- 
spatches, did  not  think  it  expedient  to  empower 
them  to  adopt  a  method  of  proof  so  palpably 
suspicious,  and  in  which  she  could  not  openly 
toncur,  without  grossly  violating  even  the  ap- 
pearance of  probity.  The  regent  had  before  at- 
tempted to  engage  her  in  a  direct  assurance  of 
fie  validity  of  his  papers,  when  he  submitted 
copies  of  them  to  her  inspection  by  his  secretary, 
Mr.  Wood.  His  attempt  at  this  juncture  was 
-similar.  Nor  were  these  the  only  transactions 


which  took  place  during  the  continuance  of  the 
commissioners  at  York.  The  inventive  genius 
of  Lethington  had  suggested  to  him  a  project, 
which  he  communicated  in  confidence  to  the 
bishop  of  Ross.  It  received  the  warm  approba- 
tion of  this  ecclesiastic  ;  and  they  determined  to 
put  it  to  a  trial.  While  they  attended  the  duke 
of  Norfolk  to  the  diversion  of  hawking,  the} 
suggested  to  him  a  marriage  with  the  queen  of 
Scots.  Her  beauty,  her  accomplishments,  and 
her  kingdom,  were  high  allurements,  and  as  he 
was  the  greatest  subject  of  England,  perhaps  of 
Europe,  he  seemed  not  to  be  unworthy  of  them 
The  proposal  was  very  flattering  to  the  admira- 
tion he  entertained  of  Mary,  to  his  ambition, 
and  to  his  patriotism.  The  more  he  thought  of 
it,  he  was  the  more  convinced  of  its  propriety. 
His  access  to  be  informed  of  the  practices  of  the 
regent  destroyed  in  him  the  operations  of  those 
slanders  by  which  her  enemies  were  so  active  to 
traduce  her.  In  this  state  of  his  mind,  the  lady 
Scroop,  his  sister,  who  resided  at  Bolton  Castle 
with  Mary,  completely  confirmed  his  resolution. 
For  from  her  he  learned  the  orderly  carnage  and 
the  amiable  dispositions  of  the  queen  of  Scots. 
He  was  now  impatient  to  make  her  the  offer  of 
his  hand.  Elizabeth  in  the  mean  time  was 
thrown  into  confusion  by  the  refusal  of  the  re- 
gent to  accuse  the  queen  of  Scots.  To  give  a 
positive  answer  to  his  doubts  and  scruples  was 
not  consistent  with  her  honor ;  and  yet,  without 
this  condescension,  she  was  assured  that  the 
Scottish  deputies  would  not  exhibit  their  charge 
of  crimination.  Having  deceived  Mary,  there- 
fore, with  fair  promises,  she  was  active  in  gain- 
ing the  regent  over  to  her  views ,  which  having 
done,  he  consented  at  last  to  prefer  his  accusa- 
tion against  Mary  before  the  commisioners,  who 
now  met  at  Westminster  by  her  command. 
The  charge  was  expressed  in  general  and  pre- 
sumptive terms.  It  affirmed  that  as  James,  earl 
of  Bothwel,  was  the  chief  executor  of  the  mur- 
der of  king  Henry,  so  the  queen  was  his  per- 
suader and  counsel  in  the  device  ;  that  she  was 
a  maintainer  and  fortifier  of  this  unnatural  deed, 
by  stopping  the  inquisition  into  it  and  its  punish- 
ment, and  by  taking  in  marriage  the  principal 
regicide;  that  they  had  begun  to  exercise  a  cruel 
tyranny  in  the  commonwealth,  and  had  formed 
a  resolution  of  destroying  the  innocent  prince, 
and  of  transferring  the  crown  from  the  true  line 
of  its  kings  to  a  bloody  murderer,  and  a  godless 
tyrant ;  and  that  the  estates  of  the  realm,  finding 
her  unworthy  to  reign,  had  ordered  her  to  resign 
the  crown ;  her  son  to  be  crowned,  and  the  earl 
of  Murray  to  be  established  in  the  regency.  Be- 
fore this  accusation  was  preferred  the  earl  of 
Lennox  presented  himself  before  the  English 
commissioners ;  made  a  lamentable  declaration 
of  his  griefs,  and  produced  to  them  the  letters 
which  had  passed  between  him  and  Mary  con- 
cerning the  murder,  with  a  writing  which  con- 
tained a  direct  affirmation  of  her  guilt.  The 
deputies  of  Mary  were  astonished  at  this  accu- 
sation, being  a  violent  infringement  of  a  pro- 
testation which  they  had  formerly  given  in,  and 
which  had  been  accepted,  namely,  that  the 
crown,  estate,  person,  and  honor  of  the  queen  of 
Scots,  should  be  guarded  against  every  assault 


526 


SCOTLAND. 


and  injury ;  yet  in  all  these  particulars  she  was 
now  injured.  It  was  understood  that  no  judi- 
cial proceedings  should  take  place  against  her; 
yet  she  was  actually  arraigned  as  a  criminal, 
and  her  deputies  were  called  upon  to  defend  her. 
They  denied,  however,  the  validity  of  the 
charge  ;  and,  while  they  fully  explained  the  mo- 
tives which  actuated  the  earl  of  Murray  and  his 
faction  in  their  proceedings,  they  imputed  to 
persons  among  themselves  the  guilt  of  the  king's 
murder.  They  affirmed  that  the  queen's  adver- 
saries were  the  accomplices  of  Bothwel ;  that 
they  had  subscribed  a  bond  conspiring  the  death 
of  the  king ;  and  that  their  guilt  had  been  at- 
tested, in  the  sight  of  10,000  spectators,  by 
those  of  their  confederates  who  had  already  been 
executed.  They  exclaimed  against  the  enor- 
mous ingratitude,  and  the  unparalleled  audacity 
of  men,  who  could  forget  so  completely  all  the 
obligations  which  they  owed  to  their  sovereign ; 
and  who,  not  satisfied  with  usurping  her  power, 
could  even  charge  her  with  a  murder  which  they 
themselves  had  committed.  They  represented 
the  strong  necessity  which  had  arisen  for  the 
fullest  vindication  of  their  mistress ;  and  they 
said,  that  in  so  weighty  an  extremity  they  could 
not  suppose  that  she  would  be  restrained  from 
appearing  in  her  own  defence.  They  had  her 
instructions,  if  her  honor  was  touched,  to  make 
this  requisition ;  and,  till  it  was  granted,  they  in- 
sisted that  all  proceedings  in  the  conference 
should  be  at  an  end.  A  refusal  of  this  liberty, 
in  the  situation  to  which  she  was  driven,  would 
be  an  infallible  proof  that  no  justice  was  in- 
tended to  her.  It  was  their  wish  to  deal  with 
sincerity ;  and  they  were  persuaded  that,  without 
a  proper  freedom  of  defence,  their  queen  would 
full  a  victim  to  partiality  and  injustice.  They 
therefore  earnestly  pressed  the  English  commis- 
sioners that  she  might  be  permitted  to  present 
herself  before  Elizabeth,  the  nobles  of  England, 
and  the  ambassadors  of  foreign  nations,  to 
manifest  to  the  world  the  injuries  she  had  suf- 
fered, and  her  innocence.  After  having  made 
these  spirited  representations  to  the  English 
commissioners,  the  deputies  of  Mary  desired  to 
have  access  to  the  queen  of  England.  They 
were  admitted  accordingly  to  an  audience ;  and, 
in  a  formal  address,  they  detailed  what  had  hap- 
pened, insisted  that  the  liberty  of  personal  de- 
fence should  be  allowed  to  their  mistress,  and 
demanded  that  the  earl  of  Murray  and  his  asso- 
ciates should  be  taken  into  custody,  till  they  should 
answer  to  such  charges  as  should  be  preferred 
against  them.  She  desired  to  have  some  time  to 
turn  her  thoughts  to  matters  of  such  high  impor- 
tance ;  and  told  them  that  they  might  soon  expect 
to  hear  from  her.  The  bishop  of  Ross,  and  the 
otherMeputies  of  Mary,  in  the  mean  time,  struck 
with  the  perfidious  management  of  the  conference, 
convinced  of  the  jealousies  and  passions  of  Eli- 
zabeth, sensible  that  her  power  over  her  com- 
missioners was  unlimited,  and  anxious  for  the 
deliverance  of  their  mistress,  made  an  overture 
for  an  accommodation  to  the  earl  of  Leicester 
and  Sir  William  Cecil.  They  proposed  that  the 
original  meaning  of  the  conference  should  still 
be  adhered  to,  notwithstanding  the  accusation 
presented  by  the  earl  of  Murray ;  and  that  Eli- 


zabeth, disregarding  it  as  an  effort  of  faction, 
should  proceed  to  a  good  agreement  between 
Mary  and  her  subjects.  For  this  scheme,  they 
had  no  authority  from  their  mistress,  but  they 
were  moved  to  it  by  their  anxiety  for  peace  and 
the  re -establishment  of  the  affairs  of  the  Scottish 
nation.  They  were  introduced  at  Hampton- 
court  to  Elizabeth ;  who  listened  to  their  motion 
and  was  averse  from  it.  They  then  repeated 
the  desires  of  the  petition  they  had  presented  to 
her ;  but  she  did  not  think  it  right  that  the 
queen  of  Scots  should  yet  have  the  liberty  to 
defend  herself  in  person.  She  confessed,  in- 
deed, that  it  was  reasonable  that  Mary  should  be 
heard  in  her  own  cause ;  but  she  affirmed  that 
she  was  at  a  loss  at  what  time  she  should  appear, 
at  what  place,  and  to  whom  she  should  address 
herself.  While  she  expressed,  however,  the  hope 
that  Mary  might  obtain  the  permission  so  re- 
peatedly and  so  earnestly  requested,  she  said 
that  the  earl  of  Murray  should  first  be  heard  in 
support  of  his  charge,  and  that  she  should  at- 
tend to  the  proofs  which  he  said  he  was  ready 
to  produce.  After  this  business  should  be  trans- 
acted, she  told  the  deputies  of  Mary  that  she 
would  again  confer  with  them.  It  was  to  no 
purpose  that  they  objected  to  a  procedure  so 
strange.  An  accusation,  said  they,  is  given ;  the 
person  accused  is  anxious  to  defend  herself;  this 
privilege  is  denied  to  her ;  and  yet  a  demand  is 
to  be  made  for  the  vouchers  of  her  guilt.  What 
was  this  but  an  open  violation  of  justice  ?  They 
would  not,  therefore,  consent  to  a  measure  which 
was  so  alarming  to  the  interests  of  their  queen ; 
and,  if  it  was  adopted,  a  protest  against  its  vali- 
dity would  be  lodged  with  her  commissioners. 
The  English  commissioners  resumed  the  con- 
ference, and  were  about  to  demand  from  the  earl 
of  Murray  the  proofs  with  which  he  could  sup- 
port his  accusation.  The  bishop  of  Ross  and 
his  associates,  being  admitted  to  them,  expressed 
themselves  in  conformity  to  the  conversation 
they  had  with  Elizabeth.  They  declared  that  it 
was  unnatural  and  preposterous  in  their  sove- 
reign to  think  of  receiving  proofs  of  the  guilt  of 
the  queen  of  Scots,  before  she  was  heard  in  her 
own  defence ;  and  they  protested  that,  in  the 
event  of  this  proceeding,  the  negociation  should 
be  dissolved,  and  Elizabeth  be  disarmed  of  all 
power  to  do  any  prejudice  to  her  honor,  person, 
crown,  and  estate.  The  commissioners  of  the 
English  queen  were  affected  with  this  protesta- 
tion, and  felt  more  for  the  honor  of  their  mis- 
tress than  for  their  own.  They  refused  to  re- 
ceive it,  because  there  were  engrossed  in  it 
the  words  of  the  refusal  which  Elizabeth  had 
given  to  the  petition  for  Mary.  They  did  not 
choose  to  authenticate  the  terms  of  this  refusal 
by  their  subscriptions ;  and  were  solicitous  to 
suppress  so  palpable  a  memorial  of  her  iniquity. 
They  alleged  that  the  language  of  her  refusal 
had  not  been  taken  down  with  accuracy ;  and 
they  pressed  Mary's  deputies  to  present  a  simpler 
form  of  protestation.  The  bishop  of  Ross  and 
his  colleagues  yielded  not,  however,  immediately 
to  their  insidious  importunity ;  but,  repeating 
anew  their  protestations  as  they  had  at  first 
planned  it,  included  the  express  words  of  Eliza- 
beth ;  and,  when  compelled  by  the  power  of  the 


SCOTLAND. 


527 


commissioners  to  expunge  the  language  of  the 
English  queen,  they  still  insisted  upon  their  pro- 
testation. An  interruption  was  thus  given  to 
the  validity  of  any  future  proceedings  which 
might  affect  the  reputation  of  the  queen  of  Scots. 
The  earls  of  Murray  and  Morton,  with  their 
friends,  were  very  much  disappointed.  For  they 
had  solaced  themselves  with  the  hope  of  a 
triumph  before  there  was  a  victory  ;  and  thought 
of  obtaining  a  decree  from  Elizabeth,  which, 
while  it  should  pronounce  the  queen  of  Scots  to 
be  an  adulteress  and  a  murderer,  would  exalt 
them  into  the  station  and  character  of  virtuous 
men  and  honorable  subjects.  Though  the  con- 
ference ought  naturally  to  have  terminated  upon 
this  protestation  of  the  deputies  of  Mary  against 
the  injustice  of  Elizabeth,  yet  it  did  not  satisfy 
the  latter  princess  that  the  accusation  only  had 
been  delivered  to  her  commissioners ;  she  was 
seriously  disposed  to  operate  a  judicial  produc- 
tion of  its  vouchers.  The  charge  would  thus  have 
a  more  regular  aspect,  and  be  a  sounder  founda- 
tion upon  which  to  build  not  only  the  infamy  of 
the  Scottish  queen,  but  her  own  justification  for 
the  part  she  had  acted.  Her  commissioners  ac- 
cordingly, after  the  bishop  of  Ross  and  his  col- 
leagues had  retired,  disregarding  their  protesta- 
tion, called  upon  the  earl  of  Murray  and  his 
associates  to  make  their  appearance.  The  pre- 
tence, however,  employed  for  drawing  from  him 
liis  papers,  was  sufficiently  artful,  and  bears  the 
marks  of  that  systematic  duplicity  which  so 
shamefully  characterises  all  the  transactions  of 
Elizabeth  at  this  period.  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  the 
lord  keeper,  addressed  himself  to  the  earl  of 
Murray.  He  said  that,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
queen  of  England,  it  was  a  matter  surprising 
and  strange  that  he  should  accuse  his  sovereign 
of  a  crime  most  horrible,  odious  to  God  and  man, 
against  law  and  nature ;  and  which,  if  proved  to 
be  true,  would  render  her  infamous  in  all  the 
kingdoms  of  the  world.  But  though  he  had  so 
•widely  forgot  his  duty,  yet  had  not  Elizabeth  re- 
nounced her  love  of  a  good  sister,  a  good  neigh- 
bour, and  a  good  friend  ;  and  it  was  her  will  that 
he  and  his  company  should  produce  the  papers 
by  which  they  imagined  they  were  able  to  main- 
tain their  accusation.  The  earl  of  Murray,  in  his 
turn,  was  not  wanting  in  dissimulation.  He  ex- 
pressed himself  to  be  very  sorry  for  the  high  dis- 
pleasure he  had  given  to  Elizabeth  by  his  charge 
against  Mary,  and  for  the  obstinacy  of  the  Scot- 
tish queen  and  her  deputies,  which  made  it 
necessary  for  him  to  vindicate  himself  by  disco- 
vering her  dishonor.  Under  the  load  of  this 
double  and  affected  sorrow,  he  made  an  actual 
and  formal  exhibition  of  the  vouchers  by  which 
he  pretended  to  fix  and  establish  her  criminality. 
A  particular  notice  of  these  extraordinary 
vouchers  the  reader  will  find  in  our  life  of  MARY, 
and  in  the  works  there  referred  to.  To  enume- 
rate all  the  shifts  to  which  Elizabeth  and  the  ad- 
versaries of  Mary  were  put,  to  make  the  strange 
evidence  that  was  produced  wear  some  degree  of 
plausibility,  would  far  exceed  our  bounds.  It  is 
sufficient  to  say  that,  after  having  wearied 
themselves  with  prevarication  and  falsehood ; 
after  havingr  pressed  Mary  to  abdicate  her  crown, 
a  requisition  with  which  she  never  would  com- 


ply ;  and  after  having  finally  refused  to  hear  her 
in  her  own  defence  ;  Elizabeth,  on  the  10th  Ja- 
nuary, 1569,  gave  leave  to  the  earl  of  Murray 
and  his  accomplices  to  depart  her  dominions 
telling  them  that,  since  they  came  into  England, 
nothing  had  been  objected  to  them  which  could 
hurt  their  honor  as  men,  or  affect  their  allegiance 
as  subjects.  At  the  same  time  she  told  them 
that  they  had  produced  no  information  or  evi- 
dence, by  which  she  was  entitled  to  con- 
ceive any  bad  opinion  of  the  queen  of  Scots. 
It  was  therefore  her  pleasure  to  allow  the  af- 
fairs of  Scotland  to  continue  precisely  in  the 
same  condition  in  which  they  were  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  conference.  Three  days  after 
this  they  formally  took  their  leave  of  the  queen 
of  England.  The  deputies  of  Mary  remonstrated, 
protested,  and  argued  to  no  purpose ;  the  Eng- 
lish privy  council,  with  the  most  provoking  in- 
difference, told  them  that  '  the  earl  of  Murray 
had  promised  to  their  sovereign,  for  himself  and 
his  company,  to  return  to  England  at  any  time 
she  should  call  upon  him.  But,  in  the  mean 
time,  the  queen  of  Scots  could  not,  for  many 
strong  reasons,  be  suffered  to  take  her  departure 
out  of  England.  As  to  her  deputies,  they 
would  move'  Elizabeth  to  allow  them  to  return  to 
Scotland  ;  and  they  believed  that  she  would  not 
detain  them.' 

Mary  was  exceedingly  disappointed  and  cha- 
grined by  this  singular  issue  of  her  cause.  Her 
friends  during  this  period  had  increased,  and 
the  cruel  and  injurious  treatment  she  had  met 
with  was  so  flagrant  that  the  earl  of  Murray  and 
his  faction  were  apprehensive  of  a  sudden  reverse 
of  fortune.  The  earls  of  Argyle  andHuntly  pro- 
tested against  the  injustice  of  their  proceedings,  at 
the  same  time  that  they  openly  accused  the 
earl  of  Murray  and  Maitland  of  Lethington  as 
the  associates  of  Bothwel  in  the  murder  of  the 
king.  This  charge,  according  to  the  custom  of 
the  times,  they  offered  to  prove  by  the  law  of 
arms;  and  they  protested  that,  if  their  adversa- 
ries should  delay  to  answer  the  challenge,  they 
should  be  held  as  confessing  themselves  guilty  of 
the  murder.  Elizabeth,  however,  foreseeing 
something  of  this  kind,  had  dismissed  Murray 
and  his  adherents  with  precipitation,  so  that  there 
could  now  be  no  formal  production  of  it  before 
the  English  commissioners.  However,  it  was 
known  and  published  in  the  court  of  Elizabeth. 
Murray  made  an  evasive  reply,  and  Lethington 
made  none  at  all.  This,  however,  afforded  no 
relief  to  the  unhappy  queen  of  Scotland.  Her 
inveterate  and  treacherous  enemy  held  her  fast, 
and  endeavoured,  by  every  method  in  her  power, 
to  render  her  life  miserable.  Mary,  on  the  other 
hand,  never  lost  either  her  spirit  or  dignity.  She 
attempted  to  rouse  in  the  minds  of  her  nobles 
that  passion  for  liberty  which  had  once  so  much 
distinguished  the  Scottish  nation,  but  which 
now  seemed  to  be  exchanged  for  a  servile  sub- 
jection to  the  queen  of  England.  But,  some 
despatches  which  pressed  these  topics  being 
intercepted,  Mary  was  removed  from  Bolton  to 
Tutbury  castle,  where  she  was  entrusted  to  the 
earl  of  Shrewsbury,  and  committed  to  closer 
confinement  than  she  had  yet  experienced  ;  while 
Elizabeth  dispersed  manifestoes  all  ovei  the 


528 


SCOTLAND. 


northern  counties,  of  Kngland,  complaining  of 
reports  injurious  to  her  honor,  and  disclaiming 
all  hostile  intentions  towards  the  liberties  of 
Scotland.  In  the  mean  time  Murray  returned 
to  Scotland,  where  he  took  every  method  to  es- 
tablish himself  in  his  ill-acquired  power.  M;uy 
had  commanded  the  duke  of  Chatelherault  to 
return  to  Scotland,  to  raise  forces  for  her  behoof; 
but  this  nobleman  had  been  long  detained  in 
England  by  the  artifices  of  Elizabeth,  so  that 
Murray  had  arrived  there  before  him.  The  duke, 
however,  began  to  raise  forces,  and  might  have 
proved  a  troublesome  antagonist,  had  not  Mur- 
ray deceived  him  by  a  pretended  negociation, 
and  got  him  into  his  power ;  immediately  after 
which  he  imprisoned  him,  and  forced  most  of 
the  other  lords  who  were  on  that  side  to  submit. 
When  the  news  of  this  important  event  reached 
the  queen  of  Scots,  she  instructed  the  bishop  of 
Ross  to  repair  to  Elizabeth,  and  to  make  re- 
monstrances in  their  behalf.  By  the  agency  of 
this  ecclesiastic,  whom  she  had  constituted  her 
ambassador,  she  meant  to  conduct  her  transac- 
tions with  the  queen  of  England ;  and,  from  the 
conclusion  of  the  conferences,  she  had  been  me- 
ditating a  proper  plan  upon  which  to  accomplish 
her  liberty  and  restoration.  The  bishop  of  Ross, 
after  complaining  loudly  of  the  rigorous  proceed- 
ings of  the  regent,  and  intimating  the  general 
belief  which  prevailed  that  he  was  supported  by 
the  English  court,  pressed  the  propriety  of  a 
final  settlement  of  the  affairs  of  his  mistress. 
With  this  view,  he  was  admitted  by  Elizabeth 
and  her  privy  counsellors  to  frequent  conferences  ; 
and  they  even  desired  him  to  present  to  them  in 
writing  the  articles  which  he  was  commanded 
to  propose  as  the  foundation  of  a  treaty.  He 
failed  not  to  comply  with  this  injunction ;  and  it 
was  the  import  of  his  schedule  of  agreement  that 
Mary  should  engage  never  to  molest  Elizabeth, 
and  the  lawful  heirs  of  her  body,  respecting  the 
succession  to  the  crown  of  England  and  Ireland,  if 
she  could  obtain  sufficient  security,  that  upon 
their  demise  her  rights  would  be  respected  ;  that 
a  new  treaty  of  alliance  and  friendship  should 
be  concluded  between  the  two  queens,  by  the 
advice  of  the  estates  of  both  kingdoms ;  that 
this  league  should  be  ratified  by  their  oaths  and 
seals,  and  confirmed  by  parliamentary  acts ;  and, 
if  any  farther  assurance  should  be  deemed  neces- 
sary on  the  part  of  Mary,  that  she  would  procure 
the  kings  of  France  and  Spain  to  be  the  guaran- 
tees of  lier  punctuality  and  concord  ;  that  in  com- 
pliance with  the  pleasure  of  Elizabeth,  she  would 
extend  her  clemency  to  all  her  subjects  who  had 
offended  her,  under  the  provision  that  they  would 
submit  to  her  sovereignty,  deliver  up  the  prince  her 
son,  restore  her  castles,  give  back  her  jewels,  and 
surrender  to  her  friends  and  servants  the  estates 
and  possessions  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  ; 
that  the  murder  of  the  king  should  be  punished 
against  all  the  actors  in  it  without  delay,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  ;  that,  to  prevent  Bothwel  from 
returning  to  Scotland,  and  to  please  those  who 
imagined  that  it  was  in  his  power  to  excite  ferments 
and  trouble,  she  would  be  bound  to  institute  a 
process  of  divorce  against  him  ;  and  that,  these 
articles  being  adjusted,  the  queen  of  England 
should  allow  her  to  proceed  to  Scotland,  under  a 


safe  and  honorable  convoy,  to  be  re-established 
by  the  three  estates  in  her  realm  and  srovernment, 
and  to  be  gratified  with  the  dissolution  of  all 
the  acts  and  statutes  which  had  been  passed  to 
her  prejudice.  These  heads  of  alliance  were 
receired  with  a  respect  and  cordiality  which 
were  not  usually  paid  to  the  transactions  of 
Mary  in  the  court  of  Klizabeth  ;  and  the  bishop  of 
Ross  was  elated  with  expectation.  Their  justice, 
however,  was  not  the  sole,  or  even  the  chief, 
cause  of  this  attention  and  complaisance.  A 
combination  of  the  English  nobles  had  taken 
place  against  Cecil,  whose  power  and  credit 
were  objects  of  indignation  and  jealousy  ;  and 
the  duke  of  Norfolk  had  been  active  and  suc- 
cessful in  promoting  the  scheme  of  his  marriage 
with  the  queen  of  Scots. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  condition  of  parties, 
he  had  practised  with  the  principal  nobility  to 
encourage  his  pretensions  to  Mary ;  and  he  se- 
cretly communicated  to  them  the  promises  of 
support  he  had  received  from  the  earl  of  Murray. 
By  the  advice  and  influence  of  Sir  Nicholas 
Throgmorton,  he  engaged  in  his  behalf  the  earl 
of  Leicester,  and  this  nobleman  imparted  the 
matter  to  the  earls  of  Pembroke  and  Arundel. 
The  duke  himself  was  able  to  conciliate  the  fa- 
vor of  the  earls  of  Derby,  Bedford,  Shrewsbury, 
Southampton,  Northarr  pton,  Northumberland, 
Westmoreland,  and  Sussex.  In  the  mean  time 
he  was  eagerly  pressing  Mary  herself  with  his 
suit  and  importunities  ;  and  they  had  mutually 
exchanged  the  tokens  of  a  constant  and  sincere 
love.  It  was  in  this  forward  state  of  the  match 
that  the  bishop  of  Ross  drew  up  his  schedule  of 
articles  for  the  accommodation  of  the  riv.il 
queens.  At  the  desire  of  Elizabeth,  her  privy 
council  conferred  with  the  bishop  upon  these 
articles  at  different  times  ;  and  they  expressed 
themselves  to  be  highly  pleased  with  their  general 
import  and  meaning.  Little  doubt  was  enter- 
tained of  their  success ;  and  the  earl  of  Leicester, 
to  complete  the  business,  and  to  serve  the  duke 
of  Norfolk,  undertook  to  give  them  a  more  spe- 
cial force,  and  to  improve  them  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  stipulation  about  the  marriage  of  the 
queen  of  Scots.  According  to  his  scheme  of 
agreement,  it  was  required  of  Mary  that  she 
should  be  a  party  to  no  attempt  against  the  rights 
and  titles  of  the  queen  of  England  or  her  heirs  ; 
that  she  should  consent  to  a  perpetual  league, 
offensive  and  defensive,  between  the  two  king- 
doms; that  she  should  finally  establish  the  Pro- 
testant religion  in  Scotland ;  that  she  should  ad- 
mit to  her  favor  those  of  her  subjects  who  had 
appeared  against  her ;  that  if  she  had  made  any 
assignment  of  her  kingdom  to  the  duke  of  An- 
jou,  in  the  expectation  of  a  marriage  to  be 
contracted  between  them,  it  should  be  dissolved ; 
and  that  instead  of  looking  to  a  foreign  prince 
whose  alliance  would  be  dangerous  not  only  to 
the  religion  but  to  the  liberty  of  the  two  realms, 
she  would  agree  to  marry  the  duke  of  Norfolk, 
the  first  peer  of  Eng.and.  These  arficles  being 
communicated  to  the  bishop  of  Ross,  he  was  de- 
sired to  transmit  them  to  Mary;  but,  as  they 
touched  upon  some  points  concerning  which  he 
had  no  instructions,  he  declined  this  office,  and 
recommended  to  employ  a  special  messenger 


SCOTLAND. 


529 


rf  their  own  in  a  commission  of  such  high  im- 
portance. They  accordingly  appointed  Mr. 
I  'mulish  to  go  with  them  to  the  queen  of  Scots, 
and,  in  a  formal  despatch,  they  extolled  the 
merits  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk  ;  assured  her  of 
the  general  favor  and  support  of  the  English  no- 
bility, if  she  should  approve  of  his  love  ;  and  in- 
timated their  belief  that  Elizabeth  would  not  be 
averse  from  a  marriage  which  gave  the  certain 
promise  of  tranquillity  and  happiness  to  the  two 
kingdoms.  This  despatch  was  in  the  hand- 
writing of  Leicester ;  and  it  was  subscribed  by 
this  nobleman,  and  the  earls  of  Arundel  and 
Pembroke,  and  lord  Lumley.  Mary,  in  the  so- 
litude of  her  prison,  received  this  application 
with  pleasure.  By  the  lord  Boyd  she  returned 
a  very  favorable  answer  to  it ;  but  took  the 
liberty  to  admonish  them  of  the  necessity  of 
their  securing  the  good-will  of  Elizabeth,  lest 
her  dislike  of  the  treaty  of  the  marriage  should 
excite  new  disasters,  and  involve  the  duke  of 
Norfolk  in  danger.  This  advice,  the  suggestion 
of  her  delicacy  and  prudence,  did  not  draw  suf- 
ficiently their  attention.  The  duke  of  Norfolk 
was  now  impatient  to  conclude  this  great  trans- 
action in  which  he  had  engaged  himself;  and 
admitted  into  his  counsels  many  nobles  whom 
he  had  hitherto  neglected  to  court,  and  many 
gentlemen  who  were  considerable  from  their 
distinction  and  fortunes.  The  countenance 
and  consent  of  the  kings  of  France  and  Spain 
were  thought  necessary  to  the  measures  in  agi- 
tation, and  were  solicited  and  obtained.  In  the 
universality  of  the  applause  with  which  they 
were  honored,  it  was  supposed  that  Elizabeth 
would  be  allured  into  a  cordial  acknowledg- 
ment of  their  propriety,  or  be  compelled  to 
afford  them  a  reluctant  approbation ;  and  so 
ardent  a  belief  prevailed  of  their  fortunate  termi- 
nation that  the  marriage-contract  was  actually 
entrusted  to  the  keeping  of  M.  Fenelon,  the 
French  ambassador.  The  activity  of  the  duke  of 
Norfolk  with  the  English  nobles  did  not  so 
much  engross  his  attention  as  to  make  him  for- 
get the  regent.  He  kept  up  with  him  a  close 
correspondence  in  consequence  of  the  concert  into 
which  they  had  entered,  and  received  the  most 
ample  assurances  of  his  fidelity  and  service. 
The  most  sanguine  and  seducing  hopes  elated 
him.  The  regent,  while  he  stipulated  for  terms 
of  favor  and  security  to  himself  and  his  faction, 
appeared  to  be  full  of  the  marriage,  as  a  measure 
from  which  the  greatest  advantages  would  arise 
to  the  two  kingdoms,  to  the  two  queens,  and  to 
the  true  religion.  The  match,  in  the  meanwhile, 
was  anxiously  concealed  from  I^lizabeth ;  but 
she  was  zealously  pressed  to  conclude  an  accom- 
modation with  Mary,  on  the  foundation  of  the 
schedule  of  agreement  presented  by  the  bishop 
of  Ross.  After  having  had  many  conferences 
with  her  privy-council,  she  seemed  inclined  to 
treat  definitively  for  the  restoration  of  the  queen 
of  Scots,  and  actually  agreed  to  open  the  trans- 
action to  the  regent.  Lord  Boyd  was  sent  into 
Scotland  upon  this  business  ;  and,  while  he  car- 
ried her  letters,  he  was  intrusted.with  despatches 
from  Mary,  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  Sir  Nicho- 
las Throgmorton.  As  the  regent  was  returning 
from  his  northern  expedition,  he  was  saluted  at 
VOL.  XIX. 


Elgin  by  lord  Boyd,  who  immediately  laid  be- 
fore him  the  despatches  and  instructions  with 
which  he  had  been  charged.  The  queen  of  Eng- 
land, in  her  letters,  made  three  propositions  in 
behalf  of  Mary,  and  intimated  a  desire  that  one 
of  them  should  be  accepted.  The  queen  of 
Scots,  she  said,  might  be  restored  fully  and  ab- 
solutely to  her  royal  estate ;  she  might  be  asso- 
ciated in  the  government  with  her  son,  have  the 
title  of  queen,  and,  till  the  prince  should  attain 
the  age  of  seventeen  years,  the  administration 
might  continue  in  the  regent ;  or  she  might  be 
permitted  to  return  to  Scotland  in  a  private  sta- 
tion, and  have  an  honorable  appointment  to 
maintain  her  in  a  safe  and  happy  obscurity. 

The  despatches  from  Mary  to  the  regent  de- 
sired that  judges  might  immediately  be  allowed 
to  enquire  into  the  legality  of  her  marriage  with 
Bothwel ;  and  that,  if  it  was  found  to  have  been 
concluded  in  opposition  to  the  laws,  it  should  be 
declared  void,  and  that  the  liberty  be  granted  to 
her  of  entering  anew  into  a  matrimonial  engage- 
ment. The  duke  of  Norfolk  expressed  to  the 
regent  the  gratitude  he  felt  for  his  friendship; 
promised  him  the  command  of  the  fullest  exer- 
tions of  his  consequence  and  power ;  entreated 
him  to  proceed  expeditiously  in  promoting  the 
business  of  the  marriage,  and  referred  him  to  the 
instructions  of  lord  Boyd  for  a  satisfactory  answer 
to  any  doubts  which  might  give  him  disgust  or 
uneasiness.  By  the  letters  of  Throgmorton,  the 
regent  was  advertised  that  the  marriage  of  the 
queen  of  Scots  with  the  duke  of  Norfolk  was 
a  certain  and  decided  point;  and  he  was  coun- 
selled to  concur  heartily  and  expeditiously  in 
this  transaction,  that  his  consent  might  not  seem 
to  have  been  extorted.  Maitland  of  Lething- 
ton  was  recommended  to  him  by  this  states- 
man as  the  person  whom  he  should  choose  to 
represent  him  in  the  English  court,  as  he  could 
negociate  best  the  terms  and  mode  of  his  security 
and  that  of  his  party.  The  zeal  of  Throgmorton 
induced  him  also  upon  this  occasion  to  address 
to  Maitland  a  despatch,  in  which  he  was  impor- 
tunate to  hasten  his  expedition  to  England,  in 
the  character  to  which  he  recommended  him. 
He  complimented  him  as  the  fittest  person  to 
open  the  match  to  the  English  queen,  on  the 
part  of  the  regent  and  the  Scottish  nobility ; 
and  he  represented  the  success  of  the  scheme 
to  be  infallible,  as  Elizabeth  would  never  be 
so  unwise  as  to  put  her  own  safety,  the  peace 
of  her  kingdom,  and  the  preservation  of  her 
people,  in  competition  with  the  partial  devices 
that  might  proceed  from  the  vanity  and  th« 
passions  of  any  person  whatsoever.  He  enume- 
rated the  names  of  the  English  nobility  who  had 
confederated  to  promote  the  marriage.  He  en- 
larged upon  it  as  an  expedient  full  of  wisdom, 
and  as  advantageous  in  the  highest  degree  to  re- 
ligion and  the  state.  He  pointed  out  the  lasting 
and  inseparable  connexion  of  England  and  Scot- 
land, as  its  happy  and  undoubted  consequence. 
For,  if  James  VI.  should  die,  the  sceptres  of  the 
two  kingdoms  should  devolve  to  an  English 
prince ;  and,  if  he  should  attain  to  manhood,  he 
might  marry  the  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Nor- 
folk, and  unite  in  his  person  the  two  crowns. 
These  weighty  despatches  employed  fully  lh0 

'  2  M 


630 


SCOTLAND 


thoughts  of  the  regent.  The  calls  of  justice  and 
humanity  were  loud  in  the  behalf  of  Mary;  his 
engagements  to  Norfolk  were  precise  and  defini- 
tive ;  and  the  commission  of  Elizabeth  afforded 
him  the  command  of  the  most  important  services. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  restoration  of  Mary 
and  her  marriage  would  put  an  end  for  ever  to 
his  greatness ;  and,  amidst  all  the  stipulations 
which  could  be  made  for  his  protection,  the 
enormity  of  his  guilt  was  still  haunting  him  with 
suspicions  and  terror.  His  ambition  and  his 
selfish  sensibilities  were  an  overmatch  for  his 
virtue.  He  practised  with  his  partisans  to  throw 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  treaty  and  the  mar- 
riage ;  and,  on  the  pretence  of  deliberating  con- 
cerning the  restoration  of  Mary,  and  on  her 
divorce  from  Bothwel,  a  convention  of  the  es- 
tates was  summoned  by  him  to  assemble  at 
1'erth.  To  this  assembly  the  letters  of  Elizabeth 
were  recited  ;  and  her  propositions  were  consi- 
dered in  their  order.  The  full  restoration  of 
Mary  to  her  dignity  was  accounted  injurious  to 
the  authority  of  the  king,  and  her  association 
with  her  son  in  the  government  was  judged  im- 
proper and  dangerous  ;  but  it  was  thought  that 
her  deliverance  from  prison,  and  her  reduction 
to  a  private  station,  were  reasonable  expedients. 
No  definitive  decree,  however,  was  pronounced. 
The  letters  of  Mary  were  then  communicated  to 
tin's  council,  and  gave  rise  to  vehement  debates. 
She  had  written  and  subscribed  them  in  her  cha- 
racter of  queen  of  Scotland.  This  carriage  was 
termed  insolent  and  imperious  by  the  friends  of 
the  regent.  They  also  held  it  unsafe  to  examine 
her  requests  till  they  should  be  communicated  to 
Elizabeth.  The  favorers  of  Mary  engaged  that, 
while  the  commissaries  were  proceeding  in  the 
business  of  the  divorce,  new  despatches  in  the 
proper  method  should  be  applied  for  and  pro- 
cured. They  were  heard  with  evident  symptoms 
of  displeasure  ;  on  which  they  exclaimed  '  that 
it  was  wonderful  to  them  that  those  very  persons 
who  lately  had  been  so  violent  for  the  separation 
of  the  queen  and  Bothwel,  should  now  be  so 
averse  from  it.'  The  partizans  of  the  regent  re- 
plied '  that,  if  the  queen  was  so  eagerly  solicit- 
ous to  procure  the  divorce,  she  might  apply  to 
the  king  of  Denmark  to  execute  Bothwel,  as  the 
murderer  of  her  husband ;  and  that  then  she 
might  marry  the  person  who  was  most  agreeable 
10  her.'  The  passions  of  the  two  factions  were 
inflamed  to  a  most  indecent  extremity,  and  the 
convention  broke  up  with  strong  marks  of  hosti- 
lity. Notwithstanding  the  caution  with  which 
Mary  and  Norfolk  carried  on  their  intrigues,  in- 
timations of  them  had  come  to  Elizabeth.  Nor- 
folk himself,  by  the  advice  of  the  earl  of  Pem- 
broke, had  ventured  to  disclose  his  secret  to  Sir 
William  Cecil,  who  affected  to  be  friendly  to 
him.  The  regent,  in  answer  to  her  letters,  trans- 
mitted to  her  the  proceedings  of  the  convention  at 
Perth.  The  application  of  Mary  for  a  divorce 
i  key  to  the  ambitious  hopes  of  the  duke  of 
Norfolk.  He  commanded  Sir  William  Cecil  to 
apply  himself  to  discover  the  conspiracy.  This 
statesman  betrayed  the  confidence  with  which  he 
h;d  been  entrusted;  and  Elizabeth,  while  the 
duke  was  attending  her  at  Farnham,  discovering 
mixfire  of  pleasantry  and  passion,  admonished 


him  to  be  careful  on  what  pillow  he  reposed  his 
head.  The  earl  of  Leicester,  alarmed  by  his  fears, 
revealed  to  her  atTitchfield  the  whole  proceedings 
of  the  duke  of  Norfolk  and  his  friends.  Her  fury 
was  ungovernable ;  and,  at  different  times,  she 
loaded  Norfolk  with  the  severest  reproaches  and 
contumely  for  presuming  to  think  of  a  marriage 
with  the  queen  of  Scots  without  her  concurrence. 
Insulted  with  her  discourse  and  her  looks,  aban- 
doned by  Leicester,  and  avoided  by  other  nobles 
in  whom  he  had  confided,  his  courage  forsook 
him.  He  left  the  court  at  Southampton  without 
taking  leave,  and  went  to  London  to  the  earl  of 
Pembroke.  New  intimations  of  her  displeasure 
were  announced  to  him,  and  he  retired  to  his 
seat  at  Kinninghall  in  Norfolk.  His  friends 
pressed  him  to  take  the  field,  and  to  commit  his 
safety  to  the  sword  ;  but,  having  no  inclination 
to  involve  his  country  in  the  miseries  of  war,  he 
rejected  their  advice ;  and,  addressing  an  apo- 
logy to  Elizabeth,  protested  that  he  never  meant 
to  depart  from  the  fidelity  which  he  owed  to  her ; 
and  that  it  was  his  fixed  resolution  to  have  ap- 
plied for  her  consent  to  his  marriage  with  the 
queen  of  Scots.  In  return  she  ordered  him  to 
repair  to  her  court  at  Windsor ;  and,  as  he  ap- 
peared to  be  irresolute,  a  messenger  was  de- 
spatched to  take  him  into  custody.  He  was  first 
confined  to  the  house  of  Paul  Wentworth,  at 
Burnham,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Windsor, 
and  then  committed  to  the  Tower.  The  earls  of 
Pembroke  and  Arundel,  lord  Lumley,  Sir  Nicho- 
las Throgmorton,  and  the  bishop  of  Ross,  were 
also  apprehended  and  confined. 

Elizabeth,  amidst  the  ferment  of  her  inquie- 
tudes, gratified  her  revenge  by  insulting  tin- 
queen  of  Scots.  The  earl  of  Huntingdon,  who 
affected  to  have  pretensions  to  the  crown  of 
Scotland  preferable  to  those  of  the  Scottish  prin- 
cess, was  joined  with  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury  in 
the  office  of  guarding  her.  His  instructions  were 
rigorous  and  he  was  disposed  to  exceed  them. 
The  earl  of  Shrewsbury  considered  it  as  an  in- 
dignity to  have  an  associate  who  was  a  declared 
enemy  to  his  charge,  who  had  an  interest  in  her 
death,  and  who  was  remarkable  for  a  natural 
ferocity  of  disposition.  Mary  exclaimed  against 
the  indelicacy  and  rudeness  of  Elizabeth,  and 
protested  that  all  her  intentions  were  commenda- 
ble and  innocent.  Huntingdon  took  a  delight  in 
her  sufferings.  He  ransacked  her  coffers  with  a 
view  of  making  discoveries  ;  but  her  prudence 
had  induced  her  to  destroy  all  the  evidences 
of  her  transactions  with  the  duke  of  Norfolk ; 
and  the  officious  assiduity  of  this  jailor  %v;is 
only  rewarded  with  two  cyphers  which  he  could 
not  comprehend.  The  domestics  whom  she 
favored  were  suspected  and  dismissed.  Her 
train  of  attendants  was  diminished.  An  unre- 
lenting watch  was  kept  upon  her.  No  couriers 
were  allowed  to  carry  her  despatches.  No  mes- 
sengers were  admitted  to  her  presence;  and  all 
the  letters  from  her  friends  were  ordered  to  be 
intercepted,  and  conveyed  to  the  queen  of  Eng- 
land. The  proceedings  of  the  convention  at  Perth 
were  afflicting  to  Elizabeth,  to  Mary,  and  to  the 
duke  of  Norfolk.  In  the  former  they  created 
suspicions  of  the  regent ;  and  they  were  a  certain 
annunciation  to  the  latter  that  he  was  resolved 


SCOTLAND. 


531 


to  support  himself  in  the  government  of  Scotland. 
Uncertain  rumors  had  reached  Elizabeth  of  the 
interviews  he  had  held  with  Norfolk  in  the  busi- 
ness of  the  marriage.     Mr.  Wood,  who  brought 
from  the  regent  his   answer  to   her  letter,  was 
treated  with  disrespect.      Secretary  Cecil  sent 
instructions   to   lord   Hudson,   the   governor  of 
Berwick,  to  watch  his  operations.  Elizabeth,  by 
a  special  envoy,  required  from  him  an  explana- 
tion of  his   ambiguous   carriage.      The  regent 
apologised  to  her  for  his  connexions  with  the 
duke  of  Norfolk,  by  laying  open  the  design  of 
that   nobleman  to  cut  him  off,  in  his  way  to 
Scotland,  by  a  full  communication  of  whatever 
had  passed  between  them  in  relation   to  Mary, 
and  by  offers  of  an  unlimited  submission  and 
obedience.  While  the  duke  of  Norfolk  was  car- 
rying on  his  intrigues  with  Mary,  the  scheme  of 
an  insurrection  for  her  deliverance  was  advanc- 
ing under  the  direction  of  the  earls  of  Northum- 
berland and  Westmoreland.    Motives  of  religion 
were   the  chief  foundation  of  this  conspiracy; 
and  the  more  zealous  catholics  over  England 
were  concerned  in  it.     Mary,  however,  by  the 
advice  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  who  was  afraid  of 
her  matching  with  a  foreign  prince,  did  not  enter 
into  it  with  cordiality.      It  advanced  notwith- 
standing ;  and  the  agents  of  the  pope  were  lavish 
of  exhortations   and   donatives.     The   duke  of 
Alva,  by  the  order  of  his  master  the  king  of 
Spain,  encouraged  the  conspirators  with  the  offer 
of  20,000  men  from  the  Netherlands  ;  and,  under 
the  pretence  of  adjusting  commercial  disputes, 
lie  sent  to  England  Chiapini  Yitelli,  marquis  of 
Celona,  an  officer  of  ability,  that  he  might  be  at 
hand,  and  prepare  to  take  the  command  of  them 
The  report  of  an  insurrection  was  universal.  Eli- 
zabeth kept  an  army  of  15,000  men   near  her 
person.     The  queen  of  Scots  was  removed  to 
Coventry,  a  place  of  strength;  and,  if  a  superior 
and  commanding  force  should  appear  before  it, 
her  ferocious  keeper  had  orders  to  assassinate 
her.     Repeated  commands  were  sent  to  the  earls 
of  Northumberland  and  Westmoreland  to  repair 
to  court.     But  the  imprisonment  of  the  duke  of 
Norfolk  and  his  friends  had  struck  a  panic  into 
them.      They  conceived  that   their   conspiracy 
was  discovered  ;  and,  putting  themselves  at  the 
head  of  their  followers,  they  issued  their  mani- 
festo.   The  restoration  of  popery,  the  establish- 
ment of  the  titles  of  Mary  to  the  English  crown, 
and  the  reformation  of  abuses  in  the  common- 
wealth, were  the  avowed  objects  of  their  enter- 
prise.    But  they  had  embarked  in  a  business  for 
which    they   were    altogether   unequal.      Their 
efforts  were  feeble  and  desultory.     The  duke  of 
Alva  forgot  his  promises.     Wherever  the  peace 
was  disturbed  by  insurgents,  there  were  troops 
to  oppose  them.     The  vigilance  of  Elizabeth 
disconcerted  with  ease  the  operations  of  men 
whom  no  resources  or  popularity  could   have 
conducted  to  greatness,  and  who  could  neither 
conquer  nor  die.    The  earl  of  V.'estmoreland, 
after  concealing  himself  for  some  time  in  Scot- 
land, effected  ap  escape  into  Flanders,  where  he 
passed  a  miserable  and  useless  existence ;  and 
the  earl  of  Northumberland,  being  taken  by  the 
regent,  was  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Loch- 
leven.     As  the  fury  of  Elizabeth  abated,  her  re- 


sentment to  the  duke  of  Norfolk  lost  its  power: 
and  she  failed  not  to  distinguish  between  the 
intrigues  of  an  honorable  ambition,  and  the  prac- 
tices of  an  obstinate  superstition.  It  was  the 
result  of  the  examination  of  this  nobleman,  and 
of  the  confessions  of  the  other  prisoners,  that 
Lethington  had  schemed  the  business  of  the 
marriage,  and  that  the  earl  of  Murray  had  en- 
couraged it ;  that  her  consent  was  understood  to 
be  necessary  to  its  completion  ;  and  that  Mary 
herself  had  warmly  recommended  the  expedient 
of  consulting  her  pleasure.  Upon  receiving 
proper  admonitions,  the  earls  of  Pembroke, 
Arundel,  the  lord  Lumley,  Sir  Nicholas  Throg- 
morton,  and  the  bishop  of  Ross,  were  released 
from  confinement;  and,  after  a  more  tedious 
imprisonment,  the  duke  of  Norfolk  himself  was 
admitted  to  his  liberty.  This  favor,  however, 
was  not  extended  to  him  till  he  had  not  only 
submissively  acknowledged  his  presumption  in 
the  business  of  his  marriage ;  but  had  fully  re- 
vealed whatever  had  passed  between  Mary  and 
him,  and  solemnly  engaged  himself  never  more 
to  think  of  this  alliance,  and  never  more  to  take 
any  concern  whatsoever  in  her  affairs.  The 
regent,  in  the  meanwhile,  was  very  anxious  to 
recover  the  good  opinion  of  Elizabeth.  Her 
treatment  of  Mr.  Wood,  and  her  discovery  of 
his  practices,  had  excited  his  apprehensions. 
He  therefore  assembled  at  Stirling  a  convention 
of  the  estates ;  and,  taking  her  letters  a  second 
time  into  consideration,  returned  her  an  answer 
to  them  by  Robert  Pitcairn  abbot  of  Dunferm- 
line,  in  a  style  suited  to  her  temper  and  jea- 
lousies, and  from  which  she  could  infer  that  no 
favor  would  be  shown  to  the  queen  of  Scots. 
But  this  base  condescension  not  being  sufficient, 
in  his  opinion,  to  draw  completely  to  him  the 
cordiality  of  the  queen  of  England,  he  was  pre- 
paring to  gratify  her  with  another  sacrifice.  The 
partiality  of  Maitland  to  Mary,  and  his  intrigues 
with  Norfolk  and  the  English  malcontents,  had 
rendered  him  uncommonly  obnoxious  to  Eliza- 
beth. The  late  commotions  had  been  chiefly 
ascribed  to  his  arts.  Under  the  pretence  of  em- 
ploying his  service  in  despatches  to  England, 
the  regent  invited  him  to  Stirling.  He  was  then 
with  the  earl  of  Athol  at  Perth;  and,  suspecting 
some  device,  he  obeyed  the  summons  with  re- 
luctance. When  he  took  his  place  in  the  privy 
council,  captain  Crawford,  the  minion  of  the 
earl  of  Lennox,  who  had  distinguished  himself  in 
the  trial  of  Mary,  accused  him,  in  direct  terms, 
of  being  a  party  in  the  murder  of  the  late  king. 
The  regent  affected  astonishment,  but  permitted 
him  to  be  taken  into  custody.  He  was  soon 
after  sent  to  Edinburgh  under  a  guard,  and  ad- 
monished to  prepare  for  his  trial.  Upon  similar 
charges  the  lord  Seton  and  Sir  James  Balfour 
were  seized  upon  and  imprisoned.  Kirkaldy  of 
Grange,  the  governor  of  the  castle  of  Edinburgh, 
who  was  warmly  attached  to  Maitland,  after 
having  remonstrated  in  vain  with  the  regent  on 
his  conduct,  employed  address  and  stratagem  in 
the  service  of  his  friend.  Under  the  cover  of 
niijht,  he  went  with  a  guard  of  soldiers  to  the 
lodging  where  Maitland  was  confined ;  and, 
showing  a  forged  warrant  for  taking  his  person 
into  keeping,  got  possession  of  him.-  Kirkaldy 
2  M  -2 


532 


SCOTLAND. 


had  now  in  his  castle  the  duke  of  Chatelherault, 
the  lord  Herries,  and  Maitland.  The  regent  sent 
for  him  to  a  conference;  but  he  refused  to  obey 
his  message.  He  put  himself  and  his  fortress 
under  the  direction  of  his  prisoners.  The  regent, 
condescending  to  pay  him  a  visit,  was  more  lavish 
than  usual  of  his  promises  and  kindness.  His 
arts,  however,  only  excited  the  disdain  of  this 
generous  soldier.  As  the  regent  could  not  lead 
out  Maitland  to  the  block,  he  instituted  a  pro- 
cess of  treason  against  him,  to  forfeit  his  estates. 
Kirkaldy,  by  a  trumpeter,  desired  him  to  com- 
mence similar  actions  against  the  earl  of  Morton 
and  Mr.  Archibald  Douglas,  as  it  was  notorious 
that  they  were  parties  to  the  king's  murder. 
This  messenger  was  likewise  charged  with  deli- 
vering a  challenge  from  him  to  Mr.  ArrJjiuald 
Douglas,  and  another  from  the  lord  Herries  to 
the  earl  of  Morton.  This  disappointment,  and 
these  indignities,  made  a  deep  impression  upon 
the  regent ;  and,  in  a  thoughtful  dissatisfied 
humor,  about  this  time,  he  made  a  short  pro- 
gress towards  the  English  border,  courting  po- 
pularity, and  deserving  it,  by  an  attention  to 
order  and  justice.  Elizabeth,  flattered  by  his 
submissive  advances,  and  pleased  with  his  am- 
bition, was  now  disposed  to  gratify  his  fullest 
wishes  ;  and  she  perceived  that,  by  delivering  to 
him  the  queen  of  Scots,  she  would  effectually 
relieve  herself  of  a  prisoner  whose  vigor  and  in- 
Irigues  were  a  constant  interruption  to  her  re- 
pose. A  treaty  for  this  purpose  was  entered 
into  and  concluded.  The  regent  was  to  march 
an  army  to  the  English  frontiers,  and  to  receive 
from  her  his  sovereign  into  her  own  dominions, 
the  victim  of  his  power,  and  the  sport  of  his 
passions.  No  hostages  and  no  security  were 
stipulated  for  her  entertainment  and  good  usage. 
His  authority  over  her  was  to  be  unlimited. 
Upon  his  part  he  was  to  deliver  to  Elizabeth 
the  young  prince,  to  put  her  in  possession  of  the 
principal  forts  of  Scotland,  and  to  assist  her  with 
troops  in  the  event  of  a  war  with  France.  This 
treaty,  so  fatal  to  Mary,  and  so  ruinous  to  the 
independence  of  Scotland,  escaped  not  the  vigi- 
lance of  the  bishop  of  Ross.  He  complained 
of  it  in  the  strongest  terms  to  Elizabeth ;  and 
declared  it  to  be  equivalent  to  a  sentence  of  death 
against  his  mistress.  The  ambassadors  of  France 
and  Spain  were  also  strenuous  in  their  remon- 
strances to  her  upon  this  subject.  All  resistance, 
•however,  was  unavailing ;  and  the  execution  of 
the  treaty  seemed  inevitable.  Yet  how  vain  are 
the  loftiest  schemes  of  human  pride !  The  career 
of  the  regent  was  hastening  to  its  termination  ; 
and  the  hand  of  an  assassin  put  a  period  to  his 
dream  of  royalty.  Scotland  did  not  lose  its 
liberties  ;  but  Mary  continued  to  be  unfortunate. 
James  Hamilton  of  Bothwelhaugh,  who  had 
been  taken  a  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Langside, 
obtained  his  liberty  and  life;  but  his  estates 
were  forfeited.  His  wife,  the  heiress  of  Wood- 
houslie,  retired  upon  this  emergency  to  her  pa- 
ternal inheritance,  in  the  hope  that  it  might 
•ft  ape  the  rapacity  of  the  regent.  He  had,  how- 
ever, given  it  away  to  one  of  his  favorites,  Sir 
James  IJallenden ;  and  the  instruments  of  his 
power  having  the  inhumanity  to  strip  her  of  her 
garments,  and  to  turn  her  naked  out  of  her  house, 


in  a  cold  and  dark  night,  she  became  dbtrac-te.l 
before  the  morning.  Hamilton  vowed  revenge ; 
and  the  regent  made  a  mockery  of  his  threats. 
This  contempt  inspirited  his  passions ;  and  tht 
humiliation  of  the  house  of  Hamilton,  to  whicb 
he  was  nearly  allied,  fostered  his  discontents 
until  the  madness  of  party  reconciled  his  mind 
to  assassination.  After  watching  for  some  time 
a  proper  opportunity  to  commit  his  horrible 
purpose,  he  found  it  at  Linlithgow.  The  regent 
was  to  pass  through  this  town  in  his  way  from 
Stirling  to  Edinburgh.  Intimations  reached  him 
that  Hamilton  was  now  to  perpetrate  his  design; 
but  he  unaccountably  neglected  them.  The  as- 
sassin, in  a  house  that  belonged  to  the  archbishop 
of  St.  Andrews,  waited  deliberately  his  approach ; 
and,  firing  his  musket  from  a  window,  shot  him 
through  the  body.  The  wound  was  not  judged 
to  be  mortal;  but  the  regent,  finding  its  pain 
increase,  prepared  for  death;  and  in  a  few  hours 
expired.  A  fleet  horse  of  the  abbot  of  Arbroath's 
carried  the  assassin  to  the  palace  of  Hamilton  ; 
and  thence  he  soon  after  effected  his  escape  into 
France. 

The  death  of  Murray  made  no  favorable  alte- 
ration in  the  affairs  of  Mary.  Confusion  and 
disorder  prevailed  throughout  the  kingdom;  and, 
though  the  friends  of  the  queen  were  promised 
assistance  from  France,  nothing  effectual  was 
done.  At  last  the  regency  was  conferred  upon 
the  earl  of  Lennox  ;  an  enemy  to  his  queen,  and 
who  treated  her  friends  with  the  utmost  rigor. 
At  the  same  time  Elizabeth  continued  to  amuse 
with  negociations  her  unhappy  rival.  She  granted 
liberty  to  the  bishop  of  Ross  to  repair  to  the  queen 
of  Scots,  who  had  been  removed  to  Chatsworth, 
and  to  confer  with  her  on  the  inteuded  accord 
and  treaty.  Mary,  conforming  to  the  advances 
of  Elizabeth,  authorised  lord  Livingston  to  pass 
to  her  dominions,  and  to  desire  her  friends  to 
appoint  a  deputation  of  their  number  to  give 
their  assistance  in  establishing  the  tranquillity  of 
their  country  :  and,  after  meeting  with  some  in- 
terruptions upon  the  English  borders  from  the 
earl  of  Sussex,  this  nobleman  executed  success- 
fully his  commission.  The  queen's  lords  gave 
power  to  ten  nobles  to  act  in  a  body,  or  by  two 
of  their  number,  in  the  intended  negociation  : 
and  a  safe  conduct  from  Elizabeth  allowed  them 
to  enter  the  English  realm,  and  to  remain  in  it  six 
months.  While  lord  Livingston  was  consulting 
the  interests  of  Mary  with  her  friends  in  Scotland, 
the  bishop  of  Ross  was  making  earnest  suit  with 
Elizabeth  to  proceed  in  the  projected  negociation. 
His  solicitations  were  not  ineffectual ;  and  Sir  Wil- 
liam Cecil  and  Sir  Walter  Mildmay  were  ordered 
to  wait  upon  the  queen  of  Scots  at  Chatsworth. 
The  heads  of  accommodation  which  they  pro- 
posed were  explicit  and  particular ;  and  the  rigor 
they  discovered  towards  the  Scottish  princess 
seemed  to  vouch  their  sincerity.  They  proposed 
that  a  perfect  amity  should  take  place  between 
the  two  queens;  that  all  the  treaties  formerly 
concluded  by  the  two  nations  should  receive  an 
ample  confirmation ;  that  the  queen  of  Scots 
should  ratify  the  treaty  of  Edinburgh,  and  for- 
bear from  advancing  any  title  or  claim  to  the 
crown  of  England  during  the  life  of  Elizabeth, 
or  to  the  prej  idice  of  the  heirs  of  her  body  , 


SCOTLAND. 


that,  in  case  of  foreign  invasions,  the  two  realms 
should  mutually  assist  each  other ;  that  all  foreign 
soldiers  should  be  ordered  to  depart  out  of  Scot- 
land ;  that,  in  the  future,  strangers  of  the  profes- 
sion of  arms  should  be  prohibited  from  repairing 
to  it,  and  from  taking  up  their  residence  in  any 
of  its  castles  or  houses  of  strength;  that  Mary 
should  hold  no  correspondence,  diredlly  or  in- 
directly, with  any  subject  of  England,  without 
fhe  permission  of  the  English  queen ;  that  the 
earl  of  Northumberland,  and  the  English  rebels 
in  Scotland,  should  be  delivered  up  to  Elizabeth; 
that  redress  should  be  given  to  the  subjects  of 
England  for  the  spoils  committed  upon  them  by 
the  Scottish  borderers ;  that  the  murderers  of 
lord  Darnley  and  the  earl  of  Murray  should  be 
punished  ;  that,  before  the  queen  of  Scots  should 
be  set  at  liberty,  the  young  prince  her  son  should 
be  brought  into  England,  and  that  he  should  con- 
tinue in  the  keeping  of  Elizabeth  till  the  death 
of  his  mother,  or  till  her  resignation  to  him  of 
her  crown  on  attaining  his  majority ;  that  the  queen 
of  Scots  should  not  enter  into  a  negociation  for 
her  marriage  without  the  knowledge  of  the  queen 
of  England,  nor  conclude  it  without  her  appro- 
bation, or  that  of  the  greatest  part  of  the  Scottish 
nobility;  that  none  of  the  subjects  of  Scotland 
should  be  suffered  to  go  to  Ireland  without  the 
safe  conduct  of  Elizabeth  ;  and  that  Mary  should 
deliver  to  her  all  the  testimonies  and  writings 
which  had  been  sent  from  France,  renouncing 
the  pretended  marriage  between  her  and  the 
duke  of  Anjou.  Besides  these  articles,  it  was 
proposed  by  another  treaty  to  adjust  the  differ- 
ences of  the  queen  of  Scots  and  her  subjects; 
and  Sir  William  Cecil  and  Sir  Walter  Mildmay 
embraced  the  opportunity  of  conferring  with  her 
upon  this  business,  under  the  pretence  of  facili- 
tating its  management  in  the  future  stages  of  its 
progress.  During  their  stay  at  Cbatsworth, 
these  statesmen  were  completely  satisfied  with 
the  behaviour  of  the  queen  of  Scots.  The  can- 
dor, sincerity,  and  moderation,  which  she  dis- 
played, were  full  assurances  to  them,  that,  upon 
her  part,  there  was  no  occasion  to  apprehend 
any  improper  policy  or  art ;  and  the  calamities 
of  her  condition  were  a  still  securer  pledge  of 
her  compliance.  Elizabeth,  upon  hearing  their 
report,  affected  to  be  highly  pleased  with  her 
sister,  and  sent  a  message  to  the  earl  of  Lennox, 
instructing  him  in  the  conditions  which  had  been 
submitted  to  Mary,  and  desiring  him  to  dis- 
patch commissioners  into  England  to  deliberate 
in  the  treaty,  and  to  consult  his  interest  and  that 
of  his  faction.  Nor  did  Mary  neglect  to  trans- 
mit to  her  friends  in  Scotland  the  proposed  terms 
of  agreement ;  and  the  bishop  of  Ross,  who 
had  assisted  her  in  the  conferences  with  Sir 
William  Cecil  and  Sir  Walter  Mildmay,  con- 
veyed intimations  of  them  to  the  pope,  the  king 
of  France,  and  the  duke  of  Alva ;  besought  their 
advice,  and  informed  these  princes  that,  unless 
an  effectual  relief  could  be  expected  from  their 
favor,  the  necessities  of  her  condition  would  com- 
pel her  to  subscribe  to  the  hard  and  humiliating 
dictates  of  the  queen  of  England. 

'But,  while  Mary  and  her  friends  were  in- 
•'nlgingthe  hope  of  a  termination  to  her  trou- 
bles, Elizabeth  was  secretly  giving  comfort  to 


her  adversaries,  and  encouraging  them  to  throw 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  treaty.  Sir  William 
Cecil  wrote  to  the  regent,  expressing  his  disap- 
probation of  the  negociations  at  Chatsworth ; 
desiring-  him  not  to  be  apprehensive  of  the 
boastings  of  the  adherents  of  the  queen  of  Scots; 
and  advising  him  to  make  choice  of  commis- 
sioners, in  the  name  of  the  king,  in  whose  con- 
stancy and  fortitude  he  could  rely.  The  earl  of 
Sussex  also  sent  him  despatches,  in  which  he  ad- 
monished him  to  turn- his  anxious  attention  to 
the  approaching  negociation,  and  to  insist  on 
secure  stipulations  for  the  preservation  of  the 
prince,  for  his  own  safety,  and  for  a  general  in- 
demnity to  the  nobles  and  their  adherents,  whose 
party  he  had  espoused.  In  every  event  he  re- 
presented it  as  proper  for  him  to  pay  the  greatest 
respect  to  Elizabeth  ;  and,  if  no  treaty  should 
be  concluded,  he  advised  him  to  be  prepared 
for  reducing  the  friends  of  Mary  to  obedience, 
and  for  defending  himself  against  invasions  from 
abroad.  By  these  artifices,  the  regent  and  his 
faction  intimated  to  Elizabeth  their  dissatisfac- 
tion with  the  terms  of  agreement  proposed  to 
Mary;  and  Pitcairn  abbot  of  Uunfermline,  \\l;o 
had  been  appointed  secretary  of  state  in  the 
room  of  Maitland  of  Lethington,  was  sent  to 
her  upon  this  business.  He  exclaimed  against 
the  treaty  as  wild  and  impolitic ;  and  contended 
that  no  stipulations  could  bind  Mary,  whose 
religion  taught  her  to  keep  no  faith  with  heretics ; 
that  her  claims  to  the  English  crown,  and  her 
resentment  against  the  queen  of  England,  as 
well  as  her  own  subjects,  would,  immediately 
upon  her  restoration,  involve  the  two  kingdoms 
in  blood ;  and  that  no  peace  could  be  enjoyed, 
but  by  detaining  her  in  close  captivity.  Eliza- 
beth did  not  discourage  these  iniquitous  senti- 
ments; and  Pitcairn  was  assured  by  her  that 
from  her  natural  love  to  the  king,  and  her  re- 
gard to  the  nobles,  she  would  provide  for  their 
security,  and  maintain  their  quarrel  and  their 
consequence.  Mary  had  been  carried  to  Shef- 
field, and  was  recovering  from  a  fever.  To  this 
place  the  bishop  of  Galloway  and  lord  Living- 
ston, who  had  been  selected  by  her  friends  to  be 
her  acting  deputies  in  England,  repaired  to  im- 
part to  her  the  state  of  affairs  in  Scotland,  and 
to  receive  her  commands.  After  repeated  con- 
ferences on  the  approaching  treaty,  she  gave  them 
her  commission  and  instructions,  and,  joining 
them  to  the  bishop  of  Ross,  sent  them  to  Eliza- 
beth. They  claimed  an  audience  of  this  princess, 
and  were  admitted  to  it  at  Hampton-court. 
Having  presented  their  credentials,  they  informed 
her  that  they  were  ready  to  conclude  a  treaty  of 
concord  and  agreement,  upon  principles  the 
most  extensive  and  liberal ;  and,  representing  to 
her  the  impoverished  and  tumultuous  state  of 
their  country,  they  begged  her  to  proceed  in  the 
business  with  expedition.  The  orders,  they  said, 
which  they  had  received,  and  their  own  inclina- 
tions, disposed  them  to  follow  her  advice  and 
counsel  in  all  points  which  were  honorable  and 
consistent  with  reason ;  and,  as  her  protection 
was  the  only  refuge  of  the  adversaries  of  their  . 
queen,  it  was  completely  in  her  power  to  put  a 
period  to  all  disturbances,  and  to  accomplish  an 
accord,  which  would  not  only  confer  upon  hei 


534 


SCOTLAND. 


the  highest  reputation,  but  be  of  the  most  signal 
utility  to  the  t%vo  kingdoms.  Elizabeth  declared 
that  it  would  please  her  highly  to  advance  in  the 
negociation ;  and  that  it  was  a  pain  to  her  that 
the  regent,  by  his  delay  in  sending  commis- 
sioners, should  discover  any  aversion  from  it. 
This  answer  was  deemed  very  favorable  by  the 
bishop  of  Ross  and  his  associates ;  and  they  ob- 
tained her  authority  to  send  a  messenger  to  the 
regent  to  hasten  his  operations.  In  the  mean 
time  Mary  received  despatches  from  the  pope, 
the  king  of  France,  and  the  duke  of  Alva;  and 
they  concurred  in  recommending  it  to  her  to 
accept  of  the  articles  of  accommodation  offered 
by  Elizabeth.  The  Turk  was  giving  employment 
to  the  pope  and  the  king  of  Spain :  Charles  IX., 
already  enfeebled  by  the  obstinate  valor  of  the 
Hugunots,  was  busy  in  deceiving  them  with  ap- 
pearances of  peace,  and  in  plotting  their  mas- 
sacre ;  and  the  duke  of  Alva  felt  himself  inse- 
cure in  his  government  of  the  Netherlands. 
But,  while  they  strongly  advised  Mary  to  con- 
clude an  agreement  with  the  queen  of  England, 
they  were  yet  lavish  to  her  of  their  expressions 
of  a  constant  amity ;  and,  if  the  treaty  should 
miscarry,  they  promised  to  make  the  most 
strenuous  exertions  in  her  behalf,  and  to  assist 
her  adherents  with  money,  ammunition,  and 
troops.  The  earl  of  Morton,  the  abbot  of  Dum- 
fermline.  and  Mr.  James  Macgill,  had  been  ap- 
pointed by  the  regent  and  his  faction  to  be  their 
commissioners  in  the  name  of  the  king  ;  and  at 
length  their  arrival  was  announced  to  Elizabeth. 
They  justified  to  her  the  deposition  of  the  queen 
of  Scots,  and  thus  interrupted  the  progress  of 
ihe  treaty.  In  an  elaborate  memorial  they  af- 
fected to  consider  Mary  as  unworthy  to  reign, 
and  asserted  the  constitutional  power  of  the 
people  to  throw  her  down  from  royalty.  They 
endeavoured  to  entrench  themselves  within  the 
authority  of  laws,  civil,  canon,  and  municipal. 
But  though  the  general  position,  that  the  people 
have  a  title  to  resist  the  domination  of  the  sove- 
reign is  clear  and  undubitable,  yet  their  appli- 
cation of  it  to  the  queen  of  Scots  was  wildly 
precarious  and  improper.  To  speak  of  her  ty- 
ranny, and  her  violation  of  the  rights  of  her 
people,  was  even  a  wanton  mockery  of  truth  and 
justice;  for,  instead  of  having  assumed  an  illegal 
exorbitancy  of  power,  she  had  suffered  in  her  own 
person  and  rights,  and  had  been  treated  by  her 
subjects  with  the  most  cruel  and  tyrannical  in- 
solence. Elizabeth,  who  was  afraid  to  enter 
anew  into  the  conduct  of  Mary,  who  was  fully 
sensible  of  the  insolence  of  her  adversaries,  and 
who  did  not  approve  of  any  maxims  that  pressed 
against  the  majesty  of  princes,  received  their 
memorial  with  surprise  and  indignation.  She 
perceived  not,  she  told  them,  any  reason  that 
could  vindicate  the  severity  which  had  been 
shown  to  the  queen  of  Scots  by  her  enemies ; 
and  advised  them  to  consider  that  in  the  present 
negociation  it  was  their  proper  business  to  con- 
sult the  security  of  the  king  and  of  their  faction. 
Upon  the  part  of  Elizabeth,  the  commissioners 
were  the  lord  keeper  Bacon,  the  earls  of  Sussex 
mid  Leicester,  lord  Clinton,  lord  chamberlain, 
Sir  William  Cecil  (now  lord  Burleigh),  Sir 
Francis  Knollys,  Sir  James  Croft,  Sir  Walter 


Mildmay,  and  Sir  Thomas  Smith.  The  de- 
puties of  Mary  were  invited  to  meet  with  the 
English  commissioners  in  the  house  of  the  lord 
keeper  ;  and,  after  he  had  stated  the  general  pur- 
poses of  the  treaty,  he  intimated  to  them  that 
there  were  two  points  which  required  a  particu- 
lar discussion.  A  proper  security,  he  said, 
ought  to  be  given  by  the  queen  of  Scots  for  her 
due  performance  of  the  stipulations  of  the  agree- 
ment with  Elizabeth ;  and  it  was  expedient  to 
concert  the  mode  of  the  pardon  and  indemnity 
which  she  was  to  extend  to  the  subjects  of  Scot- 
land who  had  offended  her.  As  an  assurance 
of  the  accommodation  with  his  mistress,  he  de- 
manded that  the  duke  of  Chatelherault,  the  earls 
of  Huntly  and  Argyle,  the  lords  Hume  and 
Herries,  with  another  person  of  high  rank,  should 
be  surrendered  to  her,  and  remain  in  England  for 
three  years  ;  that  the  castles  of  Dumbarton  an d 
Hume  should  be  in  her  possession  during  the 
same  period ;  and,  as  to  the  delivery  of  the 
prince  into  her  custody,  he  observed  that  it 
would  be  required  from  the  regent,  the  queen  of 
Scots  not  having  the  power  of  its  performance. 
The  deputies  of  Mary,  surprised  with  his  lan- 
guage, intreated  the  English  delegates  to  reflect 
that  their  queen,  if  deprived  of  the  most  faithful 
of  her  nobles,  and  of  her  strongest  forts,  could 
have  little  desire  to  return  to  her  own  kingdom  ; 
for  she  would  thus  be  unable  to  protect  herself 
against  the  turbulence  of  her  subjects,  and  be  a 
sovereign  without  friends  and  without  strength. 
They  were  inclined,  they  said,  to  act  upon  their 
commission  and  powers  to  the  utmost  extent  to 
gratify  Elizabeth  ;  and  they  would  agree  that  two 
earls  and  two  barons  should  be  surrendered  for 
two  years,  as  hostages  of  the  fidelity  of  their 
sovereign,  under  the  restriction  that  they  might 
be  exchanged  every  six  months  for  persons  of  an 
equal  condition.  As  to  the  giving  up  of  any 
forts  or  castles,  they  would  not  agree  to  it,  be- 
cause, among  the  other  inconveniences  of  this 
measure,  similar  claims  would  be  competent  to 
the  king  of  France,  by  the  spirit  of  the  treaty  of 
Edinburgh,  which  stipulated  that  no  French  or 
English  troops  should  be  admitted  into  Scot- 
land. The  lord  keeper  Bacon  told  them  that 
the  whole  kingdom  of  Scotland  was  an  in- 
adequate pledge,  and  that,  if  his  advice  would 
be  followed,  the  queen  of  Scots  should  not  ob- 
tain her  liberty  upon  any  kind  of  security  which 
could  be  granted  by  the  Scottish  nation.  In  all 
public  treaties,  said  the  delegates  of  Mary,  no 
further  assurances  can  be  required  from  a  sove- 
reign than  what  consists  with  his  safety ;  and,  when 
exactions  are  pressed  from  a  contracting  party  in 
a  league  which  are  ruinous  and  impossible,  a  foun- 
dation is  sought  to  break  off  the  negociation.  The 
English  commissioners  now,  interfering  in  a  body, 
declared  upon  their  honor  that  it  was  the  mean- 
ing of  Elizabeth  to  agree  to  the  restoration  of  the 
queen  of  Scots  to  her  crown  and  realm,  upon  re- 
ceiving sufficient  assurances  for  the  articles  of  the 
accommodation  ;  that  the  security  offered  for  her 
acceptance  should  be  submitted  to  her  delibera- 
tion ;  and  that  they  would  immediately  proceed 
to  confer  with  the  deputies  for  the  king  of  Scots. 
The  English  commissioners  were  not  unac- 
quainted with  the  sentiments  of  the  earl  of  Mor- 


SCOTLAND. 


535 


ton  and  his  colleagues  ;  and  it  was  from  this 
quarter  that  they  expected  a  resolute  and  defi- 
nitive interruption  to  the  treaty.      Nor  did  these 
delegates  disappoint   their  expectations.     After 
affecting  to  take  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
articles  under  debate,  they  declared    that  their 
commission  gave  them  authority  to  treat  about 
the  amity  of  the  two  kingdoms,  and  the  main- 
tenance of  the  true  religion  ;  but  that  it  confer- 
red upon  them  no  power  to  receive  their  queen 
into  Scotland,  or  to  surrender  to   Elizabeth  the 
person  of    their  king.     They  therefore  begged 
not  to  be  urged   to  accede  to  a  league  which,  in 
some  future  period,  might   expose    them  to  a 
charge  of  high  treason.     This  singular  declara- 
tion was  considered  to  be  solid  and  weighty  by 
the  English  commissioners ;  and,  in  a  new  con- 
ference, it  was  communicated  by  them  to  the 
deputies  of  Mary.     The  bishop  of  Ross  and  his 
associates  were  disgusted  with  this  formal  im- 
pertinence.    They  did  not  hesitate  to  pronounce 
it  to  be  an  unworthy  and  most  frivolous  subter- 
fuge.    The  authors,  they  said,  of  the  deposition 
of  their  sovereign  did  not  need  any  authority 
but  their  own  to  set  her  at  liberty  ;  the  prince 
was  not  yet  five  years  of  age,  and  could  give 
them  no  instructions  :  and  the  regent  was  wholly 
dependent  upon  the  will  and   pleasure  of  the 
queen  of  England.     It  was  replied  by  the  Eng- 
lish delegates  that  the  commission  of  king  James 
to  his  deputies,  having  been  perused  by  Eliza- 
beth, was  accounted  by  her  to  be  insufficient ; 
and   that  it  was  her  opinion  that  the   earl  of 
Morton  should  return  to  Scotland  to  hold  a  par- 
liament for  obtaining  new  powers.     The  bishop 
of  Ross  exclaimed  that  the  queen  of  Scots  had 
been  amused  with  deceitful   promises,  that  the 
prudence  of  Elizabeth  had  been  corrupted  by 
partial  counsels,  and  that  the  pretences  for  inter- 
rupting the  negociation  were  affected  and  unreal. 
The  instructions,  he  said,  from  his  sovereign  to 
her  commissioners  were  to  negociate  and  con- 
clude, and  not  to  trifle  ;    and  they  would  not 
consent  to  protract,  by  artificial  delays,  a  treaty 
which  the  queen  of  England,  if  her  intentions 
were  sincere,  could  immediately  terminate  upon 
reasonable  and  honorable  terms.     His  speech  and 
his  demeanor  he  acknowledged  to  be  free  and 
open ;    and  he  besought  them  to  excuse  him, 
since,  having  been  made  an  instrument  to  abuse 
his  mistress  with  false  hopes,  he  could  not  but 
resent  the  indignity,  and  express  what  he  knew 
and  what  he  felt.     The  English  deputies,  addres- 
sing him  and   his  colleagues,  observed  that  as 
the  friends  of  Mary,  and   those  of  the  kins  her 
son,  could  not  come  to  an  agreement,  and  as 
their  queen  was  refused  the  assurance  she  ex- 
pected, they  held  their  commission  to  be  at  an 
end,  and  were  no  longer  at  liberty  to  negociate. 
The  insincerity  of  Elizabeth,  and  the  failure  of 
the  league  or  agreement,  filled  Mary  with  resent- 
ment   and    complaints.      Her   animosities   and 
those  of  Elizabeth  were  increased.     She  was  in 
haste  to  communicate  to  her  allies  the  unworthy 
treatment  she  had  received;  and  she  sent  her 
commands  to  her  adherents   in  Scotland  to  rise 
up  in  •arms,  to  repose  no  trust  in  truces  which 
were  prejudicial  and  treacherous,  and  to  employ 
all  their  resources  and  strength  in  the  humilia- 


tion of  the  regent  and  his  faction.  Elizabeth, 
who  by  this  time  apprehended  no  danger  from 
Charles  IX.,  or  the  duke  of  Alva,  resolved  to 
give  a  strong  and  effectual  support  to  the  kind's 
friends,  and  to  disunite  by  stratagem,  and  op- 
press by  power,  the  partisans  of  the  Scottish 
princess.  The  zeal  of  the  bishop  of  Ross  having 
raised  her  an>\er,  she  commanded  him  to  dep-.irt 
from  London ;  and  Mary,  in  contempt  of  her 
mandate,  ordered  him  to  remain  there  under  the 
privilege  of  her  ambassador.  The  high  and  un- 
broken spirit  of  the. Scottish  queen,  in  the  midst 
of  her  misfortunes,  never  once  awakened  the 
generous  admiration  of  Elizabeth.  \Vhile  it 
uniformly  inflamed  her  rage,  it  seems  also  to 
have  excited  her  terror.  \Vith  a  pusillanimous 
meanness,  she  sent  a  despatch  to  the  earl  of 
Shrewsbury,  instructing  him  to  keep  his  charge 
in  the  closest  confinement,  and  to  be  incessantly 
on  his  guard  to  prevent  her  escape.  He  obeyed, 
and  regretted  her  severity.  The  expense,  re- 
tinue, and  domestics  of  the  queen  of  Scots,  were 
diminished  and  reduced,  and  every  probable 
means  by  which  she  might  endeavour  to  obtain 
her  liberty  were  removed  from  her.  The  rigors, 
however,  that  invaded  her  person  could  not  reach 
her  mind ;  and  she  pitied  the  tyrant  that  could 
add  distress  to  oppression,  and  deny  her  even 
the  comforts  of  a  prison.  All  this  time  Scot- 
land was  involved  in  the  miseries  of  civil  war. 
The  friends  of  Mary  were  every  where  punished 
with  fines  and  forfeitures.  Private  families  took 
the  opportunity  of  the  public  confusion  to  re- 
venge their  quarrels  against  each  other.  Indi- 
viduals of  every  denomination  ranged  themselves 
on  the  side  either  of  the  regent  or  of  the  queen, 
and  took  a  share  in  the  hostilities  of  their  coun- 
try. Acts  of  outrage  and  violence  were  com- 
mitted in  every  quarter,  while,  amidst  the  general 
confusion,  religion  was  made  the  pretence  by 
both  parties.  Meantime,  though  many  encoun- 
ters took  place  between  the  two  factions,  yet 
neither  party  seems  to  have  been  conducted  by 
leaders  of  any  ability  or  skill  in  military  affairs. 
This  year,  in  one  of  these  skirmishes,  the  regent 
himself  was  taken  prisoner  by  a  party  of  the 
queen's  faction,  and  put  to  death.  But  this 
event  made  little  change  in  the  affairs  of  the 
nation. 

The  earl  of  Mar,  another  of  the  queen's  ene- 
mies, was  chosen  to  the  regency ;  but,  though 
he  propoSed  to  act  against  her  party  with  ri^or, 
he  was  baffled  before  Edinburgh  castle,  which 
was  still  held  by  her  friends ;  and  some  bloody 
skirmishes  were  fought  in  the  north,  where  vic- 
tory declared  in  favor  of  the  queen.  These  ad- 
vantages, however,  were  more  than  compensated 
to  the  other  party  by  the  following  event.  NVhile 
the  negociations  with  Elizabeth  for  Mary's  resto- 
ration were  depending,  the  scfoerw:  of  a  conspi- 
racy for  her  deliverance  was  communicated  to 
her  by  Robert  Ridolphi,  a  Florentine,  who  lived 
in  London  many  years  as  a  merchant,  and  who 
was  secretly  an  agent  for  the  court  of  Rome. 
But  to  his  letters,  while  the  fate  of  the  treaty 
was  uncertain,  she  returned  no  reply.  Its  mis- 
carriage, through  the  duplicity  of  Elizabeth,  re- 
called them  forcibly  to  her  attention,  and  stimu- 
lated her  to  seek  the  accomplishment  of  her 


S  0  O  T  L  A  N   u. 


liberty  by  measures  bolder  and  more  arduous 
lliuu  any  which  had  been  hitherto  employed  by 
her.  She  drew  up  in  cipher  an  ample  descrip- 
tion of  his  communications  and  of  her  situation, 
and  despatched  it  to  the  bishop  of  Ross,  toge- 
ther with  letters  for  the  duke  of  Norfolk. 

Her  instructions  to  this  ecclesiastic  were  to 
convey  these  papers  and  letters  expeditiously  to 
Norfolk,  and  to  concert  an  interview  between 
that  nobleman  and  Ridolphi.  The  confidential 
servants  by  whom  the  duke  acted  with  the  bi- 
shop of  Ross  were  Bannister  and  Barker ;  and, 
•wing  received  from  them  the  paper,  they  were 
deciphered  by  Hickford,  his  secretary.  Having 
considered  them  maturely,  he  delivered  them  to 
Hickford,  with  orders  to  commit  them  to  the 
flames.  But  his  orders  were  disobeyed ;  and 
Hickford  deposited  them,  with  other  papers  of 
consequence,  under  the  mats  of  the  duke's  bed- 
cliamber.  The  contents  of  these  communi- 
cations awakening  the  hope  and  ambition  of 
Norfolk,  he  was  impatient  to  see  Kidolphi ;  and 
the  bishop  of  Ross  soon  brought  them  together. 
Ridolphi,  whose  ability  was  inspirited  by  mo- 
tives of  religion  and  interest,  exerted  all  his 
address  to  engage  the  duke  to  put  himself  at  the 
iiead  of  a  rebellion  against  his  sovereign.  He 
represented  to  him  that  there  could  not  be  a 
season  more  proper  than  the  present  for  achiev- 
ing the  overthrow  of  Elizabeth.  Many  persons 
who  had  enjoyed  authority  and  credit  under  her 
predecessor  were  much  disgusted;  the  Roman 
Catholics  were  numerous  and  incensed;  the 
younger  sons  of  the  gentry  were  languishing  in 
inaction ;  and  there  were  multitudes  disposed  to 
insurrection  from  the  love  of  change,  and  the 
ardor  of  enterprise.  He  insinuated  that  his  rank, 
popularity,  and  fortune,  enabled  him  to  take  the 
command  of  such  persons  with  advantage ;  and 
painted  out  the  glory  he  might  purchase  by  the 
humiliation  of  his  enemies,  and  by  his  marriage 
with  the  queen  of  Scots.  To  give  strength  to 
these  considerations  he  produced  a  long  list  of 
noblemen  and  gentlemen,  whom  he  affirmed  to 
be  ready  to  hazard  their  lives  for  a  revolution,  if 
the  duke  would  enter  into  it  with  cordiality, 
lie  also  mentioned  the  aid  with  which  he  might 
flatter  himself  from  abroad.  The  pope  he  as- 
sured him  had  already  provided  100,000  crowns 
for  the  enterprise;  and,  if  popery  should  be  ad- 
tanced  in  England,  he  would  cheerfully  defray 
Jhe  whole  charges  of  the  war.  The  king  of 
Spam  would  supply  4000  horse  and  6000  foot, 
which  might  be  landed  at  Harwich ;  and  Charles 
IX.  was  devotedly  attached  to  the  queen  of 
Scots.  In  fine,  he  urged  that,  while  he  might 
depend  on  the  assistance  and  arms  of  the  great- 
est princes  of  Christendom,  he  would  entitle 
himself  to  the  admiration  of  all  of  them  by  his 
magnanimous  efforts  and  generous  gallantry  in 
the  cause  of  a  queen  so  beautiful  and  so  unfor- 
tunate. The  duke,  allured  by  appearances  so 
plausible,  forgot  the  submissive  obligation  in 
which  he  had  bound  himself  to  Elizabeth  never 
more  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  the  Scottish 
princess.  Ridolphi,  in  this  forward  state  of  the 
business,  advised  him  to  write  to  the  pope,  the 
king  of  Spain,  and  the  duke  of  Alva,  expressive 
of  his  concurrence  in  the  design,  and  inspiriting 


their  activity  and  resolutions.  He  even  produce^ 
letters  framed  for  tin's  purpose ;  and,  while  l.e 
entreated  the  duke  to  subscribe  them,  he  ofle.-eo 
to  carry  them  himself  to  Flanders,  Rome,  and 
Spain.  The  duke,  who  was  ambitious  and  timid, 
disposed  to  treason,  and  unfit  for  it,  refused  to 
subscribe  the  letters  ;  but  he  allowed  the  bishop 
of  Ross  and  Barker  his  servant  to  go  to  the 
Spanish  ambassador  to  express  his  approbation 
of  the  measures  of  Ridolphi,  to  acknowledge 
that  the  letters  were  according  to  his  mind,  and 
to  empower  this  statesman  to  certify  their  au- 
thenticity to  his  court.  Ridolphi,  full  of  hopes, 
set  out  to  execute  his  commission.  He  passed 
first  to  the  duke  of  Alva.  to  whom  lw  commu- 
nicated the  transactions  in  which  he  had  been 
engaged,  and  with  whom  he  held  many  confer- 
ences. There  was  at  this  time  at  Brussels 
Charles  Bailly,  a  servant  of  queen  Mary's  ;  and 
Ridol phi,  after  disclosing  to  him  his  proceedings 
with  Alva,  entrusted  him  with  letters  to  her,  to 
the  duke  of  Norfolk,  the  Spanish  ambassador, 
and  the  bishop  of  Ross.  \\  hen  this  messenger 
reached  Calais,  a  letter  was  delivered  to  him 
from  the  bishop  of  Ross,  desiring  him  to  leave 
his  despatches  with  the  governor  of  that  place. 
But  he  neglected  this  notice ;  and,  being  search- 
ed at  Dover,  his  letters,  books,  and  clothes  were 
seized,  and  he  himself  was  sent  to  London,  and 
imprisoned  in  the  Marshalsea.  The  bishop  of 
Ross,  full  of  apprehensions,  applied  to  lord  Cob- 
ham,  the  warden  of  the  cinque-  ports,  who  was 
friendly  to  the  duke  of  Norfolk;  and, obtaining 
by  his  means  the  packet  of  despatches  from  Ki- 
dolphi, substituted  another  in  its  place,  which 
contained  letters  of  no  danger  or  usefulness. 
He  also  sent  intelligence  of  this  manoeuvre  to 
Bailly,  and  admonished  him  to  preserve  a  pro- 
found silence.  This  simple  and  unpractised 
agent  had,  however,  excited  suspicions  by  the 
symptoms  of  terror  he  had  exhibited  upon  being 
taken,  and  by  exclaiming  that  the  despatches  he 
brought  would  involve  his  own  destruction  and 
that  of  others.  At  his  first  examination  he  con- 
fessed nothing ;  but  being  sent  to  the  tower, 
and  put  upon  the  rack,  he  revealed  his  conversa- 
tions with  Ridolphi,  and  declared  that  the  de- 
spatches which  he  had  brought  had  been  deli- 
vered to  the  bishop  of  Ross.  An  order 
granted  for  taking  the  bishop  into  custody.  I  lav- 
ing been  aware,  however,  of  his  perilous  situa- 
tion, his  house  was  searched  in  vain  for  trea- 
sonable papers ;  and  he  thought  to  screen  himself 
from  answering  any  interrogatories  under  the 
sanctity  of  his  character  as  the  ambassador  of  an 
independent  princess.  An  unexpected  incident 
excited  in  the  meanwhile  new  suspicions.  Mary 
being  desirous  of  transmitting  2000  crowns  to> 
lord  Henries,  to  advance  her  interests  in  Scot- 
land, the  duke  of  Norfolk  undertook  to  convey 
it  to  him  with  safety.  He  entrusted  it  to  the 
charge  of  his  confidents  Hickford  and  Barker,  who 
putting  it  into  a  bag  with  despatches  from  their 
master  to  lord  1  lorries,  ordered  a  servant  called 
Brown  to  carry  it  to  Bannister ;  who,  bemg 
at  this  time  on  the  border,  could  forward  it 
to  Scotland.  Brown,  suspicious  or  corrupted, 
instead  of  proceeding  on  his  errand,  carried  tlu: 
bag  and  its  contents  to  lord  Burleigh.  The 


SCOTLAND. 


537 


privy  council,  deeming  it  treason  to  send  money 
out  of  the  realm  for  the  use  of  the  friends  of 
Mary,  whom  they  affected  to  consider  as  enemies, 
ordered  Hickford  and  Barker  to  be  apprehended. 
The  rack  extorted  from  them  whatsoever  they 
knew  to  the  prejudice  of  their  master.  Hickford 
gave  intelligence  of  the  fatal  communications 
from  Mary ;  which  he  had  villanously  preserved 
in  opposition  to  the  orders  given  to  him.  AH 
the  proceedings  between  the  queen  of  Scots,  the 
duke  of  Norfolk,  the  bishop  of  Ross,  and  Ridol- 
phi,  were  brought  to  light.  A  guard  was  placed 
upon  the  house  of  the  duke  to  prevent  his  escape. 
Sir  Ralph  Saddler,  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  Sir  Henry 
Nevil,  and  Dr.  Wilson,  were  commissioned  to 
examine  him ;  and,  in  the  belief  that  the  papers 
and  letters  so  often  alluded  to  had  been  destroyed, 
he  denied  that  he  had  any  concern  in  the  affairs 
of  the  queen  of  Scots,  or  any  knowledge  of  them. 
He  was  committed  to  the  tower  a  close  prisoner. 
Bannister  by  this  time  was  taken ;  and  he  con- 
firmed the  relations  of  Hickford  and  Barkei.  In 
the  course  of  their  discoveries,  the  earls  of  Arun- 
del  and  Southampton,  lord  Cobham,  Mr.  Thomas 
l.'obham,  his  brother,  Sir  Thomas  Stanley,  Sir 
Henry  Percy,  and  other  gentlemen  who  were 
friendly  to  the  queen  of  Scots  and  the  duke  of 
Norfolk,  were  apprehended  and  ordered  to  be 
lodged  in  different  prisons;  and  the  rack,  and 
the  expectation  of  a  pardon,  drew  from  them  the 
fullest  confessions.  The  duke  was  unable  to  de- 
fend himself.  The  concurring  testimonies  of  his 
friends  and  servants,  with  the  papers,  which  he 
fondly  imagined  had  been  burnt,  were  communi- 
cated to  him.  lie  was  overwhelmed  with  amaze- 
ment, and  exclaimed  that  he  had  been  betrayed. 
He  made  ample  acknowledgments  of  his  guilt, 
and  had  no  hope  but  in  the  mercy  of  his  sove- 
reign. By  the  confession  of  the  duke  himself, 
and  from  all  the  enquiries  which  had  been  made 
by  the  ministers  of  Elizabeth,  it  appeared  obvious 
that  the  bishop  of  Ross  had  been  the  principal 
contriver  of  the  conspiracy.  Ridolphi  had  acted 
under  his  direction,  and  he  had  inspirited  the 
duke  of  Norfolk.  He  had  even  advised  that 
nobleman  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  select 
band  to  seize  the  person  of  Elizabeth.  In  his  ex- 
aminations the  bishop  was  treated  with  great  rigor 
and  insult.  But  he  made  an  able  defence,  and  pe- 
remptorily refused  to  make  any  answer  to  inter- 
rogatories. The  counsellors  of  Elizabeth  were 
disturbed  with  his  obstinacy  ;  and,  having  told 
him  that  the  rack  would  soon  render  him  more 
pliant,  he  was  ordered  into  close  keeping  in 
a  dark  apartment  of  the  tower.  In  a  few 
days  four  privy  counsellors,  the  lord  admiral, 
lord  Burleigh,  Sir  Francis  Knollys,  and  Sir 
Thomas  Smith,  went  to  the  tower,  and  caused 
him  to  be  brought  to  them  to  the  lieutenant's 
lodsrin?.  After  having  assured  him  that  he  was 
charged  by  all  the  prisoners  as  the  principal 
contriver  of  the  conspiracy,  they  insisted  that  he 
should  explain  fully  the  part  he  had  acted.  The 
confessions  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk  and  his  ser- 
vants, of  the  lord  Lumley,  Sir  Thomas  Stanley, 
and  other  gentlemen,  with  the  despatches  of  the 
queen  of  Scots,  were  set  before  him.  They  now 
protested  upon  their  honor  that,  if  he  would 
wake  a  fret;  and  open  declaration  of  his  proceed- 


ings, it  should  neither  be  employed  against  him 
self,  nor  any  other  person  :  but  that,  if  he  should 
continue  resolute  in  refusing  to  give  this  satis- 
faction to  their  queen,  she  would  absolutely 
consider  him  as  a  private  person,  and  order  him 
to  be  tried  and  executed  as  a  traitor.  In  this 
extremity  he  accepted  the  conditions,  and  dis- 
closed minutely  all  the  transactions  of  the  prin- 
cipal parties  in  the  conspiracy.  But,  while  he 
described  the  offences  of  his  mistress,  the  duke 
of  Norfolk,  and  himself,  he  made  many  apolo- 
gies for  their  conduct.  It  was  natural,  he  said, 
for  the  queen  of  Scots  to  exert  her  most  strenuous 
endeavours  to  recover  her  freedom  and  crown ; 
and  the  methods  she  adopted  to  obtain  her  pur- 
poses ought  to  be  considered  in  connexion  with 
the  arts  of  Elizabeth,  who  pertinaciously  denied 
her  access  to  her  presence,  who  kept  her  a  close 
prisoner,  in  contempt  of  all  the  principles  of  hu- 
manity and  justice,  and  who  afforded  an  open 
and  powerful  assistance  to  her  enemies.  The 
duke  of  Norfolk  he  was  earnest  to  excuse,  on  the 
foundation  of  the  advances  which  had  been  made 
in  his  marriage  with  the  queen  of  Scots.  Their 
plighted  love,  and  their  engagements,  did  not  al- 
low him  to  forsake  her.  As  for  himself,  he  was 
her  ambassador  and  her  servant ;  arid,  being 
highly  indebted  to  her  generosity  and  kindness, 
he  could  not  abandon  her  in  captivity  and  dis- 
tress, without  incurring  the  guilt  of  the  most  sin- 
ful treachery  and  ingratitude.  The  daring  pro- 
posal he  had  made  to  seize  the  person  of  Elizabeth 
was  the  point,  he  observed,  which  seemed  to 
press  upon  him  the  most  severely  :  and  he  en- 
treated them  to  believe  that  he  had  moved  it  only 
with  the  view  of  trying  the  courage  of  the  duke 
of  Norfolk.  The  privy  counsellors  of  Elizabeth 
were  now  in  possession  of  all  the  evidence  they 
could  expect.  Norfolk  was  admonished  to  pre- 
pare for  his  trial ;  and  bishop  Lesley  perceived 
that,  though  he  might  escape  with  his  life,  he 
would  never  more  be  permitted  to  reside  in 
England  as  an  ambassador  or  friend  of  the 
queen  of  Scots.  The  defeat  of  the  duke  of  Nor- 
folk's conspiracy  was  a  blow  to  Mary  which  she 
could  never  recover.  Her  most  faithful  friends 
were  languishing  in  prisons  upon  her  account ; 
she  had  no  longer  the  counsels  of  the  bishop  of 
Ross ;  and  the  Spanish  ambassador,  who  had  en- 
tered into  her  concerns  with  an  unscrupulous 
cordiality,  had  been  ordered  to  withdraw  from 
England.  The  trial  and  condemnation  of  Nor- 
folk soon  followed,  and  plunged  her  into  the 
most  calamitous  distress. 

The  massacre  of  the  Protestants  at  Paris  in 
1572  proved  also  extremely  detrimental  to  queen 
Mary.  It  was  interpreted  to  be  a  consequence 
of  the  confederacy  which  had  been  formed  at 
Bayonne  for  the  extermination  of  the  reformed. 
The  Protestants  were  every  where  transported 
with  rage  against  the  papists.  Elizabeth  pre- 
pared herself  against  an  attack  from  the  Roman 
Catholic  powers ;  and  was  haunted  with  the 
notion  that  they  meant  to  invade  her  kingdom, 
and  to  give  it  to  the  queen  of  Scots.  Her  am- 
bassador at  Paris,  Sir  Francis  Walsingham,  aug- 
mented her  apprehensions  and  terror.  He 
compared  her  weakness  with  the  strength  of 
her  enemies,  and  assured  her  that,  if  they  should 


538 


SCOTLAND. 


possess  themselves  of  Scotland,  she  would  soon 
cease  to  be  a  queen.  He  represented  Mary  as 
the  great  cause  of  the  perils  that  threatened  her 
personal  safety  and  the  tranquillity  of  her  king- 
dom ;  and,  as  violent  diseases  required  violent 
remedies,  he  scrupled  not  to  counsel  her  to  unite 
Scotland  to  her  dominions,  and  to  put  to  death 
a  rival  whose  life  was  inconsistent  with  her  se- 
curity. The  more  bigoted  protestants  of  Scot- 
land differed  not  widely  in  their  sentiments  from 
Sir  Francis  ;  while  the  more  moderate  were  still 
more  attached  to  their  religion  than  to  Mary ; 
and,  amidst  the  indignation  and  horror  into 
which  the  subjects  of  Scotland  were  thrown  by 
the  sanguinary  outrages  of  Charles  IX.  and 
Catharine  de  Medicis,  they  surveyed  the  suffer- 
ings of  their  sovereign  with  a  diminished  sympa- 
thy. This  year  the  regent,  finding  himself  beset 
with  difficulties  which  he  could  not  overcome, 
and  the  affairs  of  the  nation  involved  into  con- 
fusion from  which  he  could  not  extricate  them, 
died  of  melancholy,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
earl  of  Morton.  During  the  regency  of  the  earl 
of  Mar,  a  remarkable  innovation  took  place  in 
the  church,  which  deserves  to  be  particularly  ex- 
plained, being  no  less  than  the  introduction  of 
Episcopacy  instead  of  the  Presbyterian  form  of 
worship. 

"While  the  earl  of  Lennox  was  regent,  the 
archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's  was  put  to  death, 
because  he  was  strongly  suspected  to  have  had 
some  concern  in  the  death  of  the  earl  of  Murray ; 
after  which  the  earl  of  Morton  procured  a  grant 
of  the  temporalities  of  that  see.  Out  of  these  he 
allotted  a  stipend  to  Mr.  John  Douglas,  a  Protes- 
tant clergyman,  who  took  upon  him  the  title  of 
archbishop.  This  excited  censure  and  murmurs. 
In  the  language  of  the  times,  it  was  pronounced 
to  be  *  profanation  of  the  kirk,  and  a  high  con- 
tempt of  God  ;  it  underwent  the  scrutiny  of  the 
ministry  in  complaints  to  the  regent ;  and  a 
commission  of  privy-counsellors  and  clergymen 
was  appointed,  in  the  name  of  the  king,  to  en- 
quire into  it,  and  to  reform  and  improve  the 
policy  of  the  church.  This  commission,  upon 
the  part  of  the  privy  council,  consisted  of  the 
earl  of  Morton,  the  lord  lluthven,  Robert  abbot 
of  Dunfermline,  Mr.  James  Macgill,  Sir  John 
Ballenden,  and  Colin  Campbell  of  Glenorchie ; 
and,  upon  the  part  of  the  church,  were  Messrs. 
John  Erskine  of  Dun,  John  VVinram,  Hay, 
Lindsay,  Pont,  and  John  Craig.  The  consulta- 
tions and  debates  were  long ;  but  the  influence 
of  the  earl  of  Morton  directed  their  determina- 
tions. It  was  resolved  that,  till  the  majority  of 
the  king,  or  till  the  wisdom  of  the  three  estates 
should  be  consulted,  the  titles  of  archbishop  and 
bishop  should  continue  as  in  the  times  which 
preceded  the  reformation;  that  a  chapter  of 
learned  ministers  should  be  annexed  to  every 
metropolitan  or  cathedral  seat ;  that  the  sees,  as 
they  became  vacant,  should  be  given  to  those  of 
the  Protestant  ministry  who  were  most  eminent 
for  their  qualifications  ;  that  the  archbishops  and 
bishops  should  exercise  no  higher  jurisdiction 
than  was  permitted  to  superintendants ;  and  that 
they  should  be  subject  to  the  control  of  the  gene- 
ral assemblies  of  the  church ;  that  all  abbots, 
priors,  and  other  infenui  prelates  presented  to 


benefices,  should  be  examined  by  the  bishop 
the  diocese ;  and  that  their  fitness  to  represent 
the  church  in  parliament  should  be  enquired 
into;  that  the  king  and  the  regent  should  recom- 
mend qualified  persons  to  vacant  bishoprics ; 
that  the  elections  of  them  should  be  made  by  the 
chapters  of  the  respective  cathedrals ;  that  all 
benefices  with  cure  under  prelacies  should  be 
disposed  to  officiatine  ministers;  and  that  the 
bisliops  and  superintendants,  upon  the  'ordina- 
tion of  ministers,  should  exact  an  oath  from  them 
to  recognise  the  authority  of  the  king,  and  to  pay 
canonical  obedience  to  their  ordinary  in  ail 
things  that  were  lawful.  By  these  artful  regula- 
tions the  earl  of  Morton  did  not  mean  solely  to 
consult  his  own  rapacity  or  that  of  the  nobles. 
The  exaltation  of  the  Protestant  church  to  be  one 
of  the  three  estates  was  a  consequence  of  them  : 
and,  the  clergy  being  the  strenuous  enemies  of 
Mary,  he  might  by  their  means  secure  a  decided 
influence  in  parliament.  The  earl  of  Mar,  as 
regent,  giving  his  sanction  to  the  proceedings  of 
the  commission,  they  were  carried  into  practice. 
The  delusive  expectation  of  wealth,  which  this 
revival  of  episcopacy  held  out  to  the  ministry, 
was  flattering  to  them;  and  they  bore  with 
tolerable  patience  this  severe  blow  that  wa> 
struck  against  the  religious  policy  of  Geneva. 
Mr.  John  Douglas  was  elected,  notwithstanding 
the  opposition  made  by  John  Knox  and  other 
ecclesiastics,  who  stood  up  for  the  rules  estab- 
lished at  the  reformation.  He  was  inaugurate- 1 
by  the  bishop  of  Caithness,  Mr.  John  Spotswood, 
and  Mr.  David  Lindsay,  who,  violating  the  book 
of  discipline,  communicated  to  him  his  admission 
by  the  imposition  of  hands.  This  was  a  singular 
triumph  of  episcopacy ;  yet  Douglas  was  in  a 
very  advanced  age;  and  his  mental  qualifications 
which  had  never  been  eminent,  were  in  a  state 
of  decay.  A  general  assembly,  held  at  St.  An- 
drews, considering  the  new  regulations,  ap- 
pointed commissioners  to  go  to  John  Knox, 
who  was  indisposed,  and  to  consult  with  him 
whether  they  were  agreeable  to  the  word  of  God . 
But  from  the  arts  of  the  nobles,  or  from  the 
sickness  of  Knox,  this  conference  was  not  carried 
into  execution.  In  a  general  assembly,  however, 
which  met  at  Perth,  the  new  polity  was  reported 
and  examined.  The  titles  of  archbishop,  dean, 
arch-dean,  chancellor,  and  chapter,  were  excepted 
against  as  popish  distinctions.  A  wish  was  ex- 
pressed that  they  might  be  exchanged  for  titles 
less  profane  and  superstitious  ;  and  a  unanimous 
protestation  was  made  that  the  new  polity  was 
merely  a  temporary  expedient,  and  should  only 
continue  till  a  more  perfect  order  should  be  ob- 
tained from  the  king,  the  regent,  and  the  nobility. 
This  tolerating  resolution  left  the  new  polity  in 
its  full  force  ;  and  a  foundation  was  now  estab- 
lished for  the  laity  to  partake  in  the  profits  of 
bishoprics.  The  simoniacal  paction  of  Morton 
and  Douglas  was  not  long  singular.  Mr.  James 
Boyd  was  appointed  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Glasgow,  James  Paton  to  the  bishopric  of  Dun- 
keld,  and  Mr.  Andrew  Graham  to  the  see  of 
Dumblain;  these  compromising  ecclesiastics,  upon 
being  allowed  competencies  to  themselves,  grati- 
fied their  noble  friends  with  a  proportion  of  their 
revenues.  The  people,  however,  approved  not 


SCOTLAND. 


539 


thi?,  simoniacal  spirit  of  traffic ;  and  the  bishops 
of  the  new  polity  were  treated  openly  with  re- 
proach or  ridicule.  The  year  1572  is  remarkable 
for  the  death  of  John  Knox,  whose  mistaken  zeal 
had  contributed  to  bring  upon  the  queen  many 
of  those  misfortunes  with  which  she  was  now 
oppressed. 

Neither  by  his  death,  however,  nor  by  the 
change  of  the  regency,  could  she  now  be 
relieved.  The  earl  of  Morton  was  so  much  de- 
voted to  Elizabeth  that  he  received  particular 
instructions  from  her  how  to  guide  the  young 
king.  His  elevation,  indeed,  gave  the  finishing 
stroke  to  the  queen's  affairs.  He  employed 
himself  with  success  in  dividing  her  party 
among  themselves,  and  induced  the  duke  ot 
Chatelherault  and  the  earl  of  Huntly  to  forsake 
her.  As  for  Elizabeth,  she  was  bent  on  putting 
.Mary  to  death ;  but,  as  no  crime  could  be  alleged 
au  linst  her  in  England,  she  thought  it  proper 
that  she  should  be  carried  back  to  suffer  death 
in  her  own  dominions.  This  proposal,  however, 
\MH  rejected  ;  and  the  friends  who  remained  true 
t'>  Mary  once  more  began  to  indulge  themselves 
in  hopes  of  succors  from  France.  New  mis- 
fortunes, however,  awaited  them.  The  castle  of 
Edinburgh,  which  had  hitherto  been  held  for  the 
queen  by  Kirkaldy  of  Grange,  was  obliged  to 
.surrender  to  an  English  army  commanded  by 
Sir  William  Drury.  Kirkaldy  was  solemnly 
a^ured  by  the  English  commander  of  his  life 
and  liberty ;  but  Elizabeth  violated  this  'capitu- 
lation, and  commanded  him  to  be  delivered  up 
to  the  regent ;  100  of  his  relations  offered  to 
become  vassals  to  Morton,  and  to  pay  him  3000 
merks  yearly,  if  he  would  spare  his  life ;  but  in 
vain  :  Kirkaldy  and  his  brother  Sir  James  were 
hanged  at  Edinburgh.  Maitland  of  Lethington, 
who  was  taken  at  the  same  time,  was  poisoned 
in  the  prison-house  of  Leith.  The  jealousy  of 
Klizabeth  did  not  diminish  with  the  decline  of 
Mary's  cause.  She  now  treated  her  with  more 
rigor  than  ever,  and  patronised  Morton  in  all  the 
enormities  which  he  committed  against  her 
friends.  Lesly,  bishop  of  Ross,  had  been  long 
imprisoned  in  England,  on  account  of  his  con- 
cern in  the  duke  of  Norfolk's  conspiracy.  Mor- 
ton earnestly  solicited  the  queen  to  deliver  him 
up,  and  would  undoubtedly  have  put  him  to 
death  ;  but,  as  he  had  acted  in  the  character  of 
ambassador  from  Mary,  he  was  suffered  to  de- 
part for  France.  When  he  arrived  there  he  en- 
deavoured in  vain  to  stir  up  the  emperor,  the 
pope,  and  the  duke  of  Alva,  to  exert  themselves 
in  behalf  of  the  queen  of  Scotland ;  and  in 
1574  the  misfortunes  of  his  royal  mistress  were 
farther  aggravated  by  the  death  of  Charles  IX. 
of  France,  and  her  uncle  the  cardinal  of  Lor- 
rain.  The  regent,  in  the  mean  time,  ruled  with 
the  most  despotic  sway.  He  twice  coined  base 
money  in  the  name  of  his  sovereign ;  and,  after 
[Hitting  it  into  circulation  the  second  time,  he 
issued  orders  for  its  passing  only  for  its  intrinsic 
value.  The  duke  of  Chatelherault  happening  to 
die  this  year,  the  regent  took  every  method  of 
ruining  all  those  of  his  name  and  family.  He 
committed  to  prison  all  the  Hamiltons,  and  every 
person  of  distinction  who  had  fought  for  the 
queen  at  the  battle  of  Langside,  and  compelled 


them  to  buy  their  liberty  at  an  exorbitant  price. 
He  instigated  Douglas  of  Lochleven  to  assassi- 
nate lord  Arbroath,  and  it  was  with  difficulty 
that  the  latter  escaped  the  ambush  laid  for  him. 
Reid,  bishop  of  Orkney,  having  left  his  estate  to 
charitable  uses,  the  regent  prohibited  the  execu- 
tion of  the  will,  and  took  upon  himself  the  ad- 
ministration. To  be  rich  was  a  sufficient  crime 
to  excite  his  vengeance.  He  entered  the  ware- 
houses of  merchants,  and  confiscated  their  pro- 
perty ;  and,  if  he  wanted  a  pretence  to  justify 
his  conduct,  the  judges  and  lawyers  were  ready 
at  his  call. 

In  this  disastrous  period  the  clergy  augmented 
the  general  confusion.  Andrew  Melvil  had 
lately  returned  from  Geneva  ;  and,  the  discipline 
of  its  assembly  being  considered  by  him  as  the 
most  perfect  model  of  ecclesiastical  polity,  he 
was  much  offended  with  the  introduction  of 
episcopacy  into  Scotland.  His  learning  was 
considerable,  and  his  skill  in  languages  profound. 
lie  was  fond  of  disputation,  violent,  and  perti- 
nacious. The  Scottish  clergy  were  in  a  humor 
to  attend  to  him  ;  and  his  merit  was  sufficient  to 
excite  their  admiration.  Instigated  by  him, 
John  Drury,  one  of  the  ministers  of  Edinburgh, 
called  in  question,  in  a  general  assembly,  the 
lawfulness  of  the  bishops,  and  the  authority  of 
chapters  in  electing  them.  Melvil,  after  com- 
mending his  zeal  and  his  motion,  declaimed 
concerning  the  flourishing  state  of  the  establish- 
ment of  Geneva ;  and,  having  recited  the  opi- 
nions of  Calvin  and  Beza  upon  ecclesiastical 
government,  maintained  that  there  should  be  no 
office-bearers  in  the  church  whose  titles  were 
not  in  the  book  of  God.  He  affirmed  that  the 
term  bishop  was  no  where  to  be  found  in  it  in 
the  sense  in  which  it  was  commonly  understood, 
as  Christ  allowed  not  any  superiority  among 
ministers.  He  contended  that  Christ  was  the 
only  lord  of  his  church,  and  that  the  ministers 
of  the  word  were  all  equal  in  degree  and  power. 
He  urged  that  the  bishops,  beside  being  unlaw- 
ful, had  grown  unseemly  with  corruptions  ;  and 
that,  if  they  were  not  removed  out  of  the  church, 
it  would  fall  into  decay,  and  endanger  the  in- 
terests of  religion.  His  sentiments  were  received 
with  flattering  approbation;  and,  though  the 
archbishop  of  Glasgow,  with  th6  bishops  of 
Dunkeld,  Gal'oway,  Brechin,  Dumblain,  and  the 
Isles,  were  present  in  this  assembly,  they  ven- 
tured not  to  defend  their  vocation.  It  was 
resolved  that  the  name  of  bishop  conferred  no 
distinction  or  rank,  and  that  the  office  was  not 
more  honorable  than  that  of  the  other  ministers. 
The  episcopal  estate  in  the  meanwhile  was 
watched  with  anxious  observation ;  a.nd  faults  of 
every  kind,  which  were  found  in  individuals, 
were  charged  upon  the  whole  order.  In  a  new 
assembly  this  subject  was  again  canvassed.  It 
was  moved,  whether  bishops,  as  constituted  in 
Scotland,  had  any  authority  for  their  functions 
from  the  Scriptures?  After  long  debates,  it  was 
thought  prudent  to  avoid  an  explicit  determina- 
tion of  this  important  question.  But  a  confir- 
mation was  bestowed  upon  the  resolution  of  the 
former  assembly ;  and  it  was  established  as  a 
rule,  that  every  bishop  should  make  choice  of  a 
particular  church  within  his  diocese,  and  should 


540 


SCOTLAND. 


actually  discharge  the  duties  of  a  minister.  The 
regent,  disturbed  with  these  proceedings  of  the 
brethren,  was  disposed  to  amuse  and  to  deceive 
them.  He  sent  a  messenger  to  advise  them  not 
to  disfigure  the  established  forms  ;  adding  that, 
if  their  aversion  from  episcopacy  was  insur- 
mountable, it  would  become  them  to  think  of 
some  other  mode  of  ecclesiastical  government. 
The  assembly,  taking  the  advantage  of  this 
mes-age,  intimated  to  him  that  they  would  frame 
a  lasting  platform  of  polity,  and  submit  it  to  the 
privy-council.  They  appointed  accordingly  a 
committee  of  the  brethren  for  this  purpose  ;  and 
in  a  short  time  Messrs.  Dacid  Lindsay,  James 
J.;iuson,  and  Robert  Font,  were  deputed  to  wait 
upon  the  regent  with  a  new  scheme  of  ecclesias- 
tical government.  The  regent,  taking  from  them 
their  schedule,  replied  that  he  would  appoint 
certain  persons  of  the  privy  council  to  confer 
with  them.  A  conference  was  even  begun  upon 
the  subject,  but,  from  his  arts  or  the  public  trou- 
bles, no  advances  were  made  in  it.  This  year 
the  earl  of  Bothwel  died  in  Denmark;  and  in  his 
last  moments  is  said  to  have  confessed  that  he 
was  sjuilty  of  the  king's  murder,  revealed  the 
names  of  the  persons  who  were  his  accomplices, 
and,  with  the  most  solemn  protestations,  declared 
the  honor  and  innocence  of  the  queen.  His 
confession  was  transmitted  to  Elizabeth  by  the 
king  of  Denmark. 

The  regent  still  continued  his  enormities,  till, 
having  rendered  himself  obnoxious  to  the  best 
part  of  the  nobility,  he  was,  in  1577,  compelled 
to  resign  his  office  into  the  hands  of  James  VI. ; 
but,  as  the  king  was  then  only  twelve  years  of 
age,  a  general  council  of  twelve  peers  was  ap- 
pointed to  assist  him  in  the  administration. 
Next  year,  however,  the  earl  of  Morton  having 
gained  the  favor  of  the  young  king,  procured  the 
dissolution  of  this  council ;  and  thus,  being  left 
the  sole  adviser  of  the  king,  he  hoped  to  be 
raised  to  his  former  greatness.  This  could  not 
be  done,  however,  without  keeping  the  king  in  a 
kind  of  captivity,  so  that  nobody  could  have 
access  to  him  but  himself.  The  king,  sensible 
f  his  situation,  sent  a  despatch  to  the  earls  of 
Argyle  and  Athol,  intreatingthem  to  relieve  him. 
An  army  for  this  purpose  was  soon  raised,  and 
Morton's  partisans  were  in  danger  of  being 
defeated,  had  not  the  opposite  party  dreaded  the 
vengeance  of  Elizabeth,  who  was  resolved  to 
support  the  earl  of  Morton.  In  consequence  of 
this  a  negociation  was  entered  into,  by  which  it 
was  agreed  that  the  earl  of  Argyle  with  some 
others  should  be  admitted  into  the  king's  council; 
and  that  four  noblemen  should  be  chosen  by 
each  parly  to  consider  of  some  proper  method  of 
preserving  tranquillity  in  the  nation.  This  pa- 
cification did  not  greatly  diminish  the  power  of 
Morton.  lie  soon  got  rid  of  one  of  his  princi- 
pal antagonists,  the  earl  of  Athol,  by  poisoning 
him  at  an  entertainment;  after  which  he  again 
gave  a  loose  rein  to  his  resentments  against  the 
house  of  Hamilton,  whom  he  persecuted  in  the 
most  cruel  manner.  By  these  means  he  drew 
upon  himself  a  general  hatred;  and  he  was  sup- 
planted in  the  king's  favor  by  the  lord  d'Aubig- 
ney,  who  came  from  France  in  1579,  and  was 
created  carl  of  Ix»nnox.  In  1580  Morton  was 


suspected  of  an  intention  to  deliver  up  the  king 
to  Elizabeth,  and  a  guard  was  appointed  to  pre- 
vent any  attempts  of  this  kind.  The  queen  ot 
England  endeavoured  to  support  her  zealous 
partisan,  but  without  effect.  He  was  tried,  con- 
demned, and  executed,  for  being  concerned  in 
the  murder  of  Darnley.  At  the  place  of  execu- 
tion it  is  said  that  he  confessed  his  guilt.  It  is 
certain  that  he  acknowledged  himself  privy  to 
the  plot  formed  against  the  life  of  the  kins: ;  and 
when  one  of  the  clergymen  attending  him  before 
his  execution  observed  that  by  his  own  confes- 
sion he  merited  death  in  foreknowing  and  con- 
cealing the  murder,  he  replied,  '  Ay  but,  Sir, 
had  1  been  as  innocent  as  St.  Stephen,  or  as 
guilty  as  Judas,  I  must  have  come  to  the  scaffold. 
Pray,  what  ought  I  to  have  done  in  this  matter '! 
You  knew  not  the  king's  weakness.  If  I  had 
informed  him  of  the  plot  against  his  life,  he 
would  have  revealed  it  even  to  his  enemies  and 
those  concerned  in  the  design ;  and  I  should,  it 
may  be,  have  lost  my  own  life,  for  endearoaring 
to  preserve  his.' 

The  elevation  of  king  James,  and  the  total 
overthrow  of  Morton,  produced  no  beneficial 
consequences  to  the  unfortunate  Mary.  In  1581 
she  addressed  a  letter  to  Castelnau,  the  French 
ambassador,  in  which  she  complained  that  her 
body  was  so  weak,  and  her  limbs  so  feeble,  that 
she  was  unable  to  walk.  Castelnau  therefore  in- 
treated  Elizabeth  to  mitigate  the  rigors  of  her 
confinement ;  which  being  refused,  the  latter  had 
thoughts  of  resigning  her  claims  to  the  crowns 
both  of  England  and  Scotland  into  the  hands 
of  her  son,  and  even  of  advising  him  to  use 
every  effort  in  his  power  to  establish  his  claim  to 
the  English  crown  as  preferable  to  that  of  Eliza- 
beth. But,  being  apprehensive  of  danaer  from 
this  violent  method,  she  again  contented  herself 
with  sending  to  the  court  of  England  ineffectual 
memorials  and  remonstrances.  Elizabeth,  in- 
stead of  taking  compassion  on  her  situation, 
assiduously  encouraged  every  kind  of  disorder  in- 
the  kingdom,  on  purpose  to  have  the  queen  more 
and  more  in  her  power.  Thus,  the  Scottish  mal- 
contents finding  themselves  always  supported,  a 
conspiracy  was  at  last  entered  into,  the  design  of 
which  was  to  hold  James  in  captivity,  and  to 
overthrow  the  authority  of  Arran  and  Lennov, 
who  were  now  the  principal  persons  in  the  king- 
dom. The  chief  actors  in  this  were  the  earls  of 
Cowrie,  Mar,  and  Glencairn,  the  lords  Lindsay 
and  Boyd,  with  the  masters  of  Glammis  and 
Oliphant.  Through  the  youth  and  imbecility  of 
the  king,  they  easily  accomplished  their  purpose  ~T 
and,  having  got  him  in  their  power,  they  promised 
him  his  liberty  provided  he  would  command 
Lennox  to  depart  the  kingdom.  This  was  ac- 
cordingly done ;  but  the  king  found  himself  as 
much  a  prisoner  as  before.  The  more  effectually 
to  detain  him  in  their  custody,  the  rebels  con- 
strained him  to  issue  a  proclamation,  wherein  he 
declared  himself  to  be  at  perfect  liberty.  Lennox 
was  preparing  to  advance  to  the  king's  relief 
with  a  considerable  body  offerees,  when  he  was 
disconcerted  by  the  king's  peremptory  command 
to  leave  Scotland  ;  upon  which  he  retired  to 
Dumbarton,  to  wait  for  a  more  favorable  oppor- 
tunity. The  »:arl  of  Arran,  being  more  forward. 


SCOTLAND. 


541 


was  committed  to  close  custody  for  some  time, 
but  afterwards  confined  only  in  his  house  of 
Kinneil.  The  rebels  took  upon  them  the  title  of 
lords  for  the  reformation  of  the  state.  The  clergy, 
who  had  all  this  time  been  exceedingly  averse  to 
-episcopacy,  now  gave  open  countenance  to  the 
lords  of  the  reformation.  On  the  13th  of  Oc- 
tober, 1582,  they  made  a  solemn  act  by  which 
the  raid  of  Kuthven,  as  the  capture  of  the  king 
was  called,  was  deemed  a  service  most  acceptable 
to  all  who  feared  God,  respected  the  true  religion, 
and  were  anxious  for  the  preservation  of  the  king 
and  state  ;  and  every  minister  was  commanded  to 
declaim  from  his  pulpit  upon  the  expediency  of 
this  measure,  and  to  exhort  the  people  to  concur 
with  the  lords  in  prosecuting  the  full  deliverance 
of  the  church,  and  the  perfect  reformation  of  the 
commonwealth.  Not  satisfied  with  this,  the  con- 
spirators got  their  proceedings  approved  by  the 
states  of  Scotland,  as  a  good,  a  thankful,  and  a 
necessary  service  to  the  king.  At  the  same  time  it 
was  enacted  that  no  suit  civil  or  criminal  of  any 
kind  should  ever  be  instituted  against  the  persons 
concerned  in  it.  Soon  after  this  Lennox  took 
his  leave  of  Scotland,  and  sailed  to  France,  where 
he  died.  The  unfortunate  Mary  was  driven  to 
despair  when  she  heard  that  her  son  was  taken 
prisoner  by  rebels  who  had  been  instigated  by 
Elizabeth.  In  this  distress  she  addressed  a  most 
spirited  letter  to  Elizabeth,  in  which  she  at  once 
asserted  her  own  innocence,  and  set  forth  the 
conduct  of  Elizabeth  herself  in  such  language  as 
must  have  put  the  most  impudent  of  her  ad- 
versaries to  the  blush.  Elizabeth  had  recourse  to 
her  usual  arts  of  treacherous  negociation.  New 
terms  were  proposed  to  Mary,  who  would  gladly 
have  submitted  almost  to  any  thing  to  procure 
her  freedom.  It  was  proposed,  as  had  often 
been  done  before,  to  associate  the  queen  of  Scots 
with  her  son  in  the  government;  but  as  this  was 
to  be  referred  to  the  king,  who  was  in  the  hands 
of  Elizabeth's  friends,  and  to  the  parliament, 
who  were  under  the  power  of  the  same  faction, 
it  is  easy  to  see  that  no  such  association  ever 
could  take  place,  or  indeed  was  ever  intended. 
After  the  death  of  Lennox,  the  conspirators  ap- 
prehended no  further  danger,  little  supposing 
that  a  prince  so  young  and  unexperienced  could 
deliver  himself  from  captivity.  This,  however, 
in  1583,  he  effected  in  the  following  manner.  A 
convention  of  the  estates  had  been  summoned  to 
meet  at  St.  Andrews ;  James,  whom  the  earl  of 
Arran,  notwithstanding  his  confinement  at  Kin- 
neil, had  found  means  to  instruct,  pretended  a 
desire  of  visiting  his  grand  uncle  the  earl  of 
March,  who  resided  at  St.  Andrews,  and  was  for 
that  purpose  permitted  to  repair  thither  a  few 
days  before  the  convention.  The  better  to  de- 
ceive the  earls  of  Cowrie,  Angus,  and  Mar,  who 
attended  him,  he  took  up  his  lodgings  in  an  old 
inn,  which  was  quite  open  and  defenceless.  But, 
having  expressed  a  desire  to  see  the  castle  of  St. 
Andrews,  he  was  admitted  into  it ;  and  colonel 
Stuart,  who  commanded  the  castle,  after  ad- 
mitting a  few  of  his  retinue,  ordered  the  gates  to 
be  shut.  The  earls  of  Argyle,  Marischal,  Mon- 
trose,  and  llothes,  who  were  in  concert  with  the 
kin<r,  hastened  to  make  him  an  offer  of  their 
fwoids.  The  opposite  faction,  being  unprepared 


tor  hostilities,  were  filled  with  consternation.  Of 
all  the  conspirators,  the  earl  of  Gowrie  alone  wa> 
admitted  into  the  king's  presence,  by  the  favor 
of  colonel  Stuart,  and  received  his  pardon.  The 
earls  of  March,  Argyle,  Gowrie,  Marischal,  and 
Rothes,  were  appointed  to  be  a  council  for  as- 
sisting the  king  in  the  management  of  his  affairs ; 
and  soon  after  this  James  set  out  for  Edinburgh. 
The  king  no  sooner  found  himself  at  liberty, 
than,  by  the  advice  of  his  privy  council,  he 
issued  a  proclamation  of  mercy  to  the  conspira- 
tors ;  but  they,  flattering  themselves  with  the  hopes 
of  support  from  Elizabeth,  obstinately  refused  to 
accept  of  his  pardon.  Iri  consequence  of  this 
they  were  denounced  rebels.  Elizabeth  gave 
them  all  the  encouragement  she  could,  and  the 
clergy  uttered  the  most  seditious  discourses 
against  the  king  and  government;  but,  while 
they  railed  against  popery,  they  themselves  main- 
tained openly  the  distinguishing  tenet  of  popery, 
namely,  that  the  clerical  was  entirely  indepen- 
dent of  the  civil  power.  At  last  the  rebels  broke 
forth  into  open  hostilities ;  but,  by  the  vigilance 
of  Arran,  the  earl  of  Gowrie,  who  had  again 
begun  his  treasonable  practices,  was  committed 
to  custody  Awhile  the  rest,  unable  to  oppose  the 
king,  who  appeared  against  them  with  a  for- 
midable army,  were  obliged  to  fly  into  England, 
where  Elizabeth  with  her  usual  treachery  pro- 
tected them.  The  earl  of  Gowrie  suffered  as  a 
traitor  ;  but  the  severity  exercised  against  him  did 
not  intimidate  the  clergy. 

The  clergy  still  continued  their  rebellious 
practices,  until,  the  king  being  informed  that  they 
were  engaged  in  a  correspondence  with  some  of 
the  fugitive  lords,  citations  were  given  to  their 
leaders  to  appear  before  the  privy-council.  Not 
daring  to  appear  they  fled  to  England  ;  and  on 
the  20th  of  May,  1584,  the  king  summoned  a 
convention  of  the  estates,  on  purpose  to  humble 
the  pride  of  the  church,  tn  this  assembly  the 
raid  of  lluthven  was  declared  to  be  rebellion, 
according  to  a  declaration  which  had  formerly 
been  made  by  the  king.  And,  as  it  had  grown 
into  a  custom  with  the  promoters  of  sedition  to 
decline  the  judgment  of  the  king  and  the  council, 
when  called  before  them  to  answer  for  rebellious 
or  contumelious  speeches,  uttered  from  the 
pulpit  or  in  public  places,  an  ordination  was 
made,  asserting  that  they  had  complete  powers 
to  judge  concerning  persons  of  every  degree  and 
function,  and  declaring  that  every  act  of  oppo- 
sition to  their  jurisdiction  should  be  accounted 
treason,  it  was  enacted  that  the  authority  of 
the  parliament  was  full  and  supreme;  and  that 
every  attempt  to  diminish,  alter,  or  infringe  its 
power,  dignity,  and  jurisdiction,  should  be  held 
and  punished  as  treason.  All  jurisdictions  and 
judgments,  all  assemblies  and  conventions,  not 
approved  of  by  the  king  and  the  three  estates, 
were  prohibited.  It  was  ordained  that  the  king 
might  appoint  commissioners  to  examine  into  the 
delinquencies  of  clergymen,  and,  if  convicted,  to 
deprive  them  of  their  benefices.  It  was  com- 
manded that  clergymen  should  not  for  the  future 
be  admitted  to  the  dignity  of  lords  of  session,  or 
to  the  administration  of  any  judicature  civil  or 
criminal.  An  ordination  was  made  which  sub- 
jected to  capital  punishment  all  persons  who 


542 


SCOTLAND. 


should  utter  false  and  slanderous  speeches  in 
sermons,  declamations,  or  familiar  discourse,  to 
the  reproach  and  contempt  of  the  king,  his 
parents,  and  progenitors.  It  was  further  or- 
dered that  a  guard,  consisting  of  forty  gentlemen, 
with  a  yearly  allowance  to  each  of  £200,  should 
continually  attend  upon  the  king.  This  parlia- 
ment, which  was  full  of  zeal  for  the  crown,  did 
not  overlook  Buchanan's  History  of  Scotland, 
which  had  excited  a  very  general  attention.  It 
commanded  that  all  persons  who  were  possessed 
of  copies  of  his  history,  and  of  his  Treatise  on  the 
Scottish  government,  should  surrender  them 
within  forty  days,  under  the  penalty  of  £200, 
that  they  might  be  puiged  of  the  offensive  and 
extraordinary  matters  they  contained.  This 
stroke  of  tyranny  was  furious  and  ineffectual ; 
foreign  nations,  as  well  as  his  own  countrymen, 
were  filled  with  the  highest  admiration  of  Bu- 
chanan. His  writings  were  multiplied  in  every 
quarter ;  and  the  severity  exercised  against  them 
only  served  the  more  to  excite  curiosity,  and  to 
diffuse  his  reputation. 

While  the  parliamentary  acts,  which  struck 
against  the  importance  of  the  church,  were  in 
agitation,  the  ministers  deputed  David  Lindsay 
to  solicit,  the  king  that  no  statutes  should  pass 
which  affected  the  ecclesiastical  establishment, 
without  the  consultation  of  the  general  assembly. 
But  the  earl  of  Arran,  having  intelligence  of 
this  commission,  defeated  it,  by  committing 
Lindsay  to  prison  as  a  spy  for  the  discontented 
nobles.  Upon  the  publication,  however,  of  these 
acts  by  the  heralds,  Robert  Pont  minister  of  St. 
Cuthberts,  and  one  of  the  senators  of  the  court 
of  session,  with  Walter  Balcanqual,  protested 
formally  in  the  name  of  the  church,  that  it  dis- 
sented from  them,  and  that  they  were  conse- 
quently invalid  ;  after  which  they  fled,  and  were 
proclaimed  traitors.  By  letters  and  pamphlets, 
artfully  spread  among  the  people,  their  passions 
were  roused  against  the  king  and  his  council. 
AH  the  clergy  were  commanded  to  subscribe  a 
declaration,  of  the  supremacy  of  the  king  over 
the  church,  and  their  submission  to  the  authority 
of  the  bishops.  On  this,  the  national  ferments 
increased  in  violence.  Many  ministers,  refusing 
to  subscribe,  were  deprived  of  their  livings.  It 
was  urged  that  to  make  the  king  supreme  over 
the  church  was  no  better  than  to  set  up  a  new 
pope,  and  to  commit  treason  against  Jesus  Christ ; 
that  to  overthrow  assemblies  and  presbyteries, 
and  to  give  dominion  to  bishops,  was  not  only  to 
overset  the  established  polity  of  the  church,  but 
to  destroy  region  itself;  for  the  bishops  were 
the  slaves  of  the  court,  schismatical  in  their 
opinions,  and  depraved  in  their  lives.  It  was 
ur^ed  that  the  ministers  alone  were  entrusted 
wrth  ecclesiastical  functions,  and  with  the  sword 
of  the  word;  and  that  it  was  most  wicked  to 
imagine  that  Jesus  Christ  had  ever  committed 
the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to  civil  ma- 
gistrates. While  the  clergy  were  thus  im potently 
venting  their  wrath,  Elizabeth  alarmed  beyond 
measure  at  this  sudden  revolution,  and  terrified 
l.y  a  confession  extorted  by  the  rack  from  one 
1'rancis  Throgmorton,  concerning  a  combination 
of  the  Catholic  princes  to  invade  England,  began 
to  treat  Mary  in  a  more  severe  manner  than 


usual;  and  having  gained  over  the  earl  ot  Arran, 
the  only  man  of  activity  in  Scotland,  she  re- 
solved on  further  extremities.  The  Roman 
Catholics,  at  home  and  abroad,  were  inflamed 
against  her  with  a  boundless  and  inplacable  rage  : 
there  prevailed  many  rumors  of  plots  and  con- 
spiracies against  her  kingdom  and  life.  Books 
were  published  which  detailed  her  cruelties  and 
injustice  to  Mary  in  the  most  indignant  language 
of  reproach,  and  which  recommended  her  assassi- 
nation as  a  most  meritorious  act :  the  earl  of 
Arran  had  explained  to  her  the  practices  of  the 
queen  of  Scots  with  her  son,  and  had  discovered 
the  intrigues  of  the  Catholic  princes  to  gain  him 
to  their  views.  While  her  fears  were  thus  ex- 
cited, circumstances  happened  which  confirmetl 
them,  and  provoked  her  to  give  full  scope  to  her 
malignity.  Crichton,  a  Scottish  Jesuit,  passing 
into  his  own  country,  was  taken  by  Netherland 
pirates  ;  and  some  papers  which  he  had  torn  in 
pieces  and  thrown  into  the  sea,  being  recovered, 
were  transmitted  to  England.  Sir  William  Wade 
put  them  together,  and  they  demonstrated  that 
the  invasion  of  England  was  concerted  by  the 
pope,  the  king  of  Spain,  and  the  duke  of  Guise. 
About  this  time,  too,  a  letter  was  intercepted 
from  Mary  to  Sir  Francis  Englefield.  She 
complained  in  it  that  she  could  have  no  reliance 
upon  the  integrity  of  Elizabeth,  and  that  she  ex- 
pected no  happy  issue  to  any  treaty  which  might 
be  opened  for  her  restoration  and  liberty.  She 
urged  the  advancement  of  the  great  plot ;  she 
intimated  that  the  prince  her  son  was  favorable 
to  the  design,  and  disposed  to  be  directed 
by  her  advice  ;  she  entreated  that  every  delicacy 
with  regard  to  her  own  state  and  condition 
should  be  laid  aside  without  scruple ;  and  she 
assured  him  that  she  would  most  willingly 
suffer  perils  and  dangers,  and  even  death  itself, 
to  give  relief  to  the  oppressed  children  of  the 
church.  These  discoveries,  so  exasperating  to 
Elizabeth,  were  followed. by  a  deep  and  general 
consternation.  The  terror  of  an  invasion  spread 
with  rapidity  over  England  ;  and  the  Protestants, 
while  they  trembled  for  the  life  of  their  cham- 
pion, were  still  more  alarmed  with  the  dangers 
which  threatened  their  religion.  In  this  state  of 
perplexity  and  distraction,  the  counsellors  of  Eli- 
zabeth, who  had  been  her  instruments  in  perse- 
cuting the  queen  of  Scots,  and  of  her  severities 
to  the  Roman  Catholics,  were  sensible  that  her 
greatness  and  safety  were  connected  with  their 
own  ;  and  they  concurred  in  indulging  her  fears, 
jealousies,  and  resentments.  It  was  resolved 
that  Mary  should  perish.  An  association  was 
formed,  to  which  persons  of  every  condition  and 
degree  were  invited,  for  the  preservation  of 
the  life  of  Elizabeth,  which  it  was  affirmed  was 
in  danger,  from  a  conspiracy  to  advance  some 
pretended  title  to  the  crown  ;  and  its  members 
vowed,  by  the  majesty  of  God,  to  employ  their 
whole  po*er,  bodies,  lives,  and  goods,  in  her 
service ;  to  withstand  all  persons,  of  what- 
soever nation  or  rank,  who  should  attempt  in  anj 
form  to  invade  and  injure  her  safety  or  her  life, 
and  to  prosecute  to  destruction  any  pretended 
successor,  by  whom,  or  for  whom,  the  assassina- 
tion of  Elizabeth  should  be  attempted  or  com- 
mitted. The  earl  of  Leicester  was  the  patron  of 


SCOTLAND. 


*his   association ;    and  the  whole    influence   of 
Elizabeth  and  her  ministers  was  exerted  to  mul- 
tiply the  subscriptions.     A  combination  so  reso- 
lute and  so  fierce,  which  pointed  to  the  death  of 
Mary,  which  threatened  her  titles  to   the  crown 
of  England,  and  which  might  defeat  the  succes- 
sion of  her  son,  could  not  fail  to  excite  in  her 
bosom  the  bitterest   anxiety  and   perturbation. 
Weary  of  her  sad  and  long  captivity,   broken 
down  with  calamities,  dreading  afflictions  still 
more  cruel,  and  willing  to  take  away  from  Eli- 
zabeth every  possible  pretence  of  severity,  she 
now   framed   a  scheme  of  accommodation,    to 
which  no  decent  or  reasonable  objection  could 
be  made.     By  Naw,  her  secretary,  she  presented 
it  to  Elizabeth  and  her  pri\y-council.     She  pro- 
tested in  it  that,  if  her  liberty  should  be  granted 
to  her,  she  would  enter  into  the  closest  amity 
with   Elizabeth,  and  pay  an  observance  to  her 
above  every  other  prince  of  Christendom ;  that 
she  would  forget  all  the  injuries  with  which  she 
had  been  loaded,  acknowledge  Elizabeth  to  be 
the  rightful  queen  of  England,  abstain  from  any 
claim  to  her  crown  during  her  life,  renounce  the 
title  and  arms  of  England,  which  she  had  usurp- 
ed by  the  command  of  her  husband  the  king  of 
France,  and  reprobate  the  bull  from  Rome  which 
had  deposed  the  English  queen.     She  likewise 
protested   that  she  would  enter  into  the  associa- 
tion which  had  been  formed  for  the  security  of 
Elizabeth ;  and  that  she  would  conclude  a  defen- 
sive league  with  her,  provided  that  it  should  not 
be  prejudicial  to  the  ancient  alliance  between 
Scotland  and  France ;  and  that  nothing  should 
be  done  during  the  life  of  the  English  queen,  or 
after  her  death,  which  should  invalidate  her  titles 
10  the  crown  of  England,  or  those  of  her  son. 
As  a  confirmation  of  these  articles,  she  would 
consent  to  stay  in  England  for  some  time  as  an 
hostage;  and,  if  she  was  permitted  to  retire  from 
England,    she  would  surrender  proper  and  ac- 
ceptable persons  as  sureties.     She  also  engaged 
that  she  would  make  no  alterations  in  Scotland  ; 
nnd  that,  upon  the  repeal  of  what  had  been 
enacted  there  to  her  disgrace,  she  would  bury 
in   oblivion   all  the   injuries  she  had   received 
from  her  subjects  ;  that  she  would  recommend 
to  the  king  her  son  those  counsellors  who  were 
most  attached  to  England,  and  that  she  would 
employ  herself  to  reconcile  him  to  the  fugitive 
nobles :  that  she  would  Jake  no  steps  about  his 
marriage  without  acquainting  the  queen  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  that,  to  give  the  greater  firmness  to 
the  proposed  accommodation,  he  should  be  call- 
ed as  a  party  to  it :  in  fine,  that  she  would  pro- 
cure the  king  of  France  and  the  princes  of  Lor- 
raine to  be  guarari tees  for  the  performance  of  her 
engagements.     Elizabeth,  with  great  hypocrisy, 
professed  the  greatest   satisfaction   and  joy  at 
these  overtures.     She  made  no  advances,  how- 
ever, to  conclude  an  accommodation  with  Mary; 
and  her  ministers  and  courtiers  exclaimed  against 
lenient  and  pacific  measures.     It  was  insisted 
that  the  liberty  of  the  Scottish  queen  would  be 
the  death  of  Elizabeth  :  that  her  association  with 
her  son  would  be  the  ruin  both  of  England  and 
Scotland  ;  and  that  her  elevation  to  power  would 
extend  the  empire  of  popery,  and  give  a  deadly 
blow  to  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation.     In  the 


mean  time  an  act  of  attainder  had  passed  against 
the  fugitives  nobles,  and  their  estates  and  honors 
were  forfeited  to  the  king;  who,  not  satisfied 
with  this,  sent  Patrick  master  of  Gray  to  de- 
mand a  surrender  of  their  persons  from  the  queen 
of  England.  As  this  ambassador  had  resided 
some  time  in  France,  and  been  intimate  with  the 
duke  of  Guise,  he  was  recommended  to  Mary  : 
but  being  a  man  of  no  principle  he  was  easi*y 
corrupted  by  Elizabeth  ;  and,  while  he  pretended 
friendship  to  the  unfortunate  queen,  discovered 
all  that  he  knew  of  the  intentions  of  her  and  Ix  r 
son.  The  most  scandalous  falsehoods  wi-r-- 
forged  against  Mary  ;  and,  the  less  she  was  abl ; 
to  execute,  the  more  she  was  said  to  design. 
That  she  had  an  amour  with  her  keeper  the  earl 
of  Shrewsbury,  as  was  now  reported,  was  possi- 
ble, but  of  this  there  was  no  proof.  This,  how- 
ever, could  be  no  treason  against  Elizabeth  :  yet, 
on  account  of  this,  Mary  was  committed  to  the 
charge  of  Sir  Amias  Paulet  and  Sir  DrueDrurv, 
zealous  puritans,  who  would  treat  her  with  that 
strict  severity  which  might  drive  her  to  despair 
and  induce  her  to  commit  some  rash  action. — 
The  earl  of  Leicester,  said  to  be  Elizabeth's  pa- 
ramour, even  ventured  to  send  assassins,  on  pur- 
pose, by  the  murder  of  Mary,  at  once  to  deliver 
his  mistress  from  her  fears.  But  the  new  keepers 
of  the  castle,  though  religious  bigots,  were  men 
of  strict  probity,  and  rejected  with  scorn  such  an 
infamous  proposal. 

In  1585  Mary  began  to  feel  all  the  rigors  of  a 
severe  imprisonment.  She  had  been  removed 
from  Sheffield  to  the  castle  of  Tutbury  ;  and  un- 
der her  new  keepers  she  experienced  a  treatment 
which  was  in  the  highest  degree  unjust,  disre- 
spectful, and  acrimonious.  Two  apartments  or 
chambers  only  were  allotted  to  her,  and  they 
were  small  and  inconvenient,  meanly  furnished, 
and  so  full  of  apertures  and  chinks  that  they 
could  not  protect  her  against  the  inclemencies  of 
the  weather.  The  liberty  of  going  abroad  for 
exercise  was  denied  to  her.  She  was  assailed  by 
rheumatisms  and  other  maladies  ;  and  her  phy- 
sician would  not  undertake  to  effect  a  cure  un- 
less she  should  be  removed  to  a  more  commodi- 
ous dwelling.  Applications  for  this  purpose 
were  often  made,  but  uniformly  rejected.  Here, 
however,  her  own  afflictions  did  not  extinguish 
in  her  mind  her  sensibility  for  the  misfortunes  of 
others;  and  she  often  indulged  herself  in  the 
satisfaction  of  employing  a  servant  to  go  through 
the  village  in  search  of  objects  of  distress.  But 
her  inhuman  keepers,  envying  her  this  pleasure, 
commanded  her  to  abstain  from  it.  Imputing 
their  rigor  to  a  suspicious  fidelity,  she  desired  that 
her  servant  might,  on  these  occasions,  be  accom- 
panied by  one  of  the  soldiers  of  their  guard,  or 
by  the  constable  of  the  village.  But  they  would 
not  alter  their  prohibition.  To  insult  her  the 
more,  the  castle  of  Tutbury  was  converted  into 
a  common  jail :  and  a  young  man,  whose  crime 
was  the  profession  of  the  Romish  religion,  was 
committed  to  a  chamber  which  was  opposite  to 
her  window,  that  he  might  be  persecuted  in  her 
sight.  He  was  dragged  every  morning  to  join 
in  the  Protestant  worship  ;  and,  after  enduring 
several  weeks  this  extraordinary  violence  to  his 
conscience,  was  strangled,  it  is  said,  without  any 


544 


SCOTLAND. 


form  of  law.  Mary  remonstrated  to  Elizabeth 
against  indignities  so  shocking  and  so  horrible ; 
but  in  vain.  In  the  midst  of  her  misfortunes, 
however,  she  had  still  solaced  herself  with  hope, 
from  the  exertions  of  her  son.  He  had  hitherto 
behaved  with  a  becoming  cordiality  ;  and,  in  the 
negociation  which  she  had  opened  with  him  for 
her  association  in  the  government,  he  had  been 
studious  to  please  her.  He  had  informed  her 
that  he  found  the  greatest  comfort  in  her  mater- 
nal tenderness,  and  that  he  would  accomplish 
her  commands  with  humility  and  expedition  ; 
that  he  would  not  fail  to  ratify  her  union  and 
association  with  him  in  the  government ;  that  it 
would  be  his  most  earnest  endeavour  to  reconcile 
their  common  subjects  to  that  measure ;  and  that 
she  might  expect  from  him,  during  his  life,  every 
satisfaction  and  duty  which  a  good  mother  could 
promise  to  herself  from  an  affectionate  and  obe- 
dient son.  But  these  fair  blossoms  of  kindness 
were  all  blasted  by  the  arts  of  Elizabeth.  The 
master  of  Gray  had  now  obtained  an  ascendant 
over  James.  He  delayed  to  ratify  her  associa- 
tion in  the  government;  and  he  even  appeared 
unwilling  to  press  Elizabeth  for  her  liberty.  The 
master  of  Gray  had  convinced  him  that,  if  any 
favor  was  shown  to  Mary  by  the  queen  of  Eng- 
«and,  it  would  terminate  in  his  humiliation.  He 
assured  him  that,  if  his  mother  were  again  to 
mount  the  Scottish  throne,  her  zeal  for  Popery 
would  induce  her  to  seek  a  husband  in  the  house 
of  Austria ;  that  she  would  dissolve  his  associa- 
tion with  her  in  the  government,  on  the  pretence 
of  his  attachment  to  the  reformed  doctrines  ;  and 
that  he  would  not  only  lose  the  glory  of  his  pre- 
sent power,  but  endanger  his  succession.  Mary 
expostulated  with  him  by  letter  upon  the  timidity 
of  his  behaviour ;  and  he  returned  her  an  answer 
full  of  disrespect.  Her  amazement,  indignation, 
and  grief,  were  infinite.  She  wrote  to  Castelnau  the 
French  ambassador  to  inform  him  of  her  inquie- 
tudes and  anguish.  '  My  son,'  said  she,  '  is  un- 
grateful ;  and  I  desire  that  the  king  your  master 
shall  consider  him  no  longer  as  a  sovereign.' 
Elizabeth,  having  thus  sown  dissension  between 
the  queen  of  Scots  and  her  son,  made  the  best 
use  she  could  of  her  quarrel.  The  pope,  the 
duke  of  Guise,  and  the  king  of  Spain,  had  con- 
cluded an  alliance,  called  the  holy  league,  for 
the  extirpation  of  the  Protestant  religion  all  over 
Europe.  Elizabeth  was  thrown  into  the  greatest 
consternation  by  this;  and  the  idea  of  a  counter 
association  among  the  Protestant  princes  of 
Europe  immediately  suggested  itself.  Sir  Edward 
Wottou  was  deputed  to  Scotland  ;  and  so  com- 
pletely gained  upon  the  imbecility  of  James  that 
he  concluded  a  firm  alliance  with  Elizabeth,with- 
out  making  any  stipulation  in  favor  of  his  mother. 
Nay,  so  far  was  he  the  dupe  of  this  ambassador 
and  his  mistress,  that  he  was  persuaded  to  take 
into  his  favor  Archibald  Douglas,  one  of  the 
murderers  of  lord  Darnley;  and  even  appointed 
this  assassin  to  be  his  ambassador  to  England. 
Mary,  thus  abandoned  by  all  the  world,  in  the 
hands  of  her  most  inveterate  and  cruel  enemy, 
fell  a  victim  to  her  resentment  and  treachery,  in 
1587.  A  plot  of  assassination  had  been  formed 
in  the  spring  of  1586  against  the  English  queen  , 
partly  to  rescue  the  Scottish  princess,  but  chiefly 


to  serve  the  interests  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  This  conspiracy,  which  originated 
with  Roman  Catholic  priests,  was  soon  imparted 
to  Babington,  a  person  of  great  fortune,  of  many 
accomplishments,  and  who  had  formerly  shown 
himself  a  zealous  friend  of  queen  Mary.  That 
she  had  corresponded  with  Babington  there  is  no 
doubt ;  but  it  was  some  years  previous  to  the 
formation  of  this  plot.  A  long  silence  had  taken 
place  between  them ;  and  Morgan,  one  of  the 
English  fugitives  in  France,  and  a  warm  friend 
of  Mary's,  in  May  1586,  wrote  a  letter  to  her, 
repeatedly,  and  in  the  most  pressing  manner,  re- 
commending a  revival  of  that  correspondence. 
In  consequence  of  which,  in  her  answer  to  Mor- 
gan, dated  the  27th  day  of  July,  she  informed 
him  that  she  had  made  all  apologies  in  her 
power  to  Babington,  for  not  having  written  to 
him  for  so  long  a  time  ;  that  he  had  generously 
offered  himself  and  all  his  fortune  in  her  cause ; 
and  that,  agreeably  to  Morgan's  advice,  she 
would  do  her  best  to  retain  him  in  her  interests ; 
but  she  throws  out  no  hint  of  her  knowledge  of 
the  intended  assassination.  On  the  very  same 
day  she  wrote  likewise  to  Paget,  another  of  her 
most  confidential  friends  ;  but  not  a  word  in  it 
with  respect  to  Babington's  scheme  of  cutting  off 
the  English  queen.  To  Morgan  and  to  Paget 
she  certainly  would  have  communicated  her 
mind,  and  would  hare  consulted  them  about  the 
plot,  had  she  been  accessory  to»it.  Indeed  it 
seems  to  have  been  part  of  the  policy  of  Mary's 
friends  to  keep  her  a  stranger  to  all  clandestine 
and  hazardous  undertakings  in  her  favor.  Mor- 
gan, in  a  letter  of  the  4th  of  July,  expressly  re- 
commended to  have  no  intelligence  at  all  with 
Ballard,  who  was  one  of  the  original  contrivers 
of  the  plot,  and  communicated  it  to  Babington. 
The  queen,  in  consequence,  shut  the  door  against 
all  correspondence  with  that  person.  The  con- 
spiracy, which  goes  under  the  name  of  Babington, 
was  detected  in  June :  the  names,  proceedings, 
and  residences  of  those  engaged  in  it  were  then 
known ;  the  life  of  Elizabeth  was  in  imminent  ha- 
zard :  yet  the  conspirators  were  not  apprehended ; 
they  were  permitted  to  enjoy  complete  liberty  ; 
treated  as  if  there  had  not  been  the  least  suspi- 
cion against  them  ;  and  in  this  quiet  state  were 
they  suffered  to  continue  till  August,  for  a  period 
of  nearly  two  months.  The  queen  of  Scots  con- 
tinued still  detached  from  Babington  and  his 
associates.  Their  destruction  was  a  small  matter 
compared  with  tier's.  Elizabeth's  ministers  knew 
how  much  they  had  rendered  themselves  justly 
obnoxious  to  the  Scottish  princess  :  should  she 
come  to  mount  the  throne  of  England  their 
downfall  was  inevitable ;  from  which  considera- 
tion they  were  even  more  zealous  than  their 
mistress  to  accomplish  her  ruin.  Of  these,  Sir 
Francis  \Valsingham  secretary  of  state  appears 
to  have  taken  upon  himself  the  chief  manage- 
ment in  concerting  a  plan  of  operations  against 
the  queen  of  Scots.  His  spies  having  early  ob- 
tained the  confidence  of  the  inferior  conspirators, 
he  learned  that  a  packet  from  France  was  in- 
tended to  be  conveyed  by  them  to  queen  Mary, 
and  by  the  hands  of  one  Gilbert  Gifford  a  priest, 
whom  he  had  secretly  gained  over  from  their 
association,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Sir  Amias  Paulet, 


SCOTLAND. 


who  had  now  the  custody  of  Mary,  requesting; 
that  one  of  his  domestics  might  be  permitted  to 
take  a  bribe  for  conveying  that  packet  to  his  cap- 
tive. This  was  on  purpose  to  communicate  to 
her  a  letter,  forged  in  the  name  of  Babington,  in 
which  that  conspirator  was  made  to  impart  to 
the  Scottish  queen  his  scheme  of  assassination, 
and  to  claim  rewards  to  the  perpetrators  of  the 
deed.  Paulet,  however,  to  his  honor,  refused  to 
act  a  part  in  this  plan  of  villany ;  upon  which 
Gifford  corrupted  a  brewer  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, who  put  his  letters  to  Mary  in  a  hole  in 
the  castle-wall.  By  the  same  conveyance  it  was 
i  bought  that  Mary  would  answer  the  letters  ;  but 
.*he  never  saw  them,  and  of  course  no  return  was 
made.  It  was  then  contrived  that  answers,  in 
the  name  of  the  queen  of  Scots  to  Gifford, 
should  he  forged  and  found  in  the  hole  of  the 
wall.  Walsingham,  to  whom  these  letters  were 
carried,  deciphered  them  by  the  help  of  one 
Thomas  Philips,  and,  after  exact  copies  were 
taken,  they  were  all  artfully  sealed  and  sent  off  to 
the  persons  to  whom  they  were  directed.  The 
answers  which  Babington  made  to  the  queen's 
supposed  letters  were  carried  directly  to  Walsing- 
ham. 

A  foundation  for  criminating  Mary  being  thus 
laid,  the  conspirators  suffered  the  death  of  trai- 
tors. The  unhappy  princess,  eagerly  watched 
by  Paulet,  and  unacquainted  with  the  late  occur- 
rences, received  a  visit  from  Sir  Thomas  Gorges. 
This  envoy,  as  instructed  by  Elizabeth,  surprised 
her  when  she  had  mounted  her  horse  to  take  the 
pleasure  of  the  chase.  His  salutation  was  ab- 
rupt and  unceremonious;  and  after  informing 
her  of  the  discovery  and  circumstances  of  the 
conspiracy  of  Babington,  ne  rudely  charged  her 
with  a  concern  in  it.  Her  astonishment  was 
great,  and  she  desired  to  return  to  her  chamber : 
but  this  favor  was  refused  ;  and  after  being  car- 
ried from  one  house  to  another,  in  an  anxious 
and  perplexing  uncertainty,  she  was  committed 
to  Fotheringay  castle  in  Northamptonshire.  Naw 
and  Curl,  her  two  secretaries,  the  former  a 
Frenchman  the  latter  a  Scotsman,  were  taken 
into  custody.  Paulet,  breaking  open  the  doors 
of  her  private  closet,  possessed  himself  of  hei 
money,  which  amounted  to  only  7000  crowns. 
Her  cabinets  were  sealed  up;  and,  being  sent  to 
London,  were  examined  in  the  presence  of  Eliza- 
beth. They  contained  many  despatches  from 
persons  beyond  the  sea,  copies  of  letters  which 
had  been  dictated  by  her,  and  about  sixty  tables 
of  ciphers  and  characters.  There  were  also  dis- 
covered in  them  many  despatches  from  English 
noblemen,  which  were  full  of  admiration  and 
respect.  These  Elizabeth  concealed.  Naw  and 
Curl  declared  that  the  copies  of  her  letters 
were  in  their  hand-writing.  They  had  been  dic- 
tated by  her  in  the  French  language  to  Naw, 
translated  into  English  by  Curl,  and  then  put 
into  cipher.  They  contained  not  any  matters 
with  which  which  she  could  be  criminated.  It 
was  upon  the  foundation  of  the  letters  which 
Gifford  had  communicated  to  Walsingham  that 
her  guilt  was  to  be  inferred  ;  and  with  copies  of 
these,  and  with  an  attested  account  of  the  con- 
spiracy of  Babington  and  his  associates.  Sir 
Edward  Wotton  was  now  dispatched  to  France 
VOL.  XIX. 


to  accuse  her  to  Henry  III.,  and  to  explain  to 
him  the  dangers  to  which  Elizabeth  was  exposed 
from  the  machinations  of  the  English  exiles.  The 
privy  counsellors  of  Elizabeth  deliberated  upon 
the  most  proper  method  of  proceeding  against 
Mary.  To  some  it  appeared  that  as  she  was 
only  accessory  to  the  plot,  and  not  the  designer 
of  it,  the  most  eligible  severity  to  be  exercised 
against  her  was  a  closer  and  more  rigorous  con- 
finement. By  others,  who  were  haunted  by  the 
terrors  of  Popery,  it  was  urged  that  she  ought 
to  be  put  instantly  to  death  by  the  formalities  of 
the  law.  The  earl  of  Leicester  recommended  it 
as  most  prudent  to  despatch  her  secretly  by 
poison.  But  this  counsel  was  rejected  as  mean 
and  disgraceful.  The  lawyers  were  of  opinion 
that  she  might  be  tried  upon  the  statute  of  Ed- 
ward III.  respecting  high  treason.  Elizabeth, 
however,  and  her  ministers  had  provided  a  more 
plausible  foundation  for  her  trial.  This  was  a 
parliamentary  statute  approving  the  act  of  asso- 
ciation, which  had  been  passed  while  Mary  was 
in  England.  The  next  point  of  debate  was  the 
designation  under  which  it  was  most  adviseable 
to  arraign  her :  and  it  was  resolved  to  designate 
iier,  Mary,  daughter  and  heir  of  James  V.,  king 
of  Scotland,  commonly  called  queen  of  Scots, 
and  dowager  of  France.  Elizabeth  next  ap- 
pointed above  forty  peers,  and  five  judges,  with 
authority  to  enquire  into  the  matters  compassed 
and  imagined  against  her  by  the  Scottish  prin- 
cess, and  to  pass  sentence  according  to  the  spirit 
and  tenor  of  the  act.  Of  these  commissioners  a 
great  majority  proceeded  to  the  castle  of  Fotlie- 
nngay  ;  and,  the  day  after  their  arrival,  they  de- 
puted to  Mary,  Sir  Walter  Mildmay,  Sir  Amias 
Paulet,  and  Edward  Barker  a  public  notary,  to  de- 
liver to  her  a  letter  from  Elizabeth.  In  this  letter 
the  English  queen  gratified  her  unhappy  passions, 
and  after  reproaching  Mary  with  her  crimes,  in- 
formed her  that  her  commissioners  were  ap- 
pointed to  take  cognizance  of  them.  The  Scot- 
tish princess,  though  astonished  with  the  project 
of  being  brought  to  a  public  trial,  was  able  to 
preserve  her  dignity,  and  addressed  them  with 
a  composed  manner  and  air.  '  It  is  a  matter,' 
said  she,  '  altogether  uncommon  and  strange 
that  Elizabeth  should  command  me  to  submit  to 
a  trial,  as  if  I  were  her  subject.  I  am  an  inde- 
pendent sovereign,  and  will  not  tarnish  by  any 
means  my  high  birth,  "the  princes  my  predeces- 
sors, and  my  son.  Misfortunes  and  misery  have 
not  yet  so  involved  me  in  dejection  as  that  I 
am  to  faint  and  sink  under  this  new  calamity  and 
insult.  I  desire  that  you  will  remember  what  I 
formerly  protested  to  Bromley,  who  is  now  lord 
chancellor,  and  to  the  lord  La  War.  To  speak 
to  me  of  commissioners  is  a  vain  mockery  of  my 
rank.  Kings  alone  can  be  my  peers.  The  laws 
of  England  are  unknown  to  me  ;  and  I  have  no 
counsellors  to  whose  wisdom  I  can  apply  for 
instruction.  My  papers  and  commentaries  have 
been  taken  from  me ;  and  no  person  can  have 
the  perilous  courage  to  appear  as  my  advocate. 
I  have  indeed  recommended  myself  and  my 
condition  to  foreign  princes ;  but  I  am  clear 
of  the  guilt  of  having  conspired  the  destruction 
of  Elizabeth,  or  having  incited  any  person  what- 
soever to  destroy  her.  It  is  only  by  my  own 

2  N 


546 


SCOTLAND. 


words  and  writings  that  an  imputation  of  this 
kind  can  be  supported;  and  I  am  conscious, 
beyond  the  possibility  of  a  doubt,  that  these 
evidences  cannot  be  employed  against  me.'  The 
day  after  she  had  in  this  manner  refused  to 
allow  the  jurisdiction  of  the  commissioners,  Pau- 
let  and  Barker  returned  to  her,  and  informed  her 
that  they  had  put  her  speech  into  writing,  and 
desired  to  know  if  she  would  abide  by  it.  She 
heard  it  read  distinctly,  acknowledged  it  to  be 
rightly  taken,  and  avowed  her  readiness  to  per- 
sist in  the  sentiments  she  had  delivered.  But 
she  added  there  was  a  circumstance  to  which 
she  had  omitted  to  speak.  'Your  queen,r  said 
she  '  affects  in  her  letter  to  observe  that  I  am 
subject  to  the  laws  of  England,  because  I  have 
lived  under  their  protection.  This  sentiment 
and  mode  of  thinking  are  very  surprising  to 
me.  I  came  into  England  to  crave  her  assis- 
tance and  aid  ;  and,  ever  since,  I  have  been  con- 
fined to  a  prison.  The  miseries  of  captivity 
cannot  be  called  a  protection,  and  the  treatment 
I  have  suffered  is  a  violation  of  all  law.' 

This  afflicted  but  undaunted  princess,  after 
having  thus  disputed  the  competency  and  re- 
pelled the  pretexts  of  the  commissioners,  was 
induced  at  last,  by  arguments  under  the  insidi- 
ous mask  of  candor  and  friendship,  to  depart 
from  the  proper  and  dignified  ground  which  she 
had  taken,  and  consent  to  that  mode  of  trial 
which  had  been  proposed.  It  was  represented 
to  her,  by  Hatton  the  vice-chamberlain,  that  by 
rejecting  a  trial  she  injured  her  own  reputation 
and  interests,  and  deprived  herself  of  the  only 
opportunity  of  setting  her  innocence  in  a  clear 
light  to  the  present  and  to  future  times.  Imposed 
upon  by  this  artifice,  she  consented  to  make  her 
appearance  before  the  judges  ;  at  the  same  time, 
however,  she  still  protested  against  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  court,  and  the  validity  of  their  pro- 
ceedings. After  various  formalities,  the  lord 
chancellor  opened  the  case ;  and  was  followed 
by  serjeant  Gawdry,  who  proceeded  to  explain 
the  statute,  and  to  demonstrate  that  she  had  of- 
fended against  it.  He  then  entered  into  a  detail 
of  Babington's  conspiracy ;  and  concluded  by 
affirming  '  that  Mary  knew  it,  had  approved  it, 
had  promised  her  assistance,  and  had  pointed  out 
the  means  to  effect  it.'  Proofs  of  this  charge 
were  exhibited  against  her,  and  displayed  with 
great  art.  The  letters  were  read  which  Sir 
Francis  Walsingham  or  his  emissaries  had  forged. 
Her  secretaries  had  afforded  all  the  necessary 
intelligence  about  the  conspiracy,  upon  which  to 
frame  a  correspondence  between  Mary  and  Ba- 
bington,  and  upon  which  despatches  might  be 
fabricated  in  her  name  to  her  foreign  friends ; 
and  the  ciphers  were  furnished  by  them.  But, 
beside  these  pretended  letters,  another  species  of 
evidence  was  held  out  against  her.  Babington, 
proud  of  the  despatch  sent  to  him  in  her  name  by 
Walsingham  ana  Gifford,  returned  an  answer  to 
it;  and  a  reply  from  her  by  the  same  agency  was 
transmitted  to  him.  Deluded,  and  in  toils,  he 
communicated  these  marks  of  her  attention  to 
Savage  and  Ballard,  the  most  confidential  of  his 
associates.  His  confession  and  theirs  became 
thus  of  importance.  Nor  were  her  letters  and 
the  confessions  of  these  conspirators  deemed 


sufficient  vouchers  of  her  guilt.  Her  secretaries, 
therefore,  were  engaged  to  subscribe  a  declara- 
tion that  the  despatches  in  her  name  were  written 
by  them  at  her  command,  and  according  to  her 
instructions.  These  branches  of  evidence,  put 
together  with  skill,  and  heightened  with  all  the 
imposing  colors  of  eloquence,  were  pressed  upon 
Mary.  Though  she  had  been  long  accustomed 
to  the  perfidious  inhumanity  of  her  enemies,  her 
amazement  was  infinite.  She  lost  not,  however, 
her  courage ;  and  her  defence  was  alike  expres- 
sive of  her  penetration  and  magnanimity  :  '  the 
accusation  preferred  to  my  prejudice  is  a  most 
detestable  calumny.  I  wa*  not  engaged  with 
Babington  in  his  conspiracy  ;  and  I  am  altoge- 
ther innocent  of  having  plotted  the  death  of 
Elizabeth.  The  copies  of  Babington's  letters 
which  have  been  produced  may  indeed  be  taken 
from  originals  which  are  genuine  ;  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  prove  that  I  ever  received  them.  Nor 
did  he  receive  from  me  the  despatches  addressed 
to  him  in  my  name.  His  confession,  and  those 
of  his  associates,  which  have  been  urged  to  es- 
tablish the  authority  of  my  letters  to  him,  are 
imperfect  and  vain.  If  these  conspirators  could 
have  testified  any  circumstances  to  my  hurt,  they 
would  not  so  soon  have  been  deprived  of  their 
lives.  Tortures,  or  the  fear  of  the  rack,  extorted 
improper  confessions  from  them  ;  and  then  they 
were  executed.  Their  mouths  were  open  to  utter 
false  criminations ;  and  immediately  were  shut 
for  ever,  that  the  truth  might  be  buried  in  their 
graves.  It  was  no  difficult  matter  to  obtain 
ciphers  which  I  had  employed  ;  and  my  adver- 
saries are  known  to  be  superior  to  scruples.  I 
am  informed  that  Sir  Francis  Walsingham  has 
been  earnest  to  recommend  himself  to  his  sove- 
reign by  practices  both  against  my  life  and  that 
of  my  son ;  and  the  fabrication  of  papers,  by 
which  to  effectuate  my  ruin,  is  a  business  not 
unworthy  of  his  ambition.  Evidence,  the  most 
clear  and  incontestable,  is  necessary  to  overthrow 
my  integrity;  but  proofs,  the  most  feeble  and 
suspicious,  are  held  out  against  me.  Let  one  letter 
be  exhibited,  written  in  my  hand,  or  that  bears 
my  superscription,  and  1  will  instantly  acknow- 
ledge that  the  charge  against  me  is  sufficiently 
supported.  The  declaration  of  my  secretaries  is 
the  effect  of  rewards  or  of  terror.  They  are 
strangers ;  and  to  overcome  their  virtue  was 
an  easy  achievement  to  a  queen  whose  power  is 
absolute,  whose  riches  are  immense,  and  whose 
ministers  are  profound  and  daring  in  intrigues  and 
treachery.  I  have  often  had  occasion  to  suspect 
the  integrity  of  Naw  ;  and  Curl,  whose  capacity 
is  more  limited,  was  always  most  obsequious  to 
him.  They  may  have  written  many  letters  in 
my  name  without  my  knowledge  or  participa- 
tion :  may  have  put  many  things  into  despatches 
which  are  prejudicial  to  Elizabeth;  and  may  even 
have  subscribed  their  declaration  to  my  preju- 
dice, under  the  prepossession  that  the  guilt  which 
would  utterly  overwhelm  them  might  be  pardoned 
in  me.  I  have  never  dictated  any  letter  to  them 
which  can  be  made  to  correspond  with  their  tes- 
timony. And  what,  fet  me  ask,  would  become 
of  the  grandeur,  the  virtue,  and  the  safety  of 
princes,  if  they  depended  upon  the  writings  and 
declarations  of  secretaries  ?  Nor  let  it  be  forgotten 


SCOTLAND. 


547 


that,  by  acting  in  hostility  to  the  duty  and  alle- 
giance which  .they  solemnly  swore  to  observe  to 
me,  they  have  utterly  incapacitated  themselves 
from  obtaining  any  credit.  The  violation  of  their 
oath  of  fidelity  is  an  open  perjury ;  and  of  such 
men  the  protestations  are  nothing.  But,  if  they 
are  yet  in  life,  let  them  be  brought  before  me. 
It  argues  not  the  fairness  of  the  proceedings 
against  me  that  this  formality  is  neglected.  I 
am  also  without  the  assistance  of  an  advocate ; 
and,  that  I  might  be  defenceless  and  weak  in 
the  greatest  degree,  I  have  been  robbed  of  my 
papers  and  commentaries.  As  to  the  copies  or  the 
despatches  which  are  said  to  have  been  written 
by  my  direction  to  Mendoza,  the  lord  Paget, 
Charles  Paget,  the  archbishop  of  Glasgow,  and 
Sir  Francis  Inglefield,  they  are  most  unprofitable 
forgeries.  For  they  tend  only  to  show  that  I 
was  employed  in  encouraging  my  friends  to  in- 
vade England.  Now,  if  I  should  allow  that  these 
despatches  were  genuine,  it  could  not  be  inferred 
from  them  that  I  had  conspired  the  death  of 
Elizabeth.  I  will  even  confess  that  I  have  yielded 
to  the  strong  impulses  of  nature ;  and  that,  like 
a  human  creature,  encompassed  with  dangers 
and  insulted  with  wrongs,  I  have  exerted  myself 
to  recover  my  greatness  and  my  liberty.  The 
efforts  I  have  made  can  excite  no  blushes  in  me ; 
for  the  voice  of  mankind  must  applaud  them. 
Religion  even  cannot  look  to  them  with  reproach. 
I  have  sought  by  every  art  of  concession  and 
friendship  to  engage  my  sister  to  put  a  period 
to  my  sufferings.  Invited  by  her  smiles,  I  ven- 
tured into  her  kingdom,  in  the  pride  and  gaiety 
-f  my  youth  ;  and,  under  her  anger  and  the 
iiiiseries  of  captivity,  I  have  grown  into  age. 
V)uring  a  calamitous  confinement  of  twenty  years, 
my  youth,  my  health,  my  happiness,  are  for  ever 
gone.  To  her  tenderness  and  generosity  I  have 
been  indebted  as  little  as  to  her  justice ;  and, 
oppressed  and  agonizing  with  unmerited  afflic- 
tions and  hardships,  I  scrupled  not  to  beseech 
the  princes  my  allies  to  employ  their  armies  to 
relieve  me.  Nor  will  I  deny  that  I  have  endea- 
voured to  promote  the  advantage  and  interest 
of  the  persecuted  Catholics  of  England.  My 
intreaties  in  their  behalf  have  even  been  offered 
with  earnestness  to  queen  Elizabeth  herself.  But 
the  attainment  of  my  kingdom,  the  recovery  of 
my  liberty,  and  the  advancement  of  that  religion 
which  I  love,  could  not  induce  me  to  stain  myself 
with  the  crimes  that  are  objected  to  me.  I  would 
disdain  to  purchase  a  crown  by  the  assassination 
of  the  meanest  of  the  human  race.  To  accuse 
me  of  scheming  the  death  of  the  queen  my  sister 
is  to  brand  me  with  the  infamy  which  1  abhor. 
It  is  my  nature  to  employ  the  devotions  of 
Esther,  and  not  the  sword  of  Judith.  Elizabeth 
herself  will  attest  that  I  have  often  admonished 
her  not  to  draw  upon  her  head  the  resentment 
of  my  friends  by  the  enormity  of  her  cruelties 
to  me.  My  innocence  cannot  sincerely  be  doubt- 
ed ;  and  it  is  known  to  the  Almighty  God  that 
I  could  not  possibly  think  to  forego  his  mercy, 
and  to  ruin  my  soul,  to  compass  a  transgression 
so  horrible  as  that  of  her  murder.  My  crimes  are, 
my  birth,  the  injuries  1  have  been  compelled  to 
endure, and  my  religion.  I  am  proud  of  the  first ; 
1  can  forgive  the  second  ;  and  the  third  is  to  me  a 


source  of  such  comfort  and  hope  that  for  its  glory 
I  will  be  contented  that  my  blood  shall  flow  upon 
the  scaffold.'  To  the  defence  of  Mary  no  answer 
was  made  beside  stout  and  unsupported  affirm- 
ations of  the  truth  of  the  evidence  produced  to 
her  prejudice.  In  the  course  of  the  trial,  how- 
ever, lord  Burleigh,  who  was  willing  to  discom- 
pose her,  charged  her  with  a  fixed  resolution  of 
conveying  her  claims  and  titles  to  England  to 
the  king  of  Spain.  She  acknowledged  that  the 
Spaniard  professed  to  have  pretensions  to  the 
kingdom  of  England,  and  that  a  book  in  justi- 
fication of  them  had  been  communicated  to  her. 
But  she  declared  that  she  had  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  many  by  disapproving  of  this  book  ; 
and  that  no  conveyance  of  her  titles  had  ever 
been  executed.  The  trial  continued  during  the 
space  of  two  days ;  but  the  commissioners  avoided 
to  deliver  their  opinions.  Lord  Burleigh,  in 
whose  management  Elizabeth  chiefly  confided, 
and  whom  the  Scottish  queen  discomposed  in 
no  common  degree  by  her  ability  and  vigor,  being 
eager  to  conclude  the  business,  asked  if  she  had 
any  thing  to  add  to  what  she  had  urged  in  her 
defence.  She  informed  him  that  she  would  be 
infinitely  pleased  if  it  should  be  permitted  to  her 
to  be  heard  in  her  justification  before  a  full 
meeting  of  the  parliament,  or  before  the  queen 
and  her  privy-council.  This  intimation  was  un- 
expected ;  but  the  request  was  rejected.  The 
court,  in  consequence  of  previous  instructions 
from  Elizabeth,  adjourned  to  a  farther  day,  and 
appointed  that  the  place  of  its  convention  should 
be  the  stai-chamber  at  Westminster.  It  accord- 
ingly assembled  there;  and  Naw  and  Curl,  who 
had  not  been  produced  at  Fotheringay  castle, 
were  now  called  before  the  commissioners.  They 
swore  that  the  declaration  they  had  subscribed 
was  in  every  respect  just  and  faithful.  Nothing 
farther  remained  but  to  pronounce  sentence 
against  Mary.  The  commissioners  unanimously 
concurred  in  delivering  it  as  their  verdict,  or 
judgment,  that  she  '  was  a  party  to  the  conspiracy 
of  Babington ;  and  that  she  had  compassed  and 
imagined  matters  within  the*  realm  of  England 
tending  to  the  hurt,  death,  and  destruction  of  the 
royal  person  of  Elizabeth,  in  opposition  to  the 
statute  framed  for  her  protection.'  Upon  the 
same  day  in  which  this  extraordinary  sentence 
was  given  the  commissioners  and  the  judges  of 
England  issued  a  declaration,  which  imported 
that  it  was  not  to  derogate  in  any  degree  from  the 
titles  and  honor  of  the  king  of  Scots.  The  sen- 
tence against  Mary  was  very  soon  afterwards 
ratified  by  the  English  parliament. 

King  James  was  struck  with  horror  at  hearing 
of  the  proposed  execution  of  his  mother;  but 
that  spiritless  prince  could  show  his  resentment 
no  farther  than  by  unavailing  embassies  and  re- 
monstrances. France  interposed  in  the  same 
ineffectual  manner ;  and  on  the  6th  December, 
1586,  Elizabeth  caused  the  sentence  of  the  com- 
missioners against  her  to  be  proclaimed.  After 
this  she  was  made  acquainted  with  h'er  fate,  and 
received  the  news  with  the  greatest  composure, 
and  even  apparent  satisfaction.  Her  keepers 
now  refused  to  treat  her  with  any  reverence  or 
respect.  They  entered  her  apartment  with  their 
heads  covered,  and  made  no  obeisance  to  her. 

2  N  2 


548 


SCOTLAND. 


They  took  down  her  canopy  of  state,  and  de- 
prived her  of  ali  the  badges  of  royalty.  By  these 
insulting  mortifications  they  meant  to  inform  her 
that  she  had  sunk  from  the  dignity  of  a  princess 
to  the  abject  state  of  a  criminal.  She  smiled, 
and  said,  '  In  despite  of  your  sovereign  and  her 
subservient  judges,  I  will  live  and  die  a  queen. 
My  royal  character  is  indelible ;  and  I  will  sur- 
render it  with  my  spirit  to  the  Almighty  God, 
from  whom  I  received  it,  and  to  whom  my  honor 
and  my  innocence  are  fully  known.'  In  this 
melancholy  situation  Mary  addressed  a  magna- 
nimous letter  to  Elizabeth,  in  which,  without 
making  the  least  solicitation  for  her  life,  she  only 
requested  that  her  body  might  be  carried  to 
France  ;  that  she  might  be  publicly  executed  ; 
that  her  servants  might  be  permitted  to  depart 
out  of  England  unmolested,  and  enjoy  the  lega- 
cies which  she  bequeathed  them.  But  to  this 
letter  no  answer  was  given.  In  the  mean  time 
James,  who  had  neither  address  nor  courage  to 
attempt  any  thing  in  behalf  of  his  mother,  an- 
nounced her  situation  to  his  bigoted  subjects, 
and  ordered  prayers  to  be  said  for  her  in  all  the 
churches.  The  form  of  the  petition  he  prescribed 
was  framed  with  delicacy  and  caution,  that  the 
clergy  might  have  no  objection  to  it.  He  en- 
joined them  to  pray  '  that  it  might  please  God 
to  enlighten  Mary  with  the  light  of  his  truth,  and 
to  protect  her  from  the  danger  which  was  hanging 
over  her.'  His  own  chaplains,  and  Mr.  David 
Lindsay  minister  of  Leilh,  observed  his  com- 
mand. But  all  the  other  bigoted  clergy  refused 
to  prefer  any  petitions  to  the  Almighty  for  a 
papist.  James,  shocked  with  their  spirit  of  into- 
lerance and  sedition,  appointed  a  new  day  for 
prayers  to  be  said  for  Mary,  and  issued  a  stricter 
injunction  to  the  clergy ;  and,  that  he  might  be 
free  himself  from  any  insult,  he  ordered  the  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews  to  preach  before  him. 
The  ecclesiastics  persuaded  John  Cowper,  a  pro- 
bationer, to  occupy  the  pulpit  designed  for  the 
archbishop.  When  the  king  entered  the  church 
he  testified  his  surprise,  but  told  Cowper  that  if 
he  would  obey  his  injunction,  he  might  proceed 
to  officiate.  Cowper  replied  '  that  he  would  do 
as  the  Spirit  of  God  should  direct  him.'  The 
king  commanded  him  to  retire,  and  the  captain  of 
his  guard  advanced  to  compel  him  to  obedience. 
The  enraged  probationer  exclaimed  that  this  vio- 
lence '  would  witness  against  the  king  in  the 
great  day  of  the  Lord  ;'  and  denounced  a  curse 
against  the  spectators  for  not  exerting  themselves 
in  his  defence.  The  archbishop,  now  ascending 
the  pulpit,  performed  with  propriety  the  function 
to  which  he  had  been  called,  and  recommended 
moderation  and  charity  to  the  audience.  In  the 
afternoon  Cowper  was  cited  before  the  privy- 
council  ;  and  was  accompanied  there  by  Mr. 
Walter  Balcanqual  and  Mr.  William  Watson, 
two  ministers  remarkable  for  their  zeal.  As  a 
punishment  for  his  audacious  petulance  he  was 
committed,  to  the  castle  of  Blackness ;  and  his 
attendants,  having  distinguished  themselves  by 
an  impudent  vindication  of  him,  were  prohibited 
from  preaching  during  the  pleasure  of  the  king. 
Elizabeth,  in  the  mean  while,  felt  the  torment  of 
miserable  passions.  At  times  she  courted  the 
sadness  of  solitude,  and  refused  to  be  consoled 


or  to  speak.     In  other  seasons  her  sighs  wr  r» 
frequent,  and  she  broke  out  into  loud  and  wild 
exclamations  expressive  of  the  state  of  her  mind. 
Her  subjects  waited  the   determination   of  her 
will  in  distracting  agitation.  Her  cruel  ministers, 
who  knew  that  it  is  the  nature  of  fear  to  exclude 
pity,  were  industrious  in  inventing  terrifying  in- 
telligence, and  in  circulating  it  through  the  king- 
dom ;  such  as  that  the  Spanish  fleet  had  arrived 
at  Milford   Haven ;  that  a  formidable  army  of 
Scottish  combatants  was  advancing  to  the  capital : 
that  the  duke  of  Guise  had  disembarked   many 
troops  of  veteran  soldiers  in  Sussex  ;  that  Mary 
had  escaped  out  of  prison,  and  was  collecting  the 
English  Catholics  ;   that  the  northern  counties 
had  thrown  aside  their  allegiance ;  and  that  there 
was  a  new  plot  to  kill  Elizabeth,  and  to  reduce 
London  to  ashes.    An  actual  conspiracy  was  even 
maliciously  charged  upon  L'Aubespine  the  French 
resident ;  and  he  was  forced  to  withdraw  from 
England   in  disgrace.     From  the  terrors  which 
the  ministers  of  Elizabeth  were  so  studious  to 
excite,  they  invariably  inferred  that  the  tranquil- 
lity of  the  kingdom  could  alone  be  re-established 
by  the  speedy  execution  of  the  Scottish  queen. 
While  the  nation  was  thus  artfully  prepared   for 
the    destruction    of    Mary,    Elizabeth    ordered 
secretary  Davidson  to  bring  to  her  the  warrant 
for  her  death.     Having  perused  it,  she  observed 
that  it  was  expressed  in  proper  terms,  and  annexed 
her  subscription.     Though  she  earnestly  desired 
the  death  of  Mary,  she  was  yet  terrified  to  en- 
counter its  infamy.  She  was  solicitous  to  accom- 
plish this  base  transaction  by  some  method  which 
would  conceal  her  consent  to  it.  After  int  mating 
to  Davidson   an  anxious  wish    that   its  blame 
should  be  removed  from  her,  she  counselled  him 
to  join  with  Walsingham  in  addressing  a  letter 
to  Sir  Amias  Paulet  and  Sir  Drue  Drury,  recom- 
mending it  to  them  to  manifest  their  love  to  her 
by  shedding  privately  the  blood  of  her  adversary. 
The  unlawfulness  of  this  deed  affected  Davidson, 
and  he  objected  to  it.  She  repeated  absolutely  her 
injunctions,  and  he  departed  to  deliver  them.   A 
letter  under  his  name  and  that  of  Walsingham  was 
despatched  to  Mary's  keepers,  communicating 
to  them  her  purpose.     Corrupted  by  her  pas- 
sions, and  lost  to  the  sensibilities  of  virtue,  Eli- 
zabeth  had  now  reached  the  last  extremity  of  this 
wickedness.     Though  a  sovereign  princess,  and 
entrusted  with  the  cares  of  a  great  nation,  she 
blushed  not  to  charge  her   ministers  to  enjoin  a 
murder — a  murder  connected  with  every  circum- 
stance that  could   make   it  most   frightful  and 
horrid.   The  victim  for  whose  blood  she  thirsted 
was  a  woman,  a  queen,  a  relation,  splendid  with 
beauty,  eminent  in  ability,  magnanimous  under 
misfortunes,  and  who  had  fled  to  her  for  refuge 
from  her  enemies.     A  wild   Arab  would  have 
spared  his  enemy  on  this  principle  alone.     Sir 
Amias  Paulet  and  Sir  Drue  Drury,  though  the 
slaves  of  religious  prejudices,  felt  an  elevation  of 
mind  which  reflected  the  greatest  disgrace  upon 
the    sovereign.      They    considered    themselves 
as  grossly  insulted  by  the  proposal ;  and  they 
assured  Walsingham  that  the  queen  might  com- 
mand their  lives  and  their  property,  but  that  they 
would  never  consent  to   part  with  their  honor, 
and  to  stain  themselves  and  their  posterity  with 


SCOTLAND. 


549 


the  guilt  of  an  assassination.  When  Davidson 
carried  their  despatch  to  her  slie  broke  out  into 
anger.  Their  scrupulous  delicacy,  she  said,  was 
an  infringement  of  their  oath  of  association ;  and 
they  were  nice,  precise,  and  perjured  traitors. 
She  then  recommended  one  \V  ingfield  to  strike 
the  blow.  The  astonished  secretary  exclaimed 
with  warmth  against  a  mode  of  proceeding  so 
unwarrantable.  He  protested  that,  if  she  should 
take  upon  herself  the  blame  of  this  deed,  it  would 
pollute  her  with  the  blackest  dishonor  ;  and 
that,  if  she  should  disavow  it,  she  would  over- 
throw for  ever  the  reputation,  the  estates,  and 
the  children  of  the  persons  who  should  assist  in 
it.  She  heard  him  with  pain,  and  withdrew 
from  him  with  precipitation.  The  warrant,  after 
having  been  communicated  to  Walsingham,  was 
carried  to  the  chancellor,  who  put  the  great  seal 
to  it.  This  formality  was  hardly  concluded  when 
a  message  from  Elizabeth  prohibited  Davidson 
from  waiting  upon  the  chancellor  till  he  should 
receive  farther  instructions.  Within  an  hour 
after  he  received  a  second  message  to  the  same 
purpose.  He  hastened  to  court,  and  Elizabeth 
asked  eagerly  if  he  had  seen  the  chancellor.  He 
answered  in  the  affirmative  ;  and  she  exclaimed 
with  bitterness  against  his  haste.  He  said  that 
he  had  acted  exactly  as  she  had  directed  him. 
She  continued  to  express  warmly  her  displeasure ; 
but  gave  no  command  to  stop  the  operation  of 
the  warrant.  In  a  state  of  uneasiness  and  ap- 
prehension he  communicated  her  behaviour  to 
the  chancellor  and  the  privy-council.  These 
courtiers,  however,  who  were  well  acquainted 
with  the  arts  of  their  mistress,  and  who  knew 
how  to  flatter  her,  paid  no  attention  to  him.  They 
perceived,  or  were  secretly  informed,  that  she 
desired  to  have  a  pretence  upon  which  to  com- 
plain of  the  secretary,  and  to  deny  that  he  had 
obeyed  her  instructions.  They  observed  to  him 
that,  by  subscribing  the  warrant,  she  had  per- 
formed what  the  law  required  of  her;  and  that  it 
was  not  proper  to  delay  the  execution  any  longer. 
While  they  were  anxious  to  please  Elizabeth, 
they  were  conscious  of  their  own  cruelty  to 
Mary,  and  did  not  imagine  that  they  could  be 
in  security  while  she  lived.  They  despatched 
the  warrant  to  the  earls  of  Shrewsbury  and  Kent, 
with  instructions  to  them  to  fulfil  it.  When  the 
two  earls  and  their  retinue  reached  Fotheringay 
castle  they  found  Mary  sick,  and  reposing  upon 
her  bed.  They  insisted,  notwithstanding,  on 
being  introduced  to  her.  Being  informed  by  her 
servants  that  the  message  they  brought  was  im- 
portant and  pressing,  she  prepared  to  receive 
them.  They  were  conducted  into  her  presence 
by  Sir  Amias  Faulet  and  Sir  Drue  Drury  ;  and 
with  little  formality  they  told  her  that  Elizabeth 
had  consented  to  her  death,  and  that  she  was  to 
suffer  the  next  morning  at  eight  o'clock.  Then 
Beale,  one  of  the  clerks  of  the  privy-council,  who 
accompanied  them,  read  over  the  warrant,  which 
she  heard  with  pious  composure  and  unshaken 
fortitude.  They  then  affected  to  justify  their 
mistress  by  entering  into  details  concerning  the 
conspiracy  of  Babington.  She  put  her  hand  upon 
the  Scriptures,  which  lay  upon  a  table  near  her, 
and  swore  in  the  most  solemn  manner  that  she 
never  devised,  consented  to,  or  pursued  the 


death  of  Elizabeth  in  any  shape  whatsoever.  The 
earl  of  Kent,  unwisely  zealous  for  the  Protestant 
religion,  excepted  against  her  oath,  as  being  made 
upon  a  popish  Bible.  She  replied  to  him  mildly, 
'  It  is  for  this  very  reason,  my  lord,  to  be  relied 
upon  with  the  greater  security  ;  for  I  esteem  the 
popish  version  of  the  Scriptures  to  be  the  most 
authentic.'  Indulging  his  puritanical  fervor  he 
declaimed  against  popery,  counselled  her  to  re- 
nounce its  errors,  and  recommended  to  her  at- 
tention Dr.  Fletcher  dean  of  Peterborough.  She 
heard  the  dean  with  some  impatience.  Rising 
into  passion  he  exclaimed,  that  '  her  ^ife  would 
be  the  death  of  their  religion,  and  that  her  death 
would  be  its  life.' 

After  informing  him  that  she  was  unalterably 
fixed  in  her  religious  sentiments,  she  desired  that 
her  confessor  might  have  the  liberty  to  repair  to 
her ;  when  the  two  earls  observed  that  their 
consciences  did  not  allow  them  to  grant  this  re- 
quest. She  made  enquiries  concerning  her  secre- 
taries Naw  and  Curl ;  and  asked  whether  it  had 
ever  been  heard  of,  in  the  wickedest  times  of  the 
most  unprincipled  nation,  that  the  servants  of  a 
sovereign  princess  had  been  suborned  for  the 
purpose  of  destroying  her  ?  They  looked  to  one 
another  and  were  silent.  Bourgoin  her  phy- 
sician, who  with  her  other  domestics  was  pre- 
sent at  this  interview,  seeing  the  earls  ready  to 
depart,  besought  them  with  an  emphatic  ear- 
nestness to  reflect  upon  the  short  and  inadequate 
portion  of  time  that  they  had  allotted  to  his  mis 
tress  to  prepare  herself  for  death.  He  insisted 
that  a  respect  for  her  high  rank,  and  the  multi- 
plicity and  importance  of  her  concerns,  required 
at  least  a  period  of  some  days.  They  pretended 
not  to  understand  the  propriety  of  his  petition, 
and  refused  it.  Upon  the  departure  of  the  two 
earls,  her  domestics  gave  a  full  vent  to  their 
afflictions ;  and  while  she  experienced  a  melan- 
choly pleasure  in  their  tears,  lamentations,  and 
kindness,  she  endeavoured  to  console  them. 
Their  grief,  she  said,  was  altogether  unavailing, 
and  could  neither  better  her  condition  nor  their 
own.  Her  cause  had  every  thing  about  it  that 
was  most  honorable ;  and  the  miseries  from 
which  she  was  to  be  relieved  were  the  most 
hopeless  and  the  most  afflicting.  Instead  of  de- 
jection and  sadness,  she  therefore  enjoined  them 
to  he  contented  and  happy.  That  she  might 
have  the  more  leisure  to  settle  her  affairs,  she 
supped  early,  and,  according  to  her  usual  cus- 
tom, ate  little.  While  at  table,  she  remarked  to 
Bourgoin,  her  physician,  that  the  force  of  truth 
was  insurmountable ;  for  that  the  earl  of  Kent, 
notwithstanding  the  pretence  of.  her  having  con- 
spired against  Elizabeth,  had  plainly  informed 
her  that  her  death  would  be  the  security  of  their 
religion.  When  supper  was  over,  she  ordered  all 
her  servants  to  appear  before  her,  and  treated 
them  with  the  kindness  which  we  have  men- 
tioned in  her  life.  See  MARY.  She  then  en- 
tered her  bed-chamber  with  her  women  ;  and 
employed  herself  in  religious  duties.  At  her  ac- 
customed time  she  went  to  sleep;  and,  after 
enjoying  some  hours  of  sound  rest,  awoke;  then 
gave  herself  to  further  pious  meditation,  and  par- 
took of  a  consecrated  host,  which  a  melancholy 
presentiment  of  her  cnlamities  haa  induced  her 


550 


SCOTLAND. 


to  obtain  from  pope  Pius  V.     At  the  break  of 
day  she  arrayed   herself  in   rich,  but  becoming 
apparel ;  and,  calling  together  her  servants,  she 
ordered  her  will  to  be  read,  and  apologised  for 
the  smallness  of  their  legacies  from  her  inability 
to  be  more  generous.     Following  the  arrange- 
ment she  had  previously  made,  she  then  dealt 
out  to  them  her  goods,  ward-robe,  and  jewels. 
To  Bourgoin  her  physician  she  committed  the 
care  of  her  will,  with  a  charge  that  he  would  de- 
liver it  to  her  principal  executor,  the  duke  of 
Guise.     She  also  entrusted  him  with  tokens  of 
her  affection  for  the  king  of  France,  the  queen- 
mother,  and  her  relations  of  the  house  of  Lorrain. 
Bidding  now  an  adieu  to  all  worldly  concerns, 
she  retired   to  her  oratory,  where  she  was  seen 
sometimes  kneeling  at  the  altar,  and  sometimes 
standing  motionless  with  her  hands  joined,  and 
her  eyes  directed  to   heaven.     While  she  was 
thus  engaged,  Thomas  Andrews,  the  high  sheriff, 
announced  to  her  that  the  hour  for  execution 
was  arrived.     She  came  forth  dressed  m  a  gown 
of  black  silk;  her  petticoat  was  bordered   with 
crimson  velvet;  a  veil  of  lawn  bowed  out  with 
wire,  and  edged  with  bone  lace,  was  fastened  to 
her  caul,  and   hung  down  to  the  ground ;   an 
Agnus  Dei  was  suspended  from  her  neck  by  a 
pomander  chain ;  her  beads  were  fixed  to  her 
girdle ;  and  she  bore  in  her  hand  a  crucifix  of 
ivory.     Amidst  the  screams  and  lamentations  of 
her  women  she  descended  the  stairs  ;  and  in  the 
porch  she  was  received  by  the  earls  of  Kent  and 
Shrewsbury   with  their  attendants.     Here,  too, 
she  met  Sir  Andrew  Melvil  the  master  of  her 
household,  whom  her  keepers  had  long  debarred 
from  her  presence.     Throwing  himself  at  her  feet, 
and  weeping  aloud,  he  deplored  his  sad  destiny, 
and  the  sorrowful  tidings  he  was  to  carry  into 
Scotland.     After  she  had  spoken  to  Melvil,  she 
besought  the  two  earls  that  her  servants  might  be 
treated  with  civility,  that  they  might  enjoy  the 
presents  she  had  bestowed  upon  them,  and  that 
they  might  receive  a  safe  conduct  to  depart  out 
of  the  dominions  of  Elizabeth.     These  slight  fa- 
vors were  readily  granted.      She  then  begged 
that  they  might  be  permitted  to  attend  her  to 
the  scaffold,  that  they  might  be  witnesses  of  her 
behaviour  at  ner  death.     To  this  request  the  earl 
of  Kent  discovered  a  strong  reluctance.    He  said 
that  they  would   behave  with   an    intemperate 
passion  ;   and  that  they  would   practise  super- 
stitious formalities,  and  dip  their  handkerchiefs 
in   her  blood.     She  replied  that  she  was  sure 
that  none  of  their  actions  would  be  blameable ; 
and   that  it  was  but  deceut  that  some   of  her 
women  should  be  about  her.     The  earl  still  hesi- 
tating, she  was  affected  with  the  insolent  and 
stupid   indignity  of -his  malice,  and  exclaimed, 
'  I  am  cousin  to  your  mistress,  and  descended 
from  Henry  VII.      I  am  a  dowager  of  France, 
and  the  anointed  queen  of  Scotland.'      The  earl 
of  Shrewsbury  interposing,  it  was  agreed   that 
she  should  select  two  of  her  women  who  might 
assist  her  in  her  last  moments,  and  a  few  of  her 
men-si  rv;m!s,  \vho  might  behold  her  demeanour, 
and   report  it.     She  entered  the  hall  where  she 
was  to  suffer,  and  advanced  with  an  air  of  grace 
and  majesty  to  the  scaffold,  which  was  built  at 
rs  farthest  extremity.      The  sj-»ectators  wc-ro  nu- 


merous. Her  magnanimous  carriage,  her  beauty, 
which  was  still  striking,  and  her  matchless  mis- 
fortunes, affected  them.  They  gave  way  to  con- 
tending emotions  of  awe,  admiration,  and  pity. 
She  ascended  the  scaffold  with  a  firm  step  and  a 
serene  aspect,  and  turned  her  eye  to  the  block, 
the  axe,  and  the  executioners.  The  spectators 
were  dissolved  in  tears.  A  chair  was  placed  for 
her,  in  which  she  seated  herself.  Silence  was 
commanded  ;  and  Beale  read  aloud  the  warrant 
for  her  death.  She  heard  it  attentively,  yet  with 
a  manner  from  which  it  might  be  gathered  that 
ner  thoughts  were  employed  upon  a  subject 
more  important.  Dr.  Fletcher,  taking  his  station 
opposite  to  her  without  the  rails  of  the  scaffold, 
counselled  her  to  repent  of  her  crimes;  and, 
while  he  inveighed  against  her  attachment  to 
popery,  he  threatened  her  with  everlasting  fire  if 
she  should  delay  to  renounce  its  errors.  His 
behaviour  was  highly  indecent  and  coarse. 
Twice  she  interrupted  him  with  great  gentleness. 
But  he  pertinaciously  continued  his  exhortations. 
Raising  her  voice  she  commanded  him  with  a 
resolute  tone  to  with-hold  his  indignities  and 
menaces,  and  not  to  trouble  her  any  more  about 
her  faith.  I  was  born,  said  she,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion ;  I  have  experienced  its  com- 
forts during  my  life,  in  the  trying  seasons  of 
sickness,  calamity,  and  sorrow ;  and  I  am  re- 
solved to  die  in  it.  The  two  earls,  ashamed  of 
his  savage  obstinacy,  admonished  him  to  desist, 
and  to  content  himself  with  praying  for  her  con- 
version. He  entered  upon  a  long  prayer;  while 
Mary  falling  upon  her  knees,  and  disregarding 
him,  employed  herself  in  devotion.  Her  women 
now  assisted  her  to  disrobe;  and,  the  execu- 
tioners offering  their  aid,  she  repressed  their  for- 
wardness, observing  that  she  was  not  accus- 
tomed to  be. attended  by  such  servants,  nor  to  be 
undressed  before  so  large  an  assembly.  Her 
upper  garments  being  laid  aside,  she  drew  upon 
her  arms  a  pair  of  silk  gloves.  Her  women  and 
men  servants  burst  out  into  loud  lamentations. 
She  put  her  finger  to  her  mouth  to  admonish 
them  to  be  silent,  and  then  bad  them  a  final  adieu 
with  a  smile  that  seemed  to  console,  but  that 
plunged  them  into  deeper  woe  She  kneeled 
resolutely  before  the  block,  and  said,  '  In  thee, 

0  Lord !   do   I  trust ;    let  me  never  be  con- 
founded.'    She  covered  her  eyes  with  a  linen 
handkerchief  in  which  the  eucharist  had  been 
enclosed ;   and  stretching  forth  her  body  with 
great  tranquillity,  and  fitting  her  neck   for  the 
fatal  stroke,  called  out,  '  Into  thy  hands,  O  God  ! 

1  commit  my  spirit.'     The  executioner,  from  un- 
skilfulness,   or   from   inquietude,   struck    three 
blows  before  he  separated   her  head  from  her 
body.     He  held  it  up    mangled  with  wounds, 
and  streaming  with  blood ;  and  her  hair,  being 
discomposed,    was    discovered    to    be   already 
gray.     The  dean  of  Peterborough  alone  cried 
out,    So  let  the  enemies   of   Elizabeth   perish. 
The  earl  of  Kent  alone,  in  a  low  voice,  answered, 
Amen.     All  the   other   spectators  were  melted 
into  the  tenderest  sympathy  and  sorrow.     Her 
women  hastened  to  protect  her  dead  body  from 
the   curiosity   of  the   spectators ;    and    solaced 
themselves  with  the  thoughts  of  mourning  over 
it  undisturbed  when  they  should  retire,  and  of 


SCOTLAND. 


551 


laying  it  out  on  its  funeral  garb.  But  the  two 
earls  prohibited  them  from  discharging  these  me- 
lancholy yet  pleasing  offices  to  their  departed 
mistress,  and  drove  them  from  the  hall.  Bour- 
goin  her  physician  applied  to  them  that  he  might 
be  permitted  to  take  out  her  heart  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preserving  it,  and  of  carrying  it  with 
him  to  France.  But  they  refused  his  entreaty 
with  auger.  The  executioners  carried  her  re- 
mains into  an  adjoining  apartment ;  and,  tearing 
a  cloth  from  an  old  billiard  table,  thus  covered 
that  form,  once  so  beautiful.  The  block,  the 
cushion,  the  scaffold,  and  the  garments,  which 
were  stained  with  her  blood,  were  consumed 
with  fire.  Her  body,  after  being  embalmed  and 
committed  to  a  leaden  coffin,  was  buried  with 
royal  splendor  and  pomp  in  the  cathedral  of 
Peterborough.  See  M  A  RY.  Elizabeth,  who  had 
treated  her  like  a  criminal  while  she  lived,  seemed 
disposed  to  acknowledge  her  for  a  queen  when 
she  was  dead. 

On  the  death  of  his  mother  the  full  govern- 
ment of  the  kingdom  devolved  on  James  her  son: 
and  Elizabeth,  justly  apprehensive  of  his  resent- 
ment for  her  treatment  of  his  mother,  wrote  him 
a  letter,  in  which  she  disclaimed  all  knowledge 
of  the  fact.  James  had  received  intelligence  of 
the  murder  before  the  arrival  of  this  letter,  sent 
by  one  Gary.  The  messenger  was  stopped  at 
Berwick  by  an  order  from  the  king,  telling  him 
that,  if  Mary  had  been  executed,  he  should  pro- 
ceed at  his  peril.  James  shut  himself  up  in 
Dalkeith  Castle,  to  indulge  himself  in  grief; 
but  the  natural  levity  and  imbecility  of  his  mind 
prevented  him  from  acting  in  any  degree  as  be- 
came him.  Instead  of  resolutely  adhering  to  his 
first  determination  of  not  allowing  Gary  to  set  foot 
in  Scotland,  he  in  a  few  days  gave  his  consent 
that  he  should  be  admitted  to  an  audience  of 
certain  members  of  his  privy  council,  who  took  a 
journey  to  the  borders  on  purpose  to  wait  upon 
him.  In  this  conference,  Gary  demanded  that  the 
league  of  amity  between  the  two  kingdoms  should 
be  inviolably  observed.  He  said  that  his  mis- 
tress was  grieved  at  the  death  of  Mary,  which 
had  happened  without  her  consent;  and,  in 
Elizabeth's  name,  offered  any  satisfaction  that 
James  could  demand.  The  Scottish  commis- 
sioners treated  Gary's  speech  and  proposal  with 
becoming  disdain.  They  observed  that  they 
amounted  to  no  more  than  to  know  whether  James 
was  disposed  to  sell  his  mother's  blood ;  adding  that 
the  Scottish  nobility  and  people  were  determined  to 
revenge  it,  and  to  interest  in  their  quarrel  the 
other  princes  of  Europe.  Upon  this  Gary  deli- 
vered to  them  the  letter  from  Elizabeth,  together 
with  a  declaration  of  his  own  concerning  the 
murder  of  the  queen.  This  reception  of  her 
ambassador  threw  Elizabeth  into  the  utmost  con- 
sternation. She  was  apprehensive  that  James 
would  join  his  force  to  that  of  Spain,  and  entirely 
overwhelm  her ;  and,  had  the  resentment  or  the 
spirit  of  the  king  been  equal  to  that  of  the  na- 
tion, it  is  probable  that  the  haughty  English 
princess  would  have  been  made  severely  to 
repent  her  perfidy  and  cruelty.  It  does  not, 
however,  appear  that  James  had  any  serious  in- 
tention of  calling  Elizabeth  to  an  account  for  the 
murder  of  his  mother;  for  which,  perhaps,  his 


natural  imbecility  may  be  urged  as  an  excuie, 
though  it  is  more  probable  that  his  own  necessity 
for  money  had  swallowed  up  every  other  consider- 
ation. By  the  league  formerly  concluded  with 
England  it  had  been  agreed  that  Elizabeth  should 
pay  an  annual  pension  to  the  king  of  Scotland. 
James  had  neither  economy  to  make  his  own 
revenue  answer  his  purposes,  nor  address  to  get 
it  increased.  He  was  therefore  always  in  want ; 
and,  as  Elizabeth  had  plenty  to  spare,  her  friend- 
ship became  a  valuable  acquisition.  To  this  con- 
sideration, joined  to  his  view  of  ascending  the 
English  throne,  must  be  ascribed  the  little  resent- 
ment shown  by  him  to  the  atrocious  conduct  of 
Elizabeth,  who  continued  to  exert  her  usual  arts 
of  dissimulation  and  treachery.  She  prosecuted 
and  fined  secretary  Davidson  and  lord  Burleijjli 
for  the  active  part  they  had  taken  in  Mary's  death  : 
their  punishment  was  indeed  much  less  than  they 
deserved,  but  they  certainly  did  not  merit  such 
treatment  at  her  hands.  Walsingham,  though 
equally  guilty,  escaped  by  pretending  indisposi- 
tion, or  perhaps  because  the  queen  had  still  occa- 
sion for  his  services.  By  her  command  he  drew 
up  a  long  letter  addressed  to  lord  Thirlston,  king 
James's  prime  minister;  in  which  he  showed  the 
necessity  of  putting  Mary  to  death,  and  the  folly 
of  attempting  to  revenge  it.  He  boasted  of  the 
superior  force  of  England  to  that  of  Scotland  ; 
showed  James  that  he  would  for  ever  ruin  his 
pretensions  to  the  English  crown,  by  involving 
the  two  nations  in  a  war ;  that  he  ought  not  to 
trust  to  foreign  alliances;  that  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholic party  were  so  divided  among  themselves 
that  he  could  receive  no  assistance  from  them, 
even  supposing  him  so  ill  advised  as  to  change 
his  own  religion  for  that  of  popery,  and  they 
would  not  trust  his  sincerity.  Lastly,  he  attempt- 
ed to  show  that  James  had  already  discharged  all 
the  duty  towards  his  mother  and  his  own  reputa- 
tion that  could  be  expected  from  an  affectionate 
son  and  a  wise  king;  that  his  interceding  for  her, 
with  a  concern  so  becoming  nature,  had  endeared 
him  to  the  kingdom  of  England ;  but  that  it  would 
be  madness  to  push  his  resentment  farther.  This 
letter  had  all  the  effect  that  could  be  desired. 
James  gave  an  audience  to  the  English  ambassa- 
dor; and  being  assured  that  his  blood  was  not 
tainted  by  the  execution  of  his  mother  for  treason 
against  Elizabeth,  but  that  he  was  still  capable  of 
succeeding  to  the  crown  of  England,  he  consent- 
ed to  make  up  matters,  and  to  address  the  mur- 
derer of  his  mother  by  the  title  of  loving  and  af- 
fectionate sister. 

The  reign  of  James,  till  his  accession  to  the 
crown  of  England  by  Elizabeth's  death  in  1603, 
affords  little  matter  of  moment.  His  scandalous 
concessions  to  Elizabeth,  and  his  constant  appli- 
cations to  her  for  money,  filled  up  the  measure  of 
royal  meanness.  Ever  since  the  expulsion  of 
Mary,  the  country  had  in  fact  been  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  an  English  province.  The 
sovereign  had  been  tried  by  the  queen  of  Eng- 
land and  executed  for  treason ;  a  crime,  in  th« 
very  nature  of  the  thing,  impossible,  unless  Scot- 
land had  been  in  subjection  to  England;  and,  to 
complete  all,  the  contemptible  successor  of  Mary 
thought  himself  well  off  that  he  was  not  a  traitor 
too  to  his  sovereign  the  queen  of  England. 


.052 


SCOTLAND. 


During  the  reign  of  Jan  is  Uie  religious  disturb- 
ances which  began  at  the  Reformation,  and  that 
violent  struggle  of  the  clergy  for  power,  which 
never  ceased  till  the  Revolution  in  1688,  went  on 
with  great  violence.  Continual  clamors  were 
raised  against  popery,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
very  fundamental  principles  of  popery  were  held, 
nay,  urged  in  the  most  insolent  manner,  as  the 
effects  of  immediate  inspiration.  These  were  the 
total  independence  of  the  clergy  on  every  earthly 
power,  at  the  same  time  that  all  earthly  powers 
were  to  be  subject  to  them.  Their  fantast.c  de- 
crees were  supposed  to  be  binding  m  heaven  ;  and 
they  took  care  that  they  should  be  binding  on 
earth ;  for  whoever  had  offended  so  far  as  to  fall 
under  a  sentence  of  excommunication  was  de- 
clared an  outlaw.  This  circumstance  must  have 
contributed  to  disturb  the  public  tranquillity  in  a 
great  degree.  But,  besides  this,  the  weakness  of 
James's  government  was  such  that,  under  the 
name  of  peace,  the  whole  kingdom  was  involved 
in  the  miseries  of  civil  war;  the  feudal  animosi- 
ties revived,  and  slaughter  and  murder  prevailed 
all  over  the  country.  James,  fitted  only  for  pe- 
dantry, disputed,  argued,  modelled,  and  remo- 
delled the  constitution  to  no  purpose.  The  clergy 
continued  their  insolence,  and  the  laity  their 
violences  upon  one  another  ;  at  the  same  time  that 
the  king,  by  his  unhappy  credulity  in  the  opera- 
tion of  demons  and  witches,  declared  a  most  in- 
human and  bloody  war  against  poor  old  women, 
many  of  whom  were  burnt  for  the  imaginary 
crime  of  conversing  with  the  devil.  In  autumn 
1600  happened  a  remarkable  conspiracy  against 
the  liberty,  if  not  the  life  of  the  king.  The  at- 
tainder and  execution  of  the  earl  of  Gowrie  for 
the  part  he  acted  in  the  raid  of  Ruthven,  and  for 
subsequent  practices  of  treason,  have  been  already 
mentioned.  His  son,  however,  had  been  restored 
to  his  paternal  dignity  and  estates,  and  had  in  con- 
sequence professed  gratitude  and  attachment  to 
the  king.  But  the  Presbyterian  clergy  continued 
to  express  their  approbation  of  the  raid  of  Ruth- 
ven, and  to  declare  on  every  occasion  that  in 
their  opinion  the  earl  had  suffered  by  an  unjust 
sentence.  One  of  the  most  eminent  and  popular 
of  that  order  of  men  was  preceptor  to  the  younger 
Gowrie  and  his  brothers,  who,  from  their  frequent 
conversations  with  him,  must  have  been  deeply 
impressed  with  the  belief  that  their  father  was 
murdered.  The  passion  of  revenge  took  possession 
of  their  breasts ;  and  having  invited  the  king  from 
Falkland  to  the  earl  of  Cowrie's  house  at  Perth, 
under  the  pretence  of  showing  him  a  secret  trea- 
sure of  foreign  gold,  which  he  might  lawfully  ap- 
propriate to  his  own  use,  an  attempt  was  made 
to  keep  him  close  prisoner,  with  threats  of  putting 
him  to  instant  death,  if  he  should  make  any  at- 
tempt to  regain  his  liberty.  The  reality  of  this 
conspiracy  has  been  questioned  by  many  writers, 
because  they  could  not  assign  a  rational  motive 
for  Cowrie's  engaging  in  so  hazardous  an  enter- 
prise ;  and  some  have  even  insinuated  that  the 
conspiracy  was  entered  into  by  the  king  against 
Gowrie,  to  get  possession  of  his  lar^e  estates  It 
Has  been  shown,  however,  by  Arnot,  in  his  Cri- 
minal Trials,  that  the  conspiracy  was  the  earl's, 
who  seems  to  have  intended  that  the  king  should 
he  cut  off  l>y  the  hund  of  an  assassin ;  nnd  the 


same  writer  has  made  it  appear  probable  that  hf 
entertained  hopes,  in  the  then  distracted  state  of 
the  nation  not  ill  founded,  of  being  able  to  mount 
the  throne  of  his  murdered  sovereign.  Mr. 
Cant,  however,  gives  a  very  different  opinion  on 
this  event.  The  late  learned  and  judicious  lord 
llailes,  and  the  celebrated  Dr.  William  Robert- 
son, also  totally  discredit  the  story.  From  this 
danger,  whether  real  or  fictitious,  James  was  res- 
cued by  his  attendants  the  duke  of  Lennox,  the 
earl  of  Mar,  Sir  Thomas  Erskine,  afterwards  earl 
of  Kellie,  and  Sir  John  Ramsay  who  was  enno- 
bled;  and  Gowrie  and  his  brother,  falling  in  the 
struggle,  were  attainted  by  an  act  of  parliament, 
their  arms  cancelled,  and  their  whole  estates  for- 
feited and  annexed  to  the  crown.  The  most  me- 
morable transaction  of  James's  reign,  and  that 
most  to  his  honor,  is  the  effort  he  made  for  civil- 
ising the  western  islands.  For  this  purpose  iie 
instituted  a  company  of  gentlemen  adventurers, 
to  whom  he  gave  large  privileges  :  the  method  he 
proposed  was  to  transport  numbers  of  the  island- 
ers to  the  low  countries  of  Scotland,  and  to  give 
their  islands,  which  were  very  improveable,  in 
fee  to  such  of  his  lowland  subjects  as  should 
choose  to  reside  in  the  islands.  The  experiment 
was  to  be  made  upon  the  Lewes,  a  long  range  of 
the  Ebudae  ;  wherice  the  adventurers  expelled 
Murdoch  Macleod,  the  tyrant  of  the  inhabitants. 
Macleod,  however,  kept  the  sea;  and,  intercept- 
ing a  ship  which  carried  one  of  the  chief  adven- 
turers, he  sent  him  prisoner  to  Orkney,  after 
putting  the  crew  to  the  sword.  Macleod  was 
soon  after  betrayed  by  his  own  brother,  and 
hanged  at  St.  Andrews.  The  history  of  this  new 
undertaking  is  rather  dark ;  and  the  settlers 
themselves  seem  to  have  been  defective  in  the 
arts  of  civilisation.  The  arrangements  they  mado 
were  considered  by  the  inhabitants  as  very  op- 
pressive; and  one  Norman,  of  the  Macleod  family, 
attacked  and  subdued  them  so  effectually  that 
they  not  only  consented  to  yield  the  property  of 
the  islands  to  him,  but  engaged  to  obtain  the 
king's  pardon  for  what  he  had  done.  In  1589 
king  James  married  the  princess  Anne  of  Den- 
mark, daughter  of  king  Christian  IV.,  to  receive 
whose  hand  he  made  a  voyage  to  that  country  : 
a  visit  which  his  father-in-law  twice  repaid.  In 
1603  James  was  called  to  the  throne  of  England 
by  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  and  the  same  year  took 
a  final  leave  of  Scotland.  From  this  period  the 
history  of  Scotland,  being  blended  with  that  of 
England,  is  included  in  the  article  GREAT  BRI- 
TAIN. 

Dr.  Robertson  depicts,  in  his  best  manner,  the 
arrival  in  Scotland  of  the  actual  tidings  of  the 
accession  of  James  to  the  English  throne — his 
journey — and  the  revolutions  in  the  constitution 
of  Scotland  consequent  upon  his  accession. 
The  latter  have  been  sufficiently  important  to  jus- 
tify a  considerable  extract  in  this  place  from  the 
pen  of  so  able  a  writer  : — 

'  As  soon  as  she  [queen  Elizabeth]  had 
breathed  her  last,'  observes  our  author,  '  the  lords 
of  the  privy  council  proclaimed  James  king  of 
England.  All  the  intrigues  carried  on  by  fo- 
i  -ners  in  favor  of  the  Infanta,  all  the  cabals 
formed  within  the  kingdom  to  support  the  titles 
;ihella  and  the  earl  of  HartfW  1,  -li^ap- 


SCOTLAND. 


553 


feared  in  a  moment;  the  nobles  and  people, 
forgetting  their  ancient  hostilities  with  Scotland, 
and  their  aversion  for  the  dominion  of  strangers, 
testified  their  satisfaction  with  louder  acclama- 
tions than  were  usual  at  the  accession  of  their 
native  princes.  Amidst  this  tumult  of  joy,  a 
motion  made  by  a  few  patriots,  who  proposed  to 
prescribe  some  conditions  to  the  successor,  and 
to  exact  from  him  the  redress  of  some  grievances, 
before  they  called  him  to  the  throne,  was  scarcely 
heard ;  and  Cecil,  by  stifling  it,  added  to  his 
stock  of  merit  with  his  new  master.  Sir  Charles 
Percy,  brother  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland, 
and  Thomas  Somerset,  the  earl  of  Worcester's 
son,  were  despatched  to  Scotland  with  a  letter  to 
the  king,  signed  by  all  the  peers  and  privy  coun- 
cillors then  in  London,  informing  him  of  the 
queen's  death,  of  his  accession  to  the  throne,  of 
their  care  to  recognise  his  title,  and  of  the  uni- 
versal applause  with  which  the  public  proclama- 
tion of  it  had  been  attended.  They  made  the 
utmost  haste  to  deliver  this  welcome  message  : 
but  were  prevented  by  the  zeal  of  Sir  Robert 
Carey,  lord  Hunsdon's  youngest  son,  who,  set- 
ting out  a  few  hours  after  Elizabeth's  death,  ar- 
rived at  Edinburgh  on  Saturday  night,  just  as  the 
king  had  gone  to  bed,  He  was  immediately 
admitted  into  the  royal  apartment,  and,  kneeling 
by  the  king's  bed,  acquainted  him  with  the  death 
of  Elizabeth,  saluted  him  king  of  England, 
Scotland,  France,  and  Ireland  ;  and,  as  a  token 
of  the  truth  of  the  intelligence  which  he  brought, 
presented  him  a  ring,  which  his  sister,  lady 
Scrope,  had  taken  from  the  queen's  finger  after 
her  death.  James  heard  him  with  a  decent  com- 
posure. But,  as  Carey  was  only  a  private  mes- 
senger, the  information  which  he  brought  was 
not  made  public,  and  the  king  kept  his  apart- 
ment till  the  arrival  of  Percy  and  Somerset. 
Then  his  titles  were  solemnly  proclaimed ;  and 
his  own  subjects  expressed  no  less  joy  than  the 
English  at  this  increase  of  his  dignity.  As  his 
presence  was  absolutely  necessary  in  England, 
where  the  people  were  extremely  impatient  to 
see  their  new  sovereign,  he  prepared  to  set  out 
for  that  kingdom  without  delay.  He  appointed 
his  queen  to  follow  him  within  a  few  weeks.  He 
committed  the  government  of  Scotland  to  his 
privy-council.  He  entrusted  the  care  of  his 
children  to  different  noblemen.  On  the  Sunday 
before  his  departure  he  repaired  to  the  church  of 
St.  Giles's,  and  after  hearing  a  sermon,  in  which 
the  preacher  displayed  the  greatness  of  the  divine 
goodness  in  raising  him  to  the  throne  of  such  a 
powerful  kingdom  without  opposition  or  blood- 
shed, and  exhorted  him  to  express  his  gratitude, 
by  promoting  to  the  utmost  the  happiness  and 
prosperity  of  his  subjects  ;  the  king  rose  up, 
and,  addressing  himself  to  the  people,  made  many 
professions  of  unalterable  affection  towards 
them ;  promised  to  visit  Scotland  frequently ; 
assured  them  that  his  Scottish  subjects,  notwith- 
standing his  absence,  sKjuld  feel  that  he  was 
their  native  prince,  no  less  than  when  he  resided 
among  them  ;  and  might  still  trust  that  his  ears 
should  be  always  open  to  their  petitions,  which 
he  would  answer  with  the  alacrity  and  love  of  a 
parent.  His  words  were  often  interrupted  by 
the  tears  of  the  whole  audience;  who,  though 


they  exulted  at  the  king's  prosperity,  were  melted 
into  sorrow  by  these  tender  declarations. 

'  On  the  5th  of  April  he  began  his  journey 
with  a  splendid,  but  not  a  numerous  train  ;  and 
next  day  he  entered  Berwick.  Wherever  he 
came,  immense  multitudes  were  assembled  to 
welcome  him  ;  and  the  principal  persons  in  the 
different  counties  through  which  he  passed,  dis- 
played all  their  wealth  and  magnificence  in  en- 
tertainments prepared  for  him  at  their  houses. 
Elizabeth  reigned  so  long  in  England  that  most 
of  her  subjects  remembered  no  other  court  but 
hers,  and  their  notions  of  the  manners  and  de- 
corums suitable  to  a  prince  were  formed  upon 
what  they  had  observed  there.  It  was  natural  to 
apply  this  standard  to  the  behaviour  and  actions 
of  their  new  monarch,  and  to  compare  him  at  first 
sight  with  the  queen  on  whose  throne  he  was  to 
be  placed.  James,  whose  manners  were  ex- 
tremely different  from  hers,  suffered  by  the  com- 
parison. He  had  not  that  flowing  affability  by 
which  Elizabeth  captivated  the  hearts  of  her 
people ;  and,  though  easy  among  a  few  whom  he 
loved,  his  indolence  could  not  bear  the  fatigue  of 
rendering  himself  agreeable  to  a  mixed  multitude. 
He  was  no  less  a  stranger  to  that  dignity  with 
which  Elizabeth  tempered  her  familiarity.  And,  in- 
stead of  that  well-judged  frugality  with  which  she 
conferred  titles  of  honor,  he  bestowed  them  with 
an  undistinjjuishing  profusion,  that  rendered  them 
no  longer  marks  of  distinction,  or  rewards  of 
merit.  But  these  were  the  reflections  of  the  few 
alone;  the  multitude  continued  their  acclama- 
tions; and  amidst  these  James  entered  London 
on  the  7th  of  May,  and  took  peaceable  posses- 
sion of  the  throne  of  England.  Thus  were  united 
two  kingdoms,  divided  from  the  earliest  accounts 
of  time,  but  destined,  by  their  situation,  to  form 
one  great  monarchy.  By  this  junction  of  its 
whole  native  force,  Great  Britain  has  risen  to  an 
eminence  and  authority  in  Europe,  which  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  while  separate,  could  never 
have  attained.' 

Our  historian's  reflections,  on  the  alteration 
produced  in  the  political  constitution  of  Scot- 
land by  this  event,  regard  the  state  of  the  aristo- 
cracy ;  the  new  consequence  given  to  the  com- 
mons ;  the  first  establishment  of  Presbyteriani«m  : 
and  the  gradual  assimilation  of  the  Scottish  to 
the  English  nation  in  matters  of  taste,  genius, 
and  literature  : — 

'  The  Scots,'  he  says,  '  had  so  long  considered 
their  monarchs  as  next  heirs  to  the  English  throne, 
that  they  had  full  leisure  to  reflect  on  all  the  con- 
sequences of  their  being  advanced  to  that  dignity. 
But  dazzled  with  the  glory  of  giving  a  sovereign 
to  their  powerful  enemy,  relying  on  the  partiality 
of  their  native  prince,  and  in  full  expectation  of 
sharing  liberally  in  the  wealth  and  honors  which 
he  would  now  be  able  to  bestow,  they  attended 
little  to  the  most  obvious  consequences  of  that 
great  event,  and  rejoiced  at  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  England,  as  if  it  had  been  no  less  be- 
neficial to  the  kingdom  than  honorable  to  the 
king.  They  soon  had  reason,  however,  to  adopt 
very  different  sentiments,  and  from  that  period 
we  may  date  a  total  alteration  in  the  political 
constitution  of  Scotland. 

'  The  feudal  aristocntci/,  which  had  been  sub 


554 


SCOTLAND. 


rcrted  in  most  nations  of  Europe  by  the  policy 
of  their  princes,  or  had  been  undermined  by  the 
progress  of  commerce,  still  subsisted  with  full 
force  in  Scotland.  Many  causes  had  contributed 
gradually  to  augment  the  power  of  the  Scottish 
nobles ;  and  even  the  Reformation,  which,  in 
every  other  country  where  it  prevailed,  added  to 
the  authority  of  the  monarch,  had  increased  their 
wealth  and  influence.  A  king,  possessed  of  a 
small  revenue,  with  a  prerogative  extremely  li- 
mited, and  unsupported  by  a  standing  army, 
could  not  exercise  much  authority  over  such  po- 
tent subjects.  He  was  obliged  to  govern  by  ex- 
pedients ;  and  the  laws  derived  their  force,  not 
from  his  power  to  execute  them,  but  from  the 
voluntary  submission  ot  the  nobles.  But  though 
this  produced  a  species  of  government  extremely 
feeble  and  irregular  ;  though  Scotland,  under  the 
name,  and  with  all  the  outward  ensigns  of  a 
monarchy,  was  really  subject  to  an  aristocracy, 
the  people  were  not  altogether  unhappy ;  and, 
even  in  this  wild  form  of  a  constitution,  there 
were  principles  which  tended  to  their  security 
and  advantage.  The  king,  checked  and  over- 
awed by  the  nobles,  durst  venture  upon  no  act 
of  arbitrary  power.  The  nobles,  jealous  of  the 
king,  whose  claims  and  pretensions  were  many, 
though  his  power  was  small,  were  afraid  of  irri- 
tating their  dependents  by  unreasonable  exactions, 
and  tempered  the  rigor  of  aristocratical  tyranny, 
with  a  mildness  and  equality  to  which  it  is  natu- 
rally a  stranger.  As  long  as  the  military  genius 
of  the  feudal  government  remained  in  vigor  the 
vassals  both  of  the  crown  and  of  the  barons  were 
generally  not  only  free  from  oppression,  but 
were  courted  by  their  superiors,  whose  power 
and  importance  were  founded  on  their  attach- 
ment and  love.  But,  by  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  England,  James  acquired  such  an  im- 
mense accession  of  wealth,  of  power,  and  of 
splendor,  that  the  nobles,  astonished  and  intimi- 
dated, thought  it  vain  to  struggle  for  privileges 
which  they  were  now  unable  to  defend.  Nor 
was  it  from  fear  alone  that  they  submitted  to  the 
yoke :  James,  partial  to  his  countrymen,  and 
willing  that  they  should  partake  in  his  good  for- 
tune, loaded  them  with  riches  and  honors ;  and 
the  hope  of  his  favor  concurred  with  the  dread  of 
his  power,  in  taming  their  fierce  and  indepen- 
dent spirits.  The  will  of  the  prince  became  the 
supreme  law  in  Scotland  ;  and  the  nobles  strove, 
with  emulation,  who  should  most  implicitly 
obey  commands  which  they  had  formerly  been 
accustomed  to  contemn.  Satisfied  with  having 
subjected  the  nobles  to  the  crown,  the  king  left 
them  in  full  possession  of  their  ancient  jurisdic- 
tion over  their  own  vassals.  The  extensive 
rights  vested  in  a  feudal  chief  became  in  their 
hands  dreadful  instruments  of  oppression,  and, 
the  military  ideas  on  which  these  rights  were 
founded  being  gradually  lost  or  disregarded, 
nothing  remained  to  correct  or  to  mitigate  the 
rigor  with  which  they  were  exercised.  The 
nobles,  exhausting  their  fortunes  by  the  expense 
of  frequent  attendance  vpon  the  English  court, 
and  by  attempts  to  imitate  the  manners  and 
luxury  of  their  more  wealthy  neighbours,  multi- 
plied exactions  upon  the  people,  who  durst 
hardly  utter  complaints  which  they  knew  would 


never  reach  the- ear  of  their  sovereign,  nor  move 
him  to  grant  them  any  redress.  From  the  union 
of  the  crowns  to  the  Revolution,  in  1688,  Scot- 
land was  placed  in  a  political  situation  of  all 
others  the  most  singular  and  the  most  unhappy  : 
subjected  at  once  to  the  absolute  will  of  a  mo- 
narch, and  to  the  oppressive  jurisdiction  of  an 
aristocracy,  it  suffered  all  the  miseries  peculiar 
to  both  these  forms  of  government.  Its  kings 
were  despotic  ;  its  nobles  were  slaves  and  ty- 
rants ;  and  the  people  groaned  under  the  rigor- 
ous domination  of  both.  During  this  period, 
the  nobles,  it  is  true,  made  one  effort  to  shake  off 
the  yoke,  and  to  regain  their  ancient  indepen- 
dence. After  the  death  of  James,  the  Scottish 
nation  was  no  longer  viewed  by  our  monarchs 
with  any  partial  affection.  Charles  I.,  educated 
among  the  English,  discovered  no  peculiar  at- 
tachment to  the  kingdom  of  which  he  was  a  na- 
tive. The  nobles,  perceiving  the  sceptre  to  be 
now  in  hands  less  friendly,  and  swayed  by  a 
prince  with  whom  they  had  little  connexion, 
and  over  whose  councils  they  had  little  influence, 
no  longer  submitted  with  the  same  implicit 
obedience.  Provoked  by  some  encroachments 
of  the  king  on  their  order,  and  apprehensive  of 
others,  the  remains  of  their  ancient  spirit  began 
to  appear.  They  complained  and  remonstrated. 
The  people  being,  at  the  same  time,  violently 
disgusted  at  the  innovations  in  religion,  the 
nobles  secretly  heightened  this  disgust ;  and 
their  artifices,  together  with  the  ill  conduct  of 
the  court,  raised  such  a  spirit  that  the  whole 
nation  took  arms  against  their  sovereign,  with 
a  union  and  animosity  of  which  there  had  for- 
merly been  no  example.  Charles  brought  against 
them  the  forces  of  England,  and  notwithstand- 
ing their  own  union,  and  the  zeal  of  the  people, 
the  nobles  must  have  sunk  in  the  struggle.  But 
the  disaffection  which  was  growing  among  his 
English  subjects  prevented  the  king  from  acting 
with  vigor.  A  civil  war  broke  out  in  both  king- 
doms ;  and  after  many  battles  and  revolutions, 
which  are  well  known,  the  Scottish  nobles,  who 
first  began  the  war,  were  involved  in  the  same 
ruin  with  the  throne.  At  the  restoration  Charles 
II.  regained  full  possession  of  the  royal  preroga- 
tive in  Scotland  ;  and  the  nobles,  whose  estates 
were  wasted,  or  their  spirit  broken,  by  the  cala- 
mities to  which  they  had  been  exposed,  were 
less  able  and  less  willing  than  ever  to  resist  the 
power  of  the  crown.  During  his  reign,  and  that 
of  James  VII.,  the  dictates  of  the  monarch  were 
received  in  Scotland  with  the  most  abject  sub- 
mission. The  poverty  to  which  many  of  the 
nobles  were  reduced  rendered  them  meaner 
slaves  and  more  intolerable  tyrants  than  ever. 
The  people,  always  neglected,  were  now  odious, 
and  loaded  with  every  injury  on  account  of  their 
attachment  to  religious  and  political  principles, 
extremely  repugnant  to  those  adopted  by  their 
princes. 

