Louisiana and the Fair : an exposition of the world, its people and their achievements

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

THE GIFT OF

MAY TREAT MORRISON

IN MEMORY OF

ALEXANDER F MORRISON

IOUISIANA

'

AN EXPOSITION OFTMEWORLD

ITS PEOPLE AND THEIR

ACHIEVEMENTS.

J.WBUEL, Ph.D

fcDITOR..

WODLD'S PROGRESS PUBLISHING CO
.SAINT LOUIS.

Copyright 1904,

by
j! W. BDEL

St. Louis.

INTRODUCTION.

VOLUME IH.

ETTLEMENT of the West is a subject
at once thrilling and fascinating, with
romance, adventure, sufferings, and
experiences as diversified as befel the
Jasonian Argonauts of legendary his-
tory. While these failed in their
quest of the golden fleece,
pioneers of America who
were inspired by a like
ambition found in the
West a new Eldorado, in
which wealth of all that
nature carries in her am-
ple storehouse was the
reward of their strivings.
The story has been seldom told, for history has dealt par-
tially with the East and almost ignored that vast region
which commanded attention after the nation was estab-
lished.

In this volume will be found a record of trans-Mississippi
exploration and development in which appears, probably,
the first consecutive narrative that has been published of
territorial organization, state admissions, extension of set-
tlements, and industrial inauguration whereby the West
has become not only the granary of the world, but the
sinew of America. To very few now living is the history

of river navigation known, and the number is not great
who are familiar with the railroad enterprises that brought
into quick communication with the East the empire that
was acquired by purchase from France. This information
is supplied in Volume III., which forms one of the most
interesting and important divisions supplementing the his-
tory of our country, with which it is the patriotic duty of
every American to be acquainted.

The story herein recounts the heroism of those explorers
who were first to make a passage of the Rocky Mountains,
of Lewis and Clark, to whose efforts the West — the world —
owes so much that homage should be paid to their names,
and of such as come after them blazing ways for the
advance of that industrious host that has reclaimed to civil-
ization and development the western half of the United
States, and thereby made of this confederacy a compact
and impregnable nation, resourceful, virile, potential.

In the narrative of the exploits of such western explorers
and pioneers as La Salle, Joliet, Marquette, La Vendryre,
Hennepin, Tonti, Lyiclede, Pike, Fremont, De Smet, and
others whose lives are told in these volumes, there is ample
to satisfy the appetite for adventure while serving to
instruct in American history, and no less interesting will be
found the story herein of early days of boating, the
pirogue, the keel-boat, the Mackinaw, the flatboat, and the
steamboat on our western waters, followed by the founding
of trading posts, many of which have become thriving
cities, teeming with population and noisy with the whirr of
busy factories turning out products that compete in the
markets of the world. It has been a marvelous transfor-
mation, and one which may well inspire us with feelings of
self-felicitation, as it has won the admiration of all peoples.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

VOLUME III.

DIVISION XLIII.

PAGE

THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS—

New Orleans founded — Earlier settlements — Laclede's jour-
ney up the Mississippi — St. Genevieve and Fort Chartres —
First news of the treaty between France and England —
Laclede establishes a trading-post at St. Louis — General de
Belle Rive removes to St. Louis — Building the town — Civil
administration and land grants — Founding of other posts in
the vicinity — Pontiac's heroism — His reception at St. Louis
— Murder of Pontiac — Governors of Upper Louisiana — St.
Louis attacked by Indians — Population of settlements in
Upper Louisiana — Bellefontaine post — Jefferson Barracks
established — Great speculation in real estate 827-854

DIVISION XLIV.

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY—

Serious disputes over the question of free navigation of
the Mississippi — Minister Genet's proposal — Jefferson con-
fronted with a perplexing problem — New Orleans as a port
of deposit — The secret treaty of San Udefonso — Proposition
made to acquire Louisiana — Livingston and Monroe at the
Court of Napoleon — An unexpected counter proposition —
French spoliation claims — Conclusion of the negotiations —
Violent opposition to confirmation of the Purchase — Imme-
diate effects of the Purchase — Some astonishing statistical

information — A story of amazing development 855-887

I

CONTENTS

DIVISION XLV.

TRANSFER OF UPPER LOUISIANA—

The Capitol Building at St. Louis — The mixed population
of St. Louis— The fur trade— Spanish hostility to the trans-
fer— The ceremony of transfer — Captain Stoddart represents
two nations — Official orders that completed the transfer 888-898

DIVISION XL VI.

BOUNDARY OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE—

Indefiniteness of lines of delimitation — Disputes arise over
the demarcation of Florida and Louisiana — No maps made
of the country — The plot of King and Hamilton — The ac-
quisition of Florida — Contention with England over the
north boundary — Story of a Natchez Indian explorer — The
valid titles of Spain and France to the Northwest — The
acquisition of Oregon 899-909

DIVISION XLVII.

LOUISIANA AFTER THE SESSION—

Organizing the territory^of Louisiana — Dissatisfaction over
the territorial ordinances — Prohibition of slavery — Assem-
bling of the first legislature — The suffrage provision — Antag-
onisms between Spaniards and Americans — War imminent —
The Aaron Burr conspiracy — General Wilkinson under sus-
picion—Martial law declared in New Orleans — Object of
Pike's expedition — Hostile attitude of England — Efforts to
protect Upper Louisiana — Troops sent to Natchez — A terri-
ble malady destroys the greater number — Baton Rouge dis-
trict still held by Spaniards — Americans attack the Spanish
garrison — Occupation of West Florida — An uprising of slaves
— The Insurrection put down — War with England — New Or-
leans exposed to an attack — English sympathizers in control
of the courts — General Jackson fined for contempt of court.. 910-929

DIVISION XLVIII.

EVENTS PRECEDING THE LEWIS AND CLARK EX-
PEDITION—

The Spanish Conquistadores — Intrepidity of the French ex-
plorers— Founding of New France — A charter for exclusive

II

CONTENTS

trade privileges in Louisiana given to Crozat — John Law his
successor — The Mississippi Bubble — Importing women to
become wives of the settlers — Great events which the French
failed to profit by — The English conquest of Canada — Amer-
ica lost to France — The rise and setting of Napoleon — Spain
forced to accept Napoleon's proposals — The San Ildefonso
treaty brings opportunity to the door of the United States . . 930-942

DIVISION XLIX.

THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION—

A story of adventure that ranks with that of early African ex-
plorations— Wonders of a century of development — Jeffer-
son's remarkable foresight — His determination to acquire in-
formation of the Northwest — Selection of Captains Lewis
and Clark to command an expedition — The two proceed to
St. Louis — Enlistment of men for the journey — Departure of
the expedition — Adventures on an ascent of the Missouri —
Many tribes of Indians that are now extinct — First council
with Indians — Introduction to the Sioux country — A re-
markable mound — Zoology of the region — An entertainment
by the Yanktons — Beautiful imagery of certain Indian tribes
— Punishment of a deserter — The Mandans — Singular tradi-
tions and religious beliefs — The expedition winters among
the Mandans — Methods of hunting the buffalo 943-965

DIVISION L.

PROGRESS AND ADVENTURES OF THE EXPEDI-
TION—

Engagement of Chaboneau and Sacajawea as guides — Herd
of buffaloes attacked by wolves — Big game of many kinds
abounds— First view of the Yellowstone — Beavers' huts
choke the lateral streams — Strength and ferocity of white
bears — Captain Lewis chased by a bear — How wolves hunt
the antelope — Killing a brown bear — Driving a herd of buf-
faloes over a precipice — Arrival at the mouth of Maria's
River — Scenic wonders of the Upper Missouri — The Great
Falls — A park in which buffaloes, bears and wolves abound
— Narrow escape from a cloudburst — Difficulty encountered
in trying to build canoes — In the country of the Shoshones

— A journey of intense sufferings 966-989

III

CONTENTS

DIVISION LI.

PASSAGE OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS—

The three forks of the Missouri — Ascent of the Jefferson
branch — Beaver villages obstruct the stream — Animal life
becomes scarce and hunger ensues — Reduced to a sorry con-
dition—Trying to find an Indian camp — Meeting with a
band of Shoshones — Friendly reception by the chief — An
antelope hunt — Famished Indians feast off the entrails of a
deer — Meeting of Sacajawea and her brother — York, a negro
servant, highly regarded by Indian women — Reports of
Columbia River — The Shoshones furnish horses — Extreme
barrenness of the country 990-1004

DIVISION LII.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHWEST INDIANS—
Subsistence on roots and berries — Fish-seins made of willow
— Afflicted with poverty the Shoshones still remain honest
and unselfish — Their morality and decorum — Vindictively
pursued by the Pawnees — Domestic life — Value of scalps as
tokens of prowess — Indians frequently change their names —
Meeting with a band of Salish — Dreadful mountain climbing
— Miseries of the expedition multiply — Food obtained from
a party of Nez Perec's — Negotiations for dried salmon and
roots — Directed to the Columbia — Afloat on the Clearwater
— Many Indian villages on the river — Bartering with the
natives — In the land of salmon — Indians believe Captain
Clark to be a great magician — Strange customs of the Pish-
quitpaws — Disposition of their dead 1005-1021

DIVISION LIII.

PASSAGE OF THE CONTINENT COMPLETED—

The expedition reaches the falls of the Columbia — A difficult
portage — Indian method of preserving fish — Members of the
expedition acquire a liking for dog flesh — Shooting the
Dalles — Effects of violin music upon Indians — Desire to
adopt negro York into their tribe — Real purposes of the ex-
pedition— Singular houses and habits of the Chilluckitte-
quaw tribe— A bunch of forefingers offered for beads— The

IV

CONTENTS

ocean is sighted — Establishing a camp and building a fort
in which to spend the winter — Exploring the adjacent coun-
try— Trade and social relations with the Chinnooks — A
shocking custom — Gambling games 1022-1035

DIVISION LIV.

THE RETURN TRIP BEGUN—

A supply of food obtained from Chief Coboway — For which
Captain Lewis gives the Indians the seven huts his expedi-
tion occupied — Certificates attesting kindness also bestowed
— Notices of the Overland Passage accomplished set up —
The expedition leaves Fort Clatsop amid the wails of friendly
Indians — Ascent of the Columbia — Exploring the Willamette
country — Gathering wappatoo — Weapons of the Multnomah
nation — Manner of disposing of their dead — Cordelling
canoes through the Dalles — Troubles with Indians — Negotia-
tions conducted for horses— A dispute with Chief Twisted
Hair — Subsisting on horse and dog flesh — Forced to go into
camp to await the melting of a heavy snow — Captain Clark
a great medicine man — The expedition is divided — McNeal
has a narrow escape from a bear — Meeting with a party of
Blackfeet — A surprise, and battle, in which two Indians are
killed — Captain Lewis accidentally shot 1036-1056

DIVISION LV.

EXPLORATION OF THE YELLOWSTONE—

Captain Clark's journey overland — His party divided — Seri-
ous accident to one of the men — Half their horses stolen by
Crow Indians — Afloat on Yellowstone river — Potnpey's Pil-
lar— Big Horn sheep and beaver abound — Progress inter-
rupted by vast herds of buffaloes — Bears become troublesome
— A plague of mosquitoes — Building bull-boats — Reunion of
the expedition — A council with the Minnetarees — Chief per-
suaded to visit Washington — The guides discharged — Arrival
at Mandan — Progress down the Missouri — A post recom-
mended to be built where Kansas City now stands — Delight
inspired by a sight of cows — Arrival and reception at St.
Charles — Completion of the journey, and celebration of the

return to St. Louis 1057-1072

V

CONTENTS
DIVISION LVL

PAGE

SUBSEQUENT CAREERS OF LEWIS AND CLARK—
An empire added to the nation— One of the world's greatest
expeditions— Jefferson's purposes and his remarkable fore-
sight— First proposals as to a Northwest expedition — Peculiar
fitness of Captain Lewis as a leader— Captain Lewis' report
to Congress — Appointed Governor of Louisiana— Captain
Clark made general of the territory militia — Jefferson's
tribute to Lewis — The president's account of the Lewis
tragedy — Suicide in a wayside tavern — Captain Clark ap-
pointed Governor of Missouri territory— His death in St.
Louis — Careers of other members of the expedition 1073-1083

DIVISION LVIL

EXPLORATIONS OF PIKE AND FREMONT—

Lieutenant Pike sent to discover the source of the Missis-
sippi— A council with Sioux Indians — Portage around St.
Anthony Falls — Winter spent in Minnesota — Pike's return
to St. Louis, and departure on an expedition to the West —
Seeking the source of Arkansas river — Discovery of Pike's
Peak — Vain attempt to reach the summit — In search of the
source of Red river — Pike is arrested by Spaniards — Ugly
insinuations, reflecting on General Wilkinson — Fremont's
expeditions to the far West — Fremont's Pass — Exploration
of Salt Lake — In the Columbia River country — Fremont's
services in California — Other explorers of the West 1084-1097

DIVISION LVIII.

THE MISSIONARY LABORS OF FATHER DE SMET—
Effects of Missionary work among the Indians — Heroes of
the Cross — De Smet's arrival at Astoria — Setting up a mis-
sion boarding-school — Creating bonds of sympathy— Cus-
toms of Oregon Indians — How Camish root is cooked — A
fish banquet — Disgusting food of certain Indians — Cannibal-
ism during famines — Fight between Crees and Blackfeet —
Interesting Indian legends — How men and women first
came to be mated — Propitiating gods of good and evil — The
Indian idea of Creation — Echoes of Norse and Egyptian

VI

CONTENTS

mythology — The god of judgment — The medicine spirit —
Superstitious rites and strange beliefs — The Pawnees sacri-
fice a young girl — Description of the sacrifice — Affinity with
the Toltec and Aztec religious customs — Are the Pawnees
descendants of the Mound Builders ? — The great good ac-
complished by De Smet 1098-1119

DIVISION LIX.

EXTENSION OF SETTLEMENTS AND DISPUTES WITH

ENGLAND—

Pioneers pour into the Mississippi Valley — St. Louis a
French town — Settlements along White, Arkansas and St.
Francis rivers — Organization of Arkansas territory — Missouri
applies for statehood — Vexatious questions delay her admis-
sion— Rapid increase of population — Arkansas becomes a
state — The Black Hawk war — Settlement of Iowa — A treaty
with the Sauk and Fox Indians — Seeking an Eldorado in
the farther West — The Star of Empire moves to Oregon —
" Fifty-four-forty or fight ' ' — Admission of Oregon 1120-1 13 1

DIVISION LX.

WAR WITH ENGLAND,— BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS—
Louisiana a storm center of dispute with England — Break-
ing faith with France — Jay's treaty an affront to France —
The War of 1812 and its causes — Jackson's victory at the
Horse-Shoe — Jackson made major-general — He places New
Orleans in a state of defense — Lafitte and his band of pirates
enlisted — Invasion of Louisiana by General Packenham —
Plan of the British attack — Description of the battle — Pack-
enham killed and the British routed — Failure of the English
fleet to cooperate — Louisiana enters upon a career of great
prosperity — Her constitutions of 1812 and 1844 1132-1146

DIVISION LXI.

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE—

Infinite natural resources of the West — Navigation by pi-
rogue and keel-boat — Character of boatmen — Earliest freight

VII

CONTENTS

service on the Ohio and Mississippi — Recklessness of flat-
boatmen — How keel-boats were navigated — Hardships of an
up-river trip — An interesting advertisement — First voyage
from Pittsburg to New Orleans — Coming of the steamboat —
Record of steamboat building — Packet lines established on
the Mississippi, Red and Arkansas rivers — Navigation on the
Missouri — Remarkable erosion of its banks 1147-1167

DIVISION LXII.

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE (Continued)—
First post established on the Missouri — Founding of West-
port and Independence — The rise of Kansas City — Import-
ance of the Santa Fe trail — Fort Leavenworth, St. Joseph,
and Omaha — The great overland route — Gold discoveries
in the West — Uprising of Sioux Indians in Minnesota — A
campaign of dreadful massacre — Capture and execution of
thirty-eight Indians — The Minnesota tragedy of 1862 — The
Sioux are driven to Dakota — Caster's fight on the Little Big
Horn— Killing of Sitting Bull — The first railroad into St.
Louis — Building of roads through the West — History of the
transcontinental lines — A vast empire of fruitful plenty. . . 1 168-1186

VIII

LIST OF PHOTOGRAVURES.

VOLUME III.

PAGE

JEAN BAPTISTE I/A MOYNE, SIEUR DE BIENVILLE 829

THOMAS JEFFERSON 849

ROBERT R. LIVINGSTON 857

MARQUIS DE TALLEYRAND 861

MARQUIS DE BARBE-MARBOIS 867

JAMES MONROE 873

CEREMONY OF TERRITORIAL TRANSFER AT ST. Louis 897

WILLIAM C. C. CLAIBORNE 913

CAPTAINS LEWIS AND CLARK 939

GREAT FALLS OF THE MISSOURI 983

SACAJAWEA GUIDING THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 991

CAPE DISCOVERY, MOUTH OF THE COLUMBIA 1031

AT THK MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI 1167

LIST OF MONOGRAVURES.

VOLUME III.

PAG8

A PIROGUE ON THE MISSISSIPPI 831

STATUE OF ST. Louis 837

FIRST CAPITOL BUILDING OF UPPER LOUISIANA 889

A KEEL-BOAT ON THE MISSOURI 947

MANDAN VILLAGE AND BULL-BOATS 961

FORT PIERRE 967

FORT UNION 967

HUNTING THE BROWN BEAR 973

WHITE CASTLES, UPPER MISSOURI 977

SCENIC SHORES OF THE MISSOURI 977

NORTH FORK OF COLUMBIA RIVER 1001

INDIAN WICKEYUP IN THE UMATILLA RESERVATION 1001

DALLES OF THE COLUMBIA 1025

FALLS OF THE KOOTENAI 1025

MULTNOMAH FALLS 1039

INDIANS BREAKING CAMP 1039

HERD OF BUFFALOES CROSSING THE YELLOWSTONE 1061

BIG GAME ALONG THE UPPER MISSOURI 1061

Sioux INDIANS HORSE-RACING 1067

TRADING WITH THE MANDANS 1067

A MISSOURI PIONEER'S HOME ... 1093

MAP OF THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS 1 133

XI

LIST OF MONOGRA VURES

TAGB

BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS 1139

OLD CABILDO AND CATHEDRAL, NEW ORLEANS 1143

CHALMETTE NATIONAL CEMETERY, NEW ORLEANS 1 143

JACKSON SQUARE AND MONUMENT 1149

MOVERS, BY FLATBOAT, DOWN THE MISSISSIPPI 1155

A DANCE OP JOLLY FLATBOATMEN 1159

STEAMBOATING ON THE MISSOURI 1163

A GOVERNMENT STEAMBOAT ON THE YELLOWSTONE 1163

RIVER VIEW OF KANSAS CITY, 1860 1 169

CHIEF CROW'S FIGHT WITH THE Sioux 1175

AN INCIDENT IN THE MINNESOTA WAR, 1862 1179

COLORED MAP OF LOUISIANA PURCHASE TERRITORY AND ALL
ACQUISITIONS 965

XII

DIVISION XLIII.

The Founding of St. Louis.

WE have seen, by facts set forth in preceding divisions
of this work, that notwithstanding the tide of emigration
that flowed towards the valleys of the Mississippi and its
tributaries between the years 1750 and 1800, that if we ex-
cept New Orleans there was not a single town of much im-
portance west of Indiana at the latter date. This is due
to obvious causes, chief of which may be named the French
and English war, and the power of the Indian tribes, that
still claimed title to the whole region and resolutely resisted
efforts to dispossess them. By treaty of 1763 France re-
linquished all territory, theretofore claimed by her in
North America, but this relinquishment failed to give
peaceable possession, for practically all the great Indian
tribes had been loyal to France, and defeat had not
changed this friendship. It therefore fell to the fortune
of England after vanquishing the French to set about the
harder task of subduing the Indians. Then followed the
war for Independence, which, though largely confined to
the eastern section, disturbed the entire country and ar-
rested for a time the westward march of emigration.

New Orleans was founded by Bienville in 1717, who

827 "

TERRITORY

in the\fejRJwtt%} year, : being' appointed governor, sent a
force of 80 convicts from the prisons of France to clear
the tract and trace out a plan for the town, but as early as
1679 Fort Crevecoeur was established on the Illinois, near
where Peoria now stands; in 1695 Kaskaskia, on the Miss-
issippi, was settled, which soon after was made the capital of
the territory of Illinois, followed by the building of Fort
Chartres, twenty miles above, in 1720, which furnished a de-
gree of protection to white settlers of that section. The last
vestiges of Fort Chartres were destroyed by caving banks
in 1777, while Kaskaskia, though still on the map, is a small
village, cut off from the main-land by a chute, and is now
difficult to approach either by land or water.

Natchez existed as a place of some size at the time of De
Soto's expedition, for it was the capital of the Natchez
nation, a people in many respects the most interesting, and
more nearly civilized of all the aborigines north of Mexico.
This town, after its occupation by the French, under Bien-
ville, assumed some importance, both as a fort and an
entrepot, next to which in consequence on the Mississippi
was Ste. Genevieve, the founding of which is traditionally
said to have occurred in 1735. Other villages, notably
Cahokia, existed on the banks of the river, but they were
insignificant and have long since passed into oblivion. But
though there were few towns in the Mississippi Valley,
there was considerable commerce in furs, peltries, and lead-
ore, which articles were shipped from the north to New

828

JEAN BAPTISTE LE MOYNE, SIEUR DE 'BIENVILLK.

BIENVILI.E was a member of a distinguished family of Colonizer*, aad accompa-
nied Ibervi He to this country in 1761 to assume direction of the French
Colony of Louisiana. In 1718 Bienville founded New Orleans and in the same
year he was appointed governor, but in 1720 was removed, to be rcappointcd
again there several times, until disgusted with the jealousies that beset him be
returned to France in 1743. The date of the founding of New Orleans it m
dispute, some authorities fixing 171733 the year, others maintain that tfcc time
was 1718, while several insist that the date was 1719.

AQ *\mi UAV^CXV

-•• icrtt <i<K>

'«^,
sllivmil bain
.

"alley,

THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

Orleans by way of the river, and thence sent in ships to
France.