'  The  Revolution  introduced  other  maxims 
into  trie  government  of  Scotland.  To  increase 
the  authority  of  the  prince,  or  to  secure  the  pri- 
vileges of  the  nobles,  had  hitherto  been  almost 
the  sole  object  of  our  laws.  The  rights  of  the 
people  were  hardly  ever  mentioned,  were  disre- 
garded, or  unknown.  Attention  began,  hence- 


SCOTLAND. 


565 


forward,  to  be  paid  to  the  welfare  of  the  people. 
By  the  '  claim  of  right,'  their  liberties  were  se- 
cured ;  and,  the  number  of  their  representatives 
being  increased,  they  gradually  acquired  new 
weight  and  consideration  in  parliament.  As 
they  came  to  enjoy  more  security,  and  greater 
power,  their  minds  began  to  open,  and  to  form 
more  extensive  plans  of  commerce,  of  industry, 
and  of  police.  But  the  aristocratical  spirit  which 
still  predominated,  together  with  many  other 
accidents,  retarded  the  improvement  and  happi- 
ness of  the  nation. 

'  Another  great  event  completed  what  the  Re- 
volution had  begun.  The  political  power  of  the 
nobles,  already  broken  by  the  union  of  the  two 
crowns,  was  almost  annihilated  by  the  union  of 
the  two  kingdoms.  Instead  of  making  a  part, 
as  formerly,  of  the  supreme  assembly  of  the  na- 
tion ;  instead  of  bearing  the  most  considerable 
sway  there,  the  peers  of  Scotland  are  admitted 
into  the  British  parliament  by  their  representa- 
tives only,  and  form  but  an  inconsiderable  part 
of  one  of  those  bodies  in  which  the  legislative 
authority  is  vested.  They  themselves  are  ex- 
cluded absolutely  from  the  house  of  commons, 
and  even  their  eldest  sons  are  mt  permitted  to 
represent  their  countrymen  in  that  august  assem- 
bly. Nor  have  their  feudal  privileges  remained, 
to  compensate  for  this  extinction  of  their  political 
authority.  As  commerce  advanced  in  its  pro- 
uress,  and  government  attained  nearer  to  perfec- 
tion, these  were  insensibly  circumscribed  ;  and 
at  last,  by  laws  no  less  salutary  to  the  public 
than  fatal  to  the  nobles,  they  have  been  almost 
totally  abolished.  As  the  nobles  were  deprived 
of  power,  the  people  acquired  liberty.  Ex- 
empted from  burdens  to  which  they  were  for- 
merly subject,  screened  from  oppression  to  which 
they  had  been  long  exposed,  and  adopted  into  a 
constitution  whose  genius  and  laws  were  more 
liberal  than  their  own,  they  have  extended  their 
commerce,  refined  their  manners,  made  improve- 
ments in  the  elegancies  of  life,  and  cultivated  the 
arts  and  sciences. 

'  This  survey  of  the  political  state  of  Scotland, 
in  which  events  and  their  causes  have  been  men- 
tioned rather  than  developed,  enables  us  to  point 
out  three  eras,  from  each  of  which  we  may  date 
some  great  alteration  in  one  or  other  of  the  three 
different  members  of  which  the  supreme  legisla- 
tive assembly  in  our  constitution  is  composed. 
At  their  accession  to  the  throne  of  England,  the 
kings  of  Scotland,  once  the  most  limited,  be- 
came, in  an  instant,  the  most  absolute  princes 
in  Europe,  and  exercised  a  despotic  authority, 
which  their  parliaments  were  unable  to  control, 
or  their  nobles  to  resist.  At  the  union  of  the 
two  kingdoms,  the  feudal  aristocracy,  which  had 
subsisted  so  many  ages,  and  with  power  so  ex- 
orbitant, was  overturned,  and  the  Scottish  nobles, 
having  surrendered  rights  and  pre-eminences 
peculiar  to  their  order,  reduced  themselves  to  a 
condition  which  is  no  longer  the  terror  and  envy 
of  other  subjects.  Since  the  Union,  the  com- 
mons, anciently  neglected  by  their  kings,  and 
seldom  courted  by  the  nobles,  have  emerged 
into  dignity;  and,  being  admitted  to  a  partici- 
pation of  all  the  piivileges  which  the  English  had 
purchased  at  the  expense  of  so  much  blood, 


must  now  be  deemed  a  body  not  less  consider- 
able in  the  one  kingdom,  than  they  had  long  been 
in  the  other. 

'  The  church  felt  the  effects  of  the  absolute 
power  which  the  king  acquired  by  his  accession ; 
and  its  revolutions,  too,  are  worthy  of  notice. 
James,  during  the  latter  years  of  his  administra- 
tion in  Scotland,  had  revived  the  name  and  office 
of  bishops.  But  they  possessed  no  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  or  pre-eminence;  their  revenues 
were  inconsiderable,  and  they  were  scarcely  dis- 
tinguished by  any  thing  but  by  their  seat  in 
parliament,  and  by  being  the  object  of  the  cler- 
gy's jealousy,  and  the  peoples  hatred.  The 
king,  delighted  with  the  splendor  and  authority 
which  the  English  bishops  enjoyed,  and  eager 
to  effect  a  union  in  the  ecclesiastical  polity 
which  he  had  in  vain  attempted  in  the  civil  go- 
vernment of  the  two  kingdoms,  resolved  to  bring 
both  churches  to  an  exact  conformity  with  each 
other.  Three  Scotsmen  were  consecrated  bishops 
at  London.  From  them  their  brethren  were 
commanded  to  receive  orders.  Ceremonies  un- 
known in  Scotland  were  imposed ;  and  though 
the  clergy,  less  obsequious  than  the  nobles, 
boldly  opposed  these  innovations,  James,  long 
practised  and  well  skilled  in  the  arts  of  ma- 
naging them,  obtained  at  length  their  com- 
pliance. But  Charles  I.,  a  superstitious  prince, 
unacquainted  with  the  genius  of  the  Scots,  im- 
prudent and  precipitant  in  all  the  measures  he 
pursued  in  that  kingdom,  pressing  too  eagerly 
the  reception  of  the  English  liturgy,  and  indis- 
creetly attempting  a  resumption  of  church  lands, 
kindled  the  flames  of  civil  war ;  and,  the  people 
being  left  at  liberty  to  indulge  their  own  wishes, 
the  episcopal  church  was  overturned,  and  the 
Presbyterian  government  and  discipline  were  re- 
established with  new  vigor.  Together  with  mo- 
narchy, episcopacy  was  restored  in  Scotland.  A 
form  of  government  so  odious  to  the  people 
required  force  to  uphold  it ;  and  though  not 
only  the  whole  rigor  of  authority,  but  all  the 
barbarity  of  persecution,  were  employed  in  its 
support,  the  aversion  of  the  nation  was  insur- 
mountable, and  it  subsisted  with  difficulty.  A. 
the  Revolution,  the  inclinations  of  the  peopl: 
were  thought  worthy  the  aitention  of  the  legisla- 
ture ;  the  Presbyterian  government  was  again 
established,  and,  being  ratified  by  the  Union,  is 
still  maintained  in  the  kingdom. 

'  Nor  did  the  influence  of  the  accession  extend 
to  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  constitutions  alone; 
the  genius  of  the  nation,  its  taste,  and  spirit, 
things  of  a  nature  still  more  delicate,  were  sen- 
sibly affected  by  that  event.  When  learning  re- 
vived, in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  all 
the  modern  languages  were  in  a  state  extremely 
barbarous,  devoid  of  elegance,  of  vigor,  and 
even  of  perspicuity.  No  author  thought  of  writ- 
ing in  language  so  ill  adapted  to  express  and  em- 
bellish his  sentiments,  or  of  erecting  a  work  for 
immortality  with  such  rude  and  perishable  mate- 
rials. As  the  spirit  which  prevailed  at  that  time 
did  not  owe  its  rise  to  any  original  effort  of  the 
human  mind,  but  was  excited  chiefly  by  admira- 
tion of  the  ancients,  which  began  then  to  be  stu- 
died with  attention  in  every  part  of  Europe, their 
compositions  were  deemed  not  only  the  standards 


556 


S  C  O  T  L  A  N  D. 


of  taste  and  of  sentiment,  but  of  style  ;  and  even 
the  languages  in  which  they  wrote  were  thought 
to  be  peculiar,  and  almost  consecrated  to  learn- 
ing and  the  muses.  Not  only  the  manner  of  the 
ancients  was  imitated,  but  their  language  was 
adopted  ;  and  extravagant  as  the  attempt  may 
appear  to  write  in  a  dead  tongue,  in  which  men 
were  not  accustomed  to  think,  and  which  they 
could  not  speak,  or  even  pronounce,  the  success 
of  it  was  astonishing.  As  they  formed  their 
style  upon  the  purest  models ;  as  they  were  un- 
infected  with  those  barbarisms  which  the  inac- 
curacy of  familiar  conversation,  the  affectation 
of  courts,  intercourse  with  strangers,  and  a  thou- 
sand oth/er  causes,  introduce  into  living  languages; 
many  moderns  have  attained  to  a  degree  of  ele- 
gance in  their  Latin  compositions  which  the  Ro- 
mans themselves  scarcely  possessed  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  Augustan  age.  While  this  was  al- 
most the  only  species  of  composition,  and  all 
authors,  by  using  one  common  language,  could  be 
brought  to  a  nearer  comparison,  the  Scottish 
writers  were  not  inferior  to  those  of  any  other 
nation.  The  happy  genius  of  Buchanan,  equally 
formed  to  excel  in  prose  and  in  verse,  more  vari- 
ous, more  original,  and  more  elegant,  than  that 
of  almost  any  other  modern  who  writes  in  Latin, 
reflects,  with  regard  to  this  particular,  the  greatest 
lustre  on  his  country.  But  the  labor  attending 
the  study  of  a  dead  language  was  irksome  ;  the 
unequal  return  for  their  industry  which  authors 
met  with,  who  could  be  read  and  admired  only 
within  the  narrow  circle  of  the  learned,  was  mor- 
tifying ;  and  men,  instead  of  wasting  half  their 
lives  in  learning  the  language  of  the  Romans, 
began  to  refine  and  to  polish  their  own.  The 
modern  tongues  were  found  to  be  susceptible 
of  beauties  and  graces,  which,  if  not  equal  to 
those  of  the  ancient  ones,  were  at  least  more 
attainable.  The  Italians  having  first  set  the 
example,  Latin  was  no  longer  used  in  works 
of  taste  ;  it  was  confined  to  books  of  science  ; 
and  the  politer  nations  have  banished  it  even 
from  these.  The  Scots,  we  may  presume,  would 
have  had  no  cause  to  regret  this  change  in  the 
public  taste,  and  would  still  have  been  able  to 
maintain  some  equality  with  other  nations,  in 
their  pursuit  of  literary  honor.  The  English 
and  Scottish  languages,  derived  from  the  same 
sources,  were,  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
in  a  state  nearly  similar,  differing  from  one  ano- 
ther somewhat  in  orthography,  though  not  only 
the  words,  but  the  idioms,  were  much  the  same. 
The  letters  of  several  Scottish  statesmen  of  that 
age  are  not  inferior  in  elegance,  or  in  purity,  to 
those  of  the  English  ministers  with  whom  they 
•corresponded.  James  himself  was  master  of  a  style 
far  from  contemptible ;  and,  by  his  example  and 
encouragement,  the  Scottish  language  might  have 
kept  pace  with  the  English  in  refinement.  Scot- 
land might  have  had  a  series  of  authors  in  its 
own,  as  well  as  in  the  Latin  language,  to  boast  of; 
and  the  improvements  in  taste,  in  the  arts,  and 
in  the  sciences,  which  spread  over  the  other  po- 
lished nations  of  Europe,  would  not  have  been 
unknown  there.  But,  at  the  very  time  when 
other  nations  were  beginning  to  drop  the  use  of 
I.itm  in  works  of  taste,  and  to  make  trial  of  the 
strength  and  compass  of  their  own  luiigu :, 


Scotland  ceased  to  be  a  kingdom.  The  trans- 
ports of  joy  which  the  accession  at  first  occa- 
sioned were  soon  over  ;  and  the  Scots  being  at 
once  deprived  of  all  the  objects  that  refine  or 
animate  a  people — of  the  presence  of  their 
prince,  of  the  concourse  of  their  nobles,  of  the 
splendor  and  elegance  of  a  court — a  universal 
dejection  of  spirit  seems  to  have  seized  the  na- 
tion. The  court  being  withdrawn,  no  domestic 
standard  of  propriety  and  correctness  of  speech 
remained ;  tlie  few  compositions  that  Scotland 
produced  were  tried  by  the  English  standard, 
and  every  word  or  phrase  that  varied  in  the  least 
from  that  was  condemned  as  barbarous  ;  where- 
as, if  the  two  nations  had  continued  distinct, 
each  might  have  retained  idioms  and  forms  of 
speech  peculiar  to  itself;  and  these,  rendered 
fashionable  by  the  example  of  a  court,  and  sup- 
ported by  the  authority  of  writers  of  reputation, 
might  have  been  viewed  in  the  same  light  with 
the  varieties  occasioned  by  the  different  dialects 
in  the  Greek  tongue  :  they  even  might  have  been 
considered  as  beauties,  and  in  many  cases  might 
have  been  used  promiscuously  by  the  authors  of 
both  nations.  But,  by  the  accession,  the  English 
naturally  became  the  sole  judges  and  lawgivers 
in  language,  and  rejected  as  solecisms  every  form 
of  speech  to  which  their  ear  was  not  accustomed. 
Nor  did  the  Scots,  while  the  intercourse  between 
the  two  nations  was  considerable,  and  ancient 
prejudices  were  still  so  violent  as  to  prevent  imi- 
tation, possess  the  means  of  refining  their  own 
tongue  according  to  the  purity  of  the  English 
standard.  On  the  contrary,  new  corruptions 
flowed  into  it  from  every  different  source.  The 
clergy  of  Scotland,  in  that  age,  were  more  emi- 
nent for  piety  than  for  learning;  and,  though 
there  did  not  arise  many  authors  among  them, 
yet  being  in  possession  of  the  privilege  of  dis- 
coursing publicly  to  the  people,  and  their  sermons 
being  too  long,  and  perhaps  too  frequent,  such 
hasty  productions  could  not  he  elegant,  and  many 
slovenly  and  incorrect  modes  of  expression  may 
be  traced  back  to  that  original.  The  pleadings 
of  lawyers  were  equally  loose  and  inaccurate,  and 
that  profession  having  furnished  more  authors,. 
and  the  matters  of  which  they  treat  mingling 
daily  in  common  discourse  and  business,  many  of 
those  vicious  forms  of  speech  which  are  denomi- 
nated Scotticisms  have  been  introduced  by  them 
into  the  language.  Nor  did  either  the  language 
or  public  taste  receive  any  improvement  in  par- 
liament, where  a  more  liberal  and  more  correct 
eloquence  might  have  been  expected.  All  busi- 
ness was  transacted  there  by  the  lords  of  articles, 
and  they  were  so  servilely  devoted  to  the  court 
that  few  debates  arose,  and,  prior  to  the  Revolu- 
tion, none  were  conducted  with  the  spirit  and 
vigor  natural  to  a  popular  assembly. 

'  Thus,  during  the  whole  seventeenth  century, 
the  English  were  gradually  refining  their  language 
and  their  taste  ;  in  Scotland,  the  former  was  much 
debased,  and  the  latter  almost  entirely  lost.  In 
the  beginning  of  that  period,  both  nations  were 
emerging  out  of  barbarity  ;  but  the  distance  be- 
tween them,  which  was  then  inconsiderable,  be- 
came, before  the  end  of  it  immense.  Even  after 
science  had  once  dawned  upon  them,  the  Sr<>^ 
ted  in  lie  sinking  back  into  ignorance  and 


SCOTLAND. 


5f>? 


obscurity  ;  and,  active  and  intelligent  as  they  na- 
turally are,  they  continued,  while  other  nations 
were  eager  in  the  pursuit  of  fame  and  knowledge, 
in  a  state  of  languor.  This,  however,  must  be 
imputed  to  the  unhappiness  of  their  political  situa- 
tion, not  to  any  defect  of  genius ;  for  no  sooner 
was  the  one  removed  in  any  degree,  than  the  other 
began  to  display  itself.  The  act  abolishing  the 
power  of  the  lords  of  articles,  and  other  salutary 
laws  passed  at  the  Revolution,  having  introduced 
freedom  of  debate  into  the  Scottish  parliament, 
eloquence,  with  all  the  arts  that  accompany  or 
perfect  it,  became  immediate  objects  of  attention  ; 
and  the  example  of  Fletcher  of  Salton  alone  is 
sufficient  to  show  that  the  Scots  were  still  capable 
of  generous  sentiments,  and,  notwithstanding 
some  peculiar  idioms,  were  able  10  express 
themselves  with  energy  and  with  elegance.  At 
length  the  Union  having  incorporated  the  two 
nations,  and  rendered  them  one  people,  the 
extinctions  which  had  subsisted  for  many  ages 
gradually  wear  away;  peculiarities  disappear; 
the  same  manners  prevail  in  both  parts  of  the 
islann  ;  the  same  authors  are  raad  and  admired  ; 
the  same  entertainments  are  frequented  by  the 
elegant  and  polite  ;  and  the  same  standard  of 
taste  and  purity  of  language  is  established. 
The  Scots,  after  being  placed,  during  a  whole 
century,  in  a  situation  no  less  fatal  to  the  liberty 
than  to  the  taste  and  genius  of  the  nation,  were 
at  once  put  in  possesaion  of  privileges  more  va- 
luable than  those  which  their  ancestors  had  for- 
merly enjoyed;  and  every  obstruction  that  had 
retarded  their  pursuit,  or  prevented  their  acquisi- 
tion of  littrarv  fame,  was  totally  removed.' 

Two  curious  papers,  one  published  by  Haynes, 
and  the  other  by  Strype,  are  referred  to  by  Dr. 
Kobertson  as  affording  a  remarkable  proof  of  the 
little  intercourse  between  the  English  and  Scots 
before  the  union  of  the  two  crowns.  '  In  the  year 
1 567  Elizabeth  commanded  the  bishop  of  Lon- 
don to  take  a  survey  of  all  the  strangers  within 
the  cities  of  London  and  Westminster.  By  this 
report,  which  is  very  minute,  it  appears  that  the 
whole  number  of  Scots  at  that  time  was  fifty- 
eight.  Haynes  455.  A  survey  of  the  same 
kind  was  made  by  Sir  Thomas  Row,  lord  mayor, 
A. D.I 568.  The  number  of  Scots  had  then 
increased  to  eighty-eight.  Strype,  iv.  Supple- 
ment, No.  I.  On  the  accession  of  James,  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Scots,  especially  of  the 
higher  rank,  resorted  to  England ;  but  it  was 
not  till  the  Union  that  the  intercourse  between 
the  two  kingdoms  became  great.'  We  could  al- 
most suppose  the  number  of  our  Northern  coun- 
trymen to  be  found  in  the  'Bank  of  England,  at 
the  present  time,  would  exceed  that  of  either  of 
the  above  remarkable  reports ! 


STATISTICS  OF  SCOTLAND. 

In  our  article  BRITAIN  many  of  the  great 
common  features  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain 
are  pointed  out.  In  this  place  it  can  be  only 
necessary  to  enter  more  at  large  into  what  is  pe- 
culiar to  Scotland  :  and  we  shall  first  conduct 
the  reader  round  her  romantic  and  commercial 
coasts.  Our  notice  of  the  places  must  of  course 


be  cursory.  For  farther  information,  in  regard 
to  the  chief  towns,  the  reader  will  consult  their 
alphabetical  places. 

I.  THE  EAST  COAST  OF  SCOTLAND,  from  the 
entrance  of  the  Tweed  to  the  Frith  of  Forth,  is 
precipitous  and  rocky:  the  shore  is  covered  with 
sea-weed,  chiefly  fucus  palmatus,  which  is  used 
as  a  manure  and  burnt  into  kelp.  The  cliffs  are 
the  resort  of  a  prodigious  number  of  sea  birds, 
chiefly  scouts  and  kittywakes  (larus  rissa)  which 
arrive  in  the  spring,  and,  after  having  reared 
their  young,  depart  in  the  autumn ;  they  art- 
taken  for  food  by  the  poorer  class.  The  tides  on 
this  coast  rise  twenty  feet. 

Berwickshire. — The  only  harbour  between 
Berwick  and  the  Forth  is  Eyemouth,  a  tide 
haven  formed  by  two  piers,  with  twenty  feet  irt 
the  spring  and  sixteen  in  common  tides.  The 
town  lias  a  considerable  share  in  the  fishery,  and 
exports  many  thousand  quarters  of  grain,  chiefly 
to  Leith.  Between  Eyemouth  and  St.  Abb's 
Head  is  a  fine  bay  with  good  anchorage.  St. 
Abb's  is  a  noted  promontory  with  the  ruins  of 
a  chapel ;  it  is  said  to  have  its  name  from  a  cer- 
tain lady  Ebba,  abbess  of  Coldingham,  who,  to- 
gether with  her  nuns  on  an  invasion  of  the 
Danes,  cut  off  their  noses  to  prevent  their  viola- 
tion by  the  barbarians.  Coldingham  Loch  is  a 
fresh  water  lake,  one  mile  west  of  the  head,  and 
a  mile  in  circuit :  though  it  receives  no  visible 
stream  it  always  remains  full.  Lunsden  is  a 
fishing  village  north  of  the  head. 

East  Lothian  or  Haddington. — Dunbar,  on  an 
eminence,  is  a  genteel  and  healthy  town  with  a 
castle  on  a  ledge  of  rocks  running  into  the  sea, 
and  memorable  as  the  scene  of  the  simulated 
outrage  on  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  by  Bothwel. 
It  has  a  small  pier  haven,  defended  by  a  battery : 
its  chief  business  is  the  fishery  and  the  export  of 
corn.  The  Tyne  River,  the  only  one  of  any 
consideration  in  the  county,  empties  itself  below 
the  village  of  Lintan  ;  though  in  summer  it  is  a 
torpid  stream,  the  melting  of  the  snows  or  rains 
causes  it  at  times  to  overflow.  It  has  salmon 
and  trout.  Tamtallon  Castle,  two  miles  east  of 
North  Berwick,  is  a  ruin  on  a  rock  overhanging 
the  sea  which  washes  it  on  three  sides.  North 
Berwick  is  a  small  town  of  about  2000  inhabi- 
tants ;  it  has  a  pier  haven  and  exports  corn. 

The  Frith  of  Forth  (Bodotria)  is  a  great  es- 
tuary, whose  entrance  between  the  coasts  of 
Haddington  and  Fifeness,  in  Fifeshire,  is  seven 
miles  broad.  The  breadth  decreases  regularly 
to  Queensferry,  where  it  is  contracted  by  two 
promontories  to  two  miles.  Above  which  it 
again  expands  to  a  fine  basin  four  miles  broad, 
and  continues  this  breadth  for  several  leagues. 
In  the  Frith  are  several  islands  and  rocks  worthy 
of  notice.  The  Isle  of  Bass,  near  the  south 
shore,  is  a  rock  of  great  elevation  overhanging 
the  sea ;  on  the  north  side,  and  on  the  brow  of 
the  precipice,  is  an  abandoned  castle,  at  one  pe- 
riod the  state  prison  of  Scotland.  The  isles  of 
Inch  Gowry,  Inchcolm,  Inchkeith,  and  May,  are 
the  others  worth  notice.  Inch  Gowry  has  the 
ruins  of  a  castle ;  and  the  ruins  of  a  fort  are 
seen  on  Inchkeith,  near  the  Fife  shore  of  the 
Frith.  A  few  sheep  are  pastured  on  this  island ; 
it  abounds  with  rabbits,  has  three  good  wells  ana 


658 


SCOTLAND 


a  light-house.    The  other  islands  have  nothing 
deserving  mention.     See  FORTH. 

Both  shores  of  the  Frith  of  Forth  are  thickly 
dotted  with  towns  and  villages,  from  which  a 
considerable  fishery  is  carried  on,  and  which  ex- 
port salt  and  coals.  Those  of  the  south  shore 
are  port  Sealon,  a  dry  tide  haven  with  twelve 
feet  depth,  in  springtides.  Preston  Pans,  named 
from  its  salt  pans,  has  also  a  tide  haven  for  small 
craft,  and  employs  ten  boats  in  the  oyster 
fishery.  It  is  the  grand  rendezvous  of  Scottish 
pedlars,  who  meet  here  to  enact  regulations  for 
their  community. 

Edinboroughshire . — Musselburgh,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  little  river  Esk,  has  its  name  from  the 
mussel  banks  before  it.  Fine  pearls  are  often 
found  in  these  fish.  The  *town  has  a  small 
haven. 

Leith,  the  port  of  Edinburgh,  is  two  miles 
distant  from  the  city  ;  but  the  increase  of  houses 
has  now  nearly  united  them.  Leith  is  on  both 
banks  of  the  little  river  of  the  same  name,  and 
has  a  large  trade  both  foreign  and  coasting,  par- 
ticularly with  London  (see  LEITH)  ;  it  also  sends 
ships  to  the  Greenland  fishery. 

Linlitkgow. — Queensferry,  the  usual  crossing 
place  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  is  a  considerable 
village,  with  some  trade,  and  ship-building  yards. 
Borrowstownness,  on  the  inner  basin  of  the  Frith, 
is  a  busy  place,  having  a  considerable  herring 
fishery,  a  large  coal  trade,  and  a  trade  to  the 
Baltic.  Its  haven  has  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet 
spring  tides,  and  is  kept  clean  by  a  large  basin 
with  four  sluices,  which  are  shut  when  the  basin 
is  full  at  high  water,  and  opened  at  low  water, 
so  that  the  rush  of  the  streams  carry  out  the  mud. 

Fife. — The  places  deserving  notice  on  the 
north  or  Fife  shore  of  the  Frith  are  Crail,  on  an 
elevation ;  it  has  some  sloops,  and  about  a 
dozen  herring  smacks.  Kilrenny,  East  and  West 
Anstruthers,  are  also  fishing  villages,  with  some 
sloop  trade.  Pittenween  has  a  tide  haven,  with 
eleven  or  twelve  feet  springs.  It  exports  grain, 
salt,  and  coals.  Largo,  on  a  considerable  bay. 
Dysart,  a  town  of  one  principal  street,  builds 
merchant  ships  for  the  Baltic  trade ;  has  large 
manufactories  of  salt.  Kirkaldy,  on  a  fine  cove, 
but  is  ill  built,  its  principal  street  being  most 
disagreeably  serpentine  ana  narrow.  It  has  con- 
siderable manufactures,  and  employs  4000  tons 
of  shipping.  Kinghorn,  .opposite  Leith,  and  five 
miles  from  it,  is  on  a  cliff  overhanging  the  sea ; 
its  port,  named  Pettycur,  is  a  fine  basin  at  some 
distance  to  the  west,  and  is  the  usual  crossing 
place  to  Leith.  Burnt  Island  is  a  village  on  a 
peninsula,  forming  an  excellent  haven  of  easy 
access,  adapted  for  repairing  or  laying  up  ships; 
it  has  some  trade  and  ship  building.  Stanlyburn 
has  a  pier  haven.  Inverkeithing  is  on  the  rising 
ground  of  a  bay,  affording  good  anchorage ;  it  is 
one  of  the  quarantine  harbours  for  Scotland ;  it 
exports  coals  and  salt ;  as  do  Terry  Burn  and 
St.  David's  villages.  St.  Andrew's  Bay  is  be- 
tween Fifeness  on  the  south,  and  Redhead  on 
the  north,  seven  leagues  distant.  Nearly  mid- 
way is  the  dangerous  Cape  or  Bell  Rock,  which 
nearly  dries  at  low  water,  and  on  which  a  light- 
house has  been  recently  built. 

The  city  of  St.  Andrew's  is  on  the  south  side 


of  the  bay  on  a  rocky  point,  and  has  a  haven 
formed  by  a  pier,  built  on  a  natural  ledge  of  free 
stone  running  into  the  sea ;  the  depth  is  seven 
to  ten  feet  high  water  neaps,  and  fifteen  to  six- 
teen in  the  springs.  East  and  West  Havens  are 
fishing  Villages  or  creeks  on  the  south  shore  of 
St.  Andrew's  Bay.  The  Tay,  which  carries  a 
greater  quantity  of  water  to  the  sea  than  any 
other  river  of  Britain,  issues  from  the  loch  of  the 
same  name,  and  empties  itself  by  an  estuary 
named  the  Frith  of  Tay,  filled  with  shifting 
banks.  Vessels  of  considerable  bui  len  ascend 
the  river  to  Perth,  the  chief  town  of  Perthshire, 
and  export  its  corn,  linen,  linseed,  oil,  and  sal- 
mon, the  produce  of  the  Tay  fishery.  This 
river  had  formerly  a  mussel  pearl  fishery  that 
some  years  produced  £10,000,  but  it  has  been 
entirely  exhausted. 

Angus. — Dundee  on  the  north  or  Angus  shore 
of  the  Tay,  twelve  miles  from  its  mouth,  where 
it  is  two  miles  broad,  is  a  flourishing  town  with 
a  haven,  formed  by  a  pier,  dry  at  low  water ; 
but,  having  nine  or  ten  feet  at  high  water  neaps, 
and  fourteen  at  springs ;  receiving  vessels  of 
200  tons.  Its  trade  is  very  considerable  with 
the  Baltic  and  London;  its  exports  are  sail- 
cloth, leather,  cordage,  thread,  buckram,  corn, 
salmon,  and  herrings ;  and  its  imports  of  va- 
rious objects  are  estimated  at  80,000  tons.  It 
also  sends  vessels  to  the  Greenland  fishery. 
Passage  vessels  sail  weekly  to  London.  On 
Bartonness,  the  north  point  of  the  Frith  of  Tay, 
are  two  lights.  Aberbrothic  or  Arbroath,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Brothick,  has  a  fine  tide  haven  for 
vessels  of  200  tons,  defended  by  a  battery  of 
six  twelve-pounders.  It  exports  the  linen  and 
sailcloth  of  its  manufactories.  Here  are  the 
ruins  of  a  celebrated  Benedictine  monastery 
founded  in  1 178.  From  the  mouth  of  the  Tay 
to  beyond  Arbroath  the  coast  is  sandy  and  lined 
with  rocks.  Here  it  becomes  bold  and  preci- 
pitous, with  large  caverns  worn  in  the  cliffs. 
Redhead  terminates  this  tract,  rising  in  red  cliffs 
200  feet  high,  and  bounding  Lunan  Bay  on  the 
south,  the  shores  of  which  are  sandy,  with  sunken 
rocks  .as  far  as  the  North  Esk  River.  In  this 
bay  is  good  anchorage  in  southerly  winds.  On 
"Redhead  are  the  ruins  of  a  strong  castle  said  to 
have  been  built  in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth 
century. 

Montrose,  the  chief  town  of  the  county,  is  a 
neat  and  genteel  place,  half  a  mile  from  the 
mouth  of  the  South  Esk,  which  at  the  town 
forms  a  basin  250  yards  broad,  accessible  to 
vessels  of  400  tons.  The  town  is  built  on  a 
point  of  land  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  wa- 
ter. It  exports  chiefly  salmon  of  the  river  and 
lobsters  (60,000  to  70,000  a  year)  to  London.  It 
has  also  a  considerable  coasting  trade,  and  some 
to  the  Baltic ;  and  builds  vessels. 

Kincardine. — Fiscall  is  a  village  at  the  mouth 
of  the  North  Esk,  which  separates  Angus  and 
Kincardine  shires,  to  which  succeeds  Johns- 
haven.  Gourdon,  a  fishing  village  with  a  haven, 
properly  the  port  of  Inverberie,  two  miles  fur- 
ther north  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bervie,  which 
receives  only  fishing  boats.  Eight  or  ten  sloops 
belong  to  this  port.  Dunnottar  Castle  is  on  a 
high  perpendicular  cliff,  almost  surrounded  by 


SCOTLAND. 


559 


the  sea,  and  towards  the  land  defended  by  a 
deep  ravine.  Stonehaven,  a  fishing  town  of  two 
streets,  on  the  Cowie,  with  a  good  haven  formed 
on  the  south-east  by  a  projecting  rock,  and  on 
the  north-east  by  a  pier :  it  dries  at  low  water, 
but  has  nine  or  ten  feet  high  water  neaps,  and 
sixteen  to  seventeen  in  the  springs.  There  is  a 
good  salmon  fishery  here.  Girdleness,  a  pro- 
montory eighty  feet  high,  is  the  termination  of  a 
ridge  of  the  Grampian  hills.  On  the  shores 
near  it  beautiful  Scotch  pebbles  and  jasper  are 
found,  and  most  of  the  hills  are  composed  of 
breccia  or  pudding  stone. 

Aberdeenshire. — The  coast  of  Aberdeen  is  in 
general  bold  and  rocky,  the  cliffs  presenting 
many  caverns  of  unknown  extent.  Aberdeen 
Bay  is  limited  by  Girdleness  on  the  south ;  it 
affords  good  anchorage  in  off  shore  winds.  The 
Dee  is  a  rapid  and  considerable  stream,  descend- 
ing from  the  Grampians :  its  mouth,  enclosed  by 
two  piers,  forms  the  haven  of  Aberdeen,  which 
is  crossed  by  a  bar  with  but  two  feet  at  low  wa- 
ter, and  twelve  and  a  half  feet  at  high.  Vessels 
that  can  go  over  the  bar  lie  at  a  handsome  quay. 
The  no.th  pier  is  1200  feet  long,  and  terminates 
in  a  round  head  sixty  feet  in  diameter  at  the 
base,  and  thirty-eight  feet  high;  the  whole  built 
of  huge  rocks  of  granite.  The  entrance  is  de- 
fended by  two  batteries  of  twelve-pounders.  Old 
Aberdeen  on  the  Don,  a  mile  north  of  the  new 
town,  is  almost  joined  to  it  by  a  long  village. 
Small  vessels  enter  the  river's  mouth.  Newbo- 
rough,  on  a  rock  forming  a  good  haven,  with 
twelve  feet  depth  high  water  common  tides; 
close  to  it  on  the  north  is  the  river  Ythan,  in 
which  the  tide  flows  up  to  the  pleasant  village  of 
Ellon.  This  river  abounds  with  pearl  mussels. 
Slane's  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  earl  of  Errol,  is 
built  on  a  cliff  overhanging  the  sea ;  near  it  is  a 
cavern  named  the  Dropping  Cave,  remarkable 
for  the  quick  petrifaction  of  the  water  that  drops 
from  its  roof.  The  ward  of  Gruden  is  a  fishing 
village  south  of  Buchanness,  near  which  is  a 
singular  natural  curiosity  called  the  Bullerof  Bu- 
chan ;  it  is  a  circular  basin  surrounded  by  a  ring 
of  frightful  rocks,  in  which  on  the  side  next  the 
sea  the  waves  have  worn  an  arched  opening, 
through  which  boats  can  pass  into  the  basin, 
which  latter  has  a  depth  of  thirty  fathoms  ;  the 
summit  of  the  ring  of  rocks  is  covered  with 
earth  and  grass,  forming  a  narrow  walk  all 
round.  Peterhead,  a  league  north  of  Buchan- 
ness, has  a  tide  haven  formed  by  a  pier,  and 
sheltered  by  the  little  island  Chalk  Inch.  It 
has  some  trade  to  the  Baltic,  is  engaged  in  the 
cod  and  herring  fisheries,  and  is  visited  for  a  mi- 
neral spring.  Kinnaird  Head  is  the  south  point 
of  the  great  gulf  formed  on  the  north-east  coast 
of  Scotland,  terminating  in  the  Murray  Frith. 
A  league  from  the  head  is  Frazerborough,  to 
which  succeed  Rosehearty  and  Aberdour,  fishing 
villages  with  little  tide  havens. 

Banff. — The  coast  of  Banff  county  is  in  ge- 
neral very  bold,  presenting  in  many  parts  a  front 
of  perpendicular  rock  200  to  300  feet  high. 
In  the  parish  of  Guarie.is  a  steep  rock,  frequent- 
ed by  innumerable  kittywakes,  which  arrive  in 
spring  to  breed  and  depart  in  the  autumn.  On 
the  same  coast  is  a  natural  abyss  called  Hell's 


chimney,  communicating  at  its  base  with  the  sea, 
whose  waves  rush  into  and  force  a  column  of 
water  through  it,  which  breaks  into  vapor.  A 
second  cave  is  pierced  through  a  neck  of  land, 
arid  from  an  entrance  through  which  a  man  can 
only  creep  opens  into  a  cavern  150  feet  long, 
thirty  broad,  and  twenty  high,  supported  by  vast 
natural  columns  of  rock.  On  this  coast  are 
many  small  fishing  places,  beginning  with  Gar- 
denstone,  to  which  succeeds  Macduff,  a  little 
town  recently  founded  by  the  earl  of  Fife  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Doveran,  which  has  the 
best  haven  of  the  Murray  eulf.  On  the  oppo- 
site bank  of  the  river  is  Banff,  on  the  declivity 
of  a  hill,  a  genteel  town,  but  with  a  bad  haven 
from  shifting  sand-banks.  The  Doveran  is  use- 
less to  navigation,  but  has  a  salmon  fishery  that 
rents  for  £1000.  The  other  exports  are  ale, 
corn,  thread,  cotton  and  yarn  stockings,  by 
coasters.  Portsoy  is  a  populous  town  on  a 
point  of  land,  which  forms  a  safe  harbour  for 
vessels  of  considerable  size ;  besides  the  produce 
of  its  fishery  it  exports  thread  and  fine  linen  to 
London.  The  other  places  accessible  to  navi- 
gation are  Cullen,  which  has  only  an  open  and 
dangerous  road,  Port  Nockie,  and  Buckie,  which 
receive  small  craft. 

Murray. — The  river  Spey  separates  Banff  and 
Murray  shires ;  its  course  is  about  ninety  miles 
to  the  Murray  Frith,  where  it  empties  itself  at 
Gairmouth,  forming  a  good  haven  for  small  ves- 
sels. Gairmouth  is  a  neat  town  of  700  inhabit- 
ants, and  has  a  good  deal  of  business,  chiefly 
from  the  great  quantity  of  timber  floated  down 
the  Spey  from  the  forest  of  Strathspey.  A  num- 
ber of  vessels  of  500  tons  are  built  here  of  this 
timber ;  and  it  has  a  good  salmon  fishery,  seve- 
ral sloops  being  employed  in  conveying  the  fish 
to  London.  On  the  coast  of  Murray  is  a  consi- 
derable tract  of  sand  downs,  called  the  Maviston 
Sand-hills,  which,  according  to  tradition,  were 
formed  by  the  same  inundation  of  the  sea  that 
produced  the  Goodwin  Sands.  These  downs 
are  constantly  increasing  towards  the  north-east, 
and  within  the  last  century  have  entirely  covered 
the  fertile  barony  of  Culbin ;  and  the  same 
cause  has  also  necessitated  the  removal  of  the 
town  of  Findhorn,  whose  ancient  site  is  now 
obliterated  by  sand-hills. 

On  this  coast  are  some  fresh  water  lakes, 
which  were  apparently  bays  of  the  sea,  parti- 
cularly Loch  Spynie,  three  miles  long  and  one 
broad,  now  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  fertile 
tract  of  land  called  Ross  Island  ;  many  beds  of 
oyster  shells  are  found  on  the  banks  of  the  lake 
considerably  below  the  level  of  the  land.  The 
lake  abounds  in  perch  and  pike,  and  is  fre- 
quented by  swans.  The  Loch  of  Cots  is  de- 
scribed as  a  bay  in  the  thirteenth  century.  The 
Frith  of  Murray  is  entered  between  Burgh  Head 
in  Murray,  and  Tarbet  Ness  in  Ross,  distant 
from  each  other  five  leagues ;  it  contracts  gra- 
dually to  a  strait  between  Fort  George  and  Fort- 
rose,  formed  by  two  promontories,  within  which 
it  again  widens  to  a  lake  nine  miles  long  and 
three  broad ;  at  the  upper  end  of  which  two 
projecting  points  at  Inverness  contract  it  to  a 
second  strait,  beyond  which  it  again  expands, 
and  forms  a  second  hike  nearly  as  large  as  the 


560 


SCOTLAND. 


first,  at  the  head  of  which  the  river  Beauley 
empties  itself.  The  river  Ness,  which  issues 
from  Loch  Ness,  falls  into  the  Frith  at  Inver- 
ness. Lossie  Mouth,  at  the  entrance  of  the  little 
river  Lossie,  is  the  port  of  Elgin,  and  receives 
vessels  of  eighty  tons,  by  which  it  exports  corn 
«.o  Leith,  &c.  Findhorn  is  a  small  town  at  the 
mouth  of  a  river,  which  is  navigable  to  within 
two  miles  of  Forres,  five  miles  above  Findhorn. 
In  the  river  is  a  good  salmon  fishery.  In  the 
bay  of  Findhorn  is  1000  acres  of  soil  covered 
by  the  tide  of  flood,  which  it  is  in  contemplation 
to  embank. 

Nairne. — Nairne,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river,  is 
the  only  port  of  the  little  county  of  Nairne ;  it 
is  neatly  built,  and  exports  the  produce  of  its 
salmon  fishery.  Its  harbour  is  convenient,  and 
capable  of  great  improvement. 

Inverness. — Fort  George,  on  the  Inverness 
side  of  the  strait  that  communicates  between  the 
two  inner  lakes  of  the  Murray  Frith,  is  a  regular 
fortification,  on  a  promontory  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  the  sea,  and  covering  ten  acres  of 
ground,  mounting  100  cannon,  chiefly  forty-two 
pounders,  and  having  barracks  for  6000  men. 
Inverness  is  a  considerable  town  at  the  mouth 
of  Ness  River,  accessible  to  vessels  of  500  tons 
at  all  times ;  it  exports  salmon,  herrings,  cord- 
age, canvas,  and  sacking,  chiefly  to  London. 

The  Friths  of  Murray  and  Cromarty  are  sepa- 
rated by  a  peninsula  named  Black  Isle  (Elan-du), 
through  which  runs  a  ridge  of  hills  covered  with 
heath,  declining  to  both  gulfs.  The  peninsula 
is  twenty  miles  long  and  four  broad,  the  south 
shore  forming  the  county  of  Ross,  and  the  north 
that  of  Cromarty.  Fortrose  and  Beauley  are  in 
Ross-shire,  on  the  Murray  Frith,  the  former  op- 
posite to  Fort  George. 

Cromarty. — Cromarty  Frith  is  a  deep  inlet, 
called  for  excellence  '  the  Harbour  of  Safety ;' 
it  is  entered  between  two  high  heads  called  the 
Sutors  of  Cromarty,  a  mile  and  a  half  distant 
from  each  other,  within  which  it  expands  to  three 
miles  for  a  length  of  sixteen,  and  has  good  an- 
chorage for  the  largest  ships  in  every  part,  so 
that  it  is  often  run  into  for  shelter  in  easterly 
winds.  The  south  Sutor  is  a  bold  promontory 
topped  with  pines,  and  commanding  a  magnifi- 
cent view  over  the  sea  and  over  Ross-shire.  Cro- 
marty, on  the  south  shore  of  the  strait,  has  a 
commodious  quay,  at  which  vessels  of  400  tons 
lie  ;  it  has  little  other  business  than  the  fishery. 

Ross. — The  Frith  of  Dornoch,  or  of  Tain,  is 
separated  from  that  of  Cromarty  by  a  peninsula 
of  the  county  of  Ross,  of  which  Tarbet  Ness 
is  the  extreme  point.  The  entrance  of  the  Frith 
is  five  leagues  wide,  decreasing  gradually  to 
Mickle  Ferry,  where  it  is  two  miles  ;  within  this 
it  again  expands,  and  forms  a  good  harbour  for 
vessels  of  considerable  burden,  though  it  is 
crossed  by  a  bar  with  but  four  feet  at  low  water. 
The  south  shore  of  the  outer  gulf  is  lined  by  a 
bank  called  the  Gizzing  Briggs,  from  the  noise 
the  sea  makes  on  it ;  in  it  are  several  breaks,  ad- 
mitting small  craft  within  it :  but  all  this  gulf 
requires  a  pilot. 

Tain,  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Frith,  ha  some 
coasting  trade  ;  it  is  an  old  irregular  built  town, 
with  a  few  new  houses. 


Sutherland. — On  the  north  or  Sutherland  shore 
of  the  Frith  of  Tain  is  Dornoch,  the  principal 
one  of  Sutherland,  and  the  only  one  deserving- 
mention.  North  of  the  entrance  of  Dornoch 
Frith  are  Fleet  Lake,  Dunrobbin  Castle,  the  seat 
of  the  earls  of  Sutherland,  in  good  repair,  and 
Brora  Haven,  at  the  mouth  of  the  little  river  of 
that  name. 

Caithness. — The  county  of  Caithness  occupies 
the  north-east  extremity  of  Great  Britain ;  its 
east  coast  is  bold  and  rocky,  forming  many  little 
coves  into  which  the  fishing  boats  run,  and  to 
which  the  fishermen  descend  from  the  perpen- 
dicular cliffs  by  dangerous  flights  of  steps  cut  in 
the  rock.  To  secure  their  boats  from  the  sea 
they  hoist  them  to  the  rocks,  into  which  rings 
are  fixed  for  the  purpose  above  the  reach  of  the 
waves.  At  one  of  these  coves,  named  Faligoi,  a 
fine  cascade  falls  over  the  cliffs  into  the  sea.  At 
the  bases  of  the  rocks  are  many  sea-worn  ca- 
verns, accessible  only  in  boats,  and  frequented 
by  seals,  which  are  killed  for  their  oil  and  skins. 
Many  rocky  pyramids  also  start  up  from  the 
sea.  The  sea  air  prevents  the  growth  of  any 
kind  of  trees  on  this  coast.  It  abounds  in  sea 
weed,  which  is  burnt  into  kelp. 

The  principal  places  in  Caithness  are  Dun- 
beat  h  Castle  and  Wick,  on  the  east  coast;  the 
latter  is  the  county  town ;  its  haven  is  natural 
and  very  indifferent.  Staxigo,  one  mile  north  of 
Wick,  has  a  little  dry  tide  haven.  Freswick 
castle,  on  Sinclair  Bay,  north  of  Noss  Head,  is 
strongly  situated  on  a  promontory.  Dungis,  or 
Duncan's  Bay  Head,  the  Berubium  of  Ptolemy, 
is  the  north-east  point  of  Scotland  ;  it  is  a  rocky 
precipitous  promontory,  eaten  into  caverns  by 
the  waves.  The  Stalks  of  Dungis  Bay  are  two 
isolated  pyramids  of  freestone,  the  resort  of  sea 
birds,  and  the  breeding  place  of  eagles.  The 
north  coast  of  Caithness,  west  of  Dungis  Bay 
Head,  forms  a  fine  bay,  with  a  white  sandy  and 
shelly  beach,  near  which  was  the  celebrated  John 
O'Groat's  house,  noted  as  well  for  the  tradition 
respecting  its  erection,  as  for  being  the  northern- 
most habitation  in  Britain.  Thurso  is  on  a 
spacious  bay,  limited  by  Dunnet  Head  (Occas 
Promont),  the  north  point  of  England,  on  the 
east,  and  by  Welbrow  Head  on  the  west,  both 
of  which  shelter  it  from  the  fury  of  the  waves 
and  the  stream  of  the  tides.  Dunnet  Head  is  a 
broken  rocky  promontory,  from  100  to  400  feet 
feet  high,  joined  to  the  main  by  an  isthmus,  one 
mile  and  a  half  broad.  It  is  one  of  the  few 
places  of  Britain  frequented  by  puffins. 

Thurso,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  has  a 
river  navigable  two  miles  for  vessels  of  sixty 
tons,  and  its  harbour  is  about  to  be  improved 
by  act  of  parliament.  Thurso  has  eight  vessels 
employed  in  coasting,  and  several  fishing  boats. 
It  exports  corn  and  meal  to'  the  amount  of 
£12,000,  and  fish  to  a  greater  amount,  particu- 
larly salmon,  which  is  so  abundant  that  2500 
were  caught  in  one  draft,  two  miles  above  the 
town,  in  1743.  The  annual  export  is  estimated 
at  700  kits  of  boiled  salmon,  250  barrels  of 
pickled,  besides  7000  barrels  of  salted  and 
smoked  herrings. 

Sutherland. — The  north  coast  of  Sutherland  is 
indented  by  numerous  bays,  forming  good  roads 


SCOTLAND. 


561 


for  shipping.  The  first  is  Port  Skerry,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ilollodale  River,  which  separates 
this  county  from  Caithness.  Five  miles  north- 
west of  it  is  Strathey  Head,  a  long  promontory, 
sheltering  a  cove,  called  Port  Strathey,  at  the  mouth 
of  a  river  of  the  same  name.  West  of  Stralhey 
Head,  the  River  Naver,  the  most  considerable  of 
the  county,  falls  into  a  fine  bay,  after  a  course 
of  twenty-eight  miles.  Torrysdale  River  empties 
itself  at  a  village  of  the  same  name,  and  has  a 
good  salmon  fishery.  Tongue  Bay, farther  west, 
is  an  inlet  of  the  sea,  five  miles  deep,  skirted  with 
farm  houses  and  corn  fields.  Farther  west  the 
coast  is  high  and  rocky,  with  many  little  coves, 
on  one  of  which,  named  Voisgag,  a  quarry  of 
gray  slate  is  worked.  There  are  here  also  many 
sea-worn  caverns,  supported  by  pillars,  of  which 
that  named  the  Great  Cave  of  Fraisgall  runs  in 
more  than  half  a  mile,  and  is  covered  with  sta- 
lactites of  different  resplendent  colors.  There 
are  some  islands  here,  of  which  the  most  worthy 
of  notice  are,  Saints,  Seal,  and  Rabbit  Islands, 
in  the  entrance  of  Tongue:  the  former  presents 
a  singular  appearance,  produced  by  the  spouting 
of  the  waves  of  the  sea  through  a  natural  tunnel. 
Ealan  na  Roan,  or  Seal  Island,  is  two  miles  in 
circuit  and  inhabited  by  four  families.  Rabbit 
Island  has  its  name  from  abounding  in  rabbits. 

West  of  the  Bay  of  Tongue  is  Loch  Eribol, 
a  spacious  inlet,  on  the  west  shore  of  which  is 
Port  Ruspin,  a  small  dry  haven.  Next  in  suc- 
cession is  Far-out  Head,  the  point  of  a  peninsula 
between  Loch  Eribol  and  the  bay  of  Durness. 
Cape  Wrath,  or  Barvehead  (Ebudium),  the 
north-west  point  of  Britain,  is  a  desolate  rocky 
head,  which  apparently  has  its  name  from  the 
furious  beating  of  the  waves  and,  the  rushing  of 
the  tide,  which  are  increased  by  a  rocky  ledge 
running  off"  from  the  cape  five  or  six  miles,  with 
sixteen  to  twenty-four  fathoms  on  it.  Nine  miles 
due  north  of  the  cape  is  a  dangerous  sunken 
rock  covered  at  high  water.  The  cave  of  Sino, 
near  the  cape,  is  seventy  or  eighty  yards  high, 
and  extends  backwards  in  a  lake  of  which  the 
extent  is  unknown. 

II.  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  SCOTLAND.  Dum- 
fries.— The  Solway  Frith  separates  England  and 
Scotland,  and  is  nine  leagues  wide  at  its  entrance, 
but  is  much  encumbered  by  sand  banks,  that  in- 
crease annually  in  height  and  surface,  thereby 
contracting  its  navigation.  At  its  head  it  re- 
ceives the  river  Esk,  which  is  also  the  boundary 
of  the  two  kingdoms;  and  about  a  mile  from 
which,  on  the  Scottish  side,  is  Gretna  Green,  ce- 
lebrated in  the  annals  of  clandestine  marriage. 
The  other  places  of  any  note  in  Dumfriesshire 
are  Anan,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  a  ueat 
town,  with  a  small  coasting  trade  and  considera- 
ble fishery.  Dumfries,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Nith,  nine  miles  from  its  mouth,  having  vessels 
employed  in  the  Baltic  and  Portugal  trade,  be- 
sides coasters.  The  Nith  separates  Dumfries  and 
Kircudbright  shires. 

Kircudbrightshire. — The  River  Urr,  the  most 
eastern  in  Kircudbrightshire,  is  two  miles  wide  at 
its  mouth,  spreading  to  a  large  basin  and  form- 
ing a  good  port.  It  is  navigable  eight  miles  for 
vessels  of  eighty  tons,  and  by  it  lime  is  intro- 
duced into  the  interior  from  the  opposite  coast 
Vol.  XIX 


of  Cumberland.  Kircudbright,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Dee,  five  miles  from  its  mouth,  is 
the  county  town.  The  Dee  flows  through  Ken- 
muire  Lake,  and  is  navigable  to  Tongland,  two 
miles  above  Kircud bright,  above  which  its  bed 
becomes  encumbered  with  rocks.  It  abounds  in 
salmon,  perch,  and  eels.  In  the  mouth  of  the 
river  is  the  little  island  of  Ross,  the  entrance  be- 
tween it  and  the  east  shore  being  one  mile  and 
a  half  wide,  safe  and  bold  on  both  sides.  Above 
this  island  are  several  good  anchoring  places, 
with  sixteen  feet  water  at  low  water,  and  forty- 
six  at  high.  Opposite  Kircudbright  the  depths 
are  eight  feet  at  low  water  and  twenty-eight  at 
high.  On  the  sand  in  the  river  below  the  town 
is  St.  Mary's  Island,  on  which  the  earl  of  Sel- 
kirk has  a  mansion.  Here  are  also  the  remain's 
of  a  magnificent  castle.  The  River  Fleet  empties 
itself  on  the  east  shore  of  Wilton  Bay,  and  is 
navigable  for  vessels  of  eighty  tons  to  the  village 
of  Gatehouse.  Creetown,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Cree,  which  falls  into  the  head  of  Wiglon  Bay, 
is  a  newly  founded  and  increasing  place,  having 
a  number  of  coasters,  and  vessels  of  500  tons  can 
ascend  to  it. 

Wigtotukire. — Wigton  Bay  separates  the  coun- 
ties of  Kircudbright  and  Wigton  ;  it  is  three 
miles  broad  for  six  miles  from  its  entrance,  and 
has  several  good  anchorages.  Borough  Head  is 
its  west  point.  Ascending  from  which  along  the 
west  shore  the  places  are  Whitehorn,  having  a 
good  haven  sheltered  by  a  little  Island,  and  pas- 
sage vessels  sailing  to  the  Isle  of  Man  in  three 
hours,  to  Whitehaven  in  four,  and  to  Dublin, 
Greenock,  and  Liverpool  in  eighteen.  Wigton, 
the  county  town,  is  on  a  hill  on  the  bank  of  the 
Bladenoch.  Luce  Bay  is  between  Burrough 
Head,  on  the  east,  and  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  on 
the  west.  Nearly  mid-channel  between  these 
points  are  the  rocks  named  the  Scars.  In  foggy 
weather  this  bay  has  been  frequently  mistaken 
for  the  opening  of  the  north  channel,  and  vessels 
have  run  on  shore  on  the  quicksands,  which  line 
several  parts  of  the  bay,  and  out  of  which  it  is 
impossible  to  extricate  a  vessel.  There  are, 
however,  several  good  fair  weather  anchorages 
in  this  bay,  but  in  westerly  winds  there  is  al- 
ways a  great  swell  in  it.  The  peninsula  of  Gal- 
loway is  bold  and  cavernous  on  the  west.  Its 
south  point,  or  Mull,  is  also  the  south  point  of 
Scotland.  Port  Nessick,  on  the  west  side,  has 
a  little  pier  for  craft  of  five  or  six  feet.  Port 
Patrick  is  a  neat  town  with  a  small  haven  and  a 
handsome  quay  and  light-house.  A  packet  sails 
daily  between  it  and  Donaehadee,  the  distance 
being  twenty  miles.  The  principal  trade  is  the 
import  of  cattle  from  Ireland.  One  mile  south 
of  it  is  the  castle  of  Dunskery,  on  the  brink  of  a 
frightful  precipice.  Loch  Ryan  is  a  deep  inlet 
at  the  north  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Gallo- 
way, ten  miles  long  and  two  broad  at  the  en- 
trance, widening  to  four  miles  within,  and  form- 
ing an  excellent  harbour,  the  only  danger  being 
a  sand  bank  running  off  from  the  west  shore, 
which  makes  it  necessary  to  keep  pretty  close  to 
the  east  shore.  This  sand-bank  is  covered  with 
excellent  oysters,  and  the  bay  abounds  in  cod. 
haddock,  and  other  fish,  lobsters  and  crabs. 
Stranraer,  at  the  head  of  the  Loch,  is  one  of  tb* 

2  O 


562 


SCOTLAND. 


principal  towns  of  the  west  of  Scotland,  neatly, 
built,  and  a  small  river  runs  through  it.  Vessels 
of  300  tons  ascend  to  within  a  mile  of  the  town, 
and  those  of  sixty  tons  lie  at  its  quay.  It  has 
1400  tons  of  shipping,  and  trades  to  Norway  and 
the  Baltic. 

Airshire. — The  Frith  of  Clyde  is  a  deep  gulf 
between  the  coast  of  Air,  on  the  east,  and  the 
peninsula  of  Kintyre,  on  the  west.  The  Air  coast 
towards  the  south  and  north  is  rocky  and  elevated, 
but  in  the  middle  between  the  River  Doon  and 
Saltcoats,  a  distance  of  twenty  miles,  is  a  sandy 
beach,  shoaling  a  considerable  way  off.  As  the 
ports  of  Air  and  Irvine,  on  this  coast,  can  only 
receive  vessels  of  200  tons  at  spring  tides,  ships 
embayed  in  the  curve  can  only  find  shelter  in 
westerly  winds  under  Lady  Island  four  miles 
north-west  of  Air.  The  proper  marks  for  anchor- 
ing here  are  the  spires  of  the  two  beacons  on  the 
island  in  one,  where  a  cable's  length  off  shore, 
there  is  ten  or  twelve  fathoms.  Trune  is  the 
only  place  on  this  coast  where  a  good  artificial 
haven  may  be  formed,  as  it  is  naturally  sheltered 
from  all  winds  but  north-west  by  a  rocky  penin- 
sula running  a  mile  into  the  sea.  A  vessel  taking 
shelter  in  it  at  present  may  anchor  half  a  cable's 
length  within  its  extremity,  in  three  fathoms  at 
half  flood.  It  is  a  sea  bathing  place.  Ballinhay, 
on  the  Stinser,  is  a  good  village.  Four  miles 
north  of  which  is  Ailsa  Island,  in  the  middle  of 
the  entrance  of  the  Frith  of  Clyde.  It  is  a  co- 
nical rock,  with  many  goats  and  rabbits  on  it, 
and  the  resort  of  soland  geese  and  other  sea 
birds,  whose  feathers,  as  well  as  the  rabbit  skins, 
pay  the  rent  of  the  tenant,  which  is  £25.  On  it 
are  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle.  Gnvan,  on  the 
river  of  the  same  name,  is  a  poor  village,  with 
lialf  a  dozen  boats.  In  the  river  the  depths  are 
nine  to  eleven  feet. 

Air,  the  county  town,  on  a  river  of  its  name, 
is  a  small  well-built  place.  The  river  is  crossed 
by  a  bar  with  but  twelve  feet  high  water  springs. 
It  sends  some  vessels  to  the  Baltic,  and  to  Ire- 
land with  coals,  and  builds  vessels.  Irvine,  three 
miles  up  a  river  of  its  name,  has  a  haven  with 
nine  to  eleven  feet  water  at  common  springs ; 
but  with  a  gale  from  south-west  the  tide  often 
rises  to  sixteen  feet.  It  has  a  small  ship-build- 
ing establishment,  some  trade  with  the  Baltic, 
and  exports  24,000  tons  of  coals.  Saltcoats,  the 
most  fashionable  sea-bathing  place  of  the  west 
coast  of  Scotland,. is  built  on  a  rock  near  Sandy 
Hills.  It  has  a  manufactory  of  salt,  some  coast- 
ing trade,  ship  building,  and  a  herring  fishery. 
Largs,  opposite  the  Isle  of  Bute,  has  1400  inha- 
bitants, and  is  the  general  market  of  the  neigh- 
bouring country.  The  River  Clyde,  supposing 
its  entrance  to  be  at  the  Isle  of  Bute,  is  four 
miles  wide,  but  the  channel  is  narrowed  by  the 
Great  and  Little  Cumbray  Islands,  nearly  in  the 
middle.  The  tide  flows  above  Paisley,  and  it 
abounds  in  salmon  and  trout. 

Renfrewshire. — Greenock,  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  Clyde,  is  the  emporium  of  the  north  and 
west  of  Scotland.  In  1700  it  was  a  mean  village, 
but  now  carries  on  a  direct  trade  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  It  also  builds  a  great  many  merchant 
ships  for  sale,  and  has  a  share  in  the  Greenland 
whale  fishery.  The  harbour  is  nearly  dry  at 


low  water,  and  vessels  of  eleven  feet  only  can  go 
in  with  spring  tides. 

Port  Glasgow  is  three  miles  east  of  Greenock. 
The  Clyde  here  is  two  miles  wide,  but  so  filled 
with  banks  as  only  to  afford  a  channel  '200  yards 
wide  close  to  the  Port  Glasgow  shore.  The 
largest  vessels  lie  here  at  the  quays,  or  discharge 
their  cargoes  into  lighters  to  be  conveyed  up  to 
Glasgow.  Renfrew,  the  chief  town  of  the  county, 
formerly  stood  on  the  bank  of  the  Clyde,  but  the 
river,  changing  its  course,  deserted  it.  At  pre- 
sent it  communicates  by  a  little  canal. 

Glasgow,  the  principal  town  of  Lanerk,  and 
the  second  of  Scotland,  is  fifteen  leagues  above 
Port  Glasgow,  vessels  of  seventy  tons  ascending 
to  its  quays,  the  rise  of  tide  being  seven  feet.  A 
board  of  commissioners  is  here  appointed  to  im- 
prove the  river,  and  operations  are  constantly 
carrying  on  to  deepen  it.  This  city  receives  the 
greater  part  of  the  merchandise  imported  by  the 
Greenock  and  Port  Glasgow  vessels. 

Dumbartonshire. — The  only  port  town  of  Dum- 
bartonshire is  Dumbarton,  on  the  Leven,  which, 
issuing  from  Loch  Lomond,  falls  into  the  Clyde. 
The  town  has  2500  inhabitants,  and  some  brigs 
belong  to  it.  Near  the  town  is  a  castle  on  a 
two-headed  rock,  washed  on  one  side  by  the 
Clyde  and  on  the  other  by  the  Leven.  Gare 
Loch  and  Long  Loch  are  the  first  of  the  nume- 
rous sea  lakes  that  intersect  the  north-west  coasts 
of  Scotland.  Gare  Loch  is  seven  miles  long  and 
two  wide ;  and  Long  Loch  is  twelve  miles  long, 
approaching  the  celebrated  fresh  water  lake  of 
Lomond  within  one  mile  and  a  half.  It  sepa- 
rates Dumbarton  and  Argyle  counties. 

Argyleshire. — The  county  of  Argyle  is  com- 
posed of  several  peninsulas  formed  by  sea  locks  : 
the  first  of  the  latter  is  Loch  Fyne,  thirty  miles 
long  and  three  wide,  in  which  a  great  herring 
fishery  has  been  carried  on  at  different  periods.  Ait 
its  head  is  Inverary,  the  chief  town  of  the  county. 

The  peninsula  of  Kintyre  is  united  to  the 
main  land  of  Argyle  by  an  isthmus  a  mile 
broad,  between  the  east  and  west  Lochs  Tarbet ; 
the  former  is  a  safe  and  capacious  basin,  with  an 
entrance  only  100  yards  wide.  On  the  south 
point  of  the  peninsula,  named  the  Mull  of  Kin- 
tyre,  is  a  light.  Campbelltown,  on  the  east  side, 
has  an  excellent  natural  harbour,  within  the  little 
island  Dever ;  it  is  surrounded  by  high  hills, 
and  has  a  depth  of  six  fathoms.  Here  is  the 
grand  rendezvous  of  the  herring  busses.  Sanda 
Island,  two  miles  north-east  of  the  Mull,  is  cele- 
brated in  the  Scandinavian  annals  by  the  name 
of  Avona,  as  the  rendezvous  of  the  Danes  ;n  their 
descents  on  Britain.  The  circuitous  and  difficult 
navigation  round  Kintyre,  from  the  Clyde  to  the 
Hebrides  and  north-west  coast  of  Scotland,  is 
now  avoided  by  means  of  a  canal,  nine  miles 
long,  cut  from  Loch  Gilp  (abend  of  Loch  Fyne) 
to  Loch  Crinan.  Having  rounded  Kintyre  and 
passed  West  Loch  Tarbet  and  Loch  Crinan, 
above-mentioned,  we  come  to  Loch  Fellam,  on 
which  is  Oban,  the  principal  place  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  Scotland,  though  but  a  village. 
The  Loch  forms  a  harbour  capable  of  receiving 
500  merchant  vessels.  Dunstaffnage,  or  Loch 
Etive,  the  place  next  in  consequence,  is  a  small 
hamlet,  with  an  ancient  castle 


SCOTLAND. 


563 


Inverness-shire. — Lochs  Linne  and  Lodiabar, 
which  communicate  by  a  strait,  penetrate  into 
the  heart  of  the  bleak  and  dreary  county  of  In- 
verness. At  the  head  of  the  loch  is  Fort  William, 
a  triangular  fortress,  with  two  bastions  and  bar- 
racks for  800  men.  The  little  town  of  Mary- 
borough adjoins  Castle  Duart,  or  Loch  Linne,  and 
has  a  garrison  of  forty  men  from  Fort  William. 
Glenely  is  a  poor  hamlet  opposite  the  east  end  of 
the  Isle  of  Sky.  A  mile  north  of  it  are  Berneira 
barracks  usually  occupied  by  a  Serjeant's  guard. 

Ross. — The  western  coast  of  the  county  of 
Ross  has  no  place  deserving  even  the  name  of 
village  except  Ullapool,  on  Loch  Broom,  a  fish- 
ing station,  established  by  the  British  Society  in 
1788;  it  may  contain  500  persons.  The  loch  is 
one  of  the  most  abundant  in  fish,  and  forms  an 
excellent  harbour  for  the  largest  fleets. 

Sut  her  lands/tire. — The  west  coast  of  Suther- 
land, which  terminates  at  Cape  Wrath,  is  worn 
into  many  sea  lochs  and  inlets,  where  shipping 
can  find  shelter  in  all  winds,  but  has  not  even  a 
hamlet. 

We  have  noticed  the  chief  mountain  ranges, 
and  some  of  the  most  remarkable  mountains  of 
Scotland,  in  the  article  BRITAIN. 

The  first  and  great  division  of  Scotland  is  into 
the  Highlands  and  Lowlands.  The  former  en- 
gross more  than  one-half  of  Scotland ;  extending 
from  Dumbartonshire  to  the  most  northern  part 
of  the  island,  a  space  of  200  miles  in  length,  and 
in  breadth  from  fifty  to  100.  This  tract,  how- 
ever, includes  several  extensive  districts  of  low, 
fruitful  ground,  inhabited  by  people  who  are  in 
all  respects  different  from  the  mountaineers.  No- 
thing can  be  more  wild  and  tremendous  to  the 
eye  of  a  stranger  than  the  appearance  of  the 
Highlands,  composed  of  blue  rocks  and  dusky 
mountains  heaped  upon  one  another  even  above 
the  clouds,  their  interstices  rendered  impassable 
by  bogs,  their  sides  embrowned  with  heath,  and 
their  summits  covered  with  snow,  which  lies  all 
the  year  unthawed,  pouring  from  their  jagged 
sides  a  thousand  torrents  and  roaring  cataracts 
that  fall  into  gloomy  vales  or  glens  below,  some 
of  them  so  narrow,  deep,  and  dismal,  as  to  be 
altogether  impenetrable  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  : 
yet  these  mountains  are  in  some  places  sloped 
into  agreeable  green  hills  fit  for  pasture,  and 
skirted  or  interspersed  with  present  straths  or 
valleys  capable  of  cultivation.  Some  authors 
have  divided  Scotland  into  that  part  which  lies 
to  the  southward  of  the  Frith,  and  that  which 
lies  to  the  northward.  Others  consider  Scotland, 
agriculturally,  as  embracing  three  natural  divi- 
sions. The  first  lies  north  of  the  chain  of  High- 
land lakes,  which  stretches  from  Murray  to  Mull, 
and  consists  of  little  else  than  dreary  mountains 
and  some  moors  ;  the  second,  or  middle  division, 
extends  from  this  chain  of  lakes  to  the  rivers 
Forth  and  Clyde ;  it  is  mountainous,  but  culti- 
vated in  the  valleys,  and  on  the  eastern  shore  to 
a  considerable  extent ;  the  remaining  division  is 
covered  by  hills  with  some  mountains,  but  every 
where  cultivated  or  improvable,  and  highly  fa- 
voruble  for  most  branches  of  agriculture  :  and, 
though  Scotland  was  far  behind  England  in  cul- 
tivation till  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  it  has 
now  outstripped  this  country  ;  particularly  in 


arable  husbandry :  in  proof  of  which  Mr.  London 
adduces  the  fact  that  the  improvements  intro- 
duced, or  attempted  to  be  introduced,  on  arable 
land  in  England  and  Wales  are,  with  few  excep- 
tions, the  implements  and  practices  of  Scotland. 
In  the  management  of  meadows  or  old  pasture, 
Scotland  cannot  be  conspicuous;  as  the  climate 
is  not  naturally  calculated  for  that  kind  of  hus- 
bandry. The  winters  are  too  long  and  severe, 
and  the  surface  too  irregular :  and  in  regard  to 
live  stock  this  writer  admits  the  palm  of  improve- 
ment is  undoubtedly  borne  away  by  England. 
But  though  there  is  not  that  enthusiasm  in  Scot- 
land, nor  such  large  prices  given  for  capital  spe- 
cimens, it  may  be  safely  asserted  that  breeding 
and  feeding  are  conducted  as  systematically  and 
successfully  there  as  in  England.' 

The  number  of  the  counties  is  thirty-three, 
most  of  which  are  again  subdivided  by  local  acts 
of  parliament  into  two  or  more  districts  for  the 
purposes  of  police  and  internal  economy;  and 
several  of  them  comprise  a  variety  of  territorial 
divisions,  founded  on  the  natural  circumstances 
of  the  country.  Berwick  is  thus  diuided  into  the 
three  districts  of  the  Merse,  Lauderdale,  and 
Lammermuir  ;  Lanarkshire  into  the  I  pper, 
Middle,  and  Lower  Wards ;  and,  in  the  exten- 
sive Highland  counties,  the  subdivisions  are  still 
more  numerous.  The  number  of  parishes  is.899, 
but  liable  to  vary  from  annexations  and  disjunc- 
tions. Every  parish  contains  a  church  and  bury- 
ing-ground,  with  a  manse,  or  dwelling-house, 
and  a  few  acres  of  land  as  a  glebe,  for  the  clergy- 
man, who,  by  a  happy  provision  and  observance 
of  the  law,  is  always  resident;  and  a  school,  with 
a  schoolmaster's  house  and  garden.  In  several 
of  the  towns  one  church  has  two  ministers,  so 
that  the  number  of  the  clergy  is  greater  than  that 
of  the  parishes.  In  1813  the  parochial  clergy 
amounted  to  938,  besides  assistants.  An  indefi- 
nite number  of  parishes  form  the  ecclesiastical 
division,  called  a  presbytery,  and  several  presby- 
teries a  synod. 

Rivers. — In  the  northern  part  of  Scotland  are 
several  fine  streams,  amongst  which  the  Beau-ly, 
Canon,  and  Naver,  may  be  mentioned ;  but 
those  of  the  middle  division  of  the  country  far 
surpass  them.  Here  rise  the  Spey,  the  Dee,  the 
Don,  the  north  and  south  Esk,  and  the  Tay,  one 
of  the  largest  rivers  of  Great  Britain.  In  the 
south  of  Scotland  we  have  the  Forth,  the  Clyde, 
the  Tweed,  and  numerous  minor  rivers  which 
empty  themselves  into  the  Irish  sea  and  Solway 
Frith ;  the  Ayr,  the  Girwan,  the  southern  Dee, 
the  Nith,  the  Annan,  and  the  Liddal.  The  lakes 
or  lochs  of  Scotland  are  also  numerous  and 
have  been  many  of  them  long  celebrated  for 
their  grand  and  picturesque  scenery.  Of  these, 
the  chief  are  Loch  Lomond,  Loch  Aw,  Loch 
Tay,  Loch  Ness,  Loch  Shin,  Loch  Lochay,  Loch 
Naver,  Loch  Leven,  &c. 

Minerals. — Scotland  has  boasted  mines  of  the 
precious  metals,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  histori- 
cal part  of  this  article ;  but  no  mines  are  now 
wrought  solely  for  silver  or  gold  ;  the  lead  mines 
are,  however,  rich  in  the  former.  In  the  last 
century  a  silver  mine  was  wrought  in  the  Ochil 
hills,  in  the  parish  of  Alva.  Ironstone,  iron 
ore,  and  septaria  ironstone,  are  abundant,  and 

2  O  2 


564 


SCOTLAND 


copper  has  been  discovered  in  many  places. 
Other  metallic  substances  discovered  here  are 
cobalt,  bismuth,  manganese,  wolfram,  plumbago, 
and  mercury.  Coal  is  abundant  in  the  southern 
and  middle  districts,  running  from  north-east  to 
south-west,  and  limestone,  freestone  or  sand- 
stone, and  slate,  are  found  in  every  district.  Of 
late,  too,  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  marbles, 
which  prove  very  fine.  Most  of  the  gems  and 
precious  stones,  except  the  diamond,  have  been 
found  in  Scotland.  Pearls  are  found  in  the 
great  horse  mussel  (the  mytilus  cygnius  and 
anatinus),  a  native  of  the  northern  rivers ;  in  the 
common  oyster  and  in  mussels.  The  sapphire, 
of  equal  hardness  with  the  oriental,  is  found  in 
several  places,  and  of  different  shades,  from  a 
deep  red  to  a  transparent  white.  The  topaz  is 
found  in  the  mountains  of  Marr,  and  in  the 
range  which  stretches  towards  Perth,  Inverness, 
and  Banff.  It  is  the  most  brilliant  of  the  Scot- 
tish gems  hitherto  found.  It  occurs  in  rolled 
pieces,  often  imbedded  in  the  granite,  and  most 
commonly  of  a  very  light  green,  or  greenish 
white.  The  ruby  and  hyacinth  have  been  found 
in  Fifeshire,  adhering  to  the  rocks.  They  are  in 
general  small,  and  of  inferior  lustre.  Emeralds 
and  amethysts  are  also  frequently  met  with,  and 
some  have  been  valued  at  thirty  or  forty  guineas. 
Garnets  are  found  in  the  Highlands  of  good 
sizes;  and  agates,  under  the  various  names  of 
onyx,  sardonyx,  and  pebble,  in  every  part  of 
the  country  where  basaltic  rocks  are  found. 
The  Scotch  pebbles  are  of  many  beautiful  hues ; 
blue  and  white,  red  and  white,  in  veins,  and  in 
every  gradation  of  shade.  Jasper  is  so  abundant 
as  to  be  included  among  the  building  stones ; 
there  are  also  many  delicate  specimens  to  be 
met  with.  The  rock  crystal,  commonly  deno- 
minated cairngorum,  from  the  mountain  of  that 
name  in  Banffshire,  is  found  in  every  mountain 
in  the  primary  districts  of  Scotland.  The 
colors  are  yellow  of  different  shades,  and  clove 
brown,  approaching  to  black.  The  deeper  yel- 
low specimens  sell  high :  the  dove  brown  colors, 
more  peculiarly  termed  cairngorums,  are  also 
valued  in  jewellery ;  and  chalcedony,  equal  in 
lardness  and  other  qualities  to  the  oriental,  is 
found  in  Fife.  The  northern  and  southern 
mountains  are  chiefly  composed  of  granite:  Ben 
Vevis  is  said  to  be  equally  beautiful  with  the 
Egyptian;  at  Portsoy  that  singular  kind  of 
granite  is  found  called  Moses'  Tables ;  besides 
tnese,  there  are  various  rare  and  curious  fossils. 

Springs. — The  chalybeate  springs  are  very 
lumerous;  we  may  particularise  those  at  Moffat, 
°eterhead,  Dunse,  and  Aberbrothock.  Sulphu- 
reous springs  are  also  found  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Moffat,  and  near  Edinburgh,  at  St. 
Bernard's  well.  Some  of  the  springs  also  hold 
some  neutral  salt  dissolved,  as  at  Pitcaithly. 
Many  of  the  springs  proceeding  from  a  bed  of 
limestone,  acquire  a  petrifying  property,  of 
which  there  are  examples  at  the  Dropping  Cave 
of  Slains  in  Aberdeenshire,  and  in  many  places 
in  Lanark  and  Ayr. 

Of  the  Caledonian  foreatt,  the  most  consider- 
able remains  are  in  the  districts  of  Mar  and 
Glentanar  in  Rannoch,  in  Glenmore  and  Strath- 
spey, and  in  Alfarig  in  Ross-shire.  Fir  is  the 


most  common  wood ;  but  the  oak  and  other  de- 
ciduous trees  are  not  wanting.  Some  of  these 
forests  extend  thirty  or  forty  miles  in  length,  and. 
great  quantities  of  timber  are  floated  down  the 
Spey,  the  Dee,  and  the  Tummel. 

The  soil  must  be  considered  in  general  infe- 
rior in  point  of  fertility  to  England;  but  there 
are  many  valleys  or  straths,  even  in  the  High- 
lands, which  are  productive ;  and  the  three 
Lothians,  Berwickshire,  Fifeshire,  the  Carses 
of  Stirling  and  Falkirk,  Strathern,  the  Carse  of 
Gowrie,  the  province  of  Moray,  &c.,  contain 
excellent  land.  In  the  middle  and  southern 
districts  the  country  has  every  where  assumed  a 
most  marked  and  visible  improvement.  The 
soil  of  Scotland  produces  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
oats,  pease,  beans,  hay,  potatoes,  turnips,  &c. ; 
also  flax  and  hemp,  but  in  no  great  quantities, 
nor  does  the  soil  appear  to  be  well  qualified  for 
their  production.  Horticulture  is  making  rapid 
progress  every  where,  and  apples  and  other 
fruits  are  produced  in  abundance.  Of  late 
many  extensive  tracks  of  waste  land  have  been 
planted  with  wood,  and  the  success  attending 
this  improvement  evinces  that  the  soil  and 
climate  are  well  adapted  for  forest  trees.  The 
Scotch  fir  is  the  most  common  pine  in  the  Scot- 
tish plantations;  the  larch  has  also  been  intro- 
duced, and  is  a  valuable  acquisition.  Ash,  elm, 
plane,  beech,  oak,  laburnum,  and  a  great  variety 
of  other  kinds,  are  intermixed  in  the  planta- 
tions, and  have  a  fine  effect.  The  juniper  shrub 
grows  naturally  on  the  hills,  and  the  whortle  or 
blae  berries  grow  on  the  highest  mountains. 
The  alga  marina,  or  sea  weed,  is  in  great  luxuri- 
ance on  the  rocky  coasts,  and  becomes  when 
burnt  into  kelp,  a  valuable  article  of  commerce. 

Speaking  of  the  west  of  Scotland  at  the  pre- 
sent period  as  contrasted  with  sixty  years  ago,  a 
practical  writer  observes, — '  Good  roads  and 
wheel  carriages  are  in  such  general  use,  that  we 
reckon  them  as  common  place  ;  yet,  by  reflect- 
ing on  the  former  situation  of  this  country,  we 
may  soon  form  a  proper  idea  of  their  import- 
ance. About  the  period  above-mentioned,  luiy 
was  a  scarce  article  in  Glasgow ;  and  in  some  of 
the  surrounding  parishes,  ten  or  twelve  miles  off, 
the  roads  were  so  bad,  that  their  hay  intended 
for  sale  was  made  up  in  trusses  of  ten  stones 
only,  and  it  took  a  whole  day's  work  for  a  man 
and  horse  to  bring  that  quantity  to  town,  a  busi- 
ness which  was  then  performed  by  placing  it 
across  the  horse's  back,  and  the  man  led  the 
animal  with  one  hand,  while  he  employed  the 
other  to  balance  it,  owing  to  the  ruggedness  of 
the  roads  If  hay  was  scarce  at  th.it  time, 
money  was  more  so,  for,  afier  all  the  labor  of 
making  and  transporting  the  hay,  all  that  the 
farmer  received  for  it  was  3d.  per  stone,  or  2s.  6d. 
for  the  whole  load,  out  of  which  he  had  to  pay 
part  of  his  rent  and  the  expenses  attendant  upon 
raising  the  crop  and  keeping  his  horse.  Now- 
a-days  a  horse  and  cart  can  bring  into  town  120 
stones  from  the  same  district,  with  the  greatest 
ease,  and  the  farmer  will  be  far  better  paid  for 
his  trouble.  Sour  or  butter  milk  was  also  then, 
as  it  still  is,  an  article  much  in  use  in  this  coun- 
try, and  it  was  likewise  all  brought  in  upon 
horse's  backs.  I  have  myself  seen  about  thirty 


SCOTLAND. 


565 


horses  in  a  morning,  bring  in  two  small  casks  a 
piece,  one  on  each  side  of  them,  not  exceeding 
in  content  (from  recollection  of  their  appear- 
ance) a  vessel  of  forty  pints  each.  At  present 
the  farmer  can,  with  the  greatest  ease,  bring  in 
upon  a  cart  a  cask  containing  140  pints,  and 
frequently  two  of  this  content,  so  much  are  our 
roads  improved,  and  the  facility  of  communica- 
tion with  the  surrounding  country  increased.  In 
these  times,  on  almost  all  farms,  the  country 
people  had  cars  for  bringing  in  their  crops ; 
these  cars  are  now  so  completely  given  up  that 
few  individuals  in  this  town  under  thirty  years 
of  age  have  ever  seen  them,  though  I  believe 
tliey  are  in  a  small  degree  still  used  in  very  steep 
billy  parts  of  the  country,  or  where  the  crop  is 
to  be  brought  in  from  high  grounds.  Farmers 
now  only  use  carts,  drawn  by  good  horses,  and 
well  made  harness ;  whereas  formerly  the  collars 
for  these  animals  were  made  of  straw  or  rushes. 
The  farming  system  is  equally  improved  in  every 
other  respect ;  you  now  see  fields  of  wheat 
waving  their  yellow  heads,  in  places  which  for- 
merly produced  but  a  very  poor  crop  of  oats ; 
and  excellent  green  crops  are  common  over  all 
the  country.  The  comfort  of  the  cottagers  has 
partaken  of  the  general  improvement ;  instead 
of  clay,  they  have  wooden  floors  in  their  cottages, 
and  even  in  these  humble  abodes  you  will  fre- 
quently find  carpets  and  other  luxuries  which 
were  unknown  to  our  forefathers.  From  these, 
and  many  other  examples  that  might  be  adduced 
of  manifest  improvement  in  the  comfort  of  the 
agricultural  part  of  the  community,  we  may  see 
the  gradual  progress  of  civilisation,  and  the  su- 
perior blessings  we  enjoy  when  compared  with 
those  of  the  former  inhabitants  of  this  part  of  the 
island.' 

Though  somewhat  departing  from  our  arrange- 
ment, we  shall  allow  this  writer  to  speak  of  other 
improvements  in  his  neighbourhood : — '  When 
we  turn,  on  the  other  hand,  to  the  manufactur- 
ing portion,  we  are  struck  in  a  still  more  forcible 
manner  with  the  rapid  strides  of  improvement 
in  their  varied  departments.  The  weaving  ma- 
nufacturer, for  instance,  who,  at  the  same  period 
to  which  I  have  so  repeatedly  called  your  atten- 
tion, employed  thirty  or  forty  looms  to  work  for 
him,  was  esteemed  a  person  of  very  extensive 
trade  and  importance  in  society.  Now,  some 
individuals  in  this  line  employ  1200  looms,  and 
in  many  shops  there  are  200  under  one  roof. 
The  most  wonderful  improvement,  however,  in 
this  branch  of  manufacture,  is  that  of  the  steam 
loom ;  and,  though  at  present  it  is  restricted  to  the 
weaving  of  plain  cotton  goods,  yet,  I  believe, 
the  period  is  not  far  distant  when  it  will  be  ex- 
tended to  the  fabrication  of  all  kinds  of  woollen 
manufactures  whatever.  I  have  indeed  seen 
within  these  few  days  an  ingenious  English  me- 
chanic who  has  lately  visited  Lyons,  and  he  in- 
forms me  that  the  best  weaver  in  that  city  can 
only  earn  a  franc  a  day,  and  that  at  the  finest 
work,  namely,  the  fabrication  of  those  beautiful 
silk  ribbons  so  much  admired  by  our  ladies. 
Having  visited  Paisley,  our  grand  workshop  of 
ingenious  manufactures,  he  was  pleased  with  the 
beautiful  fabrics  he  saw  there,  and  he  is  deter- 
mined to  establish  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Glas- 


gow a  silk  manufactory,  which  he  has  no  doubt 
will  ere  long  rival  those  of  Lyons.  By  the  im- 
provements he  intends  to  introduce  from  what 
he  has  seen  at  both  places,  united  to  his  own 
skill,  I  have  little  doubt  but  Glasgow  will  soon 
become  as  famed  for  her  silk  manufactures  as 
any  place  in  the  world. 

'  The  Great  Canal  affords  us  another  instance 
of  the  improvements  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
It  has  been  so  long  in  use  that  we  can  scarcely 
sympathise  with  strangers  when,  standing  at  the 
Broomielaw  and  viewing  our  shipping,  they  turn 
round  and  behold  immediately  above  the  city  a 
navigation  150  feet  higher  than  the  level  of  the 
Clyde ;  and  when  we  consider  that  so  many  ves- 
sels ply  on  this  canal,  that  £40,000  was  collected 
at  Port-Dundas  in  the  year  1824,  to  which  if  we 
add  that  from  £10,000  to  £l 5,000  were  collected 
at  the  sea-port  and  Bowling  Bay,  we  cannot  fail 
to  be  convinced  of  the  great  importance  of  this 
navigation.  But,  independent  of  the  advantages 
of  this  inland  navigation,  there  is  no  spot  round 
Glasgow  so  well  deserving  the  inspection  of 
strangers ;  for,  at  the  basin  of  the  canal,  you  are 
elevated  above  the  whole  city,  and  enjoy  a  most 
extensive  view  over  the  whole  surrounding  coun- 
try, having  Dumbarton  and  Paisley  at  all  times 
in  sight,  and  in  clear  weather  even  the  island  of 
Arran,  objects  of  interest  which  are  frequently 
overlooked  by  the  mere  passenger,  who  generally 
confines  his  attention  to  those  at  hand.  Even  in 
this  case,  however,  the  canal  affords  scope  for  in- 
teresting reflection ;  here  may  be  often  seen  ves- 
sels belonging  to  the  French,  the  Danes,  the 
Dutch,  and  other  European  states,  and  even 
some  vessels  have  sailed  from  the  Black  Sea 
through  this  canal  to  Port-Dundas,  and  thence  to 
the  West  Indies.  The  Paisley  and  Ardrossan 
Canal  (though  it  has  not  yet  reached  the  latter 
place)  is  also  an  object  of  very  considerable  in- 
terest to  the  districts  through  which  it  passes ; 
but,  not  being  finished,  its  trade  is  ou  that  ac- 
count much  confined,  and  not  in  a  very  pros- 
perous state.  One  feature,  however,  in  its  con- 
struction deserves  to  be  noticed,  namely,  that  it 
passes  through  a  tunnel  under  some  streets  and 
nouses  in  Paisley.  About  the  period  formerly 
mentioned,  there  was  only  one  bridge  over  the 
Clyde,  at  or  near  Bothwell,  and  that  so  narrow 
that  two  carts  could  not  pass  each  other  properly ; 
now  there  are  three  commodious  bridges  for 
carriages  near  the  city,  and  one  for  foot  pas^ 
sengers.' 

The  climate  of  Scotland,  from  its  insular  situ- 
ation and  high  latitude,  is  cold  and  variable,  but 
the  cold  in  winter  is  not  so  intense  as  in  similar 
latitudes  on  the  continent,  and  seldom  so  severe 
as  in  the  south  of  England  :  that  dreary  season, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  more  protracted  than  in 
those  countries.  The  greatest  height  of  the  ther- 
mometer that  has  ever  yet  been  observed  is  92° 
Fahrenheit,  and  the  lowest  at  Edinburgh,  31st  of 
December,  1783.  is  3°  below  zero.  Its  ordinary 
range  is  from  84°  to  8°,  though  it  seldom  main- 
tains these  extremes  for  a  length  of  time.  The  an- 
nualj  average  temperature  may  be  estimated  at 
from  45°  to  47°.  The  average  quantity  of  rain 
that  falls  appears  to  be  from  thirty  to  thirty-one 
inches.  The  western  coasts,  owing  to  the  general 


566 


SCOTLAND. 


prevalence  of  the  west  winds  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  is  more  liable  to  rain  than  the  eastern. 
In  general,  the  proportion  of  rain  is  one-fifth 
more.  It  has  been  estimated  that  it  rains  or 
snows  on  the  west  coast  for  205  days  annually. 

The  winds  are,  as  might  be  expected,  extremely 
variable,  both  in  force  and  direction.  In  the 
more  elevated  districts,  the  glens  serve  as  fun- 
nels, to  receive  the  blast  which  was  proceeding, 
perhaps  by  many  points,  in  a  different  course, 
but  which,  being  arrested  by  the  mountains,  is 
now  diverted  into  the  valleys,  and,  gathering 
strength  from  the  interruption,  sweeps  along  with 
redoubled  fury.  On  the  west  coast  it  has  been 
repeatedly  asserted,  by  intelligent  observers,  that 
the  wind  blows,  for  two-thirds  of  the  year,  from 
a  southerly  point.  In  the  summer  and  autumn 
these  winds  frequently  are  injurious  to  the  grain 
and  fruit.  North  or  north-east  winds  appear  to 
prevail,  especially  on  the  eastern  coast,  through 
somewhat  less  than  one-third  of  the  year.  They 
generally  prevail  in  the  months  of  March  and 
April,  frequently  extending  into  those  of  May 
and  June,  and  generally  throughout  the  summer. 
South-west  winds  prevail  nearly  two-thirds  of 
the  year ;  hence  trees  not  sheltered  incline  to  the 
north- east.  Owing  chiefly  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
sea,  the  air  in  general  is  more  pure,  temperate, 
and  salubrious,  than  might  be  expected  in  so 
jiorthern  a  climate.  The  following  is  an  abstract 
of  a  register  of  the  weather,  kept  near  Perth,  for 
the  year  1820:  the  temperature  is  thought  not 
very  different  from  the  average  temperature  of 
Scotland,  except  that  the  number  of  rainy  days, 
and  quantity  of  rain,  are  less  than  on  the  western 
coast. — (From  the  Edinburgh  Annual  Register, 
1820.) 


Fair 
Days. 

Rainy 
Days. 

Quantity 
of  rain. 

Mean 
Tempe- 

rature. 

January  .     . 

21 

10 

1-321 

30-4 

February     . 

24 

5 

1-198 

39-1 

March    .     . 

25 

6 

0-332 

40-6 

April      .     . 

24 

6 

0-690 

46-7 

May  .     .     . 

10 

21 

5-447 

49-4 

June  .     .     . 

18 

12 

1-745 

54-6 

July.     .     . 

22 

9 

1-635 

57-6 

August  .     . 

12 

19 

2-228 

56-0 

September  . 

16 

14 

0-973 

52-6 

October  .     . 

20 

11 

2.295 

44-5 

November  . 

20 

10 

1-658 

41-6 

December  . 

20 

11 

2-165 

38-7 

232 

134 

21-687 

4598 

The  wild  animals  of  Scotland  include  the  fox, 
badger,  otter,  wild -cat,  and  hedge-hog;  but  all 
are  now  becoming  scarce :  the  stag,  wild  roe, 
hare,  rabbit,  weasel,  and  mole.  The  domestic 
animals  are  the  same  as  those  of  England ;  but 
the  native  breed  of  black  cattleand  sheep  is  con- 
siderably different,  being  smaller  in  size,  and 
thought  to  be  more  delicious  food.  The  colley, 
or  true  shepherd's  dog,  is  peculiar  to  Scotland. 
Pheasants  are  found  in  the  woods,  but  are  scarce ; 
also  the  beautiful  capercailzie,  or  cock  of  the 


wood,  now  become  exceedingly  rare;  the  ptar- 
migan, the  black  game,  and  grouse,  are  abundant 
in  the  heathy  mountains ;  and,  in  the  low  grounds, 
partridges,  snipes,  plovers,  &c.  Scotland  has 
also  most  of  the  English  singing  birds,  except  the 
nightingale.  All  the  aquatic  fowls  of  temperate 
climes  are  also  common  in  the  islands.  The 
domestic  fowls  are  the  same  as  those  of  England. 
The  fish  are  the  same  which  are  usually  found  in 
the  North  Sea,  and  the  rivers  teem  with  trout, 
salmon,  eels,  &c. ;  the  lakes  with  pike  and  perch. 
Whales  are  sometimes  thrown  upon  the  coasts  of 
Orkney,  Shetland,  and  the  Hebrides ;  and,  be- 
sides other  fish  which  are  caught  for  their  oil,  we 
may  mention  the  cearban,  or  sun-fish,  the  fishery 
of  which  is  prosecuted  with  considerable  success. 
Shell-fish  are  abundant  on  all  the  coasts. 

For  a  considerable  time  after  the  union  with 
England,  this  country  appears  to  have  made  little 
progress  in  manufactures ;  and  it  was  not  till 
about  the  year  1750  that  a  spirit  of  enterprise 
and  ingenuity  was  excited,  which  has  ever  since 
continued.  Scotland  at  present  carries  on  al- 
most ever)-  species  of  manufacture.  Flax  and 
hemp  are  manufactured  into  sheetings,  osna- 
burghs,  bagging,  and  canvas,  which  are  made 
chiefly  in  Forfarshire,  and  are  finally  exported, 
the  first  of  these  at  least,  to  the  NVest  Indies, 
and  die  last  is  purchased  for  the  use  of  the  Bri- 
tish navy:  but  the  manufacture  of  finer  linen 
has  fallen  off  in  Scotland,  having  been  super- 
seded partly  by  the  importation  of  Irish  cloth, 
and  partly  by  the  substitution  of  cotton  manu- 
factures. The  spinning  of  flax  by  the  hand  used 
to  be  an  important  branch  of  industry ;  but  spin- 
ning machinery  has  now  almost  banished  it. 
Thesp  machines  have  now  been  generally  intro- 
duced in  the  counties  of  Aberdeen,  Mearns, 
Fife,  and  Angus  :  the  cotton  manufactures  have 
also  bten  earned,  particulaily  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Glasgow  and  Paisley,  by  means  of  ma- 
chinery, to  an  astonishing  degree  of  perfection 
in  Scotland;  and  attention  has  been  particularly 
directed  to  those  of  a  finer  quality.  Muslins 
and  other  fabrics  are  beautifully  executed  :  as 
well  as  brocades,  lappets  of  all  sorts,  imitation 
shawls,  plain  and  Linoe  gauzes,  spidered,  seeded, 
and  numerous  species  of  draw-loom.  Many  of 
these  fabrics,  with  the  entire  mechanism  by  which 
they  are  executed,  are  exclusively  of  Scottish  in- 
vention. Immense  quantities  of  cambrics,  shirt- 
ings, sheetings,  tweels,  stripes,  checks,  pullicates, 
ginghams,  shawls,  &c.,  are  also  manufactured  in 
Scotlarrd  in  a  superior  manner.  Of  cotton  thread, 
likewise,  large  quantities  are  exported  to  the 
West  Indies.  Calico  printing  in  all  its  branches 
is  also  carried  to  a  great  extent. 

The  iron-workt  established  in  Scotland  deserve 
particular  attention,  and  that  at  Carron,  near 
Falkirk,  is  the  largest  manufactory  in  Europe. 
Iron  is  not  only  extracted  from  the  ore,  but  it  is 
finished  into  every  variety  of  form.  The  quantity 
of  metal  smelted  at  Carron  is  about  6500  tons 
yearly,  and  about  2000  people  are  constantly 
employed  ;  and,  from  all  the  different  works  in 
Scotland,  above  30,000  tons  of  iron  are  annually 
extracted.  A  considerable  proportion  of  Scottish 
ironmongery  is  exported  to  America,  the  ^  <  -  • 
Indie-*,  and  other  Kriti«h  colonies. 


SCOTLAND. 


567 


An  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  number  of 
workmen  employed  on  timber  of  various  kinds, 
and  the  value  of  the  articles  they  make,  when  it 
is  known  that  in  Scotland  there  are  about  3600 
water-mills,  5000  thrashing-mills,  above  100 
wind-mills,  and  from  350  to  400  steam-engines, 
employed  in  preparing  flour,  meal,  barley,  snuff, 
bark,  and  lint ;  for  teazing,  carding,  roving,  and 
spinning  wool,  flax,  and  cotton ;  for  preparing 
dye-stuffs,  bleaching  salts,  paints,  fire-clay,  &c.; 
for  winding,  weaving,  tambouring,  printing, 
washing,  wauking,  calendering,  &c. ;  for  boring, 
blowing,  hammering,  &c. ;  and  for  raising  water 
and  minerals.  The  manufacture  of  machinery  is 
therefore  a  most  important  branch  of  Scottish 
industry.  Coach-making,  musical  instrument- 
making,  &c.,  are  also  carried  on  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal towns ;  and  ship-building  forms  a  most 
important  branch  of  national  industry.  The 
average  of  the  number  of  vessels  belonging  to 
the  ports  of  Scotland  amounts  to  2509  annually. 
Minor  manufactories  we  cannot  here  notice.  In 
all  of  the  considerable  towns  there  are  tanneries, 
breweries,  and  distilleries,  on  an  extensive  scale; 
and  it  may  be  generally  remarked  that  almost  all 
articles  of  ordinary  use  are  manufactured  in 
Scotland.  The  fisheries  have  been  prosecuted 
likewise  with  great  industry  and  success.  See 
our  article  FISHERIES. 

in  the  time  of  Cromwell  the  shipping  of  Scot- 
land consisted  of  only  ninety-three  vessels,  carry- 
ing 2724  tons,  and  eighteen  barks.  Soon  after, 
however,  her  foreign  trade  with  the  northern  and 
eastern  states  of  Europe  began  to  increase ;  and 
the  Dutch  cultivated  a  connexion  with  the  Scots 
for  the  conveniency  of  prosecuting  the  herring 
fishery  on  the  coasts  of  Scotland.  About 
middle  of  the  last  century  an  extensive  commer- 
cial intercourse  was  carried  on  from  the  ports  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Scotland,  to  Holland,  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  and  the  states  on  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic.  Of  late  years  the  imports  consist  of  flax, 
hemp,  yarn,  linen,  iron,  corn,  wood,  tallow,  and 
other  commodities  produced  in  those  countries ; 
and,  in  return,  colonial  produce,  cotton  goods, 
and  other  manufactured  articles  are  exported. 
The  trade  between  Scotland  and  Russia,  in- 
cluding that  of  Archangel,  forms  the  most  con- 
siderable branch  of  the  commerce  of  the  eastern 
coast;  and  the  chief  shipping  ports  are  Leith, 
Dundee,  Arbroath,  Montrose,  Aberdeen,  Peter- 
head,  Banff,  and  Inverness.  The  trade  with 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  the  Mediterranean,  is  car- 
ried on  from  Leith  and  other  ports  ;  and  the 
connexion  with  Canada  extends  to  all  the  most 
considerable  towns  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland. 
The  commerce  of  the  west  centres  almost  entirely 
in  the  Clyde,  which  is  the  grand  emporium  of 
the  American,  West  Indian,  and  South  American 
trade.  From  Greenock  a  constant  intercourse  is 
carried  on  with  the  West  Indies,  with  the  British 
colonies  in  North  America,  with  the  United 
States,  the  Brasils,  and  South  America.  Several 
vessels  have  also  sailed  from  that  port,  to  carry 
on  the  trade  to  India,  since  1814.  From  the 
eastern  ports  a  trade  is  carried  on  with  the 
northern  countries  lying  round  the  Baltic ;  and 
the  coasting  trade  with  London  is  now  placed 
under  admirable  regulations. 


The  following  is  the  revenue  for  the  first  four 
teen  years  of  this  century : — 


1801 
1802 
1803 
1804 
1805 
1806 
1807 
1808 
1809 
1810 
1811 
1812 
1813 
1814 


£ 

1,985,794 
2,230,993 
2,246,028 
2,171,973 
2,692,624 
3,182,677 
3,558,784 
3,544,111 
3,632,832 
4,188,814 
4,031,347 
4,236,797 
4,383,751 
4,483,014 


*.     d. 

7  114 

8  3 

0  3$ 
16     8 
19     9i 
13  11 

7     7* 
7     7i 
2     3 
15     0 

1  7i 
5     OJ 
7  10 

10   10J 


The  population  of  Scotland  is  naturally  divided 
into  the  two  classes  of  Highlanders  and  Low- 
landers  ;  differing  in  manners,  language,  and 
character,  as  much  as  many  distinct  nations. 
This  distinction  cannot  be  better  exhibited  than 
in  the  language  of  Mrs.  Grant: — 

'  The  low  country  was  inhabited  by  a  people 
driven  at  a  later  period  from  the  south,  by  suc- 
cessive invaders  and  oppressors,  who  were  further 
advanced  in  the  arts  of  industry  and  the  progress 
of  civilisation  than  the  Highlanders,  whom  these 
last  regarded  as  intruders,  and  who  had  scarcely 
any  thing  in  common  with  them.  Though  their 
mountain  chiefs  were  in  due  time  brought  to 
yield  a  reluctant  fealty  to  the  Scottish  monarchs, 
their  followers  were  scarcely  conscious  of  this 
submission,  and  most  unwilling  to  believe  that 
a  greater  man  than  their  own  chief  existed.  No 
two  nations  ever  were  more  distinct,  or  differed 
more  completely  from  each  other,  than  the 
Highlanders  and  the  Lowlanders ;  and  the  senti- 
ment with  which  they  regarded  each  other  was 
at  best  a  kind  of  smothered  animosity. 

'The  Lowlander  considered  the  Highlander  as 
a  fierce  and  savage  depredator,  speaking  a  barba- 
rous language,  and  inhabiting  a  gloomy  and  bar- 
ren region,  which  fear  and  prudence  forbade  all 
strangers  to  explore.  The  attractions  of  his 
social  habits,  strong  attachments,  and  courteous 
manners,  were  confined  to  his  glens  and  to  his 
kindred.  All  the  pathetic  and  sublime  charms 
of  his  poetry,  and  all  the  wild  wonders  of  his 
records,  were  concealed  in  a  language  difficult 
to  acquire,  and  utterly  despised,  as  the  jargon  of 
barbarians,  by  their  southern  neighbours.  If 
such  were  the  light  in  which  the  cultivators  of 
the  soil  regarded  the  hunters,  graziers,  and 
warriors  of  the  mountains,  their  contempt  was 
amply  repaid  by  their  high-spirited  neighbours. 
They  again  regarded  the  Lowlanders  as  a  very 
inferior  mongrel  race  of  intruders  ;  sons  of  little 
men,  without  heroism,  ancestry,  or  genius.  Me- 
chanical drudges,  who  could  neither  sleep  on 
the  snow,  compose  extempore  songs,  recite  long 
tales  of  wonder  or  woe,  or  live  without  bread 
and  without  shelter,  for  weeks  together,  following 
the  chase.  Whatever  was  mean  or  effeminate, 
whatever  was  dull,  slow,  mechanical,  or  torpid, 
was  in  the  Highlands  imputed  to  the  Lowlanders, 
and  exemplified  by  some  allusion  to  them : 
while,  in  the  low  country,  every  thing  ferocious 


668 


SCOTLAND. 


or  unprincipled,  every  species  of  awkwardness 
or  ignorance,  of  pride  or  of  insolence,  was  im- 
puted to  the  Highlanders. 

'  No  two  communities,  generally  speaking, 
could  hate  each  other  more  cordially,  or  despise 
each  other  more  heartily.  Much  of  this  hatred, 
however,  proceeded  from  ignorance  of  each  other's 
character  and  manners.' — Essays  on  the  High- 
landers. 

The  Highlanders  are  a  brave  and  hardy  race, 
ardently  attached  to  the  manners,  customs,  and 
language  of  their  forefathers,  their  chieftains, 
and  their  country.  Stout  and  active,  they  are 
generally  capable  of  sustaining  almost  every 
bodily  privation  and  hardship  ;  but  their  ancient 
costume  has  now  fallen  greatly  into  disuse,  and 
a  Highland  chief,  in  the  full  dress  of  his  country, 
is  seldom  seen.  This  dress,  however,  is  re- 
tained by  many  of  the  peasantry.  Over  the 
shirt,  the  Highlander  wears  a  waistcoat  of  the 
same  kind  as  the  plaid,  which  is  twelve  or  thir- 
teen yards  long,  and  made  of  a  woollen  stuff, 
called  tartan,  which  is  composed  of  various 
colored  stripes,  disposed  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  and  in  the  arrangement  and  harmony  of 
which  his  taste  is  often  displayed.  The  plaid, 
thrown  over  the  shoulder,  is  sometimes  fastened 
round  the  waist  with  a  leathern  belt  or  girdle, 
and  hangs  down  before  and  behind,  supplying 
the  place  of  small  doth»s.  This  dress  the  High- 
iundors  call  a  phelig,  the  Lowlanders  a  kilt.  A 
kind  of  short  petticoat,  made  of  the  same  varie- 
gated stuff,  is  also  frequently  worn,  and  is  called 
philebeg ;  this  reaches  nearly  to  the  knee,  and 
with  short  stockings  made  of  tartan,  and  tied  be- 
low the  knee  with  garters  formed  into  tassels, 
completes  the  dress.  A  large  leathern  purse, 
richly  adorned  with  silver,  hanging  before,  was 
always  an  appendage  to  a  Highland  chieftain's 
dress.  Almost  every  Highlander  has  a  large 
pouch  of  skin,  dressed  with  its  hair  on  and  or- 
namented with  tassels,  dangling  before  him,  to 
contain  his  money  and  tobacco.  The  lower  class 
wear  a  flat  blue  cap,  of  a  particular  kind  of 
cloth,  called  a  bonnet,  and  brogues  of  untanned 
skins.  The  female  dress  in  the  Highlands  con- 
sists of  a  petticoat  and  a  kind  of  jerkin,  with 
close  sleeves,  over  which  they  wear  a  plaid 
fastened  under  the  chin,  and  falling  in  folds  to 
the  feet,  sometimes  most  gracefully.  Round  the 
head  they  fold  a  piece  of  linen  of  different  shapes. 
The  young  women  seldom  have  more  than  a 
riband  for  this  purpose.  Shoes  and  stockings 
are  little  worn  by  the  Highland  females,  except 
t'ne  higher  classes,  who  dress  as  in  England.  In 
l>ad  weather  the  plaid,  instead  of  resting  upon 
the  shoulders,  is  thrown  over  the  head,  and  then 
resembles  the  mantella  of  Spain. 

The  generality  of  the  cottages  of  the  Highlands 
"re  so  unlike  what  are  to  be  seen  in  England, 
.hat  we  shall  insert  Sir  John  Carr's  description 
of  what  they  were  about  fifteen  years  ago.  '  At 
a  distance,'  he  says,  '  they  resemble  piles  of  turf. 
In  general  they  are  built  in  glens  and  straths,  on 
the  side  of  a  lake,  or  near  a  river  or  stream,  ad- 
joining to  which  there  is  a  little  arable  land. 
The  walls  are  built  of  turf  or  stones,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  adjoining  soil,  and  raised 
about  six  feet  Isich,  on  the  top  of  which  a  roof 


of  branches  of  trees  is  constructed  ;  this  is  covered 
with  squares  of  turf,  of  about  six  inches  thick, 
closely  pressed  together,  and  put  on  fresh  from 
its  parent  moor,  with  the  grass  or  heath  upon  it, 
which  afterwards  continues  to  grow,  and  renders 
it  difficult  fora  traveller,  unless  he  be  very  sharp- 
sighted,  to  distinguish  at  a  little  distance  the  hut 
from  the  moor.  A  tolerable  hut  is  divided  into 
three  parts :  a  butt,  which  is  the  kitchen ;  a  benn, 
an  inner  room  ;  and  a  byar,  where  the  cattle  are 
housed.  Frequently  the  partition  of  the  cham- 
bers is  effected  by  an  old  blanket,  or  a  piece  of 
sail-cloth.  In  the  kitchen,  and  frequently  in  the 
inner  room,  there  are  cupboard-beds  for  the 
family ;  or,  what  is  more  frequent,  when  the  fire 
on  the  ground  is  extinguished,  they  put  their  bed 
of  heath  and  blankets  upon  the  spot  where  it  has 
burned,  on  account  of  the  ground  being  dry.  A 
true  farmer  loves  to  sleep  near  the  byar,  that  he 
may  hear  his  cattle  eat.  These  patriarchal  dwel- 
lings frequently  tremble,  and  sometimes  fall  be- 
fore the  fury  of  the  tempest.1 

The  Highlander  appears  to  have  no  idea  of 
property  beyond  that  of  sheep  and  cattle.  His 
'  whole  wealth  consisting  of  cattle,  what  he  most 
valued  himself  upon  was  that  pride  and  joy  of 
life,  '  a  fine  fold  of  cows,'  to  use  his  own  favorite 
phrase.  With  his  cows  his  rents  were  paid,  and 
with  his  cows  his  daughters  were  portioned  and 
his  sons  established  in  life.' 

As  he  is  almost  invariably  a  farmer,  the  dis- 
tribution of  labor  in  a  Highland  farm  becomes 
an  interesting  topic.  '  The  lesser  boys  take 
charge  of  the  weaned  lambs ;  the  stronger  attend 
the  goats  to  the  rocks  and  perilous  precipices, 
upon  which  they  love  to  browse;  the  young  girls 
are  employed  at  the  distaff;  the  young  men  at- 
tend the  cattle  upon  the  mountains,  while  the 
father  cultivates  his  little  patch  of  ground,  re- 
pairs his  hut,  of  which  he  is  the  designer  and 
builder,  and  upon  which  occasion  the  knife,  the 
axe,  and  the  auger,  are  his  simple  tools.  In 
this  respect,  however,  he  is  better  provided  than 
the  Russian  boor,  who  works  with  more  skill, 
neatness,  and  ingenuity,  with  only  his  axe.  At 
evening  fall,  the  children  return,  the  bearers  of 
fish  which  they  have  caught  in  some  neighbour- 
ing stream,  and  of  alder  bark,  and  buds  of  heath 
and  moss,  with  which  their  mother  may  stain 
her  home-spun  plaid.  Among  the  Highlanders, 
both  old  and  young,  the  season  of  '  summer 
flithing,"  when  they  remove  for  the  summer  to 
the  mountains  with  their  flocks,  is  always  hailed 
with  a  rapturous  welcome.  At  this  time  they  live 
in  the  mountains  in  shealings,  or  little  huts  con- 
structed for  the  purpose,  and  sleep  upon  beds  if 
heath,  leading  a  life  perfectly  natural  until  the 
autumn  is  advanced,  when  they  return  to  their 
glens.'  The  same  author  also  remarks  that  '  the 
hardihood  of  the  islander  is  proverbial.  It  is 
well  known  that  in  cold  dry  windy  weather, 
when  these  mountaineers  are  obliged  to  sleep 
among  the  hills  to  attend  the  cattle,  they  soak 
their  plaid  in  a  bume  or  brook,  in  which  having 
rolled  themselves,  they  select  a  spot  of  heath  on 
the  leeward  side  of  some  hill  for  their  bed, 
where  they  are  kept  warm  by  the  wet,  which 
pn-M'iits  the  wind  from  penetrating  the  stuff.' — 
hn  Carr's  Caledonian  Sketches 


SCOTLAND. 


569 


Mrs.  Grant,  the  wife  of  a  minister,  settled  in 
the  Highlands,  seems  eminently  to  have  pos- 
sessed the  requisite  qualifications  for  observing 
all  the  minute  shades  of  character  by  which  they 
are  discriminated.  The  following  particulars  are 
selected  from  her  admirable  Essays. 

On  the  secluded  character  of  the  country,  and 
the  obstacles  to  its  improvement,  she  observes, 
'  There  really  was  not  room  for  a  stranger,  in  a 
country  already  overpeopled  in  proportion  to  its 
productions.  Especially  when  it  is  considered 
that  every  inch  of  ground  was  occupied  by  heads 
of  families,  who  were  perhaps  the  tenth  genera- 
tion on  the  same  spot,  and  held  their  lands  from 
a  patriarchal  chief,  to  whom,  and  his  ancestors, 
they  and  their  forefathers  had  performed  services 
the  most  important.  One  of  these  tenants  could 
not  be  removed  to  make  room  for  a  stranger, 
without  giving  mortal  offence  to  the  whole  tribe, 
their  ideas  of  morality  •  as  well  as  attachment 
being  outraged  by  such  a  proceeding.  Thus, 
though  a  stranger  passing  through  the  country, 
or  merely  visiting  it,  was  treated  with  kindness, 
and  indeed  with  the  most  liberal  hospitality,  if 
he  attempted  to  settle  there,  he  had  nothing  but 
prejudice  and  persecution  to  expect ;  by  attempt- 
ing to  domicile  himself,  he  lost  all  the  courtesy  of 
a  stranger,  without  establishing  any  claims  to 
good-will  as  a  friend  or  a  neighbour.  Such  was 
the  state  of  society ;  and  so  little  could  a  single 
individual,  even  in  tolerable  circumstances,  do 
for  himself,  that  a  man  who  did  not  possess  the 
general  good-will,  and  receive  the  hourly  good 
offices  of  his  neighbours,  lived  in  the  state  of  an 
outlaw,  excluded  from  the  comforts,  and  de- 
prived of  the  privileges  of  social  life. 

'  No  Highlander  ever  once  thought  of  himself 
as  an  individual.  Amongst  these  people,  even 
the  meanest  mind  was  in  a  manner  enlarged  by 
association,  by  anticipation,  and  by  retrospect. 
In  the  most  minute,  as  well  as  the  most  serious 
concerns,  he  felt  himself  one  of  many  connected 
together  by  ties  the  most  lasting  and  endearing. 
He  considered  himself  merely  with  reference  to 
those  who  had  gone  before,  and  those  who  were 
to  come  after  him ;  to  those  immortals  who  lived 
in  deathless  song  and  heroic  narrative ;  and  to 
those  distinguished  beings  who  were  to  be  born 
heirs  of  their  fame,  and  to  whom  their  honors, 
and  perhaps  their  virtues,  were  to  be  trans- 
mitted. Whatever  might  be  the  motive  that 
produced  a  marriage,  it  was  seldom  unhappy. 
To  a  genuine  Highlander,  the  mother  of  his 
children  was  a  character  so  sacred,  that  to  her 
he  was  never  deficient  in  indulgence,  or  even 
respect.  To  her  he  could  forgive  any  thing, 
provided  her  conduct  did  not  impeach  the  ho- 
nor of  their  mutual  progeny,  or  create  doubt, 
where  suspicion  would  be  misery. 

'  A  Highlander  thrown  prematurely  among  the 
polished  classes  of  society,  and  one  obliged  to 
mingle  with  the  lower  orders  of  civilised  coun- 
tries, equally  cease  to  be  fair  specimens  of  the 
mountain  race  from  which  they  spring :  the  one 
becomes  that  sort  of  being  which  good  qualities, 
good  education,  and  good  company  every  where 
form ;  the  other,  whom  ignorance  excludes  from 
the  decent  class  of  artisans,  is  obliged  to  mingle 
\\  it!)  the  dregs  of  the  people,  and  with  their  vulgar 


language  he  acquires  their  low  ideas,  and,  shrink- 
ing in  the  ungenial  clime  of  plebeian  grossneso, 
he  assumes  an  entirely  new  character.  If  any  thing 
recovers  him  from  his  hopeless  apathy,  it  must 
be  the  '  spirit-stirring  fife,'  or  the  martial  pipe  of 
his  ancestors,  calling  him  to  the  field  of  honor- 
able strife.  Here,  if  at  all,  the  Highlander  re- 
sumes the  energy  of  his  character,  and  finds 
room  to  display  once  more  the  virtues  of  habit 
and  of  sentiment ;  for  here  he  is  generally  asso- 
ciated with  beings  like  himself.  Here  his  enthu- 
siasm finds  an  object;  his  honorable  feelings, 
his  love  of  distinction,  his  contempt  for  danger, 
and,  what  is  of  equal  importance  in  the  military 
life,  his  calm  fortitude,  stern  hardihood,  and 
patient  endurance,  all  find  scope  for  exercise. 
Here,  too,  mingled  with  his  countrymen,  he  tells 
and  hears  the  tales  of  other  times, — beguiles  the 
weary  watch  of  night  with  songs  that  echoed 
through  the  halls  of  his  chief, — or  repeats,  on 
the  toilsome  march,  the  love  ditty  inspired  by 
the  maiden  that  first  charmed  him  with  the  smile 
of  beauty,  and  the  voice  of  melody  in  his  native 
glen.  These  recollections  and  associations  pre- 
serve, in  pristine  vigor,  the  fairest  trait  of  the 
Highland  character.  Social  and  convivial  as 
Donald's  inclinations  are  when  others  join  the 
mirthful  band,  and  share  the  cup  of  festivity,  he 
retires  to  his  barrack  or  his  tent,  and  adds  the 
hard  saved  sixpence  to  the  little  hoard  which  the 
paymaster  promises  to  remit  home,  to  pay  his 
father's  arrear  of  rent,  or  purchase  a  cow  for  his 
widowed  mother. 

'  Poor  Donald  is  no  mechanic ;  he  cannot, 
like  other  soldiers,  work  at  a  trade  when  in 
quarters ;  yet  day  after  day,  with  unwearied 
perseverance,  he  mounts  guard  for  those  who 
have  this  resource,  to  add  a  little  to  this  fund, 
sacred  to  the  dearest  charities  of  life — the  best 
feelings  of  humanity.  This  sobriety  preserves 
alive  the  first  impressions  of  principle — the  rec- 
titude, the  humble  piety,  and  habitual  self-de- 
nial, to  which  a  camp  life,  or  unsettled  wander- 
ings that  belong  to  it,  are  so  averse.  There  are 
instances,  of  a  very  late  occurrence,  not  of  indi- 
viduals only,  but  of  whole  regiments  of  High- 
landers, exercising  this  generous  self-denial,  to 
remit  money  to  their  poor  relations  at  home,  to 
an  extent  which  would  stagger  credulity,  were  it 
particularised. 

'  The  officers  of  one  of  the  regiments  to  which 
I  allude,  finding  such  means  remitted  through 
their  hands,  and  seeing  their  men  constantly 
either  on  guard  or  at  hard  labor,  began  to  fear 
that  they  were  living  too  low  to  support  such 
perpetual  exertion.  Every  day  they  visited  the 
barracks,  to  be  assured  that  their  men  made  use 
of  a  proportion  of  animal  food.  They  were  at 
first  deceived  by  seeing  pots  on,  with  meat  boil- 
ing in  them,  as  they  thought ;  but,  on  a  nearer 
inspection,  found  that  in  many  of  them  a  great 
stalk  of  what  we  in  Scotland  call  kail  was  the 
only  article  contained  in  them.  They  brought 
long  sticks  with  them  afterwards,  and  sounded 
the  pots,  to  make  sure.  This  was  indeed 

'  Spare  fast,  which  oft  the  gods  doth  diet.' 

'  I  should  rather  have  kept  this  quotation  to 
grace  another  instance  of  still  nobler  self-denial, 


570 


SCOTLAND. 


which  ought  to  be  recorded  in  a  more  durable 
manner  than  this  perishing  pa^e  will  admit 
of:— 

'A  Highland  regiment,  commanded,  I  think, 
at  that  time,  by  general  Macleod,  was,  during 
the  wars  with  Ttppoo  Saib,  engaged  in  an  unfor- 
tunate rencontre,  in  which  above  200  of  them 
fell  into  the  hands  of  that  remorseless  tyrant. 
They  were  treated  with  the  most  cruel  indignity, 
and  fed  upon  a  very  sparing  portion  of  unwhole- 
some rice,  which  operated  as  a  slow  poison  ;  as- 
sisted by  the  burning  heat  of  the  sun  by  day, 
and  the  unwholesome  dews  of  night,  to  which 
they  were  purposely  exposed,  to  shake  their  con- 
stancy- Daily  some  of  their  companions  dropped 
before  their  eyes,  and  daily  they  were  offered  li- 
berty and  plenty,  in  exchange  for  their  lingering 
torture,  on  condition  of  relinquishing  their  re- 
ligion, and  taking  the  turban ;  yet  not  one 
could  be  prevailed  upon  to  purchase  life  on 
these  terms.  These  Highlanders  were  from  the 
isles,  and  entirely  illiterate.  Scarcely  one  of 
them  could  have  told  the  name  of  any  particular 
sect  of  Christians ;  and  all  the  idea  they  had  of 
the  Mahometan  religion,  was,  that  it  was  averse 
to  their  own ;  and  that,  adopting  it,  they  should 
renounce  Him  who  had  died  that  they  might 
live,  and  who  loved  them,  and  could  support 
them  under  all  sufferings.  The  great  outlines  of 
their  religion,  the  peculiar  tenets  which  distin- 
guish it  from  every  other,  were  early  and  deeply 
impressed  upon  their  minds,  and  proved  suffi- 
cient in  the  hour  of  trial.  The  self-devoted  band 
at  Thermopylae  have  had  their  fame ;  they  ex- 
pected, and  deserved  it.  These  .did  not  even  aspire 
to  such  distinction  ;  far  from  their  native  land, 
without  even  the  hope  of  having  their  graves 
beheld  by  the  eyes  of  mournful  regret,  they 
passed  away  unseen,  like  the  flower  in  the  desert, 
when  its  head  is  heavy  with  the  dews  of  the 
night,  and  the  sun  arises  in  its  strength,  to  scatter 
its  leaves  on  the  gale.  The  Yoice  of  applause — 
the  hope  of  future  fame — the  sympathy  of  friend- 
ship— all  that  the  heart  leans  to  in  the  last  extre- 
mity, was  withheld  from  these  victims  of  prin- 
ciple. It  was  not  theirs  to  meet  death  in  the 
field  of  honor,  but  the  mind,  wrought  up  to 
fervid  eagerness,  went  forth  in  search  of  him. 
They  saw  his  slow  approach  ;  and,  though  sunk 
in  languid  debility,  such  as  quenches  the  fire  of 
mere  temperament,  they  never  once  hesitated  at 
the  alternative  set  before  them.  Their  fortitude 
at  least  should  be  applauded,  though  their  faith 
and  the  hope  that  supported  them  were  not  taken 
into  the  account. 

'  Nature  never  meant  Donald  for  a  manufac- 
turer ;  born  to  cultivate  or  defend  his  native 
soil,  he  droops  or  degenerates  in  any  mechanical 
calling.  He  feels  it  as  losing  his  cast;  and, 
when  he  begins  to  be  a  weaver,  he  ceases  to  be 
a  Highlander  Fixing  a  mountaineer  on  a  loom 
too  much  resembles  yoking  a  deer  to  a  plough, 
and  will  not  in  the  end  suit  much  better.' — 
Essays  on  the  Highlanders. 

For  the  following  summary  of  the  antiquities 
and  curiosities  of  nature  and  art  in  Scotland,  we 
are  principally  indebted  to  Dr.  Myers'  able 
Geography,  vol.  i. 

Druidical  monuments  are  to  be  found  prin- 


cipally in  the  northern  parts  of  Scotland,  and  the 
adjacent  isles.  They  are  easily  distinguished  by 
their  circular  forms  ;  but  they  are  not  of  equal 
magnitude  with  those  of  the  same  kind  in  South 
Britain.  The  vestiges  of  Roman  antiquities, 
such  as  the  stations  of  their  legions,  their  cas- 
tella,  and  their  praitentures,  or  walls,  can  now- 
only  be  discovered  by  critical  inspection.  Va- 
rious Roman  coins,  urns,  utensils,  and  inscrip- 
tions, have  been  found  in  several  parts,  and  es- 
pecially near  the  site  of  the  celebrated  wall 
which  extended  from  the  Frith  of  Clyde  to  that 
of  Forth.  It  was  marked  out  by  Agricola,  but 
completed  by  Antoninus  Pius,  and  is  still  dis- 
cernible. This  wall,  which  has  been  traced  with 
great  precision  by  antiquaries  and  historians,  is 
called  Graham's  Dyke  by  the  country  people, 
from  a  tradition  that  a  Scottish  warrior  of  that 
name  was  the  first  who  passed  it.  The  remains 
of  several  Roman  camps  are  also  visible  in  this 
part  of  Scotland.  One,  near  the  foot  of  the 
Grampian  Hills,  is  perhaps  the  most  striking 
and  best  preserved  specimen  in  North  Britain. 
It  is  situated  at  Ardoch,  in  Perthshire,  and  is 
generally  thought  to  have  been  the  camp  which 
Agricola  occupied  before  his  engagement  with  the 
Caledonian  king,  Galgacus.  The  vestiges  of 
this  camp  still  present  five  ditches  and  six  ram- 
parts on  the  south  side ;  and  three  of  the  four 
gates,  which  led  into  the  area,  may  yet  be  dis- 
tinctly traced.  A  Roman  temple,  in  the  form 
of  the  pantheon  at  Rome,  stood  on  the  banks  of 
the  Carron,  supposed  to  have  been  built  by 
Agricola,  or  his  successors,  and  dedicated  to 
their  god  Terminus,  as  it  stood  near  the  confines 
of  the  empire.  This  venerable  relic  of  antiquity 
was  barbarously  demolished  for  the  purpose  of 
repairing  a  mill-pond. 

The  monuments  ascribed  to  the  Picts  are  sin- 
gular buildings.  The  two  principal  were  hollow 
columns  ;  the  one  at  Brechin  in  Angus,  and  the 
other  at  Abernethy,  in  Perthshire.  That  at  Bre- 
chin is  the  most  entire,  and  is  covered  with  a 
kind  of  spiral  roof  of  stone,  with  three  or  four 
windows  above  the  cornice.  It  consists  of  re- 
gular courses  of  hewn  stone,  tapering  to  the  top. 
In  Perthshire  is  a  barrow,  which  appears  to  be 
of  British  origin,  and  resembles  the  hull  of  a 
ship  with  the  keel  upwards.  It  is  styled  Temay, 
which  some  have  supposed  to  be  a  contraction 
of  Terrse  navis,  the  ship  of  earth.  Danish 
camps  and  fortifications  are  discernible  in  several 
northern  counties  of  Scotland,  and  are  distin- 
guished by  their  square  forms  and  difficult 
situations.  The  vestiges  of  ancient  Scottish 
antiquities  are  often  both  curious  and  instruc- 
tive, as  they  frequently  relate  to  events  in  their 
history  ;  and,  from  the  emblematical  figures  with 
which  they  are  ornamented,  were  evidently 
erected  to  commemorate  victories.  These  monu- 
ments are  chiefly  obelisks,  and  are  commonly 
called  Danish  stones.  Of  these,  the  great  stone 
near  Fortrose,  in  Moray,  surpasses  all  the  others. 
According  to  Mr.  Gordon  it  '  is  perhaps  the 
only  one  of  that  kind  in  Europe  ;  it  rises  about 
twenty-three  feet  above  the  ground,  and  is,  I  am 
credibly  informed,  not  less  than  twelve  or  fifteer. 
below  :  so  that  the  whole  height  is  at  least  thirt\- 
five  feet  and  its  breadth  nearly  five.  It  is  one 


SCOTLAND. 


571 


entire  stone,  with  a  great  variety  of  figures  in 
relievo  carved  on  it,  and  some  of  them  are  still 
visible ;  but  the  injury  of  the  weather  has  ob- 
scured those  towards  the  upper  part.'  This 
monument  is  by  some  ascribed  to  the  Danes. 

The  wide-spread  fame  of  lona  will  permit 
an  additional  account  of  its  relics  in  this  place. 
In  any  other  situation,  and  under  almost  any 
other  circumstances,  the  architectural  ruins  of 
lona  would  be  consigned  to  neglect  and  oblivion. 
It  is  not  from  their  magnificence  or  splendor, 
from  their  magnitude  or  proportions,  that  they 
have  acquired  celebrity,  but  from  their  connex- 
ion with  a  barbarous  age,  and  their  standing  a 
solitary  monument  of  religion  and  literature 
amidst  the  gloom  of  ignorance.  It  is  almost  im- 
possible for  the  mind  to  contemplate  the  frag- 
ments of  these  venerable  structures,  now  fast 
mouldering  beneath  the  hand  of  time,  without 
involuntarily  recurring  to  the  period  when  this 
little  isle  was  the  '  light  of  the  western  world.' 
'  Even  at  a  distance,'  says  Dr.  Maccullock,  in 
his  Description  of  the  Western  Islands,  •  the 
aspect  of  the  cathedral,  insignificant  as  its  di- 
mensions are,  produces  a  strong  feeling  of  delight 
in  him  who,  long  coasting  the  rugged  and  barren 
rocks  of  Mull,  or  buffeted  by  turbulent  waves, 
beholds  its  tower  first  rising  out  of  the  deep ; 
giving  to  this  desolate  region  an  air  of  civilisa- 
tion, and  recalling  the  consciousness  of  that 
human  society,  which,  presenting  elsewhere  no 
visible  traces,  seems  to  have  abandoned  these 
rocky  shores  to  the  cormorant  and  the  sea-gull.' 

The  following  perspicuous  delineation  of  these 
remains  of  antiquity  is  extracted  from  Dr.  Play- 
fair's  Statistical  Description  of  Scotland.  '  From 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  to  the  re- 
formation, lona  was  the  seat  of  the  regular 
clergy  of  St.  Columba.  After  that  period,  the 
learning  of  ages,  the  records  of  nations,  and  the 
archives  of  remote  antiquity,  were  destroyed  or 
removed  to  Douay  College,  in  France.  Some 
fragments  of  buildings  remain.  St.  Mary's 
church,  which  served  as  a  cathedral  of  the  diocess 
of  the  bishops  of  the  Isles,  and  is  almost  entire, 
was  built  of  red  granite,  115  feet  long,  and 
twenty-three  broad,  with  a  transept  of  seventy 
feet.  Over  the  centre  is  a  handsome  tower. 
From  the  south-east  corner  are  two  parallel 
walls,  ten  feet  distant  from  each  other,  which 
reach  to  the  sea.  West  of  the  church  is  a  cross 
of  one  stone  nearly  eight  feet  high,  and  twenty 
inches  broad,  and  six  thick.  From  this  place  to 
the  nunnery  there  is  a  causeway  300  yards  in 
length,  and  fifteen  in  breadth,  intersected  at  right 
angles  by  another  of  the  same  kind,  that  reaches 
from  the  shore  to  the  village.  On  the  left  hand 
of  it,  as  you  go  from  the  shore  to  the  church, 
there  is  a  cross  of  whinstone,  ten  feet  high,  or- 
namented, but  without  any  inscription.  The  nun- 
nery is  a  plain  square  building ;  and  its  church, 
v.-hich  contains  the  tombs  of  ladies  of  high 
rank,  is  fifty-eight  feet  long,  and  twenty  broad. 
St.  Oran's  chapel,  which  is  sixty  by  twenty-two 
feet,  is  surrounded  by  the  burying-ground,  where, 
according  to  tradition,  forty-eight  Scots,  four 
Irish,  and  eight  Norwegian  chiefs  are  interred.  In 
1.540  there  were  three  tombs,  like  little  chapels, 
with  an  inscription  on  a  broad  stone  in  the  gable 


of  each  ;  but  scarcely  a  vestige  of  these  tombs 
now  exists.  North  of  the  monastery  are  the  ro- 
niains  of  a  small  edifice,  called  the  bishop's 
house.  Such  is  the  present  state  of  that  illus- 
trious island,  '  which  was  once  the  seminary  of 
the  Caledonian  regions,  whence  savage  clans 
and  roving  barbarians  derived  the  benefits  of 
knowledge  and  the  blessings  of  religion.' 

At  Sandwich,  in  Ross-shire,  is  a  curious  obe- 
lisk, but  of  a  more  recent  date  than  those  above- 
mentioned.  It  stands  on  a  basement  of  flat  stones 
rising  like  steps,  and  is  enriched  with  various 
specimens  of  carved  works  more  highly  finished 
than  those  on  the  obelisk  near  Fortrose.  On  one 
face  is  a  large  cross  with  a  figure  of  St.  Andrew 
on  each  side,  and  some  uncouth  forms  of  animals 
beneath.  The  reverse  contains  figures  of  birds 
and  animals.  The  ruins  of  Elgin  Cathedral  pre- 
sent some  dignified  remains.  The  west  door  is 
highly  ornamented,  and  the  whole  edifice  dis- 
plays much  elaborate  workmanship.  Among 
the  ancient  castles  of  North  Britain  that  of  Kil- 
d  rummy  is  most  distinguished,  and  was  formerly 
a  place  of  great  strength  and  magnificence,  fre- 
quently the  asylum  of  noble  families  in  times  of 
civil  war  and  national  distress.  The  castle  of 
Inverugie  is  a  massy  pile,  standing  on  the  steep 
bank  of  a  river,  rearing  its  lofty  towers  above  the 
aged  trees,  and  appearing  majestic  even  in  ruins. 
At  Huntley,  also,  the  remains  of  a  venerable 
castle  attest  its  former  magnificence. 

In  natural  curiosities  Scotland  is  very  rich. 
The  picturesque  falls  of  the  Clyde,  near  Lanark, 
and  the  beauties  of  Loch  Lomond,  have  excited 
much  attention,  and  given  rise  to  many  animated 
descriptions.  The  rocks  on  the  coast  of  Aber- 
deenshire  frequently  assume  singular  forms  of 
arches  and  pillars ;  while  the  vast  basaltic  co- 
lumns between  the  castle  and  harbour  of  Dunbar 
resemble  the  Giant's  Causeway  in  Ireland. 
Several  large  caverns  in  Fifeshire,  a  petrifying 
cave  at  Slains,  in  Aberdeenshire,  and  a  quantity 
of  sea-shells  and  white  stones,  some  of  them 
very  clear,  are  to  be  met  with  on  the  top  of  a 
mountain  in  Ross-shire,  about  twenty  miles  from 
the  sea.  Nor  are  traces  of  extinguished  volca- 
noes totally  unknown  in  this  country.  The  hill 
of  Finchaven  is  one  instance,  and  that  of  Bergo- 
nium,  near  Dunstaffage  Castle  is  another.  Both 
of  these  exhibit  large  quantities  of  pumice  stone, 
or  scoriae,  of  the  same  kind  as  those  thrown  out 
by  the  volcanoes  of  Iceland.  On  the  isle  of  Seal- 
pay,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  there  is  a  hill  which 
affects  the  mariner's  compass,  and  causes  the 
needle  to  deviate  9°  from  the  north  towards  the 
west.  At  Ralphitrisk  is  the  famous  ringing  stone, 
about  seven  feet  long,  six  broad,  and  four  and 
a  half  thick.  It  is  of  a  dull  gray  color,  spotted 
with  black  mica.  It  is  very  hard,  and  when 
struck  with  a  hammer  or  stone  sounds  like  brass 
or  cast  iron. 

Between  the  islands  of  Jura  and  Scarba  is  the 
noted  whirlpool,  denominated  Cor-y-bhrechan 
supposed  to  have  derived  its  name  from  a 
Danish  prince  who  perished  there.  '  Soon  after 
the  flood  tide  has  entered  the  sound  the  sea  at 
this  place  is  violently  agitated.  It  boils,  foams, 
and  passes  away  in  successive  whirls.  The 
commotion  increases  till  near  the  fourth  hour  of 


572 


SCOTLAND. 


flood,  when  it  is  most  impetuous.  The  waves 
are  tossed  with  a  great  noise,  that  may  be  h%ard 
twelve  miles  distant.  But  from  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  to  the  sixth  hour  of  flood,  and  in  neap- 
tides  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  hour,  the  com- 
motion gradually  abates,  until  at  length  it  totally 
subsides  ;  and,  at  the  approach  of  the  lowest  ebb, 
the  same  tranquillity  is  restored  as  takes  place 
at  high  water." 

But  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  natural  curi- 
osity in  Scotland  is  the  precipitous  and  columnar 
island  of  Staffa  The  bending  pillars  and  the 
noted  caves  of  this  small  island  have  often  been 
described.  The  island  itself  is  an  irregular  oval, 
faced  with  nearly  perpendicular  rocks,  in  which 
various  caves  yawn  and  receive  the  restless  waves 
that  dash  against  the  shore.  The  height  of  these 
rocky  coasts  varies  from  about  112  feet  to  less 
than  ten  above  the  surface  of  the  sea.  The  natu- 
ral pillars  in  many  of  these  places  are  inclined 
in  various  positions  from  the  perpendicular.  In 
some  they  are  bent  so  as  to  resemble  the  inside 
timbers  of  a  ship.  In  others,  where  the  ends  pre- 
sent themselves  in  forming  the  surface,  they  have 
the  appearance  of  a  honey-comb.  The  celebrity 
of  this  island,  however,  is  chiefly  derived  from 
its  various  caves.  The  principal  of  these  are  the 
Boat  Cave,  Mackinnon's  Cave,  and  Fingal's 
Cave.  The  Boat  Cave  apparently  derives  its 
name  from  its  being  accessible  by  sea  only.  This 
cave  is  small,  but  its  entrance  is  highly  pictu- 
resque from  the  symmetry  of  the  columnar  sur- 
face of  the  cliff  in  which  it  is  situated.  Its 
height  is  about  fifteen  feet,  breadth  twelve,  and 
depth  150  feet.  It  can  be  entered  by  means  of 
boats  only,  as  the  tide  never  ebbs  quite  out. 

Mackinnon's  Cave  presents  an  aperture  of 
nearly  fifty  feet  square,  with  a  depth  of  more 
than  220  feet,  which  causes  it  to  reflect  a  deep 
shadow,  that  produces  a  powerful  effect.  Its 
dimensions  are  nearly  the  same  throughout  its 
extent.  The  roof  and  sides,  being  smooth,  are 
deprived  of  many  of  those  beauties  which  a  more 
varied  appearance,  accompanied  with  a  symme- 
trical arrangement  of  parts,  would  present.  Fin- 
gal's  Cave  is  the  most  celebrated,  and  upon  it 
the  utmost  powers  of  description  have  frequently 
been  lavished.  It  is  situated  near  the  eastern  ex- 


tremity of  the  principal  face,  and  presents  two 
nearly  perpendicular  sides ;  with  a  roof  resem- 
bling that  kind  of  Gothic  arch  which  is  termed 
the  contracted.  The  height  from  the  surface  of 
the  water  at  mean  tide  is  about  sixty-six  feet ; 
and  from  the  top  of  the  arch  to  the  summit  of 
the  cliff  it  is  thirty  feet :  the  breadth  is  about 
forty-two  feet.  The  height  of  the  cave  soon  di- 
minishes to  less  than  fifty  feet,  and  terminates 
at  forty-four,  after  running  into  the  rock  a  depth 
of  227  feet.  These  are  the  dimensions  given 
by  Dr.  Macculloch,  who  lately  measured  it;  but 
those  given  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  by  whom  it 
was  first  visited,  in  his  voyage  to  Ireland,  are 
considerably  greater.  The  sides  of  the  cave, 
like  the  rock  in  front,  are  columnar  and  nearly 
perpendicular,  and  the  roof  is  formed  of  pillars 
that  have  been  broken  off,  which  sometimes  pro- 
duce an  ornamental  effect.  The  breadth  is  pre- 
served nearly  to  the  furthest  extremity,  and  the 
whole  cave  is  lighted  from  without,  so  that  the 
end  may  be  distinctly  seen.  The  air  is  kept  in 
a  pure  state  from  the  motion  occasioned  by  the 
flux  and  reflux  of  the  tide;  and,  as  this  never 
ebbs  out,  it  forms  the  only  flooring  to  the  cave. 
'  It  would  be  no  less  presumptuous  than  useless,' 
Dr.  Macculloch  observes,  '  to  attempt  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  picturesque  effects  of  that  to  which 
the  pencil  itself  is  inadequate.  But  if  this  cave 
were  even  destitute  of  that  order  and  symmetry, 
that  richness  arising  from  multiplicity  of  parts, 
combined  with  greatness  of  dimension  and  sim- 
plicity of  style  which  it  possesses,  still  the  pro- 
longed length,  the  twilight  gloom,  half  conceal- 
ing the  playful  arid  varying  effects  of  reflected 
light,  the  echo  of  the  measured  surge  as  it  rises 
and  falls,  the  transparent  green  of  the  water, 
and  the  profound  and  fairy  solitude  of  the  whole 
scene,  could  not  fail  strongly  to  impress  the  mind 
gifted  with  any  sense  of  beauty  in  art  or  nature.' 
It  is  said  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  ex- 
ported British  linens  are  of  Scottish  manufacture: 
some  estimate  of  the  importance  of  that  manu- 
facture may  be  formed  by  the  following  table  of 
the  countries  to  which  these  exports  were  made 
in  1821  and  1822,  ordered  to  be  printed  by  the 
House  of  Commons  May  1823  : — 


1821. 

1822. 

Portugal,  the  Azores,  and  Madeira 
Spain  and  the  Canaries       
Gibraltar    
Asia           
Africa        ........ 
British  North  America        ..... 
West  Indies.          ..... 
Foreign  West  Indies            
United  States     .                 

£        s.      d. 
53,597     1     8 
24,624   15     7 
159,849  12  10 
22,454  12     0 
15,454  14     0 
48,639  10     5 
552,391   18     3 
193,911     8  10 
442,204  18     7 

£        s.      d. 
40,627     9     5 
78,812     7     0 
162,685     2     7 
29,026     4     2 
6,268     8     0 
75,324   19     4 
542,947     4     9 
161,164  19  10 
516,781     3     1 

Brasils        ........ 
Foreign  colonies  on  Continent  of  North  America 
AH  other  parts  

116,247  11     1 
53,982  11     5 
18,351      3     8 

179,357  15     5 
115,206     0     6 
24,920     8     4 

i 

1,701,709  18     4 

1,933,152     2     5 

SCOTLAND. 


573 


The  quantity  of  malt  made  in  Scotland  from 
1786  to  1800  fluctuated  from  1,500000  to 
2,000,000  of  bushels  annually  ;  the  ordinary  rate 
of  duty  being  then  7|d.  per  bushel.  In  1804,  when 
the  duty  on  malt  made  from  barley  was  raised  to 
3s.  8Jrf.,  and  from  bear  or  bias  to  3s.  O&d.,  the 
number  of  bushels  fell  to  1,125,482,  and  never 
reached  1,500,000  while  these  duties  were  ga- 
thered. In  1817,  1818,  and  1819,  when  the  duty 
was  Is.  8£rf.,  the  quantity  increased  from 
1,129,992^  to  1,556,586  bushels.  But  in  1820, 
when  it  was  raised  to  3s.  6d.,  the  number  of 
bushels  fell  to  l,284,918f.  In  1822,  under  new 
modifications  of  the  duty,  it  was  1,347,432 


bushels  ;  and  for  the  y^ar ending  oth  April  1823 
the  number  had  increased  to  2,150,795  bushels ; 
of  which  1,816,691£  were  made  from  barley,  and 
334,103^  from  bear  or  bigg.  The  beer  made  in 
Scotland  in  1822  was  about  350,000  barrels,  01 
about  3000  barrels  less  than  :n  1792.  Such  is 
the  effect  of  high  war  duties  on  the  necessaries 
of  life. 

The  spirits  made  in  Scotland  for  home  con- 
sumption only,  from  1813  to  1822,  and  all  from 
grain  or  malt  (no  sugar  or  molasses  being  used 
in  those  years),  appears,  from  the  Report  of  the 
Malt  Duties  of  Scotland,  May  1821,  to  stand 
thus  : — 


Years. 

Gallons  of  Spirits 
made  and  charged 
with  duty. 

Rate  of  duty  per  gallon. 

Total  Revenue 
produced. 

£           s.       d. 

From    10th    Dec.    1813   ) 
to  1st  Oct.  1814   ] 

1,653,735 

(  7s.  \Qd.  in  Lowlands,  ) 
I  5s.  Hid.  in  Highlands  ] 

587,781     8     li 

1st  Oct.  1814  J 
to  9th  Nov.    S 

1  ,784,943* 

8s  4|d. 

743,506     0     3 

Year  ending   f         . 
10th  Nov/    *"    6  '     ' 

l,030,772f 

8s.  4§d. 

427,658  16     8J 

1817 

2,139,207^ 

5s.  6]d. 

599,168     3     5J 

1  R1  R 

2,367,9141 

5s.  6^/. 

663,464  16     4 

1819  • 

2  366  998 

5«  6£d, 

658  773  18     4| 

-toon 

2,167,558 

7s.  6ferf. 

602,676  18     6i 

The  following  is  an  account  presented  to  the  House  of  Commons,  in  May  1823,  of  the  excise- 
able  articles  paying  duty  iu  the  years  ending  5th  July  1792  and  1822  respectively,  and  the  amount 
of  duty  on  each  : — 


Articles. 

1792. 

1822. 

£        s.    d. 

£        s.      d. 

Auctions 

4,700     8     8| 

13,645  12     6J 

Beer  and  ale    . 

55,078     8     2 

87,217     9     9J 

Bricks  and  tiles 

3,283  13     34 

6,348  16     4i 

Candles 

16,804     7  10i 

19,704     2     3i 

Coaches 

99     0     0 

... 

Cocoa  nuts  and  coffee 

443  17  llf 

16,785     3     6 

Cyder  and  perry 

28     8     1J 

Glass 

24,719     9     1J 

132,770  13     7 

Hides  and  skins 

19,618  13     7i 

51,045     6     7 

Licences 

10,813     3     2 

90,581     8     5 

Malt 

74,960  12     0$ 

199,695     3     9 

Paper 

5,744  18     2 

63,688  19     3 

Pepper    . 

. 

305     7     6 

Printed  goods 

78,002     0     4 

246,278     7     5$ 

Salt 

106,992  16     8 

Soap 

43,969     8     4i 

122,306     6     8£ 

Starch      .         . 

9,749   17     3i 

5,325   12     3 

Spirits  (foreign) 

56,520     8     1J 

124,112   10     1 

(British) 

52,470     5     2 

740,709  14     5| 

Stone  bottles 

9     4  11* 

Sweets 

111     1     4 

Tea         ... 

. 

49     4     2 

Tobacco  and  snuff    . 

31,774     8     5i 

301,428     2     7f 

Vinegar 

753  17     0 

Wine       . 

0,990     9     6J 

68,716     2     OJ 

Totals  . 

519,743     9     4J 

2,398,609  11     5J 

The  established  religion  of  Scotland  is  Pres-     by  an  act  of  the  Scottish  parliament  in  1696,  and 
byterianisra,  on  the  Geneva  model,  finally  settled     afterwards  secured  by  the  treaty  of  union  with 


574 


SCOTLAND. 


England.  As  considerable  light  has  been  thrown 
of  late  by  Dr.  Cook  and  Dr.  M'Crie  on  the  early 
progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland,  we  shall 
avail  ourselves  here  of  a  portion  of  this  infor- 
mation. 

In  preparing  the  scheme  of  future  church 
polity  for  his  country,  her  great  reformer,  Knox, 
adopted  the  general  maxims  of  Calvin ;  yet  he 
accommodated  them  considerably  to  the  peculiar 
situation  of  Scotland.  While  he  abolished  the 
episcopal  order  as  by  divine  right  superior  to 
that  of  presbyters,  finding  that  absolute  equa- 
lity amongst  the  pastors  would  not  be  expedient, 
he  appointed  superintendants,  who  were  in  some 
respects  similar  to  bishops,  but  in  others  plainly 
and  explicitly  distinguished  from  them.  They 
superintended  the  parochial  ministers,  whose 
labors  were  confined  to  their  own  parishes,  and 
the  readers  who,  from  the  small  number  of  pas- 
tors, were  employed  to  read  and  explain  the 
Scriptures,  where  ministers  could  not  be  pro- 
cured. This  intermediate  system  between  epis- 
copacy and  presbytery,  although  it  was  regarded 
with  much  partiality  by  Knox,  did  not  long  con- 
tinue. It  had  little  hold  of  the  minds  of  the 
people ;  and  the  poverty  of  the  clergy  under  it 
rendered  them  eager  that  it  might  be  so  modified 
as  that  their  temporal  condition  should  be  im- 
proved. When,  therefore,  in  1572,  the  earl  of 
Mar,  who  was  then  regent,  was  eager,  perhaps 
more  from  political  than  religious  considerations, 
to  restore  the  order  of  bishops,  little  resistance 
was  made  to  his  wishes ;  and,  with  the  acqui- 
escence even  of  Knox,  an  episcopalian  polity 
supplanted  the  superintendent  scheme,  or  rather 
was  combined  with  it.  But  it  soon  appeared 
that  the  prejudices  which  had  been  early  formed 
against  the  hierarchy  had  not  subsided ;  and  the 
celebrated  Andrew  Melville,  on  his  arrival  in 
Scotland  from  Geneva  in  1574,  taking  advantage 
of  these  prejudices,  and  of  every  political  event 
that  might  facilitate  his  design,  was  enabled  to 
effect,  in  1592,  the  introduction  of  that  presby- 
terian  polity  which  he  found  established  in  Ge- 
neva, and  which  has  finally  been  fixed  in  Scot- 
land. 

To  James  VI.,  although  he  was  occasionally 
forced  to  dissemble  his  real  sentiments,  this  form 
of  church  government  was  most  obnoxious.  The 
boldness  with  which  the  ministers  defended  what 
they  believed  to  be  right  ill  corresponded  with 
the  deference  which  he  considered  to  be  due  to 
royalty  ;  and,,  having  been  often  thwarted  by 
them  in  what  they  deemed  the  unconstitutional 
exercise  of  his  prerogative,  he  was  desirous  that 
episcopacy,  as  more  consonant  to  monarchy, 
should  be  restored.  To  effect  this  he  made  many 
efforts,  even  before  his  accession  to  the  English 
throne ;  and  after  that  event  he  was  enabled  to 
accomplish  his  object;  at  the  same  time  gratify- 
ing the  feelings  or  the  prejudices  of  his  Scottish 
subjects,  by  putting  restraints  upon  the  bishops, 
without  which  he  dreaded  that  he  would  fail  in 
establishing  their  authority.  His  unfortunate  son, 
Charles  I.,  who  was  attached  to  episcopacy  from 
sincere  religious  conviction,  as  well  as  from  views 
of  political  expediency,  formed  the  scheme  of  assi- 
milating in  all  respects  the  churches  in  England  and 
Scotland,  \\ith  '.his  view  he  determined  to  intro- 


duce a  liturgy,  which  in  Scotland  had  never  been 
regularly  used  ;  and  he  insisted  upon  the  recep- 
tion of  a  set  of  canons  abolishing   the  control 
over  ecclesiastical  measures  which  the   inferior 
church  judicatories  had  been  permitted  to  exer- 
cise.    The  violence  with  which  all  this  was  re- 
sisted is  known  to  every  reader  of  the  history  of 
Scotland.  The  zeal  of  the  multitude  was  inflamed 
to  fury  :  the  clergy  were   insulted,  and  episco- 
pacy was  again  contemplated  as  the  engine  of 
popery  and  of  despotism.  The  dissensions  which 
soon  arose  in  England  cherished   this  state  of 
mind :    the   discontented   in    Scotland    made   a 
common    cause   with    the    disaffected    in    the 
southern  part  of  the  island  :  they  bound  them- 
selves, by  the  strange  deed  which  they  entitled 
'  the  solemn  league  and  covenant,'  to  exterminate 
prelacy  as  a  corruption  of  the  Gospel ;  and  they 
took  an  active  part  in  those  commotions  which 
terminated  in  the  death  of  Charles,  and  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Commonwealth.     Some  feeble  efforts 
indeed  were  made  to  preserve  to  Charles  II.  a 
shackled  sceptre ;  but  he  was  soon  compelled  to 
leave  Britain  ;  and  under  Cromwell  the  violent 
presbyterians,  who  were  denominated  Protesters, 
enjoyed  the  free  exercise  of  the  form  of  worship, 
and  of  the  power  which  they  had  acquired.  Upon 
the  restoration  of  Charles,  to  which   it  must  be 
admitted  that  many  attached  to  presbytery  zea- 
lously contributed,  although  at  his  coronation  at 
Scone  he   had  solemnly  sworn  to   defend   that 
mode  of  ecclesiastical  government,  and  had,  in 
the  prospect  of  being  restored,  renewed  his  pro- 
testations that  he  would   do  so,  he  established 
episcopacy    in    Scotland,  under     circumstances 
little  calculated  to  conciliate  the  affections  and  to 
secure  the  reverence  of  the  people  to  that  ancient 
and  admirable  form  of  church  polity.     The  de- 
sertion of  Dr.  Sharp  from  the  presbyterians  was 
rewarded  by  his  exaltation  to  the  primacy  ;  and 
powers  were  vested  in  the  bishops  much  more 
ample  than  they  had  possessed  at  any  time  be- 
fore.    The  discontent  that  now  prevailed  among 
the  presbyterians  was  openly  displayed,  and  the 
attempts   to  restrain  it  were  conducted  with   a 
severity  more  calculated  to  divide  than  to  heal. 
The  presbyterians,  undismayed,  adhered  to  their 
principles  ;  and,  upon  the  abdication  of  James 
II.,  they  looked  forward  with  confidence  to  the 
triumpli  of  their  cause.     And,  though  the  prince 
of  Orange  was  eager  to  preserve  in  both  parts 
of   the  island  the   same   form   of  ecclesiastical 
government,  the  bishops  conceived  that  they  could 
not  conscientiously  transfer  their  allegiance   to 
him,  whereby  the  way  was  opened  for  that  estab- 
lishment of  presbytery  which  some  of  his  most 
zealous  adherents  had  pressed  upon  him,  and 
which  was  ratified  by  act  of  parliament  in  1690. 
Thus,  Scotland  and  England  having  been  sepa- 
rate kingdoms  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
a  difference  of  circumstances  in  the  two  countries 
led  to  different  sentiments  on  the  subject  of  re- 
ligion, and  at  last  to  different  religious  establish- 
ments ;  and  when  they  were  incorporated  into 
one  kingdom,  by  the  treaty  of  union  in  1707, 
ihe  same  regard  to  the  inclinations  of  the  com- 
monalty of  Scotland,  to  which  presbytery  owed 
its  first  establishment  in  that  country,  produced 
a  declaration,  to  which  both  kingdoms  gave  their 


SCOTLAND. 


assent,  that '  Episcopacy  shall  continue  in  Eng- 
land, and  that  the  presbyterian  church  govern- 
ment shall  be  the  only  government  °f  Christ's 
church  in  that  part  of  Great  Britain  called  Scot- 
land. 

It  is  also  guaranteed,  by  the  fifth  article  of  the 
union  with  Ireland,  not  only  '  that  the  churches 
of  England  and  Ireland  as  now  established,  be 
united  into  one  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  to 
be  called  the  united  church  of  England  and 
Ireland  ;'  but  also  that  'in  like  manner  the  doc- 
trine, worship,  discipline,  and  government  of 
the  church  of  Scotland  shall  remain  and  be  pre- 
served, as  the  same  are  now  established  by  law 
and  by  the  acts  for  the  union  of  the  two  king- 
doms of  England  and  Scotland.' 

The  distinguishing  tenets  of  the  church  of 
this  important  part  of  the  United  Kingdom 
seem  to  have  been  first  embodied  in  the  formu- 
lary of  faith  attributed  to  Knox,  and  compiled  by 
that  reformer  in  1560.  Amidst  all  the  outward 
changes  of  polity  already  detailed  this  has  been 
preserved  unchanged.  It  was  approved  by  the 
parliament,  and  again  ratified  in  1567,  and  con- 
sists of  twenty-five  articles,  and  was  the  confes- 
sion as  well  of  the  episcopal  as  of  the  presby- 
terian church.  The  Covenanters  indeed,  during 
the  grand  rebellion,  adopted  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession, in  the  compilation  ofwhich  some  delegates 
from  their  general  assembly  had  assisted.  And, 
at  the  Revolution,  this  confession  was  received  as 
the  standard  of  the  national  faith  ;  and  the  same 
acts  of  parliament  which  settled  presbyterian 
church  government  in  Scotland,  ordain, '  That  no 
person  be  admitted  or  continued  hereafter  to  be 
a.  minister  or  preacher  within  this  church,  unless 
that  he  subscribe  the  (i.  e.  this)  confession  of 
faith,  declaring  the  same  to  be  the  confession  of 
his  faith.'  By  the  act  of  union,  in  1707,  the 
same  is  required  of  all  professors,  principals, 
regents,  masters,  and  others  bearing  office  in  any 
of  the  four  universities  in  Scotland. 

The  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  then, 
and  what  are  called  the  Larger  and  Shorter 
Catechisms,  which  are  generally  bound  up  with 
it.  contain  the  public  and  avowed  doctrines  of 
this  church  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  these  for- 
mularies are  Calvinistical,  if  not  Supralapsarian. 
'  The  character  of  these  formularies  is,  in  gene- 
ral,' says  a  highly  respectable  Calvinistic  writer, 
'  too  exclusive,  severe,  and  systematic  for  certain 
deliberative  minds.  Called  to  the  reception  of 
them,  they  are  staggered  by  the  extent  of  the  re- 
quisition. For  a  time,  perhaps,  they  hesitate  to 
obey  the  voice  of  conscience,  and  to  desert  the 
national  standard.  But  the  resolution,  once  taken, 
and  the  reputation  for  orthodoxy  and  conformity 
sacrificed,  they  give  loose  to  their  fancy  or  inge- 
nuity, and  at  length  fashion  to  themselves  a  sys- 
tem perfectly  at  variance  with  truth  and  reason. 
It  appears  to  us  that  Scotland,  in  this  respect, 
furnishes  an  important  lesson  to  the  more  dog- 
matic and  exclusive  theologians  of  this  country, 
&c.' — Christian  Observer,  for  1815,  p.  685,  686. 

It  has  indeed  been  often  insinuated,  or  as- 
serted, that  many  of  the  ministers,  as  well  as  lay 
members,  of  the  establishment,  have  departed 
widely  from  that  confession,  holding  the  Arian 
or  Socinian  views  of  our  Lord's  person,  and  the 


Arminian  opinions  as  to  predestination  and 
grace.  Such  a  charge,  however,  should  be  re- 
ceived with  much  caution,  and  is  perhaps  en- 
titled to  little  or  no  attention.  No  party  in  the 
church  avows  enmity  to  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession :  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
great  majority  of  the  clergy  are  attached  to  the 
doctrines  which  it  inculcates.  There  is  a  wide 
difference  in  the  way  of  preaching  these  doc- 
trines ;  but  this  is  not  confined  to  any  one  party. 
Amongst  those  who  are  denominated  the  popular 
clergy,  there  are  many  practical  preachers; 
whilst  those  who  are  styled  moderate,  not  un- 
frequently  inculcate  the  highest  tenets  of  Cal- 
vinism. 

In  this  church  the  public  worship  is  extremely 
simple,  and  but  few  ceremonies  are  retained. 
John  Knox,  like  his  master  Calvin,  seems  to 
have  been  less  an  enemy  to  liturgies  and  esta- 
blished forms,  than  their  more  modern  followers; 
for,  though  he  laid  aside  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  about  the  year  1662,  he  then  introduced 
one  of  his  own  composition,  which  more  strongly 
resembled  the  liturgy  of  the  church  of  Geneva. 
There  is  now,  however,  no  liturgy  or  public 
form  in  use  in  this  church;  and  the  minister's 
only  guide  is  the  Directory  for  the  Public  Wor- 
ship of  God,  which  prescribes  rather  the  matter 
than  the  words  of  our  addresses  to  God  :  nor  is 
it  thought  necessary  to  adhere  strictly  to  it;  for, 
as  in  several  other  respects,  what  it  enjoins  with 
regard  to  reading  the  holy  Scriptures  in  public 
worship  is,  at  this  day,  but  seldom  practised. 
By  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  supper  should  be  dispensed  in  every 
parish  four  times  in  the  year;  but  this  law  is  now 
seldom  adhered  to,  unless  in  most  chapels  of 
ease.  In  country  parishes  it  is  often  adminis- 
tered not  above  once  a  year,  and  in  towns  gene- 
rally only  twice  a  year.  The  people  are  prepared 
for  that  holy  ordinance  by  a  fast  and  public  wor- 
ship on  some  day  of  the  preceding  week,  gene- 
rally on  Thursday,  and  by  a  sermon  on  the 
Saturday  ;  and  they  meet  again  in  the  kirk  on 
the  Monday  morning  for  public  thanksgiving. 

They  have  no  altars  or  chancels  in  the  kirks, 
and  the  communion  tables  are  not  fixed,  but  in- 
troduced for  the  occasion ;  and  are  sometimes 
two  or  more  in  number,  and  of  considerable  , 
length.  At  the  first  table,  the  minister,  imme- 
diately upon  concluding  what  they  call  the  con- 
secration prayer,  usually  proceeds  to  read  the 
words  of  the  institution,  and,  without  adding 
more,  to  distribute  the  elements,  which  he  does 
only  to  the  two  communicants  who  sit  nearest 
him  on  each  hand.  It  is  usual  for  the  elders  to 
administer  them  to  the  rest.  But  before,  or 
during,  the  services  of  the  succeeding  tables,  ad- 
dresses at  some  length  are  made  to  the  commu- 
nicants by  the  minister,  or  by  one  of  the  ministers 
(for  there  are  generally  two,  three,  or  more  pre- 
sent), standing  at  the  head  of  the  communion 
table. 

In  conducting  public  worship,  the  creed,  the 
ten  commandments,  and  the  doxologyare  not  in- 
troduced as  essential  parts  of  the  service ;  and 
there  is  no  observation  in  this  church  of  festivals. 
Days  of  public  fasting  and  thanksgiving  she 
does  indeed  sometimes  observe,  particularly 


576 


SCOTLAND. 


those  commanded  by  his  majesty,  together  with 
the  fast  previous  to  the  celebration  of  the  holy 
communion,  and  the  day  of  thanksgiving  after  it. 
But  she  has  no  Lent  fast — no  kneeling;  at  public 
prayer — no  public  worship  of  God,  without  a 
sermon,  or  public  instruction — no  instrumental 
music — no  consecration  of  churches  or  of  bury- 
ing grounds — no  funeral  service  or  ceremony — 
no  sign  of  the  cross  in  baptism — no  regular  use 
of  the  Lord's  Prayer — and  no  administration  of 
the  holy  communion  in  private  houses. 

With  regard  to  confirmation,  her  members  re- 
ject it ;  but  they  do  not  condemn  it.  On  the  con- 
trary, '  we  endeavour,'  says  Dr.  Hill,  '  to  supply 
the  want  of  it  in  a  manner  which  appears  to  us 
to  answer  the  same  purpose.  We  account  our- 
selves bound  to  exercise  a  continued  inspection 
over  the  Christian  education  of  those  who  have 
been  baptised,  that,  as  far  as  our  authority  and 
exertions  can  be  of  any  avail,  parents  may  not 
neglect  to  fufil  their  vow ;  and  when  young  per- 
sons partake,  for  the  first  time,  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  we  are  careful,  by  private  conference 
and  public  instruction,  to  impress  upon  their 
minds  such  a  sense  of  the  nature  of  that  action, 
that  they  may  consider  themselves  as  then 
making  that  declaration  of  faith,  and  entering 
into  those  engagements,  which  would  have  ac- 
companied their  baptism  had  it  been  delayed  till 
riper  years. 

By  the  First  Book  of  Discipline,  which  was 
compiled  by  Knox  and  his  associates,  and  rati- 
fied by  anact  of  council  in  1560,  the  apostolical 
rite  of  ordination  by  the  imposition  of  hands  was 
laid  aside  as  superstitious;  but  it  was  restored 
in  the  second  book  of  Discipline,  in  1578,  and 
is  now  practised  as  formerly  in  the  kirk  of  Scot- 
land, where,  as  in  other  presbyterian  churches, 
ordination  is  vested  in  the  presbytery  ;  and  every 
minister  is  ordained  to  his  charge  in  the  face  of 
fvs  congregation. 

The  metre  of  the  version  of  the  Psalms  used 
in  this  church  must  be  allowed  to  be  very  in- 
ferior ;  but,  besides  the  Psalms  of  David,  a  col- 
lection of  translations  and  paraphrases  in  verse, 
of  several  passages  of  sacred  Scripture,  together 
with  some  hymns,  has  been  introduced  into  this 
church  of  late  years,  by  permission  of  the  general 
assembly ;  and  a  new  version  of  the  Psalms  in 
metre  is  now  in  progress. 

The  church  government  and  discipline  are 
amongst  the  most  important  features  of  the  Scot- 
tish church.  At  the  Revolution,  the  famous  sta- 
tute of  1592  was  taken  as  the  model :  the  different 
courts  specified  in  it  were  restored  :  viz.  sessions, 
presbyteries,  provincial  synods,  and  general  assem- 
blies. Regard  was  also  had  to  the  form  of  church 
government  agreed  upon  in  the  assembly  of  West- 
minster divines,  and  ratified  afterwards  by  an  act 
of  the  general  assembly,  in  the  year  1645 ;  and, 
of  the  societies  at  present  formed  upon  the 
presbyterian  model,  it  may  safely  be  affirmed 
that  the  church  of  Scotland  is  by  much  the  most 
respectable.  A  short  view  of  her  constitution 
may  not  therefore  be  unacceptable  to  the  reader  ; 
and  hers  may  be. considered  as  the  fairest  speci- 
men, now  existing,  of  presbyterian  church  go- 
vernment in  general.  In  this  church,  every 
regulation  of  public  worship,  every  act  of  dis- 


cipline, and  every  ecclesiastical  censure,  which 
in  episcopal  churches  flows  from  the  authority 
of  a  diocesan  bishop,  or  from  a  convocation  of 
the  clergy,  is  the  joint  work  of  a  certain  number 
of  ministers  and  laymen  acting  together  with  equal 
authority,  and  deciding  every  question  by  a 
plurality  of  voices. 

The  laymen,  who  thus  form  an  essential  part 
of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  of  Scotland,  are  called 
elders,  and  ruling  elders  ;  but,  though  they  have 
the  same  name,  it  does  not  appear  that  they  hold 
the  same  office  with  the  elders  mentioned  by  St. 
Paul  in  1  Tim.  v.  &c. ;  for  these  last  labored  in 
the  word  and  doctrine. 

The  number  of  elders  is  proportioned  to  the  ex- 
tent and  population  of  the  parish ;  and  few 
parishes,  except  where  the  unpopularity  of  the 
minister  has  induced  most  of  the  people  to 
secede,  have  fewer  than  two  or  three.  In  Edin- 
burgh every  parish  has,  at  least,  twelve  elders. 
The  Canongate  parish  has  betwixt  twenty  and 
thirty;  and  the  West  Kirk,  or  St.  Cuthbert's,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  populous  parishes  in  Scot- 
land (containing  within  its  bounds  upwards  of 
40,000  souls),  has  above  fifty.  These  elders  are 
grave  and  sober  persons,  chosen  from  among  the 
heads  of  families  of  known  orthodoxy  and 
steady  adherence  to  the  worship,  discipline,  and 
government  of  the  kirk.  Being  solemnly  en- 
gaged to  use  their  utmost  endeavours  for  the  sup- 
pression of  vice,  and  the  cherishing  of  piety  and 
virtue,  and  to  exercise  discipline  faithfully  and 
diligently,  the  minister,  in  the  presence  of  the 
congregation,  sets  them  apart  to  their  office  by 
solemn  prayer,  and  concludes  the  ceremony, 
which  is  called  ordination,  with  exhorting  both 
elders  and  people  to  their  respective  duties. 

This  office,  in  many  respects,  resembles  that  of 
the  churchwardens  in  the  church  of  England  ; 
but  the  lay  elders  seem  to  possess  more  spiritual 
jurisdiction  than  the  churchwardens  in  their  re- 
spective parishes. 

The  kirk  session,  which  is  the  lowest  eccle- 
siastical judicatory,  or  court,  and  which  the 
Westminster  Assembly  in  1645  asserted  to  be  of 
divine  right,  consists  of  the  minister  and  those 
elders  vf  the  congregation.  The  minister  is,  ex 
officio,  moderator,  but  has  no  negative  voice  over 
the  decision  of  the  session ;  nor  indeed  has  he  a 
right  to  vote  at  all,  unless  when  the  voices  of  the 
elders  are  equal  and  opposite.  He  may,  indeed, 
enter  his  protest  against  their  sentence,  if  he  think 
it  improper,  and  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  the 
presbytery ;  but  this  privilege  belongs  equally  to 
every  elder,  as  well  as  to  every  person  who  may 
believe  himself  aggrieved  by  the  proceedings  of 
the  session.  Nor  can  the  minister,  though  he 
may  examine,  admit  any  person  to  the  privilege 
of  membership,  till  the  whole  of  his  session,  as 
well  as  himself,  are  satisfied  both  as  to  the  candi- 
date's knowledge  and  piety. 

The  next  juaicatory  is  the  Presbytery,  which 
answers  to  the  consistories  in  the  Protestant 
churches  on  the  continent,  and  is  also  maintained 
by  some  to  be  jure  divino.  It  consists  of  all  the 
pastors  within  a  certain  district,  and  one  ruling 
elder  from  each  parish,  commissioned  by  his 
brethren  to  represent,  in  conjunction  with  the 
minister,  the  session  of  that  parish.  It  treats  en 


SCOTLAND. 


577 


such  matters  as  concern  tlie   purticular  churches 
within  its  bounds — as  the  examination,  admis- 
sion, ordination,  and  censuring  of  ministers:  the 
licensing  of  probationers ;  rebuking  of  gross  or 
contumacious  sinners ;  the  directing  the  sentence 
of  excommunication ;    the   deciding   upon    re- 
ferences and  appeals  from  kirk  sessions  ;  resolv- 
ing cases  of  conscience :  explaining  difficulties 
in  doctrine  or  discipline ;  and  censuring,  accord- 
ing  to  their  views  of  the  word   of  God,   any 
heresy  or  erroneous  doctrine,  which  hath  either 
been  publicly  or  privately  maintained  within  the 
bounds  of  its  jurisdiction.     But  that  part  of  the 
constitution  of  this  church,  which  gives  an  equal 
vote,  in  questions  of  heresy,  to  an  illiterate  me- 
chanic and  his  learned  pastor,  has  not  been  uni- 
versally approved,  but  has  been  considered  by 
some  as  having  been  the  source  of  much  trouole 
to  many  a  pious  clergyman,  who,  from  the  laud- 
able desire  of  explaining  the  Scriptures,  and  de- 
claring to  his  flock  all  the  counsel  of  God,  has 
employed  a  variety  of  expressions,  of  the  same 
import,  to  illustrate  those  articles  of  faith  which 
may  be  obscurely  expressed  in  the  established 
standards.     The  fact,  however,  is,  that  in  pres- 
byteries the  only  prerogatives  which  the  pastors 
have  over  the  ruling  elders  are  the  power  of  or- 
dination by  imposition  of  hands,  which  is  lodged 
in  this  ecclesiastical  court,  and  the  privilege  of 
having  the  moderator  chosen  from  their  body. 

The  number  of  presbyteries  in  Scotland  is 
seventy-eight;  and  those  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow, 
Perth,  and  two  or  three  more,  meet  every  month  ; 
but  in  country  districts  they  seldom  meet  above 
four  or  five  times  a  year,  unless  when  some 
business  occurs  which  requires  them  to  meet 
oftener. 

From  the  judgment  of  the  presbytery  there 
lies  an  appeal  to  the  provincial  synod,  which  or- 
dinarily meets  twice  in  the  year,  is  opened  with 
a  sermon,  and  exercises  over  the  presbyteries 
within  the  province  a  jurisdiction  similar  to  that 
which  is  vested  in  each  presbytery  over  the 
several  kirk  sessions  within  its  bounds.  Of  these 
synods,  there  are  in  the  church  of  Scotland  six- 
teen, including  that  of  Shetland,  which  are  com- 
posed of  the  members  of  the  several  presbyteries 
within  the  respective  provinces  which  give  names 
to  the  synods. 

The  highest  ecclesiastical  court,  and  the  foun- 
tain of  jurisdiction  in  this  church,  is  the  general 
assembly,  which  consists  of  a  certain  number  of 
ministers  and  ruling  elders,  delegated  from  each 
presbytery,  and  of  commissioners  from  the  royal 
boroughs.  By  act  5th  of  the  assembly  1694,  a 
presbytery,  in  which  there  are  fewer  than  twelve 
parishes,  sends  to  the  general  assembly  two 
ministers  and  one  ruling  elder ;  if  it  contain  be- 
tween twelve  and  eighteen  ministers,  it  sends 
three  of  these  and  one  ruling  elder;  if  it  con- 
tain between  eighteen  and  twenty-four  ministers, 
it  sends  four  ministers,  and  two  ruling  elders ; 
and  of  twenty-four  ministers,  when  it  contains  so 
many,  it  sends  five,  with  two  ruling  elders. 
Every  royal  borough  sends  one  ruling  elder  (and 
Edinburgh-  two),  whose  election  must  be  at- 
tested by  the  kirk  sessions  of  their  respective  bo- 
rough ;  and  every  university  sends  one  commis- 
sioner from  its  own  bodv. 
Vol.  XIX. 


According  to  this  proportion  of  representa- 
tion, the  general  assembly,  in  the  present  state  of 
the  church,  consists  of  the  following  members, 
viz. — 

Ministers  representing  presbyteries    .     .     .  200 

Elders  representing  presbyteries    ....  89 

Elders  representing  royal  boroughs    ...  67 

Ministers  or  elders  representing  universities  5 

361 

The  representatives  are  chosen  annually  about 
six  weeks  before  the  meeting  of  the  assembly 
(which  always  takes  place  in  May)  and  in  Edin- 
burgh ;  and  the  ruling  elders  are  seldom  the  lay 
elders  of  the  different  parishes,  but  often  gentle- 
men of  the  law  in  Edinburgh,  and  men  of  emi- 
nence in  the  kingdom  for  rank  and  talents.  Yet 
many  of  them,  it  is  well  known,  are  not  so  deeply 
impressed  with  a  sense  of  religion,  as  to  be  in- 
terested in  the  proceedings  of  an  ecclesiastical 
court  where  temporalities  are  not  concerned,  and 
much  less  to  be  duly  qualified  for  deliberating 
and  deciding  on  religious  subject's.  This  as- 
sembly is  honored  with  a  representative  of  the 
sovereign,  in  the  person  of  the  lord  high  com- 
missioner, who  is  always  a  nobleman,  and  pre- 
sides, and  has  a  salary  of  £1500  per  annum; 
but  he  has  no  voice  in  their  deliberations. 

The  order  of  their  proceedings  is  regular,  and 
in  general  much  decorum  is  observed ;  but 
sometimes  opposition  runs  high  between  the  two 
parties  in  the  church,  who  often  take  this  oppor- 
tunity of  trying  their  strength;  and  a  confusion 
arises  from  the  number  of  members,  the  collision  of 
ministers  and  laymen,  &c.;  which  the  moderator, 
who  is  annually  chosen  from  among  the  former, 
to  be,  as  it  were,  the  speaker  of  the  house,  has 
not  sufficient  authority  to  prevent.  The  assem- 
bly continues  to  sit  for  ten  days ;  at  the  end  of 
which  time  it  is  dissolved,  first  by  the  mode- 
rator, who  appoints  another  assembly  to  be  held 
upon  a  certain  day  of  the  month  of  May  in  the 
following  year ;  and  then  by  the  lord  high  com- 
missioner, who,  in  his  majesty's  name,  appoints 
another  assembly  to  be  held  upon  the  day  which 
had  just  been  mentioned  by  the  moderator. 

Appeals  are  brought  from  all  the  other  eccle- 
siastical courts  in  Scotland  to  the  general  assem- 
bly ;  and,  in  questions  purely  religious,  no  appeal 
lies  from  its  determinations.  At  the  close  of 
each  general  assembly,  a  commission  of  assem- 
bly is  appointed;  but  to  the  laws  already  made 
no  new  one  can  be  added,  till  it  has  been  pro- 
posed in  one  general  assembly,  and  by  them 
transmitted  to  every  presbytery  for  their  consent. 
If  this,  or  at  least  the  consent  of  the  majority,  is 
obtained,  the  assembly  next  year  may  pass  it 
into  an  act,  which  henceforth  must  be  regarded 
as  a  constitutional  law  of  the  kirk.  In  the  sub- 
ordination of  these  assemblies  and  courts  of 
review,  parochial,  presbyterial,  provincial,  and 
national,  the  less  unto  the  greater,  consists  the 
external  order,  strength,  and  stedfastness  of  the 
church  of  Scotland. 

The  discipline  of  this  church,  though  now 
somewhat  relaxed,  was  never  so  rigorous  as  that 
of  Geneva,  the  church  on  whose  model  it  was 
formed.  In  that  temporal  exercise  of  discipline 

2  F 


578 


SCOTLAND. 


which  the  general  practice  of  the  church  of 
Scotland  recognises  as  congenial  to  her  constitu- 
tion, '  care  is  taken,'  says  Dr.  Hill,  '  to  avoid 
every  appearance  of  intermeddling  officiously 
with  those  matters  that  fall  under  the  cognisance 
of  the  civil  magistrate.  No  solicitude  is  ever 
discovered  to  engage  in  the  investigation  of 
secret  wickedness  :  counsel,  private  admonition, 
and  reproof  are  employed  in  their  proper  season ; 
and  the  public  censures  of  the  church  are  re- 
served for  those  scandalous  sins  which  bring  re- 
proach upon  religion,  which  give  offence  to  the 
Christian  society,  and  which  cannot  be  overlooked 
without  the  danger  of  hardening  the  sinner,  of 
emboldening  others  to  follow  his  example,  and  of 
disturbing  and  grieving  the  minds  of  many 
worthy  Christians.' 

It  was  formerly  the  general  practice  to  oblige 
adulterers  and  fornicators  to  present  themselves 
in  the  kirk,  for  three  different  Sundays,  oh  a 
bench,  known  by  the  name  of  the  stool  of  re- 
pentance, when  they  were  publicly  rebuked  by 
their  minister,  in  the  face  of  the  congregation  ; 
but  this  punishment  is  now  often  changed  iiito  a 
pecuniary  fine.  For  this  change,  however,  there 
seems  to  be  no  law ;  and  the  old  practice  of 
publicly  rebuking  such  transgressors,  though  very 
much  disliked  and  cried  down  by  the  gentry  and 
others,  as  an  occasion  of  child  murder,  &c.,  is 
still  continued  in  a  great  majority  of  the  parishes. 
In  Edinburgh  it  is  entirely  discontinued,  be- 
cause believed  to  be  impracticable ;  but  in 
Glasgow,  Paisley,  Stirling,  and  other  towns,  the 
old  discipline  is  maintained. 

By  the  discipline  of  the  church,  a  parent  who 
is  under  public  scandal  is  disqualified  from  pre- 
senting his  child  for  baptism,  till  such  time  as 
his  character  is  cleared  up,  or  he  has  satisfied 
the  kirk  ;  but  as  it  sometimes  happens  that  this 
does  not  soon  take  place,  and  in  the  mean  time 
the  child  is  refused  the  benefit  of  baptism,  this 
practice  is  disapproved  of  by  many,  as  having 
the  appearance  of  punishing  the  children  for  the 
iniquity  of  the  parents.  '  Anima  quae  peccaverit, 
ista  motietur.' 

In  Scotland,  and  the  islands  of  Scotland,  the 
kirk  contains  within  her  hounds  893  parishes, 
and  about  1,500,000  members.  The  number 
of  ministers  belonging  to  her,  who  enjoy  bene- 
fices, and  possess  ecclesiastical  authority,  is  940. 
Of  this  number,  seventy-seven  are  placed  in 
collegiate  charges,  mostly  in  the  proportion  of 
two  ministers  for  each  of  these  charges;  and  the 
remaining  863  ministers  are  settled  in  single 
charges,  each  of  them  having  the  superinten- 
dence of  a  whole  parish.  In  very  populous 
parishes,  chapels  of  ease  are  erected  with  con- 
sent of  the  kirk,  and  are  supported  by  voluntary 
subscriptions;  but  the  ministers  who  officiate 
in  them  are  not  included  in  this  number,  as  they 
are  not  members  of  any  ecclesiastical  courts. 

The  duties  of  the  Scotch  clergy  are  numerous 
;>nd  laborious.  They  officiate  regularly  in  the 
public  worship  of  God  ;  and,  in  general,  they 
must  go  through  this  duty  twice  every  Sunday 
(exclusive  of  other  occasional  appearances),  de- 
livering every  Sunday  a  lecture  and  a  sermon, 
Aith  prayers.  It  is  also  expected,  throughout 
Scotland,  that  the  prayers  and  discourses  shall  be 


of  the  minister's  own  composition;  and  th^ 
prayers  in  all  cases,  and  the  discourses  in  most 
instances,  are  delivered  without  the  use  of  papers. 
They  are  expected  to  perform  the  alternate  du- 
ties of  examining  their  people  from  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  catechisms  of  the  church,  and  of 
visiting  them  from  house  to  house,  with  prayers 
and  exhortations.  This  is  done  commonly  once 
in  the  year,  being  omitted  only  in  those  cases 
wherein  the  ministers  deem  it  impracticable,  or 
not  acceptable,  or  at  least  not  necessary.  The 
charge  of  the  poor  devolves,  in  a  very  particular 
manner,  on  the  clergy  ;  and  in  them  also  is  vested 
the  superintendence  of  all  schools  within  their 
bounds. 

The  provision  which  has  been  made,  by  the 
law  of  Scotland,  for  the  support  of  the  established 
clergy,  consists  in  a  stipend,  payable  in  victual 
or  money,  or  partly  in  each ;  a  small  glebe  of 
land  ;  and  a  manse  (parsonage-house)  and  oflice- 
houses.  In  cities  and  towns  the  stipends  are 
generally  paid  in  money ;  in  '  landward'  (i.  e. 
country)  parishes,  they  are,  for  the  most  part, 
liquidated  in  money  and  victual.  They  are  de- 
rived from  a  charge  on  the  rents  of  land,  paid  by 
the  landlord,  throughout  Scotland,  upon  princi- 
ples fixed  so  far  back  as  the  reigns  of  Charles  I. 
and  II.,  confirmed  by  king  William,  and  now 
made  permanent  by  the  treaty  of  Union.  So 
long  as  there  are  any  free  teinds  (i.  e.  tithes)  in 
a  parish,  belonging  to  the  minister,  he  can  bring 
a  process  for  augmenting  his  stipend,  at  the  end 
of  every  twenty  years,  before  the  court  of  ses- 
sion, whose  members  sit  as  commissioners  for 
the  plantation  of  kirks  and  valuation  of  teinds. 
In  this  process  all  the  heritors  of  land  in  the 
parish  are  called  as  parties ;  and  if  the  minister 
can  prove  that,  from  change  of  circumstances, 
his  stipend  should  be  augmented,  the  ju 
grant  his  request;  but,  if  they  see  no  cause  f.  r 
entertaining  his  reasons,  they  refuse  his  applica- 
tion. 

An  act  of  parliament  passed  in  1810,  granting 
£10,000  per  annum  for  augmenting  the  smaller 
parish  stipends  in  Scotland.  By  this  act,  the 
lowest  stipend  assigned  to  a  minister  of  tlu 
tablishment  is  £150  sterling,  with  a  small  sum. 
generally  £8  6s.  8d.,  for  communion  elements. 
Stipends,  where  the  tiends  are  not  exhausted, 
are,  with  the  exclusion  of  communion  elements, 
wholly  paid  in  victual,  generally  oatmeal  and 
barley,  in  equal  proportions ;  and  the  court  fre- 
quently allocates,  as  it  is  termed,  to  a  minister, 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen  chalders.  If  the  stipend 
exhaust  the  teind,  it  is  sometimes  paid  in  money ; 
and  there  are  cases  in  which  the  teind  was  origi- 
nally set  apart  in  money,  and  not  in  victual. 

The  glebe  consists  legally  of  at  least  four  acres 
of  arable  land,  and,  in  fact,  generally  exceeds 
that  measure.  Most  of  the  ministers  of  country 
parishes  enjoy  glebes;  but  those  of  royal  boroughs 
in  general,  as  well  as  those  of  cities  and  towns, 
have  no  glebes.  Besides  the  glebe,  the  minister 
of  a  landward  parish  is  entitled  to  as  much  of 
grass-lands  as  may  support  a  horse  and  two  cows ; 
'  yet  perhaps  one  half  of  the  clergy  have  no  grass, 
nor  any  allowance  for  it.' 

The  whole  church  establishment,  as  a  burden 
on  land,  may  be  stated  in  one  view,  as  follows— 


SCOTLAND. 


579 


viz.  a  glebe,  of  perhaps  about  six  or  seven  acres, 
out  of  nearly  21,000,  and  the  grass,  where  it  is 
allowed ;  a  stipend  of  about  9rf.  in  the  pound  of 
the  land  rents  ;  and  buildings  and  communion 
charges,  amounting  to  4rf.  or  5d.  more  in  the 
pound,  of  these  land  rents.  All  these  put  to- 
gether constitute  the  burdens  of  the  Scottish  ec- 
clesiastical establishment,  in  so  far  as  proprietors 
of  land  are  affected  by  them ;  and  are  not  sup- 
posed to  exceed  £300,000  per  annum.  Thus  the 
clergy  are  removed  from  the  extremes  of  wealth 
and  poverty.  Their  revenues,  though  sufficient, 
are  not  ample  enough  to  tempt  the  cupidity  of 
the  higher  classes  ;  and  the  livings  are  therefore 
engrossed  by  persons  sprung  from  the  middle 
and  lower  classes,  who  naturally  identify  them- 
selves with  these  classes,  understand  their  situa- 
tions, and  participate  in  all  their  joys  and  sor- 
rows. Being  all  on  nearly  a  footing  of  equality, 
they  have  no  unattained  object  of  ambition  to 
distract  their  attention  from  the  important  labors 
of  their  professions.  They  have  seldom  any 
prospect  of  changing  their  livings,  and  therefore 
find  it  their  interest,  as  well  as  their  duty,  to 
establish  their  character  and  respectability  by  a 
diligent  and  faithful  discharge  of  professional 
duties. 

The  dissenters  from  the  Scottish  kirk  are 
numerous,  and  embrace,  in  the  metropolis  and 
on  the  eastern  coast,  particularly  in  the  county 
of  Aberdeen,  a  considerable  number  of  episcopa 
lians.  They  are  supposed  to  amount  to  upwards 
of  40,000,  having  six  bishops  and  seventy  clergy- 
men ;  and  are  the  only  body  of  dissenters  that 
have  been  distinctly  recognized  by  the  parliament 
of  Great  Britain.  Each  bishop,  as  in  Sweden, 
Denmark,  and  America,  as  well  as  exercising  a 
superintendence  over  the  other  clergy,  is  the  pas- 
tor of  a  particular  congregation.  The  history  of 
this  body  is  interesting.  At  the  Revolution  the 
Scottish  church,  as  we  have  seen,  became  by  act 
of  parliament  presbyterian  ;  chiefly  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  her  bishops  and  clergy  holding  the 
extreme  doctrines,  as  they  have  been  called,  of 
non-resistance  and  passive  obedience  to  the 
powers  that  be.  That  is,  they  became  nonjurors 
in  respect  to  the  government  of  William  and 
Mary. 

Such,  say  the  episcopal  writers,  being  the  con- 
duct and  consequent  circumstances  of  the  gover- 
nors and  clergy  of  the  Scottish  episcopal  church, 
they  have,  on  this  occasion,  exhibited  an  instance 
of  disinterestedness,  of  generous  attachment  to 
fallen  majesty,  and  of  conscientious  adherence  to 
principle,  than  which  the  history  of  the  world 
does  not  furnish  one  more  illustrious.  Whether 
they  acted  rightly  or  not  is  a  question  that, 
from  the  opposite  views  and  discordant  princi- 
ples and  passions  of  mankind,  we  can  scarcely 
suppose  will  ever  be  determined  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  all  parties.  This  much,  however,  is  cer- 
tain, that  had  those  venerable  fathers  possessed 
the  more  pliant  principles  of  many  distinguished 
characters  of  that  turbulent  period — had  they 
truckled  without  scruple  to  the  authorities  which 
then  prevailed,  or  measured  their  notions  of 
what  was  just  and  right  by  their  feelings  of  what 
was  most  conducive  to  their  present  and  tempo- 
ral interest — 


'Trojaque  nunc  stares — Priamique  arx  alta  ma  acres  !' 

they  might  have  remained  in  the  peaceable  pos- 
session of  their  dignities  and  benefices;  for  it  is 
well  known  that  the  prince  of  Orange,  afterwards 
king  William  III.,  offered  to  protect  them,  and 
preserve  their  establishment  inviolate,  provided 
they  would  come  over  to  his  interests,  and  sup- 
port his  pretensions  to  the  throne.  But  this, 
from  a  principle  of  conscience,  they  unanimously 
declined  to  do ;  and  the  consequences  were  that 
they  and  many  of  their  clergy  were  given  up  a 
prey  to  their  enemies,  and  were  exposed  to  such 
hardships  and  indignities  as  one  cannot  read  of 
without  emotion,  or  think  of  without  pain. 

Some  relaxation  of  the  seventies  with  which 
they  were  treated  under  king  William  was,  how- 
ever, granted  them  by  queen  Anne,  in  1712, 
when  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed  '  to  pre- 
vent the  disturbing  of  those  of  the  episcopal  com- 
munion in  Scotland,  in  the  exercise  of  their 
religious  worship,  and  in  the  use  of  the  liturgy 
of  the  church  of  England.'  In  consequence  of 
this  indulgence  that  liturgy,  which  the  ablest 
them  had  long  professed  to  admire,  and  which 
some  of  them  had  already  introduced  into  their 
assemblies,  was  universally  adopted  by  them; 
and  public  chapels,  which  had  till  then  been 
prohibited,  were  every  where  built,  and  well  fre- 
quented. The  same  principles  which  had  in- 
fluenced them  to  withhold  their  allegiance  from 
king  William  and  queen  Anne,  would  not  allow 
them,  as  a  body,  to  transfer  it  to  a  new  family, 
clogged  as  it  was  by  so  many  oaths,  especially  by 
that  of  abjuration.  Yet  many  individuals  com- 
plied with  the  government,  and  gave  every  test 
of  allegiance  which  was  required  of  them ;  but, 
as  if  the  insurgents  of  1715  had  been  wholly  of 
their  communion,  new  restraints  were  then  laid 
upon  their  public  worship,  and  upon  theirs  only, 
which  no  doubt  revived  in  some  degree  their 
original  prepossessions.  These  restraints,  how- 
ever, were  neither  very  severe,  nor  of  long  con- 
tinuance ;  for  by  the  year  1 720  their  congregations 
were  as  numerous  as  formerly,  consisting,  es- 
pecially in  the  north,  of  men  of  all  ranks,  even 
such  as  held  offices  of  trust  under  the  established 
government. 

Yet  nothing  less  than  the  extinction  of  this 
body  seems  to  have  been  the  aim  of  those  whose 
enmity  proposed,  and  whose  influence  procured 
to  be  enacted,  those  penal  statutes  of  1746  and 
1748,  which  were  less  calculated  to  eradicate 
the  attachment  of  this  society  to  the  house  of 
Stuart  than  to  produce  disaffection  to  the  existing 
government,  where  it  did  not  previously  exist. 
They  had  also  an  unhappy  effect  on  the  religion 
of  the  country ;  for,  by  driving  out  of  the  epis- 
copal church  many  persons  of  distinction,  whose 
principles  or  prejudices  would  not  allow  them 
to  communicate  with  any  other  society  of  Chris- 
tians around  them,  the  consequence  was,  as 
foreseen  and  foretold  by  bishop  Sherlock,  that 
neglect  of  religion,  and  of  the  duties  of  public 
worship,  which  has  long  furnished  matter  of 
serious  regret,  and  which  is  still  too  visible  even 
at  the  present  duy.  Upon  the  clergy,  however, 
who  even  then  amounted  to  nearly  200,  those 
rigorous  laws  were  not  long  rigorously  executed. 

2  P  2 


580 


SCOTLAND. 


After  a  few  years,  tlie  burning  of  chapels,  and 
the  imprisonment  of  ministers,  were  occurrences 
that  seldom  happened  ;  but  in  as  far  as  those  laws 
affected  the  political  privileges  of  those  laymen 
who  frequented  their  chapels,  in  that  part  of  their 
operation  they  were  in  no  degree  relaxed  till 
1792,  when  they  were  wholly  repealed,  and  the 
Scottish  episcopalians  tolerated,  like  other  well- 
affected  dissenters  from  the  national  establish- 
ment. 

The  act  of  parliament  which  at  this  time 
passed  for  their  benefit  requires  them  to  sub- 
scribe the  thirty-nine  articles  of  the  church  of 
England. 

The  other  dissenters  from  the  kirk  are  of  the 
same  variety  in  denomination  and  general  cha- 
racter as  the  dissenters  of  England,  and  embrace 
burghers  and  antiburghers,  now  united  under  the 
title  of  the  United  Secession  ;  Quakers,  Bereans, 
Baptists,  and  Glassites.  There  are  Catholic 
churches  also  in  almost  all  the  principal  towns  ; 
in  the  northern  parts  of  Scotland  this  religion 
has  survived  the  reformation. 

In  no  country  is  there  ampler  provision  for 
education  than  in  Scotland  :  perhaps  in  no  other 
part  of  the  world  is  equal  attention  paid  to  the 
subject.  To  the  efficacy  of  her  institutions  for 
this  purpose  is  to  be  ascribed  that  general  cul- 
tivation which  is  diffused  among  the  mass  of  the 
people.  An  act  passed  in  the  reign  of  William 
and  Mary,  ordaining  that  there  shall  be  a  school 
and  a  school- master  in  every  parish,  his  fee  not 
to  be  under  100  merks,  and  not  to  be  above 
200.  These  establishments,  in  which  were 
taught  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  Latin  and 
Greek,  placed  a  superior  education  within  the 
reach  of  the  poor ;  every  person  was  instructed 
in  the  ordinary  branches  of  education  ;  know- 
ledge was  eagerly  sought  afier,  and  ignorance 
was  accounted  disgraceful.  This  laudable  spirit 
is  now  so  universally  spread  that  a  more  moral, 
orderly,  or  better  instructed  class  of  people  than 
the  great  body  of  the  community  in  Scotland,  is 
no  where  found.  In  consequence  of  the  depre- 
ciation of  money,  the  allowances  to  those  parish 
schoolmasters  became  gradually  insufficient  for 
their  decent  maintenance ;  and  in  1803  the 
legislature  most  wisely  augmented  the  school- 
master's salary  to  300  merks  the  lowest,  and  400 
merks  the  highest,  together  with  a  dwelling- 
house  of  at  least  two  apartments,  a  commodious 
school-house,  and  a  garden  containing  a  quarter 
of  an  acre  of  ground.  Besides  these  parish- 
schools,  there  are  academies  in  most  of  the  large 
towns,  where  every  branch  of  education  is  taught. 
Scotland  has  also  four  universities,  namely,  at 
Edinburgh,  St.  Andrew's,  Glasgow,  and  Aber- 
deen. That  of  Edinburgh  has  acquired  the 
most  extensive  and  well  merited  reputation,  for 
the  great  attainments  of  its  professors  in  litera- 
ture and  science ;  students  of  medicine  in  par- 
ticular have  long  resorted  to  it  from  all  parts  of 
the  world ;  and  it  has  often  been  considered  the 
very  first  of  medical  schools.  At  the  time  of 
the  union  with  England,  the  ancient  constitution 
of  Scotland  was  so  far  superseded,  that  in  the  par- 
liament of  the  United  Kingdom  the  Scots  nobi- 
lity are  represented  by  sixteen  peers.  In  the 
house  of  commons,  the  freeholders  of  the  coun- 


ties, amounting  to  2429,  are  represented  by 
thirty  commissioners  or  knights  of  the  shires. 
The  royal  burghs,  which  are  sixty-five  in  num- 
ber, exclusive  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh,  which 
sends  one  member,  are  divided  into  fourteen 
districts,  which  return  as  many  members,  elected 
by  a  delegate  from  each  burgh.  Scotland,  how- 
ever, still  retains  her  own  ancient  laws  and  in- 
stitutions ;  and  civil  and  criminal  justice  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  college  of  justice,  instituted 
by  James  V.  in  1532,  after  the  model  of  the 
French  parliament,  to  supply  an  ambulatory 
committee  of  parliament,  who  took  on  them- 
selves the  name  of  the  lords  of  council  and  ses- 
sion, which  the  great  members  of  the  college  of 
justice  still  retain. 

The  court  of  session  is  the  highest  court  in 
Scotland,  and  consists  of  a  president,  and  four- 
teen ordinary  lords.  This  court  may  be  termed 
a  standing  jury,  who  determine  all  civil  causes 
according  to  the  statutes,  the  custom  of  the 
nation,  and  the  civil  law.  No  appeal  lies  from 
it  but  to  the  house  of  lords.  In  1807  the  court 
of  session  was  formed  into  two  divisions,  the 
first,  consisting  of  seven  members,  under  the 
lord  president;  the  second  division,  under  the 
lord  justice  clerk,  consisting  of  six  members. 
In  1815  a  jury  court  was  established  under  a 
lord  chief  commissioner,  and  two  other  commis- 
sioners for  the  trial  of  civil  cases.  The  court  of 
justiciary  is  the  highest  criminal  court  in  Scot- 
land. It  consists  of  a  lord  justice  general,  who 
has  a  salary  of  £2000  per  annum  ;  a  lord  justice 
clerk,  who  is  president;  and  five  other  judges 
nominated  from  the  senators  of  the  college  of 
justice.  The  pannel  has  not  the  power,  as  in 
England,  of  setting  aside  a  juryman,  without 
assigning  a  reason.  He  must  be  served  with 
a  copy  of  his  indictment,  and  a  list  of  the 
witnesses  who  are  to  appear  against  him,  and 
another  list  of  forty-five  men,  out  of  which  his 
jury  is  to  be  chosen,  fifteen  free  days  before  his 
trial. 

The  lords  commissioners  of  justiciary  make  a 
circuit  twice  a  year  to  the  different  districts  of 
Scotland.  All  criminal  cases  before  this  court 
are  tried  by  a  jury  of  fifteen  persons,  whose 
verdict  condemns  or  acquits  by  a  bare  plurality 
of  votes.  The  court  of  exchequer  has  the  same 
powers,  privileges,  jurisdictions,  and  authority 
over  the  revenue  of  Scotland,  as  that  of  Eng- 
land over  the  revenue  of  England.  This  court 
consists  of  a  lord  chief  baron  and  four  other 
barons,  two  remembrancers,  a  clerk  of  the  pipe, 
&c.  All  the  causes  are  here  tried  by  jury.  In 
the  high  court  of  admiralty  there  is  only  one 
judge,  who  is  the  king's  lieutenant  and  justice 
general  upon  the  seas,  and  in  all  ports  and  har- 
bours. He  has  a  jurisdiction  in  all  maritime 
causes ;  and  by  prescription  he  has  acquired  a 
jurisdiction  in  mercantile  causes  not  maritime. 
His  decisions  are  subject  to  the  review  of  the 
court  of  session  in  civil,  and  to  that  of  the  court 
of  justiciary  in  criminal,  cases. 

The  college  or  faculty  of  advocates  answers  to 
the  English  inns  of  court  ;  and,  subordinate  to 
them,  is  a  body  of  inferior  lawyers  or  attornies, 
styled  writers  to  the  signet,  because  they  alone 
can  substantiate  the  writings  that  pass  the  sit;- 


SCO 


581 


SCO 


net.  The  commissary  court  consists  of  four 
judges  nominated  by  the  crown,  and  1ms  an 
original  jurisdiction  in  questions  of  marriage  and 
divorce,  and  reviews  the  decrees  of  local  com- 
missary courts.  It  sanctions  the  appointment 
of  executors,  and  ascertains  debts  relating  to  the 
last  illness  and  funeral  charges  of  persons  de- 
ceased, or  obligations  arising  from  testaments, 
or  actions  of  scandal,  and  upon  all  debts  which 
do  not  exceed  £40.  The  keeper  of  the  great 
and  privy  seals,  the  lord  register,  and  the  lord 
advocate,  are  officers  of  state. 

Every  county  has  a  chief  magistrate  called  a 
sheriff,   whose  jurisdiction   extends   to   certain 


criminal  cases,  and  to  all  civil  matters  which 
are  not  by  special  law  or  custom  appropriated  to 
other  courts.  In  cases  of  inferior  importance, 
also,  the  magistrates  of  cities  and  royal  burghs 
have  a  jurisdiction,  which  is  subject  to  review 
of  the  sheriff.  Justice  of  peace  courts  were 
instituted  in  1809,  which  are  in  almost  every 
respect  similar  to  those  in  England,  though 
their  powers  are  not  so  well  denned.  There  is 
also  a  small  debt  court  held  monthly  in  every 
town  of  any  note,  where  cases  not  exceeding  £5 
are  decided  in  a  summary  manner.  See  our 
article  LAW,  part  III.,  for  a  more  particular 
account  of  the  statute  and  other  laws  of  Scotland. 


SCOTT  (Daniel),  LL.D.,  a  learned  English 
author  and  critic,  who  received  the  first  part  of 
his  education  at  Tewksbury,  and  finished  it  at 
Utrecht,  where  he  was  graduated.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  Theology;  and,  in  1745, 
published  an  Appendix  to  Henry  Stephens's 
Greek  Lexicon,  2  vols.  folio. 

SCOTT  (John),  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  di- 
vine, born,  in  1638,  atChippenham  in  Wiltshire. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford  ;  admitted  a  com- 
moner in  1657,  and  made  great  progress  in 
logic  and  philosophy.  He  became  minister  of 
St.  Thomas  s  in  Southwark.  In  1684  he  was 
collated  to  a  prebend  in  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Paul's.  Dr.  Hickes  tells  us  that  after  the  revo- 
lution, 'he  first  refused  the  bishopric  of  Chester, 
because  he  would  not  take  the  oath  of  homage  ; 
and  afterwards  another  bishopric,  the  deanery  of 
Worcester,  and  a  prebend  of  the  church  at 
Windsor,  because  they  were  all  places  of  de- 
prived men.'  In  1691,  however,  he  was  made 
rector  of  St.  Giles's,  and  canon  of  Windsor.  He 
published  several  works : — 1.  The  Christian  Life, 
which  has  been  often  reprinted  ;  2.  Examination 
of  Bellarmine's  Eighth  Note  on  Sanctity ;  3. 
Texts  Examined  which  Papists  quote  for  Prayer 
in  an  Unknown  Tongue ;  4.  Cases  of  Consci- 
ence. He  died  in  1695. 

SCOTT  (Rev.  Thomas),  an  English  clergyman 
of  I  he  established  church,  was  born  at  Bray  toft 
in  Lincolnshire,  February  4th,  1746, 1747.  His 
father,  a  small  farmer  with  a  large  family,  was  a 
man  of  strong  sense,  and  ambitious  of  bringing 
up  one  of  his  family  to  a  profession.  The 
eldest  son,  therefore,  was  bred  a  surgeon,  but 
died  young  ;  on  which  Thomas  was  put  to  school 
to  learn  Latin.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was 
bound  apprentice  to  a  medical  practitioner  at 
Alford  ;  but  at  the  end  of  two  months  he  was 
dismissed,  for  what  cause  is  not  stated  by  his 
biographers.  He  was  now  employed  to  keep 
sheep,  but,  having  a  strong  desire  to  enter  into 
orders,  he  consulted  a  clergyman  at  Boston,  who 
encouraged  his  attempt  at  qualifying  himself  for 
the  ministry  :  and  he  had  acquired  a  competent 
knowledge  of  Greek  as  well  as  Latin,  when  the 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  Dr.  Green,  admitted  him  to 
orders  in  1773.  His  first  situation  was  a  curacy 
•n  Buckinghamshire,  where  he  held  a  correspon- 
dence and  controversy  with  Mr.  John  Newton, 
which  ended  in  the  conversion  of  Mr.  Scott  to 
'.he  Calvinisiic  sentiments  of  his  friend  :  and,  on 


Mr.  Newton's  removal,  Mr.  Scott  succeeded  him 
in  the  curacy  of  Olney:  this  was  in  1781. 
Four  years  afterwards  he  removed  to  the  chap- 
lainship  of  the  Lock  Chapel,  near  Hyde  Park 
Corner,  and  held  besides  two  lectureships  in  the 
city.  In  1801  he  obtained  the  living  of  Aston 
Sandford,  in  Buckinghamshire;  and  here  he 
died,  April  16th,  1821,  much  beloved  and  re- 
spected. Mr.  Scott  was  an  able  defender  of 
Calvinism,  and  a  good  practical  expositor  of  the 
Scriptures.  His  Family  Bible  has  gone  through 
several  editions.  His  other  works  are  numerous, 
and  very  popular  with  his  party. 

SCOTT  (Sir  Walter),  Bart.,  eldest  son  of  Wal- 
fer  Scott,  writer  to  the  signet  in  Edinburgh,  was 
born  in  that  city,  August  15,  1771.  His  mother, 
a  friend  of  Burns  and  Allan  Ramsay,  was  a  lady 
of  talent,  and  author  of  several  small  poems 
of  considerable  merit.  He  was  educated  at  the 
high  school  of  Edinburgh  under  doctor  Adam, 
and  at  the  university  under  professor  Stewart. 
According  to  his  own  account,  he  had  a  distin- 
guished character  as  a  tale-teller,  "at  a  time 
when  the  applause  of  his  companions  was  his 
recompence  for  the  disgraces  and  punishments 
which  the  future  romance  writer  incurred  for 
being  idle  himself,  and  keeping  others  idle, 
during  hours  that  should  have  been  employed 
on  their  tasks."  It  was  the  favorite  amusement 
of  his  holidays  to  wander,  with  a  friend  of  the 
same  taste,  through  the  solitary  environs  of 
Arthur's  seat  and  Salisbury  crags,  reciting  and 
listening  to  such  wild  stories  as  his  own  and  his 
friend's  imagination  were  able  to  devise.  This 
truant  disposition  seems  to  have  been  increased 
by  a  long  illness,  the  consequence  of  the  rup- 
ture of  a  blood-vessel,  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
during  which  he  was  left  to  the  indulgence  of 
his  own  taste  in  reading,  and.  after  having  de- 
voured all  the  romances,  old  plays,  and  epic 
poetry  furnished  by  a  considerable  circulating 
library,  his  time  was  occupied  in  perusing  his- 
tories, memoirs,  voyages,  and  travels.  Two 
years  spent  in  this  manner,  were  followed  by  a 
residence  in  the  country,  in  which  he  made  the 
same  use  of  a  good  library,  to  which  he  had  ac- 
cess, that  Waverley  is  represented  to  have  done 
in  a  similar  situation.  Though  lame  from  his 
birth,  and  early  of  feeble  health,  his  strength 
was  afterwards  confirmed  ;  and,  during  the 
greater  part  of  his  life,  he  has  been  remarkable 
for  his  personal  activity,  and  passionately  fond 


5*2 


SCOTT. 


of  field  sports.  In  1792,  having  completed  his 
preparatory  studies,  he  was  called  to  the  bar; 
but  his  literary  taste  diverted  his  attention  from 
the  practice  of  his  profession,  which  he  soon 
abandoned  for  employments  more  agreeable  to 
his  inclination.  His  patrimonial  estate  was  also 
considerable,  and,  in  1800,  he  obtained  the  pre- 
ferment of  sheriff  of  Selkirkshire,  of  about  £300 
a  year  in  value.  In  1806,  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  principal  clerks  of  the  session  in  Scotland. 
His  first  literary  attempts  were  translations  from 
the  German  ballad  poetry,  which  rirst  became 
known  in  Great  Britain  towards  the  close  of  the 
last  century.  In  1796,  he  published  a  volume 
containing  a  poetical  version  of  Burger's  Lenore, 
and  of  the  ballad  of  the  Wild  Huntsman  (Der 
Wilde  Jdger).  This  attempt  he  himself  de- 
scribes as  a  complete  failure.  His  first  original 
productions  were  several  excellent  ballads 
(Glenfinlas,  the  Eve  of  St.  John,  &c.),  which 
appeared  in  Lewis's  Tales  of  \Vonder  (1801). 
In  1302,  appeared  his  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish 
Border,  a  collection  of  ballads,  ancient  and 
modern,  of  the  Border  districts,  with  an  intro- 
duction and  notes  (2  vols.  8vo.),  which  very 
much  extended  his  reputation  ;  to  which  suc- 
ceeded, in  1804,  Sir  Tristram,  a  metrical  Ro- 
mance of  the  Thirteenth  Century,  by  Thomas  of 
Ercildoune,  with  a  preliminary  dissertation  and 
glossary.  Meanwhile,  Mr.  Scott  had  married, 
and  taken  up  his  residence  at  Ashiesteel,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tweed,  about  thirty  miles  from 
Edinburgh,  "a  delightful  retirement,"  to  use 
his  own  words,  "  in  an  uncommonly  beautiful 
situation,  by  the  side  of  a  fine  river,  whose 
streams  are  favorable  for  angling,  and  surrounded 
by  hills  abounding  in  game."  His  first  original 
work  of  considerable  extent,  was  the  Lay  of  the 
Last  Minstrel  (1805),  which  was  received  with 
univ.-rsal  applause,  and  was  succeeded,  two 
years  alter,  by  Marmion  (1808),  the  appearance 
of  which  was  hastened  by  the'  misfortunes  of  a 
near  relation  and  friend.  The  Lady  of  the 
Lake  (18 10),  the  Vision  of  Don  Roderick  (181 1), 
Rokeby  (1812),  Lord  of  the  Isles  (1814), 
Harold  the  Dauntless,  and  the  Bridal  of  Trier- 
main,  the  two  latter  of  which  appeared  anony- 
mously, with  some  other  works  of  less  merit, 
marked  his  brilliant  poetical  career.  Upwards 
of  30,000  copies  of  the  Lay  were  sold  by  the 
trade  in  England,  previously  to  1829,  and  of 
Marmion  (for  which  the  author  received  £1000), 
36,000  copies  were  sold  between  1805  and 
1825;  for  the  manuscript  of  Rokeby  the  pub- 
lishers gave  him  £3000.  If  the  success  of  his 
first  productions  is  in  some  measure  to  be  attri- 
buted, as  the  author  himself  modestly  intimates, 
to  the  low  state  of  poetry  in  Great  Britain  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  lo  the 
substitution  of  the  animated  and  varied  octosyl- 
labic verse,  or  romantic  stanza,  for  the  more 
cumbersome  and  stately  heroic,  yet  the  freshness, 
fire,  and  truth  of  description,  the  dramatic  dis- 
tinctness of  the  action  and  characters,  the  rich- 
ness of  the  imagery,  and  the  vivacity  and  poeti- 
cal beauty  of  style  which  characterize  them, 
would  at  any  time  have  attracted  attention,  and 
won  tiie  admiration  of  the  public.  Mr.  Scott 
was,  during  the  period  in  which  his  principal 


poems  appeared,  also  employed  in  editing  the 
works  of  other  authors.  In  his  capacity  of 
editor,  he  completed  the  Works  of  Dryden,  with 
a  Life  of  the  Author,  and  Notes  (18  vols.  8vo., 
1808);  Lord  Somer's  Tracts  (12  vols.,  1809  to 
1812);  Description  and  Illustration  of  the  I.ay 
of  the  Last  Minstrel  (1810);  Sir  Ralph  Sadler's 
State  Papers  (2  vols.  4to.,  1810) ;  Poetical 
Works  of  Anna  Seward  (3  vols  8vo.,  1810); 
the  Woiks  of  Jonathan  Swift  (19  vols.  8vo., 
1814);  and  the  Border  Antiquities  of  England 
and  Scotland,  4to.  In  1811,  he  removed  to 
Abbotsford,  six  or  seven  miles  below  his  for- 
mer residence,  on  the  Tweed,  where  he  pur- 
chased a  farm  of  about  100  acres,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  having  some  more  quiet  out-door  occu- 
pation than  field  sports.  "The  nakedness  of 
the  land,''  says  he,  "  was  in  time  hidden  by 
woodlands ;  the  smallest  of  possible  cottages 
was  progressively  expanded  into  a  sort  of  dream 
of  a  mansion  house,  whimsical  in  the  exterior, 
but  convenient  within.  Nor  did  I  forget  what 
is  the  natural  pleasure  of  every  man  who  has 
been  a  reader,  I  mean  the  filling  the  shelves  of 
a  tolerably  large  library."  Here  he  continued 
to  reside,  exercising  the  most  open  hospitality, 
and  receiving  the  hcmage  of  admiration  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  His  grounds  were  pic- 
turesquely, and  at  the  same  time  profitably, 
laid  out,  and  his  library  amounted  to  about 
15,000  volumes.  In  1814,  he  appeared  in  a 
new  character — that  of  a  novelist.  Although  the 
greater  part  of  his  romances  were  published 
anonymously,  and  he  did  not  disclose  the  fact  of 
his  being  the  author  until  February,  1827,  yet 
little  doubt  was  previously  entertained  on  the 
subject.  A  portion  of  Waverley  was  written  as 
early  as  1805,  and  announced  under  the  title  of 
"  Waverley,  or  'Tis  Fifty  Years  since."  On  ac- 
count of  the  unfavorable  opinion  of  a  friend,  it 
was  thrown  by  and  forgotten,  until,  about  eight 
or  nine  years  afterwards,  the  author  accidentally 
discovered  it  in  searching  for  some  fishing 
tackle,  and  immediately  set  to  work  to  complete 
it.  The  subsequent  novels  have  come  out  in  the 
following  order:  In  1815,  Guy  Mannerin^;  in 
1816,  the  Antiquary,  and  Tales  of  My  Land- 
lord (consisting  of  the  Black  Dwarf  and  Old 
Mortality);  1818,  Rob  Roy,  and  Tales  of  my 
Landlord  (2nd  series,  consisting  of  the  Heart  of 
Mid  Lothian);  1819,  Tales  of  My  Landlord 
(3rd  series,  consisting  of  the  Bride  of  Lammer- 
muir,  and  the  Legend  of  Montrose) ;  1820, 
Ivanhoe,  the  Monastery,  and  the  Abbot ;  1821, 
Kenilworth ;  1822,  the  Pirate,  and  the  Fortunes 
of  Nigel;  1823,  Quentin  Durward,  and  Peveril 
of  the  Peak;  1824,  St.  Ronan's  Well,  and  Ked- 
gauntlet;  1825,  Tales  of  the  Crusaders;  1826, 
Woodstock;  18'27,  Chronicles  of  the  Canon- 
gate  (1st  series);  1828,  Chronicles  of  the  Canon- 
gate  (2nd  series);  1829,  Anne  of  Gi-ierstein; 
and  1831,  Tales  of  My  Landlord  (4th  series). 
These  works,  rapidly  as  they  were  produced, 
were  not  only  the  fruits  of  his  unaided  genius, 
but  the  original  manuscripts  are  entirely  written 
in  his  own  hand,  excepting  those  of  1818  and 
1819,  when  his  illness  obliged  him  to  employ 
an  amanuensis.  Among  his  miscellaneous 
works,  most  of  which  are  contained  in  the  col 


E  .Goodall  fculp 


TIIK  AirnroR  OF  -  WAVE  RLE  Y, 


IN     HIS      STUDY. 


SCO 


583 


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lection  entitled  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works  of 
Sir  W.  Scott  (6  vols.  1827),  are  Paul's  Letters 
to  his  Kinsfolk  (1815),  giving  an  account  of  his 
visit  to  Waterloo,  &c.  ;  Essays  on  Chivalry, 
Romance,  and  the  Drama,  in  the  Supplement  to 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica;  Lives  of  the 
Novelists;  and  contributions  to  different  periodi- 
cal works,  &c.  In  1820,  he  was  created  a  baronet. 
In  1827,  appeared  his  Life  of  Napoleon  (9  vols.) 
— a  work  of  partial  views,  and  executed  with  too 
little  care  and  research  to  add  to  the  brilliant 
reputation  of  the  author.  The  first,  second, 
and  third  series  of  the  Tales  of  a  Grandfather, 
illustrative  of  events  in  Scottish  history.  The 
Letters  on  Demonology,  and  the  History  of 
Scotland  (2  vols.,  1830),  close  the  long  list  of 
the  works  of  this  prolific  writer.  The  revised 
editions  of  his  poems  and  novels  contain  many 
interesting  personal  details,  and  sketches  of  his 
literary  history,  and  some  of  them  have  been 
collected  and  arranged  in  America,  in  a  single 
volume,  under  the  title  of  Autobiography  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  Bart. 

In  1831,  an  indisposition,  supposed  to  have 
arisen  from  violent  and  protracted  mental  exer- 
tion, began  to  assume  a  settled  character,  and 
his  physician  recommended  a  residence  in  Italy 
as  the  best  means  of  delaying  the  approach  of  a 
dangerous  illness.  He  in  consequence  set  sail 
for  Italy  on  the  29th  of  October,  1831,;  but, 
after  an  absence  of  nine  months,  returned  in  a 
more  unfavourable  state  of  health  than  when  he 
departed.  He  returned  once  more  to  Abbots- 
ford,  and  lingered  on  until  the  21st  of  Septem- 
ber, when  he  expired  at  half-past  one  in  the 
afternoon.  He  was  buried  amidst  the  ruined 
walls  of  Dryburgh  Abbey,  on  the  25th  of  the 
month  in  which  he  died ;  and  the  hills  were 
covered,  and  the  villages  filled,  with  mourners. 
He  was  borne  from  the  hearse  by  his  own  do- 
mestics, and  laid  in  the  grave  by  the  hands  of 
his  children. 

SCOTT,  a  county  of  the  north  part  of  Ken- 
tucky, United  States.  The  chief  place  is  George 
Town.  Also  a  county  of  Virginia,  formed  in 
1814  out  of  the  counties  of  Lee,  Russel,  and 
Washington. 

SCOTUS  (Joannes),  or  John  Erigena,  a 
famous  scholastic  divine,  born  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century ;  but  where,  is  a  mat- 
ter of  dispute  among  authors.  All  agree,  how- 
ever, in  relating  that  he  travelled  to  Athens, 
where  he  acquired  a  competent  knowledge  of 
the  Greek  and  other  oriental  languages;  and, 
that  he  afterwards  resided  many  years  in  the 
court  of  Charles  the  Bald,  king  of  France,  who, 
on  account  of  his  singular  abilities,  treated  him 
as  his  intimate  friend  and  companion.  During 
his  residence  with  Charles,  he  wrote  several 
books  of  scholastic  divinity  ;  which,  though  ab- 
surd enough,  were  at  that  time  not  sufficiently 
so  to  secure  him  from  the  imputation  of  hetero- 
doxy; and  on  that  account  the  pope  commanded 
Charles  the  Bald  to  send  him  to  Rome ;  but  the 
king  had  too  great  a  regard  for  his  companion 
to  trust  him  with  his  holiness.  One  of  the 
chief  controversies  in  which  Scotus  was  engaged, 
and  with  which  the  pope  was  much  offended, 
was  concerning  thy  iv.il  presence  of  the  body  und 


blood  of  Christ  in  the  wafer.  His  opinion  was 
expressed  in  these  few  words : — '  What  we  re- 
ceive corporally  is  not  the  body  of  our  Lord ; 
but  that  which  feeds  the  soul,  and  is  only  per- 
ceived by  faith.'  Whether  Scotus  returned  to 
England,  or  ended  his  days  in  France,  is  a  mat- 
ter of  doubt.  Some  historians  tell  us  that  he  left 
France  in  864 ;  and  that,  after  residing  about 
three  years  in  Oxford,  he  retired  to  the  abbey  of 
Malmsbury.  He  died  about  874.  Some  relate 
that  he  was  invited  to  England  by  king  Alfred ; 
but  in  this  they  confound  him  with  John,  abbo* 
of  Etheling,  who  was  assassinated  in  895 ;  and 
to  this  mistake  the  various  contradictory  accounts 
of  him  are  to  be  attributed.  He  appears  from 
his  writings  to  have  been  a  man  of  talents,  and, 
in  point  of  learning,  superior  to  any  of  his  con- 
temporaries. He  wrote,  1.  De  Divisione  Na- 
turae, lib.  v.  2.  De  Pradestinatione  Dei.  3 
Excerpta  de  DitTerentiis  et  Societatibus  Graci 
Latinique  Verbi.  4.  De  Corpore  et  Sanguine 
Domini.  5.  Ambigua  S.  Maxima  seu  Scholia 
ejus  in  difficiles  locos  S.  Gregorii  Nazianzeni, 
Latine  Versa.  6.  Opera  S.  Dionysii  quatuor  in 
Latinam  Ling.  Conversa.  7.  De  Visione  Dei, 
and  several  other  works  in  MS.  preserved  in 
different  libraries. 

SCOTUS,  DUNS  (John).     See  DUNS  SCOTUS. 

SCOUGAL  (Henry),  M.A.,  second  son  of 
Patrick  Scougal,  bishop  of  Aberdeen,  was  born 
June  1650,  at  Salton.  On  finishing  his  courses, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in  the 
university  of  Aberdeen.  In  four  years,  he  was, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  ordained  a  minister, 
and  settled  at  Auchterless,  twenty  miles  from 
Aberdeen  ;  where  his  zeal  and  ability  were  emi- 
nently displayed.  In  the  twenty-fifth  year  of 
his  age  he  was  admitted  professor  of  divinity  in 
the  king's  college,  Aberdeen.  He  died  of  a 
consumption  on  the  20th  of  June,  1678,  in  the 
twenty-eighth  year  of  his  age,  and  was  buried 
in  the  King's  College  Church  in  Old  Aberdeen. 
The  principal  work  of  Scougal  is  a  small 
treatise  entitled,  The  Life  of  God  in  the  Soul  ot 
Man. 

SCOUN'DREL,  n.  s.  Ital.  scondaruolo.  A 
hider. — Skinner.  A  mean  rascal ;  a  low  petty 
villain.  A  word  rather  ludicrous. 

Now  to  be  baffled  by  a  tcoundrel, 
And  upstart  sec'tiy,  and  a  mungrel.       Hudikras. 
St.3vndreli  as  these  wretched  Ombites  be, 
Canopus  they  exceed  in  luxury.  Tate. 

SCOUR,  v. a. &  v.  n.  f      Goth,  skurer ;  Dan. 

SCOUR'ER,  n.  s.  \  skurer ;  Belg.  scheu- 

ren;  Ital.  scorrere.  To  brush  hard  in  order  to 
clean  ;  clean  by  rubbing ;  cleanse ;  purge ; 
range  about ;  to  perform  scouring  operations  : 
be  purged  or  lax;  rove;  range;  run  here  and 
there  :  a  scourer  is  a  person  or  thing  that  scours. 

Divers  are  kept  continually  to  scour  these  seas,  in- 
fested greatly  by  pirates.  Sandyt. 

Poor  Vadius,  loDg  with  learned  spleen  devoured, 
Can  taste  no  pleasure  since  his  shield  was  tcoured. 

Pope. 

SCOURGE,  n.  s.  &  v.a.  Fr.  escourgee  ;  Ital. 
scoreggia  ;  Lat.  corregia.  A  whip ;  lash ;  an 
instrument  of  discipline  ;  punisher  of  any  kind  : 
to  scourge  is  to  use  such  an  instrument. 


SCR 

Immortal  Jove  ! 

Let  kings  no  more  with  gentle  mercy  sway, 
Or  bless  a  people  willing  to  obey  ; 
But  crush  the  nations  with  an  iron  rod, 
And  every  monarch  be  the  scourge  of  God.        Pope. 

SCOUT,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.  Fr.  escout,  from  escou- 
ter ;  Lat.  auscultare,  to  listen  ;  Ital.  scolta.  One 
who  is  sent  privily  to  observe  the  motions  of 
the  enemy  :  to  go  out  in  this  way. 

Oft  on  the  bordering  deep 
Encamp  their  legions  ;  or  with  obscure  wing 
Scout  far  and  wide  into  the  realm  of  night, 
Scorning  surprise.  MUton. 

SCOWL,  v.  n.  &  n.  s.  Sax.  j-cyhan,  to  squint; 
Isl.  skeeta  sig,  to  look  sour.  To  frown ;  pout ; 
look  angry,  or  sullen  :  a  look  of  this  kind ; 
gloom. 

I've  seen  the  morning's  lovely  raj 

Hover  o'er  the  new-born  day 

With  rosy  wings  so  richly  bright, 

As  if  he  scorned  to  think  of  night ; 

When  a  ruddy  storm,  whose  scowl 

Made  heaven's  radiant  face  look  foul, 

Called  for  an  untimely  night, 

To  blot  the  newly-blossomed  light.       Crashata. 

SCRAB'BLE,  v.  n.  Belg.  hrubbelen,  scraffe- 
Un,  to  scrape  or  scratch ;  Dan.  scrabble.  To  paw 
with  the  hands. 

He  feigned  himself  mad  in  their  hands,  and  scrab- 
bled on  the  doors  of  the  gate.  1  Samuel  xxi.  13. 
SCRAGG,  n.  s.  )      Belg.  scraghe.  Any  thing 
SCRAO'GY,  adj.    J  thin  or  lean :  the  adjective 
corresponding. 

From  a  scraggy  rock,  whose  prominence 
Half  overshades  the  ocean,  hardy  men, 
Fearless  of  rending  winds  and  dashing  waves, 
Cut  samphire.  Philips. 

SCRAM'BLE,  v.  n.  The  same  with  SCRAB- 
BLE, says  Johnson.  A  frequent,  of  Goth,  kranut, 
Dan.  yranie,  the  hand. — Thomson.  To  catch 
at  any  thing  eagerly  and  tumultuously  with  the 
hands  ;  to  catch  with  haste  preventive  of  ano- 
ther ;  to  contend  tumultuously  which  shall  catch 
any  thing. 

Of  other  care  they  little  reckoning  make, 
Than  how  to  tcramble  at  the  shearer's  feast, 
And  shove  away  the  worthy  bidden  guest.  Milton. 

SCRAN'NEL,  adj.  [Of  this  word  I  know 
not  the  etymology,  nor  any  other  example. — 
Johnson.]  Swed.  skrerue. — Thomson.  Vile; 
worthless.  Perhaps  grating  by  the  sound. 

When  they  list,  their  lean  and  flashy  songs 
Grate  on  their  scrannel  pipes  of  wretched  straw. 

Milton. 

SCRAP,  n.  s.  From  scrape,  a  thing  scraped 
or  rubbed  off;  a -small  particle  or  piece;  a  frag- 
ment ;  crumb ;  small  piece  of  paper. 

SCRAPE,  v.  a.  &  n.  $.  Sax.  j-crieopan  ;  Belg. 
schrapen ;  apparently  from  Gr.  ypa^w.  To  de- 
prive of  the  surface  by  the  light  action  of  a  sharp 
instrument ;  pare  even  ;  in  a  low  sense,  a  diffi- 
culty ;  perplexity :  a  scraper  is  gin  instrument 
for  cleansing  by  scraping  shoes :  also  a  miser 
and  a  vile  fiddler. 

The  chiming  clocks  to  dinner  call  ; 
A  hundred  footsteps  tcre.pt  the  marble  hall.     Pope.    , 

SCRATCH,  v. a.  &rz.*.  Belg.  kratzer.  To 
tear  or  mark  with  slight  ragged  incision!* :  a 
mark  thus  made. 


SCR 

I  should  have  scraiched  out  your  unseeing  eyes. 
To  make  my  master  out  of  love  with  thee. 

Shaktpeare. 

I  had  rather  hear  my  dog  bark  at  a  crow,  than  a 
man  swear  he  loves  me. — Keep  your  ladyship  still  in 
that  mind  ;  so  some  gentleman  or  other  shall  'scape 
a  predestinate  scratcht  face.  Id. 

Heaven  forbid  a  shallow  scratch  should  dtive 
The  prince  of  Wales  from  such  a  field  as  this. 

Id.  Henry  IV. 

Francis  Cornfield  did  scratch  his  elbow,  when  he 
nad  sweetly  invented  to  signify  his  name  St.  Francis, 
with  a  friary  cowl  in  a  cora  field.  Camden. 

Or  if  too  hard  and  deep 
This  learning  be  for  a  scratch'd  name  to  teach 
It  as  a  given  death's-head  keep, 
Lovers'  mortality  to  preach, 
Or  think  this  ragged  bony  name  to  be 
My  ruinous_anatomy.  Donne. 

Scots  are  like  witches  :  do  but  whet  your  pen, 
Scratch  till  the  blood  come,  they'll  not  hurt  you  then. 

Cleaveland. 

To  wish  that  there  were  nothing  but  such  dull 
tame  things  in  the  world,  that  will  neither  bite  nor 
scratch,  is  as  childish  as  to  wish  there  were  no  fire 
in  nature.  More. 

The  lab'ring  swain 

Scratched  with  a  rake  a  furrow  for  his  grain, 
And  covered  with  his  hand  the  shallow  seed  again. 

Dry  den. 
Unhand  me,  or  I'll  scratch  your  face  ; 

Let  go,  for  shame.  Id. 