The fur industry early assumed marked importance,
through the operations of French traders in the North and
Northwest, and New Orleans derived much of her wealth
from that source. Among the residents of New Orleans at
this time, who had contributed much to her growth and com-
merce, was Pierre Liguest Laclede, a Frenchman, who came
to America about 1750 with a small patrimony which he
invested in an indigo-plant plantation, but with no success,
so that he cast about for other means of subsistence. In-
deed, he engaged in many undertakings which though each
in turn proved profitless, gave him, nevertheless, the repu-
tation of being an enterprising and resourceful man, to
whose energies New Orleans was indebted for the establish-
ment of industries that added measurably to her im-
portance.

In 1762 the fur and peltry business attracted Laclede's
attention, and he conceived the idea directly of securing a
charter for a company to trade with Indians of the North
for products of the chase. His purpose having been settled
Laclede applied to and obtained from D'Abbadie, the civil
and military Director-General of New Orleans, such a
license as gave him practically a monopoly of the fur trade
with Indians of that part of Upper Louisiana now embraced
by the limits of Missouri, as far north as the river St.

Peters. This limitation is indefinite, as no such river exists

829

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

in Missouri, and the geography of the country being little
known at the time it was possible to extend the monopoly
claim to a large extent of territory.

Having obtained a liberal charter that covered, in fact,
every kind of trading, Laclede interested a wealthy mer-
chant of New Orleans named Maxent in his enterprise and
organized a company, the title of which was Maxent, Laclede
& Co. All preliminaries of the enterprise having been per-
fected Laclede engaged seventy-five men, hunters, boatmen,
and artisans, and providing a large store of provisions,
arms and ammunition, which he loaded into a forty ton
Mackinaw boat, in the latter part of August, 1763, he em-
barked for the Upper Mississippi in quest of a suitable
situation on the river to establish a trading-post. Besides
the employes engaged for the expedition Laclede was accom-
panied by his wife, one daughter, and two stepsons,
Pierre, the younger, and Auguste Chouteau, the latter
having been born in September, 1750, and was therefore
only thirteen years of age at this time. This lad very soon
assumed an important part not only in the expedition, but
in the history of St. Louis, as the sequel will disclose. The
wife of Laclede is called Madame Chouteau in all annals
of the city, a circumstance quite confusing, in the absence
of information that explains the cause: Madame Chou-
teau was divorced from her first husband and afterwards
married Laclede, but the Catholic Church refuses, except
in rare instances to recognize divorce, and being unable to

830

DEVELOPMENT OF NAVIGATION.

'JT'HE accompanying illustration presents a scene once familiar on western waters
^» when the art of navigation had progressed from the first stage of canoeing
to that of. the use of pirogues, by employment of which all freight transportation
was for a long while conducted, or until superceded by the Mackinaw and kee
boat.

fC country bei'<£ little
;x)ly

Laciede <*)

seven

iijjl Lns v/snix

.

-au, the
, ann

THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

obtain a dispensation from the church sanctioning her mar-
riage to Laclede, Madame Chouteau continued to be called
after the name of her first husband.

Progress up the river was slow, for propulsion of the
large heavy craft was by cordelling, warping, rowing with
heavy sweeps, and the small aid that a sail gave when the
wind was strong from the south. The party being numer-
ous sleeping accommodations could not be provided on the
boat for all, so it was necessary to tie up at night and camp
on shore. The trip was therefore not only tedious and
laborious but was alleviated by few pleasant happenings
and aggravated by many misadventures.

It was not until November that the expedition reached
Ste. Genevieve, a place of some consequence, deriving its
chief support from lead mines in the neighborhood that had
been opened and worked by Indians as early as 1735.
Though the town had a population of nearly 500, Laclede
was unable to secure accommodations for his party, or
storage-room for his goods, which compelled him to con-
tinue his journey until he reached Fort de Chartres, where
he accepted the kindly offer of the commandant, Neyon
de Villers, who gave him the use of a building ample
for his needs. The fort at this time was in the form of an
irregular quadrangle, the sides of which were 490 feet in
length, built of stone and more than two feet thick, pierced
with loop-holes for muskets and port-holes for cannon,
which made it the strongest fort in North America,
a 833

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

At the time of Laclede's arrival at Fort Chartres the
treaty by which France had relinquished to England that
immense region which comprised all her one-time rich pos-
sessions east of the Mississippi, was several months old, but
news traveled so slowly that not until he arrived at Fort
Chartres did he receive any knowledge that a termination
of the war was even imminent. The report, however,
was soon confirmed, and led to an entire change of Laclede's
plans, for his original intention had been to establish a
post in the vicinity of Fort Chartres, and on the east side
of the river, where his station might have protection of the
French garrison, but being inveterate in his hatred of the
English, Laclede resolved to settle at some point on the west
side of the river, because that part of North America was
in possession of the Spanish, though at the time Laclede
supposed it was French territory, not included in the treaty.

Laclede stored his goods, and left his family at Fort
Chartres, during the months of December and January, but
improved the time by proceeding up the river in an open
boat, accompanied by several of his men, as far as the mouth
of the Missouri. On this trip he made a careful exami-
nation of the country and at last found a site suitable to his
purpose opposite the French village of Cahokia and marked
the spot by blazing several trees that stood upon the river
bank. Having fixed upon a location for his trading-post,
Laclede returned to Fort Chartres, where he found that de
Villers had meantime relinquished command to St. Ange de

834

THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

Belle Rive, who was greatly disturbed by prospects of hav-
ing- to surrender the fort to the English, which fear was
soon after confirmed by the arrival of Captain Sterling
with authority to take possession. Laclede was pleased
to find St. Ange favorable to a proposal to remove the
garrison to the spot chosen for a trading-station, and to
facilitate matters he gave his stepson, Auguste Chouteau,
instructions to take a company of his employers and pro-
ceed by boat to the spot marked by blazes on the trees, and
begin at once the construction of log houses. The youth
entered upon these responsibilities with ardor, and acquitted
himself in a manner that would have done credit to one
of mature years and large experience. This work of build-
ing was begun on the I5th of February, 1764, upon which
date the city of St. Louis may be said to have been born.
Laclede remained at Fort Chartres two months longer,
attending to a transfer of stores to St. Louis, a name which
he gave to the station in honor of Louis IX of France,
who as a crusader of the Thirteenth Century displayed so
much valor that he was canonized by the church.

The boats all being employed in a removal of the stores,
in the latter part of April Laclede proceeded to St. Louis
overland through Illinois, a trip which gave him oppor-
tunity to enlist the interests of several French families
whom he persuaded to settle in the town he had established.
Upon approaching within sight of the new settlement and
seeing so much activity displayed in the building of houses,

835

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

(enthusiasm prompted him to predict that the place he had
chosen for a trading-post would one day become a great
city, the capital or metropolis of the West.

The first substantial structure completed was built of
stone, with a clapboard roof for use as a place of busi-
ness and residence of Laclede and his family, but work pro-
ceeded at the same time on temporary houses of shelter
for the workmen, and when spring set in several log houses
were quickly finished to provide homes for settlers who
came to the place in such numbers that by the close of the
year St. Louis had become a village of nearly one hun-
dred souls, exclusive of the men employed by Laclede.
The settlement was at first confined to a small space, so
that mutual protection might be afforded in case of an
attack by Indians. These first houses, accordingly, were
located back of the bluff, on a piece of ground which is
now bounded by Main and Second streets east and west,
and by Market and Walnut streets north and south.

A fresh impetus to the growth of the settlement was
given by orders issued by the French government directing
General St. Ange de Belle Rive to remove his troops to
St. Louis and to assume military command of the new post,
but no provision was made at this time for a civil adminis-
tration. St. Ange accordingly transferred his company to
St. Louis in July, 1765, and proceeded at once to build a
fort, of brush and dirt, and to erect barracks, in the mean-
time using Laclede's house for his headquarters, the small

836

STATUE OF ST. LOUIS.

ST. Louis, having been chosen as the first Colonial Headquarters of Upper
Louisiana, has a pride in the Exposition somewhat greater than the interest
of other cities, and this idea Mr. Niehaus has sought to personify in a statue
entitled "The Apotheosis of Saint Louis", 'which is one of the decorative features
of the Grand Court. The city was named in honor of Louis IX of France, a
bold Crusader, who for deeds of valor in an effort to reclaim Jerusalem in the
thirteenth centurv \\u> canonized bv the church.

6t:

r-

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THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

garrison being housed in the cellar. St. Ange was wel-
comed with much satisfaction by the fast-growing popu-
lation, for besides affording protection he was very highly
regarded personally.

In the absence of provisions for a civil administrator,
of which great need was felt, the inhabitants of the village
memorialized St. Ange, in a petition signed by every resi-
dent, to assume the duties of chief magistrate, which
position he was induced to accept though without author-
ity from his government. As civil commandant, as
well as military, St. Ange not only acted as magistrate,
but performed the duties which belonged to governors of
the time, among others that of conferring grants of land,
and conveying parcels, trusting his government to confirm
his acts, since necessities of the situation demanded that
some one should assume these duties, for otherwise the
people would have no color of title to property, or any
inducement to become permanent settlers. His confidence
was in no wise misplaced, for though St. Ange never re-
ceived a commission as civil commandant, his acts as such
were subsequently officially approved and his grants of land
confirmed by the Spanish government to the very great
relief of those who had improved property in St. Louis.

In 1768 the second stone house was built in St. Louis
by a mechanic named Martini, who had been one of Laclede's
company on the trip up from New Orleans. This building
being the largest in the town was soon made the colonial

839

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

capitol of Upper Louisiana, and it was on the porch of
this house that the ceremonies of transfer, 1804, took place.

The town of St. Louis prospered greatly almost from
the day that work of cutting trees and hewing logs for the
first house was begun. Not only was the site well chosen,
both from a health and commercial point of view, but occu-
pation by the English of the territory east of the Missis-
sippi contributed greatly to the town's prosperity. The
French settlements, which were of considerable extent on
the east side, were promptly abandoned when the English
came, and moved to the west side of the river, which con-
tinued to be occupied by the French until its transference
to Spain in 1770. Not only did this change serve to aug-
ment the population x>f St. Louis, but caused the found-
ing of other towns in the neighborhood, such as Vide Poche
(empty pocket), afterwards called Carondelet, in 1767,
Petites Cotes (little hills), now St. Charles, in 1769, and
Florissant (flourishing), in 1776.

About the time of the founding of St. Louis the fame of
Pontiac was so great that it was on the lips of every French-
man to cheer and upon every Englishman's to abuse.
Pontiac was not only a chief of the Ottawas, but he was a
statesman, orator, and great warrior as well, whose equal
in these respects is not to be found among his race. It was
Pontiac who formed a mighty confederacy of the Ottawas,
Ojibways, and Potawatamies, and whose influence extended
to almost every Indian nation in North America. It

840

THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

was Pontiac who destroyed Braddock, who overwhelmed
the Canadians, who valorously besieged Detroit, burned
Fort Sandusky, and performed a hundred other acts of
prowess and terror that caused the English to look upon
him as a devil in power and cruelty. Among the many
ambitious acts and schemes that distinguished Pontiac was
one formed in the winter of 1762-63, which contemplated
not only an overthrow of the English but the establishment
of French military dominion in the west, and confirmation
of an Indian confederacy as the balance of power between
the French and English. This ambition is known in history
as " Pontiac' s Conspiracy."

When the siege of Detroit was one month old rumors
reached Pontiac of a treaty having been signed whereby
France surrendered abjectly to England all claims to terri-
tory in North America. But the implacable chief re-
fused to believe the report and continued the siege until an
answer came to his demand for ammunition made upon the
commandant of Fort Chartres, which not only confirmed
the news, but ordered him to accept the treaty terms. This
order threw Pontiac into the greatest rage, and so far from
accepting it, he became more implacable and determined, so
that it was not until 1766 that the English were able to
break his power, after several massacres and unspeakable
atrocities had been perpetrated on both sides.

After the complete extinguishment of his ambition by

subjugation to English rule, Pontiac fell into evil ways,

841

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

and soon became a confirmed drunkard, a dangerous man
when inebriated, and a cunning, plotting Indian when sober,
so that he was dreaded by the English, who regarded him
as a menace to the peace of the northwest territory.

In 1769 St. Ange sent Pontiac a cordial invitation to visit
him at St. Louis, promising such entertainment as hospi-
tality and his resources might make possible. This in-
vitation the great chief accepted and his reception was
marked by the most cordial greetings and evidences of ad-
miration. He was entertained at Laclede's mansion, the
largest in the town, where the citizens congregated to pay
their respects and to thank him for the distinguished ser-
vices he had rendered the French in their war with England.
Pontiac was greatly pleased with this flattery, and showed
his pride of position in several ways, chief of which was by
appearing in the uniform of a general, which had been given
him, by Montcalm, at the siege of Detroit and, when in-
toxicated, which was often, by boasting of his prowess.

Pontiac had spent nearly two weeks in St. Louis, feted
and favored by the citizens, when he learned that a ball was
to be given by the English residents of Cahokia, and forth-
with he determined to attend it. St. Ange tried in vain
to persuade him to abandon such a purpose, representing the
danger which he would incur in venturing himself among
his enemies who would be glad of an opportunity to des-
troy him. But Pontiac, regardless of all warnings, dressed

himself in the gorgeous costume of an Indian chief, and

842

THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

evading the watchfulness of St. Ange he crossed the river
and was welcomed by English residents. Their cordiality,
however, was insincere, disguising a sinister design which
was speedily consummated. Pontiac was encouraged to
imbibe until scarcely able to stand upon his feet, when he
was lured into a thicket and there assassinated. His mur-
derer is said to have been a Kaskaskia Indian, hired to do
the deed by the promise of a barrel of whiskey, but this
assertion cannot be verified.

The tragic death of Pontiac produced the greatest ex-
citement, and feeling ran high, which for a while threatened
to result in hostilities between the French of St. Louis, and
the English of Cahokia, but happily better counsel pre-
vailed to avert threats of retaliation. The body of the
dead chieftain was brought to St. Louis by St. Ange, who
made preparations to give it a military funeral such as he
thought so famous a warrior deserved. Accordingly the
body was dressed in the uniform of a general, which had
been worn with so much pride during the last days of the
chief, and exposed to public view for four days, during
which time hundreds of persons, Indians, French, and
Spaniards viewed the remains, many coming from long
distances for the purpose. When the day announced for
the funeral arrived the town was crowded with people, and
the ceremonies involved a military display such as had
never been equaled on the frontier. The body was borne
to the grave by a committee of prominent citizens, followed

843

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

by all the troops of the garrison, carrying their arms re-
versed, to the beat of muffled drums, and the occasional
boom of cannon served instead of tolling bell. The grave-
yard in which the distinguished chief was laid was located
at the time on the property that is now bounded by Fourth
street and Broadway, and beginning about one hundred feet
north of Walnut street extended north to a ravine fifty feet
south of the south line of what is now Chestnut street.
This graveyard had been used by Indians before the found-
ing of St. Louis, and continued to be so used by non-Catholic
citizens until the property, which had been granted to Au-
guste Chouteau, was required for building purposes. There
was also at the time a Catholic burying ground on Walnut
street between First an.d Second street, where the Cathedral
now stands. The grave in which the body of Pontiac was
laid was dug near the southwest corner of the cemetery,
according to the traditions of those whose ancestors par-
ticipated in the ceremonies. Later (1774) the body of St.
Ange de Belle Rive was buried in the Catholic cemetery, but
no monument or gravestone was erected to mark the site
of either. Subsequently the burial place of de Belle Rive
was located and the remains were removed to Calvary ceme-
tery, where they still repose.

The year following the death of Pontiac brought fresh
excitement to St. Louis when Alexander O'Reilly, an Irish-
man by name, but a Spaniard by birth, arrived at New

Orleans with three thousand men, who after suppressing a

844

THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

revolt there by the exercise of rigorous means, proclaimed
the supremacy of Spanish authority over both Lower and
Upper Louisiana. This act was followed by the appoint-
ment of Don Pedro Piernas as governor of Upper Louis-
iana, who in 1770 reached St. Louis and took possession of
the territory. The French citizens saw in this act another
humiliation, coming soon after their subjection by the
English, but they were soon reconciled to the change by
reason of the consideration shown them by the new gov-
ernor. Piernas not only appointed St. Ange a captain of
Infantry, but established boundary lines and confirmed all
the land grants, conveyances, and judicial acts performed by
him in the absence of legal authority.

Francisca Cruzat succeeded Piernas in 1775, an amiable
man and a just governor, but in 1778 his successor was ap-
pointed, an unpopular Spaniard named Fernando Leyba,
during whose administration effects of the war of the Revo-
lution began to be felt in the west. In the latter part of
this year Laclede died, and his possessions, including all
his land grants, being claimed by his partner, Antoine Max-
ent, they were sold at public vendue for the sum of $3,000,
the purchaser being Auguste Chouteau.

War between England and her colonies, in which all the
western Indians were allies of the English, brought great
suffering upon the people of St. Louis and upon all Ameri-
cans living east of the Mississippi. St. Louis might have
escaped had it not been for the fact that Spain sympathized

845

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

with the colonies, and aided them in many ways. This
secret affiliation greatly incensed the English and prompted
them to incite an Indian attack upon St. Louis. Meantime,
however, Colonel George Rogers Clark, acting under the
authority of Virginia, captured Cahokia, Kaskaskia, and
all English posts along the east shore of the Mississippi in
the vicinity of St. Louis, and then proceeded upon an ex-
pedition against Vincennes. His departure left the people
of St. Louis practically at the mercy of the Indians because
the Spanish garrison was a small one and the fortifications
were such only by courtesy, as they afforded little or no de-
fense against the attack of an enemy. The people, there-
fore, to protect themselves, joined with the soldiers in build-
ing more substantial fortifications, and being unmolested
while engaged in the work, which was prosecuted through-
out the winter, by spring they had a strong fort made of
palisades and dirt, and so well defended that there was a
general feeling of security.

In May, 1780, fifteen hundred Indians, comprising in
nearly equal proportions Ojibways, Winnebagoes, and Sioux
set out to attack St. Louis, carefully concealing their inten-
tion, and moving with such celerity that the people of the
town had received no intimation that an enemy was ap-
proaching. May 25 was a day of church celebration, the
festival of Corpus Christi, and as the inhabitants of St.
Louis were very devout Catholics, their observance of the

day was universal. The religious ceremonies took place

846

THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

about the middle of the day, after which the people enjoyed
themselves in various ways, a large number going some dis-
tance beyond the village to gather strawberries. Fortunately
for the inhabitants the Indians, though they had reached the
vicinity, did not know of the festival or of the opportunity
it offered them to massacre the unsuspecting people. On
the following day the entire force landed at what is now
Bremen, some three miles above the fort, and made a cir-
cuitous route, passing where the Fair Grounds are now
located, with the intention of attacking the village from the
rear. Near the Fair Grounds the Indians surprised two
Frenchmen, one of whom they killed and took the other
prisoner, but this act was witnessed by others who escaped
and promptly gave the alarm, fleeing towards the fortifica-
tions. In a few moments excitement was intense, as guns
were firing in all directions, and men, women and children
were screaming as they fled from pursuing Indians and
sought safety in the fort.

The garrison consisted of a body of militia from Ste.
Genevieve under the command of Silvia Francisco Carta-
bona, as cowardly a set of poltroons as ever bore arms. In-
stead of meeting the attack, each and every one of these
uniformed dastards concealed themselves and basely refused
to make the slightest defense. It therefore devolved upon
the citizens to do all the fighting, which, praise to their
courage, they right manfully and valorously did, using guns
of every kind, and firing the cannons with such good results

847

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

that the Indians were finally beaten off, or frightened into
a retreat by the great noise of the cannons, which they heard
for the first time. After the fight it was ascertained that
twenty-seven persons, nearly all women and children, had
been killed by the Indians, their bodies being found between
the present location of the Fair Grounds and the fort. If
any Indians were killed St. Louis annals contain no account
of the number.

Governor Leyba was removed from office soon after the
attack upon St. Louis and Cruzat was again appointed, under
whom the fortifications of St. Louis were extended and
strengthened, which Switzler thus describes :

" Cruzat established half a dozen or more stone forts,
nearly circular in shape, about fifty feet in diameter and
twenty feet high, connected by a stout stockade of posts.
On the river bank, near the spot formerly occupied by the
floating docks, was a stone tower, called the ' Half Moon/
from its shape, and westwardly of it, near the present in-
tersection of Broadway and Cherry street, was erected a
square building called the ' Boston/ and south of this, on
the line of Olive street, a circular stone fort was situated.
A similar building was built on Walnut street, intended for
a fort and prison. There was also a fort near Mill Creek,
and east of this, near the river, was another circular fort.
The strong stockade of cedar posts connecting these forts
were pierced with loop-holes for small arms. The efficiency
of this well devised line of defense was not subjected to the

848

THOMAS JEFFERSON.

Jefferson, Third President of the United States, was born in Albemarle
^•^ County, Virginia, 1743. and died in his home at Monticello, July 4, 1826.
He was educated at William and Mary College, adopted the law as a profession,
and entered politics in 1765 when he was elected to the Assembly, where he served
with distinction as a member of the Committee of Safety. An earnest advocate of
separation of the Colonies from England he drafted the Declaration of Inde-
pendence and when independence war achieved he was elected Governor of
Virginia but soon after was made Minister to France, returningto America in 1789
to accept the portfolio of Secretar\ of State in the second Washington administra-
tion. In the presidential election of 1796 he was chosen vice-president with John
Adams, and in 1800 succeeded t<> the presidency. It was during his first term an
the nation'* executive that i\\- f- .M h^«e uf Louisiana territory was accomplished.

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THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

test of another attack, for although during the continuance
of the Revolutionary War, and even after the treaty of peace
of 1783, other settlements on the Mississippi and Missouri
rivers had to contend against the savages, St. Louis was not

again molested."
Cruzat was succeeded in 1788 by Manuel Perez, who five

years later gave place to Zenon Trudeau, who instituted sev-
eral measures calculated to increase immigration into Upper
Louisiana. He resigned in 1798 and Charles Dehault De-
lassus de Delusiere, a Frenchman, was named his successor.
The latter caused a census to be taken, in 1799, of Upper
Louisiana settlements, which showed the following: St.
Louis, 925; Carondelet, 184; St. Charles, 875; St. Ferdi-
nand, 276; Marius des Leard, 376; Meramec, 115; St. An-
drew, 393; Ste. Genevieve, 949; New Bourbon, 560; Cape
Girardeau, 521; New Madrid, 782; Little Meadows, 72.
Of this total of 6,028 souls, 4,948 were whites. Of these
twelve towns, six no longer exist, while of the other six only
St. Louis has shown any great degree of prosperity.

During the governorship of Delassus immigration was
mightily increased, and this influx of population was
followed by an era of what may be called frenzied spec-
ulation. As Spain had small appreciation of the value of
her possessions in America it became her practise to make
large grants of land without consideration, and with little
regard to who might be the applicant. This disposition to
give away land caused a wave of immigration to roll in

849

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

upon Upper Louisiana, and men asked for large grants with-
out any intention of making improvements, or any thought
of becoming permanent settlers. Among the several thus
made was a grant of 30,000 acres to the officer in command
at St. Charles; 8000 acres to Francis Xavier, and consid-
erable bodies were given to Pierre Laclede, one of which
beginning at what is now Fourth and Walnut streets ex-
tending west as far as Grand Avenue, and south to Hickory
street — 1031 acres. This large tract was given Laclede as
a bonus for erecting the first flour mill — on Chouteau's
Pond — built in St. Louis, or in upper Louisiana. Another
of these grants to Laclede was seventy-five acres of land,
the south line of which was what is now Market street
and extended east and west from what is now Fourth
to Sixth street, and north to Olive street, a tract which
possesses enormous value at this time. Both of these tracts
were purchased by Auguste Chouteau at the forced sale of
Laclede' s effects.

Desire to avail themselves of this golden opportunity to
acquire land induced thousands to come to St. Louis, and
for a while speculation in securing, buying and selling was
so great as almost to rival, in a smaller way, the riot of in-
vestment in securities of John Law's Mississippi Company.
This mania led to many disturbances, for metes and bounds
were not observed, or were ill-defined, and litigation was
the consequence, nor was settlement of titles possible until

850

THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

final ratification by act of Congress after the purchase of
Louisiana from France.

It is interesting to note in this connection, because United
States history contains no reference to the fact, that an
important post was established near the mouth of the Mis-
souri as early as 1804, which the founders believed at the
time might become a large city because of the advantages
of its location, as respected the fur trade. This station was
called Bellefontaine, after a fine spring of water about four
hundred yards from the Missouri River bank. But long
before, viz., in 1768, the Spanish Captain Rios, with a small
detachment of troops from New Orleans, arrived at St.
Louis, where the French inhabitants were not especially
cordial to him. He selected Bellefontaine, fourteen miles
north of the settlement, as the site for his post, and named
it Fort Charles, the Prince, in honor of the son of the Span-
ish King. It was afterward used as a factory or trading-
post with the Indians, and still called the Fort.

Governor Zenon Trudeau on September 10, 1797, granted
to Hezekiah Lard (or Lord) a concession of 1,000 arpents
of land on the Missouri River, through which runs the
" Cold Water " or Bellefontaine Creek ; on this property
Lard built a house, saw and grist mill, and cleared a farm,
and on this land was also the old fort or factory. Lard died
in 1799, and in 1803 his estate was sold at public sale in
partition and 600 arpents of the tract were purchased by

851

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

William Massey, upon which were the old factory and build-
ings.

The post was never of much consequence to the Span-
ish, but after the acquisition of Louisiana by the United
States, it very quickly assumed importance by reason of a
stipulation of a treaty made at St. Louis November 3, 1804,
between William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Ter-
ritory, and the District of Louisiana, and the head chiefs of
the Sacs and Fox tribes of Indians, by which the United
States agreed to establish a trading-house or factory at a
point where these tribes " can be supplied with goods at a
more reasonable rate than they have been accustomed to pro-
cure them." In accordance with this agreement, in August,
1805, General Wilkinson, then commanding the army, was
directed to select a site for the proposed factory and occupy
the same with troops, and on August 10, 1805, he reported
that he had encamped the troops at Cold Water, " on a
high, dry, narrow bottom of the Missouri, near a fountain
of pure water, competent to supply 1,000 men daily; where
they are now actively engaged on the work of the canton-
ment, and in collecting materials for the building of the
factory."

This point is the site of the present village of Froisante,
St. Louis County, fourteen miles north of the St. Louis city
court house, and the troops in question were six companies
of the First Infantry, under the command of Colonel

Thomas Hunt. To this cantonment was given the name of

852

THE FOUNDING OF ST. LOUIS

Bellefontaine from the abundant spring of pure water in its
midst.

From a rude drawing of the cantonment, made in 1806, on
file in the War Department, it would appear that it was lo-
cated on a low, flat, sandy bottom, some 300 yards from the
river bank, beyond which, at a distance of 150 yards, was
a bluff some twenty feet higher, covered with scattering
timber. It was to this bluff that the cantonment was moved
some four years later, on account of the unhealth fulness of
the original site.

The buildings, when completed, were huts or cabins
built of logs put up in green state, with the bark on, and
without nails or underpinning; the roofs covered with oak
clapboards, kept in place by the weight of logs laid on them ;
the quarters for the men without flooring; the magazine of
hewed logs, and the factory and store-house rudely boarded,
but of like hasty and ill-adapted material.

From 1809 to 1815 Bellefontaine was the headquarters of
the Department of Louisiana, which included Forts Madi-
son, Massac, Osage and St. Vincennes, and during the War
of 1812-15 was frequently threatened by marauding bands
of Indians in the pay of the enemy, but its proximity to the
strong settlement at St. Louis appears to have deterred
them from making the attempt.

In 1817 the garrison was occupied by Captain O' Fallen's
company of a rifle regiment, 159 officers and men. For

853

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

the following ten years the establishment at Bellefontaine
was one of varying strength.

Its abandonment was contemplated with the intention of
erecting a larger and permanent fort near the city of St.
Louis, but owing to the exorbitant prices demanded for land
in the vicinity, a site was not secured until 1826, when the
city of Carondelet, having donated a large tract for military
purposes, the troops at Bellefontaine were removed to that
point and entered upon the construction of what is now
Jefferson Barracks.

The last return from Bellefontaine is dated June 30,
1826, at which time the garrison consisted of companies A,
B, H and I of the First Infantry, under the command of
Brevet Major S. W. Kearney, and on July 10 of that year
the point was finally abandoned as a military post, although
a small arsenal of deposit was maintained there until 1834.
Two years later the Government disposed of its interest
to certain citizens of St. Louis County, and the property
passed from the control of the United States.

The spot upon which the post and fort stood is no longer
to be seen, having long ago been washed away by the cur-
rent of the Missouri, but the graveyard, which was on the
hill, in which many officers, men, and members of their
families were buried still exists, though most of the bodies
were removed to Jefferson Barracks.

854

DIVISION XLIV.

The Purchase of Louisiana Territory.

THE question of free navigation of the Mississippi was a
serious one as early as 1790, and became more so as the
country developed and commerce on that stream increased.
Franklin, in 1782, before the treaty was signed that renewed
peace between England and America, strongly advocated,
in a letter to Jay, the acquisition of the Mississippi River
as a thing of vital importance to the peace and prosperity of
the United States. Washington, in 1790, declared, "we
must have and certainly shall have the full navigation of the
Mississippi," a necessity which Jefferson insisted upon, and
which Alexander Hamilton, in 1799, not only confirmed
but he advocated the acquisition of both Louisiana and the
Floridas. Thus the foremost statesmen of that period, and
some who were in opposition upon all other public policies
of the time, were in full agreement upon the Mississippi
River question. More than this, the sending of Edmond C.
Genet, as minister to this country was with the view to
obtaining the aid of the United States to further the ends
of France in her ambition to reacquire certain territory
wrested from her by England, in which a proposal was made
that for such aid Louisiana and the Mississippi river should

855

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

be our reward, through France's cooperation. This propo-
sition was rejected and Genet's recall was demanded, but
while the east, generally, reprehended the proposals made
by Minister Genet, the west regarded them with so much
favor, so far as they promised control of the Mississippi
River, that a large body of Kentuckians advocated a resort
to arms and held themselves in readiness to follow the coun-
sel of the French minister.

The Mississippi question increased in intensity until in
1800 it was used in the campaign which the Federalists
waged against Jefferson. When, therefore, Jefferson be-
came President, 1801, he was confronted with a dilemma
that might well cause the most courageous executive grave
concern. Our refusal to countenance the proposals of Genet
was regarded as an affront to France, when she had reason
to hope for acquiescence, and threats of war were freely
made, and generally anticipated. While our relations
with France were strained almost to a breaking tension, by
refusal to join her in consummating plans which among
other things promised to give the United States full control
of the Mississippi, the West and South demanded that the
government take immediate action to relieve what was
practically an embargo placed by Spain upon American com-
merce on that stream, by refusing to allow Americans to use
New Orleans as a port of deposit.

Jefferson was deeply perplexed by the situation, but being

opposed to war he set about devising means whereby both

856

: -, -

ROBERT 2t LIVINGSTON.

R. Livingston, eminent lawyer and politician, was born in Ne\v York,
in 1746, and died in the same city in 1813. He was one of the five mem-
bers of a committee appointed to draft the Declaration of Independence, his next
great public services being as minister plenipotentiary in negotiating the purchase
of Louisiana Territory from France. After returning to America he r.i^plie !
the funds with which Robert Fulton constructed the first steamboat, an 1 there-
after was associated with Fulton in many steamboat enterprises which continued
to the time of his death.

*•*:?

This propo-
, but
ade

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•a her in cc
>romised to f
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rft; >ffl Ol

both

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

parties to the contention might be conciliated, without any
loss of prestige to the government. Fortune soon favored
his purpose, for in January, 1802, Robert R. Livingston,
America's minister to France, learned that by a secret
treaty executed at San Ildefonso, December, 1800, Charles
IV. of Spain had ceded to Napoleon all of Louisiana, in
consideration of the relinquishment of certain French pos-
sessions in Tuscany. The ascertainment of this diplomatic
move was kept secret for a while through fear that England,
learning that Louisiana had become French territory, would
make an attack upon New Orleans and other exposed ports
on the coast and the Mississippi River, for England and
France were upon the point of war at the time.

The opportunity was promptly seized by Jefferson to pro-
pose acquisition of Louisiana, by an act of purchase,
from France, as he had contemplated making overtures to
Spain to the same end, and to accomplish this purpose he
sent full instructions to Livingston as minister plenipoten-
tiary, and appointed James Monroe special envoy, with
powers extraordinary, to proceed to France and conduct ne-
gotiations of purchase. At this time desire was confined to
acquisition of Florida and a purchase of New Orleans, for
it was not then definitely known that France had received
title only to Louisiana.

No doubt Livingston, being clothed with ample power, and
given authority to pay the fixed sum of $2,000,000 for New

Orleans and Florida, was fully competent to act in the

859

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

premises, and it was therefore natural he should feel that a
doubt had been cast upon his ability by the appointment of
Monroe to perform, or cooperate in performing, duties
which he could do as well without assistance. However,
Livingston was too much a patriot to manifest, publicly,
his feelings. On the contrary, he set himself resolutely to
the task, and throughout the negotiations he took the larger
part.

Livingston first approached Talleyrand, Minister of
Foreign Affairs, a man noted for subtlety, shrewdness, and
other qualities less praiseworthy, who at the first interview
denied existence of the San Ildefonso treaty, but when con-
vinced that the terms had become known, he practised eva-
sion and would give no answer. Turning therefore from
Talleyrand, Livingston addressed his arguments to Joseph
Bonaparte, and then to Barbe-Marbois, minister of the
treasury, neither of whom, however, appeared to be influ-
enced by a proposal to purchase. Finding all these in-
disposed to favor negotiations, Livingston made bold to
predict that should an attempt be made by France to occupy
any part of Louisiana or the Floridas, and especially should
that country try to hold the mouth of the Mississippi, the
United States would resent such action even to the point of
using force.

For two months Livingston beseiged Napoleon's minis-
ters and counselors, trying to persuade them to consider
his proposition, when most unexpectedly, on April u, 1803,

860

MARQUIS DE TALLE YRANT).

'?T'ALLEYRAND, Prince of Benevento, who has the distinction of having been the
^•^ most subtle of modern diplomats, was horn in Paris, 1754. Eschewing the
church, for which he had been fitted, he still used it for political advancement,
and in 1789 he was elected to the convocation to represent his diocese. He at-
tracted the attention of Napoleon by whom he was appointed Minister of Foreign
Affairs, 1797, and held this position at the time of the Cession of Louisiana Ter-
ritory to the United States. His death occurred at Paris, 1838.

doubt

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THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Talleyrand approached Livingston with a proposal that an
offer be made by the United States for the whole of Louis-
iana! This suggestion was startling and precipitated a
dilemma, for President Jefferson had not thought of ac-
quiring all the territory, and consequently Livingston had
no authority to negotiate such an extensive purchase. It
developed very Soon that while Napoleon had been averse to
parting with any part of Louisiana, circumstances had sud-
denly arisen which caused him to change his mind. These
were several, viz., France was anticipating a great struggle
with England, and Napoleon wisely foresaw that if for any
reason the United States should become an ally of his
powerful adversary the result must be disastrous to France.
Besides these threatening contingencies, an insurrection in
San Domingo, led by the redoubtable Toussaint L'Ouver-
ture, who in the same year was imprisoned by the Bonapart-
ists and starved to death, caused Napoleon the greatest
irritation by requiring troops to suppress the outbreak
whose services he needed so much at home. These, and
perhaps other causes, prompted Napoleon to decide hurriedly
to dispose of all his American possessions.

In a letter written to Madison, Jefferson's Secretary of
State, reporting the initiative of the French Government in
the transaction, Livingson says : " M. Talleyrand asked
me this day { April n) when pressing the subject whether
we wished to have the whole of Louisiana. I told him no ;
that our wishes extended only to New Orleans and the

863

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Floridas ; that the policy of France, however, should dictate
(as I had shown in an official note) to give us the country
above the river Arkansas, in order to place a barrier between
them and Canada. He said that if they gave New Orleans
the rest would be of little value, and that he would wish to
know what we would give for the whole. I told him it
was a subject I had not thought of, but that I supposed we
should not object to twenty million francs (nearly $4,000,-
ooo) provided our own citizens were paid (referring to war
claims amounting to $5,000,000 preferred against France).
He said this was too low an offer and he would be glad if I
would reflect upon it and tell him to-morrow. I told him
that as Mr. Monroe would be in town (Paris) in two days,
I would delay my further offer until I had the pleasure of
introducing him."

The negotiations which were opened so unexpectedly by
Talleyrand involved much secrecy and artful diplomacy, for
the fear was present that Spain might discover the disposi-
tion of France in the matter, and incensed at her duplicity
would offer strenuous opposition to the transaction. Be-
sides this danger, Lucien and Joseph Bonaparte vigorously
opposed the proposition and carried their opposition so far
as to make a personal protest to Napoleon, and to threaten
to carry their antagonism into the Chamber should he persist
in his resolution. This flagrant opposition to the Consul's
will roused him to a pitch of passionate indignation in

which he declared he would punish their insolence and carry

864

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

his purpose into effect even in spite of the Chamber or the
Constitution.

When Livingston recovered somewhat from the shock
which Talleyrand's proposal produced, he retired to his
chamber and seriously considered the matter. He realized
at once not only the circumstances which had prompted
Talleyrand's suggestion, but he likewise foresaw the tre-
mendous benefits which might accrue to the United States
from acquisition of the vast territory embraced in the un-
surveyed and unexplored tract vaguely defined as " Louis-
iana." While, as reports represented, this great extent of
practically unknown country might be generally unproduc-
tive, and infested with wild animals and cruel savages, yet
its purchase would nevertheless be of almost incalculable
advantage to Americans, who would thereby acquire
control of the Mississippi and at the same time the nation
would be placed in a position favorable for controlling all
the trade and territory between the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans. The more Livingston revolved the matter in his
mind the larger grew his estimate of the opportunity pre-
sented, and though he was without authority to negotiate for
the whole of Louisiana, he resolved nevertheless to venture
something in the emergency, and to reach an understanding
with Talleyrand before the arrival of Monroe.

The following day, April 12, Livingston visited Talley-
rand with the view to making terms for the purchase, but to

his astonishment he found the wily French minister ap-

865

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

parently indisposed to definitely fix a price, evidently as-
suming reluctance with the hope of disguising Napoleon's
anxiety to part with the territory, and to drive the best
bargain possible.

Special Minister Monroe arrived at this stage of the pro-
ceedings and entered at once into the negotiations, the two
presently securing from Marbois an offer to sell the whole
territory in question for the sum of one hundred million
francs (about $20,000,000) but with the proviso that the
United States should assume the obligation of paying the
claims of American citizens against France for depredations
committed by French privateers, (1798) which aggregated
$4,000,000. This offer Livingston and Monroe refused as
being an excessive price, and also because they had fears
that an act of purchase by them, outside of their specific in-
structions, might not be ratified by Congress or approved by
President Jefferson.

His first proposal being rejected Marbois, showing for
the first time a real anxiety to consummate a sale, presented a
modified offer, whereby he agreed that for the sum of eighty
million francs ($16,000,000) France would convey title
to the territory and from this sum the United States should
be permitted to deduct the amount claimed by Americans
for French depredations. This second offer was taken
under consideration by Livingston and Monroe, who, after
carefully weighing the responsibility they must assume, but

never losing sight of the golden opportunity at hand, ac-

866

'EARBE-MARBOI&.

BARBE-MARBOIS, Count, Marquis, and celebrated French politician, was born
at Metz, 1745, and died 1837. He served in diplomatic positions at the
German Courts, and in 1775 was sent as Counsel General to the United States
where he resided for ten years, and married the daughter of William Moore, Gov-
ernor of Pennsylvania. Returning to France, after serviqe as Intendant of San
Domingo, he was banished to Guiana during the Revolution but was recalled in
1801 and made Director of the Treasury, and the following year was advanced to
tlie post of Minister of the Treasury, a position which he h*W atnthe time of the
LomMana Cession and negotiated that treaty for his government.

evidently as-

ising Napoleon's

the best

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•

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United States should

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aken

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at hand, ac-

V

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

cepted the terms on April 29, and on the following day the
proposal was ratified by Napoleon, and the purchase of
Louisiana by the United States became an accomplished fact,
though the treaty of cession was not actually signed until a
week later.

It was ascertained some years afterwards that the French
spoliation claims, as they were called, amounted to more
than $4,000,000, so that the actual amount paid to France
for the whole of Louisiana territory was $11,250,000, a sum
which the government provided by issuing six per cent,
bonds. It has also been asserted that the United States
never paid all the spoliation claims, and there may be some
reason for the statement. Bills which passed both houses of
Congress in 1846, providing for the payment of these claims,
was vetoed by President Polk, and when similar bills were
passed in 1855, President Pierce put his stamp of disap-
proval on the act. In the meantime, however, a large
number of the well-established claims were paid by the
government and those which remained on file were finally,
in 1885, referred to the Court of Claims, where several
thousand are still pending. Allegations of fraud were set
up and in several cases were established by the government,
so it may be said with reason that practically all the just
claims were satisfied, in the payment of which the full
amount, originally estimated that it would require to dis-
charge them, was disbursed.

Although, as will be shown in a subsequent division of this

869

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

work, there was violent opposition made by Federalists to
the cession treaty, there were few statesmen of the day who
really comprehended the substantial possibilities involved in
the purchase. Those who opposed the act limited their
contention to declarations that the territory was fruitless,
and that while being without value it would require large ex-
penditures to keep control of the territory. They pointed
out, too, that, the nation being practically in a formative
state, and still struggling to recuperate from the ravages of
the war with England, the condition of the government's
finances made it unwise to incur an obligation so large, and
to assume expenses of maintenance far beyond the proba-
bility of future returns.

It is interesting to learn at this date that Jefferson and his
supporters had some apprehension of the value of the terri-
tory which the nation had acquired, but it was abstract,
vague, and in some respects fanciful. This fact is es-
tablished by the credit which Jefferson gave to the report
that somewhere in the northwest there was an inexhaustible,
if not unlimited, mine of salt, the value of which was
almost beyond computation, and this mine it was his ex-
pectation Lewis and Clark would discover to confound those
who maintained that the country was without value. There
were other conceits and false hopes connected with the ter-
ritory, but very few if any at the time had the least regard
for the possible agricultural and pastoral resources of the
country. But beyond the commercial considerations, specu-

870

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

lative largely, there lay political questions in which Louis-
iana must inevitably play a determinative part.

Readers of our national history have never failed to find
interest and patriotic inspiration in the story of our conti-
nental expansion. For a long while our sphere of influence,
so to speak, was confined to the Atlantic sea-board, a limi-
tation that prevented growth and at the same time exposed
the nation to encroachments from the west. Indeed, so long
as the nation was confined within that narrow strip there was
constantly present a real danger that some foreign power
might establish an empire between the Alleghenies and the
Mississippi. It was therefore a master stroke when the
United States burst her bonds and with rapid development,
as the political exigency demanded, spread her power west-
ward to the Mississippi.

In the critical years of Louisiana's history there were
dangers by no means fanciful which threatened the in-
tegrity of the nation. After the Revolution, which left
many scars, and jealousies that survived for a long while,
new perils succeeded, in threatenings of war with Spain,
France, and England. Had these well defined dangers
materialized in hostilities before the purchase of Louisiana,
as it was expected they would do, the United States would
have been at the mercy of her more powerful naval antago-
nists which, ascending the Mississippi against any opposition
we were able at the time to make, could keep command of

871

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

that stream and strike therefrom at all our feeble posts west
of the Alleghenies.

From the view point therefore of its being a political
safeguard, the acquisition of Louisiana was a master stroke,
for it not only gave the United States absolute control of
the Mississippi, but in doing so it closed that avenue to hos-
tile vessels and made our frontier secure against invasion
from the west.

Purchase of the Louisiana Territory, while it closed the
long contest for ascendency in the Valley of the Mississippi,
led the way to securing a permanency of power over all the
country that is embraced by the present limits of the United
States, for it emphasized the importance of adding Florida,
Texas, and California to the national domain. It was an
act that completely nationalized the empire of America and
established the United States as a great world-power. As
professor Turner aptly states it : " The Monroe doctrine
would not have been possible except for the Louisiana
Purchase. It was the logical outcome of that acquisition.
Having taken her decisive stride across the Mississippi,
the United States enlarged the horizon of her views and
marched steadily forward to possession of the Pacific
Ocean." These are the fruits of contiguous annexation,
which have made the nation compact and complete, with
boundless resources, mineral and agricultural, capable of
supporting four times our present population, and sea-

872

J.IMES MO\ ROE.