The  coarse  file  cuts  deep,  and  makes  deep  scratches 
in  the  work  ;  and,  before  you  can  take  out  those  deep 
scratches  with  your  finer  cut  files,  those  places  where 
the  risings  were  when  your  work  was  forged,  may 
become  dents  to  your  hammer  dents. 

Moxons  Mechanical  Exercises. 

A  sort  of  small  sand-colored  stones,  so  hard  as  to 
scratch  glass.  Crew's  Museum. 

These  nails  with  scratches  shall  deform  my  breast, 
Lest  by  my  look  and  color  be  expressed 
The  mark  of  aught  high-born,  or  ever  better  dressed. 

Prior. 

The  smaller  the  particles  of  those  substances  are, 
the  smaller  will  be  the  scratches  by  which  they  conti- 
nually fret  and  wear  away  the  glass  until  it  be  po- 
lished ;  but  be  they  never  so  small,  they  can  wear 
away  the  glass  no  otherwise  than  by  grating  and 
tcratehing  it,  and  breaking  the  protuberances  ;  and 
therefore  polish  it  no  otherwise  than  by  bringing  its 
roughness  to  a  very  fine  grain,  so  that  the  scratches 
and  frettings  of  the  surface  become  too  small  to  be 
visible.  Newton't  Opticks. 

Other  mechanical  helps  AreUcus  uses  to  procure 
sleep,  particularly  the  scratching  of  the  temples  and 
the  ears.  Arbuthnot. 

Be  mindful,  when  invention  fails, 

To  scratch  your  head,  and  bite  your  nails.  Swift. 

If  any  of  their  labourers  can  scratch  out  a  pam  • 
phlet,  they  desire  no  wit,  stile,  or  argument.  Id. 

SCRATCH-PANS,  in  the  English  salt-works. 
See  SALT.    Their  use  is  to  receive  a  selenitic 
matter,   known   by  the  name   of   soft   scratch, 
which  falls  during  the  evaporation  of  the  salt 
water. 

SCRAVV,  n.  s.  Irish  and  Erse.  Surface  or 
scurf. 

Neither  should  that  odious  custom  be  allowed,  oi 
cutting  scraws,  which  is  flaying  ofT  the  green  surface 
of  the  ground,  to  cover  their  cabins,  or  make  up 
their  ditches.  Su-ifi. 


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SCRAWL,  v.  a.,  v.  n.,  Sc  n.  s.  [I  suppose  to  be 
corrupted  from  scrabble. — Johnson.]  To  draw 
or  mark  irregularly  or  clumsily :  to  write  thus ;  the 
writing  itself. 

The  left  hand  will  make  such  a  scrawl,  that  it  will 
not  be  legible.  Arbuthnot's  H.  of  John  Bull. 

Mr.  Wycherly  hearing  from  me  how  welcome  his 
letters  would  be,  writ  to  you,  in  which  I  inserted  my 
scrawl.  Pope. 

Peruse  my  leaves  through  ev'ry  part, 

And  think  thou  seest  its  owner's  heart, 

Scrawled  o'er  with  trifles  thus,  and  quite 

As  hard,  as  senseless,  and  as  light.  Steift. 

Think  not  your  verses  sterling, 

Though  with  a  golden  pen  you  scrawl, 

And  scribble  in  a  berlin.  Id. 

SCREAM,  v.  n.  &  n.s.  Sax.  prieman.  To 
cry  out  shrilly,  as  in  terror  or  agony  ;  the  cry 
made. 

I  heard  the  owl  scream,  and  the  crickets  cry. 

Shakspeare. 

Our  chimnies  were  blown  down  ;  and,  as  they  say, 
Lamentings  heard   in   the  air,    strange    screams  of 
death.  Id. 

The  fearful  matrons  raise  a  screaming  cry, 
Old  feeble  men  with  fainter  groans  reply  ; 
A  jarring  sound  results,  and  mingles  in  the  sky. 

Dry  den. 

Then  flashed  the  livid  lightning  from  her  eyes, 
And  screams  of  horror  rend  the  affrighted  skies. 

Pope. 
If  chance  a  mouse  creeps  in  her  sight, 

Can  finely  counterfeit  a  fright ; 

So  sweetly  screams,  if  it  comes  near  her, 

She  ravishes  all  hearts  to  hear  her.  Swift. 

SCREAMER^  in  zoology.  See  PALAMEDEA. 
SCREECH,  v.  n.  &w.s.  ^  Tslan.  skr<ekia,io 
SCREECH-OWL,  n.s.  S  cry.  To  cry  out 

as  in  terror  or  anguish ;  the  cry  :  the  screech- 
owl  is  noted  for  a  cry  of  this  kind. 

Deep  night, 

The  time  of  night  when  Troy  was  set  on  fire, 
The  time  when  screechowls  cry,  and  bandogs  howl. 

Shakspeare. 

Screeching  is  an  appetite  of  expelling  that  which 
suddenly  strikes  the  spirits.  Bacon. 

By  the  screeckowl's  dismal  note, 
By  the  black  night-raven's  throat, 
I  charge  thee,  Hob.  Drayton. 

Jupiter,  though  he  had  jogged  the  balance  to  weigh 
down  Turnus,  sent  the  screechawl  to  discourage  him. 

Dry  den. 

Sooner  shall  screechowls  bask  in  sunny  day, 
Than  I  forget  my  shepherd's  wonted  love.         Gay. 

The  birds  obscene,  that  nightly  flocked  to  taste 
With  hollow  screeches  fled  from  the  dire  repast ; 
And  ravenous  dogs,  allured  by  scented  blood, 
And  starving  wolves,  ran  howling  to  the  wood. 

Pope. 

SCREEN,  n.  s.     Fr.  escran.      Any  thing  that 
affords  shelter  or  concealment ;  a  sieve. 

Now    near   enough  :     your    leavy    screens  throw 

down, 
And  show  like  those  you  are.  Shakspeare.  Macbeth. 

Some-  ambitious  meri  seem  as  screens  to  princes  in 
matters  of  danger  and  envy.  Bacon. 


When  there  is  a  screen  between  the  candle  and 
the  eye,  yet  the  light  passeth  to  the  paper  whereon 
one  writeth.  Id. 

Back'd  with  a  ridge  of  hills, 
That  screened  the  fruits  of  the  earth,    and  seats  of 

men, 
From  cold  Septentrion  blasts. 

.Villon**  Paradise  Regained. 


A  good  magitsrate's  retinue  of  state  screens  him 
from  the  dangers  which  he  is  to  incur  for  the  sake  of 
lt-  Atterlwry. 

This  gentle  deed  shall  fairly  be  set  foremost, 
To  screen  the  wild  escapes  of  lawless  passion. 

Rowe. 

Our  people,  who  transport  themselves,  are  settled 
in  those  interjacent  tracts,  as  a  screen  against  the  in- 
sults of  the  savages.  Swift. 

One  speaks  the  glory  of  the  British  queen, 
And  one  describes  a  charming  Indian  screen.  Pope. 

SCREW,  n.  s.  Fr.  escrow ;  Belg.  scroeve. 
One  of  the  mechanical  powers,  of  which  there 
are  two  kinds,  the  male  and  female  ;  the  former 
being  cut  convex,  so  that  its  threads  rise  out- 
wards ;  the  latter  channelled  on  its  concave  side, 
so  as  to  receive  the  former.  See  below.  To 
turn,  or  move,  or  fasten,  by  a  screw  ;  deform  ; 
oppress. 

We  fail ! 

But  screw  your  courage  to  the  sticking  place, 
And  we'll  not  fail.  Shakspeare.  Macbeth. 

The  screw  is  a  kind'of  wedge,  that  is  multiplied 
or  continued  by  a  helical  revolution  about  a  cylinder, 
receiving  its  motion  not  from  any  stroke,  but  from  a 
vectisat  one  end  of  it.  Wilkins's  Mathematical  Magick. 

Sometimes  a  violent  laughter  screwed  his  face, 
And  sometimes  ready  tears  dropped  down  apace. 

Cowleif. 

He  resolved  to  govern  by  subaltern  ministers,  who 
screwed  up  the  pins  of  power  too  high. 

Howel's  Vocal  Forest. 

He  screwed  his  face  in  to  a  hardened  smile, 
And  said,  Sebastian  knew  to  govern  slaves. 

Dryden. 

After  your  apples  are  ground,  commit  them  to  the 
tcre&  press,  which  is  the  best. 

Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

To  screw  your  lock  on  the  door,  make  wide  holes, 
big  enough  to  receive  the  shank  of  the  screw. 

Moron. 

Some,  when  the  press,  by  utmost  vigour  screw'd, 
Has  drained  the  pulpous  mass,  regale  their  swine 
With  the  dry  refuse.  Philips. 

With  screwed  face,  and  doleful  whine,  they  ply 
you  with  senseless  harangues  against  human  inven- 
tions on  the  one  hand,  and  loud  outcries  for  a  further 
reformation  on  the  other.  South. 

No  discourse  can  be,  but  they  will  try  to  turn 
the  tide,  and  draw  it  all  into  their  own  channel ;  or 
they  will  screw  in  here  and  there  some  intimations 
of  what  they  said  or  did.  Government  of  the  Tongue. 

Let  others  screw  their  hypocritic  face, 
She  shews  her  grief  in  a  sincerer  place.       Swift. 
Our  country  landlords,  by  unmeasurable  screwing, 
and  racking  their  tenants,   have  already  reduced  the 
miserable  people  to  a  worse  condition  than  the  pea- 
sants in  France.  Id. 

Ask  him,  if  your  knotted  scourges, 
Matches,  blood-extorting  screws, 
Are  the  means  that  duty  urges 
Agents  of  his  will  to  use?  Cotrper. 

SCREW.  The  general  principles  on  which  this 
instrument  is  constructed  will  be  found  detailed 
under  our  article  MECHANICS,  and  we  have  now 
to  examine  the  theory  of  the  screw  in  connexion 
with  its  application  to  the  useful  arts. 

The  screw  may  be  considered  as  composed 
of  the  lever  and  the  inclined  plane ;  as  will  be 
evident  from  a  more  minute  account  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  may  be  conceived  to  be  generated. 
If  an  isosceles  triangle  B  F  G  turn  about  the  axis 
A  Z  (plate  SCREW,  fig.  1),  there  will  be  generated 


585 


SCREW. 


by  that  revolution  two  conic  frustums  united  by 
their  greater  ends ;  conceive  now  that,  besides 
the  motion  of  rotation,  this  triangle  has  also  a 
motion  of  translation  in  the  direction  of  the  axis 
A  Z,  so  regulatedthat,  while  the  triangle  makes  a 
complete  revolution,  the  point  B  is  moved  to  G, 
and  the  whole  triangle  is  found  in  the  position 
G  F  G',  and  so  on  :  the  solid  thus  generated  is 
called  the  interior  screw  ;  and  the  height  G  B  is 
called  the  distance  of  the  threads.  The  exterior 
screw  is  so  adapted  to  the  other  as  if  it  were  its 
mould  ;  and  is  nothing  else  than  the  solid  gene- 
rated by  the  polygon  H  G  F  B  C,  supposing  it 
to  partake  of  the  same  motions  as  the  triangle 
BGF.  For  the  sake  of  distinction  we  shall 
apply  the  name  spindle  to  the  interior  screw, 
calling  the  exterior  one  only  the  screw.  The 
spindle  then  is  a  cylinder  invested  with  a  spiral 
band  of  uniform  thickness,  and  of  which  the 
inclination  with  respect  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder 
is  constant :  the  screw,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  solid 
having  a  correspondent  spiral  hollow.  In  some 
cases  the  spindle  is  fixed  in  a  solid  block,  as 
A  B,  fig.  2,  while  the  screw  E  is  moved  upon  it 
by  means  of  a  lever  DC.  At  other  times  the 
screw  is  fixed  and  the  spindle  moveable ;  but  this 
causes  no  difference  in  the  theory. 

The  curve  which  any  one  of  the  points  of  the 
generating  polygon,  as  N  for  instance,  describes 
about  A  Z,  is  obviously  traced  on  the  surface  of 
a  right  cylinder  whose  axis  is  A  Z,  and  radius  of 
its  base  E  N  (fig.  3).  If  we  develope  this,  then 
d  c  (fig.  4),  being  the  circumference  which  has 
EN  for  its  radius,  and  taking  the  perpendicular 
be  equal  to  the  distance  between  two  contiguous 
threads,  the  hypothenusal  line  d  b  will  be  the 
development  of  an  entire  revolution  of  the 
point  N.  In  effect,  the  helix  being  throughout 
of  constant  inclination  with  respect  to  any  posi- 
tion whatever  of  the  generating  line  of  the  cylin- 
der, every  parallel  to  A  D  will  make  with  the 
development  of  that  curve  the  same  angle ;  thus, 
the  development  will  be  a  right  line,  as  d  b  ;  and 
in  like  manner  the  right  line  a  /'will  be  the  de- 
velopment of  a  second  revolution.  This  being 
granted,  we  may  demonstrate,  in  a  very  satisfac- 
tory manner,  the  truth  of  the  following  proposi- 
tion : — 

There  will  be  an  equilibrium  in  the  screw 
when  the  power  is  to  the  resistance  as  the  dis- 
tance between  two  contiguous  threads  in  a  di- 
rection parallel  to  the  axis  is  to  the  circumference 
described  by  the  power. 

Let  us  suppose  the  spindle  A  B  to  be  fixed 
(fig.  2),  and  that  the  screw  is  moveable  by  the 
aid  of  a  power  P  applied  to  the  extremity  C  of 
a  lever  C  E— R,  acting  horizontally  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  lever.  Let  W  be  the  weight  of  the 
screw,  or  that  which  the  screw  supports,  or  the 
resistance  opposed  by  the  screw  to  the  power  P. 
If  the  screw  pressed  only  on  one  of  the  points 
of  the  spindle,  suppose  it  to  be  at  the  distance  r 
from  the  axis,  and  that  its  position  on  the  deve- 
lopment d  b  of  the  spiral  be  at  n ;  then  will  the 
pressure  on  the  spindle  be  exactly  the  same  as 
on  the  inclined  plane  d  b.  From  the  theory  the 
power  M,  which  we  suppose  applied  horizon- 
tally in  the  direction  M  n,  must  retain  the  equi- 
librium. We  may  thus  illustrate  this  proportion  : 


cb 


M  :  W  : :  c  b :  c  d ;  whence  Mi=\V.  _— W.  — — 

cd  2  v  r 

where  h~bc,  and  ?r~3'141593,  as  heretofore. 
The  force  M,  which  is  supposed  applied  in  w, 
when  the  helix  is  not  developed  is  perpendicular 
to  the  edge  of  the  cylinder,  or  acts  in  a  tangen- 
tial direction  to  the  cylinder,  and  in  consequence 
always  parallel  to  the  power  P. 

Now,  substituting  for  this  subsidiary  power  M 
the  power  P,  acting  at  the  distance  R,  we  have 
from  the  principles  of  the  lever  P  R— M  r,  the 
lengths  of  the  arms  being  R  and  r.  For  M,  in 
this  equation,  substitute  its  value  in  the  former 
one,  and  there  arises  2  TT  R  P— W  h.  This  equation, 
not  containing  r,  is  entirely  independent  of  the 
distance  at  which  the  point  n  is  supposed  from 
the  axis  ;  it  will  therefore  be  the  same  if  we  sup- 
pose that  point  any  where  else  on  the  spindle. 
Hence  we  deduce  a  general  result;  for  this  equa- 
tion will  even  be  true,  if  the  screw,  instead  of 
touching  the  spindle  in  a  single  point,  as  we  have 
hitherto  supposed,  touch  it  in  any  number  of 
points  whatever.  In  this  latter  case,  every  point 
on  the  thread  of  the  spindle  bears  a  portion  of 
the  weight  W ;  these  portions  being  denoted  by 
W,  \V",  W",  &c.,  give  \V'+ \V"+  \\  "',  &:c.— W. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  force  P,  which  sup- 
ports the  weight  of  the  screw,  may  be  considered 
as  the  sum  of  as  many  forces  P',  P",  P'",  &c.,  as 
there  are  points  of  contact,  each  of  which  is  em- 
ployed in  supporting  the  weights  W',  W",  \V", 
&c.  To  each  of  these  the  last  equation  applies ; 
we  have",  therefore,  W  h— 2  -IT  R  P',  \\"  h  =r  2  w 
R  P",  W"  h  —  2  ;r  R  P'",  &c.,  their  sum  mani- 
festly producing  the  equation  \V  A  —  2  TT  R  P ; 
whence  P  :  W :  :  A  :  2  *•  R.  Q.  E.  D. 

If  the  screw  had  a  square  or  rectangular  fillet 
instead  of  a  triangular  one,  the  conclusion  would 
be  the  same ;  for  it  is  independent  of  the  form  of 
the  generating  polygon. 

In  the  same  screw  the  effect  is  always  the 
greater  as  the  power  is  applied  farther  from  the 
axis. 

In  two  different  screws,  a  force  acting  with  the 
same  distance  of  lever  produces  a  greater  effect 
in  proportion  as  the  threads  of  the  screw  are 
nearer  together. 

In  the  endless  or  perpetual  ^crew  BC  (fig.  5), 
which  drives  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  F  D,  we  shall, 
in  the  case  of  an  equilibrium,  have  P  x  A  B  x 
rad.  of  F  D  iz  W  x  distance  of  threads  x  rad. 
of  axle.  For  the  perpetual  screw  is  a  combina- 
tion of  the  axis  in  peritrochio  and  the  screw. 

The  screw  may  be  used  to  measure  minute 
distances;  for  its  point  advances  through  1  while 
the  radius  by  which  it  is  turned  describes  360°. 
Instruments  for  this  purpose  are  named  micro- 
meters ;  their  principal  part  is  a  fine  and  accu- 
rate screw  which  carries  a  frame,  across  which  a 
fine  wire  is  stretched  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  a  telescope  or  microscope,  and  in  the  plane  of 
its  principal  image;  by  turning  the  screw  the 
wire  moves  parallel  to  itself,  and  its  distance 
from  a  parallel  fixed  wire  is  the  magnitude  of  the 
portion  of  the  image  included  between  them; 
and  from  this  we  draw  the  magnitude  of  the  ob- 
ject. This  distance  is  indicated  by  a  circular 
head  on  the  screw  which  is  graduated;  thus,  if 
the  interval  be  TJg  of  an  inch,  and  the  circum- 


SCREW. 


587 


ference  of  the  head  three  inches,  divided  into 
sixty  parts  for  every  one  of  these  which  passes 
an  index,  the  wire  moves  through  ^  of  an  inch. 
Smeaton  asserts  that  lie  had  used  a  scresv  which 
agreed  with  itself  to  j^.  The  posver  of  the 
screw  in  producing  pressure  depends  on  the  fine- 
ness of  its  thread,  and  this  is  limited  by  the 
strength  of  materials  ;  as,  if  too  fine,  it  would  be 
broken  from  the  cylinder,  and  on  the  other  hand 
micrometer  screws  cannot  be  made  beyond  a 
certain  interval.  The  endless  screw  is  supposed  to 
l>e  the  engine  by  which  the  geometer  of  Syracuse 
launched  by  his  single  strength  one  of  Hieoro's 
•.allies,  when  challenged  by  that  sovereign  to 
give  a  specimen  of  the  use  of  mechanics. 

In  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  Ixxi., 
a  new  method  of  applying  the  screw,  so  as  to 
make  it  act  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  is  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Hunter.  This  method  depends 
upon  these  general  principles,  applicable  to  most 
machines:  1.  That  the  strength  of  the  several 
parts  of  the  engine  be  adjusted  in  such  a  man- 
ner, to  the  force  they  are  intended  to  exert,  that 
they  shall  not  break  under  the  weight  they  ought 
to  counteract,  nor  yet  encumber  the  motion  by  a 
greater  quantity  of  matter  than  is  necessary  to 
give  them  a  suitable  degree  of  strength.  2.  That 
the  increase  of  power  by  means  of  the  machine 
be  so  regulated  that,  while  the  force  is  thereby 
rendered  adequate  to  the  effect,  it  may  not  be  re- 
tarded in  procuring  it  more  than  is  absolutely 
necessary.  3.  That  the  machine  be  as  simple 
as  is  consistent  with  other  conditions.  4.  That 
it  be  as  portable,  and  as  little  troublesome  as 
oossible  in  its  application.  5.  That  the  moving 
~ower  be  applied  in  such  a  manner  as  to  act  to 
.he  greatest  advantage ;  and  that  the  motion  ul- 
timately  produced  may  have  that  direction  and 
velocity  which  is  most  adapted  to  the  execution 
of  the  ultimate  design  of  the  machine.  6.  Of 
two  machines,  equal  in  other  respects,  that  de- 
serves the  preference  in  which  the  friction  least 
diminishes  the  effect  proposed  by  the  whole. 

To  attain  all  these  advantages  in  any  one  ma- 
chine is  perhaps  impossible  ;  but  Mr.  Hunter's 
method  of  applying  the  screw  certainly  combines 
a  great  portion  of  them.  Let  A  B  (fig.  6)  be  a 
plate  of  metal  in  which  the  screw  C  D  plays, 
having  a  certain  number  of  threads  in  an  inch, 
suppose  ten.  Within  the  screw  C  D  there  is  an 
exterior  screw  which  receives  the  smaller  screw 
D  E  of  eleven  threads  in  an  inch.  This  screw 
is  kept  from  moving  about  with  the  former  by 
means  of  the  apparatus  at  A  F  G  B.  If  the  handle 
C  K  Lbe  turned  ten  times  round,  the  screw  C  D 
will  advance  an  inch  upwards  ;  and,  if  we  sup- 
pose the  screw  D  E  to  move  round  along  with 
C  D,  the  point  E  will  advance  an  inch.  If  we 
now  turn  the  screw  D  E  ten  times  backward,  the 
point  E  will  move  downwards  $  of  an  inch,  and 
the  result  of  both  motions  will  be  to  lift  the 
point  E  an  eleventh  of  an  inch  upwards.  But 
if,  while  the  screw  C  D  is  turned  ten  times  round, 
I)  E  be  kept  from  moving,  the  effect  will  be  the 
same  as  if  it  had  moved  ten  times  round  with 
C  D,  and  been  turned  back  again  ten  times  ; 
that  is,  it  will  advance  |j  of  an  inch.  At  one 
turn,  therefore,  it  will  advance  ^  of  ^zr  Tt0  of 
an  inch.  If  now  the  handle  be  six  inches  long, 


the  power  to  produce  an  equilibrium  must  be  to 
the  weight  as  1  to  110  X  6  X  2  ir  —  4146'912. 
Thus,  the  force  of  Mr.  Hunter's  screw  is  greatly 
superior  to  the  common  one ;  for  a  common  one 
with  a  six  inch  handle  must  have  110  threads  in 
an  inch  to  produce  the  same  effect,  and  this  great 
number  of  threads  would  render  it  too  weak  to 
resist  any  considerable  violence. 

With  regard  to  the  second  general  maxim,  both 
kinds  of  screws  are  equally  applicable ;  only  that 
the  more  complicated  structure,  and  conse- 
quently greater  expense  of  Mr.  Hunter's  screw, 
renders  it  convenient  to  use  the  common  screw 
where  only  a  small  increase  of  power  is  requi- 
site, and  the  improved  one  where  a  great  power 
is  wanted.  The  handle  being  short  makes  this 
machine  accord  with  the  fourth  maxim. 

To  answer  the  fifth  both  seem  equally  proper ; 
but,  for  the  sixth,  the  preference  must  be  given 
to  such  as  best  answer  the  specific  purpose  pro- 
posed. Thus,  if  the  screw  D  E  be  designed  to 
carry  an  index  which  must  turn  round  at  the 
same  time  that  it  rises  upward,  the  common 
screw  seems  preferable ;  though  Mr.  Hunter  pro- 
poses a  method  by  which  his  may  answer  the 
same  purpose :  with  this  view  a  still  smaller 
screw  ought  to  play  within  D  E,  and  be  con- 
nected with  CD,  so  as  to  move  round  along 
with  it.  It  must  have,  according  to  the  fore- 
going proportions,  111  threads  in  an  inch:  and 
they  must  lie  in  a  contrary  direction  to  those  of 
C  D  ;  so  tnat  when  they  are  both  turned  together, 
and  C  D  moves  upwards,  this  other  may  move 
downwards.  At  one  turn  this  will  move  up- 
wards isjroth  part  of  an  inch,  and  at  the  same 
time  will  move  in  a  circular  direction.  Similar 
methods  may  be  applied  in  many  other  cases : 
indeed  they  have  lately  been  applied  very  fre- 
quently ;  though  few  of  those  who  have  adopted 
them  have  acknowledged  by  whom  they  were 
first  proposed  ;  on  which  account  we  have  given 
this  brief  description  of  Mr.  Hunter's  contrivance, 
and  of  his  judicious  practical  maxims. 

Mr.  Walsh  has  invented  a  mode  of  cutting 
screws  by  means  of  a  very  simple  apparatus  in- 
dependent of  the  guide  and  slide-rest  usually 
employed  for  that  purpose.  The  process  may  be 
thus  described  : — The  first  step  is  to  turn  a  short 
cylinder  of  soft  steel  exactly  twice  the  diameter 
of  the  intended  screw.  This  is  then  to  be  fitted 
on  an  arbor  in  the  lathe ;  and,  by  means  of  a 
common  screw-stool  of  the  required  number  of 
teeth,  is  to  be  cut  into  a  double-threaded  screw, 
and  is  then  to  be  hardened  :  of  this  latter  screw 
bb,  fig.  7,  represents  a  lateral  and  front  view. 
Another  short  cylinder  of  soft  steel  is  then  to  be 
made  of  exactly  the  diameter  of  the  intended 
screw ;  it  is  then  to  be  fitted  on  a  pin  and  put 
into  the  frame  d;  in  this  situation  it  is  to  be 
pressed  against  the  cylinder  b,  while  revolving 
in  the  lathe,  until  a  good  thread  is  raided  on  its 
surface.  The  thread  thus  formed  will  be  a 
single  one,  although  taken  from  a  double  thread, 
because,  during  the  process,  it  revolves  in  pro- 
portion to  the  larger  cylinder  as  one  to  two,  it 
will  also  be  a  left-handed  thread,  because  taken 
by  impression  from  a  right-handed  one.  After 
a  few  revolutions  from  the  cylinder  c  the  frame 
in  which  it  is  placed  is  to  be  turned  upside 


588 


SCREW. 


down,  and  the  same  number  of  revolutions  are  to 
be  made  with  the  frame  in  this  position,  by 
which  alteration  the  thread  will  be  kept  quite 
perpendicular  to  its  axis,  and  the  more  the  two 
cylinders  are  worked  together  the  more  will  the 
cylinder  c  be  free  from  errors  of  the  first  cylinder. 
Being  completed  it  is  then  to  be  hardened,  and  is 
again  to  be  put  into  the  frame  d.  The  cylinder 
a  a  being  put  into  a  lathe,  the  screw  c  is  to  be 
pressed  hard  against  it  in  the  manner  of  a  mil- 
ling-tool, beginning  on  the  right  hand  :  when  it 
has  made  a  sufficient  impression,  or  thread,  it  is  to 
be  shifted  one  thread  towards  the  left  hand,  the  fol- 
lowing threads  of  the  screw  always  working  in  the 
preceding  impression,  which  serves  as  their  guide. 
This  is  to  be  continued  till  the  whole  cylinder  is 
impressed  with  the  spiral  thread,  which  will  of 
course  be  right-handed,  because  the  impressing 
screw  is  left-handed.  The  thread  thus  obtained 
is  to  be  eased  or  cut  deeper  by  the  pointed  tool 
e,  and  is  then  to  be  finished  by  the  screw  c,  tak- 
ing care,  as  before  directed,  to  reverse  the  frame 
d  from  time  to  time.  To  make  a  left-handed 
screw  to  suit  a  given  right-handed  one,  tap  a  cy- 
linder qf  steel  in  the  same  dies  and  of  the  same 
diameter  as  the  given  screw,  and  turn  each  end 
down  to  a  pivot  and  harden  it;  place  it  in  the 
open  frame  d,  and  work  it  hard  against  the  pre- 
pared cylinder  exactly  as  described  above  for  the 
original  screw,  by  which  a  left-handed  thread 
will  be  obtained,  which  is  to  be  deepened  with  the 
point  tool,  and  finished  by  the  roller  as  before. 
When  this  screw  is  obtained  it  may  be  hardened, 
and  left-handed  dies  may  be  made  from  it. 

A  very  ingenious  patent  process  for  making 
screws,  by  Mr.  Colbert,  must  now  be  described  : 
*  Fig.  1 1  is  a  side  view  of  the  apparatus ;  a  a  a 
is  the  lower  piece  of  a  pair  of  cutting  shears; 
this  is  fixed  to  a  work  bench  or  other  solid 
frame  ;  the  upper  part  b  b  works  on  a  centre  d, 
by  the  handle  c ;  ee  is  the  face  of  a  plate  used 
to  regulate  the  lengths  of  wire  to  be  cut,  adjusti- 
ble  by  apparatus  shown  in  fig.  12. 

'  Fig.  12  is  a  perpendicular  geometrical  view 
of  the  same,  in  which  the  same  letters  of  refe- 
rence are  affixed  respectively  to  the  same  parts ; 
ee  is  the  upper  edge  of  the  plate  e  e,  and  gg  an 
horizontal  face  of  the  same  plate;  this  plate  is 
adjustible  as  to  its  distance  from  the  cutters  a 
and  6,  by  a  sliding  motion  on  the  two  bars  h,  h, 
on  sockets  i,  t ;  to  cut  the  wires  he  elevated  the 
upper  arm  b,  of  the  shears,  and  introduced  the 
wires  horizontally,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  face 
of  the  shears,  and  as  far  between  the  cutters  as 
the  vertical  plate  e  e  will  allow :  the  patentee 
then  works  the  shears  in  the  usual  manner  of 
shears,  and  similar  cutting  .instruments  ;  the  re- 
quired length  of  the  wires  being  cut,  they  are 
placed  between  the  cheeks  of  a  vice. 

'Fig.  13  is  a  groove  or  cavity  of  suitable  dimen- 
sions to  the  size  required,  and,  the  cheeks  of  the 
vice  being  closed,  the  head  of  the  intended  screw 
is  formed  by  the  spread  ing  of  the  metal  by  strokes 
of  a  hammer  ;  and  the  solid  form  of  the  intended 
screw  thus  obtained.  There  remained  the  thread 
to  be  cut  on  the  cylinder  of  the  length,  and  the 
nick  or  cut  to  be  made  across  the  head;  the 
thread  is  cut,  and  head  of  the  screw  turned 
•eady  for  the  making  of  the  nick  or  rut  bv  the 


machinery  represented  in  fi^s.  14,  15,  16,  17; 
a  tid  is  a  steel  axis,  working  in  supports  or  up- 
rights, b,  r ,  (/,  on  a  frame  DD;  at  the  extremity 
e  of  the  axis,  a  piece  crosses  k  at  right  angles, 
to  which  is  affixed  by  screws  and  nuts  the  two 
bent  arms  ff,  ff,  which  move  on  the  screws 
g,  g,  as  centres ;  each  is  furnished  with  a  strong 
spring  h,  which  bears  against  the  axis,  and 
presses  the  corresponding  extremity  i  strongly 
towards  each  other :  in  each  of  these  extremities 
i,  i,  is  fixed,  by  dovetailed  slides  and  screws,  a 
steel  cutter  k ;  m  is  a  conical  tube,  which  may 
be  moved  forward  along  the  axis  a  a  a  (towards 
the  end  to  which  the  bent  arms  f,f,  are  fixed), 
for  the  purpose  hereinafter  described,  to  cut  the 
thread  of  the  screw  and  turn  the  head  of  it.  The 
patentee  places  the  piece  of  wire  of  which  the 
screw  is  intended  to  be  made,  between  the  hold- 
ing pieces_/,y,  the  head  of  the  intended  screw 
between  and  just  within  the  extremities  of  the 
two  cutters  k,  k,  as  shown  in  fig.  15. 

'  The  fig.  16  represents  a  side  elevation  of  a 
metal  frame  of  two  parts  a  and  b,  opening  from 
each  other  on  the  joint  at  c,  by  the  handle  or 
stem  d,  the  upper  or  movable  piece  a,  moving 
between  two  cheek  pieces,  of  which  one  is  seen 
at  e  ;  into  each  of  these  pieces  a  and  b,  and  in  a 
direction  at  right  angles  to  their  length,  is  placed 
in  dovetailed  grooves,  and  there  secured  by 
screws,  a  steel  cutter  having  teeth,  or  being  ser- 
rated in  the  usual  way,  for  the  purpose  of  cut- 
ting a  screw  thread  on  a  metal  cylinder  intro- 
duced between  them;  these  pieces  are  shown  in 
the  figure  at  g  and  h,  and  they  are  sufficiently 
held  together  for  that  purpose,  by  the  action  of 
the  lever  and  weight  shown  in  the  figure  at  m 
and  n.  This  part  of  the  machinery  is  placed 
when  in  use  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  piece  shown  at  fig.  14.  The 
cutters  g  and  h,  being  directly  opposite  to  the 
extremity  of  the  cutters  k,  k,  of  the  fig.  14,  and 
within  a  small  distance  of  it,  so  that  the  wire 
introduced  and  held  by  one  extremity  by  the 
cutters  fr,  k,  may  by  the  other  extremity  intro- 
duce itself  between  the  serrated  or  toothed  cut- 
ters g,  A,  of  fig.  16.  The  position  herein  described 
for  the  piece  represented  in  fig.  16  is  shown  in 
the  engraving  of  fig.  14,  at  X,  Y,  Z,  which  repre- 
sents a  perpendicular  geometrical  view  of  the 
same ;  the  same  parts  of  it  being  respectively 
marked  with  the  same  letters  of  reference  as  in 
the  side  elevation  of  the  same  piece  shown  at 
fig.  16. 

'  The  patentee  thus  gives  motion  to  the  ma- 
chinery :  the  fig.  1 7  is  a  front  elevation  of  the 
upright  piece  d,  of  fig.  14,  showing  an  aperture 
O,  a  thin  steel  edge  piece  Z  Z,  moveable  on  a 
centre  r.  It  has  a  suspended  weight  W,  at  a 
little  distance  beyond  the  centre,  and  a  treadle 
S  affixed  to  the  other  extremity.  A  steel  screw 
R  is  fixed  to  the  extremity  of  the  axis  a  a,  fig. 
14,  and  secured  by  a  small  screw  T;  this  screw 
R  passes  through  the  aperture  O,  of  fig.  14, 
without  touching  it ;  when  the  treadle  is  not 
pressed,  the  steel  edge  Z  Z  remains  clear  of  tho 
screw  R  ;  but,  when  the  treadle  is  pressed,  the 
steel  edge  is  forced  to  enter  one  of  the  threads 
of  the  screw  R :  this  being  done,  and  the  axis 
a  a  made  to  revolve  l>y  the  box  BB,  or  any 


S  C  R  £  W. 


589 


other  well  known  method  of  turning  an  axis,  the 
axis,  being  cylindrical  through  its  whole  length, 
will,  by  the  action  of  the  screw  R  on  the  fixed 
edge  Z,  make  a  forward  progress,  viz.  towards 
that  part  of  the  machinery  marked  xyz,  and  the 
rate  of  that  progressive  advance  will  be  always 
regulated  and  beadjustible  by  the  fineness  of  the 
screw  R ;  if  the  screw  R  be  coarser,  the  pro- 
gress will  be  quicker,  and  vice  versa;  for  this 
purpose  of  regulation  and  adjustment,  the  screw 
It  may  be  changed  at  pleasure ;  the  aforesaid 
progressive  advance  of  the  axis  a  a  will  thus 
force  the  wire,  placed  as  already  described  at 
A  k,  into  the  small  space  between  the  screw  cut- 
ters g  ht  of  fig.  16,  and  v.-ill  thus  produce  the 
thread  of  the  screw.  The  conical  piece  m  is 
now  moved  forward  over  the  bent  arms  J\j,f,f, 
so  as  by  means  of  the  rollers  g,g,  and  the  springs 
h  ,//,  the  extremities  i,  i,  are  separated  a  little, 
and  with  them  the  cutters  k,  k  ;  the  new  screw, 
which  was  before  held  by  the  cutters  k,  k,  is  thus 
released  from  them,  and  is  now  held  between 
the  screw  cutters  g  and  h,  of  fig.  16,  but  is  still 
at  liberty  to  turn  on  its  thread;  a  pressure  on 
the  handle  t,  such  as  to  bring  the  screw  A-,  fig. 
15,  to  bear  on  the  spring  x,  will  hold  the  screw 
more  firmly  so  that  it  cannot  be  turned ;  and 
now  if  the  conical  piece  m  be  moved  back  on 
the  axis  a  a,  to  its  former  situation,  so  that  the 
cutters  k,  k,  may  again  approach  each  other  ;  the 
axis  a  a  is  then  caused  to  revolve,  on  which  the 
cutters  k,  k,  turn,  and  forms  the  bevel  of  the  head 
of  the  screw  ;  Mr.  Colbert  then  slides  the  conical 
piece  a  little  distance  over  the  bent  arms  f,f,J',f, 
as  before,  so  as  to  detach  the  cutters  k  k  from  the 
screw  ;  and  releases  the  pressure  on  the  treadle 
S,  of  fig.  17,  and  thus  causes  the  steel  edge  Z  to 
leave  the  thread  of  the  screw  R,  fig.  14.  The 
patentee  then  causes  the  axis  a  a  to  revolve,  and 
the  small  cutter  marked  at  the  extremity  of  the 
axis  will  turn  the  flat  surface  of  the  head  of  the 
screw.  The  screw  is  now  completed  except  the 
nick  or  cut  in  the  head.  By  means  of  the  handle 
t,  of  the  piece  xyz,  the  workman  afterwards 
moves  the  upper  part  of  the  said  piece  on  its 
lower  part  by  the  joint  or  centre  at  C,  fig.  16, 
and  then  lifts  the  axis  a  a  a  little  way  upwards, 
by  that  extremity  of  it  which  has  the  cutters  fixed 
to  it,  and  the  screw,  so  far  formed  as  described, 
will  drop  out  and  clear  of  the  machinery ;  the 
axis  a  a,  fig.  14,  may  be  lifted  as  described,  by 
means  of  a  contrivance  shown  in  fig.  18,  in 
which  figure  6  is  a  front  elevation  of  the  upright 
piece  also  marked  b,  in  fig.  14;  in  this  upright 
the  part  of  it  in  which  is  the  aperture  y,  through 
which  the  axis  passes,  has  a  sliding  motion  up 
or  down,  sufficient  to  allow  the  lifting  of  the 
axis  as  described. 

'  Fig.  19  is  a  geometrical  plan  of  a  rectangu- 
lar box  or  frame,  of  which  A  B  C  D  is  the  lower 
part,  and  E,  E,  two  lids  or  covers,  which  are  in 
this  figure  shown  as  opened  and  thrown  back  to 
show  the  interior  of  the  frame;  the  pieces  G  G, 
and  M  M,  form  a  channel  or  groove,  in  which 
may  be  introduced  the  metal  slide  1 1,  which 
passes  on  through  the  whole  length  of  the  frame; 
it  passes  under  the  projections  of  the  screw 
heads  h,h,h,k,  which  thus  confine  it  to  its  in- 
tended place ;  the  plate  1 1  is  perforated,  as 


shown  in  the  engraving,  to  receive  the  screws 
on  which  the  machine  is  intended  to  operate ; 
they  are  placed  in  it  as  shown  at  fig.  20,  in 
which  1 1  represents  a  part  of  the  slide,  and  SS 
the  heads  of  screws  placed  in  it.  The  plate  1 1 
being  passed  entirely  into  the  frame,  as  far  as  the 
projecting  pin  k  allows,  the  unfinished  screws 
are  placed  in  it,  and  the  covers  E,  E,  are  shut 
down  and  fastened.  The  covers  E,  E,  when  they 
are  shut  down,  do  not  quite  meet,  but  leave  a 
narrow  open  space  through  which  the  blade  of  a 
steel  saw  is  introduced,  and  with  which  the 
heads  of  all  the  screws  placed  in  the  machine 
have  their  nicks  or  cuts  made  at  the  same  time. 

The  following  observations  published  by  a 
'  workman'  in  the  Repertory  of  Arts  are  of 
great  importance  : — '  Having  had  considerable 
experience  in  the  construction  of  new  and  com- 
plicated machinery,  and  knowing  of  no  method 
by  which  minute  and  accurate  movements  or  di- 
visions may  be  obtained  with  such  certainty  as 
by  means  of  the  screw,  it  has  not  unfrequently 
been  the  most  trying  part  of  my  labors  to  obtain 
a  screw  that  shall  be  tolerably  accurate  through- 
out, when  it  has  been  required  of  any  consider- 
able length.  The  tapping  of  screws  with  new 
and  sharp  dies,  and  great  care  and  slowness,  is 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  best,  if  not  absolutely 
the  best  method  of  making  a  good  and  true 
screw.  But  it  is  found  that,  when  a  stock  is 
worked  by  hand,  there  is  generally  a  stopping 
place  perceptible  on  the  screw  itself,  where  the 
workman  changes  hands,  which  is  most  probably 
the  chief  imperfection  that  produces  inaccuracy 
when  such  screws  are  set  to  subdivide  their  own 
threads.  If  one  handle  be  more  depressed  than 
the  other,  the  screw  will  have  a  periodical  varia- 
tion of  obliquity,  which  workmen  call  a  drunken 
screw,  and  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  this  error  where 
the  screw  is  short.  As  the  dies  at  best  cut  ra- 
ther by  the  force  of  the  setting  screws  than  the 
keenness  of  their  own  edge,  they  not  only  bend 
the  tap  or  screw,  but  scarcely  ever  take  equally 
off  from  all  sides.  The  best  remedy  for  this  is 
to  use  long  dies ;  but,  even  with  these,  a  centred 
and  turned  tap  will  seldom  prove  straight  and 
round  after  it  has  received  the  thread.  In  mi- 
nutely considering  the  action  of  the  dies  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  opposite  sides  of  the  thread  in- 
cline towards  different  regions,  and  therefore,  in 
effect,  cross  each  other.  Hence  it  is  impossible 
for  the  dies  to  be  made  to  approach  each  other 
in  the  plane  of  the  helix.  (A  tangental  plane  to 
the  helix,  having  a  vertical  axis,  will  in  fact  re- 
volve round  the  axis  itself,  preserving  a  constant 
angular  inclination  to  the  same.)  But  the  dies 
approach  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  axis. 
It  follows,  therefore,  that  there  are  limits  to  dia- 
meter, depth  of  cut,  and  inclination,  beyond 
which  the  dies  cannot  operate.  These  limits  are 
the  cause  why  a  true  flat  thread  screw  cannot  be 
cut  in  dies ;  and  a  many-threaded  screw,  or 
screw  of  great  obliquity,  in  a  single  pair  of  dies, 
is  impracticable,  and  can  only  be  cut  by  a  suc- 
cession of  different  pairs  of  dies.  If  dies  arc 
not  well  fitted  in  the  stock,  and  the  stuff  be  veiny 
or  unequally  hard,  they  will  yield  to  the  hard 
parts,  and  by  the  effect  of  this  shake  produce 
an  undulated  thread.  Long  dies  do  indeed 


SCR 


590 


SCR 


greatly  remedy  this  imperfection  ;  but  it  must 
always  exist,  however  small.  As  a  pair  of  well 
fixed  dies  tan  never  both  run  alonu:  the  same 
stroke  till  quite  home  to  their  natural  place,  the 
cut  made  by  the  one  will  tend  to  draw  the  other 
along  the  cylinder,  so  that  while  one  die  cuts  the 
upper  side  of  the  thread,  the  other  die  will  cut 
the  opposite  or  under  side.  In  this  cross  action 
the  frame  and  the  dies  themselves  will  yield  from 
elasticity,  and  that  the  more,  where  the  stuff  is 
most  hard  or  the  work  forced.  Hence,  with  a 
like  pressure,  the  soft  side  will  have  the  widest 
cut,  and  be  soonest  cut  down,  and  the  sides  of 
the  thread  will  be  waving.  This  seems  to  be 
the  chief  reason  why  tapping  a  screw  throws  it 
out  of  centre  and  roundness.  It  is  found  by  ex- 
perience, in  the  attempt  to  tap  a  screw  much 
larger  than  the  original  of  the  dies,  that  the  cor- 
ners of  the  dies,  taking  hold  first,  are  nearly  in- 
different as  to  the  run;  and,  if  left  to  ope- 
rate without  pressure  in  the  line  of  the  axis, 
would  as  probably  cut  mere  rings,  or  a  left- 
handed  screw,  as  the  right-handed  screw  (sup- 
posed to  be  in  the  dies).  In  these  circumstances, 
therefore,  the  thread  at  first  turns  out  to  be 
wavey,  with  very  little  rise  in  the  run  of  each 
corner,  until  it  suddenly  falls  into  the  cut  made 
by  the  corner  it  follows.  Each  turn  consists  ac- 
cordingly of  four  waves,  which  are  amended  as 
the  dies  sink  deeper,  and  are  led  by  their  own 
slope.  But  it  may  be  questioned  if  these  waves, 
once  produced,  are  ever  completely  removed,  so 
that  the  screw  probably  approximates  to  the 
truth,  without  ever  attaining  it.  And,  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  operation  of  tapping,  this  error  in 
the  first  instance  can  only  be  diminished,  but 
not  absolutely  removed,  because  all  cutting  is 
begun  by  the  corner  of  the  dies.' 

Eddy's  screw-wrench. — This  screw  wrench  is  ac- 
tuated by  a  screw,  as  that  is  which  is  in  common 
use,  but  differs  from  this  latter  in  the  screw  being 
introduced  into  the  sliding  part  instead  of  into 
the  handle.  By  this  arrangement  the  instrument 
is  rendered  much  stronger,  and  is  not  liable  to 
open  and  shut  by  the  turn  of  the  hand  while 
using  it,  as  is  the  case  with  the  common  one. 

In  manufactories  where  the  work  is  heavy,  the 
common  wrench  is  often  breaking  in  the  screw, 
an  accident  which  cannot  occur  with  the  new 
one,  as  the  strain  is  not  on  that  part  which  con- 
tains the  screw.  It  may  be  made  at  nearly  the 
same  expense  as  the  one  in  common  use. 

Plate  SCREW,  fig.  8,  is  a  side  view.  Fig.  9  is 
an  edge  view.  Fig  10  is  a  longitudinal  section. 
[The  same  letters  refer  to  the  same  parts  in  all 
the  figures.]  a  is  the  fixed  chap,  6  is  the  fixed 
bar,  c  is  the  moveable  chap  which  passes  through 
and  slides  upon  the  bar,  6 ;  d  the  moveable  bar 
fixed  to  the  chap  c.  This  bar  has  a  hollow  bar- 
rel screwed  at  its  orifice,  in  which  the  solid 
thumb-screw  /works.  At  the  extremity  of  the 
bar,  6,  is  formed  a  shoulder,  on  which  rests  the 
square  piece,  g ;  or  the  bar  may  be  turned  up 
at  right  angles,  forming  a  short  projecting  leg, 
which  will  answer  the  purpose  of  the  piece  g, 
and  will  be  both  stronger  and  cheaper.  A 
square  hole  is  to  be  made  in  g,  to  admit  the 
screw  f,  and  this  hole  is  to  be  contracted  in  one 
part  by  the  insertion  of  two  square  pins,  i  and  /• 


which  confine  the  neck  of  the  screw  so  as  to 
allow  it  to  turn  round,  but  not  to  move  back- 
wards or  forwards  :  e  is  a  plate  of  iron,  wrapped 
round  the  end  of  the  instrument  in  order  to  keep 
the  parts  in  their  proper  places,  and  to  prevent 
the  screws  from  being  choked  with  dirt.  Hence 
it  is  obvious  that,  when  the  screw  f  is  turned 
in  one  direction,  the  barrel  d,  with'  the  chap  e, 
is  pushed  towards  the  chap  a,  and  that  it  is  with- 
drawn when  the  screw  is  turned  in  the  opposite 
direction. 

SCR  I BANI  (Charles),  a  Jesuit,  born  at  Brus- 
sels in  1561,  was  successively. professor  and 
rector  of  the  college  of  his  native  place,  but 
afterwards  removed  to  Antwerp,  as  provincial  of 
his  order,  and  head  of  the  university.  He  died 
in  1629,  and  is  chiefly  known  by  a  virulent 
publication  against  the  Calvinists,  printed  under 
the  fictitious  name  of  Clarus  Bonarscius,  and 
entitled  Amphitheatrum  Honoris  Adversus  Cal- 
vinistas,  4to.  1606.  His  other  works  are — 1.  His- 
tory of  the  Civil  Wars  of  the  Low  Countries,  in 
Latin,  8vo.  2.  Origines  Antverpensium,  4to. 
3.  Orthodoxae  Fidei  controversa,  4to.  4.  Ars 
Mentiendi  Calvinistica.  5.  Meditationes  Sacrn?, 
2  vols.  8vo.  6.  Medicus  Religiosus.  7.  C'aeno- 
barachia.  8.  Politico  Christianis. 

SCRIBE,  n.  s.  \      Fr.   scribe ;    Lat. 

SCRIB'BLE,  v.  a.  &  n.  ^scriba.       A   writer: 

SCRIB'BLER,  n.  s.  j  scribble  is  a  diminu- 
tive of  scribe. 

Hearts,   tongues,   figures,    scribes,  bards,    poets, 

cannot 

Think,  speak,  cast,  write,  sing,  number,  ho ! 
His  love  to  Antony. 

Sthakspeare.  Antony  and  Cieopatra. 

My  master,  being  the  scribe  to  himself,  should 
write  the  letter.  ShaAspeare. 

How  gird  the  sphere 

With  centrick  and  eccentrick,  scribbled  o'er 

Cycle  and  epicycle,  orb  in  orb. 

Milton'*  Paradise  Lost 

By  solemnly  endeavouring  to  countenance  my 
conjectures,  I  might  be  thought  dogmatical  in  a  hasty 
scribble.  Boyle. 

The  actors  represent  such  things  as  they  are  capa- 
ble, by  which  they  and  the  scribbler  may  get  their 
living.  Dryden. 

The  most  copious  writers  are  the  arrantest  scrib- 
bler*, and  in  so  much  talking  the  tongue  runs  before 
the  wit.  L'Ettrange. 

\Ve  are  not  to  wonder,  if  he  thinks  not  fit  to 
make  any  perfect  and  unerring  scribes. 

Grew't  Cosmologia. 

The  following  letter  comes  from  some  notable 
young  female  scribe.  Spectator. 

The  fcribbler,  pinched  with  hunger,  writes  to  dine, 
And  to  your  genius  must  conform  his  line. 

Granville. 

If  a  man  should  affirm  that  an  ape,  casually 
meeting  with  pen,  ink,  and  paper,  and  falling  to 
tcribble,  did  happen  to  write  exactly  the  Leviathan 
of  Hobbes,  would  an  atheist  believe  such  a  story  1 
And  yet  he  can  easily  digest  things  as  incredible  as 
that.  Bentlty. 

If  Mxvius  tcribble  in  Apollo's  spite, 
There  are  who  judge  still  worse  than  he  can  write. 

Pope. 

Nobody  was  concerned  or  surprised,  if  this  or 
that  scribbler  was  proved  a  dunce. 

Letter  to  Pope's  Dundud. 


SCRIPTURE. 


59J 


If  it  struck  the  present  taste,  it  was  soon  trans- 
ferred into  the  plays  and  current  scribbles  of  the 
week,  and  became  an  addition  to  our  language. 

Stoift. 

To  affirm  he  had  cause  to  apprehend  the  same 
treatment  with  his  father  is  an  improbable  scandal 
flung  upon  the  nation  by  a  few  bigotted  French 
scribblers.  Id. 

His  court,  the  dissolute  and  hateful  school 
Of  Wantonness,  where  vice  was  taught  by  rule, 
Swarmed  with  a  scribbliny  herd,  as  deep  inlaid 
With  brutal  lust  as  ever  Circe  made. 
From  these  a  long  succession,  in  a  rage 
Of  rank  obscenity,  debauched  their  age.       Cowper. 

SCRI'MER,  n.  s.  Fr.  escrimeur.  A  gladia- 
tor; a  fencing-master.  Not  in  use. 

The  scrimers  of  their  nation, 
He  swore,  had  neither  motion,  guard,  nor  eye, 
If  you  opposed  them.  Shakspeare.   Hamlet. 


SCEINE,  n.  s.  Lat.  scrmium.  A  place  in 
which  writings  or  curiosities  are  reposited. 

Help,  then,  O  holy  virgin, 
Thy  weaker  novice  to  perform  thy  will  ; 

Lay  forth  out  of  thine  everlasting  scrine, 
The  antique  rolls  which  there  lie  hidden  still. 

Faerie  Queene. 

SCRIP,  n.  s.  Isl.  skrappa.  A  small  bag;  a 
satchel :  and  (Lat.  scriptio)  a  small  writing. 

Come,  shepherd,  let  us  make  an  honourable  re- 
treat ;  though  not  with  bag  and  baggage,  yet  with 
scrip  and  scrippage.  Shaksjteare. 

Call  them  man  by  man,  according  to  the  scrip.   Id. 

He'd  in  requital  ope  his  leathern  tcrip, 
And  shew  me  simples  of  a  thousand  names, 
Telling  their  strange  and  vigorous  faculties.  Milton. 

Bills  of  exchange  cannot  pay  our  debts  abroad, 
till  scrips  of  paper  can  be  made  current  coin.  Locke. 


SCRIPTURE. 


SCRIPTURE,  n.  s.  \     Lat.  scriptura.  Writ- 
SCRIP'TURAL,  adj.      S  ing ',    particularly    sa- 
cred writings  ;  the  Bible :  commonly  used  in  the 
plural  :  the  adjective  signifies  contained  in  the 
Bible;  biblical. 

With  us  there  is  never  any  time  bestowed  in 
divine  service,  without  the  reading  of  a  great  part 
of  the  holy  scripture,  which  we  account  a  thing 
most  necessary.  Hooker. 

The  devil  can  cite  scripture  for  his  purpose  : 
An  evil  soul  producing  holy  witness 
Is  like  a  villain  with  a  smiling  chock.     Shakspeare. 

It  is  not  only  remembered  in  many  scriptures,  but 
famous  for  the  death  and  overthrow  of  Crassus. 

Raleigh. 

Forbear  any  discourse  of  other  spirits,  till  his 
reading  the  scripture  history  put  him  upon  that  en- 
quiry. Locke. 

There  is  not  any  action  which  a  man  ought  to 
do,  or  to  forbear,  but  the  scripture  will  give  him  a 
clear  precept,  or  prohibition,  for  it.  South. 

Creatures,  the  scriptural  use  of  that  word  deter- 
mines it  sometimes  to  men.  Atterbury. 

Scripture  proof  was  never  the  talent  of  these  men, 
and  'tis  no  wonder  they  are  foiled.  Id. 

Why  are  scripture  maxims  put  upon  us  without 
taking  notice  of  scripture  examples  that  lie  cross 
them  •>  Id. 

The  Author  of  nature  and  the  scriptures  has  ex- 
pressly enjoined,  that  he  who  will  not  work  shall  not 
eat.  Seed's  Sermons. 

SCRIPTURE.  The  word  scripture  is  most  com- 
monly used  to  denote  the  writings  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament ;  called  also  sometimes  The 
Scriptures,  sometimes  the  Sacred  or  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, and  sometimes  Canonical  Scriptures. 
These  books  are  called  the  Scriptures  by  way  of 
eminence,  as  they  are  the  most  important  of  all 
writings  ;  they  are  holy  or  sacred  on  account  of 
the  doctrines  which  they  teach ;  and  they  are 
termed  canonical,  because,  when  their  number 
and  authenticity  were  ascertained,  their  names 
were  inserted  in  ecclesiastical  canons,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  other  books  ;  which,  being  of 
no  authority,  were  kept  as  it  were  out  of  sight, 


and  therefore  styled  apocryphal,  from 
to  put  out  of  sight.     See  APOCRYPHA. 

Our  article  BIBLE  (to  which  we  beg  the 
attention  of  the  reader  as  an  introduction  to  this) 
is  chiefly  critical ;  and  regards  the  formation  of 
the  Jewish  and  Christian  canon  considered  as  a 
whole.  We  shall  in  this  article  enter  more  at 
large  into  the  question  of  the  authenticity  and 
inspiration  of  Scripture,  and  an  analysis  of  its 
contents. 

PART  I. 

OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 
INTRODUCTION. 

The  authenticity  of  the  Old  Testament  may 
be  proved  from  the  character  of  the  Jews,  from 
internal  evidence,  and  from  testimony. 

1.  The  character  of  the  Jews  forms  a  strong 
presumptive  evidence  that  they  have  not  forged 
or  corrupted  the  Old  Testament.  Were  a  per- 
son brought  before  a  court  of  justice  on  a  sus- 
picion of  forgery,  and  yet  no  presumptive  or 
positive  evidence  of  his  guilt  could  be  produced, 
it  would  be  allowed  by  all  that  he  ought  to  be 
acquitted.  But  if  the  forgery  alleged  were  in- 
consistent with  the  character  of  the  accused ;  if 
it  tended  to  expose  to  disgrace  and  reproach 
his  general  principles  and  conduct;  or  if  we 
were  assured  that  he  considered  forgery  as  an 
impious  and  abominable  crime,  it  would  require 
very  strong  testimony  to  establish  his  guilt.  This 
case  corresponds  exactly  with  the  character  and 
situation  of  the  Jews.  If  a  Jew  had  forged  any 
book  of  the  Old  Testament,  he  must  have  been 
impelled  to  so  bold  and  dangerous  an  enterprise 
by  some  very  powerful  motive.  It  could  not  be 
national  pride  ;  for  there  is  scarcely  one  of  these 
books  which  does  not  severely  censure  the  na- 
tional manners.  It  could  not  be  the  love  of 
fame ;  for  that  passion  would  have  taught  him 
to  flatter  and  extol  the  national  character ;  and 
the  punishment,  if  detected,  would  have  been 
infamy  and  death.  The  love  of  wealth  could 
not  produce  such  a  forgery  ;  for  no  wealth  was 
to  be  gained  by  it.  The  Jews  were  selected  from 


SCRIPTURE. 


all  other  nations,  and  preserved  a  distinct  peo- 
ple, from  the  time  of  their  emigration  from 
Egypt  to  the  Babylonish  captivity,  a  period  of 
892  years ;  and  they  still  continue  to  be  a  dis- 
tinct people,  though  scattered  among  all  the  na- 
tions in  the  world ;  which  is  itself  a  standing 
and  perpetual  miracle  in  proof  of  Christianity, 
unparalleled  in  the  history  of  mankind;  and 
which  the  Christian  may  defy  all  the  enemies  of 
revelation  to  account  for,  without  admitting  the 
truth  of  the  Christian  system.  The  principal 
purposes  for  which  they  were  selected  was  to 
preserve,  in  a  world  running  headlong  into 
idolatry,  the  knowledge  and  worship  of  the  one 
true  God,  and  to  be  the  guardians  of  those  sacred 
books  that  contained  the  prophecies  which  were 
to  prove  to  future  ages  the  divine  mission  of  the 
Redeemer  of  mankind.  To  fit  them  for  these 
important  trusts,  the  spirit  of  their  laws  and  the 
rites  of  their  religion  had  the  strongest  tendency. 
Miracles  were  orjenly  performed,  to  convince 
them  that  the  God  of  Israel  was  the  God  of  all 
the  earth,  and  that  he  alone  was  to  be  wor- 
shipped. Public  calamities  always  befel  them 
when  they  became  apostates  from  their  God  ;  yet 
they  continued  violently  attached  to  idolatry,  till 
their  captivity  in  Babylon  made  them'  for  ever 
renounce  it.  The  Jews  then  had  two  opposite 
characters  at  different  periods  of  their  history. 
At  first  they  were  addicted  to  idolatry ;  after- 
wards they  acquired  a  strong  antipathy  against 
it.  Had  any  books  of  the  Old  Testament  been 
forged  before  the  Babylonish  captivity,  when 
the  Jews  were  devoted  to  idolatry,  is  it  to  be 
conceived  that  the  impostor  would  hive  in- 
veighed so  strongly  against  this  vice,  and  so  often 
imputed  to  it  the  calamities  of  the  state;  since 
by  such  conduct  he  knew  that  he  would  render 
himself  obnoxious  to  the  people,  and  to  those 
idolatrous  monarchs  who  persecuted  the  pro- 
phets ?  But  it  may  be  alleged  that  the  sacred 
books  were  forged  after  the  Babylonish  capti- 
vity, when  the  principles  of  the  Jews  would  lead 
them  to  inveigh  against  the  worship  of  idols. 
But  these  principles  would  surely  never  lead 
them  to  expose  the  character  of  their  ancestors, 
and  to  detail  their  follies  and  their  crimes. 
Never  had  any  people  more  national  pride,  or  a 
higher  veneration  for  their  ancestors  than  the 
Jews.  Miracles  and  prophecies  ceased  soon 
after  their  return  to  Jerusalem  ;  and  from  that 
period  their  respect  for  the  sacred  books  ap- 
proached to  superstition.  They  preserved  them 
with  pious  care,  they  read  them  often  in  their 
synagogues,  and  they  considered  every  attempt 
to  alter  the  text  as  an  act  of  sacrilege.  Is  it 
probabve  that  such  men  could  be  guilty  of  for- 
gery, or  could  false  writings  be  easily  imposed 
on  them  ? 

2.  There  is  internal  evidence  in  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  that  proves  them  to  have  been 
written  by  different  persons,  and  at  distant  pe- 
riods ;  and  enables  us  with  precision  to  ascertain 
a  time  at  or  before  which  they  must  have  been 
composed.  It  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  Hebrew 
ceased  to  be  the  living  language  of  the  Jews 
during  their  captivity  in  Babylon,  and  that  the 
Jewish  productions  after  that  period  were  in 
general  written  either  in  Chaldee  or  in  Greek. 


The  Jews  of  Palestine,  some  ages  before  the 
coming  of  our  Saviour,  were  unable,  without  the 
assistance  of  a  Chaldee  paraph-ase,  to  understand 
the  Hebrew  original.  It  necessarily  follows, 
therefore,  that  every  book  which  is  written  in 
pure  Hebrew  was  composed  either  before  o: 
about  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity.  This 
being  admitted,  we  may  advance  a  step  farther, 
and  insist  that  the  period  which  elapsed  between^ 
the  composition  of  the  most  ancient  and  the 
most  modern  book  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
very  considerable;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the 
most  ancient  books  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
written  many  ages  before  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. No  language  continues  stationary;  and 
the  Hebrew,  like  other  tongues,  passed  through 
its  several  stages  of  infancy,  youth,  manhood, 
and  old  age.  If,  therefore,  on  comparison,  the 
several  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  are  found  to 
differ  not  only  in  regard  to  style,  but  also  in  re- 
gard to  character  and  cultivation,  we  have  strong 
internal  evidence  that  they  were  composed  at 
different  and  distant  periods.  No  classical 
scholar  would  believe,  independent  of  the  Gre- 
cian history,  that  the  poems  ascribed  to  Homer 
were  written  in  the  age  of  Demosthenes,  the 
Orations  of  Demosthenes  in  the  time  of  Ori.en, 
or  the  Commentaries  of  Origen  in  the  time  of 
Lascaris  and  Chrysoloras.  For  the  very  same 
reason,  it  is  certain  that  the  five  books  which  are 
ascribed  to  Moses  were  not  written  in  the  time 
of  David,  the  Psalms  of  David  in  the  age  of 
Isaiah,  nor  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  in  the  time 
of  Malachi ;  and,  since  the  Hebrew  became  a 
dead  language  about  the  time  of  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  the  book  of  Malachi  could  not  have 
been  written  much  later.  Before  that  period, 
therefore,  were  written  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah, 
still  earlier  the  Psalms  of  David,  and  much 
earlier  than  these  the  books  which  are  ascribed 
to  Moses.  But  infidels  are  never  critics.  A 
modern  one,  the  apostle  of  vulgar  infidelity, 
boasts  that  he  had  never  opened  a  Bible  for 
many  years  when  he  sat  down  to  impugn  its  di- 
vine character. 

3.  Let  us  now  consider  the  evidence  of  tes- 
timony for  the  authenticity  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. As  the  Jews  were  a  more  ancient  people 
than  the  Greeks  or  Romans,  and  for  many  ages 
totally  unconnected  with  them,  it  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  we  should  derive  much  evidence 
from  the  historians  of  those  nations ;  it  is  to  the 
Jews  alone  we  must  look  for  information.  But 
it  has  unfortunately  happened  that  few  of  their 
works,  except  the  Scriptures  themselves,  have 
been  preserved.  Josephus  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  of  the  Jewish  historians  to  whom  we 
can  appeal.  He  informs  us  that  the  Old  Testa- 
ment was  divided  into  three  parts,  the  Law,  the 
Prophets,  and  the  Hagiographa,  or  the  Holy 
Writings,  or  poetical  books.  No  man,  says  he, 
hath  ever  dared  to  add  or  take  away  from  them. 
He  tells  us,  also,  that  other  books  were  written 
after  the  time  of  Artaxerxes  ;  but,  as  they  were 
not  composed  by  prophets,  they  were  not 
reckoned  worthy  of  the  same  credit  (see  BIBLE). 
Since  the  promulgation  of  the  Christian  religion, 
it  is  impossible  that  any  material  alterations  or 
corruptions  could  have  taken  place  in  the  books 


SCRIPTURE. 


503 


of  the  Old  Testament ;  for,  from  that  period 
they  have  been  in  the  hands  both  of  Jews  and 
Christians.  Had  the  Jews  attempted  to  make 
any  alterations,  the  Christians  would  have  de- 
tected and  exposed  them  ;  nor  would  the  Jews 
have  been  less  severe  against  the  Christians,  if 
they  had  corrupted  the  sacred  text.  But  the 
copies  in  the  hands  of  Jews  and  Christians 
agree  ;  and  therefore  we  justly  conclude  that  the 
Old  Testament  is  still  pure  and  uncorrupted. 

The  division   mentioned  by  our  Saviour  into 
the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Psalms,  corre- 
sponds with  that  of  Josephus.     We  have  there- 
fore sufficient  evidence  to  convince  even  a  deist, 
that  the   Old  Testament  existed  at  that   time. 
And,  if  the  deist   will   only  allow    that   Jesus 
Christ  was  a  person  of  a  virtuous  and  irreproach- 
able character,  he  will  acknowledge  that  we  draw 
a  fair  conclusion,  when  we  assert  that  the  Scrip- 
tures were  not  corrupted  in  his  time  ;  for  when 
he  accused  the  Pharisees  of  making  the  law  of 
no  effect  by  their  traditions,  and  when  he  en- 
joined his  hearers  to  search  the  Scriptures,  he 
could  not  have  failed  to  mention  the  corruptions 
or  forgeries  of  Scripture,  if  any  in  that  age  had 
existed.     But  we  are  assured  by  very  respecta- 
ble authority  that  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment was  fixed  some  centuries  before  the  birth 
of  Jesus  Christ.     Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach,  the 
author  of   Ecclesiasticus,  makes  evident  refer- 
ences to  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and 
Kzekiel,  and  mentions  these  prophets  by  name. 
lie  speaks  also  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets. 
It  appears  also,  from  the  prologue,  that  the  law 
and  the  prophets,  and  other  ancient  books,  existed 
at  the  same  period.     The  book  of  Ecclesiasti- 
cus, according   to  the   best  chronologers,   was 
written  in  Syriac,  about  A.M.  3772,  that  is  232 
years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  was  translated 
into  Greek  in  the  next  century  by  the  grandson 
of  the  author.     The  prologue  was  added  by  the 
translator ;  but  this  circumstance  does  not  dimi- 
nish the  evidence  for  the  antiquity  of  Scripture ; 
for  he  informs  us  that  the  law  and  the  prophets, 
and  the  other  books  of  their  fathers,  were  stu- 
died by  his  grandfather;  a  sufficient  proof  that 
they  existed  in  his  time.     As  no  authentic  books 
of  a  more  ancient  date,  except  the  sacred  writ- 
ings themselves,  have  reached  our  time,  we  can 
ascend  no  higher  in  search  of  testimony. 

There  is,  however,  one  remarkable  historical 
fact  which  proves  the  existence  of  the  law  of 
Moses  at  the  dissolution  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  when  the  ten  tribes  were  carried  captive 
to  Assyria  by  Shalmaneser,  and  dispersed  among 
the  provinces  of  that  extensive  expire ;  that  is, 
about  741  years  before  Christ.  About  that  time 
the  Samaritans  were  transported  from  Assyria  to 
repeople  the  country  which  the  ten  captive 
tribes  of  Israel  had  formerly  inhabited.  The 
posterity  of  the  Samaritans  still  inhabit  the  land 
of  their  fathers,  and  have  preserved  copies  of 
the  Pentateuch,  two  or  three  of  which  were 
brought  to  this  country  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  written  in 
old  Hebrew  characters,  and  therefore  must  have 
existed  before  the  time  of  Ezra.  But  so  violent 
were  the  animosities  which  subsisted  between 
the  Jews  and  Samaritans,  that  in  no  period  of 
VOL.  XIX. 


their  history  would  the  one  nation  have  received 
any  books  from  the  other.  They  must  therefore 
have  received  them  at  their  first  settlement  ir_ 
Samaria,  from  the  captive  priest  whom  Shal- 
maneser sent  to  teach  them  how  they  should  fear 
the  Lord  (2  Kings  xvii.).  The  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament,  as  both  Jewish  and  Christian  writers 
agree,  was  completed  by  Ezra  and  some  of  his 
immediate  successors.  (See  BIBLE.)  In  our 
copies  the  sacred  books  are  divided  into  thirty- 
nine.  The  Jews  reckoned  only  twenty-two, 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  letters  in  the 
Hebrew  alphabet.  They  united  the  books  of 
Judges  and  Ruth  ;  they  joined  the  two  books  of 
Samuel ;  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles 
were  reckoned  one ;  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  one ; 
the  Prophecies  and  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah 
were  taken  under  the  same  head  ;  and  the  twelve 
minor  prophets  were  considered  as  one  book — 
so  that  the  whole  number  of  books  in  the  Jewish 
canon  amounted  to  twenty-two. 

In  our  article  REVELATION  will  be  found  seve- 
ral of  the  general  arguments  in  favor  of  revealed 
religion  :  its  connexion  with  natural  religion,  &c. 
Before  closing  this  introductory  essay  we  may  add 
some  excellent  observations  which  modern  infide- 
lity has  been  the  means  of  eliciting  on  the  genuine- 
ness as  distinct  from  the  authenticity  of  a  book; 
and  then  advert  to  the  proofs  of  the  inspiration 
of  scripture  as  distinguishable  from  both. 

The  late  bishop  Watson,  addressing  Thomas 
Paine,  says,  '  You  know  but  of  one  ancient  book 
that  authoritatively  challenges  universal  consent 
and  belief,  and  that  is  Euclid's  Elements.  If  I 
were  disposed  to  make  frivolous  objections,  I 
should  say  that  even  Euclid's  Elements  had  not 
met  with  universal  consent ;  that  there  had  been 
men,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  who 
had  questioned  the  intuitive  evidence  of  some  of 
his  axioms,  and  denied  the  justness  of  some  of 
his  demonstrations  :  but,  admitting  the  truth,  I 
do  not  see  the  pertinency  of  your  observation. 
You  are  attempting  to  subvert  the  authenticity 
of  the  Bible,  and  you  tell  us  that  Euclid's  Ele- 
ments are  certainly  true. — What  then  ?  Does  it 
follow  that  the  Bible  is  certainly  false?  The 
most  illiterate  scrivener  in  the  kingdom  does  not 
want  to  be  informed  that  the  examples,  in  his 
Wingate's  Arithmetic,  are  proved  by  a  different 
kind  of  reasoning  from  that  by  which  he  per- 
suades himself  to  believe  that  there  was  such  a 
person  as  Henry  VIII.,  or  that  there  is  such  a 
city  as  Paris.  It  may  be  of  use  to  remove  this 
confusion  in  your  argument  to  state,  distinctly, 
the  difference  between  the  genuineness  and  the 
authenticity  of  a  book.  A  genuine  book  is  that 
which  was  written  by  the  person  whose  name  it 
bears  as  the  author  of  it.  An  authentic  book  is 
that  which  relates  matters  of  fact  as  they  really 
happened.  A  book  may  be  genuine  without 
being  authentic ;  and  a  book  may  be  authentic 
without  being  genuine.  The  books  written  by 
Kicluirdson  and  Fielding  are  genuine  books, 
though  the  histories  of  Clarissa  and  Tom  Jones 
are  fables.  The  history  of  the  island  of  Formosa 
is  a  genuine  book ;  it  was  written  by  Psalmana- 
zar :  but  it  is  not  an  authentic  book  (though  it 
was  long  esteemed  as  such,  and  translated  into 
different  languages);  for  the  author,  in  the  latt?.- 

2  Q 


594 


SCRIPTURE. 


part  of  his  life,  took  shame  to  himself  for  having 
imposed  on  the  world,  and  confessed  that  it  was 
a  mere  romance.  Anson's  Voyage  may  be  consi- 
dered as  an  authentic  book,  it,  probably,  containing 
a  true  narration  of  the  principal  events  recorded 
in  it ;  but  it  is  not  a  genuine  book,  having  not 
been  written  by  Walter,  to  whom  it  is  ascribed, 
but  by  Robins. 

'  This  distinction  between  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  a  book  will  assist  us  in  detecting 
the  fallacy  of  an  argument,  which  you  state  with 
great  confidence  in  the  part  of  your  work  now 
under  consideration,  and  which  you  frequently 
allude  to,  in  other  parts,  as  conclusive  evidence 
against  the  truth  of  the  Bible.  Your  argument 
stands  thus  :  if  it  be  found  that  books  ascribed 
to  Moses,  Joshua,  and  Samuel,  were  not  written 
by  Moses,  Joshua,  and  Samuel,  every  part  of  the 
authority  and  authenticity  of  these  books  is  gone 
at  once. — I  presume  to  think  otherwise.  The 
genuineness  of  these  books,  in  the  judgment  of 
those  who  say  that  they  were  written  by  these 
authors,  will  certainly  be  gone;  but  their  authen- 
ticity may  remain ;  they  may  still  contain  a  true 
account  of  real  transactions,  though  the  names  of 
the  writers'of  them  should  be  found  to  be  differ- 
ent from  what  they  are  generally  esteemed  to  be. 

Had,  indeed,  Moses  said  that  he  wrote  the 
first  five  books  of  the  Bible;  and  had  Joshua 
and  Samuel  said  that  they  wrote  the  books 
which  are  respectively  attributed  to  them ;  and 
had  it  been  found  that  Moses,  Joshua,  and 
Samuel,  did  not  write  these  books ;  then,  I  grant, 
the  authority  of  the  whole  would  have  been  gone 
at  once ;  these  men  would  have  been  found  liars, 
as  to  the  genuineness  of  the  books;  and  this 
proof  of  their  want  of  veracity,  in  one  point, 
would  have  invalidated  their  testimony  in  every 
other ;  these  books  would  have  been  justly  stig- 
matised as  neither  genuine  nor  authentic.  A 
history  may  be  true,  though  it  should  not  only 
be  ascribed  to  a  wrong  author,  but  though  the 
author  of  it  should  not  be  known ;  anonymous 
testimony  does  not  destroy  the  reality  of  facts, 
whether  natural  or  miraculous.  Had  Lord  Cla- 
rendon published  his  History  of  the  Rebellion, 
without  prefixing  his  name  to  it;  or  had  the 
history  of  Titus  Livius  come  down  to  us  under 
the  name  of  Valerius  Flaccus,  or  Valerius  Maxi- 
mus,  the  facts  mentioned  in  these  histories  would 
nave  been  equally  certain.' 

This  same  perspicuous  advocate  of  Christianity 
may  well  introduce  the  arguments  for  the  inspi- 
ration of  Scripture. 

Addressing  his  opponent,  with  more  courtesy 
than  he  merited  at  such  hands,  he  says,  in  the 
conclusion  of  the  able  Apology  for  the  Bible, 
'  You  admit  the  possibility  of  God's  revealing 
his  will  to  man :  yet  '  the  thing  so  revealed,' 
you  say,  is  '  revelation  to  the  person  only  to 
whom  it  is  made  ;  his  account  of  it  to  another  is 
not  revelation.' — This  is  true ;  his  account  is 
simple  testimony.  You  add,  '  there  is  no  possible 
criterion  to  judge  of  the  truth  of  what  he  says.' — 
This  I  positively  deny  :  and  contend  that  a  real 
miracle,  performed  in  attestation  of  a  revealed 
truth,  is  a  certain  criterion  by  which  we  may 
judge  of  the  truth  of  that  attestation.  I  am  per- 


fectly aware  of  the  objections  which  may  be 
made  to  this  position  ;  1  have  examined  them 
with  care  ;  I  acknowledge  them  to  be  of  weight ; 
but  I  do  not  speak  unadvisedly,  or  as  wishing  to 
dictate  to  other  men,  when  I  say  that  I  am  per- 
suaded the  position  is  true.  So  thought  Moses, 
when,  in  the  matter  of  Koran,  he  said  to  the  Israel- 
ites— '  If  these  men  die  the  common  death  of  all 
men,  then  the  Lord  hath  not  sent  me.'  So  thought 
Elijah,  when  he  said,  '  Lord  God  of  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  of  Israel,  let  it  be  known  this  day  that 
thou  art  God  in  Israel,  and  that  I  am  thy  ser- 
vant ;' — and  the  people,  before  whom  he  spake, 
were  of  the  same  opinion ;  for,  when  the  fire  of 
the  Lord  fell  and  consumed  the  burnt-sacrifice, 
they  said — '  The  Lord  he  is  the  God.'  So 
thought  our  Saviour  when  he  said — '  The  works 
that  I  do  in  ray  Father's  name,  they  bear  witness 
of  me;'  and,  '  If  I  do  not  the  works  of  my  Father, 
believe  me  not.'  What  reason  have  we  to  be- 
lieve Jesus  speaking  in  the  Gospel,  and  to  dis- 
believe Mahomet  speaking  in  the  Koran?  Both 
of  them  lay  claim  to  a  divine  commission ;  and 
yet  we  receive  the  words  of  the  one  as  a  revela- 
tion from  God,  and  we  reject  the  words  of  the 
other  as  an  imposture  of  man.  The  reason  is 
evident;  Jesus  established  his  pretensions,  not 
by  alleging  any  secret  communication  with  the 
Deity,  but  by  working  numerous  and  indubitable 
miracles  in  the  presence  of  thousands,  and  which 
the  most  bitter  and  watchful  of  his  enemies- could 
not  disallow;  hut  Mahomet  wrought  no  miracles 
at  all.  Nor  is  a  miracle  the  only  criterion  by  which 
we  may  judge  of  the  truth  of  a  revelation.  If 
a  series  of  prophets  should,  through  a  course  of 
many  centuries,  predict  the  appearance  of  a  cer- 
tain person,  whom  God  would,  at  a  particular 
time,  send  into  the  world  for  a  particular  end  ; 
and  at  length  a  person  should  appear,  in  whom 
all  the  predictions  were  minutely  accomplished : 
sacn  a  completion  of  prophecy  would  be  a  crite- 
rion of  the  truth  of  that  revelation,  which  that 
person  should  deliver  to  mankind.  Or  if  a  per- 
son should  now  say  (as  many  false  prophets 
have  said,  and  are  daily  saying)  that  he  had  a 
commission  to  declare  the  will  of  God ;  and,  as 
a  proof  of  his  veracity,  should  predict  that,  after 
his  death,  he  would  rise  from  the  dead  on  the 
third  day ;  the  completion  of  such  a  prophecy 
would,  I  presume,  be  a  sufficient  criterion  of  the 
truth  of  what  this  man  might  have  said  concern- 
ing the  will  of  God.  Now  I  tell  you  (says  Jesus 
to  his  disciples,  concerning  Judas,  who  was  to 
betray  him),  before  it  come,  that  when  it  is  come 
to  pass,  ye  may  believe  that  I  am  he.  In  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  Gospels  our  Saviour,  with  the 
utmost  propriety,  claims  to  be  received  as  the 
messenger  of  God,  not  only  from  the  miracles 
which  he  wrought,  but  from  the  prophecies 
which  were  fulfilled  in  his  person,  and  from  the 
predictions  which  he  himself  delivered.  Hence, 
instead  of  there  being  no  criterion  by  which  we 
may  judge  of  the  truth  of  the  Christian  revela- 
tion, there  are  clearly  three.  It  is  an  easy  mat- 
ter to  use  an  indecorous  flippancy  of  language 
in  speaking  of  the  Christian  religion,  and,  with 
a  supercilious  negligence,  to  class  Christ  and 
his  apostles  amongst  the  impostors  who  have 


SCRIPTURE. 


595 


figured  in  the  world ;  but  it  is  not,  I  think,  an 
easy  matter  for  any  man,  of  good  sense  and 
sound  erudition,  to  make  an  impartial  examina- 
tion into  any  one  of  the  three  grounds  of  Christ- 
ianity which  I  have  here  mentioned,  and  to  re- 
ject it.' 

Dr.  Olinthus  Gregory  has  ably  collected  the 
more  general  arguments  for  the  inspiration  of 
Scripture,  and  in  particular  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, in  the  following  portion  of  his  Letters 
on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity  : — 

'  A  firm  and  cordial  belief  of  the  inspiration 
of  the  Bible  is,  indeed,  of  the  highest  moment ; 
for,  unless  you  are  persuaded  that  those  who  were 
employed  in  the  composition  of  the  respective 
books  were  entirely  preserved  from  error,  a  con- 
viction of  their  honesty  and  integrity  will  be  but 
of  little  avail.  Honest  men  may  err,  may  point 
out  the  wrong  track,  however  unwilling  they 
may  be  to  deceive  ;  and,  if  those  who  have  pen- 
ned what  we  receive  as  revelation  are  thus  open 
to  mistakes,  we  are  still  left  to  jnake  the  voyage 
of  life  in  the  midst  of  rocks,  and  shelves,  and 
quicksands,  with  a  compass  vacillating  and  use- 
less, and  our  pole-star  enveloped  in  mists  and 
obscurity.  But  some  of  these  writers  assure  us 
that  '  all  Scripture  is  given  us  by  inspiration  of 
God'  (b) ;  meaning,  at  least,  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures ;  a  declaration  which  deserves  attention  on 
the  score  of  the  general  veracity  by  which  we 
have  already  shown  their  assertions  are  always 
marked.  Still,  as  a  like  claim  is  made  by 
writers  who,  it  has  been  ascertained,  were  wicked 
and  designing,  let  us  enquire  on  what  grounds 
and  to  what  extent  the  divine  inspiration  of  the 
Bible  ought  to  be  admitted. 

'  Theologians  have  enumerated  several  kinds 
of  inspiration  :  such  as  an  inspiration  of  super- 
intendency,  in  which  God  so  influences  and  di- 
rects the  mind  of  any  person  as  to  keep  him  more 
secure  from  error  in  some  complex  discourse, 
than  he  would  have  been  merely  by  the  use  of 
his  natural  faculties  : — plenary  superintendent 
inspiration,  which  excludes  any  mixture  of  error 
whatever  from  the  performance  so  superintended : 
—inspiration  of  elevation,  where  the  faculties  act 
in  a  regular,  and,  as  it  should  seem,  in  a  com- 
mon manner,  yet  are  raised  to  an  extraordinary 
degree,  so  that  the  composition  shall,  upon  the 
whole,  have  more  of  the  true  sublime,  or  pathe- 
tic, than  natural  genius  could  have  given  : — and 
inspiration  of  suggestion,  in  which  the  use  of 
the  faculties  is  superseded,  and  God  does,  as  it 
were,  speak  directly  to  the  mind,  making  such 
discoveries  to  it  as  it  could  not  otherwise  have 
obtained,  and  dictating  tne  very  words  in  which 
such  discoveries  are  to  be  communicated,  if  they 
are  designed  as  a  message  to  others.  It  is  not 
my  purpose  to  enter  into  any  enquiry  how  far 
different  portions  of  Scripture  were  composed 
under  one  or  other  of  these  kinds  of  inspiration. 
I  have  enumerated  them  merely  to  show  you 
that  those  who  contend  that  Scripture  is  in- 
spired have  not  arrived  at  their  decision  by  a 
gross  and  careless  process,  but  by  sedulous,  cri- 
tical, and  discriminating  investigation.  I  mean, 
however,  to  affirm,  and  I  trust  the  references  I 

(b)  2  Tim.  iii.  16. 


have  thrown  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  together 
with  a  few  particular  arguments  I  shall  advance, 
will  prove  to  you  the  reasonableness  of  admit- 
ting that,  while  the  authors  employed  in  the 
composition  of  the  Bib'e  exercised  generally 
their  own  reason  and  judgment  (c),  the  spirit  of 
God  effectually  stirred  them  up  to  write  (d); 
appointed  to  each  his  proper  portion  and  topic, 
corresponding  with  his  natural  talents,  and  the 
necessities  of  the  church  in  his  time  (e);  enlight- 
ened their  minds  and  gave  them  a  distinct  view 
of  the  truths  they  were  to  deliver  (_/*);  strength- 
ened and  refreshed  their  memories  to  recollect 
whatever  they  had  seen  or  heard,  the  insertion  of 
which  in  their  writings  would  be  beneficial  (g)  ; 
directed  them  to  select  from  a  multitude  of  facts 
what  was  proper  for  the  edification  of  the  church, 
and  neither  more  nor  less  (A)  ;  excited  afresh  in 
their  minds  such  images  and  ideas  as  had  been 
laid  up  in  their  memories,  and  directed  them  to 
other  ends  and  purposes  than  themselves  would 
ever  have  done  of  their  own  accord  (t) ;  sug- 
gested and  imprinted  upon  their  minds  such 
matters  as  could  not  have  been  discovered  or 
known  by  reason,  observation,  or  information, 
but  were  subjects  of  pure  revelation  (/c);  superin- 
tended every  particular  writer,  so  as  to  render 
him  infallible  in  his  matter,  words,  and  order, 
especially  whenever  they  related  to  facts,  dis- 
courses, or  doctrines,  the  communication  of 
which  is  the  great  object  of  Scripture  ;  thus  ren- 
dering the  whole  canon,  at  any  given  period,  an 
infallible  guide  to  true  holiness  and  everlasting 
happiness  (/). 

'  Now  that  the  Scriptures  were  actually  dic- 
tated by  an  inspiration  of  this  kind  may,  1  think, 
be  inferred  both  from  the  reasonableness  and 
from  the  necessity  of  the  thing.  It  is  reasonable 
that  the  sentiments  and  doctrines  developed  in 
the  Scriptures  should  be  suggested  to  the  minds 
of  the  writers  by  the  Supreme  Being  himself. 
They  relate  principally  to  matters  concerning 
which  the  communicating  information  to  men  is 
worthy  of  God  :  and  the  more  important  the  in- 
formation communicated,  the  more  it  is  calcu- 
lated to  impress  mankind,  to  preserve  from 
moral  error,  to  stimulate  to  holiness,  to  guide  to 
happiness,  the  more  reasonable  is  it  to  expect 
that  God  should  make  the  communication  ia 
a  manner  free  from  every  admixture  or  risque 
of  error.  Indeed  the  notion  of  inspiration  enters 

(c)  Ps.  xlv.  1.     Mark  xii.  36.     Luke  i.  3.     Acts 
i.  1.     1  Pet.  i.  11. 

(d)  2  Pet.  i   21. 

(e)  2  Pet.  i.  21.     Matt.  xxv.  15. 

(/)  Jer.  i.  11—16.  xiii.  9—14.  Ezek.  iv.  4—8 
Dan.  viii.  15—19.  ix.  22—27.  x.  1—8.  Amos  vii 
7,  8.  viii.  2.  Zech.  i.  19—21.  iv.  11—14.  v.  6. 
John  xvi  13.  Eph.  iii.  3,  4.  1  Pet.  i.  10,  11. 

(0)  Lu«  i.  3.     John  xiv.  26.     Jer.  xxxi.  3. 

(fc)  Jonn  xx.  30,  31.  xxi.  25.  Rom.  iv.  23,  24 
xv.  4.  1  Cor.  x.  6—11. 

(»)  Amos  i.  and  ix.  Acts  xvii.  28.  1  Cor.  xv. 
33.  Tit.  i.  12. 

(A)  Gen.  i.  ii.  iii.  Lev.  xxvi.  Isa.  xli.  22,  23. 
xlv.  21.  xlvi.  9,  10.  1  Tim.  iii.  16. 

(/)  Deut.  viii.  1 — 4.  Ps.  xix.  7 — 11.  cxix.  Matt, 
xxii.  29.  Luke  xiv.  25—31.  John  v.  39.  Rom. 
xv.  4.  2  Tim.  iii.  15—17.  2  Pet.  i.  19. 

2  Q2 


S  C  FM 


essentially  into  our  ideas  of  a  revelation  from 
God;  so  that  to  deny  inspiration  is  tantamount 
»o  affirming  there  is  no  revelation.  And  why 
should  it  be  denied  ?  Is  man  out  ef  the  reach 
of  him  who  created  him  ?  Has  he,  who  gave 
man  his  intellect,  no  means  of  enlarging  or  il- 
luminating that  intellect?  And  is  it  beyond  his 
power  to  illuminate  and  inform  in  an  especial 
manner  the  intellects  of  some  chosen  individuals; 
or  contrary  to  his  wisdom  to  preserve  them  from 
error  when  they  communicate  to  others,  either 
orally  or  by  writing,  the  knowledge  he  imparted 
to  them,  not  merely  for  their  own  benefit,  but 
for  that  of  the  world  at  large  ? 

'  But,  farther,  inspiration  is  necessary.  The 
necessity  of  revelation  I  have  shown  in  a  former 
fetter ;  and  the  same  reasoning,  in  connexion 
with  what  I  have  just  remarked,  establishes  the 
necessity  of  inspiration.  Besides  this,  the  sub- 
jects of  Scripture  render  inspiration  necessary. 
Some  past  facts  recorded  in  the  Bible  could  not 
possibly  have  been  known  had  not  C»od  revealed 
'hem.  Many  things  are  recorded  there  as  fu- 
ture, that  is,  are  predicted,  which  God  alone 
could  foreknow  and  foretel,  which  notwithstand- 
ing came  to  pass,  and  which,  therefore,  were 
foretold  under  divine  inspiration.  Others,  again, 
are  far  above  human  capacity,  and  could  never 
have  been  discovered  by  men:  these,  therefore, 
roust  have  been  delivered  by  divine  inspiration. 
The  authoritative  language  of  Scripture,  too, 
argues  the  necessity  of  inspiration,  admitting 
the  veracity  of  the  writers.  They  propose  things 
not  as  matters  for  consideration,  but  for  adoption  : 
they  d«  not  leave  us  the  alternative  of  receiving 
or  rejecting;  do  not  present  us  with  their  own 
thoughts ;  but  exclaim,  '  Thus  saith  the  Lord,' 
and  on  that  ground  demand  our  assent.  They 
must  of  necessity  therefore  speak  and  write  as 
they  '  were  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost,'  or  be 
impostors :  and  the  last  supposition  is  precluded 
by  reasonings  which  I  have  again  and  again 
brought  forward  in  these  letters.  Very  striking 
proofs  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  might 
DC  deduced  from  a  consideration  of  their  sub- 
limity, their  union  of  perspicuity  with  profundity, 
their  piety,  their  pure  and  holy  tendency,  their 
efficacy,  their  harmony,  and  their  miraculous 
preservation.  But  I  shall  leave  you  to  reflect 
upon  these  at  your  leisure,  and  proceed  to  lay 
before  you,  as  an  argument  of  no  small  weight, 
the  testimony  of  those  who  lived  nearest  the  apos- 
tolic times  on  this  point.  They  may  naturally  be 
expected,  so  far  I  mean  as  is  independent  of  the 
written  word,  to  know  more  of  the  mind  of  those 
who,  in  regard  to  religious  topics,  had  the  '  mind 
of  Christ,' than  any  Christians  in  subsequent  ages.' 

Our  author  then  establishes  by  quotations  from 
these  writers  (which  we  have  not  room  to  trans- 
cribe) that  nearly  all  the  Christian  writers  in  the 
first  three  centuries,  whose  performances  have 
wholly  or  partly  reached  us,  speak  of  the  Scrip- 
tures as  divine,  call  them  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
the  sacred  fountain,  the  divine  fountains  of  salva- 
tion, &c.,  evidently  implying  their  inspiration : 
and  that  in  those  early  ages  the  whole  church 
agreed  in  sentiment  that  no  book  should  be  re- 
ceived into  the  canon  of  Scripture  of  whose  m- 
spiiation  there  was  any  doubt.  The  curious 


T  I"   R  E. 

reader  may  consult  farther  tlu-  testimonies  col- 
lected by  Dr.  Whitby,  vol.  t.  I'ref.,  by  Dr. 
Lardner  in  the  second  part  of  his  Credibility,  Dr. 
Doddridge  in  his  Lectures  on  Divinity,  and  in 
his  Family  Expositor,  vol.  iii. 

'  Thus,  then,  we  see,'  he  adds,  '  that  in  the 
primitive  ages  the  universal  opinion  was  in  favor 
of  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures.  Let  us  next 
enquire  how  far  this  opinion  grows  naturally  out 
of  an  examination  of  the  Scriptures  themselves. 
Considered  in  relation  to  the  present  subject, 
the  books  of  Scripture  fall  under  three  classes  : 
the  prophetical  books ;  the  historical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament ;  and  the  New  Testament, 
being  in  part  historical,  in  part  doctrinal. 

'  Now,  as  to  the  prophetical  books,  their  di- 
vine authority  and  their  inspiration  follow  at 
once  from  the  completion  of  several  of  the  pre- 
dictions they  contain :  the  entire  fulfilment  of  the 
whole  is  not  essential  to  the  argument.  The  in- 
spiration of  the  New  Testament  may  be  inferred 
from  the  language  of  our  Lord,  and  that  of  the 
apostles.  Thus,  Jesus  Christ  promised  extraordi- 
nary assistance  to  his  apostles.  He  promised  them 
'  the  Comforter,'  '  the  Holy  Spirit,'  '  the  Spirit  of 
Truth,'  who  should  '  testify  of  him,'  should  '  teach 
them  all  things,  bring  all  things  to  their  remem- 
brance whatsoever  Christ  had  said  unto  them, 
should  guide  them  into  all  truth,  should  abide  with 
them  for  ever,  and  show  them  things  to  come  (;«).' 
Again,  he  says,  *  when  the  Comforter  is  come, 
whom  I  will  send  to  you  from  the  Father,  even 
the  Spirit  of  Truth,  which  proceedeth  from  the 
Father,  he  shall  testify  of  me  ;  and  ye  also  (being 
so  assisted)  shall  bear  witness  (n).'  From  these 
passages  it  is  but  fair  and  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  the  aid  of  this  Heavenly  Guide  was  to  be 
vouchsafed  them  on  all  suitable  occasions ;  and 
surely  no  occasions  could  render  it  more  ex- 
pedient than  when  they  were  engaged  in  de- 
livering written  instructions,  whether  in  the  form 
of  Gospels  or  of  Epistles,  which  were  intended 
for  the  edification  of  the  Christian  church  till 
*  time  should  be  no  longer.'  In  fact,  the  Spirit 
could  not  abide  with  them  for  ever,  in  relation  to 
t!  e  church,  in  any  other  way  than  by  preserving 
the  word  they  delivered  from  such  human  or 
diabolical  depreciation  and  corruption  as  migh* 
render  it  injurious  instead  of  being  salutary.  It 
will  also  be  worth  our  while  to  notice  the  re- 
markable language  in  which  Jesus  Christ  pro- 
mises his  apostles  the  extraordinary  assistance  of 
the  Spirit  while  they  are  defending  his  cause  be- 
fore magistrates.  'Settle  it  therefore  in  your 
hearts  not  to  meditate  before  what  ye  shall 
answer ;  for  I  will  give  you  a  mouth  and  wisdom 
which  all  your  adversaries  shall  not  be  able  to 
gainsay  or  resist.  Take  no  thought  how  or  what 
ye  shall  speak ;  for  it  shall  be  given  you  in  that 
same  hour  what  ye  shall  speak  ;  for  it  is  not  you 
that  speak,  but  the  Spirit  of  your  Father  thai 
speaketh  in  you  (o).*  If  this  were  to  be  the  case 
when  they  pleaded  before  magistrates,  how  much 
more  reason  is  there  to  conclude  that,  when  they 

(m)  John  xiv.  16—26.  xvi.  13. 
(n)  John  xv.  26,  27. 

(o)  Luke  xxi.  14,  15.  Matt.  x.  19,  20.  Mark 
riii.  11. 


SCRIPTURE. 


597 


were  writing  for  the  use  of  all  future  generations, 
it  was  not  so  much  they  who  wrote  as  the  Spirit 
of  the  Father  who  dictated  to  them,  and  thus 
wrote  by  them.  For  the  occasion  is  evidently 
much  more  important  in  the  latter  instance  than 
in  the  former :  an  error  in  their  writings  would 
have  a  much  more  extensive,  permanent,  and 
injurious  influence,  than  any  error  that  could  oc- 
cur in  a  pleading  or  argument,  necessarily  of 
transient  impression,  before  a  magistrate. 

'  In  estimating  the  authority  claimed  by  the 
eight  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  we  must  not 
only  consider  their  unbroken,  unimpeachable  in- 
tegrity, but  that  five  of  them  were  of  the  number 
of  the  apostles  to  whom  the  promises  just  cited 
were  made.  Of  the  other  three,  one,  namely 
Luke,  is  generally  admitted  to  have  been  of  the 
seventy  disciples  sent  out  by  Christ,  and  who 
received"  the  promise  of  divine  superintendence 
and  inspiration  recorded  in  his  Gospel  (p). 
With  regard  to  Mark,  if  his  own  immediate  in- 
spiration cannot  be  established,  that  of  his  Gospel 
can,  since  it  has  never  been  questioned  that  he 
wrote  under  the  superintendence  of  Peter,  an 
inspired  apostle.  There  then  remains  only  Paul, 
who  repeatedly  and  solemnly  asserts  his  own 
inspiration,  and  his  equality  in  every  respect 
with  all  the  other  apostles ;  appealing  to  miracles 
publicly  wrought  by  himself  in  proof  of  his  di- 
vine commission.  That  the  apostles  themselves 
had  a  full  persuasion  that  they  wrote  under  Di- 
vine inspiration  is  evident  from  a  great  variety 
of  texts ;  to  some  of  the  most  important  of  which 
I  shall  refer  you  (<?),  that  you  may  consult  them 
carefully,  and  allow  them  their  full  impression 
upon  your  mind.  You  will  find,  too,  that  the 
apostles  considered  themselves  as  communicating 
to  the  world  a  perpetual  rule  of  faith  and  prac- 
tice, which  would  be  comprehended  by  all  ex- 
cept the  finally  impenitent.  If,  say  they,  '  if 
our  gospel  be  under  a  veil,  it  is  veiled  to  those 
that  are  perishing  (r).'  On  these  accounts,  as  it 
should  seem,  they  preferred  themselves  before 
the  prophets,  saying  (x)  '  God  hath  set  in  the 
church,  first,  apostles ;  secondly,  prophets ;  thirdly, 
teachers :'  language  which  could  not  properly 
have  been  employed  had  the  apostles  been  in- 
spired only  to  preach,  and  not  to  write  ;  for  in 
that  case  they  would  manifestly  be  inferior  to 
the  prophets,  who  in  their  writings,  as  well  as 
their  oral  denunciations,  '  spake  as  they  were 
moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost.' 

Dr.  Doddridge,  in  his  valuable  Dissertation 
on  the  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,  well  ob- 
serves : — '  The  inspiration,  and  consequently  the 
genuineness  and  credibility,  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, may  be  certainly  inferred  from  that  of  the 
New,  because  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  were  so 

(p)  Luke  xii.  11,  12.     See  also  Luke  x   16. 

(9)  1  Cor.  ii.  10—16.  iii.  21-23.  xi.  23.  xiv. 
37.  2  Cor.  ii.  10.  iii.  5,  6.  iv.  8.  xi.  7.  xiii.  3. 
Gal.  i.  H,  12.  Ephes.  iii.  3—5.  10.  iv.  11,  12. 

1  Tim.  i.  11.     1  Pet.  i.  12.  21.     2  Pet.  iii.  2.  15, 
16.     John  x.  35.     1  John  ii.  20.  iv.  6.     Rev.  i.  1, 
&c.     I  Thess.  i.  5.     2  Thess.  ii.  13. 

(r)  E«  Sc  gat  «<rt  KtKaXvfjifuvov  TO  tvajyi\iov 
ijfHov,  fv  TO»C  aTroXAvuei/oic  «<rt  KtKaXvuuivov. 

2  Cor.  iv.  3. 

(f)  1  Cor.  xii.  28.     Ephes.  ii.  20. 


far  from  charging  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees 
(who  on  all  proper  occasions  are  censured  so 
freely)  with  having  introduced  into  the  sacred 
volume  any  merely  human  compositions;  that, 
on  the  contrary,  they  not  only  recommend  a 
diligent  and  constant  perusal  of  these  Scriptures, 
as  of  the  greatest  importance  to  men's  .eternal 
happiness,  but  speak  of  them  as  divine  oracles, 
and  as  written  by  the  extraordinary  influence 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  the  minds  of  the  authors. 

'  I  desire  that  the  following  list  of  Scriptures 
may  be  attentively  consulted  and  reflected  on 
in  this  view.  I  might  have  added  a  great  many 
more,  indeed  several  hundreds,  in  which  the 
sacred  writers  of  the  New  Testament  argue  from 
those  of  the  Old  in  such  a  manner  as  nothing 
could  have  justified  but  a  firm  persuasion  that 
they  were  divinely  inspired.  Now,  as  the  Jews 
always  allowed  that  'the  testimony  of  an  ap- 
proved prophet  was  sufficient  to  confirm  the 
mission  of  one  who  was  supported  by  it,'  so  I 
think  every  reasonable  man  will  readily  conclude 
that  no  inspired  person  can  erroneously  attest 
another  to  be  inspired  ;  and  indeed  the  very  defi- 
nition of  plenary  inspiration  absolutely  excludes 
any  room  for  cavilling  on  so  plain  a  head.  I 
throw  the  particular  passages  which  I  choose  to 
mention  into  the  margin  below  (£);  and  he  must 
be  a  very  indolent  inquirer  into  a  question  of  so 
much  importance,  who  does  not  think  it  worth 
his  while  to  turn  carefully  to  them  ;  unless  he 
have  already  such  a  conviction  of  the  argument 
that  it  should  need  no  farther  to  be  illustrated  or 
confirmed.' 

Of  late,  objections  to  the  evidence  from  mira- 
cles for  the  inspiration  of  Scripture  having  been 
revived  in  one  of  our  most  popular  literary 
journals,  bishop  Gleig,  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal 
Church,  has  inserted  a  valuable  Supplementary 
Dissertation  on  the  Miracles  of  our  Lord  and 
his  Apostles  in  his  new  edition  of  Stackhouse's 
History  of  the  Bible.  The  following  is  an  ab- 
stract of  the  most  material  part  of  this  excellent 
essay : — 

'  A  miracle  has  been  defined — '  An  effect  or 
event  contrary  to  tha  established  constitution  or 
course  of  things,'  or  '  a  sensible  deviation  from 
the  known  laws  of  nature.'  To  this  definition  I 
am  not  aware  tnat  any  objection  has  ever  been 
made,  or  indeed  can  be  made.  That  the  visible 
world  is  governed  by  stated  general  rules  or 
laws  ;  or  that  there  is  an  order  of  physical  causes 
and  effects  established  in  every  part  of  the  sys- 
tem of  nature,  whicli  falls  under  our  observation, 
is  a  fact,  which  is  not,  and  cannot  be,  contro- 
verted. Effects  which  are  produced  by  the  re- 
gular operation  of  these  laws  or  physical  causes, 
or  which  are  conformable  to  the  established 

(i)  John  v.  39.     Matt.  iv.  4.  7.  10.     Mark  xii. 

24.  Luke  x.  26,  27.     Matt.  v.  17,  18;  xxi.  42; 
xxii.  29.  31.  43  ;  xxiv.  15;  xxvi.  54.  56.     Luke  i. 
67.  69,  70  :  xvi.  31  ;  xxiv.  25.  27.     John  vi.  31  ; 
x.  35.    Acts  ii.  16.  25 ;  iii.  22.  24  ;  iv.  25  ;  xvii.  11 ; 
xviii.  24.  28 ;  xxviii.  25.     Rom.  iii.  2.  10  ;  ix.  17. 

25.  27.  29  ;  x.  5.  1.1.  16  ;  xv.  4  ;  xvi.  26.     1.  Cor. 
x.  11.     2  Cor.  iv.  13  ;   vi.  16,  17.     Gal.  iii.   8. 

1  Tim.  v.  18  ;  2  Tim.  iii.  15,  16.     Heb.  i.  1.  5—13  r 
iii.   7.     Jam.   ii.   8;    iv.   5,   6.     1   Pet.  i.   10—13 

2  Pet.  i.  19—21. 


698 


SCRIPTURE. 


course  of  events,  are  said  to  be  natural  ;  and 
every  palpable  deviation  from  this  constitution 
of  the  natural  system,  and  the  correspondent 
course  of  events  in  it,  is  called  a  miracle. 

'  If  this  definition  of  a  miracle  be  accurate, 
no  event  can  be  justly  deemed  miraculous  merely 
because  it  is  strange,  or  even  to  us  unaccount- 
able ;  for  it  may  be  nothing  more  than  the  regu- 
lar effect  of  some  physical  cause  operating 
according  to  an  established  though  unknown  law 
of  nature.  In  this  country  earthquakes  happen 
but  rarely,  and  at  no  stated  periods  of  time ;  and 
for  monstrous  births  perhaps  no  particular  and 
satisfactory  account  can  be  given  :  yet  an  earth- 
quake is  as  regular  an  effect  of  the  established 
laus  of  nature  as  the  bursting  of  a  bomb-shell, 
or  the  movements  of  a  steam  engine ;  and  no 
man  doubts  but  that,  under  particular  circum- 
stances unknown  to  him,  the  monster  is  nature's 
genuine  issue.  It  is  therefore  necessary,  before 
we  can  pronounce  an  event  to  be  a  true  miracle, 
that  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  pro- 
duced be  known,  and  that  the  common  course  of 
nature  be  in  some  degree  understood;  for,  in  all 
those  cases  in  which  we  are  totally  ignorant  of 
nature,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  what  is,  or 
what  is  not,  a  deviation  from  her  course.  Mi- 
racles, therefore,  are  not,  as  some  have  represent- 
ed them,  appeals  to  our  ignorance.  They  sup- 
pose some  antecedent  knowledge  of  the  course 
of  nature,  without  which  no  proper  judgment 
can  be  formed  concerning  them  ;  though  with  it 
their  reality  may  be  so  apparent  as  to  leave  no 
room  for  doubt  or  disputation.  Thus,  were  a 
physician  to  give  instantly  sight  to  a  blind  man, 
by  anointing  his  eyes  with  a  chemical,  prepara- 
tion, which  we  had  never  before  seen,  and  to  the 
nature  and  qualities  of  which  we  were  absolute 
stangers,  the  cure  would  to  us  undoubtedly  be 
wonderful ,  but  we  could  not  pronounce  it  mi- 
raculcus,  because  it  might  be  the  physical  effect 
of  the  operation  of  the  uuguent  on  the  eye.  But 
were  he  to  give  sight  to  his  patient  merely  by 
commanding  him  to  receive  it,  or  by  anointing 
his  eyes  with  spittle,  we  should  with  the  utmost 
confidence  pronounce  the  cure  to  be  a  miracle  ; 
because  we  know  perfectly  that  neither  the  hu- 
man voice,  nor  human  spittle  has,  by  the  estab- 
lished constitution  of  things,  any  such  power 
over  the  diseases  of  the  eye.  No  one  is  now  ig- 
norant that  persons  apparently  dead  are  often 
restored  to  their  families  and  friends,  by  being 
treated,  during  suspended  animation,  in  the 
manner  recommended  by  the  Humane  Society. 
To  the  vulgar,  and  sometimes  even  to  men 
of  science,  these  resuscitations  appear  very  won- 
derful ;  but,  as  they  are  known  to  be  effected  by 
physical  agency,  they  can  never  be  considered  as 
miraculous  deviations  from  the  laws  of  nature, 
though  they  may  suggest  to  different  minds  very 
different  notions  of  the  state  of  death.  On  the 
other  hand,  no  one  could  doubt  of  his  having 
witnessed  a  real  miracle  who  had  seen  a  person, 
that  had  been  four  days  dead,  come  alive  out  of 
the  grave  at  the  call  of  another,  or  who  had  even 
beheld  a  person  exhibiting  all  the  common  evi- 
dences of  death  instantly  resuscitated  merely  by 
being  desired  to  live.  Thus  easy  is  it  to  distin- 
guish between  such  miracles  as  those  of  our 


blessed  Saviour  and  the  most  wonderful  phe- 
nomena produced  by  physical  causes,  operating 
according  to  the  established  laws  of  nature. 
Yet  it  seems  difficult  to  admit,  on  any  occasion, 
a  suspension  of  these  laws ;  and  we  may  safely 
pronounce  that  they  have  never  been  suspended 
but  for  some  important  purpose,  which  could 
not  otherwise  have  been  accomplished.  'Events,' 
says  an  able  writer,  '  may  be  so  extraordinary 
that  they  can  hardly  be  established  by  any  tes- 
timony ;'  and  the  instance  which  he  gives  is  of 
an  event,  in  which  I  am  not  aware  that  any  law 
of  nature  would  be  suspended.  '  We  would  not 
give  credit  to  a  man  who  should  affirm  that  he 
saw  100  dice  thrown  in  the  air,  and  that  they 
all  fell  on  the  same  faces.'  To  such  an  affirma- 
tion I  certainly  would  give  no  credit;  for,  though 
I  think  that  100  dice  might  all  fall  on  the  same 
faces  without  the  suspension  of  any  known  law 
of  nature,  such  an  event  is  so  extremely  impro- 
bable, and  of  so  very  little  importance  in  itself, 
that  it  would  require  the  evidence  of  more  than 
one  witness  to  establish  its  credibility.  The  au- 
thor however  considers  it  as  the  violation  of 
some  unknown  law  of  nature,  and  immediately 
infers,  from  its  not  being  admitted  on  the  report 
of  one  man,  'that  the  probability  of  the  continu- 
ance of  the  laws  of  nature  is  superior  to  every 
other  evidence,  and  to  that  of  historical  facts  the 
best  established.'  In  this  inference  I  cannot  ac- 
quiesce; but,  before  entering  into  any  discussion 
on  the  subject,  it  will  be  necessary  to  ascertain 
with  some  precision  what  is  meant  by  the  laws 
of  nature,  and  whence  those  laws  had  their  origin. 

'  If  this  profound  mathematician  (Laplace  is 
here  referred  to)  be,  as  his  countrymen  in  gene- 
ral were  some  years  ago,  convinced,  either  that 
there  is  no  God  ;  or  that,  if  there  be  a  God,  he  is 
not  the  moral  governor  of  the  world  ;  or  that  the 
present  laws  of  nature,  or  the  established  course 
of  things,  have  existed  from  all  eternity  inde- 
pendent of  him  and  of  every  intellectual  being, 
he  is  perf'-ctly  consistent  when  he  says  that  no 
weight  of  testimony  could  prove  the  miraculous 
suspension  of  these  laws.  It  would  indeed  be 
ridiculous  to  talk  of  miracles  to  the  atheist  or 
fatalist ;  for  if  there  were  no  God,  or  if  God  were 
not  the  moral  as  well  as  physical  governor  of 
the  world,  the-  very  notion  of  miracles,  as  it  is 
entertained  by  Christians,  would  involve  in  it  :\ 
contradiction  and  absurdity.  It  is  only  with 
theists,  therefore,  and  such  theists  as,  admitting 
the  moral  attributes  of  God,  believe  that  the  es- 
tablished course  of  things,  or  the  laws  of  nature, 
were  established  by  him  for  the  accomplishment  of 
some  great  and  good  purpose,  that  any  discussion 
can  be  carried  on  respecting  the  evidence  necessary 
to  prove  the  temporary  suspension  of  any  one  of 
these  laws ;  for  if  they  be  all  necessary,  and 
have  been  from  eternity,  it  is  as  impossible  to 
suspend  them  by  any  power,  or  for  any  purpose, 
as  it  is  to  render  a  geometrical  axiom  false.' 

Let  us  now  suppose  that,  when  the  Creator  of 
the  world  was  about  to  establish  that  course  of 
events  which  we  call  the  laws  of  nature,  in  such 
order  as  he  knew  would  produce  the  greatest 
quantity  of  happiness  to  the  whole  sentient  and 
intelligent  creation,  lie  foresaw  that  man,  for 
whose  accommodation  chiefly  we  must  suppose 


SCRIPTURE. 


699 


this  earth  to  have  beeu  fitted  up,  would  bring 
aimself  into  such  circumstances  that  his  happi- 
ness would  become  impossible,  unless  some  one 
of  these  laws  should  for  a  time  be  suspended ; 
may  we  not  suppose  that  a  Being  of  infinite 
power  and  wisdom  might  make  provision  for 
such  an  event  in  the  very  establishment  of  those 
laws?  To  control  by  force  the  freedom  of  the 
human  will  would  be  to  destroy  that  very  nature 
on  which  depends  the  greatest  happiness  of 
which  man  is  capable  ;  but  might  not  some  por- 
tion of  inanimate  matter  be  diverted  for  a  short 
time  from  its  regular  course  without  the  smallest 
injury  to  any  sentient  or  intelligent  being  in  the 
universe  ?  In  the  journal  to  which  I  have  al- 
ready referred,  it  is  confidently  affirmed  that  it 
could  not.  '  Suppose  a  man,'  says  this  critic, 
*  not  at  all  versed  in  astronomy,  who  considers 
the  moon  merely  as  a  luminous  circle  that,  with 
certain  irregularities,  goes  round  the  earth  from 
east  to  west  nearly  in  twenty-four  hours,  rising 
once  and  setting  once  in  that  interval.  Let  this 
man  be  told,  from  some  authority  that  he  is  ac- 
customed to  respect,  that  on  a  certain  day  it  had 
been  observed  at  London  that  the  moon  did  not 
set  at  all,  but  was  visible  above  the  horizon  for 
twenty-four  hours  : — there  is  little  doubt  that, 
after  making  some  difficulty  about  it,  he  would 
come  at  last  to  be  convinced  of  the  truth  of  the 
assertion.  In  this  he  could  not  be  accused  of 
any  extraordinary  or  irrational  credulity.  The 
experience  he  had  of  the  uniform  setting  and 
rising  of  the  moon  was  but  very  limited  ;  and  the 
fact  alleged  might  not  appear  to  him  more  ex- 
traordinary than  many  of  the  irregularities  to 
which  that  luminary  is  subject.  Let  the  same 
thing  be  told  to  an  astronomer,  in  whose  mind 
the  rising  and  setting  of  the  moon  were  necessa- 
rily connected  with  a  vast  number  of  other  ap- 
pearances ;  who  knew,  for  example,  that  the 
supposed  fact  could  not  have  happened,  unless 
the  moon  had  exceedingly  deviated  from  that 
orbit  in  which  it  has  always  moved  ;  or  the  po- 
sition of  the  earth's  axis  had  been  suddenly 
changed ;  or  that  the  atmospherical  refraction 
had  been  increased  to  an  extent  that  was  never 
known.  Any  of  all  these  events  must  have  affected 
such  a  vast  number  of  others,  that,  as  no  such 
thing  was  ever  before  perceived,  an  incredible 
body  of  evidence  is  brought  to  ascertain  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  moon  in  her  regular  course.  The 
barrier  that  generalization  and  the  explanation  of 
causes  thus  raises  against  credulity  and  super- 
stition,— the  way  in  which  it  multiplies  the  evi- 
dence of  experience,  is  highly  deserving  of  at- 
tention, and  is  likely  to  have  a  great  influence 
on  the  future  fortunes  of  the  human  race. 
Against  the  uniformity,  therefore,  of  such  laws,  it 
is  impossible  for  testimony  to  prevail.'  Cer- 
tainly, it  is  impossible  for  such  testimony  as  that 
supposed,  to  prevail  against  the  uniformity  of 
any  law  of  nature ;  for,  as  I  have  already  ob- 
served, if  those  laws  be  necessary  and  eternal, 
their  uniformity  can  never  be  interrupted  for 
any  purpose  or  by  any  power,  and,  if  they  have 
been  established  by  a  God  of  perfect  wisdom  and 
goodness,  we  may  be  assured  that  they  will  never 
be  suspended  for  so  unworthy  a  purpose  as  only 
to  make  the  citizens  of  London  stare,  and  enable 


one  of  them  to  try  the  credulity  of  some  clown, 
who  believes  the  moon  to  consist,  according  to 
the  Scotch  expression,  of  green  cheese!  What 
such  a  ridiculous  tale  as  this,  supposing  it  ever 
to  have  been  seriously  told,  would  have  to  do 
with  superstition,  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive  ;  but 
the  ingenious  critic  might  as  well  have  told  us,  in 
plain  terms,  that  it  is  impossible  for  testimony 
to  render  credible  what  is  said  of  the  sun  and 
moon  standing  still  at  the  call  of  Joshua ;  for 
even  his  friend,  who  believes  the  moon  to  be  a 
mere  luminous  circle  of  cheese,  if  at  all  conver- 
sant with  his  Bible,  must  perceive  that  this  is 
what  he  intended  to  say  under  the  cover  of  a 
clumsy  apologue. 

'  If  the  laws  of  nature  be  the  work  of  fate,  I 
readily  agree  with  him  that  the  story  of  the  sun 
and  moon  standing  still  cannot  be  rendered  cre- 
dible by  any  testimony.  If  those  laws  be,  as  I 
believe  them  to  be,  the  constitution  of  an  Al- 
mighty and  infinitely  wise  and  good  God,  I 
likewise  readily  agree  with  him  that  no  testi- 
mony could  render  credible  the  phenomena  of 
the  sun  and  moon's  standing  still,  but  for  some 
important  purpose  that  could  not  have  been 
otherwise  so  well  accomplished.  What  the  pur- 
pose was  for  which  the  children  of  Israel  were 
separated  from  the  idolatrous  nations  around 
them,  and  established  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  has 
been  fully  stated  elsewhere;  and  the  theist,  with 
whom  I  am  now  arguing,  will  admit  that,  whe- 
ther it  was  real  or  not,  that  purpose  was  of  great 
importance.  Great,  however,  as  that  purpose 
was,  for  the  reasons  elsewhere  assigned,  no  tes- 
timony could  prevail  with  me  to  believe,  that,  for 
the  sake  of  it,  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis,  and  the  course  of  the  moon  in  her  orbit, 
were  literally  arrested,  unless  the  same  Almighty 
power  wrought  another  miracle  at  the  same  in- 
stant to  prevent  the  natural  consequences  of  the 
sudden  cessation  of  motions  so  rapid.  Without 
this  second  miracle,  I  am  as  fully  aware  as  our 
critic,  that  those  events  produced  by  the  first 
must  have  not  only  affected  a  vast  number  of 
others,  but  been  also  productive  of  mischief — 
such  as  the  reducing  of  the  earth  to  a  state  of 
chaos — more  than  sufficient  to  balance  the  good 
expected  from  the  miracle ; — nay,  that  they 
would  have  rendered  the  miracle  itself  useless, 
by  destroying  those  for  whose  instruction  it  was 
meant  to  be  wrought.  I  confess,  however,  that 
I  do  not  perceive  what  injury  could  have  been 
done  to  any  sentient  or  intelligent  being  in  the 
solar  system,  or  how  the  different  planets,  of 
which  that  system  is  composed,  could  have  been 
disturbed  in  their  courses,  by  an  extraordinary 
atmospherical  refraction  of  part  of  the  solar  rays, 
by  which  I  believe  the  miracle  in  question  to 
have  been  affected.  It  is  very  true  that  my 
knowledge  of  the  sciences  of  astronomy  and  op- 
tics is  very  limited  when  compared  with  that  of 
Laplace  and  his  friend  ;  but  I  may  surely  be  al- 
lowed to  know  more  of  them  than  the  man,  who, 
without  displaying  any  irrational  credulity,  be- 
lieves that  on  a  certain  day  the  moon  had  at 
London  forgotten  to  set.  I  have  likewise  con- 
versed often,  on  the  subject  of  miracles  in  gene- 
ral, and  of  that  of  Joshua  in  particular,  with 
ohilosophical  laymen,  some  of  whom,  with  re- 


600 


SCRIPTURE. 


spect  to  their  knowledge  of  optics  and  astronomy, 
mi<*ht,  without  presumption,  have  been  brought 
into  comparison  even  witli  Laplace ;  and  they 
saw  as  little  danger  as  I  do,  to  any  part  of  the 
creation,  from  a  temporary  increase  of  the  re- 
fractive power  of  the  atmosphere  to  any  extent. 
Indeed  all  philosophical  theists,  with  whom  I 
have  conversed  freely  on  such  subjects,  have 
held  the  will  of  God  to  be  the  immediate  cause 
(I  mean  efficient  cause)  of  every  law  of  inani- 
mate nature,  as  well  as  of  every  deviation  from 
those  laws,  which  deviations  were  foreseen  and 
provided  for  from  the  beginning,  when  '  the 
world  first  rose  out  of  chaos.'  I  confess  likewise 
that  I  see  not  how  the  restoration  of  a  dead  man 
to  life,  or  any  other  miracle  recorded  of  our 
Lord  in  the  Gospels,  could  affect  such  a  vast 
number  of  others  as  (o  bring  what  our  critic 
calls  an  incredible  body  of  evidence  against  the 
reality  of  those  miracles.  The  most  astonishing 
of  them  all  has  long  appeared  to  me  to  be  the 
multiplication  of  the  loaves  and  fishes,  because 
it  seems  to  imply  the  power  of  creation  ;  and  we 
certainly  have  the  evidence  of  uniform  experi- 
ence, as  far  as  experience  can  be  had  in  such  a 
case,  that  not  an  atom  of  matter  has  been  either 
created  or  annihilated  since  the  beginning  of  the 
world.  The  quantity,  however,  of  new  matter 
added,  on  those  two  occasions,  to  the  old,  suppos- 
ing such  to  have  been  the  case,  was  comparatively 
so  small,  that  the  philosophers,  who  '  weigh  not 
only  the  mountains  of  the  earth,'  but  even  the 
earth  itself  and  all  the  planetary  system,  '  in  a 
pair  of  scales,'  and  who  hope,  by  the  aid  of '  a 
calculus  sufficiently  powerful,  to  make  near  ap- 
proaches to  omniscience,' will  admit  that  it  could 
not  have  greatly  disturbed  the  motions  of  the 
earth  and  moon,  or  any  other  planet. 

'  On  the  principles  of  pure  theism,  therefore, 
though  certainly  not  on  those  of  atheism  or  fa- 
talism, the  possibility  of  miracles — and  even  of 
such  miracles  as  those  of  our  Lord, — will  surely 
be  admitted  :  but  the  great  question  is,  what 
evidence  is  sufficient  to  render  them  credible  ? 
The  Christians  say  that  the  evidence  of  testimony 
is  sufficient  for  this  purpose,  and  indeed  that  no 
other  evidence  can  be  had.  That  the  truth  of 
the  gospel  miracles  admits,  in  the  present  age, 
of  no  other  evidence  than  that  of  testimony,  will 
be  readily  admitted;  but  our  critic  contends,  as 
Hume  had  done  before  him,  that  the  improbabi- 
lity of  the  violation  of  the  order  of  those  events, 
of  which  the  course  is  known  from  experience 
to  be  perfectly  uniform,  is  so  strong,  that  no  tes- 
timony can  prevail  against  it.  'It  will  always 
be  more  wonderful,'  he  says,  '  that  the  violation 
of  such  order  should  have  taken  place,  than  that 
any  number  of  witnesses  should  have  been  de- 
ceived themselves,  or  should  be  disposed  to  de- 
ceive others.'  If  this  doctrine  be  true,  how 
many  facts  have  taken  place  in  nature,  or  have 
been  said  by  philosophers  to  take  place  in  nature, 
which  notone  man  of  10,000,  or  even  10,000,000, 
can  rationally  believe  to  have  happened  !  '  That 
testimony  derives  all  its  force  from  experience,' 
says  the  critic,  '  seems  very  certain  ;'  and  Hume, 
as  he  acknowledges,  had  said  the  same  thing  be- 
fore him.  But,  if  this  be  true,  upon  what  evi- 
dence can  I  and  hundreds  of  millions  beside  me 


believe,  that  showers  of  meteoric  stones  have,  in 
different  ages  and  distant  nations,  fallen  from 
the  atmosphere  on  the  earth  ?  I  never  saw  one 
such  stone  fall,  and  I  have  the  evidence  of  uni- 
form experience  that  the  atmosphere  does  not 
regularly  generate  metallic  stones.  Every  man 
who  is  in  the  same  predicament  with  me  has  the 
same  immense  weight  of  experience  to  place  in 
the  balance  against  the  testimony  of  the  compa- 
ratively very  small  number  who  say  that  they 
had  witnessed  such  stones  fall  from  the  heavens; 
and,  if  it  be  very  certain  that  testimony  derives 
all  it;;  force  from  experience,  how  can  it  be  pos- 
sible for  hundreds  of  millions  of  men,  possessing 
common  sense,  to  admit,  in  opposition  to  their 
own  uniform  experience,  the  testimony  of  some 
dozens  of  people  who  may  have  been  deceived 
themselves,  or  disposed,  like  the  London  citizen 
with  his  moon  of  cheese,  to  deceive  others  ?  It 
is  vain  to  say  that  we  liave  the  experience  of 
ages,  and  of  numbers  of  chemists  who  have  ex- 
amined the  stones,  in  corroboratioa  of  the  testi- 
mony that  they  fell  from  the  heavens  ;  for  in  this 
argument,  where  experience  of  the  uniformity  of 
the  laws  of  nature  is  opposed  to  testimony  bear- 
ing witness  that  those  laws  have  been  occasion- 
ally suspended,  no  experience  can  be  admitted 
but  individual  personal  experience.  The  expe- 
rience of  ages  and  of  distant  nations — indeed  the 
experience  of  every  individual  but  myself — is 
known  to  me  only  by  testimony ;  and  is  it  pos- 
sible that  any  philosopher  can  seriously  contend 
that  testimony  derives  all  its  force  from  that  ex- 
perience, of  which  we  never  could  have  known 
any  thing — of  which,  indeed,  we  never  could 
have  heard — but  through  the  medium  of  testimony? 
This  is  surely  not  possible,  and  therefore  it  must 
be  by  every  man's  individual  personal  experi- 
ence, by  which,  on  the  principles  of  Hume  and 
his  followers,  the  truth  of  testimony  is  to  lie 
tried.  If  so,  I  ought  not  to  believe  that  there 
has  ever  been  an  earthquake;  for  1  never  felt  the 
shock  of  one,  though  I  have  heard  of  many,  and 
of  some  which  were  said  to  have  been  felt  by 
numbers  in  the  very  town  where  I  then  was  !  I 
ought  not  to  believe  that  a  monstrous  child  was 
ever  born  of  a  woman;  for  I  never  saw  a  human 
being,  who  could  with  any  propriety  be  called  a 
monster,  whilst  I  know,  by  uniform  personal 
experience,  that  every  monstrous  birth,  if  there 
have  been  any  such  births,  has  been  a  deviation 
from  the  regular  course  of  nature.  In  vain  shall 
I  be  told  that  earthquakes  may  be  accounted  for 
in  certain  circumstances,  and  shown  to  be  pro- 
duced by  the  operation  of  the  laws  of  nature  ; 
for  those  circumstances  are  probably  assumed 
for  the  purpose,  and,  whether  they  be  or  not, 
they  are  made  known  to  me  only  by  testimony 
•wnich  I  ought  to  disregard,  because  directly 
contrary  to  my  uniform  experience. 

'  But  even  this  mode  of  converting  testimony 
into  experience  cannot  be  had  recourse  to  in 
the  case  of  the  meteoric  stones  ;  for,  according  to 
one  of  the  most  scientific  chemists  of  the  age, 
4  it  would  be  absurd,  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge,  to  attempt  any  explanation  of  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  formed  ;  for  not  even 
a  conjectural  cause  for  them  in  the  smallest  de- 
gree probable  can  be  assigned.'  We  are  told  in- 


SCRIPTURE. 


601 


deed  that  the  testimony  produced  in  support  of 
the  origin  of  those  stones,  '  has  been  confirmed 
by  a  scrupulous  examination  into  the  natural 
history  of  the  facts  (the  stones)  themselves. 
When  the  stones  which  were  said  to  have  fallen 
from  the  heavens  came  to  be  chemically  analyzed, 
they  were  found  to  have  every  where  the  same 
characters,  and  to  consist  of  the  same  ingredients, 
nearly  in  the  same  proportions  ;'  whilst  no  other 
stones  have  any  where  been  found  of  precisely 
the  same  character.  '  Here,  therefore,'  says  the 
reviewer  of  Laplace,  '  we  have  a  testimony  con- 
firmed, and  rendered  quite  independent  of  our 
previous  knowledge  of  the  veracity  of  the  wit- 
nesses.' This  inference  I  cannot  admit;  nor 
can  I  conceive  by  what  rule  of  logic  it  is  drawn 
from  the  premises.  Not  to  insist  on  the  unquestion- 
able fact  that  the  result  of  the  chemical  analysis 
of  the  stones  can  be  known,  to  those  myriads  who 
were  not  present  when  it  was  made,  only  by  tes- 
timony, all  thatseemsto  me  to  have  been  proved 
by  that  analysis  is  that  the  stones  in  question  are 
of  one  and  the  same  species,  and  that  the  spe- 
cies itself  is  very  uncommon.  These  two  facts  I 
admit  to  have  been  completely  proved  ;  for  I 
have  no  hesitation  to  receive  the  testimony  of 
the  chemist  by  whom  they  were  ascertained  ;  but 
why  stones  of  a  singular  character,  found  in  dif- 
ferent regions  of  the  earth,  should  therefore  be 
inferred  to  have  fallen  from  the  heavens,  I  con- 
fess that  I  am  yet  to  learn.  That  a  stone  of  two 
or  three  tons  weight,  as  some  of  those  meteoric 
stones  have  been,  should  be  generated  in  the 
higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  and  float  in  a 
horizontal  direction  over  various  countries,  at 
the  distance  of  sixty  miles  from  the  earth,  is  di- 
rectly contrary  not  only  to  all  my  experience, 
but  likewise  to  all  that  I  know  of  the  constitution 
of  the  atmosphere,  as  well  as  of  the  law  of  gravi- 
tation— the  best  ascertained,  perhaps,  of  all  the 
laws  of  corporeal  nature !  Am  I  then  to  reject 
with  scorn  all  that  I  have  been  told  of  ignited 
stones  falling  from  the  heavens  ?  Undoubtedly  I 
ought  to  do  so,  if  testimony  derives  all  its  force 
from  experience;  for  though  those  stones  have 
been  chemically  analysed,  and  their  composition 
ascertained  by  experiments,  not  an  individual  of 
the  human  race  can  believe  that  they  fell  from 
the  atmosphere  on  any  other  evidence  than  the 
unsupported  testimony  of  those  very  few  persons 
who  have  said  that  they  saw  them  fall.  '  But  it 
will  always  be  more  wonderful  tiiat  masses  of 
iron,  pyrites,  and  earth,  of  the  weight  of  two  or 
three  tons,  should  be  formed  in  the  higher  regions 
jf  the  atmosphere,  and  even  float  horizontally  in 
that  rare  medium,  as  a  log  of  wood  floats  in 
water,  than  that  any  number  of  witnesses,  who 
affirm  that  they  say  them  fall,  should  have  been 
deceived  themselves,  or  disposed  to  deceive 
others.'  They  may  have  had  their  origin  in  the 
heart  of  the  earth,  and  been  forced  upwards  by 
ubterraneotis  fire  ;  and  this  may  seem  the  more 
probable,  that  the  principal  ingredient  in  them  is 
iron  in  the  metallic  state ;  that  they  have  been 
generally  found  hot  and  buried  to  a  considerable 
depth  in  the  earth ;  and  that  such  eruptions 
from  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  through  the  craters 
of  volcanoes,  have  frequently  been  accompanied 
by  appearances  in  the  air  which  might  easily  be 


mistaken  by  a  few  individuals — almost  stupified 
with  astonishment — for  meteors  descending  from 
the  heavens. 

'  In  a  word,  it  appears  to  me  that  there  is  not 
one  objection  urged  by  Hume,  Laplace,  or  any 
of  their  pupils,  against  the  sufficiency  of  testi- 
mony to  prove  the  reality  of  the  gospel  miracles, 
which  does  not  hold  with  at  least  equal  force 
against  the  reality  of  those  showers  of  meteoric 
stones  which  are  said  to  have  fallen  in  all  the 
quarters  of  the  globe.  The  truth,  however,  is, 
that  these  objections  are  in  both  cases  founded 
on  a  palpable  mistake.  Testimony  is  so  far  from 
deriving  all  its  force  from  experience,  that  as  was 
justly  observed  long  ago  (by  Dr.  Campbell  in 
his  admirable  Dissertation  on  Miracles),  it  is  the 
sole  foundation  of  by  far  the  greater  part  of  what 
the  opponents  of  the  gospel  call  firm,  unaltera- 
ble, and  universal  experience ;  and  that  if  we 
did  not,  in  certain  circumstances,  repose  implicit 
confidence  in  testimony,  every  man  s  knowledge 
of  events  would  be  confined  to  those  which  had 
fallen  under  the  immediate  observation  of  his 
own  senses.  Hume  seems  to  have  been  per- 
fectly aware  of  this,  when  he  supposed  a  case,  in 
which,  were  it  ever  to  occur,  testimony  would  be 
sufficient  to  establish  the  credibility  even  of  a 
miracle.  '  No  testimony,'  says  he, '  is  sufficient 
to  establish  a  miracle,  unless  the  testimony  be 
of  such  a  kind  that  its'  falsehood  would  be  more 
miraculous  than  the  fact  which  it  endeavours  to 
establish. — When  any  one  tells  me,  that  he  saw 
a  dead  man  restored  to  life,  I  immediately  con- 
sider with  myself,  whether  it  be  more  probable 
that  this  person  should  either  deceive  or  be  de- 
ceived, or  that  the  fact,  which  he  relates,  should 
really  have  happened.  I  weigh  the  one  miracle 
against  the  ether,  and,  according  to  the  superio- 
rity which  I  discover,  I  pronounce  my  decision, 
and  always  reject  the  greater  miracle.  If  the 
falsehood  of  his  testimony  would  be  more  mira- 
culous than  the  event  which  he  relates;  then, 
and  not  till  then,  can  he  pretend  to  command 
my  belief  or  opinion. 

'  There  is  some  inaccuracy  of  language  in 
talking  of  greater  and  less  miracles  when  omni- 
potence is  supposed  to  have  performed  them  all; 
but  it  is  no  more  than  justice  to  acknowledge 
that  the  author  admitted,  in  a  note,  that  all  real 
miracles  are  equally  easy  to  the  Almighty,  by 
observing  '  that  the  raising  of  a  feather,  when  the 
wind  wants  ever  so  little  force  requisite  for  that 
purpose  is  as  real  a  miracle  as  the  raising  of  a 
house  or  ship  into  the  air.'  By  greater  and  less 
miracles  therefore,  and  by  always  rejecting  the 
greater,  it  is  evident  that  he  meant  nothing  more 
than  that  of  two  or  more  deviations  from  the  known 
laws  of  nature,  one  might  iu  itself,  when  con- 
templated with  all  its  circumstances,  appear  less 
probable  than  the  others ;  and  that,  if  he  could 
not  reject  them  all,  his  principles  would  compel 
him  to  reject  that  which  should  appear  least 
probable  when  viewed  in  all  its  bearings.  This 
seems  to  be  a  just  maxim  ;  and  therefore,  if  it 
can  be  shown  that  the  testimony  given  by  the 
apostles  and  other  first  preachers  of  the  gospel 
to  the  miracles  of  their  Lord,  would,  on  the  sup- 
position that  those  miracles  were  not  really  per- 
formed, have  been  as  great  a  deviation  from  the 


602 


SCRIPTURE. 


known  laws  of  nature  as  the  miracles  themselves,  tural  connexion  between  the  signs  and  the  things 
the  balance  must  be  considered  as  evenly  poised  signified — between  ideas  or  notions  in  the  mind 
by  opposite  miracles ;  and,  whilst  it  shall  conti-  and  articulate  vocal  sounds — yet  it  is  obvious 
nue  so,  the  judgment  must  remain  in  a  state  of  that,  without  a  violent  effort  of  the  speaker  to 
suspense.  But  if  it  shall  appear  that,  in  this  the  contrary,  they  must  always  be  in  conformity 

with  each  other,   because,   in  every    language, 


rase,  the  false  testimony  would  have  been  a  de- 
viation from  the  laws  of  nature  much  less  pro- 
bable in  itself  than  the  miracles  recorded  in  the 
gospels,  the  balance  will  be  instantly  destroyed  ; 
and,  by  Mr.  Hume's  maxim,  we  must  reject  the 
supposition  of  falsehood  in  the  testimony  of  the 
apostles,  and  admit  the  miracles  of  Christ  to 
have  been  really  performed. 

'  In  this  argument  it  is  needless  to  waste  time 
in  proving  that  those  miracles,  as  they  are  re- 
presented in  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament, 
were  of  such  a  nature,  and  performed  before  so 
many  witnesses,  that  no  imposition  could  possi- 
bly be  practised  on  the  senses  of  those  who  affirm 
that  they  were  present.     From  every  page  of  the 
gospels  this  is  so  evident  that  the  philosophical 
adversaries  of  the  Christian  faith  never  suppose 
the  apostles  to  have  been  themselves  deceived, 
but  boldly  accuse  them  of  bearing  false  witness. 
But,  if  this  accusation  be  well  founded,  their  tes- 
timony itself  is  as  great  a  miracle,  or,  in  other 
words,  as  real  a  deviation  from  the  laws  of  na- 
ture, as  any  which  they  record  of  themselves  or 
of  their  master.    That  testimony  does  not  derive 
all  its  force  from  experience  has  been  already 
proved;  and  M  indeed  little  less  than  self-evi- 
dent from  the  unquestionable  fact  that  the  ear- 
liest assent,  which  is  given  to  testimony  by  chil- 
dren  who    have   no   experience,   is  unlimited, 
whilst  the  experience  of  age  renders  men  dis- 
trustful.    Exactly  the  reverse  would  be  the  case, 
were  our  belief  in  testimony  the  result  of  expe- 
rience.    It  has  therefore  been  thought  that  the 
beneficent  Author  of  nature,  who  intended  man 
to  be  a  social  creature,  hath  implanted  in  every 
human  breast  an  instinctive  propensity  to  speak 
truth,  and  likewise  a  disposition  to  confide  im- 
plicitly in  the  veracity  of  others;  and  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  children  believe  whatever  is  told 
them,  and  that  the  greatest  liar  on  earth  speaks 
a  hundred  truths  for  one  falsehood.     That  truth 
is  indeed  always  at  the  door  of  the  lips ;  that  it 
requires  no  effort  to  bring  it  forth  ;  that  in  ordi- 
nary cases  men  speak  truth  uninfluenced  by  any 
motive   moral   or  political ;    and  that  lying  is 
never  practised  by  the  worst  of  men  without 
some  effort  to  accomplish  some  end,  are  posi- 
tions which  daily  experience  renders  it  impossi- 
ble to  question.     But,  notwithstanding  all  this,  I 
do  not  think  that  truth  is  spoken  by  an  original 
and  instinctive  principle ;  because  men  appear 
not  to  be  impelled  by  instinct  to  speak  any  arti- 
culate language  at  all ;  and  it  is  surely  incon- 
ceivable that  instinct  should  teach  the  use  of  ar- 
bitrary and  artificial  signs,  such  as  the  words  of 
every  language  undoubtedly  are,  or  that  between 
such  signs  and  ideas  any  natural  relation  should 
ever  be  formed  :' — In  human  testimony  the  ideas 
in  the  mind  of  the  speaker  are  the  things  signi- 
fied, and   the  words  of  the  language  spoken  are 
the   signs   by  which  they  are  expressed;   and, 
when  these  things  and  signs  are  in  conformity 
to  each  other,  the  words  uttered  express  so  much 
truth      Now,  though  in  this  case  there  is  no  na- 


evcry 

there  are  words  appropriated  to  the  purpose  of 
denoting  every  idea,  and  every  relation  of  ideas, 
which  can  be  expressed  by  that  language;  and 
in  the  mind  of  every  man  those  ideas,  relations 
of  ideas,  and  their  appropriate  words,  have  been 
constantly  associated  or  linked  together  from  the 
time  that  he  first  learned  to  speak.     So  intimate 
is   this   association,    and   so   impossible   to   be 
broken,  that  whoever  will  pay  sufficient  attention 
to  the  operations  of  his  own  mind,  will  find  that 
he  thinks  as  well  as  speaks  in  some  language ; 
and  that  in  cogitation  he  runs  over,  silently  and 
habitually,  those  sounds  which  in  speaking  he 
actually  utters.      Hence  it  is  that  hardly  any 
man  has  written  in  perfect  purity  a  language  in 
which  he  has  not  been  accustomed  to  think  ;  and 
hence  too,  I  believe,  it  is,  that  so  many  men  of 
deep  thinking  have  been  remarked  for  the  prac- 
tice of  speaking  to  themselves.     If  this  be  so,  it 
is  impossible  that  a  man,  without  some  effort, 
should  ever  speak  any  thing  but  truth ;  for  the 
ideas  of  what  he  has  seen  or  heard,  &c.,  are  not 
of  his  manufacture ;  they  are  generated  in  his 
mind  by  external  objects,  according  to  the  es- 
tablished laws  of  nature ;  and,  till  they  be  effaced 
from  his  memory,  they  must  always,  by  the  law 
of  association,  which  is  one  of  those  laws,  make 
their  appearance  there  with  all  their  mutual  re- 
lations, and  in  their  appropriate  dress.     In  the 
very  act  of  learning  to   speak,  we  necessarily 
learn  to  speak  the  truth ;  for  what  I  have  called 
mental  truth   is  impressed  upon  our  minds  by 
him  who  cannot  err,  and,  were  we  not  to  employ 
words  for  the  expression  of  that  truth  exactly  as 
they  are  employed  by  those  with  whom  we  con- 
verse, our  language  (if  language  it  could  be  called) 
would  be  unintelligible  jargon;  and  we  could 
neither  declare  our  wants,  nor  ask  relief  with  any 
hope  of  scccess.     Children  beginning  to  speak 
may  indeed   often  utter  untruths  or  nonsense 
without  any  motive,  and  merely  from  mistake; 
and  this  indeed  they  often  do,  because  the  ideas 
and  words  of  children  have  neither  been  long 
nor  closely  linked  together ;  but  it  is  impossible 
that  a  man,  however  wicked,  should  habitually, 
and  without  motives,  lie  on  ordinary  occasions, 
unless  the  constituent  principles  of  his  nature 
have  been  totally  altered  ;  unless  his  brain  has 
been  disordered  by  disease ;    unless   his  ideas 
and  notions  have  been  disarranged ;  and  all  the 
associations  which  have  taken  place  among  them 
from  his  infancy  have  been  dissolved,  and  quite 
contrary  associations  formed  in  their  stead.     We 
know  indeed,  by  woeful  experience,  that  immo- 
ral  men   occasionally  utter  falsehoods   with  a 
view  to  deceive.     But  in  these  cases  they  are  in- 
fluenced by  some  motive  either  of  hope  or  of 
terror;  the  falsehood   is  always  uttered  with  an 
effort;  and   so  very  strong  is  the  association  be- 
tween  words  and   ideas   that  the  truth   will  at 
times  break  out  in  spite  of  all  their  endeavours 
to  conceal  it ;  so  that  the   end  or  middle  of  a 
false  narrative,  if  it  be  of  any  length,  and  include 


SCRIPTURE. 


603 


a  numbc.  af  particular  events  or  incidents,  is 
commonly  inconsistent  with  the  beginning.  We 
entertain  a  suspicion  of  falsehood,  when  those 
who  relate  the  same  tale  either  palpably  contra- 
dict each  other,  or  agree  in  every  minute  circum- 
stance, and  speak  throughout  the  very  same 
language — when  they  are  but  few  in  number  and 
of  a  doubtful  character — when  they  have  an  in- 
terest in  what  they  affirm  or  deny — when  they 
deliver  their  testimony  either  with  hesitation,  or 
with  superfluous  and  violent  asseverations  of  its 
trutli ;  because  all  these  are  circumstances  which 
have  been  generally  observed  to  accompany  false 
witness.  It  is  likewise  wiih  reluctance  that  we 
admit  a  narrative  of  evenis  entirely  different 
from  every  thing  that  we  have  hitherto  seen  or 
heard  ;  because  we  may  not  be  certain  that  the 
narrator  is  not  under  some  influence  to  deceive 
us  in  matters  concerning  which  we  have  nothing 
but  his  testimony  on  which  to  ground  our  judg- 
ment. But  in  every  case,  where  the  fact  record- 
ed is  in  itself  possible,  and  attributed  to  a  cause 
which  we  know  to  be  adequate ;  where  a  compe- 
tent number  of  witnesses  had  sufficient  means  of 
information,  and  were  certainly  under  no  in- 
ducement to  deceive,  testimony  is  complete  evi- 
dence, however  extraordinary  the  fact  may  be ; 
because  no  fact,  which  is  known  to  have  had  an 
adequate  cause,  can  be  so  incredible,  as  that  a 
number  of  men  of  sound  understanding  should 
act  in  a  manner  inconsistent  with  the  fundamental 
principles  of  human  nature,  or  be  able,  if  so  dis- 
posed, to  dissolve  every  association  which  had 
been  formed  in  the  mind  of  each  of  them  from 
his  infancy,  and  form  new  ones,  all  agreeing  ex- 
actly with  one  another,  and  yet  all  contrary  to 
llie  truth. 

'  If  this  reasoning  be  just,  and  if  the  testimony 
of  the  apostles  to  their  own  and  their  Master's 
miracles  be  false,  it  follows  undeniably,  either 
that  they  concerted  a  consistent  scl  erne  of  false- 
nood,  and  agreed  to  publish  it  at  every  hazard  ; 
or  that  God  had  dissolved  all  the  associations, 
which  had  been  formed  in  their  minds,  of  ideas 
of  sense  with  the  words  of  language,  and  arbi- 
trarily formed  new  associations  all  in  exact  con- 
formity with  each  other,  but  all  in  direct  contra7 
diction  to  truth.  One  or  other  of  these  events 
must  have  taken  place;  because,  upon  the  sup- 
position of  falsehood,  there  is  no  other  alternative. 
But  such  dissolution  and  formation  of  associa- 
tions of  ideas  with  words,  as  is  supposed  in  the 
latter  event,  is  as  great  a  deviation  from  the  es- 
tablished laws  of  nature,  or,  in  other  words,  as 
real  a  miracle,  as  the  resurrection  of  a  man  from 
the  dead ;  and,  all  real  miracles  being  acknow- 
ledged to  be  equally  great,  either  of  these  could 
have  been  performed  only  by  a  power  equal  to 
the  performance  of  the  other.  Nor  would  the 
supposed  voluntary  agreement  of  the  apostles, 
in  such  a  scheme  of  falsehood  as  they  are  said  to 
have  published  to  the  world,  be  an  event  less 
miraculous  than  the  Divine  interposition  for  the 
unworthy  purpose  implied  in  the  former  hypo- 
thesis. When  they  sat  down  to  fabricate  their 
pretended  revelation,  and  to  contrive  a  series  of 
miracles,  to  which  they  were  all  to  appeal  for  its 
truth,  it  is  plain,  since  they  proved  successful  in 
their  daring  enterprise,  that  they  must  have 


clearly  foreseen  every  possible  circumstance  in 
which  they  could  be  placed,  and  have  prepared 
consistent  answers  to  every  question  that  could 
be  put  to  them  by  their  most  inveterate  and  most 
enlightened  enemies ;  by  the  statesman,  the  law- 
yer, the  philosopher,  and  the  priest.  That  such 
foreknowledge  as  this  would  have  been  miracu- 
lous will  not  surely  be  denied ;  since  it  forms 
the  very  attribute  which  we  find  it  most  difficult 
to  allow  even  to  God  himself. .  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, flie  only  miracle,  which  this  supposition 
would  compel  us  to  admit.  The  very  resolution 
of  the  apostles  to  propagate  the  belief  of  false 
miracles,  in  support  of  such  a  religion  as  that 
which  is  taught  in  the  New  Testament,  would 
have  been  as  wide  a  deviation  from  the  laws  of 
nature,  and  therefore  as  great  a  miracle,  as  the 
mind  of  man  has  ever  conceived. 

'  When  they  formed  this  design,  either  they 
must  have  hoped  to  succeed,  or  they  must  have 
been  convinced  that  they  should  fail  in  their  un- 
dertaking ;  and,  in  either  case,  they  chose  evil, 
and  what  thev  knew  to  be  unmixed  evil,  for  its 
own  sake !  They  could  not,  if  they  foresaw 
that  they  should  fail,  look  for  any  thing  but  that 
contempt,  disgrace,  and  persecution,  which  were 
then  the  inevitable  consequences  of  an  unsuc- 
cessful endeavour  to  overthrow  the  established 
religion.  Nor  would  their  prospects  be  brighter 
on  the  supposition  of  their  success.  As  they 
knew  themselves  to  be  false  witnesses,  and  impi- 
ous deceivers,  they  could  have  no  hope  beyond 
the  grave  ;  and,  by  determining  to  oppose  all  the 
religious  systems,  superstitions,  and  prejudices  of 
the  age  in  which  they  lived,  they  wilfully  ex- 
posed themselves  to  inevitable  misery  in  the  pre- 
sent life,  to  insult  and  imprisonment,  to  stripes 
and  death.  Nor  can  it  be  alleged  that  they 
might  look  forward  to  power  and  affluence, 
when  they  should  through  sufferings  have  con- 
verted their  countrymen;  for,  so  desirous  were 
they  of  obtaining  nothing  but  misery  as  the  end 
of  their  mission,  that  they  made  their  own  perse- 
cution a  test  of  the  truth  of  their  doctrines.  They 
introduced  the  Master,  from  whom  they  professed 
to  have  received  those  doctrines,  as  telling  them 
that  they  were  '  sent  forth  as  sheep  in  the  midst 
of  wolves ;  that  they  should  be  delivered  up  to 
councils,  and  scourged  in  synagogues  ;  that  they 
should  be  hated  of  all  men  for  his  name's  sake ;' 
that  '  the  brother  should  deliver  up  the  brother 
to  death,  and  the  father  the  child ;'  and  that '  he 
who  took  not  up  his  cross  and  followed  him  was 
not  worthy  of  him.'  The  very  system  of  religion, 
therefore,  which  they  invented  and  resolved  to 
impose  upon  mankind,  was  so  contrived  that 
the  worldly  prosperity  of  its  first  preachers,  and 
even  their  exemption  from  persecution,  was  in- 
compatible with  its  success.  Had  these  clear 
predictions  of  the  author  of  that  religion,  under 
whom  the  apostles  and  evangelists  acted  only  as 
ministers,  not  been  verified,  all  mankind  must 
have  instantly  perceived  that  their  claim  to  in- 
spiration was  groundless,  and  that  Christianity 
was  a  scandalous  and  impudent  imposture.  All 
this  the  apostles  could  not  but  foresee  when 
they  formed  their  plan  for  deluding  the  world. 
Whence  it  follows  that,  when  they  resolved  to 
support  their  pretended  revelation  by  an  appeal 


C04 


SCRIPTURE. 


to  forged  miracles,  they  wilfully,  and  with  theii 
eyes  open,  exposed  themselves  to  inevitable  mi- 
sery, whether  they  should  succeed  or  fail  in  their 
enterprise ;  and  that  they  concerted  their  measures 
in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  admit  a  possibility 
of  recompense  to  themselves,  either  in  this  life  or 
in  that  which  is  to  come.  But  if  there  be  a  law  oi 
oatuie,  for  the  reality  of  which  we  have  better 
evidence  than  we  have  for  others,  it  is,  '  that  no 
man  can  choose  misery  for  its  own  sake,'  or  make 
the  acquisition  of  it  the  ultimate  end  of  all  his 
pursuits.  The  existence  of  other  laws  of  nature 
we  know  by  testimony  and  our  own  observation 
of  the  regularity  of  their  effects.  The  existence 
of  this  law  is  made  known  to  us  not  only  by 
these  means,  but  also  by  the  still  clearer  and 
more  conclusive  evidence  of  every  man's  own 
consciousness.  Thus,  then,  do  miracles  force 
themselves  upon  our  assent  in  every  possible 
view  which  we  can  take  of  this  interesting  subject.' 
I.  Of  the  Pentateuch. — The  Pentateuch  con- 
sists of  the  five  books  of  Moses.  Some  of  the 
strongest  arguments  in  support  of  the  authenti- 
city of  the  Pentateuch,  and  inspiration  of  the 
writer,  have  been  already  given.  But  we  shall 
present  two  arguments  of  a  different  kind,  which 
would  be  sufficient  to  prove  at  least  the  former 
of  these  conclusions,  from  the  language  and  con- 
tents of  the  Mosaic  writings,  and  from  the  testi- 
mony of  the  other  books  of  Scripture. 

From  the  contents  and  language  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch there  arises  a  very  strong  presumption 
that  Moses  was  its  author.  The  very  mode  of 
writing  in  the  last  four  books  discovers  an  author 
contemporary  with  the  events  which  he  relates ; 
every  description,  both  religious  and  political, 
is  a  proof  that  the  writer  was  present  at  each 
scene ;  and  the  legislative  and  historical  parts 
are  so  interwoven  with  each  other  that  neither 
of  them  could  have  been  written  by  a  man  who 
lived  in  a  later  age.  Dr.  Marsh  justly  observes, 
that  the  account  given  in  the  book  of  Exodus 
of  the  conduct  of  Pharaoh  towards  the  children 
of  Israel,  is  such  as  might  be  expected  from  a 
writer  who  was  not  only  acquainted  with  the 
country  at  large,  but  had  frequent  access  to  the 
court  of  its  sovereign  ;  and  the  minute  geogra- 
phical description  of  the  passage  through  Arabia 
is  such  as  could  have  been  given  only  by  a 
'  man  like  Moses,  who  had  spent  forty  years  in 
the  land  of  Midian.  The  language  itself  is  a 
proof  of  its  high  antiquity,  which  appears  partly 
from  the  great  simplicity  of  the  style,  and  partly 
from  the  use  of  archaisms  or  antiquated  expres- 
sions, which  in  the  days  even  of  David  and  So- 
lomon were  obsolete.  For  instance  XVI  ille,  and 
*\J?J  p'uer,  which  are  used  in  both  genders  by  no 
other  writer  than  Moses.  See  Gen.  xxiv.  14. 
16.  28.  55.  57;  xxxviii.  21.  25.  But  a  strong 
argument,  to  show  that  the  Pentateuch  was  writ- 
ten by  a  man  born  and  educated  in  Egypt,  is 
the  use  of  Egyptian  words  ;  words  which  never 
were,  nor  ever  could  have  been,  used  by  a  native 
of  Palestine ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  circumstance 
that  the  very  same  thing  which  Moses  had  ex- 
pressed by  a  word  that  is  pure  Egyptian,  Isaiah, 
as  might  be  expected  from  his  birth  and  educa- 
tion, has  expressed  by  a  word  that  is  purely  He- 
brew. For  instance,  iflK,  written  by  the  Seventy 


ijX«  or  ax«,  Gen.  xli.  2,  and  PQn,  written  by 
the  Seventy  2u3»j  or  S»/3*c-  See  La  Croze  Lexi- 
con .'Egyptiacum,  art.  AXI  and  eHBI.  The 
same  thing  which  Moses  expressed  by  ^HX,  Gen. 
xli.  2 ;  Isaiah  (xix.  7)  expresses  by  r\OJ?,  for  t!ie 
Seventy  have  translated  both  of  these  words  by 

That  Moses  was  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch 
is  proved  also  from  the  evidence  of  testimony. 
We  shall  seek  no  authority  but  that  of  the  suc- 
ceeding sacred  books  themselves,  which  bear  in- 
ternal evidence  that  they  were  written  in  different 
ages,  and  therefore  could  not  be  forged,  unless 
we  were  to  adopt  the  monstrous  opinion  that 
there  was  a  succession  of  impostors  among  the 
Jews  who  united  together  in  the  same  fraud. 
The  Jews  were  certainly  best  qualified  to  judge 
of  the  authenticity  of  their  own  books.  They 
could  judge  of  the  truth  of  the  facts  recorded, 
and  they  could  have  no  interest  in  adopting  a 
forgery.  Indeed,  to  suppose  a  whole  nation 
combined  in  committing  a  forgery,  and  that  this 
combination  should  continue  for  many  hundred 
years,  would  be  the  most  chimerical  supposition 
that  ever  entered  into  the  mind  of  man.  Yet  we 
must  make  this  supposition,  if  we  reject  the  histo- 
rical facts  of  the  Old  Testament.  No  one  will 
deny  that  the  Pentateuch  existed  in  the  time  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles  ;  for  they  not  only  men- 
tion it,  but  quote  it.  '  This  we  admit,'  reply  the 
advocates  for  the  hypothesis  which  we  are  now 
combating ;  '  but  you  cannot  therefore  conclude 
that  Moses  was  the  author  ;  for  there  is  reason 
to  believe  it  was  composed  by  Ezra.'  But,  un- 
fortunately for  men  of  this  opinion,  both  Ezni 
and  Nehemiah  ascribe  the  book  of  the  law  to 
Moses.  See  Ezra  hi.  2  ;  viii.  14  ;  Neh.  xiii.  1. 
2.  The  Pentateuch  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
Samaritans  before  the  time  of  Ezra.  3.  It  ex- 
isted in  the  reign  of  Amaziah  king  of  Judah, 
A.  C.  839  years.  4.  It  was  in  public  use  in  the 
reign  of  Jehosaphat,  A.  C.  912;  for  that  virtuous 
prince  appointed  Levites  and  priests  who  taught 
in  Judah,  and  had  the  book  of  the  law  of  the 
Lord  with  them,  and  went  about  throughout  all 
the  cities  of  Judah  and  taught  the  people.  5.  It 
is  referred  toby  David  in  his  dying  admonitions 
to  Solomon.  He  also  makes  many  allusions  to 
it  in  the  Psalms,  and  sometimes  quotes  it. 
There  remains  therefore  only  one  resource  to 
those  who  contend  that  Moses  was  not  the  au- 
thor, viz.  that  it  was  written  in  the  period  which 
elapsed  between  the  age  of  Joshua  and  that  of 
David.  But  the  whole  history  of  the  Jews 
from  their  settlement  in  Canaan  to  the  building 
of  the  temple  pre-supposes  that  the  book  of  the 
law  was  written  by  Moses.  6.  We  have  satis- 
factory evidence  that  it  existed  in  the  time  of 
Joshua.  One  passage  may  be  quoted  where 
this  fact  is  stated.  The  Divine  Being  makes  use 
of  these  words  to  Joshua :  '  Only  be  thou  strong, 
and  very  courageous,  that  thou  inayest  observe 
to  do  all  according  to  the  law  which  Moses  my 
servant  commanded  thee.  This  book  of  the  law 
shall  not  depart  out  of  thy  mouth,'  &c.  See 
Josh.  i.  7,  8 ;  viii.  31 ;  xxiii.  6.  To  the  fore- 
going demonstration  objections  may  be  stated. 
'  We  will  admit  the  force  of  your  arguments, 
and  grant  that  Moses  actually  wrote  a  work 


S  C  H  I  P  T  U  R  E. 


605 


called  the  book  of  the  law;  but  how  can  we  be 
certain  that  it  was  the  very  work  which  is  now 
current  under  his  name?  And,  unless  you  can 
show  this  to  be  at  least  probable,  your  whole 
evidence  is  of  no  value.'  To  illustrate  the  force 
or  weakness  of  this  objection,  let  us  apply  it  to 
some  ancient  Greek  author,  and  see  whether  a 
classical  scholar  would  allow  it  to  be  of  weight. 

It  is  true  that  the  Greek  writers  speak  of  Homer 
us  an  ancient  and  celebrated  poet ;  it  is  true  also 
that  they  have  quoted  from  the  works  which  they 

scribe  to  him  various  passages  that  we  find  at 
present  in  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey ;  yet  still  there 
is  a  possibility  that  the  poems  which  were  writ- 
ten by  Homer,  and  those  which  we  call  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  were  totally  distinct  produc- 
tions.' Now  an  advocate  for  Greek  literature 
would  reply  to  this  objection,  not  with  a  serious 
answer,  but  with  a  smile  of  contempt ;  and 
would  think  it  beneath  him  to  silence  an  oppo- 
nent who  appeared  to  be  deaf  to  the  clearest 
conviction.  But  still  more  may  be  said  in  de- 
fence of  Moses  than  in  defence  of  Homer ;  for 
the  writings  of  the  latter  were  not  deposited  in 
any  temple  or  sacred  archive,  to  secure  them 
from  the  devastations  of  time ;  whereas  the  copy 
of  the  book  of  the  law,  as  written  by  Moses,  was 
intrusted  to  the  priests  and  the  elders,  preserved 
in  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  and  read  to  the  people 
every  seventh  year.  Dent.  xxxi.  9 — 11;  14 — 
26.  Sufficient  care  therefore  was  taken  not  only 
for  the  preservation  of  the  original  record,  but 
that  no  spurious  production  should  be  substi- 
tuted in  its  stead.  And  that  no  spurious  pro- 
duction ever  has  been  substituted  in  the  stead  of 
the  original  composition  of  Moses,  appears  from 
the  evidence  both  of  the  Greek  and  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch.  For  as  these  agree  with  the  Hebrew, 
except  in  some  trifling  variations  (see  London 
Polyglot,  vol.  vi.  p.  19),  to  which  every  work  is 
exposed  by  length  of  time,  it  is  absolutely  cer- 
tain that  the  five  books  which  we  now  ascribe 
to  Moses  are  one  and  the  same  work  with  that 
which  was  translated  into  Greek  in  the  time  of 
the  Ptolemies,  and,  what  is  of  still  greater  im- 
portance, with  that  which  existed  in  the  time  of 
Solomon.  And  as  the  Jews  could  have  had  no 
motive  whatsoever,  during  that  period  which 
elapsed  between  the  age  of  Joshua  and  that  of 
Solomon,  for  substituting  a  spurious  production 
instead  of  the  original  as  written  by  Moses,  and, 
even  had  they  been  inclined  to  attempt  the  im- 
posture, would  have  been  prevented  by  the  care 
which  had  been  taken  by  their  lawgiver,  we 
must  conclude  that  our  present  Pentateuch  is 
the  very  identical  work  that  was  delivered  by 
Moses. 

II.  Of  (lie  historical  Imiiks  of  the.  Old  Testa- 
ment.— The  positive  evidence  being  now  pro- 
duced, we  shall  endeavour  to  answer  some 
particular  objections  that  have  been  urged. 
Most  of  these  occur  in  the  book  ofGr.NKsis: 
we  shall  reserve  them,  therefore,  for  separate 
examination,  and  here  only  consider  the  objec- 
tions peculiar  to  the  four  last  books.  They  may 
be  comprised  under  one  head,  viz.  expressions 
and  passages'  in  these  books  which  could  not 
have  been  written  "by  Moses.  1.  The  account 
'/f  the  death  of  Mo^es,  in  tho  hist  chapter  of 


Deuteronomy,  we  allow  must  have  been  added 
by  some  succeeding  writer ;  but  this  can  never 
prove  that  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  is  spurious. 
What  is  more  common  among  ourselves  than  to 
see  an  account  of  the  life  and  death  of  an  author 
subjoined  to  his  works,  without  informing  us  by 
whom  the  narrative  was  written?  2.  It  has  been 
objected  that  Moses  always  speaks  of  himself  in 
the  third  person.  This  is  the  objection  of  foolish 
ignorance,  and  therefore  scarcely  deserves  an  an- 
swer. Such  persons  have  never  read  Caesar's 
Commentaries,  where  the  author  uniformly  speaks 
of  himself  in  the  third  person,  as  writers  of  the 
most  correct  taste  will  often  do ;  who  reflects 
on  the  absurdity  of  employing  the- pronoun  of 
the  first  person  in  a  work  intended  to  be  read 
long  after  his  death.  3.  As  to  the  objection  that 
in  some  places  the  text  is  defective,  as  in  Exo- 
dus xv.  8,  it  is  not  directed  against  the  author, 
but  against  some  transcriber;  for  what  is  want- 
ing in  the  Hebrew  is  inserted  in  the  Samaritan 
text.  4.  The  only  other  objection  that  deserves 
notice  is  made  from  two  passages.  It  is  said  in 
one  place  that  the  bed  of  Og  is  at  llamah  to  this 
day;  and  in  another  (Deut.  iii.  14)  '  Jair  the 
son  of  Manasseh  took  all  the  country  of  Argob 
into  the  coasts  of  Geshuri  and  Maacathi,  and 
called  them  after  his  own  name,  Bashan-havoth- 
jair,  unto  this  day.'  The  last  clause  in  both 
these  passages  could  not  have  been  written  by 
Moses;  but  it  was  probably  placed  in  the  mar- 
gin by  some  transcriber  by  way  of  explanation 
and  was  afterwards  by  mistake  inserted  in  the 
text.  Whoever  doubts  the  truth  of  this  asser- 
tion rnay  have  recourse  to  the  MSS.  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  and  he  will  find  that  the  spurious 
additions  in  the  texts  of  some  MSS.  are  actually 
written  in  the  margin  of  others. 

That  the  Pentateuch,  therefore,  at  least  the 
four  last  books  of  it,  was  written  by  Moses,  we 
have  very  satisfactory  evidence  ;  which,  indeed, 
at  the  distance  of  3000  years,  is  wonderful,  and 
which  cannot  be  affirmed  of  any  profane  history 
written  at  a  much  later  period.  But  the  book 
of  Genesis  was  evidently  not  written  by  a  person 
who  was  contemporary  with  the  facts  which  he 
records ;  for  it  contains  the  history  of  2369  years, 
a  period  comprehending  almost  twice  as  many 
years  as  all  the  rest  of  the  historical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  put  together.  Moses  has 
been  acknowledged  as  the  author  of  this  book 
by  all  the  ancient  Jews  and  Christians;  but  it 
has  been  a  matter  of  dispute  from  what  source 
he  derived  his  materials ;  some  affirming  that 
all  the  facts  were  revealed  by  inspiration,  and 
others  maintaining  that  he  procured  them  from 
tradition. 

Some,  who  pretend  to  be  profound  philoso- 
phers, have  rejected  many  parts  of  the  book  of 
Genesis  as  fabulous  and  absurd ;  but  it  cannot 
be  the  wisdom  of  philosophy,  but  the  vanity  of 
ignorance,  that  could  lead  to  such  an  opinion. 
In  fact,  the  book  of  Genesis  affords  a  key  to 
many  difficulties  in  philosophy,  which  cannot 
otherwise  be  explained.  It  has  been  supposed 
that  the  diversities  among  mankind  prove  that 
they  are  not  descended  from  one  pair;  but  it 
has  been  fully  shown  that  all  these  diversities 
may  be  accounted  for  by  natural  causes  It  la» 


606 


SCRIPTURE. 


been  reckoned  a  great  difficulty  to  explain  how 
fossil  shells  were  introduced  into  the  bowels  of 
the  earth  ;  but  the  deluge  explains  this  fact  better 
than  all  the  romantic  theories  of  philosophers. 
See  DELUGE.  It  is  impossible  to  account  for 
the  origin  of  such  a  variety  of  language  in  a 
more  satisfactory  manner  than  is  done  in  the 
account  of  the  confusion  of  tongues  which  took 
place  at  Babel.  It  would  be  no  easy  matter  to 
show  why  the  sea  of  Sodom  is  so  different  from 
every  other  sea  on  the  globe  which  has  yet  been 
explored,  if  we  had  not  possessed  the  scriptural 
account  of  the  miraculous  destruction  of  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah.  It  is  saturated  with  bitumen 
and  salt,  and  contains  few  or  no  fishes.  These 
are  very  singular  facts,  which  have  been  fully 
established  by  late  travellers.  The  book  of 
Genesis,  too,  has  been  treated  with  contempt, 
because  it  makes  the  world  less  ancient  than  is 
necessary  to  support  the  theories  of  modern  phi- 
losophers, and  because  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile 
the  chronologies  of  several  nations  with  the  opi- 
nion that  the  world  is  not  above  6000  or  7000 
years  old.  The  Chaldeans,  in  the  time  of  Cicero, 
reckoned  up  470,000  years.  The  Egyptians 
pretend  that  they  have  records  extending  50,000 
years  back ;  and  the  Hindoos  go  beyond  all 
bounds  of  probability,  carrying  back  their  chro- 
nology, according  to  Halhed,  more  than  7,000,000 
of  years. 

An  attempt  was  formerly  made  by  M.  Bailly, 
mayor  of  Paris,  to  reconcile  these  magnified 
calculations  with  the  chronology  of  the  Septua- 
gint,  which  is  justly  preferred  to  the  Hebrew. 
See  SCPTUAGINT.  He  affirms  that  the  Hindoos, 
as  well  as  the  Chaldeans  and  Egyptians,  had 
years  of  arbitrary  determination  ;  as  for  instance 
months  of  fifteen  days,  and  years  of  sixty  days, 
or  two  months.  A  month  is  a  night  and  a  day 
of  the  patriarchs  ;  a  year  is  a  night  and  a  day  of 
the  gods ;  4000  years  of  the  gods  are  as  many 
hundred  years  of  men.  By  attention  to  such 
modes  of  computation,  the  age  of  the  world  will 
be  found  very  nearly  the  same  in  the  writings  of 
Moses  and  in  the  calculations  and  traditions  of 
the  Brahmins.  With  these  also  we  have  a  re- 
markable coincidence  with  the  Persian  chrono- 
logy. Bailly  has  established  these  remarkable 
epochas  from  the  creation  to  the  deluge.  The 
Septuagint  gives  2256  years ;  the  Chaldeans 
2222  ;  the  Egyptians  2340 ;  the  Persians  2000  ; 
the  Hindoos  2000;  the  Chinese  2300.  The 
same  author  attempts  to  show  the  singular  coin- 
cidence of  the  age  of  the  world  as  given  by  four 
distinct  and  distantly  situated  people.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  make  it  5544  years ;  the 
Hindoos  5502 ;  the  Persians  5501 ;  the  Jews, 
according  to  Josephus,  5555. 

Having  made  these  remarks,  to  show  that  the 
facts  recorded  in  Genesis  are  not  inconsistent 
with  truth,  we  shall  now,  by  a  few  observations, 
confirm  the  evidence,  from  testimony,  that  Moses 
was  the  author,  and  answer  the  objections  that 
seem  strongest.  There  arises  a  great  probability, 
from  the  book  of  Genesis  itself,  that  the  author 
lived  near  the  time  of  Joseph ;  for,  as  we  ad- 
vance towards  the  end  of  that  book,  the  facts 
jradually  become  more  minute.  The  materials 
of  the  antediluvian  history  are  very  scanty.  The 


account  of  Abraham  is  more  complete;  but  the 
history  of  Jacob  and  his  family  is  still  more 
fully  detailed.  This  is  indeed  the  case  with 
every  history.  In  the  early  part  the  relation  is 
very  short  and  general ;  but,  when  the  historian 
approaches  his  own  time,  his  materials  accumu- 
late. It  is  certain  too  that  the  book  of  Genesis 
must  have  been  written  before  the  rest  of  the 
Pentateuch  ;  for  the  allusions  in  the  last  four 
books  to  the  history  of  Abraham,  of  Isaac,  and 
of  Jacob,  are  very  frequent.  The  simplicity  of 
the  style  shows  it  to  be  one  of  the  most  ancient 
of  the  sacred  books  ;  and  perhaps  its  similarity 
to  the  style  of  Moses  would  determine  a  critic  to 
ascribe  it  to  him.  It  will  be  allowed  that  no 
man  was  better  qualified  than  Moses  to  com- 
pose the  history  of  his  ancestors.  He  was 
learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,  the 
most  enlightened  nation  of  his  time,  and  he  had 
the  best  opportunities  of  obtaining  accurate  in- 
formation. The  short  account  of  the  antedilu- 
vian world  could  easily  be  remembered  by 
Abraham,  who  might  obtain  it  from  Shem,  who 
was  his  contemporary.  To  Shem  it  might  be 
conveyed  by  Methuselah,  who  was  340  years  old 
when  Adam  died.  From  Abraham  to  Moses,  the 
interval  was  less  than  400  years.  The  splendid 
promises  made  to  that  patriarch  would  certainly 
be  carefully  communicated  to  each  generation, 
with  the  concomitant  facts ;  and  thus  the  history 
might  be  conveyed  to  Moses  by  the  most  dis- 
tinguished persons,  and  through  very  few  hands. 
The  accounts  respecting  Jacob  and  his  son 
Joseph  might  be  given  to  Moses  by  his  grand- 
father Kohath,  who  must  have  been  born  long 
before  the  descent  to  Egypt ;  and  Kohath  might 
have  heard  all  the  facts  respecting  Abraham  and 
Isaac  from  Jacob  himself.  Thus  we  can  easily 
point  out  how  Moses  might  derive  the  materials 
of  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  especially  of  tK.. 
last  thirty-eight  chapters,  from  the  most  authentic 
source. 

But  1.  It  is  objected  that  the  author  of  the 
two  first  chapters  of  Genesis  must  have  lived  in 
Mesopotamia,  as  he  discovers  a  knowledge  of 
the  rivers  that  watered  paradise,  of  the  cities  of 
Babylon,  Erech,  Resen,  and  Calneh ;  of  the 
gold  of  Pison  ;  of  the  bdellium  and  onyx  stone. 
But  if  he  could  not  derive  this  knowledge  from 
the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,  which  is  far  from 
being  improbable,  he  might  surely  obtain  it  by 
tradition  from  Abraham,  who  was  born  and 
brought  up  beyond  the  Euphrates.  2.  In  Gene- 
sis xiv.  14  it  is  said,  Abraham  pursued  the  four 
confederate  kings  to  Dan,  yet  that  name  was  not 
given  till  after  the  conquest  of  Palestine. 
(Judges  xviii.  22.)  We  answer  this  might  be 
inserted  by  a  transcriber:  but  such  a  supposi- 
tion is  not  necessary ;  for,  though  we  are  told 
in  the  book  of  Judges  that  a  city  originally 
called  Laish  received  then  the  name  of  Dan, 
this  does  not  prove  that  Laish  was  the  same  cit\ 
with  the  Dan  which  is  mentioned  in  Genesis. 
The  same  answer  may  be  given  to  the  objection 
which  is  brought  from  Genesis  xxxv.  21,  where 
the  tower  of  Edar  is  mentioned,  which  the  ob- 
jectors say  was  the  name  of  a  tower  over  one  of 
the  gates  of  Jerusalem.  But  the  tower  of  Edar 
signifies  the  tower  of  the  flocks,  which  in  lh« 


SCRIPTURE. 


607 


pastoral  country  of  Canaan  might  be  a  very 
common  name.  3.  The  most  formidable  objec- 
tion perhaps  is  derived  from  these  two  passages, 
Gen.  xii.  6  : — '  And  the  Canaanite  was  then  in 
the  land.'  Gen.  xxxvi.  31: — 'These  are  the 
kings  that  reigned  over  the  land  of  Edoin,  before 
there  reigned  any  king  over  the  children  of  Is- 
rael.' Now  it  is  certain  that  neither  of  these 
passages  could  be  written  by  Moses.  We  allow 
they  were  added  by  a  later  writer;  but  this  cir- 
cumstance cannot  invalidate  the  evidence  which 
has  been  already  produced.  It  does  not  prove 
that  Moses  was  not  the  author  of  the  book  of 
Genesis,  but  only  that  this  book  has  received  two 
additions  or  interpolations  since  his  death.  Ac- 
cording to  Rivet,  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles 
have  cited  twenty-seven  passages  verbatim  from 
the  book  of  Genesis,  and  have  made  thirty-eight 
allusions  to  the  sense. 

The  book  of  EXODUS  contains  the  history  of 
the  Israelites  for  about  145  years.  It  gives  an 
account  of  the  slavery  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt; 
of  the  miracles  by  which  they  were  delivered,  of 
their  passage  through  the  Red  Sea,  and  journey 
through  the  wilderness  ;  of  the  solemn  promulga- 
tion of  the  decalogue  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  of  the 
building  and  furniture  of  the  Tabernacle.  This 
book  is  cited  by  David,  by  Daniel,  and  other 
sacred  writers.  Twenty-five  passages  are  quoted 
by  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles  in  express 
words,  and  they  make  up  nineteen  allusions  to 
the  sense. 

The  book  of  LEVITICUS  contains  the  history 
of  the  Israelites  for  one  month.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  laws.  Indeed,  properly  speaking,  it 
is  the  code  of  the  Jewish  ceremonial  and  politi- 
cal laws.  It  describes  the  consecration  of  Aaron 
and  his  sons,  the  daring  impiety  and  exemplary 
punishment  of  Nadab  and  Abihu.  It  contains 
also  some  predictions  respecting  the  punishment 
of  the  Israelites  in  case  of  apostasy ;  and  contains 
an  assurance  that  every  sixth  year  should  pro- 
duce abundance  to  support  them  during  the 
seventh  or  sabbatical  year.  This  book  is  quoted 
as  the  production  of  Moses  in  several  books  of 
Scripture. 

The  book  of  NUMBERS  comprehends  the  his- 
tory of  the  Israelites  for  about  thirty-eight  years, 
reckoning  from  the  first  day  of  the  second 
month  after  their  departure  from  Egypt.  It 
contains  an  account  of  two  numberines  of  the 
people ;  the  first  in  the  beginning  of  the  second 
year  of  their  emigration,  the  second  in  the  plains 
of  Moab  towards  the  conclusion  of  their  journey 
in  the  wilderness.  It  describes  the  ceremonies 
employed  at  the  consecration  of  the  tabernacle ; 
gives  an  exact  journal  of  the  marches  and  en- 
campments of  the  Israelites ;  relates  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  seventy  elders,  the  miraculous  cure 
performed  by  the  brazen  serpent,  and  the  mis- 
conduct of  Moses  when  he  was  commanded  to 
bring  water  from  the  rock.  There  is  also  added 
an  account  of  the  death  of  Aaron,  of  the  con- 
quest of  Sihon  and  Og,  and  the  story  of  Balaam, 
with  his  celebrated  prophecy  concerning  the 
Messiah.  The  book  of  Numbers  is  quoted  as 
the  work  of  Moses  in  several  parts  of  Scripture. 

The  book  of  DEUTERONOMY  comprehends  a 
period  of  about  two  months.  It  consists  of  an 


interesting  address  to  the  Israelites,  in  which 
Moses  recals  to  their  remembrance  the  many 
instances  of  divine  favor  which  they  had  ex- 
perienced, and  reproaches  them  for  their  ingrati- 
tude. He  lays  before  them,  in  a  compendious 
form,  the  laws  which  he  had  formerly  delivered, 
and  makes  some  explanatory  additions.  This 
was  the  more  necessary,  because  the  Israelites, 
to  whom  they  had  been  originally  promulgated, 
and  who  had  seen  the  miracles  in  Egypt,  at  the 
Red  Sea,  and  Mount  Sinai,  had  died  in  the  wil- 
derness. The  divine  origin  of  these  laws,  and 
the  miracles  by  which  they  were  sanctioned, 
must  already  have  been  well  known  to  them  ; 
yet  a  solemn  recapitulation  of  these  by  the  man 
who  had  miraculously  fed  the  then  present  ge- 
neration from  their  infancy,  who,  by  the  lifting 
up  of  his  hands,  had  procured  them  victory  in 
the  day  of  battle,  and  who  was  going  to  leave 
the  world  to  give  an  account  of  his  conduct  to 
the  God  of  Israel,  could  not  but  make  a  deep 
and  lasting  impression  on  the  minds  of  all  who 
heard  him.  He  inculcates  these  laws  by  the 
most  powerful  motives.  He  presents  before 
them  the  most  animating  rewards,  and  de- 
nounces the  severest  punishments  to  the  re- 
bellious. The  prophecies  of  Moses  towards  the 
end  of  this  book,  concerning  the  fate  of  the 
Jews,  their  dispersions  and  calamities,  the  con- 
quest of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans,  the  miseries 
of  the  besieged,  and  the  present  state  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  cannot  be  read  without  astonish- 
ment. They  are  perspicuous  and  minute,  and 
have  been  literally  accomplished.  This  book  is 
cited  as  the  production  of  Moses  by  Christ  and 
his  apostles,  Matt.  iv.  4,  John  i,  45,  Sec. 

The  other  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  twelve  in  number,  Joshua,  Judges, 
Ruth,  I.  and  II.  Samuel,  I.  and  II.  Kings,  I. 
and  II.  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Esther. 
These,  if  considered  distinctly  from  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  the  writings  more  properly  styled 
prophetical,  contain  a  compendium  of  the  Jewish 
history  from  the  death  of  Moses,  A.  M.  2552,  to 
the  reformation  established  by  Nehemiah  after 
the  return  from  the  captivity,  A.  M.  3595,  com- 
prehending a  period  of  1043  years. 

To  enable  us  to  discover  the'  authors  of  these 
books,  we  have  no  guide  but  conjecture,  internal 
evidence,  or  the  authority  of  the  modern  Jews. 
From  the  frequent  references  in  Scripture,  and 
from  the  testimony  of  Josephus,  it  appears  that 
the  Jews  were  in  possession  of  many  historical 
records  which  might  have  thrown  much  light 
upon  this  subject  if  they  had  been  preserved 
But  during  the  calamities  which  befel  that  infa- 
tuated nation  in  their  wars  with  the  Romans, 
and  the  dispersion  which  followed,  these  writings 
have  perished.  But  though  we  can  produce  no 
testimony  more  ancient  than  the  age  of  our 
Saviour  to  authenticate  the  historical  books,  yet 
there  are  some  facts  respecting  the  mode  of  their 
preservation  which  entitle  them  to  credit.  The 
very  circumstance  itself,  that  the  Jews  have  pre- 
served them  in  the  sacred  volume  to  this  day, 
while  their  other  ancient  books  have  been  lost, 
is  a  proof  that  they  considered  them  as  the 
genuine  records  of  their  nation.  Josephus, 
whose  authority  ;«  of  great  importance,  informs 


608 


SCRIPTURE. 


us,  in  his  treatise  against  Apion,  that  it  was  the 
peculiar  province  of  the  prophets  and  priests  to 
commit  to  writing  the  annals  of  the  nation,  and 
to  preserve  them  to  posterity.  That  these  might 
be  faithfully  preserved,  the  sacerdotal  function 
was  made  hereditary,  and  the  greatest  care  was 
observed  to  prevent  intermarriages  either  with 
foreigners  or  with  the  other  tribes.  No  man 
could  officiate  as  a  priest  who  could  not  prove 
his  descent  in  a  right  line  by  unquestionable 
evidence.  Ezra  ii.  61,  62.  Registers  were 
kept  in  Jerusalem,  which  at  the  end  of  every 
war  were  regularly  revised  by  the  surviving 
priests  ;  and  new  ones  were  then  composed.  As 
a  proof  that  this  has  been  faithfully  performed, 
Josephus  adds  that  the  names  of  all  the  Jewish 
priests,  in  an  uninterrupted  succession  from 
father  to  son,  had  been  registered  for  2000  years ; 
that  is,  from  the  time  of  Aaron  to  the  age  of 
Josephus.  The  national  records  were  not  al- 
lowed to  be  written  by  any  man  who  might  think 
himself  fit  for  the  office;  and,  if  the  priest  falsi- 
fied them,  he  was  excluded  from  the  altar  and 
deposed  from  his  office.  Thus,  we 'are  assured, 
the  Jewish  records  were  committed  to  the  charge 
of  the  priests;  and,  as  they  may  be  considered 
as  the  same  family  from  Aaron  to  the  Babylonish 
captivity  and  downwards,  the  same  credit  is  due 
to  them  that  would  be  due  to  family  records, 
which  by  antiquarians  are  esteemed  the  most 
authentic  sources  of  information. 

Of  the  twenty-two  books  which  Josephus 
reckoned  himself  bound  to  believe,  the  histo- 
rical books  from  the  death  of  Moses  to  the  reign 
of  Artaxerxes,  he  informs  us,  were  written  by 
contemporary  prophets.  It  appears,  then,  that 
the  prophets  were  the  composers, >nd  the  priests 
the  hereditary  keepers  of  the  national  records. 
Thus,  the  best  provision  possible  was  made  that 
they  should  be  written  accurately,  and  be  pre- 
served uncorrupted.  The  principal  office  of  these 
prophets  was  to  instruct  the'  people  in  their  duty 
to  God,  and  occasionally  to  communicate  the 
predictions  of  future  events.  For  this  purpose 
they  were  educated  in  the  schools  of  the  pro- 
phets, or  in  academies  where  sacred  learning 
was  taught.  The  prophets  were  therefore  the 
learned  men  of  their  time,  and  consequently 
were  best  qualified  for  the  office  of  historians, 
it  may  be  objected  that  the  prophets,  in  concert 
with  the  priests,  might  have  forged  any  writings 
they  pleased.  But,  before  we  suspect  that  they 
have  done  so  in  the  historical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  we  must  find  out  some  motive  which 
could  induce  them  to  commit  so  daring  a  crime. 
But  this  is  impossible.  No  encomiums  are 
made  either  upon  the  prophets  or  the  priests; 
no  adulation  to  the  reigning  monarch  appears, 
nor  is  the  favor  of  the  populace  courted.  The 
faults  of  all  ranks  are  delineated  without  reserve. 
Indeed  there  is  no  history  extant  that  has  more 
the  appearance  of  impartiality.  We  are  pre- 
sented with  a  simple  detail  of  facts,  and  are  left 
to  discover  the  motives  and  intentions  of  the  se- 
veral characters  ;  and,  when  a  character  is  drawn, 
it  is  done  in  a  few  words,  without  exaggerating 
•he  vices  or  amplifying  the  virtues  of  the  person. 

It  is  of  no  real  consequence,  therefore,  whe- 
tner  we  can  ascertain  the  authors  of  the  different 


books  or  not.  From  Josephus  we  know  that 
they  existed  in  his  time  ;  ami,  from  his  account 
of  the  manner  in  which  they  were  preserved,  we 
are  assured  they  were  not  in  danger  of  being 
corrupted.  They  existed  also  when  the  Septu- 
agint  translation  was  made.  Frequent  references 
are  made  to  them  in  the  writings  of  later  pro- 
phets ;  sometimes  the  same  facts  are  related  in 
detail.  In  short,  there  is  such  a  coincidence  be- 
tween the  historical  books  and  the  writings  of 
those  prophets  who  were  contemporary,  that  it 
is  impossible  to  suppose  the  latter  true  without 
receiving  the  former.  Indeed,  to  suppose  that 
the  Jews  could  have  received  and  preserved 
with  such  care  for  so  many  hundred  years  false 
records,  which  it  must  have  been  in  the  power 
of  every  person  to'  disprove,  and  which  at  the 
same  time  do  so  little  credit  to  the  character  of 
their  nation,  is  to  suppose  one  of  the  greatest 
absurdities  in  the  world  :  it  is  to  suppose  that  a 
whole  nation  could  act  contrary  to  all  those  prin- 
ciples which  have  always  predominated  in  the 
human  mind,  and  which  must  always  predo- 
minate till  human  nature  undergo  a  total  revo- 
lution. 

The  book  which  immediately  follows  the  Pen- 
tateuch has  been  generally  ascribed  td  Joshua, 
the  successor  of  Moses.  It  contains,  however, 
some  things  which  must  have  been  inserted  after 
the  death  of  Joshua.  There  is  some  accidental 
derangement  in  the  order  of  the  chapters  of  this 
book  which  was  probably  occasioned  by  the  an- 
cient mode  of  fixing  together  a  number  of  rolls. 
If  chronologically  placed,  they  should  be  read 
thus,  first  chapter  to  the  tenth  verse ;  then  the 
second  chapter ;  then  from  the  tenth  verse  to  the 
end  of  the  first  chapter ;  afterwards  should  fol- 
low the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  and 
eleventh  chapters ;  then  the  twenty-second  ;  and 
lastly  the-  twelfth  and  thirteenth  chapters  to  the 
twenty-fourth  verse  of  the  latter.  The  facts 
mentioned  in  this  book  are  referred  to  by  many 
of  the  sacred  writers.  See  1  Chron.  ii.  7,  xii.  15 ; 
Psal.  cxiv.  3 ;  Isa.  xxviii.  22 ;  Acts  vii.  45 ; 
Heb.  xi.  31,  xiii.  5;  James  ii.  25.  28.  In  the 
book  of  Kings,  xvi.  34,  the  words  of  Joshua 
are  said  to  be  the  words  of  God.  See  JOSHUA. 

By  whom  the  book  of  JUDGES  was  written  is 
uncertain  ;  but,  as  it  contains  the  history  of  the 
Jewish  republic  for  317  years,  the  materials  must 
have  been  furnished  by  different  persons.  The 
book,  however,  seems  to  be  the  composition  of 
one  individual  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Saul, 
and  before  the  accession  of  David  :  for  it  is  said, 
in  chap  i.  ver.  21,  that  the  Jebusites  were  still  in 
Jerusalem ;  who,  we  know,  were  dispossessed  of 
that  city  early  in  the  reign  of  David,  2  Sam.  v. 
6.  8.  We  have  reason,  therefore,  to  ascribe  this 
book  to  Samuel.  The  history  of  this  book  may 
be  divided  into  two  parts  ;  the  first  contains  an 
account  of  the  Judges  from  Othniel  to  Sampson, 
ending  at  the  sixteenth  chapter.  The  second 
part  relates  several  remarkable  transactions  which 
occurred  soon  after  the  death  of  Joshua  ;  but  are 
thrown  to  the  end  of  the  book,  that  they  might 
not  interrupt  the  course  of  the  history.  See 
JUDCI  I. 

The  book  of  1'n  a  ,>  a  kind  of  supplement 
to  the  book  of  Judges,  and  an  introduction  to 


SCRIPTURE. 


609 


the  history  of  David,  as  it  is  related  in  the  books 
of  Samuel.  Since  the  genealogy  which  it  con- 
tains descends  to  David,  it  must  have  been 
written  after  the  birth  of  that  prince,  but  not  at 
any  considerable  time  after  it ;  for  the  history  of 
Boaz  and  Ruth,  the  great-grandfather  and  great- 
grandmother  of  David,  could  not  be  remembered 
above  two  or  three  generations.  As  the  elder 
brothers  of  David  and  their  sons  are  omitted, 
and  none  of  his  own  children  are  mentioned  in 
the  genealogy,  it  is  evident  that  the  book  was 
composed  in  honor  of  the  Hebrew  monarch, 
after  he  was  anointed  king  by  Samuel,  and  be- 
fore any  of  his  children  were  born  ;  and  conse- 
quently in  the  reign  of  Saul.  The  Jews  ascribe 
it  to  Samuel ;  and  indeed  there  is  no  person  of 
that  age  to  whom  it  may  be  attributed  with  more 
propriety.  See  SAMUEL.  We  are  informed 
(1  Sam.  x.  25)  that  Samuel  was  a  writer,  and 
are  assured  that  no  person  in  the  reign  of  Saul 
was  so  well  acquainted  with  the  splendid  pros- 
pects of  David  as  the  prophet  Samuel. 

The  Greeks  denominate  the  books  of  SAMUEL, 
which  follow  next  in  order,  The  books  of  King- 
doms ;  and  the  Latins,  The  books  of  Kings  I. 
and  II.  Anciently  there  were  but  two  books  of 
Kings;  the  first  was  the  two  books  of  Samuel, 
and  the  second  was  what  we  now  call  the  two 
books  of  Kings.  According  to  the  present  divi- 
sion, these  two  books  are  four,  viz.  the  first  and 
second  books  of  Samuel,  and  the  first  and  se- 
cond books  of  Kings.  Concerning  the  author 
of  the  two  books  of  Samuel  there  are  different 
opinions.  Some  think  that  Samuel  wrote  only 
twenty  or  twenty-four  chapters  of  the  first  book, 
and  that  the  history  was  continued  by  Nathan 
and  Gad.  This  opinion  they  ground  on  the 
following  passage  in  1  Chron.  xxix.  29  :  '  Now 
tl»e  acts  of  David  the  king,  first  and  last,  behold 
they  are  written  in  the  book  of  Samuel  the  seer, 
and  in  the  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and 
Gad  the  seer.'  Others  think  they  were  compiled 
by  Ezra  from  ancient  records ;  but  it  is  evident 
that  the  books  of  Samuel  were  written  before 
the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles ;  for  in  the 
latter  many  circumstances  are  taken  from  the  for- 
mer. The  first  book  carries  down  the  history  of 
the  Israelites  from  the  birth  of  Samuel  to  the 
fatal  battle  of  Gilboa,  comprehending  a  period 
of  about  eighty  years.  The  second  relates  the 
history  of  David,  from  his  succession  to  the 
throne  of  Israel,  till  within  a  year  or  two  of  his 
death,  containing  forty  years.  There  are  two 
beautiful  passages  in  these  books,  which  every 
man  of  sentiment  and  taste  must  feel  and  admire, 
the  lamentation  or  elegy  on  Saul  and  Jonathan, 
and  the  parable  of  Nathan.  The  impartiality 
of  the  historian  is  fully  attested,  by  the  candor 
and  freedom  with  which  the  actions  of  Saul  and 
David  are  related.  There  are  some  remarks  in- 
terspersed, which  were  probably  added  by  Ezra. 

When  the  two  books  of  KINGS  were  written, 
or  by  whom  they  were  compiled,  is  uncertain. 
Some  have  supposed  that  David,  Solomon,  and 
Hezekiah,  wrote  the  history  of  their  own  times. 
But  this  seems  not  probable,  as  their  crimes  and 
vices  are  so  particularly  recorded.  Others  have 
been  of  opinion  that  the  prophets,  viz.  Gad,  Na- 
»han,  Isaiah,  and  Jeremiah,  wrote  each  the  his- 
Voi..  XIX. 


tory  of  the  reign  m  which  he  lived,  which  ap 
pears  much  more  probable.  But  it  is  generally 
believed  that  Ezra  wrote  these  two  books,  and 
published  them  in  the  form  in  which  we  have 
them  at  present.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but 
the  prophets  drew  up  the  lives  of  the  kings  who 
reigned  in  their  times ;  for  the  names  and  writ- 
ings of  those  prophets  are  frequently  mentioned, 
and  cited.  Still,  however,  it  is  evident  that  the 
two  books  of  Kings  are  but  an  abridgment  of  a 
larger  work,  the  substance  of  which  is  contained 
in  the  books  before  us.  In  support  of  the  opi- 
nion that  Ezra  is  the  author  of  these  books,  it  is 
said  that  in  the  time  of  the  penman,  the  ten 
tribes  were  captives  in  Assyria,  whither  they  had 
been  carried  as  a  punishment  for  their  sins : 
That  in  the  second  of  these  books  the  author 
makes  some  reflections  on  the  calamities  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  which  demonstrate  that  he  lived  after 
that  event.  But  to  this  it  is  objected  that  the 
author  of  these  books  expresses  himself  through- 
out as  a  contemporary,  and  as  one  would  have 
done  who  had  been  an  eye  and  ear  witness  of 
what  he  related.  To  this  objection  it  is  answer- 
ed that  Ezra  compiled  these  books  from  the 
prophetic  writings  which  he  had  in  his  posses- 
sion ;  that  he  copied  them  exactly,  narrating  the 
facts  in  order  as  they  happened,  and  interspersed 
in  his  history  some  reflections  and  remarks  aris- 
ing from  the  subjects  which  he  handled.  The 
first  book  comprises  a  period  of  126  years,  from 
the  death  of  David  to  that  of  Jehoshaphat.  The 
second  book  records  the  transactions  of  the  suc- 
ceeding kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  for  about  300 
years,  from  the  death  of  Jehoshaphat  to  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  A.  M 
3416,  A.C.  588. 

The  Hebrews  style  the  two  books  of  CHRO- 
NICLES, Deberi  Imim,  i.  e.  Words  of  days,  jour- 
nals or  diaries,  in  allusion  to  those  ancient  jour- 
nals which  appear  to  have  been  kept  among  the 
Jews.  The  Greeks  call  them  HapaXinrop.(i>a, 
Paralipomena,  which  signifies  things  omitted ; 
as  if  these  two  books  were  a  kind  of  supple- 
ment, to  inform  us  of  what  had  been  omitted  or 
too  much  abridged  in  the  books  of  Kings.  The 
two  books  of  Chronicles  contain  indeed  several 
particulars  which  are  not  to  be  met  with  in  the 
other  books  of  Scripture :  but  it  is  not  therefore 
to  be  supposed  that  they  are  the  records  of  the 
kings  of  Judah  and  Israel,  so  often  referred  to  in 
the  books  of  Kings.  Those  ancient  registers 
were  apparently  much  more  copious  than  these 
books  ;  and  the  compiler  of  the  books  of  Chro- 
nicles often  refers  to  them,  and  makes  extracts 
from  them. 

Some  suppose  that  the  author  of  these  two 
books  was  the  same  with  that  of  the  two  books 
of  Kings.  The  Jews  say  that  they  were  written 
by  Ezra,  after  the  return  from  the  captivity,  as- 
sisted by  Zechariah  and  Haggai,  who  were  then 
alive.  But  events  are  mentioned  in  them  of  so 
late  a  date  as  to  show  that  he  could  not  have 
written  them  in  their  present  form ;  and  there  is 
another  objection  to  his  being  their  author,  which 
is  little  less  forcible :  between  the  books  of 
Kings  and  Chronicles  there  is  a  great  number  of 
variations  both  in  dates  and  facts,  which  could 
not  have  happened  if  Ezra  had  been  the  author 

2  R 


610 


S  C  R  I   P  T  U  R  !•:. 


of  them,  or  indeed  if  they  had  been  the  work  of 
any  one  person.  The  books  of  Chronicles  are 
not  to  be  considered  merely  as  an  abridgment  of 
former  histories  with  some  useful  additions,  but 
as  books  written  witli  a  particular  view  ;  which 
seems  to  have  been  to  furnish  a  genealogical  re- 
gister of  the  twelve  tribes,  deduced  from  the 
earliest  times ;  to  point  out  those  distinctions 
which  were  necessary  to  discriminate  the  mixed 
multitude  that  returned  from  Babylon  ;  to  ascer- 
tain the  lineage  of  .hid ah;  and  tore-establish  on 
their  ancient  footing  the  pretensions  and  func- 
tions of  each  individual  tribe. 

The  books  of  EZRA  and  NEIIKMIAII  '>re  attri- 
buted by  the  ancients  to  the  former  of  these  pro- 
phets; and  they  called  them  the  first  and  second 
books  of  Esdras  ;  which  title  is  still  kept  up  by 
ihe  Latin  church.  It  is  indeed  highly  probable 
that  the  former  of  these  books,  which  comprises 
the  history  of  the  Jews,  from  the  time  that  Cyrus 
made  the  decree  for  their  return  until  the  twen- 
tieth year  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (which 
was  about  100  years,  or  as  others  think  seventy- 
nine  years),  was  all  composed  by  Ezra,  except 
the  first  six  chapters,  which  contain  an  account 
of  the  first  return  of  the  Jews  upon  the  decree 
of  Cyrus ;  whereas  Ezra  did  not  return  till  the 
time  of  Artaxerxes.  It  is  of  this  second  return 
therefore  that  he  writes  the  account ;  and  adding 
it  to  the  other,  which  he  found  ready  composed 
to  his  hand,  he  made  it  a  complete  history  of  the 
Jewish  restoration.  This  book  is  written  in 
Chaldee  from  chap.  iv.  8  to  chap.  vii.  27.  As 
this  part  of  the  work  chiefly  contains  letters,  con- 
versations, and  decrees  expressed  in  that  lan- 
guage, the  fidelity  of  the  historian  has  probably 
induced  him  to  take  down  the  very  words  which 
were  used.  The  people,  too,  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  the  Chaldee  during  the  captivity,  and 
probably  understood  it  better  than  Hebrew ;  for 


it  appears  Cro;;;  Ni'iicininii's  account,  chap.  viii. 
2.  8,  that  all  could  not  understand  the  law. 

The  book  of  NEHEMIAII  bears,  in  the  Latin 
bibles,  the  title  of  the  second  book  of  Esdras  ;  tl>e 
ancient  canons  likewise  gave  it  the  same  name,  be- 
cause, perhaps,  it  was  considered  as  a  sequel  to  the 
book  of  Ezra.  In  the  Hebrew  Bibles  it  has  the 
name  of  Ne'hemiah  prefixed  to  it ;  which  name 
:s  retained  in  the  English  Bible.  But,  though 
.nat  chief  is  by  the  writer  of  the  second  book  of 
Maccabees  affirmed  to  have  been  the  author  of 
it,  there  cannot,  we  think,  be  a  doubt,  but  that 
either  it  was  written  at  a  later  period,  or  had 
additions  made  to  it  after  Nehemiah's  death. 
With  the  books  of  Nehemiah  and  Esther  tin; 
history  of  the  Old  Testament  concludes.  This 
is  supposed  to  have  taken  place  about  A.  M. 
3574.  A.  C.  434.  But  Prideaux  with  more 
probability  has  fixed  it  at  A.  M.  3595.  See 
NEHEMIAH. 

It  is  uncertain  who  was  the  author  of  the  book 
of  ESTHER.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  many 
commentators,  have  ascribed  it  to  Mordecai  ; 
and  the  book  itself  seems  to  favor  this  opinion  ; 
for  we  are  told,  in  chap.  ix.  20,  that  '  Mordecai 
wrote  these  things.'  Others  have  supposed  that 
Ezra  was  the  author ;  but  the  more  probable 
opinion  of  the  Talmudists  is  that  the  great  syna- 
gogue (See  SYNAGOGUE),  to  perpetuate  the  me- 
mory of  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  the 
conspiracy  of  Haman,  and  to  account  for  the 
origin  of  the  feast  of  Purim,  ordered  this  book 
to  be  composed  very  likely  of  materials  left  by 
Mordecai,  and  afterwards  approved  and  admitted 
it  into  the  sacred  canon.  The  time  when  the 
events  which  it  relates  happened,  is  supposed 
by  some  to  have  been  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  and  by  others  in  that  of  Darius 
the  son  of  Hystaspes,  called  by  the  sacred  pen- 
man Ahasuerus.  See  AHASUERUS. 


The  following  TABLE  exhibits  the  Contemporary  Reigns  of  the  respective  Kings  of  JUDAH  and 
ISRAEL,  and  will  assist  in  reading  the  Historical  Books. 


A.M. 
3029 
3046 
3049 
3050 
3051 
3074 
3075 

3086 
3090 
3106 
3108 
3112 
3119 
3120 
3126 
3148 
3163 
3165 
3179 
3194 
:5231 
3232 

3243 


Judah. 
Rehoboam 
Abijam 
Asa 


Jehoshaphat 


Jehoram,  or  Joram 

Aha/.iali 
Athaliah 
.I  oash 


Jeroboam 


Nadab 
BaastiD 
Elah 

/iinn 
Omri 
Ahab 


Israel. 


Ante  A.  1). 
975 
958 
955 
954 
953 
930 
929 


Ahaziah 
Jehoram,  or- Joram 


Jehu 


Amaziah 
A/ariah,  or  I  'zciah 


Jehoaha/. 
Jehoash,  or  Joash 


Jeroboam  II. 

Zachariah 
Shallum 
iMenahem 
Pekahial. 


761 


Judah. 


3-2G2 
3264 

3254 
3258 
3283 
3306 
3326 
3361 
3363 
3394 

3398 
3405 


3416 


Jotham 
Ahaz 


Hezekiah 


SCRIPTURE. 

Israel. 
Pekan 

First  captivity  of  Israel  by  Tiglath  Pileser 

An  interregnum 

Hoshea 


Manasseh 


Amon 

Josiah 

Tehoahaz 

Jehoiakim 

First  captivity  of  Judah 

Jehoiachin,  Coniah,  or  Jeconiah 

Second  Captivity  of  Judah 

Zedekiah 

Third  and  final  captivity 


Second  captivity,  by  Shalmanese: 
Third  captivity,  by  Esar-haddon 


III. — Of  the  Hagiographa. — The  third  general 
division  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
among  the  Jews,  according  to  Josephus,  was 
the  Hagiographa,  or  Holy  Writings ;  which, 
however,  are  generally  ranked  second  in  order 
in  all  modern  bibles.  This  comprehends  the 
books  of  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes, 
and  the  Song  of  Solomon. 

Concerning  the  author  of  the  book  of  JOB, 
there  are  many  different  opinions.  Some  have 
supposed  that  Job  himself  wrote  it  in  Syriac  or 
Arabic,  and  that  it  was  afterwards  translated  by 
Moses.  Others  have  thought  that  Elihu  wrot'e 
it ;  and  by  others  it  is  ascribed  to  Moses,  to 
Solomon,  to  Isaiah,  and  to  Ezra.  To  give  even  an 
abridgment  of  the  arguments  brought  in  sup- 
port of  these  various  opinions  would  fill  a  vo- 
lume, and  at  last  leave  the  reader  in  uncertainty. 
The  most  able  summary  of  these  opinions  is  to 
be  found  in  the  worK  of  Dr.  M.  Good  on  Job. 
The  writer  of  this  article  is  decidedly  of  opinion, 
that  Elihu  was  the  author.  He  is  the  only  one 
of  Job's  four  friends  who  incurred  no  reproof. 
He  listened  with  attention  to  them  all,  and  at  last 
delivered  his  opinion  ;  and  it  is  therefore  highly 
probable,  that  he  drew  up  the  narrative  of  the 
whole.  See  ELIHU  ;  and  Job,  xxxii.  15,  16, 
where  he  seems  to  speak  of  himself  as  the  writer. 

The  book  of  Job,  by  whomsoever  it  was  writ- 
-en,  has  been  always  esteemed  a  portion  of  canoni- 
cal scripture,  and  is  one  of  the  most  sublime 
compositions  in  the  sacred  volume.  It  appears 
to  stand  single  and  unparalleled  in  the  sacred 
volume,  having  apparently  little  connexion  with 
the  other  writings  of  the  Hebrews,  and  no  rela- 
tion whatever  to  the  affairs  of  the  Israelites. 
The  scene  is  laid  in  Idumea  ;  the  history  of  an 
inhabitant  of  that  country  is  the  basis  of  the 
narrative ;  the  characters  who  speak  are  Idumeans, 
or  at  least  Arabians  of  the  adjacent  country,  all 
originally  of  the  race  of  Abraham.  The  language 
is  pure  Hebrew,  although  the  author  appears  to 
be  an  Idumean  ;  for  it  is  not  improbable  that  all 
the  posterity  of  Abraham,  Israelites,  Idumeans, 
and  Arabians,  whether  of  the  fa'mily  of  Sarah, 
Keturah,  or  Isr-naei,  spoke  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time  one  common  language.  That 
the  Idumaearis,  howpver,  and  the  Tcmanites  in 


606 
599 


588 

particular,  were  eminent  for  the  reputation  of 
wisdom,  appears  by  the  testimony  of  the  prophets 
Jeremiah  and  Obadiah.  (Jer.  xlix.  7,  Ob.  8.) 
Baruch  also  particularly  mentions  them  among 
1  the  authors  (or  expounders)  of  fables,  and  search- 
ers out  of  understanding.'  Chap.  iii.  22,  23. 

The  principal  personage  in  this  poem  is  Job  ; 
and  in  his  character  is  meant  to  be  exhibited  (as  far 
as-  is  consistent  with  human  infirmity)  an  exam- 
ple of  perfect  virtue.  This  is  intimated  in  the 
introduction,  but  is  still  more  eminently  dis- 
played in  his  actions  and  sentiments.  He  is  holy, 
devout,  and  most  piously  and  reverently  im- 
pressed with  the  sacred  awe  of  his  divine  Crea- 
tor ;  he  is  also  upright,  and  conscious  of  his  own 
integrity  ;  he  is  patient  of  evil,  and  yet  very  re- 
mote from  that  insensibility,  or  rather  stupidity, 
to  which  the  Stoics  pretended.  Oppressed,  there- 
fore, with  unparalleled  misfortunes,  he  laments 
his  misery,  and  even  wishes  a  release  by  death  ; 
in  other  words,  he  obeys,  and  gives  place  to  the 
dictates  of  nature.  Irritated,  however,  by  the 
unjust  insinuations  and  the  severe  reproaches  of 
his  pretended  friends,  he  is  more  vehemently  ex- 
asperated, and  his  too  great  confidence  in  his  own 
righteousness  leads  him  to  expostulate  with  God 
in  terms  scarcely  consistent  with  piety  and  strict 
decorum. 

The  first  speech  of  Job,  though  it  bursts  forth 
with  all  the  vehemence  of  passion,  consists  wholly 
of  complaint, '  the  words  and  sentiments  of  a  de- 
spairing person  empty  as  the  wind ; '  which  is 
indeed  the  apology  that  he  immediately  makes 
for  his  conduct ;  intimating  that  he  is  far  from 
presuming  to  plead  with  God,  far  from  daring 
to  call  in  question  the  divine  decrees,  or  even  to 
mention  his  own  innocence  in  the  presence  of  his 
all-just  Creator;  nor  is  there  any  good  reason  for 
the  censure  which  has  been  passed  by  some 
commentators  upon  this  passage.  The  poet  seems, 
with  great  judgment  and  ingenuity,  to  have  per- 
formed in  this  what  the  nature  of  his  work  re- 
quired, lie  has  depicted  the  affliction  and  an- 
guish of  Job,  as  flowing  from  his  wounded  heart 
in  a  manner  so  agreeable  to  human  nature  (and 
certainly  so  far  venial)  that  it  may  be  truly  said, 
'  in  all  this  Job  sinned  not  with  his  lips.'  It  is, 
nevertheless,  embellished  by  *uch  affecting  ima- 

2  K  2 


SCRIPTURE. 


fiery,  and  inspired  with  such  A  warmth  and  force 
of  sentiment,  that  we  find  it  afforded  ample 
scope  for  calumny;  nor  did  the  unkind  witnesses 
of  his  sufferings  permit  so  fair  an  opportunity 
lo  escape.  The  occasion  is  eagerly  embraced  by 
Eliphaz  to  rebuke  the  impatience  of  Job  ;  and, 
not  satisfied  with  this,  he  proceeds  to  accuse  him 
in  direct  terms  of  wanting  fortitude,  and  ob- 
liquely to  insinuate  something  of  a  deeper  dye. 
Though  deeply  hurt  with  the  coarse  reproaches 
of  Eliphaz  ;  still,  however,  when  Job  afterwards 
complains  of  the  severity  of  God,  he  cautiously 
refrains  from  violent  expostulations  with  his 
Creator,  and,  contented  with  the  simple  expres- 
sion of  affliction,  he  humbly  confesses  himself  a 
sinner.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  those  vehement 
attestations  of  his  innocence,  those  murmurs 
against  the  divine  Providence,  which  his  tottering 
virtue  afterwards  permits,  are  to  be  considered 
merely  as  the  consequences  of  momentary  passion, 
and  not  as  the  ordinary  effects  of  his  settled  cha- 
racter or  manner. 

The  three  friends  are  exactly  such  characters 
as  the  nature  of  the  poem  required.  They  are 
severe,  irritable,  malignant  censors,  readily,  and 
with  apparent  satisfaction,  deviating  from  the 
purposes  of  consolation  into  reproof  and  con- 
tumely. Even  from  the  very  first  they  manifest 
this  evil  propensity,  and  indicate  what  is  to  be 
expected  from  them. 

The  lenity  and  moderation  of  Elihu  afford  a 
beautiful  contrast  to  the  intemperance  and  aspe- 
rity of  the  other  three.  He  is  pious,  mild,  and 
equitable ;  equally  free  from  adulation  and  se- 
verity ;  and  endued  with  singular  wisdom,  which 
he  attributes  entirely  to  the  inspiration  of  God  ; 
and  his  modesty,  moderation,  and  wisdom,  are 
the  more  entitled  to  commendation  when  we 
•consider  his  youth.  As  the  characters  of  his  de- 
tractors were  in  all  respects  calculated  to  inflame 
the  mind  of  Job,  that  of  this  arbitrator  is  admi- 
rably adapted  to  sooth  and  compose  it :  to  this 
point  the  whole  drift  of  the  argument  tends,  and 
on  this  the  very  purport  of  it  seems  to  depend. 

Another  circumstance  deserving  particular  at- 
tention, in  a  poem  of  this  kind,  is  the  sentiment; 
which  must  be  agreeable  to  the  subject,  and  ero- 
ttellished  with  proper  expression.  It  is  by  Aris- 
totle enumerated  among  the  essentials  of  a 
dramatic  poem  ;  not  indeed  as  peculiar  to  that 
species  of  poetry,  tut  as  common,  aiid  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  all.  Manners  or  cha- 
racter are  essential  only  to  that  poetry  in  which 
living  persons  are  introduced;  and  all  such 
poems  must  afford  an  exact  representation  of 
human  manners ;  hut  sentiment  is  essential  to 
every  poem,  indeed  to  every  composition  what- 
ever. It  respects  both  persons  and  things.  As 
far  as  it  regards  persons,  it  is  particularly  con- 
cerned in  the  delineation  of  the  manners  and 
passions ;  and  those  instances  to  which  we  have 
just  been  adverting  are  sentiments  expressive  of 
manners. 

The  poem  of  Job  abounds  chiefly  in  the  more 
vehement  passions,  grief  and  anger,  indignation 
and  violent  contention.  It  is  adapted  in  every 
respect  to  the  incitement  of  terror ;  and  is  uni- 
versally animated  with  the  true  spirit  of  sublimity. 
It  is,  however,  not  wanting  in  the  gentler  affec- 


tions. The  whole  abounds  with  the  most  beauti- 
ful imagery,  and  is  a  most  perfect  specimen  of^ 
the  elegiac.  His  grief  becomes  fervent ;  hut  is 
at  the  same  time  soft  and  querimonious.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  quote  instances.  The  book  is  in 
every  body's  hands. 

The  dignity  of  the  style  is  answerable  to  that 
of  the  subject ;  its  force  and  energy  to  the  great- 
ness of  those  passions  which  it  describes ;  and, 
as  this  production  excels  all  the  other  remains 
of  the  Hebrew  poetry  in  economy  and  arrange- 
ment, so  it  yields  to  none  in  sublimity  of  style, 
and  in  every  grace  and  excellence  of  composition. 
Among  the  principal  of  these,  may  be  accounted 
the  accurate  and  perfectly  poetical  conformation 
of  the  sentences,  which  is  indeed  generally  most 
observable  in  the  most  ancient  of  the  poetical 
compositions  of  the  Hebrews.  Here,  however, 
as  is  natural  and  proper  in  a  poem  of  so  great 
length  and  sublimity,  the  writer's  skill  is  dis- 
played in  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  period, 
and  in  the  accurate  distribution  of  the  members, 
rather  than  in  the  antithesis  of  words,  or  in  any 
labored  adaptation  of  the  parallelisms. 

The  chief  doctrines  of  the  patriarchal  religion, 
collected  from  different  parts  of  this  poem  by 
Drs.  Hales  and  Good,  are  as  follow : — 

1.  The  creation  of  the  world  by  one  Supreme 
and  Eternal  Intelligence.     See  c.  xxxviii. — \li. 

2.  Its  regulation  by  his  perpetual  and  super- 
intending providence.     See  c.  i.  9 — '21  ;  ii.  10; 
v.  8—27;  ix.  4—13. 

3.  The  intentions  of  his  providence  carried  in- 
to effect  by  the  ministrations  of  a  heavenly  hier- 
archy.    See  c.  i.  6,  7;  iii.  18,  19;  v.  1.;  xxxiii. 
22,  23. 

4.  The  heavenly  hierarchy,  composed  of  vari- 
ous ranks  and  orders,  possessing  different  names, 
dignities,   and    offices.      As    obelim,    servants ; 
malachim,  angels ;   melizim,   intercessors  ;  me- 
mitim,  destinies  or  destroyers  ;  alep,  the  chiliad 
or  thousand ;    kedoshim,    sancti,   the  heavenly 
saints  or  hosts  generally.     See  c.  iv.  18;-  xxxiii. 
22,  23  :  v.  2  ;  xv.  15. 

5.  An  apostasy,  or  defection,  in  some  rank  01 
order  of  these  powers  (c.  iv.   18;    xv.   15),  of 
which  Satan  seems  to  have  been  one,  and  per- 
haps chief,  c.  i.  6 — 12  ;  ii.  2—7. 

6.  The  good  and  evil   powers  or  principles 
equally  formed  by  the  Creator,  and  hence  equal- 
ly denominated  '  Sons  of  God ;'  both  of.  them 
employed  by  him  in  the  administration  of  his 
providence  ;  and  both  amenable  to  him  at  stated 
courts,  held  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  an  ac- 
count of  their  respective  missions.     See  c.  i.  G, 
7;  ii.  i. 

7.  A  day  of  future  resurrection,  judgment,  and 
retribution  to  all  mankind.     See  c.  xiv.  13 — 15  ; 
xix.  25 — 29;  xxi.  30;  xxxi.  14. 

8.  The  propitiation  of  the  Creator,  in  the  case 
of  human  transgressions,  by  sacrifices  (c.  i.  .•">, 
xlii.  8),  and  the  mediation  and  intercession  of  a 
righteous  person.     See  c.  xlii.  8,  9. 

9.  The  idolatrous   worship   of  the   heavenly 
bodies,  a  judicial  offence,  to  be  punished  by  the 
judge.     See.  c.  xxxi.  26 — 28. 

10.  The  innate  corruption  of  man;  or  what  is 
generally  termed  '  original  sin.'     See  c.  xiv.  4 
xv.  14 — 16  ;  xxxv.  4. 


SCRIPTURE. 


fit3 


Mr.  Good  has  remarked  that  nothing  can  be 
more  unfortunate  for  this  most  excellent  compo- 
sition than  its  division  into  chapters,  and  espe- 
cially such  a  division  as  that  in  common  use ;  in 
which,  not  only  the  unity  of  the  general  subject, 
but  in  many  instances  that  of  a  single  paragraph, 
or  even  of  a  single  clause,  is  completely  broken 
in  upon  and  destroyed.  Various  are  the  divi- 
sions which  have  been  adopted.  Dr.  Hales,  who 
excludes  the  exordium  and  conclusion,  divides  it 
into  five  parts  ;  but  Dr.  Good,  who  justly  re- 
inarks  that  these  are  requisite  to  the  unity  vf  the 
composition,  divides  it  into  six.  We  have  then 

1.  History  of  Job's  character  and  trials  (c.  i. — 
iii.)  2.  First  series  of  conversations  or  contro- 
versy— Eliphaz's  address  (c.  iv.  v.)  ;  Job's 
answer  (c.  vi.  vii.) ;  Bildad's  address  (c.  viii.) ; 
Job's  answer  (c.  ix.  x.) ;  Zophar's  address  (c. 
xi.);  Job's  answer  (c.  xii. — xiv.)  3.  Second 
series  of  controversy — Eliphaz's  address  (c.  xv.); 
Job's  answer  (c.  xvi.  xvii.) ;  Bildad's  address 
(c.  xviii.);  Job's  answer  (c.  xix.) ;  Zophar's  ad- 
dress (c.  xx.) ;  Job's  answer  (c.  xxi.).  4.  Third 
series  of  controversy — Eliphaz's  address  (c.  xxii.); 
Job's  answer  (c.  xxiii.  xxiv.) ;  Bildad's  address 
(c.  xxv.)  ;  Job's  answer  (c.  xxvi — xxxk).  .5. 
Elihu's  four  speeches  to  Job  (c.  xxxii — xxxvii.). 
6.  Jehovah's  first  and  second  address  to  Job,  his 
humiliation,  and  final  prosperity,  c.  xxxviii. — 
xlii. 

The  word  PSALMS  is  a  Greek  term,  and  signi- 
fies songs.  The  Hebrews  call  it  n'bnfi  ISO, 
Seper  Tehellim,  that  is,  the  Book  of  Praises  ;  and 
in  tre  Gospel  it  is  styled  the  Book  of  Psalms, 
t  veneration  has  always  been  paid  to  this 
collection  of  divine  songs.  The  Christian  church 
has,  from  the  beginning,  made  them  a  principal 
part  of  her  holy  services ;  and  in  the  primitive 
times  it  was  almost  a  general  rule  that  every 
bishop,  presbyter,  and  religious  person,  should 
have  the  psalter  by  heart. 

Many  learned  fathers,  and  modern  writers, 
have  maintained  that  David  was  the  author  of 
them  all.  Several  are  of  a  different  opinion,  and 
insist  that  David  only  wrote  seventy-two  of  them, 
and  that  those  without  titles  are  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  authors  of  the  preceding  psalms,  whose 
names  are  affixed  to  them.  (See  DAVID,  ASAPH, 
&.c.)  Those  who  suppose  that  David  alone  was 
the  author,  contend  that  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  in  the  language  of  the  church  universal,  they 
are  expressly  called  the  Psalms  of  David.  That 
David  was  the  principal  author  of  these  hymns, 
is  universally  acknowledged,  and  therefore  the 
whole  collection  may  properly  enough  go  under 
his  name;  but  that  he  wrote  them  all  is  a  palpa- 
ble mistake.  Nothing  certain  can  be  gathered 
from  the  titles  of  the  psalms  ;  for,  although  un- 
questionably very  ancient,  yet  authors  are  not 
agreed  as  to  their  authority,  and  they  differ  as 
much  about  their  signification.  The  Hebrew 
doctors  generally  agree  that  the  ninety-second 
psalm  was  composed  by  Adam  :  an  opinion  which, 
for  many  reasons,  we  are  not  inclined  to  adopt. 
There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  doubt  but  that 


some  of  them  were  written  by  Moses ;  that  So- 
lomon was  the  author  of  the  forty-ninth ;  and 
that  others  were  occasioned  by  events  long  pos- 
*  terior  to  the  flourishing  era  of  the  kingdom  of 
Judah.  The  137th  particularly  "is  one  of  thcwe 
which  mentions  the  captivity  of  Babylon. 

Josephus,  and  most  of  the  ancient  writers,  as- 
sert that  the  Psalms  were  composed  in  numbers : 
little,  however,  respecting  the  nature  and  princi- 
ples of  the  Hebrew  versification  is  known. 
There  existed  a  certain  kind  of  poetry  among  the 
Hebrews,  principally  intended,  it  should  seem, 
for  the  assistance  of  the  memory ;  in  which, 
when  there  was  little  connexion  between  the  sen- 
timents, a  sort  of  order  or  method  was  preserved, 
by  the  initial  letters  of  each  line  or  stanza  fol- 
lowing the  order  of  the  alphabet.  Of  this  there 
are  several  examples  extant  among  the  sacred 
poems  (Psalms  xxv.,  xxxiv.,  xxxvii.,  cxi.,  cxii., 
cxix.,  cxlv. ;  Prov.  xxxi.,  from  the  tenth  verse  to 
the  end  ;  the  whole  of  the  Lamentations  of  Jere- 
miah except  the  last  chapter) ;  and  in  these  ex- 
amples the  verses  are  so  exactly  marked  and  de- 
fined that  it  is  impossible  to  mistake  them  for 
prose  ;  and  particularly  if  we  attentively  consi- 
der the  verses,  and  compare  them  with  one  an- 
other, since  they  are  in  general  so  regularly  ac- 
commodated, that  word  answers  to  word,  and 
almost  syllable  to  syllable.  The  Hebrew  poetry 
has  likewise  another  property  altogether  peculiar 
to  metrical  composition.  It  admits  foreign  words, 
and  certain  particles  which  seldom  occur  in 
prose  composition,  and  thus  forms  a  distinct 
poetical  dialect.  One  or  two  of  the  peculiarities 
also  of  the  Hebrew  versification  are  very  obser- 
vable in  those  poems  in  which  the  verses  are  de- 
fined by  the  initial  letters.  The  first  is  that  the 
verses  are  very  unequal  in  length ;  the  shortest 
consisting  of  six  or  seven  syllables ;  the  longest 
extending  to  about  twice  that  number :  the  same 
poem  is,  however,  generally  continued  throughout 
in  verses  not  very  unequal  to  each  other.  The 
close  of  the  verse  generally  falls  where  the  mem- 
bers of  the  sentences  are  divided.  The  ingeni- 
ous Dr.  Lowth  has,  however,  with  great  acute- 
ness,  examined  the  peculiarities  of  Hebrew 
poetry,  and  has  arranged  them  under  general 
divisions.  The  correspondence  of  one  verse  or 
line  with  another  he  calls  parallelism.  When  a 
proposition  is  delivered,  and  a  second  is  sub- 
joined to  it,  equivalent  or  contrasted  with  it  in 
sense,  or  similar  to  it  in  the  form  of  grammatical 
construction,  these  he  calls  parallel  lines;  and 
the  words  or  phrases  answering  one  to  another 
in  the  corresponding  lines,  parallel  terms.  Pa- 
rallel lines  he  reduces  to  three  sorts ;  parallels 
synonymous,  parallels  antithetic,  and  parallels 
synthetic.  For  examples  we  refer  to  his  work. 
The  following  arrangement  of  the  Book  of  Psalms 
will  be  found  useful  in  reading  them.  It  is  from 
the  Scripture  Magazine,  vol.  iii.,  but  chiefly  ex- 
tracted from  Mr.  Townsend,  the  able  author  of  a 
Chronological  Arrangement  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 


SCRIPTURE 


Numbers. 

Authors. 

Probable  Occasions. 

Connexions. 

B.C. 

88. 

90. 
9. 
11. 

59. 

56. 
34. 
142. 
17. 
52.  109.  35.  140. 
64.  31. 
54. 
57.  58. 
63. 
141. 
139. 
68. 
132. 
105.  106.  96. 
2.45.22.  16.118.110. 
60.  108. 

20.  21. 

51. 

32.  33.  103. 
3. 
7. 
42.43.55.4.  5.  62.  143. 
144.70.71.  .     .     . 
18. 

30. 

91. 
1-1.5. 
40.41.61.65.69.78. 
6.8.19.12.23.2428.29.38 
39.86.95.101.104.120. 
121.122.124.131.133. 
72. 
47.97.98.99.100. 

135.  136. 

82.115.46. 
44. 

73.75.76. 

79.  74.  83.  94. 

137.130.80.77.37.67.49 
53.50.10.13.14.15.25. 
26.27.36.89.92.93.123 
102. 
126.  85. 
107.  87.   111.  112.  113. 
114.116.117.125.127. 
128.  134  
84.66 
129. 
138. 
48.81.146.147.148.149. 
150.    .     .     . 

Hem  an. 
Moses. 
David. 

}  ;:: 

}'•'•'• 

Solomon. 

Asapli  and  others. 
Hezekiah. 

Asaph. 

{Asaph,  Ethan, 
i      and  others. 

Daniel. 
Sons  of  Korah. 

>      Various. 

Sons  of  Korah. 
Ezra  or  Nehem. 
Haggai  or  Zech. 

>      Various. 
Ezra. 

Affliction  of  Israel  in  Egypt. 
Shortening  of  man's  life. 
Victory  over  Goliath. 
Advised  to  flee  to  the  mountains. 
Saul's  soldiers  surrounding  the 
town. 
With  Philistines  at  Gath. 
Leaving  the  city  of  Gath. 
In  the  cave  of  Adullam. 
Priests  murdered  by  Doeg. 
Persecution  by  Doeg. 
Persecution  by  Saul. 
Treachery  of  the  Ziphites. 
Refusal  to  kill  Saul. 
Wilderness  of  Engedi. 
Driven  out  of  Judea. 
King  of  all  Israel. 
First  removal  of  the  Ark. 
Second  removal  of  the  Ark. 
Ark  taken  from  Obed-Edom's. 
Nathan's  prophetic  address. 
Conquest  of  Edom  by  Joab. 
War  with  Ammonites  and  Sy- 
rians. 
Confession  of  adultery  and  mur- 
der. 
Pardon  and  thanksgiving. 
His  flight  from  Absalom. 
The  reproaches  of  Shimei. 

By  the  Jordan,  from  Absalom. 

Conclusion  of  his  wars. 
Dedication  of  Araunah's  thresh- 
ing floor. 
After  his  advice  to  Solomon. 
A  review  of  his  past  life. 
Dates  and  occasions  unknown. 

At  some  periods,  after  his  ac- 
cession. 

The  Coronation  of  Solomon. 
Ark  removed  into  the  Temple. 
Dedication  of  Solomon's  Tem- 
ple. 
The  reign  of  Jehoshaphut. 
Message  of  Rabshakeh. 
Destruction    of     Sennacherib's 
army. 
Burning  of  the  Temple  at  Jeru- 
salem. 

During  the    Babylonian   Cap- 
tivity. 

Near  the  close  of  that  Captivity. 
Decree  for  restoring  the  Jews. 

Israel's  return  from  the  Capti- 
vity. 

Foundation  of  second  Temple. 
Opposition  of  the  Samaritans. 
Rebuilding  of  the  Temple. 
Dedication  of  the  second  Tem- 
ple. 
Manuals  of  devotion. 

Exod.  ii.  25. 
Numb  xiv.  45. 
I  Sam.  xviii.4. 
xix.  3. 

1  7 

1531 
1489     , 
1063 
1062 

xxi.  15. 



xxii.  1. 

10 



xxiii  12. 
°3 

1061 

xxvii.  1. 
iChron.xii  4. 
2  Sam.  vi.  11. 
1  Chron.  xv.  4. 
lChro.xvi.43. 
xvii.  27. 
1  Kings  xi.  20. 

2  Sam.  x.  19. 
xii.  15. 

1058 
1048 
1042 

1040 
1036 

1034 

xv  29. 
xvi.  14. 

xvii.  29. 

1023 

1019 
1017 
1015 

1  Chro.  xxi  30. 

xxviii.  10. 

xxviii.  21. 

xxix.  J9. 
2  Chro.  vii.  10 

1004 

xx.  26. 
2  Kings  xix.  7. 

10 

896 
710 

Jer.  xxxix.  10. 

Dan.  vii.  28. 

Dan.  ix.  27. 
Ezra  i.  4. 

iii.  7. 

1  *? 

588 

541—539 

538 

536 

535 
534 
519 

444 

iv.  24. 
vi.  13. 

Zech.  viii.  23. 

Nehem.  xiii.  3 

1  and  119. 

S  C  R  1  P  T  U  II  E. 


616 


The  book  of  PROVKRBS  lias  always  been  ac- 
counted canonical.  The  Hebrew  title  of  it  is 
^iPn,  Mishli,  which  signifies  similitudes.  It 
has  always  been  ascribed  to  Solomon,  whose 
name  it  bears,  though  some  have  doubted  whether 
he  really  was  the  author  of  every  one  of  the 
naxims  which  it  contains.  Those  in  chapter 
xxx.  are  indeed  called  the  words  of  Agur,  the 
son  of  Jakeh,  and  the  title  of  the  thirty-first  or 
last  chapter  is  the  words  of  king  Lemuel.  It 
seems  certain  that  the  collection  called  the  Pro- 
verbs of  Solomon  was  digested  in  the  order  in 
which  we  now  have  it  by  different  hands;  but  it 
is  not,  therefore,  to  be  concluded  that  they  are 
not  the  work  of  Solomon.  Several  persons 
might  have  made  collections  of  them  :  Hezekiah, 
among  others,  is  mentioned  c.  xxv.  Agur  and 
Ezra  might  have  done  the  same.  From  these 
several  collections  the  work  was  compiled  which 
we  have  now  in  our  hands. 