^^^ffS

3 AMES Monroe, Fifth President of the lrnited States, was born on a farm in
Westmoreland County, Virginia, 1758. He enteredthe Revolutionary Army
at the age of 18 and participated in several battles. In 1779 he began the study
of law under Jefferson and two years later he was elected a member of the Virginia
Genera' Assembly. In 1782 he was elected to Congress where he remained for
several years a leader, though he failed in his efforts to prevent ratification of the
Constitution of 1787. He was appointed Minisu. to i ranee by Washington, but
was recalled for manifesting extreme French sympathies. Elected Governor of
Virginia, 1799. he was restored to political favor of his party and in 1803 he wus

§t as Minister to France by Jefferson to assist Livingston in negotiating the
lisiana Purchase Treaty. Monroe held many other responsible po*t» and in
6, and again in iSao, he >v as elected to the Presidency. Hediird in New York.
July 4. 1*31.

'ERRITORY

n at all our feeble posts west

cirig a political

na was a master stroke,

jtes absolute control of

it closed that avenue to hos-

e against invasion

why* it closed the -

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njtcome ot

Mississippi,

enlarged the horizon of her views and

onvard to possession of the Pacific

-e are the fruits of contiguous annexation,

the nation c and complete, with

:ineral and agricultural, capable of

our present population, and sea-

872

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

board facilities that have made us the industrial, export,
and creditor nation of the world.

Statistics may not be read with sustained interest, but
they are always valuable and are often needful for reference,
for which reason their total omission from this work, and in
this connection, would be unpardonable. The following are
therefore given to show the development and character of
the territory which we acquired from France for the com-
paratively insignificant sum of less than $15,000,000. From
what was known as Lower and Upper Louisiana there have
been developed twelve states and two territories, the aggre-
gate area of which is 864,944 square miles, or 533,564,160
acres.

Louisiana, named for Louis XIV, which was the first
state formed within the territory, admitted to the Union
1812, has an area of 45,420 square miles. At the time of
the Purchase it had a population of 49,475, and the total
number of inhabitants in New Orleans was 8,056. By the
census of 1900 the population of Louisiana was 1,381,625,
and that of New Orleans 287,104, while the value of real
and personal property was $301,275,222.

Arkansas, which signifies a " bow of smoky water," has
an area of 53,850 square miles. Population in 1803, esti-
mated, 4,500; in 1900, 1,311,564. Total value of real and
personal property, $189,999,050. It was organized as a
state 1836.

Colorado, signifying " red earth," only half of which was

875

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

in the purchase territory, has an area of 103,645 square miles.
Earliest estimate of population, 1860, was 34,277, at which
time the number of souls in Denver was 4,749. By census
of 1900 the state's population was 539,700, and of Denver,
138,859. Value of real and personal property, represented
by total assessed valuation, $465,000,000. Admitted to
statehood 1876.

That part of Indian Territory included in the purchase
has an area of 31,000 square miles. No white population
until about 1860. Population in 1900, 392,060. In 1838
the five civilized tribes were removed to Indian territory.
In 1893 tne Cherokee strip was opened to settlers and in-
corporated with Oklahoma. 1901 witnessed the opening
for settlement of the Kiowa, Comanche and Apache reserva-
tions. Valuation real and personal property $94,000,000.

Iowa, which signifies " beyond," has an area of 55,475
square miles. There was no enumeration of the population
until 1840, when the number was 43,112. In 1900 it was
2,231,853, and the total valuation of real and personal
property was $2,106,615,620. Admitted to the Union 1846.

Kansas, which signifies " Smoky Water," has an area of
81,700 square miles. First white settlement was made by
missionaries at Osage 1820. First enumeration of popula-
tion, 1854, was 7,890; in 1900 it was 1,470,495, and the
value of real and personal property was $363,156,045.
Admitted to statehood 1861.

Minnesota, " Cloudy Water," has an area of 79,205

876

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

square miles. Only about two-thirds of Minnesota, that
part west of the Mississippi, was included in the purchase.
Population in 1850 was 6,077; in 1900 1,751,394. Valua-
tion of real and personal property $585,083,328. Admitted
as a state 1858.

Missouri, " Big Muddy," has an area of 68,735 square
miles. Population in 1810 was 20,845, and that of St.
Louis 2,500; in 1900 population of the state was 3,106,665,
and of St. Louis, 575,238. Value of real and personal
property $1,004,469,071. Admitted to the Union, 1821.

Montana, signifying " mountainous," has an area of
145,310 square miles. First trading-post established at Fort
Union, mouth of the Yellowstone, 1827. Gold discovered
in 1852 and 1861. First estimate of population, 1864, was
10,500; in 1900 it was 243,329. Organized as a territory
distinct from Idaho, 1864. 1892 surplus lands of the Crow
Indian reservation opened to settlement. Valuation of real
and personal property $153,441,154.

Nebraska, " Shallow Water," has an area of 76,340
square miles. First settlement at Bellevue, 1810. Popula-
tion 1860, 28,841; in 1900, 1,006,300. Valuation of real
and personal property $171,747,593. Became a state 1875.

North Dakota, "United Tribes," has an area of 70,195
square miles. First land acquired from Sioux Indians,
1851. Population in 1860, 4,837; in 1900, 319,146. Value
of real and personal property, $143,000,000. Admitted to
statehood, 1889.

877

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

South Dakota has an area of 76,850 square miles. First
settlement at Sioux Falls, 1857. In 1890 the Sioux reser-
vation, containing 9,000,000 acres, was opened to white
settlers. In 1889 it was separated from North Dakota
and admitted to statehood. At that time the population was
328,808. In 1900 it was 410,570, and the total valuation of
real and personal property was $172,225,085.

Oklahoma, which signifies " home of the red man," with
an area of 38,830 square miles, was an Indian reservation
from 1838 until 1850, when it was ceded to the United
States by the tribes and remained " No Man's Land " until
1889, when it was opened for settlement. Nearly all of the
territory was included in the Purchase. Population in
1890 was 61,834; in 1900, 398,331; value of real and per-
sonal property $150,000,000.

Wyoming has an area of 97,883 square miles, much the
greater part of which was included in the purchase. Or-
ganized as a territory in 1869. Population in 1870 was
9,118; in 1900, 92,531. Total assessed valuation of all
property $39,581,216. Admitted to the Union, 1890.

A recapitulation of the above shows that the Louisiana
Purchase Territory has been organized into twelve states
and two territories, the total area of which is 1,024,938
square miles, or 655,960,320 acres, that have an aggregate
population, according to the U. S. census of 1900, of n,-
548,898, with real and personal property worth $5,476,-

598,148.

878

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

The statistical information contained in the foregoing
was obtained from publications credited to the government,
but examination of and comparison with more recent official
reports reveal discrepancies of a striking character and
likewise furnish additional facts appertaining to the Pur-
chase Territory which add greatly to the interest of the
story of political expansion, commercial growth, and in-
dustrial productivity of the empire we acquired from France.

The chronological data of state formation, and develop-
ment, as presented by the Bureau of Statistics, is as follows :

1804. The Territory of Orleans established with boun-
daries practically identical with those of the present State
of Louisiana. The remainder of the Louisiana purchase
was designated as the District of Louisiana.

1812. The Territory of Orleans admitted to the Union
as a State under the name of Louisiana and name of the
territory known as Louisiana District changed to the Mis-
souri Territory.

1819. Territory of Arkansaw formed, including the
present State of Arkansas and a large part of the present
Indian Territory and Oklahoma. In 1824 an act was
passed fixing the western boundary and excluding from the
limits of Arkansaw Territory practically all of that territory
now known as Oklahoma and a part of that now known as
the Indian Territory. In 1828 the western boundary line
was again changed and made practically identical with the
present western boundary of Arkansas, and the territory

879

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

thus defined was admitted as the State of Arkansas June 15,
1836.

1821. State of Missouri formed, the boundaries nearly
identical with those now existing (except as to the nothwest
corner), the remaining undivided area of the Louisiana pur-
chase retaining the title of Missouri Territory until 1834,
when it was given the title of The Indian Country.

1838. Territory of Iowa formed, including the present
State of Iowa, and extending thence northward to the Cana-
dian line and including all territory between the Mississippi
and Missouri rivers, comprising most of the present State
of Minnesota and the eastern portion of the present States
of North and South Dakota. In 1845 an enabling act was
passed for the admission of Iowa as a State, its northern
boundary being somewhat farther north than at present,
and its western boundary an arbitrary line running due
north and south, excluding all that portion fronting upon
the Missouri river and including in the then limits of Iowa
about two-thirds of the eastern portion of the State as at
present defined. This, however, was not accepted, and in
1846, another enabling act was passed by which the western
boundary was extended to the Missouri river and the
present northern boundary established.

1849. Territory of Minnesota organized, comprising
the area of the present State of Minnesota and that part of
North and South Dakota lying east of the Missouri river.

In 1858 Minnesota was admitted as a State and the western

880

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

portion of the territory not included in the State was in
1 86 1 combined with a part of Nebraska and organized as
the Territory of Dakota. The State of Minnesota also in-
cludes about 52,319 square miles of the area of the original
thirteen States.

1854. Territory of Kansas organized, with practically
its present boundaries, except that its western limit extended
to the summit of the Rocky Mountains and included a part
of the present State of Colorado. In 1861 Kansas was ad-
mitted as a State, and the western boundary line changed to
its present location.

1854. Territory of Nebraska formed, with its southern
line identical with the southern line of the present State of
Nebraska, but extending westward to the Rocky Mountains,
the Territory thus including all that area between the south-
ern line above described and Canada on the north, the Mis-
souri river on the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the
west. The northern portion of this area was designated in
1 86 1 as the Territory of Dakota, and in the same year the
formation of the Territory of Colorado removed a section
from the southwestern portion of the area then designated
as Nebraska, while in the formation of the Territory of
Idaho in 1863 the western boundary of Nebraska was fixed
at about its present location. Admitted as a State March i,
1867.

1861. Territory of Dakota organized from parts of Ne-
braska and Minnesota Territories. Its eastern boundary

881

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

was practically identical with that now separating the State
of Minnesota from North and South Dakota, and its south-
ern boundary identical with that separating Nebraska from
South Dakota, and extending westward to the summit of the
Rocky Mountains, and thence northward to the Canadian
line. In 1863 the western portion of Dakota was trans-
ferred to the Territory of Idaho, and in 1889 the boundary
between North and South Dakota was named, and the two
sections severally admitted as States.

1 86 1. Territory of Colorado organized boundaries iden-
tical with those of the present State of Colorado, being made
up from portions of Idaho, Utah, New Mexico, Kansas and
Nebraska, the northeastern section being taken from the
Louisiana purchase, the central and southeastern portion
from the Texas annexation, and all of the remainder from
the Mexican cession.

1863. Territory of Idaho, formed from parts of Ne-
braska, Dakota, and Washington Territories, and included,
besides the present State of Idaho, all of the territory now
known as Montana and Wyoming. Its boundaries were*
therefore, Dakota and Nebraska on the east, Colorado, Utah,
and Nevada on the south, Oregon and Washington on the
west, and Canada on the north, the portion east of the
Rocky Mountains being taken from the Louisiana purchase,
and that West of the Rocky Mountains from the Territory

of Oregon.

882

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

1864. Montana Territory was formed from the north-
eastern portion of Idaho Territory.

1868. Wyoming Territory formed from the southeast-
ern part of Idaho Territory; in 1890 Idaho and Wyo-
ming admitted as States. Wyoming has the unique distinc-
tion of being the only State which contains within its
boundaries territory originally included in four different
additions to the territory of the United States, viz. parts
of the Louisiana purchase, the Texas Territory ceded to
the United States, the Mexican cession, and the Oregon
Territory.

The land area of the Louisiana purchase exceeds that of
the original thirteen States, being 864,944 square miles,
against a total land area of 820,944 square miles in the
original thirteen States. The States and Territories which
have been created in whole or in part from its area number
fourteen, and their population in 1900 was 14,708,616,
against a population of less than 100,000 in the territory at
the time of its purchase. Their total area is nearly one-
third that of the entire Union, and their population about
one-fifth that of the entire United States. They produced
in 1890 164,000,000 bushels of wheat, and in 1900 264,-
000,000 bushels, at a value in 1900 of $152,000,000, their
total wheat production being over 50 per cent, of that of the
entire United States. They produced 603,000,000 bushels
of corn in 1890 and 1,013,000,000 bushels in 1900, with a

value in 1900 of $314,000,000, their total corn crop forming

883

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

in 1890 40 per cent, and in 1900 48 per cent, of the total
corn crop of the United States. Of oats they produced in
1900 311,000,000 bushels, or 38 per cent, of the total prod-
uct of the country, with a valuation of $71,000,000. Their
production of barley in 1900 was valued at over $10,000,000,
and of rye at over $2,000,000; while their production of
potatoes in 1900 amounted to over $25,000,000, of hay
$130,000,000, and of cotton $50,000,000. The total value
of the agricultural products of the States formed from the
Louisiana purchase, including in that category simply wheat,
corn, oats, barley, rye, hay, potatoes and cotton, was in
1890 $670,000,000 and in 1900 $755,000,000. The wool
product of these States amounted in 1894 to 61,871,357
pounds, and in 1900 to 100,396,982 pounds, or 35 per cent
of the total wool product of the United States, with an esti-
mated value of about $15,000,000, or equal to the cost of
the entire area. The value of the farm animals in these
States in 1890 was $772,000,000 and in 1900 $825,000,000.
Add to these easily measured farm products the estimated
value of the wool, the sugar, the dairy and poultry products,
and the proportion of the live stock annually turned into
provisions, and it may be safely estimated that the agricul-
tural products of a single year amount to one hundred times
the original cost of the area; or, in other words, that its
cost is repaid by i per cent of the agricultural productions
of each recurring year.

The product of the mines is also of very great value.

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

The coal product in this area in 1899 amounted to 22,000,-
ooo tons, against 14,000,000 tons in 1890; the iron ore to
8,491,000 tons in 1900, against 1,269,000 tons in 1890;
the silver product of 1899, $50,300,768 in coining value,
against $44,799,998 in 1890, and gold, $37,712,400 in 1899,
against $10,650,000 in 1890.

The prosperity shown by these figures is further evidenced
by the banking institutions of the States formed from this
territory. Their capital stock amounted in 1900 to over
$80,000,000; their circulation to $36,600,000, against $15,-
644,000 in 1890; their loans and discounts in 1900 to
$317,563,000, against $269,016,000 in 1890, and their total
resources in 1900 to $1,099,111,000, against $746,903,000
in 1890, while a still more gratifying evidence of the pros-
perity of this section is the fact that individual deposits in
national banks in 1900 amounted to $329,699,000, against
$216,609,000 in 1890, an increase of more than $110,000,-
ooo in individual deposits during the decade.

A study of educational conditions shows equally rapid
and gratifying development. The pupils enrolled in the
public schools in the States in question in 1890 numbered
2,580,495, and in 1899, 3,161,112; the teachers employed
numbered, in 1899, 89,558, and in 1899, 102,202 and the
expenditure for public schools in 1890 was $30,284,752,
and in 1899, $37,185,881. The number of pupils in at-
tendance at high schools in 1899 was 113,847, with 4,937

teachers; normal schools, 15,843 students, with 625 teach-

885

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

ers, and at higher educational institutions, 40,249 students,
and 3,925 teachers. The total figures for schools and
educational institutions in the twelve States and two terri-
tories formed from the Louisiana purchase show : Teachers,
in 1890, 95,365; in 1899, 111,689; attendance, in 1890,
2,670,541; in 1899, 3,331,051.

The number of newspapers and periodicals published in
this area in 1890 was 4,759, and in 1900, 5,618; the number
of post-offices in 1890, 12,919; in 1900, 16,228; the miles
of railway in operation in 1890 numbered 51,823, and in
1899, 59,324, or 31 per cent of the total railway mileage
of the country.

The power of this vast area with its agricultural and
mineral wealth to sustain a population much greater than
that which it now supports is suggested by a comparison of
its area with the area and population of the prosperous
countries of Europe. The total area is 875,025 square miles
and is slightly less than that of the United Kingdom, Nether-
lands, Belgium, Germany, France, Spain, Italy, and Switzer-
land, whose total area is 885,978; with a present population
of 202,363,573, as against a present population of 14,708,-
616 in the territory under consideration, whose agricultural
and mineral possibilities fully equal those of the European
States named.

Such figures as these tell more strikingly of the marvel-
lous development of the West, and of the excellence of the

bargain made by Jefferson in 1803, than any oratorical com-

886

THE PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA TERRITORY

parisons or perfervid utterances. A story in figures that
is more inspiring than blare of bugle or beat of drum, for
it rouses the legions of civilization and quickens ambition
to noblest effort in rivalries of industry and to highest
achievements in the arts of peace.

887

DIVISION XLV.

Transfer of Upper Louisiana, at St. Louis.

ALTHOUGH the formal ceremonies of transfer of Louis-
iana Territory from France to the United States took place
at New Orleans, December 20, 1803, by which act the cession
of all the vast tract comprised within the Purchase was con-
firmed and completed, conditions existed at the time that
made a similar formal transfer of Upper Louisiana, of
which St. Louis was the Capital, at least advisable. By
this latter act, which took place March 9, 1804, St. Louis,
and Upper Louisiana passed from Spain to France, and
from France to the United States within the short space of
twenty-four hours, and with this bloodless transaction there
was similarly transferred the allegiance of sixty thousand
souls.

The capitol building at St. Louis was a single story stone
structure that stood upon the southwest corner of what is
now Main and Walnut streets, but which at the time of the
transfer were known as Rue de Principale and Rue de la
Tour. Immediately in front of the Capitol, across the
street, was the Place de Armes, which was both a public
square and parade ground, while one square's length to-
wards the east was a bluff twenty-five feet high, at the foot

888

FIRST COLONIAL HEADQUARTERS OF .
UPPER LO U I SI AN A .

E first building erected in the settlement of St. Louis was for the accommoda-
tion of Laclede, and which served the double purpose of a residence and
store. Three years later, 1768, the second stone house was built, which is shown
in the accompanying illustration. This building was used as Colonial Head-
quarters, by the French, Spanish and Americans, and upon the porch of which
took place the ceremony of transfer of Upper Louisiana to the United States,
March 9, 1804. The picture was made from a sketch now in the possession of
tyfr. Pierre Chouteau of St. Loui*.

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foot

TRANSFER OF UPPER LOUISIANA.

of which the turbid Mississippi flowed. A few hundred
feet to the west were two ridges, upon the apex of one of
which was the fort, strongly constructed by making a double
stockade of logs set vertically in the ground, and the space
between the two rows packed with earth. Within the fort
was a two-story log building, the conspicuous feature of
which was a round tower of stone that rose to a height of
fifty feet, surmounted by a peaked cap ten feet higher. At
intervals the palisaded walls were pierced with loop-holes
and embrasures, from which latter projected brass cannons
thought to be extremely formidable at the time.

In 1804 St. Louis had a population of about one thou-
sand souls, and the houses, one hundred and eighty in
number, were nearly all one-story log structures, built
in the vicinity of the fort to insure greater protection to the
few inhabitants, for at that time Indians were numerous
in the neighborhood and especially so across the river, in
Illinois, whose hostility was with good reason much
feared. The population was a mixed one, of Spanish,
French, American and negroes, of typical frontier char-
acters, and there being neither national nor property interests
in common among them, race prejudices prevailed that fre-
quently manifested themselves in brawls that greatly dis-
turbed the public peace. The town was supported exclu-
sively by the fur trade, for though the northwest had not
yet been explored, enterprising and adventurous traders,

French, Spanish and American, ascended the Missouri and

891

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

its tributaries every year, and by trading with the Indians
brought back to St. Louis great quantities of furs, which
were baled there and thence shipped by keel and flat-boat
to New Orleans.

It was not until February 19, 1804, that an order of noti-
fication of a retrocession of the territory to France was is-
sued by Don Carlos Dehult Delassus, colonel in the Spanish
Army and Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Louisiana, sta-
tioned at St. Louis. A year previous, however, March,
1803, Pierre Clement de Laussat, the colonial prefect com-
missioned by Napoleon to take possession of Louisiana
under the terms of the St. Ildefonso treaty, arrived in New
Orleans to execute the orders appertaining to the cession,
and the purpose of his mission was quickly made known.
The treaty which transferred the territory to the United
States was signed April 30, and in August following the
news reached St. Louis through an unofficial communication
sent by Laussat to Pierre Choteau informing him of the
facts.

Great displeasure was felt by the people of St. Louis
and of all Upper Louisiana when they learned that Spain
had conveyed the territory to France, because Spanish
rule had been so satisfactory that a change of government
was regarded with grave fears of abridging the liberty
and license they had enjoyed; but though displeasure was
expressed no serious opposition to the transfer was mani-
fested.

892

TRANSFER OF UPPER LOUISIANA

November 3Oth Lower Louisiana was surrendered to the
French at New Orleans, and on the 2Oth of December fol-
lowing (1803), France formally transferred all Louisiana
.Territory to the United States. But Spain, while partici-
pating in this latter transfer, at New Orleans, influenced no
doubt by objections raised by her subjects in Upper Louis-
iana, made a show of opposing the treaty in so far as it
applied to that part of the territory. While the claim was
never openly put forth by the Spanish Government that
Upper Louisiana was not a part of the territory conveyed,
Jefferson thought it advisable to profit by conditions then
existing and secure a separate surrender of Upper Louis-
iana, to accomplish which it was necessary to have some
one appointed to act as a Commissioner of France, who
with such authority might accept the title from Spain and
thereupon formally transfer it to the United States.

Several persons were mentioned for the post of commis-
sioner to represent France, but objection was found, either
to their citizenship or sentiments, until at length Captain
Amos Stoddart, of the United States artillery, was named
to receive the surrender in the name of the United States,
whereupon he was duly commissioned by Laussat to act
also for the French Republic.

Having received his commission as agent for both France
and the United States, Captain Stoddart, with an escort of
one hundred men, commanded by Captain Meriwether
Lewis, who were to garrison St. Louis, proceeded at

893

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

once to the post, where he arrived March 8th, and found
posted, in Spanish, a written notification to the people that
the transfer of the territory would be made the following
day.

Very few accepted the proposed change of government
with any degree of resignation, while a great majority de-
nounced the King of Spain, the First Consul of France,
and the President of the United States, as a triumvirate
of conspirators and oppressors. This feeling was due to
reports that had been extensively circulated to the effect
that Congress would refuse to respect titles to property
granted in the name of Spain and France. This false
rumor had caused a panic in real estate and led to a whole-
sale disposal of property without regard to values, so the
angered state of mind of those who had invested in real
estate in Upper Louisiana is not at all surprising.