The  book  of  Proverbs  may  be  considered  un- 
der five  divisions.  1.  The  first,  which  is  a  kind 
of  preface,  extends  to  the  tenth  chapter.  This 
contains  general  cautions  and  exhortations  for  a 
teacher  to  his  pupil,  expressed  in  elegant  lan- 
guage, duly  connected  in  its  parts,  illustrated 
with  beautiful  description,  and  well  contrived  to 
engage  and  interest  the  attention.  2.  The  second 
part  extends  from  the  beginning  of  c.  x.  to  c. 
xxii.  17,  and  consists  of  what  may  strictly  and 
properly  be  called  proverbs,  viz.  unconnected 
sentences,  expressed  with  much  neatness  and 
simplicity.  They  are  truly,  to  use  the  language 
of  their  sage  author,  '  apples  of  gold  in  pictures 
of  silver.'  3.  In  the  third  part,  which  is  included 
between  c.  xxii.  16,  and  c.  xxv.,  the  tutor  drops 
the  sententious  style,  addresses  his  pupil  as  pre- 
sent, and  delivers  his  advices  in  a  connected 
manner.  4.  The  Proverbs  which  are  included 
between  c.  xxv.  and  c.  xxx.  are  supposed  to  have 
been  selected  by  the  men  of  Hezekiah  from  some 
larger  collections  of  Solomon,  that  is,  by  the 
prophets  whom  he  employed  to  restore  the  ser- 
vice and  writings  of  the  church.  Some  of  the 
proverbs  which  Solomon  had  introduced  into  the 
former  part  of  the  book  are  here  repeated.  5. 
The  prudent  admonitions  which  Agur  delivered 
to  his  pupils  Ithiel  and  Ucal  are  contained  in  the 
thirtieth  chapter,  and  in  the  thirty-first  are  re- 
corded the  precepts  which  the  mother  of  Lemuel 
delivered  to  her  son.  Several  references  are  evi- 
dently made  to  the  book  of  Proverbs  by  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament.  Rom.  ix.  1 6.  20 ; 
1  Peter  iv.  8,  v.  5 ;  James  iv. 

The  Proverbs  of  Solomon  afford  specimens  of 
the  didactic  poetry  of  the  Hebrews.  They  abound 
with  antithetic  parallels ;  for  this  form  is  pecu- 
liarly adapted  to  that  kind  of  writing,  to  adages, 
aphorisms,  and  detached  sentences.  Indeed,  the 
elegance,  acuteness,  and  force  of  a  great  number 
of  Solomon's  wise  sayings  arise  in  a  great  measure 
from  the  antithetic  form,  the  opposition  of  dic- 
tion and  sentiment. 

The  Hebrew  title  of  the  book  called  En  i  ESI- 
ASTES  is  Keleth,  that  is,  the  gatherer  or  collector ; 
and  it  is  so  called,  either  because  the  work  itself 
is  a  collection  of  maxims,  or  because  it  was 
delivered  to  an  assembly  gathered  together  to 
hear  them.  The  Greek  term  Ecdrsiastes  is  cf 


the  same  import,  signifying  one  whc  gathers  tc 
gether  a  congregation,  or  who  discourses  or 
preaches  to  an  assembly  convened.  That  Solo- 
mon was  the  author  of  this  book  is  beyond  all 
doubt ;  the  beautiful  description  of  the  phenomena 
in  the  natural  world,  and  their  causes  ;  of  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood,  as  some  think  (see  Horsley's 
Sermon  before  the  Humane  Society),  and  the 
economy  of  the  human  frame,  shows  it  to  be  the 
work  of  a  philosopher.  At  what  period  of  his 
life  it  was  written  may  be  easily  found  out.  The 
affecting  account  of  the  infirmities  of  old  a^e 
which  it  contains  is  a  strong  indication  tha'  the 
author  knew  by  experience  what  they  were  ;  and 
his  complete  conviction  of  the  vanity  of  all 
earthly  enjoyments  proves  it  to  have  been  the 
work  of  a  penitent.  Some  passages  in  it  seem, 
indeed,  to  express  an  epicurean  notion  of  Provi- 
dence. But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  author, 
in  an  academic  way,  disputes  on  both  sides  of 
the  question ;  and  at  last  concludes  properly, 
that  to  '  fear  God  and  keep  his  commandments 
is  the  whole  duty  of  man ;  for  God  will  bring 
every  work  to  judgment.' 

The  general  tenor  and  style  of  Ecclesiastes  is 
very  different  from  the  book  of  Proverbs,  though 
there  are  many  detached  sentiments  and  proverbs 
interspersed.  For  the  whole  work  is  uniform, 
and  confined  to  one  subject,  namely,  the  vanity 
of  the  world  exemplified  by  the  experience  of 
Solomon,  who  is  introduced  in  the  character  of 
a  person  investigating  a  very  difficult  question, 
examining  the  arguments  on  either  side,  and  at 
length  disengaging  himself  from  an  anxious  and 
doubtful  disputation.  The  style  of  this  work  i-> 
singular ;  the  language  is  generally  low  ;  it  is 
frequently  loose,  unconnected,  approaching  to 
the  incorrectness  of  conversation,  and  possesse-s 
very  little  of  the  poetical  character,  even  in  tin: 
composition  and  structure  of  the  periods  ;  which 
peculiarity  may  possibly  be  accounted  for  from 
the  nature  of  the  subject.  Contrary  to  the  opi- 
nion of  the  rabbies,  Ecclesiastes  has  been  classed 
among  the  poetical  books ;  though  authority  and 
opinions  might  perhaps  on  this  occasion  deserve 
some  attention. 

The  Soxo  OF  SONGS,  or  CANTICLES  OF  SOLO- 
MON, forms  one  of  the  books  of  canonical  Scrip- 
ture mentioned  by  Josephus,  and  one  book  in 
the  Jewish  divisions  of  Scripture  adopted  by  our 
Saviour  and  his  apostles.  The  mystical  meaning 
of  this  poem  seems  to  afford  the  only  reason  for 
its  insertion  in  the  Jewish  canon.  Under  the 
figure  of  a  marriage  is  typified  the  intimate  rela- 
tion subsisting  between  Christ  and  his  church ; 
and  the  same  figures  found  in  this  allegory  have 
been  transferred  into  the  New  Testament.  See 
Matt.  ix.  15,  xxii.  2,  xxv.  1 — 11  ;  John  iii.  29  ; 
2  Cor.  xi.  2 ;  Eph.  v.  23.  '27 ;  Rev.  xix.  7.  9 ; 
xxii.  17.  Dr.  Good,  whose  excellent  trans- 
lation of  this  book  of  Scripture  will  afford 
much  valuable  aid  in  its  perusal,  considers  it  as 
a  series  of  idyls,  like  the  cassides  of  the  poets  of 
Arabia.  Its  style,  as  remarked  by  bishop  Lowth, 
is  of  the  pastoral  kind,  the  two  principal  person- 
ages being  represented  in  the  character  of  shep- 
herds. The  manner  in  which  the  Song  of  Solo- 
mon has  been  interpreted  by  most  expositors 
hi  '  ;ul  t!ie  effect  of  exposing  it  to  unmerited 


C16 


SCRIPTURE. 


c'-ntempt.  Not  entering  into  the  style  and  spir.t 
of  oriental  poesy,  they  have  given  to  some  pas- 
sages a  coarse  and  indelicate  appearance;  and, 
not  distinguishing  between  the  literal  and  alle- 
gorical senses,  they  have  destroyed  the  consist- 
ency and  beauty  of  the  poem,  and  bewildered 
the  mind  of  the  reader.  To  understand  this  part 
of  Scripture  requires  not  only  a  renewed  heart 
and  an  enlightened  mind,  but  a  sober  and  cautious 
judgment.  The  spiritual  senses  must  be  exercised 
to  discern  clearly  spiritual  truths,  and  the  imagi- 
nation must  be  curbed  by  a  reverential  appre- 
hension of  the  majesty  and  condescension  of 
God.  Among  the  Jews,  it  is  said,  they  were  not 
allowed  to  read  it  until  they  had  attained  the 
sacerdotal  age  of  thirty  years. 

IV.  Of  the  prophetical  -writings  of  the  Old 
Testament. — The  second  of  those  great  divisions 
under  which  the  Jews  classed  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  was  that  of  the  PROPHETS,  which 
formerly  comprehended  sixteen  books ;  'and 
which  we  now  consider  last  in  order,  according 
to  their  modern  arrangement  in  our  bibles. 
Although  the  greater  part  of  the  Psalms  are  pro- 
phetical, and  the  Song  of  Solomon  is  esteemed  a 
prophetical  allegory,  yet,  these  writings  being 
already  taken  notice  of,  we  mean  to  restrict  the 
subject  of  this  section  to  the  writings  of  the  pro- 
phets, properly  so  called.  The  prophets  were 
sixteen  in  number :  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
Daniel,  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Jonah, 
Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  Malachi.  The  first  four  are  called  the 
greater  prophets ;  the  other  twelve  are  denomi- 
nated the  minor  prophets.  The  writings  of  the 
prophets  are  to  Christians  the  most  interesting 
part  of  the  Old  Testament ;  for  they  afford  one  of 
the  most  powerful  arguments  for  the  divine  ori- 
gin of  the  Christian  religion.  If  we  can  only 
prove,  therefore,  that  these  prophecies  were  uttered 
a  single  century  before  the  events  took  place  to 
which  they  relate,  their  claim  to  inspiration  is 
unquestionable.  But  we  can  do  more ;  we  can 
prove  that  the  interval  between  their  enunciation 
and  accomplishment  extended  much  farther, 
even  to  500  or  1000  years,  and  in  some  cases 
much  more. 

The  books  of  the  prophets  are  mentioned  by 
Josephus,  and  therefore  surely  existed  in  his 
time ;  they  are  also  quoted  by  our  Saviour  under 
the  general  denomination  of  the  prophets.  We 
are  informed  by  Tacitus  arid  Suetonius  that  about 
sixty  years  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour  there 
was  a  universal  expectation  in  the  east  of  a 
great  personage  who  was  to  arise ;  and  the  source 
of  this  expectation  is  traced  by  the  same  writers 
to  the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews.  They  existed 
also  in  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  A.  C. 
166;  for  when  that  tyrant  prohibited  the  read- 
ing of  the  law,  the  books  of  the  prophets  were 
substituted  in  its  place,  and  were  continued 
as  a  part  of  the  daily  service  after  the  interdict 
against  the  law  of  Moses  was  taken  off.  We  re- 
marked that  references  are  made  by  the  author 
of  Ecclesiasticua,  A.  C.  200,  to  the  writings  of 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel,  and  that  he  men- 
tions the  twelve  prophets.  We  can  ascend  still 
higher,  and  assert,  from  the  language  of  the  pro- 
ph»-*,  tha.'.  al1  their  writings  must  have  been  com- 


posed before  the  Babylonish  captivity,  or  within 
a  century  after  it ;  for  all  of  diem,  except  Daniel 
and  Ezra,  are  composed  in  Hebrew,  and  even  in 
them  long  passages  are  found  in  that  language ; 
but  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  all  the  books 
written  by  Jews  about  two  centuries  after  that 
era  are  composed  in  the  Syriac  or  Chaldaic,  or 
Greek  language.  '  Let  any  man,'  says  Michaelis, 
'  compare  what  was  written  in  Hebrew  after  the 
Babylonish  exile,  and  I  apprehend  he  will  per- 
ceive no  less  evident  marks  of  decay  than  in  the 
Latin  language.'  Even  in  the  time  of  Ezra,  the 
common  people,  from  their  long  residence  in 
Babylonia,  had  forgotten  the  Hebrew,  and  it  was 
necessary  for  the  learned  to  interpret  the  law  of 
Moses  to  them.  We  can  therefore  ascertain  with 
very  considerahle  precision  the  date  of  the  pro- 
phetic writings ;  which  indeed  is  the  only  im- 
portant point  to  be  determined  :  for,  if  we  can 
only  establish  their  ancient  date,  we  shall  be  fully 
entitled  to  draw  this  conclusion,  that  the  predic- 
tions of  the  prophets  are  inspired. 

Much  has  been  written  to  explain  the  nature 
of  inspiration,  and  to  show  by  what  methods 
God  imparted  to  the  prophets  that  divine  know- 
ledge  which  they  were  commanded  to  publish  to 
their  countrymen.  But  on  this  subject  we  shall 
not  attempt  to  be  wise  above  what  is  written. 
The  manner  in  which  the  all-wise  and  unseen 
God  may  think  proper  to  operate  upon  the 
minds  of  his  creatures,  we  might  expect  a  priori 
to  be  mysterious  and  inexplicable.  The  busi- 
ness of  philosophy  is  not  to  enquire  how  al- 
mighty power  produced  the  frame  of  nature, 
and  bestowed  upon  it  that  beauty  and  grandeur 
which  is  every  where  conspicuous,  but  to  dis- 
cover those  marks  of  intelligence  and  design, 
and  the  various  purposes  to  which  the  works  of 
nature  are  subservient.  Philosophy  has  of  late 
been  directed  to  theology  and  the  study  of  the 
Scriptures  with  the  happiest  effects  ;  hut  it  is  not 
permitted  to  enter  within  the  veil  which  the  Lord 
of  nature  has  thrown  over  his  councils.  Its  pro- 
vince, which  is  sufficiently  extensive,  is  to  ex- 
amine the  language  of  the  prophecies,  and  to 
discover  their  application. 

The  character  of  the  prophetic  style  varies 
according  to  the  genius,  the  education,  and  mode 
of  living  of  the  respective  authors ;  but  there  are 
some  peculiarities  which  run  through  the  whole 
prophetic  books.  A  plain  unadorned  style 
would  not  have  suited  those  men  who  were  to 
wrap  the  mysteries  of  futurity  in  a  veil,  which 
was  not  to  be  penetrated  till  the  events  them- 
selves should  be  accomplished.  For  it  was  never 
the  intention  of  prophecy  to  unfold  futurity  to 
our  view,  as  many  of  the  rash  interpreters  of 
prophecy  fondly  imagine;  for  this  would  be  in- 
consistent with  the  free  agency  of  man.  It  was 
therefore  agreeable  to  the  wisdom  of  God  that 
prophecies  should  be  couched  in  language  which 
would  render  them  unintelligible  till  the  period 
of  their  completion  ;  yet  such  a  language  as  is 
distinct,  regular,  and  would  be  easily  explained 
when  the  events  themselves  should  have  taken 
place.  This  is  precisely  the  character  of  the 
prophetic  language.  It  is  partly  derived  from 
the  hieroglyphical  symbols  of  Kpypt,  to  which 
the  Israelites  during  their  servitude  were  fami- 


SCRIPTURE. 


617 


liarized,  and  partly  from  that  analogy  which 
subsists  between  natural  objects  and  those  which 
are  moral  and  political. 

The  prophets  borrowed  their  imagery  from 
the  most  splendid  and  sublime  natural  objects, 
from  the  host  of  heaven,  from  seas  and  moun- 
tains, from  storms  and  earthquakes,  and  from 
the  most  striking  revolutions  in  nature.  The  ce- 
lestial bodies  they  used  as  symbols  to  express 
thrones  and  dignities,  and  those  who  enjoyed 
them.  Earth  was  the  symbol  for  men  of  low 
estate.  Hades  represents  the  miserable.  As- 
cending to  heaven,  and  descending  to  earth,  are 
phrases  which  express  rising  to  power,  or  falling 
from  it.  Great  earthquakes,  the  shaking  of  hea- 
ven and  earth,  denote  the  commotions  and  over- 
throw of  the  kingdoms.  The  sun  represents  the 
whole  race  of  kings  shining  with  regal  power  and 
glory.  The  moon  is  the  symbol  of  the  common 
people.  The  stars  are  subordinate  princes  and 
great  men.  Light  denotes  glory,  truth,  or  know- 
ledge. Darkness  expresses  obscurity  of  condi- 
tion, error,  and  ignorance.  The  darkening  of 
the  sun,  the  turning  of  the  moon  into  blood, 
and  the  falling  of  the  stars,  signify  the  destruc- 
tion or  desolation  of  a  kingdom.  New  moons, 
the  returning  of  a  nation  from  a  dispersed  state. 
Conflagration  of  the  earth  is  the  symbol  for  de- 
struction by  war.  The  ascent  of  smoke  from 
any  thing  burning  denotes  the  continuance  of  a 
people  under  slavery.  Riding  in  the  clouds 
signifies  reigning  over  many  subjects.  Tem- 
pestuous winds,  or  motion  of  the  clouds,  denotes 
\v;irs.  Thunder  denotes  the  noise  of  multitudes, 
fountains  of  water  express  cities.  Mountains 
and  islands,  cities  with  the  territories  belonging 
to  them.  Houses  and  ships  stand  for  families, 
assemblies,  and  towns.  A  forest  is  put  for  a 
kingdom.  A  wilderness  for  a  nation  much  di- 
minished in  its  numbers.  Animals,  as  a  lion, 
bear,  leopard,  goat,  are  put  for  kingdoms  or  po- 
litical communities  corresponding  to  their  re- 
spective characters.  When  a  man  or  beast  is 
put  for  a  kingdom,  the  head  represents  those 
who  govern,  the  tail  those  who  art  governed ; 
the  horns  denote  the  number  of  military  powers 
or  states  that  rise  from  the  head.  Seeing  signi- 
fies understanding ;  eyes,  men  of  understand- 
ing ;  the  mouth  denotes  a  lawgiver ;  the  arm  of 
a  man  is  put  for  power,  or  for  the  people  by 
whose  strength  his  power  is  exercised ;  feet  re- 
present the  lowest  of  the  people. 

Such  is  the  precision  and  regularity  of  the 
prophetic  language,  which  we  learn  to  interpret 
by  comparing  prophecies  which  are  accom- 
plished with  the  facts  to  which  they  correspond. 
So  far  is  the  study  of  it  carried  already  that  a 
dictionary  has  been  composed  to  explain  it;  and 
it  is  probable  that  in  a  short  time  it  may  be  so 
fully  understood  that  we  shall  find  little  diffi- 
culty in  explaining  any  prophecy.  But  let  us  not 
from  this  expect  that  the  prophecies  will  enable 
us  to  penetrate  the  dark  clouds  of  futurity:  No! 
The  difficulty  of  applying  prophecies  to  their 


corresponding  events,  before  completion,  will 
still  remain  insurmountable.  Those  men,  there- 
fore, however  pious  and  well-meaning  they  may 
be,  who  attempt  to  explain  and  apply  prophecies 
which  are  not  yet  accomplished,  and  who  delude 
the  credulous  multitude  by  their  own  romantic 
conjectures,  cannot  be  acquitted  of  rashness  and 
presumption 

The  predictions  of  the  prophets,  according  to 
the  opinion  of  Dr.  Lowth,  are  written  in  a  poetic 
style.  They  possess  indeed  all  the  character- 
istics of  Hebrew  poetry,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion that  none  of  them  are  alphabetical  or 
acrostic,  which  is  an  artificial  arrangement  ut- 
terly repugnant  to  the  nature  of  prophecy.  The 
other  arguments,  however,  ought  to  be  particu- 
larly adverted  to  upon  this  subject ;  the  poetic 
dialect  for  instance,  the  diction  so  totally  dif- 
ferent from  the  language  of  common  life,  and 
other  similar  circumstances,  which  an  attentive 
reader  will  easily  discover,  but  which  cannot  be 
explained  by  a  few  examples  ;  for  circumstances 
which,  when  taken  separately,  appear  but  of 
small  account,  are  in  a  united  view  frequently  of 
the  greatest  importance.  To  these  we  may  add 
the  artificial  conformation  of  the  sentences ; 
which  is  a  necessary  concomitant  of  metrical 
composition,  the  only  one  indeed  which  is  now 
apparent,  as  it  has  always  appeared  to  us. 

The  order  in  which  the  books  of  the  minor 
prophets  are  placed  is  not  the  same  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  as  in  the  Hebrew.  According  to  the  lat- 
ter, they  stand  as  in  our  translation  ;  but  in  the 
Greek  the  series  is  altered,  as  to  the  first  six,  to 
the  following  arrangement : — Hosea,  Amos,  Mi- 
cah,  Joel,  Obadiah,  Jonah.  This  change,  how- 
ever, is  of  no  consequence,  since,  neither  in  the 
original  nor  in  the  Septuagint,  are  they  placed 
with  exact  regard  to  the  time  in  which  their 
sacred  authors  respectively  flourished.  The 
order  in  which  they  should  stand,  if  chronolo- 
gically arranged,  is  by  Blair  and  others  supposed 
to  be  as  follows : — Jonah,  Amos,  Hosea,  Micah, 
Nahum,  Joel,  Zephaniah,  Habakkuk,  Obadiah, 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi.  And  this  order 
will  be  found  to  be  generally  consistent  with  the 
periods  to  which  the  prophets  will  be  respec- 
tively assigned  in  the  following  pages,  except  in 
the  instance  of  Joel,  who  propably  flourished 
rather  earlier  than  he  is  placed  by  these  chrono- 
logers.  The  precise  period  of  this  prophet, 
however,  cannot  be  ascertained  ;  and  some  dis- 
putes might  be  maintained  concerning  the  pri- 
ority of  others  also,  when  they  were  nearly  con- 
temporaries, as  Amos  and  Hosea  ;  and  when  the 
first  prophecies  of  a  latter  prophet  were  delivered 
at  the  same  time  with,  or  previous  to  those  of  a 
prophet  who  was  called  earlier  to  the  sacred  of- 
fice. The  following  scheme,  however,  in  which 
also  the  greater  prophets  will  be  introduced,  may 
enable  the  reader  more  accurately  to  comprehend 
the  actual  and  relative  periods  in  which  they  se~ 
verally  prophesied  : — 


618 


SCRIP TUR  E. 


The  PROPHETS  in  their  supposed  CHRONOLOGI- 
CAL ORDER,  according  to  Blair's  Tables,  with 
some  variations. 


Prophets. 

Years  B.C. 

Kings  of  Israel,  Judah, 
Babylon,  and  Persia. 

Jehu     and    Jehoahaz. 

Between 

Lloyd. 

Jonah 

856and784 

Joash  and  Jeroboam  II. 

Blair. 

Amos 

810  —  785 

Uzziah  and  Jeroboam  II. 

llosea 

810  —  725 

Uzziah  and  Jeroboam  II., 

Jotharn,  and  Ahaz,  to 

the  third  year  of  Heze- 

kiah. 

Isaiah 

810  —  698 

Uzziah,    Jotham,     Ahaz, 

Hezek  iah,and  Manasseh  . 

Joel 

810  —  660 

Uzziah  to  Manasseh. 

Micah 

758  —  699 

Jotham,  Ahaz,  Hezekiah, 

Pekah,  and  Hosea. 

Nalium 

720  —  698 

Hezekiah. 

Zephaniah 

640  —  609 

Josiah. 

Jeremiah 

628  —  586 

Josiah,  Jehoahaz,  Jehoia- 

kim,   Jeconiah,    Zede- 

kiah,  and  Gedaliah. 

Habakkuk 

612  —  598 

Jehoiakim. 

Daniel 

606  —  534 

Nebuchadnezzar,  Evilme- 

rodach,  Belshazzar,  Cy- 

axares  II.  or  Darius  the 

Mede,  Cyrus  the  Great. 

Obadiah 

588  —  583 

Nebuchadnezzar. 

Ezekiel 

595  —  536 

Nebuchadnezzar. 

Haggai 

520  —  518 

Darius  Hystaspis. 

Zechariah 
Malachi 

520  —  516  Darius  Hystaspis. 
436  —  397iAhasuerus  or  Artaxerxes. 

ISAIAH  is  supposed  to  have  entered  upon  the 
prophetic  office  in  the  last  year  of  the  reign  of 
Uzziah,  about  758  years  A.  C.,  and  it  is  certain 
that  he  lived  to  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  year  of 
Hezekiah.  This  makes  the  least  possible  term  of 
the  duration  of  his  prophetical  office  about  forty- 
eight  years.  The  Jews  say  that  Isaiah  was  put 
death  in  the  reign  of  Manasseh,  being  sawn 
asunder  with  a  wooden  saw  by  the  command  of 
that  tyrant,  and  this  seems  to  be  confirmed  by 
St.  Paul  in  Heb.  xi.  37  (see  ISAIAH).  The  time 
of  the  delivery  of  some  of  his  prophecies  is 
either  expressly  marked,  or  sufficiently  clear 
from  the  history  to  which  they  relate.  The  date 
of  a  few  others  may  be  deduced  from  internal 
marks  ;  from  expressions,  descriptions,  and  cir- 
cumstances interwoven. 

Isaiah,  the  first  of  the  prophets  both  in  order 
and  dignity,  abounds  in  such  transcendent  excel- 
lencies that  he  may  be  properly  said  to  afford 
the  most  perfect  mode  of  the  prophetic  poetry. 
He  is  at  once  elegant  and  sublime,  forcible  and 
ornamented  ;  he  unites  energy  with  copiousness, 
and  dignity  with  variety.  In  his  sentiments 
there  is  uncommon  elevation  and  majesty ;  in  his 
iiira-ery  the  utmost  propriety,  elegance,  dignity, 
and  diversity  ;  in  his  language  uncommon  beauty 
and  energy  ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  obscurity 
of  his  subjects,  a  surprising  degree  of  clearness 
and  simplicity.  There  is  such  sweetness  in  the 
poetical  composition  of  his  sentences  that  the 
native  grace  and  harmony  of  the  Hebrew  poetry 
is  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Isaiah. 


He  greatly  excels  too  in  all  the  graces  of  method, 
order,  connexion,  ai:d  arrangement ;  though  in 
asserting  this  we  must  not  forget  the  nature  of 
the  prophetic  impulse,  which  bears  away  the 
mind  with  irresistible  violence,  and  frequently  in 
rapid  transitions  from  near  to  remote  objects, 
from  human  to  divine  ;  we  must  also  remark 
limits  of  particular  predictions,  since,  as  they 
are  now  extant,  they  are  often  improperly  con- 
nected, without  any  marks  of  discrimination  ; 
which  injudicious  arrangement,  on  some  occa- 
sions, creates  almost  insuperable  difficulties.  It 
is,  in  fact,  a  collection  of  different  prophecies, 
nearly  allied  to  each  other  as  to  the  subject, 
which,  for  that  reason,  having  a  sort  of  connexion 
are  not  to  be  separated  but  with  the  utmost  dif- 
ficulty. The  general  subject  is  the  restoration  of 
the  churcii.  Its  deliverance  from  captivity,  the 
destruction  of  idolatry,  the  vindication  of  the 
divine  power  and  truth,  the  consolation  of  the 
Israelites,  the  divine  invitation  to  them,  their  in- 
credulity, impiety,  and  rejection,  the  calling  in 
of  the  Gentiles,  the  restoration  of  the  chosen 
people,  the  glory  and  felicity  of  the  churcii  in 
its  perfect  state,  and  the  ultimate  destruction  of 
the  wicked — are  all  set  forth  with  a  sufficient 
respect  to  order  and  method.  If  we  read  these 
passages  with  attention,  and  duly  regard  the  na- 
ture and  genius  of  the  mystical  allegory,  at  the 
same  time  remembering  that  all  these  points  have 
been  frequently  touched  upon  in  other  pro- 
phecies promulgated  at  different  times,  we  shall 
neither  find  any  irregularity  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  whole,  nor  any  want  of  order  and  con- 
nexion as  to  matter  or  sentiment  in  the  different 
parts.  Dr.  Lowth  esteems  the  whole  book  of 
Isaiah  to  be  poetical,  a  few  passages  excepted, 
which  would  not  exceed  the  bulk  of  five  or  six 
chapters.  The  fourteenth  chapter  of  Isaiah  is  one 
of  the  most  sublime  odes  in  the  Scripture,  and 
contains  one  of  the  noblest  personifications  to  be 
found  in  the  records  of  poetry. 

The  prophet,  after  predicting  the  liberation  of 
the  Jews  from  their  severe  captivity  in  Babylon, 
and  their  restoration  to  their  own  country,  intro- 
duces them  as  reciting  a  kind  of  triumphal  song 
upon  the  fall  of  the  Babylonish  monarch,  replete 
with  imagery,  and  with  the  most  elegant  and 
animated  personifications.  A  sudden  exclama- 
tion, expressive  of  their  joy  and  admiration  on 
the  unexpected  revolution  in  their  affairs  and 
the  destruction  of  their  tyrants,  forms  the  ex- 
ordium of  the  poem.  The  earth  itself  triumphs 
with  the  inhabitants  thereof;  the  fir-trees  and 
the  cedars  of  Lebanon  (under  which  images  the 
parabolic  style  frequently  delineates  the  kin_rs 
and  princes  of  the  Gentiles)  exult  with  joy,  and 
persecute  with  contemptuous  reproaches  the 
humbled  power  of  a  ferocious  enemy. 
.  How  forcible  is  this  imaircTV,  how  diversified, 
how  sublime!  how  elevated  the  diction,  the 
fr-rures,  the  sentiments!  The  Jewish  nation,  the 
cedars  of  Lebanon,  the  ghosts  of  departed  kings, 
the  Babylonish  monarch,  the  travellers  who  find 
his  corpse,  and,  last  of  all,  Jehovah  himself, 
are  the  characters  which  support  this  beautiful 
lyric  drama.  One  continued  action  is  kept  up, 
or  rather  a  series  of  interesting  actions  are  con- 
nected together  in  an  incomparable  whole.  This 


SCRIPT  U  R  E. 


619 


indeed  is  the  principal  and  distinguishc.l  excel- 
lence of  the  sublimer  ode,  and  is  displayed  in 
its  utmost  perfection  in  this  poem  of  Isaiah, 
which  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
ancient,  and  certainly  the  most  finished  speci- 
mens of  that  species  of  composition  which  has 
been  transmitted  to  us.  The  personifications 
here  are  frequent,  yet  not  confused  ;  bold,  yet 
not  improbable;  a  free,  elevated,  and  truly 
divine  spirit,  pervades  the  whole:  nor  is  there 
any  thing  wanting  in  this  ode  to  defeat  its  claim 
to  the  character  of  perfect  beauty  and  sublimity. 
'  If,'  says  Dr.  Lowth,  '  I  may  be  indulged  in 
the  free  declaration  of  my  own  sentiments,  I  do 
not  know  a  single  instance,  in  the  whole  compass 
of  Greek  and  Roman  poetry,  which,  in  every 
excellence  of  composition,  can  be  said  to  equal, 
or  even  approach  it.'  But  though  we  cordially 
agree  with  Dr.  Lowth,  in  the  encomiums  he 
bestows  on  the  poetical  beauties  of  this  inspired 
prophet,  we  must  observe  that  his  chief  merit 
lies  in  something  of  much  superior  value.  The 
great,  the  infinite  value  of  Isaiah's  writings  to 
the  Christian  consists  in  this,  that  his  prophe- 
cies abound  with  the  clearest  and  most  accurate 
descriptions  of  the  birth,  life,  and  humiliations, 
preaching,  miracles,  propitiatory  sufferings, 
death,  resurrection,  and  divine  character  of  our 
Saviour,  of  any  of  the  whole  inspired  writings  ; 
insomuch  that  this  prophet  has  been  justly 
styled  the  evangelical  prophet.  Without  this 
pre-eminent  merit,  all  the  beauties  of  his  style 
and  imagery  would  be  of  no  more  importance 
to  mankind  than  those  in  Homer,  Virgil,  or 
Milton. 

JF.RKMIAH  was  called  to  the  prophetic  office 
in  the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Josiah  the 
son  of  Amon,  A.  M.  3376,  A.  C.  628,  and  con- 
tinued to  prophecy  upwards  of  forty  years, 
during  the  reigns  of  the  degenerate  princes  of 
Judah,  to  whom  he  boldly  threatened  those 
marks  of  the  divine  vengeance  which  their  re- 
bellious conduct  drew  on  themselves  and  their 
country.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Chaldeans,  he  was  suffered  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar to  remain  in  the  desolate  land  of  Judea 
to  lament  the  calamities  of  his  infatuated  coun- 
trymen. He  was  afterwards,  as  he  informs  us, 
carried  with  his  disciple  Baruch  into  Egypt,  by 
Johanan  the  son  of  Kareah.  It  appears  from 
several  passages  that  Jeremiah  committed  his 
prophecies  to  writing.  In  the  thirty-sixth  chap- 
ter we  are  informed  that  the  prophet  was  com- 
manded to  write  upon  a  roll  all  the  prophecies 
which  he  had  uttered ;  and,  when  the  roll  was 
destroyed  by  Jehoiakim  the  king,  Jeremiah  dic- 
tated the  same  prophecies  to  Baruch,  who  wrote 
them,  together  with  many  additional  circu'm- 
stances.  The  works  of  Jeremiah  extend  to  the 
last  verse  of  the  fifty-first  chapter,  in  which  we 
have  these  words  : — '  Thus  far  are  the  words  of 
Jeremiah.'  Tiie  fifty-second  chapter  was  there- 
fore added  by  some  other  writer.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  very  important  supplement,  as  it  illus- 
trates the  accomplishment  of  Jeremiah's  prophe- 
cies respecting  the  fate  of  Zedekiah. 

The  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  are  not  arranged 
in  the  chronological  order  in  which  they  were 
delivered.  What  has  occasioned  this  transposi- 


tion cannot  now  be  determined,  it  is  generally 
maintained  that,  if  we  consult  heir  dates,  they 
ought  to  be  thus  placed  : — In  the  reign  of  Josiah, 
the  first  twelve  chapters.  In  the  reign  of  Jehoi- 
akim, chapters  xiii.,  xx.,  xxi.,  xiv.  11,14,  xxii., 
xxiii.,  xxv.,  xxvi.,  xxxv.,  xxxvi.,  xlv.— xlix. 
1 — 33.  In  the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  chap.  xxi. 
1  — 10,  xxiv.,  xxxvii.,  xxxiv.,  xxxviii,,  xxxix., 
xlix.,  34—39,  1.  and  li.  Under  the  government 
of  Gedaliah,  chapters  xl.  xliv.  The  prophecies 
which  related  to  the  Gentiles  were  contained  in 
the  forty-sixth  and  five  following  chapters,  being 
placed  at  the  end,  as  in  some  measure  uncon- 
nected with  the  rest.  But  in  some  copies  of 
the  Septuagint  these  six  chapters  follow  imme- 
diately after  the  thirteenth  verse  of  the  twenty 
fifth  chapter. 

Jeremiah,  though  deficient  neither  in  elegance 
nor  sublimity,  must  give  place  in  both  to  Isaiah. 
Jerome  seems  to  object  against  him  a  sort  o_ 
rusticity  of  language,  no  vestige  of  which  Dr 
Lowth  was  able  to  discover.  His  sentiments, 
indeed,  are  not  always  the  most  elevated ;  nor 
are  his  periods  always  neat  and  compact ;  but 
these  are  faults  common  to  those  writers  whose 
principal  aim  is  to  excite  the  gentler  affections, 
and  to  call  forth  the  tear  of  sympathy  or  sorrow. 
This  observation  is  strongly  exemplified  in  the 
Lamentations,  where  these  are  the  prevailing 
passions ;  it  is,  however,  frequently  instanced  in 
the  prophecies  of  this  author,  and  most  of  all 
in  the  beginning  of  the  book,  which  is  chiefly 
poetical.  The  middle  of  it  is  almost  entirely 
historical.  The  latter  part,  again,  consisting  of 
the  last  six  chapters,  is  altogether  poetical ;  it 
contains  several  different  predictions,  which  are 
distinctly  marked  ;  and  in  these  the  prophet  ap- 
proaches very  near  the  sublimity  of  Isaiah.  On 
the  whole,  however,  not  above  half  the  book  of 
Jeremiah  is  poetical. 

The  book  of  LAMENTATIONS,  as  we  are  in- 
formed in  the  title,  was  composed  by  Jeremiah. 
We  shall  present  to  our  reader  an  account  of 
this  elegiac  poem  from  the  elegant  pen  of  Dr. 
Lowth.  *  The  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  (foi 
the  title  is  properly  and  significantly  plural; 
consist  of  a  number  of  plaintive  effusions,  com- 
posed upon  the  plan  of  the  funeral  dirges,  all 
upon  the  same  subject,  and  uttered  without  con- 
nexion as  they  rose  in  the  mind,  in  a  long  course 
of  separate  stanzas.  These  have  afterwards  been 
put  together,  and  formed  into  a  collection  or 
correspondent  whole.  If  any  reader,  however, 
should  expect  to  find  in  them  an  artificial  and 
methodical  arrangement  of  the  general  subject,  a 
regular  disposition  of  the  parts,  a  perfect  con- 
nexion and  orderly  succession  in  the  matter,  and 
with  all  this  an  uninterrupted  series  of  elegance 
and  correctness,  he  will  really  expect  what  was 
foreign  to  the  prophet's  design.  In  the  character 
of  a  mourner,  he  celebrates,  in  plaintive  strains,  - 
the  obsequies  of  his  ruined  country ;  whatever 
presented  itself  to  his  mind  in  the  midst  of  deso- 
lation and  misery,  whatever  struck  him  as  parti- 
cularly wretched  and  calamitous,  whatever  the 
instant  sentiment  of  sorrow  dictated,  he  pours 
forth  in  a  kind  of  spontaneous  effusion.  lie 
frequently  pauses,  and,  as  it  were,  ruminates 
upon  the  same  object;  frequently  varies  and 


620 


SCRIPTURE. 


illustrates  the  same,  though  with  different 
imagery,  and  a  different  choice  of  language  ;  so 
that  the.  whole  bears  rather  the  appearance  of  an 
accumulation  of  corresponding  sentiments,  than 
an  accurate  and  connected  series  of  different 
ideas,  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  regular  treatise. 
There  is,  however,  no  wild  incoherency  in  the 
poem  ;  the  transitions  are  easy  and  elegant. 

'  The  work  is  divided  into  five  parts;  in  the 
first,  second,  and  fourth  chapters,  the  prophet 
addresses  the  people  in  his  own  person,  or  intro- 
duces Jerusalem  as  speaking.  In  the  third  a 
chorus  of  the  Jews  is  represented.  In  the  fifth 
the  whole  captive  Jews  pour  forth  their  united 
complaints  to  Almighty  God.  Each  of  these 
five  parts  is  distributed  into  twenty-two  stanzas, 
according  to  the  number  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet.  In  the  first  three  chapters  these 
stanzas  consist  of  three  lines.  Iu  the  first  four 
chapters  the  initial  letter  of  each  period  follows 
the  order  of  the  alphabet;  and  in  the  third 
chapter  each  verse  of  the  same  stanza  begins 
with  the  same  letter.  In  the  fourth  chapter  all 
the  stanzas  are  evidently  distichs,  as  also  in  the 
fifth,  which  is  not  acrostic.  The  intention  of 
the  acrostic  was  to  assist  the  memory  to  retain 
sentences  not  much  connected.  It  deserves  to 
be  remarked  that  the  verses  of  the  first  four 
chapters  are  longer  by  almost  one-half  than 
Hebrew  verses  generally  are  :  the  length  of  them 
seems  to  be  on  an  average  about  twelve  sylla- 
bles. The  prophet  appears  to  have  chosen  this 
measure  as  being  solemn  and  melancholy. 

'  That  the  subject  of  the  Lamentations  is  the 
destruction  of  the  holy  city  and  temple,  the 
overthrow  of  the  state,  the  extermination  of  the 
people  ;  and  that  these  events  are  described  as 
actually  accomplished,  and  not  in  the  style  of 
prediction  merely,  must  be  evident  to  every 
reader;  though  some  authors  of  considerable 
reputation  (Josephus,  Jerome,  Usher,  &c.)  have 
imagined  this  poem  to  have  been  composed  on 
the  death  of  king  Josiah.  The  prophet,  indeed, 
has  so  copiously,  so  tenderly,  and  poetically 
bewailed  the  misfortunes  of  his  country,  that  he 
seems  completely  to  have  fulfilled  the  office  and 
duty  of  a  mourner.  In  my  opinion,  there  is  not 
extant  any  poem  which  displays  such  a  happy 
and  splendid  selection  of  imagery  in  so  concen- 
trated a  state.  What  can  be  more  elegant  and 
poetical  than  the  description  of  that  once  flourish- 
ing city,  lately  chief  among  the  nations,  sitting 
in  the  character  of  a  female,  solitary,  afflicted,  in 
a  state  of  widowhood,  deserted  by  her  friends, 
betrayed  by  her  dearest  connexions,  imploring 
relief,  and  seeking  consolation  in  vain  ?  What 
a  beautiful  personification  is  that  of  the  '  ways 
of  Sion,  mourning  because  none  are  come  to  her 
solemn  feasts !'  How  tender  and  pathetic  are 
the  complaints!  See  chap.  i.  12 — 16. 

EZEKIEL  was  carried  to  Babylon  as  a  captive, 
and  received  the  first  revelations  from  heaven,  in 
the  fifth  year  of  Jehoiakim's  captivity,  A.  C.  595. 
The  book  of  Ezekiel  is  sometimes  distributed 
under  different  heads.  In  the  first  three  chapters 
the  commission  of  the  prophet  is  described. 
From  the  fourth  to  the  thirty- second,  inclusive, 
the  calamities  that  befel  the  enemies  of  the  Jews 
are  predicted,  viz.  the  Ammonites,  the  Moabites, 


and  Philistines.  The  ruin  of  Tyre  and  of  Sidon, 
and  the  fall  of  Egypt,  are  particularly  foretold  ; 
prophecies  which  have  been  fulfilled  in  the  most 
literal  and  as'onishing  manner,  as  we  have  been 
often  assured  by  the  relation  of  historians  and 
travellers.  From  the  thirty-second  chapter  to 
the  fortieth,  he  inveighs  against  the  hypocrisy  and 
murmuring  spirit  of  his  countrymen,  admonish- 
ing them  to  resignation  by  promises  of  deliver- 
ance. In  the  thirty-eighth  and  thirty-ninth 
chapters  he  undoubtedly  predicts  the  final  return 
of  the  Jews  from  their  dispersion  in  the  latter 
days,  but  in  a  language  so  obscure  that  it  can- 
not be  understood  till  the  event  take  place.  The 
last  nine  chapters  of  this  book  furnish  the  de- 
scriptions of  a  very  remarkable  vision  of  a  new 
temple  and  city,  of  a  new  religion  and  polity. 

'  Ezekiel  is  much  inferior  to  Jeremiah  in  ele- 
gance ;  in  sublimity  he  is  not  even  excelled  by 
Isaiah ;  but  his  sublimity  is  of  a  totally  different 
kind.  He  is  deep,  vehement,  tragical;  the  only 
sensation  he  affects  to  excite  is  the  terrible ;  his 
sentiments  are  elevated,  fervid,  full  of  fire,  in- 
dignant; his  imagery  is  crowded,  magnificent, 
terrific  ;  his  language  is  pompous,  solemn,  aus- 
tere, rough, and  at  times  unpolished;  he  employs 
frequent  repetitions,  not  for  the  sake  of  grace  or 
elegance,  but  from  the  vehemence  of  passion  or 
indignation.  Whatever  subject  he  treats  of, 
that  he  sedulously  pursues,  from  that  he  rarely 
departs,  but  cleaves  as  it  were  to  it;  whence  the 
connexion  is  in  general  evident  and  well  pre- 
served. In  many  respects  he  is  perhaps  excelled 
by  the  other  prophets ;  but  in  that  species  of 
composition  to  which  he  seems  by  nature  adapt- 
ed, the  forcible,  the  impetuous,  the  great  and 
solemn,  not  one  of  the  sacred  writers  is  superior 
to  him.  His  diction  is  sufficiently  perspicuous; 
all  his  obscurity  consists  in  the  nature  of  the 
subject.  Visions  (as  for  instance,  among  others, 
those  of  Hosea,  Amos,  and  Jeremiah)  are  ne- 
cessarily dark  and  confused.  The  greater  part 
of  Ezekiel,  towards  the  middle  of  the  book  espe- 
cially, is  poetical,  whether  we  regard  the  matter 
or  the  diction.  His  periods,  however,  are  fre- 
quently rude  and  incompact.  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
and  Ezekiel,  as  far  as  relates  to  style,  may  be 
said  to  hold  the  same  rank  among  the  Hebrews 
as  Homer,  Simonides,  and  &schyles,  among  the 
Greeks.' 

A  pretty  full  account  of  DANIEL  and  his  writ- 
ings has  been  already  given  under  that  article. 
Daniel  flourished  during  the  reign  of  five  Baby- 
lonish kings  from  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Belshazzar, 
until  the  conquest  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus.  The 
events  recorded  in  the  sixth  chapter  were  contem- 
porary with  Darius  the  Mede  ;  but  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  chapters  Daniel  returns  to  an  earlier 
period,  to  relate  the  visions  which  he  beheld  in 
the  first  three  years  of  Belshazzar's  reign ;  and 
those  which  follow  in  the  last  four  chapters  were 
revealed  to  him  in  the  reign  of  Darius ;  except 
the  tenth,  which  is  expressly  dated  in  the  third 
year  of  Cyrus,  and  records  his  glorious  vision  of 
the  Messiah,  who  therein  styles  him  '  a  man 
greatly  beloved.'  But  the  last  six  chapters  are 
all  connected  as  parts  of  one  great  scheme. 
They  extend  through  many  ages,  and  furnish  the 
most  striking  description  of  the  fall  of  successive 


SCRIPTURE. 


621 


kingdoms,  which  were  to  be  introductory  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Messiah's  reign.  They  cha- 
racterise in  descriptive  terms  the  four  great  mon- 
archies of  the  world  to  be  succeeded  by  '  that 
kingdom  which  shall  never  be  destroyed.'  See 
Dan.  ii.  44,  and  MONARCHY. 

The  whole  book  of  Daniel  being  a  plain  rela- 
tion of  facts,  partly  past  and  partly  future,  ad- 
mits not  of  poetical  beauties.  Much  indeed  of 
the  parabolic  imagery  is  introduced  in  that  book ; 
but  the  author  introduces  it  as  a  prophet  only  ; 
as  visionary  and  allegorical  symbols  of  objects 
and  events,  totally  untinctured  with  the  true 
poetical  coloring.  The  Jews,  indeed,  refuse  to 
Daniel  even  the  character  of  a  prophet;  but 
their  arguments  for  this  opinion  are  futile,  tri- 
fling, absurd,  and  totally  destitute  of  scriptural 
authority. 

The  prophecies  of  Daniel  appear  so  plain  and 
intelligible,  after  their  accomplishment,  that  Por- 
phyry, who  wrote  in  the  third  century,  affirms 
tha  they  were  written  after  the  events  to  which 
they  refer  took  place.  A  little  reflection  will 
show  the  absurdity -of  this  supposition.  Some 
of  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  clearly  refer  to  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes,  with  whose  oppressions  the 
Jews  were  too  well  acquainted.  Had  the  book 
of  Daniel  not  made  its  appearance  till  after  the 
death  of  Epiphanes,  every  Jew  who  read  it  must 
have  discovered  the  forgery.  And  what  motive 
could  have  induced  them  to  receive  it  among 
their  sacred  books  ?  It  is  impossible  to  conceive 
one.  Their  character  was  quite  the  reverse ; 
their  respect  for  the  Scriptures  had  degenerated 
into  superstition.  But  we  are  not  left  to  deter- 
mine this  important  point  from  the  character  of 
the  Jews;  we  have  access  to  more  decisive  evi- 
dence ;  we  are  sure  that  the  book  of  Daniel  con- 
tains prophecies,  for  some  of  them  have  been 
accomplished  since  the  time  of  Porphyry;  par- 
ticularly those  respecting  Antichrist;  some  of 
them  seem  to  be  at  present  fulfilling  ;  and  others 
will  evidently  not  be  fulfilled  till  near  the  final 
consummation  of  all  sublunary  things  ;  of  which, 
indeed,  his  concluding  verses  seem  to  point  out 
the  period.  Dan.  xii.  11,  12. 

The  language  in  which  the  book  of  Daniel  is 
composed  proves  that  it  was  written  about  the 
tune  of  the  Babylonish  captivity.  Part  of  it  is 
pure  Hebrew;  a  language  in  which  none  of  the 
Jewish  books  were  composed  after  the  age  of 
i'.j'iphanes.  These  are  arguments  to  a  deist.  To 
a  Christian  the  internal  marks  of  the  book  itself 
will  show  the  time  in  which  it  was  written,  and 
t  if  testimony  of  Ezekiel  will  prove  Daniel  to 
have  been  at  least  his  contemporary.  See  Ezek. 
xiv.  14,  xxviii.  3. 

The  twelve  minor  prophets  were  so  called,  not 
from  any  supposed  inferiority  in  their  writings, 
but  on  account  of  the  small  size  of  their  works. 
Perhaps  it  was  for  this  reason  that  the  Jews  join- 
ed them  together,  and  considered  them  as  one 
volume.  These  twelve  prophets  present  in  scat- 
tered hints  a  lively  sketch  of  many  particulars 
relative  to  the  history  of  Judah  and  of  Israel,  as 
well  as  of  other  kingdoms  ;  they  prophesy  with 
historical  exactness  the  fate  of  Babylon,  of  Nine- 
veh, of  Tyre,  of  Sidon,  and  of  Damascus.  The 
last  three  prophets  especially  illustrate  many  cir- 


cumstances at  a  period  when  the  historical  pages 
of  Scripture  are  closed,  and  when  profane  wri- 
ters are  entirely  wanting.  At  first  the  Jewish 
prophets  appeared  only  as  single  lights,  and  fol- 
lowed each  other  in  individual  succession ;  but 
they  became  more  numerous  about  the  time  of 
the  captivity.  The  light  of  inspiration  was  col- 
lected into  one  blaze,  previous  to  its  suspension  ; 
.and  it  served  to  keep  alive  the  faith  and  hopes  of 
the  Jews  during  the  awful  interval  which  pre- 
vailed between  the  expiration  of  prophecy  and 
its  grand  completion  in  the  advent  of  Christ. 

HOSEA  has  been  supposed  the  most  ancient  of 
the  twelve  minor  prophets.  He  flourished  in  the 
reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  king  of  Israel,  and  during 
the  successive  reigns  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz, 
and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah.  He  was  there- 
fore nearly  contemporary  with  Isaiah,  Amos,  and 
Jonah.  Hosea  is  the  first  in  order  of  the  minor 
prophets,  and  is  perhaps,  Jonah  excepted,  the 
most  ancient  of  them  all.  His  style  exhibits  the 
appearance  of  very  remote  antiquity;  it  is  point- 
ed, energetic,  and  concise.  It  bears  a  distin- 
guished mark  of  poetical  composition,  in  that 
pristine  brevity  and  condensation  which  is  ob- 
servable in  the  sentences,  and  which  latter  writers 
have  in  some  measure  neglected.  This  peculi- 
arity has  not  escaped  the  observation  of  Jerome  : 
'  He  is  altogether,'  says  he,  '  laconic  and  senten- 
tious.' But  this  very  circumstance,  which  an- 
ciently was  supposed  no  doubt  to  impart  uncom- 
mon force  and  elegance,  in  the  present  ruinous 
state  of  the  Hebrew  literature,  is  productive  of 
so  much  obscurity,  that,  although  the  general  sub- 
ject of  this  writer  be  sufficiently  obvious,  he  is 
the  most  difficult  and  perplexed  of  all  the  pro- 
phets. There  is,  however,  another  reason  for 
the  obscurity  of  his  style  :  Hosea  prophesied 
during  the  reigns  of  the  four  kings  of  Judah, 
Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah.  The  du- 
ration of  his  ministry,  therefore,  in  whatever 
manner  we  calculate,  roust  include  a  very  consi- 
derable space  of  time.  We  have  now  only  a 
small  volume  of  his  remaining,  which  seems  to 
contain  his  prophecies ;  and  these  are  extant  in  a 
continued  series,  with  no  marks  of  distinction  as 
to  the  times  in  which  they  were  published,  or 
the  subjects  of  which  they  treat. 

Concerning  the  date  of  the  prophecy  of  JOEL 
there  are  various  conjectures.  The  book  itself 
affords  nothing  by  which  we  can  discover  when 
the  author  lived,  or  upon  what  occasion  it  was 
written.  Joel  speaks  of  a  great  famine,  and  of 
mischiefs  that  happened  in  consequence  of  an  in- 
undation of  locusts  ;  but  nothing  can  be  gathered 
from  such  general  observations  to  enable  us  to 
fix  the  period  of  his  prophecy.  St.  Jerome 
thinks  (and  it  is  the  general  opinion)  that  Joel 
was  contemporary  with  Hosea.  Calmet  places 
him  under  the  reign  of  Josiah,  at  the  same  time 
with  Jeremiah,  and  thinks  it  probable  that  the 
famine  to  which  Joel  alludes  is  the  same  with 
that  which  Jeremiah  predicted,  chap.  viii.  13. 

The  style  of  Joel  is  essentially  different  from 
that  of  Hosea ;  but  the  general  character  of  his 
diction,  though  of  a  different  kind,  is  not  less 
poetical.  He  is  elesrant,  perspicuous,  copious, 
and  fluent ;  he  is  also  sublime,  animated,  and 
energetic.  In  the  first  and  second  chapter*,  ne 


622 


SCRIPTURE. 


displays  the  full  force  of  the  prophetic  poetry, 
in  metaphors,  allegories,  and  comparisons.  Nor 
is  the  connexion  of  the  matter  K-ss  clear  and  evi- 
dent than  the  complexion  of  the  style ;  this  is 
exemplified  in  the  display  of  the  impending 
evils  which  gave  rise  to  the  prophecy  ;  the  exhor- 
tation to  repentance ;  the  promises  of  happiness 
and  success,  both  terrestrial  and  eiernal,  to  those 
who  become  truly  penitent ;  the  restoration  of 
the  Israelites ;  and  the  vengeance  to  be  taken  of 
their  adversaries.  But,  while  we  allow  this  just 
commendation  to  his  perspicuity,  we  must  not 
deny  that  there  is  sometimes  great  obscurity  in 
his  subjects.  His  prophecy  of  the  plague  of  lo- 
custs is  described  with  great  sublimity  of  expres- 
sion. See  chap.  i.  6,  7,  10,  &c. 

AMOS  was  contemporary  with  Hosea.  They 
both  began  to  prophesy  during  the  reigns  of  Uz- 
ziah  over  Judah,  and  of  Jeroboam  II.  over  Israel. 
Amos  saw  his  first  vision  two  years  before  the 
earthquake,  which  Zechariah  informs  us  happen- 
ed in  the  days  of  I'zziah.  See  AMOS. 

Amos  was  no  prophet  (as  he  informed  Ama- 
ziah),  neither  was  he  a  prophet's  son,  that  is,  he 
had  no  regular  education  in  the  schools  of  the 
prophets.  The  prophecies  of  Amos  consist  of 
several  distinct  discourses,  which  chiefly  respect 
the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  yet  sometimes  the  pro- 
phet inveighs  against  Judah,  and  threatens  the 
adjacent  nations,  the  Syrians,  Philistines,  Tyrians, 
Edonutes,  Ammonites,  and  Moabites.  Mr.  Locke 
has  observed  that  the  comparisons  of  this  pro- 
phet are  chiefly  drawn  from  lions  and  other  ani- 
mals with  which  he  was  most  accustomed  ;  but 
the  finest  images  and  allusions  are  drawn  from 
scenes  of  nature.  There  are  many  beautiful  pas- 
sages in  the  writings  of  Amos. 

The  writings  of  OBADIAH,  which  consist  of 
one  chapter,  are  composed  with  much  beauty, 
and  unfold  a  very  interesting  scene  of  prophecy. 
Of  this  prophet  little  can  be  said,  as  the  speci- 
men of  his  genius  is  so  short,  and  the  greater 
part  of  it  included  in  one  of  the  prophecies  of 
Jeremiah.  Compare  Ob.  1 — 9  with  Jer.  xlix. 
14,15,16.  See  OBADIAU. 

Though  JONAH  be  placed  the  sixth  in  order  of 
the  minor  prophets,  both  in  the  Hebrew  and  Sep- 
tuagint,  he  is  generally  considered  as  the  most 
ancient  of  all  the  prophets,  not  excepting  Hosea. 
He  lived  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  prophesied 
to  the  ten  tribes  under  Joash  and  Jeroboam. 
The  book  of  Jonah  is  chiefly  historical,  and  con- 
tains nothing  of  poetry  but  the  prayer  of  the  pro- 
phet. The  sacred  writers,  and  our  Lord  himself, 
speak  of  Jonah  as  a  prophet  of  considerable 
eminence.  See  JONAH,  and  Matt.  xii.  39.  41, 
xvi.  4,  and  Luke  xi.  29. 

MIC  AH  began  to  prophesy  soon  after  Isaiah, 
Hosea,  Joel,  and  Amos ;  and  he  prophesied  be- 
tween A.  M.  3246,  when  Jotham  began  to  reign, 
and  A.  M.  3305,  when  Hezekiah  died.  One  of 
his  predictions  saved  the  life  of  Jeremiah,  who 
under  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  would  have  been 
put  to  death  for  prophesying  the  destruction  of 
the  temple,  had  it  not  appeared  that  Micah  had 
foretold  ».he  same  thing  under  Hezekiah  about 
100  years  before.  Joseph.  Antiq.  lib.  x.  c.  7, 
Mic.  iii.  12.  Micah  is  mentioned  as  a  prophet 
ir  the  book  of  Jeremiah  and  in  Matt.  li.  5  ; 


John  vii.  42.  He  is  imitated  by  succeeding 
prophets,  as  he  himself  had  borrowed  expres- 
sions from  his  predecessors.  Our  Saviour  him- 
self spoke  in  the  language  of  this  prophet.  SPB 
Micah,  vii.  6,  aud  Matt.  x.  35,  36.  The  style 
of  Micah  is  for  the  most  part  close,  forcible, 
pointed,  and  concise ;  sometimes  approaching 
the  obscurity  of  Hosea;  in  many  parts  animated 
and  sublime  ;  and  in  general  truly  poetical.  In 
his  prophecies  there  is  an  elegant  poem,  which 
Dr.  Lowth  thinks  is  a  citation  from  the  answer 
of  Balaam  to  the  king  of  the  Moabites.  See 
chap.  vi.  6 — 8. 

Josephus  asserts  that  NAHUM  lived  in  the  time 
of  Jotham  king  of  Judah  ;  in  which  case  he  may 
be  supposed  to  have  prophesied  against  N'ineveh 
when  Tiglath-Pileser  king  of  Assyria  carried 
captive  the  natives  of  Galilee  and  other  parts, 
about  A.M.  3264.  It  is  however  probable  that 
his  prophecies  were  delivered  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  ;  for  he  appears  to  speak  of  the  taking 
of  No-Ammon,  a  city  of  Egypt,  and  of  the  inso- 
lent messengers  of  Sennacherib,  as  of  things  past; 
and  he  describes  the  people  of  Judah  as  still  in 
their  own  country,  and  desirous  of  celebrating 
their  festivals.  While  Jerusalem  was  threatened 
by  Sennacherib,  Nahum  promised  deliverance  to 
Hezekiah,  and  predicted  that  Judah  would  soon 
celebrate  her  solemn  feasts  secure  from  invasion, 
as  her  enemy  would  no  more  disturb  her  peace. 
In  the  second  and  third  chapters  Nahum  foretels 
the  downfal  of  the  Assyrian  empire  and  the  final 
destruction  of  Nineveh,  which  was  probably  ac- 
complished by  the  Medes  and  Babylonians, 
whose  combined  forces  overpowered  the  As- 
syrians by  surprise,  '  while  they  were  folden 
together  as  thorns,  and  while  they  were  drunken 
as  drunkards,'  when  the  gates  of  the  river  were 
opened,  the  palace  demolished,  and  an  '  over- 
running flood'  assisted  the  conquerors  in  their 
devastation  ;  who  took  an  endless  store  of  spoil 
of  gold  and  silver,  making  an  utter  end  of  Nine- 
veh, that  vast  and  populous  city,  whose  walls 
were  100  feet  high,  and  so  broad  that  three 
chariots  could  pass  abreast.  Yet,  so  completely 
was  this  celebrated  city  destroyed,  that  even  in 
the  second  century  the  spot  on  which  it  stood 
could  not  be  ascertained,  every  vestige  of  it 
being  gone.  It  is  impossible  to  read  of  the 
exact  accomplishment  of  the  prophetic  denuncia- 
tions against  the  enemies  of  the  Jews,  without 
reflecting  on  the  astonishing  proofs  which  that 
nation  enjoyed  of  the  divine  origin  of  their  re- 
ligion. From  the  Babylonish  captivity  to  the 
time  of  Christ  they  had  numberless  instances  of 
the  fulfilment  of  their  prophecies.  '  None  of  the 
minor  prophets,'  says  Dr.  Lowth, '  seem  to  equal 
Nahum  in  boldness,  ardor,  and  sublimity.  His 
prophecy,  too,  forms  a  regular  and  perfect  poem ; 
the  exordium  is  not  merely  magnificent,  it  is 
truly  majestic ;  the  preparation  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  Nineveh,  and  the  description  of  its  down- 
fal and  desolation,  are  expressed  in  the  most 
vivid  colors,  and  are  bold  and  luminous  in  the 
highest  degree.' 

As  the  prophet  HABAKKUK  makes  no  mention 
of  the  Assyrians,  and  speaks  of  the  Chaldean  in- 
vasions ds  near  at  hand,  he  probably  lived  uftcr 
the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  empire  in  the 


S  C  R  1   P  T  U  R  E. 


(323 


Ull  of  Nineveh,  A.M.  3392,  and  not  long  before 
die  devastation  of  Judea  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
Uabakkuk  then  was  nearly  contemporary  with 
Jeremiah,  and  predicted  the  same  events.  A 
general  account  of  llabakkuk's  prophecies  have 
already  been  given  under  the  article  HABAKKIK. 
The  prayer  in  the  third  chapter  is  a  most  beauti- 
ful and  perfect  ode,  possessing  all  the  fire  of 
poetry,  and  the  profound  reverence  of  religion. 
The  prophet  illustrates  his  subject  throughout 
with  great  sublimity;  selecting  an  assemblage  of 
miraculous  incidents  the  most  noble  and  impor- 
tant, displaying  them  in  the  most  splendid  colors, 
and  embellishing  them  with  the  sublimest  imagery, 
figures,  and  diction,  the  dignity  of  which  is 
heightened  and  recommended  by  the  superior 
elegance  of  the  conclusion.  Habakkuk  is  imi- 
tated by  succeeding  prophets,  and  his  words  are 
borrowed  by  the  evangelical  writers.  Ileb.  x. 
37,  38;  Rom.  i.  17;  Gal.  iii.  2;  Acts  xiii.  41  ; 
compare  with  Hab.  i.  5. 

ZEHHANIAH,  who  was  contemporary  with  Jere- 
miah, prophesied  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  king  of 
Judali^;  and,  from  the  idolatry  which  he  describes 
as  prevailing  at  that  time,  it  is  probable  that  his 
prophecies  were  delivered  before  the  last  refor- 
mation made  by  that  pious  prince,  A.M.  3381. 
The  account  which  Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah 
give  of  the  idolatries  of  their  age  is  so  similar 
that  St.  Isidore  asserts  that  Zephaniah  abridged 
the  descriptions  of  Jeremiah.  But  it  is  more 
probable  that  the  prophecies  of  Zephaniah  were 
written  some  years  before  those  of  his  contempo- 
rary ;  for  Jeremiah  seems  to  represent  the  abuses 
as  partly  removed  which  Zephaniah  describes  as 
flagrant  and  excessive.  In  the  first  chapter 
Zephaniah  denounces  the  wrath  of  God  against 
the  idolaters  who  worshipped  Baal  and  the  host 
of  heaven,  and  against  the  violent  and  deceitful. 
In  the  second  he  threatens  destruction  to  the 
Philistines,  the  Moabites,  the  Ammonites,  and 
Ethiopians  ;  and  describes  the  fate  of  Nineveh  in 
emphatic  terms.  In  the  third  he  inveighs  against 
the  pollutions  and  oppressions  of  the  Jews ;  and 
concludes  with  the  promise,  '  That  a  remnant 
would  be  saved,  and  that  multiplied  blessings 
would  be  bestowed  upon  the  penitent.'  The 
style  of  Zephaniah  is  poetical,  but  is  not  dis- 
tinguished by  any  peculiar  elegance  or  beauty, 
though  generally  animated  and  impressive. 

HAGGAI  was  the  first  who  flourished  among 
the  Jews  after  the  Babylonish  captivity.  He 
began  to  prophesy  in  the  second  year  of  Darius 
Hystaspis,  about  520  years  B.  C.  The  intention 
of  his  prophecy  was  to  encourage  the  dispirited 
Jews  to  proceed  with  the  building  of  the  temple. 
The  only  prediction  mentioned  refers  to  the 
Messiah,  who,  the  prophet  assures  his  country- 
men, would  fill  the  new  temple  with  glory.  So 
well  was  this  prediction  understood  by  the  Jews 
that  they  looked  with  earnest  expectation  for  the 
Messiah's  appearing  in  this  temple  till  it  was 
destroyed  by  the  Romans.  But,  as  the  victorious 
Messiah  whom  they  expected  did  not  appear, 
they  have  since  applied  the  prophecy  to  a  third 
temple,  which  they  hope  to  see  reared  in  some 
future  period.  The  style  of  Ilaggai,  in  the 
opinion  of  Dr.  Lowth,  is  prosaic.  Dr.  New- 
come  thinks  that  a  great  part  of  it  is  poetical. 


AKI  ii  A  in  AH  was  undoubtedly  a  contemporary 
of  Ilaggai,  and  began  to  prophesy  two  months 
after  him,  in  the  eighth  month  of  the  second  year 
of  Darius  Hystaspis,  A.  M.  3484,  being  also 
commissioned  to  exhort  the  Jews  to  proceed  in 
the  building  of  the  temple,  after  the  interruption 
which  the  work  had  suffered.  We  are  informed 
by  Ezra(vi.  14)  that  the  Jews  prospered  through 
the  prophesying  of  Zechariah  and  Haggai. 

Zechariah  begins  with  general  exhortations  to 
his  countrymen,  exciting  them  to  repent  from 
the  evil  ways  of  their  fathers,  whom  the  prophets 
had  admonished  in  vain.  He  describes  angels  of 
the  Lord  interceding  for  mercy  on  Jerusalem  and 
the  desolate  cities  of  Judah,  which  had  experienced 
the  indignation  of  the  Most  High  for  seventy 
years,  while  the  neighbouring  nations  were  at 
peace.  lie  declares  that  the  house  of  the  Lord 
should  be  built  in  Jerusalem,  and  that  Zion 
should  be  comforted.  The  prophet  then  repre- 
sents the  increase  and  prosperity  of  the  Jews 
under  several  typical  figures.  He  describes  the 
establishment  of  the  Jewish  government,  and  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah.  He  admonishes  those 
who  observed  solemn  fasts  without  due  contri- 
tion, to  execute  justice,  mercy,  and  compassion, 
every  man  to  his  brother ;  not  to  oppress  the 
widow  nor  the  fatherless,  the  stranger  nor  the 
poor.  He  promises  that  God  would  again  show 
favor  to  Jerusalem ;  that  their  mournful  fasts 
should  be  turned  into  cheerful  feasts  ;  and  that 
the  church  of  the  Lord  should  be  enlarged  by  the 
accession  of  many  nations.  The  twelfth  verse  of 
the  eleventh  chapter  of  this  book,  which  exhibits 
a  prophetic  description  of  some  circumstances 
afterwards  fulfilled  in  our  Saviour,  appears  to  be 
cited  by  St.  Matthew  (xxvii.  9,  10)  as  spoken  by 
Jeremiah ;  and  as  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thir- 
teenth chapters  have  been  thought  to  contain 
some  particulars  more  suitable  to  the  age  of 
Jeremiah  than  to  that  of  Zechariah,  some  learned 
writers  are  of  opinion  that  they  were  written  by 
the  former  prophet,  and  have  been,  from  simi- 
larity of  subject,  joined  by  mistake  to  those  of 
Zechariah.  But  others  are  of  opinion  that  St. 
Matthew  might  allude  to  some  traditional  pro- 
phecy of  Jeremiah,  or,  what  is  more  probable, 
that  the  name  of  Jeremiah  was  substituted,  by 
mistake,  in  place  of  Zechariah.  The  twelfth., 
thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  chapters,  contain  pro- 
phecies which  refer  entirely  to  the  Christian  dis- 
pensation ;  the  circumstances  attending  which  he 
describes  with  a  clearness  which  indicated  their 
near  approach.  The  style  of  Zechariah  is  so 
similar  to  that  of  Jeremiah  that  the  Jews  were 
apcustomed  to  remark  that  the  spirit  of  Jeremiah 
had  passed  into  him.  He  is  generally  prosaic 
till  towards  the  conclusion  of  his  work,  when  he 
becomes  more  elevated  and  poetical.  The  whole 
is  beautifully  connected  by  easy  transitions,  and 
present  and  future  scenes  are  blended  with  the 
greatest  delicacy. 

MALACHI  was  the  last  prophet  that  flourished, 
under  the  Jewish  dispensation ;  but  neither  the 
time  in  which  he  lived,  nor  any  particulars  of 
his  history,  can  now  be  ascertained.  It  is  even 
uncertain  whether  the  word  "ON^D,  Malachi,  be 
a  proper  name,  or  denote,  as  the  Septuagint  have 
rendered  it,  his  angel,  that  is,  '  the  angel  of  the 


024 


SCRIPTURE. 


Lord.'  Origen  supposed  that  Malachi  was  an 
angel  incarnate,  and  not  a  man.  As  it  appears, 
from  the  concurring  testimony  of  all  the  ancient 
Jewish  and  Christian  writers,  that  the  li^ht  of 
prophecy  expired  in  Malacht,  we  may  suppose 
that  the  termination  of  his  ministry  coincided 
with  the  accomplishment  of  the  first  seven  weeks 
of  Daniel's  prophecy,  which  was  the  period  ap- 
pointed for  sealing  the  vision  and  prophecy. 
This,  according  to  Prideaux,  took  place  in  A.  M. 
3595  ;  but,  according  to  bishop  Lloyd,  in  A.  M. 
3607,  twelve  years  later.  Whatever  reckoning 
we  prefer,  it  must  be  allowed  that  Malachi  com- 
pleted the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  400  years 
R.  C.  It  appears  certain  that  Malachi  prophesied 
under  Nehemiah,  and  after  Haggai  and  Zechariah, 
at  a  time  when  great  disorders  remained  among 
the  priests  and  people  of  Judah,  which  are  re- 
proved by  Malachi.  He  inveighs  against  the 
priests  (i.  6,  &c.;  ii.  1,  2,  &c.);  lie  reproaches 
the  people  with  having  taken  strange  wives 
(ii.  11);  he  reproves  them  for  their  inhumanity 
towards  their  brethren  (ii.  10,  iii.  5);  their  too 
frequently  divorcing  their  wives  ;  their  neglect  of 

Sying  their  tithes  and  first  fruits  (Mai.  iii  13). 
;  seems  to  allude  to  the  covenant  that  Nehe- 
miah renewed  with  the  Lord  (iii.  10,  and  ii.  4,  5, 
&c.),  assisted  by  the  priests  and  the  chief  of  the 
nation.  He  speaks  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  new 
law,  and  of  the  abolition  of  those  of  the  old,  in 
chap.  i.  10 — 13.  He  declares  that  the  Lord 
was  weary  with  the  impiety  of  Israel;  and 
assures  them  that  the  Lord  whom  they  sought 
should  suddenly  come  to  his  temple,  preceded 
by  the  messenger  of  the  covenant,  who  was  to 
prepare  his  way ;  that  the  Lord,  when  he  ap- 
peared, should  purify  the  sons  of  Levi  from  their 
unrighteousness,  and  refine  them  as  metal  from 
the  dross;  and  that  then  the  offering  of  Judah, 
the  spiritual  sacrifice  of  the  heart,  should  be 
pleasant  to  the  Lord.  The  prophet,  like  one 
who  was  delivering  a  last  message,  denounces 
destruction  against  the  impenitent  in  emphatic 
and  alarming  words.  He  encourages  those  who 
feared  the  name  of  the  Lord  with  the  animating 
promise,  that  the  '  Sun  of  Righteousness  should 
arise  with  salvation  in  his  rays,'  and  render  them 
triumphant  over  the  wicked.  And  now  that 
prophecy  was  to  cease,  and  miracles  were  no 
more  to  be  performed  till  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah — now  that  the  Jews  were  to  be  left  to 
the  guidance  of  their  own  reason,  and  the  written 
instructions  of  their  prophets — Malachi  exhorts 
them  to  remember  the  law  of  Moses,  which  the 
Lord  had  revealed  from  Horeb  for  the  sake  of  all 
Israel.  At  length  he  seal?  up  the  prophecies  of 
the  Old  Testament,  by  predicting  the  commence- 
ment of  the  new  dispensation,  which  should  be 
ushered  in  by  John  the  Baptist,  with  the  power 
and  spirit  of  Elijah  ;  who  should  turn  the  hearts 
of  fathers  and  children  to  repentance ;  but,  if  his 
admonitions  should  be  rejected,  that  the  Lord 
would  smite  the  land  with  a  curse. 

PART  II. 

OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 
INTRODITTION. —  Of  the  authenticity  and  inspi- 
ration of  the  Scriptures  of  the  New  Tettamtnt. — 
The  collection  of  writings  composed  after  the 


ascension  of  Christ,  and  acknowledged  by  his 
followers  to  be  divine,  is  known  in  general 
by  the  name  of  Kmv?j  AiaOntn-  This  title, 
though  neither  given  by  divine  command  nor 
applied  to  these  writings  by  the  apostles,  was 
adopted  in  a  very  early  age,  though  the  pre- 
cise time  of  its  introduction  is  uncertain,  it  beini; 
justified  by  several  passages  in  Scripture,  and 
warranted  by  the  authority  of  St.  Paul  in  particu- 
lar, who  calls  the  sacred  books  before  the  time 
of  Christ  ira\aia  oiaQijeij.  Even  long  before  that 
period,  either  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament, 
or  the  five  books  of  Moses,  were  entitled  /3i/3Xtoi/ 
£ia9t]KT]f,  or  book  of  the  covenant ;  1  Mac. 
i.  57. 

As  the  word  SiaQnKij  admits  of  a  two-fold  in- 
terpretation, we  may  translate  this  title  either  the 
New  Covenant  or  the  New  Testament.  The 
former  translation  must  be  adopted,  if  respect  be 
had  to  the  texts  of  Scripture  from  which  the 
name  is  borrowed,  since  those  passages  evidently 
convey  the  idea  of  a  covenant ;  and,  besides,  a 
being  capable  of  death  can  neither  have  made  an 
old,  nor  make  a  new  testament.  It  is  likewise 
probable  that  the  earliest  Greek  disciples,  who 
made  use  of  this  expression,  had  no  other  notion 
in  view  than  that  of  covenant.  We,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  accustomed  to  give  this  sacred  collec- 
tion the  name  of  Testament ;  and  since  it  would 
be  not  only  improper,  but  even  absurd,  to  speak 
of  the  Testament  of  God,  we  commonly  under- 
stand the  Testament  of  Christ  ;  an  explanation 
which  removes  but  half  the  difficulty,  since  the 
new  only,  and  not  the  old,  had  Christ  for  its 
testator. 

In  stating  the  evidence  for  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity, there  is  nothing  more  worthy  of  con- 
sideration than  the  authenticity  of  the  books  of 
the  New  Testament.  This  is  the  foundation  on 
which  all  other  arguments  rest ;  and,  if  it  is 
solid,  the  Christian  religion  is  fully  established. 
The  proofs  for  the  authenticity  of  the  New 
Testament  have  this  peculiar  advantage  that 
they  are  plain  and  simple,  and  involve  no 
metaphysical  subtilties.  Every  man  who  can 
distinguish  truth  from  falsehood  must  see  their 
force ;  and  if  there  are  any  so  blinded  by  pre- 
judice, or  corrupted  by  licentiousness,  as  to  at- 
tempt by  sophistry  to  elude  them,  their  sophistry 
will  be  easily  detected  by  every  man  of  common 
understanding  who  has.  read  the  historical  evi- 
dence with  candor  and  attention.  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  declaiming  against  the  infidel,  we  solicit 
his  attention  to  this  subject,  convinced  that, 
where  truth  resides,  it  will  shine  with  so  constant 
and  clear  a  light  that  the  combined  ingenuity 
of  all  the  deists  since  the  beginning  of  the  world 
will  never  be  able  to  extinguish  or  to  obscure  it.  If 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament  are  really  genuine, 
opposition  will  incite  the  Christian  to  bring  for- 
ward the  evidence ;  and  thus,  by  the  united  efforts 
of  the  deist  and  the  Christian,  the  arguments  will 
be  stated  with  all  the  clearness  and  accuracy  of 
which  they  are  susceptible  in  so  remarkable  a 
degree.  It  is  surprising  that  the  enemies  of 
Christianity  have  not  always  made  their  first 
attacks  in  this  quarter  ;  for  if  they  admit  that  the 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  are  as  ancient  n^ 
we  affirm,  and  composed  by  the  nersons  to 


SCRIPTURE. 


625 


whom  they  are  ascribed,  they  must  allow,  if 
they  reason  fairly,  that  the  Christian  religion  is 
true. 

The  stpostles  allude  frequently  in  their  epistles 
to  the  gift  of  miracles,  which  they  had  commu- 
nicated to  the  Christian  converts  by  the  impo- 
sition of  hands,  in  confirmation  of  the  doctrine 
delivered  in  their  speeches  and  writings,  and 
sometimes  to  miracles  which  they  themselves  had 
performed.  Now,  if  these  epistles  are  really 
genuine,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  deny  those  mi- 
racles to  be  true.  The  case  is  here  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  an  historian,  who  relates  ex- 
traordinary events  in  the  course  of  his  narrative, 
since  either  credulity  or  an  actual  intention  to 
deceive  may  induce  him  to  describe  as  true  a 
series  of  falsehoods  respecting  a  foreign  land  or 
distant  period.  Even  to  the  evangelists  might 
an  adversary  of  the  Christian  religion  make  this 
objection :  but  to  write  to  persons  with  whom 
we  stand  in  the  nearest  connexion,  '  I  have  not 
only  performed  miracles  in  your  presence,  but 
have  likewise  communicated  to  you  the  same 
extraordinary  endowments,'  to  write  in  this  man- 
ner, if  nothing  of  the  kind  had  ever  happened, 
would  require  such  an  incredible  degree  of  ef- 
frontery that  he  who  possessed  it  would  not  only 
expose  himself  to  the  utmost  ridicule,  but,  by 
giving  his  adversaries  the  fairest  opportunity  to 
detect  his  imposture,  would  ruin  the  cause  which 
he  attempted  to  support. 

St.  Paul's  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  is 
addressed  to  a  community,  to  which  he  had 
preached  the  gospel  only  three  Sabbath  days, 
when  he  was  forced  to  quit  it  by  the  persecution 
of  the  populace.  In  this  epistle  he  appeals  to 
the  miracles  which  he  had  performed,  and  to  the 
gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  which  he  had  communi- 
cated. Now  is  it  possible,  without  forfeiting 
all  pretensions  to  common  sense,  that,  in  writing 
to  a  community  which  he  had  lately  established, 
he  could  speak  of  miracles  performed,  and  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  communicated,  if  no  member 
of  the  society  had  seen  the  one,  or  received  the 
other  ?  To  suppose  that  an  impostor  could 
write  to  the  converts  or  adversaries  of  the  new 
religion  such  epistles  as  these,  with  a  degree  of 
triumph  over  his  opponents,  and  yet  maintain 
his  authority,  implies  ignorance  and  stupidity 
hardly  to  be  believed.  Credulous  as  the  Chris- 
tians have  been  in  later  ages,  and  even  so  early 
as  the  third  century,  no  less  severe  were  they  in 
their  enquiries,  and  guarded  against  deception, 
at  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  This  charac- 
ter is  given  them  even  by  Lucian,  a  writer  of  the 
second  century,  who  vented  his  satire  not  only 
against  certain  Christians,  who  had  supplied  Pe- 
regrinus  with  the  means  of  subsistence,  but  also 
against  heathen  oracles  and  pretended  wonders. 
He  relates  of  his  impostor  (Pseudomantis)  that 
he  attempted  nothing  supernatural  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  Christians  and  Epicureans.  This 
Pseudomantis  exclaims  before  the  whole  assem- 
bly, <  away  with  the  Christians,  away  with  the 
Epicureans,  and  let  those  only  remain  who  be- 
lieve in  the  Deity  (TriTtvavrtT  rai  Qua) '.'  upon 
which  the  populace  took  up  stones  to  drive  away 
the  suspicious;  while  the  other  philosophers, 
Pythagoreans,  Platonists,  and  Stoics,  as  credu- 
Vot.  XtX. 


Ions  friends  and  protectors  of  the  cause,  were 
permitted  to  remain. 

It  is  readily  acknowledged  that  the  arguments 
drawn  from  the  authenticity  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment only  establish  the  truth  of  the  miracles 
performed  by  the  apostles,  and  are  not  applica- 
ble to  the  miracles  of  our  Saviour ;  yet,  if  we  ad- 
mit the  three  first  gospels  to  be  genuine,  the 
truth  of  the  Christian  religion  will  be  proved 
from  the  prophecies  of  Jesus.  For  if  these  gospels 
were  composed  by  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke, 
at  the  time  in  which  all  the  primitive  Christians 
affirm,  that  is,  previous  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  they  must  be  inspired;  for  they 
contain  a  circumstantial  prophecy  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  determine  the  period  at 
which  it  was  accomplished.  Now  it  was  impos- 
sible that  human  sagacity  could  foresee  that 
event;  for  when  it  was  predicted  nothing  was 
more  improbable.  The  Jews  were  resolved  to 
avoid  an  open  rebellion,  well  knowing  the  great- 
ness of  their  danger,  and  submitted  to  the  op- 
pressions of  their  governors  in  the  hope  of  ob- 
taining redress  from  the  court  of  Rome.  The 
circumstance  which  gave  birth  to  these  misfor- 
tunes is  so  trifling  in  itself,  that,  independent  of 
its  consequences,  it  would  not  deserve  to  be  re- 
corded. In  the  narrow  entrance  to  a  synagogue 
in  Csesarea  some  person  had  made  an  offering 
of  birds,  merely  with  a  view  to  irritate  the  Jews. 
The  insult  excited  their  indignation,  and  occa- 
sioned the  shedding  of  blood.  This  seemingly 
trifling  circumstance,  ordained  by  Him  without 
whose  permission  a  sparrow  cannot  fall  to  the 
ground,  gave  rise  to  a  bloody  war,  which  ended 
in  the  fulfilment  of  our  Saviour's  prophecy,  by 
the  total  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
dreadful  massacre  of  its  inhabitants.  See  JEWS. 
Florus,  who  was  then  procurator  of  Judea,  con- 
verted this  private  quarrel  into  public  hostilities, 
and  compelled  the  Jewish  nation  to  rebel,  con- 
trary to  its  wish  and  resolution,  to  avoid  what 
the  Jews  had  threatened,  an  impeachment  before 
the  Roman  emperor,  for  his  excessive  cruelties. 
But,  even  after  this  rebellion  had  broken  out,  the 
destruction  of  the  temple  was  a  very  improbable 
event.  It  was  not  the  practice  of  the  Romans  to 
destroy  the  magnificent  edifices  of  the  nations 
which  they  subdued  ;  and,  of  all  the  Roman  ge- 
nerals, none  was  more  unlikely  to  demolish  so 
ancient  and  august  a  building  as  Titus  Vespa- 
sian. So  important  then  is  the  question,  whe- 
ther the  books  of  the  New  Testament  be  genuine  ? 
that  the  arguments  which  prove  their  authen- 
ticity prove  also  the  truth  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. Let  us  now  consider  the  evidence  which 
proves  the  authenticity  of  the  New  Testament. 

We  receive  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
as  the  genuine  works  of  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke, 
John,  and  Paul,  for  the  same  reason  that  we  re- 
ceive the  writings  of  Xenophon,  Polybius,  Plu- 
tarch, Caesar,  and  Livy.  We  have  the  uninter- 
rupted testimony  of  all  ages,  and  we  have  no 
reason  to  suspect  imposition.  This  argument  is 
much  stronger  when  applied  to  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament  than  when  applied  to  any  other 
writings;  for  they  were  addressed  to  large  so- 
cieties, were  often  read  in  their  presence,  and 
acknowledged  by  them  to  be  the  writings  of  the 

2  S 


626 


SCRIPTURE. 


apostles.  Whereas,  the  most  eminent  profane 
writings  which  still  remain  were  addressed  only 
to  individuals,  or  to  no  persons  at  all  :  and  we 
have  the  authority  to  affirm  that  they  were  read 
in  public ;  on  the  contrary,  we  know  that  a 
liberal  education  was  uncommon  ;  books  were 
scarce,  and  the  knowledge  of  them  was  confined 
to  a  few  individuals  in  every  nation. 

The  New  Testament  was  read  over  three  quar- 
ters of  the  world,  while  profane  writers  were 
limited  to  one  nation  or  to  one  country.  An 
uninterrupted  succession  of  writers  from  the 
apostolic  ages  to  the  present  time  quote  the 
sacred  writings,  or  make  allusions  to  them ;  and 
these  quotations  and  allusions  are  made  not  only 
by  friends  but  by  enemies.  This  cannot  be  as- 
serted of  even  the  best  classic  authors.  And  it 
is  highly  probable  that  the  translations  of  the 
New  Testament  were  made  so  early  as  the 
second  century ;  and  in  a  century  or  two  after 
they  became  very  numerous.  After  this  period 
it  was  impossible  to  forge  new  writings,  or  to 
corrupt  the  sacred  text,  unless  we  can  suppose 
that  men  of  different  nations,  of  different  senti- 
ments, and  different  languages,  and  often  exceed- 
ingly hostile  to  one  another,  should  all  agree  in 
one  forgery.  This  is  so  strong  that,  if  we  deny 
the  authenticity  of  the  New  Testament,  we  may 
with  a  thousand  times  more  propriety  reject  all 
the  other  writings  in  the  word ;  we  may  even 
throw  aside  human  testimony  itself.  But,  as  this 
subject  is  of  great  importance,  we  shall  consider 
it  at  more  length  ;  and,  to  enable  our  readers  to 
judge  with  greater  accuracy,  we  shall  state,  from 
the  valuable  work  of  Michaelis,  as  translated  by 
the  learned  bishop  Marsh,  the  reasons  which 
may  induce  a  critic  to  suspect  a  work  to  be 
spurious  : — 

1.  When  doubts  have  been  made,  from  its  first 
appearance  in  the  world,  whether  it  proceeded 
from  the  author  to  whom  it  is  ascribed.  2. 
When  the  immediate  friends  of  the  pretended 
author,  who  were  able  to  decide  upon  the  sub- 
ject, have  denied  it  to  be  his  production.  3. 
When  a  long  series  of  years  has  elapsed  after 
his  death,  in  which  the  book  was  unknown,  and 
in  which  it  must  unavoidably  have  been  men- 
tioned and  quoted,  had  it  really  existed.  4. 
When  the  style  is  different  from  that  of  his 
other  writings,  or,  in  case  no  other  remain,  dif- 
ferent from  that  which  might  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected. 5.  When  events  are  recorded  which 
«ippen  later  than  the  time  of  the  pretended  au- 
ihor.  6.  When  opinions  are  advanced  which 
contradict  those  he  is  known  to  maintain  in  his 
other  writings :  though  this  latter  argument  alone 
leads  to  no  positive  conclusion,  since  every  man 
is  liable  to  change  his  opinion,  or  through  for- 
getfulness  to  vary  in  the  circumstances  of  the 
same  relation,  of  which  Josephus,  in  his  Anti- 
quities and  Wars  of  the  Jews,  affords  a  striking 
example. 

1.  But  it  cannot  be  shown  that  any  one 
doubted  of  the  authenticity  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  period  in  which  it  first  appeared.  2. 
No  ancient  accounts  are  on  record  whence  we  may 
conclude  it  to  be  spurious.  3.  No  considerable 
period  elapsed  after  the  death  of  the  apostles,  in 
which  the  New  Testament  was  unknown;  but, 


on  the  contrary,  it  is  mentioned  by  their  very 
contemporaries,  and  the  accounts  of  it  in  the 
second  century  are  still  more  numerous.  4.  No 
argument  can  be  brought  in  its  disfavor  from  the 
nature  of  the  style,  it  being  exactly  such  as  might 
be  expected  from  the  apostles,  not  Attic  but 
Jewish  Greek.  5.  No  facts  are  recorded  which 
happened  after  their  death.  6.  No  doctrines  are 
maintained  which  contradict  the  known  tenets  of 
the  authors,  since,  beside  the  New  Testament,  no 
writings  of  the  apostles  exist.  But,  to  the  honor 
of  the  New  Testament  be  it  spoken,  it  contains 
numerous  contradictions  to  the  tenets  and  doc- 
trines of  the  fathers  in  the  second  and  third  cen- 
tury, whose  morality  was  different  from  that  of 
the  gospel,  which  recommends  fortitude  and 
submission  to  unavoidable  evils,  but  not  that 
enthusiastic  ardor  for  martyrdom  for  which 
these  centuries  are  distinguished;  it  alludes  to 
ceremonies  which  in  the  following  ages  were  either 
in  disuse  or  totally  unknown  ;  all  which  circum- 
stances infallibly  demonstrate  that  the  New  Tes- 
tament is  not  a  production  of  either  of  those 
centuries.  We  shall  now  consider  the  positive 
evidences  for  the  authenticity  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. These  may  be  arranged  under  the  three 
following  heads:  i.  The  impossibility  of  a  for- 
gery, arising  from  the  nature  of  the  thing  it- 
self, ii.  The  ancient  Christian,  Jewish,  and 
Heathen  testimony  it  its  favor,  iii.  Its  own  in- 
ternal evidence. 

i.  The  impossibility  of  a  forgery,  arising  from 
the  nature  of  the  thing  itself,  is  evident.  It  is 
impossible  to  establish  forged  writings  as  authen- 
tic in  any  place  where  there  are  persons  strongly 
inclined  and  well  qualified  to  detect  the  fraud. 
Now  the  Jews  were  the  most  violent  enemies  of 
Christianity.  They  put  the  founder  of  it  to  death ; 
they  persecuted  his  disciples  with  implacable 
fury  ;  and  they  were  anxious  to  stifle  the  new  re- 
ligion in  its  birth.  If  the  writings  of  the  New 
Testament  had  been  forged,  would  not  the  Jews 
have  detected  the  imposture  ?  Is  there  a  single 
instance  on  record  where  a  few  individuals  have 
imposed  a  history  upon  the  world  against  the 
testimony  of  a  whole  nation  ?  Would  the  inha- 
bitants of  Palestine  have  received  the  gospels,  if 
they  had  not  had  sufficient  evidence  that  Jesu» 
Christ  really  appeared  among  them,  and  per- 
formed the  miracles  ascribed  to  him  ?  Or  would 
the  churches  of  Rome  or  of  Corinth  have  acknow- 
ledged the  epistles  addressed  to  them  as  tlu- 
genuine  works  of  Paul,  if  Paul  had  never 
preached  among  them  ?  We  might  as  well  think 
to  prove  that  the  history  of  the  Reformation  is 
the  invention  of  historians  ;  and  that  no  revolu- 
tion happened  in  Great  Britain  during  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

ii.  The  second  kind  of  evidence  which  we 
produce,  to  prove  the  authenticity  of  the  New 
Testament,  is  the  testimony  <>/'  ancii-iit  writers, 
Christians,  Jews,  and  Heathens.  In  reviewing 
the  evidence  of  testimony,  it  will  not  be  ex 
pected  that  we  should  begin  at  the  present  age, 
and  trace  backwards  the  authors  who  have 
written  on  this  subject  to  the  first  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity. This  indeed,  though  a  laborious  task, 
could  be  performed  in  the  most  complete  man* 
ner;  the  whole  series  of  authors,  numerous  in 


SCRIPTURE. 


627 


every  age,  who  hare  quoted  from  the  books  of 
the  New  Testament,  written  commentaries  upon 
them,  translated  them  into  different  languages, 
or  who  have  drawn  up  a  list  of  them,  could  be 
exhibited  so  as  to  form  such  a  perfect  body  of  evi- 
dence that  we  imagine  even  a  jury  of  deists  would 
find  it  impossible,  upon  a  deliberate  and  candid 
examination,  to  reject  or  disbelieve  it.  We  do 
not,  however,  suppose  that  scepticism  has  yet 
arrived  at  so  great  a  height  as  to  render  such  a 
tedious  and  circumstantial  evidence  necessary. 
Passing  over  the  intermediate  space,  therefore, 
we  shall  ascend  at  once  to  the  fourth  century, 
when  the  evidence  for  the  authenticity  of  the 
New  Testament  was  fully  established,  and  trace 
it  back  from  that  period  to  the  age  of  the  apostles. 
Tins  method  of  stating  the  evidence  will  appear 
more  natural,  and  will  afford  more  satisfaction, 
than  that  which  has  been  usually  adopted. 

It  is  surely  more  natural,  when  we  investigate 
the  truth  of  any  fact  which  depends  on  a  series  of 
testimony,  to  begin  with  those  witnesses  who 
lived  nearest  the  present  age,  and  whose  cha- 
racters are  best  established.  In  this  way  we  shall 
learn  from  themselves  the  foundation  of  their 
belief,  and  the  characters  of  those  from  whom 
they  derived  it;  and  thus  we  ascend  till  we 
arrive  at  its  origin.  This  mode  of  investigation 
will  give  more  satisfaction  to  the  deist  than  the 
usual  way  ;  and  we  believe  no  Christian,  who  is 
confident  of  the  goodness  of  his  cause,  will  be 
unwilling  to  grant  any  proper  concessions.  The 
deist  will  thus  have  an  opportunity  of  examining, 
separately,  what  he  will  consider  as  the  weakest 
parts  of  the  evidence,  those  which  are  exhibited 
by  the  earliest  Christian  writers,  consisting  of  ex- 
pressions, and  not  quotations,  taken  from  the 
New  Testament.  The  Christian,  on  the  other 
hand,  ought  to  wish  that  these  apparently  weak 
parts  of  the  evidence  were  distinctly  examined, 
for  thsy  will  afford  an  irrefragable  proof  that  the 
New  Testament  was  not  forged ;  and,  should  the 
deist  reject  the  evidence  of  those  early  writers, 
it  will  be  incumbent  on  him  to  account  for  the 
origin  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  he  will 
find  more  difficult  than  to  admit  the  common  hy- 
pothesis. 

In  the  fourth  century  we  could  produce  the 
testimonies  of  numerous  witnesses  to  prove  that 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament  existed  at  that 
time ;  but  it  will  he  sufficient  to  mention  their 
names,  the  time  in  which  they  wrote,  and  the  sub- 
stance of  their  evidence.  This  we  shall  present 
in  a  concise  form  in  the  following  table,  taken 
from  Jones's  New  and  Full  Method  of  establish- 
ing the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  ;  but  con- 
densed to  save  room. 

It  exhibits,  1.  The  names  of  the  writers.  2. 
The  times  in  which  they  lived.  3.  The  variation 
or  agreement  of  their  catalogues  with  ours  now 
received :  and,  4.  The  books  in  which  these 
catalogues  are. 

I.  Atnanasius,  bishop  of  Alexandria.  A.  D.  315. 
The  same   perfectly  with  ours  now  received. 
Fragment.  Epist.  Testal.  torn.  2,  et  in  Synops. 
torn.  i. 

II.  Cyril,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  340.  The 
same  with  ours,  only  the  Revelation  is  omitted. 
Catech.  IV.  sect.  ult.  p.  101. 


III.  The  bishops  assembled   in  the  council  of 
Laodicea.     A.  D.   364.     The   Revelation   is 
omitted.     Canon.  LIX.     N.  B.  The  canons  of 
this  council  were  not  long  afterwards  received 
into  the  body  of  the  canons  of  the  universal 
church. 

IV.  Epiphanius,  bishop  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus. 
A.  D.  370.   The  same  with  ours  now  received. 
Haeres.  76.  cont.  Anom.  p.  399. 

V.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  bishop  of  Constantinople, 
A.  D.  375.    Omits  the  Revelation.    Carm.  de 
veris  et  genuin.  Scriptur. 

VI.  Philastrius,  bishop    of   Brixia   in  Venice. 
A.  D.   380.      The  same  with  ours  now  re- 
ceived ;   except  that  he  mentions   only  thir- 
teen  of    St.    Paul's   epistles   (omitting   very 
probably  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews),   and 
leaves  out  the  Revelations.     Lib.  de  Haeres. 
Numb.  87. 

VII.  Jerome.      A.  D.    382.      The   same   with 
ours,  except  that  he  speaks  dubiously  of  the 
Epistle   to   the   Hebrews ;    though    in    other 
parts  of   his  writings  he  receives  it  as   ca- 
nonical.    Ep.  ad  Paulin.  83.     Tract.  6.  p.  2. 
Also  commonly  prefixed  to  the  Latin  vulgar. 

VIII.  Ruffin,  presbyter  of  Aquilegium.     A.  D. 
390.     It  perfectly  agrees  with  ours.     Expos, 
in  Symb.  Apostol.  sect.  36.  int.  Ep.  Hieron. 
Par.  1.  Trac.  3,  p.  110,  et  inter.  Op.  Cypr. 
p.  575. 

IX.  Austin,  bishop  of  Hippo  in  Africa.     A.  D. 
394.      It  perfectly   agrees   with   ours.      De 
Doctrin.    Christ.    1,  2,  c.  8.     Tom.  Op.    3. 
p.  25. 

X.  The  XLIV.  bishops  assembled  HI  the  third 
council  of  Carthage.     St.  Austin  was  present 
at   it.     It  perfectly  agrees  with  ours.     Vid. 
Canon.  XL VII.  et  cap.  ult. 

We  now  go  back  to  Eusebius,  who  wrote 
about  the  year  315,  and  whose  catalogue  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament  we  shall  mention 
at  more  length.  '  Let  us  observe,'  says  he,  '  the 
writings  of  the  apostle  John,  which  are  uncon- 
tradicted  ;  and,  first  of  all,  must  be  mentioned, 
as  acknowledged  of  all,  the  gospel  according  to 
him,  well  known  to  all  the  churches  under 
heaven.'  The  author  then  proceeds  to  relate  the 
occasions  of  writing  the  gospels,  and  the  reasons 
for  placing  St.  John's  the  last,  manifestly  speak- 
ing of  all  the  four  as  equal  in  their  authority,  and 
the  certainty  of  their  original.  The  second  p*as- 
sage  is  taken  from  a  chapter,  the  title  of  which  is 
'  Of  the  Scriptures  universally  acknowledged, 
and  of  those  that  are  not  such.'  Eusebius  begins 
his  enumeration  in  the  following  manner:  'In 
the  first  place  are  to  be  ranked  the  sacred  four 
Gospels,  then  the  book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles; after  that  are  to  be  reckoned  the  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul ;  in  the  next  place,  that  called  the  first 
Epistle  of  John  and  the  Epistle  of  Peter  are  to 
be  esteemed  authentic  :  after  this  is  to  be  placed, 
if  it  be  thought  fit,  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  ; 
about  which  we  shall  observe  the  different 
opinions  at  proper  seasons.  Of  the  controverted, 
but  yet  well  known  or  approved  by  the  most,  are 
that  called  the  Epistle  of  James  and  that  of  Jude 
the  second  of  Peter,  and  the  second  and  third  ot 
John,  whether  they  were  written  by  the  evan 

2  S  2 


628 


SCRIPTURE. 


gelist,  or  by  another  of  the  same  name.'  He  then 
proceeds  to  reckon  up  five  others,  not  in  our 
canon,  which  he  calls  in  one  place  spurious,  in 
another  controverted ;  evidently  meaning  the 
same  thing  by  these  two  words.  He  uses  still 
stronger  terms  with  respect  to  the  pretended  gos- 
pels of  Peter,  and  Thomas,  and  Matthias,  and 
some  others,  which  he  says  are  altogether  absurd 
and  impious. 

A.  D.  290,  Victorin  bishop  of  Pettaw  in  Ger- 
many, ;'n  a  commentary  upon  this  text  of  the 
ixerelation,  'The  first  was  like  a  lion,  the  second 
was  like  a  calf,  the  third  like  a  man,  and  the 
fourth  like  a  flying  eagle,'  makes  out  that  by 
the  four  creatures  are  intended  the  four  gospels ; 
and,  to  show  the  propriety  of  the  symbols,  he  re- 
cites the  subject  with  which  the  evangelist  opens 
liis  history.  The  explication  is  fanciful,  but  the 
testimony  positive.  He  also  expressly  cites  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

A.  D.  230,  Cyprian  bishop  of  Carthage  gives 
the  following  testimony:  'The  church,'  says  this 
father,  '  is  watered  like  Paradise  by  four  rivers, 
that  is,  by  four  gospels.'  The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  are  also  frequently  quoted  by  Cyprian 
under  that  name,  and  under  the  name  of  the 
Divine  Scriptures.  In  his  various  writings  are 
such  frequent  and  copious  citations  of  Scripture 
as  to  place  this  part  of  the  testimony  beyond 
controversy.  Nor  is  there,  in  the  works  of  this 
eminent  African  bishop,  one  quotation  of  a  spu- 
rious or  apocryphal  Christian  writing. 

A.  D.  210,  Origen  is  a  most  important  evi- 
dence. Nothing  can  be  more  peremptory  upon 
the  subject  now  under  consideration,  and,  from  a 
writer  of  his  learning  and  information,  nothing 
more  satisfactory,  than  the  declaration  of  Origen, 
preserved  in  an  extract  of  his  works  by  Eusebius  : 
'  That  the  four  gospels  alone  are  received  with- 
out dispute  by  the  whole  church  of  God  under 
heaven  :'  to  which  declaration  is  immediately 
subjoined  abrief  history  of  the  respective  authors, 
to  whom  they  were  then,  as  they  are  now, 
ascribed.  The  sentiments  expressed  concerning 
the  gospels  in  all  the  works  of  Origen  which  re- 
main entirely,  correspond  with  the  testimony  here 
cited.  His  attestation  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
is  no  less  positive ;  '  And  Luke  also  once  more 
sounds  the  trumpet  relating  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.'  That  the  Scriptures  were  then  uni- 
versally read  is  plainly  affirmed  by  this  writer 
in  a  passage  in  which  he  is  repelling  the  objec- 
tions of  Celsus,  '  That  it  is  not  in  private  books, 
or  such  as  are  read  by  few  only,  and  those  stu- 
dious persons,  but  in  books  read  by  every  body, 
that  it  is  written  the  invisible  things  of  God,  from 
the  creation  of  the  world  are  clearly  seen,  being 
understood  by  things  that  are  made.'  It  is  to 
no  purpose  to  single  out  quotations  of  Scripture 
from  such  a  writer  as  this.  We  might  as  well 
make  a  selection  of  the  quotations  of  Scripture 
in  Dr.  Clarke's  sermons.  They  are  so  thickly 
sown  in  the  works  of  Origen,  that  Dr.  Mill  says, 
'  If  we  had  all  his  works  remaining,  we  should 
have  before  us  almost  the  whole  text  of  the 
Bible.' 

A.  D.  194,  T i- r hi  11  tan  exhibits  the  number  of 
the  gospels  then  received,  the  names  of  the  evan- 
gelists, and  their  proper  designations,  in  one 
•hort  sentence.  '  Among  the  apostles,  John  and 


Matthew  teach  us  the  faith ;  among  apostolical 
men,  Luke  and  Mark  refresh  it.'  The  next  pas- 
sage to  be  taken  from  Tertullian  affords  as  com- 
plete an  attestation  to  the  authenticity  of  the 
gospels  as  can  be  well  imagined.  After  enu- 
merating the  churches  which  had  been  founded 
by  Paul  at  Corinth,  in  Galatia,  at  Philippi,  Thes- 
salonica,  and  Ephesus,  the  church  of  Rome  es- 
tablished by  Peter  and  Paul,  and  other  churches 
derived  from  John,  he  proceeds  thus  :  '  I  say 
then  that  with  them,  but  not  with  them  only 
which  are  apostolical,  but  with  all  who  have  fel 
lowship  with  them  in  the  same  faith,  is  that  gospel 
of  Luke  received  from  its  first  publication,  which 
we  so  zealously  maintain ;'  and  presently  after- 
wards adds,  '  The  sam«  authority  of  the  aposto- 
lical churches  will  support  the  other  gospels, 
which  we  have  from  them,  and  according  to  them, 
I  mean  John's  and  Matthew's,  although  that 
likewise  which  Mark  published  may  be  said  to 
be  Peter's,  whose  interpreter  Mark  was.'  In 
another  place  Tertullian  affirms  that  the  three 
other  gospels,  as  well  as  St.  Luke's,  were  in  the 
hands  of  the  churches  from  the  beginning.  This 
noble  testimony  proves  incontestably  the  anti- 
quity of  the  gospels,  and  that  they  were  univer- 
sally received  ;  that  they  were  in  the  hands  of 
all,  and  had  been  so  from  the  first.  And  this 
evidence  appears  not  more  than  150  years  after 
the  publication  of  the  books.  Dr.  Lardner  ob- 
serves '  that  there  are  more  and  larger  quota- 
tions of  the  small  volume  of  the  New  Testament, 
in  this  one  Christian  author,  than  there  are  of  all 
the  works  of  Cicero,  in  writers  of  all  characters, 
for  several  ages.' 

A.  D.  178,  Irenaeus  was  bishop  of  Lyons,  and 
is  mentioned  by  Tertullian,  Eusebius,  Jerome, 
and  Photius.  In  his  youth  he  had  been  a  disciple 
of  Polycarp,  who  was  a  disciple  of  John.  He  as- 
serts, of  himself  and  his  contemporaries,  that  they 
were  able  to  reckon  up  in  all  the  principal 
churches  the  succession  of  bishops  to  their  first 
institution.  His  testimony  to  the  four  gospels 
and  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is  express  and  positive. 
'  We  have  not  received,'  says  Irenseus,  '  the 
knowledge  of  the  way  of  our  salvation  by  any 
others  than  those  by  whom  the  gospel  has  been 
brought  to  us.  Which  gospel  they  first  preached, 
and  afterwards,  by  the  will  of  God,  committed 
to  writing,  that  it  might  be  for  time  to  come  the 
foundation  and  pillar  of  our  faith.  For  after  that 
our  Lord  rose  from  the  dead,  and  they  (the 
apostles)  were  endowed  from  above  with  the 
power  of  the  Holy  Ghost  coming  down  upon 
them,  they  received  a  perfect  knowledge  of  all 
things.  They  then  went  forth  to  all  the  ends  of 
the  earth,  declaring  to  men  the  blessing  of  hea- 
venly peace,  having  all  of  them,  and  every  one 
alike,  the  gospel  of  God.  Matthew  then,  among 
the  Jews,  wrote  a  gospel  in  their  own  language, 
while  Peter  and  Pau'l  were  preaching  the  gospel 
at  Rome,  and  founding  a  church  there.  And, 
after  their  exit,  Mark  also,  the  disciple  and  inter- 
preter of  Peter,  delivered  to  us  in  writing  the 
things  that  had  been  preached  by  Peter.  And 
Luke,  the  companion  of  Paul,  put  down  in  a 
book  the  gospel  preached  by  him  (Paul).  After- 
wards John,  the  disciple  of  the  Lord,  wl.o 
also  leaned  upon  his  breast,  likewise  pub- 
lished a  gosnel  while  he  dwelt  at  Ephesus  i~ 


SCRIPTURE. 


629 


Asia.'  Irenaeus  then  relates  how  Matthew  begins 
his  gospel,  how  Mark  bpgins  and  ends  his;  and 
gives  tlie  supposed  reasons  for  doing  so.  He 
enumerates  at  length  all  the  passages  of  Christ's 
history  in  Luke,  which  are  not  found  in  any  of 
the  other  evangelists.  He  states  the  particular  de- 
sign with  which  St.  John  composed  his  gospel, 
and  accounts  for  the  doctrinal  declarations  which 
precede  the  narrative.  If  any  modern  divine 
should  write  a  book  upon  the  genuineness  of  the 
gospels,  he  could  not  assert  it  more  expressly,  or 
state  their  original  more  distinctly,  than  Irenaeus 
hath  done  within  little  more  that  100  years  after 
they  were  published. 

Respecting  the  book  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  its  author,  the  testimony  of  Irenaeus 
is  no  less  explicit  Referring  to  the  account  of 
St.  Paul's  conversion  and  vocation,  in  the  ninth 
chapter  of  that  book,  '  Nor  can  they,'  says  he, 
meaning  the  parties  with  whom  he  argues, 
*  show  that  he  is  not  to  be  credited,  who  has  re- 
lated to  us  the  truth  with  the  greatest  exactness.' 
In  another  place,  he  has  actually  collected  the 
several  texts,  in  which  the  writer  of  the  history 
is  represented  as  accompanying  St.  Paul,  which 
led  him  to  exhibit  a  summary  of  almost  the 
whole  of  the  last  twelve  chapters  of  the  book. 

According  to  Lardner,  Irenasus  quotes  twelve 
'of  Paul's  epistles,  naming  their  author ;  also 
the  first  epistle  of  Peter,  the  two  first  epistles  of 
John,  and  the  Revelation.  The  epistles  of  Paul 
which  he  omits  are  those  addressed  to  Philemon 
and  the  Hebrews.  Eusebius  says  that  he  quotes 
the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  though  he  does  not 
ascribe  it  to  Paul.  The  work,  however,  is  lost. 

A.  D.  172,  Tatian,  who  is  spoken  of  by  Cle- 
mens Alexandrinus,  Origen,  Eusebius,  and  Je- 
rome, composed  a  harmony  of  the  four  gospels, 
which  he  called  D  atessaron,  of  the  four.  This 
title,  as  well  as  the  work,  is  remarkable,  because 
it  shows  that  then  as  well  as  now  there  were  four 
and  only  four,  gospels  in  general  use  among 
Christians. 

A.  D.  170,  the  churches  of  Lyons  and  Viennp 
in  France  sent  an  account  of  the  sufferings  of 
their  martyrs  to  the  churches  of  Asia  and  Phry- 
gia,  which  has  been  preserved  entire  by  Euse- 
bius. And  what  carries  in  some  measure  the 
testimony  of  these  churches  to  a  higher  age  is, 
that  they  had  now  for  their  bishop  Pothinus,who 
was  ninety  years  old,  and  whose  early  life  con- 
sequently must  have  immediately  followed  the 
times  of  the  apostles.  In  this  epistle  are  exact 
reference  to  the  gospels  of  Lufce  and  John,  and 
to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  The  form  of  re- 
ferences is  the  same  as  in  all  the  preceding  ar- 
ticles. That  from  St.  John  is  in  these  words : 
'  Then  was  fulfilled  that  which  was  spoken  by 
the  Lord,  that  whosoever  killeth  you,  will  think 
that  he  doth  God  service.'  Distinct  references 
ure  also  made  to  other  books,  viz.  Acts,  Romans, 
Ephesians,  Philippians,  1  Timothy,  1  Peter, 
1  John,  Revelation. 

A.  D.  140,  Justin  Martyr  composed  several 
fiooks,  which  are  mentioned  by  his  disciple  Ta- 
tian, by  Tertullian,  Methodius,  Eusebius,  Jerome, 
Epiphanius,  and  Photius.  In  his  writings  be- 
tween twenty  and  thirty  quotations  from  the 
gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  reckoned 


up,  which  are  clear,  distinct,  and  copious;  if 
each  verse  be  counted  separately,  a  much  greater 
number;  if  each  expression  still  more.  Jones, 
in  his  book  on  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament, 
ventures  to  affirm  that  he  cites  the  books  of 
which  it  consists,  particularly  of  the  four  gos- 
pels, above  200  times.  We  meet  with  quota- 
tions of  three  of  the  gospels  within  the  compass 
of  half  a  page,  viz.  from  Matthew  xxv.  41,  Luke 
x.  19,  and  Mark  viii.  31.  But  all  the  references 
in  Justin  are  made  without  mentioning  the  au- 
thor ;  which  proves  that  these  books  were  per- 
fectly well  known,  and  that  there  were  no  othei 
accounts  of  Christ  then  extant,  or  at  least  no 
others  so  received  and  credited  as  to  make  it  ne- 
cessary to  add  any  marks  of  distinction.  But, 
although  Justin  mentions  not  the  author's  names, 
he  calls  the  books  Memoirs  composed  by  the 
Apostles ;  Memoirs  composed  by  the  Apostles 
and  their  Companions;  which  descriptions,  the 
latter  especially,  exactly  suit  the  titles  which  the 
Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles  now  bear. 

He  informs"  us,  in  his  first  apology,  that  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Apostles,  or  the  writings  of  the 
prophets,  are  read  according  as  the  time  allows ; 
and,  when  the  reader  has  ended,  the  president 
makes  a  discourse,  exhorting  to  the  imitation  of 
such  excellent  things.  A  few  short  observations 
will  show  the  value  of  this  testimony.  1.  The 
Memoirs  of  the  Apostles,  Justin  in  another  place 
expressly  tells  us,  are  what  are  called  gospels. 
And  that  they  were  the  gospels  which  we  now 
use  is  made  certain  by  Justin's  numerous  quota- 
tions of  them,  and  his  silence  about  any  others. 
2.  He  describes  the  general  usage  of  the  Chris- 
tian church.  3.  He  does  not  speak  of  it  as  re- 
cent or  newly  instituted,  but  in  the  terms  in 
which  men  speak  of  established  customs.  Justin 
also  makes  such  allusions  to  the  following  books 
as  shows  that  he  had  read  them  :  Romans,  1  Co- 
•inthians,  Galatians,  Ephesians,  Philippians, 
Colossians,  2  Thessalonians,  Hebrews,  2  Peter  ; 
and  he  ascribes  the  Revelation  to  John,  the 
apostle  of  Christ. 

A.  D.  116,  Papias,  a  hearer  of  John,  and  com- 
panion of  Polycarp,  as  Irenaeus  attests,  and  of 
the  apostolical  age,  as  all  agree,  in  a  passage 
quoted  by  Eusebius  from  a  work  now  lost,  ex- 
pressly ascribes  the  two  first  gospels  to  Matthew 
and  Mark ;  and  in  a  manner  which  proves  that 
these  gospels  must  have  publicly  borne  the 
names  of  these  authors  at  that  titne,  and  pro- 
bably long  before ;  for  Papias  does  not  say  that 
one  gospel  was  written  by  Matthew,  and  ano- 
ther by  Mark ;  but,  assuming  this  as  perfectly 
well  known,  he  tells  us  from  what  materials 
Mark  collected  his  account,  viz.  from  Peter's 
preaching,  and  in  what  language  Matthew  wrote, 
viz.  in  Hebrew.  Whether  Papias  was  well  in- 
formed in  this  statement  or  not,  to  the  point  for 
which  this  testimony  is  produced,  namely,  that 
these  books  bore  these  names  at  this  time,  his 
authority  is  complete.  Papias  himself  declares 
that  he  received  his  accounts  of  Christianity 
from  those  who  were  acquainted  with  the 
apostles,  and  that  those  accounts  which  he  thus 
received  from  the  older  Christian-,  and  had  com- 
mitted to  memory,  he  inserted  in  his  books.  He 
farther  adds  that  he  was  very  solicitous  to  obtain 


630 


SCRIPTURE. 


every  possible  information,  especially  to  learn 
what  the  apostles  said  and  preached,  valuing 
such  information  more  than  what  was  written  in 
books. 

A.  D-  108,  Polycarp  was  bishop  of  Smyrna, 
and  disciple  of  John  the  Apostle.  This  testimony 
concerning  Polycarp  is  given  by  Irenaeus,  who  in 
his  youth  had  seen  him.  '  I  can  tell  the  place,' 
saith  Irenaus, '  in  which  the  blessed  Polycarp  sat 
and  taught,  and  his  going  out  and  coming  in,  and 
the  manner  of  his  life,  and  the  form  of  his  person, 
and  the  discourses  he  made  to  the  people,  and 
how  he  related  his  conversation  with  John  and 
others  who  had  seen  the  Lord,  and  how  lie  re 
lated  their  sayings,  and  what  he  had  heard  con- 
cerning the  Lord,  both  concerning  his  miracles 
and  his  doctrines,  as  he  had  received  them  from 
the  eye-witnesses  of  the  word  of  life;  all  which 
Polycarp  related  agreeable  to  the  Scriptures. 

Of  Polycarp,  whose  proximity  to  the  age  and 
country  and  persons  of  the  apostles  is  thus  at- 
tested, we  have  one  undoubted  epistle  remain- 
ing ;  which,  though  a  short  performance,  contains 
nearly  forty  clear  allusions  to  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament.  See  POLYCARP.  This  is  strong 
evidence  of  the  respect  which  was  paid  to  them 
by  Christians  of  that  age.  Among  these,  al- 
though the  writings  of  St.  Paul  are  more  fre- 
quently used  by  Polycarp  than  other  parts  of 
Scripture,  there  are  copious  allusions  to  the  gos- 
pel of  St.  Matthew,  some  passages  in  the  gos- 
pels both  of  Matthew  and  Luke,  and  some  which 
:nore  nearly  resemble  the  words  in  Luke.  He 
thus  fixes  the  authority  of  the  Lord's  prayer, 
and  the  use  of  it  among  Christians.  If,  there- 
fore, we  pray  the  Lord  to  forgive  us,  we  ought 
also  to  forgive.  And  again,  With  supplication 
beseeching  the  all-seeing  God,  not  to  lead  us  into 
temptation. 

In  another  place  he  quotes  the  words  of  our 
Lord :  '  But  remember  what  the  Lord  said, 
teaching,  Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged.  For- 
give, and  ye  shall  be  forgiven ;  be  ye  merciful, 
that  ye  may  obtain  mercy ;  with  what  measure  ye 
mete,  it  shall  be  measured  to  you  again.'  Sup- 
posing Polycarp  to  have  had  these  words  from  the 
books  in  which  we  now  find  them,  it  is  manifest 
that  these  books  were  considered  by  him,  and  by 
his  readers,  as  he  thought,  as  authentic  accounts 
of  Christ's  discourses,  and  that  this  point  was  in- 
contestable. He  quotes  also  the  following  books, 
the  first  of  which  he  ascribes  to  St.  Paul :  1  Co- 
rinthians, Ephesians,  Philippians,  1  and  2Thes- 
snlonians;  and  makes  evident  references  to 
others,  particularly  to  Acts,  Romans,  2  Corin- 
thians, Galatians,  1  Timothy,  2  Timothy,  1  Peter, 
1  John. 

Ignatius,  as  it  is  testified  by  ancient  Christian 
writers,  became  bishop  of  Antioch  about  thirty- 
seven  years  after  Christ's  ascension  :  and  there- 
fore, from  his  time  and  place,  and  station,  it  is 
probable  that  he  had  known  and  conversed  with 
ri;uiy  of  »he  apostles.  See  IGNATH>.  Kpistles 
of  Ignatius  are  referred  to  by  Polycarp  his  con- 
temporary. Passages  found  in  the  epistles  now 
extant  under  his  name  are  quoted  by  Irenaeus, 
A.  D.  178,  by  Origen,  A.  D.  230 ;  and  the  occa- 
sion of  writing  them  is  fully  explained  by  Euse- 
bius  and  Jerome.  What  are  called  the  smaller 


epistles  of  Ignatius  are  generally  reckoned  the 
same  which  were  read  by  Irenacus,  Origen,  and 
Eusebius.  They  are  admitted  as  genuine  by 
Vossius,  and  have  been  proved  to  be  so  by  bishop 
Pearson,  with  a  force  of  argument  which  seem? 
to  admit  of  no  reply.  In  these  epistles  are  un- 
doubted allusions  to  Matt.  iii.  15,  xi.  16;  to  John 
iii.  8 ;  and  their  venerable  author,  who  often 
speaks  of  St.  Paul  in  terms  of  the  highest  re- 
spect, once  quotes  his  epistle  to  the  Ephesians 
by  name. 

Near  the  conclusion  of  the  epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans, St.  Paul,  amongst  others,  sends  the  fol- 
lowing salutation:  '  Salute  Asyrtcritus,  Phlegon, 
Hernias,  Patrobas,  Hermes,  and  the  brethren 
which  are  with  them.'  Of  Hermas,  who  appears 
in  this  catalogue  of  Roman  Christians  as  contem- 
porary with  St.  Paul,  there  is  a  book  still  re- 
maining, the  authenticity  of  which  cannot  be 
disputed.  See  HERMAS.  It  is  called  the  Shep- 
herd or  Pastor  of  Hermas.  Its  antiquity  is 
incontestable  from  the  quotations  of  it  in  Irenaeus, 
A.  D.  178,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  A.  D.  194, 
Tertullian,  A.  D.  200,  Origen,  A.  D.  230.  The 
notes  of  time  extant  in  the  epistle  itself  agree 
with  its  title,  and  with  the  testimonies  conerning 
it,  which  intimate  that  it  was  written  during  the 
lifetime  of  Clement.  In  this  piece  are  tacit  allu- 
sions to  St.  Matthew's,  St.  Luke's,  and  St.  John's 
gospels ;  that  is  to  say,  there  are  applications 
of  thoughts  and  expressions  found  in  these  gos- 
pels, without  citing  the  place  or  writer  from 
which  they  were  taken.  In  this  form  appear  in 
Hermas  the  confessing  and  denying  of  Christ ; 
the  parable  of  the  seed  sown;  the  comparison  of 
Christ's  disciples  to  little  children;  the  saying 
'  he  that  putteth  away  his  wife,  and  marrietii 
another,  committeth  adultery  ;'  the  singular  ex- 
pression, '  having  received  all  power  from  his 
Father,'  is  probably  an  allusion  to  Matt,  xxviii. 
18,  and  Christ  being  the  gate,  or  only  way  of 
coming  '  to  God,'  is  a  plain  allusion  to  John  xi». 
6,  x.  7,  9.  There  is  also  a  probable  allusion  to 
Acts  v.  32.  The  Shepherd  of  Hermas  has  been 
considered  as  a  fanciful  performance.  This,  how- 
ever, is  of  no  importance  in  the  present  case. 
We  only  adduce  it  as  an  evidence  that  the  books 
to  which  it  frequently  alludes  existed  in  the  first 
century ;  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  satisfactory,  as 
its  authenticity  has  never  been  questioned. 

A.  D.  96,  we  have  aa  epistle  written  by  Cle- 
ment, the  fourth  bishop  of  Rome,  whom  ancient 
writers,  without  any  doubt,  assert  to  have  been 
the  Clement  whom  St.  Paul  mentions,  Philip,  iv. 
3,  '  with  Clement  also,  and  other  my  fellow 
laborers,  whose  names  are  in  the.  book  of  life.' 
This  epistle  is  spoken  of  by  the  ancients  as  an 
epistle  acknowledged  by  all ;  and,  as  Irenaeus 
well  represents  its  value,  '  written  by  Clement, 
who  had  seen  the  blessed  apostles  and  conversed 
with  them,  who  had  the  preaching  of  the  apos- 
tles still  sounding  in  his  ears,  and  their  tradi- 
tions before  his  eyes.'  It  is  addressed  to  the 
church  of  Corinth  ;  and,  what  alone  may  seem  a 
decisive  proof  of  its  authenticity,  Dionysius 
bishop  of  Corinth,  about  the  year  170,  i.e.  about 
eighty  or  ninety  years  after  the  epistle  was 
written,  bears  witness,  'that  it  had  been  usually 
read  in  that  church  from  ancient  times.'  This 


SCRIPTURE. 


631 


epistle  affords,  amongst  others,  the  following 
valuable  passages  :  *  especially  remembering  the 
words  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  which  he  spake,  teach- 
'ng  gentleness  and  long  suffering;'  for  thus  he 
said,  'Be  ye  merciful,  that  ye  may  obtain 
mercy  ;  forgive,  that  it  may  be  forgiven  unto 
you,'  &c.  Again,  '  Remember  the  words  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  ;  for  he  said,  wo  to  that  man  by  whom 
offences  come ;  it  were  better  for  him  that  he 
had  not  been  born,'  &c.  He  ascribes  the  first 
epistle  to  the  Corinthians  to  Paul,  and  makes  such 
allusion  to  the  following  books  as  is  sufficient  to 
show  that  he  had  seen  and  read  them  :  Acts, 
Romans,  2  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Ephesians, 
Philippians,  Colossians,  1  Thessalonians,  1  Ti- 
mothy, 2  Timothy,  Titus,  1  Peter,  2  Peter.  It 
may  be  said,  as  Clement  has  not  mentioned  the 
books  by  name,  from  which  we  assert  these  al- 
lusions or  references  are  made,  it  is  uncertain 
whether  he  refers  to  any  books,  or  whether  he 
received  these  expressions  from  the  discourses 
and  conversation  of  the  apostles.  Mr.  Paley  has 
given  a  very  satisfactory  answer  to  this  objec- 
tion :  1st.  That  Clement,  in  the  very  same  man- 
ner, namely,  without  any  mark  of  reference, 
uses  a  passage  now  found  in  the  epistle  to  the 
Romans  (chap.  i.  29) ;  which  passage,  from  the 
peculiarity  of  the  words  that  compose  it,  and 
from  their  order,  it  is  manifest  that  he  must  have 
taken  from  the  epistle.  2dly,  That  there  are 
many  sentences  of  St.  Paul's  first  epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  to  be  found  in  Clement's  epistle, 
without  any  sign  of  quotation,  which  yet  cer- 
tainly are  quotations;  because  it  appears  that 
Clement  had  St.  Paul's  epistle  before  him  ;  for 
in  one  place  he  mentions  it  in  terms  too  express 
to  leave  us  in  any  doubt.  'Take  into  your 
hands  the  epistle  of  the  blessed  apostle  Paul.' 
3dly.  That  this  method  of  adopting  words  of 
Scripture,  without  reference  or  acknowledgment, 
was  a  method  in  general  use  amongst  the  most 
ancient  Christian  writers.  St.  Paul  himself 
quotes  the  heathen  poet,  Aratus,  without  naming 
him.  See  ARATUS.  These  analogies  not  only 
repel  the  objection,  but  cast  the  presumption  on 
t'ae  other  side  ;  and  afford  a  considerable  degree 
of  positive  proof  that  the  words  in  question 
!iave  been  borrowed  from  the  places  of  Scripture 
in  which  we  now  find  them.  But  take  it  the 
oilier  way,  that  Clement  had  heard  these  words 
from  the  apostles  or  first  teachers  of  Christianity ; 
\\iih  respect  to  the  precise  point  of  our  argu- 
ment, viz.  that  the  Scriptures  contain  what  the 
apostles  taught,  this  supposition  may  serve  al- 
most as  well. 

We  have  now  traced  the  evidence  to  the 
times  of  the  apostles ;  but  we  have  not  been 
anxious  to  draw  it  out  to  a  great  length,  by  in- 
troducing every  thing.  On  the  contrary,  we 
have  been  careful  to  render  it  as  concise  as  pos- 
sible, that  its  force  might  be  discerned  at  a 
glance.  The  evidence  which  has  been  stated  is 
of  two  kinds.  Till  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr 
and  Irenxus  it  consists  chiefly  of  allusions,  re- 
ferences, and  expressions,  borrowed  from  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  without  mentioning 
them  by  name.  After  the  time  of  Irenaeus  it  be- 
came usual  to  cite  the  sacred  books,  and  mention 
the  authors  from  which  the  citations  were  taken. 


The  only  point  of  importance  to  be  deter, 
mined  is,  whether  these  references  are  a  suffi- 
cient proof  of  the  existence  of  the  books  to 
which  they  allude.  This,  we  presume,  will  not 
be  denied  ;  especially  in  the  present  age,  when 
it  is  so  common  to  charge  an  author  with  pla- 
giarism, if  he  happen  to  fall  upon  the  same  train 
of  ideas,  or  express  himself  in  a  similar  man- 
ner wih  authors  who  have  written  before  him. 
We  may  farther  affirm,  that  these  tacit  references 
afford  a  complete  proof  that  those  ancient 
writers  had  no  intention  of  imposing  a  forgery 
upon  the  world.  They  prove  the  existence  of  the 
Christian  religion,  and  of  the  apostolical  writings, 
without  showing  any  suspicious  earnestness  that 
men  should  believe  them.  Had  these  books 
been  forged,  those  who  wished  to  pass  them  upon 
the  world  would  have  been  at  more  pains  than 
the  first  Christians  were  to  prove  their  authen- 
ticity. They  acted  the  part  of  honest  men ; 
they  believed  them  themselves,  and  they  never 
imagined  that  others  would  suspect  their  truth. 

It  is  a  consideration  of  great  importance,  in 
reviewing  the  evidence  which  has  been  now 
stated,  that  the  witnesses  lived  in  different  conn- 
tries  ;  Clemens  flourished  at  Rome,  Polycarp  at 
Smyrna,  Justin  Martyr  in  Syria,  Irenaeus  in 
France,  Tertullian  at  Carthage,  Origen  at  Alex- 
andria, and  Eusebius  at  Caesarea.  This  proves 
that  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  were 
equally  well  known  in  distant  countries  by  men 
who  had  no  intercourse  with  one  another.  The 
same  thing  is  proved  by  testimonies,  if  possible, 
less  exceptionable.  The  ancient  heretics,  whose 
opinions  were  sometimes  grosser  and  more  im- 
pious than  those  which  any  modern  sectary 
has  ventured  to  broach,  and  whose  zeal  in  the 
propagation  of  them  equalled  that  of  the  most 
flaming  enthusiast  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
never  called  in  question  the  authenticity  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament.  When  they  met 
with  any  passage  in  the  gospels  or  epistles  which 
they  could  not  reconcile  to  their  own  heretical 
notions,  they  either  erased  it,  or  denied  that  the 
author  was  inspired  ;  but  they  nowhere  con- 
tend that  the  book  in  which  it  stood  was  not 
written  by  the  apostle  or  evangelist  whose  name 
it  bore.  Eusebius  relates  that  the  Ebionites 
rejected  all  the  epistles  of  Paul,  and  called  him 
an  apostate,  because  he  departed  from  the  Le- 
vitical  law ;  and  they  adopted  as  their  rule  of 
faith  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  though  indeed 
they  greatly  corrupted  it.  This  proves,  therefore, 
that  the  Gospel  according  to  Matthew  was  then 
published,  and  that  St.  Paul's  epistles  were  then 
known. 

Of  the  heretics  who  erased  or  altered  passages 
to  make  the  Scriptures  agree  with  their  doc- 
trines, we  may  produce  Marcion  as  an  instance, 
who  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. He  lived  in  an  ag«  when  he  could  have 
easily  discovered  if  the  writings  of  the  New 
Testament  had  been  forged  ;  and  as  he  was  much 
incensed  against  the  orthodox  party,  if  such  a 
forgery  had  been  committed  unquestionably  he 
would  not  have  failed  to  make  the  discovery,  as 
it  would  have  afforded  the  most  ample  means  of 
revenge  and  triumph,  and  enabled  him  to  estao- 
lish  his  own  opinions  with  less  difficulty  But 


SCRIPTURE. 


hi*  whole  conduct  shows  clearly  that  he  be- 
lieved the  writings  of  the  New  Testament  to  be 
authentic.  He  said  that  the  Gospel  according  to 
S  .  Matthew,  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  with 
those  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  James,  as  well  as  the 
Old  Testament  in  general,  were  writings  not  for 
Christians  but  for  Jews.  He  published  a  new 
edition  of  the  Gospel  according  to  Luke,  and  the 
first  ten  epistles  of  Paul ;  in  which  it  has  been 
affirmed  by  Epiphanius  that  he  altered  every 
passage  that  contradicted  his  own  opinions : 
but  as  many  of  these  alterations  are  what  mo- 
dern critics  call  various  readings,  though  we  re- 
ceive the  testimony  of  Epiphanius,  we  must  not 
rely  upon  his  opinion.  Dr.  Loeffer  wrote  a 
dissertation  vindicating  Marcion  from  this 
charge.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  books  of 
the  New  Testament  above-mentioned  did  then 
exist,  and  were  acknowledged  to  be  the  works  of 
the  authors  whose  names  they  bear. 

Dr.  Lardner,  in  his  General  Review,  sums  up 
this  head  of  evidence  in  the  following  words  : 
1  Noetus,  Paul  of  Samosata,  Sabellius,  Marcel- 
lus,  Photinus,  the  Novatians,  Donatists,  Mani- 
cheans,  Priscillianists,  beside  Artemon,  the  Au- 
dians,  the  Arians,  and  divers  others,  all  received 
most  or  all  the  same  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment which  the  Catholics  received ;  and  agreed 
in  a  like  respect  for  them  as  written  by  apostles 
or  their  disciples  and  companions.' 

Celsus  and  Porphyry,  both  enemies  of  the 
Christian  religion,  are  powerful  witnesses  for  the 
antiquity  of  the  New  Testament.  Celsus,  who 
lived  towards  the  end  of  the  second  century,  not 
only  mentions  by  name,  but  quotes  passages  from 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament :  and  that  the 
books  to  which  he  refers  were  no  other  than  our 
present  gospels  is  evident  from  the  allusions  to 
various  passages  still  found  in  them.  Celsus 
takes  notice  of  the  genealogies,  which  fixes  two 
of  these  gospels  ;  of  the  precepts,  resist  not  him 
that  injures  you,  and,  if  a  man  strike  thee  on  the 
one  cheek,  offer  to  him  the  Bother  also  ;  of  the 
woes  denounced  by  Christ ;  of  his  predictions  ; 
of  his  saying  that  it  is  impossible  to  serve  two 
masters ;  of  the  purple  robe,  the  crown  of  thorns, 
and  the  reed  which  was  put  into  the  hand  of 
Jesus ;  of  the  blood  that  flowed  from  his  body 
upon  the  cross,  a  circumstance  which  is  re- 
corded only  by  John  ;  and  (what  is  instar  om- 
nium for  the  purpose  for  which  we  produce  it) 
of  the  difference  in  the  accounts  given  of  the 
resurrection  by  the  evangelists,  some  mention- 
ing two  angels  at  the  sepulchre,  others  only  one. 
It  is  extremely  material  to  remark  that  Celsus 
not  only  perpetually  referred  to  the  accounts  of 
Christ  contained  in  the  four  gospels,  but  that  he 
referred  to  no  other  accounts  ;  that  he  founded 
none  of  his  objections  to  Christianity  upon  any 
thing  delivered  in  spurious  gospels. 

The  testimony  of  Porphyry  is  still  more  im- 
portant than  that  of  Celsus.  See  PORPHYBIUS. 
He  was  was  born  in  233,  and  died  in  304,  aged 
seventy-one.  Unfortunately  for  the  present  age, 
says  Michaelis,  the  mistaken  zeal  of  the  Chris- 
tian emperors  has  banished  his  writings  from  the 
world ;  and  every  real  frend  of  our  religion 
would  gladly  give  the  works  of  one  of  the  pious 
fathers  to  rescue  those  of  Porphyry  from  the 


flames.  But  Mr.  Marsh,  the  learned  and  j« 
dicious  translator  of  Michaelis,  relates  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  accounts  of  Isaac  Vossius,  a  MS. 
of  the  works  of  Porphyry  is  preserved  in  the 
Medicean  library  at  Florence,  but  kept  so  secret 
that  no  one  is  permitted  to  see  it.  It  is  univer- 
sally allowed  that  Porphyry  is  the  most  sensible, 
as  well  as  the  most  severe  adversary  of  the 
Christian  religion  that  antiquity  can  produce. 
He  was  versed  not  only  in  history,  but  also  in 
philosophy  and  politics.  His  acquaintance  with 
the  Christians  was  not  confined  to  a  single 
country;  for  he  had  conversed  with  them  in 
Tyre,  in  Sicily,  and  in  Rome.  Enable!  by  his 
birth  to  study  the  Syriac,  as  well  as  the  Greek 
authors,  he  was  of  all  the  adversaries  to  the 
Christian  religion  the  best  qualified  to  enquire 
into  the  authenticity  of  the  sacred  writings.  He 
possessed  therefore  every  advantage  which  na- 
tural abilities  or  a  scientific  education  could  af- 
ford, to  discover  whether  the  New  Testament 
was  a  genuine  work  of  the  apostles  and  evange- 
lists, or  whether  it  was  imposed  upon  the  world 
after  the  decease  of  its  pretended  authors.  But 
no  trace  of  this  suspicion  is  any  where  to  be 
found  in  his  writings.  In  the  fragments,  which 
still  remain,  mention  is  made  of  the  gospels  of 
St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  and  St.  John,  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Gala- 
tians ;  and  it  clearly  appears,  from  the  very  ob- 
jections of  Porphyry,  that  the  books  to  which  he 
alludes  were  the  same  which  we  possess  at  pre- 
sent. Thus  he  objects  to  the  repetition  of  a 
generation  in  St.  Matthew's  genealogy ;  to 
Matthew's  call ;  to  the  quotation  of  a  text  from 
Isaiah,  which  is  found  in  a  psalm  ascribed  to 
Asaph  ;  to  the  calling  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias  a 
sea ;  to  the  expression  in  St.  Matthevv,  '  the 
abomination  of  desolation  ;'  to  the  variation  in 
Matthew  and  Mark  upon  the  text  '  the  voice  of 
one  crying  in  the  wilderness.'  Matthew  citing 
it  from  Isaiah,  Mark  from  the  prophets ;  to 
John's  application  of  the  term  Word  ;  to  Christ's 
change  of  intention  about  going  up  to  the  feast 
of  tabernacles  (John  vii.  8) ;  and  to  the  judgment 
denounced  by  St.  Peter  upon  Ananias  and  Sap- 
phira,  which  he  calls  an  imprecation  of  death. 

The  instances  here  alleged  serve  in  some  mea- 
sure to  show  the  nature  of  Porphyry's  objections, 
and  prove  that  Porphyry  had  read  the  gospels 
with  that  sort  of  attention  which  a  writer  would 
employ  who  regarded  them  as  the  depositories  of 
the  religion  which  he  attacked.  Besides  these 
specifications,  there  exists  in  the  writings  of  an- 
cient Christians  general  evidence  that  the  places 
of  Scripture,  upon  which  Porphyry  had  made 
remarks,  were  very  numerous. 

iii.  The  internal  evidence  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  New  Testament  consists  of  two  parts  : — 
The  nature  of  the  style,  and  the  coincidence  of 
the  New  Testament  with  the  history  of  the  times. 

1.  The  STYLE  of  the  New  Testament  is  singu- 
lar, and  differs  very  widely  from  the  style  of 
classical  authors.  It  is  full  of  Hebraisms  and 
Syriasms;  a  circumstance  which  pious  ignorance 
has  considered  as  a  fault,  and  which,  even  so 
late  as  the  present  century,  it  has  attempted  to 
remove  ;  not  knowing  that  these  very  deviations 
from  Grecian  purity  afford  the  strongest  pre- 


SCRIPTURE. 


633 


sumption  in  its  favor ;  for  they  prove  that  the 
New  Testament  was  written  by  men  of  Hebrew 
origin,  and  is  therefore  a  production  of  the  first 
century.  After  the  deatli  of  the  first  Jewish  con- 
verts, few  of  the  Jews  turned  preachers  of  the 
gospel ;  the  Christians  were  generally  ignorant 
of  the  Hebrew,  and  consequently  could  not 
write  in  the  style  of  the  New  Testament.  After 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  dispersion 
of  the  Jews,  their  language  must  have  been 
blended  with  that  of  other  nations,  and  their  ver- 
nacular phraseology  almost  entirely  lost.  The 
language  of  the  early  fathers,  though  not  always 
the  purest  classic  Greek,  has  no  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  New  Testament,  not  even  excepting 
the  works  of  the  few  who  had  a  knowledge  of  the 
Hebrew ;  as  Origen,  Epiphanius,  and  Justin 
Martyr,  who,  being  a  native  of  Palestine,  might 
liave  written  in  a  style  similar  to  that  of  the  New 
Testament,  had  such  a  style  then  prevailed.  He 
that  suspects  the  New  Testament  to  be  the  forgery 
of  a  more  recent  period  ought  to  produce  some 
person  who  has  employed  a  similar  diction ;  but 
those  who  are  conversant  with  eastern  writings 
know  well  that  a  foreigner,  who  has  not  been 
inured  to  eastern  manners  and  modes  of  think- 
ing from  his  infapcy,  can  never  imitate  with 
success  the  oriental  style,  much  less  forge  a  his- 
tory or  an  epistle,  which  contains  a  thousand 
incidental  allusions  which  nothing  but  truth 
could  suggest.  To  imitate  closely  the  style  of 
the  New  Testament  is  even  more  difficult  than  to 
imitate  that  of  any  other  oriental  book  ;  for  there 
is  not  a  single  author,  even  among  the  Jews 
themselves,  since  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
that  has  composed  in  a  style  in  the  least  degree 
like  it.  The  style  of  Clemens  Romanus  may 
perhaps  be  an  exception.  By  many  eminent 
critics  it  has  been  thought  so  like  to  that  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  as  to  give  room  for  the 
opinion  that  Clement  either  was  the  author  of 
that  epistle,  or  was  the  person  who  translated  it 
from  the  Syro-Chaldaic  language,  in  which  it 
was  originally  composed. 

But,  though  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
bear  so  close  a  resemblance  in  idiom,  there  is  a 
diversity  of  style  which  shows  them  to  be  the 
work  of  different  persons.  Whoever  reads  with 
attention  the  epistles  of  Paul  must  be  convinced 
that  they  were  all  written  by  the  same  author. 
An  equal  degree  of  similarity  is  to  be  found  be- 
tween the  gospel  and  first  epistle  of  John.  The 
writings  of  St.  John  and  St.  Paul  exhibit  marks 
of  an  original  genius  which  no  imitation  can  ever 
attain.  The  character  of  Paul  as  a  writer  is 
drawn  with  great  judgment  by  Michael  is  : — 
'  His  mind  overflows  with  sentiment,  yet  he 
never  loses  sight  of  his  principal  object,  but,  hur- 
ried on  by  the  rapidity  of  thought,  discloses  fre- 
quently in  the  middle  a  conclusion  to  be  made 
only  at  the  end.  To  a  profound  knowledge  of 
the  Old  Testament  he  joins  the  acuteness  of 
philosophical  wisdom,  which  he  displays  in  ap- 
plying and  expounding  the  sacred  writings  ;  and 
Ins  explanations  are  therefore  sometimes  so  new 
and  unexpected  that  superficial  observers  might 
!->e  tempted  to  suppose  them  erroneous.  The 
fire  of  his  genius,  and  his  inattention  to  style, 
iisi..  n  frequently  a  twofold  obscurity,  he 


being  often  too  concise  to  be  understood  except 
by  those  to  whom  he  immediately  wrote,  and  not 
seldom  on  the  other  hand  so  full  of  his  subject 
as  to  produce  long  and  difficult  parentheses,  and 
a  repetition  of  the  same  word  even  in  different 
senses.  With  a  talent  for  irony  and  satire,  he 
unites  the  most  refined  sensibility,  and  tempers 
the  severity  of  his  censures  by  expressions  of 
tenderness  and  affection  ;  nor  does  he  ever  forget 
in  the  vehemence  of  his  zeal  the  rules  of  modesty 
and  decorum.  He  is  a  writer,  in  short,  of  so  sin- 
gular and  wonderful  a  composition  that  it  would 
be  difficult  to  find  a  rival.  The  truly  sensible 
and  sagacious  Mr.  Locke  was  of  the  same  opi- 
nion, and  contended  that  St.  Paul  was  without 
an  equal.' 

2.  Poems  have  been  forged  and  ascribed  to 
former  ages  with  some  success.  Philosophical 
treatises  might  be  invented  which  it  would  be 
difficult  to  detect;  but  there  is  not  a  single  in- 
stance on  record,  where  an  attempt  has  been 
made  to  forge  a  history  or  a  long  epistle,  where 
the  fraud  has  not  been  either  fully  proved,  or 
rendered  so  suspicious  that  few  are  weak  enough 
to  believe  it.  Whoever  attempts  to  forge  a  his- 
tory or  an  epistle  in  the  name  of  an  ancient  au- 
thor, will  be  in  great  danger  of  contradicting  the 
history  or  the  manners  of  that  age,  especially  if 
he  relate  events  which  are  not  mentioned  in  ge- 
neral history,  but  such  as  refer  to  a  single  city, 
sect,  religion,  or  school.  The  difficulty  of  forg- 
ing such  histories  as  the  gospels,  and  such  epis- 
tles as  those  of  Paul,  cannot  be  overcome  by  all 
the  genius,  learning,  and  industry,  of  any  indi- 
vidual or  society  of  men  that  ever  lived.  They 
contain  a  purer  system  of  ethics  than  all  the  an- 
cient philosophers  could  invent  :  they  discover 
a  candor  and  modesty  unexampled  :  they  ex- 
hibit an  originality  in  the  character  of  Jesus,  and 
yet  such  a  consistency  as  the  imagination  of  our 
best  poets  has  ever  reached.  Now  it  is  a  very 
remarkable  circumstance  that  histories,  written 
by  four  different  men,  should  preserve  such  dig- 
nity and  consistency,  though  frequently  relating 
different  actions  of  Jesns,  and  descending  to  the 
most  minute  circumstances  in  his  life.  The  scene 
of  action  is  too  extensive,  and  the  agreement  of 
facts  with  the  state  of  the  times  as  represented 
by  other  historians  is  too  close,  to  admit  the  pos- 
sibility of  forgery. 

The  scene  of  action  is  not  confined  to  one 
country,  it  is  successively  laid  in  the  greatest 
cities  of  the  Roman  empire ;  in  Rome,  in  An- 
tioch,  in  Corinth,  in  Athens,  as  well  as  in  Jeru- 
salem and  the  land  of  Palestine.  Innumerable 
allusions  are  made  to  the  manners  and  opinions 
of  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  and  the  Jews  ;  and, 
respecting  the  Jews,  they  extend  even  to  the 
trifles  and  follies  of  their  schools.  Yet,  after  the 
strictest  examination,  the  New  Testament  will 
be  found  to  have  a  wonderful  coincidence  and 
harmony  with  Josephus,  the  principal  historian 
of  these  times,  and  an  enemy  of  Christianity.  It 
has  been  a  question  who  the  soldiers  were  who 
are  said  in  the  gospel  of  Luke  to  have  addressed 
John  the  Baptist  in  these  words,  What  shall  w,; 
do?  An  answer  to  this  question  maybe  found 
in  Josephus  :  Antiq.  lib.  58.  c.  5.  §  1,  2.  He- 
rod the  tetrarch  of  Galilee  was  engaged  in  a  wai 


634 


SCRIPTURE. 


with  his  father-in-law  Aretas,  a  petty  king  in 
Arabia  Petraea,  at  the  very  time  that  John  was 
preaching  in  the  wilderness  ;  and,  the  road  from 
Galilee  to  Arabia  running  through  that  wilder- 
ness, the  soldiers  on  their  march  had  this  inter- 
view with  the  Baptist.  A  coincidence  like  this, 
which  has  been  overlooked  by  all  the  commenta- 
tors, would  not  probably  be  attended  to  in  a  forgery. 
Another  instance  of  an  agreement  no  less  re- 
markable we  shall  quote  from  the  valuable  work 
of  Michaelis.  It  has  been  a  question  of  some 
difficulty  among  the  learned,  who  was  the  Ana- 
nias who  commanded  St.  Paul  to  be  smitten  on 
the  mouth  when  he  was  making  his  defence  be- 
fore the  council  in  Jerusalem  :  Acts  xxiii.  2 — 
5.  Krebs,  in  his  remarks  taken  from  Josephus, 
has  shown  him  to  have  been  the  son  of  Nebedeni. 
But,  if  so,  how  can  it  be  reconciled  with  chrono- 
logy, that  Ananias  was,  at  that  time,  called  high 
priest,  when  it  is  certain  from  Josephus  that  the 
time  of  his  holding  that  office  was  much  earlier  ? 
And  how  comes  it  to  pass  that  St.  Paul  says,  '  I 
wist  not,  brethren,  that  he  was  the  high  priest  ?' 
The  sacerdotal  garb  must  have  discovered  who 
he  was  ;  a  jest  would  have  ill-suited  the  gravity 
of  a  tribunal ;  and  a  falsehood  is  inconsistent 
with  the  character  of  St.  Paul.  All  these  diffi- 
culties vanish  as  soon  as  we  examine  the  special 
history  of  that  period  : — '  Ananias  the  son  of 
Nebedeni  was  high  priest  at  the  time  that  Helena 
queen  of  Adiabene  supplied  the  Jews  with  corn 
from  Egypt,  during  the  famine  which  took  place 
in  the  fourth  year  of  Claudius,  mentioned  in  the 
eleventh  chapter  of  the  Acts.  St.  Paul,  there- 
fore, who  took  a  journey  to  Jerusalem  at  that 
period,  could  not  have  been  ignorant  of  the  ele- 
vation of  Ananias  to  that  dignity.  Soon  after 
the  holding  of  the  first  council,  as  it  is  called,  at 
Jerusalem,  Ananias  was  dispossessed  of  his  of- 
fice, in  consequence  of  certain  acts  of  violence 
between  the  Samaritans  and  the  Jews,  and  sent 
prisoner  to  Rome  ;  but,  being  afterwards  released, 
fie  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Now  from  that  pe- 
riod he  could  not  be  called  high  priest  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  word,  though  Josephus  has 
sometimes  given  him  the  title  of  ap^itptvf,  taken 
in  the  more  extensive  meaning  of  a  priest  who 
had  a  seat  and  voice  in  the  Sanhedrim;  and 
Jonathan,  though  we  are  not  acquainted  with  the 
circumstances  of  his  elevation,  had  been  raised 
in  the  mean  time  to  the  supreme  dignity  in  the 
Jewish  church.  Between  the  death  of  Jonathan, 
who  was  murdered  by  order  of  Felix,  and  the 
high  priesthood  of  Ismael,  who  was  invested 
with  that  dignity  by  Agrippa,  elapsed  an  inter- 
val during  which  the  sacerdotal  office  was  vacant. 
Now  it  happened  precisely  in  this  interval  that 
St.  Paul  was  apprehended  in  Jerusalem  ;  and, 
the  Sanhedrim  being  destitute  of  a  president,  he 
undertook  of  his  own  authority  the  discharge  of 
that  office,  which  he  executed  with  the  greatest 
tyranny.  It  is  possible  therefore  that  St.  Paul, 
who  had  been  only  a  few  days  in  Jerusalem, 
might  be  ignorant  that  Ananias,  who  had  been 
dispossessed  of  the  priesthood,  had  taken  upon 
himself  a  trust  to  which  he  was  not  entitled  ;  he 
might  therefore  very  naturally  exclaim,  '  I  wist 
not,  brethren,  that  he  was  the  high  priest!'  Ad- 
mitiing  him  on  the  other  hand  to  have  been  ac- 


quainted with  the  fact,  the  expression  must  be 
considered  as  an  indirect  reproof,  and  a  tacit  rt- 
fusal  to  recognise  usurped  authority.'  Could  sucn 
a  correspondence  as  this  subsist  between  truth  ana 
falsehood,  between  a  forgery  and  an  authentic 
history  ?  or  is  it  credible  that  these  events  conld 
be  related  by  any  person  but  a  contemporary  ? 

Impressed  with  the  love  of  truth,  and  feel- 
ing contempt  as  well  as  detestation  at  pious 
frauds,  we  hesitate  not  to  acknowledge  that 
in  some  particular  facts  there  is  a  difference 
either  real  or  apparent  between  Josephus 
and  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
objections  arising  from  these  differences  are  of 
two  kinds  ;  1.  Such  as  would  prove  a  book  not 
to  have  been  written  by  the  author  to  whom  it 
is  ascribed.  2.  Such  as  would  prove  that  the 
author  was  mistaken,  and  therefore  not  divinely 
inspired.  To  the  first  class  belongs  the  follow 
ing  objection  : — St.  Paul  says  (2  Cor.  xi.  32) 
that  the  governor  of  Damascus  was  under  Aretas 
the  king;  but  if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  eigh- 
teenth book  of  the  Jewish  Antiquities,  which 
corresponds  with  the  period  of  St.  Paul's  journey 
to  'Damascus,  this  city  must  have  belonged  at 
that  time  to  the  Romans ;  and  what  authority 
could  Aretas,  a  petty  king  in  Arabia  Pe- 
trcea,  have  in  such  a  city  ?  In  answer  to  this 
question,  J.  G.  Ayne,  in  a  dissertation  pub- 
lished in  1755,  has  shown  it  to  be  highly 
probable  that  Aretas,  against  whom  the  Ro- 
mans, not  long  before  the  death  of  Tiberius, 
made  a  declaration  of  war,  which  they  neglected 
to  put  in  execution,  took  the  opportunity  of  seiz- 
ing Damascus,  which  had  once  belonged  to  his 
ancestors;  an  event  omitted  by  Josephus,  as 
forming  no  part  of  the  Jewish  history,  and  by 
the  Roman  historians,  as  being  a  matter  not  flat- 
tering in  itself,  and  belonging  only  to  a  distant 
province.  2dly,  That  Aretas  was  by  religion  a 
Jew;  a  circumstance  the  more  credible,  when 
we  reflect  that  Judaism  had  been  widely  propa- 
gated in  that  country,  and  that  even  kings  in 
Arabia  Felix  had  recognised  the  law  of  Moses. 
The  difficulty  then  is  so  far  removed  that  it 
ceases  to  create  suspicion  against  an  epistle 
which  has  so  many  evident  marks  of  authenti- 
city ;  and  it  is  only  to  be  regretted  that,  in 
order  to  place  the  subject  in  the  clearest  point  of 
view,  we  are  not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the 
particular  history  of  Damascus. 

Examples  of  the  second  kind  are  such  as,  if 
allowed  their  full  force,  might  indeed  prove  a 
writer  not  divinely  inspired,  but  could  afford  no 
reason  to  conclude  that  he  was  not  the  author  of 
the  writings  which  bear  his  name,  since  mistakes 
may  be  committed  by  the  most  accurate  his- 
torian. The  chief  difficulties  of  this  nature  are 
found  in  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  Luke,  and 
do  not  apply  to  the  writings  of  Matthew,  John, 
Paul,  and  Peter.  Laying  aside  the  idea  of  in- 
spiration altogether,  let  us  enquire  whether  Luke 
or  Josephus  be  most  entitled  to  credit  in  those 
passages  where  they  differ :  which  of  them  is 
most  accurate,  and  which  of  them  had  the  best 
opportunities  of  exploring  the  truth  of  the  facts 
which  they  relate.  Now  Josephus  relates  the 
same  story  differently  in  different  parts  of  his 
works,  and  is  sometimes  equally  mistaken  ir 


SCRIPTURE. 


635 


them  all.  We  do  not  recollect  to  have  seen  such 
inconsistencies  in  the  writings  of  St.  Luke. 
Luke  knew  the  characters,  and  witnessed  many 
of  the  facts,  of  which  he  speaks,  and  he  could 
receive  the  best  information  respecting  those 
facts  which  were  transacted  in  his  absence.  Jo- 
sephus  was  bom  A.  D.  37,  some  years  after  our 
Saviour's  ascension.  Now  it  is  a  very  important 
observation  of  Michaelis  that  the  period  of  his- 
tory with  which  mankind  are  least  acquainted  is 
that  which  includes  the  time  of  their  childhood 
and  youth,  together  with  the  twenty  or  thirty 
years  immediately  preceding  their  birth.  Con- 
cerning the  affairs  transacted  during  that  period 
we  are  much  more  liable  to  fall  into  mistakes  than 
concerning  those  of  a  remoter  age.  The  reason 
is,  that  authentic  history  never  comes  down  to  the 
period  of  our  birth  ;  our  knowledge  of  the  period 
immediately  preceding  depends  on  hearsay;  and 
the  events  which  pass  within  the  first  eighteen  or 
twenty  years  of  our  lives  we  are  too  young  and 
heedless  to  observe  with  attention.  This  must 
have  been  more  remarkably  the  case  in  the  time 
of  Josephus  than  at  present,  when  there  were 
neither  daily  papers  nor  periodical  journals  to 
supply  the  want  of  regular  annals.  There  was 
no  historian  from  whom  Josephus  could  derive 
any  knowledge  of  the  times  that  immediately 
preceded  his  birth.  There  is  a  period  then  of 
forty  or  fifty  years,  in  which,  even  with  the  most 
diligent  enquiry,  he  was  exposed  to  error. 

When  we  find,  therefore,  the  relations  of 
Luke  and  Josephus  so  different  as  not  to  be  re- 
conciled, it  would  be  very  unfair  to  determine, 
without  any  further  enquiry,  in  favor  of  Jose- 
phus. Let  their  character,  works,  and  situation, 
be  strictly  examined;  let  their  testimony  be 
duly  weighed  and  compared  ;  and  then  let  the 
preference  be  given  to  that  author  who,  accord- 
ing to  the  strictest  rules  of  equity  and  justice, 
seems  entitled  to  the  highest  degree  of  credit. 
The  decision  of  a  jury,  we  shall  venture  to  say, 
would  in  every  instance  turn  out  in  favor  of 
Luke. 

Having  thus  ascertained  the  authenticity  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  the  next  thing  to  be 
considered  is  their  inspiration.  It  is  certainly  of 
some  importance  to  know  how  far  the  apostles 
and  evangelists  were  guided  in  their  writings  by 
the  immediate  influence  of  the  Spirit  of  God  ; 
though  this  knowledge,  if  attainable,  is  not 
equally  important  with  that  of  the  authenticity 
of  these  writings.  Michaelis  indeed  asserts  that 
the  divinity  of  the  New  Testament  may  be 
proved  whether  we  can  evince  it  to  be  written 
by  immediate  inspiration  or  not.  '  The  ques- 
tion,' says  he,  '  whether  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament  are  inspired,  is  not  so  important  as 
the  question  whether  they  are  genuine  I  The  truth 
of  our  religion  depends  upon  the  latter,  not  ab- 
solutely on  the  former.  Had  the  Deity  inspired 
not  a  single  book  of  the  New  Testament,  but 
left  the  apostles  and  evangelists  without  any  other 
aid  than  that  of  natural  abilities  to  commit  what 
they  knew  to  writing,  admitting;  their  works  to 
be  authentic,  and  possessed  of  a  sufficient  de- 
gree of  credibility |  the  Christian  religion  would 
nil  Iv  well  founded.  The  miracles  in-  which 


it  is  confirmed  would  equally  demonstrate  Us 
truth,  even  if  the  persons  who  attested  them  were 
not  inspired,  but  simply  human  witnesses;  and 
their  divine  authority  is  never  presupposed, 
when  we  discuss  the  question  of  miracles,  but 
merely  their  credibility  as  human  evidence.  If 
the  miracles  are  true  which  the  evangelists  relate, 
the  doctrines  of  Christ,  recorded  in  the  gospels, 
are  proved  to  be  the  infallible  oracles  of  God  ; 
and  even  if  we  admit  the  apostles  to  be  mistaken 
in  certain  not  essential  circumstances,  yet,  as  the 
main  points  of  the  religion  which  Christ  com- 
missioned them  to  preach  are  so  frequently  re- 
peated, their  epistles  would  instruct  us  as  well  in 
the  tenets  of  the  Christian  system  as  the  works 
of  Maclaurin  in  the  philosophy  of  Newton.  It 
is  possible,  therefore,  to  doubt,  and  even  to  deny, 
the  inspiration  of  the  New  Testament,  and  yet  be 
fully  persuaded  of  the  truth  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion ;  and  many  really  entertain  these  senti- 
ments either  publicly  or  in  private,  to  whom  we 
should  render  great  injustice,  if  we  ranked  them 
in  the  class  of  unbelievers.  Yet  the  Christian 
religion  would  be  attended  with  difficulty,  if  our 
principium  cognoscendi  rested  not  on  firmer 
ground  ;  and  it  might  be  objected  that  sufficient 
care  had  not  been  taken  for  those  whose  con- 
sciences were  tender,  and  who  were  anxiously 
fearful  of  mistaking  the  smallest  of  the  divine 
commands.  The  chief  articles,  indeed,  of  Chris- 
tianity are  so  frequently  repeated,  both  by  Christ 
and  his  apostles,  that  even  were  the  New  Testa- 
ment not  inspired  we  could  entertain  no  doubt 
of  the  following  doctrines  :  '  Jesus  was  the  Mes- 
sias  of  the  Jews,  and  an  infallible  messenger  of 
God  :  he  died  for  our  iniquity ;  and  by  the  satis- 
faction made  by  his  death  we  obtain  remission  of 
sins,  if  on  our  part  be  faith  and  amendment  of 
life ;  the  Levitical  law  is  abolished,  and  moral 
precepts  with  the  ceremonies  of  baptism  and  the 
Supper  of  the  Lord,  are  appointed  in  its  stead; 
after  the  present  follows  an  everlasting  life,  in 
which  the  virtuous  shall  be  rewarded  and  the 
wicked  punished,  and  where  Christ  himself  shall 
be  the  judge.' 

'  To  the  epistles  indeed/  says  Michaelis,  '  in- 
spiration is  of  real  consequence  ;  but  with  respect 
to  the  historical  books,  viz.  the  gospels  and  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  we  should  really  be  no  losers  if 
we  abandoned  the  system  of  inspiration,  and  in 
some  respects  have  a  real  advantage.  We  should 
be  no  losers,  if  we  considered  the  apostles  in  his- 
torical facts  as  merely  human  witnesses,  as  Christ 
himself  has  done  in  saying,  '  Ye  also  shall  bear 
witness,  because  ye  have  been  with  me  from  the 
beginning,'  John  xv.  27.  And  no  one  that  at- 
tempts to  convince  an  unbeliever  of  the  truth  of 
Christianity,  would  begin  his  demonstration  by 
presupposing  a  doctrine  which  his  adversary  de- 
nies, but  would  ground  his  arguments  on  the 
credibility  of  the  evangelists  as  human  his- 
torians, for  the  truth  of  the  miracles,  the  death, 
and  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  Even  those  who 
examine  the  grounds  of  their  faith  for  their  own 
private  conviction  must  treat  the  evangelists  as 
human  evidence  ;  since  it  would  be  arguing  in  a 
circle  to  conclude  that  the  facts  recorded  in  the 
gospels  are  true  because  they  are  inspired,  \\litn 
we  conclude  the  Scriptures  to  be  inspired,  in 


636 


SCRIPTURE. 


consequence  of  their  contents.  In  these  cases, 
then,  we  are  obliged  to  consider  the  evangelists 
as  human  evidence  ;  and  it  would  be  no  detri- 
ment to  the  Christian  cause  to  consider  them  at 
all  times  as  such  in  matters  of  historical  fact. 
We  find  it  nowhere  expressly  recorded  that  the 
public  transactions  which  the  apostles  knew  by 
their  own  experience,  and  of  which  St.  Luke  in- 
formed himself  by  diligent  enquiry,  should  be 
particular  objects  of  divine  inspiration.  We 
should  even  be  considerable  gainers,  in  adjusting 
the  harmony  of  the  gospels,  if  we  were  permitted 
to  suppose  that  some  one  of  the  evangelists  had 
committed  an  immaterial  error,  and  that  St. 
John  has  rectified  some  trifling  mistakes  in  the 
preceding  gospels.  The  most  dangerous  objec- 
tions which  can  be  made  to  the  truth  of  our  re- 
ligion, and  such  as  are  most  difficult  to  answer, 
are  those  drawn  from  the  different  relations  of 
the  four  evangelists. 

Before  any  enquiry  is  made  respecting  the  in- 
spiration of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  it 
is  necessary  to  determine  the  reading  of  the 
term  ;  for  theologians  have  given  to  it  a  variety 
of  significations.  Most  of  the  German  divines 
make  it  to  consist  in  an  infusion  of  words  as  well 
as  ideas.  Luther,  Beza,  and  Salmasius,  restrict 
it  to  ideas  alone.  Doddridge  understands  by  it 
an  intervention  of  the  Deity,  by  which  the  na- 
tural faculties  of  the  mind  were  directed  to  the 
discovery  of  truth.  Warburton  and  Law  think 
it  was  a  negative  intervention  to  preserve  the  sa- 
cred writers  from  essential  errors.  Some  believe 
every  circumstance  was  dictated  by  the  Holy 
Ghost ;  others  suppose  that  no  supernatural  as- 
sistance was  granted  except  in  the  epistolary 
writings.  See  INSPIRATION. 

As  there  is  an  evident  distinction  between  in- 
spiration and  revelation,  and  as  the  origin  of  the 
Christian  religion  maybe  still  proved  divine,  even 
though  it  were  denied  that  those  who  record  its 
facts  and  doctrines  were  inspired  in  the  act  of 
writing,  it  will  be  most  judicious  and  safe  to  em- 
ploy the  word  inspiration  in  that  sense  which  can 
be  most  easily  defended  and  supported.  By  doing 
this,  much  may  be  gained  and  nothing  lost.  It  is 
difficult  to  prove  to  a  deist  that  the  words  of 
Scripture  are  divine,  because  he  sees  that  every 
writer  has  words  and  phrases  peculiar  to  him- 
self. It  is  difficult  also  to  prove  that  the  ideas 
were  infused  into  the  mind  of  the  authors  while 
they  were  engaged  in  the  act  of  writing ;  be- 
cause, concerning  facts,  they  appeal  not  to  di- 
vine inspiration,  but  declare  what  they  have 
seen  ana  heard.  In  reasoning,  they  add  their 
own  sentiments  to  what  they  had  received  from 
the  Lord,  and  subjoin,  especially  in  their  epistles, 
things  not  connected  with  religion.  The  defi- 
nition which  Doddridge  gives  seems  applicable 
to  ordinary  gifts,  or  the  usual  endowments  of 
rational  creatures,  rather  than  to  the  extraordi- 
nary gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  were  be- 
stowed on  the  apostles.  Those  who  maintain 
that  every  fact  or  circumstance  was  suggested  bv 
divine  inspiration  will  find  it  no  easy  matter  to 
prove  their  position.  The  opinion  of  Warbur- 
toii  and  Law,  with  proper  explanations,  seems 
most  probable.  The  opinion  of  Grotiu«,  that  only 
the  epistles  were  inspired,  may  be  easily  refuted. 


The  proof  of  the  authenticity  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament depends  on  human  testimony  .  the  proof 
of  its  inspiration  is  derived  from  the  declaration 
of  inspired  persons.  In  proving  that  the  New 
Testament  is  inspired,  we  presuppose  its  authen- 
ticity ;  that  the  sacred  books  were  written  by  the 
apostles  whose  names  they  bear ;  and  that  they 
have  been  conveyed  to  us  pure  and  uncorrupted. 
This  we  have  already  attempted  to  prove,  and 
we  hope  with  success.  The  evidence  of  inspira- 
tion is  the  testimony  of  Christ  and  his  apostles, 
which  we  receive  as  credible,  because  they  con- 
firmed their  doctrines  by  miracles.  From  the 
important  mission  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  we 
infer  that  every  power  was  bestowed  which  divine 
wisdom  thought  expedient;  and  from  their  con- 
duct we  conclude  that  it  is  morally  impossible 
that  they  could  lay  claim  to  any  powers  which 
they  did  not  possess.  It  is  proper,  therefore,  to 
enquire  into  the  declarations  of  Christ  and  his 
apostles  concerning  the  nature,  degree,  and  ex- 
tent of  the  inspiration  bestowed  upon  the  writers 
of  the  sacred  books. 

If  we  consider  Christ's  more  immediate  pro- 
mises of  inspiration  to  the  apostles,  we  shall  find 
that  he  has  given  them,  in  the  most  proper  sense 
of  the  word,  at  three  several  periods,  1st,  When 
he  sent  the  apostles  to  preach  the  gospel ;  '2dly, 
In  holding  a  public  discourse  relating  to  the 
gospel,  at  which  were  present  a  considerable 
multitude ;  3dly,  In  this  prophecy  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem.  When  he  sent  the  apostles 
to  preach  the  gospel,  he  thus  addressed  them : 
'  When  they  deliver  you  up,  take  no  thought 
how  or  what  ye  shall  speak;  for  it  shall  be  given 
you  in  that  same  hour  what  ye  shall  speak ; 
for  it  is  not  you  that  speak,  but  the  spirit  of 
your  Father  that  speaketh  in  you.'  The  same 
promise  was  made  almost  in  the  same  words  in 
the  presence  of  an  immense  multitude:  Lukexii. 
11,  12.  From  these  passages  it  has  been  urged 
that,  if  the  apostles  were  to  be  inspired  in  the 
presence  of  magistrates  in  delivering  speeches, 
which  were  soon  to  be  forgotten,  it  is  surely  rea- 
sonable to  conclude  that  they  would  be  inspired 
when  they  came  to  compose  a  standard  of  faith 
for  the  use  of  all  future  generations  of  Christians. 
If  this  conclusion  be  fairly  deduced,  it  would 
follow  that  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament 
are  the  dictates  of  inspiration,  not  only  in  the 
doctrines  and  precepts,  but  in  the  very  words. 
But  it  is  a  conclusion  to  which  sincere  Chris- 
tians have  made  objections;  for,  say  they, 
though  Christ  promises  to  assist  his  apostles  in 
cases  of  great  emergency,  where  their  own  pru- 
dence and  fortitude  could  not  be  sufficient,  it 
does  not  follow  that  he  would  dictate  to  them 
those  facts  which  they  knew  already,  or  those 
reasonings  which  their  own  calm  reflection  might 
supply.  Besides,  say  they,  if  the  New  Testament 
was  dictated  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  only 
penned  by  the  apostles,  what  reason  can  be 
given  for  the  care  with  which  Christ  instructed 
them  both  during  his  ministry  and  after  his  cru- 
cifixion in  those  things  pertaining  to  the  kingdom 
of  God? 

In  answer  to  this  we  may  observe  that  though 
it  be  difficult  to  prove  that  the  identical  words  of 
the  New  Testament  were  dictated  by  the  Holy 


SCRIPTURE. 


637 


Spirit,  or  the  train  of  ideas  infused  into  tin? 
minds  of  the  sacred  writers,  there  is  one  species 
of  inspiration  to  which  the  New  Testament  has 
an  undoubted  claim.  It  is  this,  that  the  memo- 
ries of  the  apostles  were  strengthened,  and  their 
understandings  preserved  from  falling  into  essen- 
tial errors.  This  we  prove  from  these  words  of 
our  Saviour,  '  and  I  will  pray  the  Father,  and 
he  will  give  you  another  Comforter,  that  he  may 
abide  with  you  for  ever.  He  shall  teach  you  all 
things,  and  bring  all  things  to  your  remembrance 
whatsoever  I  have  said  unto  you.'  John  xiv.  16, 
26.  This  promise  was  surely  not  restrained  to 
the  day  of  Pentecost;  it  must  have  been  a  per- 
manent gift,  enabling  the  apostles  at  all  times  to 
remember  with  accuracy  the  discourses  of  our 
Saviour.  When  the  apostles  therefore  (Matthew 
and  John)  relate  those  precepts  of  Christ  which 
they  themselves  had  heard,  they  write  indeed 
from  memory,  but  under  'the  protection  of  the 
Spirit,  who  secures  them  from  the  danger  of  mis- 
take :  and  we  must  of  course  conclude  that  their 
gospels  are  inspired. 

Were  we  called  upon  more  particularly  to 
declare  what  parts  of  the  New  Testament  we 
believe  to  be  inspired,  we  would  answer,  The 
doctrines,  the  precepts,  and  the  prophecies, 
every  thing  essential  to  the  Christian  religion. 
From  these  the  idea  of  inspiration  is  inseparable. 
As  to  the  events,  the  memory  of  the  apostles  was 
sufficient  to  retain  them.  If  this  opinion  be  just, 
it  will  enable  ns  to  account  for  the  discrepancies 
between  the  sacred  writers,  which  are  chiefly 
confined  to  the  relation  of  facts  and  events. 

I.  Of  the  language  of  the  New  Testament 
Scriptures. — All  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
weie  originally  written  in  Greek,  except  the 
Gospel  according  to  Matthew  and  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  which  there  is  reason  to  believe 
were  composed  in  the  Syro-Chaldaic  language, 
which  in  the  New  Testament  is  called  Hebrew. 

Various  reasons  have  been  assigned  why  the 
greatest  part  of  the  New  Testament  was  written 
in  Greek  ;  but  the  true  reason  is  this:  it  was  the 
language  best  understood  both  by  writers  and 
readers.  Had  St.  Paul  written  to  a  community 
in  the  Roman  province  of  Africa,  he  might  have 
written  perhaps  in  Latin ;  but  epistles  to  the  in- 
habitants of  Corinth,  Galatia,  Ephesus,  Philip-pi, 
and  Thessalonica,  to  Timothy,  Titus,  and  Phi- 
lemon, from  a  native  of  Tarsus,  could  hardly  be 
expected  in  any  other  language  than  Greek.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  epistles  of  St.  Peter, 
which  are  addressed  to  the  Christians  of  differ- 
ent countries,  who  had  no  other  language  in 
common  than  the  Greek;  and  likewise  of  the 
epistles  of  St.  James,  who  wrote  to  the  Jews  that 
lived  at  a  distance  from  Palestine,  and  were  ig- 
norant of  Hebrew.  The  native  language  of  St. 
Luke,  as  well  as  of  Theophilus,  to  whom  he 
addressed  his  gospel  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
appears  to  have  been  Greek,  and  that  St.  John 
wrote  his  gospel  in  that  language,  and  not  in 
Hebrew,  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  surprise, 
since  he  wrote  at  Ephesus. 

With  respect  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  it 
may  be  asked  indeed  why  St.  Paul  did  not  write 
in  Latin  1  Now,  whoever  proposes  this  question, 
n.ujt  presuppose  that  St.  Paul  was  master  of  the 


Latin  language  in  such  a  degree  as  to  find  nu 
difficulty  in  writing  it;  a  matter  which  remains 
to  be  proved.  It  is  very  probable  that  St.  Paul 
was  acquainted  with  the  Latin  ;  but,  between  un- 
derstanding a  language  and  being  able  to  write 
it,  there  is  a  very  material  difference.  As  St.  Paul 
was  a  native  ol  Tarsus,  his  native  language  was 
Greek;  he  had  travelled  during  several  years 
through  countries  in  which  no  other  language 
was  spoken,  and  when  h«  addressed  the  Roman 
centurion  at  Jerusalem,  he  spoke  not  Latin,  but 
Greek.  Is  it  extraordinary,  then,  that  in  writing 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Rome  he  should  have  used 
a  language  which  was  there  so  generally  under- 
stood ?  It  has  been  long  remarked  that  Greek 
was  at  that  time  as  well  known  in  Rome  as 
French  in  any  court  of  modern  Europe :  that 
according  to  Juvenal  even  the  female  sex  made 
use  of  Greek  as  the  language  of  familiarity  and 
passion  ;  and  that,  in  letters  of  friendship,  Greek 
words  and  phrases  were  introduced  with  greater 
freedom  than  French  expressions  in  German 
letters,  as  appears  from  Cicero's  epistles  to  At- 
ticus,  and  from  those  of  Augustus  preserved  in 
the  works  of  Suetonius.  To  this  must  be  added 
a  material  circumstance,  that  a  great  part  of  the 
Roman  Christians  consisted  of  native  Jews,  who 
were  better  acquainted  with  Greek  than  with 
Latin,  as  either  they  themselves  or  their  ances- 
tors had  come  from  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  or 
Egypt,  in  which  Greak  was  the  language  of  the 
country.  At  least  they  read  the  Bible  in  that 
language,  as  no  Latin  translation  of  the  OKI 
Testament  at  that  time  existed;  and,  the  Chris- 
tian church  at  that  period  consisting  chiefly  of 
Jews,  the  heathen  converts  in  Rome  were  of 
course  under  the  necessity  of  accustoming  them- 
selves to  the  Greek  language.  In  short,  St.  Paul 
in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans  made  use  of  a  lan- 
guage, in  which  alone  those  who  were  ignorant 
of  Hebrew  could  read  the  Bible.  What  has 
been  here  advanced  respecting  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  is  equally  applicable  to  the  Greek  of 
St.  Mark,  on  the  supposition  that  it  was  written 
at  Rome. 

To  the  above  arguments  may  be  added  the 
example  of  Josephus,  who,  as  well  as  the  apos- 
tles, was  by  birth  a  Jew.  He  even  lived  in 
Rome,  which  is  more  than  can  be  said  of  St. 
Paul  and  St.  Mark,  who  resided  there  only  a 
certain  time :  he  was  likewise  younger  than 
either ;  he  came  to  Italy  at  an  age  which  is 
highly  suitable  to  the  learning  of  a  language,  and 
previous  to  that  period  had  spent  several  years 
in  the  Roman  camp.  The -Jewish  antiquities, 
the  history  of  the  Jewish  war,  and  the  account 
of  his  own  life,  he  wrote  undoubtedly  with  a 
view  of  their  being  read  by  the  Romans ;  and 
yet  he|  composed  all  these  writings  in  Greek. 
He  expresses  his  motive  for  writing  his  Greek 
account  of  the  Jewish  war  in  the  following 
terms  :  '  That  having  written  in  his  native  lan- 
guage (i.  e.  the  Hebrew  dialect  at  that  time 
spoken)  a  history  of  the  war,  in  order  that  Par- 
thians,  Babylonians,  Arabians,  Adiabeues,  and 
the  Jews  beyond  the  Euphrates  might  be  in- 
formed of  those  events,  he  was  now  resolved  to 
write  for  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  had  not 
been  engaged  in  the  campaigns,  a  more  certain 


638 


SCRIPTURE. 


account  than  had  hitherto  been  given.'  The 
motives  which  induced  Joseplms  to  write  in 
tJreek  are  fully  as  applicable  to  St.  Paul  and 
St.  Mark. 

Michaelis  has  thus  characterised  the  style  of 
the  New  Testament.  '  The  New  Testament,' 
says  he,  '  was  written  in  a  languase  at  that 
time  common  among  the  Jews,  which  may  be 
named  Hebraic  Greek ;  the  first  trace*  of  which 
we  find  in  the  translation  of  the  LXX.  Every 
man  acquainted  with  the  Greek  language,  who 
had  never  heard  of  the  New  Testament,  must 
immediately  perceive,  on  reading  only  a  few 
lines,  that  the  style  is  widely  different  from  that 
of  the  classic  authors.  We  find  this  character 
in  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  but  we  must  not  there- 
fore conclude  that  they  possess  a  uniformity  of 
style.  The  harshest  Hebraisms,  which  extend 
even  to  grammatical  errors  in  the  government  of 
cases,  are  the  distinguishing  marks  of  the  book 
of  Revelation  ;  but  they  are  accompanied  with 
tokens  of  genius  and  poetical  enthusiasm  of 
which  every  reader  must  be  sensible  who  has 
taste  and  feeling.  There  is  no  translation  of  it 
which  is  not  read  with  pleasure  even  in  the  days 
of  childhood;  and  the  very  faults  of  grammar 
are  so  happily  placed  as  to  produce  an  agreeable 
effect.  The  gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark 
have  strong  marks  of  this  Hebraic  style ;  the 
former  has  harsher  Hebraisms  than  the  latter, 
the  fault  of  which  may  be  ascribed  to  the  Greek 
translator,  who  has  made  too  literal  a  version, 
and  yet  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark  is  written  in  worse 
language,  and  in  a  manner  that  is  less  agreeable. 
The  epistles  of  St.  James  and  St.  Jude  are  some- 
what better,  but  even  these  are  full  of  Hebraisms, 
and  betray  in  other  respects  a  certain  Hebrew 
tone.  St.  Luke  has  in  several  passages  written 
pure  and  classic  Greek,  of  which  the  first  four 
verses  of  his  gospel  may  be  given  as  an  instance ; 
in  the  sequel,  where  he  describes  the  actions  of 
Christ,  he  has  very  harsh  Hebraisms,  yet  the 
style  is  more  agreeable  than  that  of  St.  Matthew 
or  St.  Mark.  In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  he  is 
not  free  from  Hebraisms,  which  he  seems  to  have 
never  studiously  avoided;  but  his  periods  are 
more  classically  turned,  and  sometimes  possess 
beauty  devoid  of  art.  St.  John  has  numerous, 
though  not  uncouth,  Hebraisms  both  in  his 
gospel  and  epistles ;  but  he  has  written  in  a 
smooth  and  flowing  language,  and  surpasses  all 
the  Jewish  writers  in  the  excellence  of  narrative. 
St.  Paul  again  is  entirely  different  from  them  all ; 
his  style  is  indeed  neglected  and  full  of  He- 
braisms, but  he  has  avoided  the  concise  and 
verse-like  construction  of  the  Hebrew  language, 
and  has  upon  the  whole  a  considerable  share  of 
the  roundness  of  Grecian  composition.  It  is 
evident  that  he  was  as  perfectly  acquainted  with 
the  Greek  manner  of  expression  as  with  the 
Hebrew,  and  he  has  introduced  them  alternately, 
as  either  the  one  or  the  other  suggested  itself  the 
first,  or  was  the  best  approved.' 

Michaelis  has  shown  that  the  New  Testament 
not  only  contains  Hebraisms,  but  Rabbinisms, 
Syriasms,  Chaldaisms,  Arabisms,  Latinisms,  and 
Persian  words,  of  which  he  has  exhibited  many 
specimens.  To  theologians,  whose  duty  it  cer- 


tainly is  to  study  the  language  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament with  attention,  we  would  strenuously 
recommend  the  perusal  of  this  work,  which  in 
the  English  translation  is  one  of  the  most  va- 
luable accessions  to  scriptural  criticism  that  has 
yet  appeared.  We  speak  of  the  English  transla- 
tion, which  the  large  and  judicious  notes  of  Mr. 
Marsh  has  rendered  infinitely  superior  to  the 
original. 

We  shall  here  add  a  few  remarks  on  the  pe- 
culiarities of  the  style  and  manner  of  the  sacred 
writers,  particularly  the  historians.  These  re- 
marks extend  to  the  Old  Testament  as  well  as  to 
the  New.  1.  The  first  quality,  for  which  the 
sacred  history  is  remarkable,  is  simplicity  in  the 
structure  of  the  sentences.  The  first  five  verses 
of  Genesis  furnish  an  example,  which  consist  of 
eleven  sentences.  The  substantives  are  not  at- 
tended by  adjectives,  nor  the  verbs  by  adverbs, 
no  synonymes,  no  superlatives,  no  effort  at  expres- 
sing things  in  a  bold,  emphatical,  or  uncommon 
manner.  2.  The  second  quality  is  simplicity  of 
sentiment,  particularly  in  the  Pentateuch,  arising 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  early  and  unculti- 
vated state  of  society  about  which  that  book  is 
conversant.  3.  Simplicity  of  design.  The  sub- 
ject of  the  narrative  so  engrosses  the  attention  of 
the  writer,  that  he  himself  is  as  nobody.  He 
introduces  nothing  as  from  himself,  no  remarks, 
doubts,  conjectures,  or  reasonings.  Our  Lord's 
biographers  particularly  excel  in  this  quality. 
This  quality  of  style  we  meet  with  in  Xenophon 
and  Caesar. 

The  evangelists  may  be  ranked  next  to  Gene- 
sis for  simplicity  of  composition  in  the  sentences. 
John  and  Matthew  are  distinguished  for  it  more 
than  Mark  and  Luke.  But  the  sentiment  is  not 
so  remarkable  for  simplicity  in  the  evangelists 
as  in  the  Pentateuch.  The  reasons  of  this  differ- 
ence are,  the  state  of  the  Jews  was  totally  changed ; 
their  manners,  customs,  &c.,  split  into  factions 
both  in  religion  and  politics.  2.  The  object  of 
our  Lord's  ministry,  which  is  the  great  subject 
of  the  gospels,  was  to  inculcate  a  doctrine  and 
morality  with  which  none  of  their  systems  per- 
fectly coincided  ;  besides,  being  constantly  op- 
posed by  all  the  great  men,  the  greater  part  of 
his  history  consists  of  instructions  and  disputes. 
3.  As  it  is  occupied  with  what  our  Saviour  said, 
and  what  he  did,  this  makes  two  distinctions 
of  style  and  manner ;  that  of  our  Saviour 
and  the  sacred  penman's.  In  their  own  charac- 
ter, they  neither  explain  nor  command,  promise 
nor  threaten,  praise  nor  blame.  They  generally 
omit  the  names  of  our  Lord's  enemies;  thus  di- 
recting our  hatred  at  the  vices  they  committed, 
not  at  the  persons.  They  never  mention  such 
persons  without  necessity;  which  is  the  case 
with  the  high-priest,  Pilate,  Herod,  and  Judas  : 
the  first  three  for  the  chronology,  the  fourth  to 
do  justice  to  the  eleven. 

Herodias  is  indeed  mentioned  with  dishonor, 
but  her  crime  was  a  public  one.  On  the  other 
hand,  all  persons  distinguished  for  any  thing  vir- 
tuous are  carefully  mentioned,  Joseph  of  Arima- 
thea,  Nicodemus,  Zaccheus,  Bartimeus,  Jairus, 
Lazarus,  Mary,  and  Martha.  They  record  their 
own  faults  (Peter's,  Thomas's),  nor  do  they  make 
any  merit  of  their  confession.  In  one  uniform 


SCRIPTURE. 


639 


strain  they  relate  the  most  signal  miracles  and 
most  ordinary  facts. 

From  the  narrative  is  excluded  that  quality  of 
style  which  is  called  animation.  Nothing  that 
discovers  passion  in  the  writer,  or  is  calculated 
to  excite  the  passions  of  the  readers.  Every 
thing  is  directed  to  mend  the  heart.  But,  in  the 
discourses  and  dialogues  of  our  Saviour,  the  ex- 
pression, without  losing  any  of  its  simplicity,  is 
often  remarkable  for  spirit  and  energy.  Respect- 
ing harmony  and  smoothness,  qualities  which 
only  add  an  external  polish  to  language,  they 
had  not  the  least  solicitude. 

As  to  elegance,  there  in  an  elegance  which  re- 
sults from  the  use  of  such  words  as  are  most  in 
use  with  those  who  are  accounted  fine  writers, 
and  from  such  arrangements  in  the  words  and 
clauses  as  have  generally  obtained  their  approba- 
tion. This  is  disclaimed  by  the  sacred  authors. 
But  there  is  an  elegance  of  a  superior  order  more 
nearly  connected  with  the  sentiment ;  and  in  this 
sort  of  elegance  they  are  not  deficient.  In  all  the 
oriental  languages  great  use  is  made  of  tropes, 
especially  metaphors.  When  the  metaphors  em- 
ployed bear  a  strong  resemblance,  they  confer  vi- 
vacity ;  if  they  be  borrowed  from  objects  which 
are  naturally  agreeable,  beautiful,  or  attractive, 
they  add  also  elegance.  The  evangelists  furnish 
us  with  many  examples  of  this  kind  of  vivacity 
and  elegance.  Our  Lord  borrows  tropes  from 
corn-fields,  vineyards,  gardens,  &c. 

As  a  valuable  appendage  to  this  part  of  our 
subject,  we  subjoin  Dr.  Campbell's  method  of 
studying  the  books  of  the  New  Testament.  This 
we  offer  to  our  readers  as  a  beautiful  instance  of 
tiie  judicious  application  of  philosophy  to  sacred 
studies.  It  is  the  same  method  of  discovering 
truth,  by  analysis  and  induction,  which  was  pur- 
sued by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  with  such  astonishing 
success,  which  since  his  time  has  been  uniformly 
practised  in  natural  philosophy,  and  has  been 
also  applied  to  chemistry,  to  medicine,  to  natural 
history,  and  to  the  philosophy  of  the  mind,  by 
the  ingenious  Dr.  Reid.  This  is  the  path  of 
sound  philosophy,  which  can  alone  lead  to  the 
discovery  of  truth.  In  following  it,  our  progress 
may  be  slow,  but  it  will  be  sure.  If  all  the 
theologians  would  steadily  adhere  to  it,  we 
might  then  entertain  the  pleasant  hope  of  dis- 
carding for  ever  those  absurd  systems  of  religion 
which  are  founded  on  single  passages  and  de- 
tached fragments  of  Scripture,  and  of  establish- 
ing opinions  and  doctrines  on  a  solid  foundation. 

'  1 .  To  get  acquainted  with  each  writer's  style ; 
to  observe  his  manner  of  composition,  botli  in 
sentences  and  paragraphs  ;  to  remark  the  words 
and  phrases  peculiar  to  him,  and  the  peculiar 
application  that  he  may  sometimes  make  of  or- 
dinary words  ;  for  there  are  few  of  those  writers 
who  have  not  their  peculiarities  in  all  the  re- 
spects now  mentioned.  This  acquaintance  with 
each  can  be  obtained  only  by  the  frequent  and 
attentive  reading  of  his  works  in  his  own  lan- 
guage. 

'  2.  To  enquire  into  the  character,  the  situa- 
tion, and  the  office  of  the  writer,  the  time,  the 
place,  and  the  occasion  of  his  writing,  and  the 
people  for  whose  immediate  use  he  originally 
intended  his  work.  Every  one  of  these  particu- 


lars will  sometimes  serve  to  elucidate  expres- 
sions otherwise  obscure  or  doubtful.  This 
knowledge  may  in  part  be  learned  from  a  dili- 
gent and  reiterated  perusal  of  the  book  itself, 
and  in  part  be  gathered  from  authentic,  or  at 
least  probable  accounts  that  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  us  concerning  the  compilement  of  the 
canon. 

'  3.  The  next  general  direction  is,  to  consider 
the  principal  scope  of  the  book,  and  the  particu- 
lars chiefly  observable  in  the  method  by  which 
the  writer  has  purposed  to  execute  his  design. 
This  direction  is  particularly  applicable  to  the 
epistolary  writings,  especially  those  of  Paul 

'  4.  If  a  particular  word  or  phrase  occur, 
which  appears  obscure,  perhaps  unintelligible, 
the  first  thing  we  ought  to  do,  if  satisfied  that 
the  reading  is  genuine,  is  to  consult  the  context, 
to  attend  to  the  manner  wherein  the  term  is  in- 
troduced, whether  in  a  chain  of  reasoning  or  in 
a  historical  narration,  in  a  description,  or  includ- 
ed in  an  exhortation  or  command.  As  the  con- 
clusion is  inferred  from  the  premises,  or  as  from 
two  or  more  known  truths  a  third  unknown  or 
unobserved  before  may  fairly  be  deduced  ;  so 
from  such  attention  to  the  sentence  in  connexion, 
the  import  of  an  expression,  in  itself  obscure  or 
ambiguous,  will  sometimes,  with  moral  certainty 
be  discovered.  This,  however,  will  not  always 
answer. 

'  5.  If  it  do  not,  let  the  second  consideration 
be,  whether  the  term  or  phrase  be  one  of  the 
writer's  peculiarities.  If  so,  it  comes  naturally 
to  be  enquired,  what  is  the  acceptation  in  which 
he  employs  it  in  other  places  ?  If  the  sense 
cannot  be  precisely  the  same  in  the  passage  un- 
der review,  perhaps,  by  an  easy  and  natural 
metaphor  or  other  trope,  the  common  acceptation 
may  give  rise  to  one  which  perfectly  suits  the 
passage  in  question.  Recourse  to  the  other 
places  wherein  the  word  or  phrase  occurs  in  the 
same  author  is  of  considerable  use,  though  the 
term  should  not  be  peculiar  to  him. 

'  6'.  But  3dly,  If  there  should  be  nothing  in 
the  same  writer  that  can  enlighten  the  place,  let 
recourse  be  had  to  the  parallel  passages,  if  there 
be  any  such,  in  the  other  sacred  writers.  By 
parallel  passages,  I  mean  those  places,  if  the  dif- 
ficulty occur  in  history,  wherein  the  same  or  a 
similar  story,  miracle,  or  event,  is  related  ;  if  in 
teaching  or  reasoning,  those  parts  wherein  the 
same  argument  or  doctrine  is  treated,  or  the 
same  parable  propounded  ;  and,  in  moral  lessons, 
those  wherein  the  same  class  of  duties  is  recom- 
mended ;  or,  if  the  difficulty  be  found  in  a  quo- 
tation  from  the  Old  Testament,  let  the  parallel 
passage  in  the  book  referred  to,  both  in  the  ori- 
ginal Hebrew,  and  in  the  Greek  version,  be  con- 
sulted. 

'  7.  But  if,  in  these,  there  be  found  nothing 
that  can  throw  light  on  the  expression  of  which 
we  are  in  doubt,  the  fourth  recourse  is  to  all  the 
places  wherein  the  word  or  phrase  occurs  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  in  the  Septuagint  version 
of  the  Old,  adding  to  these  the  consideration  of 
the  import  of  the  Hebrew  or  Chaldaic  word, 
whose  place  it  occupies,  and  the  extent  of  signi- 
fication, of  which  in  different  occurrences  such 
Hebrew  or  Chaldaic  term  is  susceptible. 


640 


SCRIPTURE. 


'  8.  Perhaps  the  term  in  question  is  one  of 
those  which  very  rarely  occur  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, or  those  called  aira£  Xeyo/«va,  only  once 
read  in  Scripture,  and  not  found  at  all  in  the 
translation  of  the  LXX.  Several  such  words 
there  are.  There  is  then  a  necessity,  in  the  fifth 
place,  for  recurring  to  the  ordinary  acceptation 
of  the  term  in  classical  authors.  This  is  one  of 
those  cases  wherein  the  interpretation  given  by 
the  earliest  Greek  fathers  deserves  particular 
notice.  In  this,  however,  I  limit  myself  to  those 
comments  wherein  they  give  a  literal  exposition 
of  the  sacred  text,  and  do  not  run  into  vision 
and  allegory.'  See  ALLEGORY. 

II.  Of  the  ancient  MSS.  and  early  editions 
of  the  ffew  Testament.— The  MSS.  of  the  New 
Testament  are  the  natural  source,  from  which 
the  genuine  readings  of  the  Greek  Testament  are 
to  be  drawn.  The  printed  editions  are  either 
copies  of  more  ancient  editions,  or  of  MSS.,  and 
they  have  no  further  authority  than  as  they  cor- 
respond to  the  MSS.  from  which  they  were  ori- 
ginally taken.  By  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament 
we  mean  those  only  which  were  written  before 
the  invention  of  printing.  The  most  ancient  of 
these  are  lost,  and  there  is  no  MS.  now  extant 
older  than  the  sixth  century.  Few  contain  the 
whole  New  Testament;  some  contain  the  four 
gospels;  some  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles -and 
epistles ;  and  others  the  book  of  Revelation. 
The  greatest  number  are  those  which  contain  the 
first  part;  those  which  have  the  second,  or  the 
first  and  second  together,  are  likewise  numerous ; 
but  those  of  the  third  are  extremely  few.  It 
must  be  added,  also,  that  in  many  MSS.  those 
epistles  are  omitted  whose  divine  authority  was 
formerly  doubted. 

Wetstein,  in  collating  many  MSS.  anew,  made 
discoveries  which  had  entirely  escaped  the  no- 
tice of  his  predecessors.  The  fourth,  class  con- 
sists of  such  as  have  been  completely  and  accu- 
rately collated  more  than  once.  The  fifth  class, 
which  is  by  far  the  most  valuable,  consists  of 
such  as  have  been  printed  word  for  word,  and 
therefore  form  an  original  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament.  We  can  boast  but  of  a  very  few 
MSS.  of  this  kind.  Hearne  printed  at  Oxford, 
in  1715,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  in  Greek  and 
Latin  from  the  Codex  Laudianus  3  ;  Knittal  has 
annexed  to  his  edition  of  Ulpilas,  p.  53 — 118,  a 
copy  of  two  very  ancient  fragments  preserved  in 
the  library  of  Wolfenbuttle  ;  the  one  of  the  four 
gospels  in  general,  the  other  of  St.  Luke  and  St. 
John.  Woide  printed  in  1786  the  Codex  Alex- 
andrinus,  a  MS.  of  great  antiquity  ;  and  the 
University  of  Cambridge  has  resolved  to  publish, 
in  asimilar  manner,  the  Cod.  Cant.  I.,  or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  the  Codex  Beza-,  the  care  of 
which  is  entrusted  to  Dr.  Kipling,  a  publica- 
tion which  will  be  thankfully  received  by  every 
friend  to  sacred  criticism.  It  was  the  intention 
of  the  abbe"  Spoletti,  a  few  years  ago,  to  publish 
the  whole  of  the  celebrated  Codex  Vaticanus; 
which  would  likewise  have  been  a  most  valuable 
accession,  since  a  more  important  MS.  is  hardly 
to  be  found  in  all  Europe.  He  delivered  for 
this  nurpose  a  memorial  to  the  pope ;  but  the 
design  was  not  put  into  execution,  either  because 
he  pope  refused  his  assent,  or  the  abbe"  aban- 


doned it  himself.     See  the  Oriental  Bible,  vol. 
xxii.  No.  333,  and  vol.  xxiii.  No.  348. 

'  A  very  valuable  library/  says  Michaelis, 
'  might  be  composed  of  the  impressions  of  ancient 
MSS.  which,  though  too  expensive  for  a  private 
person,  should  be  admitted  into  every  university 
collection,  especially  the  Alexandrine  and  Cam- 
bridge MSS.,  to  which  I  would  add,  if  it  were  now 
possible  to  procure  it,  Hearne's  edition  of  the 
Codex  Laudianus  3.  A  plan  of  this  sort  could 
be  executed  only  in  England,  by  a  private  sub- 
scription, where  a  zeal  is  frequently  displayed  in 
literary  undertakings  that  is  unknown  in  other 
countries;  and  it  were  to  be  wished  that  the 
project  were  begun  before  length  of  time  has 
rendered  the  MSS.  illegible,  and  the  attempt 
fruitless.  £10,000  would  go  a  great  way  towards 
the  fulfilling  of  this  request,  if  the  learned  did 
not  augment  the  difficulty  of  the  undertaking, 
by  adding  their  own  critical  remarks,  and  endea- 
vouring thereby  to  recommend  their  publication 
rather  than  by  presenting  to  the  public  a  faith- 
ful copy  of  the  original.  Should  posterity  be 
pilt  in  possession  of  faithful  impressions  of  im- 
portant MSS.,  an  acquisition  which  would  ren- 
der the  highest  service  to  sacred  criticism,  all 
these  editions  of  the  New  Testament  should  be 
regulated  on  the  same  plan  as  Hearne's  edition 
of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.'  It  must  be  highly 
flattering,  to  the  patriotic  spirit  of  an  English- 
man, to  hear  the  encomiums  which  learned  fo- 
reigners have  so  profusely  bestowed  on  our  li- 
berality in  supporting  works  of  genius  and 
learning  and  public  utility.  The  plan  which 
Michaelis  proposed  to  us,  in  preference  to  all 
other  nations  in  Europe,  is  noble  and  magnifi- 
cent, and  would  certainly  confer  immortality  on 
those  men  who  would  give  it  their  patronage 
and  assistance.  There  are  many  ancient  .MSS., 
especially  in  Italy,  which  have  never  been  col- 
lated, but  lie  still  unexplored.  Here  is  a  field 
where  much  remains  to  be  done.  See  Marsh's 
Notes  on  Michaelis,  vol.  ii.p.  643,  and  Lectures 
on  Lady  Margaret's  professor  of  divinity  in  the 
university  of  Cambridge,  published  in  two 
parts.  Michaelis  has  given  a  catalogue  of  an- 
cient MSS.,  amounting  in  number  to  292,  to 
which  he  has  added  a  short  account  of  each. 
We  shall  confine  our  observations  to  the  two 
most  celebrated,  the  Alexandrine  and  Vatican 
MSS.,  which  we  have  chiefly  extracted  from 
Michaelis. 

The  Alexandrine  muntucript  consists  of  four 
volumes  ;  the  first  three  of  which  contain  the 
Old  Testament,  the  fourth  the  New  Testament, 
together  with  the  first  epistle  of  Clement  to  the 
Corinthians,  and  a  fragment  of  the  second.  In 
the  New  Testament,  which  alone  is  the  object  of 
our  present  enquiry,  is  wanting  <he  beginning  as 
far  as  Matthew  xxv.  6,6  vtp^xoc  »;px«ra«,  likewise 
from  John  vi.  50  to  viii.  52,  and  from  2  Cor.  iv. 
13  to  xii.  7.  The  Psalms  are  preceded  by  the 
epistle  of  Athanasius  to  Marcellinus,  and  followed 
by  a  catalogue,  containing  those  which  are  to  be 
used  in  prayer  for  each  hour,  botu  of  the  day  and 
of  the  night ;  also  by  fourteen  hymns,  partly 
apocryphal,  partly  biblical,  the  eleventh  of  which 
is  a  hymn  in  praise  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  entitled 
Mapiac  rijc  StuTOicH  :  further  the  Hy- 


S  C  R  I  P  T  li   K  Ji 


641 


potheses  Eusebii  are  annexed  to  the  psalms,  and 
his  Canones  to  the  gospels.  It  is  true  that  this 
has  no  immediate  reference  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, hut  may  have  influence  in  determining  the 
antiquity  of  the  MS.  itself.  It  has  neither  ac- 
cents nor  marks  of  aspiration;  it  is  written  with 
capital,  or,  as  they  are  called,  uncral  letters,  and 
has  very  few  abbreviations.  There  are  no  inter- 
vals between  the  words ;  but  the  sense  of  a  pas- 
sage is  sometimes  terminated  by  a  point,  and 
sometimes  by  a  vacant  space.  Here  arises  a 
suspicion  that  the  copyist  did  not  understand 
Greek,  because  these  marks  are  sometimes  found 
even  in  the  middle  of  a  word  ;  for  instance,  Levit. 
v.  4,  avo/ioc  '  »;  for  avopoan,  and  Num.  xiii.  29,  fiu 
Yffjjf.  This  MS.  was  presented  to  Charles  I.  in 
1628,  by  Cyrillus  Lucans,  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople. Cyrillus  has  given  the  following  ac- 
count : — We  know  so  much  of  this  MS.  of  the 
holy  writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  that 
Thecla,  an  Egyptian  lady  of  distinction  (nobilis 
fcemina  ./Egyptia),  wrote  it  with  her  own  hand 
1300  years  ago.  She  lived  soon  after  the  council 
of  Nicaea.  Her  name  was  formerly  at  the  end 
of  the  book  ;  but  when  Christianity  was  sub- 
verted in  Egypt,  by  the  errors  of  Mahomet,  the 
books  of  the  Christians  suffered  the  same  fate, 
and  the  name  of  Thecla  was  expunged.  But 
oral  tradition  of  no  very  ancient  date  (memoria 
et  traditio  recens)  has  preserved  the  remembrance 
of  it.'  After  all,  its  antiquity  cannot  be  deter- 
mined with  certainty,  though  it  appears  from  the 
formation  of  the  letters,  which  resemble  those  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  and  the  want  of 
accents,  that  it  was  not  written  so  late  as  the 
tenth.  In  this  century  it  was  placed  by  Oudin, 
while  Grabe  and  Schulze  have  referred  it  to  the 
fourth,  which  is  the  very  utmost  period  that  can 
be  allowed,  because  it  contains  the  epistles  of 
Athanasius.  Wetstein,  with  more  probability, 
has  chosen  a  mean  between  these  two  extremes, 
and  referred  it  to  the  fifth  century. 

The  public  is  now  in  possession  of  a  perfect 
impression  of  this  MS.,  accompanied  with  a  com- 
plete and  critical  collection  of  various  readings. 
Dr.  Woide  published  it  in  1786,  with  types  cast 
for  that  purpose,  without  intervals  between  the 
•words.  The  copy  is  so  perfect  a  resemblance  of 
the  original  that  it  may  supply  its  place.  Its 
title  is  Novum  Testamentum  Graecum  e  codice 
MSS.  Alexandrino,  qui  Londini  in  Bibliotheca 
MusaM  Britannici  asservatur,  descriptum.  The 
preface  of  the  learned  editor  contains  an  accurate 
description  of  the  MS.,  with  an  exact  list  of  all 
its  various  readings,  that  takes  up  no  less  than 
eighty-nine  pages  7  and  each  reading  is  accom- 
panied with  a  remark,  in  which  is  given  an 
account  of  what  his  predecessors  Juninus, 
Walton,  Fell,  Mill,  Grabe,  and  Wetstein,  had 
performed  or  neglected.  See  ALEXANDRINE 
COPY. 

The  Vatican  manuscript  contained  originally 
the  whole  Greek  Bible,  including  both  the  Old 
and  New  Testament ;  and  in  this  respect,  as  well 
as  in  regard  to  its  antiquity,  it  resembles  none  so 
much  as  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  but  no  two 
MSS.  are  more  dissimilar  in  their  readings,  in 
the  New  Testament  as  well  as  in  the  Old.  After 
th"1  gospels,  which  are  placed  in  the  usual  order, 
VOL.  XIX 


come  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  which  are  imme- 
diately followed  by  the  seven  catholic  epistles. 
Professor  Hwiid,  in  a  letter  dated  Rome,  April 
12th,  1781,  assured  Michaelis  that  he  had  seen 
them  with  his  own  eyes,  and  that  the  second 
Epistle  of  St.  Peter  is  placed"  folio  1434,  the  se- 
cond of  St.  John  folio  1442,  the  third  folio  1443: 
then  follow  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  but  not  ir 
the  usual  order ;  for  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
is  placed  immediately  after  those  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians.  The  epistles  of  St.  Paul  are  divided 
into  ninety-three  sections  by  figures  written  in 
the  margin  with  red  ink ;  but  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians  ends  with  59,  and  that  to  the  Ephesi- 
ans  begins  with  70 ;  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
on  the  contrary,  begins  with  60,  and  ends  with 
69.  With  the  words  a/iw/xovry  5t y,  Ileb.  ix.  4, 
the  MS.  ceases,  the  remaining  leaves  being  lost. 
There  is  wanting,  therefore,  not  only  the  latter 
part  of  this  epistle,  but  the  epistles  to  Timothy, 
Titus,  and  Philemon,  with  the  Revelation  of  St. 
John ;  but  this  last  book,  as  well  as  the  latter 
part  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  has  been 
supplied  by  a  modern  hand  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. In  many  places  the  faded  letters  have 
been  also  retouched  by  a  modern  but  careful 
hand ;  and  when  the  person  who  made  these 
amendments,  who  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of 
learning,  found  a  reading  in  his  own  MS.  which 
differed  from  that  of  the  Codex  Vaticanus,  he  has 
noted  it  in  the  margin,  and  has  generally  left  the 
text  itself  untouched,  though  in  some  few  exam- 
ples he  has  ventured  to  erase  it.  It  is  certain 
that  this  MS.  is  of  very  high  antiquity,  though 
it  has  been  disputed  which  of  the  two  in  this  re- 
spect is  entitled  to  the  preference,  the  Vaticanus 
or  Alexandrinus.  The  editors  of  the  Roman  edi- 
tion of  the  Septuagint,  in  1587,  referred  the  date 
of  the  Vatican  MS.  to  the  fourth  century,  the 
period  to  which  the  advocates  for  its  great  rival 
refer  the  Codex  Alexandrinus.  More  moderate  are 
the  sentiments  of  that  great  judge  of  antiquity 
Montfau^on,  who,  in  his  Bibliotheca  Bibiiotheca- 
rum,  p.  3,  refers  it  to  the  fifth  or  sixth  century; 
and  adds  that,  though  he  had  seen  other  MSS.  of 
equal  antiquity,  he  had  found  none  at  the  same 
time  so  complete. 

The  Codex  Vaticanus  has  a  great  resemblance 
to  the  MSS.  noted  by  Wetstein,  C.  D.  .1 
13.  33.  69.  102,  and  to  the  Latin,  Coptic,  and 
Ethiopic  versions ;  but  it  is  preferable  to  most 
of  them  in  being  almost  entirely  free  from  those 
undeniable  interpolations,  and  arbitrary  correc- 
tions, which  are  very  frequently  found  in  the 
above-mentioned  MSS.,  especially  in  D.  1.  and 
62.  It  may  be  applied,  therefore,  as  a  mean 
not  only  of  confirming  their  genuine  readings, 
but  of  detecting  and  correcting  those  that  are 
spurious.  It  is  written  with  great  accuracy, 
and  is  evidently  a  faithful  copy  of  the  more 
ancient  from  which  it  was  transcribed.  But  this 
MS.  has  not  throughout  the  whole  New  Testa- 
ment the  same  uniform  text. 

As  we  have  now  a  beautiful  printed  edition  of 
the  Alexandrine  manuscript,  by  Dr.  Woide,  it  is 
much  to  be  wished  that  we  had  also  an  ex- 
act impression  of  the  Vatican  manuscript.  From 
the  superstitious  fears  and  intolerant  spirit  of  the 
irquisition  at  Rome,  all  access  to  this  MS.  was 

2  T 


642 


SCRIPTURE. 


refused  to  the  abbe  Spoletti,  who  presented  a 
memorial  for  that  purpose.  Unless  the  pope 
interpose  his  authority,  we  must  therefore  de- 
spair of  having  our  wishes  gratified. 

The  most  valuable  editions  of  the  Greek  New 
Testament  are  those  of  Mill,  Bengel,  and  Wet- 
stein.  The  edition  of  Mill,  which  Itas  only 
finished  fourteen  days  before  his  death,  occupied 
the  attention  of  the  author  for  thirty  years.  The 
collections  of  various  readings  which  had  been 
made  before  the  time  of  Mill,  the  Valesian,  the 
Barberini,  those  of  Stephens,  the  London  Poly- 
glot, and  Fell's  edition,  with  those  which  the 
bishop  had  left  in  manuscript,  and  whatever  he 
was  able  to  procure  elsewhere,  he  brought  to- 
gether into  one  large  collection.  He  made  like- 
wise very  considerable  additions  to  it.  He  col- 
lated several  original  editions  more  accurately 
than  had  been  done  before  :  he  procured  extracts 
from  Greek  manuscripts,  which  had  never  been 
collated ;  and  of  such  as  had  been  before  collated, 
but  not  with  sufficient  attention,  he  obtained 
more  complete  extracts.  It  is  said  that  he  has 
collected  from  MSS.  fathers,  and  versions,  not 
fewer  than  30,000  various  readings.  This  collec- 
tion, notwithstanding  its  many  imperfections, 
and  the  superiority  of  that  of  Wetstein,  is  still 
absolutely  necessary  to  every  critic :  for  Wet- 
stein  has  omitted  a  great  number  of  readings 
which  are  to  be  found  in  Mill,  especially  those 
which  are  either  taken  from  the  Vulgate,  or  confirm 
its  readings.  Mill  was  indeed  too  much  attached 
to  this  version ;  yet  he  cannot  be  accused  of 
partiality  in  producing  its  evidence.  Wetstein, 
by  too  frequently  neglecting  the  evidence  in 
favor  of  the  Vulgate,  has  rendered  his  collection 
less  perfect  than  it  would  otherwise  have  been. 
He  likewise  added,  as  far  as  he  was  able,  read- 
ings from  the  ancient  versions;  and  is  much  to 
be  commended  for  the  great  attention  which  he 
paid  to  the  quotations  of  the  fathers;  the  im- 
portance of  which  he  had  sagacity  enough  to 
discern.  It  cannot,  however,  be  denied,  that 
Mill's  Greek  Testament  has  many  imperfections, 
and  some  of  real  importance.  His  extracts  from 
MSS.  are  often  not  only  incomplete,  but  errone- 
ous; and  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  correct 
his  mistakes  from  the  edition  of  Wetstein.  His 
extracts  from  the  oriental  versions  are  also  im- 
perfect, because  he  was  unacquainted  with  these 
languages.  The  great  diligence  which  Mill  had 
shown,  in  collecting  so  many  various  readings, 
alarmed  the  clergy  as  if  the  Christian  religion  had 
been  in  danger  of  subversion.  It  gave  occasion 
for  a  time  to  the  triumphs  of  the  deist,  and  exposed 
the  author  to  many  attacks.  But  it  is  now  uni- 
versally known  that  not  a  single  article  of  the 
Christian  religion  would  be  altered,  though  a 
deist  were  allowed  to  select  out  of  Mill's  30,000 
readings  whatever  he  should  think  most  inimical 
to  the  Christian  cause. 

'  In  1734  Bengel,  abbot  of  Alpirspach,  in  the 
duchy  of  Wirtemburg,  published  a  new  edition 
of  the  Greek  Testament.  The  fears  which  Mill 
had  excited  began  to  subside  upon  this  new  pub- 
lication ;  for  Bengel  was  universally  esteemed  a 
man  of  piety.  Bengel  was  not  only  diligent  in 
the  examination  of  various  readings,  but  in  the 
strictest  sense  of  trie  word  conscientious ;  for  he 


considered  it  as  an  offence  against  the  Deity,  if, 
through  his  own  levity  or  carelessness,  he  intio- 
duced  a  false  reading  into  the  sacred  text.  His 
object  was  not  merely  to  make  a  collection  of 
readings,  and  leave  the  choice  of  them  to  the 
judgment  of  the  reader,  but  to  examine  the  evi- 
dence on  both  sides,  and  draw  the  inference  :  yet 
he  has  not  given  his  own  opinion  so  frequently  as 
Mill,  whom  he  resembled  in  his  reverence  for 
the  Latin  version,  and  in  the  preference  which 
he  gave  to  harsh  and  difficult  readings  before 
those  which  were  smooth  and  flowing.  He  was 
a  man  of  profound  learning ;  and  had  a  cool  and 
sound  judgment,  though  it  did  not  prevent  him 
from  thinking  too  highly  of  the  Latin  readings, 
and  of  the  Codex  Alexandrinus ;  with  other 
Latinising  MSS.  The  imperfections  of  Ben- 
gel's  edition  arise  chiefly  from  his  diffidence 
and  caution.  He  did  not  venture  to  insert  into 
the  text  any  reading  which  had  not  already  ap- 
peared in  some  printed  edition,  even  though  he 
believed  it  to  be  the  genuine  reading.  In  the 
book  of  Revelation  indeed  he  took  the  liberty  to 
insert  readings  which  had  never  been  printed  ; 
because  few  MSS.  had  been  used  in  the  printing 
of  that  book. 

The  celebrated  edition  of  John  James  Wet- 
stein, which  is  the  most  important  of  all,  and  the 
most  necessary  to  those  engaged  in  sacred  criti- 
cism, was  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1751  and 
1752,  in  two  volumes  folio.  No  man  will  deny 
that  Wetstein's  Prolegomena  discover  profound 
erudition,  critical  penetration,  and  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  Greek  MSS.  It  is  a  work 
which,  in  many  respects,  has  given  a  new  turn  to 
sacred  criticism,  and  no  man  engaged  in  that 
study  can  dispense  with  it.  Wherever  Wetstein 
has  delivered  his  sentiments  respecting  a  Greek 
MS.,  which  he  has  done  less  frequently  than 
Mill,  he  shows  himself  an  experienced  and  saga- 
cious critic.  He  is  likewise  more  concise  than 
Mill  in  delivering  his  opinion,  and  does  not  sup- 
port it  by  producing  so  great  a  number  of  read- 
ings. But  the  critical  rules  which  he  has  deli- 
vered are  perfectly  just ;  and  in  this  respect 
there  is  a  remarkable  agreement  between  him  and 
his  eminent  predecessors  Mill  and  Bengel.  In 
regard  to  the  Latin  version  alone  they  appear  to 
differ ;  in  Mill  and  Bengel  it  has  powerful,  and 
perhaps  partial  advocates,  but  in  Wetstein  a 
severe  and  sagacious  judge,  who  sometimes  con- 
demns it  without  a  cause.  But,  in  consequence 
of  this  antipathy  to  the  Vulgate,  his  collection  of 
various  readings  is  less  perfect  than  it  might 
have  been. 

Wetstein,  in  his  character  of  a  critic,  is  per- 
fectly honest..  With  respect  to  his  diligence  and 
accuracy,  Michaelis  does  not  pronounce  him 
faultless.  But  Mr.  Marsh  has  examined  the 
examples  on  which  Michaelis  founds  his  asser- 
tion, and  declares  that  Michaelis  is  mistaken  in 
every  one  of  them.  The  diligence  of  Wetstein 
can  scarcely  be  questioned  by  any  who  are  ac- 
quainted with  his  history.  He  travelled  into 
different  countries,  and  examined  with  his  own 
eyes  a  much  greater  number  of  MSS.  than  an) 
of  his  predecessors.  His  collection  of  various 
readings  amount  to  above  a  million ;  and  he  has 
not  only  produced  a  much  greater  quantity  of 


SCRIPTURE. 


643 


matter  than  his  predecessors,  but  has  likewise 
corrected  their  mistakes.  The  extracts  from 
MS.  versions,  and  printed  editions  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  which  had  been  quoted  by  Mill,  are 
generally  quoted  by  Wetstein.  Whenever  Wet- 
stein  had  no  new  extracts  from  the  MSS.  quoted 
by  Mill,  or  had  no  opportunity  of  examining 
them  himself,  he  copied  literally  from  Mill ;  but 
wherever  Mill  has  quoted  from  printed  editions, 
as  from  the  margin  of  Robert  Stephen's  for  in- 
stance, or  from  the  London  Polyglot,  Wetstein  did 
rot  copy  from  Mill,  but  went  to  the  original 
source,  as  appears  from  his  having  corrected 
many  mistakes  in  Mill's  quotations.  On  the 
whole  it  is  surprising,  when  we  consider  the  dif- 
ficulties and  labor  which  Wetstein  had  to  en- 
counter, that  his  errors  and  imperfections  are  so 
few. 

The  proposal  of  Michaelis,  however,  of  a  new 
collation  of  MSS.,  to  form  a  complete  collection 
of  various  readings,  is  worthy  the  attention  of  the 
learned.  In  mentioning  this  proposal  Michaelis 
says,  Britain  is  the  only  country  which  possesses 
'he  will  and  the  means  to  execute  the  task. 
Should  a  resolution,  he  adds,  be  formed  in  this 
island,  so  happily  situated  for  promoting  the 
purposes  of  general  knowledge ;  to  make  the 
undertaking  a  public  concern,  to  enter  into  a 
subscription,  and  to  employ  men  of  abilities  in 
collating  MSS.  both  at  home  and  abroad,  they 
would  be  able  to  do  more  in  ten  years  than  could 
otherwise  be  done  in  a  century.  And  could 
this  nation  direct  its  attention  to  any  object 
more  glorious  or  more  useful  than  in  ascertain- 
ing the  text  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  giving 
to  posterity  an  accurate  edition? 

As  the  sense  of  Scripture,  as  well  as  all  other 
books,  is  affected  by  the  punctuation,  it  is  of  im- 
portance to  determine  whether  the  stops  or 
points  which  we  find  in  the  sacred  books  were 
used  by  the  sacred  writers,  or  have  been  inserted 
by  modern  transcribers.  We  are  told  by  Mont- 
faucon,  in  his  Palaeographia  Graeca,  p.  31,  that 
the  person  who  first  distinguished  the  several 
parts  of  a  period  in  Greek  writing,  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  point,  was  Aristophanes  of  Byzan- 
tium, who  lived  under  Ptolemseus  Epiphanes,  in 
the  145th  Olympiad.  But,  though  points  were 
•lot  used  in  books  before  this  period,  they  were 
employed  in  inscriptions  above  400  years  B.C. 
See  Mont.  Pal.  Graec.  p.  135.  As  the  fact  has 
not  been  generally  known  that  the  ancients 
pointed  their  MSS.,  and  as  it  is  an  important 
and  interesting  fact,  we  refer  our  readers  to  the 
first  six  lines  of  St.  John's  Gospel,  as  they  are 
pointed  in  the  Alexandrine  MS.  exhibited  in 
vol.  I.  p.  563. 

Whether  any  points  for  making  the  sense  were 
used  by  the  apostles,  cannot  be  determined  ;  but 
the  points  now  in  use  have  been  invented  since. 
In  the  fourth  century  Jerome  began  to  add  the 
comma  and  colon  to  the  Latin  version ;  and  they 
were  then  inserted  in  many  more  ancient  MSS. 
In  the  fifth  century  Euthalius,  a  deacon  of 
Alexandria,  divided  the  New  Testament  into 
lines.  This  division  was  regulated  by  the  sense, 
so  that  each  line  ended  where  some  pause  was 
lo  be  made  in  speaking.  And  when  a  copyist 
was  disposed  to  contract  his  space,  and  therefore 


crowded  the  lines  into  each  other,  he  placed  a 
point  where  Euthalius  had  terminated  the  line. 
In  the  eighth  century  the  stroke  was  invented 
which  we  call  a  comma.  In  the  Latin  MSS. 
Jerome's  points  were  introduced  by  Paul  Warn- 
fried  and  Alcuin,  at  the  command  of  Charle- 
magne. *In  the  ninth  century  the  Greek  note  of 
interrogation  (;)  was  first  used.  At  the  invention 
of  printing  the  editors  placed  the  points  arbitra- 
rily, probably  without  bestowing  the  necessary 
attention;  and  Stephens,  in  particular,  varied 
his  points  in  every  edition.  The  meaning  of 
many  passages  in  the  Scripture  has  been  altered 
by  false  pointing. 

The  ancients  divided  the  New  Testament  into 
two  kinds  of  chapters,  some  longer  and  some 
shorter.  This  method  appears  to  be  more  ancient 
than  St.  Jerome ;  for  he  expunged  a  passage  from 
the  New  Testament  which  makes  an  entire 
chapter.  The  longer  kind  of  chapters  were  called 
breves,  the  shorter  capitula.  St.  Matthew  con- 
tained, according  to  St.  Jerome,  sixty-eight 
breves;  Mark  contained  forty-eight;  Luke  eighty- 
three  ;  and  John  eighteen.  All  the  evangelists 
together  consisted  of  217  breves  and  1126  capi- 
tula. The  inventor  of  our  modern  division  into 
chapters  was  Hugo  de  S.  Caro,  a  French  Domi- 
nican friar  who  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  ancients  had  two  kinds  of  verses,  one  of 
which  they  called  <?«xot,  and  the  other  ptjjuara. 
The  remata  were  lines  which  contained  a  certain 
number  of  letters  like  our  printed  books,  and 
therefore  often  broke  off  in  the  middle  of  a  word. 
Josephus's  twenty  books  of  antiquities  contained 
60,000  of  them,  though  in  Ittiquis's  edition  there 
are  only  40,000  broken  lines.  Stichi  were  lines 
measured  by  the  sense;  according  to  an  ancient 
written  list,  mentioned  by  Father  Simon,  there 
were  in  the  New  Testament  18,612  of  these. 

The  verses  into  which  the  New  Testament  is  now 
divided  are  more  modern,  and  an  imitation  of  the 
division  of  the  Old  Testament.  Robert  Stephens, 
the  first  inventor,  introduced  them  in  his  edition 
in  1551.  He  made  this  division  on  a  journey  from 
Lyons  to  Paris ;  and,  as  his  son  Henry  tells  us 
in  his  preface  to  the  Concordance  of  the  New 
Testament,  he  made  it  inter  equitandum ;  i.  e. 
when  he  was  weary  of  riding  he  amused  himself 
with  this  work  at  his  inn. 

This  invention  of  the  learned  printer  was  soon 
introduced  into  all  the  editions  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament; and,  it  must  be  confessed  that  in  con- 
sulting and  quoting  the  Scriptures,  and  in 
framing  concordances  for  them,  a  subdivision 
into  minute  parts  is  of  the  greatest  utility.  But 
all  the  purposes  of  utility  could  surely  have  been 
gained,  without  adopting  the  hasty  and  indigested 
division  of  Stephens,  which  often  breaks  tne 
sense  in  pieces,  renders  plain  passages  obscure, 
and  difficult  passages  unintelligible.  To  the  in- 
judicious division  of  Stephens  we  may  ascribe 
a  part  of  the  difficulties  which  attend  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  New  Testament,  and  many  of 
those  absurd  opinions  which  have  disgraced  the 
ages  of  the  Reformation.  For  as  separate  verses 
appear  to  the  eyes  of  the  learned,  and  to  the 
minds  of  the  unlearned,  as  so  many  detached  sen- 
tences, they  have  been  supposed  to  contain  com- 
plete sense,  and  they  have  accordingly  been  ex  • 

2T  2 


644 


SCRIPTURE. 


plained  without  any  regard  to  the  context,  and 
often  in  direct  opposition  to  it.  Were  any  mo- 
dern history  divided  into  fragments,  with  as  little 
regard  to  the  sense,  we  should  soon  find  that  as 
many  opposite  meanings  could  be  forced  upon 
them  as  have  been  forced  upon  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  division  into  v%rses  has 
been  still  more  injurious  to  the  epistles  than  to 
the  gospels,  for  there  is  a  close  connexion  be- 
tween the  different  parts  of  the  epistles,  which 
the  verses  entirely  dissolve.  It  is  therefore  to  be 
wished  that  this  division  into  verses  were  laid 
aside.  The  Scriptures  ought  to  be  divided  into 
paragraphs,  according  to  the  sense ;  and  the 
figures  ought  to  be  thrown  into  the  margin.  In 


this  way,  the  figures  will  retain  their  utility  with- 
out their  disadvantages.  Dr.  Campbell,  in  his 
beautiful  translation  of  the  gospels,  has  adopted 
this  method  with  great  judgment  and  success ; 
and  he  who  will  read  that  translation  will  per- 
ceive that  this  single  alteration  renders  the  gos- 
pels much  more  intelligible,  and,  we  may  add, 
more  entertaining. 

Respecting  the  chronological  order  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament  critics  are  by  no 
means  agreed.  The  following  table  is  from  Mr. 
Townsend's  Chronological  Arrangement,  where 
the  conflicting  opinions  of  chronologists  have 
been  considered  and  decided  upon  with  great 
care  : — 


Book. 

Author. 

Place  at  which 
it  was  written. 

For  whose  use  primarily 
intended. 

A.D. 

Gospel  of  Matthew 

Matthew 

Judea 

Jews  in  Judea 

37 

Gospel  of  Mark 

Mark 

Rome  and  Je- 

Gentile Christians. 

44 

rusalem, 

— 

Acts  of  the  Apostles 

Luke 

— 

Epistle  to  the  Galatians 

Paul 

Thessalonica 

51 

First  to  the  Thessalonians 



Corinth 

— 

Second  to  the  Thessalonians 



.  . 

52 

Epistle  to  Titus 



Nicopolis 

53 

First  to  the  Corinthians 



Ephesus 

56 

First  Epistle  to  Timothy 



Macedonia 

56  or  57 

Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 



Philippi 

53 

Epistle  to  the  Romans 



Corinth 

Epistle  to  the  Ephesians 



Rome 

61 

Epistle  to  the  Philippians 



. 

62 

Epistle  to  the  Colossians 



. 

— 

Epistle  to  Philemon 



-^___ 

— 

Epistle  of  James 

James 

Jerusalem 

Jewish  Christians 

— 

Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 

Pa-; 

Italy 

Jews 

— 

Gospel  of  St.  Luke 

Lake 

Achaia 

Gentile  converts 

64 

Second  Epistle  to  Timothy 

Pad 

.65  or  66 

First  Epistle  of  Peter 

Pete. 

Jews  and  Gentile  con- 

verts 

— 

Second  Epistle  of  Peter 



Italy  or  Rome 

Jewish    and    Gentile 

Christians    of    the 

Dispersion 

— 

Epistle  of  Jude 

Jude 

Probably 

Syria 

General 

66 

Boole  of*  RcvGltition 

TrtTin 

\<r,    IVTin/M* 

96 

Three  Epistles  of  John 

*J  Ul  1  II 

-Yvjti     .M  JIIUI 

96  to  106 

Gospel  according  to  John 

III.  —  Of  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament.—The  word  EYAITEAION  signifies  any 
joyful  tidings,  and  exactly  corresponds  to  our  Eng- 
lish word  Gospel.  In  the  New  Testament  this 
term  is  confined  to  'The  glad  tidings  of  the  com- 
ing of  the  Messiah.'  Thus,  in  Mat.  xi.  5,  our  Lord 
says,  '  The  poor  have  the  gospel  preached ; '  that 
is,  The  coming  of  the  Messiah  is  preached  to  the 
poor.  Hence  the  name  of  Gospel  was  given  to 
the  histories  of  Christ,  in  which  the  good  news 
of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  with  all  its  joyful 
circumstances,  are  recorded. 

That  the  Gospel  according  to  MATTHEW  was 
composed,  says  Dr.  Campbell,  by  one  born  a 
Jew,  familiarly  acquainted  with  the  opinions, 
ceremonies,  and  customs  of  his  countrymen ; 
that  it  was  composed  by  one  conversant  in  the 
sacred  writings,  and  habituated  to  their  idiom ; 


a  man  of  plain  sense,  but  of  little  or  no  learning, 
except  what  he  derived  from  the  Scriptures  of 
the  Old  Testament ;  and  finally,  that  it  was  the 
production  of  a  man  who  wrote  from  conviction, 
and  had  attended  closely  to  the  facts  and  speeches 
which  he  related,  but  who  in  writing  entertained 
not  the  most  distant  view  of  setting  off  himself 
— we  have  as  strong  internal  evidence  as  the  na- 
ture of  the  thing  will  admit,  and  much  stronger 
than  that  wherein  the  mind  in  ninety-nine  cases 
out  of  100  acquiesces. 

That  the  author  of  this  history  of  our  blessed 
Saviour  was  Matthew,  appears  from  the  testi- 
mony of  the  early  Christians.  It  is  attested  by 
Jerome,  Augustine,  Epiphanius,  and  Chrysostom 
and  in  such  a  manner  as  shows  that  they  knew 
the  fact  to  be  uncontroverted,  and  judged  it  t? 
be  incontrovertible.  Origen,  who  flourished  in 


SCRIPTURE. 


645 


the  former  part  of  the  third  century,  is  also  re- 
spectable authority.  He  is  quoted  by  Eusebius 
(Hist.  lib.  6.  c.  25),  wherein  he  specially  treats 
of  Origen's  account  of  the  sacred  canon.  '  As  I 
have  learned,'  says  Origen,  '  by  tradition  con- 
cerning the  four  Gospels,  which  alone  are  re- 
ceived without  dispute  by  the  whole  church  of 
God  under  heaven ;  the  first  was  written  by 
Matthew,  once  a  publican,  afterwards  an  apostle 
of  Jesus  Christ,  who  delivered  it  to  the  Jewish 
believers,  composed  in  the  Hebrew  language.' 
In  another  place  he  says,  '  Matthew  writing  for 
the  Hebrews  who  expected  him  who  was  to  de- 
scend from  Abraham  and  David,  says,  the  lineage 
of  Jesus  Christ,  son  of  David,  the  son  of  Abra- 
ham.' The  next  authority  is  that  of  Irenaeus, 
bishop  of  Lyons,  who  had  been  a  disciple  of 
Polycarp.  He  says  in  the  only  book  of  his  ex- 
tant, that  '  Matthew,  among  the  Hebrews,  wrote 
a  gospel  in  their  own  language,  whilst  Peter  and 
Paul  were  preaching  the  Gospel  at  Rome,  and 
founding  the  church  there.' 

Irenaeus  had  the  best  opportunities  of  informa- 
tion, having  been  well  acquainted  in  his  youth 
with  Polycarp,  the  disciple  of  John ;  no  objec- 
tion can  therefore  be  made  to  his  evidence.  But 
we  can  quote  an  authority  still  nearer  the  times 
of  the  apostles.  Papias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis, 
in  Ceesarea,  who  nourished  about  116,  affirms 
that  Matthew  wrote  his  gospel  in  the  Hebrew 
tongue,  which  every  one  interpreted  as  he  was 
able.  Papias  was  the  companion  of  Polycarp, 
and  besides  must  have  been  acquainted  with 
many  persons  who  lived  in  the  times  of  the 
apostles.  The  fact,  therefore,  is  fully  established, 
that  Matthew,  the  apostle  of  our  Saviour,  was 
the  author  of  that  gospel  which  is  placed  first  in 
our  edition  of  the  New  Testament. 

The  next  subject  of  enquiry  respects  the  lan- 
guage in  which  it  was  written.  This  we  are  as- 
sured by  Papias,  by  Irenaeus,  and  Origen,  was 
the  Hebrew  ;  but  this  fact  has  been  disputed  by 
Erasmus,  Whitby,  and  others.  But  though  we 
are  forced  to  acknowledge  that  the  Gospel  accord- 
ing to  Matthew  which  we  possess  is  a  translation, 
it  is  evidently  a  close  one ;  and  the  very  circum- 
stance that  it  has  superceded  the  original,  is  a 
clear  proof  that  it  was  thought  equally  valuable 
by  the  ancient  Christians.  The  language  in 
which  the  Gospel  according  to  Matthew  was  ori- 
ginally composed,  and  which  is  called  Hebrew 
by  Papias,  Irenaeus,  and  Origen,  is  not  the  same 
with  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament ;  it  was 
what  Jerome  very  properly  terms  Syro-Chaldaic, 
having  an  affinity  to  both  langiiages,  but  much 
more  to  the  Chaldean  than  to  the  Syrian. 

The  time  when  this  gospel  was  composed  has 
not  been  precisely  ascertained.  Irenaeus  says  that 
'  Matthew  published  his  gospel  when  Peter  and 
Paul  were  preaching  at  Rome.'  Now  Paul  ar- 
rived at  Rome  A.  D.  60  or  61,  and  probably  suf- 
fered martyrdom  in  A.  D.65.  This  may  be  justly 
concluded  from  comparing  the  relation  of  Tacitus 
with  that  of  Orosius,  a  writer  of  the  fifth  century. 
Orosius  having  given  an  account  of  Nero's  per- 
secution of  the  Christians,  and  of  the  death  of 
the  two  apostles  in  it,  adds,  that  it  was  followed 
by  a  pestilence  in  the  city,  and  other  disasters. 
And  Tacitus  relates  that  a  pestilence  prevailed  in 


the  city,  and  violent  storms  took  place  in  Italy 
A.  D.  65.  Matthew's  gospel  was  therefore 
written  between  the  year  60  and  65. 

That  this  history  was  primarily  intended  for 
the  use  of  the  Jews,  we  have,  besides  historical 
evidencer'very  strong  presumption  from  the  book 
itself.  Every  circumstance  is  carefully  pointed 
out  which  might  conciliate  the  faith  of  that  na- 
tion ;  every  unnecessary  expression  is  avoided, 
which  might  in  any  way  serve  to  obstruct  it. 
There  was  no  sentiment  relating  to  the  Messiah 
with  which  the  Jews  were  more  strongly  pos- 
sessed, than  that  he  must  be  of  the  race  of  Abraham, 
and  of  the  family  of  David.  Matthew,  therefore, 
with  great  propriety,  begins  his  narrative  with 
the  genealogy  of  Jesus.  That  he  should  be  born 
at  Bethlehem  in  Judea,  is  another  circumstance 
in  which  the  learned  among  the  Jews  were  uni- 
versally agreed.  His  birth  in  that  city,  with  some 
very  memorable  circumstances  that  attended  it, 
this  historian  has  also  mentioned.  Those  passages 
in  the  prophets,  or  other  sacred  books,  which  ei- 
ther foretel  any  thing  that  should  happen  to  him, 
or  admit  an  allusive  appellation,  or  were  in  that 
age  generally  understood  to  be  applicable  to  events 
which  respect  the  Messiah,  are  never  passed  over 
by  the  evangelist  in  silence.  The  fulfilment  of 
prophecy  was  always  to  the  Jews,  who  were  con- 
vinced of  the  inspiration  of  their  sacred  writings, 
strong  evidence.  Accordingly  none  of  the  eran- 
gelists  has  been  more  careful  than  Matthew,  that 
nothing  of  this  kind  should  be  overlooked. 

That  which  chiefly  distinguishes  Matthew's 
writings  from  those  of  the  other  evangelists,  is 
the  minute  and  distinct  manner  in  which  he  has 
related  many  of  our  Lord's  discourses  and  moral 
instructions.  Of  these  his  sermon  on  the  mount, 
his  charge  to  the  apostles,  his  illustrations  of  the 
nature  of  his  kingdom,  and  his  prophecy  on 
Mount  Olivet,  are  examples.  He  has  also  won- 
derfully united  simplicity  and  energy  in  relating 
the  replies  of  his  master  to  the  cavils  of  his  ad- 
versaries. Being  early  called  to  the  apostleship, 
he  was  an  eye  and  ear  witness  of  most  of  the 
things  which  he  relates.  And  Dr.  Campbell 
thinks,  that  Matthew  has  approached  as  near  the 
precise  order  of  time  in  which  the  events  happened 
as  any  of  the  evangelists.  See  MATTHEW.  The 
Gospel  according  to  Matthew  is  cited  seven  times 
in  the  epistle  of  Barnabas,  twice  in  the  first  epistle 
of  Clemens  Romanus  to  the  Corinthians,  eight 
times  in  the  Shepherd  of  Hernias,  six  times  in 
Polycarp's  epistle  to  the  Philippians,  and  seven 
times  in  the  smaller  epistles  of  Ignatius.  These 
citations  may  be  seen  at  full  length  in  Jones's 
New  and  Full  Method  of  Settling  the  Canon, 
with  the  parallel  passages  in  the  Gospel  according 
to  Matthew. 

That  MARK  was  the  author  of  the  gospel  which 
bears  his  name,  and  that  it  was  the  second  in  the 
order  of  time,  is  proved  by  the  unanimous  testi- 
mony of  the  ancient  Christians.  Many  authorities 
are  therefore  unnecessary :  we  shall  only  men- 
tion those  of  Papias  and  Irenaeus.  Eusebius 
has  preserved  the  following  passage  of  Papias  : — 
'  This  is  what  is  related  by  the  elder  (that  is 
John,  not  the  apostle,  but  a  disciple  of  Jesus). 
Mark  being  Peter's  interpreter,  wrote  exactly 
whatever  he  remembered,  not  indeed  in  the  or- 


646 


SCRIPTURE. 


der  wherein  things  were  spoken  an'd  done  by  the 
Lord  ;  for  he  was  not  himself  a  hearer  or  follower 
of  our  Lord  ;  but  he  afterwards,  as  I  said,  followed 
Peter,  who  gave  instructions  as  suited  the  occa- 
sions, but  not  as  a  regular  history  of  our  Lord's 
teaching.  Mark,  however,  committed  no  mistake 
in  writing  such  things  as  occurred  to  his  me- 
mory ;  for  of  this  one  thing  he  was  careful,  to 
omit  nothing  which  he  had  heard,  and  to  insert 
no  falsehood  in  his  narrative.'  Such  is  the  testi- 
mony of  Papias,  which  is  the  more  to  be  regarded, 
as  he  assigns  his  authority.  He  spake  not  from 
hearsay,  but  from  the  information  which  he  had 
received  from  a  most  credible  witness,  John  the 
elder,  or  presbyter,  a  disciple  of  Jesus,  and  a 
companion  of  the  apostles. 

Irenaeus  adds  : — <  After  the  departure  (i£o- 
Sov)  of  Peter  and  Paul,  Mark  also,  the  disciple 
and  interpreter  of  Peter,  delivered  to  us  in  writ- 
ing the  things  which  had  been  preached  by  Peter.' 
Mark's  gospel  was  published  in  Peter's  lifetime, 
and  had  his  approbation.  It  is  supposed  to  be  but 
two  years  posterior  in  date  to  that  of  Matthew. 

Mark  has  generally  been  supposed  to  be  the 
same  person  who  is  mentioned  in  the  Acts  and 
some  of  Paul's  epistles,  who  is  called  John,  and 
was  the  nephew  of  Barnabas.  But  as  this  per- 
son was  the  attendant  of  Paul  and  Barnabas,  and 
is  nowhere  in  Scripture  said  to  have  accompanied 
Peter  in  his  apostolical  mission,  which  ancient 
writers  inform  us. the  author  of  the  gospel  did, 
Dr.  Campbell  has  concluded  that  these  were  dif- 
ferent persons.  The  author  of  the  gospel  is 
certainly  meant  by  Peter,  when  he  says,  '  Mar- 
cus my  son  saluteth  you.' — 1  Pet.  v.  13. 

That  Mark  wrote  his  gospel  in  Greek,  is  con- 
formable to  the  testimony  of  antiquity.  From 
the  Hebraisms  in  the  style,  we  should  readily 
conclude  that  the  author  was  by  birth  and  edu- 
cation a  Jew.  There  are  also  expressions  which 
show,  that  he  had  lived  for  some  time  among  the 
Latins,  as  Kivrvpiov,  centurion,  and  <r;r£icX«aT  a»p, 
sentinel  ;  words  which  do  not  occur  in  the  other 
gospels.  There  are  other  internal  evidences  that 
this  gospel  was  written  beyond  the  confines  of 
Judea.  The  first  time  the  Jordan  is  mentioned, 
wora/ioc,  river,  is  added  to  the  name  for  expla- 
nation ;  for  though  no  person  in  Judea  needed 
to  be  informed  that  Jordan  was  a  river,  the  case 
was  different  in  distant  countries.  The  word  Ge- 
henna, which  is  translated  hell  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, originally  signified  the  Valley  of  Hinnom, 
where  infants  had  been  sacrificed  by  fire  to  Mo- 
loch, and  where  a  continual  fire  was  afterwards 
kept  up  to  consume  the  filth  of  Jerusalem.  As 
the  words  could  not  have  been  understood  by  a 
foreigner,  the  evangelist  adds,  by  way  of  expla- 
nation, irvp  TO  a<r/3tTov,  the  unquenchable  fire. 
Instead  of  the  word  mammon,  he  uses  the  com- 
mon term  ^prj^ara,  riches.  When  he  employs 
the  oriental  werd  corhan,  he  subjoins  the  inter- 
pretation o  £?i  tfwpov,  that  is,  a  gift.  These  pecu- 
liarities corroborate  the  historical  evidence,  that 
Mark  intended  his  gospel  for  the  Gentiles.  See 
Com 

It  has  been  affirmed  that  this  evangelist  has 
been  the  abridger  of  Matthew.  It  is  true  that 
Mark  sometimes  copies  the  expressions  used  by 
Matthew  ;  but  he  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  mere 


abridger,  for  he  omits  altogether  several  thing* 
related  by  Matthew,  viz.  our  Lord's  pedigree, 
his  birth,  the  visit  of  the  magians,  Joseph's  flight 
into  Egypt,  and  the  cruelty  of  Herod.  Dr. 
Lardner  has  given  a  list  of  thirty-three  passages, 
wherein  circumstances  are  related,  which  are 
omitted  by  the  other  evangelists.  There  is  one 
parable  and  an  account  of  two  miracles,  peculiar 
to  Mark.  The  parable  is  mentioned  in  ch.iv.  26. 
One  of  these  miracles  was  the  curing  of  a  deaf 
and  dumb  man,  ch.  vii.  31 — 37.  The  other  was 
the  giving  sight  to  a  blind  man  at  Bethsaida,  ch. 
viii.  22,  26.  The  style  of  Mark,  instead  of  being 
more  concise  than  that  of  Matthew,  is  more  dif- 
fuse. That  he  had  read  Matthew's  gospel  cannot 
be  doubted ;  but  that  he  abridged  it,  is  a 
mistake. 

According  to  the  testimony  above  quoted, 
Mark  derived  his  information  from  the  apostle 
Peter.  Yet  this  evangelist  has  omitted  many 
things  tending  to  Peter's  honor,  which  are  related 
in  the  other  gospels,  and  has  given  the  most  par- 
ticular account  of  Peter's  fall.  This  gospel  is 
seven  times  cited  by  Irenaeus,  and  nine  times  by 
Tertullian. 

That  the  author  of  the  gospel,  which  is  the 
third  in  order,  was  LUKE,  the  companion  of  the 
apostle  Paul,  is  evident  from  the  testimonies  of 
Irenaeus,  Clemens  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  Te  - 
tullian,  and  many  succeeding  writers.  But  it  h  s 
been  disputed  whether  he  was  a  Jew  or  a  Gentile. 
That  Luke  was  a  Jew  by  birth,  or  at  least  by  re- 
ligion, may  be  argued  from  his  being  a  constant 
companion  of  Paul.  If  he  had  been  an  uncir- 
cumcised  Gentile,  exceptions  would  have  been 
made  to  him,  especially  at  Jerusalem.  It  is  also 
rendered  highly  probable,  from  his  mode  of  com- 
puting time  by  the  Jewish  festivals,  and  from  his 
frequent  use  of  the  Hebrew  idiom.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  Luke  was  one  of  the  seventy  dis- 
ciples ;  but  he  does  not  pretend  to  have  been  a 
witness  of  our  Lord's  miracles  and  teaching  ;  on 
the  contrary,  he  tells  us  in  his  introduction,  that 
he  received  his  information  from  others.  The 
design  of  Luke  in  writing  his  gospel  was  to  su- 
persede some  imperfect  and  inaccurate  histories 
of  our  Saviour,  which  had  then  been  published. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  Luke  chiefly  derived 
his  information  from  the  apostle  Paul,  whom  he 
faithfully  attended  in  his  travels  ;  but  from  Luke's 
own  words,  we  may  conclude,  that  the  principal 
source  of  his  intelligence,  as  to  the  facts  related 
in  the  gospel,  was  from  those  who  had  been  eye 
and  ear  witnesses  of  what  our  Lord  both  did  and 
taught.  It  was  from  conversing  with  some  of  the 
apostles  or  disciples  of  our  Lord,  who  heard  his 
discourses  and  saw  his  miracles,  that  he  obtained 
his  information.  The  time  when  this  gospel  was 
written  is  not  ascertained.  But  as  Origen,  Eu- 
sebius,  and  Jerome,  have  ranged  it  after  those  of 
Matthew  and  Mark,  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt 
but  they  were  written  in  the  same  order.  The  gos- 
pel by  Luke  has  supplied  u*  with  many  inter- 
esting particulars  which  had  been  omitted  both  by 
Matthew  and  Mark.  It  has  given  a  distinct  nar- 
ration of  the  circumstances  attending  the  birth  of 
John  the  Baptist  and  the  nativity  of  our  Saviour. 
It  has  given  an  account  of  several  memorable 
incidents  and  cures  which  had  been  overlooked 


SCRIPTURE. 


647 


by  the  rest  ;  the  conversion  of  Zaccheus  the 
publican  ;  the  cure  of  the  woman  who  had  been 
bowed  down  for  eighteen  years  ;  the  cure  of  the 
dropsical  man ;  the  cleansing  of  the  ten  lepers ; 
the  inhospitable  treatment  of  our  Saviour  by  the 
Samaritans,  and  the  instructive  rebuke  which  he 
gave  on  that  occasion  to  two  of  his  disciples  for 
their  intemperate  zeal  ;  also  the  affecting  inter- 
view which  he  had  after  his  resurrection  with  two 
of  his  disciples.  Luke  has  also  added  many  edi- 
fying parables  to  those  which  the  other  evange- 
lists had  recorded.  Most  of  these  Irenaeus  has 
specified  as  particularly  belonging  to  this  gospel, 
and  has  thereby  shown  that  the  Gospel  of  Luke 
was  the  same  in  his  time  that  it  is  at  present. 

The  style  of  St.  Luke  abounds  almost  as  much 
with  Hebraisms  as  any  of  the  sacred  writings ;  but 
it  contains  more  of  the  Grecian  idiom  than  any  of 
them.  It  is  also  distinguished  by  greater  variety 
and  copiousness  ;  qualities  which  may  be  justly 
ascribed  to  the  superior  learning  of  the  author. 
His  occupation  as  a  physician  would  induce  him 
to  employ  some  time  in  reading,  and  give  him 
easier  access  to  the  company  of  the  great,  than 
any  of  the  other  evangelists.  As  an  instance  of 
Luke's  copiousness,  Dr.  Campbell  has  remarked 
that  each  cf  the  evangelists  has  a  number  of 
words  which  are  used  by  none  of  the  rest ;  but 
in  Luke's  gospel  the  number  of  such  peculiarities 
or  words  used  in  none  of  the  other  gospels,  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  peculiar  words  found  in 
all  the  other  gospels  put  together ;  and  that  the 
terms  peculiar  to  Luke  are  for  the  most  part  long 
and  compound  words.  He  has  also  observed 
that  there  is  more  of  composition  in  Luke's  sen- 
tences than  in  the  other  three,  and  consequently 
less  simplicity.  Of  this  the  very  first  sentence 
is  an  example,  which  occupies  no  less  than  four 
verses.  Luke,  too,  has  a  great  resemblance  to 
other  historians,  in  giving  what  may  be  called 
his  own  opinion  in  the  narrative  part  of  this 
work,  a  freedom  which  the  other  evangelists  have 
seldom  or  never  used.  He  calls  the  Pharisees 
lovers  of  money  ;  in  distinguishing  Judas  Isca- 
riot  from  the  other  Judas,  he  uses  the  phrase,  he 
who  proved  a  traitor,  (oc  Kai  tytviTo  Trpotforijc)- 
Matthew  and  Mark  express  the  same  sentiment 
in  milder  language,  '  he  who  delivered  him  up.' 
In  recording  the  moral  instructions  of  our  Lord, 
especially  in  parables,  Luke  has  united  an  affect- 
ing sweetness  of  manner  with  genuine  simplicity. 
This  gospel  is  frequently  cited  by  Clemens  Ro- 
manus,  the  contemporary  of  the  apostles,  by  Ig- 
natius, and  Justin  Martyr.  Irenaeus  has  made 
above  100  citations  from  it.  In  his  lib.  iii.  adv. 
Haeres.  c.  14,  he  vindicates  the  authority  and 
perfection  of  Luke's  gospel,  and  has  produced  a 
collection  of  those  facts  which  are  recorded  only 
by  this  evangelist.  See  LUKE. 

That  the  gospel  which  is  placed  last  in  our 
editions  of  the  New  lestament  was  written  by 
JOHN,  our  Saviour's  beloved  disciple,  is  confirmed 
by  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  ancient 
Christians.  See  JOHN.  He  possessed  a  high  de- 
gree of  intrepidity  and  zeal,  a  warm  and  affec- 
tionate heart,  and  was  strongly  attached  to  his 
master.  He  and  his  brother  James  were  ho- 
nored with  the  title  of  Boanerges,  or  Sons  of 
Thunder.  He  vvas  anxious  to  restrain  whatever 


he  considered  as  a  mark  of  disrespect  against  his 
Master,  and  to  punish  his  enemies  with  severity. 
He  was  incensed  against  some  persons  for  at- 
tempting to  cast  out  demons  in  the  name  of  Je- 
sus ;  and  required  them  to  desist  because  they 
were  not  his  disciples.  James  and  he  proposed 
to  our  Saviour  to  call  down  fire  from  heaven  to 
punish  the  inhospitable  Samaritans.  But  these 
instances  of  bigotry  were  reproved  by  our  Lord. 
Nor  was  the  courage  of  John  less  ardent  than  his 
zeal.  When  Peter  had  disowned  his  Lord,  and 
all  the  other  disciples  had  fled,  John  continued 
to  attend  his  master.  He  was  present  at  his  trial, 
and  followed  him  to  the  cross,  where  he  was  a 
spectator  of  his  sufferings  and  death.  The  inter- 
view between  Jesus  and  his  disciple  at  Calvary, 
though  concisely  related,  is  an  event  which  will 
strongly  affect  every  man  of  feeling,  while  it  con- 
vinces him  of  the  unalterable  affection  of  Jesus 
for  his  beloved  disciple,  as  well  as  discovers  his 
respectful  tenderness  for  his  mother.  See  JOHN. 

The  ancients  inform  us  that  there  were  two  mo- 
tives which  induced  John  to  write  his  gospel ;  the 
one  that  he  might  refute  the  heresies  of  Cerin- 
thus  and  the  Nicolaitans,  who  had  attempted  to 
corrupt  the  Christian  doctrine  ;  the  other  that  he 
might  supply  those  important  events  in  the  life 
of  our  Saviour  which  the  other  evangelists  had 
omitted.  Of  the  former  of  these  motives  Irenaeus 
gives  an  account;  but  it  seems  very  improbable 
that  an  apostle  should  write  a  history  of  our  Lord 
on  purpose  to  confute  the  wild  opinions  of  Cerin- 
thus  or  any  other  heretic.  The  intention  of  John 
in  writing  his  gospel  was  far  more  extensive  and 
important.  It  was  evidently,  according  to  Cle- 
mens of  Alexandria,  to  supply  the  omissions  of 
the  other  evangelists  :  It  was  to  exhibit  the  evi- 
dences of  the  Christian  religion  in  a  distinct  and 
perspicuous  manner :  It  was,  as  he  himself  in 
the  conclusion  of  his  gospel  assures  us,  to  con- 
vince his  readers,  <  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah,  the 
Son  of  God,  and  that  believing  they  might  have 
life  through  his  name.' — John  xx.  31.  He  has 
executed  his  plan  with  astonishing  ability,  and 
has  given  the  most  circumstantial  and  satisfactory 
evidence  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah  the  Son  of 
God.  After  declaring  the  pre-existence  of  Jesus, 
he  gives  the  testimony  of  John  the  Baptist,  and 
selects  some  of  the  greatest  miracles  of  Jesus  to 
prtrre  his  divine  mission.  In  the  fifth  chapter 
he  presents  us  with  a  discourse  which  our  Saviour 
delivered  in  the  temple  in  the  presence  of  the 
Jews,  wherein  he  states  in  a  very  distinct  manner 
the  proofs  of  his  mission,  from  1.  The  testimony 
of  John  ;  2.  His  own  miracles  ;  3.  The  declara- 
tion of  the  Father  at  his  baptism  ;  4.  The  Jewish 
Scripture.  Indeed  the  conclusion  that  Jesus  was 
the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  God,  naturally  arises 
from  almost  every  miracle  which  our  Saviour  is 
said  to  have  performed,  and  from  every  discourse 
that  he  delivered.  This  declaration  i.«  very  often 
made  by  our  Saviour  himself;  particularly  to 
the  woman  of  Samaria,  to  Nicodemus,  and  to  the 
blind  man  whom  he  had  cured. 

John  studiously  passes  over  those  passages  irt 
our  Lord's  history  and  teaching  which  had  been 
treated  at  large  by  the  other  evangelists,  or,  if  he 
mentions  them  at  all,  he  mentions  them  slightly. 
This  confirms  the  testimony  of  ancient  writers, 


648 


SCRIPTURE. 


that  the  first  three  gospels  were  written  and  pub- 
lished before  John  composed  his  gospel.  Except 
the  relation  of  our  Saviour's  trial,  death,  and  re- 
surrection, almost  every  thing  which  occurs  in 
this  book  is  new.  The  account  of  our  Saviour's 
nativity,  of  his  baptism,  and  of  his  temptation  in 
<he  wilderness,  is  omitted  ;  nor  is  any  notice 
taken  of  the  calling  of  the  twelve  apostl.es,  or  of 
their  mission  during  our  Saviour's  life.  Not  one 
parable  is  mentioned,  nor  any  of  the  predictions 
relating  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  All  the 
miracles  recorded  by  the  other  evangelists  are 
passed  over,  except  the  miraculous  supply  of 
provisions,  by  which  5000  were  fed.  The  other 
miracles  which  are  mentioned  are  few  in  number, 
but  they  are  minutely  detailed.  They  are  these  r 
the  turning  of  water  into  wine  at  Cana  ;  the  cure 
of  the  diseased  man  at  the  pool  of  Bethesda  ;  the 
cure  of  the  man  blind  from  his  birth  ;  the  restoring 
of  Lazarus  to  life ;  and  the  healing  of  the  servant's 
ear  which  Peter  had  cut  off.  But  valuable  would 
this  gospel  be  though  it  had  only  recorded  the 
consolation  of  Jesus  to  his  disciples  previous  to 
his  departure  ,  which  exhibits  a  most  admirable 
view  of  our  Saviour's  character, — of  his  care  and 
tender  regard  for  his  disciples.  Having  opened 
every  source  of  comfort  to  their  desponding 
minds,  exhorted  them  to  mutual  love,  and  to  the 
obedience  of  his  Father's  precepts  ;  having 
warned  them  of  the  impending  dangers  and  sor- 
rows— our  Saviour  concludes  with  a  prayer,  in 
the  true  spirit  of  piety  and  benevolence  ;  ardent 
without  enthusiam ;  sober  and  rational  without 
lukewarmness. 

The  time  in  which  this  gospel  was  written  has 
not  been  ascertained.     Irenaeus  informs  ut;  that 


ST.  MATTHEW. 


2.  Genealogy  of  Christ, 
I.  1—17. 


6.   Joseph's    dream,    I 
18—24. 


8.  Birth  of  Christ,  1. 25 


11.  Jesus  sought  and 
worshipped  by  the  wise 
men  :  flight  into  Egypt  and 
return  :  massacre  of  the 
children  of  Bethlehem,  ch. 
II.  1—23. 


ST.  MAKE. 


it  was  written  at  Ephesus,  but  does  not  say  wii 
ther  before  or  after  John's  return  from  Patnios- 
He  was  banished  to  Patmos  by  Domitian,  and 
died  at  Ephesus  A.  D.  100.  The  persecution 
which  occasioned  the  exile  of  John  commenced 
in  the  fourteenth  year  of  Domitian's  reign.  John 
wrote  his  gospel  after  his  return  to  Ephesus,  as 
is  affirmed  by  Epiphanius,  about  the  year  97. 
Thrs  gospel  is  evidently  the  production  of  an  il- 
literate Jew,  and  its  style  is  remarkable  for  sim- 
plicity. It  abounds  perhaps  with  Hebraisms  more 
than  any  of  the  other  gospels  ;  and  contains  some 
strong  oriental  figures  which  are  not  readily  un- 
derstood by  any  European.  This  gospel  is  cited 
once  by  Clemens  Romanus,  by  Barnabas  three 
times,  by  Ignatius  five  times,  by  Justin  Martyr 
six  times,  by  Irenaeus  often,  and  above  forty  times 
by  Clemens. Alexandrinus. 

The  following  harmonised  Table  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  four  Gospels  is  taken  from  Marsh's 
Translation  of  Michaelis's  Introduction  to  the 
New  Testament,  vol.  iii.  p.  40,  &c.,  to  which 
we  are  so  much  in  this  paper  indebted.  The 
arrangement  of  facts  as  they  occur  in  St.  Mat- 
thew is  here  generally  followed  ;  and  the  other 
evangelists  are  collated  with  his  account.  The 
author  observes,  '  I  would  not  have  the  reader 
suppose  that  the  several  facts  here  delivered  are 
arranged,without  exception,  according  to  the  order 
in  which  they  really  happened  ;  for  it  is  my  in- 
tention to  give  rather  a  general  index  to  the  four 
Gospels  than  to  draw  up  a  chronological  table.' 
The  numbers  prefixed  to  the  several  sections 
point  out  the  consecutive  order  of  the  facts  as 
well  as  it  can  be  ascertained. 


ST.  LUKE. 
1.  Preface,  I.  1—4. 

III.  23—38. 

3.  Birth  of  John,  I. 
5—25. 

4.  Birth  of  Christ  an- 
nounced to  Mary,  I.  26 
—38. 

5.  Mary's  visit  to  Eli- 
zabeth, I.  39—55. 


7.    Birth   of  John  I. 
56—80. 

II.  1—20. 

9.  Circumcision    of 
Christ,  II.  21. 

1 0.  Presentation    of 
Christ  in  the  temple,  II. 
22—40. 


12.  Education  of 
Christ,  and  remarkable 
history  of  linn  in  his 
twelfth  year,  at  the  feast 


ST.  JOHN. 
I.  1—14. 


SCRIPTURE. 


649 


ST.  MATTHEW. 


13.  John  preaches,  III. 
1—12. 

14.  Christ  baptised,  III. 
13—17. 

15.  Christ  tempted, 
i—ll 


22.  Arrives  in  Galilee 
calls  several  disciples,  anc 
performs  miracles,  IV.  1 
—24. 


ST.  MARK. 

ST.  LUKE. 

V  T 

f  the  passover,  II.  41 
—52. 

1, 

r 

I.  1—8. 

III.  1—20. 

1. 

1  T 

I.  9—11. 

III.  21—23. 

l  '  . 

1.  12—13. 

IV.  1—12. 

1 

101 

el 

1111 

Ch 

bt 
pie 

n 
Ch 

01 

Ga 

wa 
II. 

at 

OV( 

er 
II. 

wh 

i 

me 
io 
23 

f. 
ad 
Jo 
ce 

im 
th 
HI 
th 

lee 

m; 
in 

UK 

1 

I.  14—21. 

IV.  13,  14. 

tic 
at 
ab 

24.  Christ  teaches  i 
the  synagogue  at  Naza 
reth,  IV.  15—30.* 

ra 
to 

25  —  30.  History  of  a  single  day,  and  that  a  sabbath. 

25.  Christ   teache 
in  the   synagogue   a 
Capernaum,  and  heal 
a  demoniac,  I.  21— 
28. 

s 

t 
> 

IV.  31—37. 

ST.  JOHN. 


16.  Remarkable  addi- 
ion  made  by  this  evan- 
elist  relative  to  the  tes- 
imonies    in    favor     of 

Ihrist,  by  which  he 
btained  his  first  disci- 
iles,  who  soon  increased 
n  numbers,  I.  15 — 52. 

17—20.  History  of 
Ihrist  before  the  impri- 
onment  of  John. 

17.  Christ  returns  to 
Jalilee,     and     changes 
water  into  wine  at  Cana, 

I.  1—12. 

18.  Goes  to  Jerusalem 
it  the  feast  of  the  pass- 
aver,  and  drives  the  sel- 
ers  out  of  the  temple, 

.  13—22. 

19.  Gives  Nicodemus, 
who  visits  him  by  night, 
more  complete  informa- 
ion  of  his  doctrine,  II. 

23.— III.  21. 

20.  Remains  in  Judea : 
additional  testimony  of 
John   the  Baptist   con- 
cerning him,III.  22— 36. 

21 .  Returns  (after  the 
mprisonment  of  John) 
through  Samaria  to  Ga- 
lilee :  conversation  with 
the  woman  of  Samaria  : 
many  Samaritans  believe 
in  him,  IV.  t— 42. 


IV.  43,  44. 
23.  Remarkable  addi- 
tion of  a  second  miracle 
at  Cana,  by  which  the 
absent  son  of  a  man  of 
rank  is  at  once  restoied 
to  health,  IV.  45—54. 


*  In  point  of  chronology,  this  does  not  belong  to  the  present  place,  not  even  according  to  St.  Luke  ;  but 
I  place  it  here  because  St.  Luke  has  introduced  it  immediately  after  the  preceding  history.  Perhaps  it 
belongs  to  No.  50.  though  1  have  not  placed  it  there,  because  it  does  not  exactly  agree  with  the  accounts 
quoted  in  that  article  from  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark. 


SCRIPTURE. 


ST.  MATTHEW, 


27.  Christ  delivers    a 
discourse,  in  which  he  con- 
demns the  morality  of  the 
Pharisees,  and  opposes  to 
it  a  better  morality,  which 
he  commissions  his  apostles 
to  teach,  IV.  25.  V.  VI. 

vn. 

28.  Cleanses   a  leper, 
VIII.  1—4. 

29.  Heals  the  servant  of 
a  centurion,  VIII.  5—13. 

30.  Restores  Peter's  mo- 
ther-in-law, and,  after  the 
sabbath  was  ended,  several 
other  sick  persons,  VIII. 
14—17. 


ST.  MARK. 

26.  Christ  ascends 
a  mountain,  passes  the 
night  in  prayer,  and 
then  chooses  his  apos- 
tles, III.  13—19. 


I.  40—45. 


I.  29—34. 


ST.  LUKE. 


VI.  18—16. 


VI.  17—49. 
V.  12—16. 

VII.  1—10. 


IV.  38—41. 


ST.  JOH*. 


33. 


The  day  immediately  following  the  preceding  sabbath. 

31.  Christ  departs 
from  Capernaum,  I. 
35—39.  IV.  42—44. 

32.  Restores   to   life 
the  young  man  at  Nain, 
VII.  11— 17. 

33.  Peter's   copious 
draught  of    fishes  ;    of 
which  no  traces  are  dis- 
coverable  with    respect 
to  the  time  when  it  hap- 
pened, V.  1 — 11, 

33—37.  Another  history  of  a  single  day,  which  was  likewise  a  sabbath. 
Christ  defends  his 


disciples,  who  plucked  ears 
of  corn  on  the  sabbath 
XII.  1—8. 

34.  Cures  a  withered 
hand,  XII.  9—21. 

35.  Drives  out  a  devil, 
and  is  accused  of  doing  it 
by  the  assistance  of  Beel- 
zebub,  the  prince  of  the 
devils.    His  answer,  XII. 
22—50. 


37.  Preaches  in  parables, 
XIII.  1—53. 

38.  Christ  endeavours  to 
retire  from  the  multitude, 
and  sails  to  the  other  side 
of  the  lake  Gennesaret.  Ac- 
count   of  one  who   offers 
himself  to  be  a  disciple  of 
Christ,  and  of  another  who 
requests  permission  to  re- 
main witli  his  father  till  his 
death.   VIII.  18—27. 


II.  23—28. 

III.  1—12. 


III.  20—35. 


IV.  1—34. 


IV.  35—41. 


VI.  1—5. 
VI.  6— 11. 


XI.  14— 36.  VIII.  19 
—21. 

36.  Dines  with  a  Pha- 
risee :  conversation  at 
table,  XI.  37.  XII.  12. 

VIII.  4—18. 


VIII.  22—25.  IX.  57— 

62. 


ST.  MATTHEW. 

39.  Drives  out  a  devil, 
who  calls  himself  Legion 

VIII.  28—34. 

40.  Heals  a  lame  man, 

IX.  1—8. 

41 .  Calls  Matthew,  and 
Levi  :    dines  with  tax-ga- 
therers, IX.  9—17. 

42.  Heals  a  woman 
afflicted  with  an  hemorrhage 
and  restores  the  daughter 
of  Jairus,  who  was  sup- 
posed to  be  dead,  IX.  18 
—26. 

43.  Restores  two  blinc 
men  to  sight,  IX.  27—31. 

44.  Restores    a  dumb 
man  to  his  speech,  IX.  32 
—34. 

45.  Sends  out  his  twelve 
Apostles,  IX.  33— XI.  1. 


46.  Answers  John,  who 
enquires   of   him  whether 
he  is  the  Messiah,  XI.  2 — 
19. 

47.  Curses  the  cities  in 
which   he  had  performec 
the  greatest  part  of  his  mi- 
racles, XL  20—30. 


50.  Christ  comes  to  Na- 
zareth, where  he  is  disre- 
spectfully treated,  XIII 
54—58. 


51.  Herod,  who  had  be 
headed  John,  is  doubtfu 
what  he  should  believe  o 
Christ,  XIV.  1—13. 


3.  5000  men  fed  wit 
five  loaves  and  two  fishes 
XIV.  14—36. 

54.  Discourses  on  wash 
ing  of  hands,  clean  and  un- 
clean   meats,    and     othe 
Jewish  doctrines,  XV.  1 — 
20. 


SCRIPTURE. 

ST.  MARK.  ST.  LUKE. 


651 


V.  1—20. 
V.  21.11.  1—12. 

II.  13—22. 


V.  23—43. 


VI.  7—13. 


VL  1—6. 


VI.  14—29. 


VI.  30—56. 


VII.  1—23. 


VIII.  26—39. 
VIII.  40.  V.  17—2o. 

V.  27—39. 


VIII.  40—56. 


IX.  1—6,  and  (but  a' 
a  later  period)  the  seventy 
disciples,  X.  1—24* 


VII.  18—35. 


48.  Is  anointed  by  : 
woman  who  had  led  ; 
sinful  life,  VII.  35—50 

49.  Account  of  those 
who  ministered  to  Christ 
on  his  travels,  VIII.  1 
—3. 

Perhaps  ch.  IV.  15 
— 30,  which    I    placec 

.  24,  belongs  to  thi 
article,  and  contains  the 
same   history,   but    dif- 
erently  related. 


IX.  7—9. 


IX.  10— 17. 


ST.  JOHN. 


52.  Account  of  several 
remarkable  transactions 
and  discourses  at  a  great 
?estival  in  Jerusalem, 
omitted  by  the  other 
evangelists,  ch.  V.  en- 
tire. 


VI.  entire. 


*  I  place  the  sending  out  of  the  seventy  disciples  in  the  same  article  with  that  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
merely  because  the  two  facts  resemble  each  other ;  for  we  have  no  knowledge  of  the  precise  period  in  which 
the  former  event  happened.  The  evangelists  themselves  have  often  adopted  a  similar  plan. — Michaelis. 


652 

ST.  MATTHEW. 

55.    Christ    heals     the 
daughter   of    a   Canaanit 
woman,  XV.  21 — 28. 

56.  Performs  several  mi 
racles,  XV.  29—31. 

57.    Feeds    4000    men 
with  seven   loaves   and 
few  small  fishes,  XV.  32— 
39. 

58.  Answers  those  wh 
require  a  sign  from  heaven 
XVI.  1—4. 

59.  Commands  his  dis 
ciples   to   beware    of    the 
leaven    of   the   Pharisees 
which  command  they  mis 
understand,  XVI.  5—12. 


61.  Asks  his   disciple: 
whom  they  suppose  him  to 
be.     Peter  answers  that  hi 
is  the  Messiah,  which  Jesu 
confirms,  XVI.  13—20. 

62.  Fortels  his  death  on 
the  cross,  XVI.  21—28. 

63.  Is  transfigured   on 
a  lofty  mountain   beyonc 
Jordan,  XVII.  1—13. 

64.  Cures    a    lunatic 
XVII.  14—21. 

65.  Again  foretells  his 
approaching      sufferings, 
XVII.  22,  23. 

66.  Pays  the  half  sheke 
as  tribute  for  the  service  01 
the  temple,  XVII.  24—27 

67.  His  discourses  occa- 
sioned by  the  dispute  who 
was  the    greatest    in    the 
kingdom  of  heaven,  XVIII. 
1—20. 

68.    Answers    Peter's 
question,    how    often    we 
must  forgive,  XVIII.  21 
35. 


SCRIPTURE. 

ST.  MAKK.  ST.  LUKE. 


VII.  24—30. 

VII.  31—37. 

vni.  1-10. 

VIII.  1—13. 


VIII.  14—21. 

60.  Restores  a  blinc 
man  to  sight,  VIII 
22—26. 


VII.  27—30. 
VIII.  31— IX.  1. 

IX.  2—13. 
IX.  14—29. 

IX.  30—32. 


IX.  33—50. 


IX.  18—21. 
IX.  21—27. 

IX.  28—36. 
IX.  37—42. 

IX.  43—45. 


ST.  JOHN. 


X.  46—50.  XVII.  1— 


69—83.   Single   scattered   accounts   recorded 
nly  by  St.  Luke,  some  of  which  belong  to  the 
iree  or  four  last  months  of  the  life  of  Christ, 
thers  to  an  earlier  period,  and  which  are  not  ar- 
ranged according  to  the  order  of  time 

69.  Christ  is  refused 
le  offices  of  hospitality 
y  the  Samaritans,  IX. 
1—56. 

70.  Answers  the  que«- 
IOD,  Who  is  our  neigh- 
our?X.26— 37. 

71.  Visits   Martha  a 
second  time  :    his    dis- 
burse relative  to  her  too 
anxious  preparations  for 
table,  X.  38—42. 

72.  Teaches  his  disoi- 
les  to  pray,  XI.  1—13. 


SCRIPTURE. 


653 


ST.  MATTHEW. 


ST.  MARK. 


84.  Answers  the  question 
relative  to  divorces,  XIX. 
1—12. 

85.  Takes  little  children 
into  his  arms  and  blesses 
t'iem  :  and  on  this  occasion 
.eproves  his  disciples,  XIX. 
13—15. 

86.     Answers    a     rich 
young  man,  who  asked  him 


X.  1—12. 


X.  13—16. 


ST.  LUKE. 

73.  Discourses  occa 
sioned   by   the    reques 
which  a  person  preser 
had  made  to  Christ,  tha 
he  would  command  hi 
brother   to    divide  wit 
him  his  inheritance,  XI] 
13—59. 

74.  Discourses   occa 
sioned  by  Pilate's  havin 
put  to  death  several  Ga 
iileans,  and  offered  thei 
blood  in  sacrifice,  XIII 
1—9. 

75.  Christ  cures   on 
the  sabbath  day  an  in 
firm   woman,  who   wa 
unable  to  walk  upright 
XIII.  10—22. 

76.  Answers  the  ques 
tion,    whether    few    o 
many    will    be     saved 
XIII.  23—30. 

77.  Replies  to  those 
who  desire  him  to  retire 
Decause    Herod    sough 
o   put  him    to    death 
XIII.  31—38. 

78.  Dines  with  a  Pha- 
risee on  the  sabbath  day 

lis  actions  and  dis- 
courses on  that  occa- 
sion, XIV.  entire. 

79.  Dines  with  publi- 
cans,  and  justifies    hi? 
conduct  to    those    who 
censure  him.     Accepta- 

ion  of  the  Gentiles: 
XV.  entire. 

80.  On  this  occasion 
e  instructs  his  disciples 
n  the  true  use  of  riches, 
nd  defends  his  doctrine 
.gainst    the     Pharisees 

who   ridicule   it,    XVI. 
ntire. 

81.  His  discourse  on 
he  extraordinary  effects 
)f  faith,  XVII.  5— 11. 

82.  Heals  ten  lepers, 
>f  whom  the  Samaritan 
lone   returned    thanks, 
CVI1.  11— 19. 

83.  Answers  the  ques- 
ion,  When  the  kingdom 
f    God   should    come 
iVII.  20— XVIII.  14. 


XVIII.  15—17. 


ST.  JOHN. 


ST.  MATTHEW 

now  he  should  obtain  eter- 
nal life.  Christ's  important 
discourse  on  this  occasion 
with  his  disciples,  XIX. 
16— XX.  16. 

87.  Discourses  again  on 
his  approaching  death,  XX. 
17—19. 

88.  The  mother  of  the 
sons  of  Zebedee  requests 
for  them  the  first  rank  in 
the    kingdom    of   heaven. 
Christ's  answer,  XX.  20 — 
28. 


93.  Restores  two  blinc 
men  to  sight,  XX.  29—34 


96.  Christ  is  anointed  a 
Bethany  by  Mary :  he  de- 
fends  this   action    agains 
the  unjust  censure  of  his 
disciples,    particularly    o 
Judas  Iscariot,  who  form 
the    resolution    to    betra 
him,  XXVI.  6—13. 

97.  Christ's   entry  int 
Jerusalem,  XXI.  1—11. 

98.  He   goes,  as   Lord 
into  the  temple,  and  again 
drives  out  the  sellers :  h 
curses  a  fig-tree,  XXI.  12 
—22. 

99.  Answers  the  question 
by  what  power  he  does  this 

XXI.  23—46. 

100.  Parable  of  the  neg 
lected  festival  of  a  king 

XXII.  1—14. 

101.  Answer  to  tfo 
question  relative  to  tribute 
money,  XXII.  15—21. 

102  Answer  to  the  ob- 
jection made  by  the  Sad 
•iucees  to  the  resurrectio 


SCRIPTURE. 

ST.  MARK.  ST.  LUKE. 


X.  17—31. 


X.  32—34. 


X.  35—40. 


X.  46—52. 


XIv.3— 9. 
XL  1—10. 

XL  11—26. 
XL  27.  XII.  12. 

XII.  13— 17. 


XVIII.  18—30. 


XVIII.  31—34. 


ST.  JOHN. 


89 — 92.  Supplement  of  several  events  and  dis- 
courses, omitted  by  the  first  three  evangelists, 
which  took  place  especially  at  Jerusalem,  and 
which  belong  to  the  period  between  No.  53  and 
No.  88. 

89.  Christ's    actions 
ind  discourses  at  Jeru- 
salem, at  a  feast  of  taber- 
nacles, VII.  1—X.  21. 

90.  Discourses  at  Je- 
rusalem, at  the  festival 
of  the  dedication  of  the 
temple,  X.  22—42. 

91.  Christ  raises  La- 
zarus from  the  dead,  XL 
1-52. 

92.  Returns  to  Ephr 
raim,  XL  54—57. 

XVIII.  35—43 

94.  Visits   Zaccheus, 
XIX.  1—10. 

95.  Describes   in   a 
parable   the   Jews  who 
rejected  him,   XIX.  11 
—27. 


XIX.  28—44. 

XIX.  45—48. 
XX.  1—19 

XX.  20—26. 


XII.  1—10. 
XII.  9— It 


ST.  MATTHEW. 

of  the  dead,  XXII.  22— 
33. 

103.  Answer  to  the  ques- 
tion,  Which   is   the   great 
commandment  of  the  law  ? 
XXII.  34—39. 

104.  The  question  pro- 
posed, Whose  son  the  Mes- 
siah is  ?   XXII.  40—46. 

105.  Discourse  against 
the  Pharisees,  XXIII.  en- 
tire. 


107.  Prophecy   of   the 
destruction   of  Jerusalem, 
XXIV.  entire. 

108.  Addition    to   the 
preceding  prophecy,  found 
only  in  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew,  XXV.  1—30. 

109.  Christ  answers  the 
question  relative  to  the  last 
judgment,  XXV.  30—46. 

110.  After  the  preceding 
discourses  were  ended  he 
attain  foretels  his  approach- 
ing death,  XXVI.  2. 


113.  Judas  Iscariot  pro- 
mises to  betray  Christ,  and 
receives    thirty   pieces    of 
silver,  XXVI.  3—5,  14— 
16. 

114.  Preparation  for  the 
feast  of  the  passover,XXVI. 
17—19. 


116.  He  sits  down  to 
table,  and  speaks  of  his  be- 
trayer, XXVI.  20—25. 


118.  Institutes  the  holy 
lupper,  XXV.  26—29. 


SCRIPTURE. 

ST.  MARK.  ST.  LUKE. 


655 


XII.  18-27. 


XII.  28—34. 


XII.  35—38. 


XII.  39,  40. 
106.  Small  alms- 
offering  of  a  widow 
commended,  XII.  41 
—44. 


XIII.  entire. 


XIV.  10,11. 
XIV.  12—16. 


XIV.  17—21. 


XIV.  22—25. 


XX.  27—40. 


XX.  41—43. 

XX.  44—47. 

XXI.  1—5. 

XXI.  6—38. 


XXII.  1—5. 


XXII.  6—13. 


XXII.  14. 

117.  Presents  to  hL 
apostles  the  cup  of  the 
passover  :  his  discourse 
on  that  occasion,  XXII 
15—18. 

XXII.  19,  20. 
119.  After  supper  he 
speaks  again  of  his  be 
trayer,  XXII.  21—23. 


ST.  JOHN. 


111.  Of  the  Greeks 
vho  wished  to  see  Je- 
sus :  Christ's  discourse 
on  this  occasion,  and  the 
answer  from  heaven, 
XII.  20—36. 

112.  Discourse  on  the 
nfidelity  of  the  Jews, 
after  the  performance  of 
,o  many  miracles,  XII. 
37—50. 


XIII.  I. 

115.  Christ,  before  he 
eats  the  feast  of  the  pass- 
over,  washes  the  feet  of 
lis  discipies,  XIII.  1 — 
20 


xiii.  2i-eo, 


656 


ST.  MATTHEW. 


121.  Christ  goes  into  the 
garden  of  Gethsemane,  and 
foretels  to  Peter  that  he 
would  deny  him,  XXV7! 
30—35. 


123.  Prayer  that  the  cup 
might    be   removed    from 
him,  XXVI.  36—46. 

124.  Christ  is  taken  into 
custody,  XXVI.  47—56. 

125.  Brought  before  the 
Sanhedrim,  and  condemn- 
ed :   is  denied   by    Peter, 

XXVI.  57—75. 

126.  Christ  is  led  before 
Pilate  ;  Judas  hangs  him 
self,  XXVII.  1—10. 

127.  Christ  is   accused 
before  Pilate,  XXVII.  11 
—23. 

128.  Is  condemned   to 
death,  XXVII.  24—31. 

129.  And    crucified, 

XXVII.  32—38. 

130.  Is  reviled  on  the 
cross,  XXVII.  39—49. 


132.    Extraordinary 
events    at    the    death    of 
Christ,  XXVII.  20—54. 


134.  Burial  of  Christ, 
XXVII.  55—61. 

135.  Appointment  of  a 
guard  at  his  sepulchre, 
XXVII.  62—67. 


137.  Resurrection  of 
Christ,  and  the  first  accounts 
of  it,  which  are  brought  by 
the  women,  XXVIII.  1— 
11. 


SCRIPTURE. 

ST.  MARK.  ST.  LUKE. 

120.  Another  dispute 
among  the  apostles,  who 
should  be  the  greatest  in 
the  kingdom  of  God 
XXII.  24— 31. 


XIV.  26—31. 


XIV.  32—42. 
XIV.  43—52. 

XIV.  53—72. 
XV.  I. 

XV.  2—14. 
XV.  15—20. 
XV.  21—28. 
XV.  29-37. 


XV.  38— 41. 


XV.  42—47. 


136.  The  women 
purchase  spices  to  em- 
halm  the  body  ol 
Christ,  XVI.  1. 


XVI.  2—8. 
138.  Further  ac- 
counts of  it  brought  by 
Mary  Magdalene,  who 
sees  Christ  alone,  and 
is  commanded  to  re- 
port it  to  the  apostles 
XVI.  9,  10,  11. 


XXII.  32—39. 


XXII.  39—46. 
XXII.  47—53. 

XXII.  54—77. 
XXIII.  1. 

XXIII.  2—22. 
XXIII.  23-25. 
XXIII.  26—35. 
XXIII.  36—46. 


XXIII.  47—49. 


XXIII.  50—56 


XXIII.  56. 


XXIV.  1—11. 


ST.  JOHIT 


122.  His  discourse  on 
the  way,  XIII.  31— 
XVII.  26. 


XVIII.  1-12. 


XVIII.  13-28. 


XVIII.  29-XIX.  12. 
XIX.  13-16. 
XIX.  17-25. 


131.  Supplement  of 
several  facts  not  recorded 
>y  the  other  evangelists, 
XIX.  26-30. 


133.  Christ,  on  exa- 
mination of  the  crucified, 

s  found  to  be  already 
dead ;  and  is  moreover 

>ierced  in  the  side  with 
a  spear,  XIX.  31—37 

XIX.  38—42 


XX.  1-10. 


XX.  11—18. 


SCRIPTURE. 

ST.  MATTHEW.  ST.  MARK.  ST.  LUKS. 


657 


I 

139.  The  guards  bring 
the  account  to  the  chief 
priests,  and  are  bribed  to 
say  that  the  disciples  had 
stolen  the  body.  XXVIII. 
11—15. 


I 


140.  Christ  shows 
himself   a-live   to    the 
two     disciples,     who 
were    going   to   Em- 
maus,  XVI.  12,  13. 

141.  Christ   shows 
himself  to  ten  apostles, 
and  to  several  disci- 
ples who   were   with 
them,  XVI.  14—18. 


144.  Christ  shows  him- 
self in  Galilee  to  all  his 
disciples,  on  a  mountain, 
where  he  had  appointed 
.nem,  XXVIII.  16—20. 


The  book  entitled  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  con- 
nects the  gospels  and  the  epistles.  It  is  evidently 
a  continuation  of  Luke's  gospel,  which  appears 
both  from  the  introduction  and  from  the  attesta- 
tions of  ancient  Christians.  Both  are  dedicated 
to  Theophilus;  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  Acts 
a  reference  is  made  to  his  gospel,  which  he  calls 
'  a  former  treatise,'  recording  the  actions  and  dis- 
courses of  Jesus  till  his  ascension  to  heaven. 
Luke  is  mentioned  as  the  author  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  by  Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  Origen,  and 
Eusebius.  From  the  frequent  use  of  the  first 
person  plural  it  is  manifest  that  Luke  was  present 
at  many  of  the  transactions  which  he  relates.  He 
appears  to  have  accompanied  Paul  fromTroas  to 
Philippi.  He  attended  him  also  to  Jerusalem, 
and  afterwards  to  Rome,  where  he  remained  for 
two  years.  He  is  mentioned  by  Paul  in  several 
of  those  epistles  which  were  written  from  Rome, 
particularly  in  the  second  epistle  to  Timothy,  and 
in  the  epistle  to  Philemon. 

This  book  contains  the  history  of  the  Christian 
church  for  about  twenty-eight  or  thirty  years, 
from  our  Saviour's  ascension  to  Paul's  arrival  at 
Rome  in  60  or  61.  As  it  informs  us  that  Paul 
resided  two  years  in  Rome,  it  must  have  been 
written  after  the  year  63 ;  and,  as  the  death  of 
Paul  is  not  mentioned,  it  is  probable  it  was  com- 
posed before  that  event,  which  happened  A.  D. 
65.  It  may  be  divided  into  seven  parts  : — l.The 
account  of  our  Saviour's  ascension,  and  of  the 
occurrences  which  happened  on  the  first  pente- 
cost  after  that  event,  contained  in  c.  i.  li.  2. 
VOL.  XIX. 


XXIV.  13-34. 


XXIV.  36—49. 


ST.  JOHN. 


XX.  19—23. 
142.  Eight  days  after 
he  shows  himself  to  the 
eleven  apostles,  Thomas 
likewise  being  then  pre- 
sent, XX.  24—31. 

143.  Christ  shows 
himself  to  two  disciples 
and  five  apostles,  at  the 
sea  of  Tiberias.  Re- 
markable discourse  with 
Peter  and  John,  XXI. 
entire. 


The  transactions  of  the  Christians  of  the  circum- 
cision at  Jerusalem ;  in  Judea,  and  Samaria,  c. 
iii. — ix.,  xi.  1 — 21 ;  xii.  3.  Transactions  in  Cae- 
sarea,  and  the  admission  of  the  Gentiles,  c.  x. 
4.  The  first  circuit  of  Barnabas  and  Paul  among 
the  Gentiles,  c.  xi.  '22,  xiii.,  xiv.  5.  Embassy  to 
Jerusalem,  and  the  first  council  held  in  that  city, 
c.  xv.  6.  Paul's  second  journey,  c.  xvi. — xxi. 
7.  His  arrestment,  trial,  appeal  to  Caesar,  and 
journey  to  Rome,  c.  xxi.  to  the  end  of  the  book. 
The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  cited  by  Clemens 
Romanus,  by  Polycarp,  by  Justin  Martyr,  thirty 
times  by  Irenseus,  and  seven  times  by  Clemens 
Alexandrinus. 

IV.  Of  the  epistolary  writings  of  the  New 
Testament.  All  the  essential  doctrines  and  pre- 
cepts of  the  Christian  religion  were  certainly 
taught  by  our  Saviour  himself,  and  are  contained 
in  the  gospels.  The  epistles  may  be  considered 
as  commentaries  on  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel, 
addressed  to  particular  societies,  accommodated 
to  their  respective  situations ;  intended  to  refute 
the  errors  and  false  notions  which  prevailed 
among  them,  and  to  inculcate  those  virtues  in 
which  they  were  most  deficient.  The  plan  on 
which  these  letters  are  written  is,  first,  to  decide 
the  controversy,  or  refute  the  erroneous  notions 
which  had  arisen  in  the  society  to  which  the 
epistle  was  addressed  :  and,  secondly,  to  recom- 
mend those  duties  which  their  false  doctrines 
might  induce  them  to  neglect;  at  the  same  time 
inculcating,  in  general  exhortations,  the  most  im- 
portant precepts  of  Christian  morality. 

2  U 


658 


SCRIPTURE. 


Of  the  epistles,  fourteen  were  written  by  St. 
Paul.  These  are  not  placed  according  to  the 
order  of  time  in  which  they  were  composed,  but 
according  to  the  supposed  precedence  of  the  so- 
cieties or  persons  to  whom  they  were  addressed. 
The  following  is  their  chronological  order  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Lardner  :  — 

A  TABLE  of  ST.  PAUL'S  EPISTLES,  with  the 
PLACES  where,  and  TIMES  when,  written, 
according  to  Dr.  Lardner. 

Epistles.  Places.  A.  D. 

1  Thessalonians     Corinth      ......  52 

2  Thessalouians     Corinth      ......  52 

p.  i  ,•  $  Corinth  or  )  near  the  end  of  52 

3   '     '    I    Ephesus    $  or  beginning  of  53 
1  Corinthians      .  Ephesus    .  the  beginning  of  53 

1  Timothy     .     .  Macedonia     .....  56 

Titus     .     ,     .    jMacedonia}bef.theendof56 
I  or  near  it  J 

2  Corinthians  .  Macedonia  about  October  57 
Romans    .  .  .  Corinth  .  about  February  58 
Ephesians  .  .  Rome    .  .  about  April      61 
2  Timothy  .  .  Rome    .  .  about  May      61 
Philippians'  .  .  Rome    .  .  bef.  the  end  of  62 
Colossians  .  .  Rome    .  .  bef.  the  end  of  62 
Philemon  .  .  Rome    .  .  bef.  the  end  of  62 


Hebrews 


in  Spring  of     63 


A  TABLE  of  the  CATHOLIC  EPISTLES,  and  the 
REVELATION,  according  to  Dr.  Lardner. 

Epistles.  Places.  A.  D. 


James    .     .          .  Judea         .       or  beg.  of 
Thj,  two  Epistles  jRome 

1  John      .     .     .     Ephesus     .  .  about     .     80 

2d  and  3d  of       >  P  u  S  between     80 

John     .     .        i£Phesus      '  {    and      .     90 

Jude    ....     Unknown   .  .     .     64  or  65 

Revelation  .     .    j    P£tmos  or    \     .     95  or  96 
S      Ephesus      S 

It  is  more  difficult  to  understand  the  episto- 
lary writings  than  the  gospels;  the  cause  of 
which  is  evident.  Many  things  are  omitted  in 
a  letter,  or  slightly  mentioned,  because  supposed 
to  be  known  by  the  person  to  whom  it  is  ad- 
dressed. To  a  stranger  this  will  create  much 
difficulty.  These  causes  of  obscurity  are  com- 
mon to  all  the  writers  of  the  epistles;  but  there 
are  some  peculiar  to  St.  Paul.  1.  As  he  had  an 
acute  and  fertile  mind,  he  seems  to  have  written 
with  great  rapidity,  and  without  attending  much 
to  method  and  arrangement.  To  this  cause  we 
may  ascribe  his  numerous  and  long  parentheses. 
In  the  heat  of  argument  he  sometimes  breaks  off 
abruptly  to  follow  out  some  new  thought  ;  and, 
when  he  has  exhausted  it,  he  returns  from  his 
digression  without  informing  his  readers  ;  so 
that  it  requires  great  attention  to  retain  the  con- 
nexion. 2.  His  frequent  change  of  person,  too, 
creates  ambiguity  ;  by  the  pronoun  I  he  some- 
times means  himself  ;  sometimes  any  Christian  ; 
sometimes  a  Jew,  and  sometimes  any  man.  In 
using  the  pronoun  we,  he  sometimes  intends 
himself,  sometimes  comprehends  his  companions, 
sometimes  the  apostles  ;  at  one  time  he  alludes 
to  ihe  converted  Jews,  at  another  time  to  the 


converted  Gentiles.  3.  There  is  a  third  cause  of 
obscurity ;  he  frequently  proposes  objections, 
and  answers  them  without  giving  any  formal  in- 
timation. There  are  other  difficulties  which  arise 
from  our  uncertainty  who  are  the  persons  he  is 
addressing,  and  what  are  the  particular  opinions 
and  practices  to  which  he  refers.  To  these  we 
may  add  two  external  causes,  which  have  in- 
creased the  difficulty  of  understanding  the  epistles. 
1.  The  dividing  them  into  chapters  and  verses, 
which  dissolves  the  connexion  of  the  parts,  and 
breaks  them  into  fragments.  If  Cicero's  epistles 
had  been  so  disjointed,  the  reading  of  them 
would  be  attended  with  less  pleasure  and  advan- 
tage, and  with  a  great  deal  more  labor.  2.  We 
are  accustomed  to  the  phraseology  of  the  epistles 
from  our  infancy  ;  but  we  have  either  no  idea 
at  all  when  we  use  it,  or  our  idea  of  it  is  de- 
rived from  the  articles  or  system  which  we  have 
Espoused.  But,  as  different  sects  have  arbitrary 
definitions  for  St.  Paul's  phrases,  we  shall  never 
by  following  them  discover  the  meaning  of  St. 
Paul,  who  certainly  did  not  adjust  his  phraseo- 
logy to  any  man's  system. 

The  best  plan  of  studying  the  epistles  is  that 
which  was  proposed  and  executed  by  Mr.  Locke. 
That  acute  and  judicious  author  says, '  After  I 
had  found  by  long  experience  that  the  reading 
of  the  text  and  comments  in  the  ordinary  way 
proved  not  so  successful  as  I  wished  to  the  end 
proposed,  I  began  to  suspect  that  reading  a 
chapter,  as  was  usual,  and  thereupon  sometimes 
consulting  expositors  upon  some  hard  places  of 
it,  was  not  a  right  method  to  get  into  the  true 
sense  of  these  epistles.  I  saw  plainly  that  if  any 
one  should  write  me  a  letter  as  long  as  St.  Paul's 
to  the  Romans,  concerning  such  a  matter  as  that 
is,  in  a  style  as  foreign,  and  expressions  as  du- 
bious, as  his  seem  to  be,  if  I  should  divide  it 
into  fifteen  or  sixteen  chapters,  and  read  one  of 
them  to-day,  and  another  to-morrow,  &c.,  it  is 
ten  to  one  I  should  never  come  to  a  full  and 
clear  comprehension  of  it.  The  way  to  under- 
stand the  mind  of  him  that  wrote  it,  every  one 
would  agree,  was  to  read  the  whole  letter  through 
from  one  end  to  the  other  all  at  once,  to  see 
what  was  the  main  subject  and  tendency  of  it ; 
or  if  it  had  several  views  and  purposes  in  it,  not 
dependent  one  on  another,  nor  in  a  subordination 
to  one  chief  aim  and  end,  to  discover  what  those 
different  matters  were,  and  wnere  the  author  con- 
cluded one  and  began  another ;  and,  if  there  were 
any  necessity  of  dividing  the  epistle  into  parts, 
to  make  these  the  boundaries  of  them.  In  the 
prosecution  of  this  thought,  I  concluded  it 
necessary,  for  the  understanding  ot  any  one  of 
St.  Paul's  epistles,  to  read  it  all  through  at  one 
sitting,  and  to  observe,  as  well  as  1  could,  the 
drift  and  design  of  his  writing  it.  If  the  first 
reading  gave  me  some  light,  the  second  gave  me 
more ;  so  I  persisted  on,  reading  constantly  the 
whole  epistle  over  at  once,  till  I  came  to  have  a 
good  general  view  of  the  apostle's  main  purpose 
in  writing  the  epistle,  the  chief  branches  of  his 
discourse  wherein  he-  prosecuted  it,  the  argu- 
ments he  used,  and  the  disposition  of  the  whole. 
This,  I  confess,  is  not  to  be  obtained  by  one  or 
two  hasty  readings ;  it  must  be  repeated  again 
and  again  with  a  close  attention  to  the  tenor  of 


SCRIPTURE. 


659 


the  discourse,  and  a  perfect  neglect  of  the  divi- 
sions into  chapters  and  verses.' 

Mr.  Locke  tells  us  he  continued  to  read  the 
same  epistle  over  and  over  again  till  he  disco- 
vered the  scope  of  the  whole,  and  the  different 
steps  and  arguments  by  which  the  writer  accom- 
plishes his  purpose.  For  he  was  convinced  that 
Paul  was  a  man  of  learning,  of  sound  sense, 
and  knew  all  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel  by  re- 
velation. The  speeches  recorded  in  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  convinced  this  judicious  critic  that 
Paul  was  a  close  and  accurate  reasoner ;  and 
therefore  he  concluded  that  his  epistles  would 
not  be  written  in  a  loose,  confused,  incoherent 
style.  Mr  I  ocke  accordingly  followed  the  chain 
of  the  apostle's  discourse,  observed  his  infe- 
rences,, and  carefully  examined  from  what  pre- 
mises they  were  drawn,  till  he  obtained  a  general 
outline  of  any  particular  epistle. 

That  the  Epistle  to  the  ROMANS  was  written  a.t 
Corinth,  by  St.  Paul,  is  ascertained  by  the  testi- 
mony of  the  ancient  Christians.  It  was  com- 
posed A.D.  58,  in  the  twenty-fourth  year  after 
Paul's  conversion,  and  is  the  seventh  epistle 
which  he  wrote.  From  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
we  learn  that  it  must  have  been  written  within 
three  months  ;  for  that  was  the  whole  period  of 
Paul's  residence  in  Greece  (Acts  xx.  1,  2,  3). 
The  following  analysis  of  this  epistle  is  from  a 
valuable  treatise,  Dr.  Percy's  Key  to  the  New 
Testament.  It  exhibits  the  intention  and  argu- 
ments of  the  apostle,  in  the  most  concise,  dis- 
tinct, and  connected  manner,  and  affords  the 
best  view  of  this  epistle  that  we  have  seen. 

'  The  Christian  church  at  Rome  appears  not 
to  have  been  planted  by  any  apostle ;  wherefore 
St.  Paul,  lest  it  should  be  corrupted  by  the  Jews, 
who  then  swarmed  in  Rome,  and  of  whom  many 
were  converted  to  Christianity,  sends  them  an 
abstract  of  the  principal  truths  of  the  gospel,  and 
endeavours  to  guard  them  against  those  erro- 
neous notions  which  the  Jews  had  of  justifica- 
tion, and  of  the  election  of  their  own  nation. 
Now  the  Jews  assigned  three  grounds  for  justi- 
fication. First,  '  The  extraordinary  piety  and 
merits  of  their  ancestors,  and  the  covenant  made 
by  God  with  these  holy  men.'  They  thought 
God  could  not  hate  the  children  of  such  meri- 
torious parents ;  and,  as  he  had  made  a  cove- 
nant with  the  patriarchs  to  bless  their  posterity, 
he  was  obliged  thereby  to  pardon  their  sins. 
Secondly,  '  A  perfect  knowledge  and  diligent 
study  of  the  law  of  Moses.'  They  made  this  a 
plea  for  the  remission  of  all  their  sins  and  vices. 
Thirdly,  '  The  works  of  the  Levitical  law,' which 
were  to  expiate  sin,  especially  circumcision  and 
sacrifices.  Hence  they  inferred  that  the  Gen- 
tiles must  receive  the  whole  law  of  Moses,  in 
order  to  be  justified  and  saved.  The  doctrine  of 
the  Jews  concerning  election  was,  '  That  as  God 
had  promised  to  Abraham  to  bless  his  seed,  to 
give  him  not  only  spiritual  blessings,  but  also 
the  land  of  Canaan,  to  suffer  him  to  dwell  there 
in  prosperity,  and  to  consider  him  as  his  church 
upon  earth :'  That  therefore  this  blessing  extended 
to  their  whole  nation,  and  that  God  was  bound 
to  fulfil  these  promises  to  them,  whether  they 
were  righteous  or  wicked,  faithful  or  unbeliev- 
ing. They  even  believed  that  a  prophet  ought 


not  to  pronounce  against  their  nation  the  pro- 
phecies with  which  he  was  inspired ;  but  was 
rather  to  beg  of  God  to  expunge  his  name  out  of 
the  book  of  the  living.  These  remarks  will 
serve  as  a  key  to  unlock  this  difficult  epistle,  Oi 
which  we  shall  now  give  a  short  analysis.  See 
Michaelis's  Lectures  on  the  New  Testament. 

i.  The  epistle  begins  with  the  usual  salutation 
with  which  the  Greeks  began  their  letters:  chap.  i. 
1—7. 

ii.  St.  Paul  professes  his  joy  at  the  flourishing 
state  of  the  church  at  Rome,  and  his  desire  to 
come  and  preach  the  gospel  (ver  8 — 1*9) :  then 
he  insensibly  introduces  the  capital  point  he  in- 
tended to  prove,  viz. 

iii.  The  subject  of  the  gospel  (ver.  16,  17); 
that  it  reveals  a  righteousness  unknown  before, 
derived  solely  from  faith,  and  to  which  Jew 
and  Gentiles  have  an  equal  claim. 

iv.  To  prove  this,  he  shows  (chap.  i.  18;  iii. 
20)  that  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  are  '  under  sin,' 
i.  e.  that  God  will  impute  their  sins  to  Jews  as 
well  as  to  Gentiles.  His  arguments  may  be  re- 
duced to  these  syllogisms  (chap.  ii.  1.  17 — 24). 

1.  The  wrath  of  God  is  revealed  against  tho«:e 
who  hold  the  truth  in  unrighteousness;  i.  e.  who 
acknowledge  the  truth  and  yet  sin  against   it. 

2.  The  Gentiles  acknowledged  truths;  but  partly 
by  their  idolatry,  and  partly  by  their  other  de- 
testable vices,  they  sinned  against  the  truth  they 
acknowledged.     3.  Therefore  the  wrath  of  God 
is  revealed  against  the  Gentiles,  and   punisheth 
them.     4.  The  Jews  have  acknowledged  more 
truths  than  the  Gentiles,  and  yet  they  sin.     5. 
Consequently  the  Jewish  sinners  are  yet  more 
exposed  to  the  wrath  of  God:  chap.  ii.  1 — 12. 
Having  thus  proved  his  point,  he  answers  certain 
objections  to  it.     Obj.  1.  '  The  Jews  were  well 
grounded   in  their  knowledge,  and  studied  the 
law.'     He  answers,  If  the  knowledge  of  the  law, 
without  observing  it,  could  justify  them,  then 
God  could  not  have  condemned  the  Gentiles, 
who  knew  the  law  by  nature:  chap.  ii.  13 — 16. 
Oi;.  2.    '  The  Jews  were   circumcised.'      Ans. 
That  is,  ye  are  admitted  by  an  outward  sign  into 
the  covenant  with  God.     This  sign  will  not  avail 
you  when  ye  violate  that  covenant :  chap.  ii.  25, 
to  the  end.      Obj.  3.  '  According  to  this  doc- 
trine of  St.  Paul,  the  Jews  have  no  advantage 
before  others.'     Ans.  Yes,  they  still  have  advan- 
tages ;  for  unto  them  are  committed  the  oracles 
of  God.     But  their  privileges  do  not  extend  to 
this,  that  God  should  overlook  their  sins :  chap, 
iii.    i — 19.      06;.  4.  '  They  had  the   Levitical 
law   and   sacrifices.'      Ans.  From  hence  is  no 
remission,  but  only  the  knowledge  of  sin  :  chap, 
iii.  20. 

v.  From  all  this  St.  Paul  concludes  that  Jews 
and  Gentiles  may  be  justified  by  the  same  means, 
without  the  Levitical  law,  through  faith  in  Christ: 
And,  in  opposition  to  the  imaginary  advantages 
of  the  Jews,  he  states  the  declaration  of  Zecha- 
riah,  that  God  is  the  God  of  the  Gentiles  as  well 
as  of  the  Jews  :  chap.  iii.  21,  to  the  end. 

vi.  As  the  whole  blessing  wa>>  promised  to 
the  faithful  descendants  of  Abraham,  whom  both 
Scripture  and  the  Jews  call  his  children,  he 
proves  his  former  assertion  from  the  example  of 
Abraham ;  who  was  an  idolater  before  his  call, 

2U2 


660 


SCRIPTURE. 


but  was  declared  just  by  God,  on  account  of  his 
faith,  long  before  his  circumcision.  Hence  he 
takes  occasion  to  explain  the  nature  and  fruits 
of  faith :  chap  iv.  1 ,  v.  11. 

vii.  He  goes  on  to  prove,  from  God's  justice, 
that  the  Jews  had  no  advantage  over  the  Gen- 
tiles with  respect  to  justification.  Both  Jews 
and  Gentiles  had  forfeited  life  and  immortality, 
by  the  means  of  one  common  father  of  their 
race,  whom  they  themselves  had  not  chosen. 
Now  as  God  was  willing  to  restore  immortality 
by  a  new  spiritual  head  of  a  covenant,  viz. 
Christ,  it  was  just  that  both  Jews  and  Gentiles 
should  share  in  this  new  representative  of  the 
whole  race  :  chap.  v.  12,  to  the  end.  Chap.  v. 
ver.  15, 16,  amounts  to  this  negative  question: — 
'  Is  it  not  fitting  that  the  free  gift  should  extend 
as  far  as  the  offence  ?' 

viii.  He  shows  that  the  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion, as  stated  by  him,  lays  us  under  the  strong- 
est obligations  to  holiness :  chap  vi.  1,  to  the  end. 

ix.  He  shows  that  the  law  of  Moses  no  longer 
concerns  us  at  all;  for  our  justification  arises 
from  our  appearing,  in  God's  sight,  as  if  actually 
dead  with  Christ  on  account  of  our  sins ;  but 
the  law  of  Moses  was  not  given  to  the  dead. 
On  this  occasion  he  proves  at  large  that  the 
eternal  power  of  God  over  us  is  not  affected  by 
this ;  and  that,  whilst  we  are  under  the  law  of 
Moses,  we  perpetually  become  subject  to  death, 
even  by  sins  of  inadvertency :  chap.  vii.  1,  to 
the  end. 

x.  Hence  he  concludes  that  all  those,  and 
those  only,  who  are  united  with  Christ,  and  for 
the  sake  of  his  union  do  not  live  according  to 
the  flesh,  are  free  from  all  condemnation  of  the 
law,  and  have  an  undoubted  share  in  eternal  life : 
chap.  viii.  1 — 17. 

xi.  Having  described  their  blessedness,  he  is 
aware  that  the  Jews,  who  expected  a  temporal 
happiness,  would  object  to  him,  that  Christians 
notwithstanding  endure  much  suffering  in  this 
world .  He  answers  this  objection  at  large :  chap, 
viii.  18,  to  the  end. 

xii.  He  shows  that  God  is  not  the  less  true 
and  faithful,  because  he  doth  not  justify,  but 
rather  rejects  and  punishes,  those  Jews  who 
would  not  believe  the  Messiah :  chap,  ix.,  x.,  xi. 
In  discussing  this  point,  we  may  observe  the 
cautious  manner  in  which,  on  account  of  the 
Jewish  prejudices,  he  introduces  it  (chap. 
ix.  1 — 5),  as  well  as  in  the  discussion  itself.  He 
shows  that  the  promises  of  God  were  never  made 
to  all  the  posterity  of  Abraham,  and  that  God 
always  reserved  to  himself  the  power  of  choosing 
those  sons  of  Abraham,  whom,  for  Abraham's 
sake,  he  intended  to  bless,  and  of  punishing  the 
wicked  sons  of  Abraham ;  and  that,  with  respect 
to  temporal  happiness  or  misery,  he  was  not 
even  determined  in  his  choice  by  their  works. 
Thus  he  rejected  Ishmael,  Esau,  the  Israelites  in 
the  time  of  Moses,  and  the  greater  part  of  that 

feople  in  the  time  of  Isaiah :  chap.  ix.  6 — 29. 
Ie  then  shows  that  God  had  reason  to  reject 
most  of  the  Jews  then  living,  because  they 
would  not  believe  in  the  Messiah,  though  the 
gospel  had  been  preached  to  them :  chap.  ix.  30, 
x.  to  the  end.  However,  that  God  had  not  re- 
jected all  his  people,  but  was  still  fulfilling  his 


promise  upon  many  thousand  natural  descendants 
of  Abraham,  who  believed  in  the  Messiah,  and 
would  in  a  future  period  fulfil  them  upon  more ; 
for  that  all  Israel  would  be  converted  :  chap, 
xi.  1 — 32.  And  he  concludes  with  admiring 
the  wise  counsels  of  God :  ver.  33,  to  the  end. 

xiii.  From  the  doctrine  hitherto  laid  down, 
and  particularly  from  this,  that  God  has  in  mercy 
accepted  the  Gentiles;  he  argues  that  the  Ro- 
mans should  consecrate  and  offer  themselves  up 
wholly  to  God.  This  leads  him  to  mention  in 
particular  some  Christian  duties  (chap,  xii.),  viz. 
xiv.  He  exhorts  them  to  be  subject  to  magis- 
trates (chap.  xiii.  I — 7),  the  Jews  at  that  time 
being  given  to  sedition. 

xv.  To  love  one  another  heartily :  ver  .2 — 10; 
And, 

xvi.  To  abstain  from  those  vices  which  were 
considered  as  things  indifferent  among  the  Gen- 
tiles :  ver.  11,  to  the  end. 

xvii.  He  exhorts  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  -in  the 
Christian  church  to  brotherly  unity :  chap.  xiv.  2 ; 
xv.  13. 

xviii.  He  concludes  his  epistle  with  an  ex- 
cuse for  having  admonished  the  Romans,  whom 
he  had  not  converted;  with  an  account  of  his 
journey  to  Jerusalem ;  and  with  some  saluta- 
tions to  those  persons  whom  he  meant  to  recom- 
mend to  the  church  at  Rome.  See  Michaelis's 
Lectures. 

CORINTH  was  a  wealthy  and  luxurious  city  of 
Greece.  In  this  city  Paul  hadj  spent  two  years 
founding  a  Christian  church,  which  consisted  of 
a  mixture  of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  but  the  greater 
part  Gentiles.  About  three  years  after  the 
apostle  had  left  Corinth  he  wrote  this  epistle 
from  Ephesus,  A.  D.  56,  in  the  beginning  of 
Nero's  reign.  That  it  was  written  from  Ephesus 
appears  from  the  salutation  with  which  the 
epistle  closes :  chap.  xvi.  1 9.  From  these 
words  it  is  evident,  1st,  that  the  epistle  was 
written  in  Asia.  2dly,  from  Acts  xviii.  18,  19, 
that  Aquilaand  Priscilla  accompanied  Paul  from 
Corinth  to  Ephesus.  St.  Paul  had  certainly 
kept  up  a  constant  intercourse  with  the  churches 
which  he  had  founded ;  for  he  was  evidently 
acquainted  with  all  their  revolutions.  They 
seem  to  have  applied  to  him  for  advice  in  those 
difficult  cases  which  their  own  understanding 
could  not  solve ;  and  he  was  ready  on  all  occa- 
sions to  correct  their  mistakes.  This  epistle 
consists  of  two  parts.  1.  A  reproof  for  those 
vices  to  which  they  were  most  prone.  2.  An 
answer  to  some  queries  which  they  had  proposed 
to  him. 

The  Corinthians,  like  the  other  Greeks,  had 
been  accustomed  to  see  their  philosophers  divide 
themselves  into  different  sects;  and,  as  they 
brought  along  with  them  into  the  Christian 
church  their  former  opinions  and  customs,  they 
wished,  as  before,  to  arrange  themselves  under 
different  leaders.  In  this  epistle  Paul  con- 
demns these  divisions,  as  inconsistent  with  the 
spirit  of  Christianity,  which  inculcates  benevo- 
lence and  unanimity,  and  as  opposite  to  the  con- 
duct of  Christian  teachers,  who  did  not,  like  the 
philosophers,  aspire  after  the  praise  of  eloquence 
and  wisdom.  They  laid  no  claim  to  these,  nor 
to  any  honor  that  cometh  from  men.  He  de- 


SCRIPTURE. 


661 


dares  that  the  Christian  truths  were  revealed 
from  heaven ;  that  they  were  taught  with  great 
plainness  and  simplicity,  and  proved  by  the 
evidence  of  miracles  :  chap.  i.  1.  He  dissuades 
them  from  their  divisions,  by  reminding  them  of 
the  great  trial  which  every  man's  work  must 
undergo ;  of  the  guilt  they  incurred  by  polluting 
the  church  of  God ;  of  the  vanity  of  human 
wisdom;  and  of  glorying  in  men.  He  ad- 
monishes them  to  esteem  the  teachers  of  the 
gospel  only  as  the  servants  of  Christ ;  and  to 
remember  that  every  superior  advantage  which 
they  enjoyed  was  to  be  ascribed  to  the  goodness 
of  God  :  chap.  iii.  4. 

2.  In  the  fifth  chapter  the  apostle  considers 
the  case  of  a  notorious  offender,  who  had  mar- 
ried his  step-mother ;  and  tells   them   that  he 
ought  to  be  excommunicated.     He  also  exhorts 
the  Christians  not  to  associate  with  any  person 
whe  led  such  an  openly  profane  life. 

3.  He  censures  the  Corinthians  for  their  liti- 
gious disposition,  which  caused  them  to  prose- 
cute their  Christian  brethren  before  the  heathen 
courts.     He  expresses  much  surprise  that  they 
did  not  refer  their  differences  to  their  brethren  ; 
and  concludes  his  exhortations  on  this  subject 
by  assuring  them  that  they  ought  rather  to  allow 
themselves  to  be  defrauded  than  to  seek  redress 
from  heathens  :  chap.  v.  1 — 9. 

4.  He  inveighs  against  those  vices  to  which 
the  Corinthians  had  been  addicted  before  their 
conversion,  and  especially  against  fornication ; 
the  criminality  of  which  they  did  not  fully  per- 
ceive, as  this  vice  was  generally  overlooked  in 
the  systems  of  the  philosophers :  chap.  vi.  9 — 20. 

Having  thus  pointed  out  the  public  irregulari- 
ties with  which  they  were  chargeable,  he  next 
replies  to  certain  questions  which  the  Corinthi- 
ans had  proposed  to  him  by  letter. 

1.  He  determines  some  questions  relating  to 
the  marriage  state;  as  1st,  Whether  it  was  good 
to  marry  under  the  existing  circumstances  of  the 
church  ?  And  2d,  Whether  they  should  withdraw 
from  their  partners  if  they  continued  unbeliev- 
ers? chap.  vii. 

2.  He  instructs  them  how  to  act  with  respect 
to  idol  offerings.     It  could  not  be  unlawful  in 
itself  to  eat  the  food  which  had  been  offered  to 
idols ;  for  the  consecration  of  flesh  or  wine  to  an 
idol  did  not  make  it  the  property  of  the  idol,  an 
idol  being  nothing,  and  therefore  •  incapable  of 
property.     But  some  Corinthians  thought  it  law- 
ful to  go  to  a  feast  in  the  idol  temples,  which 
were  places  of  resort  for  lewdness,  and   to  eat 
the  sacrifices  whilst  praises  were   sung  to  the 
idols.     This  was  publicly  joining  in  the  idolatry. 
He  even  advises  to  abstain  from  such  participa- 
tion as  was  lawful,  rather  than  give  offence  to  a 
weak  brother,  which   he   enforces  by  his  own 
example,  who  had  abstained  from  many  lawful 
things,  rather  than  prove  a  scandal  to  the  gospel : 
chap,  viii.,  ix.,  x. 

3.  He  answers  a  third  query  concerning  the 
manner  in   which  women   should    deliver   any 
thing  in  public,  when  called  to  it  by  a  divine 
imputse.    And  here  he  censures  the  unusual  dress 
of  Doth   sexes  in  prophesying,  which   exposed 
them   to   the   contempt   of  the  Greeks,  among 
whom  the  men  usually  went  uncovered,  and  the 


women  veiled.  He  goes  on  to  censure  the  irre- 
gularities committed  at  their  love-feasts,  or  the 
Lord's  Supper.  It  was  a  common  practice  with 
the  Greeks  at  their  social  suppers  for  every  man 
to  bring  his  own  provisions  along  with  him,  not, 
however,  to  share  them  with  the  company,  but  to 
feast  upon  them  in  a  solitary  manner.  Thus  the 
rich  ate  and  drank  to  excess,  while  the  poor 
were  totally  neglected.  The  Corinthians  intro- 
duced the  same  practice  in  the  celebration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  thus  confounding  it  with  their 
ordinary  meals,  and  without  ever  examining  into 
the  end  of  the  institution.  This  gross  abuse 
Paul  reproves  in  the  eleventh  chapter.  He  also 
shows  them  that  all  Christians  ought  to  be  united 
in  mutual  love ;  and  that  tenderness  ought  to  be 
shown  to  the  most  inconsiderable  member,  as 
every  one  is  subservient  to  the  good  of  the  whole : 
chap.  xii.  In  the  thirteenth  chapter  he  gives  a 
beautiful  description  of  benevolence.  He  repre- 
sents it  as  superior  to  the  supernatural  gifts  of 
the  Spirit,  to  the  most  exalted  genius,  to  univer- 
sal knowledge,  and  even  to  faith.  In  the  four- 
teenth chapter  he  cautions  the  Corinthians  against 
ostentation  in  the  exercise  of  the  gift  of  lan- 
guages, and  gives  them  proper  advices. 

4.  He  asserts  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
founding  it  upon  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ, 
which  he  considers  as  one  of  the  most  essential 
doctrines  of  Chnstiaiiity.  He  then  answers 
some  objections,  drawn  from  our  not  being 
capable  of  understanding  how  it  will  be  accom- 
plished: chap.  xv.  He  concludes  with  directions 
concerning  alms;  promises  them  a  visit,  and 
salutes  some  of  the  members. 

The  second  epistle  to  the  CORINTHIANS  was 
written  from  Macedonia,  A.  D.  57.  See  2  Cor. 
ix.  1 — 5 ;  viii.  and  xiii.  1.  St.  Paul's  first  epistle 
had  wrought  different  effects  among  the  Corin- 
thians ;  many  of  them  examined  their  conduct; 
they  excommunicated  the  incestuous  man;  re- 
quested St.  Paul's  return  with  tears ;  and  vindi- 
cated him  and  his  office  against  the  false  teacher 
and  his  adherents.  Others  of  them  still  adhered 
to  that  adversary  of  St.  Paul,  denied  his  apos- 
tolic office,  and  furnished  themselves  with  pre- 
tended arguments  from  that  epistle.  He  had 
formerly  promised  to  take  a  journey  from  Ephe- 
sus  to  Corinth,  thence  to  visit  the  Macedonians, 
and  return  from  them  to  Corinth:  2  Cor.  i. 
15,  16.  But  the  unhappy  state  of  the  Corin- 
thian church  made  him  alter  his  intention 
(ver.  23),  since  he  found  he  must  have  treated 
them  with  severity.  Hence  his  adversaries  ar- 
gued, 1.  That  St.  Paul  was  irresolute  and  un- 
steady, and  therefore  could  not  be  a  prophet. 
2.  The  improbability  of  his  ever  coming  to 
Corinth  again,  since  he  was  afraid  of  them. 
Such  was  the  state  of  the  Corinthian  church 
when  St.  Paul,  after  his  departure  from  Ephesus, 
having  visited  Macedonia  (Acts  xx.  1 ),  received 
an  account  of  the  above  particulars  from  Titus 
(2  Cor.  vii.  5,  6),  and  therefore  wrote  them  his 
second  epistle  about  the  end  of  the  same  year,  or 
the  beginning  of  58.  But  to  give  a  more  dis- 
tinct view  of  the  contents  of  this  epistle  : — 

1 .  The  apostle,  after  a  general  salutation,  ex- 
presses his  grateful  sense  of  the  divine  goodness ; 
professing  his  confidence  in  God,  supported  by  a 


662 


SCRIPTURE. 


sense  of  his  own  integrity ;  makes  an  apology 
for  not  having  visited  the  Corinthians  as  he  had 
intended,  and  vindicates  himself  from  the  charge 
of  fickleness  :  chap  i. 

2.  He   forgives   the   incestuous  man,   whose 
conduct  had  made  so  deep  an  impression  on  the 
apostle's  mind,  that  one  reason  why  he  had  de- 
ferred his  journey  to  Corinth  was  that  he  might 
not  meet  them  in  grief,  nor  till  he  had  -received 
advice  of  the  effect  of  his  admonitions.    He  men- 
tions his  anxiety  to  meet  Titus  at  Troas,  to  hear 
of  their  welfare;  expresses  his  thankfulness  to 
God  for  the  success  attending  his  ministry,  and 
speaks  of  the   Corinthians   as   his   credentials, 
written  by  the  finger  of  God  :  chap.  ii.  iii.  1 — 6. 

3.  He  treats  of  the  office  committed  to  him  of 
preaching   the   redemption ;   and   prefers   it   to 
preaching  the  law,  to  which  probably  his  adver- 
saries had  made  great  pretences.  They  had  ridi- 
culed his  sufferings ;  which  he  shows  to  be  no 
disgrace  to  the  gospel  or  its  ministers ;  and  gives 
a  short   abstract  of  the  doctrine  he  preaches: 
chap.  iii.  6.  v.  to  the  end.     He  expiates  on  the 
temper  with  which,  in  the  midst  of  afflictions 
and  persecutions,  he  and  his  brethren  executed 
their  important  embassy;  and  with  great  affection 
exhorts  them  to  avoid  idolatry  :  chap.  vi.     He 
tells  them  how  much  he  rejoiced  in  their  amend- 
ment, and  how  sorry  he  had  been  for  the  distress 
which  his  necessary  reproofs  had  occasioned  : 
."•hap.    vii.      He    then   exhorts   them   to   make 

iberal  contributions  for  the  Christians  in  Judea. 
He  recommends  to  them  the  example  of  the 
Macedonians,  and  reminds  them  of  the  benevo- 
lence of  the  Lord  Jesus.  He  expresses  his  joy 
for  the  readiness  of  Titus  to  assist  in  making  the 
collection :  makes  honorable  mention  of  other 
Christian  brethren  (chap,  viii.) ;  and  recommends 
them  to  the  divine  blessing:  chap.  ix. 

4.  Next  he  obviates  some  reflexions  thrown 
upon  him  for  the  mildness  of  his  conduct,  as  if 
it  had   proceeded   from   fear.     He  asserts   his 
apostolical  power  and  authority  :  chap.  x.     He 
vindicates   himself  against   the  insinuations  of 
some   for   having    declined   pecuniary   support 
from  the  church.     To  show  his  superiority  over 
those  designing  men  who  had  opposed  his  preach- 
ing, he  enumerates  his  sufferings;  gives  a  detail 
of  some  extraordinary  revelation  which  he  had 
received  ;  and  vindicates  himself  from  the  charge 
of  boasting,  by  declaring  that  he  had  been  forced 
to  it :  chap.  xi.  xii.     He  closes  the  epistle,  by 
assuring  them  how  much  it  would  grieve  him 
to  demonstrate  his  divine  commission  by  severer 
methods. 

The  GALATIANS  were  descended  from  those 
Gauls  who  had  formerly  invaded  Greece,  and 
afterwards  settled  in  Lower  Asia.  St.  Paul  had 
preached  the  gospel  among  them  A.D.  51,  soon 
after  the  council  at  Jerusalem  :  Acts  xvi.  6. 
Asia  swarmed  at  that  time  with  zealots  for  the 
law  of  Moses,  who  wanted  to  impose  it  upon 
the  Gentiles  :  Acts  xv.  1 .  Soon  after  St.  Paul 
had  left  the  Galatians,  these  false  teachers  had 
got  among  them,  and  wanted  them  to  be  circum- 
cised, &c.  This  occasioned  the  epistle,  which 
Michaelis  thinks  was  written  in  the  same  year, 
before  St.  Paul  left  Thessalonica.  Dr.  Lardner 
dates  it  about  th«  end  of  52,  or  in  the  beginning 


of  53,  before  St.  Paul  set  out  for  Jerusalem  by 
way  of  Ephesus.  The  subject  of  this  epistle  is 
much  the  same  with  that  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans ;  only  this  question  is  more  fully  con- 
sidered here,  '  Whether  circumcision,  and  an  ob- 
servance of  the  Levitical  law,  be  necessary  to 
the  salvation  of  a  Christian  convert?'  These 
Judaizing  Christians,  whose  indirect  views  St. 
Paul  exposes  (Acts  xv.  1 ;  Gal.  v.  3,  9),  at  first 
only  represented  circumcision  as  necessary  to 
salvation  ;  but  afterwards  they  insisted  upon  the 
Christians  receiving  the  Jewish  festivals:  Gal. 
iv.  10. 

As  it  appears  from  several  passages  of  this 
epistle  (chap.  i.  7,  8,  10,  and  v.  11)  that  the 
Judaizing  Christians  had  endeavoured  to  per- 
suade the  Galatians  that  Paul  himself  had  changed 
his  opinion,  and  now  preached  up  the  Levitical 
law ;  he  denies  that  charge,  and  affirms  that  the 
doctrines  which  he  had  taught  were  true,  for  he 
had  received  them  from  God  by  immediate  reve- 
lation. He  relates  his  miraculous  conversion ; 
asserts  his  apostolical  authority,  which  had  been 
acknowledged  by  the  disciples  of  Jesus  ;  and,  as 
a  proof  that  he  had  never  inculcated  a  compliance 
with  the  Mosaic  law,  he  declares  that  he  had  op- 
posed Peter  at  Antioch  for  yielding  to  the  preju- 
dices of  the  Jews. 

He  then  argues  that  the  Galatians  ought  not 
to  submit  to  the  law  of  Moses: — 1.  Because 
they  had  received  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  gifts 
of  miracles,  not  by  the  law,  but  by  the  gospel : 
chap.  iii.  1 — 5.  2.  Because  the  promises  which 
God  made  to  Abraham  were  not  restricted  to  his 
circumcised  descendants,  but  extended  to  all 
who  are  his  children  by  faith  :  chap.  iii.  6 — 18. 
In  answer  to  the  objection,  '  To  what  then  serveth 
the  law  V  he  replies,  That  it  was  given  because 
of  transgression  ;  that  is,  to  preserve  them  from 
idolatry  till  the  Messiah  himself  should  come. 

3.  Because  all  men,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles, 
are  made  the  children  of  God  by  faith,  or  by  re- 
ceiving the  Christian  religion,  and  therefore  do 
not  stand  in  need  of.  circumcision :   chap.   iii. 
26 — 29.      From   the  first  verse  of  chap.  iv.  to 
the  eleventh,  he  argues  that  the  law  was  tempo- 
rary, being  only  fitted  for  a  state  of  infancy ;  but 
that  the  world  having  attained  a  state  of  man- 
hood   under   the   Messiah,   the  law  was  of  no 
farther  use.     In  the  remaining  part  of  chap.  ir. 
he  reminds  them  of  their  former  affection  for  him, 
and  assures  them  that  he  was  still  their  sincere 
friend.     He  exhorts  them  to  stand  fast  in  the 
liberty  with  which  Christ  had  made  them  free. 

He  next  confutes  the  false  report  which  had 
been  spread  abroad  among  the  Galatians  that 
Paul  himself  preached  up  circumcision.  He 
had  already  indirectly  refuted  this  calumny,  but 
he  now  directly  and  openly  contradicts  it;  1.  By 
assuring  them  that  all  who  thought  circumcision 
necessary  to  salvation  could  receive  no  benefit 
from  the  Christian  religion  :  chap.  v.  2 — 4.  2. 
By  declaring  that  he  expected  justification  only 
by  faith :  ver.  5,  6.  3.  By  testifying  that  they 
had  once  received  the  truth,  and  had  never  been 
taught  such  false  doctrines  by  him :  ver.  7,  8. 

4.  By  insinuating  that  they  should   pass  some 
censure  on  those  who  misled  them  (ver.  9,  10), 
by  declaring  that  he  was  persecuted  for  opposing 


SCRIPTURE. 


683 


the  circumcision  of  the  Christians:  ver.  11.  5. 
By  expressing  a  wish  that  those  persons  should 
be  cut  off  who  troubled  them  with  this  doctrine. 
This  epistle  affords  a  fine  instance  of  Paul's  skill 
in  managing  an  argument. 

He  next  cautions  them  against  an  idea  which 
his  arguments  for  Christian  liberty  might  excite, 
that  it  consisted  in  licentiousness.  He  shows 
them  it  does  not  consist  in  gratifying  vicious  de- 
sires; for  none  are  under  stronger  obligations  to 
moral  duties  than  the  Christian.  He  recom- 
mends gentleness  and  meekness  to  the  weak 
(chap.  vi.  1 — 5),  and  exhorts  them  to  be  liberal 
to  their  teachers,  and  unto  all  men:  ver.  6 — 10. 
He  concludes  with  exposing  the  false  pretences 
of  the  Judaizing  teachers,  and  asserting  the  in- 
tegrity of  his  own  conduct. 

EPHESUS  was  the  chief  city  of  all  Asia  on  this 
side  Mount  Taurus.  St.  Paul  had  passed 
through  it  in  the  year  54,  but  without  making 
any  stay:  Actsxviii.  19 — 21.  In  55  he  returned 
to  Ephesus  again,  and  staid  there  three  years : 
chap.  xix.  During  his  abode  there  he  completed 
a  very  flourishing  church  of  Christians,  the  first 
foundations  of  which  had  been  laid  by  some  in- 
ferior teachers.  As  Ephesus  was  frequented  by 
persons  of  distinction  from  all  parts  of  Asia 
Minor,  St.  Paul  took  the  opportunity  of  preach- 
ing in  the  ancient  countries  (ver.  10) ;  and  the 
other  churches  of  Asia  were  considered  as  the 
daughters  of  the  church  of  Ephesus  ;  so  that  an 
epistle  to  the  Ephesians,was,  in  effect,  an  epistle 
to  the  other  churches  of  Asia  at  the  same  time. 
Dr.  Lardner  shows  it  to  be  highly  probable  that 
this  epistl*  was  written  A.  D.  til,  soon  after 
Paul's  arrival  at  Rome. 

As  Paul  was  in  a  peculiar  manner  the  apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,  and  was  now  a  prisoner  at  Rome 
inconsequence  of  having  provoked  the  Jews,  by 
asserting  that  an  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law 
was  not  necessary  to  obtain  the  favor  of  God,  he 
was  afraid  lest  an  advantage  should  be  taken  of 
his  confinement  to  unsettle  the  minds  of  those 
whom  he  had  converted.  Hearing  that  the 
Ephesians  stood  firm  in  the  faith  of  Christ, 
without  submitting  to  the  law  of  Moses,  he 
writes  this  epistle  to  give  them  more  exalted 
views  of  the  love  of  God,  and  of  the  excellence 
and  dignity  of  Christ.  This  epistle  is  not  com- 
posed in  an  argumentative  or  didactic  style  :  The 
first  three  chapters  consist  almost  entirely  of 
thanksgivings  and  prayers,  or  glowing  descrip- 
tions of  the  blessings  of  the  Christian  religion. 
The  last  three  chapters  contain  practical  exhorta- 
tions to  unity,  love,  and  concord,  from  the  con- 
sideration that  all  Christians  are  members  of  the 
same  body,  of  which  Christ  is  the  head.  He 
then  advises  them  to  forsake  the  vices  to  which 
they  had  been  addicted  while  they  remained 
heathens.  He  recommends  justice  and  charity ; 
and  condemns  lewdness,  obscenity,  and  intem- 
perance. In  the  sixth  chapter  he  points  out  the 
duties  of  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  chil- 
dren, masters  and  servants,  &c. 

The  church  at  PHILIPPI  had  been  founded  by 
Paul,  Silas,  and  Timothy  (Acts  xvi.)  in  51,  and 
had  continued  to  show  a  strong  attachment  to 
the  Christian  religion,  and  a  tender  affection  for 
the  apostle.  Hearing  of  his  imprisonment  at 


Rome,  they  sent  Epaphroditus,  one  of  their  pas- 
tors, to  supply  him  with  money.  It  appears 
from  this  epistle  that  he  was  in  great  want  of 
necessaries  before  this  contribution  arrived  ,  for, 
as  he  had  not  converted  the  Romans,  he  did  not 
consider  himself  as  entitled  to  receive  supplies 
from  them.  Being  a  prisoner,  he  could  not 
work;  and  it  was  his  maxim  never  to  accept  any 
pecuniary  assistance  from  those  churches  where 
a  faction  had  been  raised  against  him.  From 
the  Philippians  he  was  not  averse  to  receive  a 
present,  as  he  considered  it  as  a  mark  of  their 
affection. 

This  letter  was  written  while  he  was  a  prisoner 
at  Rome  (chap.  -i.  7,  13  ;  iv.  22) ;  and  from  the 
expectation  which  he  discovers  (chap.  ii.  24)  of 
being  soon  released  and  restored  to  them,  com- 
pared with  Philemon  ver.  22,  and  Heb.  xiii.  13, 
where  he  expresses  a  like  expectation  in  stronger 
terms,  it  is  probable  that  it  was  written  towards 
the  end  of  his  first  imprisonment  in  62.  His  de- 
sign in  this  epistle  seems  *o  be  to  comfort  the 
Philippians  under  the  concern  the,y  had  expressed 
at  his  imprisonment ;  to  check  a  party  spirit  that 
had  broken  out  among  them ;  to  promote  union 
and  harmony ;  to  guard  them  agsinst  being  se- 
duced by  Judaizing  teachers;  to  support  them 
under  their  trials ;  and  to  inspire  them  with  a 
desire  to  adorn  their  profession  by  the  most  emi- 
nent attainments.  After  some  admonitions,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  chapter,  he,  in  the 
eighth  verse,  recommends  virtue  in  the  most  ex- 
tensive sense.  Towards  the  close,  he  makes  his 
acknowledgments  to  the  Philippians  for  the  sea- 
sonable and  liberal  supply  which  they  had  sent 
him,  as  a  proof  of  their  affection  for  him,  and 
their  concern  for  the  support  of  the  gospel. 

The  Epistle  to  the  COLOSSIA.NS  was  written 
while  Paul  was  in  prison  (chap.  iv.  3),  about 
A.  D.  62.  The  intention  of  it  was  to  secure  the 
Colossians  from  some  erroneous  doctrines,  and 
to  excite  them  to  a  behaviour  worthy  of  their 
sacred  character.  A  new  sect  had  arisen,  which 
had  blended  the  oriental  philosophy  with  the 
superstitious  opinions  of  the  Jews.  See  GNOS- 
TICS. 

Against  these  doctrines  Paul  argues  with  great 
skill  and  address.  He  describes  the  dignity  of 
Jesus  Christ;  declares  that  he  had  created  all 
things,  whether  thrones  or  dominions,  princi- 
palities or  powers ;  that  he  alone  was  the  head 
of  the  church,  and  had  reconciled  men  to  the 
Father:  that  Jesus  was  superior  to  angels;  that 
they  were  created  beings,  and  ought  not  to  be 
worshipped. 

He  censures  the  observation  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath  ;  rebukes  those  who  required  abstinence 
from  certain  kinds  of  food ;  and  cautions  them 
against  persons  who  assume  a  great  appearance 
of  wisdom  and  virtue:  chap.  ii.  In  the  third 
chapter  he  exhorts  them,  that,  rnstead  of  external 
ceremonies,  they  ought  to  cultivate  pure  morality. 
He  guards  them  against  impurity,  to  which  they 
had  before  their  conversion  been  much  addicted. 
He  admonishes  them  against  the  irascible  pas- 
sions, and  falsehood.  He  exhorts  them  to  culti- 
vate the  benevolent  affections,  humility,  patience, 
and  all  the  relative  duties,  with  prayer  and  thanks- 
giving: chap.  iv.  2. 


664 


SCRIPTURE. 


The  First  Epistle  to  the  THESSALONIANS  is 
addressed  to  the  inhabitants  of  Thessalonica,  the 
capital  of  Macedonia.  It  appears  from  the  Acts 
(xvii.  1),  that  the  Christian  religion  was  intro- 
duced into  this  city  by  Paul  and  Silas,  soon  after 
they  had  left  Philippi.  At  first  they  made  many 
converts  ;  but  at  length  the  Jews  stirred  up  the 
rabble,  which  assaulted  the  house  where  the 
apostle  and  his  friends  lodged,  so  that  Paul  and 
Silas  were  obliged  to  flee  to  Berea.  The  apostle 
then  withdrew  to  Athens ;  and  Timothy,  at  his 
desire,  returned  to  Thessalonica  (1  Thess.  iii.  2), 
to  see  what  were  the  sentiments  of  the  inhabi- 
tants after  the  persecution.  Paul  went  to  Co- 
rinth, where  he  stayed  eighteen  months ;  during 
which  Timothy  returned  with  the  joyful  tidings 
that  the  Thessalonians  remained  stedfast  to  the 
faith,  and  firmly  attached  to  the  apostle,  not- 
withstanding his  flight.  Upon  this  he  sent  them 
this  epistle,  A.  D.  52,  in  the  twelfth  year  of 
Claudius. 

The  intention  of  Paul  in  writing  this  epistle 
was  evidently  to  encourage  the  Thessalonians  to 
adhere  to  the  Christian  religion.  This  church 
being  still  in  its  infancy,  and  oppressed  by  the 
Jews,  required  to  be  established  in  the  faith.  St. 
Paul,  therefore,  in  the  first  three  chapters,  endea- 
vours to  convince  the  Thessalonians  of  the  truth 
of  his  gospel,  both  by  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  which  had  been  imparted,  and  by 
his  own  conduct  when  among  them. 

He  expresses  a  strong  affection  for  them ; 
mentions  it  to  their  honor  that  they  received 
the  gospel  as  the  word  of  God  and  not  of  man ; 
expresses  a  strong  desire  to  visit  them  ;  and  con- 
cludes with  various  exhortations. 

The  Second  Epistle  to  the  THESSALONIANS  ap- 
pears to  have  been  written  soon  after  the  first, 
and  from  the  same  place ;  for  Silvanus,  or  Silas, 
and  Timothy  are  joined  with  the  apostle  in  the 
address  of  this  epistle,  as  well  as  of  the  former. 
Paul  begins  with  commending  the  faith  and 
charity  of  the  Thessalonians  ;  expresses  great  joy 
on  account  of  the  patience  with  which  they  sup- 
ported persecution ;  and  observes  that  their  per- 
secution was  a  proof  of  a  righteous  judgment  to 
come,  where  their  persecutors  would  meet  with 
a  proper  recompense,  and  the  righteous  be  de- 
livered out  of  all  their  afflictions. 

From  misunderstanding  a  passage  in  his  former 
letter,  the  Thessalonians  believed  the  day  of 
judgment  was  at  hand.  To  rectify  this  mistake, 
he  informs  them  that  the  day  of  the  Lord  will 
not  come  till  a  great  apostasy  has  overspread  the 
Christian  world,  the  nature  of  which  he  de- 
scribes. Dr.  Kurd  explains  this  of  the  papal 
power,  to  which  it  applies  with  astonishing 
exactness.  Symptoms  of  this  mystery  of  ini- 
quity had  then  appeared ;  but  the  apostle  ex- 
presses his  thankfulness  to  God  that  the  Thessa- 
lonians had  escaped  this  corruption.  He  then 
proceeds  to  correct  some  irregularities.  Many 
of  the  Thessalonians  seem  to  have  led  a  dis- 
orderly life ;  these  he  severely  reproves,  and 
commands  the  faithful  to  shun  their  company  if 
they  remained  incorrigible. 

When  the  First  Epistle  to  TIMOTHY  was  writ- 
ten it  is  difficult  to  ascertain,  l^ardner  dates 
it  in  r.fi;  Mill,  \\hitt.y,  and  Macknight,  place  it 


in  64.  Timothy  was  the  intimate  friend  and 
companion  of  Paul,  and  is  always  mentioned  by 
that  apostle  with  much  affection  and  esteem. 
Having  appointed  him  to  superintend  the  church 
of  Ephesus,  during  a  journey  which  he  made  to 
Macedonia,  he  wrote  this  letter  to  direct  him 
how  to  discharge  the  important  trust.  This  was 
the  more  necessary  as  Timothy  was  young  and  in- 
experienced :  1  Tim.  iv.  12. 

In  the  second  chapter  he  prescribes  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  worship  of  God  was  to  be  per- 
formed iti  the  church  of  Ephesus ;  and  in  the 
third  explains  the  qualifications  of  the  persons 
whom  he  was  to  ordain  as  bishops  and  deacons. 
In  the  fourth  he  foretels  the  great  corruptions  of 
the  church  which  were  to  prevail  in  future  times. 
In  the  fifth  and  sixth  he  teaches  Timothy  how  to 
admonish  both  old  and  young ;  and  gives  rules 
respecting  widows,  elders,  slaves,  trifling  contro- 
versies, and  the  excessive  love  of  money. 

That  the  Second  Epistle  to  TIMOTHY  was 
written  from  Rome  is  universally  agreed ;  but 
the  precise  date  is  uncertain.  Timothy  was  at 
Ephesus  or  in  Asia  Minor  when  this  epistle  was 
sent  to  him.  The  false  teachers  who  had  before 
thrown  this  church  into  confusion  grew  every 
day  worse;  insomuch  that  not  only  Hymenacus, 
but  Philetus,  another  Ephesian  heretic,  now  de- 
nied the  resurrection.  They  were  led  into  this 
error  by  a  dispute  about  words.  At  first  they 
only  annexed  various  improper  significations 
to  the  word  resurrection,  but  at  last  they  denied 
it  altogether. 

Neither  the  date  of  the  Epistle  to  TITUS,  whom 
Paul  had  appointed  over  the  church  of  Crete, 
nor  the  place  from  which  it  was  sent,  is  ascer- 
tained. The  apostle  reminds  Titus  of  the  reasons 
for  which  he  had  left  him  at  Crete;  and  directs 
him  how  to  act  in  ordaining  Chhristian  pastors  : 
chap.  i.  He  advises  him  to  accommodate  his 
exhortations  to  the  respective  ages,  sexes,  and 
circumstances  of  those  whom  it  was  his  duty  to 
instruct;  and  to  give  an  example  of  what  he 
taught  c.  ii. :  He  exhorts  him  also  to  teach 
obedience  to  the  civil  magistrate,  because  the 
Judaizing  Christians  affirmed  that  no  obedience 
was  due  from  the  worshippers  of  the  true  God 
to  magistrates  who  were  idolaters.  He  cautions 
against  censoriousness  and  contention  ;  recom- 
mends meekness ;  and  to  avoid  useless  con  ro- 
versies  ;  and  concludes  with  directing  him  how 
to  proceed  with  heretics. 

The  Epistle  to  PHILEMON  was  written  from 
Rome  at  the  same  time  with  the  epistles  to  the 
Colossians  and  Philippians  and  A.I).  62  or  63 
The  occasion  of  the  letter  was  this  :  Onesimus, 
Philemon's  slave,  had  robbed  his  master,  and  fled 
to  Rome ;  where,  happily,  he  met  with  the  apos- 
tle, who  was  then  a  prisoner  at  large,  and  by  his 
instructions  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and 
reclaimed  to  a  sense  of  his  duty.  St.  Paul,  when 
he  had  made  a  sufficient  trial  of  him,  and  found 
that  his  behaviour  was  entirely  agreeable  to  his 
profession,  sent  him  back  to  his  master,  and,  as 
a  mark  of  his  esteem,  entrusted  him,  together 
with  Tychicus,  with  the  charge  of  delivering  his 
epistle  to  the  church  at  Colosse,  and  giving  them 
a  particular  account  of  the  state  of  things  at 
Rome,  recommending  him  to  them,  at  the  same 


SCRIPTURE 


time,  as  a  faithful  and  beloved  brother :  Col.  iv.  9. 
And,  as  Philemon  might  well  be  supposed  to  be 
strongly  prejudiced  against  one  who  had  left  his 
service  in  so  infamous  a  manner,  he  sends  him 
this  letter,  in  which  he  employs  all  his  influence 
to  remove  suspicions,  and  reconcile  him  to  the 
Baking  Onesimus  into  his  family  again.  See  PHI- 
LEMON. 

It  is  impossible  to  read  over  this  admirable 
epistle  without  being  touched  with  the  delicacy 
of  sentiment,  and  the  masterly  address  that  ap- 
pear in  every  part  of  it.  We  see  here,  in  a 
most  striking  light,  how  perfectly  consistent  true 
politeness  is,  not  only  with  all  the  warmth  and 
sincerity  of  the  friend,  but  even  with  the  dignity 
of  the  Christian  and  the  apostle.  And,  if  this 
letter  were  to  be  considered  in  no  other  view 
than  as  a  mere  human  composition,  it  must  be 
allowed  a  master-piece  in  its  kind.  As  an  illus- 
tration of  this  remark,  it  may  not  be  improper  to 
compare  it  with  an  epistle  of  Pliny,  that  seems 
to  have  been  written  upon  a  similar  occasion  (lib. 
ix.  ep.  21);  which,  though  it  has  many  beauties, 
and  was  penned  by  one  that  is  reckoned  to  excel 
in  the  epistolary  style,  yet  must  be  acknowledged, 
by  every  impartial  reader,  vastly  inferior  to  this 
animated  composition  of  the  apostle. 

The  Epistle  to  the  HEBREWS  has  been  gene- 
rally ascribed  to  Paul ;  but  the  truth  of  this 
opinion  has  been  suspected  by  others  for  three 
reasons : — 1.  The  name  of  the  writer  is  nowhere 
mentioned,  neither  in  the  beginning  nor  in  any 
other  part  of  the  epistle.  2.  The  style  is  said  to 
be  more  elegant  than  Paul's.  3.  There  are  ex- 
pressions in  the  epistle  which  have  been  thought 
unsuitable  to  an  apostle's  character.  1.  In  an- 
swer to  the  first  objection,  Clemens  Alexandrinus 
lias  assigned  a  very  good  reason  :  '  Writing  to 
the  Hebrews.'  says  he,  '  who  had  conceived  a 
prejudice  against  him,  and  were  suspicious  of 
him,  he  wisely  declined  setting  his  name  at  the 
beginning,  lest  he  should  offend  them.'  2.  Ori- 
gen  and  Jerome  admitted  the  elegance  of  the 
style,  and  reckoned  it  superior  to  that  which 
1'aul  has  exhibited  in  his  epistles;  but,  as  ancient 
testimony  had  assigned  it  to  Paul,  they  endea- 
voured to  answer  the  objection,  by  supposing 
that  the  sentiments  were  the  apostle's,  but  the 
language  and  composition  the  work  of  some 
other  person.  If  the  epistle,  however,  be  a 
translation,  which  we  believe  it  to  be,  the  ele- 
gance of  the  language  may  belong  to  the  trans- 
lator. As  to  the  composition  and  arrangement, 
there  are  many  specimens  in  the  writings  of  this 
apostle  not  inferior  in  these  qualities  to  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  3.  It  is  objected  that, 
in  Heb.  ii.  3,  the  writer  of  this  epistle  joins  him- 
self with  those  who  had  received  the  gospel 
from  Christ's  apostles.  Now  Paul  had  it  from 
Christ  himself.  But  Paul  often  appeals  to  the 
testimony  of  the  apostles  in  support  of  those 
truths  which  he  had  received  from  revelation. 
See  1  Cor.  xv.  5,6,7,8;  2Tim.ii.2. 

This  epist.e  is  not  quoted  till  the  end  of  the 
second  century,  and  even  then  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  universally  received.  This  silence 
might  be  owing  to  the  Hebrews  themselves, 
vho,  supposing  this  letter  had  no  relation  to 
me  Gentiles,  might  be  at  no  pains  to  diffuse 


copies  of  it.  The  authors,  however,  on  whose 
testimony  we  receive  it  as  authentic,  are  entitled 
to  credit ;  for  they  lived  so  near  the  age  of  the 
apostles  that  they  were  in  no  danger  of  being 
imposed  on;  and,  from  the  numerous  list  of 
books  which  they  rejected  as  spurious,  we  are 
assured  that  they  were  very  careful  to  guard 
against  imposition.  It  is  often  quoted  as  Paul's 
by  Clemens  Alexandrinus  about  A.  D.  194.-  It 
is  received  and  quoted  as  Paul's  by  Origen, 
about  230 ;  by  Dionysius,  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
in  247 ;  and  by  a  numerous  list  of  succeeding 
writers. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  originally 
written  in  Hebrew,  or  rather  Syro-Chaldaic ;  a 
fact  testified  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Jerome, 
and  Eusebius.  To  this  it  has  been  objected 
that,  as  these  writers  have  not  referred  to  any  au- 
thority, we  can  only  consider  this  as  an  opinion. 
But  as  they  state  no  reasons  for  adopting  this 
opinion,  but  only  mention  as  a  fact  that  Paul 
wrote  to  the  Hebrews  in  their  native  language, 
we  must  allow  that  it  is  their  testimony  which 
they  produce,  and  not  their  opinion.  Eusebius 
informs  us  that  some  supposed  Luke  the  evange- 
list, and  others  Clemens  Romanus,  to  have  been 
the  translator.  According  to  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus, Jerome,  and  Euthalius,  this  epistle  was 
addressed  to  the  Jews  in  Palestine.  The  scope 
of  the  epistle  confirms  this  opinion. — The  time 
when  it  was  written  may  be  easily  determined  ; 
for  the  salutation  from  the  saints  of  Italy  (c.  iv. 
24),  together  with  the  apostle's  promise  to  see 
the  Hebrews  (v.  23),  plainly  intimate  that  his 
confinement  was  then  either  ended  or  on  the  eve 
of  being  ended.  It  must  therefore  have  been 
written  soon  after  the  epistles  to  the  Colossians, 
Ephesians,  and  Philemon,  and  not  long  before 
Paul  left  Italy,  that  is,  A.D.  61  or  62. 

As  the  zealous  defenders  of  the  Mosaic  law 
would  naturally  insist  on  the  divine  authority  of 
Moses,  on  the  majesty  and  glory  attending  its 
promulgation  by  the  ministry  of  angels,  and  the 
great  privileges  it  afforded  those  who  adhered  to 
it ;  the  apostle  shows — 

I.  That  in  all  these  articles  Christianity  had  an 
infinite  superiority  to  the  law.  This  topic  he 
pursues  from  c.  i.  to  xi.,  wherein  he  reminds  the 
believing  Hebrews  of  the  extraordinary  favor 
shown  them  by  God,  in  sending  them  a  revela- 
tion by  his  own  Son,  whose  glory  was  far  supe- 
rior to  that  of  angels  (c.  i.) ;  very  naturally  in- 
ferring from  hence  the  danger  of  despising  Christ 
on  account  of  his  humiliation,  which,  in  perfect 
consistence  with  his  dominion  over  the  world  to 
come,  was  voluntarily  submitted  to  by  him  for 
wise  and  important  reasons;  particularly  to  de- 
liver us  from  the  fear  of  death,  and  to  encourage 
the  freedom  of  our  access  to  God  :  c.  ii.  W  ith 
the  same  view  he  magnifies  Christ  as  superior  to 
Moses,  their  great  legislator;  and,  from  the  pun- 
ishment inflicted  on  those  who  rebelled  against 
the  authority  of  Moses,  infers  the  danger  of  con- 
temning the  promises  of  the  gospel :  c.  iii.  2 — 13. 
And,  as  it  was  an  easy  transition  to  call  to  mind 
on  this  occasion  that  rest  in  Canaan  to  which  the 
authority  invested  in  Moses  was  intended  to  lead 
them,  the  apostle  hence  cautions  them  against 
unbelief,  as  what  would  prevent  their  entering 


666 


SCRIPTURE. 


into  a  superior  state  ef  rest  to  what  the  Jews 
ever  enjoyed:  c.  in.  14,  iv.  11.  This  caution  is 
still  farther  enforced  by  awful  views  of  God's  om- 
niscience, and  a  lively  representation  of  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Christ  (c.  iv.  and  v.  to  the  end). 
In  the  next  place  he  intimates  the  very  hopeless 
situation  of  those  who  apostatise  from  Chris- 
tianity (c.  vi.  1 — 9) ;  and  then,  for  the  comfort 
and  confirmation  of  sincere  believers,  displays  to 
them  the  goodness  of  God,  and  his  faithful  ad- 
herence to  his  holy  engagements ;  the  perform- 
ance of  which  is  sealed  by  the  entrance  of  Christ 
into  heaven  as  our  forerunner:  c.  vi.  9,  to  the 
end.  Still  farther  to  illustrate  the  character  of 
our  Lord,  he  enters  into  a  parallel  between  him 
and  Melchizedec  as  to  their  title  and  descent; 
and,  from  instances  wherein  the  priesthood  of 
Melchizedec  excelled  the  Levitical,  infers  that 
the  glory  of  the  priesthood  of  Christ  surpassed 
that  under  the  law  :  c.  vii.  1 — 17.  From  these 
premises  the  apostle  argues  that  the  Aaronical 
priesthood  was  not  only  excelled,  but  consum- 
mated by  that  of  Christ,  to  which  it  was  only 
introductory  and  subservient ;  and  of  course 
that  the  obligation  of  the  law  was  henceforth 
dissolved  :  c.  vii.  18,  to  the  end.  Then  recapi- 
tulating what  he  had  already  demonstrated,  con- 
cerning the  superior  dignity  of  Christ's  priest- 
hood, he  thence  illustrates  the  distinguished 
excellence  of  the  new  covenant,  as  not  only  fore- 
told by  Jeremiah,  but  evidently  enriched  with 
much  better  promises  than  the  old  (c.  viii. 
throughout) ;  explaining  further  the  doctrine  of 
the  priesthood  and  intercession  of  Christ,  by 
comparing  it  with  what  the  Jewish  high  priest 
did  on  the  great  day  of  atonement :  c.  ix.  1 — 14. 
Afterwards  he  enlarges  on  the  necessity  of  shed- 
ding Christ's  blood,  and  the  sufficiency  of  the 
atonement  made  by  it  (c.  ix.  15,  to  the  end); 
and  proves  that  the  legal  ceremonies  could  not 
by  any  means  purify  the  conscience ;  whence  he 
infers  the  insufficiency  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and 
the  necessity  of  looking  beyond  it :  c.  x.  1 — 15. 
He  then  urges  the  Hebrews  to  improve  the  pri- 
vileges which  such  a  high  priest  and  covenant 
conferred  on  them,  to  the  purposes  of  approach- 
ing God  with  confidence,  to  a  constant  atten- 
dance on  his  worship,  and  most  benevolent  re- 
gards to  each  other:  c.  x.  15—25.  The  apostle 
having  thus  obviated  the  insinuations  and  objec- 
tions of  the  Jews,  for  the  satisfaction  and 
establishment  of  the  believing  Hebrews,  pro- 
ceeds, 

II.  To  prepare  and  fortify  their  minds  against 
the  storm  of  persecution  which  in  part  had  already 
befallen  them,  and  which  was  likely  to  continue 
and  be  often  renewed,  he  reminds  them  of  those 
extremities  they  had  endured,  and  of  the  fatal 
effects  which  would  attend  their  apostasy  (chap, 
x.  26,  to  the  end) ;  calling  to  their  remembrance 
the  eminent  examples  of  faith  and  fortitude  ex- 
hibited by  holy  men,  and  recorded  in  the  Old 
Testament,  (chap.  xi.  1 — 29).  He  concludes  his 
discourse  with  glancing  at  many  other  illustrious 
worthies;  and,  besides  those  recorded  in  Scrip- 
ture, refers  to  the  case  of  several  who  suffered 
under  the  persecution  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes : 
2  Mac.  chap.  viii.  &c.,  xi.  30,  xii.  2.  Having 
thus  finished  the  argumentative  part  of  the  epis- 


tle, the  apostle  proceeds  to  a  general  application 
in  which  he  exhorts  the  Hebrew  Christians  to 
patience,  peace,  and  holiness  (chap.  xii.  3 — 14); 
cautions  them  against  secular  views  and  sensual 
gratifications,  by  laying  before  them  the  incom- 
parable excellence  of  the  blessings  introduced  by 
the  gospel,  which  even  the  Jewish  economy,  glo- 
rious and  magnificent  as  it  was,  did  by  no  means 
equal ;  exhorts  them  to  brotherly  affection,  pu- 
rity, compassion,  dependence  on  the  divine  care, 
stedfastness  in  the  profession  of  truth,  a  life  of 
thankfulness  to  God,  and  benevolence  to  man  ; 
and  concludes  the  whole  with  recommending 
their  pious  ministers  to  their  particular  regard, 
entreating  their  prayers,  saluting  and  granting 
them  his  usual  benediction. 

The  seven  following  epistles,  one  of  James, 
two  of  Peter,  three  of  John,  and  one  of  Jude, 
have  been  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of 
Catholic  or  general  epistles,  because  most  of 
them  are  inscribed,  not  to  particular  churches  or 
persons,  but  to  the  body  of  Jewish  or  Gentile 
converts  over  the  world.  The  authenticity  of 
some  of  these  has  been  questioned,  viz.  the  Epis- 
tle of  James,  the  second  of  Peter,  the  Epistle  of 
Jude,  and  the  second  and  third  of  John.  The 
ancient  Christians  were  very  cautious  in  admit- 
ting any  books  into  their  canon  whose  authen- 
ticity they  had  any  reason  to  suspect.  They  re- 
jected all  the  writings  forged  by  heretics  in  the 
name  of  the  apostles,  and  certainly,  therefore, 
would  not  receive  any  without  first  subjecting 
them  to  a  severe  scrutiny.  Now,  though  these 
seven  epistles  were  not  immediately  acknow- 
ledged as  the  writings  of  the  apostles,  this  onl 
shows  that  the  persons  who  doubted  had  not  re- 
ceived complete  and  incontestable  evidence  oi 
their  authenticity.  But,  as  they  were  afterwards 
universally  received,  we  have  every  reason  to 
conclude,  that  upon  a  strict  examination  they 
were  found  to  be  the  genuine  productions  of  the 
apostles.  The  truth  is,  so  good  an  opportunity 
had  the  ancient  Christians  of  examining  this 
matter,  so  careful  were  they  to  guard  against 
imposition,  and  so  well  founded  was  their  judg- 
ment concerning  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, that,  as  Dr.  Lardner  observes,  no  writing 
which  they  pronounced  genuine  has  yet  been 
proved  spurious,  nor  have  we  at  this  day  the  least 
reason  to  believe  any  book  genuine  which  they 
rejected. 

That  the  Epistle  of  JAMES  was  written  in  the 
apostolical  age  is  proved  by  the  quotations  of 
Clemens  Romanus,  Ignatius,  and  Origen.  There 
are  several  reasons  why  it  was  not  more  gene- 
rally quoted  by  the  first  Christian  writers.  Be- 
ing written  to  correct  the  errors  and  vices  which 
prevailed  among  the  Jews,  the  Gentiles  might 
think  it  of  less  importance  to  them,  and  therefore 
take  no  pains  to  procure  copies  of  it.  As  the 
author  was  sometimes  denominated  James  the 
Just,  and  often  called  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  it 
might  be  doubted  whether  he  was  one  of  the 
apostles.  But  its  authenticity  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  suspected  on  account  of  the  doctrines 
which  it  contains.  In  modern  times,  indeed, 
Luther  called  it  a  strawy  epistle  (epistola  stra- 
minea),  and  excluded  it  from  the  sacred  writings, 
on  account  of  its  apparent  oppositioti  to  the 


SCRIPTURE. 


apostle  Paul  concerning  justification  by  faith. 
This  epistle  could  not  be  written  by  James  the 
elder,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  brother  of  John, 
who  was  beheaded  by  Herod,  A.  D.  44 ;  for  it 
contains  passages  which  refer  to  a  later  period. 
It  must,  therefore,  have  been  the  composition  of 
James  the  Less,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  who  was 
called  the  Lord's  brother,  because  he  was  the  son 
of  Mary,  the  sister  of  our  Lord's  mother.  Lard- 
ner  fixes  the  date  in  the  year  61  or  62. 

James  the  Less  statedly  resided  at  Jerusalem, 
whence  he  was  styled  by  some  ancient  fa- 
thers bishop  of  that  city,  though  without  suffi- 
cient foundation.  Now  James  being  one  of  the 
apostles  of  the  circumcision,  while  he  confined 
his  personal  labors  to  the  inhabitants  of  Judea, 
it  was  natural  for  him  to  endeavour,  by  his  writ- 
ings, to  extend  his  services  to  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians who  were  dispersed  abroad  in  more  distant 
regions.  For  this  purpose  there  are  two  points 
which  the  apostle  seems  to  have  principally  aimed 
at,  though  he  did  not  pursue  them  in  an  or- 
derly and  logical  method,  but  in  the  free  episto- 
lary manner,  handling  them  jointly  or  distinctly 
as  occasions  naturally  offered.  And  these  were 
'  to  correct  those  errors  both  in  doctrine  and 
practice  into  which  the  Jewish  Christians  had 
fallen,  which  might  otherwise  have  produced 
fatal  consequences ;  and  then  to  establish  the 
faith  and  animate  the  hope  of  sincere  believers, 
both  under  their  present  and  their  approaching 
sufferings.'  The  opinions  which  he  is  most 
anxious  to  refute  are  these,  that  God  is  the  au- 
thor of  sin  (ch.  i.  13);  and  that  the  belief  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  gospel  was  sufficient  to  procure 
the  favor  of  God  for  them,  however  deficient 
they  were  in  good  works  :  chap.  ii.  He  dis- 
suades the  Jews  in  the  third  chapter  from  aspir- 
ing to  the  office  of  teachers,  because  their  pre- 
judices in  favor  of  the  law  of  Moses  might  in- 
duce them  to  pervert  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel. 
He  therefore  guards  them  against  the  sins  of  the 
tongue,  by  representing  their  pernicious  effects ; 
and  as  they  thought  themselves  wise  and  intelli- 
gent, and  were  ambitious  of  becoming  teachers, 
he  advises  them  to  make  good  their  pretensions, 
by  showing  themselves  possessed  of  that  wisdom 
which  is  from  above  :  chap.  iii. 

The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  was  now  ap- 
proaching; the  Jews  were  split  into  factions, 
and  often  slaughtered  one  another ;  the  apostle, 
therefore,  in  the  fourth  chapter  admonishes  them 
to  purify  themselves  from  those  vices  which  pro- 
duced tumults  and  bloodshed.  To  rouse  them 
to  repentance,  he  foretells  the  miseries  that  were 
coming  upon  them.  Lastly,  he  checks  an  irre- 
ligious spirit  that  seems  to  have  prevailed,  and 
concludes  the  epistle  with  several  exhortations. 

The  authenticity  of  the  first  Epistle  of  PETER 
has  never  been  denied.  It  is  referred  to  by  Cle- 
mens Romanus,  and  Polycarp,  and  is  quoted  by 
Papias,  Irenaeus,  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  and 
Tertullian.  It  is  addressed  to  the  strangers  scat- 
tered through  Pontus,  &c.,  who  are  evidently 
Christians  in  general,  as  appears  from  chap.  ii. 
10.  From  Peter's  sending  the  salutation  of  the 
church  at  Babylon  to  the  Christians  in  Pontus, 
&c.,  it  is  generally  believed  that  he  wrote  it  in 
Babylon.  There  was  a  Babylon  in  Egypt  and 


another  in  Assyria.  It  could  not  be  the  former; 
for  it  was  an  obscure  place,  which  seems  to  have 
had  no  church  for  the  first  four  centuries.  We 
have  no  authority  to  affirm  that  Peter  was  in 
Assyria.  The  most  probable  opinion  is  that  of 
Grotius,  Whitby,  Lardner,  as  well  as  of  Euse- 
bius,  Jerome,  and  others,  that  by  Babylon  Peter 
figuratively  means  Rome.  Lardner  dates  it  in 
63,  64,  or  65.  St.  Peter's  chief  design  is  to 
confirm  the  doctrine  of  St.  Paul,  which  the  false 
teachers  pretended  he  was  opposing,  and  to  as- 
sure the  proselytes  that  they  stood  in  the  true 
grace  of  Goo. :  chap.  v.  12.  With  this  view  he 
calls  them  elect-  and  mentions  that  they  had  been 
declared  such  by  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
upon  them :  chap.  i.  1,  2.  He  assures  them 
that  they  were  regenerate  without  circumcision, 
merely  through  the  gospel  and  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  (ver.  3,  4.  21 — 25) ;  and  that  their  suffer- 
ings were  no  argument  of  their  being  under  the 
displeasure  of  God,  as  the  Jews  imagined :  ver. 
6 — 12.  He  recommends  it  to  them  to  hope  for 
grace  to  this  end:  ver.  13.  He  testifies  that 
they  were  not  redeemed  by  the  paschal  lamb,  but 
through  Christ,  whom  God  had  pre-ordained  for 
this  purpose  before  the  foundation  of  the  world : 
ver.  18 — 20. 

The  second  Epistle  of  PETER  is  not  mention- 
ed by  any  ancient  writer  extant  till  the  fourth 
century,  from  which  time  it  has  been  received  by 
all  Christians,  except  the  Syrians.  Jerome  ac- 
quaints us  that  its  authenticity  was  disputed,  on 
account  of  a  remarkable  difference  between  the 
style  of  it  and  the  former  epistle.  But  this  re- 
markable difference  in  style  is  confined  to  the 
second  chapter  of  the  second  epistle.  No  ob- 
jections, however,  can  be  drawn  from  this  cir- 
cumstance; for  the  subject  of  that  chapter  is 
different  from  the  rest  of  Peter's  writings,  and 
nothing  is  so  well  known  as  that  different  sub- 
jects suggest  different  styles.  Peter,  in  describ- 
ing the  character  of  some  flagitious  impostors, 
feels  an  indignation  which  he  cannot  suppress; 
it  breaks  out,  therefore,  in  the  bold  and  animated 
figures  of  an  oriental  writer.  Such  a  diversity 
of  style  is  not  uncommon  in  the  best  writers, 
especially  when  warmed  with  their  subject.  This 
objection  being  removed,  we  contend  that  this 
epistle  was  written  by  Peter,  from  the  inscrip- 
tion, Simon  Peter,  a  servant  and  an  apostle  of 
Jesus  Christ.  It  appears  from  chap.  i.  16,  17, 
18,  that  the  writer  was  one  of  the  disciples  who 
saw  the  transfiguration  of  our  Saviour.  Since  it 
has  never  been  ascribed  to  James  or  John,  it 
must  therefore  have  been  Peter.  It  is  evident, 
from  chap.  iii.  1,  that  the  author  had  written  an 
epistle  before  to  the  same  persons,  which  is  ano- 
ther circumstance  that  proves  Peter  to  be  the 
author. 

It  is  acknowledged,  however,  that  all  this  evi- 
dence is  merely  internal ;  for  there  is  no  external 
evidence  upon  the  subject.  Some,  therefore, 
have  contended,  that  if  the  credit  which  we  give 
to  any  fact  is  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  degree 
of  evidence  with  which  it  is  accompanied,  we 
must  allow  more  authority  to  the  gospels  than 
to  the  epistles;  more  to  those  epistles  which 
have  been  generally  acknowledged  than  to  those 
which  have  been  controverted,  &c.  To  us  it 


668 


SCRIPTURE. 


seems  that  sufficient  evidence  of  inspiration 
being  obtained  is  the  main  point.  Yet  one 
way  of  determining  the  essential  doctrines  of 
Christianity  would  be  to  examine  what  are  the 
doctrines  which  occur  oftenest  in  the  gospels ; 
for  the  gospels  are  the  plainest  parts  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  their  authenticity  is  most  com- 
pletely proved.  Nor  will  it  be  denied  that  our 
Saviour  taught  all  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
religion  himself;  that  he  repeated  them  on  dif- 
ferent occasions,  and  inculcated  them  with  an 
earnestness  proportionable  to  their  importance. 
The  epistles  are  to  be  considered  as  a  commen- 
tary on  the  essential  doctrines  of  the  gospel, 
adapted  to  the  situation  and  circumstances  of 
particular  churches,  and  perhaps  sometimes  ex- 
claining  doctrines  of  inferior  importance.  1. 
*  he  essential  doctrines  are  therefore  first  to  be 
sought  for  in  the  gospels,  and  to  be  determined 
by  the  number  of  times  they  occur.  2.  In  the 
.mcontroverted  epistles,  in  the  same  manner.  3. 
No  essential  doctrine  ought  to  be  founded  on  a 
single  passage,  nor  on  the  authority  of  a  contro- 
verted passage. 

That  Peter  was  old,  and  near  his  end,  when 
he  wrote  this  epistle,  may  be  inferred  from 
chap.  i.  14  :  '  Knowing  that  shortly  I  must  put 
off  this  tabernacle,  even  as  our  Lord  Jesus  has 
shown  me.'  Lardner  thinks  it  was  written  soon 
after  the  former.  Others  date  it  in  67.  The 
general  design  of  it  is  to  confirm  the  doctrines 
and  instructions  delivered  in  the  former ;  «  to 
excite  the  Christian  converts  to  adorn,  and  sted- 
fastly  adhere  to  their  holy  religion,  as  a  religion 
proceeding  from  God,  notwithstanding  the  arti- 
fices of  false  teachers,  whose  character  is  described; 
or  the  persecution  of  their  inveterate  enemies. 

The  first  Epistle  of  JOHN  is  ascribed  by  the 
unanimous  suffrage  of  the  ancients  to  the  beloved 
disciple  of  our  Lord.  It  is  referred  to  by  Poly- 
carp,  is  quoted  by  Papias,  by  Irenaeus,  and  was 
received  as  genuine  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus, 
by  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  by  Cyprian,  Origen, 
and  Eusebius.  There  is  such  a  resemblance  be- 
tween the  style  and  sentiments  of  this  epistle 
and  those  of  St.  John's  gospel,  as  to  afford  the 
highest  degree  of  internal  evidence  that  they  are 
the  compositions  of  the  same  author.  In  the 
style  of  this  apostle  there  is  a  remarkable  pecu- 
liarity, and  especially  in  this  epistle.  His  sen- 
tences, considered  separately,  are  exceedingly  clear 
and  intelligible ;  but,  when  we  search  for  their 
connexion,  we  frequently  meet  with  greater  diffi- 
culties than  we  do  even  in  the  epistles  of  St. 
Paul.  The  principal  signature  and  characteristic 
of  his  manner  is  an  artless  and  amiable  simpli- 
city, iuid  a  singular  modesty  and  candor,  in  con- 
junction with  a  wonderful  sublimity  of  senti- 
ment. His  conceptions  are  apparently  deliver- 
ed to  us  in  the  order  in  which  they  arose  to  his 
own  mind,  and  are  not  the  product  of  artificial 
reasoning  or  labored  investigation.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  fix  with  any  precision  the  date  of  this 
epistle,  nor  can  we  determine  to  what  persons  it 
was  addressed. 

The  leading  design  of  the  apostle  is  to  show 
the  insufficiency  of  faith,  and  the  external  pro- 
fession of  religion,  separate  from  morality ;  to 
guard  Christians  against  the  delusive  arts  of  the 


corrupters  of  Christianity,  whom  he  calls  Anti- 
christ ;  and  to  inculcate  universal  benevolence. 
His  admonitions  concerning  the  necessity  of 
good  morals,  and  the  inefficacy  of  external  pro- 
fessions, are  scattered  over  the  epistle,  but  are 
most  frequent  in  the  first,  second,  and  third 
chapters.  The  enemies  or  corrupters  of  Cnris- 
tianity  against  whom  he  contends,  seem  to  have 
denied  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of 
God  (chap.  ii.  22,  v.  1),  and  had  actually  come 
into  the  world  in  a  human  form  :  chap.  iv.  2,  3. 
The  earnestness  and  frequency  with  which  this 
apostle  recommends  benevolence  is  remarkable. 
He  makes  it  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
the  disciples  of  Jesus,  the  only  sure  pledge  of 
our  love  to  God,  and  the  only  assurance  of  eter- 
nal life  :  chap.  iii.  14,  15.  Benevolence  was 
his  favorite  theme,  which  he  affectionately  pressed 
upon  others,  and  constantly  practised  himself. 
It  was  conspicuous  in  his  conduct  to  his  great 
Master,  and  in  the  reciprocal  affection  which  it 
inspired  in  his  sacred  breast.  He  continued  to 
recommend  it  in  his  last  words.  When  his  ex- 
treme age  and  infirmities  had  so  wasted  his 
strength,  that  he  was  incapable  to  exercise  the 
duties  of  his  office,  the  venerable  old  man,  anxi- 
ous to  exert  in  the  service  of  his  Master  the  little 
strength  which  still  remained,  caused  himself  to 
be  carried  to  church,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  con- 
gregation he  repeated  these  words,  '  Little  chil- 
dren love  one  another.' 

It  has  been  observed  by  Dr.  Mill  that  the 
second  and  third  epistles  of  JOHN  are  so  short, 
and  resemble  the  first  so  much  in  sentiment  and 
style,  that  it  is  needless  to  contend  about  them. 
The  second  epistle  consists  only  of  thirteen 
verses,  and  of  these  eight  may  be  found  in  the 
first  epistle,  in  which  the  sense  or  language  is 
precisely  the  same.  The  second  epistle  is  quoted 
by  Irenasus,  and  was  received  by  Clemens  Alex- 
andrinus. Both  were  admitted  by  Athanasius, 
by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  by  Jerome.  The 
second  is  addressed  to  a  woman  of  distinction, 
whose  name  is  by  some  supposed  to  be  Cyria 
(taking  Kvpia  for  a  proper  name),  by  others  Electa. 
The  third  i*  inscribed  to  Gaius  or  Cains,  accord- 
ing to  the  Latin  orthography,  who,  in  the  opi- 
nion of  Lardner,  was  an  eminent  Christian,  that 
lived  in  some  city  of  Asia  not  far  from  Ephesus, 
where  St.  John  chiefly  resided  after  his  leaving 
Judea.  Or  he  may  be  the  Gaius  whom  Paul 
calls  his  host,  in  Rom.  xvi.  23.  The  time  of 
writing  these  two  epistles  cannot  be  determined 
with  any  certainty.  They  are  so  short  that  an 
analysis  of  them  is  not  necessary. 

The  Epistle  of  JUDE  is  cited  by  no  ancient 
Christian  writer  extant  before  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus about  the  year  194;  but  this  author  has 
transcribed  eight  or  ten  verses  in  his  Stromata 
and  Pedagogue.  It  is  quoted  once  byTertullian 
about  the  year  200;  by  Origen  frequently  about 
230.  It  was  not  however  received  by  many  of 
the  ancient  Christians,  on  account  of  a  supposed 
quotation  from  a  book  of  Enoch.  But  it  is  not 
certain  that  Jude  quotes  any  book.  He  only 
says  that,  '  Enoch  prophesied,  saying,  the  Ixird 
cometh  with  ten  thousand  of  his  saints.'  These 
might  be  words  of  a  prophecy  preserved  by  tra- 
dition, and  inserted  occasionally  in  different 


SCRIPTURE. 


669 


writings.  Nor  is  there  any  evidence  that  there 
was  such  a  book  as  Enoch's  Prophecies  in  the 
thne  of  Jude,  though  a  book  of  that  name  was 
extant  in  the  second  and  third  centuries.  As  to 
the  date  of  this  epistle,  nothing  beyond  conjec- 
ture can  be  produced.  The  design  of  it  is,  by 
describing  the  character  of  the  false  teachers,  and 
tha  punishments  to  which  they  were  liable,  to 
caution  Christians  against  listening  to  their  sug- 
gestions, and  being  thereby  perverted  from  the 
faith  and  purity  of  the  gospel. 

V.—  Of  the  Revelation  of  St.  John.— The 
APOCALYPSE  or  REVELATION  has  not  always 
been  unanimously  received  as  the  genuine  pro- 
duction of  the  apostle  John.  Its  authenticity  is 
proved,  however,  by  the  testimony  of  many  re- 
spectable authors  of  the  first  centuries.  It  is 
referred  to  by  the  martyrs  of  Lyons ;  it  was  ad- 
mitted by  Justin  Martyr  as  the  work  of  the 
apostle  John.  It  is  often  quoted  by  Irenaeus,  by 
Theophilus  bishop  of  Antioch,  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Origen,  and  Cyprian  of 
Carthage.  It  was  also  received  by  heretics,  as 
Novatius  and  his  followers,  the  Donatists,  and 
the  Arians.  For  the  first  two  centuries  no  part  of 
the  New  Testament  was  more  universally  acknow- 
ledged, or  mentioned  with  higher  respect.  But, 
a  dispute  having  arisen  about  the  millennium, 
Caius,  with  some  others,  about  2 1 2,  to  end  the 
controversy  as  speedily  and  effectually  as  possi- 
ble, ventured  to  deny  the  authority  of  the  book 
which  had  given  occasion  to  it. 

The  book  of  Revelation,  as  we  learn  from  ch. 
i.  9,  was  written  in  the  Isle  of  Patmos.  Ac- 
cording to  the  general  testimony  of  ancient  au- 
thors, John  was  banished  into  Patmos  in  the 
reign  of  Domitian,  and  restored  by  his  successor 
Nerva.  But  the  book  could  not  be  published 
till  after  John's  release,  when  he  returned  to 
Ephesus.  As  Domitian  died  in  96,  and  his  per- 
secution did  not  commence  till  near  the  end  of 
his  reign,  the  Revelation  might  therefore  be 
published  in  97. 

As  our  readers  may  wish  to  be  informed  how 
the  predictions  revealed  in  this  book  of  St.  John 
have  usually  been  interpreted  and  applied,  we 
subjoin  a  key  to  the  prophecies  contained  in  the 
Revelation,  extracted  from  the  learned  disserta- 
tions of  Dr.  Newton,  bishop  of  Bristol,  vol.  Hi., 
to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  a  more  full 
illustration  of  the  several  parts,  as  the  concise- 
ness of  our  plan  only  admits  a  short  analysis  of 
them. 

Nothing  of  a  prophetical  nature  occurs  in  the 
first  three  chapters,  except,  1.  What  is  said  con- 
cerning the  church  of  Ephesus,  'that  her  candle- 
stick shall  be  removed  out  of  its  place,'  which 
is  now  verified,  not  only  in  this,  but  in  all  the 
other  Asiatic  churches  which  existed  at  that  time ; 
the  light  of  the  Gospel  having  been  taken  from 
them,  not  only  by  their  heresies  and  divisions  from 
within,  but  by  the  arms  of  the  Saracens  from 
without ;  and,  2.  Concerning  the  church  of 
Smyrna,  that  she  shall  '  have  tribulation  ten 
days  ; '  that  is,  in  prophetic  language,  ten  years, 
referring  to  the  persecution  of  Dioclesian,  which 
alone  of  all  the  general  persecutions  lasted  so 
long. 

The  next  five  chapters  relate  to  the  opening  of 


•  the  seven  seals ;  ami  by  these  seals  are  intimated 
so  many  different  periods  of  the  prophecy.  Six 
of  these  seals  are  opened  in  the  sixth  and  seventh 
chapters. 

The  first  seal  or  period  is  memorable  for  con- 
quests. It  commences  with  Vespasian,  and  ter- 
minates in  Nerva ;  and  during  this  time  Judea 
was  subjugated.  The  second  seal  is  noted  for 
war  and  slaughter.  It  commences  with  Trajan, 
and  continues  through  his  reign,  and  that  of  his 
successors.  In  this  period  the  Jews  were  en- 
tirely routed  and  dispersed ;  and  great  was  the 
slaughter  and  devastation  occasioned  by  the  con- 
tending parties.  The  third  seal  is  characterised 
by  a  rigorous  execution  of  justice,  and  an  abund- 
ant provision  of  corn,  wine,  and  oi'.  It  com- 
mences with  Septimius  Severus.  lie  and  Alex- 
ander Severus  were  just  and  severe  emperors, 
and  at  the  same  time  highly  celebrated  for  the 
regard  they  paid  to  the  felicity  of  their  people, 
by  procuring  them  plenty  of  every  thing,  and  par- 
ticularly corn,  wine,  and  oil.  This  period  lasted 
during  the  reigns  of  the  Septimian  family.  The 
fourth  seal  is  distinguished  by  a  concurrence  of 
evils,  such  as  war,  famine,  pestilence,  and  wild 
beasts  ;  by  all  which  the  Roman  empire  was  re- 
markably infested  from  the  reign  of  Maximin  to 
that  of  Dioclesian.  The  fifth  seal  begins  at  Dio- 
clesian, and  is  signalised  by  the  great  persecution, 
from  whence  arose  that  memorable  era,  the  era 
of  martyrs.  With  Constantine  begins  the  sixth 
seal,  a  period  of  revolutions,  pictured  forth  by 
great  commotions  in  earth  and  in  heaven,  allud- 
ing to  the  subversion  of  Paganism  and  the  esta- 
blishment of  Christianity.  This  period  lasted 
from  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great  to  that 
of  Theodosius  I.  The  seventh  seal  includes  un- 
der it  the  remaining  parts  of  the  prophecy,  and 
comprehends  seven  periods  distinguished  by  the 
sounding  of  seven  trumpets. 

As  the  seals  foretold  the  state  of  the  Roman 
empire  before  and  till  it  became  Christian,  so 
the  trumpets  foreshow  the  fate  of  it  afterwards ; 
each  trumpet  being  an  alarm  to  one  nation  or 
other,  rousing  them  up  to  overthrow  that  empire. 
Four  of  these  trumpets  are  sounded  in  the  eighth 
chapter. 

At  the  sounding  of  the  first  trumpet,  Alaric 
and  his  Goths  invade  the  Roman  empire,  besiege 
Rome  twice,  and  set  it  on  fire  in  several  places. 
See  ROME.  At  the  sounding  of  the  second,  At 
tila  and  his  Huns  waste  the  Roman  provinces, 
and  compel  the  eastern  emperor  Theodosius  II., 
and  the  western  emperor  Valentinian  III.,  to  sub- 
mit to  shameful  terms.  At  the  sounding  of  the 
third,  Genseric  and  his  Vandals  arrive  from 
Africa, ;  spoil  and  plunder  Rome,  and  set  sail 
again  with  immense  wealth  and  innumerable  cap- 
tives. See  ROME.  At  the  sounding  of  the  fourth 
trumpet,  Odoacer  and  the  Heruli  put  an  end  to 
the  very  name  of  the  western  empire.  See  ROME. 
Theodoric  founds  the  kingdom  of  the  Ostrogoths 
in  Italy  ;  and  at  last  Italy  becomes  a  province  of 
the  eastern  empire,  Rome  being  governed  by  a 
duke  under  the  exarch  of  Ravenna.  See  ITALY. 
As  the  foregoing  trumpets  relate  chiefly  to  the 
downfal  of  the  western  empire,  so  do  the  two 
following  to  that  of  the  eastern.  They  are  sounded 
in  the  ninth,  tenth,  and  part  of  the  eleventh  chap- 


670 


SCRIPTURE. 


.era.  At  the  sounding  of  the  fifth  trumpet,  Ma- 
homet, that  blazing  star,  appears,  opens  the  bot- 
tomless pit,  and  with  his  locusts,  the  Arabians, 
darkens  the  sun  and  air.  At  the  sounding  of  the 
sixth,  a  period  not  yet  finished,  the  four  angels, 
that  is,  the  four  sultans,  or  leaders  of  the  Turks 
and  Othmans,  are  loosed  from  the  river  Eu- 
phrates. The  Greek  or  Eastern  empire  was  cruelly 
*  hurt  and  tormented  '  under  the  fifth  trumpet ; 
but  under  the  sixth  it  was  '  slain,'  and  utterly 
destroyed 

The  Latin  or  Western  church  not  being  re- 
claimed by  the  ruin  of  the  Greek  or  Eastern,  but 
still  persisting  in  their  idolatry  and  wickedness  ; 
at  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  chapter,  and  under 
the  sound  of  the  sixth  trumpet,  is  introduced  a 
vision  preparative  to  the  prophecies  respecting 
the  Western  church,  wherein  an  angel  is  repre- 
sented, having  in  his  hand  a  little  book,  or  codi- 
cil, describing  the  calamities  that  should  overtake 
that  church.  The  measuring  of  the  temple  shows, 
that  during  all  this  period  there  will  be  some  true 
Christians,  who  will  conform  themselves  to  the 
rule  of  God's  word,  even  whilst  the  outer  court, 
that  is,  the  external  and  more  extensive  part  of 
this  temple  or  church,  is  trodden  under  foot  by 
Gentiles,  i.e.  such  Christians  as,  in  their  idolatrous 
worship  and  persecuting  practice,  resemble  and 
outdo  «.he  Gentiles  themselves.  Yet  against  these 
corrupters  of  religion  there  will  be  always  some 
•.rue  witnesses  to  protest,  who,  however  they  may 
be  overborne  at  times,  and  in  appearance  reduced 
to  death,  yet  will  arise  again  from  time  to  time,  till 
at  last  they  triumph  and  gloriously  ascend.  The 
eleventh  chapter  concludes  with  the  sounding  of 
the  seventh  trumpet. 

In  the  twelfth  chapter,  by  the  woman  bearing 
a  man-child  is  to  be  understood  the  Christian 
church ;  by  the  great  red  dragon,  the  heathen 
Roman  empire;  by  the  man-child  whom  the  wo- 
man bore,  Constantine  the  Great;  and  by  the 
war  in  heaven,  the  contests  between  the  Christian 
and  Heathen  religions. 

In  the  thirteenth  chapter,  by  the  beast  with  se- 
ven heads  and  ten  horns,  unto  whom  the  dragon 
gave  his  power,  seat,  and  great  authority,  is  to 
be  understood  not  Pagan  but  Christian,  not  im- 
perial but  papal  Rome ;  in  submitting  to  whose 
religion,  the  world  did  in  effect  submit  again  to 
the  religion  of  the  dragon.  The  ten-horned  beast, 
therefore,  represents  the  Romish  church  and  state 
in  general ;  but  the  beast  with  two  horns  like  a 
lamb  is  the  Roman  clergy ;  and  that  image  of 
the  ten-horned  beast,  which  the  two  horned 
beast  caused  to  be  made,  and  inspired  with  life, 
is  the  pope  ;  whose  number  is  666,  accord  intr  to 
the  numerical  powers  of  the  letters  constituting 
the  Roman  name  Aar«voc>  Latinus,  or  its  equi. 
valent  in  Hebrew,  n«Dn  Romiith. 

A     30  200 1 


A  1 
T  300 
It  5 

1  10 

N  60 
0  70 

2  200 

666 


10 


400  n 


666 


Chap.  xvi.  By  the  lamb  6n  Mount  Sion  is 
meant  Jesus;  by  the  144,000  his  church  and 
followers  ;  by  the  angel  preaching  his  everlast- 
ing gospel,  the  first  principal  effort  made  towards 
a  reformation  by  that  public  opposition  formed 
against  the  worship  of  saints  and  images  by  em- 
perors and  bishops  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  cen- 
turies ;  by  the  angel  crying,  «  Babylon  is  fallen,' 
the  Waldenses  and  Albigenses,  who  pronounced 
the  church  of  Rome  to  be  the  Apocalyptic  Baby- 
lon, and  denounced  her  destruction  ;  and  by  the 
third  angel,  Martin  Luther,  and  his  fellow  re- 
formers, who  protested  against  all  the  corruptions 
of  the  church  of  Rome,  as  destructive  to  salva- 
tion. 

The  following  very  excellent  canons  of  inter- 
pretation, in  respect  to  this -hook,  have  been  re- 
cently proposed  by  Dr.  Woodhouse,  who  has 
himself,  applied  them  with  great  success  to  its 
exposition  : — 

1.  Compare  the  language,  the  symbols,  and 
the  predictions  of  the  Apocalypse  with  those  of 
former  revelations  ;  and  admit  only  such  inter- 
pretation as  shall  appear  to  have  the  sanction  of 
'this  divine  authority. 

*2.  Unless  the  language  and  symbols  of  the 
Apocalypse  should  in  particular  passages  direct, 
or  evidently  require,  another  mode  of  applica- 
tion, the  predictions  are  to  be  applied  to  the  pro- 
gressive church  of  Christ. 

3.  The  kingdom  which  is  the  subject  of  this 
prophetic  book  is  not  a  temporal,  but  a  spiritual 
kingdom  ;—»'  not  a  kingdom  of  this  world  ; '  not 
established   by  the    means    and    apparatus   of 
worldly  pomp,  not  bearing  the  external  ensigns 
of  royalty ;  but  governing  the  inward  man,   by 
possession  of  the  ruling  principles  :  '  the  king- 
dom of  God,'  says  our  Lord,    '  is  within  you.' 
Luke  xvii.  21.     The  predictions  relative  to  this 
kingdom,   therefore,  are  to  be  spiritually  inter- 
preted.    Wars,  conquests,  and  revolutions,  and 
vast  extent  and  great  political   import,  are  not 
the  object  of  the  Apocalyptical  prophecies,  un- 
less they  appear  to  have  promoted  or  retarded  in 
a  considerable  degree  the  real  progress  of  the 
religion  of  Jesus  Christ,  whose  proper  reign  is  in 
the  hearts  and  consciences  of  his  subjects.      His 
reign    is  advanced   when  Christian  principles, 

'  when  faith,  and  righteousness,  and  charity 
abound.  It  is  retarded  when  ignorance,  impu- 
rity, idolatrous  superstition,  and  wickedness 
prevail. 

4.  We  are  not  to  attempt  the  particular  ex- 
planation of  those  prophecies  which  remain  to  be 
fulfilled. 

For  an  account  of  the  doctrines  and  precepts 
contained  in  the  Scriptures,  see  THEOLOGY. 

We  cannot  conclude  this  article  more  satis- 
factorily to  our  own  minds,  nor  to  that,  we  would 
hope,  of  a  large  majority  of  our  readers,  than  in 
the  admirable  remarks  of  Dr.  Chalmers  on  the 
Supreme  Authority  of  the  Scriptures. 

'  If  the  New  Testament  be  a  message  from  God, 
it  behoves  us  to  make  an  entire  and  uncondi- 
tional surrender  of  our  minds,  to  all  the  duty 
and  to  all  the  information  which  it  sets  before 
us.  There  is,  perhaps,  nothing  more  thoroughly 
beyond  •  the  cognizance  of  the  human  faculties 
than  the  truths  of  religion,  and  the  ways  of  tha 


SCRIPTURE. 


671 


mighty  and  invisible  Being  who  is  the  object  of 
it ;  and  yet  nothing,  we  will  venture  to  say,  has 
been  made  the  subject  of  more  hardy  and  adven- 
turous speculation.  We  make  no  allusion  at 
present  to  Deists,  who  reject  the  authority  of  the 
New  Testament  because  the  plan  and  the  dis- 
pensation of  the  Almighty,  which  is  recorded 
there,  is  different  from  that  plan  and  that  dispen- 
sation which  they  have  chosen  to  ascribe  to  him. 
We  speak  of  Christians  who  profess  to  admit 
the  authority  of  this  record,  but  who  have  taint- 
ed the  purity  of  their  profession  by  not  acting 
upon  its  exclusive  authority  ;  who  have  mingled 
their  own  thoughts  and  their  own  fancy  with 
its  information ;  who,  instead  of  repairing  in 
every  question,  and  in  every  difficulty,  to  the 
principle  of  IV hat  reddest  thou  ?'  have  abridged 
the  sovereignty  of  this  principle,  by  appealing 
to  others,  of  which  we  undertake  to  make  out 
the  incompetency ;  who,  in  addition  to  the  word 
of  God,  talk  also  of  the  reason  of  the  thing,  or 
the  standard  of  orthodoxy ;  and  have  in  fact 
brought  down  the  Bible  from  the  high  place 
which  belongs  to  it,  as  the  only  tribunal  to  which 
the  appeal  should  be  made,  or  from  which  the 
decision  should  be  looked  for. 

'  It  is  not  merely  among  partizans  or  the  advo- 
cates of  a  system  that  we  meet  with  this  indif- 
ference to  the  authority  of  what  is  written.  It 
lies  at  the  bottom  of  a  great  deal  of  that  loose- 
ness, both  in  practice  and  speculation,  which  we 
meet  with  every  day  in  society,  and  which  we 
often  hear  expressed  in  familiar  conversation. 
Whence  that  list  of  maxims  which  are  so  indo- 
lently conceived,  but  which,  at  the  same  time, 
are  so  faithfully  proceeded  upon  ?  '  We  have  all 
our  passions  and  infirmities;  but  we  have  ho- 
nest hearts,  and  that  will  make  up  for  them. 
Men  are  not  all  cast  in  the  same  mould.  God 
will  not  call  us  to  task  too  rigidly  for  our  foibles; 
at  least  this  is  our  opinion,  and  God  can  never 
be  so  unmerciful,  or  so  unjust,  as  to  bring  us  to  a 
severe  and  unforgiving  tribunal  for  the  mistakes 
of  the  understanding.'  Now,  it  is  not  licentious- 
ness in  general,  which  we  are  speaking  against. 
It  is  against  that  sanction  which  it  appears  to 
derive  from  the  self-formed  maxims  of  him  who 
is  guilty  of  it.  It  is  against  the  principle  that 
either  an  error  of  doctrine,  or  an  indulgence  of 
passion,  is  to  be  exempted  from  condemnation, 
because  it  has  an  opinion  of  the  mind  to  give 
it  countenance  and  authority.  What  we  com- 
plain of  is,  that  a  man  no  sooner  sets  himself 
forward  and  says,  '  this  is  my  sentiment,'  than 
he  conceives  that  all  culpability  is  taken  away 
from  the  error,  either  of  practice  or  speculation, 
into  which  he  has  fallen.  The  carelessness  with 
which  the  opinion  has  been  formed  is  of  no  ac- 
count in  the  estimate.  It  is  the  mere  existence 
of  the  opinion  which  is  pleaded  in  vindication, 
and  under  the  authority  of  our  maxim,  and  our 
mode  of  thinking,  every  man  conceives  himself 
to  have  a  right  to  his  own  way  and  his  own  pe- 
culiarity. 

'  Now  this  might  be  all  very  fair  were  there  no 
Bible  and  no  revelation  in  existence.  But  it  is 
not  fair  that  all  this  looseness,  and  all  this  varie- 
ty, should  be  still  floating  in  the  world,  in  the 
face  of  an  authoritative  communication  from  God 


himself.  Had  no  message  come  to  us  from  the 
fountain-head  of  truth,  it  were  natural  enough  for 
every  individual  mind  to  betake  itself  to  its  own 
speculation.  But  a  message  has  come  to  us, 
bearing  on  its  forehead  every  character  of  au- 
thenticity ;  and  is  it  right  now,  that  the  question 
of  our  faith,  or  of  our  duty,  should  be  committed 
to  the  capricious  variations  of  this  man's  taste, 
or  of  that  man's  fancy?  Our  maxim,  and  our 
sentiment !  God  has  put  an  authoritative  stop 
to  all  this.  He  has  spoken,  and  the  right  or  the 
liberty  of  speculation  no  longer  remains  to  us. 
The  question  now  is  not  '  What  thinkest  thou?' 
In  the  days  of  Pagan  antiquity  no  other  ques- 
tion could  be  put ;  and  the  wretched  delusions 
and  idolatries  of  that  period  let  us  see  what  kind 
of  answer  the  human  mind  is  capable  of  making, 
when  left  to  its  own  guidance,  and  its  own  au- 
thority. But  we  call  ourselves  Christians,  and 
profess  to  receive  the  Bible  as  the  directory  of 
our  faith ;  and  the  only  question  in  which  we  are 
concerned  is,  '  What  is  whiten  in  the  law?  how 
readest  thou  ?' 

'  Instead  of  learning  the  designs  and  character 
of  the  Almighty  from  his  own  mouth,  we  sit  in 
judgment  upon  them  ;  and  make  our  conjecture 
of  what  they  should  be  take  the  precedency  of 
his  revelation  of  what  they  are.  We  do  Him 
the  same  injustice  that  we  do  to  an  acquaintance, 
whose  proceedings  and  whose  intentions  we 
venture  to  pronounce  upon,  while  we  refuse  him 
a  hearing,  or  turn  away  from  the  letter  in  which 
he  explains  himself.  No  wonder,  then,  at  the 
want  of  unanimity  among  Christians,  so  long  as 
the  question  of  '  what  thinkest  thou?'  is  made 
the  principle  of  their  creed,  and,  for  the  safe 
guidance  of  criticism,  they  have  committed 
themselves  to  the  endless  caprices  of  the  human 
intellect.  Let  the  principle  of '  what  thinkest 
thou  ?'  be  exploded,  and  that  of  '  what  readest 
thou?'  be  substituted  in  its  place.  Let  us  take 
our  lesson  as  the  Almighty  places  it  before  us, 
and,  instead  of  being  the  judge  of  his  conduct, 
be  satisfied  with  the  safer  and  humbler  office  of 
being  the  interpreter  of  his  language. 

'  This  principle  is  not  exclusively  applicable 
to  the  learned.  The  great  bulk  of  Christians 
have  no  access  to  the  Bible  in  its  original  lan- 
guages; but  ihey  have  access  to  the  common 
translation,  and  they  may  be  satisfied,  by  the 
concurrent  testimony  of  the  learned  among  the 
different  sectaries  of  this  country,  that  the  trans- 
lation is  a  good  one.  We  do  not  confine  the 
principle  to  critics  and  translators  ;  we  press  it 
upon  all.  We  call  upon  them  not  to  form  their 
divinity  by  independent  thinking,  but  to  receive 
it  by  obedient  reading,  to  take  the  words  as  they 
stand,  and  submit  to  the  plain  English  of  the 
Scriptures  which  lie  before  them.  It  is  the  office 
of  a  translator  to  give  a  faithful  representation 
of  the  original.  Now  that  this  faithful  represen- 
tation has  been  given,  it  is  our  part  to  peruse  it 
with  care,  and  to  take  a  fair  and  a  faithful  im- 
pression of  it.  It  is  our  part  to  purify  our  un- 
derstanding of  all  its  previous  conceptions.  We 
must  bring  a  free  and  unoccupied  mind  to  ihe 
exercise.  It  must  not  be  the  pride  or  the  obsti- 
nacy of  self-formed  opinions,  or  the  haughty  in- 
dependence of  him  who  thinks  he  has  reached 


672 


SCRIPTURE. 


tne  manhood  of  his  understanding.  We  must 
bring  with  us  the  docility  of  a  child,  if  we  want 
to  gain  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  It  must  not  be 
a  partial,  but  an  entire  and  unexcepted  obedience. 
There  must  be  no  garbling  of  that  which  is  en- 
tire, no  darkening  of  that  which  is  luminous,  no 
softening  down  of  that  which  is  authoritative  or 
severe.  The  Bible  will  allow  of  no  compromise. 
It  professes  to  be  the  directory  of  our  faith,  and 
claims  a  total  ascendency  over  the  souls  and  the 
understandings  of  men.  It  will  enter  into  no 
composition  with  us  or  our  principles.  It 
challenges  the  whole  mind  as  its  due,  and  it 
appeals  to  the  truth  of  heaven  for  the  high  au- 
thority of  its  sanctions.  '  Whosoever  addeth  to, 
or  taketh  from,  the  words  of  this  book,  is  accur- 
sed,' is  the  absolute  language  in  which  it  delivers 
itself.  This  brings  us  to  its  terms.  There  is  no 
way  of  escaping  after  this.  We  must  bring 
every  thought  into  the  captivity  of  its  obedience, 
and,  as  closely  as  ever  lawyer  stuck  to  his  docu- 
ment or  his  extract,  must  we  abide  by  the  rule 
and  the  doctrine  which  this  authentic  memorial 
of  God  sets  before  us.  Now  we  hazard  the 
assertion,  that  with  a  number  of  professing 
Christians  there  is  not  this  unexcepted  submis- 
sion of  the  understanding  to  the  authority  of  the 
Bible;  and  that  the  authority  of  the  Bible  is 
often  modified,  and  in  some  cases  superseded,  by 
the  authority  of  other  principles. 

'  But  is  not  this  an  enlightened  age?  he  after- 
wards asks,  and,  since  the  days  of  the  gospel, 
has  not  the  wisdom  of  2000  years  accumulated 
upon  the  present  generation?  has  not  science 
been  enriched  by  discovery?  and  is  not  theology 
one  of  the  sciences.  Are  the  men  of  this  ad- 
vanced period  to  be  restrained  from  the  high  ex- 
ercise of  their  powers  ?  and,  because  the  men  of 
a  remote  and  barbarous  antiquity  lisped  and 
drivelled  in  the  infancy  of  their  acquirements,  is 
that  any  reason  why  we  should  be  restricted  like 
so  many  schoolboys  to  the  lesson  that  is  set 
before  us  ?  It  is  all  true  that  this  is  a  very  en- 
lightened age,  but  on  what  field  has  it  acquired 
so  flattering  a  distinction  ?  On  the  field  of  ex- 
periment. The  human  mind  owes  all  its  pro- 
gress to  the  confinement  of  its  efforts  within  the 
safe  and  certain  limits  of  observation,  and  to  the 
severe  restraint  which  it  has  imposed  upon  its 
speculative  tendencies.  Go  beyond  these  limits, 
and  the  human  mind  has  not  advanced  a  single 
inch  by  its  own  independent  exercises.  All  the 
philosophy  which  has  been  reared  by  the  labor 
of  successive  ages  is  the  philosophy  of  facts 
reduced,  to  general  laws,  or  brought  under  a 
general  description  from  observed  points  of  re- 
semblance. A  proud  and  a  wonderful  fabric  we 
do  allow ;  but  we  throw  away  the  very  instru- 
ment by  which  it  was  built  the  moment  that  we 
cease  to  observe,  and  begin  to  theorise  and  ex- 
cogitate. Tell  us  a  single  discovery  which  has 
thrown  a  panicle  of  light  on  the  details  of  the 
divine  administration.  Tell  us  a  single  truth,  in 


the  whole  field  of  experimental  science,  which 
can  bring  us  to  the  moral  government  of  the 
Almighty  by  any  other  road  than  his  own  revela- 
tion. 

'  We  do  all  homage  to  modern  science,  nor 
do  we  dispute  the  loftiness  of  its  pretensions. 
But  we  maintain  that,  however  brilliant  its 
career  in  those  tracts  of  philosophy  where  it 
has  the  light  of  observation  to  conduct  it,  the 
philosophy  of  all  that  lies  without  the  field  of 
observation  is  as  obscure  and  inaccessible  as 
ever.  We  maintain  that,  to  pass  from  the  mo- 
tions of  the  moon  to  an  unauthorised  specu- 
lation upon  the  chemistry  of  its  materials,  is  a 
presumption  disowned  by  philosophy.  \\ \> 
ought  to  feel  that  it  would  be  a  still  more  glaring 
transgression  of  all  her  maxims,  to  pass  from  the 
brightest  discovery  in  her  catalogue,  to  the  ways 
of  that  mysterious  Being  whom  no  eye  hath 
seen,  and  whose  mind  is  capacious  as  infinity. 
The  splendor  and  the  magnitude  of  what  we  do 
know  can  never  authorise  us  to  pronounce  upon 
what  we  do  not  know  ;  nor  can  we  conceive  a 
transition  more  violent,  or  more  unwarrantable, 
than  to  pass  from  the  truths  of  natural  science  to 
a  speculation  on  the  details  of  God's  administra- 
tion, or  the  economy  of  his  moral  government. 
We  hear  much  of  revelations  from  heaven.  Let 
any  one  of  these  bear  the  evidence  of  an  actual 
communication  from  God  himself,  and  all  the 
reasonings  of  all  the  theologians  must  vanish,  and 
give  place  to  the  substance  of  this  communication. 
Instead  of  theorising  upon  the  nature  and  proper- 
ties of  that  divine  light  which  irradiates  the  throne 
of  God,  and  exists  at  so  immeasurable  a  distance 
from  our  faculties,  let  us  point  our  eyes  to  that 
emanation  which  has  actually  come  down  to  us. 
Instead  of  theorising  upon  the  counsels  of  the 
divine  mind,  let  us  go  to  that  volume  which 
lighted  upon  our  world  nearly  2000  years  ago, 
and  which  bears  the  most  authentic  evidence 
that  it  is  the  depository  of  part  of  these  coun- 
sels. Let  us  apply  the  proper  instrument  to 
this  examination.  Let  us  never  conceive  it  to  be 
a  work  of  speculation  or  fancy.  It  is  a  pure 
work  of  grammatical  analysis.  It  is  an  unmixed 
question  of  language.  The  commentator  who 
opens  this  book  with  the  one  hand,  and  carries 
his  system  in  the  other,  has  nothing  to  do  with  it. 
We  admit  of  no  other  instrument  than  the  voca- 
bulary and  the  lexicon.  The  man  whom  we 
look  to  is  the  Scripture  critic,  who  can  appeal  to 
his  authorities  for  the  import  and  significancy  of 
phrases,  and,  whatever  be  the  strict  result  of  his 
patient  and  profound  philology,  we  submit  to  it. 
We  call  upon  every  enlightened  disciple  of  lord 
Bacon  to  approve  the  steps  of  this  process,  and 
to  acknowledge  that  the  same  habits  of  philoso- 
phising to  which  science  is  indebted  for  all  her 
elevation  in  these  latter  days,  will  lead  us  to 
cast  down  all  our  lofty  imaginations,  and  bring 
into  captivity  every  thought  to  the  obedience  of 
Christ. 


SCR 


G73 


SCR 


SCRIVENER,  it.  s.  Fr.  escrivnin;  Lat.  scri- 
vano.     One  who  draws  contracts  among  brokers. 

We'll  pass  the  business  privately  and  well  : 
Send  for  your  daughter  by  your  servant  here, 
5Iy  boy  shall  fetch  the  scrivener. 

Shttkipeiire.  Taming  of  the  Shrew. 
Yet  certain  though  it  be,  it  hath  flaws  ;  for  that 
the  scriveners  and  brokers  do  value  unsound  men  to 
serve  their  own  turn  Boeon't  Essays. 

How  happy  in  his  low  degree. 
Who  leads  a  quiet  country  life, 
And  from  the  griping  scrivener  free  ! 

DrydtrCt  Horace. 

I  am  reduced  to  beg  and  borrow  from  scriveners 
and  usurers,  that  suck  the  heart  and  blood. 

Arbuthnot's  History  of  John  Bull. 

A  SCRIVKXER,  if  entrusted  with  a  bond,  may 
receive  the  interest:  and,  if  he  fails,  the  obligee 
shall  bear  the  loss :  and  so  it  is  if  he  receive  the 
principal  and  deliver  up  the  bond ;  for,  being 
entrusted  with  the  security  itself,  it  must  be  pre- 
sumed that  he  is  trusted  with  power  to  receive 
interest  or  principal ;  and  the  giving  up  the 
bond  on  payment  of  the  money  shall  be  a  dis- 
charge thereof.  But,  if  a  scrivener  shall  be  en- 
trusted with  a  mortgage-deed,  he  hath  only 
authority  to  receive  the  interest,  not  the  prin- 
cipal, and  the  giving  up  the  deed  in  this  case  is 
not  sufficient  to  restore  the  estate,  but  there 
must  be  a  reconveyance,  &c.  It  is  held,  where 
a  scrivener  puts  out  his  client's  money  on  a  bad 
security,  which  upon  enquiry  might  have  been 
easily  found  so,  yet  he  cannot  in  equity  be 
charged  to  answer  for  the  money ;  for  it  is  here 
said,  no  one  would  venture  to  put  out  money  of 
another  upon  a  security,  if  he  were  obliged  to 
warrant  and  make  it  good  in  case  a  loss  should 
happen,  without  any  fraud  in  him. 

SCRIVER1US  (Peter),  a  learned  Dutch  au- 
thor, born  at  Haerlem,  in  1590.  He  wrote  1. 
Batavia  lllustrata;  2.  Notes  upon  Aquilius's 
Chronicum  Geldricum  ;  3.  Some  other  works 
upon  the  Antiquities  of  the  United  Provinces, 
lie  also  corrected  a  copy  of  Vegetius ;  and  died 
in  1653,  aged  sixty-three. 

SCROFANELLO,  in  ichthyology,  a  name 
•which  some  have  given  to  a  small  fish  of  the  Me- 
diterranean more  usually  known  by  the  name  of 
scorpwna. 

SCROF1JLA,n.  s. )      Lat.  scrofa,  a  sow,  as 
SCROF'ULOUS,  adj.    J  Or.  xotpac.     A  deprava- 
tion of  the  humors  of  the  body,  which  breaks 
out  in  sores ;  commonly  called  the  king's  evil  : 
the  adjective  corresponds. 

Scrofulous  persons  can  never  be  duly  nourished  > 
for  such  as  have  tumours  in  the  parotides  often  have 
them  in  the  pancreas  and  mesentery. 

Arbuthiiot  on  Aliments. 

English  consumptions  generally  proceed  from  a 
scrofulous  disposition.  Arlulhnot. 

If  matter  in  the  milk  dispose  to  coagulation,  it 
produces  a  scrofula.  Wiseman  of  Tumours. 

What  wouffl  become  of  the  race  of  men  in  the 
next  age,  if  we  had  nothing  to  trust  to,  beside  the 
icroftilous  consumptive  production  furnished  by  our 
men  of  wit  and  pleasure  ?  Swift. 

ScRort'LA.     See  MEDICINE. 
SCROLL,  w.  s.     By  Minsheu  supposed  to  be 
corrupted  from  roll;  by  Skinner  from  znescrotille 
given    by    the   heralds;     whence     parchment, 
VOL.  XIX. 


wrapped  up   in  a    similar  form,  has    the  same 
name.     A  writing  wrapped  up. 

His  chamber  all  was  hanged  about  with  rolls, 
And  old  records  from  ancient  times  deriv'd  ; 
Some  made  in  books,  some  in  long  parchment  scrolls, 
That  were  all  worm-eaten,  and  full  of  canker-holes. 

Spenser. 

A  Numidian  priest,  bellowing  out  certain  super- 
stitious charms,  cast  divers  scrolls  of  paper  on  each 
side  the  way,  wherein  he  cursed  and  banned  the 
Christians.  Knolles. 

We'll  add  a  royal  number  to  the  dead, 
Gracing  the  scroll  that  tells  of  this  war's  loss, 
With  slaughter  coupled  to  the  name  of  kings. 

Shahxpeare. 

Here  is  the  scroll  of  every  man's  name,  which  is 
thought  fit  through  all  Athens  to  play  in  our  inter- 
lude. Id. 

He  drew  forLh  a  scroll  of  parchment,  and  delivered 
it  to  our  foremast  man.  Bacon. 

Such  follow  him  as  shall  be  registered  ; 
Part  good,  part  bad  :  of  bad  the  longer  scroll. 

Milton. 

With  this  epistolary  scroll, 
Receive  the  partner  of  my  inmost  soul.  Prior. 

SCROON,  a  lake  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
United  States.  Twelve  miles  west  of  George 
Lake,  eight  miles  long,  and  one  broad. 

SCROON,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  in  New 
York,  the  north-east  branch  of  the  Hudson.  It 
runs  from  Scroon  Lake  into  the  Hudson,  and  has 
several  falls. 

SCROPHULA.     See  MEDICINE. 

SCROPHULARIA,  figwort,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  angiospermia  order,  and  didynamia 
class  of  plants ;  natural  order  fortieth,  per- 
sonatae  :  CAL.  quinquefid  :  COR.  almost  globose, 
and  resupinated  :  CAPS,  biloculated.  There  are 
several  species,  of  which  the  most  remarkable 
are  these  : — 

1 .  S.  aquatica,  water  figwort  or  betony.     The 
root  is  fibrous ;  stem  erect,  square,  about  four 
feet  high.     The  leaves  are  opposite,  elliptical, 
pointed,  slightly   scalloped,  on  decurrent  foot- 
stalks.    Flowers  purple,  in  loose  naked  spikes. 
It  grows  on  the  sides  of  rivulets  and  other  wet, 
places,  and  has  a  fetid  smell.     The  leaves  are 
used  in  medicine  as  a  corrector  of  senna. 

2.  S.  nodosa,  or  the  common  figwort,  which 
grows  in  woods  and  hedges.     The  root  is  tu- 
brous  ;  the  stalks  are  four  or  five  feet  high,  and 
branched  towards  the  top ;  the  leaves  are  heart 
shaped,  serrated,  and  acute.     The  flowers  are  of 
a  dark  red  color,  shaped  like  a  cap  or  helmet ; 
the   lower   lip   greenish :    they   grow   in  loose 
dichotomous  spikes  or  racemi  at  the  top  of  the 
branches.     The  leaves  have  a  fetid   smell  and 
bitter  taste.     An  ointment  made  of  the  root  was 
formerly  used  to  cure  scrofulous   sores,  but  is 
at  present  out  of  practice. 

3.  S.  scorodonia,  or  balm-leaved  figwort.  The 
stem  is  erect,  square,  about  two  feet  high.     The 
leaves    are    opposite,    doubly    serrated.      The 
flowers  are  dusky  purple,  in  composite  bunches. 
It  crows  on  the  banks  of  rivulets,  &c.,  in  Corn- 
wall. 

4.  S.  vernal  is,  or  yellow  figwoit.    The  stalks 
are  square,  hairy,   brown,  about  two   feet  high. 
The  leaves  are  heart-shaped,  roundish,  hairy,  in«- 
dented,  opposite.     The  flowers  are  yellow,   ojj 

2X 


SCR 


674 


SCR 


Dingle   forked    foot-stalks  from    the  ala?  of  the 
leaves.     It  grows  in  hedges  in  Surry. 

SCROYLE,  n.  s.  Fr.  escroudle.  A  scrofu- 
lous swelling;  a  mean  fellow  ;  a  rascal ;  a  scabby 
wretch. 

The  scroyles  of  Anglers  flout  you  kings, 
And  stand  securely  on  their  battlements, 
As  in  a  theatre.  Shaksjeare.  King  John. 

SCRUB,  v.  a.  &  n.  s.  j        Belgic    schrobben  ; 
SCRUB'BED,  %  Swed.     skrubba.      To 

SCRUB'BY,  adj.  j  rub   hard   with  some- 

thing coarse  :  a  mean  fellow ;  any  thing  mean  : 
the  adjective  corresponding. 

I  gave  it  to  a  youth, 
A  kind  of  boy,  a  little  tcrubbed  boy, 
No  higher  than  thyself. 

Shahtpeare.  Merchant  of  Venice. 
Such  wrinkles  as  a  skilful  hand  would  draw 
For  an  old  grandam  ape,  when  with  a  grace 
She  sits  at  squat,  and  scrub*  her  leathern  face. 

Dryden. 

She  never  would  lay  aside  the  use  of  brooms  and 
scrubbing  brushes.  Arbuihnot. 

Now  Moll  had  whirled  her  mop  with  dexterous 


Prer 


airs, 


m  stairs.       Swift. 
y  vault  shall  be 


repar'd  to  scrub  the  entry  and  the 

With  a  dozen   large  vessels  m 

stor'd  j 
No  little  scrub  joint  shall  come  on  my  board.      Id. 

The  scene  a  wood,  produced  no  more 
Than  a  few  scrubby  trees  before.  Id. 

SCRUB,  one  of  the  smaller  Virgin  Islands  of 
the  West  Indies,  to  the  east  of  the  north  extre- 
mity of  Tortola,  on  which  it  depends.  Long. 
62°  57'  E.,  lat.  18°  25'  N. 

SCRU'PLE,  n.  s.  &v.n.\       French     scru- 

SCRUPULOSITY,  (pule;  Lat.  scrupu- 

SCRU'PDLOUS,  adj.  >  lus.    Doubt ;  diffi- 

SCRC'PULOUSLY,  adv.        i  culty  of  determina- 

SCRO'PULOUSNESS,  n.  s.  )  tion;  perplexity  : 
the  third  part  of  a  dram  ;  any  small  quantity  : 
scrupulosity  also  means  doubt,  state  of,  or  dispo- 
sition to  doubt ;  minute  exactitude :  the  other 
derivatives  follow  this  sense. 

The  one  sort  they  warned  to  take  heed,  that  scru- 
pulotity  did  not  make  them  rigorous  in  giving  unad- 
vised sentence  against  their  brethren  which  were 
free  ;  the  other,  that  they  did  not  become  scandalous 
by  abusing  their  liberty  and  freedom,  to  the  offence 
of  their  weak  brethren,  which  were  tmipulout. 

Hooker. 

Macduff,  this  noble  passion, 
Child  of  integrity,  hath  from  my  soul 
Wiped  the  black  scruples,  reconciled  my  thoughts 
To  your  good  truth.  Shaktpeare.  Macbeth. 

Equality  of  two  domestic  powers 
Breeds  tcrvpulous  faction.  Id.  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 

Nothing  did  more  fill  foreign  nations  with  admi- 
ration of  his  succession,  than  the  consent  of  all  es- 
tates of  England  for  the  receiving  of  the  king  with- 
out the  least  temple,  pause,  or  question.  Bacon. 

Milk,  one  ounce,  oil  of  vitriol  a  scruple,  doth  coa- 
gulate the  milk.  Id. 

As  the  cause  of  a  war  ought  to  be  just,  so  the  jus- 
tice of  that  cause  ought  to  be  evident ;  not  obscure 
not  scrupulous.  Id. 

The  first  sacrilege  is  looked  on  with  horror  :  but, 
when  they  have  made  the  breach,  their  scrupulosity 
soon  retires.  Decay  of  Piety. 

For  the  matter  of  your  confession,  let  it  be  severe 
and  serious  ;  but  yet  so  as  it  may  be  without  any  in- 
ordinate anxiety,  and  unnecessary  scruples,  which 
only  entangle  the  soul.  Taylor. 


I  le  scrupled  not  to  eat 

Against  his  better  knowledge  ;  not  deceived, 
But  fondly  overcome  with  female  charms. 

Milton's  Paradise  Lor. . 

The  scruples  which  many  public  ministers  would 
make  of  the  worthiness  of  parents  to  have  their  chil- 
dren baptized,  forced  such  questioned  parents,  who 
did  not  believe  the  necessity  of  having  their  children 
baptized  by  such  scruplers,  to  carry  their  children 
unto  other  ministers.  Grawit's  Bills  of  Mortality. 

Men  make  no  temple  to  conclude  that  those  propo- 
sitions, of  whose  knowledge  they  can  find  in  them- 
selves no  original,  were  certainly  the  impress  of  God 
and  nature  upon  their  minds,  and  not  taught  them 
by  any  one  else.  Locke. 

Some  birds,  inhabitants  of  the  waters,  whose 
blood  is  cold  as  fishes,  and  their  flesh  is  so  like  in 
taste,  that  the  scrupulous  are  allowed  them  on  fish 
days.  Id. 

So  careful,  even  to  scrupulosity,  were  they  to  keep 
their  sabbath,  that  they  must  not  only  have  a  time  to 
prepare  them  for  that,  but  a  further  time  also  to  pre- 
pare them  for  their  very  preparations.  South. 

Henry  V.  manifestly  derived  his  courage  from  his 
piety,  and  was  scrupulously  careful  not  to  ascribe  the 
success  of  it  to  himself.  Addison'i  Freeholder. 

I  have  been  the  more  scrupulous  and  wary,  in  re- 
gard the  inferences  from  these  observations  are  of 
importance.  Woodward. 

Dubius  is  such  a  scrupulous  good  man, 
Yes — you  may  catch  him  tripping,  if  you  can. 
He  would  not,  with  a  peremptory  tone, 
Assert  the  nose  upon  his  face  his  own.         Cau-per. 

SCRUPLE,  among  goldsmiths,  twenty-fou.- 
grains. 

SCRUPLE,  in  Chaldean  chronology,  is  ^  part 
of  an  hour,  called  by  the  Hebrews  helakin. 
These  scruples  are  much  used  by  Arabs  and 
other  eastern  nations,  in  computation  of  time. 

SCRUPULUM,  or  SCKUPULUS,  Latin,  a  scru- 
ple; the  least  of  the  weights  used  by  the  an- 
cients, which,  among  the  Romans,  was  the 
twenty-fourth  part  of  an  ounce,  or  the  third  part 
of  a  dram. 

SCRUTABLE,  idj.  J      Lat.  scrutor.    Disco- 

SCRUTA'TOR,  n.  s.  i  verable  by  enquiry ;  an 
enquirer  or  searcher. 

Shall  we  think  God  so  \crutable,  or  ourselves  s» 
penetrating,  that  none  of  his  secrets  can  escape  us? 

Decay  of'  Piety. 

In  process  of  time,  from  being  a  simple  scrutator, 
an  archdeacon  became  to  have  jurisdiction  more 
amply.  Ayliffe. 

SCRUTINY,  n.  *.  »     Lat.  scrutinium.     En- 
SCRU'TINISE,  v.  a.    >quiry  ;  search  ;  examina- 
SCRU'TINOUS,  adj.   j  tion     with     nicety :     to 
search;  examine:  captious;  careful. 

In  the  scrutinies  for  righteousness  and  judgment, 
when  it  is  inquired  whether  such  a  person  be  a  good 
man  or  no,  the  meaning  is  not,  what  does  he  be- 
lieve or  hope,  but  what  he  loves. 

Taylor'*  Rule  of  Holy  Living. 
Age  is  froward,  uneasy,  scnttinoti*, 
Hard  to  be  pleased,  and  parsimonous.     Denham. 

Their  difference  to  measure,  and  to  reach. 
Reason  well  rectified  must  nature  teach  • 
And  these  high  scrutiniet  are  subjects  fit 
For  man's  all-searching  and  enquiring  wit.      Id 
I  thought  thee  worth  my  nearer  view 
And  narrower  scrutiny,  that  I  might  learn 
In  what  degree  or  meaning  thou  art  called 
The  Son  of  God.  Milton's   Paradite  Regained 


scu 


575 


SCU 


They  that  have  designed  exactness  and  deep  acru- 
Jt;iy,  have  taken  some  one  part  of  nature.  Hnle. 

We  are  admonished  of  want  of  charity  towards 
others,  and  want  of  a  Christian  scrutiny  and  exami- 
nation into  ourselves.  L'Eitnaigp. 

These,  coming  not  within  the  scrutiny  of  human 
senses,  cannot  be  examined  by  them,  or  attested  by 
any  body.  Locke. 

The  compromissarii  should  chuse  according  to  the 
votes  of  such  whose  votes  they  were  obliged  to  scru- 
linize.  Auli/e. 

When  any  argument  of  great  importance  is  ma- 
naged with  that  warmth  which  a  serious  conviction 
of  it  generally  inspires,  somewhat  may  easily  escape, 
even  from  a  wary  pen,  which  will  not  bear  the  test 
of  a  severe  scrutiny.  Atterbury. 

SCRUTINY  (scrutinium),  in  the  early  ages  of 
the  church  an  examination  or  probation  practised 
in  the  last  week  of  Lent,  on  the  catechumens, 
who  were  to  receive  baptism  on  the  Easter-day. 
The  scrutiny  was  performed  with  a  great  many 
ceremonies.  Exorcisms  and  prayers  were  made 
over  the  heads  of  the  catechumens ;  and,  on 
Palm  Sunday,  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  Creed  were 
given  them,  which  they  were  afterwards  made  to 
rehearse.  This  custom  was  more  in  use  in  the 
church  of  Rome  than  any  where  else  :  though  it 
appears  by  some  missals,  to  have  been  likewise 
used,  though  much  later,  in  the  Gallican  church. 
Tt  is  supposed  to  have  ceased  about  A.  D.  860. 

SCRUTINY  is  also  used,  in  the  canon  law,  for 
a  ticket,  or  little  paper  billet,  wherein  at  elec- 
tions the  electors  write  their  votes  privately,  so 
as  it  may  be  known  for  whom  they  vote.  Among 
us  the  term  scrutiny  is  chiefly  used  for  a  strict 
perusal  and  examination  of  the  several  votes 
hastily  taken  at  an  election ;  in  order  to  find  out 
any  irregularities  committed  therein,  by  unqua- 
lified voters,  &c. 

SCRUTOIRE',  n.  s.  Fr.  scritoire,  or  escri- 
toire. A  case  of  drawers  for  writings. 

I  locked  up  these  papers  in  my  scrutoire,  and  my 
scrutoire  came  to  be  unlocked.  Prior. 

SCRUZE,  v.a.  Perhaps  from  screw.  This 
word,  says  Johnson,  though  now  disused  by 
writers,  is  still  preserved,  in  its  corruption,  to 
scrouge,  in  the  London  jargon.  To  squeeze ; 
compress. 

Though  up  he  caught   him   'twixt   his   puissant 

hands, 
And  having  scruzed  out  of  his  carrion  corse 

The  loathful  life,  now  loosed  from  sinful  bands, 
Upon  his  shoulders  carried  him.         Faerie  Queene. 

SCUD,  v.n.  Ital.  squittire  ;  Swed.  skutta  ; 
Isl.  skictur,  swift;  Goth,  skiota.  To  fly;  run 
away  with  precipitation. 

The  frighted  satyrs,  that  in  woods  delight, 
Now  into  plains  with  pricked-up  ears  take  flight ; 
And  scudding  thence,  while  they  their  horn-feet  ply, 
About  their  sires  the  little  sylvans  cry.         Dryden. 

The  vote  was  no  sooner  passed,  but  away  they 
scudded  to  the  next  lake.  L'Etirange. 

Away  the  frighted  spectre  scuds, 
And  leaves  my  lady  in  the  suds.  Swift. 

SCUDDING,  the  movement  by  which  a  ship  is 
carried  precipitately  before  a  tempest.  As  a  ship 
flies  with  amazing  rapidity  through  the  water 
whenever  this  expedient  is  put  in  practice,  it  is 
never  attempted  in  a  contrary  wind,  unless  when 
her  condition  renders  her  incapable  of  sustaining 


the  mutual  efforts  of  the  wind  and  waves  any 
longer  on  her  side.  A  ship  either  scuds  with  a 
sail  extended  on  her  fore-mast,  or,  if  the  storm 
is  excessive,  without  any  sail ;  which,  in  the 
sea-phrase,  is  called  scudding  under  bare  poles. 
In  sloops  and  schooners,  and  other  small  vessels, 
the  sail  employed  for  this  purpose  is  called  the 
square  sail.  In  large  ships  it  is  either  the  fore- 
sail at  large  reefed,  or  with  its  goose-wings  ex- 
tended, according  to  the  degree  of  the  tempest ; 
or  it  is  the  fore-top-sail,  close  reefed,  and  lowered 
on  the  cap  ;  which  last  is  particularly  used  when 
the  sea  runs  so  high  as  to  becalm  the  foresail 
occasionally,  a  circumstance  which  exposes  the 
ship  to  the  danger  of  broaching-to.  The  princi- 
pal hazards  incident  to  scudding  are  generally, 
a  pooping  sea ;  the  difficulty  of  steering,  which 
exposes  the  vessel  perpetually  to  the  risk  of 
broaching-to ;  and  the  want  of  sufficient  sea- 
room.  A  sea  striking  the  snip  violently  on  the 
stern  may  dash  it  inwards,  by  which  she  must 
inevitably  founder.  In  broaching-to  (that  is,  in- 
clining suddenly  to  windward)  she  is  threatened 
with  being  immediately  overturned ;  and,  for 
want  of  sea-room,  she  is  endangered  by  ship- 
wreck on  a  lee-shore,  a  circumstance,  alas,  of  too 
frequent  occurrence  to  require  explanation. 

SCUDERY  (George),  de,  an  eminent  French 
writer,  descended  of  an  ancient  and  noble  family 
in  Provence,  and  born  at  Havre  de  Grace  in 
1603.  He  was  educated  at  Apt,  and  afterwards 
settled  at  Paris.  In  1638  he  published  Obser- 
vations on  the  Cid  of  Cornell.  He  afterwards 
wrote  several  dramatic  pieces,  poems  of  various 
kinds,  and  some  tracts  in  prose.  He  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  the  castle  of  Notre  Dame  de 
la  Garde,  near  Marseilles ;  and,  in  1650,  was 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He 
died  at  Paris  1667. 

SCUDERY  (Magdalene),  de,  sister  of  George, 
was  born  at  Havre  de  Grace,  in  1607,  and  be- 
came eminent  for  her  writings.  She  went  early 
to  Paris,  and  soon  became  a  very  voluminous 
writer;  and  published  many  romances  which 
sold  rapidly.  Her  abilities  were  reckoned  su- 
perior to  her  brother's  ;  the  celebrated  Academy 
of  the  Ricovrati  at  Padua  admitted  her  an  hono- 
rary member,  and  she  succeeded  the  learned 
Helena  Cornaro.  She  also  received  the  first 
prize  for  eloquence  given  by  the  academy.  She 
received  many  valuable  presents  from  several 
great  personages.  She  died  in  1 70 1 ,  aged  ninety- 
four,  and  two  churches  contended  fiercely  for  the 
honor  of  receiving  her  remains  ;  and  it  required 
no  less  authority  than  that  of  cardinal  de  Noailles 
to  decide  the  dispute. 

SCUF'FLE,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.  Derived  by  Skin- 
ner from  shuffle.  But  there  is  a  Swed.  skuffa^ 
and  Goth,  skiufa.  A  confused  quarrel;  tumul- 
tuous broil ;  to  fight  in  confusion. 

His  captain's  heart, 

In  the  scuffle  of  great  fights,  hath  burst 
The  buckles  on  his  breast. 

Shalapeare.   Antony  and  Cleopatra.. 

Avowed  atheists,  placing  themselves  in  the  seat  of 
the  scorner,  take  much  pleasing  drvertisement,  by 
deriding  our  eager  sniffles  about  that  which  they 
think  nettling.  Decay  of  Piety. 

2X2 


676 


SCULPTURE. 


I  must  confess  I've  seen  in  former  days 
The  best  knights  in  the  world,  and  scujflled  in  some 
frays.  Drat/tun. 

A  gallant  man  would  rather  fight  to  great  disad- 
vantages in  the  field,  in  an  orderly  way,  than  scuffle 
with  an  undisciplined  rabble.  King  Charles. 

The  dog  leaps  upon  the  serpent,  and  tears  it  to 
pieces ;  but  in  the  scuffle  the  cradle  happened  to  be 
overturned.  L' Estrange. 

Popish  missionaries  mix  themselves  in  these  dark 
scuffles,  and  animate  the  mob  to  such  outrages  and 
insults.  Addison. 

SCULK,  v.  n.  Dan.  sculcke  ;  Swed.  skulka; 
Goth,  skiula.  To  lurk  in  hiding-places ;  lie 
close. 

Fearing  to  be  seen,  within  a  bed 
Of  coleworts  he  concealed  his  wily  head  ; 
There  iculked  till  afternoon,  and  watched  his  time. 

Dryden. 

It  has  struck  on  a  sudden  into  such  a  reputation, 
at  it  scorns  any  longer  to  sculk,  but  owns  itself 
ublicly.  Government  of  the  Tongue. 

My  prophets  and  my  sophists  finished  here 
Their  civil  efforts  of  the  verbal  war  : 
Not  so  my  rabbins  and  logicians  yield  ; 
Retiring  still  they  combat ;  from  the  field 
Of  open  arms  unwilling  they  depart, 
And  sculk  behind  the  subterfuge  of  art.1       Prior. 

No  news  of  Phyl !  the  bridegroom  came, 
And  thought  his  bride  had  srulked  for  shame ; 
Because  her  father  used  to  say, 
The  girl  had  such  a  bashful  way.  Swift. 

SCULL,  n.  i.  Sax.  rcpul.  Derived  by  Ski  n- 
ier  from  shell,  and  in  some  provinces  called 
shull.  Mr.  Lye  observes  more  satisfactorily  that 
skola  is  'in  Islandic  the  skull  of  an  animal. — 
Johnson.  It  is  clearly  derived  from  Goth,  shot, 


skal.     The  bone  which  incases  and  defends  the 
brain. 

Fractures  of  the  $cull  are  at  all  times  very  dange- 
rous, as  the  brain  becomes  affected  from  the  pressure. 

Sharp. 

SCULL,  n.s.  Sax.  j-ceole,  an  assembly.  In 
Milton's  style,  a  shoal  or  vast  multitude  of  fish. 

Each  bay 

With  fry  innumerable  swarm,  and  shoals 
Of  fish,  that  with  their  fins  and  shining  scales 
Glide  under  the  green  wave,  in  sculls  that  oft 
Bank  the  mid  sea.  Milton. 

Like  caitiff  vile,  that  for  misdeed 
Rides  with  his  face  to  rump  of  steed ; 
Or  rowing  scutt,  he's  fain  to  love, 
Look  one  way  and  another  move.  Hudibrat.  ' 

Her  soul  already  was  consigned  to  fate, 
And  shivering  in  the  leaky  sculler  sate.    Dryden. 
They  hire  the  sculler,  and,  when  once  abroad. 
Grow  sick,  and  damn  the  climate  like  a  lord.  Pope. 
-  SCULL'CAP,  7i.  s.     Scull  and  cap.    A  head- 
piece; nightcap. 

SCULL'ERY,  n.  s.  Fr.  escueille,  a  dish  ;  Isl. 
skiolo,  a  vessel.  The  place  where  common 
utensils,  as  kettles  or  dishes,  are  cleaned  and 
kept. 

I  must,  like  a  whore,  unpack  my  heart  with  won!' 
And  fall  a-cursing  like  a  very  drab, 
A  scullion,  fye  upon  't !   foh  !  about  my  brain. 

Slialupeare.   Hamlet. 

Pyreicus  was  famous  for  counterfeiting  base  things, 
as  pitchers,  a  tcuLlery,  and  setting  rogues  together 
by  the  ears.  Peacham. 

If  the  gentleman  hath  lain  there,  get  the  cook,  the 
stable-men,  and  the  scullion,  to  stand  in  his  way. 

Siirift. 


SCULPTURE. 


SCULP,  v.  a.  -\      Fr.  sculper ;  Lat. 

SCULP'TILE,  adj.  tsculpo.    To  carve; 

SCULP'TOR,  n.  s.  £  engrave:   sculptile 

SCULP'TURE.  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  J  is  made  by  carving. 
Words  not  in  use.  A  sculptor  is  a  carver  of 
wood  or  stone  into  images,  busts,  &c. :  sculpture, 
his  art,  see  below :  the  verb  corresponds  in 
meaning. 

O  that  the  tenor  of  my  just  complaint 
Were  sculpt  with  steel  on  rocks  of  adamant ! 

Sandys. 

In  a  silver  medal  is  upon  one  side  Moses  horned, 
and  on  the  reverse  the  commandment  against  sculp- 
tile images.  Browns. 

Nor  did  there  want 
Cornice  or  freeze  with  bossy  sculpture  graven. 

Milton. 

There  too,  in  living  sculpture,  might  be  seen 
The  mad  affection  of  the  Cretan  queen.       Dryden. 

Thy  shape's  in  every  part 
So  clean,  as  might  instruct  the  iculptor  s  art.       Id. 

The  Latin  poets  give  the  epithets  of  trifidum  and 
triMilrum  to  the  thunderbolt,  from  the  sculptors  and 
painters  that  lived  before  them,  that  had  given  it 
three  forks.  Addison. 

Then  sculpture  and  her  sister  arts  revive, 
Stones  leaped  to  form  and  rocks  began  to  live. 

Pope. 

Gold,  silver,  ivory  vases  sculptured  high, 
There  are  wljo  have  not.  Id. 


HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE. 

SCULPTURE  is  an  art  of  remote  antiquity,  being 
practised,  as  there  is  reason  to  believe,  before  the 
general  deluge.  We  are  induced  to  assign  to  it 
this  early  origin,  by  considering  the  expedients 
by  which,  in  the  first  stages  of  society,  men  have 
every  where  supplied  the  place  of  alphabetical 
characters.  These,  it  is  universally  known,  have 
been  picture  writing,  such  as  that  of  the  Mexi- 
cans, which,  in  the  progress  of  refinement  and 
knowledge,  was  gradually  improved  into  the 
hieroglyphics  of  the  Egyptians  and  other  ancient 
nations.  See  HIEROGLYPHICS. 

That  mankind  should  have  lived  nearly  1700 
years,  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  flood 
of  Noah,  without  falling  upon  any  method  to 
make  their  conceptions  permanent,  or  to  com- 
municate them  to  a  distance,  is  extremely  im- 
probable :  especially  when  we  consider  that  such 
methods  of  writing  have  been  found,  in  modern 
times,  among  people  much  less  enlightened  than 
those  must  have  been,  who  were  capable  of 
building  such  a  vessel  as  the  ark.  But,  if  the 
antediluvians  were  acquainted  with  any  kind  of 
writing,  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  its  having 
been  hieroglyphical.  Bryant  has  proved  that  the 
Chaldeans  were  possessed  of  that  art  before  ths 
Egyptians;  and  Berosus  CApud.  Syncellum,  p 


SCULPTURE 


677 


87),  informs  us,  that  a  delineation  of  all  the 
monstrous  forms  which  inhabited  the  chaos, 
when  this  earth  was  in  that  state,  was  to  be  seen 
in  the  temple  of  Belus  in  Babylon.  This  deli- 
neation, as  he  describes  it,  must  have  been  a 
history  in  hieroglyphical  characters ;  for  it  con- 
sisted of  human  figures  with  wings,  with  two 
heads,  and  some  with  the  horns  and  legs  of 
goats.  This  is  exactly  similar  to  the  hierogly- 
phical writings  of  the  Egyptians ;  and  it  was 
preserved,  our  author  says,  both  in  drawings  and 
engravings  in  the  temple  of  the  god  of  Babylon. 
As  Chaldea  was  the  first  peopled  region  of  the 
earth  after  the  flood,  and  as  it  appears  from 
Pliny,  as  well  as  from  Berosus,  that  the  art  of 
engraving  upon  bricks  baked  in  the  sun  was 
there  carried  to  a  considerable  degree  of  perfec- 
tion at  a  very  early  period,  the  probability  cer- 
tainly is  that  the  Chaldeans  derived  the  art  of 
hieroglyphical  writing,  and  consequently  the  ru- 
diments of  the  art  of  sculpture,  from  their  ante- 
diluvian ancestors. 

It  is  generally  thought  that  sculpture  had 
its  origin  from  idolatry,  as  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  place  before  the  people  the  images  of 
their  gods  to  enliven  the  fervor  of  their  devotion  ; 
but  this  is  probably  a  mistake.  The  worship  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  as  the  only  gods  of  the 
heathen  nations,  prevailed  so  long  before  the  dei- 
fication of  dead  men  was  thought  of  (see  POLY- 
THEISM) that  we  cannot  suppose  mankind  to 
have  been,  during  all  that  time,  ignorant  of  the 
art  of  hieroglyphical  writing.  But  the  deifica- 
tion of  departed  heroes  undoubtedly  gave  rise  to 
the  almost  universal  practice  of  representing  the 
gods  by  images  of  a  human  form ;  and  therefore 
we  must  conclude  that  the  elements  of  sculpture 
were  known  before  that  art  was  employed  to  en- 
liven the  devotion  of  idolatrous  worshippers. 
The  pyramids  and  obelisks  of  Egypt,  which 
were  probably  temples,  or  other  altars,  dedicated 
to  the  sun  (see  PYRAMID),  were  covered  from 
top  to  bottom  with  hieroglyphical  emblems  of 
men,  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  and  reptiles,  at  a  period 
prior  to  that  in  which  there  is  any  unexception- 
able evidence  that  mere  statue  worship  prevailed 
even  in  that  nursery  of  idolatry.  Thus  it  appears 
evident  that  picture-writing  was  the  first  employ- 
ment of  the  sculptor ;  and  that  idolatrous  worship 
contributed  to  carry  his  art  to  that  perfection 
which  it  attained  in  some  of  the  nations  of  antiquity . 
Even  in  the  dark  ages  of  Europe,  when  the  other 
fine  arts  were  almost  extinguished,  the  mummery 
of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  the  veneration  which 
she  taught  for  saints  and  martyrs,  preserved 
among  the  Italians  some  vestiges  of  the  sister 
arts  of  sculpture  and  printing ;  and  therefore  it 
is  reasonable  to  believe  that  a  similar  veneration 
for  heroes  and  demigods  would,  among  the  an- 
cient nations  have  a  similar  effect.  The  pre- 
sumption therefore  is,  that  the  Chaldeans  were 
the  first  who  invented  the  art  of  hewing  blocks 
of  wood  and  stone  into  the  figures  of  men  and 
other  animals  ;  for  the  Chaldeans  were  unques- 
tionably the  first  idolaters,  and  their  early  pro- 
gress in  sculpture  is  confirmed  by  the  united 
testimonies  of  Berosus,  Alexander  Polyhistor, 
Apollodorus.  and  Pliny ;  not  to  mention  the 
eastern  tradition  that  Terah  the  father  of  Abraham 
was  a  statuary. 


Against  this  conclusion  Bromley,  in  his  His- 
tory of  the  Fine  Arts,  has  urged  some  plausible 
objections.  In  stating  these  he  professes  not  to 
be  original,  or  derive  his  information  from  the 
fountain  head  of  antiquity.  He  adopts,  he  says, 
the  theory  of  a  French  writer,  who  maintains 
that  in  the  year  of  the  world  1949,  about  300 
years  after  the  Deluge,  the  Scythians  under 
Brouma,  a  descendant  of  Magog  the  son  of  Ja- 
phet,  extended  their  conquests  over  the  greater 
part  of  Asia.  According  to  this  System,  Brouma 
\\as  not  only  the  civiliser  of  India,  and  the  au- 
thor of  the  braminical  doctrines,  but  also  dif- 
fused the  principles  of  the  Scythian  mythology 
over  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Greece,  and  the  continent 
of  Asia. 

Of  these  principles  Mr.  Bromley  has  given 
us  no  distinct  enumeration  :  the  account  which  he 
gives  of  them  is  not  to  be  found  in  one  place,  but 
to  be  collected  from  a  variety  of  distant  passages. 
In  attempting,  therefore,  to  present  the  substance 
of  his  scattered  hints  in  one  view,  we  will  not  be 
confident  that  we  have  omitted  none  of  them. 
The  ox,  says  he,  was  the  Scythian  emblem  of  the 
generator  of  animal  life,  and  hence  it  became  the 
principal  divinity  of  the  Arabians.  The  serpent 
was  the  symbol  of  the  source  of  intelligent  na- 
ture. These  were  the  common  points  of  union 
in  all  the  first  religions  of  the  earth.  From 
Egypt  the  Israelites  carried  with  them  a  religious 
veneration  for  the  ox  and  the  serpent.  Their 
veneration  for  the  ox  appeared  soon  after  they 
marched  into  the  wilderness,  when,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  Moses,  they  called  upon  Aaron  to  make 
them  gods  which  should  go  before  them.  The 
idea  of  having  an  idol  to  go  before  them,  says 
our  author,  was  completely  Scythian  ;  for  so  the 
Scythians  acted  in  all  their  progress  through 
Asia,  with  this  difference,  that  their  idol  was  a 
living  animal.  The  Israelites  having  gained 
their  favorite  god,  which  was  an  ox  (not  a  calf, 
as  it  is  rendered  in  the  book  of  Exodus),  next 
proceeded  to  hold  a  festival,  which  was  to  be  ac- 
companied with  dancing;  a  species  of  gaiety 
common  in  the  festivals  which  were  held  in 
adoration  of  the  emblematic  Urotal,  or  ox,  in  that 
very  part  of  Arabia  near  Mount  Sinai  where  this 
event  took  place.  It  is  mentioned  too,  as  a  curi- 
ous and  important  fact,  that  the  ox,  which  was 
revered  in  Arabia  was  called  Adonai.  Accord- 
ingly Aaron,  announcing  the  feast  of  the  ox  or 
golden  calf,  speaks  thus,  to  morrow  is  a  feast  to 
Adonai,  which  is  in  our  translation  rendered  to 
the  Lord.  In  the  time  of  Jeroboam  we  read  of 
the  golden  calves  set  up  as  objects  of  worship  at 
Bethel  and  Dan.  Nor  was  the  reverence  paid 
to  the  ox  confined  to  Scythia,  to  Egypt,  and  to 
Asia;  it  extended  much  farther.  The  ancient 
Cimbri,  as  the  Scythians  did,  carried  an  ox  of 
bronze  before  them  on  all  their  expeditions.  Mr. 
Bromley  also  informs  us  that  as  great  respect 
was  paid  to  the  living  ox  among  the  Greeks  as 
was  offered  to  its  symbol  among  other  nation's. 

The  emblem  of  the  serpent,  continues  Mr 
Bromley  was  marked  yet  more  decidedly  by  thf 
express  direction  of  the  Almighty.  That  animal 
had  ever  been  considered  as  emblematic  of  the 
supreme  generating  power  of  intelligent  life 
nor  was  that  idea,  says  lie,  discouraged  so  far  ;•.* 


678 


SCULPTURE. 


it  went  to  bo  a  sign  or  symbol  of  life,  when  God 
said  to  Moses,  '  Make  thee  a  brazen  serpent, 
and  set  it  upon  a  pole,  and  it  shall  come  to  pass 
that  every  one  who  is  bitten,  when  he  looketh 
upon  it,  shall  live.'  The  serpent  made  a  distin- 
guished figure  in  Grecian  sculpture.  The  fable 
of  Echidna,  the  mother  of  the  Scythians,  gave 
her  figure  terminating  as  a  serpent,  to  all  the 
founders  of  states  in  Greece  ;  from  which  their 
earliest  sculptors  represented  in  that  form  the 
Titan  princes,  Cecrops,  Draco,  and  Erichthonius. 
Besides  the  spear  of  the  image  of  Minerva, 
which  Phidias  made  for  the  citadel  of  Athens, 
he  placed  a  serpent,  which  was  supposed  to 
guard  that  goddess.  The  serpent  was  combined 
with  many  other  figures.  It  sometimes,  was 
coiled  round  an  egg  as  an  emblem  of  the  crea- 
tion ;  sometimes  round  a  trident  to  show  its 
power  over  the  sea;  sometimes  it  encircled  a 
flambeau,  to  represent  life  and  death. 

In  Egypt,  as  well  as  in  Scythia  and  India,  the 
divinity  was  represented  on  the  leaves  of  the 
tamara  lotus.  Their  sphinxes,  and  all  their  com- 
bined figures  of  animal  creation,  took  their  origin 
from  the  mother  of  the  Scythians,  who  brought 
forth  an  offspring  that  was  half  a  woman  and 
half  a  serpent.  Their  pyramids  and  obelisks 
arose  from  the  idea  of  flame ;  the  first  emblems 
of  the  supreme  principle,  introduced  by  the  Scy- 
thians, and  which  even  the  influence  of  Zoroaster 
and  the  Magi  could  not  remove. 

The  Bacchus  of  the  Greeks  is  derived  from 
the  Brouma  of  the  Indians ;  both  are  represented 
as  seated  on  a  swan  swimming  over  the  waves, 
to  indicate  that  each  was  the  god  of  humid  na- 
ture, not  the  god  of  wine,  but  the  gorl  of  waters. 
The  mitre  of  Bacchus  was  shaped  like  half  an 
egg ;  an  emblem  taken  from  this  circumstance, 
that  at  the  creation  the  egg,  from  which  all  things 
sprung,  was  divided  in  the  middle.  Pan  also 
was  revered  among  the  Scythians ;  and  from 
that  people  were  derived  all  the  emblems  by 
which  the  Greeks  represented  this  divinity. 

It  would  be  tedious  to  follow  our  author 
through  the  whole  of  this  subject;  and,  were  we 
to  submit  to  that  labor,  we  should  still  view  his 
system  with  suspicion.  It  is  drawn,  he  says, 
from  the  work  of  M.  D'Ancarvi-lle,  entitled  lle- 
cherches  sur  1'Origine,  1'Esprit,  et  les  Progres, 
des  Arts  de  la  Grece. 

To  form  conclusions  concerning  the  origin  of 
nations,  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  arts  and 
sciences,  without  the  aid  of  historical  evidence, 
by  analogies  which  are  sometimes  accidental,  and 
often  fanciful,  is  a  mode  of  reasoning  which  can- 
not be  admitted.  There  may,  indeed,  be  resem- 
blances in  the  religion,  language,  manners,  and 
customs  of  different  nations,  so  striking  and  so 
numerous,  that  to  doubt  of  their  being  descended 
from  the  same  stock  would  savor  of  scepticism. 
But  historical  theories  must  not  be  adopted 
rashly.  We  must  be  certain  that  the  evidence 
is  credible  and  satisfactory  before  we  proceed  to 
deduce  any  conclusions.  We  must  first  know 
whether  the  Scythian  history  itself  be  authentic, 
\  efore  we  make  any  comparison  with  the  history 
of  other  nations.  But  what  is  called  the  Scy- 
: Man  history,  every  man  of  learning  knows  tobe 
a  collection  of  fables.  Herodotus  and  Justin 


are  the  two  ancient  writers  from  whom  we  have 
the  fullest  accounts  of  that  warlike  nation ;  but 
these  two  historians  contradict  each  other,  and 
both  write  what  cannot  be  believed  of  the  same 
people  at  the  same  period  of  their  progress. 
Justin  tells  us  that  there  was  a  long  and  violent 
contest  between  the  Scythians  and  Egyptians 
about  the  antiquity  of  their  respective  nations ; 
and  after  stating  the  arguments  on  each  side  of 
the  question,  which,  as  he  gives  them  (lib.  ii.  c. 
1.),  are  nothing  to  the  purpose,  he  decides  in  fa- 
vor of  the  claim  of  the  Scythians.  Herodotus 
was  too  partial  to  the  Egyptians  not  to  give  then: 
the  palm  of  antiquity  ;  and  he  was  in  the  right, 
for  Justin  describes  this  most  ancient  of  nations, 
even  in  the  time  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  as  igno- 
rant of  all  the  arts  of  civil  life.  '  They  occupier, 
their  land  in  common,'  says  he,  '  and  cultivated 
none  of  it.  They  had  no  houses  nor  settled  ha- 
bitations, but  wandered  with  their  cattle  from 
desert  to  desert.  In  these  rambles  they  carried 
their  wives  and  children  in  tumbrels  covered 
with  the  skins  of  beasts,  which  served  as  houses 
to  protect  them  from  the  storms  of  winter.  They 
were  without  laws,  but  governed  by  the  dictates  of' 
natural  equity.  They  coveted  not  gold  or  silver 
like  the  rest  of  mankind,  and  lived  upon  milk 
and  honey.  Though  they  were  exposed  to  ex- 
treme cold,  and  had  abundance  of  flocks,  they 
knew  not  how  to  make  garments  of  wool,  but 
clothed  themselves  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts.' 
This  is  the  most  favorable  account  which  an 
ancient  writer  gives  of  the  Scythians.  By  Strabo 
and  Herodotus  they  are  represented  as  the  most 
savage  of  mortals,  delighting  in  war  and  blood- 
shed, cutting  the  throats  of  all  strangers  who 
came  among  them,  eating  their  flesh,  and  making 
cups  and  pots  of  their  skulls.  Is  it  conceivable 
that  such  savages  could  be  sculptors ;  or  that, 
even  supposing  their  manners  to  have  been  such 
as  Justin  represents  them,  a  people  so  simple 
and  ignorant  could  have  imposed  their  mythology 
upon  the  Chaldeans,  Phoenicians,  and  Egyptians, 
whom  we  know  by  the  most  incontrovertible  evi- 
dence to  have  been  great  and  polished  nations 
so  early  as  in  the  days  of  Abraham  ?  No !  We 
could  as  soon  admit  other  novelties,  with  which 
the  French  of  the  present  age  pretend  to  en- 
lighten the  world,  as  this  origin  assigned  by 
Mr.  Bromley  to  the  art  of  sculpture. 

The  inference  of  our  author  from  the  name  of 
the  sacred  ox  in  Arabia,  and  from  the  dancing 
and  gaiety  in  the  religious  festivals  of  the  Ara- 
bians, appears  to  be  very  hastily  drawn.  At  the 
early  period  of  the  departure  of  the  Israelites 
from  Egypt,  the  language  of  the  Hebrews,  Egyp- 
tians, and  Arabians,  differed  not  more  from  each 
other  than  the  different*dialects  of  the  Greek 
tongue  which  are  found  in  the  poems  of  Homer ; 
and,  for  many  years  after  the  formation  of  the 
golden  calf,  the  Hebrews  were  strangers  to  every 
species  of  idolatry  but  that  which  they  had 
brought  with  them  from  their  house  of  bondage. 
See  KEMPUAN.  Taking  it  for  granted,  therefore, 
that  the  Scythians  did  not  impose  their  mytho- 
logy upon  the  eastern  nations,  and  that  the  art 
of  sculpture,  as  well  as  hieroglyphic  writing  and 
idolatrous  worship,  prevailed  first  among  the 
Chaldeans,  we  shall  trace  the  progress  of  this 


SCULPTURE. 


679 


irt  through  some  other  nations  of  antiquity 
till  we  bring  it  to  Greece,  where  it  was  carried 
to  the  highest  perfection  to  which  it  has  yet  at- 
'ained. 

The  first  intimation  that  we  have  of  the  art  of 
sculpture  is  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  where  we 
are  informed  that  when  Jacob,  by  the  divine 
command,  was  returning  to  Canaan,  his  wife 
Rachel  carried  along  with  her  the  teraphim  or 
idols  of  her  father.  These  we  are  assured  were 
small,  since  Rachel  found  it  so  easy  to  conceal 
them  from  her  father,  notwithstanding  his  anxious 
search.  We  are  ignorant,  however,  how  these 
images  were  made,  or  of  what  materials  they 
were  composed.  The  first  person  mentioned  as 
an  artist  of  eminence  is  Bezaleel,  who  formed  the 
cherubim  which  covered  the  mercy-seat. 

SECT.  I. — OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIAN  SCULP- 
TURE. 

The  Egyptians  early  cultivated  the  art  of 
sculpture ;  but  there  were  two  circumstances 
that  obstructed  its  progress.  1 .  The  persons  of 
the  Egyptians  were  not  possessed  of  the  graces 
of  form,  elegance,  or  symmetry ;  and  of  conse- 
quence they  had  no  perfect  standard  to  model 
their  taste.  They  resembled  the  Chinese  in  the 
cast  of  their  face,  in  their  great  bellies,  and  in 
the  clumsy  rounding  of  their  contours.  2.  They 
were  restrained  by  their  iaws  to  the  principles 
and  practices  of  their  ancestors,  and  were  not 
permitted  to  introduce  any  innovations.  Their 
statues  were  always  formed  in  the  same  stiff  atti- 
tude, with  the  arms  hanging  perpendicularly 
down  their  sides.  What  perfection  were  they 
capable  of  who  knew  no  other  attitude  than  that 
of  chairmen  ?  So  far  were  they  from  attempting 
any  improvements,  that  in  the  time  of  Adrian  the 
art  continued  in  the  same  rude  state  as  at  first ; 
and,  when  their  slavish  adoration  of  that  emperor 
induced  them  to  place  the  statue  of  his  favorite 
Antinous  among  the  objects  of  their  worship, 
the  same  inanimate  stiffness  in  the  attitude  of 
the  body  and  position  of  the  arms  was  observed. 
This  Egyptian  statue,  therefore,  was  different 
from  the  celebrated  statue  of  Autinous,  of  which 
so  many  moulds  have  been  taken  that  imitations 
of  it  are  now  to  be  met  with  almost  in  every  ca- 
binet in  Europe. 

Notwithstanding  the  attachment  of  the  Egyp- 
tians to  ancient  usages,  Winkelman  thinks  he 
has  discovered  two  different  styles  of  sculpture 
which  prevailed  at  different  periods.  The  first 
of  these  ends  with  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by 
Cambyses.  The  second  begins  at  that  time,  and 
extends  beyond  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
In  the  first  style,  the  lines  which  form  the  con- 
tour are  straight,  and  projecting  a  little  :  the  po- 
sition is  stiff  and  unnatural :  in  sitting  figures 
the  legs  are  parallel,  the  feet  squeezed  together, 
and  the  arms  fixed  to  the  sides;  but  in  the  figures 
of  women  the  left  arm  is  folded  across  the  breast; 
the  bones  and  muscles  are  faintly  discernible; 
the  eyes  are  flat  and  looking  obliquely,  and  the 
eyebrows  sunk ;  features  which  destroy  entirely 
the  beauty  of  the  head  ;  the  cheek-bones  are  hi;jh, 
the  chin  small  and  piked;  the  ears  are  generally 
placed  higher  than  in  nature,  and  the  feet  are 
too  large  and  flat.  In  short,  if  we  are  to  look  for 


any  model  in  the  statues  of  Egypt,  it  is  not  for 
the  model  of  beauty,  but  of  deformity.  The  sta- 
tues of  men  are  naked,  only  they  have  a  short 
apron,  and  a  few  folds  of  drapery  surrounding 
their  waist :  the  vestments  of  women  are  only 
distinguishable  by  the  border,  which  rises  a  little 
above  the  surface  of  the  statue.  In  this  age  it 
is  evident  the  Egyptians  knew  little  of  drapery. 

Of  the  second  style  of  sculpture  practised 
among  the  Egyptians,  Winkelman  thinks  he  has 
found  specimens  in  the  two  figures  of  basaltes 
in  the  capitol,  and  in  another  figure  at  Villa  Al- 
bani,  the  head  of  which  has  been  renewed.  The 
two  first  of  these,  he  remarks,  bear  visible  traces 
of  the  former  style,  which  appear  especially  in 
the  form  of  the  mouth  and  shortness  of  the  chin. 
The  hands  possess  more  elegance ;  and  the  feet 
are  placed  at  a  greater  distance  from  one  another. 
In  the  fust  and  third  figures  the  arms  hang  down 
close  to  the  sidr;.  In  the  second  they  hang 
more  freely.  Winkelman  suspects  that  these 
three  statues  have  been  made  after  the  conquest 
of  Egypt  by  the  Greeks.  They  are  clothed  with 
a  tunic,  a  robe,  and  a  mantle.  Their  tunic, 
which  is  puckered  into  many  folds,  descends 
from  the  neck  to  the  ground.  The  robe  in  the 
first  and  third  statues  seems  close  to  the  body, 
and  is  only  perceptible  by  some  little  folds.  It 
is  tied  under  the  breast,  and  covered  by  the 
mantle,  the  two  buttons  of  which  are  placed 
under  the  epaulet. 

The  Antinous  of  the  capitol  is  composed  of 
two  pieces,  which  are  joined  under  the  haunches. 
But,  as  all  the  Egyptian  statues  which  now  re- 
main have  been  hewn  out  of  one  block,  we  must 
believe  that  Diodorus,  in  saying  the  stone  was 
divided,  and  each  half  finished  by  a  separate 
artisan,  spoke  only  of  a  colossus.  He  tells  us 
that  the  Egyptians  divided  the  human  body  into 
twenty-four  parts  and  three-quarters :  but  it  is 
to  be  regretted  that  he  has  not  given  a  more  mi- 
nute detail  of  that  division.  The  Egyptian  sta- 
tues were  formed  by  the  chisel,  and  polished 
with  great  care.  Even  those  on  the  summit  of 
an  obelisk,  which  could  only  be  viewed  at  a  dis- 
tance, were  finished  with  as  much  labor  as  if 
they  had  admitted  a  close  inspection.  As  they 
are  generally  executed  in  granite  or  basaltes, 
stones  of  a  very  hard  texture,  it  is  impossible 
not  to  admire  the  indefatigable  patience  of  the 
artists. 

The  eye  was  often  of  different  materials  from 
the  rest  of  the  statue ;  sometimes  it  was  com- 
posed of  a  precious  stone  .or  metal.  We  are 
assured  that  the  valuable  diamond  of  the  em 
press  of  Russia,  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
hitherto  known,  formed  one  of  the  eyes  of  the 
famous  statue  of  Scheringham  in  the  temple  of 
Brama.  Those  Egyptian  statues  which  still  re- 
main are  composed  of  wood  or  baked  earth ; 
and  the  statues  of  earth  are  covered  with  green 
enamel. 

SECT.  II. — OF  THE  PHIENICIAN  SCULPTURE. 

The  Phoenicians  possessed  both  a  character 
and  situation  highly  favorable  to  the  cultivation 
of  statuary.  They  had  beautiful  models  in  their 
own  persons,  and  their  industrious  character 
qualified  them  to  attain  perfection  in  every  art 


680 


SCULPTURE. 


for  which  they  had  a  taste.  Their  situation  raised 
a  spirit  of  commerce,  and  commerce  induced 
them  to  cultivate  the  arts.  The  temples  shone 
with  statues  and  columns  of  gold,  and  a  profu- 
sion of  emeralds  was  every  where  scattered.  All 
the  great  works  of  the  Phoenicians  have  been  un- 
fortunately destroyed ;  but  many  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian medals  are  still  preserved,  ten  of  which 
are  deposited  in  the  cabinet  of  the  king  of  Etru- 
ria.  But,  though  the  Carthaginians  were  a  colony 
of  Phoenicians,  we  cannot  from  their  works  judge 
of  the  merit  of  their  ancestors. 

The  Persians  made  no  distinguished  figure  in 
the  arts  of  design.  They  were  indeed  sensible  to 
i he  charms  of  beauty,  but  they  did  not  study  to 
imitate  them.  Their  dress,  which  consisted  of 
long  flowing  robes,  concealing  the  whole  person, 
prevented  them  from  attending  to  the  beauties  of 
form.  Their  religion,  too,  which  taught  them  to 
worship  the  divinity  in  the  emblem  of  fire,  and 
that  it  was  impious  to  represent  him  under  a  hu- 
man form,  seemed  almost  to  prohibit  the  exercise 
of  this  art,  by  taking  away  those  motives  which 
alone  could  give  it  dignity  and  value ;  and,  as  it 
was  not  customary  among  them  to  raise  statues 
to  great  men,  it  was  impossible  that  statuary 
could  flourish  in  Persia. 

SECT.  III. — OF  THE  ANCIENT  ETRURIAN 
SCULPTURE. 

The  Etrurians,  or  ancient  Tuscans,  in  the  opi- 
nion of  Winkelman,  carried  this  art  to  some 
degree  of  perfection  at  an  earlier  period  than  the 
Greeks.  It  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  be- 
fore the  siege  of  Troy  by  Daedalus,  who,  to  es- 
cape the  resentment  of  Minos  king  of  Crete, 
took  refuge  in  Sicily,  whence  he  passed  into  Italy, 
where  he  left  many  monuments  of  his  art.  Pau- 
sanias  and  Diodorus  Siculus  inform  us  that 
some  works  ascribed  to  him  were  to  be  seen  when 
they  wrote,  and  that  these  possessed  that  cha- 
racter of  majesty  which  distinguished  the  labors 
of  Etruria. 

A  character  strongly  marked  forms  the  chief 
distinction  in  those  productions  of  Etruria  which 
have  descended  to  us.  Their  style  was  indeed 
harsh  and  overcharged  ;  a  fault  also  committed 
by  Michael  Angelo  the  celebrated  painter  of 
modern  Etruria ;  for  it  is  not  to  be  supposed 
that  a  people  of  such  rude  manners  as  the  ancient 
Etrurians  could  communicate  to  their  works  that 
vividness  and  beauty  which  the  elegance  of  Gre- 
cian manners  inspired.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  many  of  the  Tuscan  statues  which  bear  so 
close  a  resemblance  to  those  of  Greece,  that  anti- 
quarians have  thought  it  probable  that  they  were 
conveyed  from  that  country  or  Magna  Graecia 
oilo  Etruria  about  the  time  of  the  Roman  con- 
quest, when  Italy  was  adorned  with  the  spoils  of 
Greece. 

Among  the  monuments  of  Etrurian  art  two 
different  styles  have  been  observed.  In  the  first 
the  lines  are  straight,  the  attitude  stiff,  and  no 
idea  of  beauty  appears  in  the  formation  of  the 
head.  The  contour  is  not  well  rounded,  and 
the  figure  is  too  slender.  The  head  is  oval,  the 
chin  piked,  the  eyes  flat,  and  looking  asquint 
These  are  the  defects  of  ;in  art  in  a  state  of  in- 
fancy,  which  an  accomplished  master  co  ild 


never  fall  into,  and  are  equally  conspicuous  in 
Gothic  statues  as  in  the  productions  of  the  an- 
cient natives  of  Florence.  They  resemble  the 
style  of  the  Egyptians  so  much  that  one  is  al- 
most induced  to  suppose  there  had  once  been  a 
communication  between  these  two  nations  :  but 
others  think  that  this  style  was  introduced  by 
Daedalus. 

Winkelman  supposes  that  the  second  epoch  ot 
this  art  commenced  in  Etruria,  about  the  time 
at  which  it  had  reached  its  greatest  perfection  in 
Greece,  in  the  age  of  Phidias ;  but  this  conjec- 
ture is  not  supported  by  any  proofs.  To  de- 
scribe the  second  style  of  sculpture  among  the 
Etrurians  is  almost  the  same  as  to  describe  the 
style  of  Michael  Angelo  and  his  numerous  imi- 
tators. The  joints  are  strongly  marked,  the 
muscles  raised,  the  bones  distinguishable ;  but 
the  whole  mien  harsh.  In  designing  the  bone 
of  the  leg,  and  the  separation  of  the  muscles  o? 
the  calf,  there  is  an  elevation  and  strength  above 
life.  The  statues  of  the  gods  are  designed  with 
more  delicacy.  In  forming  them,  the  artists 
were  anxious  to  show  that  they  could  exercise 
their  power  without  that  violent  distension  of 
the  muscles  which  is  necessary  in  the  exertions 
of  beings  merely  human;  but  in  general  their 
attitudes  are  unnatural,  and  the  actions  strained. 
If  a  statue,  for  instance,  hold  any  thing  with  its 
fore-fingers,  the  rest  are  stretched  out  in  a  stiff 
position. 

SECT.  IV.— OF  THE  GRECIAN  SCULPTURE. 