When the day announced for making the formal transfer
arrived St. Louis presented a scene of unwonted animation.
The news had spread far, and brought to the town nearly
every Indian and settler living within two hundred miles,
who at the appointed time gathered about the Capitol, com-
pletely packing the Place de Armes. Captain Stoddart had
camped at Cahokia, opposite St. Louis, and on the morning
of the 9th he crossed the river with his troops, and in the
company of Meriwether Lewis made a formal call upon
Colonel Delassus and other officers of the post. When, in
making his visits, he entered the fort, he was surprised to

894

TRANSFER OF UPPER LOUISIANA.

find the Spanish garrison in dress uniform as for inspection,
with " arms at shoulder, and knapsack on the back ready
to march out when the signal should be given."

At noon Colonel DeLassus, flanked by his officers, ap-
peared on the piazza of the Government house and ad-
dressed the people, telling them briefly that by his sover-
eign's command it had become his duty to surrender the
post and all the territory of Upper Louisiana; that in mak-
ing this surrender all those within the territory who were
subjects of Spain were absolved from their further alle-
giance to the mother country, but, feelingly, he expressed
the hope that the flag under which they had lived for thirty-
six years might still be lovingly cherished as their fidelity
and courage would never be forgotten by Spaniards. Hav-
ing thus spoken to the people he made a formal relinquish-
ment of the territory by reading the proclamation, and
concluded by expressing kindly wishes for the nation that
had supplanted Spain in this possession.

Captain Stoddart made a suitable reply, and acceptance
of a copy of the treaty completed the official transfer, where-
upon at a signal from DeLassus a cannon was fired from the
fort, followed immediately by lowering of the Spanish flags
from both the fort and Government house and their replace-
ment by the colors of France. The new ensign was greeted
with salvos from guns of the fort as the gates opened and
the Spanish garrison marched out in full surrender of the
post. Lieutenant Worrall, upon the order of Captain Stod-

895

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

dart, formed the American troops in line and marched
them into the fort, taking possession of the post in the
name of France. The French flag flew from the tower
until noon of March 10, when it was lowered in token of
surrender to the United States, and Old Glory was sent aloft
never to give place to the ensign of another power.

The ceremony of transfer of Upper Louisiana to our na-
tion having been completed, Captain Stoddart ceased to be
a pro tern French officer and was immediately appointed by
Jefferson to be the first American military and civil com-
mandant of the territory of Upper Louisiana.

Following is the Proclamation of February. 19, and the
official notices, order, and receipt that consummated the
transfer : —

TO THE INHABITANTS OF UPPER LOUISIANA, BY THE
ORDER OF THE KING.

I am about to deliver up this Post and its dependencies.

The flag under which you have been protected for nearly thirty-six years
to be withdrawn. From this moment you are released from the oath of fidelity
you took to support it.

The fidelity and courage with which you have guarded and defended it will
never be forgotten, and in my character of representative I entertain the most
sincere wish for your prosperity.

DELASSUS.
PUBLIC NOTICE.

The reading of the " Public Notice " was :

We notify the public that to-morrow, the ninth of the present month, between
the hours of 1 1 and 12, we will deliver Upper Louisiana to Captain Amos Stod-

896

:REMOWY OF TERRITORIAL TRANSFER

aCUnttfd States

ade at New Orleans, l)eceir.>er 20, 1803, but for reason^ '.: • reiu given

required thai a separate surrender of Upper Louisiana •
Saint Louis. After the transfer at New

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TRANSFER OF UPPER LOUISIANA.

dart, Agent and Commissioner of the French Republic, in accordance with our
public announcement dated nineteenth of February last.

St. Louis of the Illinois, March 8th, 1804.

By order.

(Signed) CHARLES DEHAULT DsLASSUS.

Published by the Public Notary.

(Signed) JH. HORTIS.

The order of the Spanish Commission to Delassus to de-
liver the Louisiana Territory to France was as follows :

*

The King, our Sovereign, having determined to retrocede this Province of
Louisiana to the French Republic, according to the announcement in the royal
order issued at Barcelona on the i5th of October, 1802, to that effect; and
having also commissioned us to carry the same into effect, by his subsequent
royal order dated at Madrid, the i8th of January, 1803, we have put in execu-
tion the intentions of the Sovereign, by delivering up the government of this
place, and the command of the Province to the Colonial Prefect, Pedro Cle-
ment Laussat, Commissioner of the French Republic, on the thirtieth day of
November of the present year, and you are hereby requested to deliver up to
the agent or officer of the said Prefect who may be authorized by him to
receive from you the command of the post and its dependencies, now under
the orders of your Excellency, as soon as he shall present himself before you
under the formalities of an inventory and valuation to be made by skilful per-
sons in that post, upon oath to act with due impartiality, of the buildings which
belong to the King, not including the artillery and other munitions of war,
•which must be remitted entire to this place.

Under the same formalities of an inventory the archives with the papers and
documents which concern only the inhabitants of the district and their property
shall be delivered, taking for the whole a receipt, in order that there always
may be evidence of what has been delivered upon our part to the French Re-
public and cause the same to appear on the general inventory.

We particularly enjoin upon your Excellency the punctual execution of the
foregoing, for which you are authorized to avail yourself of all the means that
may be found in the district under your charge."

THE MARQUIS OF CASO CALVO,
MAHUEL DE SALCEDO.

To Don Carlos DeLassus, Comte de Illinois.

897

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Below is the order of the French Commission to trans-
fer the Louisiana territory to the United States, and Cap-
tain Stoddart's receipt for the same.

In consequence of a letter sent from New Orleans of the jist of December
of last year (1803) by the Marquis de Caso Calvo and Don Juan Manual de
Calcedo, Brigadier-General of the royal armies and commissaries for his Catho-
lic Majesty, for the transfer of the Colony and Province of Louisiana to the
French Republic, addressed to Don Charles DeLassus, Colonel in the same
armies. Lieutenant-Govemor of Upper Louisiana and Commissioner appointed
by the said Caso Calvo and Calsedo for its transfer, according to the contents
of said letter requiring him to give full and entire possession of said dependen-
cies, to wit : Pedro Clement Laussat, appointed by the French Republic to take
possession of the said colony and Province of Louisiana, or any other persons
which may have been named to that effect, according to the treaty of cession,
and as by letter also sent from New Orleans, dated I2th of January of the cur-
rent year, the said Commission of the French Republic appoints, constitutes
and nominates as sole agent and commissar)' in behalf of the nation Amos
Stoddart, Captain of artillery of the United States of America, for the purpose
of demanding and receiving the said Upper Louisiana, comprehending the said
post St. Louis and its dependencies in virtue of the respective powers as ex-
plained above :

" Now be it known that I, the above Don Carlos Dehault DeLassus, in
quality of Lieutenant-Governor of the same, at the requirements duly made to
me by the said Amos Stoddart, agent and commissary of the French Re-
public, have delivered the full possession, sovereignty and government of
Upper Louisiana, with the military posts, quarters and fortifications thereto
belonging : and I, Amos Stoddart, commissary as such, do acknowledge to
have received the said possession on the terms mentioned, of which I ac-
knowledge myself satisfied as possessed of on this day. In testimony whereof
the Lieutenant-Governor and myself have signed these presents, sealed with
the seal of our arms, being attested with the witnesses signed below, of which
proceedings six copies have to be made out, to wit, three in the Spanish and
three in the English languages.

Given in the town of St. Louis, of Illinois, gth March, 1804.

AMOS STODDART,
CARLOS DEHAULT DELASSUS.

In presence of : Meriwether Lewis, Captain First United States Regiment
Infantry ; Antoine Soulard, Surveyor-General ; Charles Gratiot.

898

DIVISION XLVI.
Boundary of the Louisiana Purchase.

THERE has always been more or less doubt about what
constituted the real boundary lines of the Louisiana Terri-
tory, and but for the fact that both France and Spain re-
garded the region as being of little value up to the time of
the cession of 1803, it is not at all improbable that the
United States might have been called upon to defend her
title to a considerable part of it. The first article of the
Louisiana Purchase treaty reads as follows : " His Catho-
lic Majesty promises and engages on his part to retrocede
to the French Republic * * * the colony or province
of Louisiana with the same extent that it now has in the
hands of Spain, and that it had when France possessed it,
and such as it should have after the treaties subsequently
entered into between Spain and other States." Napoleon
thereupon makes a grant of the territory in the following
words : " Desiring to give to the United States a strong
proof of his friendship, doth hereby cede to the United
States in the name of the French Republic, forever and in
full sovereignty, the said territory, with all its rights and

appurtenances as fully and in the same manner as they had

899

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

been acquired by the French Republic, in virtue of the above
mentioned treaty concluded with his Catholic Majesty."

The indefiniteness of boundary in this absolute convey-
ance is quite remarkable, and was so understood at the time.
Thus when Marbois pointed out to Napoleon the uncer-
tainty of the limits he answered, " if obscurity did not al-
ready exist it would perhaps be good policy to put one there."
Similarly, Don Antonio de Alcedo, in his " Geographical
and Historical Dictionary of the West Indies " published
in Madrid, 1786, declares that "the limits of Louisiana
have been precisely fixed." Hence it was that Benton truly
said, " When the United States purchased Louisiana they
acquired with it an open question of boundaries for that vast
province."

While there was little dispute concerning the western
boundary of Louisiana Territory, because the country was
practically a terra incognita, considerable controversy de-
veloped over the eastern line of demarcation, since that
region, especially near the coast, had been pretty fully ex-
plored. Both Americans and Frenchmen maintained that
the western boundary was, in a general way, the continental
dividing line, or water-shed, between the rivers which flowed
eastward into the Mississippi and westward into the Pacific;
in other words the Rocky Mountains. While holding these
views respecting the western limits of Louisiana, Jefferson,
Madison, Gallatin, and many other prominent Americans

set forth the claim that the eastern line of Louisiana was at

900

BOUNDARY OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE

the Perdido River, which now constitutes the western
boundary of the State of Florida. But notwithstanding
this contention the real eastern boundary, as the several
treaties between France and Spain show, was the Mississippi
River, as far south as the Iberville, and thence southeast-
ward through the Iberville and along the north line of Lakes
Maurepas and Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico. That
is to say, by the cession treaty of 1803, that part of Louis-
iana which was east of the Mississippi, included in what was
known and defined as the New Orleans district, was the
east limit of the grant.

While the treaties between France and Spain seemed to
approximately establish the eastern boundary of Louisiana,
other conditions were present which gave at least a color
of justice to the contentions of Jefferson and other states-
men. To those who have interested themselves in the sub-
ject it is no surprise to be told that the first Florida of
Spanish maps comprehended all that vast region which ex-
tends north to the Arctic, and west to the Pacific Ocean,
which was in fact all North America. When, however, La
Salle descended the Mississippi to the Gulf, in 1682, France
interposed her claim to all the region drained by that river
and its tributaries, a claim subsequently strengthened by a
settlement established by La Salle, in 1685, at Matagorda
Bay, Texas, and also by occupation of Louisiana by Iber-
ville, Bienville and other Frenchmen. The territory to

which France claimed title, by exploration and occupation,

901

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

extended from the Perdido River and Allegheny mountains
on the east to the Rio Grande River and Rocky Mountains
on the west.

It will be recalled that at the conclusion of the French and
Indian War, in 1763, France divided the Province of Louis-
iana, ceding to England all that part east of the Mississippi,
except a small tract described as the New Orleans district.
This district, together with all her territory west of the
Mississippi to the Rio Grande and Rocky Mountains, France
relinquished to Spain; it was this latter part that bore the
name Louisiana in aftertime. By the secret treaty of St.
Ildefonso, 1800, Spain retroceded this territory to France,
and three years later it passed from France, by purchase, to
the United States.

History usually records these transactions in a manner as
above, taking no account of intervening cessions that took
place between the years 1763 and 1803, and this omission
has naturally caused some confusion and misunderstanding,
which even statesmen have lacked the knowledge to explain.
When France surrendered to England all her territory east
of the Mississippi, except the New Orleans district, that na-
tion directly separated the newly acquired country into two
administrative divisions. One of these was defined by a
line from the mouth of the Yazoo River eastward to the
Chattahoochie, and thence south to the Gulf of Mexico, and
the territory therein was called West Florida. East of this

division, which comprised the present State of Florida, was

902

BOUNDARY OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE

the district called East Florida. Confusion followed from
this administrative division by reason of the fact that dur-
ing the war of the Revolution, Spain, as a quasi ally of the
American Colonies, captured Pensacola, and one or two
other British ports in Florida, whereby in the treaty of
1783, by which England recognized the independence of
America, that nation ceded to Spain both Floridas, or the
two administrative divisions described above.

Jefferson had a conception of the importance if not of the
value which might be developed from the possible resources
of the country west of the Mississippi, but the general con-
sensus of opinion among statesmen of the time was that
the great territory of what is now the northwest was of
relatively small consequence as compared with Florida and
the southwest. The conspiracy of Burr was restricted to
an effort to found an empire in the southwest, and the
Miranda plot was concerned with acquisitions in the same
region, no thought being entertained of expansion towards
the northwest. There was, however, among Federalists and
Whigs alike, — though they were in antagonism upon all
other lines of national policy, — a desire to add Florida to
the national domain. It was m pursuance of this ambition
that King and Hamilton in 1798 concerted a scheme to
join England in obtaining possession of all the French and
Spanish lands in America. With the design of inciting
revolution, as a preliminary step to inaugurating hostilities
that would furnish an excuse for taking forcible possession

903

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

of the territory, they engaged a Spaniard named Miranda,
at the time a resident of Caracas, Venezuela, to foment dis-
cord and incite disaffection among the Spanish provinces.
By this joint enterprise Great Britain was to obtain the
West Indies, while to the United States should fall Florida
and all of Louisiana east of the Mississippi. The plot no
doubt would have succeeded had it not been that President
Adams promptly stamped it with his emphatic disapproval.
It follows from what has been explained, that Spain pos-
sessed a good title to all that territory embraced within the
present State of Florida, the southern ends of Alabama and
Mississippi, as well also all the region westward. The lines,
however, were so imperfectly drawn, and the geography of
the country so little understood, that Jefferson himself was
misinformed, and therefore when in 1800 Spain ceded to
France Louisiana, he falsely believed that the grant included
West Florida as far as the Perdido, and when in 1803
Louisiana was purchased by the United States Jefferson
asserted title to all territory west of that line. Both France
and Spain denied the claim, and therefrom arose a conten-
tion which several times threatened to result in open hos-
tilities. Spain held possession of the territory in dispute,
however, until 1810, when President Madison sent troops
and expelled most of the Spanish, but expulsion by force
failed to quiet the title to this region, nor did the title, under
the convention of 1803, cover any lands east of the Missis-
sippi, except a small triangle bounded by the Iberville and

904

BOUNDARY OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE

Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain on one side and the
Mississippi on the other. Finally, in 1819, a treaty was
concluded with Spain whereby that nation, in consideration
of a relinquishment of all claim upon Texas, ceded to the
United States all of Florida.

Although Texas was given to Spain by the treaty of 1819,
it was subsequently restored to the United States, and should
therefore with good reason be considered as one of the
Louisiana Purchase States.

The northern boundary of Louisiana was also made the
subject of dispute between England and the United States,
the latter claiming that the 49th parallel of latitude had
been adopted by the tenth article of the Peace of Utrecht
in 1713, beginning at the coast of Labrador and continuing
indefinitely west, or to the Pacific. It was contended by
England that the commissioners, upon whose report the
Peace of Utrecht was negotiated, did not definitely agree
upon the 49th parallel as a boundary line between the two
countries. This contention could not be reconciled because
no maps were made that showed the boundary, and the
question was suffered to remain in statu quo until 1794,
when an attempt at amicable adjustment was made but
failed of ratification. Another effort, made in 1803, im-
mediately before the Louisiana purchase, failed because of
that act, and the treaty of 1807 was likewise without con-
firmation because it omitted to extend the 49th parallel west

of the Rocky Mountains. But while England refused to

905

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

confirm our claim to the 49th parallel beyond the great con-
tinent-divide, she acknowledged that line to be the northern
boundary of Louisiana eastward to Lake Superior, by which
act a large portion of territory now comprising parts of the
States of Montana, North Dakota and Minnesota was se-
cured. It may therefore be asserted that all that region
lying north of the 47th degree 30 minutes parallel, and west
of a line drawn from the Lake of the Woods and the Missis-
sippi was acquired by our purchase of Louisiana Territory,
and by reason of the uncertainty of the northern boundary
at the time.

Fixing of the north and east boundaries of Louisiana in-

•

volved more or less discussion and dissension, but the dif-
ficulties attending the settlement of the western line were
infinitely greater, even though disputes growing out of the
question were less acrimonious. Secret instructions issued
to General Victor regarding the extent of Louisiana contain
the following : " The limits of the territory are well de-
termined on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, bounded on
the west by the river Bravo, from its mouth to about the
3<Dth degree parallel. The line of demarcation stops on
reaching this point, and there seems never to have been any
agreement in regard to this part of the frontier. The fur-
ther we go northward the more undecided the boundary.
This part of North America contains little more than un-
inhabitable forests or Indian tribes, and the necessity of

fixing a boundary has never yet been felt there/'

906

BOUNDARY OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE

The uncertainties respecting the western boundaries of
Louisiana were due wholly to the indifference of France as
to her claims to that region, though broadly speaking that
nation maintained title to all territory westward to the
Pacific Ocean. And had she chosen to do so France might
easily have succeeded in establishing her claims, for not only
did St. Lusson, in 1671, at a great gathering of Indian
tribes at Sault Ste. Marie take possession, with due for-
mality, in the name of his sovereign, Louis XIV. of all the
country bounded upon the two sides by the Atlantic and the
Pacific, and on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, but French
exploration confirmed St. Lusson's proclamation.

In 1731 Sieur de la Verendrye proposed to establish a
chain of forts across the continent, which proposal he partly
fulfilled by building fort La Reine, and in 1742 he pene-
trated the West as far as the Yellowstone. His son, Peter,
is said to have continued westward to the Rocky Mountains
and near the present site of Helena took possession of the
valley of the Missouri in the name of France.

M. La Page du Pratz relates, in his " History of Louis-
iana " that in 1758 a Yazoo Indian gave him a particular
account of a journey made by this remarkable native up the
Missouri, thence across the Rocky Mountains and down
the Columbia River to the Western Sea, from which he re-
turned to Natchez after an absence of five years. This story
obtained so much credence that it stimulated French am-
bition to cross the continent, and prompted several attempts

907

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

to that end. Indeed, the story was known to Jefferson, as
is made plainly evident by reading his instructions to Cap-
tain Lewis. According to old documents quoted by Mar-
bois, the Bishopric of Louisiana extended to the Pacific
Ocean, which shows that the whole country, though un-
explored, was within the French sphere of discovery.

Though the French had priority of claim to the north-
west, where, besides discovery and exploration, they main-
tained several trading-posts, the Spanish were also active in
extending their knowledge of the region, but the Spanish
government was so illiberal that reports of exploration were
rarely published, though they found permanent lodgement in
the national archives. It is known, however, that Don Jaque
Claymorgan formed a company, by royal permission of
Spain, in 1792, to conduct the fur trade on the Upper Mis-
souri, and to establish forts and to garrison them with one
hundred men at the royal expense. For his services as an
explorer Claymorgan was granted a large body of land.
Subsequently, after the acquisition of Louisiana, to secure a
confirmation by Congress of this grant, it was asserted that
Claymorgan crossed the Rocky Mountains, explored the
head waters of the Missouri, and proceeded westward to the
Pacific Ocean.

It is shown by the facts as stated that France and Spain,
by their discoveries and claims, held a valid title to all the
northwest, and though they might have contested their re-
spective rights of possession to the territory it is very clear

908

BOUNDARY OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE

that jointly and severally they had the unquestioned power
to cede the territory and to convey a valid title to the United
States. It must therefore be apparent, if this reasoning be
accepted, that all of Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Ore-
gon, are a part of the Louisiana Purchase, notwithstanding
official maps represent that Washington was acquired by
discovery, 1792, and Oregon became ours by the Astoria
settlement of 1811, and by the Florida treaty of 1819, while
south of Oregon the dividing line followed, in a zigzag
course, what was regarded as the water shed, or ridge, on
the east side of which the tributaries of the Mississippi or
Missouri had their source, and on the west side were the
sources of those streams that flowed westward, towards the
Pacific. Considering the limited geographic knowledge at
the time, it is not surprising that this boundary line was
established upon false presumptions, though these inaccura-
cies lost their importance through acquisitions since made
which gave us the entire contiguous west, out of which
states have developed and fruitful plenty, peace, unity and
national strength are our heritage to now enjoy.

909

DIVISION XLVII.
Louisiana after the Cession.

IMMEDIATELY after the transfer of Louisiana to the
United States, William C. C. Claiborne was appointed gover-
nor of the territory, and Brigadier-General James Wilkin-
son was made commander-in-chief of the army. With the
establishment of a permanent form of government a rapid
settlement began both of Upper and Lower Louisiana, and
as the new settlers were chiefly from the eastern States, at-
tracted by opportunities offered in the rich valley of the Mis-
sissippi, American officials were very soon substituted for
the Spanish authorities that had theretofore administered
the affairs of the Province. But very much still remained to
be done to prepare the territory for a peaceful occupation, for
Spanish influence continued great, and the many Indian
tribes on the east side of the Mississippi had to be reckoned
with, conditions which caused the general government much
anxiety.

By act of Congress approved March 26, 1804, a territorial
form of government was established, whereby it was de-
clared, in the first section of the act that " all that portion
of the country ceded by France to the United States under
the name of Louisiana, which lies south of the Mississippi

910

LOUISIANA AFTER THE CESSION

territory, and of an east and west line to commence on the
Mississippi River at the thirty-third degree of north latitude,
and extending westward to the western boundary of said
cession, shall constitute a territory of the United States,
under the name of the Territory of Orleans." The plan of
government, however, was far less democratic than that pro-
vided for the Northwestern Territory by the act of July,
1787, in that for the Territory of Orleans the legislative
power was vested in a governor, and a legislative council of
thirteen nominated by the governor for appointment by the
president. This provision withheld from the citizens the
right of popular suffrage guaranteed by the Constitution and
provoked great dissatisfaction. Another feature of the or-
dinance objected to by the French was found in a prohibition
of the introduction of slaves, which they regarded as a blow
at the agricultural prosperity of the territory. These objec-
tions took form in remonstrances made at public meetings by
the French settlers, who demanded immediate admission of
the territory into the Federal Union as an independent State.
But notwithstanding these remonstrances the territorial
government was organized according to the act of March
26, and the first legislative body convened in the city of New
Orleans December 4 following. One of the first acts of the
Assembly, after providing a code of judicial proceedings,
and forming laws for the general government of the terri-
tory, was to create the Bank of Louisiana, with a capital of

$600,000, with privilege to increase to $2,000,000, and to

911

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

continue its charter for a period of sixteen years. There
was immediate need for such a bank, to relieve the embar-
rassment caused by a depreciated paper currency, or govern-
ment script called liberansas, with which the Spaniards had
flooded the country.