According  to  ancient  history,  the  Greeks  did 
not  emerge  from  the  savage  state  till  a  long  time 
after  the  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  and  Indians,  had 
arrived  at  a  considerable  degree  of  civilisation. 
The  original  rude  inhabitants  of  Greece  were 
civilised  by  colonies  which  arrived  among  them 
at  different  times  from  Egypt  and  Phoenicia. 
These  brought  along  with  them  the  religion,  the 
letters,  and  the  arts  of  their  parent  countries  ; 
and,  if  sculpture  had  its  origin  from  the  worship 
of  idols,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  was 
one  of  the  arts  which  were  thus  imported ;  for 
that  the  gods  of  Greece  were  of  Egyptian  and 
Phoenician  extraction  is  a  fact  incontrovertible : 
see  MYSTERIES,  MYTHOLOGY,  PHILOSOPHY,  and 
TITAN.  The  original  statues  of  the  gods,  how- 
ever, were  very  rude.  The  earliest  objects  of 
idolatrous  worship  have  every  where  been  the 
heavenly  bodies ;  and  the  symbols  consecrated 
to  them  were  generally  pillars  of  a  conical  or 
pyramidal  figure.  It  was  not  till  hero-worship 
was  engrafted  on  the  planetary,  that  the  sculptor 
thought  of  giving  to  the  sacred  statue  any  part 
of  the  human  form  (see  POLYTHEISM)  ;  and  it 
appears  to  have  been  about  the  era  of  this  revo- 
lution in  idolatry,  that  the  art  of  sculpture  was 
introduced  among  the  Greeks.  The  first  repre- 
sentations of  their  gods  were  round  stones  placed 
upon  cubes  or  pillars ;  and  these  stones  they 
afterwards  formed  roughly,  so  as  to  give  them 
something  of  the  appearance  of  a  head.  Agree- 
able to  this  description  was  a  Jupiter  which 
Pausanias  saw  in  Tegeum,  in  Arcadia.  Thc»u 
representations  were  called  Hermes ;  not  that 
they  represented  Mercury,  Lut  from  the  word 
henna,  which  signified  a  rough  stone.  It  is  t!<<: 


SCULPTURE. 


6H1 


name  which  Homer  gives  to  the  stones  which 
were  used  to  fix  vessels  to  the  shore.  Pausanias 
saw  at  Pheres  thirty  deities  made  of  unformed 
blocks  or  cubical  stones.  The  Lacedemonians 
represented  Castor  and  Pollux  by  two  parallel 
posts ;  and  a  transverse  beam  was  added  to  ex- 
press their  mutual  affection.  If  the  Greeks  de- 
rived from  foreign  nations  the  rudiments  of  the 
arts,  it  must  redound  much  to  their  honor  that 
in  a  few  centuries  they  carried  them  to  such  won- 
derful perfection  as  entirely  to  eclipse  the  fame 
of  their  masters.  It  is  by  tracing  the  progress 
of  sculpture  among  them  that  we  are  to  study 
the  history  of  this  art ;  and  we  shall  see  its 
origin  and  successive  improvements  correspond 
with  nature,  which  always  operates  slowly  and 
gradually. 

The  great  superiority  of  the  Greeks  in  the  art 
of  sculpture  may  be  ascribed  to  a  variety  of 
(Muses.  The  influence  of  climate  over  the  hu- 
man body  is  so  striking  that  it  must  have  fixed 
tlie  attention  of  every  thinking  man  who  has  re- 
llected  on  the  subject.  The  violent  heats  of  the 
torrid  zone,  and  the  excessive  cold  of  the  polar 
regions,  are  unfavorable  to  beauty.  It  is  only 
in  the  mild  climates  of  the  temperate  regions 
that  it  appears  in  its  most  attractive  charms. 
Perhaps  no  country  in  the  world  enjoys  a  more 
serene  air,  less  tainted  with  mists  and  vapors,  or 
possesses  in  a  higher  degree  that  mild  and  genial 
warmth  which  can  unfold  and  expand  the  human 
body  into  all  the  symmetry  of  muscular  strength, 
and  all  the  delicacies  of  female  beauty  in  greater 
perfection,  than  the  happy  climate  of  Greece; 
nnd  never  was  there  any  people  that  had  a  greater 
taste  for  beauty,  or  were  more  anxious  to  im- 
prove it.  Of  the  four  wishes  of  Simonides,  the 
second  was  to  have  a  handsome  figure.  The  love 
of  beauty  was  so  great  among  the  Lacedemonian 
women,  that  they  kept  in  their  chambers  the 
statues  of  Nereus,  of  Narcissus,  of  Ilyacinthus, 
and  of  Castor  and  Pollux  ;  hoping  that  by  often 
contemplating  them  they  might  have  beautiful 
children. 

There  were  a  variety  of  circumstances  in  the 
noble  and  virtuous  freedom  of  the  Grecian  man- 
ners that  rendered  these  models  of  beauty  pecu- 
liarly subservient  to  the  cultivation  of  the  fine 
arts.  There  were  no  tyrannical  laws,  as  among 
the  Egyptians,  to  check  their  progress.  They 
had  the  best  opportunities  to  study  them  in  the 
public  places,  where  the  youth,  who  needed  no 
other  veil  than  chastity  and  purity  of  manners, 
performed  their  various  exercises  quite  naked. 
They  had  the  strongest  motives  to  cultivate  sculp- 
ture, for  a  statue  was  the  highest  honor  which 
public  merit  could  attain.  It  was  an  honor  am- 
bitiously sought,  and  granted  only  to  those  who 
had  distinguished  themselves  in  the  eyes  of  their 
fellow  citizens.  As  the  Greeks  preferred  natural 
qualities  to  acquired  accomplishments,  they  de- 
creed the  first  rewards  to  those  who  excelled  in 
agility  and  strength  of  body.  Statues  were  often 
raised  to  wrestlers.  Even  the  most  eminent  men 
of  Greece,  in  their  youth,  sought  renown  in 
gymnastic  exercises.  Chrysippus  and  Cleanthes 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  public  games  be- 
fore they  were  known  as  philosophers.  Plato 
appeared  as  a  wrestler  both  at  the  Isthmian  and 


Pythian  games  ;  and  Pythagoras  carried  off  the 
prize  at  Elis.  See  PYTHAGORAS.  The  passion 
by  which  they  were  inspired  was  the  ambition  of 
having  their  statues  erected  in  the  most  sacred 
place  of  Greece,  to  be  seen  and  admired  by  the 
whole  people.  The  number  of  statues  erected 
on  different  occasions  was  immense;  of  course 
the  number  of  artists  must  have  been  great,  their 
emulation  ardent,  and  their  progress  rapid.  As 
most  of  their  statues  were  decreed  for  those  who 
vanquished  in  the  public  games,  the  artists  had 
the  opportunity  of  seeing  excellent  models;  for 
those  who  surpassed  in  running;,  boxing,  an'd 
wrestling,  must  in  general  have  been  well  formed, 
yet  would  exhibit  different  kinds  of  beauty. 

The  high  estimation  in  which  sculptors  were 
held  was  very  favorable  to  their  art.  -Socrates 
declared  the  artists  the  only  wise  men.  An  artist 
could  be  a  legislator,  a  commander  of  armies, 
and  might  hope  to  have  his  statue  placed  beside 
those  of  Miltiades  and  Themistocles,  or  of  those 
of  the  gods  themselves.  Besides,  the  honor  and 
success  of  an  artist  did  not  depend  on  the  ca- 
price of  pride  or  of  ignorance.  The  produc- 
tions of  art  were  estimated  and  rewarded  by  the 
greatest  sages  in  the  general  assembly  of  Greece, 
and  the  sculptor  who  had  executed  his  work  with 
ability  and  taste  was  confident  of  obtaining  im- 
mortality. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  Winkelman,  that  liberty 
was  highly  favorable  to  this  art;  but,  though 
liberty  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  advance- 
ment of  science,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the 
fine  arts  owe  their  improvement  to  it.  Sculpture 
flourished  most,  in  Greece,  when  Pericles  exer- 
cised the  power  of  a  king;  and  in  the  reign  of 
Alexander,  when  Greece  was  conquered.  It 
attained  no  perfection  in  Rome  till  Augustus  had 
enslaved  the  Romans.  It  revived  in  Italy  under 
the  patronage  of  the  family  of  Medici,  and  in 
France  under  the  despotic  rule  of  Louis  XIV. 
It  is  the  love  of  beauty,  luxury,  wealth,  or  the 
patronage  of  a  powerful  individual,  that  promotes 
the  progress  of  this  art. 

It  will  now  be  proper  to  give  a  particular  ac- 
count of  the  ideas  which  the  Greeks  entertained 
concerning  the  standard  of  beauty  in  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  human  body.     And  with  respect 
to  the  head,  the  profile  which  they  chiefly  ad- 
mired is  peculiar  to  dignified  beauty.     It  con- 
sists in  a  line  almost  straight,  or  marked  by  such 
slight  and  gentle  inflections  as  are  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable from  a  straight  line.     In  the  figures 
of  women  and  young  persons  the  forehead  and 
nose  form  a  line  approaching  to  a  perpendicular. 
Ancient  writers,  as  well  as  artists,  assure  us 
that  the   Greeks   reckoned  a  small  forehead  a 
mark  of  beauty,  and  a  high  forehead  a  deformity. 
From  the  same  idea,  the  Circassians  wore  their 
hair  hanging  down  over  their  foreheads  almost  to 
their  eyebrows.     To  give  an  oval  form  to  the 
countenance,  it  is  necessary  that  the  hair  should 
cover  the  forehead,  and  thus  make  a  curve  about 
the  temples;    otherwise  the  face, -which   termi- 
nates in  an  oval  form  in  the  inferior  part,  will  be 
angular  in  the  higher  part,  and  the  proportion 
will  be  destroyed.    This  rounding  of  the  fore- 
head may  be  seen  in  all  handsome  persons,  in  all 
the  heads  of  ideal  beauty  in  ancient  statues,  and 


682 


SCULPTURE. 


especially  in  those  of  youth.  It  has  been  over- 
looked, however,  by  modern  statuaries.  Bernini, 
who  modelled  a  statue  of  Louis  XIV.  in  his  youth, 
turned  back  the  hair  from  the  forehead. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  large  eyes  are  beau- 
tiful ;  but  their  size  is  of  less  importance  in 
sculpture  than  their  form,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  enchased.  In  ideal  beauty,  the 
eyes  are  always  sunk  deeper  than  they  are  in  na- 
ture, and  consequently  the  eyebrows  have  a 
reater  projection.  But  in  large  statues,  placed 
-»t  a  certain  distance,  the  eyes,  which  are  of  the 
same  color  with  the  rest  of  the  head,  would  have 
little  effect  if  they  were  not  sunk.  By  deepen- 
ing the  cavity  of  the  eye,  the  statuary  increases 
the  light  and  shade,  and  thus  gives  the  head 
more  life  and  expression.  The  same  practice  is 
used  in  small  statues.  The  eye  is  a  characteristic 
feature  in  the  heads  of  the  different  deities.  In 
the  statues  of  Apollo,  Jupiter,  and  Juno,  the 
eye  is  large  and  round.  In  those  of  Pallas  they 
are  also  large;  but,  by  lowering  the  eyelids,  the 
virgin  air  and  expression  of  modesty  are  deli- 
cately marked.  Venus  has  small  eyes,  and  the 
lower  eyelid  being  raised  a  little,  gives  them  a 
languishing  look  and  an  enchanting  sweetness. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  see  the  Venus  de  Medicis 
to  be  convinced  that  large  eyes  are  not  essential 
to  beauty,  especially  if  we  compare  her  small 
eyes  with  those  which  resemble  them  in  nature. 
The  beauty  of  the  eyebrows  consists  in  the  fine- 
ness of  the  hair,  and  in  the  sharpness  of  the  bone 
which  covers  them ;  and  masters  of  the  art  con- 
sidered the  joining  of  the  eyebrows  as  a  defor- 
mity, though  it  is  sometimes  to  be  met  with  in 
ancient  statues. 

The  beauty  of  the  mouth  is  peculiarly  neces- 
sary to  constitute  a  fine  face.  The  lower  lip  must 
be  fuller  than  the  upper,  in  order  to  give  an  ele- 
gant rounding  to  the  chin.  The  teeth  seldom  ap- 
pear, except  in  laughing  satyrs.  In  human  figures 
the  lips  are  generally  close, and  a  little  opened  in 
the  figures  of  the  gods.  The  lips  of  Venus  are 
half  open. 

In  figures  of  ideal  beauty,  the  Grecian  artists 
never  interrupted  the  rounding  of  the  chin  by 
introducing  a  dimple ;  for  this  they  considered 
not  as  a  mark  of  beauty,  and  only  to  be  admitted 
to  distinguish  individuals.  The  dimple  indeed 
appears  in  some  ancient  statues,  but  antiquaries 
suspect  it  to  be  the  work  of  a  modern  hand.  It  is 
suspected,  also,  that  the  dimple  which  is  some- 
times found  on  the  cheeks  of  ancient  statues  is  a 
modern  innovation. 

No  part  of  the  head  was  executed  by  the  an- 
cients with  more  care  than  the  ears,  though  little 
attention  has  been  given  to  them  by  modern 
artists.  This  character  is  so  decisive,  that  if  we 
observe  in  any  statue  that  the  ears  are  not  highly 
finished,  but  only  roughly  marked,  we  may  con- 
clude with  certainty  that  we  are  examining  a 
modern  production.  The  ancients  were  very 
attentive  to  copy  the  precise  form  of  the  ear  in 
taking  likenesses.  Thus,  where  we  meet  with  a 
head,  the  ears  of  which  have  a  very  large  interior 
opening,  we  know  it  to  be  the  head  of  Marcus 
Aurelius. 

The  manner  in  which  the  ancient  artists 
formed  the  hair  also  enables  us  to  distinguish 


their  works  from  those  of  the  moderns.  On 
hard  and  coarse  stones  the  hair  was  short,  and 
appeared  as  if  it  had  been  combed  with  a  wide 
comb;  for  that  kind  of  stone  was  difficult  to 
work,  and  could  not  without  immense  labor  be 
formed  into  curled  and  flowing  hair.  But  the 
figures  executed  in  marble  in  the  most  flourish- 
ing period  of  the  art  have  the  hair  curled  and 
flowing;  at  least  where  the  head  was  not  in- 
tended to  be  an  exact  resemblance,  for  then  the 
artist  conformed  to  his  model.  In  the  heads  of 
women,  the  hair  was  thrown  back,  and  tied  be- 
hind in  a  waving  manner,  leaving  considerable 
intervals ;  which  gives  the  agreeable  variety  of 
light  and  shade,  and  produces  the  effects  of  the 
claro-obscuro.  The  hair  of  the  Amazons  is  dis- 
posed in  this  manner.  Apollo  and  Bacchus 
have  their  hair  falling  down  their  shoulders ; 
and  young  persons,  till  they  arrived  at  manhood, 
wore  their  hair  long.  The  color  of  the  hair 
which  was  reckoned  most  beautiful  was  fair ; 
and  this  they  gave  without  distinction  to  the  most 
beautiful  of  their  gods,  Apollo  and  Bacchus,  and 
likewise  to  their  most  illustrious  heroes. 

Although  the  ravages  of  time  have  preserved 
but  few  of  the  hands  or  feet  of  ancient  statues, 
it  is  evident  from  what  remains  how  anxious  the 
Grecian  artists  were  to  give  every  perfection  to 
these  parts.  The  hands  of  young  persons  were 
moderately  plump,  with  little  cavities  or  dimples 
at  the  joints  of  the  fingers.  The  fingers  tapered 
very  gently  from  the  root  to  the  point,  like  well 
proportioned  columns,  and  the  joints  were 
scarcely  perceptible.  The  terminating  joint  was 
not  bent,  as  it  commonly  appears  in  modern 
statues. 

In  the  figures  of  young  men  the  joints  of  the 
knee  are  faintly  marked.  The  knee  unites  the 
leg  to  the  thigh  without  making  any  remarkable 
projections  or  cavities.  The  most  beautiful  legs, 
and  best  turned  knees,  according  to  Winkelman, 
are  preserved  in  the  Apollo  Saurocthones,  in  the 
Villa  Borghese;  in  the  Apollo  which  has  a  swan 
at  its  feet ;  and  in  the  Bacchus  of  Villa  Medicis. 
The  same  able  connoisseur  remarks,  it  is  rare  to 
meet  with  beautiful  knees  in  young  persons,  or 
in  the  elegant  representations  of  art.  As  the  an- 
cients did  not  cover  the  feet  as  we  do,  they  gave 
to  them  the  most  beautiful  turning,  and  studied 
the  form  of  them  with  the  most  scrupulous  atten- 
tion. 

The  breasts  of  men  were  large  and  elevated. 
The  breasts  of  women  did  not  possess  much  am- 
plitude. The  figures  of  the  deities  have  always 
the  breasts  of  a  virgin,  the  beauty  of  which  the 
ancients  made  to  consist  in  a  gentle  elevation. 
So  anxious  were  the  women  to  resemble  this 
standard,  that  they  used  several  arts  to  restrain 
the  growth  of  their  breasts.  The  breasts  of  the 
nymphs  and  goddesses  were  never  represented 
swelling,  because  that  is  peculiar  to  those  women 
who  suckle.  The  paps  of  Venus  contract  and 
end  in  a  point,  this  being  considered  as  an  essen- 
tial characteristic  of  perfect  beauty.  Some  of  the 
moderns  have  transgressed  these  rules,  and  have 
fallen  into  great  improprieties. 

The  lower  parts  of  the  body  in  the  statues  of 
men  were  formed  like  that  of  the  living  body  after 
a  profound  sleep  and  a  good  digestion.  The 


SCULPT  U  R  E. 


683 


navel  was  considerably  sunk,  especially  in  female 
statues. 

As  beauty  never  appears  in  equal  perfection  in 
every  part  of  the  same  individual,  perfect  or  ideal 
beauty  can  only  be  produced  by  selecting  the 
most  beautiful  parts  from  different  models  ;  but 
this  must  be  done  with  such  judgment  and  care 
that  these  detached  beauties  when  united  may 
form  the  most  exact  symmetry.  Yet  the  ancients 
sometimes  confined  themselves  to  one  individual, 
even  in  the  most  flourishing  age.  Theodorus, 
whom  Socrates  and  his  disciples  visited,  served 
as  a  model  to  the  artists  of  his  time.  Phryne 
also  appears  to  have  been  a  model  to  the  painters 
and  sculptors.  But  Socrates,  in  his  conversation 
with  Parrhasius,  says  that,  when  a  perfect  beauty 
was  to  be  produced,  the  artists  joined  together 
the  most  striking  beauties  which  could  be  collected 
from  the  finest  figures.  We  know  that  Zeuxis, 
when  he  was  going  to  paint  Helen,  united  in  one 
pictuie  all  the  beauties  of  the  most  handsome 
women  of  Crotona. 

SECT.  V. — OF  THE  DRAPERY  OF  GRECIAN  STA- 
TUES. 

The  Grecian  sculptors,  who  represented  with 
such  success  the  most  perfect  beauty  of  the  hu- 
man form,  were  not  regardless  of  the  drapery  of 
their  statues.  They  clothed  their  figures  in  the 
most  proper  stuff,  which  they  wrought  into  that 
shape  which  was  best  calculated  to  give  effect  to 
their  design. 

The  vestments  of  women  in  Greece  generally 
consisted  of  linen  cloth,  or  some  other  light  stuff, 
and  in  latter  times  of  silk,  and  sometimes  of 
woollen  cloth  They  had  also  garments  em- 
broidered with  gold.  In  the  works  of  sculpture, 
as  well  as  in  those  of  painting,  one  may  distin- 
guish the  linen  by  its  transparency  and  small 
uuited  folds.  The  other  light  stuffs  which  were 
worn  by  the  women  were  generally  of  cotton  pro- 
duced in  the  isle  of  Cos  ;  and  these  the  art  of  sta- 
tuary was  able  to  distinguish  from  the  linen  vest- 
ments. The  cotton  cloth  was  sometimes  striped, 
and  sometimes  embellished  with  a  profusion  of 
flowers.  Silk  was  also  employed  ;  but  whether 
it  was  known  in  Greece  before  the  time  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  cannot  easily  be  determined. 
In  paintings  it  is  distinguishable  by  changing  its 
color  in  different  lights  to  red,  violet,  and  sky- 
blue.  There  were  two  sorts  of  purple ;  that  which 
the  Greeks  call  the  color  of  the  sea,  and  Tyrian 
purple,  which  resembled  lac.  Woollen  garments 
are  easily  known  by  the  amplitude  of  their  folds. 
Besides  these,  cloth  of  gold  sometimes  composed 
their  drapery  ;  but  it  was  not  like  the  modern 
fabric,  consisting  of  a  thread  of  gold  or  of  silver 
spun  with  a  thread  of  silk  ;  it  was  composed  of 
gold  or  silver  alone  without  any  mixture. 

The  vestments  of  the  Greeks,  which  deserve 
particular  attention,  are  the  tunic,  the  robe,  and 
the  mantle. 

The  tunic  was  that  part  of  the  dress  which 
was  next  to  the  body.  It  may  be  seen  in  sleep- 
ing figures,  or  in  those  in  dishabille;  as  in  the 
Flora  Farnese.and  in  the  statues  of  the  Amazons 
in  the  capitol.  The  youngest  of  the  daughters 
of  Niobe,  who  throws  herself  at  her  mother's 


side,  is  clothed  only  with  a  tunic.  It  was  of 
linen,  or  some  other  light  stuff,  without  sleeves, 
fixed  to  the  shoulders  by  a  button,  so  as  to  cover 
the  whole  breast.  None  but  the  tunics  of  the 
goddess  Ceres  and  comedians  have  long  straight 
sleeves. 

The  robes  of  women  commonly  consisted  of 
two  long  pieces  of  woollen  cloth,  without  any 
particular  form,  attached  to  the  shoulders  by  a 
great  many  buttons,  and  sometimes  by  a  clasp. 
They  had  straight  sleeves  which  came  down  to 
the  wrists.  The  young  girls,  as  well  as  the 
women,  fastened  their  robe  to  their  side  by  a 
cincture,  in  the  same  way  as  the  high  priest  of 
the  Jews  fastened  his,  as  it  is  still  done  in  many 
parts  of  Greece.  The  cincture  formed  on  the 
side  a  knot  of  ribbons,  sometimes  resembling  a 
rose  in  shape,  which  has  been  particularly  re- 
marked in  the  two  beautiful  daughters  of  Niobe. 
In  the  younger  of  these  the  cincture  is  seen 
passing  over  the  shoulders  and  the  back.  Venus 
has  two  cinctures,  the  one  passing  over  the 
shoulder,  and  the  other  surrounding  the  waist. 
The  latter  is  called  cestus  by  the  poets. 

The  mantle  was  called  peplon  by  the  Greeks, 
which  signifies  properly  the  mantle  of  Pallas. 
The  name  was  afterwards  applied  to  the  mantles 
of  the  other  gods,  as  well  as  to  those  of  men. 
This  part  of  the  dress  was  not  square,  as  some 
have  imagined,  but  of  a  roundish  form.  The  an- 
cients indeed  speak  in  general  of  square  mantles, 
but  they  received  this  shape  from  four  tassels 
which  were  affixed  to  them  ;  two  of  these  were 
visible,  and  two  were  concealed  under  the 
mantle.  The  mantle  was  brought  under  the  right 
arm,  and  over  the  left  shoulder ;  sometimes  it  was 
attached  to  the  shoulder  by  two  buttons,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  beautiful  statue  of  Leucothoe  at 
Villa  Albani. 

The  color  of  vestments  peculiar  to  certain  sta- 
tues is  too  curious  to  be  omitted.  To  begin 
with  the  figures  of  the  gods : — The  drapery  of 
Jupiter  was  red,  that  of  Neptune  is  supposed  by 
Winkelman  to  have  been  sea-green.  The  same 
color  also  belonged  to  the  Nereids  and  Nymphs. 
The  mantle  of  Apollo  was  blue,  or  violet.  Bac- 
chus was  dressed  in  white.  Martianus  Capella 
assigns  green  to  Cybele.  Juno's  vestments  were 
sky-blue,  but  she  sometimes  had  a  white  veil. 
Pallas  was  robed  in  a  flame-colored  mantle.  In 
a  painting  of  Herculaneum,  Venus  is  in  flowing 
drapery  of  a  golden  yellow.  Kings  were  arrayed 
in  purple ;  priests  in  white ;  and  conquerors 
sometimes  in  sea-green. 

With  respect  to  the  head,  women  generally 
wore  no  covering  but  their  hair;  when  they 
wished  to  cover  their  head,  they  used  the  corner 
of  their  mantle. — Sometimes  we  meet  with  veils 
of  a  fine  transparent  texture.  Old  women  wore 
a  kind  of  bonnet  upon  their  head,  an  example  of 
which  may  be  seen  in  a  statue  in  the  capitol, 
called  the  Praefica ;  but  Winkelman  thinks  it  is 
a  statue  of  Hecuba. 

The  covering  of  the  feet  consisted  of  shoes  or 
sandals.  The  sandals  were  generally  an  inch 
thick,  and  composed  of  more  than  one  sole  of 
cork.  Those  of  Pallas  in  Villa  Albani  have  two 
soles,  and  other  statues  had  no  fewer  than  five. 


(384 


SCULPTURE. 


SECT.  VI. — OF  TUE  STYLES  OF  GRECIAN  SCULP- 
TURE. 

Winkelman  has  assigned  four  different  styles 
to  this  art.  The  ancient  style,  which  continued 
until  the  time  of  Phidias ;  the  grand  style,  form- 
ed by  that  celebrated  statuary  ;  the  beautiful, 
introduced  by  Praxiteles,  Apelles,  and  Lyssip- 
pus ;  and  the  imitative  style,  practised  by 
those  artists  who  copied  the  works  of  the  an- 
cient masters. 

The  most  authentic  monuments  of  the  ancient 
style  are  medals,  containing  an  inscription,  which 
leads  us  back  to  very  distant  times.  The  writing 
is  from  right  to  left,  in  the  Hebrew  manner ;  a 
usage  which  was  abandoned  before  the  time  of 
Herodotus.  The  statue  of  Agamemnon  at  Elis, 
wh'ch  was  made  by  Ornatas,  has  an  inscription 
from  right  to  left.  This  artisan  flourished  fifty 
years  before  Phidias;  it  is  in  the  intervening  pe- 
riod therefore  between  these  two  artists  that  we 
are  to  look  for  the  cessation  of  this  practice.  The 
statues  formed  in  the  ancient  style  were  neither 
distinguished  by  beauty  of  shape  nor  by  propor- 
tion, but  bore  aclose  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Etrurians ;  the  eyes  were  long 
and  flat ;  the  section  of  the  mouth  not  horizontal ; 
the  chin  was  pointed ;  the  curls  of  the  hair  were 
ranged  in  little  rings,  and  resembled  grains  en- 
closed in  a  heap  of  raisins.  What  was  still 
worse,  it  was  impossible  by  inspecting  the  head 
to  distinguish  the  sex.  The  characters  of  this 
ancient  style  were  these:  the  designing  was 
energetic,  but  harsh  ;  it  was  animated,  but  with- 
out gracefulness ;  and  the  violence  of  the  ex- 
pression deprived  the  whole  figure  of  beauty. 

The  grand  style  was  brought  to  perfection  by 
Phidias,  Polycletus,  Scopas,  Alcamenes,  Myron, 
and  other  illustrious  artists.  Il  is  probable,  from 
some  passages  of  ancient  writers,  that  in  this 
style  were  preserved  some  characters  of  the  an- 
cient manner,  such  as  the  straight  lines,  the 
squares  and  angles.  The  ancient  masters,  such 
as  Polycletus,  being  the  legislators  of  propor- 
tions, says  Winkelman,  and  of  consequence 
thinking  they  had  a  right  to  distribute  the  mea- 
sures and  dimensions  of  the  parts  of  the  human 
body,  have  undoubtedly  sacrificed  some  degree 
of  the  form  of  beauty  to  a  grandeur  which  is 
harsh,  in  comparison  of  the  flowing  contours 
and  graceful  forms  of  their  successors. — The 
most  considerable  monuments  of  the  grand  style 
are  the  statues  of  Niobe  and  her  daughters,  and 
a  figure  of  Pallas,  to  be  seen  in  Villa  Albani ; 
which,  however,  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  statue  which  is  modelled  according  to  the 
first  style,  and  is  also  found  in  the  same  place. 
The  head  possesses  all  the  characters  of  digni- 
fied beauty,  at  the  same  time  exhibiting  the  ri- 
gidness  of  the  ancient  style.  The  face  is  defective 
in  gracefulness ;  yet  it  is  evident  how  easy 
it  would  have  been  to  give  the  features  more 
roundness  and  grace.  The  figures  of  Niobe  and 
her  daughters  have  not,  in  the  opinion  of  Win- 
kelman, that  austerity  of  appearance  which 
marks  the  age  of  the  statue  of  Pallas.  They  are 
characterised  by  grandeur  and  simplicity ;  so 
simple  are  the  forms  that  they  do  not  appear 
to  be  the  tedious  productions  of  art,  but  to  have 
been  created  by  an  instantaneous  effort  of  nature. 


The  third  style  was  the  graceful  or  beautiful* 
Lysippus  was  perhaps  the  artist  who  introduced 
this  style.  Being  more  conversant  than  his  pre- 
decessors with  the  sweet,  the  pure,  the  flowing, 
and  the  beautiful  lines  of  nature,  he  avoided 
the  square  forms  which  the  masters  of  the  se- 
cond style  had  too  much  employed.  He  was 
of  opinion  that  the  use  of  the  art  was  rather 
to  please  than  to  astonish,  and  that  the  aim 
of  the  artist  should  be  to  raise  admiration  by 
giving  delight.  The  artists  who  cultivated  this 
style  did  not,  ho\vever,  neglect  to  study  the  sub- 
lime works  of  their  predecessors.  They  knew 
that  grace  is  consistent  with  the  most  dignified 
beauty,  and  that  it  possesses  charms  which  must 
ever  please;  they  knew  also  that  these  charms 
are  enhanced  by  dignity.  Grace  is  infused  into 
all  the  movements  and  attitudes  of  their  statues, 
and  it  appears  in  the  delicate  turns  of  the  hair, 
and  even  in  the  adjusting  of  the  drapery.  Every 
sort  of  grace  was  well  known  to  the  ancients  ; 
and  great  as  the  ravages  of  time  have  been 
amongst  the  works  of  art,  specimens  are  still 
preserved,  in  which  can  be  distinguished  digni- 
fied  beauty,  attractive  beauty,  and  a  beauty  pecu- 
liar to  infants.  A  specimen  of  dignified  beauty 
may  be  seen  in  the  statue  of  one  of  the  Muses 
in  the  palace  of  Barberini  at  Rome  ;  and  in  the 
garden  of  the  pope,  on  the  Quirinal,  is  a  statue 
of  another  Muse,  which  affords  a  fine  instance  of 
attractive  beauty.  Winkelman  says  that  the 
most  excellent  model  of  infant  beauty  which  an- 
tiquity has  transmitted  to  us  is  a  satyr  of  a  year 
old,  which  is  preserved,  though  a  little  mutilated, 
in  Villa  Albani. 

The  great  reputation  of  Praxiteles  and  Apelles 
raised  an  ardent  emulation  in  their  successors, 
who,  despairing  to  surpass  such  illustrious  mas- 
ters, were  satisfied  with  imitating  their  works. 
But  it  is  well  known  that  a  mere  imitator  is  al- 
ways inferior  to  the  master  whom  he  attempts  to 
copy.  When  no  original  genius  appears,  the 
art  must  therefore  decline. 

SECT.  VII. — OF  THE  MATERIALS  OF  GRECIAN 
STATUES. 

Clay  was  the  first  material  which  was  employ- 
ed in  statuary.  An  instance  of  this  may  be  seen 
in  a  figure  of  Alcamenes  in  bas-relief  in  Villa 
Albani.  The  ancients  used  their  fingers,  and  es- 
pecially their  nails,  to  render  certain  parts  more 
delicate  and  lively  :  hence  arose  the  phrase  ad 
unguein  factu?  homo,  '  an  accomplished  man.' 
It  was  the  opinion  of  count  Caylus  that  the  an- 
cients did  not  use  models  in  forming  their  sta- 
tues. But,  to  disprove  this,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  mention  an  engraving  on  a  stone  in  the  cabi- 
net of  Stosch,  which  represents  Prometheus  en- 
graving the  figure  of  a  man,  with  a  plummet  in 
his  hand  to  measure  the  proportions  of  his  model. 
The  ancients  as  well  as  the  moderns  made  works 
in  plaster;  but  no  specimens  remain  except 
some  figures  in  bas-relief,  of  which  the  most 
beautiful  were  found  at  Baia. 

The  works  made  of  ivory  and  silver  were  ge- 
nerally of  a  small  size.  Sometimes,  however, 
statues  of  a  prodigious  size  were  formed  of  gold 
and  ivory.  The  colossal  Minerva  of  Phidias, 
which  was  composed  of  these  materials,  was 


SCULPTURE. 


685 


twenty-six  cubits  high.  It  is  indeed  scarcely 
possible  to  believe  that  statues  of  such  a  size 
could  entirely  consist  of  gold  and  ivory.  The 
quantity  of  ivory  necessary  to  a  colossal  statue 
is  beyond  conception.  M.  de  Pauw  calculates 
that  the  statue  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  which  was 
fifty-four  feet  high,  would  consume  the  teeth  of 
300  elephants. 

The  Greeki  generally  hewed  their  marble  sta- 
tues out  of  one  block,  though  they  after  worked 
the  heads  separately,  and  sometimes  the  arms. 
The  heads  of  the  famous  group  Niobe  and  her 
daughters  have  been  adapted  to  their  bodies  after 
being  separately  finished.  It  is  proved  by  a 
large  figure  representing  a  river,  which  is  preserv- 
ed in  Villa  Albani,  that  the  ancients  first  hewed 
their  statues  roughly,  before  they  attempted  to 
finish  any  part.  When  the  statue  had  received 
its  perfect  figure,  they  next  proceeded  to  polish 
it  with  pumice-stone,  and  again  carefully  re- 
touched every  part  with  the  chisel. 

The  ancients,  when  they  employed  porphyry, 
usually  made  the  head  and  extremities  of  marble. 
It  is  true  that  at  Venice  there  are  four  figures 
entirely  composed  of  porphyry;  but  these  are 
the  productions  of  the  Greeks  of  the  middle 
age.  They  also  toiade  statues  of  basaltes  and 
alabaster. 

SECT.  VIII. — OF  EXPRESSION,  GESIURF,  AND 
ATTITUDE. 

Without  expression,  gesture,  and  attitude,  no 
figure  can  be  beautiful,  because  in  these  the 
graces  always  reside.  It  was  for  this  reason  that 
the  graces  are  always  represented  as  the  compa- 
nions of  Venus. 

The  expression  of  tranquillity  was  frequent  in 
Grecian  statues,  because,  according  to  Plato, 
that  was  considered  as  the  middle  state  of  the 
soul  between  pleasure  and  pain.  Experience, 
too,  shows  that  in  general  the  most  engaging 
manner.  Without  a  sedate  tranquillity,  digni- 
fied beauty  could  not  exist.  It  is  in  this  tran- 
quillity, therefore,  that  we  must  look  for  the 
complete  display  of  genius. 

The  most  elevated  species  of  tranquillity  and 
repose  was  studied  in  the  figures  of  the  gods. 
The  father  of  the  gods,  and  even  inferior  divini- 
ties, are  represented  without  emotion  or  resent- 
ment. Jupiter  is  not  always  exhibited  in  this 
tranquil  state.  In  a  bas-relief  belonging  to  the 
marquis  Rondini,  he  appears  seated  on  an  arm- 
chair with  a  melancholy  aspect.  The  Apollo  of 
the  Vatican  represents  the  god  in  a  fit  of  rage 
against  the  serpent  Python,  which  he  kills  at  a 
blow.  The  artist,  adopting  the  opinion  of  the 
poets,  has  made  the  nose  the  seat  of  anger,  and 
the  lips  the  seat  of  disdain. 

To  express  the  action  of  a  hero,  the  Grecian 
sculptors  delineated  the  countenance  of  a  noble 
virtuous  character  repressing  his  groans,  and  al- 
lowing no  expression  of  pain  to  appear.  In  de- 
scribing the  action  of  a  hero,  the  poet  has  much 
more  liberty  than  the  artist.  The  poet  can  paint 
them  such  as  they  were  before  men  were  taught 
to  subdue  their  passions  by  the  restraints  of  law, 
or  the  refined  customs  of  social  life.  But  the 
artist,  obliged  to  select  the  most  beautiful  forms, 
is  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  giving  such  an  ex- 


pression of  the  passions  as  may  not  shock  our 
feelings,  and  disgust  us  with  his  production. 
The  truth  of  these  remarks  will  be  acknowledged 
by  those  who  have  seen  two  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful monuments  of  antiquity ;  one  of  which  re- 
presents the  fear  of  death,  the  other  the  most 
violent  pains  and  Sufferings.  The  daughters  of 
Niobe,  against  whom  Diana  has  discharged  her 
fatal  arrows,  are  exhibited  in  that  state  of  stupe- 
faction which  we  imagine  must  take  place  when 
the  certain  prospect  of  death  deprives  the  soul  of 
all  sensibility.  The  fable  presents  us  an  image 
of  that  stupor  which  Eschylus  describes  as  seiz- 
ing Niobe  when  they  vvere  transformed  into  a 
rock.  The  other  monument  referred  to  is  the 
image  of  Laocoon,  which  exhibits  the  most  ago- 
nising pain  that  can  affect  the  muscles,  the 
nerves,  and  the  veins.  The  sufferings  of  the 
body  and  the  elevation  of  the  soul  are  expressed 
in  every  member  with  equal  energy,  and  form 
the  most  sublime  contrast  imaginable.  Laocoon 
appears  to  suffer  with  such  fortitude,  that,  whilst 
his  lamentable  situation  pierces  the  heart,  the 
whole  figure  fills  us  with  ambitious  desire  of 
imitating  his  constancy  and  magnanimity  in  the 
pains  and  sufferings  that  may  fall  to  our  lot. 

Philoctetes  is  introduced  by  the  poets,  shed- 
ding tears,  uttering  complaints,  and  rending  the 
air  with  his  groans  and  cries;  but  the  artist  ex- 
hibits him  silent,  and  bearing  his  pains  with 
dignity.  The  Ajax  of  the  celebrated  painter 
Timomachus  is  not  drawn  in  the  act  of  destroy- 
ing the  sheep  which  he  took  for  the  Grecian 
chiefs,  but  in  the  moments  of  reflection  which 
succeeded  that  frenzy.  So  far  did  the  Greeks 
carry  their  love  of  calmness  and  slow  movements, 
that  they  thought  a  quick  step  always  announced 
rusticity  of  manners.  Demosthenes  reproaches 
Nicobulus  for  this  very  thing ;  and  from  the 
v»ords  he  makes  use  of  it  appears,  that  to  speak 
•with  insolence  and  to  walk  hastily  were  reckon- 
ed synonymous. 

In  the  figures  of  women,  the  artists  have  con- 
formed to  the  principle  observed  in  all  the  an- 
cient tragedies  and  recommended  by  Aristotle, 
never  to  make  women  show  too  much  intrepi- 
dity or  excessive  cruelty.  Conformable  to  this 
maxim,  Clytemnestra  is  represented  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  fatal  spot,  watching  the  mur- 
derer, but  without  taking  any  part  with  him.  In 
a  painting  of  Timomachus  representing  Medea 
and  her  children,  when  Medea  lifts  up  the  dagger 
they  smile  in  her  face,  and  her  fury  is  immediately 
melted  into  compassion  for  the  innocent  victims. 
In  another  representation  of  the  same  subject, 
Medea  appears  hesitating  and  indecisive.  Guid- 
ed by  the  same  maxims,  the  artists  of  most  re- 
fined taste  were  careful  to  avoid  all  deformity, 
choosing  rather  to  recede  from  truth  than  from 
their  accustomed  respect  for  beauty,  as  may  be 
seen  in  several  figures  of  Hecuba.  Sometimes, 
however,  she  appears  in  the  decrepitude  of  age, 
her  face  furrowed  with  wrinkles,  and  her  breasts 
hanging  down. 

Illustrious  men,  and  those  invested  with  offices 
of  dignity,  are  represented  with  a  noble  assurance 
and  firm  aspect.  The  statues  of  the  Roman  empe- 
rors resemble  those  of  heroes,  and  are  far  removed 
from  every  species  of  flattery,  in  the  gesture, 


686 


SCULPTURE. 


in  the  attitude,  and  action.  They  never  appear 
with  haughty  looks,  or  with  the  splendor  of  roy- 
alty ;  no  figure  is  ever  seen  presenting  any  thing 
to  them  with  bended  knee,  except  captives  ;  and 
none  addresses  them  with  an  inclination  of  the 
head.  In  modern  works  too  little  attention  has 
been  paid  to  the  ancient  costume.  Winkelman 
mentions  a  bas-relief,  which  was  lately  executed 
at  Rome  for  the  fountain  of  Trevi,  representing 
an  architect  in  the  act  of  presenting  the  plan  of 
an  aqueduct  to  Marcus  Agrippa.  The  modern 
sculptor,  not  content  with  giving  a  long  beard  to 
that  illustrious  Roman,  contrary  to  all  the  ancient 
marble  statues  as  well  as  medals  which  remain, 
exhibits  the  architect  on  his  knees. 

In  general  it  was  an  established  principle  to 
banish  all  violent  passions  from  public  monu- 
ments. This  will  serve  as  a  decisive  mark  to  dis- 
tinguish the  true  antique  from  supposititious 
works.  A  medal  has  been  found  exhibiting 
two  Assyrians,  a  man  and  woman  tearing  their 
hair,  with  this  inscription,  ASSYRIA.  ET.  PALES- 
TINA.  IN.  POTEST.  P.  R.  REDAC.  S.  C.  The 

forgery  of  this  medal  is  manifest  from  the  word 
Palestina,  which  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  ancient 
Roman  medal  with  a  Latin  inscription.  Besides 
the  violent  action  of  tearing  the  hair  does  not 
suit  any  symbolical  figure.  This  extravagant 
style,  which  was  called  by  the  ancients  parenthyr- 
sis,  has  been  imitated  by  most  of  the  modern 
artists.  Their  figures  resemble  comedians  on  the 
ancient  theatres,  who,  in  order  to  suit  the  distant 
spectators,  put  on  painted  masks,  employed  ex- 
aggerated gestures,  and  far  overleaped  the  bounds 
of  nature.  This  style  has  been  reduced  into  a 
theory  in  a  treatise  on  the  passions  composed  by 
Le  Brun.  The  designs  which  accompany  that 
work  exhibit  the  passions  in  the  very  highest  de- 
gree, approaching  even  to  frenzy  :  but  these  are 
calculated  to  vitiate  the  taste,  especially  of  the 
young ;  for  the  ardor  of  youth  prompts  them 
rather  to  seize  the  extremity  than  the  middle; 
and  it  will  be  difficult  for  that  artist  who  has 
formed  his  taste  from  such  empassioned  models 
ever  to  acquire  that  noble  simplicity  and  sedate 
grandeur  which  distinguished  the  works  of  ancient 
taste. 

SECT.  IX. — OF  PROPORTION. 

Proportion  is  the  basis  of  beauty,  and  there 
can  be  no  beauty  without  it ;  on  the  contrary, 
proportion  may  exist  where  there  is  little  beauty. 
Experience  every  day  teaches  us  that  knowledge 
is  distinct  from  taste ;  and  proportion,  therefore, 
which  is  founded  on  knowledge,  may  be  strictly 
observed  in  any  figure,  and  yet  the  figure  have 
no  pretensions  to  beauty.  The  ancients,  consi- 
dering ideal  beauty  as  the  most  perfect,  have 
frequently  employed  it  in  preference  to  the  beauty 
of  nature. 

The  body  consists  of  three  parts  as  well  as  the 
members.  The  three  parts  of  the  body  are  the 
trunk,  the  thighs,  and  the  legs.  The  inferior 
parts  of  the  body  are,  the  thighs,  the  legs,  and  the 
feet.  The  arms  also  consist  of  three  parts.  These 
three  parts  must  bear  a  certain  proportion  to  the 
whole  as  well  as  to  one  another.  In  a  well- 
formed  man  the  head  and  body  must  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  thighs,  the  legs,  and  the  feet,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  thighs  are  proportioned  to 


the  legs  and  the  feet,  and  the  arms  to  the  hands. 
The  face  also  consists  of  three  parts,  that  is,  three 
times  the  length  of  the  nose ;  but  the  head  is  not 
four  times  the  length  of  the  nose,  as  some  writers 
have  asserted.  From  the  place  where  the  hair 
begins  to  the  crown  of  the  head  are  only  three- 
fourths  of  the  length  of  the  nose,  or  that  part  is 
to  the  nose  as  nine  to  twelve. 

It  is  propable  that  the  Grecian,  as  well  as  the 
Egyptian  artists,  have  determined  the  great  and 
small  proportions  by  fixed  rules ;  that  they  have 
established  a  positive  measure  for  the  dimensions 
of  length,  breadth,  and  circumference.  This 
supposition  alone  can  enable  us  to  account  for 
the  great  conformity  which  we  meet  with  in  an- 
cient statues.  Winkelman  thinks  that  the  foot 
was  the  measure  which  the  ancients  used  in  all 
their  great  dimensions,  and  that  it  was  by  the 
length  of  it  that  they  regulated  the  measure  of 
their  figures  by  giving  to  them  six  times  that 
length.  This  in  fact  is  the  length  which  Vitru- 
vius  assigns,  Pes  vero  altitudinis  corporis  sextse, 
1.  3,  cap.  1.  That  celebrated  antiquary  thinks 
the  foot  is  a  more  determinate  measure  than  the 
head  or  the  face,  the  parts  from  which  modern 
painters  and  sculptors  too  often  take  their  pro- 
portions. This  proportion  of  the  foot  to  the  body, 
which  has  appeared  strange  and  incomprehensible 
to  the  learned  Huetius,  and  has  been  entirely  re- 
jected by  Perrault,  is,  however,  founded  upon 
experience.  After  measuring  with  great  care  a 
vast  number  of  figures,  Winkelman  found  this 
proportion  observed  not  only  in  Egyptian  statues, 
but  also  in  those  of  Greece.  This  fact  may  be 
determined  by  an  inspection  of  those  statues  the 
feet  of  which  are  perfect.  One  may  be  fully  con- 
vinced of  it  by  examining  some  divine  figures,  in 
which  the  artists  have  made  some  parts  beyond 
their  natural  dimensions.  In  the  Apollo  Belvi- 
dere,  which  is  a  little  more  than  seven  heads 
high,  the  foot  is  three  Roman  inches  longer  than 
the  head.  The  head  of  the  Venus  de  Medicis  is 
very  small,  and  the  height  of  the  statue  is  sevei. 
heads  and  a  half ;  the  foot  is  three  inches  and  a 
half  longer  than  the  head,  or  precisely  the  sixth 
part  of  the  length  of  the  whole  statue. 

SECT.  X. — OF  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SCULPTURE. 

We  have  been  thus  minute  in  our  account  of 
the  Grecian  sculpture  because  it  is  the  opinion 
of  the  ablest  critics  that  modern  artists  have  been 
more  or  less  eminent  as  they  have  studied  witli 
the  greater  or  less  attention  the  models  left  us 
by  that  ingenious  people ;  Winkelraan  goes  so 
far  as  to  contend  that  the  most  finished  works 
of  the  Grecian  masters  ought  to  be  studied  in 
preference  even  to  the  works  of  nature.  This 
appears  to  be  paradoxical ;  but  the  reason  as- 
signed by  the  abbe"  for  his  opinion  is  that  the 
fairest  lines  of  beauty  are  more  easily  discovered, 
and  make  a  more  striking  and  powerful  impres- 
sion, by  their  reunion  in  these  sublime  copies, 
than  when  they  are  scattered  far  and  wide  in  the 
original.  Allowing,  therefore,  the  study  of  nature 
the  high  degree  of  merit  it  so  justly  claims,  it 
must  nevertheless  be  granted  that  it  leads  to  true 
beauty  by  a  much  more  tedious,  laborious,  and 
difficult  path  than  the  study  of  the  antique,  which 
presents  immediately  to  the  artist's  view  the  ob- 


SCULPTURE. 


687 


ject  of  his  researches,  and  comoines  in  a  clear 
and  strong  point  of  light  the  various  rays  of 
beauty  that  are  dispersed  through  the  wide  do- 
main of  nature. 

As  soon  as  the  artist  has  laid  this  excellent 
foundation,  acquired  an  intimate  degree  of  fa- 
miliarity with  the  beauties  of  the  Grecian  sta- 
tues, and  formed  his  taste  after  the  admirable 
models  they  exhibit,  he  may  then  proceed  with 
advantage  and  assurance  to  the  imitation  of 
nature.  The  ideas  he  has  already  formed  of  the 
perfection  of  nature,  by  observing  her  dispersed 
beauties  combined  and  collected  in  the  compo- 
sitions of  the  ancient  artists,  will  enable  him  to 
acquire  with  facility  and  to  employ  with  advan~ 
tage  the  detached  and  partial  ideas  of  beauty 
which  will  be  exhibited  to  his  view  in  a  survey 
of  nature  in  her  actual  state.  When  he  discovers 
these  partial  beauties,  he  will  be  capable  of  com- 
bining them  with  those  perfect  forms  of  beauty 
with  which  he  is  already  acquainted.  In  a  word, 
by  having  always  present  to  his  mind  the  noble 
models  already  mentioned,  he  will  be  in  rome 
measure  his  own  oracle,  and  will  draw  rules  from 
his  own  mind. 

There  are,  however,  two  ways  of  imitating  na- 
ture. In  the  one,  a  single  object  occupies  the 
artist,  who  endeavours  to  represent  it  with  pre- 
cision arid  truth  ;  in  the  other,  certain  lines  and 
features  are  taken  from  a  variety  of  objects,  and 
combined  and  blended  into  one  regular  whole. 
All  kinds  of  copies  belong  to  the  first  kind  of 
imitation;  and  productions  of  this  kind  must  be 
executed  necessarily  in  the  Dutch  manner,  that 
is  to  say,  with  high  finishing,  and  little  or  no 
invention.  But  the  second  kind  of  imitation 
leads  directly  to  the  investigation  and  discovery 
of  true  beauty,  of  that  beauty  whose  idea  is  con- 
nate with  the  human  mind,  and  is  only  to  be 
found  there  in  its  highest  perfection.  This  is 
the  kind  of  imitation  in  which  the  Greeks  ex- 
celled, and  in  which  men  of  genius  excite  the 
young  artists  to  excel  after  their  example,  viz.  by 
studying  nature  as  they  did. 

After  having  studied  in  the  productions  of  the 
Grecian  masters  their  choice  and  expression  of 
select  nature,  their  sublime  and  graceful  contours, 
their  noble  draperies,  together  with  that  sedate 
grandeur  and  admirable  simplicity  that  consti- 
tute their  chief  merit,  the  curious  artist  will 
do  well  to  study  the  manual  and  mechanical 
part  of  their  operations,  as  this  is  absolutely  ne- 
cessary to  the  successful  imitation  of  their  excel- 
lent manner. 

The  ancients  almost  always  formed  their  first 
models  in  wax  :  to  this  modern  artists  have  sub- 
stituted clay,  or  some  such  composition  :  they 
prefer  clay  before  wax  in  the  carnations,  on  ac- 
count of  the  yielding  nature  of  the  latter,  and 
its  sticking  in  some  measure  to  every  thing  it 
vouches.  We  must  not,  however,  imagine  hence, 
that  the  method  of  forming  models  of  wet  clay 
was  either  unknown  or  neglected  among  the 
Greeks;  on  the  contrary,  it  was  in  Greece  that 
models  of  this  kind  were  invented.  Their  author 
was  Dibutades  of  Sicyon  :  and  it  is  well  known 
that  Arcesilas,  the  friend  of  Lucullus,  obtained 
a  higher  degree  of  reputation  by  his  clay  models 
than  by  all  his  other  productions.  Indeed,  if  clay 


could  be  made  to  preserve  its  original  moisture 
it  would  undoubtedly  be  the  fittest  substance  for 
the  models  of  the  sculptor  ;  but  when  it  is  placed 
either  in  the  fire,  or  left  to  dry  imperceptibly  in 
the  air,  its  solid  parts  grow  more  compact,  and 
the  figure,  losing  thus  a  part  of  its  dimensions, 
is  necessarily  reduced  to  a  smaller  volume.  This 
diminution  would  be  of  no  consequence,  did  it 
equally  affect  the  whole  figure,  so  as  to  preserve 
its  proportions  entire.  But  this  is  not  the  case; 
for  the  smaller  parts  of  the  figure  dry  sooner  than 
the  larger ;  and  thus,  losing  more  of  their  di- 
mensions in  the  same  space  of  time  than  the 
latter  do,  the  symmetry  and  proportions  of  the 
figure  inevitably  suffer.  This  inconveniency  does 
not  take  place  in  those  models  that  are  made  in 
wax.  It  is  indeed  extremely  difficult,  in  the  or- 
dinary method  of  working  the  wax,  to  give  it 
that  degree  of  smoothness  that  is  necessary  to 
represent  the  softness  of  the  carnations  or  fleshy 
parts  of  the  body.  This  inconvenience  may, 
however,  be  remedied,  by  forming  the  model 
first  in  clay,  then  moulding  it  in  plaster,  and 
lastly,  casting  it  in  wax.  And,  indeed,  clay  is 
seldom  used  but  as  a  mould  in  which  to  cast  a 
figure  of  plaster,  stucco,  or  wax,  to  serve  hence- 
forth for  a  model  by  which  the  measures  and  pro- 
portions of  the  statue  are  to  be  adjusted.  In 
making  waxen  models,  it  is  common  to  put  half 
a  pound  of  colophony  to  a  pound  of  wax  ;  and 
some  add  turpentine,  melting  the  whole  with  oil 
of  olives. 

So  much  for  the  first  or  preparatory  steps  in  this 
procedure.  It  remains  to  consider  the  manner 
of  working  the  marble  after  the  model  so  pre- 
pared; and  the  method  here  followed  by  the 
Greeks  seems  to  have  been  extremely  different 
from  that  which  is  generally  observed  by  modern 
artists.  In  the  ancient  statues  we  find  the  most 
striking  proofs  of  the  freedom  and  boldness  that 
accompanied  each  stroke  of  the  chisel,  and  which 
resulted  from  the  artist's  being  perfectly  sure  of 
the  accuracy  of  his  idea,  and  the  precision  and 
steadiness  of  his  hand :  the  most  minute  parts 
of  the  figure  carry  these  marks  of  assurance  and 
freedom;  no  indication  of  timorousness  or  diffi- 
dence appear ;  nothing  that  can  induce  us  to 
fancy  that  the  artist  had  occasion  to  correct  any 
of  his  strokes.  It  is  difficult  to  find,  even  in  the 
second-rate  productions  of  the  Grecian  artists, 
any  mark  of  a  false  stroke  or  a  random  touch. 
The  firmness  and  precision  of  the  Grecian  chisel 
were  certainly  derived  from  a  more  determined 
and  perfect  set  of  rules  than  those  which  are  ob- 
served in  modern  times. 

The  method  generally  observed  by  the  modern 
sculptor  is  as  follows  :  first,  out  of  a  great  block 
of  marble  he  saws  another  of  the  size  required, 
which  is  performed  with  a  smooth  steel  saw, 
without  teeth,  casting  water  and  sand  thereon 
from  time  to  time;  then  he  fashions  it,  by  taking 
off  what  is  surperfluous  with  a  steel  point  and  a 
heavy  hammer  of  soft  iron  ;  after  this,  bringing 
it  near  the  measure  required,  he  reduces  it  still 
nearer  with  another  finer  point ;  he  then  uses  a 
flat  cutting  instrument,  having  notches  in  its 
edge ;  and  then  a  chisel,  to  take  off  the  scratches 
which  the  former  has  left;  till  at  length,  taking 
ra^ps  of  different  degrees  of  fineness,  by  de- 


688 


SCULPTURE. 


grees  he  brings  his  work   into  a  condition  for 
polishing. 

After  this,  having  studied  his  model  with  all 
possible  attention,  he  draws  upon  this  model 
horizontal  and  perpendicular  lines  intersecting 
each  other  at  right  angles.  He  then  copies  these 
lines  upon  his  marble,  as  the  painter  makes  use 
of  such  transversal  lines  to  copy  a  picture,  or  to 
reduce  it  to  a  smaller  size.  These  transversal 
lines  or  squares,  drawn  in  an  equal  number  upon 
the  marble  and  upon  the  model,  in  a  manner 
proportioned  to  their  respective  dimensions,  ex- 
hibit accurate  measures  of  the  surfaces  upon 
which  the  artist  is  to  work ;  but  cannot  deter- 
mine, with  equal  precision,  the  depths  that  are 
proportioned  to  these  surfaces. — The  sculptor,  in- 
deed, may  determine  these  depths  by  observing 
the  relation  they  bear  to  his  model ;  but,  as  his 
eye  is  the  only  guide  he  has  to  follow  in  this 
estimate,  he  is  always  more  or  less  exposed  to 
error,  or  at  least  to  doubt ;  he  is  never  sure  that 
the  cavities  made  by  his  chisel  are  exact;  a  de- 
gree of  uncertainty  accompanies  each  stroke ;  nor 
can  he  be  assured  that  it  has  carried  away  neither 
too  much  nor  too  little  of  his  marble.  It  is 
equally  difficult  to  determine,  by  such  lines  as 
have  already  been  mentioned,  the  external  and 
internal  contours  of  the  fiacres,  or  to  transfer 
them  from  the  model  to  the  marble.  By  the 
internal  contour  is  understood  that  which  is 
described  by  the  parts  which  approach  towards 
the  centre,  and  which  are  not  marked  in  a  striking 
manner. 

In  a  complicated  and  laborious  work,  which 
an  artist  cannot  execute  without  assistance,  he 
is  often  obliged  to  make  use  of  foreign  hands, 
that  have  not  the  talents  or  dexterity  that  are  ne- 
cessary to  finish  his  plan.  A  single  stroke  of 
the  chisel  that  goes  too  deep  is  a  defect  not  to 
be  repaired ;  and  such  a  stroke  may  easily  hap- 
pen, where  the  depths  are  so  imperfectly  deter- 
mined. Defects  of  this  kind  are  inevitable,  if 
the  sculptor,  in  chipping  his  marble,  begins  by 
forming  the  depths  that  are  requisite  in  the  figure 
he  designs  to  represent.  Nothing  is  more  liable 
to  error  than  this  manner  of  proceeding.  The 
cautious  artist  ought,  on  the  contrary,  to  form 
these  depths  gradually,  by  little  and  little,  with 
the  utmost  circumspection  and  care ;  and  the 
determining  of  them  with  precision  ought  to  be 
considered  as  the  last  part  of  his  work,  and  as 
the  finishing  touches  of  the  chisel. 

The  various  inconveniences  attending  this  me- 
thod determined  several  eminent  artists  to  look 
out  for  one  that  would  be  liable  to  less  uncer- 
tainty, and  productive  of  fewer  errors.  The 
French  academy  of  painting  at  Rome  hit  upon  a 
method  of  copying  the  ancient  statues,  which 
some  sculptors  have  employed  with  success  even 
in  the  figures  which  they  finished  after  models 
in  clay  or  wax.  This  method  is  as  follows : — The 
statue  that  is  to  be  copied  is  enclosed  in  a  frame 
that  fits  it  exactly.  The  upper  part  of  this  frame 
is  divided  into  a  certain  number  of  equal  parts, 
and  to  each  of  these  parts  a  thread  is  fixed  with 
a  piece  of  lead  at  the  end  of  it.  These  threads, 
which  hang  freely,  show  what  parts  of  the  statue 
are  most  removed  from  the  centre  with  much 
more  perspicuity  and  precision  than  the  lines 
which  are  drawn  upon  its  surface,  and  which 


pass  equally  over  the  higher  and  hollow  parts  of 
the  block  :  they  also  give  the  artist  a  tolerable 
rule  to  measure  the  more  striking  variations  of 
height  and  depth,  and  thus  render  him  more  bold 
and  determined  in  the  execution  of  his  plan. 

But  even  this  method  is  not  without  its  de- 
fects :  for  as  it  is  impossible,  by  the  means  of  a 
straight  line,  to  determine  with  precision  the 
procedure  of  a  curre,  the  artist  has,  in  this  me- 
thod, no  certain  rule  to  guide  him  in  his  con- 
tours ;  and  as  often  as  the  line  which  he  is  to 
describe  deviates  from  the  direction  of  the  plumb 
line,  which  is  his  main  guide,  he  must  neces- 
sarily find  himself  at  a  loss,  and  be  obliged  to 
have  recourse  to  conjecture. 

It  is  also  evident  that  this  method  affords  no 
certain  rule  to  determine  exactly  the  proportion 
which  the  various  purts  of  the  figure  ought  to 
bear  to  each  oilier,  considered  in  their  mutual 
relation  and  connexion.  The  artist,  indeed, 
endeavours  to  supply  this  defect  by  intersecting 
the  plumb-lines  by  horizontal  ones.  This  re- 
course has,  nevertheless,  its  inconveniences, 
since  the  squares  formed  by  transversal  lines,  that 
are  at  a  distance  from  the  figure  (though  they  be 
exactly  equal),  yet  represent  the  parts  of  the 
figure  as  greater  or  smaller,  according  as  they 
are  more  or  less  removed  from  our  position  or 
point  of  view.  But,  notwithstanding  these  in- 
conveniences, the  matter  now  under  considera- 
tion is  certainly  the  best  that  has  hitherto  been 
employed  :  it  is  more  practicable  and  sure  than 
any  other  we  know,  though  it  appears,  from  the 
remarks  we  have  now  been  making,  that  it  does 
not  exhibit  a  sure  and  universal  criterion  to  a 
sculptor  who  executes  after  a  model. 

To  polish  the  statue,  or  make  the  parts  of  it 
smooth  and  sleek,  they  use  pumice-stone  and 
smelt,  then  tripoli;  and,  when  a  still  greater 
lustre  is  required,  they  use  burnt  straw.  For 
the  casting  of  statues,  see  FOCSDKY 

SECT.   XI. — OF   THE   MODERN    HISTORY    AND 
STATE  OF  THE  ART. 

The  art  of  sculpture  (which  never  found  any 
very  distinguished  followers  among  the  Romans) 
fell  into  complete  disuse  in  the  middle  ages,  al- 
though ornaments  of  different  kinds,  together 
with  rude  images,  were  profusely  lavished  on  the 
various  churches.  The  revival  of  painting  pro- 
duced a  like  resuscitation  of  the  sister  art;  and, 
amongst  the  earliest  professors  who  strove  to  res- 
cue sculpture  from  its  disrespected  state,  ap- 
peared Donatello,  or  (to  give  him  his  true  name) 
Donate  di  Bardi,  born  at  Florence  in  1383. 
There  had,  indeed,  been  some  efforts  made  even 
a  century  before  his  time  towards  the  same  lau- 
dable purpose  ;  and,  of  those  engaged  therein, 
we  may  mention  the  names  of  Nicholas  Pisano, 
who  was  designated  by  his  countrymen  Ritrova- 
tore  del  buon  gusto  nella  Scultura,  '  Restorer  of 
fine  taste  in  Sculpture,'  and  his  son,  Giovanni 
Pisano,  who  was  one  of  the  best  artists  of  his 
age,  and  whose  works  are  numerous  at  Pisa  his 
country  ;  Angelo  and  Agostino  Sanese,  who  died 
about  1340;  Andre  Ugolino  died  1345;  Andre 
Orcagna,  surnamed  Bufalmaco,  who  was  an  ex- 
cellent artist,  for  his  time,  and  died  1389,  as  did 
also  Andre  Pisani,  the  author  of  several  good 


SCULPTURE. 


689 


figures  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore 
at  Florence.  Michelo  Aignani  died  in  1400; 
Jac.  della  Quereia  in  1418;  N.  di  Banco  in 
1421  ;  Luca  della  llobbia  in  1442.  This  man 
possessed  the  means  of  overlaying  his  produc- 
tions in  terra  cotta  with  a  fine  varnish,  which 
circumstance  caused  them  to  be  much  sought  for 
throughout  Europe. 

Donate  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  concerned 
in  the  revival  of  the  art  of  sculpture.    It  was  one 
of  his  figures,  a  bronze  statue  of  St.  Mark,  that 
Michel   Angiolo  is  said  to  have   addressed  in 
these  emphatic  words — '  Marco,  per  che  non  mi 
parli  ?'  'Mark,  why  do  you  not  speak  to  me?' 
Another  remarkable  production  of  his  hand  is 
the  figure  of  an  old  man  with  his  head  shaved, 
to  be  found  at  Florence,  and   called  the  Tondu 
or  bald  man.     Donate  died  in  1466,  at  the  ad- 
vanced age  of  eighty-three.     Amongst  his  most 
favorite    pupils   we    may   class : — Bertolde,    a 
Florentine;  Didier  da  Settignano,  a  most  pro- 
mising artist,  who  died  at  the  early  age  of  twenty- 
eight  ;  Vellano  of  Padua ;  Rossellino ;  F.  Ca- 
milliani,  and  M.  Micheloizi.     Simon,  brother  of 
Donatello,  also  followed  his  manner.  This  artist 
was  summoned  to  Rome  by  the  pope  Eugenius 
IV.,  and  made  one  of  the  bronze  gates  of  St. 
Peter's.     Prato,  Rimini,  Florence,  and  Arezzo 
possess  sundry  works  of  Simon.     Benedetto  di 
Majana  flourished  about  1460.     Andre  Pisano, 
commonly  called  Pisanello,  a  pupil  of  Andre 
del  Castagno  for  painting,  acquired  considerable 
reputation   in  sculpture,  mote  particularly  dis- 
tinguishing himself  in  the  execution  of  medals. 
We  also  find,  Giovanni  Antonio  Amadei,  died 
1470;  A.  Rosselino,  called   Gamberelli,   1490; 
G.   Vellano,   1493;  A.  Abondio,   1520;    G.  F. 
Rustichio,    1528;    A.   Contucci,    1529;    A.  R. 
Briosco,  1532  ;  G.  Sanctacroce,  1537;  A.  Bus- 
to,  called  Bambaja,  about  1538  ;  L.  Lotto,  called 
Lorenzetto,   1541  (according  to  Vasari,  this  was 
the  first  restorer  of  the  antique  statues) ;  B.  Ag- 
nolo,  1543  ;  P.  Clemente,  1548;  G.  Campagna 
and  L.  Leoni,  about  1550;  S.  Mosca,  1554;  A. 
Begarelli   and    G.    Bandini,   called    Benedetto, 
about  1555,  with   A.   Zotto;  D.   Cattaneo,  A, 
Minganti,  and  F.  Mosca,  called  Moschino,  1560 ; 
A.   Berrugineta,   1561  ;  A.    and    L.  Calamech, 
1564.     Andre  Verochio  is   particularly  known 
through  the  celebrity  of  his  pupils  Pierre  Peru- 
gin  and  Lionardo  da  Vinci— of  the  latter  of  whom 
becoming  jealous,  he  quitted  painting  altogether 
and  attached  himself  wholly  to  sculpture.    Jean 
Francois  Rustici,  born  at  Florence  about  1470, 
was   an  61eve   of  Verochio,   and   afterwards  of 
Lionardo  da  Vinci,  who  taught  him  the  methods 
of  modelling,  of  carving  in  marble,  and  casting 
in   bronze.     Rustici   was   invited    to   Paris   by 
Francis  I.,  who  employed  him  to  work  from  the 
model  of  a  horse  twice  as  large  as  life,  and  his 
performance  when  finished  was  to  have  borne  a 
statue    of  the  king  himself;    but  that   prince's 
death  suspSded  the  undertaking.     Rustici  died 
;.t  Paris  in  1550. 

We  now  cite  the  name  of  Michel  Angiolo 
Buonarotti,  one  of  the  very  greatest  names  of 
modern  art,  whether  regarded  as  sculptor,  painter, 
or  architect.  He  was  born  in  1474  and  died  in 
1564,  at  the  advanced  age  of  ninety.  The  pro- 
Voi..  XIX. 


ductions  of  his   chisel  enriched  several   of  the 
Italian    cities.      The   beautiful   group  of  Notre 
Dame  de  Pitie  in  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter's  ;  the 
colossal   statue  of  Julius  II. ;  the  three  figures 
executed  for  the  tomb  of  that  pontiff,  the  centre 
one  of  which  is  the  far  famed  Moses  ;  the  David 
combating  Goliath  ;  the  victory  at   Florence  : — 
these,  among  many  others,  bear  abundant  evi- 
dence of  the  transcendant  skill  of  the  artist.  The 
statue   representing   Night,  upon  the   tomb   of 
Julian  de  Medicis,  is  considered  by  Keyssler 
worthy  of  a  parallel  with  the  most  admired  works 
of    antiquity.      Giacomo  Tatti,    better   known 
under  the  title  of  Sansovino  (the  place  where  he 
was   born),  was  architect   likewise  as  well  as 
sculptor.    See  ARCHITECTURE.    This  artist  made 
at  Rome  (at  the  same  time  with  two  other  able 
sculptors)  a  model  of  the  famous  antique  group 
of  the  Laocoon  to  cast  in  bronze.     Sansovino's 
was  esteemed  the  best,  on  the  authority  of  Raf- 
faelle.     The  lodge  of  St.  Mark's  Place  at  Venice 
is  the   work  of  the  same  artist,  who  placed  in 
niches  four  bronze  statues  representing   Pal  as, 
Apollo,  Mercury,  and  Peace.     One  of  his  cele- 
brated performances  (the  greater  part  of  which 
are  at  Rome  and  Florence)  was  a  marble  statue 
of  Bacchus,  lost  in  the  fire  at  the  grand  duke's 
palace  in  1762  :  an  engraving  of  it  remains  in 
the  third  volume  of  the  Museede  Florence.   The 
Virgin  in  the  church  of  St.  Mark,  and  a  figure 
St.  John  Baptist,  in  that  of  Casa  Granda,  pass 
for  the  chefs  d'ceuvre  of  this  master.     He  died 
at  Venice  in  1570,  eighty-three  years  old.     Bac- 
cio  Bandinelli,  born  at  Florence  in  1487,  had  for 
his  first  master  his  father,  who  was  a  goldsmith, 
but  afterwards  received  instructions  from  Rus- 
tici.    He  was  a  good  designer ;  his  manner  was 
learned  and  striking,  and  bore  some  resemblance 
to  that  of  Michel  Angiolo.    There  is,  however, 
in  the  Pitti  palace,  a  Bacchus  in  marble  treated 
in  a  manner  very  soft  and  graceful.     To  Bandi- 
nelli was  imputed  the  heavy  charge  of  his  having 
been  seduced  by  jealousy  to  destroy  the  cartoons 
of  Michel  Angiolo  and  of  Lionardo  da  Vinci. 
It  was  he  who  restored,  in  terra  cotta,  the  right 
arm  of  the  Laocoon,  the  original  having  been 
lost.     Skilful   in  anatomy,  he   was  accused  of 
having  been  too  fond  of  displaying  that  know- 
ledge.    He  died  in   1559.     Amongst  his  most 
renowned  pupils  were  : — P.  da  Vinci  (nephew  of 
Lionardo),  died  1570 ;  B.  Ammanati,  born  at 
Florence  in  1511  ;  V.  Rossi  and  J.  B.  D.  Lo- 
renzi,  who  sculptured,  at  Florence,  at  the  tomb 
of  Michel  Angiolo,  a  figure  of  painting,  together 
with  the  bust  of  that  great  arti§t.     Benvenuto 
Cellini  was  born  at  Florence  in  1500,  and  died 
in  1570.     lie  was  painter,  goldsmith,  and  sculp- 
tor.    He  also  was  summoned  to  Paris  by  Francis 
I.     Propertia   Rossi  is  one  of  the  few  female 
names  that  we  meet  with  among  the  sculptors 
of  this  early  date.     This  interesting  woman  lays 
claim  to  notice  in  several  ways.     She  studied 
and  well  understood  the  laws  of  perspective  and 
architecture ;  nor  did  the  science  of  music  es- 
cape  her   observation.     She   likewise  executed 
some  pretty  drawings  in  pen  and  ink.     Her  fame 
as  a  sculptor  rests  principally  on  a  bust  of  the 
count  Guido,  and   upon  two  angels   in  marble 
with  which  she  decorated  the  facade  of  the  church 

2  Y 


SCULPTURE. 


of  St.  Petronia.  This  poor  young  creature  fell 
a  victim  to  the  chagrin  arising  from  a  hopeless 
attachment,  in  1530.  D.  Ricciarelli,  called 
Volterra  (the  town  wherein  he  was  born,  about 
1509),  was  the  friend  and  imitator  of  Michel 
Aruiolo.  L.  Ricciarelli,  his  nephew,  was  like- 
wise a  good  sculptor.  Amongst  his  other  eleves 
were  : — M.  Alberti,  of  Florence ;  F.  da  San 
Vito,  of  Rome ;  J.  Mazzoni ;  Pelegrin,  of  Bo- 
logna, called  Tibaldi;  M.  di  Sienne;  J.  P.  Ro- 
setti,  of  Volterra  ;  and  D.  B.  da  Cormigliano,  of 
Pistoia.  The  year  1576  witnessed  the  death  of 
Gaspard  Bacerra.  V.  Dante,  who  executed  the 
admired  statue  of  pope  Julius  II.,  died  in  1576. 
G.D.  D'Auria  in  1585.  A.  Fontana  in  1587. 
P.  Scavezzi  in  1590.  G.B.  Lorenzi  in  1593. 
G.  Delia  Porta,  born  at  Milan,  studied  under  his 
uncle,  and  cultivated  the  art  of  drawing  at  Ge- 
neva from  the  lessons  of  P6rin  del  Vaga.  In 
this  town  he  also  produced  several  works  in 
sculpture.  At  Rome,  he  restored  several  antiques, 
particularly  the  legs  of  the  Farnese  Hercules, 
the  work  of  the  Athenian  Glycon.  These  were 
esteemed  so  very  beautiful  that,  although  the 
antique  limbs  were  subsequently  found,  Michel 
Angiolo  expressed  himself  against  their  being 
restored.  The  pupils  of  Delia  Porta  were : — G. 
Tedesco,  who  executed  small  statues,  and  orna- 
ments in  basso-rilievo,  and  B.  Torregiani,  of 
Bologna,  who  died  1596.  There  were  also  in 
his  own  family  several  other  renowned  sculptors, 
such  as  the  Chevaliers  J.  B.  and  T.  Delia  Porta. 
•  — F.  Ferrucci,  surnamed  Tadda,  lived  towards 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

J.  L.  Bernini,  born  at  Naples  in  1598,  was  a 
great  architect  as  well  as  sculptor.  A.  Algardi, 
born  at  Bologna  in  1602,  and  died  in  1654,  stu- 
died painting  at  first  in  the  school  of  Ludovico 
Caracci,  but  he  afterwards  went  over  to  the 
sister  art.  He  could  not,  however,  divest  him- 
self of  his  old  attachment;  and  accordingly  we 
find  him  praised  by  some  and  blamed  by  others 
for  endeavouring  to  add  to  the  generally  under- 
stood beauties  of  sculpture  some  of  the  effects 
previously  considered  proper  to  painting.  Al- 
gardi, however,  formed  a  school,  which  has  pro- 
duced D.  Guidi,  J.  M.  Baratta,  J.  Peroni,  II. 
Ferrata,  G.  Brunelli,  and  C.  Mazza,  of  Bologna. 
Neither  should  we  omit  to  state  that  Algardi  like- 
wise occupied  himself  with  engraving.  A. 
Raggi,  called  the  Lombard,  was  born  in  16'24  at 
Vicomorto,  on  the  confines  of  the  Milanese 
territory,  and  was  successively  the  pupil  of 
Algardi  and  Bernini.  His  works  are  nume- 
rous at  Rome.  J.  Gonnelli,  surnamed  the  blind 
man  of  Cambassi  (the  name  of  his  country  in 
Tuscany),  studied  successfully  under  PeterTacca. 
Having  lost  his  sight,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty, 
he  nevertheless  did  not  abandon  the  practice  of 
his  art,  but  executed  several  figures  in  terra 
cotta,  guided  by  tact  alone.  It  is  thus  that  he 
made  a  statue  of  Cosmo,  first  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany.  J.  B.  Tubi  saw  the  light  at  Rome  in 
1630.  This  man  appears  to  have  practised 
chiefly  in  France,  where  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Royal  Academy  in  1663.  He  made  a  beau- 
tiful copy  ot  the  group  of  the  Laocoon,  which 
ornaments  one  of  the  apartments  in  the  palace 
of  Trianon.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1700.  C. 


Rusconi  was  born  at  Milan  in   1658,  where  b 
learnt   sculpture,  and  afterwards  proceeded  to 
Rome  in  order  to  perfect  himself  therein.      Pas- 
sionately devoted  to  the  antique,  he  copied   the 
Antinous,  the  Rape  of  Proserpine,  the  Belvidere 
Apollo,  and  twice  the  Farnese   Hercules.     The 
Apollo  and  one  of  the  latter  figures  were  brought 
over  to  this  country.     The  disciples  of  Rusconi 
were  J.  Rusconi  and  J.  B.  Maini,  both  artists  of 
reputation.     Angelo  Rossi  follows,  distinguished 
both  as  a  sculptor  and  drawer.     His   claim  to 
merit  is  more  particularly  founded  on  the  excel- 
lence of  his  bassi  rilievi.     Not  only  has  he  sur- 
passed all   his   predecessors  in  that   particular 
walk,  but  has  served  as  a   model  to  those  suc- 
ceeding him.     Rossi  did  not  treat  bassi  rilievi  in 
the  manner  of  Algardi,  who  gave  a  considerable 
projection  to  the  figures,  but  observed  that  demi- 
relief  which  certainly  approaches  very  near  to 
the  method  taken  by  the  ancients.     His  basso 
rilievo  made  for  the  tomb  of  Alexander  VIII., 
and  representing  several  canonisations  made  by 
that  pope,  is  regarded  as  the  most  exquisite  of 
all  the  ornaments  of  a  similar  character  \vhich 
adorn  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter's.     He  left  only 
one  pupil  of  any  note — namely,  F.  Moderati,  of 
Milan,    of  whom    there  are  extant  two   stucco 
figures  of  Venus  in  the  palace  of  the  apostolical 
chancery   at   Rome.     G.  G.    Zumbo,   born   at 
Syracuse  in  1656,  became  a  sculptor  without 
any  other  aid  than  that  of  his  own  genius.     He 
used  in  all  his  works  no  other  substance  than 
colored  wax,  which,  however,  he  prepared  in  a 
peculiar  manner.     Warin  and   Le  Bel  had  pos- 
sessed, it  is  true,  this  secret  before  him :  but  it 
was  reserved  for  Zumbo  to  bring  it  to  perfection. 
It  was  this  artist  who  executed  for  the  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany  the  famous  subject  known  by 
the  name  of  La  Corruzione  :  this  singular  compo- 
sition consists  of  five  figures,  of  which  the  first 
is  a  man  dying,  the  second  a  dead  corpse,  the 
third   a   body  beginning  to   decay,  the  fourth, 
another  in  a  further  stage  of  decomposition,  and 
the  fifth  an  appalling  spectacle  of  complete  putre- 
faction !  Great  horror  is  inspired  by  the  sight  of 
these  objects,  owing  to  the  truth  and  correctness 
which  the  artist  has  thrown  into  their  delineation. 
He  died  in  France  in  1701. 

The  following  names  will  complete  our  cata- 
logue of  Italian  sculptors :  of  their  peculiar 
merits  little  is  now  known. — A.  Vittoria,  died 
1608;  A.  G.  Da  Faenza,  1609;  F.  Cordine, 
surnamed  Franciosino,  1612;  O.Censore,  1622; 
C.  Garafaglia,  1630;  C.  Molli  and  P.G.  Tacca, 
1640;  F.  Mocchi,  1646;  F.  Agnesini  and  P. 
Bacci,  about  1650;  G.  B.  Bissoni,  1657;  F. 
Baratta,  1666;  G.  B.  Volpi,  about  1670;  M. 
Maglia,  1768;  L.  Bernini,  1682;  P.  P.  Nardini, 
1684;  F.  Ferrata,  1686;  L.  Ottone,  about  1691 ; 
G.  B.  Foggini,  about  1700;  G.  Mazzoli,  1725  ; 
M.  Benzi  and  G.  Mazzo,  1740;  P.  Mazetti, 
1744;  A.  Corradini,  1752;  and,  to  conclude, 
F.  Schiafino,  1765.  The  most  celeorated  name 
connected  in  our  day  with  Italian  sculpture  is 
that  of  the  lamented  Canova.  Thorwaldsen, 
however,  although  by  country  a  Dane,  has  been 
accustomed  so  long  to  practise  in  Italy,  that  his 
name  may  be  permitted  to  stand  by  the  great 
one  just  mentioned. 


SCULPTURE. 


691 


We  now  proceed  to  g.ve  a  Hst  of  those  sculp- 
tors who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
neighbouring  kingdom  of  France.  The  first  of 
these,  respecting  whom  their  countrymen  have 
much  cause  to  boast,  is  Jean  Gougon,  of  Paris. 
The  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown  ;  nor  are  there 
many  authentic  circumstances  related  of  his  life. 
He  must,  nevertheless,  be  regarded  as  the  re- 
storer of  sculpture  in  France.  One  of  his  most 
considerable  performances  is  the  fountain  of 
Nymphs,  called  the  Innocents,  begun  in  the 
reign  of  Francis  I.,  and  completed  under  that  of 
Henry  II.,  in  1550.  Goujon  also  distinguished 
himself,  not  only  as  an  architect  but  as  an  en- 
graver of 'medals.  This  artist  was  slain,  as  a 
huguenot,  on  the  bloody  festival  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, 1572.  G.  Pilon,  of  Paris,  was  the  author 
of  various  works,  chiefly  distributed  about  the 
churches  of  that  city,  which  may  be  said  to  pos- 
sess the  principle  of  grace  rather  than  that  of 
correctness.  The  town  of  Douai  gave  birth  to 
Jean  de  Bologne,  whose  works  enriched  several 
of  the  Italian  cities.  This  artist  wrought  per- 
haps the  most  colossal  figure  that  owes  its  origin 
to  modern  art.  It  is  named,  we  know  not  why, 
the  Appennine,  and  represents  Jupiter  Pluvius 
seated.  It  is  so  large  that  within  the  head  is  a 
capacious  pigeon-house,  whilst  the  hollow  of  the 
trunk  is  occupied  by  a  grotto  adorned  with  shells 
and  jets  d'eau.  John  of  Bologna  wrought  with 
great  skill  both  in  marble  and  bronze,  and  his 
naked  figures  are  particularly  elegant  and  grace- 
ful. Born  in  1524,  he  died  in  1608.  Amongst 
the  great  body  of  his  pupils  we  may  select  P. 
Francoville  ;  Anzirevelle ;  Adrian,  a  Fleming; 
Moca;  A.  Susini;  F.  Delia  Bella,  and  Gasper 
his  brother,  both  of  Florence;  and  Pierre  Tacca. 
The  latter  is,  perhaps,  the  most  celebrated  of 
any,  and  was  engaged  to  complete  all  the  works 
eft  unfinished  at  his  master's  death;  among 
'•vhich  was  the  horse  which  bore  the  statue  of 
Henry  IV.,  on  the  Pont  Neuf  at  Paris.  He  died 
1640.  S.  Guillain  was  born  at  Paris  in  1581. 
His  father  was  a  sculptor,  known  by  the  appel- 
lation of  Pere  Cambrai,  the  place  of  his  birth. 
This  man,  having  taught  his  son  the  first  rudi- 
ments of  his  art,  sent  him  to  perfect  himself 
therein  at  Rome.  The  greater  part  of  Guillain's 
works  were  destroyed,  together  with  those  of 
other  artists,  during  the  Revolution.  His  style 
may,  however,  be  perceived  from  the  figures  or- 
namenting the  portals  of  St.  Gervas,  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  and  of  the  Feuillans.  His  followers  were 
Anguier,  Hutinot,  and  Jacques  Sarrasin  ;  which 
latter  is  well  known  among  French  sculptors. 
He  was  born  at  Noyon,  but  sojourned  eighteen 
years  at  Rome.  The  performances  of  Sarrasin 
manifest  almost  throughout  a  correct  taste  ;  but 
his  chef-d'oeuvre  is  the  group  of  Caryatides,  de- 
corating the  grand  pavilion  of  the  old  Louvre, 
figures,  although  collossal,  still  light  and  deli- 
cate. The  group  of  Romulus  and  Remus,  at 
Versailles,  is  likewise  worthy  of  distinction. 
The  school  of  Sarrasin  has  produced  many  ex- 
cellent artists ;  among  whom  we  may  cite  Le- 
rambert,  Le  Gros,  and  J.  Burette,  of  Paris,  who 
died  1699.  Francois  Anguier,  born  at  Eu  in 
1604,  wrought  under  Simon  Guillain,  and  under 
Algardi  at  Rome.  Sentiment  appears  to  have 


been  his  strong  point,  the  expression  of  which 
was  before  his  time  but  comparatively  little 
kxiovvn  to  the  French  statuaries.  Paris  received 
the  ornament  of  many  of  this  sculptor's  works, 
but  the  most  distinguished  was  the  superb  mau 
soleum  of  the  Due  de  Montmorency,  beheaded 
at  Toulouse.  This  monument  is  to  be  seen  at 
Moulins,  in  the  church  of  St.  Mary.  M.  An- 
guier, brother  of  the  preceding,  should  be  class- 
ea  rather  amongst  Italian  sculptors,  since  he 
was  born  at  Rome,  and  studied  in  the  school  of 
Algardi.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Theodon, 
who  died  at  Paris  about  1680.  L.  Lerambert, 
born  at  Paris  in  1614,  preceded  but  a  little 
Peter  Paul  Puget,  painter,  architect,  and  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Marseilles  in  1622.  Of  all  the 
performances  of  this  celebrated  artist,  the  most 
admired  are,  a  basso-rilievo  representing  the 
Assumption,  at  Mantua;  the  famous  statue  of 
Milo,  placed  in  the  park  at  Versailles:  the  rape 
of  Andromeda  by  Perseus ;  and  the  Alexander 
before  Diogenes,  at  Versailles;  his  last  work, 
also,  which  uas  left  unfinished,  and  is  at  Mar- 
seilles, has  been  highly  esteemed  ;  its  subject  is 
the  plague  of  Milan.  Puget  died  1694.  Gas- 
pard  and  Balthazar  Marsy  were  born  at  Carnbray, 
the  former  1624,  the  latter  1628.  They  were 
first  educated  by  their  father,  and  did  not  go  to 
Paris  until  1648,  where  they  received  instruc- 
tions, successively,  of  Sarrasin,  Anguier,  and 
Buyster.  These  two  brothers  generally  worked 
in  concert ;  and  a  favorable  idea  of  their  talent 
may  be  gained  from  the  group  of  tritons  giving 
drink  to  the  horses  of  the  sun,  in  the  baths  of 
Apollo  at  Versailles.  E.  Le  Hongre,  born  at 
Paris  1628,  studied  under  Sarrasin.  Of  all  the 
sculptors  employed  during  the  splendid  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.  the  one  who  has  left  behind  him 
the  highest  reputation  is  Francois  Girardon, 
born  in  1630  at  Troyes  in  Champagne,  where  he 
acquired  the  first  elements  of  his  art  from  study- 
ing the  beautiful  sculptures  which  then  adorned 
his  native  town.  After  having  passed  some  time 
at  Rome,  he  repaired  to  Paris,  where  his  talents 
were  duly  encouraged.  The  production  most 
contributing  to  his  fame  is  the  mausoleum  of 
Richelieu,  in  the  church  of  Sorbonne.  The 
equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  the  Place 
Vendome,  is  another  of  his  finest  works.  But, 
after  all,  the  strongest  point  in  the  genius  of 
Girardon  is  his  facility  and  skill  in  modelling. 
Among  the  number  of  his  pupils  were  Fremin, 
Nourrisson,  Charpentier,  Jean  Joly  of  Troyes, 
and  P.  Granier,  born  near  Montpelier  in  1635. 
M.  Van  den  Bogaert,  surnamed  Desjardins,  al- 
though a  Dutchman  by  birth  (born  at  Breda, 
1640),  takes  rank  among  French  artists,  since 
he  established  himself  when  very  young  at  Paris, 
where  he  remained.  A.  Coysevox,  of  Spanish 
origin,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1640.  His  statues, 
portraits,  and  bassi-rilievi,  have  embellished 
Paris,  Versailles,  Sceaux,  and  Chantilly.  He 
particularly  excelled  in  representing  horses,  his 
skill  in  which  respect  is  abundantly  manifested 
by  the  two  groups  of  those  animals  placed  at  the 
principal  entrance  gate  of  the  Tuileries.  C. 
Vancleve  was  born  at  Paris  in  1645,  and  studied 
under  Francois  Anguier.  A.  Flamen,  born  at 
St.  Onier  in  1647,  had  for  his  master  Gasnard 

2  Y  2 


692 


SCULPTURE. 


Marsy.  P.  Francville,  a  native  of  Cambray, 
was  remarkable  for  purity  of  taste.  Pierre  Le 
Gros  is  a  name  which  served  to  illustrate  greatly 
the  art  of  sculpture  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  born  at  Paris  1656,  but  did  not 
long  abide  among  his  countrymen,  having  re- 
paired to  Rome  at  the  age  of  ten  years.  N. 
Coustou,  born  1658,  excelled  in  the  art  of  mo- 
delling to  such  a  degree  as  rarely  to  use  the 
pencil.  His  draperies  are  rich  and  flowing ;  his 
style  chaste  and  delicate  ;  but  he  does  not  seem 
to  have  caught  the  genuine  spirit  of  the  antique. 
M.  Chabry,  a  pupil  of  Puget,  was  born  in  1660. 
The  chief  of  his  performances  embellish  the  town 
of  Lyons.  P.  Le  Pautre  was  born  in  the  same 
year.  His  name  is  immortalised  in  France  by 
the  group  at  the  Tuileries  of  JEneas  bearing  the 
body  of  his  father  Anchises.  J.  L.  Lemoyne, 
born  at  Paris  1665,  was  an  e"leve  of  Coysevox. 
R.  Le  Lorrain,  bora  in  1660,  was  distinguished 
for  scientific  style,  elegant  and  piquant  expres- 
sion, and  masterly  handling  of  the  marble.  He 
formed  two  sculptors,  whose  productions  reflect 
honor  on  his  tutoring.  These  were  Lemoyne 
and  Pigalle.  A.  Cayot  was  born  in  1667,  and 
wrought  fourteen  years  under  Yancleve.  L. 
Magniere  died  in  1700.  P.  Mazeline  in  1708. 
F.  Coudrai,  pupil  of  Coysevox,  and  who  became 
first  sculptor  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  died  1727. 
J.  Thierry,  born  at  Lyons  1669,  was  invited  to 
Spain,  where  he  wrought  many  years  in  marble, 
bronze,  and  lead,  for  the  gardens  and  palace  of 
St.  Ildefonso.  R.  Fre'min,  born  at  Paris  in  1672, 
worked  at  Rome  in  the  school  of  the  chevalier 
Bernini.  C.  Falconet  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
1671,  and  died  at  Paris  1762.  L'Amoureux, 
born  in  1674,  was  an  £leve  of  Nicolas  Coustou. 
His  native  city,  Lyons,  possesses  his  best  pro- 
ductions. G.  Coustou,  born  at  Lyons  1678, 
was  a  pupil  of  Coysevox,  his  uncle.  He  was 
brother  of  Nicolas.  His  most  celebrated  works 
are — the  pediment  of  the  Chateau  d'eau,  opposite 
the  Palais  Royal,  and  the  two  fine  horses  placed 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Champs  Elys£es.  J. 
Rousseau,  eleve  of  Nicolas  Coustou,  born  in 
1681,  became  first  sculptor  to  the  king  of  Spain, 
and  died  at  Madrid.  A.  Vasse  was  born  at 
Seine,  in  Provence,  in  1683.  Dandr6  Bardon 
commends,  among  others,  his  sculpture  in  the 
gate  of  the  Capuchins  at  Paris.  F.  Dumont, 
born  at  Paris  in  1688,  was  the  sculptor  of  the 
two  figures  of  St.  John  and  St.  Joseph,  as  well 
as  the  two  corresponding  ones  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul,  which  decorate  the  portal  of  St.  Sul- 
pice.  The  Dominicans  of  Lisle  have  also  a  fine 
specimen  of  this  sculptor's  ability,  in  the  mauso- 
leum of  Louis  de  Melun.  G.  Bouchardon,  born 
in  1698,  belongs  to  the  school  of  Guillaume 
Coustou.  In  the  construction  of  the  fountain  in 
the  Rue  de  Grenelle  at  Paris,  he  has  displayed 
his  talent  as  an  architect  as  well  as  statuary  ;  and 
another  performance  well  worthy  of  eulogy  is 
the  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XV.,  erected  in 
the  place  of  that  name,  and  destroyed  in  1792. 
The  horse  was  a  perfect  chef-d'oeuvre.  The  ex- 
pression of  this  artist  was,  jjenerally  speaking, 
rather  sweet  than  sublime — his  ideas  learned  ra- 
ther than  bold.  L.  S.  Adam,  born  at  Nancy  in 
1700,  after  having  studied  at  Paris  under  the 


most  able  masters,  repaired  to  Rome,  where  h^ 
was  employed  to  restore,  among  others,  twelve 
antique  statues,  exhumed  from  the  ruins  of  the 
palace  of  Marius.  Two  colossal  figures  by  this 
artist,  representing  the  Seine  and  the  Marne, 
decorate  the  head  of  the  cascade  at  St.  Cloud. 
C.  Francin  was  born  at  Strasburgh  in  1701. 
Jean  Baptiste,  son  of  Jean  Louis  Lemoyne,  was 
born  at  Paris  in  1704.  His  two  most  famous 
works  are  a  monument  dedicated  to  Louis  XV. 
in  1744,  by  the  states  of  Bretagne,  and  the  colos- 
sal equestrian  statue  of  the  same  prince  at  Bor- 
deaux. Lemoyne  was  likewise  author  of  the 
mausoleum  of  Mignard  (a  very  rich  piece  cf 
sculpture),  as  also  of  that  of  Crebillon.  Rene" 
Michel  Slodtz,  better  known  by  the  appellation 
of  Michel-Ange,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1705,  and 
demands  the  praise  due  to  a  style  grand  although 
simple,  and  to  a  skill  in  representing  draperies 
which  has,  perhaps,  seldom  found  a  parallel  in 
modern  art.  N.  S.  Adam  (brother  to  the  artist 
of  that  name  before  mentioned)  was  born  at 
Nancy  in  1705.  A  basso-rilievo  in  the  chapel 
at  Versailles,  representing  the  martyrdom  of  St. 
Victoire,  is  amongst  the  number  of  his  most  suc- 
cessful works.  He  took  part  with  his  brother  in 
the  principal  group  of  the  basin  at  Versailles. 
F.  G.  Adam,  another  brother  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Nancy  in  1710.  J.  B.  Pigalle,  born 
at  Paris  in  1714,  was  a  pupil  of  Le  Lorrain,  and 
Lemoyne  the  father.  This  sculptor  wrought  at 
Lyons  a  statue  of  Mercury,  which  alone  sufficed 
to  raise  his  reputation.  The  group  of  infants  is 
also  fine,  embellishing  the  facade  of  St.  Louis  at 
the  Louvre — more  particularly  the  naive  figure 
of  an  infant  holding  a  cage  from  which  a  bird 
has  escaped.  The  mausoleum  of  marshal  Saxe 
at  Strasburgh,  and  the  pedestrian  statue  of  Louis 
XV.  in  bronze,  erected  at  Rheims,  are  both  re- 
garded as  chefs-d'oeuvre  of  execution.  Amongsc 
the  pupils  of  this  artist,  we  may  particularize 
M.  M.  Mouchy  (his  nephew),  Moette,  Lebrun, 
Bocquet,  and  Dupre,  which  latter  passed  his  life 
very  obscurely,  lending  his  talents  to  more  fortu- 
nate artists,  who  thus  fathered  works  above  their 
own  ability.  J.  F.  J.  Saly,  born  at  Valenciennes 
in  1717,  was  author  of  a  pedestrian  statue  of 
Louis  XV.,  placed  in  his  native  town.  His  '  se- 
cond best'  was  an  equestrian  statue  in  bronze  of 
Christian  IV.,  king  of  Denmark,  which  was 
erected  at  Copenhagen. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  the  reader  to  pos- 
sess the  following  list  of  French  sculptors  who 
were  flourishing  at  the  commencement  of  the 
present  century,  and  many  of  whom  are,  no 
doubt,  still  pursuing  their  honorable  avocation  : 
— J.  L.  Boyer,  e"leve  of  Allegrin  ;  L.  F.  Boizot ; 

J.  B.  Budelot,  and Canellier,  both  pupils 

of  Bridan  the  elder  ;  T.  N.  Delaistre,  pupil  of 
Lecomte  and  of  Vasse" ;  he  made  the  statue  of 
Phocion  at  the  Conservative  Senate;  J.  Demon- 
treuil ;  E.  J.  Dumont,  61eve  of  Pajou ;  Espar- 
cieux,  author  of  a  well  known  bust  of  Raynal ; 
Joplere,  pupil  of  Berruer,  and  author  of  an  ivory 
group  representing  the  death  of  Lucretia ;  J.  P. 
Le  Sueur ;  P.  Merard,  of  the  school  of  Bouchar- 
don ;  Monot,  e"leve  of  Claude  Vass£  ;  Pettitot; 
C.  Ramey  ;  P.  Roland,  pupil  of  Pajou,  the  exe- 
cutor of  a  marble  bust  of  admiral  Ruyter,  for  th« 


SCULPTURE. 


693 


gallery  of  the  Tuileries ;  Thierard,  pupil  of  Bar- 
the"limi;  J.  B.  Stouf,  pupil  of  Coustou  ;  Boquet; 
P.  C.  Bridan.  the  younger,  author  of  a  fine  bust 
of  the  duke  of  Marlborough  ;  Brunei;  Chardin; 
J.  M.  Renaud  ;  Mouchy,  author  of  a  marble 
bust  of  the  Due  de  Sully  for  the  gallery  of  the 
Tuileries  ;  F.  Masson  ;  Chaudet,  pupil  of  Stouf, 
and  author  of  the  colossal  bust  of  the  emperor 
Napoleon,  formerly  in  the  hall  of  the  Corps  Le- 
gislatif,  and  of  a  bust  of  the  empress  ;  M.  Clo- 
dion  ;  Comolli,  a  Piedmontese  :  C.  L.  Corbet, 
pupil  of  Berruer ;  J.  L.  Couasnon  ;  J.  C.  N. 
Lucas ;  J.  F.  J.  Leriche,  superintendent  of  the 
sculpture  at  the  manufactory  of  Sevres  ;  F.  F. 
Lemot;  Dumont;  Lange,  of  Toulouse;  E.  P.  A. 
Gois,  and  his  son  and  pupil;  Dejoux  ;  Salvage; 
Renaud  ;  P.  N.  Beauvallet ;  Blaise,  author  of  a 
h'ne  marble  bust  of  Giulo  Romano  ;  Montpel- 
lier,  pupil  of  Lemoyne  ;  Lorta,  pupil  of  Bridan, 
pere ;  Foucou  ;  D'Egensviller ;  Deseine ;  Car- 
delli ;  A.  Pajou,  pupil  of  Coustou  ;  Houdon ; 
P.  Roland ;  Allegrin ;  and,  finally,  Moe'tte, 
pupil  of  Pigalle.  Nor  has  the  gentler  sex  for 
borne  to  pay  its  devoirs  to  this  interesting  art. 
Madame  Julia  Charpentier,  a  pupil  of  Pajou  ; 
madame  Antoniette  G.  Desfonts,  pupil  of  Car- 
lini;  and  madame  Milot,  may  be  particularised 
with  high  commendation. 

A  wide  field  for  observation  presents  itself  in 
turning  to  the  catalogue  of  Spanish  sculptors", 
and  we  regret  that  our  confined  limits  will  not 
allow  us  to  dwell  on  it  as  the  theme  deserves! 
We  shall,  however,  take  a  rapid  glance  over  the 
principal  names,  commencing  with  that  of  Apa 
ricio,  who  flourished  in  the  eleventh  century, 
and  was  commissioned  by  Don  Sancho  the 
Great  to  construct  the  shrine  of  St.  Millan,  still 
preserved  in  the  monastery  of  Yuso,  and  present- 
ing, if  we  consider  its  remote  date,  great  merit 
both  of  grace  and  proportion.  Aparicio  was  as- 
sisted in  his  work  by  Rodolphe.  About  the 
same  time  flourished  Mateo,  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect. Bartolome  made,  in  1278,  nine  stone 
statues,  of  the  size  of  life,  for  the  gate  of  the  ca- 
thedral church  of  Tarragona.  J.  Castayls,  of 
Barcelona,  lived  towards  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  as  did  also  Annrique,  who  exe- 
cuted the  rilievi  of  the  tomb  of  Don  Henry  II. 

F.  Gonzalez  flourished  in  1399,  and  Centellasin 
1410.      A.  and   F.  Diaz,  A.  F.  de  Sahagun,  A. 
Rodriguez,  A.   Gonzalez,    A.    Martinez,   Alvar 
Rodriguez,  Christophe  Rodriguez,  J.  Fernandez, 
F.Garcia,  F.,  J.  and  M.   Sanchez,  J.  Alfonzo, 
John  Fernandez,  John  Rodriguez,  M.  Ruiz,  P. 
Gutierrez  Nieto,  together  with  P.  and  A.  Lopez, 
were  all  employed,  from  1418  to   1425,  in  exe- 
cuting the  ornaments  of  the  principal  facade  and 
tower  of  the  cathedral  church   of  Toledo.     To 
this  number  we  may  add  A.  Gomez,  James  Ro- 
driguez, Garcia  Martinez,  and  John  Ruiz.     The 
marble  altar-piece  of  the  grand  altar  of  the  church 
of  Tarragona  was  commenced   in   1426  by   P. 
Juan,  and  finished   afterwards   by  his  associate 

G.  De  La  Mota.     A.  De  Lima  flourished   at 
Toledo  in  1459,  as  did  also  F.  De  Las  Arenas, 
F.  Garcia,  &c.     The  sculptors  belonging  to  the 
last  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  are  : — J.  Caste- 
luou,  sculptor  and  goldsmith  of  Valencia,  and 
James  his  son  ;  the  works  of  both  are  consider- 


ably valued.  J.  Aleman,  of  Toledo,  eminent  for 
the  beautiful  attitudes  and  draperies  of  his  statues. 
G.  De  Siloe,  who  obtained  great  reputation  at 
Burgos  from  his  tomb  of  king  John  II.,  and  of 
the  Infant,  Don  Alfonso.  Paul  Ortiz,  one  of  the 
most  famous  names  in  the  circle  of  Spanish  art, 
and  the  most  considerable  of  the  restorers  of 
sculpture.  Andres,  who  wrought  in  conjunction 
with  Nicolas  : — their  performances,  as  also  those 
of  J.  De  La  Cruz,  have  a  Gothic  character,  but 
display  much  facility  of  execution.  B.  De  Or- 
tega must  not  be  forgotten  amongst  the  masters 
of  Seville,  nor  (still  more  particularly)  Dancart 
and  his  pupil  Marco. 

Amongst  the  most  eminent  of  Spanish  sculp- 
tors who  adorned  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  maybe  ranked  A.  De  Fries, B.  J.  Moran, 
Christiano,  J.  De  Guadalupe,  F.  De  Aranda, 
F.  DeCibdad,  Guillemin  Digante,  J.  De  Aranda, 
J.  De  Augos,  J.  Peti,  P.  De  St.  Michel,  Rodrigo, 
Salas,  Solorzano,  J.  De  Lanos,  Laberrox,  and 
Luxan,  each  of  whom  contributed  more  or  less 
to  the  advancement  of  the  art  generally,  and  in 
particular  to  the  sculptures  embellishing  both 
exterior  and  interior,  and  to  the  beautiful  shrine 
of  the  cathedral  of  Toledo.  In  the  course  of  the 
same  half  century — namely,  from  1500  t6  1550, 
appeared  P.  Millan,  and  his  son  John  ;  J.  Olot- 
zaga,  sculptor  and  architect ;  F.  De  Lara ;  G. 
Orozco  ;  S.  De  Aponte,  whose  productions  ma- 
nifest a  most  refined  taste ;  D.  Mieier,  pupil  of 
Dancart ;  J.  Perez,  of  Seville,  author  of  several 
colossal  figures  for  the  cathedral  of  that  city ; 
John,  pupil  of  G.  F.  Aleman  ;  J.  Morlanes,  who 
first  among  the  Spanish  sculptors  adopted  the 
style  of  Albert  Durer,  which  subsequently  be- 
came general ;  B.  De  Aguilar  and  G.  De  Car- 
denas, who  were  selected,  with  F.  De  Sahagun 
and  P.  Izquierdo,  to  adorn  with  sculptures  the 
ecclesiastical  theatre  of  the  TJniversity  of  Alcada 
de  Henarez ;  R.  Aleman,  remarkable  for  his 
grotesque  compositions;  J.  Millan,  son  and  pu- 
pil of  Peter;  B.  Ordonez,  of  Barcelona,  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  artists  of  his  time,  particu- 
larly in  bassi-rilievi  of  marble  ;  &c.  &c.  We 
must  not  omit  the  famous  Alfonso  Berruguete, 
who  likewise  adorned  this  period  as  sculptor, 
painter,  and  architect.  This  illustrious  artist, 
after  having  long  sojourned  at  Rome,  where  he 
studied  under  Yasari  and  Buonarroti,  returned 
to  his  native  country  ;  and  was  the  first  to  es- 
tablish there  perfect  correctness  of  drawing,  the 
most  beautiful  proportions  of  the  human  body, 
antique  grandeur  and  expression — in  short,  all 
which  gives  life  to  marble  or  to  canvas.  Sara  • 
gossa,  Grenada,  Valladolid,  and  Salamanca,  as 
well  as  the  capital  itself,  all  contain  evidences  of 
the  talent  of  Berruguete,  whose  return  threw  into 
the  shade  the  artist  who  had  previously  occu- 
pied the  largest  share  of  public  attention,  Philip 
De  Vigarni. 

The  interval  from  1550  to  1600  was  not  fruit- 
ful with  respect  to  the  followers  of  sculpture  in 
Spain  ;  there  are,  however,  a  few  great  names  to 
be  selected.  Among  these  are  : — J.  de  Navas, 
pupil  of  Berruguete,  with  J.  de  Valencia,  from 
the  same  school.  P.  de  Salamanca  had  the  ho- 
nor of  obtaining,  in  1558,  a  royal  edict  whereby 
the  art  of  sculpture  was  elevated  from  the 


694 


SCULPTURE. 


:hanical  vocations  to  the  rank  of  a  liberal  pro- 
fession. Christopher  of  Salamanca  deserves  also 
honorable  notice.  But  the  most  celebrated 
artist  belonging  to  this  era  was  Paul  de  Cespe- 
des,  born  at  Cordova,  and  one  of  the  first  of 
Spanish  artists.  Not  only  did  he  successively 
practise  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture, 
but  found  time  also  to  court  the  muse  of  poetry. 
The  elegance  and  purity  of  his  drawings  are  ad- 
mirable, as  is  the  noble  air  of  his  figures.  He 
was  skilful  in  anatomy,  had  a  perfect  knowledge 
of  chiaro-scuro,  and  excelled  in  coloring.  The 
seventeenth  century  produced  A.  Sardigna  and 
G.  Hernandez  or  P'ernandez  :  the  latter  of  whom 
embellished  with  his  works  Madrid,  Salamanca, 
and,  above  all,  Valladolid.  This  artist  followed 
the  impressive  style  of  Michel  Angiolo.  He  had 
the  assistance  of  his  kinsman  and  pupil  ,T.  F.  de 
Hibarne.  A.  Pugol,  of  Catalonia,  composed 
and  designed  with  great  spirit  and  taste,  and  his 
draperies  are  particularly  admirable.  E.  Pereyra, 
a  Portuguese,  who  settled  early  in  Spain,  left, 
among  other  works,  a  statue  of  St.  Bruno  at 
Madrid,  eminent  for  character  and  expression. 
J.  M.  Montagnez  had  the  talent  to  give  his 
figures  expressive  and  natural  attitudes.  A. 
Cano,  born  at  Grenada  in  1601,  was  an  admira- 
ble sculptor;  abundant  proof  of  which  is  to  be 
found  in  the  temples  of  Seville,  Cordova,  Ma- 
drid, &c.  L.  F.  de  la  Vega,  born  in  Asturias, 
died  at  Oviedo  in  1675.  Don  J.  de  Rebengo, 
of  Saragossa,  obtained  a  high  reputation  for  his 
little  figures  in  wax,  which  were  remarkable  for 
their  grace  and  finish.  J.  de  Mora  died  in  1725. 
Peter  Roldan,  and  Louis  his  son,  were  both 
greatly  esteemed  among  the  sculptors  of  their 
day.  The  eighteenth  century  gave  birth  in 
Spain  to  several  excellent  sculptors.  Don  P. 
Duque  Cornesso  of  Seville,  and  Don  J.  de 
Hinestrosa,  both  deserve  favorable  notice.  A. 
Salvador,  surnamed  the  Roman,  died  in  1766. 
L.  S.  Carmona,  in  1767.  Philip  de  Castro,  of 
Galicia,  is  a  most  prominent  artist  of  this  era, 
and  contributed  greatly  to  spread  the  principles 
of  fine  taste  throughout  his  country.  He  died  in 
1775.  F.  Gutierrez,  in  1782.  Besides  these 
we  may  particularise  Zarcillo  y  Alcaraz,  J.  P. 
de  Mena,  C  Salas,  and  E.  Alvarez.  For  this  list 
of  Spanish  artists  we  are  indebted  to  the  work 
published  at  Madrid,  in  1800,  in  6  vols.  12mo., 
entitled  Diccionari  Historic©  de  los  mas  Illus- 
tres  Professores  de  las  Bellas  Artes  en  Espasrna, 
conpuesto  por  Don  Juan  Augustin  Cean  Ber- 
mudez. 

We  select  the  following  names  from  the  list  of 
sculptors  who  have  rendered  themselves  cele- 
brated in  Germany,  Holland,  or  Russia.  F. 
Duquesnoi,  born  at  Brussels  in  1594,  was  sur- 
named by  the  Italians  the  Fleming,  by  which 
appellation  he  is  best  known.  This  artist  was 
most  successful  in  the  representation  of  infants, 
in  which  department  of  sculpture  he  has  been 
rarely  excelled.  P.  Buyster,  born  at  Brussels  in 
1 595,  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  France, 
where  he  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-four.  Sebas- 
tian Slodtz,  born  at  Anvers  1655,  went  to  perfect 
Itimself  in  the  French  school  of  Girardon.  A. 
Quellms,  also  of  Anvers,  embellished  his  native 
tiiy  with  many  admirable  productions.  G.  Van 


Obstal  died  at  Paris  in  1668.  Albert  Durer,  so 
famous  in  other  branches  of  the  fine  arts,  ex- 
celled also  in  sculpture,  both  in  stone  and  wood. 
L.  Kern,  and  his  son  J.  J.  Kern,  were  also  cele- 
brated in  their  day.  The  latter  practised  a  long 
while  in  England  where  he  died  in  1668.  G. 
Leygebe,  born  in  1630  in  Silesia,  died  at  Berlin 
in  1683,  in  possession  of  the  singular  art  of  cut- 
ting beautiful  little  equestrian  statues  out  of 
large  ingots  of  iron.  One  of  his  most  esteemed 
performances  of  this  kind  is  at  Dresden,  and 
represents  Charles  II.  of  England,  as  the  Cheva- 
lier St.  George.  M.  Rauchmiiller  just  preceded 
A.  de  Schliiter,  of  Hamburgh,  who  learnt  the  art 
of  sculpture  at  Dantzic,  and  afterwards  repaired 
to  Rome,  where  he  attached  himself  to  the  man- 
ner of  Michel  Angiolo.  B.  Permoser,  who  died  in 
1732,  is  better  known  by  his  Christian  name, 
Balthazar.  F.  X.  Messerschmidt  adorned  Vienna, 
his  native  town,  with  many  excellent  perfor- 
mances. C.  Osner,  of  Nu'rnburg,  died  at  Peters- 
burgh  in  1704.  The  count  Rastrelli,  of  Italian 
origin,  Zwenkof,  Dunker,  and  Stahlmeyer,  of 
Vienna,  all  practised  in  Russia ;  as  likewise  did 
Domacht,  of  Swiss  origin.  Schwartz,  of  Dres- 
den, also  settled  at  Petersburgh  ;  nor  must  we 
omit  to  notice  a  Russian  artist  of  the  name  of 
Pawlof,  who,  having  studied  under  Dunker,  re- 
sorted to  Paris  for  further  instruction.  To  this 
nomenclature  we  may  add  the  names  of  G. 
Petel,  who  died  in  1636;  N.  Millich,  in  or 
about  1669;  M.  Barthel  in  1674;  G.  G.  Wey- 
henmeyer  in  1715;  A.  de  Papenhoren,  about 
1745  ;  and  A.  Nahl,  V.  Sonnenschein,  and  Ohn- 
macht,  who  were  living  at  the  commencement  of 
the  present  century. 

In  our  own  country  sculpture  has  not  been  very 
successfully  practised  until  late  years.  The  reader 
is,  however,  congratulated  on  the  chance  now 
exhibited  of  this  department  of  art,  like  painting, 
reaching  a  high  point  of  excellence  in  these 
islands.  Several  admirable  modern  sculptors 
elevate  with  their  productions  the  artistical  repu- 
tation of  the  British  empire,  and  we  can  reflect 
with  pride  on  such  names  as  Nollekins,  Wilton, 
Gibbons,  Scheemaker,  and  Banks.  The  follow- 
ing are  among  the  most  eminent  of  our  late  or 
living  sculptors: — J.  Bacon,  E.  II.  Bailey, 
R.  A.,  J.  G.  Bubb,  F.  L.  Chantry,  R.  A.;  J. 
Flaxman,  R.  A.,  professor  of  sculpture  to  the 
Royal  Academy,  S.  V.  and  L.  Gahagan,  G.  Gar- 
rard,  A.  R.  A.,  J.  Henning,  C.  Rossi,  R.  A., 
Rouw  (modeller  of  gems  and  cameos),  P.  Tur- 
nerelli,  and  R.  Westmacott,  R.  A.  Nor  must 
we  omit  to  mention  the  fair  sculptor,  Miss  C. 
Adams. 

In  the  modern  practice  of  the  art  of  sculpture 
the  greatest  name  is  certainly  that  of  Michel 
Angiolo.  '  He  considered,'  says  Mr.  Duppa, 
'sculpture  as  his  profession,  and  his  studies 
throughout  his  whole  life  were  more  particularly 
directed  to  it,  than  to  painting  or  to  architecture. 
His  first  work  of  celebrity  was  a  group  of  a  Ma- 
donna with  a  dead  Christ,  called  in  Italian  la 
Pietk.  The  subject,  in  its  nature,  is  impressive, 
and  the  composition  is  felt  with  appropriate  sim- 
plicity ;  and,  of  all  his  works,  it  is  that  which 
seems  to  have  cost  him  the  most  laborious  atten- 
tion. With  Michel  Angiolo  expression  an.* 


SCULPTURE. 


695 


character  were  a  primary  consideration  :  and, 
although  he  set  the  antique  sculpture  before  him 
as  an  example  and  a  guide,  this  marked  distinc- 
tion is  to  be  taken  between  his  view  of  the  sub- 
ject and  that  of  the  ancients  ;  he  made  ideal 
beauty  and  form  subservient  to  expression  ;  they, 
on  the  contrary,  made  expression  and  animation 
subservient  to  form.  The  Laocoon*  and  his 
two  sons  have  more  expression  in  their  counte- 
nance than  all  the  other  antique  statues  united ; 
yet  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  has  observed  that,  even 
in  this  instance,  there  is  only  the  general  expres- 
sion of  pain,  and  that  the  pain  is  still  more 
strongly  expressed  by  the  writhing  and  contor- 
tion of  the  body  than  by  the  features.  In  con- 
sulting all  the  examples  which  are  left  of  ancient 
sculpture,  it  would  seem,  they  established  it  as 
a  general  principle  that,  to  preserve  the  most 
perfect  beauty,  in  its  most  perfect  state,  the  pas- 
sions were  not  to  be  expressed  ;  all  of  which 
may  be  supposed,  in  some  degree,  to  produce 
distortion  and  deformity  in  the  features  of  the 
face.  The  group  of  the  boxers  is  a  remarkable 
instance  in  favor  of  this  opinion  ;  they  are  en- 
gaged in  the  most  animated  action  with  the 
greatest  serenity  of  countenance ;  and,  without 
attributes,  it  would  be  difficult  to  discriminate 
between  the  Juno  or  the  Minerva,  the  Bacchus 
or  the  Meleager;  nevertheless,  in  the  Apollo 
Pythius,  there  is  a  graceful,  negligent,  and  ani- 
mated air,  and  in  the  Discobulus  a  vulgar  eager- 
ness of  expression,  which  deserves  to  be  re- 
marked, to  show  the  nice  discrimination  of 
character  which  the  ancients  were  capable  of 
making  when  the  expression  was  not  incompati- 
ble with  what  they  considered  as  a  higher  excel- 
lence. The  Bacchus  of  Michel  Angiolo  is  an 
attempt  to  unite  a  degree  of  drunkenness  with 
his  character ;  but,  inasmuch  as  t'*at  effect  is 
produced,  both  the  sculpture  and  the  deity  are 
degraded  :  of  this  character  there  are  several  ex- 
amples in  antique  gems,  but,  however  skilful  the 
representation  may  be  in  so  small  a  size  as  a 
gem,  it  is  certainly  not  a  fit  subject  for  a  statue 
of  the  proportion  of  life.  The  two  female 
figures  composing  part  of  the  present  monument 
of  Julius  II.  are  simple  and  elegant;  and  those 
of  Morning  and  Night,  in  the  Lorenzo  Chapel, 
are  composed  with  great  grandeur  of  design. 
The  works  of  Michel  Angiolo  have  always  a 
strong  and  marked  character  of  their  own,  his 
thoughts  are  elevated,  and  his  figures  are  con- 
ceived with  dignity ;  and,  if  he  wants  the  purity 
and  correctness  of  the  antique  (which  he  cer- 
tainly does,  in  an  eminent  degree),  his  faults 
never  degrade  him  into  feebleness ;  when  he  is 

*  '  The  Laocoon  is  finished  with  the  chisel,  show- 
ing an  incredible  command  of  execution  ;  but  in 
Rome  I  once  heard  a  very  eminent  sculptor  say  that 
he  believed  the  statue  had  been  previously  finished 
with  the  rasp  and  file,  and  that  the  marks  of  the 
chisel  were  made  afterwards,  to  give  the  appearance 
of  facility  to  the  execution,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
roughness  to  the  surface,  which  was  more  favorable 
to  the  general  effect  of  the  figure  than  if  it  had  been 
left  quite  smooth.  If  the  statue  had  been  brought 
down  to  this  surface  at  once,  he  said,  the  dexterity  of 
the  artist  was  more  wonderful  than  any  thing  he 
knew  of  in  sculpture.' 


not  sublime  he  is  not  insipid ;  the  sentiment  of 
aggrandising  his  subject  ever  prevails,  and,  how- 
ever he  may  fail  in  the  execution,  his  works  are 
still  entitled  to  the  first  rank  among  modern 
productions  in  sculpture.  Barry  has  truly  ob- 
served, when  speaking  of  his  statue  of  Moses, 
that,  although  that  figure  may  be  considered  as 
rather  extravagant,  yet  it  contains  such  proofs  of 
knowledge  and  capacity  as  will  ever  make  his 
name  sacred  among  artists ;  and  this  criticism 
may  be  extended  with  equal  propriety  to  his 
other  works,  whatever  may  be  their  faults. 
Michel  Angiolo  was  of  the  middle  stature,  bony 
in  his  make,  and  rather  spare,  although  broad 
over  the  shoulders.  He  had  a  good  complexion ; 
his  forehead  was  square,  and  somewhat  project- 
ing ;  his  eyes  rather  small,  of  a  hazel  color,  and 
on  his  brows  but  little  hair :  his  nose  was  flat, 
being  disfigured  by  a  blow  he  received  from  Tor- 
rigiano,  a  contemporary  student  with  Michel 
Angiolo,  and  a  sculptor  of  great  merit,  but  a 
proud,  inconsiderate,  and  ungovernable  character. 

Bevenuto  Cellini,  in  his  own  life,  has  recorded 
this  affair  with  Michel  Angiolo,  as  it  was  related 
to  him  by  Torrigiano  himself: — '  His  conversa- 
tion one  day  happened  to  turn  upon  Michel 
Angiolo  Buonarroti,  on  seeing  a  drawing  of  mine 
made  from  the  celebrated  cartoon  of  the  Battle  of 
Pisa.  '  This  Buonarroti  and  I,'  said  Torrigiano, 
'  when  we  were  young  men,  went  to  study  in  the 
church  of  the  Carmelites,  in  the  chapel  of  Ma- 
saccio  ;  and  it  was  customary  with  Buonarroti  to 
rally  those  who  were  learning  to  draw  there. 
One  day,  amongst  others,  a  sarcasm  of  his  having 
stung  me  to  the  quick,  I  was  extremely  irritated, 
and,  clutching  my  fist,  gave  him  such  a  violent 
blow  upon  his  nose,  that  I  felt  the  cartilage  yield 
as  if  it  had  been  made  of  paste,  and  the  mark  I 
then  gave  him  he  will  carry  to  his  grave.'  B. 
Cellini's  account  of  Torrigiano  is,  '  That  he  was 
a  handsome  man,  but  of  consummate  assurance, 
having  rather  the  air  of  a  bravo  than  a  sculptor  : 
above  all,  his  strange  gesture?  and  his  sonorous 
voice,  with  a  manner  of  knitting  his  brows 
enough  to  frighten  any  man  who  saw  him,  gave 
him  a  most  tremendous  appearance,  and  he  was 
continually  talking  of  his  great  feats  amongst  those 
bears  of  Englishmen  whose  country  he  had  but 
recently  left.'  We  are  indebted  to  Torrigiano 
for  the  monument  of  Henry  VII.  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  finished,  according  to  Stow,  in  1519, 
arid  for  which  the  sculptor  received  £1000.  His 
ungovernable  and  restless  habits  often  precipitated 
him  into  great  difficulties,  and  the  circumstances 
of  his  death  furnish  a  melancholy  instance  of 
the  vicissitudes  of  life,  and  the  baneful  effects  of 
inquisitorial  jurisprudence. 

'  Upon  leaving  England  he  visited  Spain,  and, 
after  distinguishing  himself  by  many  excellent 
works,  was  employed  by  the  duke  D'Arcus  to 
execute  in  marble  a  Madonna  and  infant  Christ, 
of  the  size  of  nature,  with  high  promises  to  be 
rewarded  in  proportion  to  his  merit.  As  the 
duke  was  a  grandee  of  the  first  rank,  Torrigiano 
flattered  himself  with  a  proportional  expectation. 
After  mucl-  study  and  application  he  completed 
his  work  to  "uis  own  satisfaction  ;  e'.:d  i-is  per- 
formance 'vas  seen  with  delight  and  reverence. 
Impatiei'*  'o  possess  this  treasure,  the  4uke  im 


696 


SCULPTURE. 


mediately  sent  for  it;  and,  that  his  generosity 
might  be  displayed  to  the  greatest  advantage,  he 
loaded  two  lacqueys  with  the  money  to  defray 
the  purchase.  The  bulk  was  promising ;  but 
when  the  bags  were  found  to  contain  nothing 
but  brass  maravedi,  which  amounted  only  to  the 
small  sum  of  thirty  ducats,  vexation  and  disap- 
pointment roused  Torrigiano's  resentment ;  who, 
considering  this  present  rather  as  an  insult  than 
as  a  reward  for  his  merit,  on  a  sudden  snatched 
up  his  mallet,  and  without  regard  to  the  perfec- 
tion of  his  workmanship,  or  the  sacred  character 
of  the  image,  he  broke  it  into  pieces,  and  dis- 
missed the  lacqueys  with  their  load  of  farthings 
to  tell  the  tale.  The  grandee,  with  every  passion 
alive  to  this  merited  disgrace,  and  perhaps  im- 
pressed with  horror  for  the  sacrilegious  nature  of 
the  act,  presented  him  before  the  court  of  inqui- 
sition, and  impeached  him  for  his  conduct  as  an 
infidel  and  a  heretic.  Torrigiano  urged  the  right 
of  an  author  over  his  own  creation :  Reason 
pleaded  on  his  side,  b'lt  Superstition  sat  in 
judgment,  and  he  was  condemned  to  lose  his 
life  with  torture ;  but  the  holy  office  lost  its  vic- 
tim— Torrigiano  starved  himself  to  death  in  pri- 
son (1522),  to  avoid  its  torments  and  the  horror 
of  the  execution  !  He  was  about  fifty  years  of 
age.' — Vasari,  torn.  iii.  p.  76. 

Canova  and  Thorwaldsen,  together  with  our 
own  Chantrey,  occupy  the  topmost  rank  among 
sculptors  of  the  present  day,  or  rather  did  so  un- 
til death  snatched  away  the  former  of  these  emi- 
nent artists.     Still  we  are  inclined  to  think  that 
the  performances  of  Canova  have  been  somewhat 
over-rated.     Many  of  them  have  a  studied  and 
theatrical  air  quite  inconsistent  with  good  taste 
as  well  as  with  the  higher  productions  of  Grecian 
art,  which  this  sculptor  always  affected  to  copy. 
Mr.  Mathews,  in  his  Diary  of  an  Invalid,  speak- 
ing of  Canova's  Venus,  one  of  his  most  vaunted 
figures,  says  :  '  The  boudoir  of  the  Pitti  Palace, 
in  the  centre  of  which  stands  Canova's  Venus, 
brilliantly  illuminated,  and  lined  with  mirrors, 
reflected  (he  beauties  of  her  figure  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  exhibited  the  statue  to  the  highest  ad- 
vantage.    This  is  the  statue  which  occupied  the 
pedestal   of  the   Medicean   Venus   during   her 
flight  to  Paris,  but  I  can  find  nothing  divine 
about  Canova's  Venus.     She  is  not  worthy  to 
officiate  as  chambermaid  to  the  goddess  of  the 
Tribune.     It  is  simply  the  representation  of  a 
modest  woman,  who  seems  to  shrink  from  expo- 
sure  in   such  a  dishabille ;  while   her  Grecian 
prototype,  in  native  innocence  and  simplicity, 
scarcely  conscious  of  nakedness,  seems  to  belong 
to  an  order  of  beings  to  whom  the  sentiment  of 
shame  was  as  yet  unknown.    The  attitude  of 
Canova's  is  constrained,  and  perhaps  even  awk- 
ward.   This  may  arise  from  the  manner  in  which 
she  compresses  that  scanty  drapery  which  the 
sculptor  has  given  her,  intending,  I  suppose,  to 
'  double   every  charm  it  seeks  to  hide.'     The 
symmetry,  too,  is  by  no  means  perfect.     The 
head  is  manifestly  too  large.     It  is  perhaps  un- 
fair to  attribute  to  the  sculptor  the  faults  of  the 
marble  ;  but  it  is  impossible  not  to  remark  that, 
<:ven  if  the  work  had  been  more  perfect  than  it 
is,  the  unfortunate  flaws,  just  in  those  places 
where  they  are  most  mal  a-propos,   must   v.till 


have  detracted  much  from  its  beauty.  Many  of 
the  copies  of  this  statue  seem  to  me  quite  equal, 
if  not  superior,  to  the  original ;  an  infallible 
proof,  if  the  remark  be  correct,  of  its  mediocrity 
of  merit.'  The  same  intelligent  traveller  thus 
speaks  of  the  talents  of  Thorwaldsen,  a  Danish 
sculptor  practising  at  Rome : — '  There  is  a  fresh- 
ness and  originality  in  his  designs,  guided  by  the 
purest  taste.  What  can  be  more  elegant  and 
beautiful  than  his  basso-rilievo  of  Night?  His 
Venus  victrix  approaches  nearer  than  any  mo- 
dern statue  to  the  Venus  di  Medicis.  There  is 
a  shepherd,  too,  which  is  a  delightful  specimen 
of  simplicity  and  nature ;  and  the  charm  of  these 
statues  is,  that  wh-le  they  emulate  they  have  not 
borrowed  any  thing  from  the  works  of  the  an- 
cients.' 

On  the  works  of  our  own  Chantrey  we  are 
disposed  to  enlarge  with  all  the  spirit  of  nation- 
ality ;  but  a  recollection  of  our  confined  limits, 
together  with  that  sense  of  delicacy  which  re- 
strains us  from  discussing  minutely  the  merits  of 
a  living  artist,  withhold  us.  Mr.  Chantrey 's  prin- 
cipal productions  are  busts;  but  the  work  which 
first  fixed  his  high  reputation,  and  is  still  re- 
garded by  many  as  his  chef-d'oeuvre,  is  a  group 
of  sleeping  infants,  to  be  seen  in  the  cathedral  at 
Litchfield. 

Of  tlte  different  modern  modes  of  process. — 
Works  of  sculpture  are  performed  either  by 
hollowing  or  excavating,  as  in  metals,  agates,  and 
other  precious  stones,  and  in  marbles  of  every 
description  ;  or  by  working  in  relief,  as  in  bassi- 
rilievi  in  the  materials  just  mentioned,  or  in 
statues  of  metal,  clay,  wood,  wax,  marble,  or 
stone.  The  excavation  of  precious  stones  forms 
a  particular  branch  of  art  called  intaglio,  which, 
together  with  the  working  them  in  relievo,  when 
the  term  camayeu  is  applied  to  them,  belongs  to 
the  art  of  seal-engraving. 

The  excavation  of  metals  constitutes  the  art  of 
engraving,  in  its  various  branches,  on  metal  of 
any  kind  ;  and  its  relief  comprises  enchasing, 
casting  in  bronze,  &c. 

The  process  of  hollowing  hard  stone  or  marble 
will  need  no  particular  description  ;  especially 
as  it  is  now  wholly  in  disuse,  except  for  the 
forming  of  letter  in  monumental  or  other  in- 
scriptions. 

In  working  in  relievo  the  process  is  necessarily 
different,  according  to  the  materials  in  which  the 
work  is  performed.  As  not  only  the  beginning 
of  sculpture  was  in  clay,  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  statues,  but  as  models  are  still  made  in 
clay  or  wax,  for  every  work  undertaken  by  the 
sculptor;  we  shall  first  consider  the  method  of 
modelling  figures  in  clay  or  wax. 

Few  tools  are  necessary  for  modelling  in  clay. 
The  clay  being  placed  on  a  stand,  or  sculptor's 
easel,  the  artist  begins  the  work  with  his  hands, 
and  puts  the  whole  into  form  by  the  same  means. 
The  most  expert  practitioners  of  this  art  seldom 
use  any  other  tool  than  their  fingers,  except  in 
such  small  or  sharp  parts  of  their  work  as  the 
fingers  cannot  reach. 

In  modelling  in  wax,  the  artist  sometimes 
uses  his  fingers,  and  sometimes  tools  of  the  same 
sort  as  those  alluded  to  for  modelling  in  clay 
It  is  at  first  more  difficult  to  model  in  wax  than 


SCULPTURE. 


tu  clay,  but  practice  will  render  it  familiar  and 
easy. 

Of  the  use  of  the  model. — Whatever  consi- 
derable work  is  undertaken  by  the  sculptor, 
whether  basso-rilievo,  or  statue,  &c.,  it  is  always 
requisite  to  form  a  previous  model  of  the  same 
size  as  the  intended  work  ;  and  the  model  being 
perfected,  according  to  the  method  before  de- 
scribed, whether  it  is  in  clay,  or  in  wax,  or  a 
cast  in  plaster  of  Paris,  becomes  the  rule  whereby 
the  artist  guides  himself  in  the  conduct  of  his 
work,  and  the  standard  from  which  he  takes  all 
its  measurements. 

Of  sculpture  in  wood. — A  sculptor  in  wood 
should  first  take  care  to  choose  wood  of  the  best 
quality,  and  the  most  proper  for  the  work  which 
he  intends  to  execute.  If  he  undertakes  a  large 
work,  requiring  strength  and  solidity,  he  ought 
to  choose  the  hardest  wood,  and  that  which 
keeps  best,  as  oak  and  chestnut;  but,  for  works 
of  moderate  size,  pear  or  apple  trees  serve  very 
well.  As  even  these  latter  woods  are  still  of 
considerable  hardness,  if  the  work  consists  only 
of  delicate  ornaments,  the  artist  will  find  it  pre- 
ferable to  take  some  more  tender  wood,  provided 
it  is  at  the  same  time  firm  and  close;  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  Indian  tree,  which  is  excellent  for  this 
purpose,  as  the  chisel  cuts  it  more  neatly  and 
easily  than  any  other  wood. 

The  ancients  made  statues  out  of  almost  every 
different  kind  of  wood.  At  Sicyon  was  a  statue  of 
Apollo  made  of  box  ;  the  statue  of  Diana  at  Ephe- 
sus  was  of  cedar.  As  these  two  sorts  of  wood 
are  extremely  hard  and  undecaying;  and  as  ce- 
dar, in  particular,  is  of  such  a  nature  as,  accord- 
ing to  Pliny,  to  be  nearly  indestructible,  the  an- 
cients preferred  them  for  the  images  of  their 
divinities.  In  the  temple  built  on  Mount  Cyllene 
in  honor  of  Mercury,  Pausanias  relates,  that 
there  was  a  statue  of  that  god  made  of  citron- 
wood,  eight  feet  in  height.  This  wood  was  also 
much  esteemed.  The  cypress  likewise,  being  a 
•wood  not  apt  to  spoil,  nor  to  be  damaged  by 
worms,  was  also  used  for  statues ;  as  were  the 
palm-tree,  olive,  and  ebony,  of  which  latter,  ac- 
cording to  Pliny's  account,  there  was  another 
statue  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  Several  other  kinds 
of  wood  were  equally  employed  for  this  purpose, 
even  the  vine,  of  which  the  same  author  says 
there  were  statues  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Diana. 

Felibien  speaks  of  a  French  artist  at  Florence, 
of  the  name  of  Janni,  who  executed  several  sta- 
tues in  wood,  in  a  style  of  finishing  equal  to 
marble,  and  particularly  one  of  St.  Roque, 
which  Vasari  considered  as  a  marvellous  pro- 
duction. The  beauty  of  sculpture  in  wood  con- 
sists in  the  tender  manner  of  cutting  the  wood, 
free  from  all  appearance  of  hardness  or  dryness. 

Of  sculpture  in  stone  and  marble. — For 
sculpture  in  marble,  and  other  stone,  the  artist 
must  make  use  of  tools  made  of  good  steel,  well 
tempered,  and  of  strength  proportioned  to  the 
hardness  of  the  material. 

We  have  in  a  preceding  section  adverted  to 
the  ordinary  practice.  By  the  dexterous  and  de- 
licate use  of  the  chisel,  the  sculptor  gives  all  the 
softness  and  tenderness  to  the  figure,  till  at  length 
the  rasp  prepares  it  for  being  polished.  Rasps 
are  of  several  kinds,  some  straight,  some  curved, 


and  some  harder  or  softer  than  others.  When 
the  sculptor  has  thus  far  finished  his  work  with 
the  best  tools  he  can  procure,  wherever  certain 
parts  or  particular  works  require  polishing,  he 
uses  pumice-stone  to  make  all  the  parts  smooth 
and  even.  He  then  goes  over  them  with  tripoli, 
and,  when  he  would  give  a  still  higher  gloss,  he 
rubs  them  with  leather  and  straw  ashes. 

Besides  the  tools  already  mentioned,  sculptors 
use  also  the  pick,  which  is  a  small  hammer 
pointed  at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  formed  with 
teeth  made  of  good  steel  and  squared,  to  render 
them  the  stronger.  This  serves  to  break  the 
marble,  and  is  used  in  all  places  where  the  two 
hands  cannot  be  employed  to  manage  the  mallet 
and  chisel.  The  bouchard,  which  is  a  piece  of 
iron,  well  steeled  at  the  bottom,  and  formed  into 
several  strong  and  short  points  like  a  diamond, 
is  used  for  making  a  hole  of  equal  dimensions, 
which  cannot  be  done  with  cutting  tools.  The 
bouchard  is  driven  with  the  mallet  or  beetle,  and 
its  points  bruise  the  marble  and  reduce  it  to 
powder.  Water  is  thrown  into  the  hole  from 
time  to  time,  in  proportion  to  the  depth  that  is 
made,  to  bring  out  the  dust  of  the  marble,  and  to 
prevent  the  tool  from  heating,  which  would  de- 
stroy its  temper  ;  for  the  freestone  dust  on  which 
tools  are  edged  is  only  moistened  with  water  to 
prevent  the  iron  from  heating  and  taking  off  the 
temper  of  the  tool  by  being  rubbed  dry;  and  the 
trepans  are  wetted  for  the  same  reason.  The  sculp- 
tor uses  the  bouchard  to- bore  or  pierce  such  parts 
of  his  work  as  the  chisel  cannot  reach  without 
danger  of  spoiling  or  breaking  them.  In  using  it 
he  passes  it  through  a  piece  of  leather,  which 
leather  covers  the  hole  made  by  the  bouchard, 
and  prevents  the  water  from  spirting  up  in  his 
face. 

The  tools  necessary  for  sculpture,  on  marble  or 
stone,  are  the  roundel,  which  is  a  sort  of  rounded 
chisel ;  the  houguet,  which  is  a  chisel  squared 
and  pointed  ;  and  various  compasses  to  take  the 
requisite  measures. 

The  process  of  sculpture  in  stone  is  the  same 
as  in  marble,  excepting  that,  the  material  being 
less  hard  than  marble,  the  tools  used  are  not  so 
strong,  and  some  of  them  are  of  a  different  form, 
as  the  rasp,  the  handsaw,  the  ripe,  the  straight 
chisel  with  three  teeth,  the  roundel,  and  the  gra- 
ter. If  the  work  is  executed  in  freestone,  tools 
are  employed  which  are  made  on  purpose,  as 
the  freestone  is  apt  to  scale,  and  does  not  work 
like  hard  stone  or  marble.  -Sculptors  in  stone 
have  commonly  a  bowl  in  which  they  keep  a 
powder  composed  of  plaster  of  Paris,  mixed  with 
the  same  stone  in  which  their  work  is  executed. 
With  this  composition  they  fill  up  the  small 
holes,  and  repair  the  defects  which  they  meet 
with  in  the  stone  itself. 

In  the  work  of  Junius,  De  Pictura  Veterum 
(lib.  2,  chap.  3),  and  in  the  Bibliotheque  Grecque 
of  Fabricius  (lib.  3,  chap.  24,  sect,  x.),  a  cata- 
logue is  to  be  found  of  ancient  authors  who 
have  treated  of  the  art  of  sculpture.  Among 
modern  works  on  the  theory  and  practice  of  this 
art,  we  may  cite  the  following  : — Pomponii  Gau- 
rici,  De  Sculptura  sive  Statuaria  Veterum  Dia- 
logus,  Florent.  1504,  4to.,  and  in  the  ninth  vo- 
lume of  the  Thesaurus  of  Gronovius.  L.  B.  de 


698 


SCULPTURE. 


Albertis,  De  Sculptum,  Basil,  1540,  8vo.,  De 
Ccelatura  et  Sculptura  Veterum,  by  Aid.  Ma- 
nuce,  also  to  be  found  in  the  ninth  volume  of 
the  Thesaurus  of  Gronovius.  The  third  and 
fourth  books  of  the  work  entitled  Callus  Romae 
Hospes,  by  Ludovicus  Demontiosius,  Rome, 
1585.  These  have  been  reprinted  in  theDacty- 
liotheque  of  Gorlxus,  likewise  in  the  ninth  vo- 
lume of  the  Thesaurus  of  Gronovius.  Jul.  C. 
Bulengeres,  De  Pictura,  Plastice,  et  Statuaria, 
in  his  Opuscules,  Leyden,  1621, 8vo.,  and  in  the 
ninth  volume  of  Gronovius.  P.  P.  Rubenius, 
De  Imitatione  Statuarum  Gracarum,  in  the 
Cours  de  Peinture,  by  Depiles,  Paris,  1760, 
12mo.  The  first  chapter  of  the  first  book,  and 
the  fifth  and  sixth  chapters  of  the  second  book 
of  the  Archaeologia  Litteraria  de  Ernesti,  treat 
de  Marmoribus,  de  Toreutice,  et  de  Plastice. 
Commentationes  duae  super  Veterum  Eborae, 
Eburneiscrue  Signis,  by  M.  Heyne,  in  the  first 
volume  of  the  new  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Society 
ofGottingen;  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  volumes  of 
which  same  Memoirs  we  find  Monumentorum 
Etruscorum  Artis  ad  Genera  sua  et  Tempera  re- 
vocatorum  Illustratio,  by  the  same. 

Among  Italian  works  : — II  Disegno  del  S.  Ant. 
Franc.  Doni,  ove  si  Tratta  della  Scultura  e  Pit- 
tura  de'  Colori,  de'  Getti,  de'  Modegli,  con  molte 
Cose  appartinenti,  Venice,  1549,  8vo.  Several 
chapters  of  the  Introduction  to  Vite  de  piu  ex- 
cellenti  Architetti,  Pittori  e  Scultori  Italiani,  by 
Vasari,  treat  of  Sculpture.  Due  Trattati,  uno 
dalle  otte  principale  Parti  d'Oreficeria,  1'altero 
in  materie  dell'  Arte  della  Scultura,  dove  si  ve- 
dono  infiniti  Segreti  per  lavorare  le  Figure  di 
Marmo,  e  del  gettarle  di  Bronzo,  da  Benvenuto 
Cellini,  Firenze,  1568,  4to.  In  the  Lezione  di 
M.  Benedetto  Varchi,  Sopra  diverse  Materie 
Poetiche  e  filosofiche,  Firenze,  1549,  we  find  a 
letter  of  Cellini  on  the  advantage  which  sculpture 
has  over  painting  ;  and  another  little  treatise  of 
this  nature  is  added,  by  the  same  author,  to  the 
Essequie  di  Michel  Angiolo  Buonarroti,  Firenze, 
1564,  4to.  Discorsi  sopra  le  Antichita  Romana, 
di  Vincentio  Scamozzi,  Venice,  1582,  with  forty 
folio  engravings,  contain  several  articles  on 
sculpture,  and  on  the  marbles  to  be  preferred  for 
statues.  II  Ri]K»so  di  Raffaele  Borghini,  in  cui 
si  favella  della  Pittura  e  della  Scultura  e  de'  piu 
illustri  Pittori  et  Scultori,  antichi  emoderni,  Fi- 
renze, 1584,  4to.,  and  1730,  4to.  Discorso  in- 
torno  alia  Scultura  e  Pittura,  di  Alessandro  Lami, 
Cremona,  1584, 4to.  L'Idea  de'  Pittori,  Scultori, 
e  Architetti,  del  Cav.  Fed.  Zuccaro,  Torino,  1607, 
4to.  Avvertimenti  e  Regole  sopra  1'Architettura, 
civile  e  milit.,  la  Pittura  Scultura,  e  Prospettiva,' 
da  Pietro  Ant.  Barca,  Milan,  1620,  fol.  Le 
Pompe  della  Scultura,  da  Giamb.  Moroni,  Fer- 
rara,  1640, 12mo.  Trattato  della  Pittura  e  Scul- 
lura,  uso  ed  abuso  loro,  composto  daun  Teologo 
(Father  Ottonelli),  e  da  un  Pittore  (Pietro  da 
Cortona),  Firenze,  1652,  4to.  Discorso  delle 
Statue,  da  Giovanni  Andrea  Borboni,  Rome, 
1661,  4to.  Lettera,  nella  quale  si  risponde  ad 
alcuni  Quesiti  di  Pittura,  Scultura,  &c.,  addressed 
to  the  marquis  V.  Capponi,  by  Filippo  Baldi- 
nucci,  Rome,  1681.  Sfogamenti  d'lngegno  so- 
pra la  Pittura  e  la  Scultura,  dal  P.  F.  Minozzi, 
Venice,  1739,  12mo.  Raccolta  di  Lettere  sulla 


Pittura,  Scultura,  ed  Architettura,  scrette  da  piu 
celebri  Personnaggi  che  in  dette  Arti  fionrono  dal 
sec.  xv.  all.  xvii.  Rome,  1754,  4to,  7  vols.  Dia- 
loghi  sopra  le  tre  Arti  del  Disegno,  by  Giovanni 
Bottari,  Lucca,  1754,  8vo. 

In  Spanish  is  the  following  : — Varia  Commen- 
suracion  para  la  Escultura  y  Architettura,  por 
Don  Juan  de  Arphez  Villafane,  Madrid,  1675, 
4to. 

In  the  French  tongue  we  find  : — Conferences 
de  1'Acadt'mie  Royale  de  Peinture  et  Sculpture 
pendant  1'annee,  1667,  by  Felibien,  Paris,  1668, 
4to.  Des  Principes  de  1'Architecture,  de  la 
Sculpture,  de  la  Peinture,  et  des  Arts  qui  en  de- 
pendent, by  Felibien,  Paris,  1697,  4to.  Senti- 
mens  des  plus  habiles  Peintres,  sur  la  Pratique 
de  la  Peinture  et  de  la  Sculpture,  mis  en  table 
de  Preceptes,  avec  plusieurs  Discours  acade- 
miques,  by  Henri  Testelin,  Paris,  1680,  folio. 
Traite  des  Statues,  by  F.  Leme"e,  Paris,  1688, 
8vo.  Manuscrit  pour  connoitre  les  Medailles 
et  les  Statues  anciennes,  by  Nicolas  de  Porcio- 
naro,  and  four  of  the  most  famous  and  learned 
antiquaries  of  Italy,  Naples,  1713,  4to.  De  la 
Sculpture,  du  Talent  qu'elle  demande,  et  de 
TArtdes  Bas-reliefs,  by  Dubos,  to  be  found  in  the 
fiftieth  chapter  of  the  first  part  of  his  Reflexions 
critiques  sur  la  Poesie  et  sur  la  Peinture; — Dis- 
cours sur  le  Beau  Ide"al  des  Peintres,  Sculpteurs, 
et  Poetes,  by  L.  H.  Ten-Rate,  included  in  a 
translation  of  Richardson's  Works,  Amst.  1728, 
8vo.  Lettre  sur  la  Peinture,  Sculpture,  et  Ar- 
chitecture, Amst.,  1749,  8vo.  Essai  sur  la  Pein- 
ture, Sculpture,  et  Architecture,  by  L.  P.  de  Ba- 
chaumont,  Paris,  1731,  I2mo.  In  the  twenty- 
ninth  volume  of  Memoires  de  1'Academie  des 
Inscriptions  is  a  Memoir  of  the  Comte  de  Cay- 
lus,  sur  un  Moyen  d'incorporer  la  Couleur  dans 
le  Marbre,  et  de  fixer  le  Trait.  Reflexions  sur 
la  Sculpture,  by  E.  Falconet,  Paris,  1761,  12mo. 
Nouveaux  Sujets  de  Peinture  et  de  Sculpture, 
Paris,  1 755, 12mo.  Essai  sur  la  Sculpture,  to  be 
found  with  the  Traite-  de  Peinture  of  Dandr6 
Bardon,  Paris,  1765,  2  vols.  12mo.  Ilistoire 
Universelle  traite"e  relativement  aux  Arts  de 
Peindre  et  de  Sculpter,  Paris,  1769, 2  vols.  12mo. 
Ichnographie,  ou  Discours  sur  les  quatre  Arts 
d'Architecture,  Peinture,  Sculpture,  et  Gravure, 
avec  des  Notes  historiques,  cosmographiques, 
chronologiques,ge'ne'alogiques,  et  Monogram mes, 
Chiffres,  Lettres  initiates,  Logogriphes,  &c.,  by 
M.  Herbert,  Paris,  1767,  5  vols.  12mo.  De 
1'Usage  des  Statues  chez  les  Anciens,  Essai  his- 
torique,  Brussels,  17.68,  4to,  with  prints.  (The 
Comte  de  Guasco  is  the  author  of  this  work). 
Lettre  sur  la  Sculpture  a  M.  Theodore  deSmeth, 
by  M.  Hemsterhuis  the  younger,  Amst.  1768, 
4to.,  with  engravings.  Observations  historiques 
et  critiques  sur  les  Erreurs  des  Peintres,  Sculp- 
teurs, &c.,  dans  la  Representation  des  Sujets  tires 
de  1'Histoire-sainte,  avec  des  Eclaircissemens 
pour  les  rendre  plus  exactes,  Paris,  1771,  12mo. 
In  the  Cou.rs  d'Architecture  de  F.  Blondel  (Pa- 
ris, 1771),  we  find  a  Me"  moire  sur  1'Origine  de 
la  Sculpture. 

The  following  also  maybe  cited  as  conveying 
information  with  respect  to  the  execution  of  va- 
rious works  of  sculpture  : — Discours  sur  la  Sta- 
tue Equestre  de  Frederic  Guillaume  erige'e  sin 


SCULPTURE. 


699 


e  Pout-Neuf  a  Berlin,  by  C.  Ancillon,  Berlin, 
1703,  fol.  Description  de  ce  qui  a  etc  pratique 
pour  fondre  d'un  seul  jet  la  Statue  Equestre  de 
Louis  XIV.  en  1699,  by  G.  Boffrand,  Paris,  1743, 
fol.  Description  des  Travaux  qui  ont  precede, 
accompagne,  et  suivi  la  Fonte  en  bronze,  d'un 
seul  jet,  de  la  Statue  Equestre  de  Louis  XV"., 
Paris,  1768,  fol.  Description  de  la  Statue 
Equestre  que  la  Compagnie  des  Indes  Orienta- 
les  a  Copenhague,  a  consacree  a  la  Gloire  de 
Frederic  V.,  avec  les  explications  des  motifs  qui 
ont  determine  le  choix  des  diffcrentes  parties 
qu'on  a  suivi  dans  la  composition  de  ce  monu- 
ment, by  J.  F.  J.  Sailly,  Copenhagen,  1771,  fol. 

In  German : — Joachim  de  Sandrart,  Admiranda 
Artis  Statuariae,  Normandy,  1680,  fol.  Sum- 
mary of  the  History  and  Principles  of  the  Fine 
Arts  and  Sciences,  the  first  division  of  which 
relates  to  the  history  and  principles  of  sculpture, 
Berlin,  1772,  8vo.  by  A.  F.  Busching.  Sketch  of 
a  History  of  the  Arts  of  Design,  Hamburgh, 
1781,  8vo.  by  the  same.  Philosophy  of  Sculp- 
tors, by  E.  L.  Huch,  Brandenburgh,  1775,  8vo. 
The  fifth  and  sixth  chapters  of  the  Treatise  on 
Literature  and  the  Works  of  Art  of  Antiquity,  by 
J.  F.  Christ,  Leipsic,  1776,  8vo.  Treatise  on 
the  Plastic  Art,  including  sundry  Observations  on 
Form  and  Figure,  Riga,  1778.  In  the  first  vo- 
lume of  an  Essay  on  an  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
by  C.  F.  Prangen,  we  find  a  treatise  on  the  Me- 
chanism of  Sculpture.  Essay  on  a  History  of 
Sculpture  among  the  Ancients,  by  Hofstaeter, 
Vienna,  1778,  8vo. :  in  addition  to  which  the 
different  works  of  Winkelman  may  be  con- 
sulted. 

In  our  own  language  the  works  more  particu- 
larly useful  for  reference  are : — A  Letter  on 
Poetry,  Painting,  and  Sculpture,  by  H.  King, 
London,  1768,  8vo.  Collection  of  Greek,  Etrus- 
can, and  Roman  Antiquities,  from  the  Hamilton 
Cabinet,  Naples,  1766,  folio,  which  work  con- 
tains a  paper  on  Expression  in  Painting  and 
Sculpture,  as  well  as  an  Historical  Summary  on 
the  State  of  Sculpture  among  the  Greeks. 

The  following  books  treat  of  certain  monu- 
ments of  antique  sculpture  in  particular: — Cal- 
listrati,  '  Ec0pa(mc,  sive  Descriptio  Statuarium, 
found  among  the  works  of  Philostrates.  The 
Description  of  Greece,  by  Pausanias,  and  the 
33d  and  37th  books  of  Pliny's  Natural  History. 
Several  Memoires  of  the  Comte  de  Cay  1  us  on 
passages  of  Pliny  relative  to  objects  of  art,  are 
inserted  in  the  19th,  25th,  and  32d  vols.  of  Me"- 
moires  de  1'Academie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles 
Lettres.  Edmundi  Figrellii,  De  Statuis  il- 
lustrium  Romanorum,  liber  singularis,  Holmiae, 
1656,  8vo.  Joannes  Henrici  Schlemmii,  De 
Imaginibus  Veterum  Atriensibus  Praelim.  et 
cubicularis  Dissertatio,  Jena,  1664,  4to.  Frede- 
rici  Mulleri,  delineat  lib.  xi.  quos  molitus  est  de 
Statuis  Romanorum  et  praecipue  de  Natura 
Statuarium  quibus  prisci  Romani  bene  meritos 
honorabant,  Giessae,  1664,  4to.  Joannis  Nicolai, 
Diatribe  de  Mercuriis  et  Hermis,  Francofurti, 
1701,  12mo.  Chr.  Gottfr.  Barthii,  De  Imagi- 
nibus Veterum  in  Bibliothecis  vel  alibi  positis, 
Hallae,  1702,  4to.  Jacobi  Gronovii,  De  Imagi- 
nibus et  Statuis  principum  Dissertatio,  Ludg. 
Ba1.,  1 706,  4to.  J.  Munchii,  De  Statuis  Veterum 


Romanorum  Dissertatio,  Hafniae,  1714,  4to.  F. 
G.  Freytagii,  De  Statuis  TmXtffpvaic  Veterum 
Dissertatio,  Lip.,  1715,  4to.  Oratorum  et  Rhe- 
torum  Grxcorum,  quibus  Statuae  honoris  causa 
positae  fuerunt,  decas,  Lips.,  1752,  8vo.,  by  the 
same.  G.  G.  Boarneri,  De  Statuis  Achilleis 
Dissertatio,  Lips.,  1759,  4to. 

With  respect  to  sculpture,  as  practised  by  the 
moderns,  the  reader  is  referred  to : — Cabinet  des 
Singularites  d'Architecture,  Peinture,  Sculpture, 
et  Gravure,  by  F.  Le  Comte,  Paris,  1 699,  3  vols. 
12mo.  Catalogue  historique  du  Cabinet  de 
Sculpture  Franyaise  de  M.  de  la  Live  de  July, 
Paris,  1764,  12mo.  Monumens  eriges  en  France 
ai  la  Gloire  de  Louis  XIV.  precedes  d'un  Ta- 
bleau du  Progres  des  Arts  et  des  Sciences  sur 
ce  Regne,  ainsi  que  d'une  Description  des  Hon- 
neurs  et  des  Monumens  accordes  aux  grands 
Hommes,  tant  chez  les  Anciens  que  chez  les 
Modernes,  et  suivis  d'un  Choix  des  principaux 
Projets  qui  ont  ete  proposes  pour  placer  la  Statue 
du  Roi,  by  M.  Patte,  Paris,  1765,  fol.,  with  fifty- 
seven  plates.  Antiquites  Nationales,  ou  Recueil 
de  Monumens  pour  serviral'Histoire  del'Empire 
Francais,  tels  que  Tombeaux,  Inscriptions,  Sta- 
tues, Vitraux,  Frescoes,  &c.,  tires  des  Abbayes, 
Monasteres,  et  Chateaux,  by  A.  L.  Millin,  Paris, 
1791,  5  vols.  4to.  and  fol.,  with  plates. 

A  catalogue  of  ancient  sculptors  is  to  be  found 
in  the  second  edition  of  De  Pictura  Veterum, 
by  Junius,  Rot.  1694,  fol.,  whilst  the  following 
treat  of  modern  Italian  sculptors  : — Vite  de'  pitk 
insigni  Pittori  e  Scultori  Ferraresi,  by  G.  Baruf- 
faldi,  Ferrara,  1705,  4to.  Notizie  intorno  alia 
Vita  ed  alle  Opere  de'  Pittori,  Scultori  ed  intagl. 
di  Bassana,  by  G.  Verci,  Bass.  1775,  8vo.  Catal. 
Istoriche  de  Pittori  ed  Scultori  Ferraresi,  e  dell* 
loro  Opere,  Ferrara,  1783,  2  vols.  8vo. 

On  modern  Spanish  sculptors,  independently 
of  the  work  by  B^rmudez,  already  quoted  (see 
preceding  article),  we  have  : — Vidas  de  los  Pin- 
tores  y  Estatuarios  eminentes  Espagnoles,  by 
D.  A.  P.  Velasco,  London,  1742,  8vo.,  and,  in 
French,  Paris,  1749, 12mo.  This  forms  the  third 
part  of  the  same  author's  Museo  Pittorici,  Madrid, 
1725,  fol. 

On  German  sculptors  : — J.  C.  Schumann,  AI- 
cimedon,  or  Lives  of  the  most  celebrated  German 
Sculptors  and  Engravers,  Dresden,  1684,  8vo. 
History  of  the  best  Swiss  Artists,  by  J.  C.  Fussli, 
Zurich,  1780,  5  vols.  8vo.  Notices  of  sundry 
Artists  of  Frankfort,  of  the  Life  and  Works  of 
its  Painters  and  Sculptors,  by  Husgen,  Frankfort, 
1780,  8vo.  Several  papers  on  the  same  subject 
are  likewise  to  be  found  in  the  Journal  of  Arts 
of  M.  de  Murr,  and  in  that  of  Meusel. 

We  conclude  with  the  admirable  practical  re- 
marks of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  '  The  sculptor,' 
says  Sir  Joshua,  '  may  be  safely  allowed  to  prac- 
tise every  means  within  the  power  of  his  art  to 
produce  a  deception,  provided  this  practice  does 
not  interfere  with  or  destroy  higher  excellencies; 
on  these  conditions  he  will  be  forced,  however 
loath,  to  acknowledge  that  the  boundaries  of  his 
art  have  long  been  fixed,  and  that  all  endeavours 
will  be  vain  that  hope  to  pass  beyond  the  best 
works  which  remain  of  ancient  sculpture. 

'  Imitation  is  the  means,  and  not  the  end,  of 
art ;  it  is  employed  by  the  sculptor  as  the  language 


scu 


700 


SCU 


b  which  his  ideas  are  presented  to  the  mind  of 
the  spectator.  Poetry  an4  elocution  of  every  sort 
make  use  of  signs,  but  those  signs  are  arbitrary 
and  conventional.  The  sculptor  employs  the 
representation  of  the  thing  itself;  but  still  as  a 
means  to  a  higher  end — as  a  gradual  ascent 
always  advancing  towards  faultless  form  and 
perfect  beauty.  It  may  be  thought  at  the  first 
view  that  even  this  form,  however  perfectly 
represented,  is  to  be  valued  and  take  its  rank 
only  for  the  sake  of  a  still  higher  object,  that  of 
conveying  sentiment  and  character,  as  they  are 
exhibited  by  attitude,  and  expression  of  the 
passions.  But  we  are  sure,  from  experience, 
that  the  beauty  of  form  alone,  without  the  as- 
sistance of  any  other  quality,  makes  of  itself  a 
great  work,  and  justly  claims  our  esteem  and 
admiration.  As  a  proof  of  the  high  value  we 
set  on  the  mere  excellence  of  form,  we  may  pro- 
duce the  greatest  part  of  the  works  of  Michel 
Angiolo,  both  in  painting  and  sculpture;  as  well 
as  most  of  the  antique  statues,  which  are  justly 
esteemed  in  a  very  high  degree,  though  no  very 
marked  or  striking  character  or  expression  of  any 
kind  is  represented.  But,  as  a  stronger  instance 
that  this  excellence  alone  inspires  sentiment, 
what  artist  ever  looked  at  the  Torso  without 
feeling  a  warmth  of  enthusiasm,  as  from  the 
highest  efforts  of  poetry?  Whence  does  this 
proceed  ?  What  is  there  in  this  fragment  that 
produces  this  effect,  but  the  perfection  of  this 


science  of  abstract  form  ?  A  mind  elevated 
to  the  contemplation  of  excellence  perceives  in 
this  defaced  and  shattered  fragment,  disjecta 
membra  poette,  the  traces  of  superlative  genius, 
the  relics  of  a  work  on  which  succeeding  ages 
can  only  gaze  with  inadequate  admiration. 

'  It  may  be  said  that  this  pleasure  is  reserved 
only  to  those  who  have  spent  their  whole  life  in 
the  study  and  contemplation  of  this  art ;  but  the 
truth  is  that  all  would  feel  its  effects,  if  they 
could  divest  themselves  of  the  expectation  of  de- 
ception, and  look  only  for  what  it  really  is,  a 
partial  representation  of  nature.  The  only  im- 
pediment of  their  judgment  must  then  proceed 
from  their  being  uncertain  to  what  rank,  or  rather 
kind  of  excellence,  it  aspires  ;  and  to  what  sort  of 
approbation  it  has  a  right.  This  state  of  darkness 
is,  without  doubt,  irksome  to  every  mind ;  but 
by  attention  to  works  of  this  kind  the  knowledge 
of  what  is  aimed  at  comes  of  itself,  without  being 
taught,  and  almost  without  being  perceived. 
The  sculptor's  art  is  limited  in  comparison  of 
others,  but  it  has  its  variety  and  intricacy  within 
its  proper  bounds.  Its  essence  is  correctness : 
and  when  to  correct  and  perfect  form  is  added 
the  ornament  of  grace,  dignity  of  character,  and 
appropriate  expression,  as  in  the  Apollo,  the 
Venus,  the  Laocoon,  the  Moses  of  Michel  Angi- 
olo, and  many  others,  this  art  may  be  said  to 
have  accomplished  its  purpose.' 


SCUM,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Fr.  escume ;  Ital.  sc/tiuma  ; 
Dan.  and  Goth.  skum.  That  which  rises  to 
the  top  of  any  liquor ;  spume ;  froth ;  refuse :  hence, 
in  contempt,  the  lowest  of  the  people :  to  clear 
off  the  scum. 

The  rest  had  several  offices  assigned  ; 
Some  to  remove  the  scum  as  it  did  rise, 
Others  to  bear  the  same  away  did  mind, 
And  others  it  did  use  according  to  his  kind. 

Faerie  Queene. 

There  flocked  unto  him  all  the  scum  of  the  Irish 
out  of  all  places,  that  ere  long  he  had  a  mighty  army. 

S)>enser. 

Some  forty  gentlemen  excepted,  had  we  the  very 
tcum  of  the  world,  such  as  their  friends  thought  it 
an  exceeding  good  gain  to  be  discharged  of. 

Raleigh's  Essays. 

The  salt  part  of  the  water  doth  partly  rise  into  a 
scum  on  the  top,  and  partly  goeth  into  a  sediment  in 
the  bottom.  Bacon. 

Gathered  like  scum,  and  settled  to  itself, 
Self-fed  and  self-consumed.  Milton. 

A  second  multitude 

Severing  each  kind,  and  tcummed  the  bullion  dross. 

Id. 

I  told  tliee  what  would  come 
Of  all  thy  vapouring,  base  scum.  Iludinras. 

The  Scythian  and  Egyptian  scum 
Had  almost  ruined  Rome.  Rasconunon. 

Away,  ye  tcum, 
That  still  rise  upmost  when  die  nation  boils. 

Dry  den. 

Hear,  ye  sullen  powers  below  ; 
Hear,  ye  taskers  of  the  dead  ! 

You  that  boiling  cauldrons  blow, 
You  that  tcum  the  molten  lead  ! 

Dryden  and  Lee's  (Edipns. 


What  corns  swim  upon  the  top  of  the  brine,  sewn 
off.  Mortimer's  Husbandry. 

The  great  and  innocent  are  insulted  by  the  scum 
and  refuse  of  the  people.  Additon't  Freeholder. 

SCUPPER  HOLES,  n.  s.  Belg.  schoepen,  to 
draw  off.  In  a  ship,  small  holes  on  the  deck, 
through  which  water  is  carried  into  the  sea. 
The  leathers  over  those  holes  are  called  scupper 
leathers  ;  and  the  nails  with  which  they  are  fas- 
tened, scupper  nails. 

The  blood  at  scupper  holes  run  out.  Ward. 

SCUPPERS,  in  a  ship,  are  certain  channels  cut 
through  the  water-ways  and  sides  of  a  ship,  at 
proper  distances,  and  liu'ed  with  plated  lead,  to 
carry  the  water  off  from  the  deck  into  the  sea. 
The  scuppers  of  the  lower  deck  of  a  ship  of  war 
are  usually  furnished  with  a  leathern  pipe,  called 
the  scupper  hose,  which  hangs  downward  from 
the  mouth  or  opening  of  the  scupper.  The  in- 
tent of  this  is  to  prevent  the  water  from  enter- 
ing when  the  ship  inclines  under  a  weight  of 
sail. 

SCURF,  n.  s.  Sav.  rcunp ;  Goth  and  Swed. 
skorfi  Dan.  skurff;  Belg.  schorft.  A  kind  of 
dry  miliary  scab ;  a  soil  or  stain  adhering  to  the 
skin  or  surface. 

Her  crafty  head  was  altogether  bald, 
And,  as  in  hate  of  honourable  eld, 
Was  overgrown  with  scurf  and  filthy  scald. 

Faerie  Queene. 
There  stood  a  hill,  whose  grisly  top 

Shone  with  a  glossy  scurf.  Milton. 

Then  are  they  happy,  when  by  length  of  time 
The  scurf  is  worn  away  of  each  committed  crime, 
No  speck  is  left.  Dryden. 


scu 


Upon  throwing  in  a  stone,  the  water  boils  •  and  at 
the  same  time  are  seen  little  fleaks  of  scurf  rising  up. 

Addison. 

The  virtue  of  his  hands 
Was  lost  among  Pactolus'  sands, 
Against  whose  torrent  while  he  swims, 
The  golden  scurf  peels  off  his  limbs.        Swift. 
SCUR'RIL,  adj.        -\      Lat.  scurrilis.    Low ; 
SCURRIL'ITY,  n.  s.      (mean;   grossly  oppro- 
SCUR'RILOUS,  adj.       fbrious:  the  more  com- 
SCUR'RILOUSLY,  adv.  J  mon  adjective  is  scur- 
rilous, of  the  same  signification ;  the  adverb  and 
noun  substantive  correspond. 

Scurrilous  and  more  than  satyrical  immodesty. 

Hooker. 

With  him  Patroclus, 
Upon  a  lazy  bed,  the  live-long-day 
Breaks  scurriL  jests. 

Shakspeare.    Troilus  and  Cretsida. 
Good  master  Holofernes,  purge  ;  so  it  shall  please 
you  to  abrogate  scurrility.  Shaktpeare. 

Let  him  approach  singing.  Forewarn  him  that 
he  use  no  scurrilous  words  in's  tunes. 

Id.    Winter's  Tale. 

Nothing  conduces  more  to  letters  than  to  examine 
the  writings  of  the  ancients,  provided  the  plagues  of 
judging  and  pronouncing  against  them  be  away  ; 
such  as  envy,  bitterness,  precipitation,  impudence, 
and  scurril  scoffing.  Ben  Jonson. 

It  is  barbarous  incivility,  scurrilously  to  sport  with 
that  which  others  count  religion.  Titiotson. 

Thou  movest  me  more  by  barely  naming  him, 
Than  all  thy  foul  unmannered  tcurril  taunts. 

Dryden. 

Banish  scurrility  and  profaneness,  and  restrain 
the  licentious  insolence  of  poets.  Id. 

Such  men  there  are,  who  have  written  scurrilously 
against  me,  without  any  provocation.  Id. 

How  often  is  a  person,  whose  intentions  are  to  do 
good  by  the  works  he  publishes,  treated  in  as  scur- 
rilous a  manner  as  if  he  were  an  enemy  to  mankind  ! 

Addison's  Freeholder. 

Their  characters  have  been  often  treated  with  the 
utmost  barbarity  and  injustice  by  tcurrilous  and  en- 
raged orators.  Su-ift. 
SCUR'VILY,  adv.  From  SCURVY.  Vilely; 
basely;  coarsely.  It  is  seldom  used  but  in  a 
ludicrous  sense. 

Look  i'  your  glass  now, 
And  see  how  tcwvily  that  countenance  shews  : 
You  would  be  loth  to  own  it. 

Ben  Jonton's  Catiline. 

This  alters  the  whole1  complexion  of  an  action, 
that  would  otherwise  look  but  very  scurcily,  and 
makes  it  perfect.  South. 

The  clergy  were  never  more  learned,  or  so  scvrvily 
treated.  Su-ift. 

SCUR'VY,  n.  s.  &  adj.  From  SCURF.  A  well- 
known  disease  of  low  countries  and  of  seamen, 
see  below.  This  word  was,  I  believe,  originally 
an  adjective,  says  Dr.  Johnson ;  and  it  signifies 
as  such  scabbed  ;  diseased  with  scurvy ;  vile ; 
bad ;  low ;  offensive. 

Whatsoever  man  be  scurry  or  scabbed. 

Lev.  xxi.  20. 

I  know  him  for  a  man  divine  and  holy  ; 
Not  scurvy,  nor  a  temporary  meddler.      Shaktpeare. 

He  spoke  scurvy  and  provoking  terms 
Against  your  honour.  Id. 

The  scurry  is  a  distemper  of  the  inhabitants  of 
cold  countries,  and  amongst  those  such  as  inhabit 
marshy,  fat,  low,  moist  soils,  near  stagnating  water, 
fresh  or  salt ;  invading  chiefly  in  the  winter  such  as 


70  SCU 

are  sedentary,  or  live  upon  salted  or  smcaked  fiesij 
and  fish,  or  quantities  of  unfermented  farinaceous 
vegetables,  and  drink  bad  water.  Arbuthnut. 

A  crane,  which  is  but  scurvy  meat,  lays  but  two 
eggs.  Cheyne. 

It  would  be  convenient  to  prevent  the  excess  of 
drink,  with  that  scurvy  custom  of  taking  tobacco. 

Swift. 

SCURVY,  in  medicine.     See  MEDICINE. 

SCURVY-GRASS,  common  officinal,  or coch- 
learia  officinahs,  grows  upon  rocks  on  the  sea- 
coast,  and  on  the  Highland  mountains,  abun- 
dantly. It  has  an  acrid  bitter,  and  acid  taste, 
and  is  highly  recommended  for  the  scurvy.  As 
it  abound-s  with  acid  salts,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
but  that  it  is  a  great  resister  of  putrefaction. 
The  best  way  of  taking  it  is  raw  in  a  sallad.  It 
is  also  diuretic,  and  useful  in  dropsies.  The 
Highlanders  esteem  it  as  a  good  stomachic. 

'SCUSES.  For  excuses.  A  mere  barbarism 
of  Shakspeare's. 

T  shifted  him  away, 
A  nd  laid  good  souses  on  your  ecstasy. 

Shakspeare.   Othello. 

SCUT,  n.  s.  Isl.  skott ;  Goth.  skot.  The  tail 
of  certain  animals  whose  tails  are  very  short. 

In  the  hare  it  is  aversely  seated,  and  in  its  dis- 
tension inclines  unto  the  coccix  or  scut. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 
He  fled  to  earth,  but  first  it  cost  him  dear ; 
He  left  his  icut  behind,  and  half  an  ear.      Suift. 

SCUTAGE,  n.  s.  [Sax.  scutagium,  scildpe- 
ning]  was  a  tax  or  contribution  raised  by  those 
that  held  lands  by  knights'  service,  towards  fur- 
nishing the  king's  army  with  one,  two,  or  three 
merks  for  every  knight's  fee.  Henry  III.,  for 
his  voyage  to  the  Holy  Land,  had  a  tenth  granted 
by  the  clergy,  and  scutage,  three  merks  of  every 
knight's  fee  by  the  laity.  This  was  also  levied 
by  Henry  II.,  Richard  I.,  and  king  John. 

SCUTARI,  a  lake  of  Albania,  Greece,  situated 
about  fifteen  miles  from  the  coast.  It  is  about 
sixteen  miles  in  length,  and  seven  in  breadth, 
containing  several  small  islands.  The  Moracca 
enters  its  northern  extremity,  and  issues  from  its 
south-eastern,  where  it  is  known  as  the  Bojane. 

SCUTARI,  or  ISKENDERJE,  a  large  fortified  town 
of  Albania,  on  the  Bojane,  at  the  south-east  ex- 
tremity of  the  lake  of  Scutari.  Its  highest  point 
is  crowned  by  a  castle.  The  town  consists  of 
four  quarters ;  and  has  several  mosques  and 
Greek  churches,  being  the  see  of  a  Greek  bishop. 
The  neighbouring  plain  is  one  of  the  richest  in 
Albania  in  vines  and  olive  plantations.  Scutari 
is  the  capital  of  a  pachalic,  one  of  the  most  con- 
siderable in  Albania.  Population  12,000.  Fifty 
miles  east  by  south  of  Cattaro,  and  448  west  of 
Constantinople. 

SCUTARI,  a  large  town  on  the  Bosphorus,  im- 
mediately opposite  to  Constantinople.  Its  site 
is  most  beautiful,  on  the  slope  of  several  hills, 
and  thickly  intermingled  with  trees.  The  strait 
appears  here  like  a  lake,  planted  round  with 
cities  :  and  the  minarets  of  Scutari  command  the 
most  brilliant  views  of  Constantinople.  It  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade  as  a  rendezvous  for  cara- 
vans from  the  interior  of  Asia.  Population 
30,000. 

SCUTCH'EON,  n.  s.     Ital.  scuccione,  from 


702 


S  C  Y  L  L  A    AND    C  H  A  R  Y  B  D  I  S. 


Lat.  scutum.    The  shield  represented  in  heral- 
dry ;  the   ensigns   armorial  of  a  family.      See 

ESCUTCHEON. 

And  thereto  had  she  that  scutcheon  of  her  desires, 
supported  by  certain  badly  diligent  ministers. 

Sidney. 

Your  tcutcheons,  and  your  signs  of  conquest,  shall 
Hang  in  what  place  you  please. 

Shakspeare.  Antonv  and  Cleopatra. 
Honour  is  a  mere  tcutcheon.  Id.  Henry  IV. 

The  chiefs  about  their  necks  the  scutcheons  wore. 
With  orient  pearls  and  jewels  powdered  o'er. 

Dryden. 

SCUTE,  a  French  gold  coin  of  3*.  4d.  in  the 
reign  of  king  Henry  V.  Catherine  queen  of 
England  had  an  assurance  made  her  of  sundry 
castles,  manors,  lands,  &c.,  valued  at  the  sum  of 
40,000  scutes,  every  two  whereof  were  worth  a 
noble. 

SCUTELLARIA,  skull-cap,  in  botany,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  gymnospermia  order,  and  didynamia 
class  of  plants ;  natural  order  fortieth,  personals : 
CAL.  short,  tubulated,  has  the  mouth  entire,  and 
close  after  flowering.  There  are  two  species, 
natives  of  Britain,  viz. 

1.  S.  galericulata,  blue  skull-cap,  or  hooded 
willow-herb.    The  stems  are   weak,  branched, 
and  above  a  foot  high :   the  leaves  are  heart- 
shaped,    narrow-pointed,    on   short   foot-stalks, 
and  scallopped ;  the  flowers  are  blue,  in  pairs, 
on  pedicles  from  the  alae  of  the  leaves,  and  pen- 
dulous.    It  grows  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and 
lakes,  is  bitter,  and  has  a  garlic  smell. 

2.  S.  minor,  little  red  skull-cap,  or  willow- 
herb.    The  stalks  are  about  eight  inches  high ; 
the  leaves  are  heart-shaped,  oval ;  the  flowers  are 
purple.     It  grows  in  fens,  and  on  the  sides  of 
lakes. 

SCUTELLATED,  adj.  Lat.  scutella.  Di- 
vided into  small  surfaces. 

It  seems  part  of  the  scutellated  bone  of  a  sturgeon, 
being  flat,  of  a  porous  or  cellular  constitution. 

Woodward. 

SCUTTLE,  n. ».  Lat.  scutella ;  Celt,  scutell. 
Ainsworth.  A  wide  shallow  basket,  so  named 
*-om  a  dish  or  platter  which  it  resembles  in 
form. 

A  tcuttle  or  skrein  to  rid  soil  fro'  the  corn. 

Tusstr. 

The  earth  and  stones  they  are  fain  to  carry  from 
inder  their  feet  in  tcuttles  and  baskets. 

Hake  will  on  Providence. 

To  the  hole  A  the  door  have  a  small  scuttle,  to 
keep  in  what  mice  are  there.  Mortimer't  Hutbandwy. 

SCDT'TLE,  n.  s.  &  v.  n.  From  SCUD  or  SCOUT. 
A  quick  pace ;  a  short  run ;  a  pace  of  affected 
precipitation  :  to  run  in  this  manner. 

She  went  with  an  easy  scuttle  out  of  the  shop. 

Spectator. 

The  old  fellow  scuttled  out  of  the  room. 

Arbuthnot. 

SCDTTLKS,  in  a  ship,  are  square  holes  cut  in 
the  deck,  big  enough  to  let  down  a  man,  and 
which  serve  to  let  the  people  down  into  any 
room  below,  or  from  one  deck  to  another. 

SCUTUM,  in  antiquity,  the  name  of  a  shield 
with  which  the  Roman  soldiers  were  formerly 
armed.  The  scutum  differed  from  the  clypeus, 
inasmuch  that  the  former  was  oval  and  the 
latter  round.  That  which  was  used  among  the 


Grecians  was  sometimes  round,  at  others  square, 
and  not  unrrequently  oval.  The  scutum,  or 
buckler,  which  the  Lacedaemonians  used,  was  so 
lanre  that  the  dead  and  wounded  were  carried 
on  it. 

SCYLAX,  a  celebrated  mathematician  and 
geographer  of  Caria,  who  flourished  in  the  reign 
of  Darius  Hystaspis,  about  558  B.C.  Darius 
sent  him  to  make  discoveries  in  the  east,  and, 
after  a  journey  of  thirty  months,  he  visited  Egypt. 
The  best  edition  of  his  Periplus  is  that  of  Gro- 
novius,  in  4to.,  Lug.  Bat.  1697.  Some  have  at- 
tributed to  him  the  invention  of  geographical 
tables.  We  have  under  his  name  a  geographical 
work  published  by  Hoeschelius ;  but  it  is  written 
by  a  much  later  author,  and  is  perhaps  an 
abridgment  of  Scylax's  Geography. 

SCYLLA,  in  the  mythology,  a  daughter  of 
Nisus,  king  of  Megara,  who  fell  in  love  with 
Minos  while  he  was  besieging  her  father's  capital, 
and  offered  to  make  him  master  of  it,  if  he 
would  marry  her.  Minos  promising  this,  she 
cut  off  a  golden  hair  of  her  father's  head,  while 
he  was  asleep,  on  which  the  fate  of  Megara  de- 
pended. Minos  took  the  city,  but  treated  her 
with  the  contempt  her  treason  merited:  on  which 
she  threw  herself  into  the  sea,  and  was  turned 
into  a  lark,  and  her  father  into  a  hawk. 

SCYLLA,  a  daughter  of  Typhon,  or  Phorcys, 
who  was  beloved  by  the  sea-god  Glaucus,  but 
rejected  his  addresses.  Glaucus  applied  to 
Circe  to  use  her  spells,  and  turn  Scylla's  affec- 
tion to  him;  but  Circe,  falling  in  love  with 
Glaucus  herself,  employed  her  most  poisonous 
plants  to  ruin  her  rival ;  and,  pouring  the  juice 
of  them  into  a  fountain  where  Scylla  bathed, 
all  the  under  part  of  her  body  was  changed  into 
monsters,  which  never  ceased  barking  like  dogs. 
On  this  Scylla  threw  herself  into  the  sea,  be- 
tween Italy  and  Sicily,  where  she  was  meta- 
morphosed into  the  rocks  opposite  to  Charybdis, 
that  still  bear  her  name. — Homer.  Od.  xii.  85. 
Ovid.  Met.  xiv.  66,  &c. 

SCYLLA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  rock  in  the 
Fretum  Siculum,  near  the  coast  of  Italy,  dan- 
gerous to  shipping,  opposite  to  Charybdis,  a 
whirlpool  on  the  coast  of  Sicily. 

SCYLLA  AND  CHARYBDIS,  according  to  the 
fables  of  the  poets,  were  two  sea-monsters,  con- 
tinually on  the  watch  to  destroy  unfortunate 
mariners ;  the  one  situated  on  the  right,  and  the 
other  on  the  left  extremity  of  the  strait  of  Mes- 
sina, where  Sicily  fronts  Italy.  Thus  Virgil 
describes  them: — 

Dextrum  Scylla  latus,  levura  implacata  Charybdis 
Obsidet,  atque  imo  barathri  ter  gurgite  vastos 
Sorbet  in  abniptum  fluctus,  rursusque  sub  auras 
Erigit  alternos,  et  sidera  verberat  unda : 
At  Scyllam  coeds  cohibet  spelunca  latebris 
Ora  exertantem,  et  naves  in  saxa  trahentem. 
Prima  hominis  fades  et  pulchro  pectore  virgo 
Pube  tenus  ;  postrema  immani  corpore  pristii 
Delphi nrtm  caudas  utero  commissa  luperum. 

/F.neid.  lib.  iii. 

Far  on  the  right  her  dogs  foul  Scylla  hides ; 
Charybdis  roaring  on  the  left  presides, 
And  in  her  greedy  whirlpool  sucks  the  tides, 
Then  spouts  them  from  below ;  with  fury  driven 
The  waves  mount  up,  and  wash  the  face  of  heavei 


SCYLLA    AND    CHARYBDIS. 


703 


But  Scylla  from  her  den,  with  open  jaws, 

The  sinking  vessel  in  her  eddy  draws, 

Then  dashes  on  the  rocks  :  a  human  face. 

And  virgin  bosom,  hide  her  tail's  disgrace  , 

Her  parts  obscene  below  the  waves  descend, 

With  dogs  enclosed,  and  in  a  dolphin  end.  Dryden. 

The  description  of  Virgil,  above  cited,  differs 
from  that  of  Homer  only  in  placing  a  deep  gulf 
below.  Strabo,  Isidorus,  Tzetzes,  Hesychius, 
Didymus,  Eustathius,  &c.,  concur  in  the  same 
description.  The  abbe  Spallanzani  thus  describes 
Scylla  in  his  time  :  '  It  is  a  lofty  rock,  twelve 
miles  from  Messina,  which  rises  almost  perpen- 
dicularly from  the  sea  on  the  shore  of  Calabria, 
and  beyond  which  is  the  small  city  of  the  same 
name.  Though  there  was  scarcely  any  wind,  I 
began  to  hear,  two  miles  before  I  came  to  the 
rock,  a  murmur  and  noise  like  a  confused  bark- 
ing of  dogs,  and  on  a  nearer  approach  readily 
discovered  the  cause.  Tliis  rock,  in  its  lower 
parts,  contains  a  number  of  caverns,  one  of  the 
largest  of  which  is  called  by  the  people  there 
Dragara.  The  waves,  when  in  the  least  agitated, 
rushing  into  these  caverns,  break,  dash,  throw 
up  frothy  bubbles,  and  thus  occasion  these  various 
and  multiplied  sounds.  I  then  perceived  with 
how  much  truth  and  resemblance  of  nature 
Homer  and  Virgil,  in  their  personifications  of 
Scylla,  had  portrayed  this  scene,  by  describing 
the  monster  they  drew  as  lurking  in  the  darkness 
of  a  vast  cavern,  surrounded  by  ravenous  mastiffs, 
together  with  wolves,  to  increase  the  horror. 

The  same  author  thus  describes  Charybdis  : 
'  Charybdis  is  distant  from  the  shore  of* Messina 
about  750  feet,  and  is  called  by  the  people  of  the 
country  Calofaro,  not  from  the  agitation  of  the 
waves,  as  some  have  supposed,  but  from  icaXoc 
and  0apoc ;  that  is,  the  beautiful  tower,  from  the 
light-house  erected  near  it  for  the  guidance  of 
vessels.  The  phenomenon  of  the  Calofaro  is 
observable  when  the  current  is  descending ;  for 
when  the  current  sets  in  from  the  north,  the 
pilots  call  it  the  descending  rema  or  current;  and, 
when  it  runs  from  the  south,  the  ascending  rema. 
The  current  ascends  or  descends  at  the  rising  or 
setting  of  the  moon,  and  continues  for  six  hours. 
In  the  interval  between  each  ascent  or  descent 
there  is  a  calm  which  lasts  at  least  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  but  not  longer  than  an  hour.  After- 
wards, at  the  rising  or  setting  of  the  moon,  the 
current  enters  foam  the  north,  making  various 
angles  of  incidence  with  the  shore,  and  at  length 
reaches  the  Calofaro.  This  delay  sometimes  con- 
tinues two  hours  ;  sometimes  it  immediately  falls 
into  the  Calofaro ;  and  then  experience  has 
taught  that  it  is  a  certain  token  of  bad  weather.' 
The  saying  which  became  proverbial  among 
the  ancients,  '  Incidit  in  Scyllam,  qui  vult  vitare 
Charybdim ;  he  who  endeavours  to  avoid  Chary - 
»dis,  dashes  upon  Scylla,'  is  still  in  a  great 
measure  true.  If  a  ship  be  extricated  from  the 
fury  of  Charybdis,  and  carried  by  a  strong 
southerly  wind  along  the  strait  towards  the 
northern  entrance,  it  will  indeed  pass  out  safely  ; 
but,  should  it  meet  with  a  wind  in  a  nearly  op- 
posite direction,  it  would  become  the  sport  of 
both  these  winds,  and,  unable  to  advance  or  re- 
cede, be  diiven  in  a  middle  course  between  their 
»wo  directions,  that  is  to  say,  full  upon  the  rock 


of   Scylla,  if  it  be  not  immediately  assisted  L 
the  pilots. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  these  bugbears 
of  antiquity,  given  by  captain  Smyth,  an  intelli- 
gent British  seaman:    'The  flights  of  poetry,' 
observes  our  author,  'can   seldom    bear  to   be 
shackled  by  homely  truth  ;  and  if  we  are  to  re- 
ceive the  fine  imagery  that  places  the  summit  of 
this  rock   (Scylla)   in  clouds,  brooding   eternal 
mists  and  tempests ;  that  represents  it  as  inac- 
cessible, even  to  a  man   provided  with  twenty 
hands  and  twenty  feet,  and  immerses  its  base 
among  ravenous  sea-dogs  ;  why  not  also  receive 
the  whole  circle  of  mythological  dogmas  of  Ho- 
mer, who,  though  so  frequently  dragged  forth  as 
an  authority  in  history,  theology,  surgery,  and 
geography,  ought  in  justice  to  be  read  only  as  a 
poet  ?    In  the  writings  of  so  exquisite  a  bard,  we 
must  not  expect  to  find  all  his  representations 
strictly  confined  to  a  mere  accurate  narration  of 
facts.     Moderns  of  intelligence,  in  visiting  this 
spot,  have  gratified  their  imaginations,  already 
heated  by  such  descriptions  as  the  escape  of  the 
Argonauts,  and  the  disasters   of  Ulysses,  with 
fancying  it  the  scourge  of  seamen,  and  that,  in 
a  gale,  its  caverns  '  roar  like  dogs  ;'  but  I,  as  a 
sailor,  never  perceived  any  difference  between 
the  effect  of  the  surges  here,  and  on  any  other 
coast ;  yet  I  have  frequently  watched  it  closely 
in  bad  weather.     It  is  now,  as  I  presume  it  ever 
was,  a  common  rock,  of  bold  approach,  a  little 
worn  at  its  base,  and   surmounted  by  a  castle, 
with  a  sandy  bay  on  each  side.     The  one  on  the 
south  side  is  memorable  for  the  disaster  that  hap- 
pened there,  during  the  dreadful  earthquake  of 
1783,  when  an  overwhelming  wave  (supposed  to 
have  been  occasioned   by  the  fall  of  part  of  a 
promontory  into  the  sea)  rushed  up  the  beach, 
and,  in  its  retreat,  bore  away  with  it  upwards  of 
2000  people.     Outside  the  tongue  of  land,  or 
Braccio  di  St.  Rainiere,  that  forms  the  harbour 
of  Messina,  lies  the  Salofaro,  or  celebrated  vor- 
tex of  Charybdis,  which  has,  with  more  reason 
than  Scylla,  been  clothed  with  terrors  by  the 
writers  of  antiquity.     To  the  undecked  boats  of 
the  Rhegians,  Locrians,  Zancleans,  and  Greeks, 
it  must  have  been  formidable ;  for,  even  in  the 
present  day,  small  craft  are  sometimes  endan- 
gered by  it;  and  I  have  seen  several  men-of-war, 
and  even  a  seventy-four-gun  ship,  whirled  round 
on  its  surface ;  but,  by  using  due  caution,  there 
is  generally  very  little  danger  or  inconvenience 
to  be  apprehended.     It  appears  to  be  an  agitated 
water,   of   from   seventy  to   ninety  fathoms  in 
depth,  circling  in  quick  eddies.      It  is  owing, 
probably,  to  the  meeting  of  the  harbour,  and 
lateral  currents,  with  the  main  one,  the  latter 
being  forced  over,  in  this  direction,  by  the  op- 
posite point  of  Pezzo.     This  agrees,  in  some 
measure,  with  the  relation  of  Thucydides,  who 
calls  it  a  violent  reciprocation  of  the  Tyrrhene 
and  Sicilian  Seas ;  and  he  is  the  only  writer  ot 
remote  antiquity  I  remember  to  have  read  who 
has  assigned  this  danger  its  true  situation,  and 
not  exaggerated   its   effect.      Many   wonderful 
stories  are  told  respecting  this  vortex,  particu- 
larly some,  said  to  have  been  related  by  the  ce- 
lebrated diver  Colas,  who  lost  his  life  here.'    See 
also  our  article  MEDITERRANEAN. 


SCY 


704 


SDE 


SYCROS,  in  ancient  geography,  an  island  in 
the  ^gean  Sea,  at  the  distance  of  about  twenty- 
eight  miles  north-east  from  Euboea.  Fifty  miles 
in  circumference.  It  was  originally  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Pelasgians  and  Carians.  Achilles 
retired  thither  to  avoid  going  to  the  Trojan  war, 
and  became  father  of  Neoptoleraus  by  Deidamia, 
the  daughter  of  king  Lycomedes.  Scyros  was 
conquered  by  the  Athenians  under  Cimon.  It 
was  very  rocky  and  barren.  It  is  now  called 
Sciro. 

SCYTALA  LACOXICA,  in  antiquity,  a  strata- 
gem of  the  Lacedemonians,  for  the  secret  writing 
of  letters,  so  that,  if  they  should  chance  to  be  in- 
tercepted, nobody  might  be  able  to  read  them. — 
To  this  end  they  had  two  wooden  cylinders,  per- 
fectly alike  and  equal ;  one  of  which  was  kept  in 
the  city,  the  other  by  the  person  to  whom  the 
letter  was  directed.  A  skin  of  very  thin  parch- 
ment was  wrapped  round  Ihe  roller,  in  which  the 
letter  was  written  ;  which  done,  it  was  taken  off, 
and  sent  away  to  the  party,  who,  upon  putting  it 
in  the  same  manner  upon  his  roller,  found  the 
lines  and  words  in  the  same  order  as  when  they 
were  first  written.  This  expedient  they  set  a 
a  very  high  value  on ;  though,  in  truth,  artless  and 
simple  enough. 

SCYTALIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  octandria  class  of  plants  :  CAL. 
very  short,  monophyllous,  and  somewhat  quin- 
quedentated  :  COR.  pentapetalous  ;  filaments 
hairy  at  the  base;  berry  unilocular  :  SEED  one  of 
a  soft  pulpy  consistence.  There  is  only  one 
species,  viz. 

S.  sinensis,  a  native  of  China  and  the  East 
Indies. 

SCYTHES,  in  fabulous  history,  the  son  of  Ju- 
piter and  Tellus,  who  was  half  man  half  serpent. 
According  to  Diodorus  he  became  king  of  the 
country,  called  from  him  Scythia. 

SCYTIIIA,  an  ancient  name  for  the  northern 
parts  of  Asia,  now  called  Tartary,  and  also  for 
some  of  the  north-east  parts  of  Europe.  This 
vast  territory,  which  extends  from  the  Ister  or 
Danube,  the  boundary  of  the  Celts,  that  is,  from 
about  2.5°,  to  nearly  100°  long.  E.,  was  divided 
into  Scythia  in  Europe,  and  Scythia  in  Asia,  in- 
cluding the  two  Sarmatias,  or  Sauromatias.  Sar- 
matia  was  divided  from  the  European  Scythia  by 
the  Don  or  Tanais,  which  falls  into  the  Palus 
Meotis  ;  and  from  the  Asiatic  by  the  Rha,  now 
the  NVolga,  which  runs  into  the  Caspian  Sea. 

SCYTHIA  ASIATICA,  the  Asiatic  Scythia,  com- 
prehended, in  general,  Tartary,  and  Russia  in 
Asia.  As  for  Sarmatia,  it  contained  Albania, 
Iberia,  and  Colchis  ;  which  makes  now  the  Cir- 
cassian Tartary,  and  the  province  of  Georgia. 

SCYTHIA  EUROP^A,  Scythia  in  Europe, 
reached  towards  the  south-west,  to  the  Po  and 
the  Alps,  by  which  it  was  divided  from  Celto- 
Gallia.  It  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the 
Ister  or  Danube  and  the  Euxine  Sea.  Its  northern 
limits  have  been  supposed  to  stretch  to  the 
spring-heads  of  the  Boristhenes  or  Nieper,  and 
the  Rha  or  Wolga,  and  so  to  those  of  the  Ta- 
nais. The  ancients  divided  this  country  into 
Scythia  Arimaspaea,  which  lay  east,  joining 
to  Scythia  in  Asia;  and  Sarmatia  Europeana 
on  the  west.  In  Scythia,  properly  so  called, 


were  the  Arimaspi  on  the  north,  the  Getaj  or  Da- 
cians  along  the  Danube  on  the  south,  and  the 
Neuri  between  these  two  :  so  that  it  contained 
European  Russia,  and  the  Lesser  Crim  Tartary 
on  the  ea$t,  and  on  the  west  Lithuania,  Poland, 
part  of  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Walachia,  Bul- 
garia, and  Moldavia.  The  ancient  geographers 
divided  the  west  part  of  Sweden  and  Norway 
from  Northern  Germany,  by  the  Mare  Sarmati- 
cum  or  Scythicum,  which  they  supposed  ran  up 
into  the  Northern  Ocean,  and,  dividing  Lapland 
into  two  parts,  formed  the  western  part  of  Swe- 
den, with  Norway,  into  one  island,  and  Finland 
into  another;  supposing  this  also  to  be  cut  oft" 
from  the  continent  by  the  gulf  of  that  name. 

SCYTHIANS,  the  natives  of  Scythia.  Although 
the  ancient  Scythians  were  celebrated  as  a  war- 
like people,  yet  their  history  is  too  uncertain 
and  obscure  to  enable  us  to  give  any  detail  which 
would  prove  interesting.  See  the  very  opposite 
accounts  given  of  the  ancient  Scythians,  by  He- 
rodotus and  Justin  under  SCULPTURE.  Hist.  Mr. 
Pinkerton,  in  a  dissertation  on  their  origin,  en- 
deavours to  prove  that  they  were  the  most 
ancient  of  nations  ;  and  he  assigns  for  the  place 
of  their  first  habitation  the  country  known  by  the 
name  of  Persia.  From  Persia,  he  thinks,  they  pro- 
ceeded in  numerous  hordes  westward,  surround- 
ed the  Euxine,  peopled  Germany,  Italy,  Gaul, 
the  countries  bordering  on  the  Baltic,  with  part 
of  Britain  and  Ireland.  That  the  Scythians  were 
of  Asiatic  origin  cannot,  we  think,  be  questioned  ; 
and,  as  Persia  was  peopled  at  a  very  early  period, 
it  may  not  improbably  have  been  their  parent 
country ;  but  when  our  author  contends  that 
their  empire  had  subsisted  for  more  than  1500 
years  before  Ninus  the  founder  of  the  Assyrian 
monarchy,  and  that  it  extended  from  Egypt  to 
the  Ganges,  and  from  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
Indian  Sea  to  the  Caspian,  we  cannot  help  think- 
ing that  his  prejudices  against  the  Celts,  and  his 
desire  to  do  honor  to  his  favorite  Goths,  have 
made  him  advance  a  paradox  inconsistent  with 
the  most  authentic  records  of  antiquity.  His 
dissertation,  however,  is  ingenious,  and  replete 
with  a  variety  of  curious  learning. 

SCYTHROPS,  a  generic  name  given  by  Mr. 
Latham  to  a  bird  of  which  hitherto  but  one  spe- 
cies has  been  observed.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
crow,  and  two  feet  three  inches  in  length.  The 
bill  is  large,  convex,  furrowed  on  the  sides,  and 
bent  at  the  tip;  the  nostrils  are  placed  at  the 
base  of  it,  and  the  tongue  is  cloven  at  the  end. 
The  general  color  of  the  plumage  is  a  brownish 
ash,  but  the  tip  of  each  feather  of  the  back, 
wings,  and  tail,  is  black.  The  tail  has  each  fea- 
ther banded  with  black  at  the  end,  and  the  tip 
itself  white  ;  but  the  inner  webs  of  the  feather 
are  marked  with  black  and  white  bands.  The 
toes  are  placed  two  forwards  and  two  back- 
wards, as  in  the  parrot  genus.  This  curious  bird 
is  a  native  of  New  Holland. 

SDEIGN,  r.  a.  Ital.  sdegnare.  Used  HJr 
Spenser  and  Milton  for  disdain. 

They  DOW,  puft  up  with  sdeignfnl  in?o!.:rce, 
Despise  the  brood  of  blessed  sapience.         S^ente  : 

Lifted  up  so  high, 
I  xleigned  subjection.  Milton. 


SEA 


705 


SEA 


SEA,  n.  s.  SEAHOLM', 

SEA'BF.AT,  adj.  SEAHORSE', 

SEA'BOAT,  n,  s.  SEA'MAID, 

SEA'BORN,  adj.  SEA'MAN, 

SEA'BOY,  n.  s.  SEA'MARK, 

SEA'BRFACH,  SEA'MEW, 

SEA'BREEZE,  SEAMON  STER, 

SEA'EUILT,  adj.  SEA'NYMPH, 

SEACAB'BACE,  n.  s.  SEA'OOZE, 

SEA'CALF,  SEA'PIECE, 

SEA'CAP,  SEA'POOL, 

SEA'CHART,  SEA'PORT, 

SEA'COAL,  SEA'RISK, 

SEA'COAST,  SEA'ROOM, 

SEACOM'PASS,  SEASER'VICE, 

SEA'COW,  SEA'SHARK, 

SEA'DOG,  SEA'SHELL, 

SEA'FARER,  SEASHORE', 

SEA'FARING,  adj.  SEA'SICK, 

SEA'FTGHT,  n.  s  SEASIDE, 

SEA'FOWL,  SEASUR'GEON, 

SEA'GIRT,  adj.  SEASURROUND'ED, 

SEA'GREEN,  n.  s.  SEA'TERM, 

SEA'GULL,  SEA'WATER, 

SEAHEDGE'HOG,  SEA'WEED. 

SEAHOL  LY, 

Sax.  pae;  Goth.  s<£ ;  Belg.  zee;  Teut.  see.  The 
ocean;  the  water  of  the  earth  as  opposed  to  the 
land ;  any  collection  of  waters ;  a  lake  ;  a  large 
quantity  of  any  fluid ;  any  thing  rough  or  tem- 
pestuous :  '  half-seas-over'  is  half-drunk.  None 
of  the  compounds  appear  to  require  any  further 
explanation  than  the  extracts  in  which  they  occur 
will  supply. 

He  made  the  sea,  and  all  that  is  therein. 

Exodus  xx.  11. 

Their  camels  were  without  number,  as  the  sand 
by  the  seaside.  Judges  vii.  12. 

Seamonsters  gave  suck  to  their  young. 

Lamentations  ivl  3. 

By  the  sea  of  Galilee.  Matthew  iv.  18. 

The  sovereign  of  the  seas  he  blames  in  vain, 
That  once  seabeat  will  to  sea  again. 

Spenser's  Pastorals. 
The  venturous  mariner  that  way, 
Learning  his  ship  from  those  white  rocks  to  save, 

Which  all  along  the  southern  seacoast  lay, 
For  safety's  sake  that  same  his  seamark  made, 
And  named  it  Albion.  Faerie  Queene. 

Those  white  rocks, 

Which  all  along  the  southern  seacoast  lay, 
Threatening  unheedy  wreck  and  rash  decay. 
He  for  his  safety's  sake  his  seamark  made, 
And  named  it  Albion.  Id. 

I  heard  it  wished,  that  all  that  land  were  a  sea~ 
pool.  Spenser. 

Barbarossa  was  not  able  to  come  on  shore,  for 
that  he  was,  as  they  said,  seasick,  and  troubled  with 
an  ague.  Knolles. 

U  ill  all  great  Neptune's  ocean  wash  this  blood 
Clean  from  my  hand  1  No,  this  my  hand  will  rather 
Thy  multitudinous  spi  incarnadine, 
Making  the  green  one  red.       Shakspeare.  Macbeth. 

Canst  thou,  O  partial  sleep  !  give  thy  repose 
To  the  wet  teaboy  in  an  hour  so  rude, 
And  in  the  calmest  and  the  stillest  night 
D^ny  it  to  a  king 7  Shakspeare. 

My  wife  fastened  him  unto  a  small  spare  mast, 
Such  as  seafaring  men  provide  for  storms.  Id. 

I  know  your  favour  well, 

Though  now  you  have  no  seacav  on  your  head.  Id 
VOL.  XIX. 


We'll  have  a  posset  soon  at  the  latter  end  of  a  sea- 
coal  fire.  /</. 

Certain  stars  shot  from  their  spheres, 
To  hear  the  seamaids'  musick.  Id. 

Though  you  do  see  me  weaponed, 
Here  is  my  journey's  end,  here  is  my  butt, 
The  very  seamark  of  my  utmost  sail.  Id.  Othello. 

Witches  mummy,  maw  and  gulf 
Of  the  ravening  salt  seashark.  Shaksptare. 

She  began  to  be  much  seasick,  extremity  of  wea- 
ther continuing.  Id. 

The  needle  in  the  seacompass  still  moving  but  to 
the  north  point  only,  with  moveor  immotus,  notified 
the  respective  constancy  of  the  gentleman  to  one 
only.  Camden's  Remains. 

Seafights  have  been  often  final  to  the  war ;  but 
this  is  when  princes  set  up  their  rest  upon  the  battles. 

Bacon. 

Seagulls,  when  they  flock  together  from  the  sea 
towards  the  shores,  foreshow  rain  and  wind. 

Id.  Natural  History. 

Seacoal  lasts  longer  than  charcoal.  Bacon. 

They  were  executed  at  divers  places  upon  the  sea* 
coast,  for  seamarks  or  lighthouses,  to  teach  Perkin's 
people  to  avoid  the  coast.  Id.  Henry  VII. 

There  is  searoom  enough  for  both  nations,  without 
offending  one  another.  Id.  Advice  to  Villiers. 

By  digging  of  pits  in  the  seashore,  he  did  frustrate 
the  laborious  works  of  the  enemies,  which  had  turned 
the  seawater  upon  the  wells  of  Alexandria. 

Id.  Natural  History. 

So  do  the  winds  and  thunders  cleanse  the  air, 
So  working  seas  settle  and  purge  the  wine.    Davies. 
The  rivers  run  into  the  sea.  Careio. 

They  stiffly  refused  to  vail  their  bonnets  by  the 
summons  of  those  towns,  which  is  reckoned  in- 
tolerable contempt  by  the  better  enabled  seafarers. 

Id. 

The  seahedgehog  is  inclosed  in  a  round  shell, 
fashioned  as  a  loaf  of  bread,  wrought  and  pinched, 
and  guarded  by  an  outer  skin  full  of  prickles,  as  the 
land  urchin.  Id. 

Cornwall  bringeth  forth  greater  store  of  seaholm 
and  samphire  than  any  other  county.  Id. 

That  sea  of  blood,  which  hath  in  Ireland  been  bar- 
barously shed,  is  enough  to  drown  in  eternal  infamy 
and  misery  the  malicious  author  and  instigator  of  its 
effusion.  King  Charles. 

This  pulmonique  indisposition  of  the  air  is  very 
much  heightened,  where  a  great  quantity  of  seacoal 
is  burnt.  Harvey. 

She,  looking  out, 
Beholds  the  fleet,  and  hears  the  seamen  shout. 

Denham. 

Amphibious  between  sea  and  land, 
The  river  horse.  Milton. 

To  sorrow  abandoned,  but  worse  felt  within, 
And  in  a  troubled  sea  of  passion  tossed.  Id. 

Neptune,  besides  the  sway 
Of  every  salt  flood  and  each  ebbing  stream, 
Took  in  by  lot,  'twixt  high  and  nether  Jove, 
Imperial  rule  of  all  the  seagirt  isles.  Id. 

An  island  salt  and  bare, 
The  haunt  of  seals,  and  orcks,  and  seamews  clang. 

Id. 

Where  luxury  lately  reigned,  seamonsters  whelp. 

Id. 

Like  Neptune  and  his  teaborn  niece,  shall  be 
The  shining  glories  of  the  land  and  sea.        Waller. 

The  bigger  whale  like  some  huge  carrack  lay, 
Which  wanteth  searoom  with  her  foes  to  play.     Id. 

But  like  a  rock  unmoved,  a  rock  that  braves 
The  raging  tempest  and  the  rising  waves, 

2  Z 


SEA 


706 


SEA 


Propped  on  himself  he  stands :  his  solid  sides 
Wash  off  the  seaweeds,  and  the  sounding  tides. 

Dry  den. 

All  these  in  order  march,  and  marching  sing 
The  warlike  actions  of  their  seaborn  sing.  Id. 

Borne  each  by  other  in  a  distant  line, 
The  seabuitt  forts  in  dreadful  order  move.  Id. 

Seahortet  floundering  in  the  slimy  mud, 
Tossed  up  their  heads,  and  dashed  the  ooze  about 
'em.  Id. 

/Enc?<s  ordered 

A  stately  tomb,  whose  top  a  tnimpet  bore, 
A  soldier's  falchion,  and  a  seaman's  oar  ; 
Thus  was  his  fnend  interred.  Id. 

The  fault  of  others  sway 

He  set  as  seama-lu  for  himself  to  shun.  Id. 

That  seashore  where  no  more  world  is  found, 
But  foaming  billows  breaking  on  the  ground.     Id. 

In  love's  voyage,  nothing  can  offend  ; 
Women  are  never  seasick.  Id.  Juvenal. 

To  an  impetuous  woman,  tempests  and  seabi-eaches 
are  nothing.  V Estrange. 

If  our  sense  of  hearing  were  a  thousand  times 
quicker  than  it  is,  we  should,  in  the  quietest  retiie- 
ment,  be  less  able  to  sleep  than  in  the  middle  of  a 
seajight.  Locke. 

White,  red,  yellow,  blue,  with  their  mixtures,  as 
green,  scarlet,  purple,  and  seagreen,  come  in  by  the 
eyes.  Id. 

Seals  live  at  land  and  at  sea,  and  porpuses  have 
the  warm  blood  and  intrails  of  a  hog,  not  to  mention 
mermaids  or  teamen.  Id. 

To  say  a  man  has  a  clear  idea  of  any  quantity, 
without  knowing  how  great  it  is,  is  as  reasonable  as 
to  say  he  has  the  positive  idea  of  the  number  of  the 
sands  on  the  seashore.  Id. 

Hedges,  in  most  places,  would  be  of  great  ad- 
vantage to  shelter  the  grass  from  the  Seabreeze. 

Mortimer. 

Upon  the  seacoast  are  many  parcels  of  land,  that 
would  pay  well  for  the  taking  in.  Id.  Husbandry. 

Bitterns,  herons,  and  seaguUs,  are  great  enemies 
to  fish.  Id. 

SeashelU  are  great  improvers  of  sour  or  cold  land. 

Mortimer. 

All  seaooze,  or  oozy  mud,  and  the  mud  oi  rivets, 
are  of  great  advantage  to  all  sorts  of  land.  Id. 

The  seacalf,  or  seal,  so  called  from  the  noise  he 
makes  like  a  calf :  his  head  comparatively  not  big, 
shaped  rather  like  an  otter's,  with  teeth  like  a  dog's, 
and  mustaches  like  those  of  a  cat :  his  body  long, 
and  all  over  hairy  :  his  fore  feet,  with  ringers  clawed, 
but  not  divided,  yet  fit  for  going ;  his  hinder  feet, 
more  properly  fins,  and  fitter  for  swimming,  being 
an  amphibious  animal.  Grew's  Musaeum. 

Fournier  gives  an  account  of  an  earthquake  in 
Peru,  that  reached  three  hundred  leagues  along  the 
seat/tore.  But-net. 

The  whole  magistracy  was  pretty  well  disguised 
before  I  gave  'em  the  slip  :  our  friend  the  alderman 
was  half  seas  over  before  the  bonfire  was  out.  • 

Spectator. 

Had  they  applied  themselves  to  the  increase  of 
their  strength  by  s«a,  they  might  hare  had  the  great- 
est fleet,  and  the  most  seamen,  of  any  state  in  Europe. 

Addison. 
Painters  often  employ  their  pencils  upon  seapiece*. 

Id. 

Small  fragments  of  shells,  broken  by  storms  on 
some  shores,  are  used  for  manuring  of  sea  land. 

Woodward. 

Part  of  a  large  tooth,  round  and  tapering :  a  tusk 
of  the  morse,  or  waltrons,  called  by  some  the  sea- 
'ufr.-e  Id. 


They  put  to  sea  vith  a  fleet  of  three  hundred  sail. 

Arhuthnot. 

Shipwrecks  were  occasioned  by  their  ships  being 
bad  seabixtti,  and  themselves  but  indifferent  seamen. 

Id. 

It  was  death  to  divert  the  ships  of  seafaring  people, 
against  their  will,  to  other  uses  than  they  were  ap- 
pointed. Id. 

This  fleet  they  recruited  with  two  hundred  sail, 
whereof  they  lost  ninety-three  in  a  seajight. 

Id.  on  Coins. 

He  was  so  great  an  encourager  of  commerce  that 
he  charged  himself  with  all  the  searisque  of  sucli 
vessels  as  carried  corn  to  Rome  in  the  winter. 

Arbuthnflt. 
My  design  was  to  help  the  seasurgeon. 

Wiseman's  Surgery. 

The  bills  of  curlews,  and  many  other  seafowl,  are 
very  long,  to  enable  them  to  hunt  for  the  worms. 

Derham. 

The  sea  could  not  be  much  narrower  than  it  is, 
without  a  great  loss  to  the  world.  Bentley. 

Fierce  seadogs  devour  the  mangled  friends. 

Roscammon. 

So  when  the  first  bold  vessel  dared  the  seas, 
High  on  the  stern  the  Thracian  raised  his  strain, 

While  Argo  saw  her  kindred  trees 
Descend  from  Pelion  to  the  main.  Pvpe. 

Darkness  covered  o'er 
The  face  of  things  ;  along  the  seabeat  shore 
Satiate  we  slept.  Id.  Odyssey. 

A  wandering  merchant,  he  frequents  the  main, 
Some  mean  seafarer  in  pursuit  of  gain  ; 
Studious  of  freight,  in  naval  trade  well  skilled, 
But  dreads  the'  athletick  labours  of  the  field.  Pope. 

A  length  of  ocean  and  unbounded  sky, 
Which  scarce  the  seafowl  in  a  year  o'er-fly. 

Upon  his  urn  reclined, 
His  seagreen  mantle  waving  in  the  wind, 
The  god  appeared. 

Telemachus,  the  blooming  heir 
Of  seagirt  Ithaca,  demands  my  care  : 

Tis  mine  to  form  his  green  unpractised  years 
In  sage  debates.  Id 

The  chough,  the  seamew,  the  loquacious  crow, 
Scream  aloft.  Id.  Odyssey 

There  disembarking  on  the  green  seaside, 
We  land  our  cattle  and  the  spoil  divide.          Pope. 

To  seasurrounded  realms  the  gods  assign 
Small  tract  of  fertile  lawn,  the  least  to  mine.      Id. 

I  agree  with  you  in  your  censure  of  the  teaterms  in 
Dryden's  Virgil,  because  no  terms  of  art  or  cant 
words  suit  the  majesty  of  epick  poetry.  Id. 

You  were  pressed  for  the  seasenire  and  got  off  with 
much  ado.  Swift's  Directions  to  Servants. 

Weary  and  seasick,  when  in  thee  confined  ; 
Now,  for  thy  safety,  cares  distract  my  mind.  Su-ift. 

A  seafowl  properly  represents  the  passage  of  a 
deity  over  the  seas.  Kroome. 

Seawater  has  many  gross,  rough,  and  earthy  par- 
ticles in  it,  as  appears  from  its  saltness  ;  whereas  fresh 
water  is  more  pure  and  unmixt.  1<I. 

Virgil,  after  Homer's  example,  gives  us  a  trans- 
formation of  vKneas's  ships  into  teanymphs.  Id. 

The  situations  of  the  parts  of  the  earth  are  better 
learned  by  a  map  or  seachart,  than  reading  the  de- 
scription. Walli 

Seamen,  through  dismal  storms,  are  wont 
To  pass  the  oyster-breeding  Hellespont.        Evelyn. 

The  seacow  is  of  the  cetaceous  kind.  It  grows  to 
fifteen  feet  long,  and  to  seven  or  eight  in  circum- 
feieuce :  its  head  is  like  that  of  a  hog,  but  longer 
and  more  cylindrick :  its  eyes  are  small,  and  it  has 
no  external  ears,  but  only  two  little  apertures.  Its 
lips  are  thick,  and  it  has  two  long  tusks  stanaing 


Id. 


Id. 


S     E     A. 


707 


Out.  It  has  two  fins,  which  stand  forward  on  the 
breast  like  hands,  whence  the  Spaniards  called  it 
manatee.  The  female  has  two  round  breasts  placed 
between  the  pectoral  fins.  The  skin  is  very  thick 
and  hard,  and  not  scaly,  but  hairy.  Hill's  Mat.  JUed. 

The  species  are  teaholly,  or  eryngo.  Common 
eryngo.  The  roots  of  the  first  are  candied,  and  sent 
to  London  for  medicinal  use,  being  the  true  eryngo. 

Id. 

SEA,  in  a  strict  sense,  signifies  a  large  portion 
of  water  almost  surrounded  by  land,  as  the  Baltic 
and  Mediterranean  seas ;  but  it  is  frequently 
used  for  that  vast  body  of  water  which  encom- 
passes the  whole  earth. 

What  proportion  the  superficies  of  the  sea 
hears  to  that  of  the  land  cannot  be  ascertained 
with  exactness.  Buffon  has  supposed  that  the 
surface  of  our  globe  is  equally  divided  between 
land  and  water,  and  has  accordingly  calculated 
the  superficies  of  the  sea  to  be  85,490,506  square 
miles.  But  it  is  now  well  known  that  the  ocean 
covers  more  than  the  half  of  the  earth's  surface. 
The  French  naturalist  believed  in  the  existence 
of  a  vast  southern  continent,  which  captain  Cook 
has  shown  to  be  visionary.  It  was  this  "ircum- 
stance  which  misled  him.  The  sea  occupies,  ac- 
cording to  Le  Brun  and  the  best  modern  writers, 
about  six-tenths  of  the  earth's  surface.  See  our 
articles  OCEAN  and  GEOGRAPHY.  To  ascertain 
the  depth  of  the  sea  is  still  more  difficult  than 
its  superficies,  both  on  account  of  the  numerous 
experiments  which  it  would  be  necessary  to  make, 
and  the  want  of  proper  instruments  for  that  pur- 
pose. The  sea  is  often  found  unfathomable ;  and, 
though  several  methods  have  been  contrived  to 
average  its  depth,  none  of  them  has  completely 
answered  the  purpose.  We  know  in  general 
that  the  depth  of  the  sea  increases  gradually  as 
we  leave  the  shore ;  but,  if  this  continued  beyond 
a  certain  distance,  the  depth  in  the  middle  of 
the  ocean  would  be  prodigious.  Indeed,  the  nu- 
merous islands  every  where  scattered  in  the  sea 
demonstrate  the  contrary,  by  showing  us  that  the 
bottom  of  the  water  is  unequal  like  the  land, 
and  that,  so  far  from  uniformly  sinking,  it  some- 
times rises  into  lofty  mountains.  If  the  depth 
of  the  sea  be  in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of 
the  land,  as  has  been  generally  supposed,  its 
greatest  depth  will  not  excee'd  five  or  six  miles, 
for  there  is  no  mountain  six  miles  perpendicular 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  sea  has  never 
been  actually  sounded  to  a  depth  much  exceeding 
a  mile ;  every  thing  beyond  therefore  rests  en- 
tirely upon  conjecture  and  analogical  reasoning, 
which  ought  never  to  be  admitted  to  determine 
a  single  point  that  can  be  ascertained  by  experi- 
ment. Along  the  coasts,  where  the  depth  of  the 
sea  is  in  general  well  known,  it  has  ahvays  been 
found  proportioned  to  the  height  of  the  shore : 
when  the  coast  is  high  and  mountainous,  the  sea 
that  washes  it  is  deep;  when,  on  the  contrary, 
the  coast  is  low,  the  water  is  shallow.  Whether 
this  analogy  holds  at  a  distance  from  the  shore, 
experiments  alone  can  determine. 

To  calculate  the  quantity  of  water  contained 
in  the  sea,  while  its  depth  is  unknown,  is  of 
course  impossible.  But,  if  we  suppose  with 
Buffon,  that  its  medium  depth  is  the  fourth  part 
of  a  mile,  the  ocean,  if  its  superficies  be 


128,235,759  square  miles,  will  then  contain 
32,058,939,75  cubic  miles  of  water.  Let  us 
now  endeavour  to  compute  the  quantity  of  wa- 
ter which  is  constantly  discharged  into  the  sea. 
For  this  purpose  let  us  take  a  river  whose  velo- 
city and  quantity  of  water  is  known,  the  Po  for 
instance,  which  according  to  Riccioli  is  1000  feet 
(or  100  perches  of  Boulogne)  broad,  ten  feet 
deep,  and  runs  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  in  au 
hour  consequently  that  river  discharges  into  the 
sea  200,000  cubic  perches  of  water  in  an  hour, 
or  4,800,000  in  a  day.  A  cubic  mile  con- 
tains 125,000,000  cubic  perches;  the  Po  there- 
fore will  take  twenty-six  days  to  discharge  a 
cubic  mile  of  water  into  the  sea.  Let  us  now 
suppose,  what  is  perhaps  not  very  far  from  the 
truth,  that  the  quantity  of  water  which  the  sea 
receives  from  the  rivers  in  any  country  is  pro- 
portioned to  the  extent  of  that  country.  The 
Po,  from  its  origin  to  its  mouth,  traverses  a 
country  380  miles  long,  and  the  rivers  which  fall 
into  it  on  every  side  rise  from  sources  about 
sixty  miles  distant  from  it.  The  Po  therefore, 
and  the  rivers  which  it  receives,  water  a  country 
of  45,600  square  miles.  Now,  since  the  whole 
superficies  of  the  dry  land  is  about  42,745,253 
square  miles,  it  fohows,  from  our  supposition, 
that  the  quantity  of  water  discharged  by  all  the 
rivers  in  the  world,  in  one  day,  is  thirty-six  cubic 
miles,  and  in  a  year  13,140.  If  therefore  the 
sea  contains  32,058,939  cubic  miles  of  water,  it 
would  take  all  the  rivers  in  the  world  2439  years 
to  discharge  an  equal  quantity. 

It  may  seem  surprising  that  the  sea,  since  it  is 
continually  receiving  an  immense  supply  of  water, 
does  not  visibly  increase,  and  at  last  cover  the  whole 
earth.  But  our  surprise  will  cease,  if  we  con- 
sider that  the  rivers  themselves  are  supplied  from 
the  sea,  and  that  they  do  nothing  more  than  carry 
back  those  waters  which  the  ocean  is  continually 
lavishing  upon  the  earth.  Dr.  Halley  has  de- 
monstrated that  the  vapors  raised  from  the  sea, 
and  transported  upon  land,  are  sufficient  to  main- 
tain all  the  rivers  in  the  world.  The  simplicity 
of  this  great  process  is  astonishing ;  the  sea  not 
only  connects  distant  countries,  and  renders  it 
easy  to  transport  the  commodities  of  one  nation 
to  another,  but  its  waters  rising  in  the  air  descend 
in  showers  to  fertilise  the  earth,  and  nourish  the 
vegetable  kingdom;  and,  collecting  into  rivers, 
flow  onwards,  bringing  fertility,  and  wealth,  and 
commerce,  along  with  them,  and  again  return  to 
the  sea  to  repeat  the  same  round.  The  know- 
ledge of  this  process  of  nature  might,  one  would 
think,  have  convinced  philosophers  that  the  pro- 
portion between  sea  and  land  continued  always 
nearly  the  same.  They  however  have  formed 
different  theories  about  this  as  well  as  most  other 
subjects,  maintaining  on  the  one  hand  that  the 
sea  is  continually  encroaching  on  the  land,  and, 
on  the  other,  that  the  land  is  constantly  gaining 
on  the  sea.  Both  sides  have  supported  their 
theories  by  arguments,  demonstrations,  and  in- 
controvertible facts !  The  height  of  the  moun- 
tains, say  the  philosophers  who  support  the 
encroachments  of  the  sea,  is  continually  diminish- 
ing; exposed  to  the  violence  of  every  storm,  the 
hardest  rocks  must  at  last  give  way  and  tumble 
down.  The  rivers  are  continually  sweeping 

2  Z  2 


08 


SEA. 


along  with  them  particles  of  earth  which  they 
deposit  in  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Both  the  depth 
of  the  ocean  then,  and  the  height  of  the  dry 
lard,  must  be  always  decreasing;  the  waters 
therefore  roust,  unless  a  part  of  them  were  anni- 
hilated, spread  over  a  greater  extent  of  surface 
in  proportion  as  these  causes  operate.  This  rea- 
soning, convincing  as  it  is,  might  be  confirmed 
by  a  great  number  of  facts :  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient, however,  to  mention  one  or  two.  In  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  the  Isle  of  Wight  made  a  part 
of  Britain,  so  that  the  English  crossed  over  to  it 
at  low  water  with  cart  loads  of  tin :  yet  that  is- 
land is  at  present  separated  from  Britain  by  a 
channel  half  a  mile  wide*  The  Godwin  sands 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  England  were  formerly 
the  fertile  estate  of  earl  Godwin.  Nor  are  the 
encroachments  of  the  sea  confined  to  Britain. 
In  the  bay  of  Baise,  near  Naples,  there  are  re- 
mains of  nouses  and  streets  still  visible  below 
the  present  level  of  the  sea.  The  sea  therefore 
is  making  continual  encroachments  upon  the 
land ;  and  the  time  will  come,  say  they,  when 
the  waters  will  again  cover  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  Such  are  the  arguments  of  those  philo- 
sophers who  maintain  the  continual  encroach- 
ments of  the  sea.  Those  who  maintain  the  op- 
posite theory,  that  the  land  is  continually  gaining 
on  the  sea,  though  they  pretend  not  to  deny  the 
facts  advanced  by  their  opponents,  affirm  that 
they  are  altogether  insufficient  to  establish  their 
hypothesis.  Though  the  rivers  carry  down  par- 
ticles of  earth  into  the  sea,  these,  say  they,  are 
either  accumulated  on  other  shores,  or,  collect- 
ing in  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  harden  into  stone, 
which,  being  possessed  of  a  vegetative  power, 
rises  by  degrees  above  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
and  form  rocks,  and  mountains,  and  islands. 
The  vegetative  nature  of  stone  indeed  is  suffi- 
cient, of  itself,  to  convince  us  that  the  quantity 
of  earth  must  be  daily  accumulating,  and  conse- 
quently that  the  surface  of  the  sea  is  dimi- 
nishing in  extent.  Celsius,  a  Swedish  philoso- 
pher (for  this  dispute  has  been  carried  on  in 
Sweden  with  the  greatest  keenness),  has  endea- 
voured to  build  this  theory  with  more  solid 
materials  than  vegetable  stone.  In  a  curious 
memoir,  published  in  1743,  he  asserts  that  the 
Baltic  and  the  Atlantic,  at  least  that  part  of  it 
which  washes  Norway,  is  constantly  diminishing; 
and  he  proves  this  by  the  testimony  of  many 
aged  pilots  and  fishermen,  who  affirmed  that  the 
sea  was  become  much  shallower  in  many  places 
than  it  had  been  during  their  youth ;  that  many 
rocks  formerly  covered  with  water  were  now 
several  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea ;  that 
loaded  vessel.s  used  formerly  to  ride  in  many 
places  where  pinnaces  and  barks  could  now  with 
difficulty  swim.  He  produces  instances  of 
ancient  sea-port  towns  now  several  leagues  from 
the  shore,  and  of  anchors  and  wrecks  of  vessels 
found  far  within  the  country.  He  mentions  a 
particular  rock,  which  168  years  before  was  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sea,  but  was  then  raised  eight 
feet  above  its  surface.  In  another  place,  where 
the  water  fifty  years  before  had  reached  to  the 
knee,  there  was  then  none.  Several  rocks  too, 
which,  during  the  infancy  of  some  old  pilots, 
had  been  two  fret  under  wnter,  were  then  three 


feet  alwve  it.  From  all  these  obserrations,  M. 
Celsius  concludes  that  the  water  of  the  Baltic 
decreases  in  height  four  lines  and  a  half  in  a 
year,  four  inches  five  lines  in  eighteen  years, 
four  feet  five  inches  in  100  years,  and  in  1000 
years  forty-five  feet.  Conscious,  however,  that 
these  facts,  how  conclusive  soever  as  far  as 
relates  to  the  Baltic,  can  never  determine  the 
general  question,  M.  Celsius  advances  another 
argument  in  support  of  his  theory.  All  that 
quantity  of  moisture,  says  he,  which  is  imbibed 
by  plants,  is  lost  to  the  general  mass  of  water, 
being  converted  into  earth  by  the  putrefaction  of 
vegetables.  This  notion  had  been  mentioned  by 
Newton,  and  was  adopted  by  Van  Helmont ;  if 
granted,  it  follows  as  a  consequence  that  the 
earth  is  continually  increasing,  and  the  water 
diminishing  in  a  very  rapid  degree.  Such  are 
the  arguments  advanced  in  support  of  both 
theories ;  for  it  is  needless  to  mention  a  notion 
of  Linnaeus,  that  the  whole  earth  was  formerly 
covered  with  water,  except  a  single  mountain. 
When  fairly  weighed  they  amount  to  nothing 
more  than  this,  that  the  sea  has  encroached  upon 
the  land  in  some  places,  and  retired  in  others ; 
a  conclusion  which  we  are  very  willing  to  allow. 
What  was  advanced  by  those  philosophers  who 
maintain  that  the  sea  is  continually  encroaching 
on  the  land,  about  the  depth  of  the  sea  con- 
stantly diminishing,  must  remain  a  mere  asser- 
tion till  they  prove  by  experiments,  either  that  it 
is  really  the  case,  or  that  nature  has  no  way  of 
restoring  those  particles  of  earth  which  are 
washed  down  by  the  rivers.  Nor  have  they  any 
good  reason  to  affirm  that  the  height  of  the 
mountains  is  decreasing.  Can  a  single  instance 
be  produced  ?  Are  the  Alps  or  the  Appennines, 
or  Taurus,  or  Caucasus,  less  lofty  now  than  they 
were  1 000  years  ago  ?  We  mean  not  to  deny 
that  the  rain  actually  washes  down  particles  of 
earth  from  the  mountains,  nor  to  affirm  that  the 
hardest  rocks  are  able  to  resist  continual  storms, 
nor  that  many  mountains  have  suffered,  and  con- 
tinue to  suffer  daily,  from  a  thousand  accidents. 
But  the  effects  produced  by  all  these  causes  are 
so  trifling  as  to  be  altogether  imperceptible. 
Nature  has  assiduously  guarded  against  such 
accidents;  she  has  formed  the  mountains  of  the 
mo*t  durable  materials;  and,  where  they  are 
covered  with  earth,  she  has  bound  it  together  by 
a  thick  and  firm  matting  of  grass,  and  thus  se- 
cured it  from  the  rains  ;  and  should  accident 
deprive  it  of  this  covering,  she  takes  care  imme- 
diately to  supply  the  defect.  Even  should  the 
earth  be  swept  away,  together  with  its  coveting, 
nature  has  still  such  resources  left  as  frequently 
restore  things  to  their  former  state.  Many  kinds 
of  moss,  one  would  be  tempted  to  think,  have 
been  created  for  this  very  purpose;  they  take 
root  and  flourish  almost  upon  the  bare  rock,  and 
furnish  as  they  decay  a  sufficient  bed  for  several 
of  the  hardy  Alpine  plants.  These  perish  in 
their  turn,  and  others  succeed  them.  The  roots 
of  the  plants  bind  fast  the  earth  as  it  accumu- 
lates, more  plants  spring  up  and  spread  wider, 
till  by  degrees  the  whole' surface  is  covered  with 
a  firm  coat  of  grass.  Even  the  rain,  which 
always  contains  in  it  a  good  deal  of  earth,  con- 
tributes something  to  hasten  tlie  process.  As 


S     E     A. 


-09 


t'ie  vegetation  of  stone  is  now,  we  believe,  given 
up  by  all  parties,  it  is  needless  to  take  any  far- 
ther notice  of  it  here.  See  STONE.  The  hypo- 
thesis of  M.  Celsius,  that  water  is  converted  into 
mrth,  has  also  shared  the  same  fate,  because  it 
\vas  unsupported  by  experiment,  and  contrary  to 
every  thing  that  we  know  either  about  earth  or 
water.  It  is  a  little  extraordinary  that  philoso- 
phers have  been  so  lavish  of  water  as  to  convert 
it  in  this  manner  into  stone  and  earth,  when 
they  had  given  it,  one  would  think,  sufficient 
employment  before  in  making  new  worlds,  and 
in  confuting  Moses. 

The  sea  contains  the  greatest  quantity  of  salt 
in  the  torrid  gone,  where  otherwise,  from  the 
excessive  heat,  it  would  be  in  danger  of  putre- 
faction ;  as  we  advance  northward  this  quantity 
diminishes,  till  at  the  pole  it  nearly  vanishes 
altogether.  Under  the  line  Lucas  found  that  the 
sea  contained  a  seventh  part  of  solid  contents, 
consisting  chiefly  of  sea  salt.  At  Harwich  he 
found  it  yielded  one-twenty-fifth  of  sea-salt.  At 
Carlscroon,  in  Sweden,  it  contains  one-thirtieth 
part,  and  on  the  coast  of  Greenland  a  great  deal 
less.  This  deficiency  of  salt  near  the  poles  pro- 
bably contributes  a  good  deal  towards  the  pro- 
digious quantities  of  ice  which  are  met  with  in 
these  seas ;  for  salt  water  requires  a  much 
greater  degree  of  cold  to  freeze  it  than  fresh 
water.  It  was  this  circumstance,  probably, 
together  with  its  constant  motion,  which  induced 
the  ancients  to  believe  that  the  sea  never  froze. 
Even  among  the  moderns,  it  has  been  a  generally 
received  opinion  that  sea-ice  is  originally  formed 
in  rivers.  Buftbn  has  made  the  great  quantities 
of  ice  with  which  the  South  Sea  abounds  an  ar- 
gument for  the  existence  of  a  continent  nearer 
the  Antarctic  pole.  But  it  is  now  well  known 
that  great  quantities  of  ice  are  formed  at  a  dis- 
tance from  land.  Sea-ice  is  of  two  kinds :  field- 
ice  which  extends  along  the  shore,  and  is  only 
two  or  three  feet  thick  ;  and  mountain  ice,  which 
abounds  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean.  The  size 
of  these  mountains  is  sometimes  prodigious. 
The  sea-ice  is  always  fresh,  and  lias  been  often 
of  great  use  to  navigators.  The  weight  of  sea- 
water  is  to  that  of  river  water  as  seventy-three  to 
seventy ;  that  is,  a  cubic  foot  of  sea-water  weighs 
seventy-three  pounds,  while  the  same  quantity 
of  riVer-water  weighs  only  seventy  pounds ;  but 
this  proportion  varies  in  different  places.  It  is 
worthy  of  our  attention,  too,  that  the  water  at 
the  surface  of  the  sea  contains  less  salt  than  near 
the  bottom ;  the  difference  indeed  is  inconsider- 
able, but  still  it  is  something.  The  compte  de 
Marsigli  found  the  same  quantity  of  water,  when 
taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  Mediterranean,  to 
weigh  one  ounce,  three  penny-weights,  fifty-one 
grains ;  whereas  from  the  surface  it  weighed  only 
one  ounce,  three  penny-weights,  forty-nine  grains. 
He  repeated  the  experiment  frequently  with 
nearly  the  same  result ;  but  see  OCEAN. 

As  the  sea  covers  so  great  a  portion  of  the 
globe,  we  should,  no  doubt,  by  exploring  its 
bottom,  discover  a  vast  number  of  interesting 
particulars.  Unfortunately,  in  the  greater  part 
of  the  ocean,  this  has  hitherto  been  impossible. 
Part,  however,  has  been  examined;  and  the  dis- 
coveries which  this  examination  has  produced. 


may  enable  us  to  form  some  idea  of  the  whole. 
The  bottom  of  the  sea  bears  a*  great  resemblance 
to  the  surface  of  the  dry  land,  being,  like  it,  full 
of  plains,  rocks,  caverns,  and  mountains;  some 
of  which  are  abrupt,  and  almost  perpendicular, 
while  others  rise  with  a  gentle  declivity,  and 
sometimes  tower  above  the  water,  and  form 
islands.  Neither  do  the  materials  differ  which 
compose  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  the  basis  of 
the  dry  land.  If  we  dig  to  a  considerable  depth 
in  any  part  of  the  earth,  we  uniformly  meet  with 
rock;  the  same  thing  holds  in  the  sea.  The 
strata,  too,  are  of  the  same  kind,  disposed  in  the 
same  manner,  and  form  indeed  but  one  whole. 
The  same  kind  of  mineral  and  bituminous  sub- 
stances are  also  found  interspersed  with  these 
strata ;  and  it  is  to  them  probably  that  the  sea  is 
indebted  for  its  bitter  taste.  Over  these  natural 
and  original  strata,  an  artificial  bed  has  pretty 
generally  been  formed,  composed  of  different 
materials  in  different  places.  It  consists  fre- 
quently of  muddy  tartareous  substances  firmly 
cemented  together,  sometimes  of  shells  or  coral 
reduced  to  powder,  and  near  the  mouths  of 
rivers  it  is  generally  composed  of  fine  sand  or 
gravel.  The  bottom  of  the  sea  resembles  the 
land  likewise  in  another  particular;  many  fresh 
springs, and  even  rivers  rise  out  of  it,  which,  dis- 
placing the  salt  water,  render  the  lower  part  of 
sea,  wherever  they  abound,  quite  fresh.  An 
instance  of  this  kind  occurs  near  Goa,  on  the 
western  coast  of  Indostan,  and  another  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  not  far  from  Marseilles. 
These  facts  occasioned  a  notion,  which  later 
experiments  have  exploded,  that  the  sea  beyon-l 
a  certain  depth  was  always  fresh.  Substances 
of  i  very  beautiful  appearance  are  frequently 
brought  up  by  the  sounding  line  from  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  The  plummet  is  hollowed  below, 
and  this  cavity  filled  with  tallow,  to  which  some 
of  the  substances  adhere  which  form  the  bed  of 
the  ocean.  These  are  generally  sand,  gravel, 
or  mud  ;  but  they  are  sometimes  of  the  brightest 
scarlet,  vermilion,  purple,  and  yellow ;  and 
sometimes,  though  less  frequently,  they  are  blue, 
green,  or  white.  These  colors  are  owing  to  a 
kind  of  jelly  which  envelopes  the  substances, 
and  vanish  entirely  as  soon  as  this  jelly  dries. 
At  times,  however,  they  assume  the  appearance 
of  tartareous  crusts,  and  are  then  so  permanent 
that  they  can  be  received  into  white  wax  melted 
and  poured  round  them,  and  perhaps  by  proper 
care  might  be  converted  into  valuable  paints. 

For  the  temperature,  color,  &c.,  of  the  sea,  and 
other  interesting  phenomena  respecting  it,  see 
the  articles  OCEAN  and  GEOGRAPHY. 

\Ve  have  to  add  however  the  result  of  some 
interesting  experiments  on  the  specific  gravity 
of  sea-water  by  Dr.  Traill  of  Liverpool,  and 
some  remarks  on  the  same  subject,  and  on  the 
temperature  of  the  sea  at  different  depths,  made 
by  Dr.  J.  C.  Horner,  the  naturalist  to  the  expe- 
dition of  discovery  lately  undertaken  by  Kot- 
zebue : — 

'  In  the  course  of  some  experiments  on  the 
specific  gravity  of  different  fluids.'  says  the  first 
of  these  gentlemen,  '  I  had  occasion  to  examine 
sea-water  drawn  in  different  latitudes,  and  from 
various  depths  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  re- 


710 


SEA. 


suit  is  somewhat  remarkable;  and,  though  the 
number  of  my  experiments  may  not  entitle  me 
to  deduce  from  them  a  general  law,  yet  their 
publication  may  excite  the  attention  of  those  who 
have  opportunities  of  repeating  them.  The 
specimens  of  sea-water  were  procured  at  my 
request  by  nautical  friends  some  time  ago ;  but 
all  were  taken  up  within  the  same  year.  Each 
specimen  filled  a  common  glass  bottle,  and  had 
a  label  immediately  affixed  to  it,  indicating  the 
place  where  it  was  obtained.  The  water,  from 
considerable  depths,  for  want  of  better  appa- 
ratus, was  procured  by  the  following  contri- 
vance. It  was  found  that  a  bottle  might  be  so 
corked  as  to  prevent  the  admission  of  water, 
until  the  pressure  of  the  superincumbent  co- 
lumn, on  sinking  it  by  an  attached  weight,  pushed 
the  cork  inwards,  when  the  escape  of  the  air, 
and  the  filling  of  the  bottle  with  water,  again 
forced  the  cork  into  its  neck,  and  thus  obviated 
the  change  of  displacement  of  the  included  wa- 
ter, as  the  bottle  was  drawn  upward.  The  pres- 
sure required  to  force  the  cork  being  ascertained 
by  previous  experiment,  the  bottle,  thus  pre- 
pared, was  sunk  to  the  requisite  depth ;  and, 
after  remaining  there  for  half  an  hour  or  more, 
was  drawn  up  and  immediately  secured. 

'  My  experiments  were  carefully  conducted 
by  means  of  a  delicate  balance,  and  a  thin  flask, 
capable  of  holding  upwards  of  1050  grains  of 
distilled  water,  when  its  ground  stopper  was 
adjusted.  A  bottle  of  distilled  water,  and  all 
the  specimens  of  sea-water,  were  reduced  to  the 
same  temperature,  by  being  placed  for  many 
days  on  the  same  table,  in  a  room  without  a  fire ; 
and,  to  prevent  error  from  this  source,  each  liquid 
was  examined  by  a  good  thermometer  previously 
to  the  experiment.  The  weight  of  the  distilled 
water  bearing  the  same  ratio  to  the  weight  of  an 
equal  volume  of  the  other  fluids,  as  1-0000  to  the 
sought  specific  gravities,  is  the  simple  formula 
from  which  the  following  table  is  deduced  : — 
Table  of  Specific  Gravities  at  Temperature  51° 
Fahrenheit. 

1.  Sea-water  drawn  from  the  surface,  lat.  47° 

47'  N.,  long.  10°  40'  W.       .         =  1-0277 

2.  Ditto  from  die  depth  of  forty  fathoms,  ditto, 

ditto  ....=:  1-0280 

3.  Ditto  from  the  surface,  lat.  37°  N.,  long.  9° 

W.  off  Cape  St.  Vincent      .         =  1-0281 

4.  Ditto   from    the   surface,   Maderia,  bearing 

north-east  distance,  sixteen  leag«  esn  1-0284 

5.  Ditto  from  the  depth  of  forty  fatnoms  in  the 

same  spot  =  1-0286 

6.  Ditto  from  the  depth  of  thirty-six  fathoms, 

lat.  26°  N.,  long.  64°  W.,  during  a  voyage 
to  Demerara  =  1-0287 

7.  Ditto  from  the  surface,  lat.  92°  11'  N.,  longi- 

tude not  given ;  but,  as  it  was  in  the  same 
voyage  as  No.  6,  it  was  probably  more,  to 
the  west  =  1-0289 

8.  Ditto  from  the  surface,  lat.  8°  20*  N.,  longi- 

tude not  given  ;  but  as  the  three  last  num- 
bers were  obtained  in  the  same  voyage  to 
Demerara,  and  this  one,  at  my  request,  was 
taken  when  the  captain  supposed  that  he 
would  make  land  in  a  day  or  two,  there  can 
i  be  little  doubt  of  the  ship  being  at  this  time 
just  off  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  —  1-0267 


In  calculating  these  specific  gravities,  I  had 
carried  them  to  several  decimal  places  farther ; 
but  I  have  suppressed  these  in  the  Table,  be- 
cause it  might  appear  an  affectation  of  accuracy 
which  the  case  does  not  admit ;  for  the  differ- 
ence of  a  single  one-tenth  of  a  grain  in  weighing 
each  fluid  in  the  above  experiments,  would  make 
a  difference  of  nearly  jgjjggth  in  their  specific 
gravities  ;  or  would  alter  the  last  figure  of  the 
present  decimal  series. 

The  inferences  to  which  these  experiments  lead 
are,  1st.  That  the  specific  gravity  of  the  waters 
of  the  Atlantic  increases  as  we  approach  the 
equator.  2d.  That  the  specific  gravity  of  sea- 
water  increases  with  the  depth  from  which  it  is 
drawn. 

The  only  exception  in  the  table  to  the  first  in- 
ference is  No.  8 ;  but  the  great  diminution  of 
density  here  observed  is  undoubtedly  owing  to 
the  vast  mass  of  rushing  water  poured  into  the 
ocean  by  the  Orinoco,  the  stream  of  which  is 
said  to  discolor  the  sea  many  leagues  from  land, 
and  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  shore  to 
preserve  the  freshness  of  its  current. 

The  results  of  captain  Scoresby's  experiments, 
on  the  specific  gravity  of  sea-water,  seem  to 
agree  with  the  inferences  above  mentioned.  This 
intelligent  navigator  found  that  the  density  of 
the  waters  of  the  ocean,  near  the  meridian  of 
Greenwich,  gradually  diminished  from  lat.  57° 
42'  N.,  to  lat.  66°  45';  being  at  the  former 
1-0280,  at  the  latter  1-0263.  In  higher  lati- 
tudes, or  in  confined  seas,  we  cannot  expect  to 
find  a  uniformity  in  such  results  ;  for  the  influ- 
ence of  the  ice  in  the  one,  and  of  situation  in 
the  other,  are  sufficient  to  conceal  such  minute 
differences.  On  referring  to  his  valuable  work, 
an  examination  of  his  experiments  on  the  den- 
sity of  sea- water,  at  different  depths,  will  con- 
firm also  the  second  inference.  The  few  excep- 
tions to  it  in  captain  Scoresby's  Table  may  be 
explained  by  the  influence  of  currents,  and  irre- 
gularities produced  by  the  neighbourhood  of  ice, 
which  is  known  to  exercise  a  powerful  influence 
on  the  atmosphere,  and  on  the  waters.  In  the 
prosecution  of  this  interesting  subject,  no  in- 
strument appears  more  admirably  adapted  to 
procure  water  from  any  required  depth,  without 
chance  of  error,  than  that  gentleman's  marine 
diver;  which,  with  simplicity  of  construction, 
unites  every  property  that  can  insure  accuracy  and 
convenience  in  those  delicate  investigations  for 
which  it  was  intended  by  its  ingenious  contriver. 

'  I  am  at  a  loss,  adds  this  writer,  what  reason 
to  assign  for  the  increased  density  of  water 
brought  up  from  considerable  depths;  unless, 
according  to  a  suggestion  offered  by  my  friend 
Dr.  Brewster,  it  may  be  owing  to  the  imperfect 
elasticity  of  water,  which  prevents  its  particles, 
when  compressed  by  the  superincumbent  co- 
lumn, from  regaining  their  original  condition, 
when  the  pressure  is  removed.  A  curious  series 
of  experiments  might  be  made  on  the  mecha- 
nical compression  of  wnter,  by  employing  the 
bathometer  of  Mr.  Perkins,  the  inventor  of  the 
method  of  multiplying  copper-plates  by  engra- 
ving <>ii  sipi-l.  In  this  machine,  water  enclosed 
in  ;i  brass  tube,  the  sides  of  which  need  not  ex 
ceed  one-tentli  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  is  com- 


SEA. 


711 


pressed  by  a  solid  piston,  sliding  in  a  leather 
collar,  and  acted  on  by  the  superincumbent  co- 
lumn when  sunk  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean. 
This  seems  one  of  the  simplest  means  of  pro- 
ducing an  immense  pressure ;  and,  when  con- 
versing with  Mr.  Perkins,  I  remember  his  stating 
that  the  piston  did  not  exactly  return  to  its  ori- 
ginal position,  on  bringing  up  the  instrument.' 

Dr.  Horner  has  embodied  the  result  of  his 
observations  in  a  table  which  demonstrates  the 
facts  also  proved  by  the  experiments  of  Kru- 
senstern's  voyage,  that  the  sea  on  the  surface, 
between  the  tropics,  is  specifically  heavier,  and 
that  it  contains  more  salt,  than  in  higher  lati- 
tudes. If  we  take  together  the  statements  from 
'25°  S.  as  far  as  25°  N.  lat.,  and  in  the  same  man- 
ner, from  50°  to  65°  of  N.  lat.,  the  mean  of  the  first 
is  1-0288,  that  of  the  latter  1-0245,  which  gives 
the  difference  of  0-0043  or  ^.  But  this  by  no 
means  proves  an  absolute  inequality  in  the  salt- 
ness  of  the  water  in  general.  To  give  a  decided 
opinion  on  it,  the  sea-svater  must  be  fetched  up 
from  considerable  depths,  and  weighed.  Pro- 
bably the  greater  saltness  arises  from  the  rapid 
decrease  of  the  fresh  water,  in  consequence  of 
evaporation.  From  the  well  known  slowness  of 
the  transition  of  chemical  elements,  in  undis- 
turbed compounds,  this  decrease  is  but  slowly 
repaired ;  and,  as  the  upper  layers  are  also  the 
warmer,  they  may,  notwithstanding  their  greater 
specific  density,  in  consequence  of  their  extent, 
be  maintained  by  the  warm  swimming  above  the 
lower  cooler  layers,  by  which  a  principal  agent 
of  commixture,  the  difference  of  weight,  is  ren- 
dered of  no  effect.  The  slowness  of  change, 
and  the  condensation  of  the  saline  solution  at 
the  surface,  which  results  from  it,  has  the  advan- 
tage that  the  acceleration  of  the  evaporation  sets 
bounds  to  itself,  because,  with  the  increasing 
condensation,  the  attraction  of  the  salt  to  the 
parts  of  the  water  is  greater,  and,  consequently, 
the  diminution  of  the  latter  less.  Without  this 
arrangement  the  tropical  seas  would  perhaps  be 
covered,  like  the  frozen  seas  of  the  north,  with 
constant  fogs.  Subsequent  experiments  will 
show  how  far  our  explanation  of  this  inequality 
is  correct ;  of  which  we  have  now  more  hopes, 
as  convenient  accurate  apparatus  have  been  dis- 
covered to  fetch  up  water  from  any  depth,  at 
pleasure,  and  unmixed. 

The  considerable  number  of  observations 
(there  are  116  of  them)  on  the  temperature  of 
the  sea  below  the  surface,  their  extent  over  wa- 
ters of  the  ocean  remote  from  each  other,  and 
probably,  also,  their  accuracy,  give  them  a  de- 
cided claim  to  the  attention  of  the  natural  philo- 
sopher; and  the  perseverance  with  which  they 
were  continued,  under  various  circumstances, 
does  honor,  as  well  to  the  naturalist  of  the  expe- 
dition, as  to  the  commander,  who  not  only  in 
calms,  but  in  some  periods  almost  daily,  afforded 
the  necessary  assistance.  They  were  all  made 
\vith  Six's  Thermometer,  which  is  a  good  assu- 
rance of  their  accuracy.  It  is  certainly  remark- 
able that  an  instrument  so  simple,  so  convenient 
in  the  use,  so  certain  in  the  results,  and  which 
has  been  long  known,  is  not  more  frequently  used 
for  this  purpose;  so  that  in  the  latest  scientific 
voyages  much  more  uncertain  thermometers 


have  been  used,  to  which  only  the  deep  sea  clamni 
of  captain  Ross  forms  an  exception.  Our  ob- 
servations fall  under  two  heads :  measurements 
of  the  temperature  in  different  depths,  in  the 
same  places  of  the  ocean,  and  in  statements  of 
the  warmth  in  the  usual  soundings,  from  sixty  to 
eighty  fathoms,  in  different  places. 

The  most  complete  observations  on  the  changes 
of  the  temperature,  in  increasing  depths,  are,  in 
the  South  Sea,  of  the  13th  and  14th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1817,  in  36°  N.  lat.,  and  148°  W.  long. 
Besides  confirming  the  general  law,  that  the  cold 
increases  with  the  depth,  they  also  afford  the 
following  results: — 1.  The  upper  parts  of  the 
water  show  a  particular  warmth,  as  the  temper- 
ature, in  the  first  eight  fathoms,  diminished  only 
0°  4',  R.,  but  from  that  depth  to  twenty -five  fa- 
thoms full  6°,  R.  From  twenty-five  to  100  fa- 
thorns'  depth  the  decrease  of  warmth  is  consider- 
ably less,  since  in  the  next  twenty-five  fathoms, 
it  is  only  1°  7',  R.,  and  in  the  next  fifty  fathoms 
only  1°  5', R.;  a  decrease  which  amounts  to  only 
the  tenth  part  of  the  preceding.  It  is  still  slowei 
between  100  and  300  fathoms.  2.  If  we  com- 
pare these  observations  with  those  of  the  6th  of 
June  1816,  in  37°  N.  and  in  199°  W.  long., 
consequently  in  the  same  parallel  of  latitude, 
the  influence  of  the  season  is  particularly  ob- 
servable in  the  temperature  on  the  surface, 
which  in  June  is  13°,  R.,  in  September  18°  R. 
It,  however,  does  not  go  much  deeper  than  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty  fathoms;  and  at  100  fathoms 
it  is  already  within  the  limits  of  the  accuracy  of 
such  observations  ;  for  we  have 

f  6th  June  9°  4'  Reaum. 

For  100  fathoms  <  13th  September  9    4 

C  1 4th  September  8    6 

3.  A  certain  coincidence  with  these  rpsnlN, 
only  on  a  greater  scale,  is  shown  by  the  expf  n- 
ments  of  the  15th  of  November,  1817,  in  9°  N. 
lat.,  and  205°  W.  long.,  in  which  the  temperature 
decreases  from  the   surface   to   about   sixty  or 
seventy  fathoms,  rapidly  and    uniformly,   from 
24°  7',  R.,  to  8°  8',  R.     From  nine  to  ]  0 1  fathoms, 
this  rapid  decrease,  instead  of   proceeding,   is 
suddenly  reduced  to  the  small  amount  of  0°  9', 
R.     But  if  we  compare  these  observations  with 
those  immediately  preceding  and  succeeding  them 
of  the  13th,  14th,  and  17th,  of  November,  we 
shall  hesitate  to  draw  from  them  decisive  con- 
clusions. 

4.  The  observations  of  the  13th  of  April, 
1816,  in   15°S.,  and  130°  W.,  follow  a  quite 
different  course  from  those  in  September,  1817, 
in  36°  N.     The  decrease  of  warmth  from  the 
surface,  to  as  far  as  100  fathoms'  depth,  is  much 
more  inconsiderable,  being  here  only  3°  6',  there 
nearly  treble,  namely,  9°  4',   R.      It  becomes 
more  considerable  between  100  and  200  fathoms, 
namely,  8°  8',  R.     Remarkable  as  this  inequality 
is,  it  yet  seems  impossible  to  ascribe  it  to  an 
error  in  the  observation,  such  as  too  soon  draw- 
ing up  the  thermometer :    for,  on  the  one  hand, 
the  regular  course  of  the  experiments  of  the  14th 
of  September,  1817,  and  their  coincidence  with 
those  of  the  13th,  at  the  depths  of  0°  25'  and 
100  fathoms,  does  not  allow  us  to  suppose  any 
thing  of  the  kind ;    on  the  other  side,  the  obser- 
vations of  the   13th  of  April,  1816,  find   tlwir 


712 


SEA. 


confirmation  in  the  preceding  ones  of  the  7th 
of  April,  in  18°  S.,  which  give  a  difference  of  0 
to  125  fathoms  of  4°  8%  K.,  that  is,  from  0  to 
100  fathoms;  likewise  3°  8',  11.  The  same  ob- 
servations then  give  for  the  second  hundred  of 
the  depth  in  fathoms,  likewise  about  8°,  R.  It 
is  not  to  be  discovered  from  the  observations, 
whence  this  difference  in  the  progressive  de- 
crease of  the  warmth  arises.  It  cannot  well  be 
ascribed  to  the  influence  of  the  seasons,  at  least 
in  lat.  35°  N. :  the  observations  of  June  and 
September  show  an  agreement  with  each  other. 
The  reason  perhaps  is,  that  the  perpendicular 
rays  of  the  sun  penetrate  the  water,  between  the 
tropics,  to  a  greater  depth  than  in  latitudes 
where  the  sun  never  appears  in  the  zenith.  The 
place  of  constant  temperature,  independent  of 


the  seasons,  must  probably  lie  much  deeper  be- 
tween the  tropics  than  beyond  them. 

5.  The  observations  of  the  22nd  of  September 
1817,  in  28°  N.  lat.  and  in  152°  W.  long.,  seem 
to  present  a  much  more  uniform  course,  parti- 
cularly if  we  set  aside  the  statement  in  twenty- 
five  fathoms'  depth,  which  does  not  appear  to 
agree  with  the  higher  or  lower  observations.  We 
have  from  them  a  decrease  of  heat  of  3°  5'  R. 
for  the  first  fifty  fathoms  ;  3°  0'  R.  for  the  second 
fifty  fathoms,  and  4°  3'  R.  from  100  to  200. 

The  collective  observations  on  the  progress  of 
the  decrease  of  heat  were  made  in  tlie  Jfout!. 
From  the  Atlantic  Ocean  we  received  only  a  few 
insulated  statements  for  depths  of  100  to  200 
fathoms.  The  experiments  •>  i  oth  oceans  are 
arranged  in  the  following  Table : — 


WARMTH  of  the  SEA-WATER  at  different  depths,  arranged   according  to  the  Geographical 
Latitudes  in  degrees  of  Reaumur's  Thermometer. 


Month. 

Surface. 

70  to  90 
Fathoms. 

IJ 

3 
to 

5J 

to 

ij 

to 

5 

r1 
S 

Longitude. 

April     .     .     . 

21-0 
01.4 



17-2 
17-  ft 

9-9 

1O*ft 



18  S. 

1  £ 

125  \V. 

1  ^_I 

May      .    .    . 

22-6 



13-5 



1  N. 

177 

November  .     . 

24-5 
23*0 

H.i 

10-7 





9 

1  O 

204 

O1  ft 

In  the  South  Sea. 

December  .    . 

22-1 

12-8 

^___ 

____ 

_ 

16 

240 

01.7 

1  fi-r> 

1  Q 

September 

20-1 

13-0 

8-8 

_^__ 

28 

152 

June      .     .     . 

18-7 



13-5 



9-4 

29 

199 

September 

18-0 



9-3 

7-0 

5-4 

36 

147 

(4-8)* 

*  In  400  Fathoms. 

June     .     .     . 

13-0 



9-3 



5-0 

37 

199 

January     .     . 

10-4 





3-2 



44  S. 

57 

March  .     .     . 

17-3 



12-3 





34 

27 

In  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

April     .     .    . 

15-8 

12-8 



7-9 



31 

15 

October     .    . 

18-9 
lfi-4 



10-6 

n-f» 



SON. 

15 

The  temperatures,  in  the  usual  soundings  from 
seventy  to  eighty  fathoms,  appear,  on  account  of 
their  considerable  number,  from  which  mean 
numbers  may  be  deduced,  the  best  calculated  to 
supply  fundamental  data.  Yet  some  singular 
results  appear  in  them.  Among  these  is  the 
statement  in  the  South  Sea,  that  in  18°  N.  lat. 
and  seventy-six  fathoms'  depth,  in  December,  the 
water  was  2J°  R.  warmer  than  in  1 1°  N.  lat.  and 
seventy  fathoms  depth  in  November.  Perhaps 
the  local  places  of  observation  have  had  here 
some  influence.  The  observation  in  11°  lat. 
lies  in  the  west  of  the  Mariana  Islands,  and  in 
the  north  of  the  Philippines,  consequently  shel- 
tered against  the  warmer  currents  from  the  south 
by  a  kind  of  wall,  and  open  only  to  the  north, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  place  in  18°  lat. 


lies  more  in  the  open  sea.  The  temperature 
found  at  the  depth  of  ninety  fathoms  in  the 
Chinese  Sea  to  the  west  of  Lucon  is  remarkably 
cold  ;  perhaps  in  consequence  of  the  north-east 
currents  prevailing  in  December. 

Almost  daily  observations  on  the  temperature 
were  made  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  from  the  20th 
of  April  to  the  13th  of  June,  1818,  mostly  at  the 
depth  of  seventy  fathoms.  In  order  to  balance 
the  possible  errors  of  the  observations  which  may 
arise  from  the  difference  in  the  time  that  the 
thermometer  was  under  water,  I  have  added  se- 
veral together,  and  noted  the  mean  number. 
They  are  in  the  following  Table.  The  figures  in 
parentheses  show  the  number  of  obsecrations, 
the  mean  of  which  is  given. 


SEA 


713 


SEA 


Observation. 

Temperature  of  the 
water. 

C     " 

01 

s*1 

Qt2 

Latitude. 

Longitude. 

On  the 
Surface. 

Below  the 

Surface. 

April  20—26.        .         .         .     (5) 
27—30.         .         .         .     (4) 
30—  May  4.          .         .     (5) 
May      3-10          .         .         .     (8) 
10—16.        .         .        .     (7) 
15—19.        .         .         •    (5)* 

*2()      24                                          (**} 

18-6 
20-8 
22-1 
22-7 
22-6 
21-2 
20-3 
18-3 
15-1 
13-2 

13-0 
13-5 
11-8 
11-4 
11-4 
11-5 
16-1 
14-8 
12-3 
9-6 

57 
66 
67 
74 
75 
67 
71 
71 
68 
77 

17°  15'  S. 
10    24 
5    12 
0   43  N. 
4    51 
9    34 
19    30 
31      0 
40    30 
48      9 

3°  20'  W. 
12      2 
17      5 
20    28 
24    38 
29    38 
35      7 
36    30 
29    40 
17    15 

25—30.         .         .         .     (6) 

01      iniiM  r»                        f^\ 

June     7—13.        .         .         .     (7) 

This  table  shows  a  similar  anomaly  to  that 
which  we  noticed  in  the  South  Sea.  .That  is,  the 
proportionately  low  temperature  near  the  equator 
from  5°  S.  to  10°  N.  Perhaps  the  greater  heat 
between  20°  and  30°  of  S.  lat.  might  be  a  rem- 
nant of  the  southern  summer.  But  the  consider- 
able increase  of  temperature  in  the  zone,  between 
15°  and  30°  N.  lat.,  is  still  more  remarkable. 
For  though,  towards  the  end  of  May,  the  sun 
was  near  the  zenith  of  those  parts,  yet  this  in- 
fluence, which  could  be  only  commencing  here, 
must  have  shown  itself  in  the  waters  near  the 
equator,  which  the  sun  had  just  traversed  at  the 
time  of  those  observations  (in  April),  which  was 
by  no  means  the  case.  The  temperatures  at  the 
surface  indicate  indeed  this  influence  of  the  sun, 
being  the  highest  at  the  equator  (22J°  R.),  while 
the  southern  half  of  the  tropical  seas  had  already 
assumed  an  autumnal  temperature,  since  we  ob- 
serve here,  in  17°  S.,  the  same  warmth  (18J°  R.) 
as  in  30°  N. 

SEABURY  (Samuel),  the  first  bishop  of  the 
episcopal  church  of  the  United  States  of  Ame- 
rica, was  born  in  1728,  and  educated  at  Yale 
College,  after  which  he  went  to  Scotland  to  study 
medicine.  His  father  being  a  minister  in  Con- 
necticut, the  son  finally  chose  the  ecclesiastical 
profession;  and  in  1753  was  ordained  in  Lon- 
don. He  fixed  finally  at  New  London  in  Con- 
necticut, and  in  1784  he  made  a  voyage  to  Eng- 
land, to  obtain  consecration  as  a  bishop  of  the 
new  independent  episcopal  church.  Meeting 
with  obstacles  to  his  wishes  from  the  English 
prelates,  he  went  to  Scotland,  where  he  was  con- 
secrated by  three  bishops  of  the  episcopal  church 
of  that  kingdom.  He  returned  thus  qualified  to 
his  native  country,  and  fulfilled  the  duties  of  his 
pastoral  office  in  an  exemplary  manner  till  his 
death,  which  happened  in  1796.  Bishop  Sea- 
bury  published  two  volumes  of  sermons,  to 
which  a  supplement  was  added  in  1798. 

SEA  CORMORANT.     See  LARVS. 

SEA  Cow.     See    HIPPOPOTAMUS,    and    TRI- 

CHECUS. 

SEAFORD,  a  post  and  sea-port  town  of 
England,  one  of  the  cinque  ports.  It  sent  two 
members  to  the  imperial  parliament.  Its  inha- 
bitants are  employed  in  fishing,  but  of  late  it  has 
been  resorted  to  as  a  bathing  place.  The  privi- 
lege of  a  cinque-port  was  given  it  by  Charles  I., 
ai  d  it  had  sent  two  members  to  parliament  from 


the  26th  of  Edward  I.  The  right  of  election 
was  in  the  inhabitants  paying  scot  and  lot;  and 
the  returning  officer  the  bailiff;  who  is  the  head 
of  the  corporation,  which  consists  of  twelve 
juiats,  and  an  indefinite  number  of  freemen.  It 
was  disfranchised  in  1832.  In  1560  it  was  at- 
tacked by  the  French,  but  they  were  repulsed. 
It  is  eight  miles  S.S.  E.  of  Lewes,  and  sixty- 
thYee  south  by  east  of  London. 

SEA-GRASS.     See  Fucus. 

SEA-GULL.     See  LARUS. 

SEA-HEDGEHOG.     See  ECHINUS'. 

SEA-HOLLY.     See  ERYNGIUM. 

SEA-HORSE,  in  ichthyology.     See  TKICHECUS. 

SEAL,  7i.  s.  Sax.  peol,  fele ;  Dan.  seel.  The 
sea  calf. 

The  seal  or  soyle  is  in  make  and  growth  not  unlike 
a  pig,  ugly  faced,  and  footed  like  a  mold-warp  :  he 
delighteth  in  rousick,  or  any  loud  noise,  and  thereby 
is  trained  to  shew  himself  above  water :  they  also 
come  on  land.  Carew. 

An  island  salt  and  bare, 

The  haunt  of  seals,  and  orks,  and  seamews  clang. 

Milton. 

SEAL,  n.  s.,  v.  a.,  &t>.  n.  \      Sax.    pjel ;    Lat. 

SEAL'ING-WAX,  n.  s.  \siglllum.  A  stamp 
engraved  with  a  part icular  impression ;  the  im- 
pression made  :  to  attach,  confine,  or  fasten  by  a 
seal:  hence  to  shut  up;  enclose;  mark  with  a 
seal :  as  a  verb  neuter,  to  fix  a  seal. 

We  make  a  sure  covenant  and  write  it,  and  our 
princes  and  priests  seal  unto  it.  Nehemiah  ix.  33. 

When  I  have  performed  this,  and  sealed  to  them 
this  fruit,  I  will  come  into  Spain.  Romans  xv.  28. 

Solyman  shewed  him  his  own  letters,  asking  him 
if  he  knew  not  that  hand,  and  if  he  knew  not  that 
seal  1  Knollet. 

The  king  commands  you 
To  render  up  the  great  seal. 

Shahtpeare.  Henry  VIII. 

Till  thou  canst  rail  the  seal  from  off  my  bond, 
Thou  but  offendest  thy  lungs  to  speak  so  loud. 

Sltakspeare, 

He  that  brings  this  love  to  thee, 
Little  knows  this  love  in  me  ; 
And  by  him  sent  up  thy  mind.  Id.  A*  You,  Like  It. 

God   joined    my   heart   to  Romeo's ;    thou   our . 

hands ; 

And  ere  this  hand,  by  thee  to  Romeo  sealed, 
Shall  be  the  label  to  another  deed, 
Or  my  true  heart  with  treacherous  revolt 
Turn  to  another,  this  shall  slay  them  both. 

Shatupeare. 


SEA 


714 


SEA 


Seal  up  your  lips,  and  give  n~  words  but  mum ! 

Id. 

You'd  rail  upon  the  hostess, 
And  say  you  would  present  her  at  the  leet, 
Because  she  bought  stone  jugs,  and  no  sealed  quarts. 

Id. 

I  will  seal  unto  this  bond.  Id. 

The  sense  is  like  the  sun  ;  for  the  sun  seaU  up  the 
,lobe  of  heaven,  and  opens  the  globe  of  earth  ;  so 
the  sense  doth  obscure  heavenly  things,  and  reveals 
earthly  things.  Ba&m. 

They  their  fill  of  love 
Took  largely,  of  their  mutual  guilt  the  seal.  Milton. 

Back  to  the'  infernal  pit  I  drag  thee  chained, 
And  seal  thee  so  as  henceforth  not  to  scorn 
The  facil  gates  of  hell,  too  slightly  barred.          Id. 
The  prominent  orifice  was  closed  with  sealingu-ax. 

Boyle. 

If  the  organs  of  perception,  like  wax  overhardened 
with  cold,  will  not  receive  the  impression  of  the 
seal;  or,  like  wax  of  temper  too  soft,  will  not  hold 
it ;  or  else  supposing  the  wax  of  a  temper  fit,  but  the 
seal  not  applied  with  a  sufficient  force  to  make  a 
clear  impression  :  in  any  of  these  cases  the  print  loft 
by  the  teal  will  be  obscure.  Locke. 

He  saw  his  monkey  picking  the  teal  wax  from  a 
letter.  Arbnthnot. 

The  same  his  grandsire  wore  about  his  neck 
In  three  teal  rings ;  which  after,  melted  down, 
Formed  a  vast  buckle  for  his  widow's  gown.  Pope. 

A  SEAL  is  a  stamp  of  metal,  stone,  or  some 
other  convenient  substance,  whereon  are  en- 
graven the  arms,  device,  &c.,  of  some  prince, 
state,  community,  magistrate,  or  private  person, 
often  with  a  legend  or  inscription ;  the  impres- 
sion whereof  in  wax  serves  to  make  acts,  instru- 
ments, &c.,  authentic.  The  use  of  seals,  as  a 
mark  of  authenticity  to  letters  and  other  instru- 
ments in  writing,  is  extremely  ancient.  We  read 
of  it  among  the  Jews  and  Persians  in  the  earliest 
and  most  sacred  records  of  history.  And  in  the 
book  of  Jeremiah  there  is  a  very  remarkable  in- 
stance, not  only  of  an  attestation  by  seal,  but 
also  of  the  other  usual  formalities  attending  a 
Jewish  purchase.  In  the  civil  law  also  seals 
were  the  evidence  of  truth,  and  were  required, 
on  the  part  of  the  witnesses,  at  least  at  the  attes- 
tation of  every  testament.  But  in  the  times  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons  they  were  not  much  in  use  in 
England.  For  though  Sir  Edward  Coke  relies 
on  an  instance  of  king  Edwyn's  making  use  of  a 
seal,  about  100  years  before  the  conquest,  yet  it 
does  not  follow  that  this  was  the  usage  among 
the  whole  nation,  as  we  are  assured  by  all  our 
ancient  historians  that  sealing  was  not  then  in 
common  use.  The  method  of  the  Saxons  was 
for  such  as  could  write  to  subscribe  their  names, 
and,  whether  they  could  write  or  not,  to  affix  the 
sign  of  the  cross ;  which  custom  our  illiterate 
vulgar  to  this  day  keep  up,  by  signing  a  cross 
for  their  mark  when  unable  to  write  their  names. 
This  inability  to  write  his  name,  and  therefore 
making  a  cross  in  its  stead,  is  honestly  avowed 
by  Caed walla,  a  Saxon  king,  at  the  end  of  one 
»f  his  charters.  For  the  same  unsurmountable 
f^ason,  the  Normans,  a  brave  but  illiterate  na- 
tion, at  their  first  settlement  in  France,  used  the 
practice  of  sealing  only,  without  writing  their 
names ;  which  custom  continued  when  learning 
li;ul  made  its  way  among  them,  though  the  reason 
had  ceased;  and  hence  the  charter  of  Edward 


the  Confessor  to  Westminster  Abbey,  himself 
being  brought  up  in  Normandy,  was  witnessed 
only  by  his  seal,  and  is  generally  thought  to  be 
the  oldest  sealed  charter  of  any  authenticity  in 
England.  At  the  Conquest  the  Norman  lords 
brought  over  into  this  kingdom  their  own  cus- 
toms ;  and  introduced  waxen  seals  only,  instead 
of  the  English  method  of  writing  their  names, 
and  signing  with  the  sign  of  the  cross.  The  im- 
pressions of  the  seals  were  sometimes  a  knight 
on  horseback,  sometimes  other  devices;  but 
coats  of  §rms  were  not  introduced  into  seals  till 
about  the  reign  of  Richard  I. 

SEAL  is  also  used  for  the  wax  or  lead,  and  the 
impression  thereon,  affixed  to  the  thing  sealed. 
The  color  of  impressions  of  seals  has  varied  con- 
siderably. That  sort  of  wax  most  anciently  used 
was  white.  The  employment  of  yellow  wax  on 
public  documents  prevailed  a  good  deal  about 
the  twelfth  century.  Ultimately,  however,  red 
wax  became  preferred  in  almost  all  the  European 
countries,  and  remains  so  at  the  present  moment. 
The  western  patriarchs  and  emperors  sealed  in 
green  wax  certain  letters  to  persons  of  distinction. 
This  usage  was  adopted  in  the  twelfth  century 
in  France,  and  at  a  date  somewhat  subsequent 
introduced  into  Germany.  Specimens  of  this 
variety  are  however  extremely  rare.  In  our  own 
country  the  green  seal  is  still  occasionally  used 
on  charters.  The  emperor  Charles  V.,  in  1 524, 
accorded  the  privilege  of  sealing  in  blue,  but  the 
example  is  unique  of  the  employment  of  that 
color  among  European  potentates.  Certain 
princes  have,  at  different  times,  adopted  black 
wax  to  seal  withal ;  as,  for  instance,  Jeremy,  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople.  In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tnry  it  was  employed  in  France.  Impressions 
are  also  found  in  mixed  wax,  i.  e.  of  different 
colors.  Seals  vary,  besides,  in  size  and  shape ; 
they  are  sometimes  large,  sometimes  small 
square,  round,  long,  trefoil,  lozenge,  &c. 

SEAL,  in  zoology.     See  PHOCA. 

SEAL,  KING'S  GREAT,  is  that  whereby  all  pa- 
tents, commissions,  warrants,  &c.,  coming  down 
from  the  king,  are  sealed  ;  the  keeping  whereof 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  lord  chancellor. 

SEALER  is  an  officer  in  chancery  appointed 
by  the  lord  chancellor,  or  keeper  of  the  great  seal, 
to  seal  the  writs  and  instruments  there  made  in 
his  presence. 

SEALING  WAX.     See  WAX 

SEA-LI  ox.    See  PHOCA. 

SEAM,  n.  *.  &  v.a.  j     Saxon  ream;    Goth. 

SEAM'STRESS,  >  teym ;  Belg.  zoom ;  Teut 

SEAM'Y,  adj.  J  saum.  The  suture  where 

the  two  edges  of  cloth  are  sewed  together;  a 
cicatrice ;  scar :  a  seamstress  is  a  woman  em- 
ployed in  sewing :  seamy,  having  or  showing 
seams. 

Some  such  squire  he  was. 
That  turned  your  wit  the  teamy  side  without, 
And  made  me  to  suspect  you.     Shahpeare.  Othello. 

They  wanted  food  and  raiment ;  so  they  took 
Religion  for  their  seamstress  and  their  cook. 

L'Uacelaml. 

In  velvet  white  as  snow  the  troop  was  gowned, 
The  team*  with  sparkling  emeralds  set  around. 

Dr  fen. 


SEAMANSHIP. 


715 


Precepts  should  be  so  finely  wrought  together  in         SI:.*M,  n.  s.      Sax.  perne  ;  Welsh  sairn.     TaU 
the  same  piece  that  no  coarse  seam  may   discover     low ;  grease ;  hog's  lard. 


where  they  join.  Addison. 

Seamed  o'er  with  wounds,  which  his  own  sabre 

gave.  Pope. 

Say,  has  the  small  or  greater  pox 
Sunk,  down  her  nose,  or  seamed  her  face  ?     Swift. 


Shall  the  proud  lord, 
That  bastes  his  arrogance  with  his  own  seam, 
Be  worshipped  ?     Shakspeare .    Troilus  and  Creuida. 
Part  scour  the  rusty  shields  with  seam,  and  part 
New  grind  the  blunted  ax.  Dryden's  JEneid. 


SEAMANSHIP. 


SEAMANSHIP,  n.s.  [from  sea,  man, and  ship] 
the  art  of  working  a  ship;  including  the  science, 
knowledge,  qualifications,  and  experience,  which 
enable  a  man  to  exercise  this  noble  art.  A  sea- 
man, in  the  language  of  the  profession,  is  not 
merely  a  mariner  or  laborer  on  board  a  ship,  but 
a  man  who  understands  the  structure  of  this 
machine,  and  every  subordinate  part  of  its  me- 
chanism, so  as  to  enable  him  to  employ  it  to  the 
best  advantage  for  pushing  her  forward  in  a  par- 
ticular direction,  and  for  avoiding  the  numberless 
dangers  to  which  she  is  exposed  by  the  violence- 
of  the  winds  and  waves.  He  also  knows  what 
courses  can  be  held  by  the  ship,  according  to  the 
wind  that  blows,  and  what  cannot,  and  which  of 
these  is  most  conducive  to  her  progress  in  her 
intended  voyage ;  and  he  must  be  able  to  perform 
every  part  of  the  necessary  operation  with  his 
own  hands.  As  the  seamen  express  it,  he  must 
be  able  '  to  hand,  reef,  and  steer.' 

Seamanship  merits  the  title  of  a  noble  art,  not 
only  by  its  importance,  which  to  Britons  is  pe- 
culiarly great,  both  in  peace  and  in  war,  as  a 
^reat  means  both  of  enriching  and  defending 
tlieir  country,  but  also  by  its  immense  extent 
and  difficulty,  and  the  number  and  variety  of 
principles  on  which  it  is  founded — all  of  which 
must  be  possessed  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
shall  offer  themselves,  without  reflection,  in  an  in- 
stant, otherwise  the  pretended  seaman  is  but  a 
lubber,  and  cannot  be  trusted  on  his  watch. 
This  art  is  practised  by  seamen  without  what  is 
called  education,  and  in  the  humbler  walks'  of 
life ;  and  therefore  it  suffers  in  the  estimation  of 
the  careless  spectator.  It  is  thought  little  of, 
because  Ijttle  attention  is  paid  to  it.  But  if 
multiplicity,  variety,  and  intricacy  of  principles, 
and  a  systematic  knowledge  of  these  principles, 
entitle  any  art  to  the  appellation  of  scientific  and 
liberal,  seamanship  claims  these  epithets  in  an 
eminent  degree.  We  are  amused  with  the  pe- 
dantry of  the  seaman,  which  appears  in  his  whole 
language.  Indeed  it  is  the  only  pedantry  that 
amuses.  A  scholar,  a  soldier,  a  lawyer,  nay, 
even  the  elegant  courtier,  would  disgust  us,  were 
he  to  make  the  thousandth  part  of  the  allusions 
to  his  profession  that  is  well  received  from  the 
jolly  seaman ;  and  we  do  the  seaman  no  more 
than  justice.  His  profession  must  engross  his 
whole  mind,  otherwise  he  can  never  learn  it. 

A  ship  is  a  machine.  We  know  the  forces 
which  act  on  it,  and  we  know  the  results  of  its 
construction.  All  these  are  as  fixed  as  the  laws 
of  motion.  What,  then,  prevents  this  art  from 
being  reduced  to  a  set  of  practical  maxims,  as 
well  founded  and  as  logically  deduced  as  the 
working  of  a  steam  engine  or  a  cotton  mill  ? 
Ought  not  the  rough  seaman  to  look  for  the 


same  assistance ;  and  may  not  the  ingenious 
speculatist  in  his  closet  unravel  the  intricate 
thread  of  mechanism,  which  connects  all  thp 
manual  operations  with  the  unchangeable  laws 
of  nature,  and  both  furnish  the  seaman  with  a 
better  machine,  and  direct  him  to  a  more  dexter- 
ous use  of  it  ? 

We  cannot  help  thinking  that  much  may  be 
done ;  nay,  we  may  say  that  much  has  been  done 
in  this  way.  We  think  highly  of  the  progressive 
labors  of  Remaud,  Pilot,  Bouguer,  Du  Hamel, 
Groignard,  Bernouilli,  Euler,  Rome,  Gordon, 
Gower,  and  others.  M.  Bouguer  was  professor 
of  hydrology  at  a  marine  academy  of  Franc^ 
and  was  enjoined,  as  part  of  his  duty,  to  compose 
dissertations  both  on  the  construction  and  the 
working  of  ships.  His  Traite  du  Navire,  and 
his  Manoeuvre  des  Vaisseaux,  are  undoubtedly 
valuable  performances :  so  are  those  of  Euler 
and  Bernouilli,  considered  as  mathematical  dis- 
sertations, and  they  are  surprising  works  of 
genius,  considered  as  the  productions  of  persons 
who  hardly  ever  saw  a  ship,  and  were  totally 
unacquainted  with  the  profession  of  a  seaman. 
In  this  respect  Bouguer  had  great  superiority, 
having  always  lived  at  a  sea-port,  and  having 
made  many  very  long  voyages.  His  treatises 
therefore  are  infinitely  better  accommodated  to 
the  demands  of  tne  seaman,  and  more  direcliy 
instructive  ;  but  still  the  author  is  more  a  mathe- 
matician than  an  artist,  and  his  performance  is 
intelligible  only  to  mathematicians. 

The  whole  science  of  the  art  must  proceed  on 
the  knowledge  of  the  impulsions  of  the  wind 
and  water.  These  are  the  sources  which  act  on 
the  machine ;  and  its  motions,  which  are  the 
ultimatum  of  our  research,  whether  as  an  end  to 
be  obtained,  or  as  a  thing  to  be  prevented,  must 
depend  on  these  forces.  Now  it  is  with  respect 
to  this  fundamental  point  that  we  are  as  yet  al- 
most totally  in  the  dark.  And,  in  the  perform- 
ances of  M.  Bouguer,  and  the  other  authors 
above  named,  the  theory  of  these  forces,  by  which 
their  quantity  and  the  direction  of  their  action 
are  ascertained,  is  altogether  erroneous ;  and  its  re- 
sults deviate  so  enormously  from  what  is  observed 
in  the  motions  of  a  ship  that  the  person  who 
should  direct  the  operations  on  shipboard,  in 
conformity  to  the  maxims  deducible  from  their 
propositions,  would  be  baffled  in  most  of  his 
attempts,  and  be  in  danger  of  losing  the  ship. 
The  whole  proceeds  on  the  supposed  truth  of 
that  theory  which  states  the  impulse  of  a  fluid 
to  be  in  the  proportion  of  the  square  of  the  sine 
of  the  angle  of  incidence  ;  and  that  its  action 
on  any  small  portion,  such  as  a  square  foot  of 
the  sails  or  hull,  is  the  same  as  if  that  portion 
were  detached  from  the  rest,  and  exposed,  single 


716 


SEAMANSHIP 


and  alone,  to  the  wind  or  water  in  the  same 
angle.  But  both  these  principles  are  erroneous, 
and  to  a  very  great  degree,  in  cases  which  occur 
most  frequently  in  practice,  that  is,  in  the  small 
angles  of  inclination.  When  the  wind  falls 
nearly  perpendicular  on  the  sails,  theory  is  not 
very  erroneous ;  but.  in  these  cases,  the  circum- 
stances of  the  ship's  situation  are  generally  such 
that  the  practice  is  easy,  occurring  almost  with- 
out thought ;  and  in  this  case,  too,  even  consider- 
able deviations  from  the  very  best  practice  are  of 
no  great  moment.  The  interesting  cases  are,  where 
the  intended  movement  requires  or  depends  upon 
very  oblique  auions  of  the  wind  on  the  sails, 
and  its  practicability  or  impracticability  depends 
on  a  very  small  variation  of  this  obliquity ;  a 
mistake  of  the  force,  either  as  to  intensity  or  direc- 
tion, then  produces  a  mighty  effect  on  the  result- 
ing motion.  This  is  the  case  in  sailing  to  wind- 
ward ;  the  most  important  of  all  the  general 
problems  of  seamanship.  The  trim  of  the  sails, 
and  the  course  of  the  ship,  so  as  to  gain  most 
on  the  wind,  are  very  nice  things ;  that  is,  they 
are  confined  within  very  narrow  limits,  and  a 
small  mistake  produces  a  very  considerable  effect. 
The  same  thing  obtains  in  many  of  the  nice 
problems  of  tacking,  box-hauling,  wearing  after 
lying-to  in  a  storm,  &c. 

The  error  in  the  second  assertion  of  the  the- 
ory is  still  greater,  and  the  action  on  one  part  of 
the  sail  or  hull  is  so  greatly  modified  by  its  ac- 
tion on  another  adjoining  part,  that  a  stay-sail 
is  often  seen  hanging  like  a  loose  rag,  although 
there  is  nothing  between  it  and  the  wind ;  and 
this  merely  because  a  great  sail  in  its  neighbour- 
hood sends  off  a  lateral  stream  of  wind,  which 
completely  hinders  the  wind  from  getting  at  it. 
Till  the  theory  of  the  action  of  fluids  be  es- 
tablished, we  cannot  tell  what  are  the  forces 
which  are  acting  on  every  rlbint  of  the  sail 
and  hull :  therefore  we  cannot  tell  either  the 
mean  intensity  or  direction  of  the  whole  force 
which  acts  on  any  particular  sail,  nor  the  inten- 
sity and  mean  direction  of  the  resistance  to  the 
hull ;  circumstances  absolutely  necessary  for 
enabling  us  to  say  what  will  be  their  energy  in 
producing  a  rotation  round  any  particular  axis. 
In  like  manner,  we  cannot,  by  such  a  compu- 
tation, find  the  spontaneous  axis  of  conversion, 
or  the  velocity  of  such  conversion.  In  short,  we 
cannot  pronounce  with  tolerable  confidence  a 
priori  what  will  be  the  motion  in  any  case,  or 
what  dispositions  of  the  sails  will  produce  the 
movement  we  wish  to  perform.  The  experi- 
enced seaman  learns  by  nabit  the  general  effects 
of  every  disposition  of  the  sails ;  and,  though 
his  knowledge  is  far  from  being  accurate,  it  sel- 
dom leads  him  into  any  very  blundering  opera- 
tion. Perhaps  he  seldom  makes  the  best  adjust- 
ment possible,  but  seldomer  still  does  he  deviate 
very  far  from  it ;  and  in  the  most  general  and 
important  problems,  such  as  working  to  wind- 
ward, the  result  of  much  experience  and  many 
corrections  has  settled  the  trim  of  the  sails,  which 
is  certainly  not  far  from  the  truth,  though  it  de- 
viates widely  and  uniformly  from  the  theory  of 
the  mathematician. 

But  the  theory  is  defective  in  one  point  only  ; 
and  alth'v  •  •  important  point,  and 


the  errors  in  it  destroy  the  conclusions  of  the 
chief  propositions,  the  reasoning  remains  in  full 
force,  and  the  modus  operandi  is  precisely  such 
as  is  stated  in  the  theory.  The  principles  of  the 
art  are  therefore  to  be  found  in  these  treatises ; 
but  false  inferences  have  been  drawn,  by  com- 
puting from  erroneous  quantities.  The  rules 
and  the  practice  of  the  computation,  however, 
are  still  beyond  controversy :  nay,  since  the 
process  of  investigation  is  legitimate,  we  may 
make  use  of  it  to  discover  the  very  circumstance 
in  which  we  are  at  present  mistaken ;  for  by 
converting  the  proposition,  instead  of  finding 
the  motions  by  means  of  the  supposed  forces, 
combined  with  the  known  mechanism,  we  may 
discover  the  forces  by  means  of  this  mechanism 
and  the  observed  motions. 

We  shall  therefore  in  this  place  give  a  very 
general  view  of  the  movements  of  a  ship  under 
sail,  showing  how  they  are  produced  and  modi- 
fied by  the  action  of  the  wind  on  her  sails,  and 
of  the  water  on  her  rudder  and  on  her  bows. 

SECT.  I. — OF  THE  MOVEMENTS  OF  A  SHIP 
UNDER  SAIL. 

We  shall  not  attempt  a  precise  determination 
of  any  of  toese  movements ;  but  we  shall  say 
as  much  as  may  enable  the  curious  landsman  to 
understand  how  this  mighty  machine  is  managed 
amidst  the  fury  of  the  winds  and  waves ;  and, 
what  is  more  to  our  wish,  we  hope  to  enable  the 
uninstructed  but  thinking  seaman  to  generalise 
that  knowledge  which  he  possesses ;  to  class  his 
ideas,  and  give  them  a  sort  of  rational  system ; 
and  even  to  improve  his  practice,  by  making 
him  sensible  of  the  immediate  operation  of  every 
thing  he  does,  and  in  what  manner  it  contri- 
butes to  produce  the  movement  which  he  has  in 
view. 

A  ship  may  be  considered  as  a  mass  of  inert 
matter  in  free  space,  at  liberty  to  move  in  every 
direction,  according  to  the  forces  which  impel  or 
resist  her  ;  and  when  she  is  in  actual  motion,  in 
the  direction  of  her  course,  we  may  still  consider 
her  as  at  rest  in  absolute  space,  but  exposed  to 
the  impulse  of  a  current  of  water  moving  equally 
fast  in  the  opposite  direction  :  for  in  both  cases 
the  pressure  of  the  water  on  her  bows  is  the 
same ;  and  we  know  that  it  is  possible,  and  fre- 
quently happens  in  currents,  that  the  impulse  of 
the  wind  on  her  sails,  and  that  of  the  water  on 
her  bows,  balance  each  other  so  precisely  that 
she  not  only  does  not  stir  from  the  place,  but 
also  remains  steadily  in  the  same  position,  with 
her  head  directed  to  the  same  point  of  the  com- 
pass. This  state  of  things  is  easily  conceived 
by  any  person  accustomed  to  consider  mechanical 
subjects,  and  every  seaman  of  experience  has  ob- 
served it.  It  is  of  importance  to  consider  it  in 
this  point  of  view,  because  it  gives  us  the  most 
familiar  notion  of  the  manner  in  which  these 
forces  of  the  wind  and  water  are  set  in  opposition, 
and  made  to  balance  or  not  to  balance  each  other 
by  the  intervention  of  the  ship,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  goods  and  the  weights  balance  each 
other  in  the  scales  by  the  intervention  of  a  beam 
or  steel-\  aril. 

When  a  ship  proceeds  steadily  in  her  course, 
without  changing  her  rate  of  sailing,  or  varying 


SEAMANSHIP. 


717 


the  direction  of  her  head,  we  must  conceive  the 
accumulated  impulses  of  the  wind  on  all  her  sads 
is  precisely  equal  and  directly  opposite  to  the 
impulse  of  the  water  on  her  bows.  The  seaman 
has  two  principal  tasks  to  perform.  The  first  is 
to  keep  the  ship  steadily  in  that  course  which 
will  hring  her  farthest  on  in  the  line  of  her  in- 
tended voyage.  Having  chosen  such  a  course 
as  he  thinks  most  advantageous,  he  must  set  such 
a  quantity  of  sail  as  the  strength  of  the  wind 
will  allow  him  to  carry  with  safety  and  effect, 
and  must  trim  the  sails  properly,  or  so  adjust 
their  positions  to  the  direction  of  the  wind  that 
they  may  have  the  greatest  possible  tendency  to 
impel  the  ship  in  the  line  of  her  course,  and  to 
keep  her  steadily  in  that  direction. 

His  other  task  is  to  produce  any  deviations 
which  he  sees  proper  from  the  present  course  of 
the  ship ;  and  to  produce  these  in  the  most  cer- 
tain, the  safest,  and  the  most  expeditious  manner. 
It  is  chiefly  in  this  movement  that  the  mecha- 
nical nature  of  a  ship  comes  into  view,  and  it  is 
here  that  the  superior  address  and  resource  of 
an  expert  seaman  is  to  be  perceived.  'Under  the 
article  SAILING  some  notice  has  been  taken  of 
the  first  task  of  the  seaman,  and  it  was  there 
shown  how  a  ship,  after  having  taken  up  her  an- 
chor and  fitted  her  sails,  accelerates  her  motion, 
by  degrees  which  continually  diminish,  till  the 
increasing  resistance  of  the  water  becomes  pre- 
cisely equal  to  the  diminished  impulse  of  the 
wind,  and  then  the  motion  continues  uniformly 
the  same  so  long  as  the  wind  continues  to  blow 
with  the  same  force  and  in  the  same  direction. 

It  is  perfectly  consonant  to  experience  that 
the  impulse  of  fluids  is  in  the  duplicate  ratio  of 
the  relative  velocity.  Let  it  be  supposed  that 
when  water  moves  one  foot  per  second,  its  per- 
pendicular pressure  or  impulse  on  a  square  foot 
is  m  pounds.  Then,  if  it  be  moving  with  the 
velocity  V,  estimated  in  feet  per  second,  its  per- 
pendicular impulse  on  a  surface  S,  containing 
any  number  of  square  feet,  must  be  m  S  VJ.  In 
like  manner,  the  impulse  of  air  on  the  same  sur- 
face may  be  represented  by  n  S  V* ;  and  the  pro- 
portion of  the  impulse  of  these  two  fluids  will 
be  that  of  m  to  n.  We  may  express  this  by  the 

ratio  of  q  to  1,  making  — rz  q. 

M.  Bouguer's  computations  and  tables  are  on 
the  supposition  that  the  impulse  of  sea-water 
moving  one  foot  per  second  is  twenty-three 
ounces  on  a  square  foot,  and  that  the  impulse  of 
the  wind  is  the  same  when  it  blows  at  the  rate  of 
twenty-four  feet  per  second.  These  measures 
are  all  French.  They  by  no  means  agree  with 
the  experiments  of  others ;  and  what  we  have 
already  said,  under  resistance  of  fluids,  is  enough 
to  show  that  nothing  like  precise  measures  can 
be  expected.  It  was  shown  as  the  result  of  a 
rational  investigation,  and  confirmed  by  the  expe- 
riments of  Buat  and  others,  that  the  impulsions 
and  resistances  at  the  same  surface,  with  the 
same  obliquity  of  incidence  and  the  same  velo- 
city of  motion,  are  different  according  to  the 
form  and  situation  of  the  adjoining  parts.  Thus 
the  total  resistance  of  a  thin  board  is  greater  than 
that  of  a  long  prism,  having  this  board  for  its 
front  er  bow,  &c.  We  are  greatly  at  a  loss  what 


to  give  as  absolute  measures  of  these  impulsions. 

1.  With  respect  to  water.     The  experiments 
of  the   French  academy  on  a  prism  two   feet 
broad  and  deep,  and  four  feet  long,  indicate  a 
resistance  of  0-973  Ib.  avoirdupois  to  a  square 
foot,   moving  with  the  velocity  of  one  foot  per 
second  at  the  surface  of  still  water.     Mr.  Buat's 
experiments  on  a  square  foot  wholly  immersed 
in  a  stream  were  as  follow  : — 

A  square  foot  as  a  thin  plate        .         1-81   Ib. 
Ditto  as  the  front  of  a  box  one  foot 

long 142 

Ditto  as  the  front  of  a  box  three  foot 

long 129 

The  resistance  of  sea-water  is  about  5lj  greater. 

2.  With  respect  to  air,  the  varieties  are   as 
great.     The  resistance  of  a  square  foot  to  air 
moving  with  the  velocity  of  one  foot  per  second 
appears  from  Mr.  Robins's  experiments  on  sixteen 
square  inches  to  be  on  a  square  foot  0-001596  Ib. 

Chevalier  Borda's  on  16  inches  0-001757 

on  81  inches  0-002042 

Mr.  Rouse's  on  large  surfaces  0-002291 
Precise  measures  are  not  to  be  expected,  nor  are 
they  necessary  in  this  enquiry.  Here  we  are  chiefly 
interested  in  their  proportions,  as  they  may  be 
varied  by  their  mode  of  action  in  the  different 
circumstances  of  obliquity  and  velocity. 

We  begin  by  recurring  to  the  fundamental 
proposition  concerning  the  impulse  of  fluids,  viz. 
that  the  absolute  pressure  is  always  in  a  direction 
perpendicular  to  the  impelled  surface,  whatever 
may  be  the  direction  of  the  stream  of  fluid.  We 
must  therefore  illustrate  the  doctrine  by  always 
supposing  a  flat  surface  of  sail  stretched  on  a 
yard,  which  can  be  braced  about  in  any  direc- 
tion, and  giving  this  sail  such  a  position  and  such 
an  extent  of  surface  tha<  the  impulse  on  it  may 
be  the  same  both  as  to  direction  and  intensity 
with  that  on  the  real  sails.  Thus  the  considera- 
tion is  greatly  simplified.  The  direction  of  the 
impulse  is  therefore  perpendicular  to  the  yard. 
Its  intensity  depends  on  the  velocity  with  which 
the  wind  meets  the  sail,  and  the  obliquity  of  its 
stroke.  We  shall  adopt  the  constructions  found- 
ed on  the  common  doctrine,  that  the  impulse  is 
as  the  square  of  the  sine  of  the  inclination,  be- 
cause they  are  simple ;  whereas,  if  we  were  to 
introduce  the  values  of  the  oblique  impulses, 
such  as  they  have  beer  observed  in  the  excellent 
experiments  of  the  academy  of  Paris,  the  con- 
structions would  be  complicated  in  the  extreme, 
and  we  could  hardly  draw  any  consequqpces 
which  would  be  intelligible  to  any  but  expert 
mathematicians.  The  conclusions  will  be  erro- 
neous, not  in  kind  but  in  quantity  only  ;  and  we 
shall  point  out  the  necessary  corrections,  so  that 
the  final  results  will  be  found  not  very  different 
from  real  observation. 

If  a  ship  were  a  round  cylindrical  body  like  a 
flat  tub,  floating  on  its  bottom,  and  fitted  with  a 
mast  and  sail  in  the  centre,  she  would  always 
sail  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  yard. 
This  is  evident.  But  she  is  an  oblong  body, 
and  may  be  compared  to  a  chest,  whose  length 
greatly  exceeds  its  breadth.  She  is  so  shaped 
that  a  moderate  force  will  push  her  through  the 
water  with  her  head  or  stern  foremost;  but  it 
requires  a  very  great  force  to  push  her  sidewise 


718 


SEAMANSHIP. 


with  the  saiv.c  velocity,  A  fine  sailing  ship  of 
war  will  require  about  twelve  times  as  much 
force  to  push  her  sidewise  as  to  push  her  head 
foremost.  In  this  respect  therefore  she  will 
very  much  resemble  a  chest  whose  length  is 
twelve  times  its  breadth ;  and,  whatever  be  the 
proportion  of  these  resistances  in  different  ships, 
we  may  always  substitute  a  box  which  shall  have 
the  same  resistances  headwise  and  sidewise. 


I 

A. 

\" 

/ 

F 

~K 

/  

JL. 

a 

c 

\    ' 

B 

H 


\ 


Let  E  F  G  H  of  the  diagram  be  the  horizontal 
section  of  such  a  box,  and  A  B  its  middle  line 
and  C  its  centre.  In  whatever  direction  this 
box  may  chance  to  move,  the  direction  of  the 
whole  resistance  on  its  two  sides  will  pass 
through  C.  For,  as  the  whole  stream  has  one 
inclination  to  the  side  E  F,  the  equivalent  of  the 
equal  impulses  on  every  part  will  be  in  a  line 
perpendicular  to  the  middle  of  E  F.  For  the 
same  reason,  it  will  be  in  a  line  perpendicular 
to  the  middle  of  F  G.  These  perpendiculars 
must  cross  in  C.  Suppose  a  mast  erected  at  C, 
and  Y  Cy  to  be  a  yard  hoisted  on  it  carrying  a 
sail.  Let  the  yard  be  first  conceived  as  braced 
right  athwart  at  right  angles  to  the  keel,  as  re- 
presented by  Y' y'.  Then,  whatever  be  the  di- 
rection of  the  wind  abaft  this  sail,  it  will  impel 
the  vessel  in  the  direction  C  B.  But,  if  the  sail 
has  the  oblique  position  Y  y,  the  impulse  will  be 
in  the  direction  C  D  perpendicular  to  C  Y,  and 
will  both  push  the  vessel  a-head  and  sidewise. 
For  the  impulse  C  D  is  equivalent  to  the  two 
impulses  C  K  and  C I  (the  sides  of  a  rectangle 
of  which  C  D  is  the  diagonal).  The  force  C  I 
pushes  the  vessel  a-head,  and  C  K  pushes  her 
sidewise.  She  must  therefore  take  some  inter- 
mediate direction  a  b,  such  that  the  resistance  of 
the  water  to  the  plane  F  G  is  to  its  resistance  to 
the  plane  E  F  as  C  I  to  C  K. 

The  angle  b  C  B  between  the  real  course  and 
the  direction  of  the  head  is  called  the  leeway ; 
and  in  the  course  of  this  dissertation  we  shall 
express  it  by  the  symbol  x.  It  evidently  de- 
pends on  the  shape  of  the  vessel  and  on  the 
position  of  the  yard.  An  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  quantity  of  leeway,  corresponding  to 
different  circumstances  of  obliquity  of  impulse, 
extent  of  surface,  &c.,  is  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance in  the  practice  of  navigation ;  and  even  an 
approximation  is  valuable.  The  subject  is  so 
very  difficult  that  this  must  content  us  for  the 
present. 

Let  V  be  the  velocity  of  the  ship  in  the  direc- 
tion C  b,  and  let  the  surfaces  F  G  and  F  E  be 
called  A'  and  B'.  Then  the  resistance  to  the 
lateral  motion  is  m  Vs  x  B'  x  sine*,  b  C  B, 
and  that  to  the  direct  motion  is  m  \7>  x  A'  x 
sine*,  b  C  K,  or  m  V*  x  A'  x  cos.*  bCB. 
Therefore  these  resistances  are  in  the  proportion 


of  B'  x  sine2,  x  to  A'  x  cos.-,  .1  (representing 
the  angle  of  leeway  6  C  B  by  the  symbol  x). 
Therefore  we  have   CI:CK,   or    C  I  :  I  D 

n.      •     ,                 ,     r>   sine'j; 
=.  A    cos.8  x  :  B  •  sine*  g,  SZ  £  ••  B, 

COS.*   JT 

—  A  :  B;  tangent  *  x. 

Let  the  angle  Y  C  B,  to  which  the  yard  is 
braced  up,  be  called  the  trim  of  the  sails,  and 
expressed  by  the  symbol  b.  This  is  the  comple- 
ment of  the  angle  DC  I.  Now  CI  :  ID  — 
rad. :  tan.  D  C  I,  =:  1  :  tan.  D  C  I,  n  1  :  cotan.  b. 
Therefore  we  have  finally  1  •  cotan.  b  ~  A'  :  B'  • 
tan.2  x,  and  A'  •  cotan.  b  —  B'  •  tangent8  x,  and 

tan.*  j;  —  v.  cot.  b.     This  equation    evidently 

ascertains  the  mutual  relation  between  the  trim 
of  the  sails  and  the  leeway  in  every  case  whero 
we  can  tell  the  proportion  between  the  resistances 
to  the  direct  and  broadside  motions  of  the  ship, 
and  where  this  proportion  does  not  change  by 
the  obliquity  of  the  course.  Thus,  suppose  the 
yard  braced  up  to  an  angle  of  30°  with  the  keel. 
Then  cotan.  30°  ~  1-732  very  nearly.  Suppose 
also  that  the  resistance  sidewise  is  twelve  times 
greater  than  the  resistance  headwise.  This  gives 
A'  =  1  and  B—  12.  Therefore  1-732  =  12  x 

1*732 
tan.8  x,  and  tan.*  x  —    — — - ,  —  0-14434,  and 

tan.  x  =.  0-3799,  and  x  =:  20°  48',  very  nearly 
two  points  of  leeway. 

This  computation,  or  rather  the  equation 
which  gives  room  for  it,  supposes  the  resistances 
proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  sines  of  inci- 
dence. The  experiments  of  the  academy  of 
Paris  show  that  this  supposition  is  not  far  from 
the  truth  when  the  angle  of  incidence  is  great. 
In  this  present  case  the  angle  of  incidence  on 
the  front  F  G  is  about  70°,  and  the  experiments 
just  now  mentioned  show  that  the  real  resistance 
exceed  the  theoretical  ones  only  T^.  But  the 
angle  of  incidence  on  E  F  is  only  20°  48'.  Ex- 
periment shows  that  in  this  inclination  the  re- 
sistance is  almost  quadruple  of  the  theoretical 
resistances.  Therefore  the  lateral  resistance  is 
assumed  much  too  small  in  the  present  instance. 
Therefore  a  much  smaller  leeway  will  suffice  for 
producing  a  lateral  resistance  which  %vill  balance 
the  lateral  impulse  C  K,  arising  from  the  obli- 
quity of  the  sail,  viz.  30°.  The  matter  of  fact  is, 
that  a  pretty  good  sailing  ship,  with  her  sails 
braced  to  this  angle  at  a  medium,  will  not  make 
above  5°  or  6°  leeway  in  smooth  water  and  easy 
weather ;  and  yet  in  this  situation  the  hull  and 
rigging  present  a  very  great  surface  to  the  wind, 
in  the  most  improper  positions,  so  as  to  have  a 
very  great  effect  in  increasing  her  leeway.  And, 
if  we  compute  the  resistances  for  this  leeway  of 
6°  by  the  actual  experiments  of  the  French  aca- 
demy on  that  angle,  we  shall  find  the  result  not 
far  from  the  truth  ;  that  is,  the  direct  and  lateral 
resistances  will  be  nearly  in  the  proportion  of 
C  I  to  I  D. 

It  results  from  this  view  of  the  matter  that 
the  leeway  is  in  general  much  smaller  than  what 
the  usual  theory  assigns.  We  also  see  that,  ac 
cording  to  whatever  law  the  resistance  changes 
by  a  change  of  inclination,  the  leeway  remains 
the  same  while  the  trim  of  the  sails  is  the  same. 


I    !«•  !'.•. 


;K  A  :vi  A 


/Jl.-lll 


S  E  A  M  A  JN  S  H  I  P. 


719 


The  leeway  depends  only  on  the  direction  of  the 
impulse  of  the  wind;  and  this  depends  solely 
on  the  position  of  the  sails  with  respect  to  the 
keel,  whatever  may  be  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
This  is  a  very  important  observation,  and  will  be 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  progress  of  the 
present  investigation.  Note,  however,  that  we 
are  here  considering  only  the  action  on  the  sails, 
and  on  the  same  sails.  We  are  not  considering 
the  action  of  the  wind  on  the  hull  and  rigging. 
This  may  be  very  considerable  ;  and  it  is  always 
in  a  lee  direction,  and  augments  the  leeway ; 
and  its  influence  must  be  so  much  the  more  sen- 
sible as  it  bears  a  greater  proportion  to  the  im- 
pulse on  the  sails.  A  ship  under  courses,  or 
close-reefed  topsails  and  courses,  must  make 
more  leeway  than  when  under  all  her  canvas 
t.-immed  to  the  same  angle.  But  to  introduce 
this  additional  cause  of  deviation  here  would  ren- 
der the  investigation  too  complex  to  be  of  any  use. 
This  doctrine  will  be  considerably  illustrated 
by  attending  to  the  manner  in  which  a  lighter  is 
tracked  along  a  canal,  or  swings  to  its  anchor  in 


H 


a  stream.  The  track  rope  is  made  fast  to  some 
staple  or  bolt  E  on  the  deck,  and  is  passed 
between  two  of  the  timber-heads  of  the  bow  at 
D,  and  laid  hold  of  at  F  on  shore.  The  men  or 
cattle  walk  along  the  path  F  G,  the  rope  keeps 
extended  in  the  direction  D  F,  and  the  lighter 
arranges  itself  in  an  oblique  position  A  B,  and 
is  thus  dragged  along  in  the  direction  a  b,  parallel 
to  the  side  of  the  canal.  Or,  if  the  canal  has  a 
current  in  the  opposite  direction  b  a,  the  lighter 
may  be  kept  steady  in  its  place  by  the  rope  D  F 
made  fast  to  a  post  at  F.  In  this  case  it  is 
always  observed  that  the  lighter  swings  in  a 
position  A  B,  which  is  oblique  to  the  stream  a  b. 
Now  the  force  which  retains  it  in  this  position, 
and  which  precisely  balances  the  action  of  the 
stream,  is  certainly  exerted  in  the  direction  I)  F; 
and  the  lighter  would  be  held  in  the  same  man- 
ner if  the  rope  were  made  fast  at  C  amidship, 
without  any  dependence  on  the  timber-heads  at 
D  ;  and  it  would  still  be  held  in.  the  same  posi- 
tion, if,  instead  of  the  single  rope  C  F,  it  were 
riding  by  two  ropes  C  G  and  C  H,  of  which  C  H 
is  in  a  direction  right  a-head,  but  oblique  to  the 
stream,  and  the  other  C  G  is  perpendicular  to 
C  H  or  A  B.  And,  drawing  D  I  and  D  K  per- 
pendicular to  A  B  and  C  G,  the  strain  on  the 
rope  C  H  is  to  that  on  the  rope  C  G  as  C  I  to 
C  K.  The  action  of  the  rope  in  these  cases  is 
precisely  analogous  to  that  of  the  sail  y  Y ;  and 
the  obliquity  of  the  keel  to  the  directions  of  the 
motion,  or  to  the  direction  of  the  stream,  is 
analogous  to  the  leeway.  All  this  must  be  evi- 
dent to  any  person  accustomed  to  mechanical 
disquisitions. 


A  most  important  use  may  be  made  of  this 
illustration.  If  an  accurate  model  be  made  of  a 
ship,  and  if  it  be  placed  in  a  stream  of  water, 
and  ridden  in  this  manner  by  a  rope  made  fast 
at  any  point  D  of  the  bow,  it  will  arrange  itself 
in  some  determined  position  A  B.  There  will 
be  a  certain  obliquity  to  the  stream,  measured  by 
the  angle  B  o  b  ;  and  there  will  be  a  correspond- 
ing obliquity  of  the  rope,  measured  by  the  angle 
F  C  B.  Let  y  C  Y  be  perpendicular  to  C  F. 
Then  C  Y  will  be  the  position  of  the  yard  or 
trim  of  the  sails  corresponding  to  the  leeway 
b  C  B.  Then,  if  we  shift  the  rope  to  a  point  of 
the  bow  distant  from  D  by  a  small  quantity,  we 
shall  obtain  a  new  position  of  the  ship,  both 
with  respect  to  the  stream  and  the  rope ;  and  in 
this  way  may  be  obtained  the  relation  between 
the  position  of  the  sails  and  the  leeway,  inde- 
pendent of  all  theory,  and  susceptible  of  great 
accuracy ;  and  this  may  be  done  with  a  variety 
of  models  suited  to  the  most  usual  forms  of 
ships. 

In  farther  reflection  on  this  subject  we  are 
persuaded  that  these  experiments,  instead  of 
being  made  on  models,  may  with  equal  ease  be 
made  on  a  ship  of  any  size.  Let  the  ship  ride 
in  a  stream  at  a  mooring  D  (fig.  1,  Plate  SEA- 
MANSHIP), by  means  of  a  short  hawser  BCD 
from  her  bow,  having  a  spring  A  C  on  it  carried 
out  from  her  quarter.  She  will  swing  to  her 
moorings,  tili  she  ranges  herself  in  a  certain  po- 
sition A  B  with  respect  to  the  direction  a  b  of 
the  stream ;  and  the  direction  of  the  hawser  D  C 
will  point  to  some  point  E  of  the  line  of  the 
keel.  Now  it  is  plain,  to  any  person  acquainted 
with  mechanical  disquisitions,  that  the  deviation 
B  E  6  is  precisely  the  leeway  that  the  ship  will 
make  when  the  average  position  of  the  sail  is 
that  of  the  line  G  E  H  perpendicular  to  E  D  ; 
at  least  this  will  give  the  leeway  which  is  pro- 
duced by  the  sails  alone.  By  heaving  on  the 
spring,  the  knot  C  may  be  brought  into  any 
other  position  we  please;  and  for  every  new 
position  of  the  knot  the  ship  will  take  a  new 
position  with  respect  to  the  stream  and  to  the 
hawser.  And  we  persist  in  saying  that  more 
information  will  be  got  by  this  train  of  experi- 
ments than  from  mathematical  theory ;  fc  •  all 
theories  of  the  impulses  of  fluids  must  proceed 
on  physical  postulates,  with  respect  to  the  mo- 
tions of  the  filaments,  which  are  exceedingly 
conjectural. 

And  it  must  now  be  farther  observed  that  the 
substitution  which  we  have  made  of  an  oblong 
parallelepiped  for  a  ship,  although  well  suited  to 
give  us  clear  notions  of  the  subject,  is  of  small 
use  in  practice;  for  it  is  next  to  impossible 
(even  granting  the  theory  of  oblique  impulsions) 
to  make  this  substitution.  A  ship  is  of  a  form 
which  is  not  reducible  to  equations ;  and  there- 
fore the  action  of  the  water  on  her  bow  or  broad- 
side can  only  be  had  by  a  most  laborious  and 
intricate  calculation  for  almost  every  square  foot 
of  its  surface.  See  Bezant's  Cours  de  Mathcm. 
vol.  v,  p.  72,  &c.  And  this  must  be  different 
for  every  ship.  But,  which  is  more  unlucky, 
when  we  have  got  a  parallelepiped  which  wi'll 
have  the  same  proportion  of  direct  and  lateral 
resistance  for  a  particular  angle  of  leeway,  it  will 


720 


SEAMANSHIP 


not  answer  for  another  leeway  of  the  same  ship  ; 
fo-,  when  the  leeway  changes,  ttie  figure  actually 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  water  changes  also. 
When  the  leeway  is  increased,  more  of  the  lee- 
quarter  is  acted  on  by  the  water,  and  a  part  of 
the  weather-bow  is  now  removed  from. its  action. 
Another  parallelepiped  must  therefore  be  dis- 
covered, whose  resistances  shall  suit  this  new 
position  of  the  keel  with  respect  to  the  real 
course  of  the  ship. 

We  proceed  in  the  next  place  to  ascertain  the 
elation  between  the  velocity  of  the  ship  and, 
that  of  the  wind,  modified  as  they  may  be  by 
the  trim  of  the  sails,  and  the  obliquity  of  the  im- 
pulse. 

Let  A  B  (fig.  2,  3,  and  4,  plate  SEAMANSHIP) 
represent  the  horizontal  section  of  a  ship.  In  place 
of  all  the  drawing  sails,  that  is,  the  sails  which  are 
really  filled,  we  can  always  substitute  one  sail  of 
equal  extent,  trimmed  to  the  same  angle  with  the 
keel.  This  being  supposed  attached  to  the  yard 
D  C  D,  let  this  yard  be  first  of  all  at  right  angles 
to  the  keel,  as  represented  in  fig.  2.  Let  the  wind 
blow  in  the  direction  W  C,  and  let  C  E  (in  the 
direction  W  C  continued)  represent  the  velocity 
V  of  the  wind.  Let  C  F  be  the  velocity  v  of  the 
ship.  It  must  also  be  in  the  direction  of  the 
ship's  motion,  because,  when  the  sail  is  at  right 
angles  to  the  keel,  the  absolute  impulse  on  the 
sail  is  in  the  direction  of  the  keel ;  and  there  is 
no  lateral  impulse,  and  consequently  no  leeway. 
Draw  E  F,  and  complete  the  parallelogram  C  F  E 
e,  producing  e  C  through  the  centre  of  the  yard 
to  w.  Then  icC  will  be  the  relative  or  apparent 
direction  of  the  wind,  and  C  e  or  F  E  will  be  its 
apparent  or  relative  velocity  :  for  if  the  line  Ce 
be  carried  along  C  F,  keeping  always  parallel  to 
its  first  position,  and  if  a  particle  of  air  move 
uniformly  along  C  E  (a  fixed  line  in  absolute 
space)  in  the  same  time,  this  particle  will  always 
be  found  in  that  point  of  C  E  where  it  is  inter- 
sected at  that  instant  by  the  moving  line  C  e ;  so 
that,  if  C  e  were  a  tube,  the  particle  of  air,  which 
really  moves  in  the  line  C  E,  would  always  be 
found  in  the  tube  Ce.  While  C  E  is  the  real 
direction  of  the  wind,  C  e  will  be  the  position  of 
the  vane  at  the  mast  head,  which  will  therefore 
mark  the  apparent  direction  of  the  wind,  or  its 
motion  relative  to  the  moving  ship. 

We  may  conceive  this  in  another  way.  Sup- 
pose a  cannon-shot  fired  in  the  direction  C  E  at 
the  passing  ship,  and  that  it  passes  through  the 
mast  at  C  with  the  velocity  of  the  wind.  It  will 
not  pass  through  the  off-side  of  the  ship  at  P,  in 
the  line  C  E :  for,  while  the  shot  moves  from  C 
to  P,  the  point  P  has  gone  forward,  and  the  point 
p  is  now  in  the  place  where  P  was  when  the  shot 
passed  through  the  mast.  The  shot  will  therefore 
pass  through  the  ship's  side  in  the  point  p,  and  a 
person  on  board  seeing  it  pass  through  C  and  p 
will  say  that  its  motion  was  in  the  line  C  p. 

Thus  it  happens  that  when  a  ship  is  in  motion 
the  apparent  direction  of  the  wind  is  always 
ahead  of  its  real  direction.  The  line  w  C  is  al- 
ways found  within  the  anijle  W  C  B.  It  is  easy 
to  see  from  the  construction  that  the  difference 
between  the  real  and  apparent  directions  of  the 
wind  is  so  much  the  more  remarkable  as  the  ve- 
locity of  the  ship  is  greater :  for  the  angle  W  C  w 


or  E  C  e  depends  on  the  magnitude  of  E  e  or 
C  F,  in  proportion  to  C  E.  Persons  not  much 
accustomed  to  attend  to  these  matters  are  apt  to 
think  all  attention  to  this  difference  to  be  nothing 
but  affectation  of  nicety.  They  have  no  notion 
that  the  velocity  of  a  ship  can  have  any  sensible 
proportion  to  that  of  the  wind.  '  Swift  as  the 
wind'  is  a  proverbial  expression ;  yet  the  velo- 
city of  a  ship  always  bears  a  very  sensible 
proportion  to  that  of  the  wind,  and  even  very 
frequently  exceeds  it.  We  may  form  a  pretty 
exact  notion  of  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  by  ob- 
serving the  shadows  of  the  summer  clouds  flying 
along  the  face  of  a  country,  and  it  may  be  very 
well  measured  by  this  method.  The  motion  of 
such  clouds  cannot  be  very  different  from  that  of 
the  air  below  ;  and  when  the  pressure  of  the 
wind  on  a  flat  surface,  while  blowing  with  a  ve- 
locity measured  in  this  way,  is  compared  with  its 
pressure  when  its  velocity  is  measured  by  more 
unexceptionable  methods,  they  are  found  to 
agree  with  all  desirable  accuracy.  Now  obser- 
vations of  this  kind  frequently  repeated,  show, 
that  what  we  call  a  pleasant  brisk  gale  blows  at 
the  rate  of  about  ten  miles  an  hour,  or  about 
fifteen  feet  in  a  second,  and  exerts  a  pressure  of 
half  a  pound  on  a  square  foot.  Mr.  Smeaton 
has  frequently  observed  the  sails  of  a  windmill, 
driven  by  such  a  wind,  moving  faster,  nay  much 
faster,  towards  their  extremities,  so  that  the  sail, 
instead  of  being  pressed  to  the  frames  on  the 
arms,  was  taken  a-back,  and  fluttering  on  them. 
Nay,  we  know  that  a  good  ship,  with  all  her 
sails  set  and  the  wind  on  the  beam,  will  in  such 
a  situation  sail  above  ten  knots  an  hour  on  smooth 
water.  There  is  an  observation  made  by  every 
experienced  seaman  which  shows  this  difference 
between  the  real  and  apparent  directions  of  the 
wind  very  distinctly.  When  a  ship  that  is  sail- 
ing briskly  with  the  wind  on  the  beam  tacks 
about,  and  then  sails  equally  well  on  the  other 
tack,  the  wind  always  appears  to  have  shifted 
and  come  more  a-head.  This  is  familiar  to  all 
seamen.  The  seaman  judges  of  the  direction  of 
th«  wind  by  the  position  of  the  ship's  vanes. 
Suppose  the  ship  sailing  due  west  on  the  star- 
board tack,  with  the  wind  apparently  N.N.  W. 
the  vane  pointing  S.S.E.  If  the  ship  puts 
about,  and  stands  due  east  on  the  larboard  tack, 
the  vane  will  be  found  no  longer  to  point  S.S.  E. 
but  perhaps  S.S.W.,  the  wind  appearing  N.N. !'.. ; 
and  the  ship  must  be  nearly  close  hauled,  in  order 
to  make  an  east  course.  The  wind  appears  to 
have  shifted  four  points.  If  the  ship  tacks  again, 
the  wind  returns  to  its  old  quarter.  We  have 
often  observed  a  greater  difference  than  this. 
The  celebrated  astronomer,  Dr.  Bradley,  taking 
the  amusement  of  sailing  in  a  pinnace  on  the 
river  Thames.,  observed  this,  and  was  surprised 
at  it,  imagining  that  the  change  of  wind  was 
owing  to  the  approaching  to  or  retiring  from  the 
shore.  The  boatmen  told  him  that  it  always 
happened  at  sea,  and  explained  it  to  him  in  the 
best  manner  they  were  able.  This  explanation 
struck  him,  and  set  him  a  musing  on  an  astrono- 
mical phenomenon  which  he  had  been  puzzled 
by  for  some  years,  and  which  he  had  called  the 
aberration  of  the  fixed  stars.  Ever)'  star  ch:.  i 
its  place  a  small  matter  for  half  a  year,  and  re- 


SEAMANSHIP. 


721 


turns  to  it  at  the  completion  of  the  year.  He 
compared  the  stream  of  light  from  the  star  to  the 
wind,  and  the  telescope  of  the  astronomer  to  the 
ship's  vane,  while  the  earth  was  like  the  ship, 
moving  in  opposite  directions  when  in  the  oppo- 
site points  of  its  orbit.  The  telescope  must  be 
always  pointed  a-head  of  the  real  direction  of  the 
star,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  vane  is  always  in 
a  direction  a-head  of  the  wind ;  and  thus  he  as- 
certained the  progressive  motion  of  light,  and 
discovered  the  proportion  of  its  velocity  to  the 
velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit  by  observing 
the  deviation  which  was  necessarily  given  to  the 
telescope.  Observing  that  the  light  shifted  its 
direction  about  40*,  he  concluded  its  velocity  to 
be  about  11,000  times  greater  than  that  of  the 
earth;  just  as  the  intelligent  seaman  would  con- 
clude, from  this  apparent  shifting  of  the  wind, 
that  the  velocity  of  the  wind  is  about  triple  that 
of  the  ship.  This  is  indeed  the  best  method  for 
discovering  the  velocity  of  the  wind.  Let  the 
direction  of  the  vane  at  the  mast-head  be  very 
accurately  noticed  on  both  tacks,  and  let  the  ve- 
locity of  the  ship  be  also  accurately  measured. 
The  angle  between  the  direction  of  the  ship's 
head  on  these  different  tacks,  being  halved,  will 
give  the  real  direction  of  the  wind,  which  must 
be  compared  with  the  position  of  the  van,  in 
order  to  determine  the  angle  contained  between 
the  real  and  apparent  directions  of  the  wind  or 
the  angle  E  C  e,  or  half  of  the  observed  shifting 
of  the  wind,  will  show  the  inclination  of  its  true 
and  apparent  directions.  This  being  found,  the 
proportion  of  E  C  to  F  C  (fig.  4)  is  easily  mea- 
sured. 

We  have  been  very  particular  on  this  point,  be- 
cause, since  the  mutual  actions  of  bodies  depend 
on  their  relative  motions  only,  we  should  make 
prodigious  mistakes  if  we  estimated  the  action 
of  the  wind  by  its  real  direction  and  velocity, 
when  they  differ  so  much  from  the  relative  or 
apparent. 

By  an  easy  process  we  might  investigate  the 
following  particulars  of  a  ship  with  its  sails  at 
right  angles  to  the  keel. 

1.  The  velocity  of  the  ship  is  (cateris  paribus) 
proportional  to  the  velocity  of  the  wind  and  to 
the  sine  of  its  incidence  on  the  sail,  when  no 
sail  becalms  another.     This  observation  is  not, 
however,  of  great  importance ;  for  it  is  very  un- 
usual to  put  a  ship  in  the  situation  considered 
hitherto ;  that  is,  with  the  yards  square,  unless 
she  be  right  before  the  wind. 

2.  The  surface  of  sail  is  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  ship's  velocity  directly,  and  to  the 
square  of  the  relative  velocity  inversely.     Thus, 
if  a  ship  be  sailing  with  one-eighth  of  the  velo- 
city of  the  wind,  and  we  would  have  her  sail 
with  one-fourth  of  it,  we  must  quadruple  the 
sails.     This  is  more  easily  seen  in  another  way. 
The  velocity  of  the  ship  is  proportional  to  the 
velocity  of  the  wind  ;  and  therefore  the  relative 
velocity  is  also  proportional  to  that  of  the  wind  ; 
and  the  impulse  of  the  wind  is  as  the  square  of 
the  relative  velocity.     Therefore,  in  order  to  in- 
crease the  relative  velocity  by  an  increase  of  sail 
only,  we  must  make  this  increase  of  sail  in  the 
duplicate  proportion  of  the  increase  of  velocity. 

When   the  sails  stand  oblique  to  the  keel  it 
VOL.  XIX. 


might  be  shown  that,  while  the  trim  of  the  sai's 
remains  the  same,  the  leeway  and  the  angle  of 
the  yard  and  course  remains  the  same,  and  that. 
the  velocity  of  the  ship  is  as  the  sine  of  the 
angle  of  real  incidence,  that  is,  as  the  sine  of  the 
angle  of  the  sail  and  the  real  direction  of  the  wind. 

Let  the  ship  A  B  (fig.  5)  hold  the  course  C  F, 
with  the  wind  blowing  in  the  direction  W  C,  and 
having  her  yards  D  C  D  braced  up  to  the  smallest 
angle  BCD  which  the  rigging  can  admit.  Let 
C  F  be  to  C  E  as  the  velocity  of  the  ship  to  the 
velocity  of  the  wind;  join  F  E,  and  draw  C  w 
parallel  to  E  F ;  it  is  evident  that  F  E  is  the  re- 
lative motion  of  the  wind,  and  w  C  D  is  the  re- 
lative incidence  on  the  sail.  Draw  F  O  parallel 
to  the  yard  D  C,  and  describe  a  circle  through 
the  points  C  O  F ;  then  we  say  that  if  the  ship, 
with  the  same  wind  and  the  same  trim  of  the 
same  drawing  sails,  be  made  to  sail  on  any  other 
course  Cf,  her  velocity  along  C  F  is  to  the  velo- 
city along  Cf  as  C  F  is  to  Cf;  or,  in  other 
words,  the  ship  will  employ  the  same  time  in 
going  from  C  to  any  point  of  the  circumference 
C  F  O.  Join  f  O.  Then,  because  the  angles 
C  F  O,  cfO,  are  on  the  same  chord  C  O,  they  are 
equal,  and/O  is  parallel  to  d  C  d,  the  new  posi- 
tion of  the  yard  corresponding  to  the  new  posi- 
tion of  the  keel  a  b,  making  the  angle  d  C  b  — 
D  C  B.  Also,  by  the  nature  of  the  circle,  the 
line  C  F  is  to  Cf  as  the  sine  of  the  angle  C  O  F 
to  the  sine  of  the  angle  C  Of,  that  is  (on  ac- 
count of  the  parallels  C  D,  OF,  and  C  d,  Of), 
as  the  sine  of  W  C  D  to  the  sine  of  W  C  d. 
But  when  the  trim  of  the  sails  remains  the  same 
the  velocity  of  the  ship  is  as  the  sine  of  the  angle 
of  the  sail  with  the  direction  of  the  wind  ;  there- 
fore C  F  is  to  Cf  as  the  velocity  on  C  F  to  that 
on  Cf,  and  the  proposition  is  demonstrated. 

Let  it  now  be  required  to  determine  the  best 
course  for  avoiding  a  rock  R,  lying  in  the  direc- 
tion C  R,  or  for  withdrawing  as  fast  as  possible 
from  a  line  of  coast  P  Q.  Draw  C  M  through 
R,  or  parallel  to  P  Q,  and  letm  be  the  middle  of 
the  arch  C  m  M.  It  is  plain  that  m  is  the  most 
remote  from  C  M  of  any  point  of  the  arch 
C  m  M,  and  therefore  the  ship  will  recede  farther 
from  the  coast  P  Q  in  any  given  time  by  holding 
the  course  C  m  than  by  any  other  course. 

This  course  is  easily  determined ;  for  the  arch 
C  m  M  rr  360°  —  (arch  C  O  +  arch  O  M),  and 
the  arch  C  O  <ts  the  measure  of  twice  the  angle 
CFO,  or  twice  the  angle  D  C  B,  or  twice  b  +  x, 
and  the  arch  O  M  measures  twice  the  angle 
E  C  M.  Thus,  suppose  the  sharpest  possible 
trim  of  the  sails  to  be  35°,  and  the  observed 
angle  E  C  M  to  be  70° ;  then  C  O  +  O  M  is  70° 
+  140°  or  210°.  This  being  taken  from  360° 
leaves  150°,  of  which  the  half  M  m  is  75°,  and 
the  angle  M  C  m  is  37°  30'.  This  added  to 
E  C  M  makes  EG  m  107°  30',  leaving  W  C  m 
—  72°  30',  and  the  ship  must  hold  a  course 
making  an  angle  of  72°  30',  with  the  real  direc- 
tion of  the  wind,  and  W  C  D  will  be  3?°  30'. 

This  supposes  no  leeway.  But  if  we  know 
that,  under  all  the  sail  which  the  ship  can  carry 
with  safety  and  advantage,  she  makes  5°  of  lee- 
way, the  angle  D  C  m  of  the  sail  and  course,  or 
b+  x,  is  40°.  Then  C  O  +  O  M  =  220°,  which 
being  taken  from  360°  leaves  140°,  of  which  the 

3  A 


72? 


SEAMANSHIP. 


half  is  70°,=  M  w,  and  the  angle  M  C  ,«n35°, 
and  E  C  =  ro  105°,  and  W  C  m  —  75°,  and  the 
ship  must  lie  with  her  head  70°  from  the  wind, 
making;  5°  of  leeway,  and  the  angle  W  C  D 
is  35°. 

The  general  rule  for  the  position  of  the  ship 
is,  that  the  line  on  shipboard  which  bisects  the 
angle  b+x  may  also  bisect  the  angle  W  C  M,  or 
make  the  angle  between  the  course  and  the  line 
from  which  we  wish  to  withdraw  equal  to  the 
angle  between  the  sail  and  the  real  direction  of 
the  wind.  It  is  plain  that  this  problem  includes 
that  of  plying  to  windward.  We  have  only 
to  suppose  E  C  M,  to  be  90°  ;  then,  taking  our 
example  in  the  same  ship,  with  the  trim  and  the 
same  leeway,  we  have  6+r^'K)°.  This  taken 
from  90°  leaves  50°,  and  W  C  n—90—  25=65, 
and  the  ship's  head  must  lie  60°  from  the  wind, 
and  the  yard  must  be  25°  from  it.  It  must  be 
observed  here  that  it  is  not  always  eligible  to 
select  the  course  which  will  remove  the  ship 
fastest  from  the  given  line  C  M  ;  it  may  be  more 
prudent  to  remove  from  it  more  securely,  though 
more  slowly.  In  such  cases,  the  procedure  is 
very  simple,  viz.  to  shape  the  course  as  near  the 
wind  as  is  possible. 

The  reader  will  also  easily  see,  that  the  pro- 
priety of  these  practices  is  confined  to  those 
courses  only  where  the  practicable  trim  of  the 
sails  is  not  sufficiently  sharp.  Whenever  the 
course  lies  so  far  from  the  wind  that  it  is  possible 
to  make  the  tangent  of  the  apparent  angle  of  the 
wind  and  sail  double  the  tangent  of  the  sail  and 
course,  it  should  be  done. 

These  are  the  chief  practical  consequences 
which  can  be  deduced  from  the  theory.  But  we 
should  consider  how  far  this  adjustment  of  the 
sails  and  course  can  be  performed.  And  here  oc- 
cur difficulties  so  great  as  to  make  it  almost  im- 
practicable. We  have  always  supposed  the  posi- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  sail  to  be  distinctly 
observable  and  measurable  ;  but  this  can  hardly  be 
affirmed  even  with  respect  to  a  sail  stretched  on 
•\  yard.  Here  we  suppose  the  surface  of  the  sail  to 
have  the  same  inclination  to  the  keel  that  the 
yard  has.  This  is  by  no  means  the  case ;  the  sail 
assumes  a  concave  form,  of  which  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  assign  the  direction  of  the  mean  im- 
pulse. We  believe  that  this  is  always  considerably 
to  leeward  of  a  perpendicular  to  the  yard,  lying 
between  C  I  and  C  E  (fig.  4).  This  is  of  some  ad- 
vantage, being  equivalent  to  a  sharper  trim.  We 
cannot  affirm  this,  however,  with  any  confidence, 
because  it  renders  the  impulse  on  the  weather- 
leech  of  the  sail  so  exceedingly  feeble  as  hardly 
to  have  any  effect.  In  sailing  close  to  the  wind, 
the  ship  is  kept  so  near  that  the  weather-leech 
of  the  sail  is  almost  ready  to  receive  the  wind 
edgewise,  and  to  flutter  or  shiver.  The  most 
effective  or  drawing  sails  with  a  side-wind,  espe- 
cially when  plying  to  windward,  are  the  stay- 
sails. We  believe  that  it  is  impossible  to  say, 
with  any  thing  approaching  to  precision,  what  is 
the  position  of  the  general  surface  of  a  stay-sail, 
or  to  calculate  the  intensity  and  direction  of  the 
general  impulse ;  and  we  affirm  with  confidence 
that  no  man  can  pronounce  on  these  points  with 
any  exactness.  If  we  can  guess  within  a  third  or 
a  fourth  part  of  the  truth,  it  is  all  we  can  pre- 


tend to  :  and,  after  all,  it  is  but  a  guess.  Add  to 
this,  the  sails  coming  in  the  way  of  each  other, 
and  either  becalming  them,  or  sending  the  wind 
upon  them  in  a  direction  widely  different  from 
that  of  its  free  motion.  All  these  points  we  think 
beyond  our  power  of  calculation  ;  and  therefore 
that  it  is  in  vain  to  give  the  seaman  mathematical 
rules,  or  even  tables  of  adjustment  ready  calcu- 
lated, since  he  can  neither  produce  that  medium 
position  of  his  sails  that  is  required,  nor  tell  what 
is  the  position  which  he  employs. 

This  is  one  of  the  principal  reasons  why  so  lit- 
tle advantage  has  been  derived  from  the  very  in- 
genious and  promising  disquisitions  of  Bou^uer 
and  other  mathematicians,  and  has  made  us  omit 
the  actual  solutions  of  the  chief  problems,  con- 
tenting ourselves  with  pointing  out  the  process 
to  such  readers  as  have  a  relish  for  these  analyti- 
cal operations.  But  there  is  another  principal 
reason  for  the  small  progress  which  has  been 
made  in  the  theory  of  seamanship:  this  is  the 
errors  of  the  theory  itself,  which  supposes  the  im- 
pulsions of  a  fluid  to  be  in  the  duplicate  ratio  of 
the  sine  of  incidence.  The  most  careful  com- 
parison which  has  been  made  between  the  results 
of  this  theory  and  matter  of  fact,  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  experiments  made  by  the  members  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris.  We  sub- 
join an  abstract  of  them  in  the  following  table ; 
where  column  first  gives  the  angle  of  incidence, 
column  second  gives  the  impulsions  really  ob- 
served ;  column  third  the  impulses,  had  they 
followed  the  duplicate  ratio  of  the  sines ;  and 
column  fourth  the  impulses,  if  they  were  in  the 
simple  ratio  of  the  sines : — 


Angle 
of 

I  IK-  ul. 

Impul- 
sion 
observed. 

Impulse 
as 
Sine,. 

Impulse 
as 
Sine. 

90 

1000 

1000 

1000 

84 

989 

989 

995 

78 

958 

957 

978 

72 

908 

905 

951 

66 

845 

835 

914 

60 

771 

750 

866 

54 

693 

655 

809 

48 

615 

552 

743 

42 

543 

448 

669 

36 

480 

346 

587 

30 

440 

250 

500 

24 

424 

165 

407 

18 

414 

96 

309 

12 

406 

43 

208 

6 

400 

11 

105 

Here  we  see  an  enormous  difference  in  the 
great  obliquities.  When  the  angle  of  incidence 
is  only  6°,  the  observed  impulse  is  forty  times 
greater  than  the  theoretical  impulse  ;  at  12°  it  is 
ten  times  greater  ;  at  18°  it  is  more  than  four 


times  greater;  and  at  24°  it  is  almost  three 
greater. 

No  wonder,  then,  that  the  ded  actions  from  this 
theory  are  so  useless  and  so  unlike  what  we  fami- 
liarly observe.  We  took  notice  of  this  when  we 
were  considering  the  leeway  of  a  reutanjularbjv, 


SEAMANSHIP. 


723 


and  thus  saw  a  reason  for  admitting  an  incompa- 
rably smaller  leeway  than  what  would  result  from 
the  laborious  computations  necessary  by  the 
theory.  This  error  in  theory  has  as  great  an  in- 
fluence on  the  impulsions  of  air  when  acting  ob- 
liquely on  a  sail ;  and  the  experiments  of  M. 
Robins  and  of  the  chevalier  Borda,  on  the  oblique 
impulsions  of  air,  are  perfectly  conformable  (as 
far  as  they  go)  to  those  of  the  academicians  on 
water.  The  oblique  impulsions  of  the  wind  are, 
therefore,  much  more  efficacious  for  pressing  the 
ship  in  the  direction  of  her  course  than  the  theory 
allows  us  to  suppose ;  and  the  progress  of  a  ship 
plying  to  windward  is  much  greater,  both  because 
the  oblique  impulses  of  the  wind  are  more  effec- 
tive, and  because  the  leeway  is  much  smaller  than 
we  suppose.  Were  not  this  the  case,  it  would 
be  impossible  for  a  square-rigged  ship  to  get  to 
windward.  The  impulse  on  her  sails  when  close 
hauled  would  be  so  trifling  that  she  would  not 
have  a  third  part  of  the  velocity  which  we  see  her 
acquire ;  and  this  trifling  velocity  would  be 
wasted  in  leeway ;  for  we  have  seen  that  the  di- 
minution of  the  oblique  impulses  of  the  water 
is  accompanied  by  an  increase  of  leeway.  But 
we  see  that,  in  the  great  obliquities,  the  impulsions 
continue  to  be  very  considerable,  and  that  even 
an  incidence  of  6°  gives  an  impulse  as  great  as  the 
theory  allows  to  an  incidence  of  40°.  We  may 
therefore,  on  all  occasions,  keep  the  yards  more 
square ;  and  the  loss  which  we  sustain  by  the 
diminution  of  the  very  oblique  impulse  will  be 
more  than  compensated  by  its  more  favorable  di- 
rection with  respect  to  the  ship's  keel.  Let  us 
take  an  example  of  this : — Suppose  the  wind  about 
two  points  before  the  beam,  making  an  angle  of 
68®  with  the  keel.  The  theory  assigns  43°  for 
the  inclination  of  the  wind  to  the  sail,  and  25° 
for  the  trim  of  the  sail.  The  perpendicular  im- 
pulse being  supposed  1000,  the  theoretical  im- 
pulse for  43°  is  465.  This,  reduced  in  the 
proportion  of  radius  to  the  sine  of  25°,  gives  the 
impulse  in  the  direction  of  the  course  only  197. 

But  if  we  ease  off  the  lee-braces  till  the  yard 
makes  an  angle  of  50°  with  the  keel,  and  allows 
the  wind  an  incidence  of  no  more  than  18°,  we 
have  the  experimented  impulse  4 14,  which,  when 
reduced  in  the  proportion  of  radius  to  the  sine  of 
50°,  gives  an  effective  impulse  317.  In  like  man- 
ner, the  trim  56°,  with  the  incidence  12°,  gives 
an  effective  impulse  337  ;  and  the  trim  62°,  with 
the  incidence  only  6°,  gives  353. 

Hence  it  would  at  first  sight  appear  that  the 
angle  D  C  B  of  62°  and  W  C  D  of  6°  would  be 
better  for  holding  a  course  within  six  points  of 
the  wind  than  any  more  oblique  position  of  the 
sails  ;  but  it  will  only  give  a  greater  initial  im- 
pulse. As  the  ship  accelerates,  the  wind  appa- 
rently comes  a-head,  and  we  must  continue  to 
brace  up  as  the  ship  freshens  her  way.  It  is  not 
unusual  for  her  to  enquire  half  or  two-thirds  of 
the  velocity  of  the  wind  ;  in  which  case  the  wind 
comes  apparently  a-head  more  than  two  points, 
when  the  yards  must  be  braced  up  to  35°,  and 
this  allows  an  impulse  no  greater  than  about  7°. 
Now  this  is  very  frequently  observed  in  good 
ships,  which  in  a  brisk  gale  and  smooth  water 
will  go  five  or  six  knots  close  hauled,  the  ship's 
bead  six  points  from  the  wind,  and  thp  sails  no 


more  than  just  full,  but  ready  to  shiver  by  the 
smallest  luff.  All  this  would  be  impossible  by 
the  usual  theory  ;  and  in  this  respect  these  ex- 
periments of  the  French  academy  give  a  fine  il- 
lustration of  the  seaman's  practice.  They  ac- 
count for  what  we  should  otherwise  be  much 
puzzled  to  explain  ;  and  the  great  progress  which 
is  made  by  a  ship  close  hauled,  being  perfectly 
agreeable  to  what  we  should  expect  from  the  law 
of  oblique  impulsion  dedu.cible  from  these  so 
often  mentioned  experiments,  while  it  is  totally 
incompatible  with  the  common  theory,  should 
make  us  abandon  the  theory  without  hesitation, 
and  strenuously  set  about  the  establishment  of 
another,  founded  entirely  on  experiments.  For 
this  purpose  the  experiments  should  be  made  on 
the  oblique  impulsions  of  air  on  as  great  a  scale 
as  possible,  and  in  as  great  a  variety  of  circum- 
stances, so  as  to  furnish  a  series  of  impulsions 
for  all  angles  of  obliquity.  We  have  but  four  or 
five  experiments  on  this  subject,  viz.,  two  by  Mr. 
Robins,  and  two  or  three  by  chevalier  Borda. 
Having  thus  gotten  a  series  of  impulsions,  it  is 
very  practicable  to  raise  on  this  foundation  a 
practical  institute,  and  to  give  a  table  of  the  velo- 
cities of  a  ship  s'uited  to  every  angle  of  inclina- 
tion and  of  trim ;  for  nothing  is  more  certain 
than  the  resolution  of  the  impulse  perpendicular 
to  the  sail  into  a  force  in  the  direction  of  the  keel, 
and  a  lateral  force. 

We  also  think  that  experiments  might  be 
made  on  a  model  very  nicely  rigged  with  sails, 
and  trimmed  in  every  different  degree,  which 
would  point  out  the  mean  direction  of  the  im- 
pulse on  the  sails,  and  the  comparative  force  of 
these  impulses  in  different  directions  of  the  wind. 
The  method  would  be  very  similar  to  that  of  ex- 
amining the  impulse  of  the  water  on  the  hull. 
If  this  can  also  be  ascertained  experimentally, 
the  intelligent  reader  will  easily  see  that  the 
whole  motion  of  a  ship  under  sail  may  be  deter- 
mined for  every  case.  Tables  may  then  be  con- 
structed by  calculation,  or  by  graphical  operations, 
which  will  give  the  velocities  of  a  ship  in  every 
different  course,  and  corresponding  to  every  trim 
of  sail.  And  let  it  be  here  observed  that  the 
trim  of  the  sail  is  not  to  be  estimated*  in  degree* 
of  inclination  of  the  yards  ;  because,  as  we  have 
already  remarked,  we  cannot  observe  nor  adjust 
the  lateen  sails  in  this  way.  But,  in  making  the 
experiments  for  ascertaining  the  impulse,  the  ex- 
act position  of  the  tacks  and  sheets  of  the  sail? 
are  to  be  noted ;  and  this  combination  of  adjust- 
ments is  to  pass  by  the  name  of  a  certain  trim. 
Thus  that  trim  of  all  the  sails  may  be  called  forty, 
whose  direction  is  experimentally  found  equiva- 
lent to  a  flat  surface  trimmed  to  the  obliquity  40°. 
Having  dbne  this,  we  may  construct  a  figure, 
for  each  trim  similar  to  fig.  5,  where,  instead  of 
a  circle,,  we  shall  have  a  curve  COM'  F',  whose 
chords  C  F',  cf,  &c.,  are  proportional  to  the  ve- 
locities in  these  courses;  and  by  means  of  this 
curve  we  can  find  the  point  m',  which  is  most 
remote  from  any  line  C  M  from  which  we  wi«- 
to  withdraw  ;  and  thus  we  may  solve  all  the  prin 
cipal  problems  of  the  art. 

It  will  not  be  accounted  presumption  to  ex- 
pect more  improvement  from  a  theory  founded 
on  judicious  experiments  only,  than  from  a  theory 

3  A2 


SEAMANSHIP. 


of  the  impulse  of  fluids,  which  is  found  so  in- 
consistent with  observation,  and  of  whose  fallacy 
all  its  authors,  from  Newton  to  IVAlembert,  en- 
tertained strong  suspicions.  With  these  obser- 
rations  we  conclude  our  discussion  of  the  first 
part  of  the  seaman's  task,  and  now  proceed  to 
consider  the  means  that  are  employed  to  prevent 
or  to  produce  any  deviations  from  the  uniform 
rectilineal  course  which  has  been  selected. 

SECT.  II. — OF  THE  MEANS  USED  TO  PREVENT  OR 
PRODUCE  DEVIATIONS  FROM  A  UNIFORM  REC- 
TILINEAR COURSE. 

Here  the  ship  is  to  be  considered  as  a  body  in 
free  space,  convertible  round  her  centre  of  iner- 
tia. For,  whatever  may  be  the  point  round 
which  she  turns,  this  motion  may  always  be  con- 
sidered as  compounded  of  a  rotation  round  an 
axis  passing  through  her  centre  of  gravity  or 
inertia.  She  is  impelled  by  the  wind  and  by  the 
water  acting  on  many  surfaces  differently  inclin- 
ed to  each  other,  and  the  impulse  on  each  is 
perpendicular  to  the  surface.  In  order  therefore 
that  she  may  continue  steadily  in  one  course,  it 
is  not  only  necessary  that  the  impelling  forces, 
estimated  in  their  mean  direction,  be  equal  and 
opposite  to  the  resisting  forces  estimated  in  their 
mean  direction ;  but  also  that  these  two  direc- 
tions may  pass  through  one  point,  otherwise  she 
will  be  affected  as  a  log  of  wood  is  when  push- 
ed in  opposite  directions  by  two  forces,  which 
are  equal  indeed,  hut  are  applied  to  different 
parts  of  the  log.  A  ship  must  be  considered  as 
a  lever,  acted  on  in  different  parts  by  forces  in 
different  directions,  and  the  whole  balancing 
each  other  round  that  point  or  axis  where  the 
equivalent  of  all  the  resisting  forces  passes. 
This  may  be  considered  as  a  point  supported 
by  this  resisting  force,  and  as  a  sort  of  fulcrum  ; 
therefore,  in  order  that  the  ship  may  maintain 
her  position,  the  energies  or  momenta  of  all  the 
impelling  forces  round  this  point  must  balance 
each  other. 

W  hen  a  ship  sails  right  afore  the  wind,  with 
her  yards  square,  it  is  evident  that  the  impulses 
on  each  side  of  the  keel  are  equal,  as  also  their 
mechanical  momenta  round  any  axis  passing 
perpendicularly  through  the  keel.  So  are  the 
actions  of  the  water  on  her  bows.  But  when 
she  sails  on  an  oblique  course,  with  her  yards 
braced  up  on  either  side,  she  sustains  a  pressure 
in  the  direction  C  I  (fig.  3)  perpendicular  to  the 
sail.  This,  by  giving  her  a  lateral  pressure  L  I, 
as  well  as  a  pressure  C  L  a-head,  causes  her  to 
make  leeway,  and  to  move  in  a  line  C  b  inclined 
to  C  B.  By  this  means  the  balance  of  action 
on  the  two  bows  is  destroyed ;  the  general  im- 
pulse on  the  lee-bow  is  increased  ;  and  that  on 
the  weather-bow  is  diminished.  The  combined 
impulse  b  therefore  no  longer  in  the  direction 
B  C,  but  (in  the  state  of  uniform  motion)  in  the 
direction  I  C. 

Suppose  that  in  an  instant  the  whole  sails  are 
annihilated,  and  the  impelling  pressure  C  I, 
which  precisely  balanced  the  resisting  pressure 
on  the  bows,  removed.  The  ship  tends,  by  her 
inertia,  to  proceed  in  the  direction  C  b.  This 
tendency  produces  a  continuation  of  the  resist- 
ance in  the  opposite  direction  I  C,  which  is  not 


directly  opposed  to  the  tendency  of  the  ship  in 
the  direction  C  6 ;  therefore  the  ship's  head 
would  immediately  come  up  to  the  wind.  The 
experienced  seaman  will  recollect  something  like- 
this  when  the  sails  are  suddenly  lowered  when 
coming  to  anchor.  It  does  not  happen  solely 
from  the  obliquity  of  the  action  on  the  bows  :  It 
would  happen  to  the  parallelepiped  of  our  se- 
cond diagram,  which  was  sustaining  a  lateral 
impulsion  B-  sin.  *r,  and  a  direct  impulsion  A- 
cos.  *x.  These  are  continued  fora  moment  after 
the  annihilation  of  the  sail ;  but  being  no  longer 
opposed  by  a  force  in  the  direction  C  D,  but  by 
a  force  in  the  direction  C  6,  the  force  B-  sin.  2x 
must  prevail,  and  the  body  is  not  only  retarded 
in  its  motion,  but  its  head  turns  towards  the  wind. 
But  this  effect  of  the  leeway  is  greatly  increased 
by  the  curved  form  of  the  snip's  bows.  This  oc- 
casions the  centie  of  effort  of  all  the  impulsions 
of  the  water  on  the  lee  side  of  the  ship  to  be  very 
far  forward,  and  this  so  much  the  more  remark- 
ably as  she  is  sharper  afore.  It  is  in  general  not 
much  abaft  the  foremast.  Now  the  centre  of  the 
ship's  tendency  to  continue  her  motion  is  the 
same  with  her  centre  of  gravity,  and  this  is  gene- 
rally but  a  little  before  the  mainmast  in  a  direc- 
tion parallel  to  C  b,  and  at  the  foremast  by  a 
force  parallel  to  I  C.  The  evident  consequence 
of  this  is  a  tendency  to  come  up  to  the  wind. 
This  is  independent  of  all  situation  of  the  sail*, 
provided  only  that  they  have  been  trimmed  ob- 
liquely. 

This  tendency  of  the  ship's  head  to  windward 
is  called  griping  in  the  seaman's  language,  and 
is  greatest  in  ships  which  are  sharp  forward,  as 
we  have  said  already.  This  circumstance  is 
easily  understood.  Whatever  is  the  direction  of 
the  ship's  motion,  the  absolute  impulse  on  that 
part  of  the  bow  immediately  contiguous  to  B  js 
perpendicular  to  that  very  part  of  the  surface. 
The  more  acute,  therefore,  that  the  angle  of  the 
bow  is,  the  more  will  the  impulse  on  that  part  be 
perpendicular  to  the  keel,  and  the  greater  will 
be  its  energy  to  turn  the  head  to  windward. 

Thus  we  are  enabled  to  understand  or  to  see 
the  propriety  of  the  disposition  of  the  sails  of  a 
ship.  We  see  her  crowded  with  sails  forward, 
and  even  many  sails  extended  far  before  her  bow, 
such  as  the  spritsail,  the  bowsprit  topsail,  the 
fore  top-mast  staysail,  the  jib  and  flying  jib. 
The  sairs  abaft  are  comparatively  smaller.  The 
sails  on  the  mizen-mast  are  much  smaller  than 
those  on  the  foremast.  All  the  staysails  hoisted 
on  the  mainmast  may  be  considered  as  headsails, 
because  their  centres  of  effort  are  considerably 
before  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ship ;  and, 
notwithstanding  this  disposition,  it  generally  re- 
quires a  small  action  of  the  rudder  to  counteract 
the  windward  tendency  of  the  lee-bow.  This  is 
considered  as  a  good  quality  when  moderate ; 
because  it  enables  the  seaman  to  throw  the  sails 
a-back,  and  stop  the  ship's  way  in  a  moment,  if 
she  be  in  danger  from  any  thing  a-head ;  and 
the  ship  which  does  not  carry  a  little  of  a  wea- 
ther-helm is  always  a  dull  sailer. 

In  order  to  judge  somewhat  more  accurately 
of  the  action  of  the  water  and  sails,  suppose  the 
ship  A  B  (fig.  6)  to  have  its  sails  on  the  mizen- 
mast  D,  the  mainmast  E,  and  foremast  F,  braced 


SEAMANSHIP. 


725 


-  por  tnmmea  alike,  and  thai  die  three  lines  D  i, 
Ee,  F/',  perpendicular  to  the  sails,  are  in  the 
proportion  of  the  impulses  on  the  sails.  The 
ship  is  driven  a-head  and  to  leeward,  and  moves 
in  the  path  a  C  b.  This  path  is  so  inclined  to 
the  line  of  the  keel  that  the  medium  direction  of 
the  resistance  of  the  water  is  parallel  to  the  di- 
rection of  the  impulse.  A  line  C I  may  be 
drawn  parallel  to  the  lines  D  j,  Ee,  F_/",  and 
equal  to  their  sura  ;  and  it  may  be  drawn  from 
such  a  point,  C,  that  the  actions  on  all  the  parts 
of  the  hull  between  C  and  B  may  balance  the 
momenta  of  all  the  actions  on  the  hull  between 
C  and  A.  This  point  may  justly  be  called  the 
centre  of  effort,  or  the  ceri-tre  of  resistance.  We 
cannot  determine  this  point  for  want  of  a  pro- 
per theory  of  the  resistance  of  fluids.  Nay,  al- 
though experiments  like  those  of  the  Parisian 
academy  should  give  us  the  most  perfect  know- 
ledge of  the  oblique  impulses  on  a  square  foot, 
we  should  hardly  be  benefited  by  them  ;  for  the 
action  of  the  water  on  a  square  foot  of  the  hull 
at  p,  for  instance,  is  so  modified  by  the  interven- 
tion of  the  stream  of  water  which  has  struck  the 
hull  about  B,  and  glided  along  the  bow  Bop, 
that  the  pressure  on  p  is  totally  different  from 
what  it  would  have  been  were  it  a  square  foot 
or  surface  detached  from  the  rest,  and  presented 
in  the  same  position  to  the  water  moving  in  the 
direction  bC.  For  it  is  found  that  the  resist- 
ances given  to  planes  joined  so  as  to  form  a 
wedge,  or  to  curved  surfaces,  are  widely  differ- 
ent from  the  accumulated  resistances,  calculated 
for  their  separate  parts,  agreeably  to  the  experi- 
ments of  the  academy  on  single  surfaces.  We 
therefore  do  not  attempt  to  ascertain  the  point 
C  by  theory ;  but  it  may  be  accurately  deter- 
mined by  the  experiments  which  we  have  so 
strongly  recommended  ,  and  we  offer  this  as  an 
additional  inducement  for  prosecuting  them. 

Draw  through  C  a  line  perpendicular  to  C  I, 
that  is,  parallel  to  the  sails;  and  let  the  lines  of 
1'iipulse  of  the  three  sails  cut  in  the  points,  i,  A-, 
and  m.  This  line  i  m  may  be  considered  as  a 
lover,  moveable  round  C,  and  acted  on  at  the 
points  t,  A,  and  m,  by  three  forces.  The  rota- 
: .<ry  momentum  of  the  sails  on  the  mizenmast  is 
! )  i  x  i  C  ;  that  of  the  sails  on  the  mainmast  is 
K  e  X  k  C  ;  and  the  momentum  of  the  sails  on 
the  foremast  is  K/'  x  m  C.  The  two  first  tend 
i')  press  forward  the  arm  C  i,  and  then  to' turn 
tiio  ship's  head  towards  the  wind.  The  action 
rf  the  sails  on  the  foremast  tends  to  pull  the  arm 
('  in  forward,  and  produce  a  contrary  rotation. 
1 1  the  ship  under  these  three  sails  keep  steadily 
in  her  course,  without  the  aid  of  the  rudder,  we 
must  have  I)i  x  *C  -f-  Ee  X  k  C  •=.  F/  X 
m  C'.  This  is  very  possible,  and  is  often  seen  in 
a  ship  under  her  mizen  topsail,  main  topsail, 
and  fore  topsail,  all  parallel  to  one  another,  and 
their  surfaces  daily  proportioned  by  reefing.  If 
more  sails  are  set,  we  must  always  have  a  simi- 
lar equilibrium.  A  certain  number  of  them  will 
have  their  efforts  directed  from  the  larboard  arm 
of  the  lever  t  m  lying  to  leeward  of  C  »,  and  a 
certain  number  will  have  their  efforts  directed 
from  the  starboard  arm  lying  to  windward  of 
C  I.  The  sum  of  the  products  of  each  of  the  first 
set,  by  their  distances  from  C  must  be  equal  to 


the  sum  of  the  similar  products  of  the  other  set. 
As  this  equilibrium  is  all  that  is  necessary  for 
preserving  the  ship's  position,  and  the  cessation 
of  it  is  immediately  followed  by  a  conversion  ; 
and  as  these  states  of  the  ship  may  be  had  by 
means  of  the  three  square  sails  only,  when  their 
surfaces  are  properly  proportioned — it  is  plain 
that  every  movement  may  be  executed  and  ex- 
plained by  their  means.  This  will  greatly  sim- 
plify our  future  discussions.  We  shall  therefore 
suppose  in  future  that  there  are  only  the  three 
topsails  set,  and  that  their  surfaces  are  so  adjust- 
ed by  reefing  that  their  actions  exactly  balance 
each  other  round  that  point  C,  of  the  middle  line 
A  B,  where  the  actions  of  the  water  on  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  her  bottom  in  like  manner  balance 
each  other.  This  point  C  may  be  differently 
situated  in  the  ship  according  to  the  leeway  she 
makes,  depending  on  the  trim  of  the  sails ;  and 
therefore,  although  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
three  surfaces  may  balance  each  other  in  one 
state  of  leeway,  they  may  happen  not  to  do  so 
in  another  state.  But  the  equilibrium  is  evi- 
dently attainable  in  every  case,  and  we  therefore 
shall  always  suppose  it. 

It  must  no»v  be  observed  that  when  this  equi- 
librium is  destroyed,  as,  for  example,  by  turning 
the  edge  of  the  mizen  topsail  to  the  wind,  which 
the  seamen  call  shivering  the  mizen  topsail,  and 
which  may  be  considered  as  equivalent  to  the 
removing  the  mizen  topsail  entirely,  it  does  not 
follow  that  the  ship  will  round  the  point  C,  this 
point  remaining  fixed.  The  ship  must  be  con- 
sidered as  a  free  body,  still  acted  on  by  a  num- 
ber of  forces,  which  no  longer  balance  each  other  ; 
and  she  must  therefore  begin  to  turn  round  :i 
spontaneous  axis  of  conversion,  which  must  b.-; 
determined  before  proceeding  farther.  It  is  of 
importance  to  point  out  in  general  where  this 
axis  is  situated.  Therefore  let  G  (fig.  7)  be  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  ship.  Draw  the  line  </ 
G  v  parallel  to  the  yards,  cutting  D  d  in  q,  E«; 
in  r,  CI  in  /,  and  F/inv.  While  the  three 
sails  are  set,  the  line  <jv  may  be  considered  as  a 
lever  acted  on  by  four  forces,  viz.  D  d,  impelling 
the  lever  forward  perpendicularly  in  the  point 
t]  ;  E  e  impelling  it  forward  in  the  point  r ;  F/ 
impelling  it  forward  in  the  point  t;;  and  CI 
impelling  it  backward  in  the  point  /.  These 
forces  balance  each  other  both  in  respect  of  pro- 
gressive motion  and  of  rotatory  energy  :  for  C  I 
was  taken  equal  to  the  sum  of  D  d,  E  e,  and 
F  f;  so  that  no  acceleration  or  retardation  of  the 
ship's  progress  in  her  course  is  supposed. 

But,  by  taking  away  the  mizen  topzail,  both 
the  equilibriums  are  destroyed.  A  part  D  d  of 
the  accelerating  force  is  taken  away  ;  and  yet  the 
ship,  by  her  inertia  or  inherent  force,  tends,  for 
a  moment,  to  proceed  in  the  direction  Cp  with 
her  former  velocity;  and  by  this  tendency  exerts 
for  a  moment  the  same  pressure  C I  on  the  water, 
and  sustains  the  same  resistance  I  C.  She  must 
therefore  be  retarded  in  her  motion  by  the  ex- 
cess of  the  resistance  I  C  over  the  remaining  im- 
pelling forces  E  e  and  F  f,  that  is,  by  a  force 
equal  and  opposite  to  D  rf.  She  will  therefore 
be  retarded  in  the  same  manner  as  if  the  mizen 
topsail  were  still  set,  and  a  force  equal  and  op- 
posite to  its  action  were  applied  to  G  the  centre 


726 


SEAMANSHIP 


of  gravity,  and  she  would  soon  acquire  a  smaller 
velocity,  which  would  again  faring  all  things  into 
equilibrium ;  and  she  would  stand  on  in  the 
same  course,  without  changing  either  her  leeway 
or  the  position  of  her  head. 

But  the  equilibrium  of  the  lever  is  also  de- 
stroyed. It  is  now  acted  on  by  three  forces 
only,  viz.  Ee  and  F /',  impelling  it  forward  in 
the  points  r  and  v,  and  I  C  impelling  it  back- 
ward in  the  point  t.  Make  rv  :  ro  —  Ee 
+  F/:  F/,  and  make  op  parallel  to  C I  and 
equal  to  Ee  -f-  Yf.  Then  we  know,  from  the 
common  principles  of  mechanics,  that  the  force 
op  acting  at  o  will  have  the  same  momentum  or 
energy  to  turn  the  lever  round  any  point  what- 
ever as  the  two  forces  E  e  and  F  /  applied  at  r 
and  v  ;  and  now  the  lever  is  acted  on  by  two 
forces,  viz.  I C  urging  it  backwards  in  the  point  t, 
and  op  urging  it  forwards  in  the  point  o.  It  must 
therefore  turn  round  like  a  floating  log,  which 
gets  two  blows  in  opposite  directions.  If  we  now 
make  1C— -op:  op~to:tx,  or  1C  — op  : 
I  C  ~  t  o  :  o  x,  and  apply  to  the  point  x  a  force 
equal  to  1C  —  op  in  the  direction  1C;  we 
know,  by  the  common  principles  of  mechanics, 
that  this  force  1C  —  op  will  produce  the  same 
rotation  round  any  point  as  the  two  forces  I C 
and  op  applied  in  their  proper  directions  at  t  and 
o.  Let  us  examine  the  situation  of  the  point  T. 

The  force  1C  —  op  is  evidently  —  D  d,  and 
o  p  is  —  E  e.  -f  F/.  Therefore  o  t  :  t  x  —  D  d  : 
op.  But  because,  when  all  the  sails  were  filled, 
there  was  an  equilibrium  round  C,  and  therefore 
round  t,  aud  because  the  force  o  p  acting  at  o  is 
rquivalent  to  Ee  and  F/* acting  at  r  and  v,  we 
must  still  have  the  equilibrium ;  and  therefore  we 
have  the  momentum  Drf  X  qt^op  X  ot.  There- 
fore o  t  :  t  q  —  D  d  :  op,  and  t  q  —  t  x.  There- 
fore the  point  x  is  the  same  with  the  point  q. 

Therefore,  when  we  shiver  the  mizen  topsail, 
the  rotation  of  the  ship  is  the  same  as  if  the  ship 
were  at  rest,  and  a  force  equal  and  opposite  to 
the  action  of  the  mizen  topsail  were  applied  at  q 
or  at  D,  or  at  any  point  in  the  line  D  q. 

This  might  have  been  shown  in  another  and 
shorter  way.  Suppose,  all  sails  filled,  the  ship 
is  in  equilibrio.  This  will  be  disturbed  by  ap- 
plying to  D  a  force  opposite  to  D  d;  and,  if  the 
force  be  also  equal  to  D  d,  it  is  evident  that  these 
two  forces  destroy  each  other,  and  that  this  appli- 
cation of  the  force  d  D  is  equivalent  to  the  taking 
away  of  the  mizen  topsail.  But  we  chose  to  give 
the  whole  mechanical  investigation,  because  it 
gave  us  an  opportunity  of  pointing  out  to  the 
reader,  in  a  case  of  very  easy  comprehension, 
the  precise  manner  in  which  the  ship  is  acted  on 
by  the  different  sails  and  by  the  water,  and  what 
share  each  of  them  has  in  the  motion  ultimately 
produced.  We  shall  not  repeat  this  manner  of 
procedure  in  other  cases,  because  a  little  reflec- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  reader  \\  ill  now  enable  him 
to  trace  the  modus  operand!  through  all  its  steps. 

We  now  see  that,  in  respect  both  of  progres- 
-ive  motion  and  of  conversion,  the  ship  is  af- 
fected by  shivering  the  sail  D  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  if  a  force  equal  and  opposite  to  Dd  were 
.ipplicd  at  1),  or  at  any  point  in  the  line  Dd. 
N\  c  must  now  have  recourse  to  the  principles 
tslalli  hut  under  the  article  ROTATION. 


Let  p  represent  a  particle  of  matter,  r  ite 
radius  vector,  or  its  distance  p  G  from  an  axis 
passing  through  the  centre  of  gravity  G,  and  lei 
M  represent  the  whole  quantity  of  matter  of  the 

ship.     Then  ks  momentum  of  inertia  is  ~  /  p. 

r8.  The  ship,  impelled  in  the  point  D  by  a 
force  in  the  direction  dD,  will  begin  to  turn 
round  a  spontaneous  vertical  axis,  passing  through 
a  point  S  of  the  line  q  G,  which  is  drawn  through 
the  centre  of  gravity  G,  perpendicular  to  the  di- 
rection d  D  of  the  external  force,  and  the  distance 
G  S  of  this  axis  from  the  centre  of  gravity  is  — 


f, 


J~ —  and  it  is  taken  on  the  opposite  side  of 

G  from  q,  that  is,  S  and  q  are  on  opposite  sides 
of  G. 

Let  us  express  the  external  force  by  the  sym- 
bol F.  It  is  equivalent  to  a  certain  number  of 
pounds,  being  the  pressure  of  the  wind  moving 
with  the  velocity  V  and  inclination  a  on  the  snr 
face  of  the  sail  D ;  and  may  therefore  he  com- 
puted either  by  the  theoretical  or  experimental 
law  of  oblique  impulses.  Having  obtained  this, 
we  can  ascertain  the  angular  velocity  of  the  ro- 
tation, and  the  absolute  velocity  of  any  given 
point  of  the  ship.  See  ROTATION. 

But,  before  we  proceed  to  this  investigation, 
we  shall  consider  the  action  of  the  rudder,  which 
operates  precisely  in  the  same  manner.  Let  the 
ship  AB  (fig.  8)  have  her  rudder  in  the  position 
A  D,  the  helm  being  hard  a-starboard,  while  the 
ship  sailing  on  the  starboard  tack,  and  making 
leeway,  keeps  on  the  course  a  b.  The  lee  sur- 
face of  the  rudder  meets  the  water  obliquely. 
The  very  foot  of  the  rudder  meets  it  in  the  di- 
rection D  E  parallel  to  a  b.  Th*  parts  farther 
up  meet  it  with  various  obliquities,  and  with 
various  velocities,  as  it  glides  round  the  bottom 
of  the  ship  and  falls  into  the  wake.  It  is  abso- 
lutely impossible  to  calculate  the  accumulated 
impulse.  We  shall  not  be  far  mistaken  in  the 
deflection  of  each  contiguous  filament,  as  it  quits 
the  bottom  and  glides  along  the  rudder ;  but  we 
neither  know  the  velocity  of  these  filaments,  nor 
the  deflection  and  velocity  of  the  filaments  glid- 
ing without  them.  We  therefore  imagine  that 
all  computations  on  this  subject  are  in  vain.  But 
it  is  enough  for  our  purpose  that  we  know  the 
direction  of  the  absolute  pressure  which  they 
exert  on  its  surface.  It  is  in  the  direction  D  d, 
perpendicular  to  that  surface.  We  also  may  be 
confident  that  this  pressure  is  very  considerable, 
in  proportion  to  the  action  of  the  water  on  the 
ship's  bows,  or  of  the  wind  on  the  sails  ;  and 
we  may  suppose  it  to  be  nearly  in  the  propor- 
tion of  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  the  ship  in 
her  course ;  but  we  cannot  affirm  it  to  be  accu- 
rately in  that  proportion,  for  reasons  that  will 
readily  occur  to  one  who  considers  the  way  in 
which  the  water  falls  in  behind  the  ship. 

It  is  observed,  however,  that  a  fine  sailer  always 
steers  well,  andthatall  movements  by  means  of  the 
rudder  arc  performed  with  great  rapidity  when  the 
velocity  of  the  ship  is  great.  We  shall  see,  by  and 
by,  that  the  speed  with  which  the  ship  performs 
the  angular  movements  is  in  the  proportion  of 
her  progressive  velocity:  for  we  shall  see  that 


SEAMANSHIP. 


727 


the  squares  of  the  times  of  performing  the  evo- 
lutions are  as  the  impulses  inversely,  which  are 
as  the  squares  of  the  velocities.     There  is  per- 
haps no  force  which  acts  on  a  ship  that  can  be 
more  accurately  determined  by  experiment  than 
this.     Let  the  ship  ride  in  a  stream  or  tideway 
whose  velocity  is  accurately  measured ;  and  let 
her  ride  from  two  moorings,   so  that  her  bow 
may  be  a  fixed  point.     Let  a  small  tow-line  be 
laid  out  from  her  stern  or  quarter  at  right  angles 
to  the  keel,  and  connected  with  some  apparatus 
fitted  up  on  shore  or  on  board  another  ship,  by 
which  the  strain  on  it  may  be  accurately  mea- 
sured ;  a  person  conversant  with  mechanics  will 
see  many  ways  in  which  this  can  be  done.    Per- 
haps the  following  may  be  as  good  as  any :  let 
the  end  of  the  tow-line  be  fixed  to  some  point  as 
high  out  of  the  water  as  the  point  of  the  ship 
from  which  it  is  given  out,  and  let  this  be  very 
high.     Let  a  block  with  a  hook  be  on  the  rope, 
and  a  considerable  weight  hung  on   this  hook. 
Things  being  thus  prepared,  put  down  the  helm 
to  a  certain  angle,  so  as  to  cause  the  ship  to  sheer 
off'  from  the  point  to  which  the  far  end  of  the 
tow-line  is  attached.     This  will  stretch  the  rope, 
and  raise  the  weight  out  of  the  water.     Now 
heave  upon  the  rope,  to  bring  the  ship  back  again 
to  her  former  position,  with  her  keel  in  the  di- 
rection of  the   stream.     When  this  position  is 
attained,  note  carefully  the  form  of  the  rope,  that 
is,  the  angle  which  its  two  parts  make  with  the 
horizon.     Call  this  angle  a.     Every  person  ac- 
quainted  with   these  subjects  knows   that    the 
horizontal   strain   is   equal   to  half   the  weight 
multiplied   by   the   cotangent   of  a,  or  that   2 
is  to  the  cotangent  of  a  as  the  weight  to  the 
horizontal  strain.     Now  it  is  this  strain  which 
balances,  and  therefore  measures,  the  action  of 
the  rudder,  or  D  e  in  fig.  8.    Therefore,  to  have 
the  absolute  impulse  D  d,  we  must  increase  De 
in  the  proportion  of  radius  to  the  secant  of  the 
angle  b  which  the  rudder  makes  with  the  keel. 
In  a  great  ship,  sailing  six  miles  in  an  hour,  the 
impulse  on  the  rudder,  inclined  30°  to  the  keel, 
is  not  less  than  3000  pounds.     The  surface  of 
the  rudder  of  such  a  ship  contains  nearly  eighty 
square  feet.     It  is  not,  however,  very  necessary 
to  know  this  absolute  impulse  D  d,  because  it  is 
its  part  D  e  alone  which  measures  the  energy  of 
the   rudder  in  producing  a  conversion.     Such 
experiments,  made  with  various  positions  of  the 
rudder,  will  give  its  energies  corresponding  to 
these  positions,  and  will  settle  that  long  disputed 
point  which  is  the  best  position  for  turning  a 
ship.     On  the  hypothesis  that  the  impulsions  of 
fluids  are  in  the  duplicate  ratio  of  the  sines  of 
incidence,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  should 
make  au  angle  of  54°  44'  with  the  keel.     But 
the  form  of  a  large  ship  will  not  admit  of  this, 
because  a  tiller  of  a  length  sufficient  for  managing 
the  rudder  in  sailing  with  great  velocity  has  not 
room  to  deviate  above  30°  from  the  direction  of 
the  keel ;  and  in  this  position  of  the  rudder  the 
mean  obliquity  of  the  filaments  of  water  to  its 
surface  cannot  exceed  40°  or  45°.      A  greater 
angle  would  not  be  of  much  service,  for  it  is 
never  for  want  of  a  proper  obliquity  that  the 
rudder  fails  of  producing  a  conversion. 

A  ship  misses  stays  in  rough  weather  for  want 


of  a  sufficient  progressive  velocity,  and  because 
her  bows  are  beat  off  by  the  waves  ;  and  there 
is  seldom  any  difficulty  in  wearing  the  ship,  it 
she  has  any  progressive  motion.  It  is,  however, 
always  desirable  to  give  the  rudder  as  much  in- 
fluence as  possible.  Its  surface  should  be  en- 
larged (especially  below)  as  much  as  can  be 
done  consistently  with  its  strength  and  with  the 
power  of  the  steersman  to  manage  it;  and  it  « 
should  be  put  in  the  most  favourable  situation 
for  the  water  to  get  at  it  with  great  velocity ; 
and  it  should  be  placed  as  far  from  the  axis  of 
the  ship's  motion  as  possible.  These  points  are 
obtained  by  making  the  stern-post  very  upright, 
as  has  always  been  done  in  the  French  dock 
yards.  The  British  ships  have  a  much  greater 
rake ;  but  our  builders  are  gradually  adopting 
the  French  forms,  experience  having  taught  us 
that  their  ships,  when  in  our  possession,  are  much 
more  obedient  to  the  helm  than  our  own.  In 
order  to  ascertain  the  motion  produced  by  the 
action  of  the  rudder,  draw  from  the  centre  of 
gravity  a  line  Gq  perpendicular  to  D  d  (D  d 
being  drawn  through  the  centre  of  effort  of  the 
rudder).  Then,  as  in  the  consideration  of  the 
action  of  the  sails,  we  may  conceive  the  line  q  G 
as  a  lever  connected  with  the  ship,  and  impelled 
by  a  force  D  d  acting  perpendicularly  at  q.  The 
consequence  of  this  will  be  an  incipient  con- 
version of  the  ship  about  a  vertical  axis  passing 
through  some  point  S  in  the  line  q  G,  lying  on 
the  other  side  of  G  from  q ;  and  we  have,  as 


in  the  former  case,  G  S  — 


'  Gq- 


Thus  the  action  and  effects  of  the  sails,  ana 
of  the  rudder,  are  perfectly  similar,  and  are  to  be 
considered  in  the  same  manner.  We  see  that 
the  action  of  the  rudder,  though  of  a  small  sur- 
face in  comparison  of  the  sails,  must  be  very 
great  ;  for  the  impulse  of  water  is  many  hundred 
times  greater  than  that  of  the  wind  ;  and  the  arm 
q  G  of  the  lever,  by  which  it  acts,  is  incomparably 
greater  than  that  by  which  any  of  the  impulsions 
on  the  sails  produces  its  effect;  accordingly 
the  ship  yields  much  more  rapidly  to  its  action 
than  she  does  to  the  lateral  impulse  of  a  sail. 

If  G  were  a  fixed  or  supported  axis,  it  would 
be  the  same  thing  whether  the  absolute  force  D 
d  of  the  rudder  acts  in  the  direction  D  d,  or  its 
transverse  part  D  e  acts  in  the  direction  D  e,  both 
would  produce  the  same  rotation  ;  but  it  is  not 
so  in  a  free  body.  The  force  D  d  both  tends  to 
retard  the  ship's  motion  and  to  produce  a  rota- 
tion :  It  retards  it  as  much  as  if  the  same  force 
Dd  had  been  immediately  applied  to  the  centre. 
And  thus  the  real  motion  of  the  ship  is  com- 
pounded of  a  motion  of  the  centre  in  a  direction 
parallel  to  D  rf,  and  of  a  motion  round  the  centre. 
These  two  constitute  the  motion  round  S. 

Hence  we  might  deduce  that  the  times  of  per- 
forming similar  evolutions  with  similar  ships  are 
proportional  to  the  lengths  of  the  ships  when 
both  are  sailing  equally  fast  ;  and  since  the  evo- 
lutions are  similar,  and  the  forces  vary  similarly 
in  their  different  parts,  they  not  only  describe 
equal  angles  of  revolution,  but  also  similar 
curves. 

A  small  ship,  therefore,  works  in  less  time  and 


728 


SEAMANSHIP. 


in  less  room  than  a  great  ship,  and  this  in  the 
proportion  of  its  length.  This  is  a  great  advan- 
tage in  all  cases, particularly  in  wearing,  in  order 
to  sail  on  the  other  tack  close-hauled.  In  this 
case  she  will  always  be  to  windward  and  a-head 
of  the  large  ship,  when  both  are  got  on  the  other 
tack.  It  would  appear  at  first  sight  that  the  large 
ship  will  have  the  advantage  in  tacking.  Indeed 
the  large  ship  is  farther  to  windward  when  again 
trimmed  on  the  other  tack  than  the  small  ship 
when  she  is  just  trimmed  on  the  other  tack.  But 
this  happened  before  the  large  ship  had  completed 
her  evolution,  and  the  small  ship  in  the  mean 
time  has  been  going  forward  on  the  other  tack, 
and  going  to  windward.  She  will  therefore  be 
before  the  large  ship's  beam,  and  perhaps  as  far 
to  windward. 

VVe  have  seen  that  the  velocity  of  rotation 
is  proportional,  caeteris  paribus,  to  F  X  G  q.  F 
means  the  absolute  impulse  on  the  rudder  or 
sail,  and  is  always  perpendicular  to  its  surface. 
This  absolute  impulse  on  a  sail  depends  on  the 
obliquity  of  the  wind  on  its  surface.  The  usual 
theory  says  that  it  is  as  the  square  of  the  sine  of 
incidence :  but  we  find  this  is  not  true.  We 
must  content  ourselves  with  expressing  it  by 
some  as  yet  unknown  function  0  of  the  angle  of 
incidence  a,  and  call  it  0  a  ;  and  if  S  be  the  sur- 
face of  the  sail,  and  V  the  velocity  of  the  wind, 
the  absolute  impulse  is  n  V2  S  X  0  «•  This  acts 
(in  the  case  of  the  mizen-topsail,  fig.  7)  by  the 
lever  q  G,  which  is  equal  to  D  G  X  cos.  D  G  q, 
and  D  G  q  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  the  yard  and 
keel ;  which  angle  we  formerly  called  6.  There- 
fore its  energy  in  producing  a  rotation  is  nV*S 
X  $  a  x  D  G  X  cos.  b.  Leaving  out  the  constant 
quantities  n,  Vs,  S,  and  D  G,  its  energy  is  pro- 
portional to  0  a  x  cos.  b.  In  order,  therefore, 
that  any  sail  may  have  the  greatest  power  to  pro- 
duce a  rotation  round  G,  it  must  be  so  trimmed 
that  <f>  a  x  cos.  b  may  be  a  maximum.  Thus,  if 
we  would  trim  the  sails  on  the  foremast,  so  as  to 
pay  the  ship  off  from  the  wind  right  a-head  with 
the  greatest  effect,  and  if  we  take  the  experiments 
of  the  French  academicians  as  proper  measures 
of  the  oblique  impulses  of  the  wind  on  the  sail, 
we  shall  brace  up  the  yard  to  an  angle  of  48° 
with  the  keel.  The  impulse  corresponding  to 
48°  is  615,  and  the  cosine  of  48°  is  669.  These 
give  a  product  of  411435.  If  we  brace  the  sail 
to  54-44,  the  angle  assigned  by  the  theory,  the 
effective  impulse  is  405274.  If  we  make  the  angle 
45°,  the  impulse  is  408774.  It  appears  then  that 
48°  is  preferable  to  either  of  the  others.  But 
the  difference  is  inconsiderable,  as  in  all  cases  of 
maximum  a  small  deviation  from  the  best  posi- 
tion is  not  very  detrimental.  But  the  difference 
between  the  theory  and  this  experimental  mea- 
sure will  be  very  great  when  the  impulses  of  the 
wind  are  of  necessity  very  oblique.  Thus,  in 
tacking  ship,  as  soon  as  the  headsails  are  taken 
aback,  they  serre  to  aid  the  evolution,  as  is  evi- 
dent :  but,  if  we  were  now  to  a<lopt  the  maxim 
inculcated  by  the  theory,  we  should  immediately 
round  in  the  weather-braces  so  as  to  increase  the 
impulse  on  the  sail,  because  it  is  then  very  small ; 
and  although  we  by  this  means  make  yard  more 
square,  tnd  therefore  diminish  the  rotatory  mo- 
mentum of  this  impulse,  yet  the  impulse  is  more 


increased  (by  the  theory)  thau  its  vertical  lever  is 
diminished.  Let  us  examine  this  a  little  more 
particularly,  because  it  is  reckoned  one  of  the 
nicest  points  of  seamanship  to  aid  the  ship's 
coming  round  by  means  of  the  headsails;  and 
experienced  seamen  differ  in  their  practice  in 
this  manoeuvre.  Suppose  the  yard  braced  up  to 
40°,  which  is  as  much  as  can  be  usually  done, 
and  that  the  sail  shivers  (the  bowlines  are  usually 
let  go  when  the  helm  is  put  down),  the  sail  im- 
mediately takes  aback,  and  in  a  moment  we  may 
suppose  an  incidence  of  6°.  The  impulse  cor- 
responding to  this  is  400  (by  experiment),  and 
the  cosine  of  40°  is  766.  This  gives  306400  for 
the  effective  impulse.  To  proceed,  according  to 
the  theory,  we  should  brace  the  yard  to  70°, 
which  would  give  the  wind  (now  34°  on  the 
weather-bow)  an  incidence  of  nearly  36°,  and 
the  sail  an  inclination  of  20°,  to  the  intended 
motion,  which  is  perpendicular  to  the  keel.  For 
the  tangent  of  20°  is  about  one-half  the  tangent 
of  36°.  Let  us  now  see  what  effective  impulse 
the  experimental  law  of  oblique  impulsions  will 
give  for  this  adjustment  of  the  sails.  The  expe- 
rimental impulse  for  36°  is  480 ;  the  cosine  of 
70°  is  342:  the  product  is  164160,  not  much 
exceeding  the  half  of  the  former.  Nay,  the  im- 
pulse for  36°,  calculated  by  the  theory,  would 
have  been  only  346,  and  the  effective  impulse 
only  118332.  And  it  must  be  farther  observed 
that  this  theoretical  adjustment  would  tend  greatly 
to  check  the  evolution,  and  in  most  cases  would 
entirely  mar  it,  by  checking  the  ship's  motion  a- 
head,  and  consequently  the  action  of  the  rudder, 
which  is  the  most  powerful  agent  in  the  evolu- 
tion, for  here  would  be  a  great  impulse  directed 
almost  a-stern. 

We  are  justifiable,  therefore,  in  saying,  in  the 
beginning  of  this  article,  that  a  seaman  would 
frequently  find  himself  baffled  if  he  were  to 
work  a  ship  according  to  the  rules  deduced  from 
M.  Bouguer's  work  ;  and  we  see  by  this  instance 
of  what  importance  it  is  to  have  the  oblique  im- 
pulsions of  fluids  ascertained  experimentally. 
The  practice  of  the  most  experienced  seamen  is 
directly  the  opposite  to  this  theoretical  maxim, 
and  its  success  greatly  confirms  the  usefulness  of 
those  experiments  of  the  academicians  so  often 
praised  by  us. 

We  return  to  the  general  consideration  of  the  ro- 

F.yG 
tatory  motion.  We  found  the  velocity  v  —  s* 

It  is  therefore  proportional,  caeteris  paribus,  to 
q  G.  We  have  seen  in  what  manner  q  G  depends 
on  the  position  and  situation  of  the  sail  or  rudder 
when  the  point  G  is  fixed.  But  it  also  depends 
on  the  position  of  G.  With  respect  to  the  action 
of  the  rudder,  it  is  evident  that  it  is  so  much  the 
more  powerful  as  it  is  more  remote  from  G.  The 
distance  from  G  may  be  increased  either  by 
moving  the  rudder  farther  aft,  or  G  farther  for- 
ward. And,  as  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
for  a  ship  to  answer  her  helm  with  the  greatest 
prcvnptitude,  those  circumstances  have  been  at- 
tended to  which  distinguished  fine  steering  ships 
from  such  as  had  not  this  quality  ;  and  it  is  in  a 
great  measure  to  be  ascribed  to  this  that,  in  the 
gradual  improvement  of  naval  architecture,  the 


SEAMANSHIP. 


729 


centre  of  gravity  has  been  placed  far  forward. 
Perhaps  the  notion  of  a  centre  of  gravity  did  not 
come  into  the  thoughts  of  the  rude  builders  in 
early  times  :  but  they  observed  that  those  boats 
and  ships  steered  best  which  had  their  extreme 
breadth  before  the  middle  point,  and  conse- 
quently the  bows  not  so  acute  as  the  stern.  This 
is  so  contrary  to  what  one  would  expect  that  it 
attracted  attention  more  forcibly  ;  and,  being 
somewhat  mysterious,  it  might  prompt  to  attempts 
of  improvement,  by  exceeding  in  this  singular 
maxim.  We  believe  that  it  has  been  carried  as 
far  as  is  compatible  with  other  essential  requisites 
in  a  ship. 

This  is  the  chief  circumstance  in  what  is  called 
the  trim  of  a  ship  ;  and  it  were  greatly  to  be 
wished  that  the  best  place  for  the  centre  of  gra- 
vity could  be  accurately  ascertained.  A  prac- 
tice prevails  which  is  the  opposite  of  what  we 
are  now  advancing.  It  is  usual  to  load  a  ship 
so  that  her  keel  is  not  horizontal,  but  lower 
abaft.  This  is  found  to  improve  her  steerage. 
The  reason  of  this  is  obvious.  It  increases  the 
acting  surface  of  the  rudder,  and  allows  the  water 
to  come  at  it  with  much  greater  freedom  and  re- 
gularity ;  and  it  generally  diminishes  the  griping 
of  <he  ship  forward  by  removing  a  part  of  the 
bows  out  of  the  water.  It  has  not  always  this 
effect ;  for  the  form  of  the  harping  aloft  is  fre- 
quently such  that  the  tendency  to  gripe  is  dimi- 
nished by  immersing  more  of  the  bow  in  the 
water.  But  waving  these  circumstances,  and  at- 
tending only  to  the  rotatory  energy  of  the  rud- 
der, we  see  that  it  is  of  advantage  to  carry  the 
centre  of  gravity  forward.  The  same  advantage 
is  '.rained  to  the  action  of  the  after-sails.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  action  of  the  head-sails  is 
diminished  by  it;  and  we  may  call  every  sail  a 
head-sail  whose  centre  of  gravity  is  before  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  ship ;  that  is,  all  the 
sails  hoisted  on  the  bowsprit  and  foremast ;  and 
the  staysails  hoisted  on  the  mainmast ;  for  the 
centre  of  gravity  is  seldom  far  before  the  main- 
mast. 

Suppose  that,  when  the  rudder  is  put  into  the 
position  A  D  (fig.  8),  the  centre  of  gravity  could 
be  shifted  to  g,  so  as  to  increase  q  G,  and  that 
this  is  done  without  increasing  the  sum  of  the 
products  p  r3,  it  is  obvious  that  the  velocity  of 
conversion  will  be  increased  in  the  proportion 
of  (j  G  to  q  g.  This  is  very  possible  by  bringing 
to  that  side  of  the  ship  parts  of  her  loading  which 
were  situated  at  a  distance  from  G  on  the  other 
side.  Nay  we  can  make  this  change  in  such  a 

mannerthat  /  p  r a  shall  even  be  less  than  it  was 

«_/ 

before,  by  taking  care  that  every  thing  which  we 
sluft  shall  be  nearer  to  g  than  it  was  formerly 
to  G.  Suppose  it  all  placed  in  one  spot  m, 
and  that  m  is  the  quantity  of  matter  so  shifted, 
while  M  is  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the  whole 
ship.  It  is  only  necessary  that  m  g  G1  shall  be 
less  than  the  sum  of  the  products  p  r2  correspond- 
ing to  the  matter  whicli  has  been  shifted.  Now 
although  the  matter,  which  is  easily  moveable, 
is  generally  very  small  in  comparison  to  the 
whole  matter  of  the  ship,  and  therefore  can  make 
hut  a  small  change  in  the  place  of  the  centre  of 
gravity,  it  may  frequently  be  brought  from  places 


so  remote  that  it  may  occasion  a  very  sensible 
diminution  of  the  quantity  /  pr3,  which  ex- 
presses the  whole  momentum  of  inertia. 

This  explains  a  practice  of  the  seamen  in 
small  wherries  or  skiffs,  who  in  putting  about 
are  accustomed  to  place  themselves  to  leeward 
of  the  mast.  They  even  find  that  they  can  aid 
the  quick  motions  of  these  light  boats  by  the 
way  in  which  they  rest  on  their  two  feet,  some- 
times leaning  all  on  one  foot,  and  sometimes  on 
the  other.  And  we  have  often  seen  this  evolution 
very  sensibly  accelerated  in  a  ship  of  war,  by  the 
crew  running  suddenly,  as  the  helm  is  put  down, 
to  the  lee-bow.  And  we  have  heard  it  asserted 
by  very  expert  seamen  that,  after  all  attempts  to 
wear  ship  (after  lying-to  in  a  storm)  have  failed, 
they  have  succeeded  by  the  crew  collecting  diem- 
selves  near  the  weather  fore-shrouds  the  moment 
the  helm  was  put  down.  It  must  be  agreeable 
to  the  reflecting  seaman  to  see  this  practice  sup- 
ported by  undoubted  mechanical  principles. 

SECT.  III. — OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  EVOLUTIONS. 

We  conclude  this  dissertation  by  describing 
some  of  the  chief  movements  or  evolutions.  What 
we  have  said  hitherto  is  intended  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  artist,  by  making  him  sensible  of  the 
mechanical  procedure.  The  description  is  rather 
meant  for  the  amusement  of  the  landsman,  and 
enabling  him  to  understand  operations  that  are 
familiar  to  the  seaman.  The  latter  will  perhaps 
smile  at  the  awkward  account  given  of  his  busi- 
ness by  one  who  cannot  hand,  reef,  nor  steer. 

1.  To  tack  ship. — The  ship  must  first  of  all  be 
kept  full,  that  is,  with  a  very  sensible  angle  of 
incidence  on  the  sails,  and  by  no  means  hugging 
the  wind.  For,  as  this  evolution  is  chiefly  per- 
formed by  the  rudder,  it  is  necessary  to  give  the 
ship  a  good  velocity.  When  the  ship  is  observed 
to  luff  up  of  herself,  that  moment  is  to  be  calched 
for  beginning  the  evolution,  because  she  will  by 
her  inherent  force  continue  this  motion.  The 
helm  is  then  put  down.  When  the  officer  calls 
out,  '  Helm's  a-lee,'  the  fore-sheet,  fore-top  bow- 
line, jib,  and  flag  sail  sheets  forward  are  let  go. 
The  jib  is  frequently  hauled  down.  Thus  the 
obstacles  to  the  ship's  head  coming  up  to  the 
wind  by  the  action  of  the  rudder  are  removed. 
If  the  mainsail  is  set,  it  is  not  unusual  to  clue 
up  the  weather  side,  which  may  be  considered 
as  a  head-sail,  because  it  is  before  the  centre  of 
gravity.  The  mizen  must  be  hauled  out,  and 
even  the  sail  braced  to  windward.  Its  power  in 
paying  off  the  stern  from  the  wind  conspires  with 
the  action  of  the  rudder.  It  is  really  an  aerial 
rudder.  The  sails  are  immediately  taken  a-back. 
In  this  state  the  effect  of  the  mizen  topsail  would 
be  to  obstruct  the  movement,  by  pressing  the  stern 
the  contrary  way  to  what  it  did  before.  It  is 
therefore  either  immediately  braced  about  sharp 
on  the  other  tack,  or  lowered.  Bracing  it  about 
evidently  tends  to  pay  round  the  stern  from  the 
wind,  and  thus  assists  in  bringing  the  head  up  to 
the  wind.  But  in  this  position  it  checks  the 
progressive  motion  of  the  ship,  on  which  the  evo- 
lution chiefly  depends.  For  a  rapid  evolution, 
therefore,  it  is  as  well  to  lower  the  wizen-topsail. 
Meantime  the  head-sails  are  all  a-back,  and  I'HK 


730 


SEAMANSHIP. 


action  of  wind  on  them  tends  greatly  to  pay 
the  ship  round.  To  increase  this  effect  it  is  not 
unusual  to  haul  the  fore-top  bowline  again.  The 
sails  on  the  mainsail  are  now  almost  becalmed  ; 
and  therefore  when  the  wind  is  right  a-head,  or 
a  little  before,  the  mainmast  is  hauled  round  and 
braced  up  sharp  on  the  other  tack  with  all  expe- 
dition. The  stay-sail  sheets  are  now  shifted  over 
to  their  places  for  the  other  tack.  The  ship  is 
now  entirely  under  the  power  of  the  headsail  and 
of  the  rudder,  and  their  actions  conspire  to  pro- 
mote the  conversion.  The  ship  has  acquired  an 
angular  motion,  and  will  preserve  it,  so  that  now 
the  evolution  is  secured  she  falls  off  apace  from 
the  wind  on  the  other  tack.  The  farther  action 
of  the  rudder  is  therefore  unnecessary,  and  would 
even  be  prejudicial,  by  causing  the  ship  to  fall 
off  too  much  from  the  wind  before  the  sails  can 
be  shifted  and  trimmed  for  sailing  on  the  other 
tack.  It  is  therefore  proper  to  right  the  helm 
when  the  wind  is  right  a-head,  that  is,  to  bring 
the  rudder  into  the  direction  of  the  keel.  The 
ship  continues  her  conversion  by  her  inherent 
force  and  the  action  of  the  headsails. 

When  the  ship  has  fallen  off  about  four  points 
from  the  wind,  the  headsails  are  hauled  round, 
and  trimmed  sharp  on  the  other  tack  with  all 
expedition  ;  and  although  this  operation  was  be- 
gun with  the  wind  four  points  on  the  bow  it  will 
be  fixed  before  the  sails  are  braced  up,  and  there- 
fore the  headsails  will  immediately  fill.  The 
aftersails  have  filled  already,  while  the  headsails 
were  inactive,  and  therefore  immediately  check 
the  farther  falling  off  from  the  wind.  All  sails 
now  draws,  for  the  staysail  sheets  have  been 
shifted  over  while  they  were  becalmed  or  shak- 
ing in  the  wind.  The  ship  now  gathers  way,  and 
will  obey  the  smallest  motion  of  the  helm  to 
bring  her  close  to  the  wind. 

We  have  here  supposed  that  during  all  this 
operation  the  ship  preserves  her  progressive  mo- 
tion. She  must  therefore  have  described  a  curve 
line  advancing  all  the  while  to  windward.  Fig. 
10  is  a  representation  of  this  evolution  when  it 
is  performed  in  the  completest  manner.  The 
ship  standing  on  the  course  £  a,  with  the  wind 
blowing  in  the  direction  W  F,  has  her  helm  put 
hard  a-lee  when  she  is  in  the  position  A.  She 
immediately  deviates  from  her  course,  and,  des- 
cribing a  curve,  comes  to  the  position  B,  with 
the  wind  blowing  in  the  direction  W  F  of  the 
yards,  and  the  square  sails  now  shiver.  The 
mizen-topsail  is  here  represented  braced  sharp  on 
the  other  tack,  by  which  its  tendency  to  aid  the 
angular  motion  (while  \t  checks  the  progressive 
motion)  is  distinctly  seen.  The  main  and  fore- 
sails are  now  shivering,  and  immediately  after 
are  taken  aback.  The  effect  of  this  on  the  head- 
sails  is  distinctly  seen  to  be  favorable  to  the  con- 
^L>rsion,  by  pushing  the  point  Fin  the  direction 
1  i ;  but  for  the  same  reason  it  continues  to  re- 
lard  the  progressive  motion.  When  the  ship 
lias  attained  to  the  position  C,  the  mainsail,  is 
hauled  round  and  trimmed  for  the  other  tack. 
The  impulse  in  the  direction  Fi  still  aids  the 
conversion  and  retards  the  progressive  motion. 
When  the  ship  has  attained  a  position  between 
(  and  D,  such  that  the  main  and  mizen  topsail- 
yards  are  in  the  direction  of  the  wind,  there  is 


nothing  to  counteract  the  force  of  the  headsails, 
to  pay  the  ship's  head  off  from  the  wind.  Nay, 
during  the  progress  of  the  ship  to  this  interme- 
diate position,  if  any  wind  gets  at  the  main  or 
mizen  topsails,  it  acts  on  their  anterior  surfaces, 
and  impels  the  after  parts  of  the  ship  away  from 
the  curve  abed,  and  thus  aids  the  revolution. 
We  have  therefore  said  that  when  once  the  sails 
are  taken  fully  aback,  and  particularly  when  the 
wind  is  brought  right  a-head,  it  is  scarcely  possi- 
ble for  the  evolution  to  sail ;  as  soon,  therefore, 
as  the  main  topsail  (trimmed  for  the  other  tack) 
shivers,  we  are  certain  that  the  head  sails  will 
be  filled  by  the  time  they  are  hauled  round  and 
trimmed.  The  staysails  are  filled  before  this,  be- 
cause their  sheets  have  been  shifted  and  they 
stand  much  sharper  than  the  square-sails  ;  and 
thus  every  thing  tends  to  check  the  falling  off 
from  the  wind  on  the  other  tack,  and  this  no 
sooner  than  it  should  be  done.  The  ship  imme- 
diately gathers  way,  and  holds  on  in  her  new 
course  dG. 

But  it  frequently  happens  that  in  this  conver- 
sion the  ship  loses  her  whole  progressive  motion. 
This  sometimes  happens  while  the  sails  are  shi- 
vering before  they  are  taken  fully  a-back.  It  is 
evident  that  in  this  case  there  is  little  hope  of 
success,  for  the  ship  now  lies  like  a  log,  and 
neither  sails  nor  rudder  have  any  action.  The 
ship  drives  to  leeward  like  a  log,  and  the  water 
acting  on  the  lee-side  of  the  rudder  checks  a  lit- 
tle the  driving  of  the  stern.  The  head  therefore 
falls  off  again,  and  by  and  by  the  sails  fill,  and 
the  ship  continues  on  her  former  tack.  This  is 
called  missing  stays,  and  it  is  generally  owing 
to  the  ship's  having  too  little  velocity  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  evolution.  Hence  the  propriety 
of  keeping  the  sails  well  filled  for  some  little 
time  before.  Rough  weather,  too,  by  raising  a 
wave  which  beats  violently  on  the  weather  bow, 
frequently  checks  the  first  luffing  of  the  ship, 
and  beats  her  off  again. 

If  the  ship  loses  all  her  motion  after  the  head 
sails  have  been  fully  taken  a-back,  and  before 
we  have  brought  the  wind  right  a-head,  the  evo- 
lution becomes  uncertain,  but  by  no  means  des- 
perate ;  for  the  action  of  the  wind  on  the  head- 
sails  will  presently  give  her  stern-way.  Suppose 
this  to  happen  when  the  ship  is  in  the  position 
C.  Bring  the  helm  over  hard  to  windward,  so 
that  the  rudder  shall  have  the  position  represent- 
ed by  the  small  dotted  line  of.  It  is  evident 
that  the  resistance  of  the  water  to  the  stern-way 
of  the  rudder  acts  in  a  favorable  direction,  push- 
ing the  stern  outwards.  In  the  mean  time  the 
action  of  the  wind  on  the  headsails  pushes  the 
head  in  the  opposite  direction.  These  actions 
conspire  therefore  in  promoting  the  evolution  ; 
and,  if  the  wind  is  right  a-heud,  it  cannot  fail, 
but  may  even  be  completed  speedily,  because  the 
ship  gathers  stern-way,  and  the  action  of  the  rud- 
der becomes  very  powerful ;  and,  as  soon  as  the 
wind  comes  on  the  former  lee-bow,  the  action 
of  the  water  on  the  now  lee-quarter  will  greatly 
accelerate  the  conversion.  When  the  wind  there- 
fore has  once  been  brought  nearly  right  a-head, 
there  is  no  risk  of  being  baffled. 

But,  should  the  ship  have  lost  all  her  head-way 
considerably  before  this,  the  evolution  is  very 


SEAMANSHIP. 


73' 


uncertain  ;  for  the  action  of  the  water  on  the 
rudder  may  not  be  nearly  equal  to  its  contrary 
action  on  the  lee-quarter;  in  which  case  the  ac- 
tion of  the  wind  on  the  headsails  may  not  be 
sufficient  to  make  up  the  difference.  When  this 
is  observed,  when  the  ship  goes  astern  without 
changing  her  position,  we  must  immediately 
throw  the  headsails  completely  a-back,  and  put 
the  helm  down  again,  which  will  pay  off  the 
ship's  head  from  the  wind  enough  to  enable  us 
to  fill  the  sails  again  on  the  same  tack,  to  try 
our  fortune  again  ;  or  we  must  boxhaul  the  ship, 
in  die  manner  to  be  described  by  and  by. 

Such  is  the  ordinary  process  of  tacking  ship; 
a  process  in  which  all  the  different  modes  of  ac- 
tion of  the  rudder  and  sails  are  employed.  To 
execute  this  evolution  in  the  most  expeditious 
manner,  and  so  as  to  gain  as  much  on  the  wind 
as  possible,  is  considered  as  the  test  of  an  expert 
seaman.  We  have  described  the  process  which 
is  best  calculated  for  ensuring  the  movement. 
But  if  the  ship  be  sailing  very  briskly  in  smooth 
water,  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  missing  stays, 
we  may  gain  more  to  windward  considerably  by 
keeping  fast  the  fore-top  bowline,  and  the  jib 
and  staysail  sheets,  till  the  square-sails  are  all 
shivering ;  for  these  sails,  continuing  to  draw 
with  considerable  force,  and  balancing  each 
other  tolerably  fore  and  aft,  keep  up  the  ship's 
velocity  very  much,  and  thus  maintain  the  power 
of  the  rudder.  If  we  now  let  all  fly  when  the 
square-sails  are  shivering,  the  ship  may  be  con- 
sidered as  without  sails,  but  exposed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  water  on  the  lee-bow ;  from  which 
arises  a  strong  pressure  of  the  bow  to  windward 
which  conspires  with  the  action  of  the  rudder  to 
aid  the  conversion.  It  evidently  leaves  all  that 
tendency  of  the  bow  to  windward  which  arises 
from  leeway,  and  even  what  was  counteracted 
by  the  formerly  unbalanced  action  of  these  head- 
staysails.  This  method  lengthens  the  whole 
time  of  the  evolution,  but  it  advances  the  ship 
to  windward.  Observe,  too,  that  keeping  fast 
the  fore-top  bowline  till  the  sail  shivers,  and 
then  letting  it  go,  insures  the  taking  a-back  of 
that  sail,  and  thus  instantly  produces  an  action 
that  is  favorable  to  the  evolution. 

The  most  expert  seamen,  however,  differ 
among  themselves  with  respect  to  these  two  me- 
thods, but  the  first  is  the  most  generally  prac- 
tised in  the  British  navy,  because  least  liable  to 
fail.  The  forces  which  oppose  the  conversion 
are  sooner  removed,  and  the  production  of  a  fa- 
vorable action  by  the  backing  of  the  fore-topsail 
is  also  sooner  obtained,  by  letting  go  the  fore- 
top  bowline  at  the  first.  Having  entered  so 
minutely  into  the  description  and  rationale  of 
this  evolution,  we  have  sufficiently  turned  the 
reader's  attention  to  the  different  actions  which 
co-operate  in  producing  the  motions  of  conver- 
sion. We  shall  therefore  be  very  brief  in  our 
description  of  the  other  evolutions. 

2.  To  u-ear  ship. — When  the  seaman  sees  that 
nis  ship  will  not  go  about  head  to  wind,  but 
will  miss  stays,  he  must  change  his  tacK  the 
other  way  ;  that  is,  by  turning  her  head  away 
fiom  the  wind,  going  a  little  way  before  the 
wind,  and  then  hauling  the  wind  on  the  other 
tack.  This  is  called  wearing  or  veering  ship. 


It  is  most  necessary  in  stormy  weather  with  lit- 
tle sail,  or  in  very  faint  breezes,  or  in  a  disabled 
ship.  The  process  is  exceedingly  simple ;  and 
the  mere  narration  of  the  procedure  is  sufficient 
for  showing  the  propriety  of  every  part  of  it. 

Watch  for  the  moment  of  the  ship's  falling  off, 
and  then  haul  up  the  mainsail  and  mizen,  and 
shiver  the  mizen  top-sail,  and  put  the  helm  a- 
weatlier.  When  the  ship  falls  off  sensibly  (and 
not  before)  let  go  the  bowlines.  Ease  away 
the  fore-sheet,  raise  the  fore-tack,  and  gather  aft 
the  weather  fore-sheet,  as  the  lee-sheet  is  eased 
away.  Round  in  the  weather-braces  of  the  fore 
and  main  masts,  and  keep  the  yards  nearly  bi- 
secting the  angle  of  the  wind  and  keel,  so  that 
when  the  ship  is  before  the  wind,  the  yards  may 
be  square.  It  may  even  be  of  advantage  to 
round  in  the  weather-braces  of  the  main-topsail 
more  than  those  of  the  headsails ;  for  the  main- 
mast is  abaft  the  centure  of  gravity.  All  this 
while  the  mizen  topsail  must  be  kept  shivering, 
by  rounding  in  the  weather-braces  as  the  ship 
pays  off  from  the  wind.  Then  the  main-topsail 
will  he  braced  up  for  the  other  tack  by  the  time 
that  we  have  brought  the  wind  on  the  weather 
quarter.  After  this  it  will  be  full,  and  will  aid 
the  evolution.  When  the  wind  is  right  aft,  shift 
the  jib  and  staysail  sheets.  The  evolution  now 
goes  on  with  great  rapidity ;  therefore  briskly 
haul  on  board  the  fore  and  main  tacks,  and  haul 
out  the  mizen,  and  set  the  mizen-staysail  as  soon 
as  they  will  take  the  wind  the  right  way.  We 
must  now  check  the  great  rapidity  with  which 
the  ship  comes  to  the  wind  on  the  other  tack,  by 
righting  the  helm  before  we  bring  the  wind  on 
the  beam  ;  and  all  must  be  trimmed  sharp  fore 
and  aft  by  this  time,  that  the  headsails  may  take 
and  check  the  coming-to.  All  being  trimmed, 
stand  on  close  by  the  wind. 

We  cannot  help  losing  a  great  deal  of  ground 
in  this  movement.  Therefore,  though  it  be  very 
simple,  it  requires  much  attention  and  rapid 
execution  to  do  it  with  as  little  loss  of  ground  as 
possible.  One  is  apt  to  imagine  at  first  that  it 
would  be  better  to  keep  the  headsails  braced  up 
on  the  former  tack,,  or  at  least  not  to  round  in 
the  weather-braces  so  much  as  is  here  directed. 
When  the  ship  is  right  afore  the  wind,  we  should 
expect  assistance  from  the  obliquity  of  the  head- 
sails  ;  but  the  rudder  being  the  principal  agent 
in  the  evolution,  it  is  found  that  more  is  gained 
by  increasing  the  ship's  velocity,  than  by  a 
smaller  impulse  on  the  headsails  more  favorably 
directed.  Experienced  seamen  differ,  however, 
in  their  practice  in  respect  of  this  particular. 

3.  To  boxhaul  a  ship. — This  is  a  process  per- 
formed only  in  critical  situations,  as  when  a  rock, 
or  ship,  or  some  danger,  is  suddenly  seen  right 
a-head,  or  when  a  ship  misses  stays.  It  requires 
the  most  rapid  execution. 

The  ship  being  close-hauled  on  a  wind,  haul 
up  the  mainsail  and  mizen,  and  shiver  the  top- 
sails, and  put  the  helm  hard  a-lee  altogether. 
Raise  the  fore-tack,  let  go  the  head  bowlines, 
and  brace  about  the  headsails  sharp  on  the  other 
tack.  The  ship  will  quickly  lore  her  way,  get 
stern-way,  and'  then  fall  off,  by  the  joint  action 
of  the  headsails  and  of  the  inverted  mdder. 
When  she  has  fallen  off  eight  points,  brace 


732 


SEA  M  A  N  SHIP. 


the  after-sails  square,  which  have  hitherto  been 
kept  shivering.  This  will  at  first  increase  the 
power  of  the  rudder,  by  increasing  the  stern- 
way,  and  at  the  same  time  it  makes  no  opposition 
to  the  conversion  which  is  going  on.  The  con- 
tinuation of  her  circular  motion  will  presently 
cause  them  to  take  the  wind  on  their  after  sur- 
faces. This  will  check  the  stern-way,  stop  it, 
and  give  the  ship  a  little  headway.  Now  shift 
the  helm,  so  that  the  rudder  may  again  act  in 
conjunction  with  the  headsails  in  paying  her  off 
from  the  wind.  This  is  the  critical  part  of  the 
evolution,  because  the  ship  has  little  or  no  way 
through  the  water,  and  will  frequently  remain 
long  in  this  position.  But,  as  there  are  no  coun- 
teracting forces,  the  ship  continues  to  fall  off. 
Then  the  weather-braces  of  the  after-sails  may 
be  gently  rounded  in,  so  that  the  wind  acting  on 
their  hinder  surfaces  may  both  push  the  ship  a 
little a-head,  and  her  stern  laterally  in  conjunction 
with  the  rudder.  Thus  the  wind  is  brought 
upon  the  quarter,  and  the  hfadsails  shiver.  By 
this  time  the  ship  has  acquired  some  headway. 
A  continuation  of  the  rotation  would  now  fill  the 
headsails,  and  their  acti'on  would  be  contrary  to 
the  intended  evolution.  They  are  therefore  imme- 
diately braced  the  other  way,  nearly  square,  and 
the  evolution  is  now  completed  in  the  same 
manner  with  the  wearing  ship. 

Some  seamen  brace  all  the  sails  a-back  the  mo- 
ment that  the  helm  is  put  hard  a-lee,  but  the 
after-sails  no  more  a-back  than  just  to  square  the 
yards.  This  quickly  gives  the  ship  stern-way, 
and  brings  the  rudder  into  action  in  its  inverted 
direction;  and  they  think  that  the  evolution  is 
accelerated  by  this  method. 

There  is  another  problem  of  seamanship  de- 
serving of  our  attention,  which  cannot  properly  be 
called  an  evolution.  This  is  lying-to.  This  is 
done  in  general  by  laying  some  sails  back,  so  as 
to  stop  the  head-way  produced  by  others.  But 
there  is  a  considerable  address  necessary  for 
doing  this  in  such  a  way  that  the  ship  shall  lie 
easily,  and  under  command,  ready  to  proceed  in 
her  course,  and  easily  brought  under  weigh. 

To  bring-to  with  the  fore  or  main-topsail  to 
the- mast,  brace  that  sail  sharp  a-back,  haul  out 
the  mizen,  and  clap  the  helm  hard  a-lee. 

Suppose  the  fore-topsail  to  be  a-back  ;  the  other 
sails  shoot  the  ship  a-head,  and  the  lee-helm 
makes  the  ship  come  up  to  the  wind,  which 
makes  it  come  more  perpendicularly  on  the  sail 
which  is  a-back.  Then  its  impulse  soon  exceeds 
those  on  the  other  sails,  which  are  now  shivering, 
or  almost  shivering.  The  ship  stands  still  awhile, 
and  then  falls  off,  so  as  to  fill  the  after-sails, 
which  again  shoot  her  ahead,  and  the  process  is 
thus  repeated.  A  ship  lying-to  in  this  way  goes 
a  good  deal  a-head  and  also  to  leeward,  if  the 
main-topsail  be  a-back,  the  ship  shoots  a-head, 
and  comes  up  till  the  diminished  impulse  of  the 
drawing  sails  in  the  direction  of  the  keel  is  ba- 
lanced by  the  increased  impulse  on  the  main- 
topsail.  She  lies  a  long  while  in  this  position, 
driving  slowly  to  leeward;  and  she  at  last  falls 
off  by  the  beating  of  the  water  on  her  weather- 
bow.  She  falls  off  but  little,  and  soon  comes 
up  again. 

Thus  a  ship  lyinar-to  ;«  not  like  a  mere  lo-r, 


but  has  a  certain  motion  which  keeps  her  unde. 
command.  To  get  under  weigh  again,  we  must 
watch  the  time  of  falling  oft';  and  when  this  is 
just  about  to  finish,  brace  about  briskly,  and  fill 
the  sail  which  is  a-back.  To  aid  this  operation, 
the  jib  and  fore-topmast  staysail  may  be  hoisted, 
and  the  mizen  brailed  up ;  or,  when  the  intended 
course  is  before  the  wind  or  large,  back  the  fore- 
topsail  sharp,  shiver  the  main  and  mizen  topsail, 
brace  up  the  mizen,  and  hoist  the  jib  and  fore- 
top-mast  staysails  altogether. 

In  a  storm  with  a  contrary  wind,  or  on  a  lee 
shore,  a  ship  is  obliged  to  lie-to  under  a  very 
low  sail.  Some  sail  is  absolutely  necessary,  in 
order  to  keep  the  ship  steadily  down,  otherwise 
she  would  kick  about  like  a  cork,  and  roll  so 
deep  as  to  strain  and  work  herself  to  pieces. 
Different  ships  behave  best  under  different  sails. 
In  a  very  violent  gale,  the  three  lower  staysails 
are  in  general  well  adapted  for  keeping  her 
steady,  and  distributing  the  strain.  This  mode 
seems  also  well  adapted  for  wearing,  which  may 
be  done  by  hauling  down  the  mizen-staysail. 
Under  whatever  sail  the  ship  is  brought-to  in  a 
storm,  it  is  always  with  a  fitted  sail,  and  never 
with  one  laid  a-back.  The  helm-is  lashed  down 
hard  a-lee;  therefore  the  ship  shoots  a-head,  and 
comes  up  till  the  sea  on  her  weather-bow  beats 
her  oft'  again.  Getting  under  weigh  is  generally 
difficult ;  because  the  ship  and.  rigging  are  lofty 
abaft,  and  hinder  her  from  falling  off  readily 
when  the  helm  is  put*hard  a-weather.  We  mu.->L 
watch  the  falling  off,  and  assist  the  ship  by  some 
small  headsail.  Sometimes  the  crew  get  up  on 
the  weather  fore-shrouds  in  a  crowd,  and  thus 
present  a  surface  to  the  wind. 

These  examples  of  the  three  chief  evolutions 
will  enable  those  who  are  not  seamen  to  un- 
derstand the  propriety  of  the  different  steps, 
and  also  to  understand  the  other  evolutions  as 
they  are  described  by  practical  authors.  \\ f 
are  not  acquainted  with  any  performance  in  our 
language  where  the  whole  are  considered  in  a  con- 
nected, scientific,  and  systematic  manner. 

We  add  the  following  collection  and  explana 
tion  of  terms  used  in  seamanship  as  useful  not 
merely  to  seamen  but  to  all  voyagers  : — 

Aback.  The  situation  of  the  sails,  when  their 
surfaces  are  pressed  aft  against  the  mast  by  the 
force  of  the  wind. 

Abaft.  The  hinder  part  of  a  ship,  or  towards 
the  stern.  It  also  signifies  farther  aft  or  nearer 
to  the  stern  ;  as,  the  barricade  stands  abaft  the 
main  mast ;  that  is,  nearer  to  the  stern. 

Abaft  the  beam  denotes  the.  relative  situation 
of  any  object  with  the  ship,  when  the  object  is 
placed  in  any  part  of  that  arch  of  the  horizon 
which  is  contained  between  :i  line  at  right  angle* 
with  the  keel  and  that  point  of  the  compass 
which  is  directly  opposite  to  the  ship's  course. 
See  Bearing. 

Aboard.     The  inside  of  a  ship. 

Aboard  main  tack!  The  order  to  draw  the 
lower  corner  of  the  mainsail  down  to  tlie  dies- 
tree. 

About.  The  situation  of  a  ship  as  soon  as  she 
has  tacked  or  changed  her  course. 

About  ship!  The  order  to  the  ship's  en  w  i» 
prepare  for  tacking. 


SEA  M  A  X  S  II  I  P. 


733 


4-Vf 

D;      E \  SF 


Abreftst.     The  situation  of  two  or  more  ships 
lying  with  their  sides  parallel,  and  their  heads 
equally    advanced ;    in    which    case    they    are 
abreast  of  each  other,  as  are  the 
ships  A  RC.  But,  if  their  sides 

be  not  parallel,  then  that  ship    -  fi-  •  -••• 

which  is  in  a  line  with  the  beam 

of    the    other    is    said    to   be 

abreast  of  her,  as  the  ship  E  is 

abreast  of  D  :md  F.     With  re- 

i;:ird  to  objects  within  the  ship 

it    implies   on   a   line   parallel 

with  the  beam,  or  at  right  angles 

with  the  ship's  length.     Abreast  of  any  place 

means  off  or  directly  opposite  to  it. 

Adrift.  The  state  of  a  ship  broken  from  her 
moorings,  and  driving  about  without  control. 

Afloat.  Buoyed  up  by  the  water  from  the 
ground. 

Afore,  All  that  part  of  a  ship  which  lies  for- 
ward, or  near  the  stem.  It  also  signifies  farther 
forward  ;  as,  the  manger  stands  afore  the  fore- 
mast ;  that  is,  nearer  to  the  stem. 

Aft.     Behind,  or  near  the  stern  of  a  ship. 
After.     A  phrase  applied  to  any  object  in  the 
hinder  part  of  the  ship,  as  the  after-hatchway, 
the  after-sails,  &c. 

A-ground.  The  situation  of  a  ship  when  her 
bottom  or  any  part  of  it  rests  on  the  ground. 

A-head.  Any  thing  which  is  situated  on  that 
point  of  the  compass  to  which  a  ship's  stem  is 
directed  is  said  to  be  a-htad  of  her.  See  Bea~- 
Ulf. 

A-hull.  The  situation  of  a  ship,  when  all  her 
snils  are  furled  and  her  helm  is  lashed  to  the 
lee  side ;  by  which  she  lies  nearly  with  her  side 
to  the  wind  and  sea,  her  head  being  somewhat  in- 
clined to  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

A-lee.  The  position  of  the  helm  when  it  is 
pushed  down  to  the  lee-side. 

All  in  the  wind.  The  state  of  a  ship's  sails, 
when  they  are  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  so  as  to  shake  or  shiver. 

All  hands  hoay  !  The  call  by  which  all  the 
ship's  company  are  summoned  upon  deck. 

Aloft.  Up  in  the  tops,  at  the  mast-heads,  or 
any  where  about  the  higher  rigging. 

Along-side.  Side  by  side,  or  joined  to  a  ship, 
wharf,  &c. 

Along-shore.  Along  the  coast ;  a  course 
which  is  in  sight  of  the  shore,  and  nearly  parallel 
to  it. 

Amain.    At  once,  suddenly  :  as,  let  go  amain  ! 
A-mid ships.     The  middle  of  a  ship,  either  with 
regard  to  her  length  or  breadth. 

To  anchor.     To  let  the  anchor  fall  into  the 
Aground,  for  tli£  ship  to  ride  thereby. 

Anchorage.  Ground,  fit  to  hold  a  ship  by  her 
anchor. 

The  anchor  is  a  cock-bill.  The  situation  of  the 
anchor,  when  it  drops  down  perpendicularly 
from  the  cat-head,  ready  to  be  sunk  at  a  mo- 
ment's warning. 

An-end.  The  position  of  any  mast,  &c., 
when  erected  perpendicularly  on  the  deck.  The 
top-masts  are  said  to  be  an-end  when  they  are 
hoisted  up  to  their  usual  stations. 

A-peek.  Perpendicular  to  the  anchor;  the 
cable  having  been  drawn  so  tight  as  to  bring  the 


ship  directly  over  it.     The  anchor  is  then  said  to 
be  a-peek. 

A-shi>re.  On  the  shore,  as  opposed  to  aboard. 
It  also  means  a-ground. 

A-stern.  Any  distance  behind  a  ship,  as  op- 
posed to  a-head.  See  Bear  inn. 

At  anchor.  The  situation  of  a  ship  riding  by 
her  anchor. 

Athwart.  Across  the  line  of  a  ship's  course. 
Athwart-hause.  The  situation  of  a  ship  when 
driven  by  accident  across  the  fore  part  of  ano- 
ther, \vhether  they  touch  or  are  at  a  small  dis- 
tance from  e  ich  other,  the  transverse  position  of 
the  former  being  principally  understood. 

Athwart  the  fore  foot.  When  any  object 
crosses  the  line  of  a  ship's  course,  but  a-head  of 
her,  it  is  said  to  be  athwart  her  fore  foot. 

Athicurt-ships.  Reaching,  or  in  a  direction 
across  the  ship  from  one  side  to  the  other. 

Atrip.  When  applied  to  the  anchor,  it  means 
that  the  anchor  is  drawn  out  of  the  ground,  and 
hangs,  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  by  the  cable 
or  buoy-rope.  The  topsails  are  said  to  be  atrip 
when  they  are  hoisted  up  to  the  mast-head,  or  to 
their  utmost  extent. 

Avast!  The  command  to  stop,  or  cease,  in 
any  operation. 

Aweigh.  The  same  as  atrip,  when  applied  to 
the  anchor. 

To  back  the  anchor.  To  carry  out  a  small  an- 
chor a  head  of  the  large  one,  in  order  to  support 
it  in  bad  ground,  and  to  prevent  it  from  loosen- 
ing or  coming  ho.ne. 

To  back  a-stern,  in   rowing,  is  to  impel  the 

boat  with  her  stern  foremost,  by  means  of  the  oars. 

To  back  the  sails.     To  arrange  them  in  a  situ- 

tion  that  will  occasion  the  ship  to  move  a-stern. 

To  bagpipe  the  mizen.     To  lay  it  a-back,  by 

bringing  the  sheet  to  the  mizen  shrouds. 

To  balance.  To  contract  a  sail  into  a  narrower 
compass,  by  folding  up  a  part  of  it  at  one  comer. 
Balancing  is  peculiar  to  the  mizen  of  a  ship, 
and  the  mainsail  of  those  vessels  wherein  it  is 
extended  by  a  boom. 

Bare  poles.  When  a  ship  has  no  sail  set  she 
is  under  bare  poles. 

Bearing.  The  situation  of  one  place  from 
another,  with  regard  to  the  points  of  the  com- 
pass. The  situation  also  of  any  di.-tant  object, 
estimated  from  some  part  of  the  ship,  according 
to  her  situation : 
these  latter  bear- 
ings are  either  on 
the  beam,  as  A 
and  B ;  before 
the  beam,  as  the 
arcs  A  D  and 
DB;  abaft  the 
beam,  as  the  arcs 
AC  andCB;  on 
the  lee  or  weather 
bow,  as  the  lines 
E  E ;  on  the  lee 
or  weather  quar- 


E 


ter,  as  the  lines  F  F ;  a-head,  as  the  line  D ;  or 
a-stern,  as  the  line  C. 

Bear  a-hand!     Make  haste,  despatch. 

To  bear  in  with  the  land  is  when  a  ship  sails 
towards  the  shore. 


734 


SEAMANSHIP. 


To  bear  off".  To  thrust  or  keep  off  from  the 
ship's  side,  &LC.,  any  weight,  when  hoisting. 

To  tear  up,  or  away. 
The  act  of  changing  a 
ship's  course,  to  make  * 

her  sail  more  before  the  jj 

wind.     Thus  the  ship  A      ^     ...-^^-.. 
bears  away  from  a  close-      jj  %£ 

hauled  course,  when  she  ••''  ^w. 

gets   into  either  of  the 
courses  B  and  C. 

Beating  to  windward.  The  making  a  progress 
against  the  direction  of  the  wind,  by  steering 
alternately  close  hauled  on  the  starboard  and  lar- 
board tacks. 

To  becalm.  To  intercept  the  current  of  the 
wind,  in  its  passage  to  a  ship,  by  any  contiguous 
object,  as  a  shore  above  her  sails,  a  high  sea  be- 
hind, &c. ;  and  thus  one  sail  is  said  to  becalm 
another. 

Before  the  beam  denotes  an  arch  of  the  horizon 
comprehended  between  the  line  of  the  beam  and 
that  point  of  the  compass  on  which  the  ship 
sterns.  See  Bearing. 

To  belay.  To  fasten  a  rope,  by  winding  it 
several  times  round  a  cleat  or  pin. 

To  bend  a  sail  is  to  affix  to  it  its  proper  yard 
or  stay. 

Beneaped.    See  Neaped. 

Berth.  The  station  in  which  a  ship  rides  at 
anchor,  either  alone  or  in  a  fleet;  the  due  dis- 
tance between  two  ships  ;  and  also  a  room  or 
apartment  on  board  for  the  officers  of  a  mess. 

Between  decks.  The  space  contained  between 
any  two  decks  of  a  ship. 

Bilge  water  is  that  which,  by  reason  of  the 
flatness  of  a  ship's  bottom,  lies  on  her  floor,  and 
cannot  go  to  the  well  of  the  pump. 

To  bitt  the  cable  is  to  confine  the  cable  to  the 
bitts,  by  one  turn  under  the  cross  piece  and 
another  turn  round  the  bitt-head.  In  this  posi- 
tion it  may  be  either  kept  fixed  or  it  may  be 
veered  away. 

Bitter.    The  turn  of  the  cable  round  the  bitts. 

Bitter-end.  That  part  of  the  cable  which  stays 
within  board  roundabout  the  bitts  when  the  ship 
is  at  anchor. 

A  board  is  the  distance  run  by  a  ship  on  one 
tack  ;  thus  they  say,  a  good  board,  when  a  ship 
does  not  go  to  leeward  of  her  course  ;  a  short 
board  and  along  board,  according  to  the  distance 
run. 

Board-and-buard.  When  two  ships  come  so 
near  as  to  touch  each  other,  or  when  they  lie 
side-by-side. 

To  board  a  ship.  To  enter  an  enemy's  ship  in 
an  engagement. 

Bold  shore.  A  steep  coast,  permitting  the 
close  approach  of  shipping. 

Boot-topping.  Cleaning  the  upper  part  of  a 
ship's  bottom,  or  that  part  which  lies  imme- 
diately under  the  surface  of  the  water ;  and  daub- 
ing it  over  with  tallow,  or  with  a  mixture  of 
tallow,  sulphur,  resin,  &c. 

Both  sheets  aft.  The  situation  of  a  ship  sail- 
ing right  before  the  wind. 

Bow  grace.  A  frame  of  old  rope  or  junk, 
laid  out  at  the  bows,  stems,  and  sides,  of  ships, 
to  prevent  them  from  being  injured  by  flakes  of 


To  bowse.  To  pull  upon  any  body  with  a 
tackle,  in  order  to  remove  it. 

Boxhauling.  A  particular  method  of  veering 
a  ship,  when  the  swell  of  the  sea  renders  tacking 
impracticable. 

Basing.  An  operation  somewhat  similar  to 
boxhauling.  It  is  performed  by  laying  the  head- 
sails  a-back,  to  receive  the  greatest  force  of  the 
wind  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  their  sudaces,  in 
order  to  return  the  ship's  head  into  the  line  of 
her  course,  after  she  had  inclined  to  windward 
of  it. 

To  brace  the  yards.  To  move  the  yards,  by 
means  of  the  braces,  to  any  direction  required. 

To  brace  about.  To  brace  the  yards  round  for 
the  contrary  tack. 

To  brace  sharp.  To  brace  the  yards  to  a  po- 
sition in  which  they  will  make  the  smallest 
possible  angle  with  the  keel,  for  the  ship  to  have 
head-way. 

To  brace-to.  To  ease  off  the  lee  braces,  and 
round  in  the  weather  braces,  to  assist  the  motion 
of  the  ship's  head  in  tacking. 

To  brail  up.  To  haul  up  a  sail  by  means  of 
the  brails,  for  the  more  readily  furling  it  when 
necessary. 

Brails.  A  name  peculiar  to  certain  ropes  be- 
longing to  the  mizen,  used  to  truss  it  up  to  the 
mast.  But  it  is  likewise  applied  to  all  the  ropes 
which  are  employed  in  hauling  up  the  bottoms, 
lower  corners,  and  skirths,  of  the  other  great 
sails. 

To  break  bulk.  The  act  of  beginning  to  un- 
load a  ship. 

To  break  sheer.  When  a  ship  at  anchor  is 
forced  by  the  wind  or  current  from  that  position 
in  which  she  keeps  her  anchor  most  free  of  her- 
self and  most  firm  in  the  ground,  so  as  to  endan- 
ger the  tripping  of  her  anchor,  she  is  said  to 
break  her  sheer. 

Breaming.  Burning  off  the  filth  from  a  ship's 
bottom. 

Breast-fast.  A  rope  employed  to  confine  a 
ship  side-ways  to  a  wharf  or  to  some  other  ship. 

To  bring  by  the  lee.     See  to  Broach  to. 

To  bring  to.  To  check  the  course  of  a  ship 
when  she  is  advancing,  by  arranging  the  sails  in 
such  a  manner  as  that  they  shall  counteract  each 
other,  and  prevent'  her  from  either  retreating  or 
advancing.  See  to  lie  to. 

To  broach  to:  To  incline  suddenly  to  wind- 
ward of  the  ship's  course,  so  as  to  present  her 
side  to  the  wind,  and  endanger  her  oversetting. 
The  difference  between  broaching  to  and  bringing 
by  the  lee  may  be  thus  defined :  Suppose  a  ship 
under  great  sail  to  be  steering  south,  having  the 
wind  at  N.  N.  W.J:  then  west  is  the  weather-side, 
and  east  the  lee-side.  If,  by  any  accident,  her 
head  turns  round  to  the  westward,  so  as  that  her 
sails  are  all  taken  a-back  on  the  weather-side,  she 
is  said  to  broach  to.  If,  on  the  contrary,  her 
head  declines  so  far  eastward  as  to  lay  her  sails 
a-back  on  that  side  which  was  the  lee-side,  it  is 
called  bringing  by  the  lee. 

Broadside.  A  discharge  of  all  the  guns  on 
one  side  of  a  ship  both  above  and  below. 

Brokenbacked.  The  state  of  a  ship  which  is* 
so  loosened  in  her  frame  as  to  drop  at  cacli  erm. 

By  the  board.     Over  the  ship's  side. 


SEAMANSHIP. 


735 


By  the  head.  The  state  of  a  ship  when  she  is 
so  unequally  loaded  as  to  draw  more  water  for- 
ward than  aft. 

By  the  wind.  The  course  of  a  ship  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  direction  of  the  wind,  which 
is  generally  within  six  points  of  it. 

To  careen.  To  incline  a  ship  on  one  side  so 
low  c  ,-wn,  by  the  application  of  a  strong  pur- 
chase to  her  masts,  as  that  her  bottom  on  the 
other  side  may  be  cleansed  by  breaming. 

Casting.  The  motion  of  falling  off,  so  as  to 
bring  the  direction  of  the  wind  on  either  side  of 
the  ship  after  it  had  blown  some  time  right  a-head. 
It  is  particularly  applied  to  a  ship  about  to  weigh 
anchor. 

To  cat  the  anchor  is  to  hook  the  cat-block  to 
the  ring  of  the  anchor  and  haul  it  up  close  to  the 
cat-bead. 

Cat's  paw.  A  light  air  of  wind  perceived  at  a 
distance  in  a  calm,  sweeping  the  surface  of  the 
sea  very  lightly,  and  dying  away  before  it 
reaches  the  ship. 

Centre.  This  word  is  applied  to  that  squad- 
ron of  a  fleet,  in  line  of  battle,  which  occupies  the 
middle  of  the  line;  and  to  that  column  (in  the 
order  of  sailing)  which  is  between  the  weather 
and  lee  columns. 

Change  the  mizen.  Bring  the  mizen-yard  over 
to  the  other  side  of  the  mast. 

Chapeling.  The  act  of  turning  a  ship  round 
in  a  light  breeze  of  wind  when  she  is  close- 
hauled,  so  as  that  she  will  lie  the  same  way  she 
did  before.  This  is  usually  occasioned  by  neg- 
ligence in  steering  or  by  a  sudden  change  of 
wind. 

Chase.    A  vessel  pursued  by  some  other. 

Chaser.    The  vessel  pursuing. 

Cheerly.  A  phrase  implying  heartily,  quickly, 
cheerfully. 

To  c'aw  aft'.  The  act  of  turning  to  windward 
from  a  lee-snore  to  escape  shipwreck,  &c. 

Clear  is  variously  applied.  The  weather  is 
said  to  be  clear  when  it  is  fair  and  open  ;  the 
sea-coast  is  clear  when  the  navigation  is  not  in- 
terrupted by  rocks,  Sec.  It  is  applied  to  cord- 
age, cables,  &c.,  when  they  are  disentangled,  so 
as  to  be  ready  for  immediate  service.  In  all  these 
senses  it  is  opposed  to  foul. 

To  clear  the  anchor  is  to  get  the  cable  off  the 
flukes,  and  to  disencumber  it  of  ropes  ready  for 
dropping. 

Clt-ur  lumse.  When  the  cables  are  directed  to 
their  anchors  without  lying  athwart  the  stem. 

To  clear  the  hause  is  to  untwist  the  cables  when 
they  are  entangled  by  having  either  a  cross,  an 
elbow,  or  a  round  turn. 

Clenched.  Made  fast,  as  the  cable  is  to  the 
ring  of  the  anchor. 

Close-hauled.  That  trim  of  the  ship's  sails 
when  she  endeavours  to  make  a  progress  in  the 
nearest  direction  possible  towards  that  point  of 
the  compass  from  which  the  wind  blows. 

To  club-haul.  A  method  of  tacking  a  ship 
when  it  is  expected  she  will  miss  stays  on  a  lee- 
shore. 

To  clue  up.  To  haul  up  the  clues  of  a  sail 
to  its  yard  by  means  of  the  clue-lines. 

Coatting.  The  act  of  making  a  progress  along 
the  sea-coast  of  any  country. 


To  coil  the  cable.  To  lay  it  round  in  a  ring: 
one  turn  over  another. 

To  come  home.  The  anchor  is  said  to  come 
home  when  it  loosens  from  the  ground  by  the 
effort  of  the  cable,  and  approaches  the  place 
where  the  ship  floated,  at  the  length  of  her  moor- 
ings. 

Coming  to  denotes  the  approach  of  a  ship's 
head  to  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

Course.  The  point  of  the  compass  on  which 
a  ship  steers. 

Crank.  The  quality  of  a  ship,  which,  for 
want  of  sufficient  ballast,  is  rendered  incapable 
of  carrying  sail  without  being  exposed  to  the 
danger  of  oversetting. 

To  croud  sail.  To  carry  more  sail  than  ordi- 
nary. 

Cunning.  The  art  of  directing  the  steersman 
to  guide  the  ship  in  her  proper  course. 

To  cut  and  run.  To  cut  the  cable  and  make 
sail  instantly,  without  waiting  to  weigh  anchor. 

To  deaden  a  ship's  way.  To  impede  her  pro 
gress  through  the  water. 

Dead  wattr.  The  eddy  of  water  which  ap- 
pears like  whirl-pools,  closing  in  with  the  ship's 
stern  as  she  sails  on. 

Dismasted.  The  state  of  a  ship  that  has  lost 
her  masts. 

Doubling.  The  act  of  sailing  round  or  passing 
beyond  a  cape  or  point  of  land. 

Doubling  upon.  The  act  of  enclosing  any  part 
of  a  hostile  fleet  between  two  fires,  or  of  can- 
nonading it  on  both  sides. 

To  dowse.     To  lower  suddenly,  or  slacken. 

To  drag  the  anchor.  To  trail  it  along  the  bot- 
tom, after  it  is  loosened  from  the  ground. 

To  draw.  When  a  sail  is  inflated  by  the 
wind,  so  as  to  advance  the  sail  in  her  course, 
the  sail  is  said  to  draw ;  and  so  to  keep  alldraw~ 
ing  is  to  inflate  all  the  sails. 

Drift.  The  angle  which  the  line  of  a  ship's 
motion  makes  with  the  nearest  meridian,  when 
she  drives  with  her  side  to  the  wind  and  waves, 
and  not  governed  by  the  power  of  the  helm.  It 
also  implies  the  distance  which  the  ship  drive' 
on  that  line. 

Driving.  The  state  of  being  carried  at  ran- 
dom, as  impelled  by  a  storm  or  current.  It  is 
generally  expressed  of  a  ship  when  accidentally 
broke  loose  from  her  anchors  or  moorings. 

Drop.  Used  sometimes  to  denote  the  depth 
of  a  sail ;  as  the  fore-top-sail  drops  twelve  yards. 

To  drop  anchor.  Used  synonymously  with  tc 
anchor. 

To  drop  a-stern.  The  retrograde  motion  of  a 
ship. 

To  ease,  to  ease  away,  or  to  ease  off".  To 
slacken  gradually  ;  thus  they  say,  ease  the  bow- 
line, ease  the  sheet. 

Ease  the  ship  !  The  command  given  by  the 
pilot,  to  the  steersman,  to  put  the  helm  hard 
a-lee,  when  the  ship  is  expected  to  plunge  her 
fore  part  deep  in  the  water  when  close-hauled. 

To  edge  away.  To  decline  gradually  from 
the  shore  or  from  the  line  of  the  course  which 
the  ship  formerly  held,  in  order  to  go  more 
large. 

To  edge  in  with.  To  advance  gradually  tow- 
ards the  shore  or  any  other  object. 


'36 


SEAMANSHIP. 


Elbow  in  the  huuse.  A  particular  twist  in  the 
cables  by  which  a  ship  is  moored ;  explained 
heretofore  at  length. 

End-for-end.  A  reversal  of  the  position  of  any 
thing  is  turning  it  end-for-end.  It  is  applied 
also  to  a  rope  that  has  run  quite  out  of  the  block 
in  which  it  was  reeved,  or  to  a  cable  which  has 
all  run  out  of  the  ship. 

End  on.  When  a  ship  advances  to  a  shore, 
rock,  &c.,  without  an  apparent  possibility  of 
preventing  her,  she  is  said  to  go  end  on  for  the 
shore,  &c. 

Even  keel.  When  the  keel  is  parallel  with 
the  horizon  a  ship  is  said  to  be  upon  an  even  keel. 

Fair.  A  general  term  for  the  disposition  of 
the  wind  when  favorable  to  a  ship's  course. 

Fair-way.  The  channel  of  a  narrow  bay, 
river,  or  haven,  in  which  snips  usually  advance 
in  their  passage  up  and  down. 

To  fall  a-board  of.  To  strike  or  encounter 
another  ship  when  one  or  both  are  in  motion. 

To  fall  a-stern.  The  motion  of  a  ship  with 
her  stern  foremost. 

To  fall  calm.  To  become  in  a  state  of  rest  by 
a  total  cessation  of  the  wind. 

To-,  fall  down.  To  sail  or  be  towed  down  a 
river  nearer  towards  its  mouth. 

Falling  off'  denotes  the  motion  of  the  ship's 
head  from  the  direction  of  the  wind.  It  is  used 
in  opposition  to  coming  to. 

Fall  not  off!  The  command  to  the  steersman 
to  keep  the  ship  near  the  wind. 

To  fetch  way.  To  be  shaken  or  agitated  from 
one  side  to  another  so  as  to  loosen  any  tiling 
which  was  before  fixed. 

To  fill.  To  brace  the  sails  so  as  to  receive 
the  wind  in  them,  and  advance  the  ship  in  her 
course,  after  they  had  been  either  shivering  or 
braced  a-back. 

To  fish  the  anchor.  To  draw  up  the  flukes  of 
the  anchor  towards  the  top  of  the  bow,  in  order 
to  stow  it,  after  having  been  catted. 

Flat  aft.  The  situation  of  the  sails  when  their 
surfaces  are  pressed  aft  against  the  mast  by  the 
force  of  the  wind. 

To  fiat  in.  To  draw  in  the  aftermost  lower 
corner  or  clue  of  a  sail  towards  the  middle  of 
the  ship,  to  give  the  sail  a  greater  power  to  turn 
the  vessel. 

To  fiat  in  forward.  To  draw  in  the  forersheet, 
jib-sheet,  and  fore-staysail  sheet,  towards  the 
middle  of  the  ship. 

Flaw.    A  sudden  breeze  or  gust  of  wind. 

Floating.  The  state  of  being  buoyed  up  by 
the  water  from  the  ground., 

Flood  tide.  The  state  of  a  tide  when  it  flows 
or  rises. 

Flowing-sheets.  The  position  of  the  sheets  bf 
the  principal  sails  when  they  are  loosened  to  the 
wind,  so  as  to  receive  it  into  their  cavities  more 
nearly  perpendicular  than  when  close-hauled, 
but  more  obliquely  than  when  the  ship  sails  be- 
fore the  wind.  A  ship  going  two  or  three  points 
large  has  flowing  sheets. 

Fore.  That  part  of  a  ship's  frame  and  ma- 
chinery that  lies  .near  the  stem. 

Fore-and-aft.  Throughout  the  whole  ship's 
length.  Lengthways  of  the  ship. 

To  fore-reach  t-pon.  To  gain  ground  of  some 
other  ship. 


To  forge  over.  To  force  a  ship  violently  over 
a  shoal  by  a  great  quantity  of  sail. 

Forward.     Towards  the  fore  part  of  a  ship. 

Foul  is  used  in  opposition  both  to  clear  and 
fair.  As  opposed  to  clear,  we  szyfoul  weather, 
foul  bottom,  foul  ground,  foul  anchor,  foul  house. 
As  opposed  to  fair,  we  say  foul  wind. 

To  founder.  To  sink  at  sea  by  filling  with 
water. 

To  free.  Pumping  is  said  to  free  the  ship 
when  it  discharges  more  water  that  leaks  into 
her. 

To  freshen.  When  a  gale  increases  it  is  said 
to  freshen. 

To  freshen  the  hause.  Veering  out  or  heaving 
in  a  little  cable  to  let  another  part  of  it  endure 
the  stress  at  the  hause-holes.  It  is  also  applied 
to  the  act  of  renewing  the  service  round  the 
cable  at  the  hause-holes. 

Fresh  way.  When  a  ship  increases  her  ve- 
locity she  is  said  to  get  fresh  way. 

Full.  The  situation  of  the  sails,  when  they 
are  kept  distended  by  the  wind. 

Full-and-by.  The  situation  of  a  ship,  with  re- 
gard to  the  wind,  when  close-hauled  ;  and  sail- 
ing so  as  to  steer  neither  too  nigh  the  direction 
nor  to  deviate  to  leeward. 

To  furl.  To  wrap  or  roll  a  sail  close  up  to  the 
yard  or  stay  to  which  it  belongs,  and  winding  a 
cord  round  it  to  keep  it  fast. 

To  gain  the  wind.  To  arrive  on  the  weather- 
side,  or  to  windward  of,  some  ship  or  fleet  in 
sight,  when  both  are  sailing  as  near  the  wind  as 
passible. 

To  gather.  A  sbip  is  said  to  gather  on  ano- 
ther as  she  comes  nearer  to  her. 

Gimbleting.     The  action  of  turning   the  an 
chor  round  by  the  stock,  so  that  the  motion  of  the 
stock  appears  similar  to  that  of  the  handle  of  a 
gimblet,  when  employed  to  turn  the  wire. 

To  give  chase  to.     To  pursue  a  ship  or  fleet. 

Goose-wings  of  a  sail.  The  clues  or  lower 
corners  of  a  ship's  mainsail  or  foresail,  when  the 
middle  part  is  furled  or  tied  up  to  the  yard. 

Griping.  The  inclination  of  a  ship  to  run  to 
windward  of  her  proper  course. 

Grounding.  The  laying  a  ship  a-shore,  in 
order  to  repair  her.  It  is  also  applied  to  running 
a-ground  accidentally. 

Ground-tackle.  Every  thing  belonging  to  a 
ship's  anchors,  and  which  are  necessary  for  an- 
choring or  mooring  ;  such  as  cables,  hawsers, 
tow-lines,  warps,  buoy-ropes,  &c. 

Growing.  Stretching  out ;  applied  to  the  di- 
rection of  the  cable  from  the  ship  towards  the 
anchors ;  as,  the  cable  grows  on  the  starboard 
bow. 

Gybing.  The  act  of  shifting  any  boom-sail 
from  one  side  of  the  mast  to  the  other. 

To  hail.  To  salute  or  speak  to  a  ship  at  a 
distance. 

To  hand  the  fails.    The  same  as  to  furl  them. 

Hand-over-hand.  The  pulling  of  any  rope, 
by  the  men's  passing  their  hands  alternately 
one  before  the  other  or  one  above  another.  A 
sailor  is  said  to  go  aloft  hand-over-hand,  when  he 
climbs  into  the  tops  by  a  single  rope,  dexte- 
rously throwing  one  hand  over  another. 

Handsoiiiciy.  Gradually;  as,  lower  band- 
somelv-J 


SEAMANSHIP. 


737 


Hank-for-hank.  When  two  ships  tack  and 
make  a  progress  to  windwaid  together. 

Hard  a-lee.  The  situation  of  the  helm,  when 
pushed  close  to  the  lee  side  of  the  ship. 

Hard  a-weather.  The  situation  of  the  helm, 
when  pushed  close  to  the  weather  side  of  the 
ship. 

To  haul.  To  pull  a  single  rope  without  the 
assistance  of  blocks. 

To  haul  the  wind.    To  direct  the  ship's  course 
nearer   to    the    point 
from  which  the  wind  t 

blows.  Thus  the  ship 
A  hauls  the  wind, 
when,  by  the  trim  of  "^^  Ji^ 

her  sails  and  the  ac-  ""•-..  J^. '^^ 

tionof  her  rudder,  she 

»ets  on  either  of  the  courses  B  and  C. 

Hause.  The  situation  of  the  cables  before 
the  ship's  stem,  when  she  is  moored  with  two 
anchors  out  from  forward.  It  also  denotes  any 
small  distance  a-head  of  a  ship,  or  the  space 
between  her  head  and  the  anchors  employed  to 
ride  her. 

Head-fast.  A  rope  employed  to  confine  the 
head  of  a  ship  to  a  wharf  or  to  some  other  ship. 

Headmost.  The  situation  of  any  ship  or  ships 
which  are  the  most  advanced  in  a  fleet. 

Head-sails.  All  the  sails  which  belong  to  the 
fore-mast  and  bowsprit. 

Head-sea.  When  the  waves  meet  the  head  of 
a  sbj.p  in  her  course  they  are  called  a  head-sea. 
It  is  likewise  applied  to  a  large  single  wave 
coming  in  that  direction. 

Head-to-wind.  The  situation  of  a  sbip  vrhe^ 
her  head  is  turned  to  the  point  from  which  the 
wind  blows,  as  it  must  when  tacking. 

Head-way.  The  motion  of  advancing  used  in 
opposition  to  stern-way. 

To  heave.  To  turn  about  a  capstan,  or  other 
machine  of  the  like  kind,  by  means  of  bars, 
handspecs,  &c. 

To  heave  a-head.  To  advance  the  ship  by 
heaving-in  the  cable  or  other  rope  fastened  to  an 
anchor  at  some  distance  before  her. 

To  heave  a-peek.  To  heave  in  the  cable,  till 
the  anchor  is  a-peek. 

To  heave  a-stern.  To  move  a  ship  backwards 
by  an  operation  similar  to  that  of  heaving  a-head. 

To  heave  down.     To  careen. 

To  heave  in  the  cable.  To  draw  the  cable  into 
the  ship,  by  turning  the  capstan. 

To  heave  in  stays.  To  bring  a  ship's  head  to 
the  wind,  by  a  management  of  the  sails  and 
rudder,  in  order  to  get  on  the  other  tack.' 

To  heave  out.  To  unfurl  or  loose  a  sail ; 
more  particularly  applied  to  the  staysails  ;  thus 
we  say,  loose  the  topsails  and  heave  out  the  stay- 
sails. 

To  heave  short.  To  draw  so  much  of  the 
cable  into  the  ship  as  that  she  will  be  almost 
perpendicularly  over  her  anchor. 

To  heave  tight  or  taught.  To  turn  the  cap- 
stan round,  till  the  rope  or  cable  becomes 
straightened. 

To  heave  the  capstan.     To  turn  it  round. 

To  heave  the  lead.  To  throw  the  lead  over- 
ooard,  in  order  to  find  the  depth  of  water. 

To  heave  the  log.     To   throw  the  log  over- 
VOL.  XIX. 


board,  in  order  to  calculate  the  velocity  of  tl-e 
ship's  way. 

To  heel.  To  stoop  or  incline  to  one  side;  thus 
they  say  to  heel  to  port,  that  is,  to  heel  to  tlie  lar- 
board side. 

Helm  a-lee!  A.  direction  to  put  the  helm 
over  to  the  lee  side. 

Helm  a-weather  !  An  order  to  put  the  helm 
over  to  the  windward  side. 

High-and-dry.  The  situation  of  a  ship  when 
so  far  run  a-ground  as  to  be  seen  dry  upon  the 
strand. 

To  hoist.  To  draw  up  any  body  by  the  as- 
sistance of  one  or  more  tackles.  Pulling  by 
means  of  a  smgle  block  is  never  termed  hoisting, 
except  only  the  drawjng  of  the  sails  upwards 
along  the  masts  or  stays. 

To  hold  its  own  is  applied  to  the  relative 
situation  of  two  ships  when  neither  advances 
upon  the  other ;  each  is  then  said  to  hold  its 
own.  It  is  likewise  said  of  a  ship  which,  by 
means  of  contrary  winds,  cannot  make  a  pro- 
gress towards  her  destined  port,  but  which 
however  keeps  nearly  the  distance  she  had  al- 
ready run. 

To  hold  on.  To  pull  back  or  retain  any  quan- 
tity of  rope  acquired  by  the  effort  of  a  capstern, 
windlass,  tackle,  block,  &c. 

Home  implies  the  proper  situation  of  any  ob- 
ject ;  as  to  haul  home  the  topsail-sheets  is  to  ex- 
tend the  bottom  of  the  top-sail  to  the  lower  yard, 
by  means  of  the  sheets.  In  stowing  a  hold,  a 
cask,  &c.,  is  said  to  be  home,  when  it  lies  close 
to  some  other  object. 

To  hull  a  ship.  To  fire  cannon-ball  into  her 
bull  within  the  point-blank  range. 

Hull-to.    The  situation  of  a  ship  when  she 
lies  with  all  her  sails  furled  ;  as  in  trying. 
In  stays.     See  to  heave  in  stays. 
Keckled.     Any  part  of  a  cable,  covered  over 
with  old  ropes,  to  prevent  its  surface  from  rub- 
bing against  the  ship's  bow  or  fore-foot. 

To  keep  away.  To  alter  the  ship's  course  to 
one  rather  more  large,  for  a  little  time,  to  avoid 
some  ship,  danger,  Sec.  Keep  away  is  likewise 
said  to  the  steersman,  who  is  apt  to  go  to  wind- 
ward of  the  ship's  course. 

To  keep  full.  To  keep  the  sails  distended  by 
the  wind. 

To  keep  hold  of  the  land.  To  steer  near  to  or 
in  sight  of  the  land. 

To  keep  off.  To  sail  off  or  keep  at  a  distance 
from  the  shore. 

To  keep  the  land  aboard.  The  same  as  to  keep 
hold  of  the  land. 

To  keep  the  luff".  To  continue  close  to  the 
wind. 

To  keep  the  wind.  The  same  as  to  keep  the  luff. 
Knot.     A  division  of  the  log-line,  answering, 
in  the  calculation  of  the  ship's  velocity,  to  one 
mile. 

To  labor.  To  roll  or  pitch  heavily  in  a  turbu- 
lent sea. 

Laden  in  bulk.  Freighted  with  a  cargo  not 
packed,  but  lying  loose,  as  corn,  salt,  8cc. 

Laid-up.  The  situation  of  a  ship  when 
moored  in  a  harbour  for  want  of  employ. 

Land-fall.  The  first  land  discovered  after  a 
sea-voyage.  Thus  a  good  land-rall  implies  the 

3  B 


SEAMANSHI  P. 


rand  expected  or  desired;    a   bad  land-fall  the 
reverse. 

Land-locked.  The  situation  of  a  ship  sur- 
rounded with  land,  so  as  to  exclude  the  prospect 
of  the  sea,  unless  over  some  intervening  land. 

Larboard.  The  left  side  of  a  ship,  looking 
towards  the  head. 

Larbourd-tach.  The  situation  of  a  ship  when 
sailing  will)  the  wind  blowing  upon  her  larboard 
side. 

Laying  the  land.  A  ship  which  increases  her 
distance  from  the  coast,  so  as  to  make  it  appear 
lower  and  smaller,  is  said  to  lay  the  land. 

Leading-wind.  A  fair  wind  fora  ship's  course. 

Leak.  A  chink  or  breach  in  the  sides  or  bot- 
tom of  a  ship,  through  which  the  water  enters 
into  the  hull. 

To  leak.  To  admit  water  into  the  hull  through 
chinks  or  breaches  in  the  sides  or  bottom. 

Lee.  That  part  of  the  hemisphere  to  which 
the  wind  is  directed,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
other  part  which  is  called  to  windward. 

Lee-gage.  A  ship  or  fleet  to  leeward  of  ano- 
ther is  said  to  have  the  lee-gage. 

Lee-lurches.  The  sudden  and  violent  rolls 
which  a  ship  often  lakes  to  leeward,  in  a  high 
sea ;  particularly  when  a  large  wave  strikes  her 
«n  the  weather  side. 

J^ee  of  the  shore.  See  under  the  lee  of  the 
shore. 

Lee-quarter.  That  quarter  of  a  ship  which  is 
on  the  lee-side. 

Lee-tshore.  That  shore  upon  which  the  wind 
blows. 

Lee-side.  That  half  of  a  ship,  lengthwise, 
which  lies  Between  a  line  drawn  through  the 
middle  of  her  length  and  the  side  which  is  far- 
thest from  the  point  of  wind. 

To  leeward.  Towards  that  part  of  the  horizon 
to  which  the  wind  blows. 

Leeward  ship.  A  ship  that  falls  much  to  lee- 
ward of  her  course,  when  sailing  close-hauled. 

Leeward  tide.    A  tide  that  sets  to  leeward. 

Lee-way.  The  lateral  movement  of  a  ship  to 
leeward  of  her  course;  or  the  angle  which  the 
line  of  her  way  makfs  with  a  line  in  the  direc- 
tion of  her  keel. 

To  lie  along.  To  be  pressed  down  sideways 
by  a  weight  of  sail  in  a  fresh  wind. 

To  lie  to.  To  retard  a  ship  in  her  course,  by 
arranging  the  sails  in  such  a  manner  as  to  coun- 
teract each  other  with  nearly  an  equal  effort,  and 
render  the  ship  almost  immoveable,  with  respect 
to  her  progressive  motion  • 

or  headway.  Thus  the  po- 
sition of  the  yards,  in  the 
figures  A  and  B,  causes  "•-«^J 
the  sails  to  counteract  each  jj^"" 
other,  the  wind  blowing 
upon  the  after  surface  of  ** 

one  and  the  fore-surface  of  the  other. 

A  long  sea.     A  uniform  motion  of  long  waves. 

Ijook  out.  A  watchful  attention  to  some  im- 
portant object  or  event  that  is  expected  to  arise. 
Thus  persons  on  board  of  a  ship  are  occasion- 
ally stationed  to  look  out  for  signals,  other  ships, 
for  land,  &c. 

To  loose.     To  unfurl  or  cast  loose  any  sail. 
To  lower.    To  ease  down  gradually. 


Luff!  The  order  to  the  steersman  to  put  the 
helm  towards  the  lee-side  of  the  ship,  in  order  to 
sail  nearer  to  the  wind. 

To  make  a  board.  To  run  a  certain  distance 
upon  one  tack,  in  beating  to  windward. 

To  make  foul  water.  To  muddy  the  water,  by 
running  into  shallow  places,  so  that  the  ship's 
keel  disturbs  the  mud  at  bottom. 

To  make  sail.  To  increase  the  quantity  of 
sail  already  set,  either  by  u-nreefing  or  by  setting 
others. 

To  make  sternway.  To  retreat,  or  move  with 
the  stern  foremost. 

To  make  the  land.     To  discover  it  from  afar. 

To  make  water.     To  leak. 

To  man  (Jic  yard,  &c.  To  place  men  on  the 
yard,  in  the  tops,  down  the  ladder,  &c.,  to  exe- 
cute any  necessary  duties. 

Masted.     Having  all  her  masts  complete. 

To  middle  a  rope.  To  double  it  into  two  equal 
parts. 

Midships.     See  a-midships. 

To  miss  stays.  A  ship  is  said  to  miss  stays 
when  her  head  will  not  fly  up  into  the  direction 
of  the  wind,  in  order  to  get  her  on  the  other 
tack. 

Mooring.  Securing  a  ship  in  a  particular 
station  by  chains  or  cables,  which  are  either  fas- 
tened to  an  adjacent  shore  or  to  anchors  at  the 
bottom. 

Mooring  service.  When  a  ship  is  moored, 
and  rides  at  one  cable's  length,  the  mooring  ser- 
vice is  that  which  is  at  the  first  splrce. 

Neaped.  The  situation  of  a  ship  left  a-ground 
on  the  height  of  a  spring  tide,  so  that  she  cannot 
be  floated  till  the  return  of  the  next  spring  tide. 

Near  !  or  no  near  !  An  order  to  the  steers- 
man not  to  keep  the  ship  so  close  to  the  wind. 

Off-and-on.  When  a  ship  is  beating  to  wind- 
ward, so  that  by  one  board  she  approaches  tow- 
ards the  shore,  and  by  the  other  stands  out  to  sea, 
she  is  said  to  stand  off-and  on  shore. 

Offing.  Out  at  sea,  or  at  a  competent  dis- 
tance from  the  shore,  and  generally  out  of  an- 
chor-ground. 

Offward.  From  the  shore  ;  as,  when  a  ship 
lies  a-ground  and  leans  towards  the  sea,  she  is 
said  to  heel  offward. 

On  the  beam.  Any  distance  from  the  ship  on 
a  line  with  the  beams,  or  at  right  angles  with  the 
keel.  See  Bearing. 

On  the  bow.  An  arch  of  the  horizon,  com- 
prehending about  four  points  pf  the  compass  on 
each  side  of  that  point  to  which  the  ship's  head 
is  directed.  Thus,  they  say,  the  ship  in  sight 
bears  three  points  on  the  starboard  bow ;  that  is, 
three  points  towards  the  right  hand,  from  tli;it 
part  of  the  horizon  which  is  right  a  head.  See 
Searing. 

On  the  quarter.  An  arch  of  the  horizon, 
comprehending  about  four  points  of  the  com- 
pass on  each  side  of  that  point  to  which  the 
ship's  stern  is  directed.  See  On  the  bow  and 
Bearing. 

Open.  The  situation  of  a  place  exposed  to 
the  wind  and  sea.  It  is  also  expressed  of  any 
distant  object  to  which  the  sight  or  passage  is  not 
intercepted. 

Open  house.     When   the   cables  of  a  ship  at 


SEAMANSHIP. 


739 


her  moorings  lead  straight  to  their  respective  an- 
chors, without  crossing,  sire  is  said  to  ride  with 
an  open  hause. 

Over-board.     Out  of  the  ship. 

Over-grown  sea  is  expressed  of  the  ocean  when 
the  surges  and  billows  rise  extremely  high. 

To  over-haul.  To  open  and  extend  the 
several  parts  of  a  tackle,  or  other  assemblage  of 
ropes,  thereby  fitting  them  the  better  for  running 
easily. 

Over-rake.  When  a  ship  at  anchor  is  ex- 
posed to  a  head-sea,  the  waves  of  which  break 
in  upon  her,  tlieVaves  are  said  to  over-rake  her. 

Over-set.  A.  ship  is  overset  when  her  keel 
turns  upwards. 

Out-of-trim.  The  state  of  a  ship  when  she  is 
not  properly  balanced  for  the  purposes  of  navi- 
gation. 

Parliament-heel.  The  situation  of  a  ship  when 
she  is  made  to  stoop  a  little  to  one  side,  so  as  to 
clean  the  upper  part  of  her  bottom  on  the  other 
side.  See  Boot-topping. 

Parting.  Being  driven  from  the  anchors,  by 
the  breaking  of  the  cable. 

To  pawl  the  capstan.  To  fix  the  pawls,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  capstan  from  recoiling,  during  any 
pause  of  heaving. 

To  pay.  To  daub  or  cover  the  surface  of  any 
body  with  pitch,  tar,  &c.,  in  order  to  preserve  it 
from  the  injuries  of  the  weather. 

To  pay  away  or  pay  out.  To  slacken  a  cable 
or  other  rope,  so  as  to  let  it  run  out  for  some 
purpose  particular. 

To  pay  off.  To  move  a  ship's  head  to  lee- 
ward. 

To  peek  the  mizen.  To  put  the  mizen  yard 
perpendicular  by  the  mast. 

Pitching.  The  movement  of  a  ship,  by  which 
she  plunges  her  head  and  after-part  alternately 
into  the  hollow  of  the  sea. 

To  ply  to  windward.  To  endeavour  to  make 
a  progress  against  the  direction  of  the  wind.  See 
Beating  to  windward. 

Point-blank.  The  direction  of  a  gun  when 
levelled  horizontally. 

Pooping.  The  shock  of  a  high  and  heavy  sea 
upon  the  stern  or  quarter  of  a  ship,  when  she 
scuds  before  the  wind  in  a  tempest. 

Port.  A  name  given  on  some  occasions  to 
the  larboard  side  of  the  ship ;  as,  the  ship  heels 
to  port ;  top  the  yards  to  port !  &c. 

Port  the  helm  !  The  order  to  put  the  helm 
over  to  the  larboard  side. 

Port-last.     The  gunwale. 

Portoise.  The  same  as  port-last ;  to  ride  a 
portoise  is  to  ride  with  a  yard  struck  down  to  the 
deck. 

Press  of  sail.  All  the  sail  a  ship  can  set  or 
carry. 

Prizing.  The  application  of  a  lever  to  move 
any  weighty  body. 

Purchase.  Any  sort  of  mechanic  power  em- 
ployed in  raising  or  removing  heavy  bodies. 

Quarters.  The  several  stations  of  a  ship's 
crew  in  time  of  action. 

Quartering.  When  a  ship  under  sail  has  the 
wind  blowing  on  her  quarter. 

To  Raise.  To  elevate  any  distinct  object  at 
sea  by  approaching  it;  thus  to  raise  the  land  is 
used  in  opposition  to  lay  the  land. 


To  lluke.  To  cannonade  a  ship  at  the  stem 
or  head,  so  that  the  balls  scour  the  whole  length 
of  the  docks. 

Range  of  cable.  A  sufficient  length  of  cable 
drawn  upon  deck  before  the  anchor  is  cast  loose, 
to  admit  of  its  sinking  to  the  bottom  without  any 
check. 

Reach.  The  distance  between  any  two  points 
on  the  banks  of  a  river,  wherein  the  current 
flows  in  an  uninterrupted  course. 

Ready  about !  A  command  of  the  boatswain 
to  the  crew,  and  implies  that  all  the  hands  are  to 
be  attentive  and  at  their  stations  for  tacking. 

Rear.  The  last  division  of  a  squadron,  or 
the  last  squadron  of  a  fleet.  It  is  applied  like- 
wise to  the  last  ship  of  the  line,  squadron,  or  di- 
vision. 

Reef.  Part  of  a  sail  from  one  row  of  eyelet- 
holes  to  another.  It  is  applied  likewise  to  a 
chain  of  rocks  lying  near  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

Reefing.  The  operation  of  reducing  a  sail  by 
taking  in  one  or  mere  of  the  reefs. 

To  reeve.  To  pass  the  end  of  a  rope  through 
any  hole,  as  the  channel  of  a  block,  the  cavity  of 
a  thimble,  &c. 