General dissatisfaction continuing with the suffrage pro-
vision of the territorial organization act, Congress was pre-
vailed upon to repeal the obnoxious law, and a new ordinance
was accordingly adopted March 2, 1805, which was identi-
cal with that of the law governing the northwest territory.
When the first legislature met, June 20, 1805, under the
revised act, several modifications were made in the terri-
torial laws, which were retained until the adoption of the
State Constitution of 1845.

It is not surprising that in the organization and adminis-
tration of the new government great difficulties and em-
barrassments were encountered, for Louisiana had been
under the control of Spain, France, and the United States re-
spectively, the subjects of which were at great variance as
respects their ideas of liberty. In some districts, notably
that of Baton Rouge, the Spaniards were still predominant
and their assumption of authority so antagonized the Anglo-
Americans that armed conflicts were imminent on several
occasions. At the same time, it must be remembered, Spain
surrendered Louisiana with great reluctance, nor would she
have done so, probably, had not the belief generally obtained
that France would retrocede the country to Spain as soon as

912

WILLIAM (

- , and died in N
\vthe profession of lu\v, t; t- ''e*;
-eminent, beini; ntri

tcr represented ( ongreas

;ppi ter'itory ami it. 1804 became
n he retained for eigut years and

•>st-nt 1,
: kinjj

IBOt

County, Virginia, bora «••.
Having prepared himself to fo!-
ce in Nashville, where he soon becam •
the State Constitutional Convention aiii!
Iu i Soi he \vas iiiade CJovernor <>;
:iorof Louisi.ir, t territory, whii-U
jje territory was erected into astatr
A! the close of his term, in i8i6,8.>-
" nited State" Senate, Imt dii-d hef... •

iSIANA TERRITORY

r for a peri. xteen years. There

•J for sucli a bank, to relieve the embar-

a deprec, currency, or govern-

ied libcranza: h the Spaniards had

:try.

the suffrage pro-
pre-
new 01

1 1 ,

.-:ing the

•en the June 20, ;

revised act, .^#«VMrt&i\$cAJiQUs VkUtei A¥Nfe in the terri-
ribwiiliiiilf^1' .vtoatx!BioJ!i4lo«jkt'Jat>j^ioiii.iodjr|tfir

•iotol^l^/npiif .Lxj^'jy;)^ i/iiy^H, ^ :i?i ,«fi63hO wa'/ nt bsib Lue ,%\\i *&*

itiosiq nsgad srf ,wsl lo nocaea^oiq t« < '

r.ntniAn^m^'JfirtdriMJ'Jta^-' -adrtWf arfciaala^it

*-.
•

;ie districts/ notably

Baton • re still predominant

n of authori: riized the Anglo-

ned conflicts uient on several

>ame time, it mu nembered, Spain

vith great r< r would she

have di- not the !. obtained

cede the country soon as

LOUISIANA AFTER THE CESSION

hostilities with England ceased and conditions should make
it politic or practicable for her to do so. Spain therefore
did not cease to look forward to the time when the integrity
of her possessions in America should be restored, in which
desire Spanish settlers in Louisiana and the west partici-
pated, even to the point of offering insolence to Americans
as interlopers who would soon be dispossessed. Indeed, the
Marquis de Casa Calvo had the boldness to inform Governor
Claiborne that " the Court of Spain desired to make the
Mississippi River the boundary line, and that in time this
.object would be obtained."

There was not only a firm belief maintained by the Span-
ish that all the territory would be retroceded to Spain, but
many Americans shared in this opinion through fear that
the United States, in a show of force, would be unable to
retain the country. The situation at length grew so acute
that Governor Claiborne appealed to the President, Jefferson,
to take measures to compel withdrawal of the Spanish forces
from all Louisiana in three months.

Jefferson, however, perceived the waning power of Spain,
and noted also that the extension of Spanish settlements was
westward into Texas, so he very wisely refrained from
precipitating a rupture, since his ends might be more easily
attained by waiting until the Americans had more populously
occupied the ceded territory. But there was constant fric-
tion between the Spanish and Americans regarding the
western boundary line of Louisiana, which the latter claimed

915

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

should be the Arroyo Honda, a deep ravine seven miles
west of Natchitoches. This line, however, was not fully
respected, and repeated threatened invasions required con-
stant vigilance upon the part of the Federal troops that
were held in readiness to meet any Spanish force that might
attempt to establish themselves within the ceded domain.
After several months spent in watching the Spanish, General
Wilkinson marched to the east bank of Sabine River, by
which action hostilities appeared more imminent than at
any time before, but feeling that his forces, and probably
his authority, were inadequate to engage the Americans, the
Spanish commander referred the dispute to Governor Co-
dero, who consented to submit the settlement of the boundary
question between Texas and the territory of Orleans to the
respective governments.

In this connection it is both interesting and important to
refer, at least, to the effects of the Aaron Burr conspiracy
upon the negotiations for a settlement of the boundary ques-
tion. The emissaries of Burr had been particularly active
in Louisiana and Texas, and with such results as led many
to believe that his ambition to found an empire in Mexico,
of which he aspired to be the head, would be realized. For
some time Burr had been in New Orleans secretly promot-
ing his scheme, and had enlisted the cooperation of many
influential persons. It was currently reported at the time
that General Wilkinson had extorted a large sum of money

from the Spanish governor by exciting his fears as to the

916

LOUISIANA AFTER. THE CESSION

powerful invasion contemplated by Burr, and that the move-
ment couid not be arrested except by the most energetic
action of the American Commander (Wilkinson) with the
army then at his disposal. These charges were explicit and
direct, which the Spanish Intendant preferred in the follow-
ing language: " General Wilkinson first communicated in-
telligence of the general nature of this plot to Governor
Codero, upon the Sabine, and proposed to him that if he
would withdraw his forces from that river, and prevail upon
the vice-king to furnish him (Wilkinson) with $300,000
he would undertake to frustrate the designs of the conspira-
tors, and save the province of his Catholic majesty from
invasion, employing for that purpose the forces and other
resources, naval and military, of the United States."

Whatever may be the truth of these ugly charges, the
primary object of General Wilkinson's expedition was ac-
complished, for the Spanish forces withdrew from the limits
of the territory of Orleans, and thus the aim of the Sabine
expedition was completed without bloodshed, and General
Wilkinson, with his staff, proceeded to New Orleans to
place the city in a state of defense against the revolutionary
designs of Burr and his confederates.

Rumors of the most alarming character concerning the
designs of the conspirators were in swift circulation, which

represented that New Orleans would be the first point of

^^"

attack, for which purpose a flotilla was descending the

Mississippi. These reports exhibited a degree of exaggera-

917

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

tion, of course, but they still had considerable basis of fact.
The whole west was feverish with excitement and there
was a wide popular desire to engage in an expedition
against the Spanish of the Southwest, while thousands of
adventurous Americans were ready to enlist in any under-
taking that promised spoils. Conditions were such as jus-
tified the severe measures which General Wilkinson was
prompt to employ. Knowing that New Orleans contained
many Burr adherents, public safety required that these be
arrested as expeditiously as possible in order to avert an
outbreak. Martial law was accordingly declared and whole-
sale arrests were made of all suspected persons, which
brought forth fierce denunciations from the large number
who were in sympathy with the revolutionary plottings ; but
General Wilkinson was sustained in all the measures he
inaugurated, and when the militia and volunteers of the city
were organized into the " Battalion of New Orleans " the
traitorous project became at once less pronounced, followed
by the restoration of tranquillity when Governor Claiborne
issued his proclamation December 16 , 1806. Very soon
afterwards Aaron Burr, with one hundred men, arrived at
Bayou Pierre, where he surrendered himself to the civil au-
thorities, and gave bond. This he promptly forfeited, how-
ever, and being declared a fugitive from justice was captured
on the Tombigbee and sent to Richmond, Virginia, to stand
trial, charged with a high misdemeanor. " Thus terminated

the excitement and alarm which had pervaded the whole

918

LOUISIANA AFTER THE CESSION

West relative to the contemplated separation of the Union,
and the invasion of the Spanish provinces."

During the diversion of the United States troops in sup-
pressing the Burr conspiracy, Spanish officers were active
in extending their explorations along the tributaries of the
Red and Arkansas Rivers, and in forming alliances with
Indian tribes in that region. To counteract Spanish in-
fluence Lieutenant Zebulon M. Pike, of the first regiment of
U. S. Infantry, was commissioned June 24, 1806, to lead
an exploring party to the Red and Arkansas rivers and to
follow these streams from their head waters to their junc-
tion with the Mississippi. Though this was the declared
object of the expedition, the primary purpose was to estab-
lish an understanding with the Comanche Indians, a tribe
so powerful that their friendship was essential to the exten-
sion of American influence in the Southwest.

Though Lieutenant Pike had been particularly enjoined
by General Wilkinson to avoid trenching upon Spanish ter-
ritory, he proceeded so far west as to find himself near the
sources of the Rio del Norte, where he was apprehended by
Spanish troops and detained, with his attendants, for sev-
eral months. In the following summer, however, he was
released and escorted to the province of Texas, and then
permitted to make his way to Natchitoches, where he arrived
in July, 1807. A portion of Lieutenant Pike's expedition
having been detached from the main body, descended Red

919

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

River and reached Fort Adams, on the Mississippi, Febru-
ary preceding.

It has been declared and maintained by evidence which it
is quite impossible to controvert, that Lieutenant Pike's ex-
pedition was planned by General Wilkinson to obtain a more
perfect knowledge of the southwest country, with the view
to utilize the information in planning a campaign against
Spain. In other words, that General Wilkinson was in
secret communication with Colonel Burr and General Adair,
and aspired to leadership of the forces being collected to in-
vade Mexico. No doubt General Wilkinson believed that
Burr was operating with the knowledge, if not under secret
authority of the Federal government, an opinion which
might well be entertained not only because of the political
prominence of Burr, but also by reason of the fact that the
entire West was a unit in desiring war with Spain, a senti-
ment being general that because of incessant border diffi-
culties American interests demanded that the Spanish should
be driven out of America. Subsequently, General Wilkin-
son discovered the traitorous character of Burr, and at once
exercised his energies to destroy the conspiracy, but notwith-
standing his fidelity to the Federal Government, and his
distinguished patriotic services in the field, his reputation
has greatly suffered with the taint of commercial intrigues
with the Spaniards and encouragement at least indirectly
given to the scheme of Burr.

Scarcely had a rapprochement with Spain been estab-

920

LOUISIANA AFTER THE CESSION

lished, on the boundary question, when disputes with Great
Britain began to presage a rupture in the near future, in
anticipation of which President Jefferson caused measures
to be taken to protect Louisiana from invasion by way of
the Mississippi. General Wilkinson was ordered with a
large force of regulars to New Orleans, but exposure of un-
acclimated troops to the malarious atmosphere of Terre Aux
Bceufs, where the encampment was made, caused such a
spread of diseases among them that they were removed, by
boats, to Forts Adams and Natchez. This latter place had
been selected by La Moyne for a French settlement, in 1700,
and was called Rosalie; but it was not until 1716 that a fort
was built by Bienville, on the bluff, and the place occupied
by whites. In 1729 the settlement was destroyed by Natchez
Indians, but the fort was soon rebuilt and the town grew
so rapidly that in 1798, when the territory of Mississippi
was created, Natchez was made the capital. In 1803 it was
incorporated as a city but declined in importance after re-
moval of the capital to Jackson in 1820. The trip up stream
was so tedious, having to be made by rowing or cordelling
pirogues, that forty-seven days were consumed in the pas-
sage, the hardships being so great that two hundred and
forty men died on the way, and not more' than one hundred
men were fit for duty upon their arrival at the forts. Weak-
ened by exposure and maladia, nearly every man in the com-
mand, of about two thousand, was attacked by a malignant

scurvy, which rendered the victims a mass of putrefaction.

921

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

The surgeon of the division has left a report of the dreadful
havoc wrought by the disease in which among other things
he asserts that he saw many men, in their agony and despair,
actually tear their peccant tongues out and exult in being
rid of the festering mass. So fatal was the malady that
seven hundred and sixty-four died at the forts in the fall,
which, added to the deaths that occurred on the up trip,
makes a total loss by disease in a few months of 1004, or
more than one-half the entire command, while of the re-
mainder five hundred and sixty-three were invalided and
sixty-six deserted. This unprecedented mortality, charge-
able to what seemed to be a total disregard of precaution,
caused the President, James Madison, to suspend General
Wilkinson, and the temporary appointment of General Wade
Hampton was made in his "stead. General Wilkinson was
thereupon summoned to appear before a board of inquiry at
Washington, where his official conduct for five years was
reviewed, upon conclusion of which he was restored to his
command on the Lower Mississippi.

It is remarkable that as late as 1810, long after the delimi-
tation of the Louisiana boundary had been settled, the Span-
iards held possession of the Baton Rouge district, which
extended from the Mississippi River to Bayou Iberville and
thence eastward to the Pearl River. Within this territory
a large number of Anglo-Americans had settled, and be-
tween these and the Spaniards there was constant friction

until in 1805 an attempt was made to set Spanish authority

922

LOUISIANA AFTER THE CESSION

at defiance and destroy the power exercised over the Ameri-
can settlers. This effort failed, but the object was still
cherished, hope being entertained that the incoming of more
settlers would soon give opportunity to successfully renew
the revolt. Conditions favored this ambition in the summer
of 1810, when the Spanish garrison at Baton Rouge was
reduced to a small detachment, no thought being entertained
of a probable attack.

At a signal the settlers near Bayou Sara rallied, and
being reenforced by volunteers from Mississippi and St.
Francisville, they placed themselves, two hundred strong,
under the leadership of Captains Thomas and Depassau.
This force marched upon Baton Rouge and demanded the
immediate surrender of the garrison, commanded by Colonel
de Grandpre. Almost simultaneous with the command to
surrender, the attacking party of Americans fired upon the
Spaniards and with much yelling charged through the south
gate, which the Spaniards, being taken by surprise, had not
closed. Colonel de Grandpre fell dead at the first fire, at
sight of which the Spaniards, who numbered about one
hundred and fifty, were so dismayed that they immediately
surrendered at discretion. The following day the garrison
was paroled and with the Spanish civil authorities were per-
mitted to retire to Pensacola.

Having destroyed Spanish authority in Louisiana, a pro-
visional government was set up and a convention called to
assemble at Baton Rouge in September (1810) at which

923

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

a Declaration of Independence was adopted on the 26th of
the month. A constitution was formulated and a state gov-
ernment organized under the name o'f the State of Florida,
and on the eleventh of October formal application was made
to the Federal authorities of the United States for imme-
diate admission to the American Union.

West Florida had never ceased to be regarded as a part
of Louisiana, but Spanish authority and occupation, had
been permitted from a conciliatory policy which it was be-
lieved would ultimately result in a peaceful yielding of the
territory by Spain; but renunciation of Spanish dominion
by citizens of the United States brought the question of
authoritative possession to an acute issue. To secure good
government and tranquillity Congress directed the president
to take possession of the territory, in pursuance of which
William C. C. Claiborne was, by proclamation of October
27, 1810, empowered to occupy the territory in the name of
the United States, and to act as governor of the same. Act-
ing upon authority and instructions thus conferred, Gover-
nor Claiborne repaired to St. Francisville with a volunteer
troop of cavalry, where, on the seventh of December, he
raised the American flag as a token of possession.

There was a cheerful acquiescence upon the part of the
people in the authority of Governor Claiborne, who by a
subsequent proclamation annexed the " Florida District " to
the jurisdiction of the " Territory of Orleans," which was

soon after subdivided into six parishes, but the district of

924

LOUISIANA AFTER THE CESSION

Mobile, with Fort Charlotte, was not included, being per-
mitted to continue under Spanish authority. 'At this time
(1810) the total population of the Territory of Orleans,
exclusive of the six Florida parishes, was 76,550, of which
number New Orleans contained 24,552.

In January following (1811) the territory was agitated
with great alarm by reason of an uprising of slaves in the
parish of St. John Baptist, thirty-six miles above New
Orleans, who, to the number of five hundred, formed them-
selves into companies and with flags and music started a
campaign of devastation in the parish. The whites were
placed in imminent jeopardy by the revolt, for being fewer
in number than the blacks, and without organization, they
could oppose but a feeble resistance to the marauders. Gen-
eral Hampton acted with all possible celerity in ordering reg-
ular troops from Baton Rouge and Fort St. Charles to the
seat of trouble, who were soon reen forced by the militia and
in an encounter that then took place fifty of the insurgents
were killed and the rest dispersed. The escaping insurrec-
tionists were hunted in the swamps, to which they fled for
refuge, where several were shot to death and sixteen others
captured. These prisoners were taken to New Orleans, where
they were tried, convicted and hanged. After execution the
bodies were exposed to many indignities, with the view to
discouraging the blacks from undertaking another upris-
ing, or offering any opposition to the will of their masters.

The heads of more than twenty of the killed and hanged

925

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

were cut off, and set up on poles at as many points along the
river, where they were suffered to remain for several months
as ghastly reminders of the fatal attempt made by the blacks
to throw off their yoke of bondage.

On account of the insurrection, which left the people in
a greatly disturbed state of mind, the legislature did not
assemble until the fourth Monday in January. During the
session several acts were passed necessary to the annexation
and administration of the Florida parishes, and on the 8th of
April, 1812, Louisiana was admitted into the Union, with
the new limits fixed as they now appear. In June following
the two houses of the legislature chose William C. C. Clai-
borne Governor of the State, whose administrative services
had actually continued from 1803.

At the beginning of the year 1813 the population of the
State numbered about eighty-five thousand souls, nearly
one-half of whom were negro slaves, while the others were
a mixture of French, English, Spanish and Americans.

Notwithstanding the war with England, which was largely
fought on the sea, and on the Atlantic Coast, Louisiana pros-
pered markedly, for, being far from the seat of hostilities,
the people of the State scarcely knew that a war was in
progress. This unmolested condition continued until near
the close of 1814, when report was spread that England
contemplated an attack upon New Orleans. This rumor
of England's designs served to put the people into a state

of great alarm, for they realized how very weak were the

926

LOUISIANA AFTER THE CESSION

defenses -of the city, and how unprepared the militia and few
regulars of the State were to meet an enemy.

As early as March, 1812, General Wilkinson had sent a
lengthy communication to President Madison informing him
fully of the assailable nature of the Southern Coast, which
was almost wholly destitute of forts, and recommended that
immediate measure be taken to establish effective fortifi-
cations at several important points. In addition to these
recommendations he urged that adequate defenses be
promptly provided for the protection of New Orleans; that
not only should fortifications be built below the city, com-
manding both sides of the river, but that a force of ten thou-
sand regulars, thoroughly equipped, should be stationed in
the immediate vicinity of New Orleans. These valuable
suggestions received so little attention from the President
that General Wilkinson publicly remonstrated and expostu-
lated against the inefficiency of the Secretary of War, John
Armstrong, for which he was accused of insubordination
and removed from command of New Orleans.

When, in the fall of 1814, there was reason to believe
reports that the British were about to attack New Orleans
with a powerful fleet and army, the city was practically un-
protected, and but for the courage and intrepidity of Gen-
eral Jackson, who was suddenly called from his home in Ten-
nessee to take up arms to repel an invasion, New Orleans
would, undoubtedly, have been captured, sacked and probably
destroyed by Packenham's forces. How this calamity was
T 927

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

averted, and some unpleasant facts connected with the war
of 1812, will form the subject matter of another division.
It is a remarkable fact, rarely mentioned in history, how-
ever, that although General Jackson saved New Orleans
from sack and rapine his invaluable services were vigorously
condemned by many English sympathizers in the city.
Among the number of malcontents and traitors was a Judge
of the United States District Court, Dominic A. Hall, by
name, who himself preferred a charge of contempt of court
against Jackson with the intent to embarrass his plans for
defending New Orleans. The situation was a desperate one,
when we consider that the city was not only without ade-
quate means for opposing resistance to an enemy, but the
populace was a mixed one, with a large number of French
and English actually hostile in sentiment to the American
cause. For this reason Jackson declared martial law,
which of course suspended the writ of habeas corpus; never-
theless Judge Hall granted many such writs, and these be-
ing ignored by Jackson he was proceeded against upon
charges formulated by Judge Hall, who in default of the
General's appearance sentenced him to pay a fine of one
thousand dollars. Although the civil might have been sub-
ordinate to the military authority under the circumstances,
General Jackson chose to recognize the superiority of the
former, and despite the offers of citizens to contribute the
amount of the fine he patriotically insisted upon paying it
from his private funds; but Judge Hall soon after retired

928

LOUISIANA AFTER THE CESSION

from the bench which he had dishonored, amid the con-
tempt of his fellow citizens. Thirty years later, upon the
recommendation of President Tyler, Congress ordered that
the thousand dollars fine paid by Jackson, together with in-
terest for the time that had intervened, be refunded to the
aged soldier.

929

DIVISION XLVIII.

Events Preceding the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

WE have told, in a brief, but sufficiently exact way to
serve the purpose of the general reader, how the Mississippi
River was discovered, and the region which it drained was
explored, following which will come the story of settlement
and development of that vast extent of country now known
as the Louisiana Purchase Territory. It is especially in-
teresting now to briefly recapitulate the historical vicissi-
tudes through which it passed before becoming part of our
national domain.

To those who are familiar with the history of European
colonizing schemes in America it will be no surprise to be
told that during what may be designated as the Columbian
period the French were quite as adventurous as the Spanish
in pushing their conquests among savages of the New
World, though their attempts were less successful. And
it may be mentioned also that the chivalry of Spain in no
way exceeded the brilliant intrepidity of the French, who
were as full of initiative, and as romantically inclined, as
the Spanish Conquistadores. But unlike the Spanish, the
French were wanting in cooperative spirit, and to this fault
they added that of jealousy, which influences combined to

930

PRECEDING THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

antagonize the government, first or last, against nearly every
enterprise in America undertaken by French explorers and
settlers. It thus happened that while many things were
attempted by the French in the New World, and with be-
ginnings that promised immense results for France, they
all eventually came to naught or passed to another nation
to be completed. And if we care to pursue the subject fur-
ther we will find examples elsewhere of the inharmony
among French pioneers that defeated their plans of bril-
liant discoveries, explorations, and attempts at settlement.