Rendering.  The  giving  way  or  yielding  to 
the  efforts  of  some  mechanical  power.  It  is 
used  in  opposition  to  jambing  or  sticking. 

Riding,  when  expressed  of  a  ship,  is  the  state 
of  being  retained  in  a  particular  station  by  an 
anchor  and  cable.  Thus  she  is  said  to  ride  eas^ 
or  to  ride  hard,  in  proportion  to  the  strain  upon 
her  cable.  She  is  likewise  said  to  ride  leeward 
tide,\L  anchored  in  a  place  at  a  time  when  the  tide 
sets  to  leeward,  and  to  ride  windward  tide  if  the 
tide  sets  to  windward  :  to  ride  between  wind  and 
tide,  when  the  wind  and  tide  are  in  direct  oppo- 
sition, causing  her  to  ride  without  any  strain 
upon  her  cables. 

Rigging  out  a  boom.  The  running  out  a  pole 
at  the  end  of  a  yard  to  extend  the  foot  of  a  sail. 

To  rig  the  capstan.  To  fix  the  bars  in  their 
respective  holes. 

Righting.  Restoring  a  ship  to  an  upright  po- 
sition, either  after  she  has  been  laid  on  a  careen, 
or  after  she  has  been  pressed  down  on  her  side 
by  the  wind. 

To  right  the  helm  is  to  bring  it  into  midships, 
after  it  has  been  pushed  either  to  starboard  or 
larboard. 

Rolling.  The  motion  by  which  a  ship  rocks 
from  side  to  side  like  a  cradle. 

Rough-tree.  A  name  applied  to  any  mast, 
yard,  or  boom,  placed  in  merchant  ships,  as  a  rail 
or  fence  above  the  vessel's  side,  from  the  quarter-* 
deck  to  the  fore-castle. 

Rounding-in.  The  pu..ing  upon  any  rope 
which  passes  through  one  or  more  blocks  in  a  di- 
rection nearly  horizontal ;  as,  round-in  the  wea- 
ther-braces. 

Round-turn.  The  situation  of  the  two  cables 
of  a  ship  when  moored,  after  they  have  been 
s«veral  times  crossed  by  the  swinging  of  the  ship. 

Rounding-up.  Similar  to  rounding-in,  except 
that  it  is  applied  to  ropes  and  blocks  which  act 
in  a  perpendicular  direction. 

To  row.     To  move  a  boat  with  oars. 

Rou'sing.  Pulling  upon  a  cable  or  rope 
without  the  assistance  of  tackles. 


740 


SEAMANSHIP. 


To  run  out  a  warp.  To  carry  the  end  of  a 
rope  out  from  a  ship  in  a  boat,  and  fasten  it  to 
some  distant  object,  so  that  the  ship  may  be  re- 
moved by  pulling  on  it. 

To  sag  to  leeward.  To  make  considerable  lee- 
way. 

Sailing-trim  is  expressed  of  a  ship  when  in  the 
best  state  for  sailing. 

Scanting.  The  variation  of  the  wind,  by 
which  it  becomes  unfavorable  to  a  ship's  making 
great  progress,  as  it  deviates  from  being  large, 
and  obliges  the  vessel  to  steer  close-hauled,  or 
nearly  so. 

Scudding.  The  movement  by  which  a  ship  is 
carried  precipitately  before  the  wind  in  a  tem- 
pest. 

Scuttling.  Cutting  large  noles  through  the 
bottom  or  sides  of  a  ship,  either  to  sink  her  or 
to  unlade  her  expeditiously  when  stranded. 

Sea.  A  large  wave  is  so  called.  Thus  they 
say,  a  heavy  sea.  It  implies  likewise  the  agita- 
tion of  the  ocean,  as,  a  great  sea.  It  expresses  the 
direction  of  the  waves,  as,  a  head  sea.  A  Umg 
sea  means  a  uniform  and  steady  motion  of  long 
and  extensive  waves ;  a  short  sea,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  when  they  run  irregularly,  broken,  and 
interrupted. 

Sea-boat.  A  vessel  that  bears  the  sea  firmly, 
without  straining  her  masts,  &.c. 

Sea-clothes.     Jackets,  trousers,  &c. 

Sea-r>:ark.  A  point  or  object  on  shore  con- 
spicuously seen  at  sea. 

Sea-room.  A  sufficient  distance  from  the 
coast  or  any  dangerous  rocks,  &c. :  so  that  a 
ship  may  perform  all  nautical  operations  without 
danger  of  shipwreck. 

Sending.  The  act  of  pitching  precipitately 
into  the  hollow  between  two  waves. 

Setting.  The  act  of  observing  the  situation  of 
any  distant  object  by  the  compass. 

To  set  sail.  To  unfurl  and  expand  the  sails 
to  the  wind  in  order  to  give  motion  to  the  ship. 

To  set  up.  To  increase  the  tension  of  the 
shrouds,  backstays,  &c.,  by  tackles,  laniards,  &c. 

To  settle  the  land.  To  lower  in  appearance. 
It  is  synonymous  with  to  lay  the  land. 

To  shape  a  course.  To  direct  01  appoint  the 
track  of  a  ship  in  order  to  prosecute  a  voyage. 

Sheering.  The  act  of  deviating  from  the  line 
of  the  course,  either  to  the  right  or  left. 

To  sheer  off".   To  remove  to  a  greater  distance. 

To  sheet-home.  To  haul  the  sheets  of  a  sail 
home  to  the  block  on  the  yard-arm. 

To  shift  the  helm.  To  alter  its  position  from 
starboard  to  port,  or  from  port  to  starboard. 

To  ship.  To  take  any  person,  goods,  or  ar- 
ticle, on  board.  It  also  implies  to  fix  any  thing 
in  its  proper  place;  as,  to  ship  the  oars,  to  fix 
them  in  their  rowlocks. 

Shivering.  The  state  of  a  sail  when  fluttering 
in  the  xvind. 

Slioul.     Shallow. 

To  shoe  the  anchor.  To  cover  the  flukes  with 
a  piece  of  plank  to  give  it  firmer  hold  in  soft 
ground. 

To  skoot  a-head.    To  advance  forward. 

Shore.  A  general  name  for  the  sea-coast  of 
any  country. 

To  shorten  sail.  Used  in  opposition  to  wake 
tail. 


Slack-water.  The  interval  between  the  fiax 
and  reflux  of  the  tide,  when  no  motion  is  per- 
ceptible in  the  water. 

Slatch  is  applied  to  the  period  of  a  transitory 
breeze. 

To  slip  the  cable.  To  let  it  run  quite  out  when 
there  is  not  time  to  weigh  the  anchor. 

Stops.     Look  to  Sea-clothes. 

To  slue.  To  turn  any  cylinclric  piece  of 
timber  about  its  axis  without  removing  it.  Thus, 
to  slue  a  mast  or  boom  is  to  turn  it  in  its  cap  or 
boom-iron. 

Sounding.  Trying  the  depth  of  the  water  with 
a  plummet,  sunk  from  a  ship  to  the  bottom. 

To  spell  the  mizen.  To  let  go  the  sheet  and 
peek  it  up. 

To  spill.  To  discharge  the  wind  out  of  the 
cavity  or  belly  of  a  sail,  when  it  is  drawn  up  in 
the  brails,  in  order  to  furl  or  reef  it. 

Split.  The  state  of  a  sail  rent  by  the  violence 
of  the  wind. 

Spoon-drift.  A  sort  of  showery  sprinkling  of 
the  sea-water,  swept  from  the  surface  of  the  waves 
in  a  tempest,  and  flying  like  a  vapor  before  the 
wind. 

Spray.  The  sprinkling  of  a  sea,  driven  occa- 
sionally from  the  top  of  a  wave ;  but  not  con- 
tinual as  spoon-drift. 

To  spring  a  mast,  yard,  &c.  To  crack  a  mast, 
yard.  &c.,  by  means  of  straining  in  blowing 
weather,  so  that  it  is  rendered  unsafe  for  use. 

To  spring  a  leak.  When  a  leak  first  com- 
mences, a  ship  is  said  to  spring  a  leak. 

To  spring  the  luff".  A  ship  is  said  to  spring 
her  luff  when  she  yields  to  the  effort  of  the  helm, 
by  sailing  nearer  to  the  wind  than  before. 

Squall.     A  sudden  violent  blast  of  wind. 

Square.  This  term  is  applied  to  yards  that  are 
very  long,  as  taunt  is  to  high  masts. 

To  square  the  yards.  To  brace  the  yards,  so  as 
to  hang  at  right  angles  with  the  keel. 

To  stand  on.     To  continue  advancing. 

To  stand  in.     To  advance  towards  the  shore 

To  stand  off".    To  recede  from  the  shore. 

Starboard.  The  right  hand  side  of  the  ship 
when  looking  forward. 

Starboard-tack.  A  ship  is  said  to  be  on  the 
starboard-tack,  when  sailing  with  the  wind  blow- 
ing upon  her  starboard-side. 

Starboard  the  helm  !  An  order  to  push  the 
helm  to  the  starboard-side. 

To  stay  a  ship.  To  arrange  the  sails  and  move 
the  rudder,  so  as  to  bring  the  ship's  head  to  the 
direction  of  the  wind,  in  order  to  get  her  on  the 
other  tack. 

Steady!  The  order  to  the  helmsman  to  keep 
the  ship  in  the  direction  she  is  going  at  that  in- 
stant. 

Steering.  The  art  of  directing  the  ship's  way 
by  the  movement  of  the  helm. 

Steerage-way.  Such  degree  of  progressive 
motion  of  a  ship  as  will  give  effect  to  the  mo- 
tions of  the  helm. 

To  stem  the  tide.  When  a  ship  is  sailing 
against  the  tide  at  such  a  rate  as  enables  her  to 
overcome  its  power  she  is  said  to  stem  the  tide. 

Stern  fast.  A  rope  confining  a  ship  by  her 
stern  to  any  other  ship  or  wharf. 

,S'/i  inmost.  The  farthc.st  a-stern,  opposed  to 
headmost. 


SEA  :,i  A  •::  s  H  I  p. 


Stcrnway.  The  motion  by  which  a  ship  falls 
back  with  her  stern  foremost. 

Stiff".  The  condition  of  a  ship  when  she  will 
carry  a  great  quantity  of  sail  without  hazard  of 
oversetting.  It  is  used  in  opposition  to  crank. 

To  stow.  To  arrange  and  dispose  aship's  cargo. 

To  stream  the  buoy.  To  let  it  fall  from  the 
ship's  side  into  the  water,  previously  to  casting 
anchor. 

To  strike.  To  lower  or  let  down  any  thing. 
Used  emphatically  to  denote  the  lowering  of 
colors,  in  token  of  surrender  to  a  victorious 
enemy. 

To  strike  sounding.  To  touch  ground,  when 
endeavouring  to  find  the  depth  of  water. 

Surf.  The  swell  of  the  sea  that  breaks  upon 
shore  or  on  any  rock. 

To  surge  the  capstan.  To  slacken  the  rope 
heaved  round  upon  it. 

Swell.  The  fluctuating  motion  of  the  sea 
either  during  or  after  a  storm. 

Sweeping.  The  act  of  dragging  the  bight  or 
loose  part  of  a  rope  along  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  in  a  harbour  or  road,  in  order  to  drag  up 
something  lost. 

Swinging.  The  act  of  a  ship's  turning  round 
her  anchor  at  the  change  of  wind  or  tide. 


To  tack.    To  turn  a  ship  about""^^ 
from   one   tack    to    another,    by  '"--.. 

bring  her  head  to  the  wind.  Thus  \ 

the  ship  A  passes  from  the  lar- 
board to  the  starboard  tack  a. 


Taking  in.  The  act  of  furling  the  sails. 
Used  in  opposition  to  setting. 

Taken  a- back.    See  A-back. 

Taught.  Improperly,  though  very  generally, 
used  for  tight.  . 

Taunt.  High  or  tall  :  particularly  applied  to 
masts  of  extraordinary  length. 

Tending.  The  turning  or  swinging  of  a  ship 
round  her  anchor  in  a  tide-way  at  the  beginning 
of  ebb  and  flood. 

Thwart.     See  A-thwart. 

Thwart  ships.     See  A-thwart  ships. 

Thus!  An  order  to  the  helmsman  to  keep 
the  ship  in  her  present  situation,  when  sailing 
with  a  scant  wind. 

Tide-way.  That  part  of  a  rivei  in  which  the 
tide  ebbs  and  flows  strongly. 

Tier.  One  range  of  any  thing  placed  hori- 
zontally. 

Topping.  Pulling  one  of  the  ends  of  a  yard 
higher  than  the  other. 

To  tow.  To  draw  a  ship  in  the  water  by  a  rope 
fixed  to  a  boat  or  other  ship  which  is  rowing  or 
sailing  on. 

Trim.  The  state  or  disposition  by  which  a  ship 
is  best  calculated  for  the  purposes  of  navigation. 

To  trim  the  hold.  Toarrange  the  cargo  regularly. 

To  trim  the  sails.  To  dispose  the  sails  in  the 
best  arrangement  for  the  course  which  a  ship  is 
steering. 

To  trip  the  anchor.  To  loosen  the  anchor 
from  the  ground,  either  by  design  or  accident. 

Trough  (>/'  the  i«i.  The  hollow  between  two 
waves. 


Trying.     The  situation  in  which  a  ship,  in 
tempest,  lies  to  in  the  trough  or  hollow  of  the 
sea,  particularly  when  the  wind  blows  contrary 
to  her  course. 

Turning  to  windward.  That  operation  in  sail- 
ing whereby  a  ship  endeavours  to  advance  against 
the  wind. 

Van.  The  foremost  division  of  a  fleet  in  one 
line.  It  is  likewise  applied  to  the  foremost  ship 
of  a  division. 

To  veer.    To  change  a                    * 
ship's    course,    from    one                     f 
tack  to  the  other,  by  turn- 
ing her  stern  to  windward;  A 

thus  the  ship  A  veers  in          ^^ 
passing  from  the  course  A      ''  A 

ta    the   course    C.      The         ...  ™ 

wind  is  said  to  veer  when  '^^        ...-•' 

it  changes  more  aft.  C 

To  veer  and  haul.  To  pull  a  rope  tight,  by 
alternately  drawing  it  in  and  slackening  it. 

To  unballast.  To  discharge  the  ballast  out  of  a 
ship. 

To  unbend.  To  take  the  sails  off  from  their 
yards  and  stays :  to  cast  loose  the  anchor  from 
the  cable  :  to  untie  two  ropes. 

To  unbit.  To  remove  the  turns  of  a  cable 
from  off  the  bits. 

Under  foot  is  expressed  of  an  anchor  that  is 
directly  under  the  ship. 

Under  sail.  When  a  ship  is  loosened  from 
moorings,  and  is  under  the  government  of  her 
sails  and  rudder. 

Under  way.     The  same  as  under  sail. 

Under  the  lee  of  the  shore  is  to  be  close  under 
the  shore  which  lies  to  windward  of  the  ship. 

To  unmoor.  To  reduce  a  ship  to  the  state  of 
riding  at  single  anchor,  after  she  has  been 
moored- 

To  unreevc.  To  dra-vr  a  rope  from  out  of  a 
hlock,  thimble,  &c. 

To  unrig.    To  deprive  the  ship  of  her  rigging. 

Wake.  The  print  or  track  impressed  upon 
the  surface  of  water  by  a  ship  in  her  course.  A 
ship  is  said  to  be  in  the  wake  of  another  when 
she  follows  her  in  the  same  track,  or  on  a  line  sup- 
posed to  be  formed  on  a  continuation  of  her 
keel.  Thus  the  ship 

A  is  sailing  in  the       ^^^      ^^^^       ' 
wake  of  B,  and  the  "" "^^ 
ship   C  is  crossing 
in  the  wake  of  A  and  B. 

To  ware.     See  to  veer. 

Warp.  A  small  rope  employed  occasionally 
to  remove  a  ship  from.one  place  to  another. 

To  Warp.  To  remove  a  ship  by  means  of  a 
warp. 

Water-borne.  The  state  of  a  ship,  when  there 
is  barely  a  sufficient  depth  of  water  to  float  het 
off  from  the  ground. 

Water-logged.  The  stale  of  a  ship,  become 
heavy  and  inactive  on  the  sea,  from  the  great 
quantity  of  water  leaked  into  her. 

Water-tight.  The  state  of  a  ship  when  not 
leaky, 

Weather.     Synonymous  with  windward. 

Weather-beaten.     Shattered  by  a  storm. 

Weather-bit.  A  turn  of  the  cable  about  the 
end  of  the  windlass. 

Heather-gage.     When   a  ship  or   fleet  is  tt 


SEA 


742 


SEA 


windward  of  another,  she  is  said  to  have  the 
weather-gage  of  her. 

Weather-quarter.  That  quarter  of  the  ship 
which  is  on  the  windward  side. 

Weather-side.  The  side  upon  which  the  wind 
Uows. 

To  weigh  anchor.  To  heave  up  an  anchor 
lorn  the  bottom. 

To  wind  a  ship.  To  change  her  position, 
Singing  her  head  where  her  stern  was. 

Wind-road.  When  a  ship  is  at  anchor,  and 
the  wind,  being  against  the  tide,  is  so  strong  as  to 
overcome  its  power  and  keep  the  ship  to  lee- 


ward of  her  anchor,  she  is  said  to  be  windroad. 

Wind's  eye.  The  point  from  which  the  wind 
blows. 

To  windward.  Towards  that  part  of  the  ho- 
rizon from  which  the  wind  blows. 

Windward-tide.  A  tide  that  sets  to  windward. 

To  work  a  ship.  To  direct  the  movements  of 
a  ship,  by  adapting  the  sails  and  managing  the 
rudder  accord  ing  to  the  course  the  ship  has  to  make. 

To  work  to  windward.  To  make  a  progress 
against  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

Yawing.  The  motion  of  a  ship,  when  she 
deviates  from  her  course  to  the  right  or  left. 


SEA  MARKS.  The  erection  of  beacons,  ligbt- 
houses,  and  sea-marks,  is  a  branch  of  the  royal 
prerogative.  By  8  Eliz.  13,  the  corporation  of 
the  Trinity-house  are  empowered  to  set  up  any 
beacons  or  sea-marks  wherever  they  shall  think 
them  necessary ;  and  if  the  owner  of  the  land  or 
any  other  person  shall  destroy  them,  or  take 
down  any  steeple,  tree,  or  other '  known  sea- 
mark, he  shall  forfeit  £100  sterling,  or,  in  case 
of  inability  to  pay  it,  he  shall  be  ipso  facto  out- 
lawed. 

SEA  MEW.     See  LARUS. 

SEA  NYMPHS.     See  NEREIDS,  NYMPHS,  and 

OCEANIDES  Or  OCEANITIDES. 

SEA  ONION,  or  squill.     See  SCILLA. 

SEAPOYS,  or  SEPOYS,  natives  of  Hindostan, 
serving  in  a  military  capacity  under  the  Euro- 
pean powers,  and  disciplined  after  the  European 
manner.  The  seapoys  of  the  English  East  India 
company  compose  perhaps  the  most  numerous, 
regular,  and  best  disciplined  body  of  black 
troops  in  the  world.  They  are  raised  from 
among  the  natives  of  the  country,  and  consist  of 
Moors  or  Mahometans,  Raja-poots,  Hindoos, 
Farias,  besides  many  intermediate  casts  peculiar 
to  themselves;  the  whole  modelled  in  all  cor- 
responding particulars,  and  disciplined  in  every 
respect  as  the  army  of  Great  Britain.  The  sea- 
poys are  formed  into  complete,  uniform,  and  re- 
gular batallions,  like  our  marching  regiments, 
being  intended  to  answer  fully  every  purpose  in 
India  of  the  like  troops  in  Europe.  Their  arms 
are  a  firelock  and  bayonet ;  their  accoutrements, 
or  cross  belts,  black  leather,  with  pouches  of  the 
same.  A  battalion  unite  in  their  exterior  traits 
both  the  Indian  and  European  appearance.  They 
are  brought  to  the  utmost  exactness  of  discipline ; 
go  through  their  evolutions  and  manoeuvres  with 
a  regularity  and  precision  equal  to,  and  rarely 
surpassed  by  European  troops.  In  action  they 
are  brave  and  steady,  and  have  stood  where 
Europeans  have  given  way.  Their  discipline 
[•uts  them  on  a  footing  with  European  troops, 
«ith  whom  they  are  always  ready  to  act  in  con- 
«Srt.  Their  utility  and  services  are  evident ; 
;hey  secure  to  the  company  the  internal  good 
order  and  preservation  of  their  territorial  dis- 
tricts, which,  though  possible  to  be  enforced  with 
a  strong  hand  by  Europeans,  requires  numbers, 
and  can  only  be  conducted  with  that  ease  and 
address  peculiar  to  the  native  forces  of  the 
country.  Dr.  Robertson  has  remarked,  as  a 
proof  that  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  recourse  in 


similar  situations  to  the  same  expedients,  that 
the  European  powers  have,  in  forming  the  estab- 
lishment of  these  native  troops,  adopted  the 
same  maxims,  and,  probably  without  knowing  it, 
have  modelled  their  battalions  of  seapoys  upon 
the  same  principles  as  Alexander  the  Great  did 
his  phalanx  of  Persians. 

SEAR,  adj.  &  v.  a.  Saxon  feanian,  to  dry. 
Dry ;  not  any  longer  green  :  to  dry ;  burn  ;  cau- 
terize. 

Some  shall  depart  from  the  faith,  speaking  lies, 
having  their  conscience  seared  with  a  hot  iron. 

1  Timothy  iv.  2. 

The  scorching  flame  sore  singed  all  his  face, 
And  through  his  armour  all  his  body  seared. 

Faerie  Queene. 

I  have  lived  long  enough  •  my  May  of  life 
Is  fallen  into  the  sear,  the  yellow  leaf. 

Shakspeare.   Macbeth. 

Ye  myrtles  brown,  with  ivy  never  sear.     Miliott. 
Cherish  veins  of  good  humour,  and  star  up  those 
of  ill.  Temple, 

Some  may  be  cherished  in  dry  places,  as  in  sear 
wood.  Rail. 

I'm  seared  with  burning  steel,  till  the  scorched 

marrow 
Fries  in  the  bones.  Hmce's  Royal  Convert. 

He  lives,  nor  yet  is  past  his  manhood's  prime. 
Though  leared  by  toil,   and  something  touched  by 
time.  Byron. 

SEARCE,  v.  a.     Fr.  sasser.    To  sift  finely. 

Put  the  finely  tearced  powder  of  alabaster  into 
a  flat-bottomed  and  well-heated  brass  vessel. 

Boyle. 

For  the  keeping  of  meal,  bolt  and  uarce  it  from 
the  bran.  Mortimer's  Hutbandry. 

SEARCH,  v.  a.,  v.  n.t  &»..<.{      Fr.  chercher; 

SEARCH'ER,  7*.  s.  \  Ital.  circu:d>  ; 

of  Lat.  circo.  To  examine  ;  try  ;  explore ;  en- 
quire ;  probe  surgically  ;  taking  out  (intens.) :  as 
a  verb  neuter,  to  look  ;  make  enquiry  ;  seek  :  the 
noun  substantives  both  correspond. 

They  returned  from  searching  of  the  land. 

Numbers  xiii.  25. 

Who  went  before  you,  to  search  you  out  a  place  to 
pitch  your  tents  in  ?  Deuteronomy  i.  33. 

For  the  divisions  of  Reuben  there  were  great 
Marchings  of  heart.  Judges  v.  16. 

Help  to  search  my  house  this  one  time  :  if  I  find 
not  what  I  seek,  let  me  forever  be  your  table  sport. 

Shahtpeare. 

With  this  good  sword, 

That  ran  through  Caesar'*  U;\\el>.  ft  arch  this  bosom. 

Id 


SEA 


743 


SEA 


Satisfy  me  once  more ;  once  more  search  with  me. 

Id. 

His  ;easons  are  as  two  grains  of  wheat  hid  in  two 
bushels  of  chaff:  you  shall  seek  all  day  ere  you  find 
them,  and  when  you  have  them  they  are  not  worth 
the  search.  fd. 

The  searchers  found  a  marvellous  difference  be- 
tween the  Anakins  and  themselves.  Raleigh. 

Through  the  void  immense 
To  search  with  wandering  quest  a  place  foretold. 

Milton. 
To  ask  or  search  I  blame  thee  not.  Id. 

The  orb  he  roamed 

With  narrow  search,  and  within  inspection  deep. 

Id. 

The  searchen,  who  are  ancient  matrons  sworn  to 
their  office,  repair  to  the  place  where  the  dead  corps 
lies,  and  by  view  of  the  same,  and  by  other  inquiries, 
examine  by  what  disease  the  corps  died. 

Graunt's  Bills  of  Mortality. 

Who  great  in  search  of  God  and  nature  grow, 
They  best  the  wise  Creator's  praise  declare. 

Dry  it  en. 
Now  mourn  thy  fatal  search : 

It  is  not  safe  to  have  too  quick  a  sense.  fd. 

It  suffices  that  they  have  once  with  care  sifted 
the  matter,  and  searched  into  all  the  particulars  that 
could  give  any  light  to  the  question.  Locke. 

\'>y  the  philosophical  use  of  words,  I  mean  such 
an  use  as  conveys  the  precise  notions  of  things,  which 
the  mind  may  be  satisfied  with  in  its  search  after 
knowledge.  Id. 

The  parents,  after  a  long  search  for  the  boy,  gave 
him  for  drowned  in  a  canal.  Addison. 

Religion  has  given  us  a  more  just  idea  of  the  di- 
vine nature :  he  whom  we  appeal  to  is  truth  itself, 
the  great  searcher  of  hearts,  who  will  not  let  fraud  go 
unpunished,  or  hold  him  guiltless  that  taketh  his 
name  in  vain.  Id. 

In  vain  we  lift  up  our  presumptuous  eyes 
To  what  our  Maker  to  their  ken  denies  ; 
The  searcher  follows  fast,  the  object  flies.        Prior. 

The  signs  of  wounds  penetrating  are  discovered 
by  the  proportion  of  the  searching  candle,  or  probe 
which  enters  into  the  cavity.  Wiseman'*  Suryery. 

With  piercing  eye  some  search  where  nature  plays, 
And  trace  the  wanton  through  her  darksome  maze. 

Ticket. 

This  common  practice  carries  the  heart  aside  from 
all  that  is  honest  in  our  search  afler  truth.  Watts. 

They  may  sometimes  be  successful  to  search  out 
truth.  Id. 

Avoid  the  man  who  practises  any  thing  unbecom- 
ing a  free  and  open  searclier  after  truth.  Id. 

SEARCHER,  an  officer  in  the  customs,  whose 
business  it  is  to  search  and  examine  ships  out- 
ward-bound, if  they  have  any  prohibited  goods 
on  board,  Sec.:  12  Car.  II..  There  are  also 
searchers  of  leather,  &c. 

SEARCHER,  in  ordnance,  is  an  iron-socket  with 
branches,  from  four  to  eight  in  number,  a  little 
bent  outwards,  with  small  points  at  their  ends ; 
to  this  socket  is  fixed  a  wooden  handle,  from 
eight  to  twelve  feet  long,  of  about  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  diameter.  After  the  gun  has  been  fired 
this  searcher  is  introduced  into  it,  and  turned 
round,  in  order  to  discover  the  cavities  within. 
The  distances  of  these  cavities,  if  any  be  found, 
are  then  marked  on  the  outside  with  chalk,  when 
another  searcher  that  has  only  one  point,  about 
which  a  mixture  of  wax  and  tallow  is  put,  is  in- 
troduced to  take  the  impression  of  the  holes  ;  and 
if  there  be  any  hole  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep,  or 


of  any  considerable  length,  the  gun  is  rejected  « 
unserviceable. 

SEARCH  WARRANT,  in  law,  a  kind  of  genera! 
warrant  issued  by  justices  of  peace,  or  magis- 
trates of  towns,  for  searching  all  suspected  places 
for  stolen  goods.  In  some  English  law-books 
there  are  precedents  requiring  the  constable  to 
search  all  such  suspected  places  as  he  and  the 
party  complaining  shall  think  convenient ;  but 
such  practice  is  condemned  by  lord  Hale,  Mr. 
Hawkins,  and  the  best  authorities  both  amongst 
the  English  and  Scottish  lawyers.  However,  in 
case  of  a  complaint,  and  oath  made  of  goods 
stolen,  and  that  the  party  suspects  that  those 
goods  are  in  a  particular  house,  and  shows  the 
cause  of  such  suspicion,  the  justice  may  grant  a 
warrant  to  search  not  only  that  house  but  other 
suspected  places ;  and  to  attach  the  goods,  and 
the  party  in  whose  custody  they  are  found,  and 
bring  them  before  him  or  some  other  justice,  to 
give  an  account  how  he  came  by  them,  and  to 
abide  such  order  as  to  law  shall  appertain ;  which 
warrant  should  be  directed  to  the  constable  or 
other  public  officer,  who  may  enter  a  suspected 
house  and  make  search. 

SEAR'CLOTH,  n.  s.  Sax.  ranclaS,  from  rap 
pain,  and  claS  a  plaster ;  so  that  cerecloth,  as 
written,  from  cera  wax,  seems  to  be  wrong.  A 
plaster  ;  a  large  plaster. 

Bees'  wax  is  the  ground  of  all  searcloth  salves. 

Mortimer. 

The  SEA  SERPENT  is  a  fabulous  animal,  said 
to  inhabit  the  northern  seas  about  Greenland  and 
the  coasts  of  Norway.  The  following  marvellous 
account  of  this  monster  is  given  by  Guthrie. 
'  In  1756  one  of  them  was  shot  by  a  master  of 
a  ship  ;  its  head  resembled  that  of  a  horse ;  the 
mouth  was  large  and  black,  as  were  the  eyes,  a 
white  mane  hanging  from  its  neck;  it  floated  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  held  its  head  at 
least  two  feet  out  of  the  sea  ;  between  the  head 
and  neck  were  seven  or  eight  folds,  which  were 
very  thick ;  and  the  length  of  this  snake  was 
more  than  1 00  yards  ;  some  say  fathoms.  They 
have  a  remarkable  aversion  to  the  smell  of  cas- 
tor ;  for  which  reason,  ship,  boat,  and  bark  mas- 
ters provide  themselves  with  quantities  of  that 
drug,  to  prevent  being  overset,  the  serpent's 
olfactory  nerves  being  remarkably  exquisite. 
The  particularities  related  of  this  animal  would 
be  incredible,  were  they  not  attested  upon  oath. 
Egede,  a  very  reputable  author,  says  that  on  the 
6th  day  of  July,  1734,  a  large  and  frightful  sea- 
monster  raised  itself  so  hii'h  out  of  the  water 
that  ils  head  reached  above  the  main-top-mast  of 
the  ship ;  that  it  had  a  long  sharp  snout,  broad 
paws,  and  spouted  water  like  a  whale  ;  that  the 
body  seemed  to  be  covered  with  scales ;  the 
skin  was  uneven  and  wrinkled,  and  the  lower 
part  was  formed  like  a  snake.  The  body  of  th« 
monster  is  said  to  be  as  thick  as  a  hogshead 
his  skin  is  variegated  like  a  tortoise  shell ;  arx} 
his  excrement,  which  floats  upon  the  surface  o1 
the  water,  is  corrosive.' 

SEA  SHARK.     See  SwAi.rs. 

SEA  SICKNESS,  a  disorder  incident  to  most 
persons  on  their  first  going  to  sea,  occasioned  by 
the  agitation  of  the  vessel.  In  voyages,  sea-sick- 
ness, though  it  continues  in  general  only  for  the 


SEA 


744 


SEA 


first  day  or  two,  is  extremely  harrassing  to  some 
people  at  intervals,  especially  on  any  increased 
motion  of  the  vessel.  Sometimes,  by  long  conti- 
nuance, it  causes  fever,  headach,  quick  pulse, 
thirst,  white  tongue,  and  a  total  deprivation  of 
the  retention  of  the  stomach  ;  evils  which  are  al- 
ways difficult  to  remove,  and  frequently  termi- 
nate only  with  the  voyage.  This  indisposition 
is  considerably  alleviated  by  a  small  tea-spoon- 
ful of  ether,  taken  now  and  then  in  a  glass  of 
water,  and  applying  some  of  it  to  the  temples  and 
nostrils.  The  ancient  writers  recommend  acid 
fruits,  bread  and  vegetables  soaked  in  vinegar, 
after  the  stomach  has  been  cleansed  by  vomiting; 
but  not  to  attempt  to  suppress  the  vomiting  un- 
til that  end  was  obtained.  An  old  remedy  for 
sea-sickness,  and  a  very  common  one  among 
sailors,  is  a  draught  or  two  of  sea-water  ;  which, 
though  a  disgusting  medicine  at  such  a  time,  yet 
where  the  first  passages  are  foul  and  loaded,  ge- 
nerally produces  the  desired  effect  when  the  per- 
turbation it  occasions  ceases. 

SEA'SON,  n.  s.,  v.  a.,  &"*.  Fr.  saison  ;  Span. 
SEA'soNA&LEytw//.  [v.n.  |  sazon ;  barb.  Lat. 
SEA'SONABLENESS,  n.  s.  Isatio.  One  of  the 
SEASONABLY,  adv.  [four  quarters  of  the 
SEA'SONER,  n.s.  \  year;  any  particular 

SEA'SONING.  j  or    fit    time;     any 

short  time ;  relish ;  that  which  gives  a  relish  :  to 
give  a  relish  to;  qualify;  imbue;  taint;  fit  or 
mature  for  office  or  use  :  to  become  fit :  the  de- 
rivatives corresponding. 

Every   oblation   of   thy  meat-offering-  shall  thou 
season  with  salt.  Leviticus  ii.  13. 

Mercy   is  seasonable  in  the  time  of  affliction,  as 
clouds  of  rain  in  the  time  of  drought.  Ecclus.  v.  2. 

The  fairest  flowers  o'  the  season 
Are  our  carnations  and  streaked  gillyflowers. 

Sliuktpeare. 

We'll  slip  you  for  a  vason,  but  our  jealousy 
Does  yet  depend.  Id.  Cymbeline. 

You  lack  the  season  of  all  natures,  sleep. 

Id.   Macbeth. 

Mercy  is  above  this  sceptered  sway  ; 
It  is  an  attribute  to  God  himself ; 
And  earthly  power  does  then  shew  likest  God's, 
When  mercy  teutons  justice. 

Id.  Merchant  of  Venice. 

The  crow  doth  sing  as  sweetly  as  the  lark, 
When  neither  is  attended;  and,  I  think, 
The  nightingale,  if  she  should  sing  by  day, 
When  every  goose  is  cackling,  would  be  thought 
No  better  a  musician  than  the  wren : 
flow  many  things  by  season  seasoned  are 
To  their  right  praise  and  true  perfection  ! 

Sliakit])eare. 

We  charge  you,  that  you  have  contrived  to  take 
From  Home  all  seasoned  office,  and  to  wind 
Yourself  unto  a  power  tyrannical".    Id.  Coriolanns. 

Breads  we  have  of  several  grains,  with  divers 
liinls  of  leavenings  and  seatimings ;  so  that  some  do 
extremely  move  appetites,  and  some  do  nourish  so 
«s  divers  do  live  af  them  alone.  Bacon. 

The  archers  of  his  guard  shot  two  arrows,  every 
jhan  together,  against  an  inch  board  of  well  seasoned 
limber.  Hay  ward. 

Some  abound  with  words  without  any  seasoning  or 
taste  of  matter.  fan  /orison. 

Secure  their  religion,  season  their  younger  years 
with  prudent  and  pious  principles.  Taylor. 

The  futon  prime  for  sweetest  scents  and  airs. 

Milton. 


SEASONS.  The  year  is  remarkably  diversified 
by  the  seasons,  which  depend  upon  the  oblique 
position  of  the  sun's  path  through  the  heavens, 
whereby  this  luminary  rises  to  different  heights 
above  the  horizon,  making  the  days  sometimes 
longer,  and  sometimes  shorter,  than  the  nights. 
When  the  sun  rises  highest  at  noon,  its  rays  fall 
most  nearly  in  the  direction  of  a  perpendicular, 
and  consequently  a  greater  number  is  received 
upon  any  given  spot;  their  action,  also,  at  the 
same  time,  continues  the  longest.  These  cir- 
cumstances make  the  difference  between  summer 
and  winter.  It  is  true,  that  the  sun  is  some- 
times nearer  to  us  by  one  thirtieth  of  his  whole 
distance  than  at  others.  This  is  evident  from 
his  diameter  being  found,  by  actual  measure- 
ment, to  be  one  thirtieth  larger  at  one  time  of 
the  year  than  at  the  opposite.  But  the  greatest 
proximity  in  the  northern  hemisphere  takes 
place  in  winter ;  the  sun  is  farthest  from  us  in 
July,  and  nearest  in  January;  and  the  difference 
between  summer  and  winter  temperature  would 
undoubtedly  be  greater  than  it  now  is,  if  the 
sun  were  to  remain  at  the  same  invariable  dis- 
tance through  the  year.  In  southern  latitudes, 
mid-winter  occurs  in  July,  when  the  sun  is  at 
his  greatest  distance.  This  may  be  one  cause  of 
the  excessive  cold  which  prevails  in  high  south- 
ern latitudes,  as  at  Cape  Horn  and  about  the 
south  po!e,  beyond  that  which  belongs  to  simi- 
lar latitudes  on  this  side  of  the  equator.  It  is 
found,  that  the  sun  does  not  rise  so  high  in  sum- 
mer, or  descend  so  low  in  winter,  at  the  present 
time,  as  it  did  formerly  :  in  other  words,  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  ecliptic,  which  is  half  the  difference 
between  the  sun's  greatest  and  least  meridian  al- 
titudes, is  growing  less  and  less  continually,  and 
the  seasons  are  thus  tending,  though  slowly, 
towards  one  unvaried  spring.  This  diminution 
of  the  sun's  utmost  range  north  and  south,  since 
the  time  of  the  earliest  observations,  or  during  a 
period  of  3000  years,  amounts  to  nearly  a 
fiftieth  part  of  the  whole  quantity.  This  may  be 
one  of  the  causes  of  a  melioration  of  winter, 
which  seems  to  be  so  considerable  in  those  places 
where  there  are  the  means  of  making  a  compa- 
rison of  the  degree  of  cold  that  has  prevailed  at 
different  times.  The  year  is  naturally  divided 
into  four  periods  by  the  equinoxes  and  solstices, 
or  those  epochs  when  the  day  is  equal  to  the 
night,  namely,  21st  of  March  and  23rd  of  Sep- 
tember, and  those  when  there  is  the  greatest  dif- 
ference, namely,  21st  of  June  and  22nd  of  De- 
cember. Our  winter,  spring,  summer,  and 
autumn  (q.  v.)  have  reference  to  these  epochs, 
although  their  commencement  and  termination 
do  not  correspond  exactly  to  the  astronomical 
times  above  indicated.  We  are  apt  to  imagine, 
that  the  four  seasons  are  equal  to  each  other, 
and  that  spring  and  summer  are  together  just 
half  the  year.  This  is  not  the  case,  however, 
more  especially  with  respect  to  the  natural  pe- 
riods, so  denominated.  If,  for  example,  we 
compare  the  time  from  the  21st  of  March  to  the 
23rd  of  September,  with  the  rest  of  the  year. 
we  shall  find  a  difference  of  about  one  week, 
the  former  being  the  longer.  This  benefit  of  a 
long  summer  is  confined,  at  present,  to  the 
northern  hemisphere ;  but  this  natural  distinc- 


SEA 


745 


SEA 


tion  is  not  a  permanent  one.  This  longer  con- 
tinuance  of  the  sun  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
arises  from  the  particular  position  of  the  sun's 
oval  orbit,  or  path  through  the  heavens.  We 
have  already  stated  that  the  sun  is  nearest  to  us 

in  the  winter  season  :  in   other  words,  the  earth 

.1  i        .•  • 

,s  nearest  to  the  sun,  and  on  1m  account  its  mo- 

tion  is  more  rapid,  so  that  the  part  of  the  orbit 
from  the  autumnal  equinox  (September  23rd)  to 
the  vernal  (March  21st),  is  completed  a  week 
sooner  than  the  other  half,  in  which  the  motion 
is  slower.  But  the  point  of  the  sun's  nearest 
approach,  or  perihelion,  on  the  position  of  which 
the  above-mentioned  physical  advantages  de- 
pend,  is  in  motion,  whereby  we  are  gradually 
losing  the  benefit  of  a  prolonged  summer,  and 
in  about  5000  years  shall  cease  to  enjoy  any 
such  privilege.  In  about  10,000  years  the  con- 
dition  will  be  reversed,  and  the  southern  hemis- 
phere  wj,l  be  the  favored  portion  of  the  globe. 
It  may  be  worth  mentioning  that  at  the  date 
fixed  by  chronologists  for  the  first  residence  of 
man  upon  the  earth,  the  sun's  influence  was 
equally  distributed  to  the  two  hemispheres. 

SEASONING,  a  name  given  to  the  first  illness  to 
which  persons,  habituated  to  colder  climates,  are 
subject  on  their  arrival  in  the  West  Indies,  par- 
ticularly  if  at  first  they  expose  themselves  in  a 
shower  of  rain,  or  too  long  in  the  sun,  or  in  the 
night  air  ;  or  when  the  body  is  much  heated,  if 
they  drink  large  draughts  of  cold  liquors,  or  bathe 
in  water,  or  use  much  exercise,  or  commit  ex- 
cess  in  drinking  wine  or  spirits  ;  or  by  heating 
the  body  and  inflaming  the  blood;  or  by  subject- 
ing  themselves  to  any  cause  that  may  suddenly 
check  perspiration,  which  at  first  is  generally 
excessive.  The  disorders  are  various  that  con- 
stitute  this  seasoning  of  new  comers,  as  they  are 
called  ;  depending  on  age,  constitution,  and 
habit  of  body.  But  all  seasoning  diseases  are 
said  to  be  of  the  inflammatory  kind;  and  yield 
lo  antiphlogistic  treatment  proportioned  to  their 


O  earth,  how  like  to  heaven  !  if  not  preferred 
Most  justly,  seat  worthier  of  gods,  as  built 
w>th  second  thoughts,  reforming  what  was  old. 

r  Milton. 

.  ,  °.1  "aDy'on> 

?or  ff2*.AkS?'  suc,h  magnificen,ce 
Equalled  in  all  their  glories,  to  ins  hnne 
B^lus  or  Ser    [&  ^     ^  Q.  sgut 

Their  kins-s  Id 

From  their  foundations  loosening  to  and  fro, 

They  plucked  the  seated  hills.  Id. 

The  iady  of  the  leaf  ordained  a  feast, 

And  made  the  lady  of  the  flower  her  guest; 

When,  lo,  a  bower  ascended  on  the  plain, 

With  sudden  seats  ordained,  and  large   for  either 
train.  Dryden. 

^n  Alba  he  shall  fix  his  royal  seat  ; 

And,  born  a  king,  a  race  of  kings  beget.  fd. 

„  l<ne  Promised  seat  °{  emPire  sha11  again 

Co,y,?r  the  mountain  and  command  the  plain.  Prior. 

°  ^  "** 


bKAT,  n.  s.  &  v.  a.  Sax.  reot;  Swed.  sate  ; 
Teut.  sett;  Lat.  secies.  A  chair;  bench;  any 
thing  on  which  one  may  sit:  hence  a  throne,  or 
royal  or  episcopal  seat  ;  hence  also  residence  ;  si- 
tuation  ;  site  :  to  seat  is,  to  place  on  seats,  or  in 
authority  or  office  ;  fix. 

The  fittest  and  the  easiest  to  be  drawn 
To  our  society  and  to  aid  the  war, 

The  rather  for  the,r  «a»,  being  next  borderers 

Bv  /n  m  BenJomon,  Catthne. 

My  no  means  build  too  near  a  great  neighbour. 
which  were  in  truth  to  be  as  unfortunately  mated  on 
the  earth  as  Mercury  is  in  the  heavens  :  fqr  the  most 
part  ever  in  combustion  or  obscurity,  uuder  brighter 
beams  than  his  own.  Wotton. 

Whatsoever  be  the  manner  of  tbe  world's  end, 
Host  certain  it  is  an  end  it  shall  have,  and  as  cer- 
Aiin  that  then  we  shall  appear  before  the  judgment 
teat  of  Christ,  that  every  man  may  receive  according 
to  that  which  he  hath  done  in  his  body,  whether  it  be 
good  or  evil.  Habevill  0,1  Providence. 

He  that  builds  a  fair  house  upon  an  ill  scat  com- 
mittetb  himself  to  prison.  Baa-n 

It  followeth  now  that  we  find  out  the  teat  of  Eden  - 
for  in  it  was  Paradise  by  God  planted.         Raleiah. 
The  sons  of  light 

Hastcd,  resorting  to  the  summons  high, 

A  u<i  took  their  seats.  Milton. 


A  irit  of  or  oppositioil  makes  mankind  un- 
easy to  see  others  of  the  same  species  mated  above 
them  in  a  sort  of  perfection.  Pope. 

Themselves  perhaps,  when  weary  they  retreat 
To'  enjoy  cool  nature  in  a  country  seat, 
To'  exchange  the  centre  of  a  thousand  trades, 
^or  clumps,  and  lawns,  and  temples,  and  cascades, 
May  now  and  then  their  velvet  cushions  take, 
And  seem  to  Pray  for  &ood  examPle  sake-    Cowper. 

SEATER,  one  of  the  chief  deities  of  the  an- 
«^ient  Saxons,  reckoned  by  mythologists  analogous 
to  the  Saturn  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Sa- 
turday  was  named  from  this  idol. 

SEA'WARD,  adv.  Sea  and  Sax.  peajVo. 
Towards  the  sea. 

The  rock  rushed  seaward  with  impetuous  roar, 
Ingulfed,  and  to  the'  abyss  the  boaster  bore.  Pope; 

SEA-  WATER,  ANALYSIS  OF.  In  June,  1776, 
Sir  Torbern  Bergman  analysed  a  pint  of  sea- 
water,  taken  from  the  depth  of  sixty  fathoms  in  the 
latitude  of  the  Canary  Islands,  and  found  the  so 
Hd  contents  as  follows  :—  Of  common  salt  253 
u  grs-,  sallied  magnesia  69  n  grs.,  and  gypsum 
8  ft  ars.  ;  in  all  330  fT  grs.,  or~5  drams,  1  scru- 
ple,"and  10  grs.,.  and  },  parts.  The  principal 
salts  contained  in  sea-water  are,  1st,  Common 
marine  or  culinary  salt,  compounded  of  fossil 
alkali  or  soda  and  marine  acid  ;  2dly,  A  salt 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  same  acid  with  mag 
nesian  earth  ;  and,  lastly,  A  small  quantity  of 
syenite.  The  quantity  of  saline  matter  contained 
jn  •<  of  sea_water  in  the  British  seas  iSj  ac_ 
S  Neum  about  one  ounce  in  each 

•  &  j  o 

P1"1'      See  OcEA»  and  S£A'  ~      n 

SEA-WATER,  MEDIC  AL  USES  OF.      Dr.  Uussel 

published  a  dissertation  on  the  medical  uses  of 
sea-water  in  diseases  of  the  glands,  &c.,  wherein 
the  author  premises  some  observations  upon  the 
nature  of  sea-water,  considered  as  impregnated 
with  particles  of  all  the  bodies  it  passes  over,such 
as  submarine  plants,  fish,  salts,  minerals,  &C., 
and  saturated  with  therr  several  effluvia,  to  enrich 
it  and  keep  it  from  putrefaction  ;  whence  this  fluid 
j  sup  'd  to  cont^ct  a  soapiness  ;  and  the  whole 

•        i    •  j    i    i         i_          i   i 

collectlon>  beln?  P^'aded  by  the  sulphureous 
steams  \>™*m%  through  it,  constitutes  what  we 
ca'l  sea-water;  the  confessed  distinguishing  cna- 
racteristics  of  which  are  saltness,  bitterness,  nitro- 
sity,  and  uiictiioiity  :  whence  the  author  con- 


SKA 


740 


SKA 


eludes  that  it  may  be  justly  expected  to  contribute 
signally  to  the  improvement  of  physic.  The  cases 
in  which  our  author  informs  us  we  are  to  expect 
advantage  from  the  sea- water  are,  1.  In  all  recent 
obstructions  of  the  glands  of  the  intestines  and  me- 
sentery. 2.  All  recent  obstructions  of  the  pulmo- 
nary glands,  and  those  of  the  viscera,  which  fre- 
quently produce  consumptions.  3.  All  recent 
glandular  swellings  of  the  neck,  or  other  parts. 
4.  Recent  tumors  of  the  joints,  if  they  were  not 
suppurated  or  become  schirrous  or  cancerous, 
and  have  not  carious  bones  for  their  cause.  5. 
Recent  deductions  upon  the  glands  of  the  eye-lids. 
6.  All  defoedations  of  the  skin,  from  an  erysipelas 
to  a  lepra.  7.  Diseases  of  the  glands  of  the  nose, 
with  their  usual  companion  a  thickness  of  the  lip. 
8.  Obstructions  of  the  kidneys,  where  there  is  no 
inflammation,  and  the  stone  not  large.  9.  In  re- 
cent obstructions  of  the  liver,  this  method  will 
be  proper,  where  it  prevents  constipations  of  the 
belly,  and  assists  other  medicines  directed  in  ic- 
terical  cases.  The  same  remedy  is  said  to  be  of 
signal  service  in  the  bronchocele ;  and  is  likewise 
recommended  for  the  prevention  of  those  bilious 
colics  that  so  frequently  afflict  our  mariners. 

The  method  of  making  sea-water  fresh  was 
long  a  desideratum  in  navigation.  Many  methods 
have  been  proposed  for  this  purpose.  Mr.  Ap- 
pteby  published  an  account  of  a  process  which 
he  had  instituted  in  1734.  He  distilled  sea-wa- 
ter with  a  quantity  of  lapis  infernalis  and  calcined 
bones ;  but  this  process  was  soon  laid  aside,  as  it 
•was  not  only  difficult  in  itself,  but  rendered  the 
water  unpalatable.  Dr.  Butler  proposed  soap-leys 
in  place  of  Mr.  Appleby's  ingredients ;  but  the 
water  was  still  liable  to  the  same  objection.  Dr. 
Stephen  Hales  recommended  powdered  chalk  ; 
but  his  method  was  expensive,  and  did  not  im- 
prove the  taste  of  the  water.  Dr.  Lind  of  Ports- 
mouth distilled  sea-water  without  any  ingredi- 
ents ;  but  as  the  experiment  he  made  was 
performed  in  a  vessel  containing  only  two  quarts, 
with  a  glass  receiver,  in  his  study,  nothing  con- 
clusive could  be  drawn  from  it  for  the  use  of 
sailors.  At  length  Dr.  Irving  brought  the  process 
to  a  very  high  degree  of  simplicity  and  perfection, 
by  which  the  water  is  obtained  pure,  without 
much  expense  of  fuel,  or  a  complicated  appara- 
tus. For  this  discovery  he  received  a  reward  of 
£5000.  The  advantages  of  this  method  remain  to 
be  stated,  which  may  be  reduced  to  the  following : 
I.The  abolishing  all  stills,  still-heads,  wonn- 
pipes,  and  their  tubes,  which  occupy  so  much 
space  as  to  render  them  totally  incompatible  with 
the  necessary  business  of  the  ship  ;  and  using  in 
the  room  of  these  the  ship's  kettle  or  boiler,  to  the 
top  whereof  may  occasionally  be  applied  a  simple 
tube,  which  can  be  easily  made  on  board  a  vessel 
at  sea,  of  iron  plate,  stove  funnel,  or  tin  sheet ; 
so  that  no  situation  can  prevent  a  ship  from  being 
completely  supplied  with  the  means  of  distilling 
sea-water.  2.  In  consequence  of  the  principles 
of  distillation  being  fully  ascertained,  the  contriv- 
ance of  the  simplest  means  of  obtaining  the 
greatest  quantity  of  distilled  water,  by  making 
the  tube  sufficiently  large  to  receive  the  whole 
column  of  vapor,  and  placing  it  nearly  in  a  ho- 
rizontal direction,  to  prevent  any  compression  of 
the  fluid,  which  takes  place  so  much  with  the 


comrron  worm.  3.  The  adopting  of  the  sim|.iey. 
and  most  efficacious  means  of  condensing  vapor; 
?or  nothing  more  is  required  in  the  distillation  but 
keeping  the  surface  of  the  tube  always  wet,  which 
is  done  by  having  some  sea-water  at  hand,  and  a 
person  to  dip  a  mop  or  swab  into  this  water,  and 
pass  it  along  the  upper  surface  of  the  tube.  By 
this  operation  the  vapor  contained  in  the  tube 
will  be  entirely  condensed  with  the  greatest  rapi- 
dity imaginable ;  for  by  the  application  of  the 
wet  mop  thin  sheets  of  water  are  uniformly  spread, 
and  mechanically  pressed  upon  the  surface  of  the 
hot  tube ;  which,  being  convened  into  vapor, 
make  way  for  a  succession  of  fresh  sheets  ;  and 
thus,  both  by  the  evaporation  and  close  contact 
of  the  cold  water  constantly  repeated,  the  heat  is 
carried  off  more  effectually  than  by  any  other 
method  yet  known.  4.  The  carrying  on  the 
distillation  without  any  addition,  a  correct  che- 
mical analysis  of  sea-water  having  evinced  the 
futility  of  mixing  ingredients  with  it,  either  to 
prevent  an  acid  from  rising  with  the  vapor,  or  to 
destroy  any  bituminous  oil  supposed  to  exist  in 
sea-water,  and  to  contaminate  the  distilled 
water,  giving  it  that  fiery  unpalatable  taste  in- 
separable from  the  former  processes.  5.  The 
ascertaining  the  proper  quantity  of  sea-water  that 
ought  to  be  distilled,  whereby  the  fresh  water  is 
prevented  from  contracting  a  noxious  impregna- 
tion of  metallic  salts,  and  the  vessel  from  being 
corroded  and  otherwise  damaged  by  the  salts 
caking  on  the  bottom  of  it.  6.  The  producing  a 
quantity  of  sweet  and  wholesome  water,  per- 
fectly agreeable  to  the  taste,  and  sufficient  for  all 
the  purposes  of  shipping.  7.  The  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  dressing  the  ship's  provisions,  so 
as  to  distil  a  very  considerable  quantity  of  water 
from  the  vapor,  which  would  otherwise  be  lost, 
without  any  addition  of  fuel.  To  sum  up  the 
merits  of  this  method  in  a  few  words : — The  use 
of  a  simple  tube,  of  the  most  easy  construction, 
applicable  to  any  ship's  kettle.  The  rejecting 
all  ingredients;  ascertaining  the  proportion  of 
water  to  be  distilled,  with  every  advantage  of 
quality,  saving  of  fuel,  and  preservation  of  boil- 
ers. The  obtaining  fresh  water,  wholesome, 
palatable,  and  in  sufficient  quantities.  Taking 
advantage  of  the  vapor  which  ascends  in  the 
kettle  while  the  ship's  provisions  are  boiling. 
All  these  advantages  are  obtained  by  the  above 
mentioned  simple  addition  to  the  common  ship's 
kettles.  But  Dr.  Irving  proposes  to  introduce 
two  further  improvements.  The  first  is  a  hearth, 
or  stove,  so  constructed  that  the  fire  which  is 
kept  up  the  whole  day  for  the  common  business 
of  the  ship  may  serve  likewise  for  distillation  ; 
whereby  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  for  all  the 
economical  purposes  of  the  ship  may  be  ob- 
tained, with  a  very  inconsiderable  addition  to  the 
expense  of  fuel.  The  other  improvement  is  that 
of  substituting,  even  in  the  largest  ships,  cast- 
iron  boilers,  of  a  new  construction,  in  the  place 
of  coppers.  As  soon  as  sea-water  is  put  into  the 
boiler,  the  tube  is  to  be  fitted  either  into  the  top 
or  lid,  round  which,  if  necessary,  a  bit  of  \vet 
linen  may  be  applied,  to  make  it  fit  close  to  the 
mouth  of  the  vessel;  there  will  be  no  occasion 
for  luting,  as  the  tube  acts  like  a  funnel  in  car- 
rying off  the  vapor.  When  the  water  begins  to 


SEE 


747 


SEE 


boil,  the  vapor  should  be  allowed  to  pass  freely 
for  a  minute,  which  will  effectually  clean  the 
tube  and  upper  part  of  the  boiler.  The  tube  is 
afterwards  to  be  kept  constantly  wet,  by  passing 
a  mop  or  swab,  dipped  in  sea-water,  along  its 
upper  surface.  The  waste  water  running  from 
the  mop  may  be  carried  off  by  means  of  a  board 
made  like  a  spout,  and  placed  beneath  the  tube. 
The  distillation  may  be  continued  till  three- 
fourths  of  the  water  be  drawn  off,  and  no  further. 
This  may  be  ascertained  either  by  a  gauge-rod 
put  into  the  boiler,  or  by  measuring  the  water 
distilled.  The  brine  is  then  to  be  let  out.  Water 
may  be  distilled  in  the  same  manner  while  the 
provisions  are  boiling.  When  the  tube  is  made 
on  shore,  the  best  substance  for  the  purpose  is 
thin  copper  well  tinned,  this  being  more  durable 
in  long  voyages  than  tin-plates.  Instead  of  mop- 
ping, the  tube,  if  required,  may  have  a  case  made 
also  of  copper,  so  much  larger  in  diameter  as  to 
admit  a  thin  sheet  of  water  to  circulate  between 
them  by  means  of  a  spiral  copper  thread,  with  a 
pipe  of  an  inch  diameter  at  each  end  of  the  case ; 
the  lower  for  receiving  cold  water,  and  the  upper 
for  carrying  it  off  when  heated. 

SEA-WATER,  METHOD  OF  PRESERVING.  As  it 
is  sometimes  necessary  to  preserve  sea-water  in 
casks,  for  bathing  and  other  purposes,  it  is  of 
importance  to  know  how  to  keep  it  from  putre- 
faction. Many  experiments  were  made  to  de- 
termine this  point  by  Mr.  Henry,  and  are  re- 
corded in  the  first  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Manches- 
ter. His  first  experiment  we  shall  here  present 
to  our  readers  : — '  To  one  quart  of  sea-water 
were  added  two  scruples  of  fresh  quicklime ;  to 
another  half  an  ounce  of  common  culinary  salt ; 
and  a  third  was  kept  as  a  standard  without  any 
addition.  The  mouths  of  the  bottles  being 
loosely  covered  with  paper,  they  were  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  sun  in  some  of  the  hottest 
weather  in  summer.  In  about  a  week  the  stand- 
ard became  very  offensive ;  and  the  water,  with 
the  additional  quantity  of  salt,  did  not  continue 
sweet  many  hours  longer  ;  whereas  that  with 
lime  continued  many  months  without  ever  ex- 
hibiting the  least  marks  of  putridity.'  When  he 
added  a  dram  more  of  quicklime,  the  whole  of 
the  magnesia  contained  in  the  water  was  se- 
parated ;  and,  when  a  further  addition  was  made, 
a  lime-water  was  immediately  formed.  He  there- 
fore concluded  that  two  scruples  of  quick-lime 
are  sufficient  to  preserve  a  quart  of  sea-water. 
The  proportions,  however,  may  vary  a  little, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  quick-lime  em- 
ployed. 

SEA-WEED,  or  SEA  -WARE,  alga  marina,  is  com- 
monly used  as  a  manure  on  the  sea-coast,  where 
it  can  be  produced  in  abundance.  The  best 
sort  grows  on  rocks  and  is  that  from  which  kelp 
is  made.  The  next  to  this  is  called  the  peasy 
sea-weed;  and  the  worst  is  that  with  a  long 
stalk.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Berwick,  the 
farmers  mix  it  with  stable  dung  and  earth,  and 
thus  obtain  a  great  quantity  of  excellent  manure. 
Sea-weed  is  found  also  to  be  a  very  fit  manure 
for  gardens,  as  it  not  only  enriches  them,  but 
destroys  the  vermin  by  which  they  are  usually 
infested.  See  A.LCS.. 


SEBA  (Albert),  a  learned  Dutch  naturalist, 
born  at  Etzeel,  in  East  Frieseland.  He  wrote 
an  extensive  work  on  natural  history,  published 
at  Amsterdam  in  1734,  in  3  vols.  folio.  The  ex- 
planations are  in  Latin  and  French. 

SEBACIC  ACID,  the  acid  procured  from  fat. 
See  CHEMISTRY,  Index.  Dr.  Thomson  gives  the 
following  account  of  it : — '  Chemists  had  long 
suspected  that  an  acid  could  be  obtained  from  tal- 
low, on  account  of  the  acrid  nature  of  the  fumes 
which  it  emits  at  a  high  temperature ;  but  it  was 
M.  Grutzmacher  who  first  demonstrated  it  in  a 
dissertation  De  Ossium  Medulla,  pubfished  in 
1748.  M.  Rhodes  mentioned  it  in  1753.  Seg- 
ner  published  a  dissertation  on  it  in  1754;  and 
Crell  examined  its  properties  very  fully  in  two 
dissertations  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
for  1780  and  1782.  It  was  called  at  first  acid 
of  fat.  It  may  be  procured  by  the  following 
process  : — Mix  quick -lime  with  melted  tallow, 
and  keep  the  mixture  for  some  time  in  a  melting 
heat.  Then  let  it  cool,  and  wash  it  in  a  great 
quantity  of  water.  Evaporate  this  water,  and 
there  will  be  obtained  a  brown  salt,  which  is 
impure  sebate  of  lime.  Heat  this  pretty  strongly 
in  a  crucible,  dissolve  it  in  water,  filter  it,  separ- 
ate the  excess  by  carbonic  acid;  then  evaporate. 
Pure  crystallised  sebate  of  lime  is  obtained. 
Mix  this  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  distil  with  a 
moderate  heat.  Sebacic  acid  comes  over.  It  is 
a  liquid  of  an  acid,  sharp,  bitterish  taste.  When 
concentrated,  it  exhales  a  white  smoke,  which 
has  a  strong,  disagreeable,  peculiar  odor,  and 
irritates  the  eyes  and  throat.  It  reddens  tincture 
of  turnsole.  Heat  causes  it  to  assume  a  yellow- 
ish color.  When  distilled,  it  yields  a  brownish 
liquid,  and,  when  distilled  to  dryness,  it  leaves  a 
little  charcoal.  When  passed  through  a  red-hot 
tube,  it  is  decomposed  and  converted  into  water, 
carbonic  acid,  carbonated  hydrogen  gas,  and 
charcoal.  It  combines  with  alkalies,  earths,  and 
metallic  oxides,  and  forms  salts,  called  sebates. 
It  oxidates  silver,  mercury,  copper,  iron,  lead, 
tin,  zinc,  antimony,  and  manganese.  It  does 
not  act  upon  bismuth,  cobalt,  or  nickel.  When 
mixed  with  nitric  acid  it  dissolves  gold.  Its 
affinities,  according  to  Morveau,  are  as  follows : — 
barytes,  potassa,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  ammonia, 
alumina,  metallic  oxides.' 

SEBASTIAN,  king  of  Portugal,  the  posthu- 
mous son  of  the  infant  John,  by  Joanna,  daughtj  • 
of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  succeeded  to  the 
crown,  at  three  years  of  age,  in  1577,  on  th? 
death  of  his  grandfather  John  III.  At  the  age 
of  twenty  he  undertook  a  romantic  expedition 
against  the  Moors  in  Africa,  in  which,  however, 
he  performed  nothing  of  consequence  :  but,  im- 
pressed with  this  object,  on  the  application  ot 
Muley  Hamet,  king  of  Fez  and  Morocco,  to  as- 
sist him  against  his  uncle,  Muley  Moloch,  he 
determined  to  renew  his  attempt  against  the  infi- 
dels, lie  accordingly  embarked  with  the  flower 
of  his  nobility  and  military  in  the  summer  of 
1578  and  proceeded  to  Arzilla.  Here  he  was 
met  by  an  overwhelming  force,  headed  by  Muley 
Moloch  in  person,  although  so  debilitated  by 
sickness  as  to  be  carried  on  a  litter.  In  the 
battle  that  ensued  the  Portuguese  army  broke 
the  first  line  of  the  Moors;  and  Mule'-  in  rally- 


SEB 


748 


ing  his  men,  was  so  exhausted,  that  he  died  in 
the  arms  of  his  guards ;  his  last  and  much  ex- 
tolled action  being  to  lay  his  fingers  to  his  lips, 
as  an  injunction  to  keep  his  death  secret,  in 
order  not  to  depress  the  spirits  of  his  army. 
Sebastian,  on  the  other  hand,  fought  with  great 
bravery,  and  had  two  horses  killed  under  him. 
He  at  length,  after  his  attendants  were  all  slain, 
disappeared,  nor  was  it  ever  known  what  became 
of  him,  although  a  body,  supposed  to  be  his,  was 
restored  by  the  Moors,  and  buried  at  Belem. 
Not  more  than  fifty  Portuguese  are  said  to  have 
survived*  this  expedition;  yet  such  was  the  at- 
tachment of  the  people  to  Sebastian's  memory, 
that  a  disposition  to  believe  that  he  would  appear 
again  prevailed  for  many  years.  Various  impos- 
tors took  advantage  of  it. 

SEBASTIAN,  a  town  in  the  intendency  of  So- 
nora,  Mexico,  situated  on  the  skirt  of  a  moun- 
tain. It  is  of  a  hot  temperature,  and  the  sur- 
rounding territory  abounds  in  maize ;  but  the 
principal  pursuit  is  its  fisheries,  which  are  car- 
ried on  to  a  great  extent  on  the  Mazatlan.  They 
consist  of  mulattoes,  mestizoes,  and  Indians. 
Long.  106°  W.,  lat.  24°  N. 

SEBASTIAN,  a  river  of  the  New  Kingdom  of 
Granada,  in  the  province  of  Santa  Martha,  which 
has  a  northern  course  and  enters  the  swamp  of 
Santa  Martha. 

SEBASTIAN,  SAN,  DE  Bu  EN  AVISTA,  a  decayed 
town  of  New  Granada,  140  miles  S.S.W.  of 
Carthagena,  at  the  mouth  of  the  gulf  of  Darien. 
It  was  formerly  of  much  importance. 

SEBASTIAN  (St.),  a  considerable  town  and 
fortress  of  Spain,  the  capital  of  the  district  of 
Guipuscoa,  in  the  province  of  Biscay.  It  stands 
on  a  bay  between  two  inlets,  forming  a  peninsula 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Uramea.  It  has  long 
been  a  place  of  great  strength  :  the  town  being 
fortified  with  bastions  and  half  moons,  and  the 
citadel  standing  on  a  conical  eminence,  accessi- 
ble only  by  a  path  winding  round  it  in  a  spiral 
form.  The  harbour  is  small  and  capable  of  con- 
taining only  about  thirty  merchantmen ;  but  it  is 
nearly  enclosed  by  the  two  moles,  and  protected 
from  winds  by  the  adjacent  eminences.  Here 
are  three  churches,  five  convents,  and  an  hospi- 
tal. The  streets  are  wide,  straight,  and  well 
paved ;  and  the  houses  respectable.  St.  Sebas- 
tian exports  ships'  anchors,  cables,  and  leather, 
the  manufactures  in  the  town.  The  environs  are 
pleasant,  the  view  commanding  both  the  sea  and 
the  Pyrenees.  The  principal  walk  is  in  a  de- 
lightful vale  to  the  north.  St.  Sebastian  has 
been  often  taken  by  the  French,  being  only  ten 
miles  from  the  Spanish  frontier;  it  fell  into  their 
hands  in  the  war  of  1719,  in  the  revolutionary 
contest  of  1794,  and  in  Buonaparte's  invasion  in 
1808.  On  the  last  occasion  it  remained  five 
years  in  their  possession ;  and  when  the  victory 
of  Vittoria  had  opened  to  the  British  the  prospect 
of  its  capture,  the  French  had  time  to  throw  into 
it  a  garrison  capable  of  making  an  obstinate  de- 
fence. An  attempt  on  the  part  of  our  army  to 
take  it  by  assault  on  the  25th  of  July,  1813,  was 
repulsed  with  great  loss.  It  became  necessary  to 
;n:ike  approaches  with  great  caution,  and  even  to 
incur  a  severe  sacrifice  of  lives  in  the  final  attack, 
on  the  31st  of  August,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands 


of  the  British.  A  fire  burst  out  in  the  town  at 
this  time,  which,  joined  to  the  preceding  bom- 
bardment, laid  it  almost  entirely  in  ashes ;  but 
it  was  afterwards  rebuilt.  Inhabitants  about 
12,000.  Eight  miles  west  of  Fontarabia,  and 
forty  east  of  Bilboa. 

SEBASTIAN  (St.),  a  sea-port,  and  capital  of  the 
island  of  Gomera,  one  of  the  Canaries. 

SEBASTIAN  (St.),  an  island  in  the  Atlantic,  se- 
parated from  the  coast  of  Brasil  by  a  strait  about 
three  leagues  wide.  Lat.  23°  45'  S.  It  is  said 
to  produce  the  best  sugar,  rum,  and  pulse, 
as  well  as  the  finest  cattle  in  Brasil ;  and  is  situ- 
ated on  a  low  tract  of  ground  about  300  yards 
from  the  beach.  The  inhabitants  subsist  chiefly 
on  fish.  The  town  has  been  noted  for  its  very 
large  canoes  scooped  out  of  the  solid  timber. 

SEBASTIAN,  (St.),  DE  LOS  REYES,  a  city  of 
Columbia,  in  the  Caraccas,  standing  on  the  shore 
of  the  river  Guarico.  It  was  founded  towards 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  :  it  is  rendered 
rather  disagreeable  for  residence,  by  the  very  great 
heats  which  the  continual  and  strong  breezes 
from  the  north-east  faintly  temper.  The  water  is 
abundant.  The  soil  of  its  jurisdiction,  fit  for 
many  commodities,  produces  scarcely  any  thing 
but  maize.,  but  its  pastures  feed  large  herds  of 
cattle.  Population  3500.  Twenty-eight  leagues 
S.  £  S.W.  of  Caraccas. 

SEBASTIANO,  an  eminent  Venetian  painter, 
called  Del  Piombo,  from  an  office  in  the  lead 
mines  given  him  by  pope  Clement  VII.,  was 
born  in  1485.  He  was  first  a  disciple  of  old 
John  Bellini ;  continued  his  studies  under  Gior- 
gione ;  and,  having  attained  an  excellent  manner 
of  coloring,  went  to  Home,  where  he  obtained 
the  favor  of  Michael  Angelo.  He  invented  the 
art  of  preparing  plaster-walls  for  oil-painting ; 
but  was  so  slow  in  his  work  that  other  hands 
were  often  employed  to  finish  what  he  began. 
He  died  in  1547. 

SEBAT,  or  SHEBET,  in  chronology,  the  fifth 
month  of  the  civil  year  among  the  Jews,  and 
the  llth  of  their  sacred  year.  It  consists  of 
thirty  days,  and  begins  on  January,  and  ends  in 
February.  The  Jews  observe  two  fasts  in  it ;  on 
the  tenth  for  the  death  of  the  elders,  who  out- 
lived Joshua,  and  on  the  17th  for  the  people  of 
Gibeah.  Judges  xx. 

SEBENICO,  an  old  town  of  Austrian  Dalma- 
tia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Kerka.  It  stands  on 
the  slope  of  a  rocky  hill,  extending  to  the  edge 
of  the  water,  and  is  surrounded  by  fortifications. 
The  Kerka  here  expands  into  a  lake  which  forms 
an  excellent  and  capacious  harbour,  protected 
by  a  fort,  and  communicating  with  the  Adriatic 
by  means  of  a  short  and  narrow  strait.  The 
town  is  defended  by  two  forts  on  the  top  of  the 
hill.  It  is  said  to  have  been  more  considerable 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  has  long  been  a 
bishop's  see,  and  has  a  Gothic  cathedral,  ad- 
mired for  the  bold  construction  of  its  roof, 
formed  of  marble  slabs.  The  environs  are  fertile. 
Inhabitants  6300.  Thirty-seven  miles  south-east 
of  Zara,  and  143  north-west  of  Ragousa. 

SEBOO,  or  SAIU-,  a  considerable  river  of 
Morocco,  which  rises  in  the  Atlas,  near  the  fron- 
tier, traverses  the  province  of  F«  >.  |<as<in_'  a  little 
to  the  north  of  the  capital,  and  then  lulls  into -the 


SECEDERS. 


749 


sea.  The  mouth  is,  however,  much  incommoded 
by  wind. 

SEC  ALE,  rye,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  di- 
gynia  order,  and  triandria  class  of  plants ;  natu- 
ral order  fourth,  gramina:  CAL.  a  glume  of  two 
leaves,  which  are  opposite  to  one  another,  erect, 
linear,  pointed,  and  less  than  the  corolla:  COR. 
consists  of  two  valves,  the  exterior  of  which  ends 
in  a  beard.  There  are  several  species. 

1.  S.  cereale,  common  rye,  has  glumes  with 
rough  fringes.  It  is  a  native  of  the  island  of 
Candia,  was  introduced  into  England  many  ages 
ago,  and  is  the  only  species  of  rye  cultivated  in 
this  kingdom.  There  are,  however,  two  varieties, 
the  winter  and  spring  rye.  I.  The  winter  rye, 
which  is  larger  in  the  grain  than  the  spring  rye, 
is  sown  in  autumn,  at  the  same  time  with  wheat, 
and  sometimes  mixed  with  it ;  but,  as  the  rye 
ripens  sooner  than  the  wheat,  this  method  must 
be  very  exceptionable.  II.  The  spring  rye,  sown 
along  with  the  oats,  usually  ripens  as  soon  as 
the  winter  rye ;  but  the  grain  produced  is  lighter, 
and  it  is  therefore  seldom  sown  except  where  the 
autumnal  crop  has  failed.  Rye  is  commonly 
sown  on  poor,  dry,  limestone,  or  sandy  soils, 
where  wheat  will  not  thrive.  By  continuing  to 
sow  it  on  such  a  soil  for  two  or  three  years,  it 
will  at  length  ripen  a  month  earlier  than  that 
which  has  been  raised  for  years  on  strong  cold 
ground.  Rye  is  commonly  used  for  bread,  either 
alone  or  mixed  with  wheat.  This  mixture  is 
called  meslin,  and  was  formerly  a  very  common 
crop  in  some  parts  of  Britain.  Mr.  Marshall 
tells  us,  that  the  farmers  in  Yorkshire  believe 
that  this  mixed  crop  is  never  affected  by  mildew, 
and  that  a  small  quantity  of  rye  sown  among 
wheat  will  prevent  this  destructive  disease.  Rye 
is  much  used  for  bread  in  some  parts  of  Sweden 
and  Norway.  About  a  century  ago  rye  bread 
was  also  much  used  in  England  ;  but,  being 
made  of  a  black  kind  of  rye,  it  was  of  the  same 
color,  clammy,  very  detergent,  and  consequently 
not  so  nourishing  as  wheat.  Rye  is  subject  to  a 
disease  which  the  French  call  ergot,  and  the 
English  horned  rye;  which  sometimes  happens 
when  a  very  hot  summer  succeeds  a  rainy  spring. 
According  to  Tissot,  horned  rye  is  such  as  suffers 
an  irregular  vegetation  in  the  middle  substance 
between  the  grain  and  the  leaf,  producing  an  ex- 
crescence of  a  brownish  color,  about  an  inch  and 
a  half  long,  and  two-tenths  of  an  inch  broad. 
Bread  made  of  this  kind  of  rye  has  a  nauseous 
and  acrid  taste,  and  produces  spasmodic  and 
gangrenous  disorders.  In  1596  an  epidemic 
disease  prevailed  in  Hesse,  which  the  physicians 
ascribed  to  bread  made  of  horned  rye.  Some, 
we  are  told,  were  seized  with  an  epilepsy,  and 
these  seldom  ever  recovered  ;  others  became  lu- 
natic, and  continued  stupid  the  rest  of  their  lives ; 
those  who  apparently  recovered  had  annual  re- 
turns of  their  disorder  in  January  and  February. 
The  same  disease  was  occasioned  by  the  use  of 
this  bread  in  several  parts  of  the  continent  in 
1648,  1675,  1702,  1716,  1722,  and  1736;  and 
has  been  very  minutely  described  by  Hoffman, 
A.  ().  Goelicke,  Vater  Burghart,  and  J.  A. 
Srink.  In  1709  one-fourth  part  of  all  the  rye 
raised  in  the  province  of  Salone  in  France  was 
Corned,  and  the  surgeon  to  the  hospital  of  Or- 


leans had  no  fewer  than  500  patients  under  his 
care  that  were  distempered  by  eating  .it ;  they 
consisted  chietly  of  men  and  boys,  the  number 
of  women  and  girls  being  very  small.  The  first 
symptom  was  a  kind  of  drunkenness,  then  the 
local  disorder  began  in  the  toes,  and  thence  ex- 
tended sometimes  to  the  thigh,  and  the  trunk  it- 
self, even  after  amputation.  In  1710  the  cele- 
brated Fontenelle  describes  a  case  in  the  History 
of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  France.  A  peasant 
at  Blois,  who  had  eaten  horned  rye  in  bread, 
was  seized  with  a  mortification,  which  first  caused 
all  the  toes  of  one  foot  to  fall  off,  then  the  toes 
of  the  other,  afterwards  the  remainder  of  the  feet ; 
and,  lastly,  it  ate  off  the  flesh  of  both  his  legs 
and  thighs,  leaving  the  bones  bare.  Horned  rye 
is  not  only  hurtful  to  man,  but  to  other  animals ; 
it  has  been  known  to  destroy  even  the  flies  that 
settled  upon  it ;  sheep,  dogs,  deer,  geese,  ducks, 
swine,  and  poultry,  that  were  fed  with  it  for  ex- 
periment, died  miserably,  some  convulsed,  others 
mortified  and  ulcerated. 

2.  S.  creticum,  the   Cretan  rye,    has  glumes 
fringed  on  the  outside. 

3.  S.  orientale,  the  oriental  rye,  has  shaggy 
glumes,  and  the  scales  of  the  calyx  are  shaped 
like  an  awl. 

4.  S.  villosum,  the  wood  rye  grass,  has  a  calyx 
with  wedge-shaped  scales,  and  the  fringes  of  the 
gloom  is  woolly. 

SECANT,  in  geometry,  is  a  line  that  cuts 
another,  or  divides  it  into  parts.  The  secant  of 
a  circle  is  a  line  drawn  from  the  circumference 
on  one  side  to  a  point  without  the  circumference 
on  the  other ;  and  it  is  demonstrated  by  geome- 
ters that,  of  several  secants  drawn  to  the  same 
point,  that  is  the  longest  which  passes  through 
the  centre  of  the  circle.  The  portions,  however, 
of  these  several  secants  that  are  without  the 
circle,  are  so  much  the  greater  as  they  recede 
from  the  centre,  and  the  least  external  portion  is 
of  that  secant  which  passes  through  it. 

SECEDE',  v.  n.  \     Lat.  secedo.      To  with- 
SECE'DER,  n.  s.     >draw  from  society  or  asso- 
SECES'SION.          j  elation  :  he  who  withdraws 
or  departs:  the  act  of  withdrawing. 

The  accession  of  bodies  upon,  or  secession  thereof 
from  the  earth's  surface,  perturbs  not  the  equilibra- 
tion of  either  hemisphere.  Browne. 

SECEDERS,  in  church  history,  a  numerous 
body  of  Presbyterians  in  Scotland,  who  have 
withdrawn  from  the  communion  of  the  estab- 
lished church.  As  they  take  up  their  ground 
upon  the  establishment  of  religion  from  1638  to 
1650,  which  they  hold  to  be  the  purest  period 
of  the  Scottish  church,  we  shall  introduce  our 
account  of  them  by  a  short  review  of  eccle- 
siastical history  from  that  period  to  the  era 
of  the  secession,  and  give  a  fair  statement  of 
those  events  with  which,  as  they  say,  their  se- 
cession is  connected.  James  I.  having  for  some 
time  previous  to  his  death  entertained  a  wish  to 
form  the  church  of  Scotland  as  much  as  possible 
upon  the  model  of  that  of  England,  his  son 
Charles,  with  the  assistance  of  archbishop  Laud, 
endeavoured  to  carry  the  design  into  execution, 
by  establishing  canons  for  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline, and  introducing  a  liturgy  into  the  puhlic 
service  of  the  church.  Numbers  of  the  clergy 


750 


SECEDERS 


and  laity  of  all  ranks  took  the  alarm  at  what  they 
considered  to  be  a  bold  and  dangerous  innova- 
tion; and,  after  frequent  applications  to  the 
throne,  they  at  last  obtained  the  royal  proclama- 
tion for  a  free  parliament  and  general  assembly. 
The  assembly  met  in  1638,  and  began  their 
labors  with  a  repeal  of  all  the  acts  of  the  six 
preceding  parliaments,  which  had  favored  the 
designs  of  James.  They  condemned  the  liturgy, 
together  with  every  branch  of  the  hierarchy. 
They  cited  all  the  Scottish  bishops  to  their  bar ; 
and  after  having  excommunicated  nine  of  them, 
and  deposed  five  from  their  episcopal  office,  they 
restored  kirk-sessions,  presbyteries,  and  synods, 
provincial  as  well  as  national.  These  proceed- 
ings were  ratified  by  the  parliament  which  met 
in  1640.  The  law  of  patronage  was  in  full  force 
for  several  years  after  this  period  ;  yet  great  care 
was  taken  that  no  minister  should  be  obtruded 
on  the  Christian  people  contrary  to  their  incli- 
nations ;  and  in  1649  it  was  abolished  as  an  op- 
pressive grievance.  The  restoration  of  Charles 
II.,  in  1660,  changed  the  face  of  affairs  in  the 
church  of  Scotland.  All  that  the  general  assem- 
bly had  done,  from  1638  to  1650,  was  rendered 
null  and  void,  their  covenants  were  pronounced 
to  be  unlawful,  episcopacy  was  restored,  and  the 
king  was  declared  to  be  the  supreme  head  of  the 
church  in  all  causes  civil  and  ecclesiastical. 
During  this  period  the  Presbyterians  were  sub- 
jected to  fines  and  imprisonment,  while  numbers 
of  them  were  publicly  executed  for  their  ad- 
herence to  their  political  and  religious  tenets. 
The  Revolution  in  1688  gave  a  different  turn  to 
the  affairs  of  the  church.  The  first  parliament 
which  met  after  the  event  abolished  prelacy,  and 
the  king's  supremacy  in  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
They  ratified  the  Westminster  Confessions  of 
Faith,  together  with  the  Presbyterian  form  of 
church  government  and  discipline,  '  as  agreeable 
to  the  word  of  God,  and  most  conducive  to  the 
advancement  of  true  piety  and  godliness,  and 
the  establishment  of  peace  and  tranquillity  within 
these  realms.'  The  same  parliament  abolished 
patronage,  and  lodged  the  election  of  ministers 
in  the  hands  of  heritors  and  elders,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  congregation.  In  the  reign  of  queen 
Anne  the  true  Protestant  religion  was  ratified 
and  established,  together  with  the  Presbyterian 
form  of  church  government  and  discipline;  and 
the  unalterable  continuance  of  both  was  declared 
to  be  an  essential  condition  of  the  union  of  the 
two  kingdoms  in  all  time  coming.  In  1712  the 
law  respecting  patronage  was  revived,  in  resent- 
ment, it  has  been  said,  of  that  warm  attachment 
which  the  church  of  Scotland  discovered  to  the 
family  of  Hanover ;  but  the  severity  of  that  law 
was  greatly  mitigated  by  the  first  parliament  of 
George  I.  stat.  50,  by  which  it  is  enacted  that  if 
the  presentee  do  not  signify  his  acceptance,  in 
six  months,  the  presentation  shall  become  void 
and  null  in  law.  The  church,  however,  did  not 
avail  herself  of  this  statute  ;  and  an  event  which 
happened  not  many  years  afterwards  gave  rise  to 
the  secession. 

In  1732  more  than  forty  ministers  presented 
an  address  to  the  general  assembly,  S|>ecifyingin 
a  variety  of  instances  \\  hat  they  considered  to  be 
great  defections  from  the  established  constitution 
of  the  church,  and  craving  a  redress  of  these  grie- 


vances. A  petition  to  the  same  effect,  subscribed 
by  several  hundreds  of  elders  and  private  Chris- 
tians, was  offered  at  the  same  time  ;  but  the  as- 
sembly refused  a  hearing  to  both,  and  enacted 
that  the  election  of  ministers  to  vacant  charges, 
where  an  accepted  presentation  did  not  take 
place,  should  be  competent  only  to  a  conjunc* 
meeting  of  elders  and  heritors,  being  Protes 
tants.  To  this  act  objections  were  made  by  num 
bers  of  ministers  and  private  Christians.  They 
asserted  that  more  than  thirty  to  one  in  every 
parish  were  not  possessed  of  landed  property, 
and  were  on  that  account  deprived  of  what  they 
deemed  their  natural  right  to  choose  their  own 
pastors.  It  was  also  said  that  this  act  was  ex- 
tremely prejudicial  to  the  honor  and  interest  of" 
the  church  as  well  as  to  the  edification  of  the 
people ;  and,  in  fine,  it  was  directly  contrary  to 
the  appointment  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  the  apostles,  when  they  filled  up  the  first 
vacancy  in  the  apostolic  college,  and  appointed 
the  election  of  deacons  and  elders  in  the  primi- 
tive church.  Many  of  those  also  who  were  thought 
to  be  the  best  friends  to  the  church  expressed 
their  fears  that  this  act  would  have  a  tendency 
to  overturn  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  which 
was  established  at  the  Revolution.  Mr.  Ebene- 
zer  Erskine,  minister  at  Stirling,  distinguished 
himself  by  a  bold  and  determined  opposition  to 
the  measures  of  the  assembly  in  1732.  Being  at 
that  time  moderator  of  the  synod  of  Perth  and 
Stirling,  he  opened  the  meeting  at  Perth  with  a 
sermon  from  Psalm  cxviii.  22  :  '  The  stone  which 
the  builders  rejected  is  become  the  head  stone  of 
the  corner.'  In  the  course  of  his  sermon  he  re- 
monstrated, with  no  small  degree  of  freedom, 
against  the  act  of  the  preceding  assembly  with 
regard  to  the  settlement  of  the  ministers,  and 
alleged  that  it  was  contrary  to  the  word  of  God 
and  the  established  constitution  of  the  church. 
A  formal  complaint  was  lodged  against  him,  for 
uttering  several  offensive  expressions  in  his  ser- 
mon before  the  synod.  Many  of  the  members 
declared  that  they  heard  him  utter  nothing 
but  sound  and  seasonable  doctrine  ;  but  his  ac- 
cusers, insisting  on  their  complaint,  obtained  an 
appointment  of  a  committee  of  synod  to  collect 
what  were  called  the  offensive  expressions,  and 
to  lay  them  before  the  next  diet  in  writing.  This 
was  done  accordingly ;  and  Mr.  Erskine  gave  in 
his  answer  to  every  article  of  the  complaint. 
After  three  days'  warm  reasoning  on  this  affair, 
the  synod  by  a  majority  of  six  found  him  censu- 
rable ;  against  which  sentence  he  protested,  and 
appealed  to  the  next  general  assembly.  When 
the  assembly  met,  in  May  1733,  it  affirmed  the 
sentence  of  the  synod,  and  appointed  Mr.  Ers- 
kine to  be  rebuked  and  admonished  from  the 
chair.  Upon  which  he  protested,  that,  as  the  as- 
sembly had  found  him  censurable,  and  had  re- 
buked him  for  doing  what  he  conceived  to  be 
agreeable  to  the  word  of  God  and  the  standards 
of  the  church,  he  should  be  at  liberty  to  preach 
the  same  truths,  and  to  testify  against  the  same 
or  similar  evils,  on  every  proper  occasion.  To 
this  protest  Messrs.  William  Wilson  minister  at 
Perth,  Alexander  Moncrieff  minister  at  Aberne- 
thv,  and  James  Fisher  minister  at  Kinclaven, 
g;ui>  in  a  written  adherence,  under  the  form  of 
instrument ;  and  these  four  withdrew,  intending 


SECEDERS. 


751 


1o  return  to  their  respective  charges,  and  act 
agreeably  to  their  protest  whenever  they  should 
have  an  opportunity.  Had  the  affair  rested  here, 
there  never  would  have  been  a  secession ;  but  the 
assembly,  resolving  to  carry  on  the  process, 
cited  them  by  their  officer  to  appear  next  day. 
They  obeyed  the  citation ;  and  a  committee 
•was  appointed  to  retire  with  them  to  persuade 
them  to  withdraw  their  protest.  The  committee 
having  reported  that  they  still  adhered  to  their 
protest,  the  assembly  ordered  them  to  appear 
before  the  commission  in  August  following  and 
retract  their  protest ;  and  if  they  should  not  comply, 
and  testify  their  sorrow  for  their  conduct,  the 
commission  was  empowered  to  suspend  them  from 
the  exercise  of  their  ministry,  with  certification 
that,  if  they  should  act  contrary  to  thesaid  sentence, 
the  commission  should  proceed  to  a  higher  cen- 
sure. The  commission  met  in  August  accordingly; 
and  the  four  ministers,  still  adhering  to  their 
protest,  were  suspended  from  the  exercise  of  their 
office,  and  cited  to  the  next  meeting  of  the  com- 
mission in  the  November  following.  From  this 
sentence  several  ministers  and  elders,  members  of 
the  commission,  dissented.  The  commission  met 
in  November,  and  the  suspended  ministers  com- 
peared.  Addresses,  representations,  and  letters 
from  several  synods  and  presbyteries,  relative  to 
the  business  now  before  the  commission,  were 
received  and  read.  The  synods  of  Dumfries, 
Murray,  Ross,  Angus  and  Mearns,  Perth,  and 
Stirling,  craved  that  the  commission  would  delay 
proceeding  to  a  high  censure.  The  synods  of 
Galloway  and  Fife,  as  also  the  presbytery  of 
Dornoch,  addressed  the  commission  for  lenity, 
tenderness,  and  forbearance  towards  the  sus- 
pended ministers  ;  and  the  presbytery  of  Aber- 
deen represented  that,  in  their  judgment,  the 
sentence  of  suspension  inflicted  on  the  aforesaid 
ministers  was  too  high,  and  that  it  was  a  stretch 
of  ecclesiastical  authority.  Many  members  of 
the  commission  reasoned  in  the  same  manner, 
and  alleged  that  the  act  and  sentence  of  the  last 
assembly  did  not  oblige  them  to  proceed  to  a 
higher  censure  at  this  meeting  of  the  commission. 
The  question,  however,  was  put,  Proceed  to  a 
higher  censure,  or  not?  and  the  votes,  being 
numbered,  were  found  equal  on  both  sides :  up- 
on which  Mr.  John  Goldie,  the  moderator,  gave 
his  casting  vote  to  proceed  to  a  higher  censure  ; 
which  stands  in  their  minutes  in  these  words: — 
'  The  commission  did  and  hereby  do  loose  the 
relation  of  Mr.  Ebenezer  Erskine  minister  at  Stir- 
ling, Mr.  William  Wilson  minister  at  Perth,  Mr. 
Alexander  Moncrieff  minister  at  Abernethy,  and 
Mr.  James  Fisher  minister  at  Kinclaven,  to  their 
respective  charges,  and  declare  them  no  longer 
ministers  of  this  church ;  and  do  hereby  prohibit 
all  ministers  of  this  church  to  employ  them,  or 
any  of  them,  in  any  ministerial  function.  And  the 
commission  do  declare  the  churches  of  the  said 
ministers  vacant  from  and  after  the  date  of  this 
sentence.'  This  sentence  being  intimated  to 
them,  they  protested  that  their  ministerial  office, 
and  relation  to  their  respective  charges,  should 
be  held  as  valid  as  if  no  such  sentence  had  passed; 
and  that  they  were  now  obliged  to  make  a  seces- 
sion from  the  prevailing  party  in  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  ;  and  that  it  shall  be  lawful  and  warrant- 


able for  them  to  preach  the  gospel  and  discharge 
every  branch  of  the  pastoral  office,  according  to 
the  word  of  God  and  the  established  principles  of 
the  church  of  Scotland.  Mr.  Ralph  Erskine  mi- 
nister at  Dunfermline,  Mr.  Thomas  Mairministei 
at  Orwel,  Mr.  John  M'Laren  minister  at  Edin- 
burgh, Mr.  John  Currie  minister  at  Kinglassie, 
Mr.  James  Wardlaw  minister  at  Dunfermline, 
arid  Mr.  Thomas  Nairn  minister  at  Abbotshal, 
protested  against  the  sentence  of  the  commission, 
and  that  it  should  be  lawful  for  them  to  complain 
of  it  to  any  subsequent  general  assembly  of  the 
church.  The  secession  properly  commenced  at 
this  date.  And  accordingly  the  ejected  ministers 
declared,  in  their  protest,  that  they  were  laid  un- 
der the  disagreeable  necessity  of  seceding,  not 
from  the  principles  and  constitution  of  the  church 
of  Scotland,  to  which  they  said  they  stedfastly 
adhered,  but  from  the  present  church-courts, 
which  had  thrown  them  out  from  ministerial  com- 
munion. 

The  assembly  which  met  in  May  1734  did  so 
far  modify  the  above  sentence  that  they  empow- 
ered the  synod  of  Perth  and  Stirling  to  receive 
the  ejected  ministers  into  the  communion  of  the 
church,  and  restore  them  to  their  respective 
charges;  but  with  this  express  direction, '  that  the 
said  synod  should  not  take  upon  them  to  judge 
of  the  legality  or  formality  of  the  former  proce- 
dure of  the  church  judicatories  in  relation  to  this 
affair,  or  either  approve  or  censure  the  same.'  As 
this  appointment  neither  condemned  the  act  of 
the  preceding  assembly,  nor  the  conduct  of  the 
commission,  the  seceding  ministers  considered  it 
to  be  rather  an  act  of  grace  than  of  justice,  and 
therefore  they  said  they  could  not  return  to  the 
church-courts  upon  this  ground  ;  and  they  pub- 
lished to  the  world  the  reasons  of  their  refusal, 
and  the  terms  upon  which  they  were  willing  to 
return  to  the  communion  of  the  established 
church.  They  now  erected  themselves  into  an 
ecclesiastical  court,  which  they  called  the  Asso- 
ciated Presbytery,  and  preached  occasionally  to 
numbers  of  people  who  joined  them  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  They  also  published  what 
they  called  an  Act,  Declaration,  and  Testimony, 
to  the  doctrine,  worship,  government,  and  disci- 
pline of  the  church  of  Scotland,  and  against  se- 
veral instances,  as  they  said,  of  defection  from 
these,  both  in  former  and  in  the  present  times. 
Some  time  after  this  several  ministers  of  the 
established  church  joined  them,  and  the  Associ- 
ated Presbytery  now  consisted  of  eight  ministers. 
But  the  general  assembly  which  met  in  1738, 
finding  that  the  number  of  seceders  was  much 
increased,  ordered  the  eight  ministers  to  be  serv- 
ed with  a  libel,  and  to  be  cited  to  the  next  meet- 
ing of  the  assembly  in  1739.  They  now  appear- 
ed at  the  bar  as  a  constituted  presbytery,  and, 
having  formally  declined  the  assembly's  authority, 
they  immediately  withdrew.  The  assembly  which 
met  next  year  deposed  them  from  the  office  of  the 
ministry,  which,  however,  they  continued  to  ex- 
ercise in  their  respective  congregations,  who  still 
adhered  to  them,  and  erected  meeting-houses, 
where  they  preached  till  their  death.  Mr.  James 
Fisher,  the  last  survivor  of  them,  \vas  by  a  unan- 
imous call,  in  1741,  translated  from  Kinclaven 
to  Glasgow,  where  he  continued  in  the  exercise 


752 


S  E  C  K  E  R. 


of  his  ministry  among  a  numerous  congregation, 
respected  by  all  ranks  in  that  large  city,  and 
died  in  1775,  much  regretted  by  his  people  and 
friends.  In  1745  the  seceding  ministers  were 
become  so  numerous  that  they  were  erected  into 
three  different  presbyteries,  under  one  synod, 
•when  a  very  unprofitable  dispute  divided  them 
into  two  parties.  The  burgess  oath,  in  some  of 
the  royal  burghs  of  Scotland,  contains  the  follow- 
ing clause  : — '  I  profess  and  allow  with  my  heart 
the  true  religion  presently  professed  within  this 
realm,  and  authorised  by  the  laws  thereof.  I 
will  abide  at  and  defend  the  same  to  my  life's 
end,  renouncing  the  Romish  religion  called  Pa- 
pistry.' Messrs.  Ebenezer  and  Ralph  Erskine, 
James  Fisher,  and  others  airirmed  that  this  clause 
was  no  way  contrary  to  the  principles  upon 
which  the  secession  was  formed,  and  that  there- 
fore every  seceder  might  lawfully  swear  it. 
Messrs.  Alexander  Moncrieff,  Thomas  Mai r, Adam 
Gib,  and  others,  contended,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  the  swearing  of  the  above  clause  was  a  vir- 
tual renunciation  of  their  testimony.  And  this 
controversy  was  so  keenly  agitated  that  they  split 
into  two  different  parties,  and  long  met  in  different 
synods. 

Those  of  them  who  asserted  the  lawfulness  of 
swearing  the  burgess  oath  were  called  burghers, 
and  the  other  party  who  condemned  it  anti- 
burgher  seceders,  each  party  claiming  to  itself 
the  lawful  constitution  of  the  associate  synod. 
The  antiburghers,  after  several  previous  steps,  ex- 
communicated the  burghers  on  the  ground  of 
their  sin,  and  of  their  contumacy  in  it.  This 
rupture  took  place  in  1747,  since  which  period 
no  successful  attempts  to  effect  a  re-union  were 
made  until  recently.  The  parties  remained 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  different  synods,  and 
held  separate  communion ;  at  length  their  for- 
mer hostility  was  laid  aside,  and  they  finally 
became  one  body.  See  BURGHERS. 

SECERN',  v.  a.  Lat.  secerno.  To  separate 
finer  from  grosser  matter ;  to  make  the  separation 
of  substances  in  the  body. 

Birds  are  better  meat  than  beasts,  because  their 
flesh  doth  assimilate  more  finely,  and  secerneth  more 
subtilly.  Bacon. 

The  pituite  or  mucus  secerned  in  the  nose  and 
windpipe,  is  not  an  excrementitious  but  a  laudable 
humour,  necessary  for  defending  those  parts,  from 
which  it  is  secerned,  from  excoriations.  Arbuthnut. 

SECHIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  synge- 
nesia  order,  and  moncecia  class  of  plants ;  na- 
tural order  thirty-fourth,  cucurbitaceae :  MALE 
CAL.  quinquedentate  and  monophyllous :  COR. 
monopetalous ;  the  five  filaments  are  united  in 
an  erect  tube.  In  the  female  flower  the  pistil- 
lum  is  cylindrical  and  erect;  the  stigma  large, 
peltated,  and  reflected ;  the  pericarpium  large, 
oval,  unequal,  fleshy,  and  unilocular,  containing 
one  seed,  which  is  smooth,  compressed,  and 
fleshy.  Of  this  there  is  only  one  species,  viz. 
S.  edule,  or  Chocho  vine.  This  is  cultivated  and 
grows  very  luxuriantly  in  many  places  in  Ja- 
maica. The  vines  run  and  spread  very  much. 
The  fruit  is  boiled,  and  served  up  at  table  by  way 
of  greens ;  and  the  root  of  the  old  vine  is  some- 
what like  a  yam  (dioscorea),  and,  on  being  boiled 
roasted,  tastes  farinaceous  and  wholesome. 


SECKENDOIIF  (Guy  Lewis  de),  a  very- 
learned  German,  descended  from  an  ancient  and 
noble  family,  was  born  at  Aurach  in  Franconia 
in  162G.  He  was  a  good  linguist ;  learned  in  law, 
history,  and  divinity ;  and  is  said  to  have  been 
a  tolerable  painter  and  engraver.  He  was  ho- 
norably employed  by  several  German  princes ; 
and  died  counsellor  of  state  to  Frederick  III.  elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg,  and  chancellor  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Halle,  in  1692.  He  wrote  A  History 
and  Defence  of  Lutheranism,  2  vols.,  fol.,  Frank- 
fort, 1702,  in  Latin,  &c.  &c. 

SECKER  (Thomas),  a  learned  prelate  of  the 
church  of  England,  born  in  1693,  at  Sibthorp, 
in  Nottinghamshire.  His  father  was  a  protestant 
dissenter,  who,  having  a  small  paternal  fortune, 
followed  no  profession.  His  mother  was  the 
daughter  of  Mr.  George  Brough,  a  substantial 
gentleman  farmer  of  Shelton  in  the  same  county. 
He  received  his  education  at  several  private 
schools  and  academies  in  the  country.  Notwith- 
standing the  disadvantage  of  changing  his  teach- 
ers, he  had,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  not  only  made 
a  considerable  progress  in  Greek  and  Latin,  but 
in  French,  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Syriac ;  logic, 
algebra,  geometry,  and  conic  sections,  and  gone 
through  a  course  of  lectures  on  Jewish  antiqui- 
ties, lie  had  been  destined  by  his  father  for 
taking  -orders  among  the  dissenters.  With  this 
view  his  studies  were  chiefly  turned  towards 
divinity,  in  which  he  had  made  such  quick  ad- 
vances that,  by  the  time  he  was  twenty-three,  he 
had  carefully  read  over  a  great  part  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, particularly  the  New  Testament,  in  the 
original,  and  the  best  comments  upon  it;  Euse- 
bius's  Ecclesiastical  History ;  The  Apostolical 
Fathers;  Whiston's  Primitive  Christianity;  and 
the  principal  writers  for  and  against  Ministerial 
and  Lay  Conformity.  But,  though  the  result  of 
these  enquiries  was  a  well-grounded  belief  of  the 
Christian  revelation,  yet,  not  being  then  able  to 
determine  what  communion  he  should  embrace, 
he  resolved  to  pursue  some  profession,  which 
should  leave  him  at  liberty  to  weigh  the  various 
disputed  points  more  maturely  before  he  should 
decide  upon  them.  In  1716,  therefore,  he  studied 
physic,  and,  after  gaining  all  the  medical  know- 
ledge he  could  by  reading  and  attending  the  best 
lectures  in  London,  to  improve  himself  farther, 
in  January  1718-9,  he  went  to  Paris.  There 
he  lodged  in  the  same  house  with  the  famous 
anatomist  Winslow,  whose  lectures  he  attended, 
as  he  did  those  on  the  materiamedica,  chemistry, 
and  botany,  at  the  king's  gardens.  The  opera- 
tions of  surgery  he  saw  at  the  Hotel  Dieu,  and 
attended  also  for  some  time  M.  Gregoire,  the  ac- 
coucheur, but  without  any  design  of  practising  sur- 
gery. Here  he  became  acquainted  with  Mr.  Mar- 
tin Benson,  soon  afterwards  bishop  of  Gloucester, 
one  of  the  most  virtuous  men  of  his  time.  During 
his  continuance  at  Paris  he  also  kept  up  a  cor- 
respondence with  Mr.  Joseph  Butler,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Durham.  Mr.  Butler,  having  been 
appointed  preacher  at  the  rolls  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  Dr.  Clarke  and  Mr.  Edward 
Talbot,  son  to  bishop  Talbot,  he  mentioned  his 
friend  Mr.  Seeker,  without  his  knowledge,  to 
Mr.  Talbot,  who  promised,  if  he  chose  to  take 
orders  in  the  church  of  England,  to  engage  the 


S  E  C  K  E  R. 


7:33 


bishop  his  father  to  provide  for  him.  This  was 
communicated  to  Mr.  Seeker  in  a  letter  from 
Mr.  Butler,  in  May  1720.  Having  continued 
his  studies  in  theology,  his  former  difficulties  with 
regard  to  conformity  had  gradually  lessened  as 
his  reading  and  knowledge  became  more  exten- 
sive. After  deliberating  on  Mr.  Butler's  proposal 
of  such  a  change  for  two  months,  he  resolved  to 
embrace  the  offer,  and  left  France  in  August 
1720.  On  his  arrival  in  England  he  was  intro- 
duced to  Mr.  Talbot,  but  in  December  that  gen- 
tleman died  of  the  small-pox.  This  was  a  great 
shock  to  all  his  friends,  but  especially  to  an 
amiable  lady  whom  he  had  lately  married,  and 
who  was  very  near  sinking  under  so  sudden 
and  grievous  a  stroke.  It  was  some  encourage- 
ment, however,  to  Mr.  Seeker  to  find  that  Mr. 
Talbot  had,  on  his  death-bed,  recommended 
him,  with  Mr.  Benson  and  Mr.  Butler,  to  his 
father's  notice.  Thus  did  that  excellent  young 
man  (for  he  was  but  twenty-nine  when  he  died) 
raise  up,  when  he  least  thought  of  it,  the  truest 
friend  and  protector  to  his  wife  and  unborn 
daughter  ;  who  afterwards  found  in  Mr.  Seeker 
all  that  tender  care  and  assistance  which  they 
could  have  hoped  for  from  the  nearest  relation. 
Mr.  Seeker  next  went  over  to  Leydeu,  and  took 
his  degree  of  M.  D.  in  March  1721  :  and  as 
part  of  his  exercise  for  it  he  composed  and 
printed  a  dissertation,  De  Medicina  Statica,  which 
is  still  extant,  and  is  esteemed  a  sensible  and 
learned  performance.  In  April  1721  he  entered 
commoner  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford ;  after 
which  he  obtained  the  degree  of  A.  B.  He  now 
spent  a  considerable  part  of  his  time  in  London, 
where  he  gained  the  esteem  of  some  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  those  days,  particularly  of  Dr. 
Clarke,  rector  of  St.  James's,  and  the  celebrated 
dean  Berkeley,  afterwards  bishop  of  Cloyne.  He 
paid  frequent  visits  of  gratitude  to  Mrs.  Talbot, 
widow  of  Mr.  Edward  Talbot,  by  whom  she  had 
a  daughter  five  months  after  his  decease.  With 
her  lived  Mrs.  Catharine  Benson,  sister  to  bishop 
Benson,  whom  in  several  respects  she  resembled. 
She  had  been  for  many  years  Mrs.  Talbot's  inse- 
parable companion,  and  was  of  unspeakable 
service  to  her  at  the  time  of  her  husband's  death. 
Bishop  Talbot,  being  in  1721  appointed  to  the 
see  of  Durham,  Mr.  Seeker  was,  in  1722,  or- 
dained deacon  by  him,  and  priest  not  long  after, 
in  St.  James's  church,  where  he  preached  his  first 
sermon,  March  28th,  1723.  The  bishop's  do- 
mestic chaplain  at  that  time  was  Dr.  Rundle,  a 
man  of  warm  fancy  and  very  brilliant  conversa- 
tion. With  him  Mr.  Seeker  was  associated  in 
the  bishop's  family,  and  both  taken  down  by  his 
lordship  to  Durham  in  July  1723.  In  1724  the 
bishop  gave  Mr.  Seeker  the  rectory  of  Houghton 
le  Spring.  This  enabling  him  to  fix  himself  in  the 
world,  he  proposed  marriage  to  Mrs.  Benson ; 
which  being  accepted,  they  were  married  by 
bishop  Talbot  in  1725.  At  the  earnest  request 
of  both,  Mrs.  Talbot  and  her  daughter  consented 
to  live  with  them,  and  the  two  families  from  that 
time  became  one.  About  this  time  bishop  Talbot 
also  gave  preferments  to  Mr.  Butler  and  Mr.  Ben- 
son, whose  rise  and  progress  in  the  church  is  here 
itjterwoven  with  the  history  of  Mr.  Seeker.  In  the 
-••ijiter  of  1 725-6  Mr.  Butler  first  published  his  in- 
VOL.  XIX. 


comparable  sermons;  on  which  Mr.  Seeker  took 
pains  to  render  the  style  more  familiar,  and  the 
meaning  more  obvious.  Mr.  Seeker  gave  his 
friend  the  same  assistance  in  that  noble  work  the 
Analogy  of  Religion,  &c.  He  now  devoted  all 
the  time  he  possibly  could  to  his  residence  at 
Houghton,  fulfilling  all  the  duties  of  a  country 
clergyman  with  the  strictest  propriety.  He 
brought  down  his  sermons  to  the  level  of  the  un- 
derstandings of  his  people ;  he  visited  them  in 
private,  catechised  the  young  and  ignorant,  re- 
ceived his  neighbours  and  tenants  kindly  and 
hospitably,  and  was  of  great  service  to  the  poorer 
sort  by  his  skill  in  physic.  Though  this  place 
was  in  a  very  remote  part  of  the  world,  yet  the 
solitude  of  it  perfectly  suited  his  studious  dispo- 
sition, and  the  income  satisfied  his  ambition. 
Here  he  would  have  been  content  to  live  and  die; 
but  Mrs.  Seeker's  health,  which  was  injured  by 
the  dampness  of  the  situation,  obliged  him  to 
think  of  exchanging  it  for  a  more  healthy  one. 
Accordingly  an  exchange  was  made,  through  the 
interposition  of  Mr.  Benson,  with  Drv  Finney, 
prebendary  of  Durham,  and  rector  of  Ilyton  ;  and 
Mr.  Seeker  was  instituted  to  Ryton  and  the  pre- 
bend June  3d,  1727.  In  July  1732  he  was  ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  the  king  ;  for  which  favor  he 
was  indebted  to  Dr.  Sherlock,  who,  having  heard 
him  preach  at  Bath,  had  conceived  the  highest 
opinion  of  his  abilities.  From  that  time  an  inti- 
macy commenced  between  them.  On  Sunday 
the  27th  of  August  he  preached  before  the  queen, 
the  king  being  then  abroad.  A  few  days  after 
her  majesty  sent  for  him  into  her  closet,  and  held 
a  long  conversation  with  him  ;  in  the  course  of 
which  he  mentioned  to  her  his  friend  Mr.  Butler; 
which  occasioned  his  rise  to  those  high  dignities 
which  he  afterwards  attained.  See  BUTLER.  Mr. 
Seeker  now  began  to  have  a  public  character, 
and  was  esteemed  an  eminent  preacher.  He  was 
accordingly  instituted  rector  of  St.  James's  on 
the  18th  May,  1733  ;  and  in  July  went  to  Oxford 
to  take  his  degree  of  LL.  D.  On  this  occasion 
he  preached  his  celebrated  Act  Sermon,  on  the 
advantages  and  duties  of  an  academical  educa- 
tion, which  was  universally  allowed  to  be  a 
masterpiece.  It  was  printed  at  the  desire  of  the 
heads  of  houses,  and  quickly  passed  through 
several  editions.  It  is  in  the  second  collection  of 
Occasional  Sermons,  published  by  himself  in 
1766.  The  reputation  he  acquired  by  this  ser- 
mon contributed  towards  his  farther  promotion. 
In  December  1734  the  king  fixed  on  him  to  be 
bishop  of  Bristol.  Dr.  Benson  was  at  the  same 
time  appointed  to  the  see  of  Gloucester,  and  Dr. 
Fleming  to  that  of  Carlisle ;  and  the  three  new 
bishops  were  all  consecrated  together  in  Lambeth 
Chapel,  January  19th  1734-5,  the  consecration- 
sermon  being  preached  by  Dr.  Thomas,  after- 
wards bishop  of  Winchester.  The  honors  to 
which  Dr.  Seeker  was  thus  raised  in  the  prime 
of  life  did  not  abate  his  diligence,  for  which,  in- 
deed, there  was  now  more  occasion  than  ever. 
The  affairs  of  his  parish  of  St.  James's  being  like- 
wise in  great  disorder,  he  regulated  and  adjusted 
every  thing,  particularly  the  management  of  the 
poor ;  and  thus  became  of  signal  service  to  his 
parishioners,  even  in  a  temporal  view ;  though 
their  spiritual  welfare  eagaged  his  chief  attention, 


754 


S  E  C  K  E  R. 


He  allowed  out  of  his  own  income  a  salary  for 
reading  early  and  late  prayers.  He  held  a  con- 
firmation once  a  year  ;  examined  the  candidates 
several  weeks  before  in  the  vestry ;  and  gave 
them  religious  tracts,  which  he  also  distributed 
very  liberally  to  all  that  needed  them.  He  drew 
up,  for  the  use  of  his  parishioners,  that  admirable 
course  of  Lectures  on  the  Church  Catechism 
which  has  been  since  published,  and  read  them 
once  a  week,  and  every  Sunday  evening,  either 
at  the  church  or  one  of  the  chapels.  The  ser- 
mons which  he  composed  were  truly  excellent 
and  original.  He  reproved  the  follies  and  vices 
of  all  ranks  without  distinction  or  palliation. 
Few  ever  possessed,  in  a  higher  degree,  the  rare 
talent  of  touching  on  the  most  delicate  subjects 
with  the  nicest  propriety,  of  saying  the  most 
familiar  things  without  being  low,  the  plainest 
without  being  feeble,  the  boldest  without  giving 
offence.  His  preaching  was,  at  the  same  time, 
highly  rational  and  truly  evangelical.  He  ex- 
plained, with  perspicuity  and  dignity,  the  pecu- 
liar characteristic  doctrines  of  the  gospel.  He 
inculcated  the  utility,  the  necessity  of  them,  not 
merely  as  speculative  truths,  but  as  actual  instru- 
ments of  moral  goodness,  tending  to  purify  the 
hearts  and  regulate  the  lives  of  men ;  and  thus, 
by  God's  gracious  appointment,  as  well  as  by 
the  inseparable  connexion  between  true  faith  and 
right  practice,  leading  them  to  salvation.  By  such 
doctrines,  and  with  such  powers,  he  quickly  be- 
came one  of  the  most  popular  preachers  of  his 
time.  In  1737  he  succeeded  to  the  see  of  Ox- 
ford, on  the  promotion  of  Dr.  Potter  to  that  of 
Canterbury.  In  spring  1748  Mrs.  Seeker  died 
of  the  gout  in  her  stomach.  She  was  a  woman 
of  great  sense  and  merit.  The  bishop's  affection 
for  her  was  suited  to  his  character.  In  1750  he 
was  installed  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  for  which  he 
gave  in  exchange  the  rectory  of  St.  James's  and 
his  prebend  of  Durham.  When  he  preached  his 
farewell  sermon  the  whole  audience  melted  into 
tears ;  and  he  was  followed  with  their  prayers 
and  good  wishes.  Having  now  leisure  both  to 
prosecute  his  own  studies,  and  to  encourage  those 
of  others,  he  gave  Dr.  Church  considerable  as- 
sistance in  his  First  and  Second  Vindication  of 
the  Miraculous  powers,  &c.,  against  Dr.  Middle- 
ton,  and  he  was  of  equal  use  to  him  in  his  Ana- 
lysis of  Lord  Bolingbroke's  Works.  About  the 
same  time  began  archdeacon  Sharp's  controversy 
with  the  followers  of  Mr.  Hutcheson,  which  was 
carried  on  to  the  end  of  1755.  Bishop  Seeker 
read  over  all  Dr.  S-harp's  papers,  amounting  to  3 
vols.  8vo.,  and  improved  them  throughout.  But 
the  ease  which  his  change  of  situation  gave  him  was 
disturbed  by  a  heavy  and  unexpected  stroke,  viz. 
the  loss  of  his  three  friends,  bishops  Butler,  Ben- 
son, and  Berkely,  who  were  all  cut  off  within  one 
year.  Dr.  Seeker  bore  an  active  part  in  the  house 
of  lords  in  the  famous  repeal  of  the  Jew  Bill ; 
for  which  the  duke  of  Newcastle  moved,  and 
was  seconded  by  the  bishop,  in  a  speech  which 
was  remarkably  well  received.  On  the  death  of 
archbishop  Hutton,  he  was  promoted  to  the  see 
of  Canterbury,  and  was  confirmed  at  Bow  church, 
April  21st,  1758;  on  which  occasion  his  biogra- 
phers, Messrs.  Porteus  and  Stinton,  observe, 
that,  '  iu  accepting  this  high  and  burdensome 


station,  Dr.  Seeker  sacrificed  his  own  ease  and 
comfort  to  considerations  of  public  utility  ;  that 
the   mere  secular  advantages  of  granaeur  were 
objects  below  his  ambition  ;  and  were  but  poor 
compensations   for  the  anxiety  and  difficulties 
attending  them.     He   had  never  once  through 
his  whole  life  asked  preferment  for  himself," and 
the  use  he  made  of  his  newly  acquired   dignity 
showed  that  rank,  wealth,  and  power,  had  no 
other  charms  for  him,  than  as  they  enlarged  the 
sphere  of  his  active  and  industrious  benevolence.' 
He  sought  out  and   encouraged  men   of  real 
genius  and  extensive  knowledge ;  he  expended 
£300  in  arranging  and  improving  the   MS.  li- 
brary at  Lambeth ;  and,  observing  that  the' library 
of  printed  books  in  that  palace  had  received  no 
additions  since  the  time  of  archbishop  Tennison, 
he  collected  books  in  all  languages  from  most 
parts  of  Europe,  at   a   very  great  expense,  to 
supply  that  chasm ;  which  he  did,  by   leaving 
these  to  the  library  at  his  death,  and    thereby 
rendered  that  collection  one  of  the  most  useful 
in  the  kingdom.     All  institutions  which  tended 
to  advance  good  morals  and   true  religion,  he 
patronised    with   zeal   and  generosity:  he  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  maintenance  of  schools 
for  the  poor;  to  rebuilding   or   repairing   par- 
sonage houses  and  places  of  worship  ;  and  gave 
£600  towards  erecting  a  chapel  in  the  parish  of 
Lambeth.     To  the  society  for  promoting  Chris- 
tian knowledge  he  was  a  liberal  benefactor ;  and 
to    that  for  propagating   the  gospel  in  foreign 
parts,  of  which  he  was  the  president,  he  paid 
much  attention  ;  was  constant  at  all  the  meetings 
of  its  members,  and  superintended  their  delibe- 
rations.   Whenever  any  publications  came  to  his 
knowledge  that  were  calculated  to  corrupt  good 
morals,  or  to  ridicule  Christianity,  he  did  his  ut- 
most to  stop  the  circulation  of  them ;  yet  th 
wretched  authors  he  was  so  far  from  wishing  to 
treat  with  rigor,  that  he  often  extended  his  bounty 
to  them  in  distress.     And  when  their  writings 
could   not  properly  be  suppressed  (as  was  too 
often  the  case)  by  lawful  authority,  he  engaged 
men  of  abilities  to  answer  them,  and  rewarded 
them  for  their  trouble.     Even  the  falsehoods  and 
misrepresentations  of  writers  in  the  newspapers, 
on  religious  or  ecclesiastical  subjects,  he  took 
care  to  have  contradicted;  and  when  they  seemed 
likely  to  injure  the  cause  of  virtue  and  religion, 
or  the  reputation  of  eminent  and  worthy  men, 
he  would  sometimes  take  the  trouble  of  answer- 
ing them   himself.     One  instance  of  this  kind 
was  his  defence  of  bishop  Butler,  who,  in  a  pam- 
phlet published  in  1767,  was  accused  of  having 
died  a  Papist.     The  conduct  which  he  observed 
towards  the  several  sects   of  Christians  in  this 
kingdom  was  such  as  showed  his  way  of  think- 
ing  to  be  truly  liberal.     The  dangerous  spirit 
of  popery,   indeed,  he  tliought  should   always 
be  kept  under   proper  legal   restraints,  on  ac- 
count of  its  natural  opposition,  not  only  to  the 
religious,  but.  the  civil  rights  of  mankind.     He 
therefore  observed  its  movements  with  care,  and 
exhorted  his  clergy  to  do  the  same,  especially 
those  who  were  situated  in  the  midst  of  Roman 
Catholic  families ;  against  whose  influence  they 
were  charged  to  be   upon  their  guard,  and  were 
furnished   with   proper  books  for  that  purpose. 


S  E  C  K  E  K. 


75; 


He  took  all  fit  opportunities  of  combating  the 
errors  of  the  church  of  Rome  in  his  own  writings ; 
and  the  best  answers  that  were  published  to 
some  of  the  late  bold  apologies  for  popery  were 
written  at  his  instance,  and  under  his  direction. 
See  his  Sermons  on  the  Rebellion  in  1745;  on 
the  Protestant  working  schools  in  Ireland  ;  on 
the  5th  of  November ;  and  many  occasional  pas- 
sages in  his  other  works.  With  the  Dissenters 
he  was  desirous  of  cultivating  a  good  under- 
standing. He  considered  them,  in  general,  as  a 
conscientious  and  valuable  class  of  men.  With 
some  of  the  most  eminent  of  them,  Watts,  Dod- 
dridge,  Leland,  Chandler,  and  Lardner,  he 
maintained  an  intercourse  of  friendship.  By  the 
most  candid  part  of  them  he  was  highly  esteem- 
ed ;  and  to  such  among  them  as  needed  help 
he  showed  no  less  kindness  and  liberality  than 
to  those  of  his  own  communion.  Nor  was  his 
concern  for  the  Protestant  cause  confined  to  his 
own  country.  He  was  the  great  patron  and 
piotector  of  it  in  various  parts  of  Europe ;  whence 
he  had  frequent  applications  for  assistance,  which 
never  failed  of  being  favorably  received.  To 
several  foreign  Protestants  he  allowed  pensions, 
tr  others  he  gave  occasional  relief,  and  to  some 
of  their  universities  was  an  annual  benefactor. 
In  public  affairs,  he  acted  the  part  of  an  honest 
citizen,  and  a  worthy  member  of  the  British 
legislature.  From  his  first  entrance  into  the 
house  of  peers,  his  parliamentary  conduct  was 
uniformly  upright  and  noble.  He  kept  equally 
clear  from  the  extremes  of  factious  petulance 
and  servile  dependence  ;  never  wantonly  thwart- 
ing administration  from  motives  of  party  zeal, 
private  pique,  personal  attachment,  or  a  passion 
for  popularity  ;  nor  yet  going  every  length  with 
every  minister  from  views  of  interest  or  ambi- 
tion. He  admired  and  loved  the  constitution  of 
his  country,  and  wished  to  preserve  it  unimpair- 
ed. When  the  measures  of  government  were 
inconsistent  with  the  public  welfare,  he  opposed 
them  with  freedom  and  firmness.  Yet  his  oppo- 
sition was  always  tempered  with  the  utmost 
fidelity,  respect,  and  decency,  to  the  excellent 
prince  upon  the  throne ;  and  the  most  candid 
allowances  for  the  unavoidable  errors  even  of  the 
very  best  ministers,  who  govern  a  free  and  high 
spirited  people.  He  seldom  spoke  in  parliament, 
except  where  the  interests  of  religion  and  virtue 
seemed  to  require  it ;  but,  when  he  did,  he  spoke 
with  propriety  and  strength,  and  was  heard  with 
attention  and  deference.  His  chief  political 
connexions  were  with  the  late  duke  of  Newcastle 
and  lord  chancellor  Hardwicke,  to  whom  he 
principally  owed  his  advancement ;  and  he  lived 
long  enough  to  show  his  gratitude.  During 
more  than  ten  years  that  Dr.  Seeker  enjoyed  the 
see  of  Canterbury,  he  resided  constantly  at  his 
archiepiscopal  house  at  Lambeth.  He  had  been 
for  many  years  subject  to  the  gout,  which,  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life,  returned  with  more  fre- 
quency and  violence,  and  did  not  go  off  in  a 
regular  manner,  but  left  the  parts  very  weak, 
and  was  succeeded  by  pains  in  different  parts  of 
the  body.  On  Saturday  July  30th,  1768,  he  was 
seized,  as  he  sat  at  dinner,  with  a  sickness  at  his 
stomach.  He  recovered  before  night ;  but  the 
next  evening,  while  his  servants  were  raising  him 


on  his  coucli,  he  suddenly  cried  out  that  his 
thigh-bone  was  broken.  When  the  surgeons 
arrived,  and  discovered  that  the  bone  was  broken, 
he  was  perfectly  resigned.  A  fever  soon  ensued. 
On  Tuesday  he  became  lethargic,  and  continued 
so  tiU'Wednesday  about  5  P.  M.,  when  he  ex- 
pired with  great  calmness,  in  the  seventy-fifth 
year  of  his  age.  On  examination,  the  thigh-bone 
was  found  to  be  carious  about  four  inches  in 
length,  and  at  nearly  the  same  distance  from  its 
head.  The  disease  took  its  rise  from  the  internal 
part  of  the  bone,  and  had  so  entirely  destroyed 
its  substance,  that  nothing  remained  at  the  part 
where  it  was  broken  but  a  portion  of  its  outwan1 
integument;  and  even  this  had  many  perfora- 
tions, one  of  which  was  large  enough  to  admit 
two  fingers,  and  was  filled  with  a  fungous  sub- 
stance arising  from  within  the  bone.  There  was 
no  appearance  of  matter  about  the  caries,  and  the 
surrounding  parts  were  in  a  sound  state.  It 
was  apparent  that  the  torture  which  he  under- 
went during  the  gradual  corrosion  of  this  bone 
must  have  been  inexpressibly  great.  Except 
some  very  slight  defects  of  memory,  he  retained 
all  his  faculties  and  senses.  He  was  buried  in  a 
covered  passage,  between  the  palace  and  the 
church ;  and  he  forbade  any  monument  or  epi- 
taph to  be  placed  over  him.  By  his  will  he 
appointed  the  Rev.  Dr.  Daniel  Burton,  canon  of 
Christ  church,  and  Mrs.  Catherine  Talbot,  his 
executors ;  and  left  £13,000  in  trust  to  Drs.  Por- 
teus  and  Stinton,  his  chaplains ;  to  pay  the 
interest  thereof  to  Mrs.  Talbot  and  her  daughter 
during  their  lives,  or  the  life  of  the  survivor ; 
and  after  their  decease  £11,000  of  the  said 
£13,000  to  be  transferred  to  charitable  pur- 
poses ;  amongst  which  were  £1000  to  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  and  £1000  to 
the  same  society  for  a  bishop  or  bishops  in  the 
king's  dominions  in  America.  He  was  ta'l  and 
comely ;  in  the  early  part  of  his  life  slender ; 
but  as  he  advanced  in  years  his  constitution 
gained  strength,  and  his  size  increased,  yet 
never  to  a  degree  of  corpulency.  The  dignity 
of  his  form  corresponded  with  the  greatness  of 
his  mind,  and  inspired  at  all  times  respect  and 
awe  ;  but  peculiarly  so  when  he  was  engaged  in 
any  of  the  more  solemn  functions  of  religion, 
which  added  new  life  and  spirit  to  the  natural 
gracefulness  of  his  appearance.  His  countenance 
was  open,  ingenuous,  and  expressive.  It  varied 
easily  with  his  feelings,  so  as  to  be  a  faithful 
interpreter  of  his  mind,  which  was  incapable  of 
dissimulation.  It  could  speak  dejection,  and, 
on  occasion,  anger,  very  strongly ;  but,  when  it 
meant  to  show  approbation,  it  softened  into  a 
most  gracious  smile,  and  diffused  over  all  his 
features  the  most  benevolent  and  reviving  com- 
placency. 

SEC'LE,  n.  x.  Fr.  siecle ;  Lat.  sectdum.  A 
century. 

Of  a  man's  age,  part  he  lives  in  his  father's  life- 
time, and  part  after  his  son's  birth  ;  and  thereupon 
it  is  wont  to  be  said  that  three  generations  make  one 
secle,  or  hundred  years,  in  the  genealogies. 

Hammond'*  Practical  Catechism. 

SECLUDE',  v.  a.  Lat.  secludo.  To  confine 
from  ;  shut  up  apart ;  exclude. 

3  C2 


SEC 


756 


SEC 


None  is  secluded  from  that  function,  of  any  de- 
gree, state,  or  calling.  Whitgiflt. 

Some  parts  of  knowledge  God  has  thought  fit  to 
seclude  from  us  ;  to  fence  them  not  only,  as  he  did  the 
interdicted  tree,  by  combination,  but  with  difficulties 
and  impossibilities.  Decay  of  Piety. 

The  number  of  birds  described  may  be  near  five 
hundred,  and  of  fishes,  secluding  shell-fish,  as  many  ; 
but,  if  the  shell-fish  be  taken  in,  more  than  six  times 
the  number.  Roy. 

Let  eastern  tyrants  from  the  light  of  heaven 
Seclude  their  bosom  slaves.  Thomson. 

Inclose  your  tender  plants  in  your  conservatory, 
secluding  all  entrance  of  cold.  Evelyn's  Kalendar. 

SECOMI/E,  in  the  old  system  of  mineralogy, 
a  genus  of  fossils  of  the  class  of  septariae.  The 
characters  are,  That  they  are  bodies  of  dusky 
hue  ;  divided  by  septa,  or  partitions  of  a  sparry 
matter,  into  several  more  or  less  regular  por- 
tions; of  a  moderately  firm  texture;  not  giving 
fire  with  steel ;  but  fermenting  with  acid  men- 
strua, and  easily  calcining.  The  septarise  of  this 
genus  are  of  all  others  the  most  common,  and 
are  what  have  been  known  by  the  mistaken 
names  of  the  waxen  vein,  or  ludus  Ilelmontii. 
Of  the  whitish  or  brownish,  we  have  thirteen  ; 
of  the  yellowish  five;  and  of  the  ferruginous 
ones  four. 

SEC'OND,  adj.,n.s.&v.a.~\     Fr.  second;  Lat. 

SEC'OND-HAND,  adj.  j  secundus.      It   is 

SEC'OND-SIGHT,  n.  s.  '.observable     that 

SEC'ONDARY,  adj.  &  n.s.      j  we  have  no  ordi- 

SEC'ONDARILY,  adv.  \  nal  of  two,  says 

SEC'ONDRATE.  J  Dr.  Johnson,  as 

the  Latins,  and  the  nations  deriving  from  them, 
have  none  of  duo.  What  the  Latins  call  secundus, 
from  sequor,  the  Saxons  term  ofcen,  or  zeptena. 
The  next  in  order  to  the  first;  the  ordinal  of  two: 
second-hand  and  second-rate  mean  in  the  next 
place  of  order  or  value :  a  second  is  the  supporter 
of  the  principal  in  a  duel ;  any  supporter :  a 
second,  or  second  minute  of  time,  the  second  di- 
vision of  an  hour  by  sixty  :  to  second  is,  to  fol- 
low next  in  place;  maintain;  support:  a  se- 
condary is  a  deputy  or  delegate ;  and  the  other 
derivatives  correspond. 

First,  «he  hath  disobeyed  the  law ;  and,  tecondly, 
trespassed  against  her  husband.  F.cclus.  xxiii.  23. 

The  authors  of  the  former  opinion  were  presently 
seconded  by  other  wittier  and  better  learned,  who 
being  loth  that  the  form  of  church  polity,  which  they 
sought  to  bring  in,  should  be  otherwise  than  in  the 
highest  degree  accounted  of,  took  first  an  exception 
against  the  difference  between  church  polity  and 
matters  of  necessity  to  salvation.  Hooker. 

Though  we  here  fall  down, 

We  have  supplies  to  tecond  our  attempt ; 

If  they  miscarry,  theirs  shall  second  them. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  VI. 

Having  formerly  discoursed  of  a  maritimal  voyage, 
I  think  it  not  impertinent  to  tecond  the  same  with 
iome  necessary  relations  concerning  the  royal  navy. 

Raleigh. 

I  shall  not  speak  superlatively  of  them,  lest  1  be 
suspected  of  partiality;  but  this  I  may  truly  say, 
•they  are  second  to  none  in  the  Christian  world. 

Bacon's  Advice  to  Villien. 

Two  are  the  radical  differences  :  the  secondary  dif- 
ferences are  as  four.  Bacon't  Natural  Histori/. 

•First,  metals  are  more  durable  than  plants ;  and, 
tecnndly.  they  are  more  solid  and  hard.  Bacon.  _. 


Their  seconds  minister  on  oath, 
Which  was  indifferent  to  them  both. 
That  on  their  knightly  faith  and  troth 

No  magick  them  supplied  ; 
And  sought  them  that  they  had  no  charms. 
Wherewith  to  work  each  other's  hanns, 
But  came  with  simple  open  arms 

To  have  their  causes  tried.  Drayton's  Nytnpkiad. 

He  propounded  the  duke  as  a  main  cause  of  divers 
infirmities  in  the  state,  being  sure  enough  of  leconds 
after  the  first  onset.  Woitm. 

It  is  primarily  generated  out  of  the  effusion  of  me- 
lancholick  blood,  or  secondarily  out  of  the  dregs  and 
remainder  of  a  phlegmonous  or  cedematick  tumour. 

Harvey. 

These  atoms  make  the  wind  primarily  tend  down- 
wards, though  other  accidental  causes  impel  it 
secondarily  to  a  sloping  motion.  Digby. 

Four  flames  of  an  equal  magnitude  will  be  kept 
alive  the  space  of  sixteen  second  minutes,  though  one 
of  these  flames  alone,  in  the  same  vessel,  wdl  not 
last  above  twenty-five,  or  at  most  thirty  seconds. 

Wilkins's  Mathematical  Magick. 
None  I  know 

Second  to  me,  or  like  ;  equal  much  less.      Milton. 
I  to  be  the  power  of  Israel's  God 

Avow,  and  challenge  Dagon  to  the  test, 

Offering  to  combat  thee,  his  champion  bold 

With  the'  utmost  of  his  godhead  seconded.       Id. 

That  we  were  formed  then,  sayest  thou,  and  the 

work 

Of  secondary  hands,  by  task  transferred 
From  father  to  his  son  ">.  Id.  Paradise  Lost. 

Familiar  Ovid  tender  thoughts  inspires, 
And  nature  seconds  all  his  soft  desires.   Ruscommon. 

He  confesses  that  temples  are  erected,  and  festivals 
kept,  to  the  honour  of  saints,  at  least  secondarily. 

Stillingfleet. 

They  pelted  them  with  satires  and  epigrams,  which 
perhaps  had  been  taken  up  at  first  only  to  make  their 
court,  and  at  second-hand  to  flatter  those  who  had 
flattered  their  king.  Temple. 

A  second  Paris,  differing  but  in  name, 
Shall  fire  his  country  with  a  second  flame.    Dryden. 

My  eyes  are  still  the  same ;  each  glance,  each  grace, 
K«ep  their  first  lustre,  and  maintain  their  place, 
Not  second  yet  to  any  other  face.  Id. 

He  was  not  then  a  second-rate  champion,  as  they 
would  have  him  who  think  fortitude  the  first  virtue  in 
a  hero.  Id. 

Wheresoever  there  is  moral  right  on  the  one  hand, 
no  secondary  right  can  discharge  it.  L'Estrange. 

Sounds  move  above  1140  English  feet  in  a  tecond 
of  time,  and  in  seven  or  eight  minutes  of  time  about 
100  English  miles.  I.oche. 

Some  men  build  so  much  upon  authorities,  they 
have  but  a  second-hand  or  implicit  knowledge.  Id. 

That  which  is  peculiar  and  discriminative  must  be 
taken  from  the  primariness  and  secondanness  of  tho 
perception.  Norris. 

ID  imitation  of  preachers  at  second-hand,  I  shall 
transcribe  from  Bruyere  a  piece  of  raillery.  Taller. 

Sin  is  seconded  with  sin ;  and  a  man  seldom  com. 
mils  one  sin  to  please,  but  he  commits  another  to 
defend  himself.  '•  South. 

Not  these  huge  bolts,  by  which  the  giants  slain 
Lay  overthrown  on  the  Phlegrean  plain  ; 
'Twas  of  a  lesser  mould  and  lighter  weight ; 
They  call  it  thunder  of  a  tecond  rate.  Addison. 

Their  first  encounters  were  very  furious,  till,  after 
soW  toil  and  bloodshed,  they  were  parted  by  tlie 
seconds.  Id. 

Sawney  was  descended  of  an  ancient  family,  re- 
nowned for  their  skill  in  prognostics :  roost  of  hii 


SECOND     SIGHT. 


757 


ancestors  were  second  sighted,  and  his  mother  but  nar- 
rowly escaped  for  a  witch.  !&• 

As  he  was  going  out  to  steal  a  sheep,  he  was  seized 
with  a  fit  of  second  siyht :  the  face  of  the  country  pre- 
sented him  with   a  wide   prospect  of   new   scenes, 
which  he  had  never  seen  before.         Id.  Freeholder. 
They  call  it  thunder  of  the  second-rate.  Id.  Ovid. 

As  in  a  watch's  fine  machine 
Though  many  artful  springs  are  seen, 
The  added  movements  which  declare 
How  full  the  moon,  how  old  the  year, 
Derive  their  secondary  power 
From  that  which  simply  points  the  hour.    Prior. 
Courage,  when  it  is  only  a  second  to  injustice,  and 
falls  on  without  provocation,  is  a  disadvantage  to  a 
character.  Collier. 

Gravitation  is  the  powerful  cement  which  holds 
together  this  magnificent  structure  of  the  world, 
which  stretcheth  the  north  over  the  empty  space, 
and  hangeth  the  earth  upon  nothing,  to  transfer  the 
words  of  Job  from  the  first  and  real  cause  to  the 
tecondarv.  Bentley. 

If  the  system  had  been  fortuitously  formed  by  the 
convening  matter  of  a  chaos,  how  is  it  conceivable 
that  all  the  planets,  both  primary  and  secondary, 
should  revolve  the  same  way,  from  the  west  to  the 
east,  and  that  in  the  same  plane  1  Id. 

By  a  sad  train  of  miseries  alone 
Distinguished  long,  and  second  now  to  none.   Pope. 
En  human  works,  though  laboured  on  with  pain, 
A  thousand  movements  scarce  one  purpose  gain  ; 
In  God's,  one  single  can  its  ends  produce, 
Yet  serves  to  second  too  some  other  use.  Id. 

Persons  of  second  rate  merit  in  their  own  country, 
like  birds  of  passage,  thrive  here,  and  fly  off  when 
their  employments  are  at  an  end.  Su-ift. 

Spurious  virtue  in  a  maid  ; 
A  virtue  but  at  second-hand.  Id. 

If  in  company  you  offer  something  for  a  jest,  and 
nobody  seconds  you  in  your  laughter,  you  may  con- 
demn their  taste,  but  in  the  mean  time  you  make  a 
very  indifferent  figure.  Id. 

The  house  of  commons  in  Ireland,  and,  secondly, 
the  privy  council,  addressed  his  majesty  against  these 
half-pence.  Id. 

Personal  brawls  come  in  as  seconds  to  finish  the 
dispute  of  opinion.  Watts. 

SECOND,  in  geometry,  chronology,  &c.,  is  the 
sixtieth  part  of  a  prime,  whether  of  a  degree  or 
of  an  hour. 

SECOND,  in  music,  one  of  the  musical  intervals; 
being  only  the  difference  between  any  sound  and 
the  next  nearest  sound,  whether  above  or  below 
it.  See  INTERVAL. 

SECOND  SIGHT  (in  Erse  Taisch),  is  a  mode  of 
seeing  supposed  to  be  superadded  to  that  which 
nature  generally  bestows.  This  gift  or  faculty, 
which  is  neither  voluntary  nor  constant,  is  in 
general  rather  troublesome  than  agreeable  to  the 
possessors  of  it,  who  are  chiefly  found  among 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
those  of  the  Western  Isles,  of  the  Isle  of  Man, 
and  of  Ireland.  It  is  an  impression  made  either 
by  the  mind  upon  the  eye,  or  by  the  eye  upon 
the  mind,  by  which  things  distant  or  future  are 
perceived,  and  seen  as  if  they  were  present.  A 
man  on  a  journey  far  from  home  falls  from  his 
horse ;  another,  who  is  perhaps  at  work  about 
the  house,  sees  him  bleeding  on  the  ground, 
commonly  with  a  landscape  of  the  place  where 
the  accident  befals  him.  Another  seer,  driving 
home  his  cattle,  or  wandering  in  idleness,  or 


musing  in  the  sunshine,  is  suddenly  surprised  by 
the  appearance  of  a  bridal  ceremony,  or  funeral 
procession,  and  counts  the  mourners  or  attend- 
ants, of  whom,  if  he  knows  them,  he  relates  the 
names  ;  if  he  knows  them  not,  he  can  describe 
the   dresses.      Things   distant   are  seen  at   the 
instant  when  they  happen.     Of  things  future, 
Johnson  says  that  he  knows  no  rule  pretended 
to  for  determining  the  time  between  the  sight 
and  the  event ;   but  we  are  informed  by  Mr. 
Grose  that  in  general  the  time  of  accomplish- 
ment bears  some  relation  to  the  time  of  the  day 
in  which  the  impressions  are  received.     Thus 
visions  seen  early  in  the  morning  (which  seldom 
happens)   will    be   much  sooner   accomplished 
than  th,ose  appearing  at  noon  ;  and  those  seen  at 
noon  will  take  place  in  a  much  shorter  time  than 
those  happening  at  night ;  sometimes  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  last  does  not  fall  out  within  a 
year  or  more.     These  visions  are  not  confined 
to  solemn  or  important  events ;  nor  is  it  true,  as 
is  commonly  reported,  that  to  the  second  sight 
nothing  is  presented  but  phantoms  to  evil.     The 
future  visit  of  a  mountebank,  or  piper ;  a  plen- 
tiful draught  of  fish  ;  the  arrival  of  common  tra- 
vellers ;  or,  if  possible,  still  more  trifling  matters 
than  these, — are  foreseen  by  the  seers.     A  gen- 
tleman told  Dr.  Johnson  that,  when  he  had  once 
gone  far  from  his  own  island,  one  of  his  laboring 
servants  predicted  his  return,  and  described  the 
livery  of  his  attendants,  which  he  had  never  worn 
at  home ;  and  which  had  been,  without  any  pre- 
vious design,  occasionally  given  him.     As  many 
men  eminent  for  science  and  literature  have  ad- 
mitted the  reality  of  this  apparently  useless  gift, 
we  shall,  without  interposing  our  own  opinion, 
give  the  reflections  of  two  of  the  first  characters 
of  the  age  upon  it,  and  leave  our  readers  to  form 
their  own  judgment : — By  Dr.  Beattie  it  is  thus 
accounted  for.     '  The  Highlands  of  Scotland  are 
a  picturesque  but  a  melancholy  country.     Long 
tracts  of  mountainous  desert,  covered  with  dark 
heath,  and  often  obscure  by  misty  weather ;  nar- 
row valleys,  thinly  inhabited,  and  bounded  by 
precipices  resounding  with  the  fall  of  torrents; 
a  soil  so  rugged,  and  a  climate  so  dreary,  as  in 
many  parts  to  admit  neither  the  amusements  of 
pasturage  nor   the  labors  of  agriculture;   the 
mournful  dashing  of  waves  along  the  friths  and 
lakes  that  intersect  the  country ;  the  portentous 
noises  which  every  change  of  the  wind  and  every 
increased  diminution  of  the  waters  is  apt  to  raise 
in  a  lonely  region  full  of  echoes  and  rocks  and 
caverns ;  the  grotesque  and  ghastly  appearance 
of  such  a  landscape  by  the  light  of  the  moon : 
objects  like  these  diffuse  a  gloom  over  the  fancy, 
which  may  be  compatible  enough  with  occasional 
and  social  merriment,  but  cannot  fail  to  tincture 
the  thoughts  of  a  native  in  the  hour  of  silence 
and  solitude.     If  these  people,  notwithstanding 
their  reformation  in  religion  and   more  frequent 
intercourse  with  strangers,  do  still  retain  many 
of  their  old  superstitions,  we  need  not  doubt  but 
in  former  times  they  must  have  been  much  more 
enslaved  to  the  horrors  of  imagination,  when  be- 
set with  the  bugbears  of  Popery  and  Paganism. 
Most  qf  their  superstitions  are  of  a  melancholy 
cast. 

'That  of  second  sight,  by  which  some  are  sti) 


758 


SECOND     SIGHT. 


gupposed  to  be  haunted,  is  considered  by  them- 
selves as  a  misfortune,  on  account  of  the  many 
dreadful  images  it  is  said  to  obtrude  upon  the 
fancy.  It  is  said  that  some  of  the  Alpine  re- 
gions do  likewise  lay  claim  to  a  sort  of  second 
sight.  Nor  is  it  wonderful  that  persons  of  a  lively 
imagination,  immured  in  deep  solitude,  and  sur- 
jounded  with  the  stupendous  scenery  of  clouds, 
precipices,  and  torrents,  should  dream  (even 
when  they  think  themselves  awake)  of  those  few 
striking  ideas  with  which  their  lonely  lives  are  di- 
versified :  of  corpses,  funeral  processions,  and 
other  subjects  of  terror ;  or  of  marriages,  and  the 
arrival  of  strangers,  and  such  like  matters  of 
more  agreeable  curiosity.  Let  it  be  observed, 
also,  that  the  ancient  Highlanders  of  Scotland 
had  hardly  any  other  way  of  supporting  them- 
selves than  by  hunting,  fishing,  or  war  ;  profes- 
sions that  are  continually  exposed  to  fatal  acci- 
dents. And  hence,  no  doubt,  additional  horrors 
would  often  haunt  their  solitude,  and  a  deeper 
gloom  overshadow  the  imagination  even  of  the 
hardiest  native.  A  sufficient  evidence  can  hardly 
be  found  for  the  reality  of  the  second  sight,  oral 
least  of  what  is  commonly  understood  by  that 
term.  A  treatise  on  the  subject  was  published 
in  the  year  1762,  in  which  many  tales  were  told 
of  persons  whom  the  author  believed  to  have 
been  favored,  or  haunted,  with  these  illumina- 
tions ;  but  most  of  the  tales  were  trifling  and  ridi- 
culous :  and  the  whole  work  betrayed,  on  the 
part  of  the  compiler,  such  extreme  credulity,  as 
could  not  fail  to  prejudice  many  readers  against 
his  system.  That  any  of  these  visionaries  are 
apt  to  be  swayed  in  their  declarations  by  sinister 
views  we  will  not  say ;  but  this  may  be  said 
with  confidence,  that  none  but  ignorant  people 
pretend  to  be  gifted  in  this  way.  And  in  them 
it  may  be  nothing  more,  perhaps,  than  short  fits 
of  sudden  sleep  or  drowsiness,  attended  with 
lively  dreams  and  arising  from  some  bodily  dis- 
order, the  effect  of  idleness,  low  spirits,  or  a 
gloomy  imagination.  For  it  is  admitted,  even 
by  the  most  credulous  Highlanders,  that,  as  know- 
ledge and  industry  are  propagated  in  their  coun- 
try, the  second  sight  disappears  in  proportion  ; 
and  nobody  ever  laid  claim  to  the  faculty  who 
was  much  employed  in  the  intercourse  of  social 
life.  Nor  is  it  at  all  extraordinary  that  one  should 
have  the  appearance  of  being  awake,  and  should 
even  think  one's  self  so,  during  those  fits  of 
dosing ;  that  they  should  come  on  suddenly, 
and  while  one  is  engaged  in  some  business.  The 
same  thing  happens  to  persons  much  fatigued, 
or  long  kept  awake,  who  frequently  fall  asleep 
for  a  moment,  or  for  a  long  space,  while  they 
are  standing,  or  walking,  or  riding  on  horseback. 
Add  but  a  lively  dream  to  this  slumber,  and 
(which  is  the  frequent  effect  of  disease)  take 
way  the  consciousness  of  having  been  asleep, 
and  a  superstitious  man  may  easily  mistake  his 
dream  for  a  waking  vision ;  which,  however,  is 
soon  forgotten  when  no  subsequent  occurrence 
recals  it  to  his  memory;  but  which,  if  it  shall 
be  thought  to  resemble  any  future  event,  exalts 
the  poor  dreamer  into  a  Highland  prophet. 
This  conceit  makes  him  more  recluse  and  more 
melancholy  than  ever  ;  and  so  feeds  his  disease, 
and  multiplies  his  visions  which,  if  they  are  not 


dissipated  by  business  or  society,  may  continu 
to  haunt  him  as  long  as  he  lives ;  and  which,  in 
their  progress  through  the  neighbourhood,  receive 
some  new  tinctures  of  the  marvellous  from  every 
mouth  that  promotes  their  circulation.  As  to 
the  prophetical  nature  of  this  second  sight,  it 
cannot  be  admitted  at  all.  That  the  Deity 
should  work  a  miracle  in  order  to  give  intima- 
tion of  the  frivolous  things  that  these  tales  are 
made  up  of,  the  arrival  of  a  stranger,  the  nailing 
of  a  coffin,  or  the  color  of  a  suit  of  clothes ;  and 
that  these  intimations  should  be  given  for  no  end, 
and  to  those  persons  only  who  are  idle  and  soli- 
tary, who  speak  Gaelic,  or  who  live  among  moun- 
tains and  deserts — is  like  nothing  in  nature  or  pro- 
vidence that  we  are  acquainted  with  ;  and  must, 
therefore,  unless  it  were  confirmed  by  satisfactory 
proof  (which  is  not  the  case),  be  rejected  as  ab- 
surd and  incredible.  These  visions,  such  as  they 
are,  may  reasonably  enough  be  ascribed  to  a  dis- 
tempered fancy.  And  that  in  them,  as  well  as 
in  our  ordinary  dreams,  certain  appearances 
should,  on  some  rare  occasions,  resemble  certain 
events,  is  to  be  expected  from  the  laws  of  chance ; 
and  seems  to  havre  in  it  nothing  more  marvellous 
or  supernatural,  than  that  the  parrot,  who  deals 
out  his  scurrilities  at  random,  should  sometimes 
happen  to  salute  the  passenger  by  his  right  ap- 
pellation.' To  the  confidence  of  these  objections 
Dr.  Johnson  replies,  « that  by  presuming  to  deter- 
mine what  is  fit,  and  what  is  beneficial,  they  pre- 
suppose more  knowledge  of  the  universal  system 
than  man  has  attained;  and  therefore  depend  upon 
principles  too  complicated  and  extensive  for  our 
comprehension ;  that  there  can  be  no  security  in 
the  consequence  when  the  premises  are  not  under- 
stood ;  that  the  second  sight  is  only  wonderful 
because  it  is  rare,  for,  considered  in  itself,  it  in- 
volves no  more  difficulty  than  dreams,  or  perhaps 
than  the  regular  exercise  of  the  cogitative  faculty ; 
that  a  general  opinion  of  communicative  im- 
pulses, or  visionary  representations,  has  prevailed 
in  all  ages  and  all  nations;  that  particular  in- 
stances have  been  given  with  such  evidence  as 
neither  Bacon  nor  Bayle  have  been  able  to  resist; 
that  sudden  impressions,  which  the  event  has 
verified,  have  been  felt  by  more  than  own  or  pub- 
lish them  ;  that  the  second  sight  of  the  Hebrides 
implies  only  the  local  frequency  of  a  power, 
which  is  no  where  totally  unknown ;  and  that, 
where  we  are  unable  to  decide  by  antecedent 
reason,  we  must  be  content  to  yield  to  the  force 
of  testimony.  By  pretension  to  second  sight,  no 
profit  was  ever  sought  or  gained.  It  is  an  in- 
voluntary affection,  in  which  neither  hope  nor 
fear  is  known  to  have  any  part.  Those  who 
profess  to  feel  it  do  not  boast  of  it  as  a  privi- 
lege, nor  are  considered  by  others  as  advantage- 
ously distinguished.  They  have  no  temptation 
to  feign,  and  their  bearers  have  no  motive  to 
encourage  the  imposture.'  Dr.  Johnson  affirms 
that  the  Islanders  of  all  degrees,  whether  of  rank 
and  understanding,  universally  admit  it,  except 
the  ministers,  who,  according  to  him,  reject  it, 
in  consequence  of  a  system,  against  conviction. 
He  affirms,  too,  that  in  1773  there  was  in  the 
Hebrides  a  second-sighted  gentleman,  who  com- 
plained of  the  terrors  to  which  he  was  exposed. 
SECOND  TERMS,  in  algebra,  those  where  the 


SEC 


759 


SEC 


unknown  quantity  has  a  degree  of  power  less 
than  it  has  in  the  term  where  it  is  raised  to  the 
highest.  The  art  of  throwing  these  second  terms 
out  of  an  equation,  that  is,  of  forming  a  new 
equation  where  they  have  no  place,  is  one  of  the 
most  ingenious  and  useful  inventions  in  all  al- 
gebra. 

SECONDARY,  or   SECUNDARY,  an  officer  who 
acts  as  second  or  next  to  the  chief  officer.  Such 
are  the  secondaries  of  the  courts  of  king's  bench 
and    common    pleas;    the   secondaries,  of    the 
compters,  who  are  next  the  sheriffs  of  London 
in  each  of  the  two  compters ;  two  secondaries  of 
the  pipe  ;  secondaries  to  the  remembrancers,  &c. 
SECONDARY  CIRCLES  OF  THE    ECLIPTIC  are 
circles  of  longitude  of  the  stars ;  or  circles  which, 
passing  through  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic,  are  at 
right  angles  to  the  ecliptic.     See  CIRCLES. 
SE'CRET, adj., n. s. &  v. a.~}      Fr.  secret ;  Lat- 
SECRETE',  v.  a.  secretus.  Hidden > 

SECRE'TION,  n.  s.  private;  affording 

SECRETIT'IOUS,  n. s.  privacy;  retired; 

SE'CRETIST,  J^unseen ;    faithful 

SE'CRETLY,  adv.  to  a  secret;    oc- 

SE'CRETNESS,  n.  s.  cult ;  privy :  as  a 

SECRE'TORY,  adj.  noun  substantive, 

SE'CRECY,  n.s.  J  something     con- 

cealed or  hidden  ;  something  not  yet  discovered 
or  known  ;  privacy  ;  seclusion  :  to  secret  or  se- 
crete is  to  keep  private,  and  the  latter  (in  the 
animal  economy)  to  put  aside  or  separate ;  to 
secern :  secretitious  follows  this  sense :  a  se- 
cretist  is  a  dealer  in  secrets  :  the  adverb  and 
noun  substantive  following,  as  well  as  secrecy, 
correspond  with  secret  as  an  adjective  :  secretory 
means  performing  the  office  of  secretion. 

The  secret  things  belong  unto  the  Lord  our  God ; 
but  those  things  which  are  revealed  belong  unto  us. 

Deut.  xxix.  29. 

Bread  eaten  in  secret  is  pleasant.     Prov.  ix.  17. 
There  is  no  secret  that  they  can  hide  frora  thee. 

Ezek.  xxviii. 

It  is  not  with  publick  as  with  private  prayer  :  in 
this  rather  secrecy  is  commanded  than  outward  shew  ; 
whereas  that,  being  the  publick  act  of  a  whole  so- 
ciety, requireth  accordinglyx  more  care  to  be  had  of 
external  appearance.  Hooker. 

That's  not  suddenly  to  be  performed, 
But  with  advice  and  silent  secrecy. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  VI. 
In  Nature's  book  of  infinite  secrecy 
A  little  can  I  read.       Id.  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 
Secret  Romans,  that  have  spoke  the  word, 
And  will  not  palter.          Shakspeare.  Julius  Ctesar. 

Infected  minds 
To  their  deaf  pillows  will  discharge  their  secrets. 

Shakspeare. 

Give  him  this  letter  ;  do  it  secretly.  Id. 

Great  care  is  to  be  used  of  the  clerks  of  the  coun- 
cil, for  the  secreting  of  their  consultations. 

Bacon's  Advice  to  Villien. 
I  could  muster  up 
My  giants  and  my  witches  too, 
Which  are  vast  constancy  and  secretness.       Donne. 

Thou  open'st  wisdom's  way 
And  givest  access,  though  secret  she  retire  : 
And  1  perhaps  am  secret.  Milton. 

The  secret  top 

Of  Oreb  or  of  Sinai.  Id. 

Or  sympathy,  or  some  connatural  force 
1'oweiful  at  greatest  distance  to  unite 


With  secret  amity  things  of  like  kind, 

By  secreiest  conveyance.  Id. 

We  not  to  explore  the  secrets  ask 
Of  his  eternal  empire.  Id. 

'Thou,  in  thy  secresy,  although  alone, 
Best  with  thyself  accompanied,  seek'st  not 
Social  communication.  Id.  Paradise  Lost.. 

Some  things  I  have  not  yet  thought  fit  so  plainly 
to  reveal ;  not  out  of  any  envious  design  of  having 
them  buried  with  me,  but  that  I  may  barter  with 
those  fecretists,  that  will  not  part  with  one  secret  but 
in  exchange  for  another.  Boyle. 

Those  thoughts  are  not  wholly  mine ;  but  either 
they  are  seeretly  in  the  poet,  or  may  be  fairly  de- 
duced from  him.  Dryden. 

All  the  glands  are  a  congeries  of  vessels  compli- 
cated together,  whereby  they  give  the  blood  time  to 
separate  through  the  capillary  vessels  into  the  secre- 
tory, which  afterwards  exonerate  themselves  into  one 
duct.  Ray. 

Secresy  and  fidelity  were  their  only  qualities. 

Burnet. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  perfect  secresv.  to  encou- 
rage a  rational  mind  to  the  perpetration  of  any  base 
action  ;  for  a  man  must  first  extinguish  and  put  out 
the  great  light  within  him,  h's  conscience  ;  he  must 
get  away  from  himself,  and  shake  off  the  thousand 
witnesses  which  he  always  carries  about  him,  before 
he  can  be  alone.  South'*  Sermons, 

Now  secretly  with  inward  grief  he  pined  ; 
Now  warm  resentments  to  his  griefs  he  joined. 

Addison. 

Some  may  place  their  chief  satisfaction  in  giving 
secretly  what  is  to  be  distributed ;  others  in  being  the 
open  and  avowed  instruments  of  making  such  distri- 
butions. Atterbury. 

There  secret  in  her  sapphire  cell 
He  with  the  Nals  wont  to  dwell.  Fenton. 

All  secrets  of  the  deep,  all  nature's  works. 

Milton. 

The  Romans  seem  not  to  have  known  the  secret  of 
paper  credit.  Arbuthnot. 

They  have  a  similitude  or  contrariety  to  the  secre- 
titious  humours  in  taste  and  quality. 

Floyer  on  the  Humours. 

SEC'RETARY,  n.  s.  Fr.  secretaire;  low 
Lat.  secretariat.  One  entrusted  with  the  ma- 
nagement of  business  ;  one  who  writes  for  ano- 
ther. 

Call  Gardiner  to  me,  my  new  secretary. 

Shakspeare. 

That  which  is  most  of  all  profitable  is,  acquaint- 
ance with  the  secretaries,  and  employed  men  of  am- 
bassadors. Bacon. 
Cottington  was  secretary  to  the  prince. 

Clarendon. 

SECRETARY,  in  ornithology,  the  falco  serpen- 
tarius  and  Sagittarius  of  Linnaeus,  but  classed  by 
Latham  under  the  genus  vultur.  See  FALCO 
and  VULTUR. 

A  SECRETARY,  in  a  public  office,  is  an  officer 
who,  by  his  master's  orders,  writes  letters,  de- 
spatches, and  other  instruments,  which  he  renders 
authentic  by  his  signet.  Of  these  there  are  seve- 
ral kinds  :  as  secretaries  of  state,  or  officers  that 
have  under  their  management  and  direction  the 
most  important  affairs  of  the  kingdom,  and  are 
obliged  constantly  to  attend  on  the  king :  they 
receive  and  despatch  whatever  comes  to  their 
hands,  either  from  the  crown,  the  church,  the 
army,  private  grants,  pardons,  dispensations,  Sec., 
as  likewise  petitions  to  the  sovereign,  which, 
when  read,  are  returned  to  them  ;  all  which  they 


760 


SEC  T  O  R. 


despatch  according  to  the  king's  direction. 
They  hare  authority  to  commit  persons  for  trea- 
son, and  other  offences  against  the  state,  as  con- 
servators of  the  peace  at  common  law,  or  as 
Justices  of  the  peace  throughout  the  kingdom. 
They  are  members  of  the  privy  council,  which 
is  seldom  or  never  held  without  one  of  them  be- 
ing present.  As  to  the  business  and  correspond- 
ence in  all  parts  of  this  kingdom,  it  is  managed 
by  either  of  the  secretaries  without  any  distinc- 
tion ;  but,  with  respect  to  foreign  affairs,  the  bu- 
siness is  divided  into  two  provinces  or  depart- 
ments, the  southern  and  the  northern,  compre- 
hending all  the  kingdoms  and  states  that  have 
any  intercourse  with  Great  Britain ;  each  secre- 
tary receiving  all  letters  and  addresses  from,  and 
making  all  despatches  to,  the  several  princes  and 
states  comprehended  in  his  province. 

SECT,  n.  s.  ~\      Fr.  sttcte ;   Lat.  sccta,  from 
SEC'TARISM,  fteeUmdo.    A  body  of  men  fol- 
SEC'TARY,       i  lowing  some  particular  master, 
SECTA'TOR.     J  or     united    in    some    settled 
tenets.     Often  in  a  bad  sense :  sectarism  is  dis- 
position to  party  :  a  sectary  is  one  who  joins  a 
party,  or  indulges  a  party  spirit :    sectator,  an 
obsolete  word  for  a  follower  or  imitator. 

The  sectaries  of  my  celestial  skill, 
That  wont  to  be  the  world's  chief  ornament, 
They  are  under  keep.  Spenser. 

We'll  wear  out, 

In  a  wall'd  prison,  packs,  and  sects  of  great  ones, 
That  ebb  and  flow  by  the  moon. 

Shakspeare.  King  Lear. 

Of  out  unbilled  lusls,  I  lake  this  lhat  you  call 
love  to  be  a  sect  or  cion.  Id.  Othello. 

My  lord,  you  are  a  sectary ; 
Thai's  ihe  plain  truth.  Shakspeare. 

Hereof  the  wiser  sort  and  the  best  learned  philo- 
sophers were  not  ignorant,  as  Cicero  witnesseth, 
gathering  the  opinion  of  Aristotle  and  his  sectuton. 

Kaleigh. 

Romish  catholick  tenets  are  inconsistent,  on  ihe 
one  hand,  with  the  trulh  of  religion  professed  and 
protested  hy  the  church  of  England,  whence  we  are 
called  protestanis ;  and  the  anabaptists,  and  sepa- 
ratists, and  tectaries,  on  the  other  hand,  whose  tenets 
are  full  of  schism,  and  inconsistent  with  monarchy. 

Bacon. 

The  greatest  vicissitude  of  things  is  the  vicissi- 
tude of  lecii  and  religion  ;  the  true  religion  is  built 
upon  a  rock ;  the  rest  are  tossed  upon  the  waves  of 
time.  Id.  Essays. 

Nothing  has  more  marks  of  schism  and  sectarism 
than  this  presbyterian  way.  K'nig  Charles. 

The  jealous  sects  lhal  dare  nol  trusl  iheir  cause 
So  far  from  Iheir  own  will  as  to  the  laws, 
You  for  their  umpire  and  their  synod  take. 

Dry  den, 
A  sect  of  freethinkers  is  a  sum  of  cyphers. 

Bent  li'i/. 

I'liu  number  of  sectaries  doos  not  concern  the 
clergy  in  poinl  of  interest  or  conscience.  Snij't. 

SECTION,  ».  s.  Fr.  section  ;  Lat.  sn-/io. 
The  act  of  cutting  or  dividing  ;  the  part  cut  off. 

Instead  of  their  law,  which  they  mi»ht  not  read 
openly,  they  read  of  the  prophets,  lhat  which  in  like- 
ness of  mailer  came  nearest  lo  each  section  of  their 
law.  /.„„-. 

In  the  section  of  bodies,  man,  of  all  sensible 
es,  has  the  fullest  brain  to  liis  '»•  .portion. 


The  production  of  volatile  salts  I  reserve  till  I 
mention  them  in  another  section.  Boi/le. 

Without  breaking  in  upon  the  connection  of  his. 
language,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  give  a  distinct  view 
of  his  several  arguments  in  distinct  sections.  Locke. 

SECTION,  in  general,  denotes  a  part  of  a  di- 
vided thing,  or  the  division  itself.  Such,  parti- 
cularly, are  the  subdivisions  of  a  chapter;  called 
also  paragraphs  and  articles :  the  mark  of  a  sec- 
tion is  §. 

SECTION,  in  geometry,  denotes  a  side  or  surface 
of  a  body  or  figure  cut  off  by  another ;  or  the 
place  where  lines,  planes,  &c.,  cut  each  other. 

SECTIONS,  CONIC.     See  CONIC  SECTIONS. 

SECTOR,  71.  s.     Fr.  secteur.     In  geometry. 

Sector  is  an  instrument  made  of  wood  or  metal, 
with  a  joint,  and  sometimes  a  piece  to  turn  out  t& 
make  a  Irue  square,  wilh  lines  of  sines,  langenls, 
secanls,  equal  parts,  rhumbs,  polygons,  hours,  lati- 
tudes, metals,  and  solids.  It  is  generally  useful  in 
all  the  practical  parts  of  the  mathemalicks,  and  par- 
ticularly contrived  for  navigation,  surveying,  astro- 
nomy, dialling,  and  projeclion  of  ihe  sphere.  All 
the  lines  of  the  sector  can  be  accommodated  to  any 
radius,  winch  is  done  by  taking  off  all  divisions  pa- 
rallelwise,  and  not  lengthwise  ;  the  ground  of  which 
practice  is  this,  that  parallels  to  the  base  of  any 
plain  triangle  bear  the  same  proportion  to  it  as  the 
parts  of  the  legs  above  the  parallel  do  to  the  whole 
legs.  Harris. 

SECTOR,  in  geometry,  is  a  part  of  a  circle  com- 
prehended between  two  radii  and  the  arch ;  or  it 
is  a  mixed  triangle,  formed  by  two  radii  and  the 
arch  of  a  circle. 

SECTOR  OF  AN  ELLIPSE,  or  OF  AN  HYPERBOLA, 
&c.,  is  a  part  resembling  the  circular  sector, being 
contained  by  three  lines,  two  of  which  are  radii, 
or  lines  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  figure  to- 
the  curve,  and  the  intercepted  arc  or  part  of  that 
curve. 

SECTOR  OF  A  SPHERE  is  the  solid  generated 
by  the  revolution  of  the  sector  of  a  circle  about 
one  of  its  radii ;  the  other  radius  describing  the 
surface  of  a  cone,  and  the  circular  arc  a  circu- 
lar portion  of  the  surface  of  the  sphere  of  the 
same  radius.  So  that  the  spherical  sector  consists 
of  a  right  cone,  and  of  a  segment  of  a  sphere 
having  the  same  common  base  with  the  cone. 
And  hence  the  solid  content  of  it  will  be  found 
by  multiplying  the  base  or  spherical  surface  by 
the  radius  of  the  sphere,  and  taking  a  third  part 
of  the  product. 

SECTOR  is  also  a  mathematical  instrument  of 
great  use  in  finding  the  proportion  oetween  quan- 
tities of  the  same  kind :  as  between  lines  and 
lines,  surfaces  and  surfaces,  &c.;  whence  the 
French  call  it  the  compass  of  proportion.  The 
great  advantage  of  the  sector  above  the  common 
scales,  &c.,  is,  that  it  is  made  so  as  to  fit  all  radii 
and  all  scales.  By  the  lines  of  chords,  sine? 
&c.,  on  the  sector,  we  have  lines  of  chords,  sines, 
&c.,  to  any  radius  betwixt  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  sector  when  open.  The  real  inventor  of 
this  valuable  instrument  is  unknown  ;  yet  of  so 
much  merit  has  the  invention  appeared  that  il 
was  claimed  by  Galileo,  and  disputed  hy  nations. 
The  sector  is  founded  on  the  fourth  proposition 
of  the  sixth  book  of  Euclid  ;  where  il  is  demon- 
strated that  similar  triangles  have  their  homo 
i  sides  proportional.  An  idea  of  the  theory 


SECTOR. 


761 


of  its  construction  may  be  thus  conceived  : — Let 
the  "lines  A  B,  AC  (plate  SECTOR,  &c.),  represent 
the  legs  of  the  sector ;  and  A  D  and  A  E  two  equal 
sections  from  the  centre  :  if  now  the  points  C  B 
and  D  E  be  connected,  the  lines  C  B  and  D  E 
will  be  parallel ;  therefore  the  triangles  A  D  E 
A  C  B  will  be  similar ;  and  consequently  the 
sides  AD,  D  E,  A  B,  and  B  C,  proportional ; 
that  is,  as  AD:  DE::  AB:  BC;  whence,  if 
A  D  be  the  half,  third,  or  fourth  part  of  A  B, 
D  E  will  be  a  half,  third,  or  fourth  part  of  C  B ; 
and  the  same  holds  of  all  the  rest.  If,  therefore, 
A  D  be  the  chord,  sine  or  tangent,  of  any  number 
of  degrees  to  the  radius  AB;  D  E  will  be  the 
same  to  the  radius  B  C. 

The  instrument  (fig.  3,  4),  consists  of  two  ru- 
lers or  legs,  of  brass  or  ivory,  or  any  other  mat- 
ter, representing  the  radii,  moveable  round  an 
axis  or  joint,  the  middle  of  which  expresses  the 
centre :  whence  are  drawn  on  the  faces  of  the 
rulers  several  scales,  which  may  be  distinguished 
into  single  and  double.  The  double  scales  or 
lines  graduated  upon  the  faces  of  the  instrument, 
and  which  are  to  be  used  as  sectoral  lines,  pro- 
ceed from  the  centre;  and  are,  1.  Two  scales  of 
equal  parts,  one  on  each  leg,  marked  LIN.  or  L.  ; 
each  of  these  scales,  from  the  great  extensive- 
ness  of  its  use,  is  called  the  line  of  lines.  2. 
Two  lines  of  chords  marked  CHO.  or  c.  3.  Tuo 
lines  of  secants  marked  SEC.  or  s.  A  line  of  poly- 
gons marked  POL.  Upon  the  .other  face  the  sec- 
toral lines  are,  1.  Two  lines  of  sines  marked 
SIN.  or  s.  2.  Two  lines  of  tangents  marked  TAN. 
or  T.  3.  Between  the  line  of  tangents  and  sines 
there  is  another  line  of  tangents  to  a  lesser  radius, 
to  supply  the  defect  of  the  former,  and  extend- 
ing from  45°  to  75°,  marked  t.  Each  pair  of 
these  lines  (except  the  line  of  polygons)  is  so 
adjusted  as  to  make  equal  angles  at  the  centre; 
and  consequently,  at  whatever  distance  the  sector 
be  opened,  the  angles  will  be  always  respec- 
tively equal.  That  is,  the  distance  between  10 
and  10,  on  the  line  of  lines,  will  be  equal  to  60 
and  60  on  the  line  of  chords,  90  and  90  on  the 
line  of  sines,  and  45  and  45  on  the  line  of  tan- 
gents. Besides  the  sectoral  scales,  there  are 
others  on  each  face,  placed  parallel  to  the  out- 
ward edges,  and  used  as  those  of  the  common 
plane  scale.  These  are  1.  A  line  of  inches.  2. 
A  line  of  latitudes.  3.  A  line  of  hours.  4.  A 
line  of  inclination  of  meridians.  5.  A  line  of 
chords.  Three  logarithmic  scales,  namely,  one 
of  numbers,  one  of  sines,  and  one  of  tangents ; 
these  are  used  when  the  sector  is  fully  opened, 
the  legs  forming  one  line.  The  value  of  the  di- 
visions on  most  of  the  lines  is  determined  by 
the  figures  adjacent  to  them ;  these  proceed 
by  tens,  which  constitute  the  divisions  of  the  first 
order  and  are  numbered  accordingly  ;  but  the 
value  of  the  divisions  of  the  line  of  lines,  that 
are  distinguished  by  figures,  is  entirely  arbitrary, 
and  may  represent  any  value  that  is  given  to 
them ;  hence  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.,  may  de- 
note either  10,  20,  30, 40,  or  100,  200,  300,  400, 
and  so  on.  The  line  of  lines  is  divided  into  ten 
equal  parts,  numbered  1,  2,  3,  to  10;  these  may 
be  called  divisions  of  the  first  order;  each  of 
these  is  again  subdivided  into  ten  other  equal 
parts,  which  may  be  called  divisions  of  the  second 
order ;  each  of  these  is  divided  into  two  equal 


parts,  forming  divisions  of  the  third  order.  The 
divisions  on  all  the  scales  are  contained  between 
four  parallel  lines ;  those  of  the  third  order  ex- 
tend to  the  most  distant ;  those  of  the  third  to 
the  least ;  those  of  the  second  to  the  intermediate 
parallel.  When  th'e  whole  line  of  lines  repre- 
sents 100,  the  divisions  of  the  first  order,  or 
those  to  which  the  figures  are  annexed,  repiesent 
tens ;  those  of  the  secon'd  order  units ;  those  of 
the  third  order  the  halves  of  these  units.  If  the 
whole  line  represent  ten,  then  the  divisions  of 
the  first  order  are  units;  those  of  the  second 
tenths ;  the  third  twentieths.  In  the  line  of  tan- 
gents, the  divisions  to  which  the  numbers  are 
affixed  are  the  degrees  expressed  by  those  num- 
bers. Every  fifth  degree  is  denoted  by  a  line 
somewhat  longer  than  the  rest;  between  every 
number  and  each  fifth  degree  there  are  four 
divisions,  longer  than  the  intermediate  adjacent 
ones  :  these  are  whole  degrees  ;  the  shorter  ones, 
or  those  of  the  third  order,  are  thirty  minutes. 
From  the  centre  to  60°  the  line  of  sines  is  di- 
vided like  the  line  of  tangents,  from  60  to  70; 
it  is  divided  only  to  every  degree,  from  70  to  80, 
to  every  two  degrees,  from  80  to  90 :  the  divi- 
sion must  be  estimated  by  the  eye.  The  divi- 
sions on  the  line  of  chords  are  to  be  estimated 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  tangents.  The  lesser 
line  of  tangents  is  graduated  every  two  degrees, 
from  45  to  50 ;  but  from  50  to  60  to  every  de- 
gree; from  60  to  the  end  to  half  degrees.  The 
line  of  secants  from  0  to  10  is  to  be  estimated  by 
the  eye ;  from  20  to  50  it  is  divided  into  every 
two  degrees ;  from  50  to  60  to  every  degree ; 
from  60  to  the  end  to  every  half  degree. 

1 .  To  open  the  sector  so  as  the  two  lines  of 
chords  may  make  an  angle  or  number  of  degrees, 
suppose  40.  Take  the  distance  from  the  joint 
to  40,  the  number  of  the  degrees  proposed,  on 
the  line  of  chords:  open  the  sector  till  the  dis- 
tance from  40  to  60  on  each  leg  be  equal  to  the 
given  distance  of  40 ;  then  will  the  two  lines  on 
the  sector  form  an  angle  of  40°,  as  was  required. 
2.  The  sector  being  opened,  to  find  the  degrees 
of  its  aperture.  Take  the  extent  from  60  to  60, 
and  lay  it  off  on  the  line  of  chords  from  the 
centre;  the  number  whereon  it  terminates  will 
show  the  degrees,  &c.,  required.  3.  To  lay  off 
any  number  of  degrees  upon  the  circumference 
of  a  circle.  Open  the  sector  till  the  distance 
between  60  and  60  be  equal  to  the  radius  of  the 
given  circle  ;  then  take  the  parallel  extent  of  the 
chord  of  the  number  of  degrees  on  each  leg  of 
the  sector,  and  lay  it  o.T  on  the  circumference  of 
the  given  circle.  Hence  any  regular  polygoi- 
may  be  easily  inscribed  in  a  given  circle. 

1.  To  divide  a  given  line  into  any  number  of 
equal  parts,  suppose  seven.  Take  the  given  line 
in  your  compasses ;  and  setting  one  foot  in  a 
division  of  equal  parts,  that  may  be  divided  by 
7,  for  example  70,  whose  seventh  part  is  10, 
open  the  sector  till  the  other  point  fall  exactly 
on  70,  in  the  same  line  on  the  other  leg.  In  this 
disposition,  applying  one  point  of  the  compasses 
to  10  in  the  same  line,  shut  them  till  the  other 
rail  in  10  in  the  same  line  on  the  other  leg,  and 
this  opening  will  be  the  seventh  part  of  the  given 
line.  Note,  if  the  line  to  be  divided  be  too  long 
to  be  applied  to  the  leirs  of  the  sector,  divide 
only  one-half  or  one-fourth  by  seven,  and  the 


762 


SECTOR. 


double  or  quadruple  thereof  will  be  the  seventh 
part  of  the  whole.  2.  To  measure  the  lines  of  the 
perimeter  of  a  polygon,  one  of  which  contains  a 
given  number  of  equal  parts.  Take  the  given  line 
in  your  compasses,  and  set  it  parallel,  upon  the 
line  of  equal  parts,  to  the  number  on  each  leg  ex- 
pressing its  length.  The  sector  remaining  thus, 
set  off  the  length  of  each  of  the  other  lines  parallel 
to  the  former,  and  the  number  each  of  them  falls 
on  will  express  its  length.  3.  A  right  line  being 
given,  and  the  number  of  parts  it  contains,  sup- 
pose. 120,  to  take  from  it  a  shorter  line  contain- 
ing any  number  of  the  same  parts,  suppose  25. 
Take  the  given  line  in  your  compasses,  open  the 
sector  till  the  two  feet  fall  on  120  on  each  leg  ; 
then  will  the  distance  between  25  on  one  leg,  and 
the  same  number  on  the  other,  give  the  line  re- 
quired. 4.  To  multiply  by  the  line  of  equal  parts 
on  the  sector.  Take  the  lateral  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  line  to  the  given  multiplicator; 
open  the  sector  till  you  fit  that  lateral  distance  to 
the  parallel  of  1  and  1,  or  10  and  10,  and  keep 
the  sector  in  that  disposition;  then  take  in  the 
compasses  the  parallel  distance  of  the  multipli- 
cand, which  distance,  measured  laterally  on  the 
same  line,  will  give  the  product  required.  Thus, 
suppose  it  were  required  to  find  the  product  of  8 
multiplied  by  4  :  take  the  lateral  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  line  to  4  in  your  com  passes,  i.  e.  place 
one  foot  of  the  compasses  in  the  beginning  of  the 
divisions,  and  extend  the  other  along  the  line  to 
4.  Open  the  sector  till  you  fit  this  lateral  distance 
to  the  parallel  of  1  and  1,  or  10  and  10.  Then 
take  the  parallel  distance  of  8,  the  multiplicand  ; 
i.  e.  extend  the  compasses  from  8,  in  this  line,  on 
one  leg,  to  8  in  the  same  line  on  the  other  ;  and 
that  extent,  measured  laterally,  will  give  the  pro- 
duct required.  5.  To  divide  by  the  line  of  equal 
parts  on  the  sector.  Extend  the  compasses  late- 
rally from  the  beginning  of  the  line  to  1,  and  open 
the  sector  till  you  fit  that  extent  to  the  parallel  of 
the  divisor ;  then  take  the  parallel  distance  of  the 
dividend ;  which  extent,  measured  in  a  lateral  di- 
rection, will  give  the  quotient  required.  Thus,  sup- 
pose it  were  required  to  divide  36  by  4 ;  extend 
the  compasses  laterally,  the  beginning  of  the  line 
to  1,  and  fit  to  that  extent  the"  parallel  of  4,  the 
divisor ;  then  extend  the  compasses  parallel  from 
36  on  one  leg  to  36  on  the  other,  and  that  extent, 
measured  laterally,  will  give  9,  the  quotient  re- 
quired. 6.  Proportion  by  the  line  of  equal 
parts.  Make  the  lateral  distance  of  the  second 
term  the  parallel  distance  of  the  first  term  ;  the  pa- 
rallel distance  of  the  third  term  is  the  fourth  pro- 
portional. Example. — To  find  a  fourth  propor- 
tional to  8,  4,  and  6,  take  the  lateral  distance  of 
4,  and  make  it  the  parallel  distance  of  8 ;  then  the 
parallel  distance  of  6,  extended  from  the  centre, 
shall  reach  to  the  fourth  proportional  3.  In  the 
same  manner,  a  third  proportional  is  found  to 
two  numbers.  Thus,  to  fina  a  third  proportional 
to  8  and  4,  the  ?ector  remaining  as  in  the  former 
example,  the  parallel  distance  of  4,  extended 
from  the  centre,  shall  reach  to  the  third  propor- 
tional 2.  In  all  these  cases,  if  the  number  to  be 
made  a  parallel  distance  be  too  great  for  the  sec- 
tor, some  aliquot  part  of  it  is  to  be  taken,  and 
»he  answer  is  to  be  multiplied  by  the  number  by 
which  the  first  number  was  divided. 


1.  To  inscribe  a  regular  polygon  in  a  given 
circle.  Take  the  semidiameter  of  the  given  cir- 
cle in  the  compasses,  and  adjust  it  to  the  num- 
ber 6,  on  the  line  of  polygons,  on  each  ley  of  the 
sector ;  then,  the  sector  remaining  thus  opened, 
take  the  distance  of  the  two  equal  numbers,  ex- 
pressing the  number  of  sides  the  polygon  is  to 
have  ;  e.  gr.  the  distance  from  5  to  5  for  a  penta- 
gon, from  7  to  7  for  a  heptagon,  &c.  These  dis- 
tances, carried  about  the  circumference  of  the 
circle,  will  divide  it  into  so  many  equal  parts. 
2.  To  describe  a  regular  polygon,  e.  gr.  a  penta- 
gon, on  a  given  right  line.  Take  the  length  of 
the  line  in  the  compasses,  and  apply  it  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  number  5,  5,  on  the  lines  of  polygons. 
The  sector  thus  opened,  upon  the  same  lines  take 
the  extent  from  6  to  6 ;  this  will  be  the  semidia- 
meter of  the  circle  the  polygon  is  to  be  inscribed 
in.  If  then,  with  this  distance  from  the  ends  ot 
of  the  given  line,  you  describe  two  arches  of  a 
circle,  their  intersection  will  be  the  centre  of  the 
circle.  3.  On  a  right  line,  to  describe  an  isos- 
celes triangle,  having  the  angles  at  the  base  double 
that  at  the  vertex.  Open  the  sector,  till  the  ends 
of  the  given  line  fall  on  10  and  10  on  each  leg ; 
then  take  the  distance  from  6  to  6.  This  will  be 
the  length  of  the  two  equal  sides  of  the  triangle. 

By  the  several  lines  disposed  on  the  sector, 
we  have  scales  to  several  radii ;  so  that,  having 
a  length  or  radius  given,  not  exceeding  the  length 
of  the  sector  when  opened,  we  find  the  chord, 
sine,  &c.,  thereto :  e.  gr.  Suppose  the  chord, 
sine,  or  tangent,  of  10°,  to  a  radius  of  three  inches 
required ;  make  three  inches  the  aperture,  between 
60  and  60,  on  the  lines  of  chords  of  the  two  legs ; 
then  will  the  same  extent  reach  from  45  to  45  on 
the  line  of  tangents,  and  from  90  to  90  on  the 
line  of  the  sines  on  the  other  side;  so  that  to 
whatever  radius  the  line  of  chords  is  set,  to  the 
same  are  all  the  others  set.  In  this  disposition, 
therefore,  if  the  aperture  between  10  and  10,  on 
the  lines  of  chords,  be  taken  with  the  compasses, 
it  will  give  the  chord  of  10°.  If  the  aperture  of 
10  and  10  be  in  like  manner  taken  on  the  lines 
of  sines,  it  will  be  the  sine  of  10°.  Lastly,  if 
the  aperture  of  10  and  10  be  in  like  manner  taken 
on  the  lines  of  tangents,  it  gives  the  tangent  of 
10°.  If  the  chord,  or  tangent,  of  70°  were  re- 
quired ;  for  the  chord,  the  aperture  of  half  the 
arch,  viz.  35,  must  be  taken,  as  before ;  which 
distance,  repeated  twice,  gives  the  chord  of  70°. 
To  find  the  tangent  of  70°  to  the  same  radius, 
the  small  line  of  tangents  must  be  used,  the  other 
only  reaching  to  45  ;  making,  therefore,  three 
inches  the  aperture  between  45  and  45  on  the 
small  line  ;  the  extent  between  70  and  70°  on  the 
same,  will  be  the  tangent  of  70°  to  three  inches 
radius.  To  find  the  secant  of  an  arch,  make  the 
given  radius  the  aperture  between  0  and  0  on  the 
lines  of  secants  ;  then  will  the  aperture  of  10 
and  10,  or  70  and  70,  on  the  said  lines,  give  the 
tangent  of  10°  or  70°.  If  the  converse  of  any  of 
these  things  were  required,  that  is,  if  the  radius 
be  required,  to  which  a  given  line  is  the  sine,  tan- 
gent, or  secant,  it  is  but  making  the  given  line, 
if  a  chord,  the  aperture  on  the  line  of  chords,  be- 
tween 10  and  10,  and  then  the  sector  will  stand 
at  the  radius  required  ;  that  is,  the  aperture  be- 
tween 60  and  60  on  the  said  line  is  the  radius 


SEC 


763 


SEC 


If  tne  given  line  were  a  sine,  tangent,  or  secant, 
it  is  but  the  making  't  the  aperture  of  the  given 
number  of  degrees  ,  then  will  the  distance  of  90 
and  90  on  the  sines,  of  45  and  45  on  the  tangents, 
of  0  and  0  on  the  secants,  be  the  radius. 

SEC'ULAR,  adj.  I      Fr.  seculier  ;  Lat.  secu- 

SEC'ULARLY,  adv.  S  larit.  Not  spiritual ;  re- 
lating to  affairs  of  the  present  world ;  worldly  : 
in  the  Romish  church  not  bound  by  monastic 
rule. 

This,  in  every  several  man's  actions  of  common 
life,  appertained  unto  moral,  in  publick  and  poli- 
tick tecular  affairs,  unto  civil  wisdom.  Hooker. 

Then  shall  they  seek  to  avail  themselves  of  names, 
Places,  and  titles ;  and  with  these  to  join 
Secular  po»rer,  though  feigning  still  to  act 
By  spiritual.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

Those  northern  nations  easily  embraced  the  reli- 
gion of  those  they  subdued,  and  by  their  devotion 
gave  great  authority  and  reverence,  and  thereby  ease, 
to  the  clergy,  both  secular  and  regular.  Temple. 

Littleness  and  secularly  of  spirit  is  the  greatest 
enemy  to  contemplation. 

Burnet's  Theory  of  the  Earth. 

In]  France  vast  numbers  of  ecclesiasticks,  tecular 
and  religious,  live  upon  the  labours  of  others. 

Addison. 

The  secular  year  was  kept  but  once  in  a  century. 

Id. 

SECULAR  is  peculiarly  used  for  a  person  who 
lives  at  liberty  in  the  world,  not  shut  up  in  a 
monastery,  in  which  sense  it  stands  opposed  to 
regular.  The  Romish  clergy  are  divided  into  se- 
cular and  regular,  of  which  the  latter  are  bound 
by  monastic  rules,  the  former  not. 

SECULAR  GAMES,  in  antiquity,  were  solemn 
games  held  among  the  Romans  once  in  an  age. 
These  games  lasted  three  days  and  as  many 
nights;  during  which  time  sacrifices  were  per- 
formed, theatrical  shows  exhibited,  with  com- 
bats, sports,  &c.,  in  the  circus.  The  occasion  of 
these  games,  according  to  Valerius  Maximus,  was 
to  stop  the  progress  of  a  plague.  Valerius  Publi- 
cola  was  the  first  who  celebrated  them  at  Rome, 
A.  U.  C.  245.  The  solemnity  was  as  follows  : — 
The  whole  world  were  invited  by  a  herald  to  a  feast 
which  they  had  never  seen  already,  nor  ever 
should  see  again.  Some  days  before  the  games 
began,  the  quindecemviri,  in  the  capitol  and  the 
Palatine  temple,  distributed  to  the  people  puri- 
fying compositions,  of  various  kinds,  as  flam- 
beaux, sulphur,  &c.  From  hence  the  populace 
passed  to  Diana's  temple  on  the  Aventine  Mount, 
with  wheat,  'barley,  and  oats,  as  an  offering.  Af- 
ter this,  whole  nights  were  spent  in  devotion  to 
the  Destinies.  When  the  time  of  the  games  was 
fully  come,  the  people  assembled  in  the  Campus 
Martius,  and  sacrificed  to  Jupiter,  Juno,  Apollo, 
Latona,  Diana,  the  Parcae,  Ceres,  Pluto,  and 
Proserpine.  On  the  first  night  of  the  feast  the 
emperor,  with  the  quindecemviri,  caused  three 
altars  to  be  erected  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber, 
which  they  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  three 
lambs,  and  then  proceeded  to  regular  sacrifice. 
A  space  was  next  marked  out  for  a  theatre,  which 
was  illuminated  with  innumerable  flambeaux 
and  fires.  Here  they  sung  hymns,  and  celebrated 
all  kinds  of  sports.  On  the  clay  after,  having 
offered  victims  at  the  capitol,  they  went  into  the 
Campus  Martius,  and  celebrated  sports  »o  the 


honor  of  Apollo  and  Diana.  These  lasted  till  the 
next  day,  when  the  noble  matrons,  at  the  hour 
appointed  by  the  oracle,  went  to  the  capitol  to 
sing  hymns  to  Jupiter.  On  the  third  day,  which 
concluded  the  solemnity,  twenty-seven  boys  and 
as  many  girls  sung  in  the  temple  of  Palatine 
Apollo  hymns  and  verses  in  Greek  and  Latin,  to 
recommend  the  city  to  the  protection  of  those 
deities  whom  they  designed  particularly  to  honor 
by  their  sacrifices.  The  inimitable  carmen  secu- 
lare  of  Horace  was  composed  for  this  last  day  in 
the  secular  games,  held  by  Augustus^  It  has  been 
much  disputed  whether  these  games  were  held 
every  100,  or  every  110  years.  Valerius  Antius, 
Varro,  and  Livy,  are  quoted  in  support  of  the  for- 
mer opinion  ;  in  favor  of  the  latter  may  be  pro- 
duced the  quindecemviral  registers,  the  edicts  of 
Augustus,  and  the  words  of  Horace  in  the  secular 
poem,  ccetus  undenos  decies  per  annos.  It  was  a 
general  belief  that  the  girls  who  bore  a  part  in 
the  song  should  be  soonest  married ;  and  that 
the  children  who  did  not  dance  and  sing  at  the 
coming  of  Apollo,  should  die  unmarried,  and  at 
an  early  period  of  life. 

SECULAR  POEM,  a  poem  sung  or  rehearsed  at 
the  secular  games ;  of  which  kind  we  have  a  very 
fine  piece  among  the  works  of  Horace,  being  a 
sapphic  ode  at  the  end  of  his  epodes. 

SECULARIZATION,  the  act  of  converting  a 
regular  person,  place,  or  benefice,  into  a  secular 
one.  Almost  all  the  cathedral  churches  were  an- 
ciently regular;  that  is,  the  canons  were  to  be 
religious  ;  but  they  have  been  since  secularized. 
For  the  secularization  of  a  regular  church,  there 
is  required  the  authority  of  the  pope,  that  of  the 
prince,  the  bishop  of  the  place,  the  patron,  and 
even  the  consent  of  the  people.  Religious  that 
want  to  be  released  from  their  vow,  obtain  briefs 
of  secularization  from  the  pope. 

SEC'UNDINE,  n.  s.  Yr.secondines,  secondes  ; 
Lat.  secundtf,  viz.  partes,  quod  nascentem  infantem 
sequantur.  Ainsworth.  The  membrane  in 
which  the  embryo  is  wrapped  ;  the  after  birth. 

The  casting  of  the  skin  is  by  the  ancients  com- 
pared to  the  breaking  of  the  tecundine,  or  cawl,  but 
not  rightly  ;  for  the  secundine  is  but  a  general  cover, 
uot  shaped  according  to  the  parts,  but  the  skin  is. 

Bacon's  Natural  History. 
Future  ages  lie 
Wrapped  in  their  sacred  secvndine  a  sleep.    Cowley. 

If  the  foetus-be  taken  out  of  the  womb  inclosed  in 
the  secundines,  it  will  continue  to  live,  and  the  blood 
to  circulate.  Ray. 

SECUNDINES,  in  anatomy,  are  the  chorion  and 
amnios,  with  the  placenta,  &c.  See  ANATOMT 
and  MIDWIFERY. 

SECUNDREPORE,  the  name  of  two  towns 
in  Hindostan,  one  in  the  province  of  Ajmeer, 
district  of  Jyepore  ;  the  other  in  the  province  of 
Allahabad,  district  of  Gazypoor. 

SECUNDUS  (Julius),  a  Roman  orator,  who 
flourished  under  Titus  Vespasian,  and  published 
Orations,  &c. 

SECUNDUS  (Nicholas  Everard),  a  descendant  of 
an  ancient  and  honorable  family  in  the  Nether- 
lands, was  born  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mid- 
dleburgh,  and  was  jn  high  favor  with  the  empe- 
ror Charles  V.,  haujng  been  employed  by  tliat 
monarch  in  several  stations  of  considerable  im- 


764 


SECUNDUS. 


portance.  He  was  first  a  member  of  the  grand 
parliament  or  council  of  Mechlin ;  afterwards 
president  of  the  states  of  Holland  and  Zealand 
at  the  Hague;  and,  lastly,  held  a  similar  office 
at  Mechlin,  where  he  died,  August  5th,  1532, 
aged  seventy.  These  various  employments  did 
not  occupy  the  whole  of  Everard's  time.  Not- 
withstanding the  multiplicity  of  his  business,  he 
found  leisure  to  cultivate  letters  with  great  suc- 
cess, and  even  to  act  as  preceptor  to  his  own 
children,  who  were  five  sons  and  three  daughters, 
and  all  took  the  name  of  Nicholas  from  their 
father. 

SECUNDUS  (Joannes  Nicolaus,  or  John  Nicho- 
las), youngest  son  of  the  preceding,  improved 
the  education  given  him  by  his  father,  and  be- 
came a  most  eminent  writer  of  Latin  poetry. 
Poetry,  however,  was  by  no  means  the  profes- 
sion which  his  father  wished  him  to  follow.  He 
intended  him  for  the  law,  and,  when  he  could 
no  longer  direct  his  studies  himself,  placed  him 
under  the  care  of  Jacobus  Valeardus.  This  man 
is  said  to  have  been  every  way  well  qualified  to 
discharge  the  important  trust  which  was  com- 
mitted to  him ;  and  he  certainly  gained  the  af- 
fection of  his  pupil,  who,  in  one  of  his  poems, 
mentions  the  death  of  Valeardus  with  every 
appearance  of  unfeigned  sorrow.  Another  tutor 
was  provided,  but  the  law  did  not  suit  Secun- 
dtis.  Poetry,  painting,  and  sculpture,  had  en- 
gaged his  mind  at  a  very  early  period.  Secundus 
wrote  verses  when  only  ten  years  old ;  and,  from 
}he  vast  quantity  which  he  left  behind  him,  such 
writing  was  evidently  his  principal  employment. 
He  found  time,  however,  to  carve  figures  of  all 
his  own  family,  of  his  mistresses,  of  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  of  several  eminent  personages  of 
those  times,  and  of  many  of  his  intimate  friends ; 
and  in  the  last  edition  of  his  works,  published  by 
Scriverius  at  Leyden,  1631,  there  is  a  print 
of  one  of  his  mistresses,  with  this  inscription 
round  it,  VATIS  AMATORIS  JULIA  SCULPTA  MANT. 
Secundus  having  nearly  attained  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  and  .being  determined  to  comply 
with  the  wishes  of  his  father,  quitted  Mechlin, 
and  went  to  France,  where  at  Bourges  he  studied 
the  civil  law  under  the  celebrated  Andreas  Al- 
ciatus.  Alciatus  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
civilians  of  that  age.  But  what  endeared  him 
most  to  our  author  was  his  acquaintance  with 
literature  and  his  taste  in  poetry.  Having  studied 
a  year  under  this  eminent  professor,  and  taken 
his  degrees,  Secundus  returned  to  Mechlin, 
where  he  remained  a  few  months.  In  1533  he 
went  into  Spain,  with  warm  recommendations 
to  the  count  of  Nassau  and  other  persons  ofhigh 
rank  ;  and  soon  afterwards  became  secretary  to 
the  cardinal  archbishop  of  Toledo,  in  a  deoart- 
ment  of  business  which  required  a  facility  in 
writing  with  elegance  the  Latin  language.  Dur- 
ing his  residence  with  this  cardinal,  he  wrote  his 
Basia,  a  series  of  wanton  poems,  of  which  the 
fifth,  seventh,  and  ninth  carmina  of  Catullus 
seem  to  have  given  the  hint.  Secundus  was  not, 
however,  a  servile  imitator  of  Catullus.  His 
expressions  seem  to  have  been  borrowed  rather 
from  Tibullus  and  Propertius ;  and,  in  the  warmth 
of  his  descriptions,  he  surpasses  every  thing  that 
has  been  written  on  similar  subjects  by  Catullus, 


Tibullus,  Propertius,  C.  Callus,  Ovid,  or  even 
Horace.  In  1535  he  accompanied  Charles  \  . 
to  the  siege  of  Tunis,  but  gained  no  laurel  as  a 
soldier.  The  hardships  of  that  memorable  sie«e 
were  little  suited  to  the  disposition  of  a  votary 
of  Venus  and  the  Muses  ;  and,  upon  an  enter- 
prise which  might  have  furnished  ample  matter 
for  an  epic  poem,  it  is  remarkable  that  Secundus 
wrote  nothing  worthy  of  preservation.  Having 
returned  from  his  martial  expedition,  he  was 
sent  by  the  cardinal  to  Rome  to  congratulate 
the  pope  upon  the  success  of  the  emperor's  arms ; 
but  was  taken  so  ill  OH  the  road  that  he  was  not 
able  to  complete  his  journey.  He  was  advised 
to  seek  the  benefit  ef  his  native  air ;  and  that 
happily  recovered  him.  Having  quitted  the  ser- 
vice of  the  cardinal,  he  was  employed  in  the 
same  office  by  the  bishop  of  Utrecht;  and  so 
great  was  his  fame  for  classical  elegance  that  he 
was  called  upon  to  fill  the  post  of  private  Latin 
secretary  to  the  emperor,  who  was  then  in  Italv  ; 
but,  before  he  could  enter  upon  it,  death  put  a 
stop  to  his  career  of  glory.  Having  arrived  at 
St.  Amand,  to  meet  with  the  bishop  of  Utrecht, 
he  was  on  the  8th  of  October,  1536,  cut  off  by  a 
violent  fever,  in  his  twenty-fifth  year.  He  was 
interred  in  the  church  of  the  Benedictines,  of 
which  his  patron,  the  bishop,  was  abbot ;  and  his 
relations  erected  to  his  memory  a  marble  monu- 
ment, with  a  Latin  inscription.  His  works  have 
gone  through  several  editions,  of  which  the  best 
and  most  copious  is  that  of  Scriverius.  It  con- 
sists of  Julia,  Eleg.  lib.  i. ;  Amores,  Eleg.  lib. 
ii. ;  ad  Diversos,  Eleg.  lib.  iii. ;  Basia,  styled 
by  the  editor  incomparabilis  et  divinus  prorsus 
liber ;  Epigrammata  ;  Odarum  liber  unus ;  Epis- 
tolarum  liber  unus  Elegiaca ;  Epistolarum  liber 
alter,  heroico  carmine  scriptus ;  Funerum  liber 
unus  ;  Sylvae  et  Carminum  fragmenta ;  -Poemata 
nonnulla  fratrum;  Itineraria  Secundi  Tria,  &c.; 
Epistolae  totidem,  soluta  oratione.  To  these 
works  ample  testimonies  are  prefixed  by  Lelius, 
Gregory  Gyraldus,  the  elder  Scaliger,  Theodore 
Beza,  and  others,  who  all  speak  of  them  with 
rapture.  A  French  critic,  indeed,  after  having 
affirmed  that  the  genius  -of  Secundus  never  pro- 
duced any  thing  which  was  not  excellent  'in  its 
kind,  adds,  with  too  much  truth,  '  Mais  sa  muse 
est  un  peu  trop  lascive.'  For  this  fault  our  au 
thor  makes  an  apology  in  a  Latin  epigram  ad- 
dressed to  the  grammarians ;  but,  as  the  poet 
observes, — 

Immodest  words  admit  of  no  defence, 
For  want  of  decency  is  want  of  sense. 

SECURE/,  adj.  &  v.  a.~\      Lat.  secants.  Free 

SECURF/LY,  adv.  (from   fear;    exempt 

SECURE'MENT,  n.  s.         £  from,  terror;    easy; 

SECU'KITY.  J  assured  ;  confident ; 

careless;  the  derivatives  corresponding. 

(Jideon  smote  the  host,  for  the  host  were  secure. 

Judges. 

When  they  had  taken  security  of  Jason,  they  let 
them  go.  Acts  xvii.  9. 

Love,  that  now  long  time  securely  slept 
In  Venus  lap,  unarmed  then  and  naked, 
'CJan  rear  his  head,  by  Clotho  being  waked. 

Speruer. 

There  is  scarcely  truth  enough  alive  to  make  socie- 
ties >ecure  •  but  security  enough  to  make  fellowships 
accurst.  ±>haks.peart. 


SEC 


765 


SED 


Tis  done,  like  Hector,  but  tecurely  done, 
A  little  proudly,  and  great  deal  misprising 
The  knight  opposed. 

Shukspeare.   Troilus  and  Cressida. 
How  senseless  then  and  dead  a  soul  hath  he 
Which  thinks  his  soul  doth  with  his  body  die ; 

Or  thinks  not  so,  but  so  would  have  it  be, 
That  he  might  sin  with  more  security !  Davies. 

Marvellous  security  is  always  dangerous,  when  men 
will  not  believe  any  bees  to  be  in  a  hive,  until  t':ey 
have  a  sharp  sense  of  their  stings.  Hayward. 

Confidence  then  bore  thee  on  secure 
To  meet  no  danger.  Milton. 

Haply  too  secure  of  our  discharge 
From  penalty.  Id. 

Nothing  left 

That  might  his  happy  state  secure.  Id. 

His  daring  foe  tecurely  him  defied.  Id. 

They,  like  Judas,  desire  death  ;  Cain,  on  the  con- 
trary, grew  afraid  thereof,  and  obtained  securement 
from  it.  Browne's  Vulgar  Errours. 

If  the  providence  of  God  be  taken  away,  what  se- 
curity have  we  against  those  innumerable  dangers  to 
which  human  nature  is  continually  exposed  ? 

Tiltotson. 

But  thou,  secure  of  soul,  unbent  with  woes, 
The  more  thy  fortune  frowns,  the  more  oppose. 

Dri/den. 

I  spread  a  cloud  before  the  victor's  sight, 
Sustained  the  vanquished,  and  secured  his  flight ; 
Even  then  secured  him,  when  I  sought  with  joy 
The  vowed  destruction  of  ungrateful  Troy.          Id. 

Secure  from  fortune's  blows, 
Secure  of  what  I  cannot  lose, 
In  my  small  pinnace  I  can  sail.  Id.  Horace. 
A  soul  that  can  securely  death  defy, 
And  count  it  nature's  privilege  to  die.  Id.  Juvenal. 

Actions  have  their  preference,  not  according  to  the 
transient  pleasure  or  pain  that  accompanies  or  follows 
them  here,  but  as  they  serve  to  secure  that  perfect 
durable  happiness  hereafter.  Locke. 

Deeper  to  wound,  she  shuns  the  fight ; 
She  drops  her  arms  to  gain  the  field : 
Secures  her  conquest  by  her  flight, 
And  triumphs  when  she  seems  to  yield.      Prior. 
It  concerns  the  most  secure  of  his  strength,  to  pray 
to  God  not  to  expose  him  to  an  enemy.         Rogers. 

The  portion  of  their  wealth  they  design  for  the 
uses  of  the  poor,  they  may  throw  into  one  of  these 
publick  repositories,  secure  that  it  will  be  well  em- 
ployed. Atterbury. 

We  live  and  act  as  if  we  were  perfectly  secure  of 
the  final  event  of  things,  however  we  may  behave 
ourselves.  Id. 

Whether  any  of  the  reasonings  are  inconsistent,  I 
securely  leave  to  the  judgment  of  the  reader.  Id. 

The  Romans  do  not  seem  to  have  known  the  secret 
of  paper  credit,  and  securities  upon  mortgages. 

Id.  on  Coins. 

It  is  possible  for  a  man,  who  hath  the  appearance 
of  religion,  to  be  wicked  and  an  hypocrite  ;  but  it  is 
impossible  for  a  man  who  openly  declares  against 
religion  to  give  any  reasonable  security  that  he  will 
not  be  false  and  cruel.  Swift. 

Exchequei  bills  have  been  generally  reckoned  the 
surest  and  most  sacred  of  all  securities.  Id.  Examiner. 

Some,  who  gave  their  advice  for  entering  into  a 
war,  alledged  that  we  should  have  no  security  for  our 
trade  while  Spain  was  subject  to  a  prince  of  the 
Bourbon  family.  Id. 

Nothing  can  be  more  artful  than  the  address  of 

Ulysses  :  he  secures  himself  of  a  powerful  advocate, 

by  paying  an  ingenuous  and  laudable  deference  to 

his  friend.  Broome. 

Where  two  or  three  sciences  are  pursued  at  the 


same  time,  if  one  of  them  be  dry,  as  logick,  let 
another  be  more  entertaining,  to  secure  the  mind 
from  weariness.  Watts. 

SECUTO11ES,  a  species  of  gladiators  among 
the  Romans,  whose  arms  were  a  helmet,  a  shield, 
and  a  sword  or  a  leaden  bullet.  They  were 
armed  in  this  manner,  because  they  had  to  con- 
tend with  the  retiarii,  who  were  dressed  in  a 
short  tunic,  bore  a  three-pointed  lance  in  their 
left  hand,  and  a  net  in  their  right.  The  retiarius 
attempted  to  cast  his  net  over  the  head  of  the  se- 
cutor;  and,  if  he  succeeded,  he  drew  it  together 
and  slew  him  with  his  trident ;  but,  if  he  missed 
his  aim,  he  immediately  betook  himself  to  flight 
till  he  could  find  a  second  opportunity  of  en- 
tangling his  adversary  with  his  net.  He  was 
pursued  by  the  secutor  in  his  flight. 

SEDAN',  n.  s.  1  believe  because  first  made 
at  Sedan. — Johnson.  A  kind  of  portable  coach ; 
a  chair. 

Some  beg  for  absent  persons,  feign  them  sick, 
Close  mewed  in  their  sedans  for  want  of  air, 
And  for  their  wives  produce  an  empty  chair. 

Dryden. 

By  a  tax  of  Cato's  it  was  provided  that  women's 
wearing  cloaths,  ornament,  and  sedan,  exceeding 
121/.  1*.  lOd.  halfpenny,  should  pay  30*.  in  the 
•hundred  pound  value.  Arbuthno' 

SEDAN,  a  considerable  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Ardennes,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Meuse,  and  strongly  fortified, 
partly  by  Vauban.  The  old  castle,  in  which 
Turenne  was  born,  is  now  converted  into  a  fine 
arsenal.  The  town  is  divided  into  Upper  and 
Lower,  and  is  very  uneven  and  irregular,  but  not 
ill-built.  Sedan  has  been  long  noted  for  its  ma- 
nufactures of  superfine  woollens,  of  fire-arms 
and  copper  articles ;  it  has  likewise  a  cannon 
foundry.  It  was  formerly  the  seat  of  a  Protes- 
tant university.  Inhabitants  11,000.  Thirty- 
seven  miles  south-east  of  Charlemont,  and  170 
north-east  of  Paris.  Long.  4  57  50'  E.,  lat.  49 
42  29'  N. 

SEDATE',  adj.     i      Lat.    sedatus.      Calm  ; 
SED  ATE' LY,  adv.    >  quiet ;  still ;  unruffled  ;  un- 
SEDATE'NESS,n.s.  j  disturbed  :  the  adverb  and 
noun  substantive  corresponding. 

With  countenance  calm  and  soul  sedate, 
Thus  Turnus.  Dryden's  JEneid. 

That  has  most  weight  with  them  that  appears  te- 
dately  to  come  from  their  parents'  reason.  Locke. 

There  is  a  particular  sedateness  in  their  conversa- 
tion and  behaviour  that  qualifies  them  for  council, 
with  a  great  intrepidity  that  fits  them  for  action. 

Addison  on  the  War. 

Disputation  carries  away  the  mind  from  that  calm 
and  sedate  temper  which  is  so  necessary  to  contem- 
plate truth.  Watts. 

SEDATIVES,  in  medicine,  a  general  name  for 
such  medicines  as  weaken  the  powers  of  nature, 
such  as  blood-letting,  cooling  salts,  purgatives, 
&c. 

SEDATIVES,  in  the  new  system  of  medicine, 
are  denied  to  have  any  existence.  Opium  was 
long  considered  by  physicians  as  a  sedative,  be- 
cause it  allays  pain,  and  induces  sleep,  &c.,  but 
its  first  and  chief  effect  is  highly  stimulant,  and 
these  are  only  the  consequences  of  the  indirect 
debility  that  arises  in  the  body,  when  the  stimu- 
lant effect  is  gone  off  (see  OPIUM),  as  is  the  case 
in  excess  of  wine,  spirits,  and  all  other  intoxicat- 


SED 


766 


SED 


ing  liquors.  In  short,  the  late  Dr.  Brown  and 
his  followers,  insist,  that  what  have  hitherto  been 
reckoned  sedative  powers  are  only  inferior  de- 
grees of  stimuli,  and  that  no  direct  sedatives,  as 
such,  exist  in  nature. 

SEDATIVE  SALT,  in  the  old  system  of  chemis- 
try, borax,  now  called  boracic  acid. 

SE  DEFENDENDO,  in  law,  a  plea  used  for 
him  that  is  charged  with  the  death  of  another, 
by  alleging  that  he  was  under  a  necessity  of  doing 
what  he  did  in  his  own  defence :  as  that  the 
other  assaulted  him  in  such  a  manner  that,  if  he 
had  not  done  what  he  did,  he  must  have  been  in 
hazard  of  his  own  life.  See  HOMICIDE  and 
MURDER. 

SEDENTARY,  adj.  Fr.  sedentaire ;  Ital. 
sedentario ;  Lat.  sedentarita,  of  sedeo.  Passed  in 
sitting  still ;  wanting  motion  or  action. 

A  tedeiitaryhfe,  appropriate  to  all  students,  crushes 
the  bowels  ;  and,  for  want  of  stirring  the  body,  suf- 
fers the  spirits  to  lie  dormant. 

Harvey  on  Consumptions. 
The  sedentary  earth, 
That  better  might  with  far  less  compass  move, 

Served  by  more  noble  than  herself,  attains 
Her  end  without  least  motion.  Milton. 

Till  length  of  years, 

And  tedentary  numbness,  craze  ray  limbs 
To  a  contemptible  old  age  obscure.     Id.  Agonistet. 

The  soul,  considered  abstractedly  from  its  passions, 
is  of  a  remiss  sedentary  nature,  slow  in  its  resolves, 
and  languishing  in  its  executions. 

Additon't  Spectator. 

The  blood  of  labouring  people  is  more  dense  and 
heavy  than  those  who  live  a  sedentary  life. 

Arbuthnot. 

SEDGE,  n.s.  \     Sax.  r*cj.    A  growth  of 
SED'GY,  adj.      }  narrow  flags  ;  a  narrow  flag. 

He  hid  himself  in  the  sedges  adjoining.      Sandys. 

Adonis,  painted  by  a  running  brook, 
And  Cytherea  all  in  ted  get  hid  ; 
U  hich  seem  to  move  and  wanton  with  her  breath, 
Kven  as  the  waving  tedge*  play  with  wind. 

Shaiapeare. 

On  the  gentle  Severn's  sedgy  bank, 
In  single  opposition,  hand  to  hand, 
He  did  confound  the  best  part  of  an  hour, 
In  changing  hardiment  with  great  Glendower. 

Id.  Henry  IV. 

In  hotter  countries  a  fly  called  lucciole,  that 
shineth  as  the  glowworm,  is  chiefly  upon  fens  and 
marshes  ;  yet  is  not  seen  but  in  the  height  of  sum- 
mer, and  sedge  or  other  green  of  the  fens  gives  as 
good  shade  as  bushes.  Bacon. 

My  bonds  I  brake, 

Fled  from  my  guard,  and,  in  a  muddy  lake, 
Amongst  the  tedget,  all  the  night  lay  hid.  Denham. 
Niphates,  with  inverted  urn, 

And  drooping  sedge,  shall  his  Armenia  mourn. 

Dry  den. 

Old  father  Thames  raised  up  his  reverend  head, 
But  feared  the  fate  of  Simoeis  would  return  : 

Deep  in  his  ooze  he  sought  his  tedgy  bed, 
A  ad  shrunk  his  waters  back  into  his  urn.  Id. 

SEDHOUT,  a  noted  fortress  of  Hindostan, 
in  the  province  of  Golcoodah,  and  district  of 
Cuddapah.  It  is  the  capital  of  a  small  district  of 
the  same  name,  belonging  to  the  British,  and 
was  taken  by  Meer  Joomla,  about  the  year  1650. 
At  this  period  Sedhout  and  the  adjoining  district 
were  celebrated  for  their  diamond  mines,  which 


do  not  now  exist.     The   fortress   is  six  mile* 
north-east  of  Cuddapah. 

SEDIMENT,  n.  s.  Fr.  sediment ;  Lat.  sedi- 
mentum.  That  which  subsides  or  settles  at  the 
bottom. 

The  salt  water  rises  into  a  kind  of  scum  on  the 
top,  and  partly  goeth  into  a  sediment  in  the  bottom, 
and  so  is  rather  a  separation  than  an  evaporation. 
Bacon's  Natural  History. 

It  is  not  bare  agitation,  but  the  sediment  at  the 
bottom,  that  troubles  and  defiles  the  water. 

South' t  Sermons. 

That  matter  sunk  not  down  till  last  of  all,  settling 
at  the  surface  of  the  sediment,  and  covering  all  the 
rest.  Woodward. 

SEDITION,  n.  s.  Fr.  sedition ;  Lat.  icditio. 
A  tumult ;  insurrection  ;  popular  commotion. 

That  sunshine  brewed  a  shower  for  him, 
That  washed  his  father's  fortunes  forth  of  France, 
And  heaped  sedition  on  his  crown  at  home. 

Shakspeare.   Henry  VI. 

In  soothing  them,  we  nourished  'gainst  our  senate 
The  cockle  of  rebellion,  insolence,  sedition. 

Id.   Coriolanus. 

The  cause  why  I  have  brought  this  army  hither, 
Is  to  remove  proud  Somerset  from  the  king, 
Seditious  to  his  grace  and  to  the  state. 

Id.  Henry  VI. 

Very  many  of  the  nobility  in  Edinborough,  at  that 
time,  did  not  appear  yet  in  this  seditious  behaviour., 

Clarendon. 
Thou  returnest 

From  flight,  sfditious  angel.  Milton. 

But,  if  she  has  deformed  this  earthly  life 
With  murderous  rapine  and  seditious  strife, 
In  everlasting  darkness  must  she  lie  ; 
Still  more  unhappy  that  she  cannot  die.  Prior. 
SEDITION,  in  the  civil  law,  is  used  for  a  fac- 
tious commotion  of  the  people,  or  an  assembly 
of  a  number  of  citizens  without  lawful  authority, 
tending  to  disturb  the  peace  and  order  of  so- 
ciety. This  offence  is  of  different  kinds:  some 
seditions  more  immediately  threatening  the  su- 
preme power,  and  the  subversion  of  the  consti- 
tution j  others  tending  only  towards  the  redress 
of  private  grievances.  Among  the  Romans, 
therefore,  it  was  variously  punished,  according 
as  its  end  and  tendency  threatened  greater  mis- 
chief. See  lib.  1,  Cod.  de  Seditiosis;  and  Mat. 
de  Crimin.  lib.  ii.  n.  5,  de  Laesa  Majestate.  In 
the  punishment  the  authors  and  ringleaders  were 
justly  distinguished  from  those  who,  with  less 
wicked  intention,  joined  and  made  part  of  the 
multitude.  The  same  distinction  holds  in  the 
law  of  England  and  in  that  of  Scotland.  Some 
kinds  of  sedition  in  England  amount  to  high 
treason,  and  come  within  the  statute  25  Edw. 
III.  as  levying  war  against  the  king.  And  se- 
veral seditions  are  mentioned  in  the  Scottish  act* 
of  parliament  as  treasonable. — Bayne's  Crim. 
Law  of  Scotland,  pp.  33,  34.  The  law  of  Scot- 
land makes  riotous  and  tumultuous  assemblies  a 
species  of  sedition.  But  the  law  there,  as  well 
as  in  England,  is  now  chiefly  regulated  by  the 
riot  act,  made  1  Geo.  I. ;  only  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  the  proper  officers  in  Scotland,  to 
make  the  proclamation  thereby  enacted,  are 
sheriffs,  stewards,  and  bailies  of  regalities,  or  their 
deputies ;  magistrates  of  royal  boroughs,  and  all 
other  inferior  judges  and  magistrates  ;  high  and 
petty  constables,  or  other  officers  of  the  peace, 


SED 


767 


SED 


in  any  county,  stewartry,  city,  or  town.  And  in 
that  part  of  the  island,  the  punishment  of  the 
offence  is  any  thing  short  of  death  which  the 
judges,  in  their  discretion,  may  appoint. 

SEDLEY  (Sir  Charles),  an  English  poet  and 
•wit,  the  son  of  Sir  John  Sedley,  of  Aylesford,  in 
Kent,  born  about  1639.  At  the  restoration  he 
came  to  London  to  join  the  general  jubilee,  and 
commenced  wit,  courtier,  poet,  and  gallant.  He 
was  so  much  admired  that  he  became  a  kind  of 
oracle  among  the  poets;  which  made  king 
Charles  tell  him  that  nature  had  given  him  a 
patent  to  be  Apollo's  viceroy.  The  productions 
of  his  pen  were  some  plays,  and  some  delicately 
tender  amorous  poems>,  in  which  the  softness  of 
his  verses  was  so  exquisite,  as  to  be  called  by  the 
duke  of  Buckingham  Sedley's  witchcraft.  'There 
were  no  marks  of  genius  or  true  poetry  to  be 
described,'  say  the  authors  of  the  Biographia 
Britannica;  'the  art  wholly  consisted  in  raising 
loose  thoughts  and  lewd  desires,  without  giving 
any  alarm ;  and  so  the  poison  worked  gently  and 
irresistibly.  Our  author,  we  may  be  sure,  did 
not  escape  the  infection  of  his  own  art,  or  rather 
•was  first  tainted  himself  before  he  spread  the  in- 
fection to  others.'  A  very  ingenious  writer  of 
the  present  day,  however,  speaks  much  more  fa- 
vorably of  Sir  Charles  Sedley's  writings.  '  He 
studied  human  nature;  and  was  distinguished 
for  the  art  of  making  himself  agreeable,  particu- 
larly to  the  ladies ;  for  the  verses  of  lord  Ro- 
chester, beginning  with,  '  Sedley  has  that  prevail- 
ing gentle  art,'  &c.,  so  often  quoted,  allude  not  to 
his  writings,  but  to  his  personal  address.' — Lang- 
horn's  Effusions,  &c.  But  while  he  thus  grew 
in  reputation  for  wit,  and  in  favor  with  the  king, 
he  grew  poor  and  debauched  ;  his  estate  was  im- 
paired, and  his  morals  were  corrupted.  One  of 
his  follies,  however,  being  followed  by  an  indict- 
ment and  a  heavy  fine,  Sir  Charles  reformed,  ap- 
plied himself  to  business,  and  became  a  member 
of  parliament,  in  which  he  was  a  frequent 
speaker.  He  was  in  the  house  of  commons  in 
the  reign  of  James  If.,  whose  attempts  upon  the 
constitution  he  vigorously  withstood;  and  he 
was  very  active  in  bringing  on  the  Revolution. 
This  was  thought  more  extraordinary  as  he  had 
received  favors  from  James.  But  that  prince 
had  taken  a  fancy  to  Sir  Charles's  daughter,  and, 
in  consequence  of  his  intrigues  with  her,  he 
created  her  countess  of  Dorchester.  This  ho- 
nor so  far  from  pleasing,  greatly  shocked  Sir 
Charles.  However  libertine  he  himself  had 
been,  yet  he  could  not  bear  the  thoughts  of  his 
daughter's  dishonor ;  and,  with  regard  to  her 
exaltation,  he  only  considered  it  as  rendering  her 
more  conspicuously  infamous.  He  therefore 
conceived  a  hatred  for  the  king ;  and  from  this 
and  other  motives,  perhaps  patriotic,  readily 
joined  to  dispossess  him  of  his  throne.  '  I  hate 
ingratitude,'  said  he,  'and  therefore,  as  the  king 
has  made  my  daughter  a  countess,  I  will  endea- 
vour to  make  his  daughter  a  queen;  meaning 
the  princess  Mary,  married  to  the  prince  of 
Orange,  who  deprived  James  of  his  crown  at  the 
Revolution.  He  lived  to  the  beginning  of  queen 
Anne's  reign ;  and  his  works  were  printed  in  2 
vols.  8vo.  1719. 

SEDIl,   or   SEDRE,   the    high-priest  of    the 


sect  of  Ali  among  the  Persians.  The  sedre  ii 
appointed  by  the  emperor  of  Persia,  who  usually 
confers  the  dignity  on  his  nearest  relation.  The 
jurisdiction  of  the  sedre  extends  over  all  effects 
destined  for  pious  purposes,  over  all  mosques, 
hospitals,  colleges,  sepulchres,  and  monasteries. 
He  disposes  of  all  ecclesiastical  employments, 
and  nominates  all  the  superiors  of  religious 
houses.  His  decisions  in  matters  of  religion  are 
received  as  so  many  infallible  oracles ;  he  judges 
of  all  criminal  matters  in  his  own  house  without 
appeal.  His  authority  is  balanced  by  that  of 
the  mudsitehid,  or  first  theologue  of  the  empire. 

SEDUCE',  v.  a.  \  ¥t.seduire;Lai.seduco. 
SEDUCE'MENT,  n.  s. /To  draw  aside  from  the 
SEDU'CER,  Bright;  tempt;  corrupt; 

SEDU'CIBLE,  adj.  i  deprave;  deceive:  se- 
SEDUC'TION,  n.  s.  J  ducement  is  the  practice 

of  seduction :  seducer  and  the  other  derivatives 

correspond. 

In  the  latter  times  some  shall  depart  from  the 
faith,  giving  heed  to  seducing  spirits.     I  Tim.  iv.  1. 
Me  the  gold  of  France  did  not  teduce, 

Although  I  did  admit  it  as  a  motive 

The  sooner  to  effect  what  I  intended. 

Shakspeare.  Henry  V. 

A  beauty-waining  and  distressed  widow 
Seduced  the  pitch  and  height  of  all  his  thoughts 
To  base  declension.  Id.  Richard  III. 

Grant  it  me,  O  king ;  otherwise  a  seducer  flourishes, 
and  a  poor  maid  is  undone.  Shabspeare. 

1  shall  never  gratify  the  spitefulness  of  a  few  with 
any  sinister  thoughts  of  all  their  allegiance,  whom 
pious  frauds  have  seduced.  King  Charles. 

Whatsoever  men's  faith,  patience,  or  perseverance 
were,  any  remarkable  indulgence  to  this  sin,  the  se- 
duction of  Balaam,  was  sure  to  bring  judgments. 

Hammond. 

Subtle  he  needs  must  be  who  could  seduce 
Angels.  Milton. 

To  season  them,  and  win  them  early  to  the  love 
of  virtue  and  true  labour,  ere  any  flattering  seduce  - 
ment  or  vain  principle  seize  them  wandering,  some 
easy  and  delightful  book  of  education  should  be  read 
to  them.  Id.  on  Education. 

We  owe  much  of  our  errour  to  the  power  which 
our  affections  have  over  our  so  easy  seducible  under- 
standings. Glanrilte. 

The  deceiver  soon  found  out  this  soft  place  of 
Adam's,  and  innocency  itself  did  not  secure  him 
from  this  way  of  seduction.  Id.  Scepsis. 

To  procure  the  miseries  of  others  in  those  extremi- 
ties, wherein  we  hold  an  hope  to  have  no  society  our- 
selves, is  a  strain  above  Lucifer,  and  a  project  beyond 
the  primary  seduction  of  hell. 

Browne's  Vulgar  Errour*. 

The  vicious  example  of  ages  past  poisons  the 
curiosity  of  the  present,  affording  a  hint  of  sin  unto 
seducible  spirits.  Browne. 

Nor  let  false  friends  seduce  thy  mind  to  fame 
By  arrogating  Jonson's  hostile  name  ; 
Let  father  Flecknoe  fire  thy  mind  with  praise, 
And  uncle  Ogleby  thy  envy  raise.  Dryden. 

He,  whose  firm  faith  no  reason  could  remove, 
Will  melt  before  that  soft  seducer,  love.  Id. 

There  is  a  teaching  by  restraining  seducers,  and 
so  removing  the  hindrances  oftnowledge.  South. 

Her  hero's  dangers  touched  the  pitying  power, 
The  nvmph's  seducements,  and  the  magick  bower. 

Pope. 

llttkn  ascribes  her  seduction  to  Venus,  and  men- 
tions nothing  of  Paris.  la 


768 


SEDUCTION. 


A  woman  who  is  above  flattery,  and  despises  all 
praise  but  that  which  flows  from  the  approbation  of 
her  own  heart,  is,  morally  speaking,  out  of  the  reach 
of  seduction.  C'torisw. 

I  know  that  the  devil  is  continually  lying  in  wait 
to  seduce  and  destroy  the  souls  of  men.  Patey. 

SEDUCTION,  is  the  act  of  tempting  and  draw- 
ing aside  from  the  right  path,  and  comprehends 
every  endeavour»to  corrupt  any  individual  of  the 
human  race.  This  is  the  import  of  the  word  in 
its  largest  and  most  general  sense;  but  it  is 
commonly  employed  to  express  the  act  of  tempt- 
ing a  virtuous  woman  to  part  with  her  chastity. 
The  seducer  of  female  innocence  practises  the 


husbands,  and  evils  so  great  result  from  the 
violation  of  that  fidelity,  that,  whatever  con  tri 
butes  in  any  degree  to  its  preservation,  m;;st  he- 
agreeable  to  him  who,  in  establishing  the  laws  of 
nature,  intended  them  to  be  subservient  to  the 
real  happiness  of  all  his  creatures.  But  nothing 
contributes  so  much  to  preserve  the  fidelity  of 
wives  to  their  husbands  as  the  impressing  upon 
the  minds  of  women  the  highest  veneration  for 
the  virtue  of  chastity.  She  who,  when  unmar- 
ried, has  been  accustomed  to  grant  favors  to 
different  men,  will  not  find  it  easy,  if  indeed 
possible,  to  resist  afterwards  the  allurements  of 
variety,  after  marriage.  It  is  therefore  a  wise 
institution,  and  agreeable  to  the  will  of  Him  who 


same  stratagems  of  fraud  to  get  posession  of  a  made  us,  to  train  up  women  so  as  that  they  may 

woman's  person,  that  the  swindler  employs  to  look  upon  the  loss  of  their  chastity  as  the  most 

get  possession  of  his  neighbour's  goods  or  money ;  disgraceful  of  all  crimes,  as  that  which   sinks 

yet  the  law  of  honor,  which  pretends  to  abhor  them  in  the  order  of  society,  and  robs  them  of 

deceit,  and  which  impels  its  votaries  to  murder  all  their  value.     In  this  light  virtuous  women 

every  man   who  presumes,  however  justly,   to  actually  look  upon  the  loss  of  chastity.    The 

suspect  them  of  fraud,  or  to  question  their  ve-  importance  of  that  virtue  has  been  so  deeply 

racity,  applauds  the  address  of  a  successful  in-  impressed  upon  their  minds,  and  is  so  closely 

trigue,  though  it  be  well  known  that  the  seducer  associated  with  the  principle  of  honor,  that  they 


could  not  have  obtained  his  end  without  swear- 
ing to  the  truth  of  a  thousand  falsehoods,  and 


cannot  think  but  with  abhorrence  upon  the  very 
deed  by  which  it  is  lost.     He  therefore  who,  by 


calling  upon  God  to  witness  promises  which  he    fraud  and  falsehood,  persuades  the  unsuspecting 


never  meant  to  fulfil.    The  law  of  honor  is  in- 
deed a  very  capricious  rule,  which  accommo- 


girl  to  deviate  in  one  instance  from  the  honor  of 
the  sex,  weakens  in  a  great  degree  her  moral 


dates  itself  to  the  pleasures  and  conveniences  of    principle ;  and,  if  he  reconcile  her  to  a  repetition 


high  life;  but  the  law  of  the   land,  which   is 
enacted  for  the  equal  protection   of  high   and 


of  her  crime,  he  destroys  that  principle  entirely, 
as  she  has  been  taught  to  consider  all  other  vir- 


low,  may   be    supposed  to   view  the  guilt   of  tues  as  inferior  to  that  of  chastity.     Hence  it  is 

seduction  with  a  more  impartial  eye.     Yet,  for  that    the    hearts    of  prostitutes    are    generally 

this  offence,  even  the  laws  of  this  kingdom  have  steeled  against  the  miseries  of  their  fellow-crea- 

provided  no  other  punishment  than  a  pecuniary  tures ;  that  they  lend  their  aid  to  the  seducer  in 

satisfaction  to  the  injured  family,  which,  in  Eng-  his  practices  upon  other  girls  ;  that  they  lie  and 

land,  can  be  obtained  only  by  one  of  the  quaint-  swear,  and  steal  without  compunction  ;  and  that 

est  fictions  in  the  world,  by  the  father's  bringing  too  many  of  them  hestitate  not  to  commit  murder, 


his  action  against  the  seducer  for  the  loss  of  his 
daughter's  service  during  her  pregnancy  and 
nurturing.  (See  Paley's  Moral  Philosophy,  book 
III.,  part  iii.  chap.  3.)  The  moralist,  however, 
who  estimates  the  merit  or  demerit  of  actions, 
not  by  laws  of  human  appointment,  but  their 
general  consequences  as  established  by  the  laws 
of  nature,  must  consider  the  seducer  as  a  crimi- 
nal of  the  deepest  guilt.  In  every  civilised 
country,  and  in  many  countries  where  civilisa- 


if  it  can  serve  any  selfish  purpose  of  their  own. 
The  loss  of  virtue,  though  the  greatest  that  man 
or  woman  can  sustain,  is  not  the  only  injury 
which  the  seducer  brings  upon  the  girl  whom  he 
deceives.  She  cannot  at  once  reconcile  herself 
to  prostitution,  or  even  to  the  loss  of  character ; 
and  while  a  sense  of  shame  remains  in  her  mind, 
the  misery  which  she  suffers  must  be  exquisite. 
She  knows  that  she  has  forfeited  what  in  the 
female  character  is  most  valued  by  both  sexes ; 


tion  has  made  but  small  progress,  the  virtue  of    and  she  must  be  under  the  perpetual  dread  of  a 


women  is  collected  as  it  were  into  a  single  point, 
which  they  are  to  guard  above  all  things,  as  that 
on  which  their  happiness  and  reputation  wholly 
depend.  At  first  sight  this  may  appear  a  capri- 
cious regulation ;  but  a  moment's  reflection  will 
convince  us  of  the  contrary.  In  the  married 
state  so  much  confidence  is  necessarily  reposed 
in  the  fidelity  of  women  to  the  beds  of  their 


discovery.  She  cannot  even  confide  in  the  ho- 
nor of  her  seducer,  who  may  reveal  her  secret  in 
a  fit  of  drunkenness,  and  thus  rob  her  of  her 
fame  as  well  as  of  her  virtue  ;  and,  while  she  is 
in  this  state  of  anxious  uncertainty,  the  agony  of 
her  mind  must  be  insupportable. 

We  shall  resume  this  subject  at  the  beginning 
of  the  next  volume. 


END  OF  VOL.  XIX. 


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