Thus we call to mind that Jules Cartier, a bold navigator
and a resolute explorer, sailed up the St. Lawrence as far
as the Plains of Abraham as early as 1534, but there was
no appreciation of his discoveries .by his government so that
it was not until 1603 that New France was founded by
Samuel de Champlain. And it is worth considering, that
Champlain was a man cast in a heroic mold, the greatest no
doubt of his class, whose courage, reenforced by matchless
dreams of conquest, would, if he had been properly supported
by his sovereign, have made France supreme in North
America, by establishing an empire here so productive and
impregnable as to defy the jealous assaults of all other
powers. Among his ambitious and sagacious projects was
that of uniting the Atlantic and Pacific by a tide-water
canal at Panama and extending French settlements from
the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi. But grand as were
his conceptions, and wise as was his foresight, Champlain

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

was compelled, through lack of sympathy and support from
his sovereign, to forego his plans, a disappointment which
crushed the great spirit that had so long dominated and
inspired him. He had founded Quebec in 1608, and it was
in the little fortress of that place that he yielded up his life
in 1635, a tragedy of disappointed ambition.

There was a long hiatus in the history of French ex-
ploration in America following the death of Champlain, for
his successor did not appear until 1666, in the person of
Robert Chevalier, Sieur de La Salle, a man descended of
noble Norman stock, who was as distinguished for haughty
overbearing as Champlain was beloved for courtesy, affa-
bility, modesty, and sympathy.

La Salle was a man wanting nothing in courage, activity,
and purpose. His plans were well devised and his energies
might readily have carried -them into execution had he not
been opposed by an unfortunate disposition, the intolerance
of which was such that he made enemies of those upon
whom he had to depend most. Refusing to regard others,
and thus rendering himself offensive, hatred was engen-
dered which found at length a murderous expression from
his own men by whom he was assassinated, 1687, though
not until he had accomplished more, perhaps, than any of
his predecessors. His dream was of a route to Cathay, but
though he did no more to realize this than Columbus, he
traversed the Great Lakes, discovered the Illinois and Ohio
rivers, floated down the Mississippi, and besides mapping

932

PRECEDING THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

the country from the St. Lawrence to the Gulf, projected
a chain of forts over the same route, and planned to build
a city at the mouth of the Mississippi.

Though La Salle fell a victim to his own harsh and im-
perious manners and did not live to see his ambitious con-
ceptions take form, his plans were so well regarded that his
work was taken up by Iberville and Bienville, who planted
colonies in Lower Louisiana, and though poorly assisted by
their king they established settlements which survived all
vicissitudes and flourish to this day.

It is extremely interesting in this connection to note the
fact that the successful settlement of Louisiana was due to
an experiment very like that adopted later by England in
colonizing Australia with ticket-of-leave men. A monopoly
of trade had been given to Antoine Crozat in 1712, who pros-
pered for a time by it, but his charter was surrendered in
1718 and passed to John Law, who exploited his privileges
in what has ever since been known in history as the " Missis-
sippi Bubble."

The disaster wrought by John Law's schemes, while im-
poverishing many, brought much advantage to Louisiana,
for, in pursuance of the scheme and allective promises held
forth by the Mississippi Valley Colonization Company, not
only were a good class of settlers induced to take up homes
in the new land, but criminals were deported to swell the
colony, while yet others were kidnapped and sent across
the water, and return passaee was generally refused. Very

933

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

soon conditions quite similar to those which obtained at
Jamestown confronted the Louisiana colonists, for though
satisfied with their exile the men required wives to make
their condition more comfortable, and to insure the in-
crease and prosperity of the settlements. To provide for
this emergency, " a small dowry and one fine dress and a
free passage" was offered to every respectable young
woman of France who would cross the ocean and consent
to become the bride of a Louisiana settler. Before this
time, however, the Urseline nuns had become established
in Biloxi, Mobile, and also in New Orleans directly
after its founding, 1717, and these played an important part
in furnishing wives to the new colonists. The Catholic
Church, ambitious to promote the interests of the settlements
discouraged all young women who came to Louisiana from
entering the convents, and entreated them to become wives
instead, by which counsel many women were influenced to
select husbands from the large number of candidates, and
not less strange is the fact that these marriages, largely for
convenience, generally resulted happily. Not a few families
of the South are able to trace their lineage back to these
unions, while in the North, and indeed in every part of the
United States, there are distinguished descendants of the
first settlers of Louisiana.

While in lower Louisiana there was considerable develop-
ment, all marks of civilization and industry were lost above
where Natchez now stands. Farmers tilled the soil along

934

PRECEDING THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

the river, but none were induced to invade the interior,
which was for several years left to adventurous explorers,
such as Du Tisne, Bourgmont, and Mallet, who followed
the Red and Arkansas Rivers, crossed previously unknown
valleys, plains and deserts of the great Southwest, and
brought back from these wonderlands stories of many hair-
breadth escapes and descriptions of Indians of the regions,
for which the reading world has not yet lost interest.

It was La Verendrye, son of an intrepid grenadier and
a veritable D'Artignan, who, in 1742, while ranging the
trackless plains of the west, discovered the Missouri and
followed it to where its head waters cleave the Rocky
Mountains. These discoveries, afterwards so well utilized
by Lewis and Clark, might have made France mistress of
the northwest had she shown such sagacity as Thomas
Jefferson manifested when he proposed an exploration of
that vast region. But France failed to improve her op-
portunity, as she had done before. When, in 1755, General
Braddock was entrapped on the banks of the Monongahela
and he and nearly his entire army was destroyed by a
Franco-Indian force, the victory seemed to establish for
all time the supremacy of France in the Ohio and Mississippi
valleys. Similarly, when Montcalm, by seizing Oswego, se-
cured possession of Ontario as a French lake ; and when by
reducing forts William and Ticonderoga he placed himself
in a position to overwhelm New England, had his victories
been followed by plans to that end, France might have es-

935

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

tablished a French empire in America. But though France
had great generals they fought without definite purpose
because the government failed to apprehend the value of
America as a possession, except as it afforded a base of
operations against the English, which it was the studied
purpose of France to harass. On the other hand, the
English wanted Canada, and as much of America as their
valor could win, not because the territory was contested by
the French, but for the larger reason that they considered
the country well worth fighting for. Propelled by this
higher consideration, General Wolfe was sent to America
to wrest Canada from the French, and attacking Montcalm
in his stronghold at Quebec (1759), the two armies fought
to a finish on the Plains of Abraham. Both Wolfe and
Montcalm were killed in the battle, but the victory was with
the English and the fruits were great, for humiliated France
not only ceded all of Canada to England, but also all that
vast territory which she had acquired by discovery east of
the Mississippi.

France saw her mistake when it was too late to rectify
the error of her purblind policy. She had lost America
beyond all hope of recovering it again, and fearing that
her slender hold on Louisiana and New Orleans might at
any time be forced by England, in 1762 she ceded that ter-
ritory to Spain, thus relinquishing her last frail tenure to
any part of North America.

But France, while remarkably short-sighted, so far as

936

PRECEDING THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

respects her operations in India and America, by which she
lost both countries to England, never lacked spirit or ag-
gressiveness in her affairs on the continent. A long while
before she had been overwhelmed at Crecy, and again at
Agincourt, but she refused to trail her banner more than
an hour, for with amazing patriotism and recuperation she
was redeemed by the Maid of Orleans, and her glory was
again reestablished by Louis XIV., thus attesting her amaz-
ing vitality as well as proving her unquenchable courage.

A generation after her relinquishment of America to the
victorious English, France reappeared in war panoply with
Napoleon leading her legions, and the ensign of the lilies
was carried with a martial spirit rarely exhibited
before or since. The story of Napoleon's rise, his meteoric
dash across the sky of Europe, and his extinction in the
lonely isle of St. Helena, is one so often told that it need
not be repeated here, but it is meet that the facts be men-
tioned how for a pittance, and to satisfy a jealousy, he gave
to America an empire infinitely greater than his own.

France had long before been frustrated in her ambition
to acquire India, and Napoleon now revived the desire and
likewise a plan for regaining New France in America. The
idea which actuated Napoleon was no doubt to provoke a
pretext for measuring arms with England, with which
France was ever at war, in heart if not in actual hostilities.
France had ceded Louisiana to Spain for no greater con-
sideration than to prevent it being wrested from her by

937

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

England. In the meantime, Spain had been in a state of
decadence, and therefore conscious of his power to recover
the territory from so weak an opponent, Napoleon gave Spain
the alternative of exchanging Louisiana for a small Italian
possession, or submitting the question to the arbitrament of
war. Spain did not hesitate to accept the former terms,
whereupon Napoleon prepared to send a fleet and army to
confirm his acquisition in America. About this time, how-
ever, some unforeseen difficulties arose, among which was
a revolt in San Domingo, under the great leader Toussaint
1'Ouverture, which required first to be suppressed. While
this revolt was occupying his attention Napoleon discovered
an ominous war-cloud overhanging Europe, threatening his
power, and to avert the storm he perceived the necessity of
at once abandoning all foreign emprises, and concentrating
his energies at home.

At this time, about 1801; the United States was upon the
point of being embroiled with Spain, over the question of
navigation rights to the Mississippi River. There were
constant disputes and frequent fights between small parties
of Americans and Spaniards, the former insisting on using
the river as a free highway and the latter demanding toll
of every boat that floated upon it. When therefore the news
was reported in America that Spain had retroceded Louis-
iana to France, there immediately followed an urgent demand
upon Congress to declare war, and a plan was proposed by
Federalists to appropriate $5,000,000 and to raise an army

938

CA1>. 'v'A.

CAPTAIN Meriwether Lewis, born in Chaflottsviile, V.-i August 18, 1774, en~
listed with the troops called fortosuppr^^|^;$lflii«key Rebellion in Western
Pennsylvania, 1794, and entered the regular servke in the following year as lieu-
tenant of the line. In 1797 he was promoted to a captaincy and in 1801-3 was
private secretary to President Jefferson, resigning the latter position to accept the
position of Commander of the Lewis and Clark expedition. He committed suicide
near Nashville, October 8, 1809.

Captain William Clark was also a Virginian, born about 1770, and died
in St. Louis, September i, 1838. He was a brother of the famous frontier fighter,
General George Rogers Clark, and served in the army with Meriwether Lewi?
between whom a warm friendship subsisted, but little else is known of his early
history. His subsequent career is recorded in the volume in which the Lewis and
Clark expedition is described.

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proposed by
irmy

PRECEDING THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

of 50,000 men to seize the mouth of the Mississippi and
fortify it before the French could arrive.

The excitement which the retrocession caused was due
to a widely prevalent belief that France had instigated
Spain to blockade the Mississippi, because the insistence of
Spain that all Americans navigating the Mississippi should
pay a large toll had not been nearly so great before as it was
during the last years of the century. But the general belief
regarding the hostility of France towards the United States
was not shared by President Jefferson, and to avert all dan-
ger of war, and at the same time to satisfy the demands of
his western constituents, very soon after his inauguration
he 'sent Robert Livingston to Paris to arrange an
amicable settlement of difficulties, which navigation of the
Mississippi might provoke. The excitement over the ques-
tion so increased, however, that Jefferson concluded to send
James Monroe to reenforce Livingston, and gave him
$2,000,000 in hand with full power to negotiate a treaty of
purchase for New Orleans and Florida, but having at the
time no thought of attempting to acquire the whole of
Louisiana territory, though of its inestimable value to the
Union he had the clearest conception.

No sooner had Monroe reached Paris when to his pro-
found astonishment, and to Livingston's as well, he was
presented by Marbois, minister of the French treasury, with
a proposition to sell not only New Orleans but the whole
of Louisiana territory for the sum of 80,000,000 (about

941

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

$16,000,000) francs. The proposal was so astounding that
Monroe and Livingston might well hesitate, especially as
they had no authority to buy the territory, much less to obli-
gate the United States for so large a sum. But time was an
essential thing in the negotiation, for Napoleon, like his
predecessor, was possessed with a great fear that being about
to engage in a war with England the enemy would most
likely seize French colonies, the most attractive of which,
and poorest defended, was Louisiana.

Livingston and Monroe appreciated the value equally
with the gravity of the proposition that Napoleon had made,
and decided to transcend their authority for the gain to the
Union which the act would entail, and the bargain was
accordingly closed.

The purchase of Louisiana territory for the small sum
of $16,000,000 was a bargain such as no nation may ever
again .make with another, yet it was clamorously condemned
by people in the east, and Jefferson's approval brought down
upon his head a veritable cyclone of vituperation and oblo-
quy, notwithstanding which abuse, the president and the
purchase was sustained by Congress that met in October,
1803. Louisiana had been acquired, by which the national
domain had been increased one half, but the character of the
country remained as yet to be ascertained, and to determine
this important question, doubtful as many were of its value,
was the immediate purpose of President Jefferson in send-
ing Captains Lewis and Clark to explore it.

942

DIVISION XLIX.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition.

THE story has been told of Speke, Grant, Baker, Living-
stone and Stanley's expeditions through Central Africa,,
and millions have been thrilled and fascinated by the nar-
ratives. As a boy and as a man I, in common with others,
have treasured these tales of astonishing adventure, and
when, subsequently, I was called upon to write of them my-
self the duty became a pleasure which will abide all the re-
maining days of my life. Strange enough it appears that
while nearly every person takes keen delight in perusing
the diaries and annals of explorers, until we are all more or
less familiar with the discoveries made in Arctic and tropic
regions, few of us have much acquaintance with the remark-
able story of the Lewis and Clark expedition, which for
excitement and thrilling adventure equals that told by the
Argonauts themselves. And the interest should be greater
because of the fact that these two distinguished explorers
were the first white men to make a journey across the vast
and trackless wilderness of the great Northwest territory,
to mark a way which is now traversed by railroads, and to
set up the sign posts of civilization which are now occupied

943

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

by thriving cities, where the merry hum of industry, pros-
perity, and contentment pervades and fills the air.

If interest be sustained in the history that tells us of
elephants, lions, and other fierce animals that roam the
stretches of Equatorial Africa; and if we are spellbound by
stories of cannibals, dwarfs, and savages of little known
lands, why should we not be equally enravished by the nar-
rative of first exploration of the West, replete as it is with
adventures with formidable wild beasts and yet more dan-
gerous Indians, those merciless nomads that roamed over
western plains and long bid defiance to the march of empire ?

In previous divisions of this work information is given
of the causes that led to our acquisition of what was known
as the territory of Louisiana. It is hardly comprehendible
that one century ago — the span of an exceptionally long
life — the region west of the Mississippi, which is now the
granary of America, was absolutely unknown. Previous
to the Louisiana purchase all of this vast and fertile terri-
tory was generally supposed to be composed of jungle,
swamp, and desert, fit only, for all time, to be the haunt of
reptiles, and ferocious creatures. With this belief prevalent
it was not wholly unreasonable that violent party objection
should be made to the action of President Jefferson when,
exceeding his authority, he committed the honor of the
United States to the unauthorized initiatives of Livingston
and Monroe, as has been particularly explained.

Emergencies often produce genius, or the measures to

944

THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

best meet them. Jefferson was unquestionably designed
by nature to be the means to a great and beneficent end, and
the emergency in which he and his party were now involved
developed the ability to turn to good account the very evils
that were freely predicted to be impending. Unlike the
majority, Jefferson was gifted with rare foresight, by which
not only was he able to perceive the very probable advan-
tages of contiguous territorial expansion, but he supported
the opinion that the Northwest especially was a country
capable of being cultivated, and which, in due time, might
become a valuable section of the United States. But to en-
tertain this belief served to expose him to the derision of his
political enemies, and to relieve himself of opprobrium and
calumny he resolved to determine the character of the North-
west, whether it were a country such as his opponents de-
clared it to be or one which possessed natural resources
worth the effort to develop.

In pursuance of the views and purposes which President
Jefferson entertained, in the summer of 1803 he planned an
expedition to explore the head waters of the Missouri, and
to discover if possible a practicable water communication
thence with the Pacific ocean. At this time Captain Meri-
wether Lewis, twenty-nine years of age, was acting as the
President's private secretary. He was a gentleman of fine
Virginia family, and having had some army experience, and
withal was so eager to obtain the commission that Presi-
dent Jackson decided to appoint him one of the leaders of

945

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

the proposed expedition. Captain William Clark, who like
Lewis was an officer in the Army of the United States, was
chosen by the President as associate in the command of the
expedition. Captain Clark, who was four years the senior
in age of Captain Lewis, was a brother of that famous
George Rogers Clark, who in 1775 was a leader against the
hostile Indians and British in the war for possession of what
was then the Northwest. His most distinguished and in-
trepid exploits were the defense of Harrodsburg, the capture
of Kaskaskia and Vincennes, in the expedition of 1778, the
relief of Cahokia, invasion of the Shawnee country, and de-
feat of the Miamies.

It was not possible for President Jefferson to have selected
two men, from any walk of life, who were better equipped
by nature and training for so hazardous an enterprise than
Captains Lewis and Clark, and in making the appointment
he again showed that remarkable accuracy of judgment for
which he was ever distinguished.

The two intrepid officers met at Louisville and proceeded
to St. Louis, where they arrived in the month of December,
1803. Being prevented by the Spanish commandant from
wintering at La Charrete, on the Missouri, the two went
into camp at the head of Chouteau Slough, below the
mouth of the Missouri river, where they enlisted a body
of men and made their preparations for starting upon the
long upriver journey at the approach of spring. The

party consisted of nine hardy young men from Kentucky,

946

A SCENE ON THE UPPER MISSOtfRf.

BEFORE the applicaticn of steam, and immediately preced;ngthe steamboat, the
use of keel-boats was general on western rivers for the conveyance of freight
from the head of navigation on the Missouri to the port of New Orleans. The
scene herewith represents the voyage of a keel-boat up the Missouri earfyr in the
nineteenth century, when Indian villages occupied the shores at frequent intervals,
-iiid danger from attack was almost constant.

/ BK K ! T0t< Y

etptsiifrkia., Captain William Clark, who like
<« '-jflaefT m t/?* Army of the Umted States, was
e Prc^dtefrt vs a$.%oct7ite in the ty>mmatnd of the

«. ai^atn O*ifc, *h-.» was four
platri I^WI.H, was a brother -' nous

*rs <"."tsrk. *v?Jo i« 1775 was a '
t)i. s.M ?v,rst7.-ih in the war f
r- iSi'.-tthwest. His most
tr> were the defend.
Vincennes,

%\

.ji

. •(IsJeibammt Lns ,rriB3J8 io njhfioilqqe srfl a«oi
fl4%telHi9WWlS

.en;

'Ht nl xitc** riuo«'«iM ( {335! £ i- .^t

.ttK-nstcu «n3Wp»ki»«.'*i>Jdd«if(l hsiqu .

:vs Lewi, an.i

.

i • .
:-e hard>

THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

fourteen volunteer soldiers, two French watermen, an in-
terpreter, a hunter, and one black servant. In addition to
these there were six soldiers, one corporal, and nine water-
men, or rowers, engaged to accompany the expedition as far
as Mandan. These were needed to assist in carrying stores,
and to aid in repelling any attacks which might be made
by Indians along the river, whose hostility" was anticipated.

Outfitting for the expedition occupied considerable time,
for a special keel-boat, fifty-five feet long, had to be pro-
vided. This boat was decked over for ten feet at both the
bow and stern, which formed a forecastle and cabin, while
in the center of the boat there were lockers which might be
quickly raised to form a breastwork in a sudden emergency.
This large barge, which drew three feet of water, was pro-
pelled by twenty-two oars, and a square sail was raised
whenever a favorable wind blew. Besides the great boat
there were two pirogues, or long skiffs, one of which had
three pairs of oars and the other four pairs. Into these
boats the necessary stores were securely placed, consisting
of clothing, provisions, utensils, guns, flints, powder, balls,
and a great quantity and variety of articles designed to be
used as presents in conciliating, and gaining the favor of
Indians.

All the necessary preparations having been completed,
the party broke camp on the morning of Monday, May 14,
1804, and by means of oars and sail began their laborious
and slow ascent of the Missouri River. Nothing occurred

949

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

to greatly disturb the peace of the party for several weeks,
although tribes of Indians occupied both shores of the river,
who showed displeasure at the announcement that the coun-
try had been ceded by France to the United States. Fre-
quent landings were made, to hunt and meet parties of In-
dians, whose friendship Lewis and Clark made it a prime
purpose of their expedition to cultivate. On June ist they
arrived at the mouth of Osage River, a few miles below
where Jefferson City now stands, and visited one day with
the Osage Indians, who numbered about 7,500 warriors, but
who residing in villages and being engaged in agriculture
were peaceably disposed. The Osages, as Lewis and Clark
were told, believed that the founder of their nation was a
snail, which being swept away by a flood was left exposed
upon a sand-bank where the sun beat down so fiercely that
the snail was speedily developed into a man. In this new
form, but with none of the instincts of a man, the creature
started to return to the place that had been its original habi-
tation, and was met on the way by the Great Spirit who
clothed him with a mind and gave him a bow and arrows, in
the use of which he was instructed. Proceeding further he
was met by a beaver who disputed his way, and the conten-
tion waxed so great that a daughter of the beaver recon-
ciled their differences by offering herself in marriage to the
man. This proposal being consented to, the union was
performed from which the tribes of the Osages sprang.
This belief was so general that a pious reverence was paid

950

THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

by the tribe to beavers, until the skins of these animals
became so valuable that the Osages lost their sanctity for the
animal in the profit obtained by sacrificing it.

Game abounded, and on June 7, when the expedition was
near the site now occupied by Booneville, the first herd of
buffaloes was met with, and three bears were killed. Snakes,
too, were extremely plentiful, including a species which was
said to produce a noise like a turkey gobbling, a report con-
firmed by Frenchmen, but no specimens could be obtained.
Wolves, a few elk, great flocks of swan and geese, and an
.abundance of deer, with occasionally a herd of buffalo, were
a part of the panorama which moved before the party as
they toiled up the swift and treacherous river, or made side
excursions up smaller streams to obtain a better idea of the
country beyond the Missouri Valley. Indians were con-
stantly met with, but of the scores of tribes — many of con-
siderable size — mentioned by Lewis and Clark as living
along the Missouri, very few now exist, and a large ma-
jority have so long ago disappeared that their names, when
mentioned, are utterly unknown by all save those who have
made a special study of Indian life. Who is it that can
recall remembrance of having seen or heard of such tribes
as the Kaninaviesch, the Staitan or Kite, the Wetapahato,
Cataka, Castahana, Dotaini, etc.? And yet one time these
tribes populated Missouri territory in such numbers that
there was rarely an interval of a dozen miles between their
villages.

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Council Bluff takes its name from a council which was
held near that point between the Lewis and Clark expedi-
tion and a party of fourteen Ottoes and Missouri Indians.
The frequency of chiefs, or the number which appears in
proportion to the tribe, is indicated by the fact that of the
fourteen present at the council six were chiefs. There was
considerable speech-making at the meeting at which an-
nouncement was made of the change in government.
Among the presents distributed was a pair of garters, a
canister of powder, a bottle of whiskey, and an air gun was
exhibited. The latter excited the liveliest interest, some of
the Indians evidently, by the fear they exhibited, regarding
it as an instrument of magic, and could not be persuaded to
touch it. This council took place August 3, 1804.

A few days after leaving. Council Bluff the expedition
reached a point, probably 100 miles north, where they ob-
served a great mound rising from the bluff, and upon in-
vestigating they discovered it to be the grave of a great
Mahas chief known as Black Bird. The mound was twelve
feet in diameter and raised to a height of six feet, in the
center of which a pole was placed, and round it were offer-
ings of food, supplied regularly by the superstitious Indians
who held his memory, or spirit, in reverential respect.
Black Bird had died of smallpox, which disease had raged
with such fatality among the Indians of that section of
country that the tribes were almost entirely destroyed. In

one village, that consisted of three hundred cabins, four

952

THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

hundred warriors and a proportionate number of women and
children fell victims to the epidemic. The warriors, seeing
their strength thus rapidly wasting, became so frenzied that
they burned their village and by way of propitiation, or to
save them from the affliction, put their wives and children
to death.

By August 25th the expedition had ascended the Missouri
to a point some twenty miles above where Sioux City now
stands. Their introduction to what was then the Sioux
Indian country was startling, if not fearsome, for one of the
first mysterious objects to attract and hold fast their atten-
tion was a remarkable mound on the north bank of a small
confluent of the Missouri which Lewis and Clark care-
fully examined. They found it to be in shape a perfect par-
allelogram, about 900 feet long by 200 feet wide, rising by
a steep ascent to a height of 70 feet, thus leaving on the
summit a level plain from which a wide sweep of vision was
to be had of the low-lying country thereabout. This mound
was so symmetrical, and rose so sharply out of a level and
extensive valley, as to suggest its being artificial, but the
greatest interest of the party lay in the superstitious fear
in which it was held by the Sioux Indians, a terror which
likewise extended to the Mahas and Ottoes. These tribes
called it the mountain of Little Spirits and stoutly declared
that it was the abode of devils who never exceeded eighteen
inches in height but had amazingly large heads and were
extremely skilful with the bow. These devils always went

953

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

well armed and maintained such a vigilant watch on the
mound that any person who had the hardihood to approach
it would be immediately set upon and killed, as many adven-
turous Indians had been. Captains Lewis and~ Clark
climbed to the top of the mound, but were unable to persuade
any Indians to accompany them, who watched from afar
the result of their daring, confident that a tragedy was im-
pending. The only confirmation of the tradition which the
two explorers could find was discovery of several small
holes penetrating the earth to considerable depth, and which
not being used by any kind of wild animals seemed to be
well suited to serve as outlets for little devils, if any inhab-
ited the mound.

The expedition made fair progress, passing from time to
time up lateral streams to better study the country, which
was generally treeless but nearly always abounding with
game, which lent great animation to the otherwise lonely
landscape. Buffaloes were particularly plentiful, as were
also black-tailed deer, goats, elks, wolves, and antelopes.
Villages of prairie dogs were frequently met with, which
being for the first time seen by members of the expedition
excited much interest. There were also beavers, squirrels,
hedgehogs, and such feathered game as turkey, grouse,
geese, brants and ducks, which were so tame as to be easily
approached, so that for provisions of meat there was no
scarcity. At many places parties of Indians were met, with
whom peace councils were held, and their favor obtained by

954

THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

gifts of beads, little bells, jackknives, tobacco, small orna-
ments, cloth, and gewgaws, but the most highly prized of
all presents were flasks of whisky, which the Indians called
" white man's milk."

At a point now occupied by the city of Yankton the expe-
dition met with the first signs of hostility, from a party of
Yankton Sioux with whom a council was held and some
whisky given to the chiefs. This gift so delighted the In-
dians that they persisted in their requests for more, and
being refused they attempted to detain the boat and made
other hostile demonstrations. Observing that an emergency
was at hand, Captain Clark drew his sword and commanded
that the full charged swivel gun be turned upon the chiefs,
at which, seeing their imminent danger, the chiefs made
overtures for peace. When the expedition moved again
the Indians followed, entreating that another stop be made
in order to give the squaws and children opportunity to see
the boats and white men. Finally these importunities pre-
vailed and the party went on shore, where they met with
such a kind reception that Captains Lewis and Clark ac-
cepted an invitation to remain over night and attend a dance
to be given by the Indians in honor of their distinguished
guests.

The entertainment provided by the Yanktons took place
in a large council house, made of buffalo and deer skins
sewed together, capable of accommodating the company of
more than seventy that assembled. Lewis and Clark were

955

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

met upon landing by ten well-dressed young men acting as
a reception committee who carried them, upon a dressed
buffalo skin, to the place of entertainment and seated them
beside the head chief. Under the shelter of the tent about
seventy Indians were seated in a three-quarter circle, in the
center of which, in a space six feet in diameter, was placed
the pipe of peace elevated six inches, by being laid on two
forked sticks, under which a quantity of swan's-down was
scattered. Beside the pipe of peace there was a fire, and
400 pounds of buffalo meat designed as a present to the
white men. At the proper time the old chief arose and ad-
dressed Captains Lewis and Clark, commending what they
had done, and begging them to take pity upon his people's
poverty; having delivered his speech, and received assur-
ances of protection from his guests, he took some choice
parts of a dog that had been cooking, and offered them to a
small flag that had been set in the ground ; this done he took
up the pipe of peace and pointing it towards heaven and the
four quarters of the globe lighted and presented it in turn
to each one in the assemblage, haranguing them meantime.
After performing these ceremonial acts the chief tendered
choice morsels of dog to every one present, together with
some pemmican (buffalo meat, dried or jerked and then
pounded and mixed raw with fat), and a kind of ground
potato that tasted like corn hominy. Captains Lewis and
Clark partook sparingly of the dog meat, but ate with much
relish the other food provided. After eating and smoking

956

THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

for an hour, everything was cleared away for the dance.
For orchestra there were ten Indians who beat upon a kind
of tambourine and made a jingling noise with long sticks
to which the hoofs of deer and goats were attached. An-
other instrument was a small and well-dried skin bag in
which pebbles were placed that made a sharp rattle, and
some of the men furnished vocal accompaniment which
was wholly discordant. When the music started several
highly decorated young men came forward bearing poles,
on which were hung scalps of their enemies, and yet others
that carried spears and other trophies of victory. Arrang-
ing themselves in two columns they advanced towards each
other, until meeting in the center they gave a great shout
and returned again to their former positions, but all the
while shuffling their feet along the ground while the noisy
orchestra kept up a fierce din. During short pauses in the
dance, young men came forward and in gutteral tones re-
cited stories or incidents, some of which were martial, while
others were ludicrous and indecent. The men alternated
with the women, the two sexes never dancing together.
During the progress of the entertainment one Indian became
offended by believing that he had not received a due share
of the tobacco distributed among them, and broke one of the
tambourines, threw two others into the fire and then left
the party, in a tower of passion. Offensive as was this
conduct, no notice was taken of it by any of the other In-
dians, who kept up the carnival of noise until midnight,

957

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

when Captains Lewis and Clark, fatigued by these attempts
to amuse them, withdrew to their boats, accompanied by
four chiefs, two of whom spent the night with tBem.

The several branch tribes of the Sioux were found to be
cruel, avaricious, and otherwise untrustworthy, while of the
women the least that may be said is that they were horribly
ugly. Further up the river, however, the expedition met
with a tribe known as the Ricarees, who though very poor
were as honest as they were hospitable, besides showing
a superiority in their general manners. They refused to
accept gifts of whisky because, as they said, it made fools
of them, a wisdom which very few Indians are known to
manifest. The women possessed some marks of comeliness,
but they had so little regard for virtue that it really did
not exist among them. Some of their traditions, on the
other hand, indicated a degree of beautiful imagery which
placed them very far in advance of other tribes of the North-
west, and which might take rank with the best of Roman
and Greek mythology. For example : A youth being
greatly enamored of a maiden and refused the consent of
her parents to marry her, withdrew from his people, resolved
to give himself up to perish on the plains. A sympathy of
feeling led the maiden to similarly sacrifice herself. After
wandering for a time, the two met and casting in their
fortunes together continued their wanderings until hunger
and fatigue was no longer supportable, when they lay down

to die. The Great Spirit had compassion on their suffer-

958

THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

ings and converted them into stone, the metamorphosis be-
ginning at the feet and gradually extending to the body,
until the change was complete. And there the lovers stand
to this day, reverently regarded by the Ricarees, who never
pass these twain sacred stones without making pious offer-
ings to them as deities. This fable calls to mind that of
Niobe, who was petrified with grief for the loss of her
children, and of Daphne, who to escape the amorous pur-
suit of Apollo was changed into a tree.

Another example of the sympathetic and humane char-
acter of the Ricarees is presented by Captain Lewis, who re-
lates that for desertion he was compelled to execute the sen-
tence of a court martial by inflicting corporal punishment
upon one of his soldiers. The sentence was carried out in
the presence of a Ricaree chief, who was so deeply affected
that he cried aloud during the infliction of the punishment,
and told Captain Lewis that while he had found it necessary
to execute malefactors among his own people, no one of his
tribe ever whipped even children from their birth.

The Ricarees were later discovered by Captain Clark to
be another name for the Pawnees, a tribe that from time
immemorial has been implacable enemies of the Sioux, and
through incessant wars with that more powerful nation
had become reduced from a great people to an almost insig-
nificant remnant.

About November ist the expedition had advanced as far
north as the Mandan country, and ice appearing in the river

959

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

admonished the party to prepare for winter now near at
hand. Accordingly a place was chosen three miles below
the present site of Bismarck, capital of North Dakota,
where some cabins were built, and the party made them-
selves comfortable, while Captains Lewis and Clark con-
tinued their investigations of Indian life and in extending
the influence of the United States authority among the sev-
eral tribes. The Mandans were found to be a people partic-
ularly interesting, for their intelligence, traditions, and su-
perstitions. It has been asserted by some ethnologists that
the Mandans bear an affinity, at least, to the Jewish race,
and that there is much evidence to support the theory of
their descent from the Lost Tribes of Israel. It is quite
true that the nation, now practically extinct, had a tradition
of the deluge very similar to that contained in the Genetic
account, but they also had another which is thus told by
Captains Lewis and Clark :

" Their belief in a future state is connected with this tra-
dition of their origin : The whole nation resided in one
large village under ground near a subterranean lake; a
grapevine extended its roots down to their habitation and
gave them a view of the light ; some of the most adventur-
ous climbed up the vine and were delighted with the sight
of the earth, which they found covered with buffaloes, and
rich with every kind of fruit. Returning with grapes they
had gathered, their countrymen were so pleased with the

taste of them that the whole nation resolved to leave their

960

A MANVAN TILLAGE ANT) BULL-BOATS.

7J| T the time of Lewis and Clark's expedition the Mandan Indians, next
* i» Sioux, were probably the strongest aboriginal nation in the Northwest,
numbering more than 1000 fighting men. These people however wert friendly.
and gave assistance to Lewis and Clark when they wintered among them,
The village shown in the accompanying illustration stood on the
River bank opposite the site now occupied by Bismarck, North 'Dakota,
boats, which were used extensively by the Indians,.:were made by stretching ii-e
skins of bull-buffalo? over a frame work, and cementing the seams. ^flp*
boats were capable of carrying two person* safely and were practically indeKntt"'
bit.

i SI AN A TERRITORY

-ty to prepare f- T now near at

a place was ohoxt-i three miles below

<> of Bismat
ome cabins were built.

• ble, while i
-cd thei; ations .

.>{ North Dakota,
ty made them-

ubK

b

.. •

The whole ns-

'.uund near a so

roots down to '

iventtir-

il -were delighted with the sight

'.tnd covered with buffaloes, and

it, Reti: ;th grapes they

t were d with the

i resolved to lenve their

THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION

I

dull residence for the charms of the upper region; men,
women, and children ascended by means of the vine; but
when about half the nation had reached the surface, a cor-
pulent woman, who was climbing up the vine broke it with
her weight, and, falling, closed upon herself and the rest of
the nation the light of the sun. Those who gained the earth
made a village below the nine villages which we saw; and
when the Mandans die they expect to return to the original
seats of their forefathers, the good reaching the ancient
village by means of the subterranean lake, which the bur-
dens of the wicked will not allow them to cross."

Many curious things are related "in Captain Lewis's nar-
rative of the customs and beliefs of the Mandans, one of
which is to the effect that the wife of a French interpreter,
being seized with labor pains, endured intense suffering until
a Mandan Indian prepared a portion of pulverized rattle
of the rattlesnake, which he gave her with some water,
whereupon in the space of ten minutes she was safely and
easily delivered.

The winter was intensely cold, the thermometer fre-
quently dropping to 40 degrees below zero, yet the Indians,
poorly clad as they were, suffered little from exposure, and
kept up their hunting of buffalo, and also their dances, in
which it was not an uncommon thing for women to par-
ticipate almost entirely devoid of clothing. Some of the
dances were really orgies, description of which is so im-
proper in print that Captain Lewis, in one instance, uses

963

. LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Latin to narrate what he saw. But if immorality be com-
mon among the Mandans it is not considered a crime,
though inconstancy by a married woman was very fre-
quently punished by death, at the hands of the wronged
husband, a vengeance which custom gave him the right to
inflict. But their improprieties in this respect must not
make us mindless of their ingeniousness and their really
generous traits of character. The Mandans, like other
Indians, were superstitious to a degree, but they were also
hospitable and kindly disposed towards strangers, and
withal intensely sympathetic for the suffering. They were
regarded as being especially skilful in the practise of medi-
cine, through the use of compounds made from plants and
minerals, and if the tales of travelers, including accounts
given by Lewis and Clark, be true, their success in the treat-
ment of sickness, poisoning, and injuries was remarkably
great. They were distinguished also for their inventive
genius and mechanical skill. Unacquainted as they were
with the processes of producing glass, they contrived to man-
ufacture beads of a superior quality, and likewise to fashion
from crude minerals very serviceable articles for domestic
use.

In the latter part of March, when several warm days had
broken up the ice in the river and left it filled with floating
floes, Lewis and Clark were witnesses to a unique buffalo
hunt by the Mandans, which they thus describe:

" Every Spring, as the river is breaking up, the surround-

964

PHILIPPINE

Ceded by

1899. -

x

THE WIDER
PINK SHADING

ALONG THE
ATLANTIC COAST
COVERS ALL THE

SETTLED

TERRITORY IN THE
\ UNITED STATES
AT THE CLOSE OF THE
REVOLUTIONARY WAR,

n=M5?rr PORTO RICO

SnL Ceded by Spain 1899

SM^!>..y.anV-96«;^1"

SCALE:

Statute Miles, 252 = 1 Inch.

0 50 100 ISO 200 250

Coprrlfht, 1904. bT R.. McN. 1 (

ing plains are set on fire, and the buffalo are tempted to
cross the river in search of fresh grass which immediately
succeeds to the burning. On their way they are often iso-
lated on a large cake or mass of ice, which floats down the
stream. The Indians now select the most favorable points
for attack, and, as the buffalo approaches, dart with astonish-
ing agility across the trembling ice, sometimes pressing
lightly a cake of not more than two feet square ; the animal
is of course unsteady, and his footsteps insecure on this new
element, so that he can make but little resistance, and the
hunter who has given him his death wound paddles his ice
raft to the shore and thus secures his prey."

965

DIVISION L.

Progress and Adventures of the Expedition.

BY the 7th of April, 1805, the weather had so greatly
moderated that it was decided to break camp and proceed
upon the journey of exploration. Before doing so, however,
the bateau, or keel boat, was sent back to St. Louis, with
thirteen men, ten of whom were attaches of the expedition.
The others, comprising thirty-two persons, embarked in six
small canoes and two large pirogues, to proceed upon the
hazardous undertaking which they had been commissioned
to perform. The party had been increased at Mandan by
the engagement of a Frenchman named Chaboneau, who
having lived among the Indians of the North for many
years, had acquired a speaking knowledge of several Indian
tongues. Chaboneau himself proved to be both cowardly
and inefficient, but one of his wives, called Sacajawea —
signifying the " Bird Woman " — accompanied the expedi-
tion and made herself so useful as guide and interpreter
that Lewis and Clark freely acknowledge the extreme value
of her services. She was taken captive, when a child, from
the Shoshones and sold as a slave to Chaboneau, according

to a custom prevalent at the time, but her intelligence and

966

FORTS PIERRE ANT) UNION.

'TT'HE fur trade of the Upper Missouri, with the Sioux, Pawnee and Mandan
^•^ tribes especially, was large long before the Lewis and Clark expedition, but
it received a great impetus when forts were established by the government to pro-
tect traders against the Indians. Upon the recomendation of Captain Lewis, Fort
Union was built at the confluence of the Yellowstone with the Missouri, and soon
after Fort St. Pierre was erected at a point twenty-five miles below the mouth of
: Cheyenne River, upon which now stands Pierre City, the capital of South Dakota.

7t

bnr, 9«0ws<i ,*u<M srii telM isqq'J^H} io s

«! J l.nf. eiwQ^trflnneJW s'rftfl^^ ii^/ ^Ijfef

u§ 3/il i(d badsildjiieg .i»iaSBJ|ip«jji

,ii£gs eiabfi

.

She wa

.

PROGRESS AND ADVENTURES OF THE EXPEDITION

fidelity would have reflected honor upon one more worthily
reared.

The journey continued up the Missouri without interrup-
tion or special incident, through the country of the Assini-
boins, in which game of many kinds abounded, both animal
and feathered, and a sight was had of two white bears,
which, however, made off into the woods before they could
be approached within rifle range. Buffaloes, antelopes, elk,
deer, and wolves were so plentiful that there was no time for
many days when members of the expedition could not see
great numbers on the shores. At one point discovery was
made that a band of wolves had attacked a herd of buffaloes,
which afforded an interesting sight, for it was perceived
how valorously the cows defended their young, while the
bulls fled ingloriously.

On April 26th, Captains Lewis and Clark had their first
view of the Yellowstone river, and made a careful inspec-
tion of the country near the confluence of the two streams.
Except for clouds of dust that filled the air, so thick at times
as to obscure the landscape, the valley appeared extremely
fertile and the region delightful. Coal and limestone was
found to be fairly plentiful, while the banks and surrounding
country were so well wooded that the place of union of the
rivers was recommended as a particularly eligible site for a
trading-post, afterwards acted upon by the founding of
Fort Buford, and a chain of posts which included Forts

Randall, near the line that separates Nebraska and South

969

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Dakota, Pierre, Sully, Yates, Rice, Lincoln, Stevenson,
Union, Berthold, Assiniboin, Peck, and Benton, the latter
being the head of navigation on the Missouri.

Good progress was made by the party, except for occa-
sional delays caused by sand-bars, and considerable cold
weather was experienced, but otherwise the journey was
one of unmixed delight. The wonderful abundance of both
large and small game still met with led Lewis and Clark
to suppose that the Indians were either not so numerous as
along the river farther south, or else the tribes in this sec-
tion were less given to hunting. Beavers were so plentiful
that the lateral streams were choked with their houses, and
the forest was almost devastated of small trees by their
work of gnawing.

On the 29th of April Captain Lewis, who was on shore
with one hunter, met two white bears, the strength and
ferocity of which he describes as follows :

" The Indians never attack this animal unless in parties
of six or eight, and even then the hunters are often defeated.
Having no weapons but bows and arrows, or the bad guns
with which traders supply them, the Indians are obliged to
approach very near to the bear, as no wound except through
the head or heart is mortal, and missing their aim they fre-
quently fall a sacrifice to their temerity. The white bear
rather attacks than avoids a man, and such is the terror he
has inspired that the Indians who go in quest of him paint

themselves and perform all the superstitious rites cus-

970

PROGRESS AND ADVENTURES OF THE EXPEDITION

tomary when they make war on a neighboring nation.
Hitherto those we had seen did not appear desirous of en-
countering us, but although to a skilful rifleman the danger
is much diminished, the white bear is still a terrible animal."

Approaching within rifle range of the two white bears
met with, Captain Lewis and the hunter fired and wounded
both animals. One of them escaped, but the other, more
hurt, probably, than his companion, charged with the great-
est ferocity and pursued Captain Lewis for a distance of
nearly one hundred yards; and but for being somewhat
disabled by his wound, might have caught and killed the in-
trepid Captain before either hunter was able to load and fire
again. When the animal was finally shot to death it was
found to be not quite full grown, yet it weighed three hun-
dred pounds, and was armed with tusks and talons equal to
those of a grizzly, while its vitality was fully as great.
Although the animal which Captain Lewis describes was not
white, but, as he elsewhere asserts, " is yellowish brown in
color," it is difficult to distinguish the species, for though
the description given applies to the Cinnamon bear, it is not
known that this animal is found so far north, being con-
fined to the mountain regions of the southwest.

Captain Lewis relates the following curious fact about
the antelope, swiftest of all creatures that scour the plains:
" This fleet and quick-sighted animal is generally the victim
of its curiosity ; when they first see the hunters they flee with
great velocity; if he lies down on the ground and lifts his

971

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

arm, his foot, or his hat, the antelope returns on a light trot
to look at the object, and sometimes goes and returns two
or three times, till they approach within reach of the rifle;
so, too, they sometimes leave their flock to go and look at
the wolves, who crouch down, and if the antelope be fright-
ened at first, repeat the same manceuver, and relieve each
other till they decoy it from the party and then seize it."

The country now traversed by the party was park-like,
abounded in game, and besides being very fertile was rich
in mineral resources, especially coal, which cropped out of
the earth, and showed veins as much as six feet in thickness
in places along the river banks. On the 5th of May Captain
Clark had his first sight of a brown or grizzly bear, which
he and his companion managed to kill, but not until they
had fired ten bullets into its vitals. The length of this ani-
mal was eight feet, and its weight about six hundred pounds.

No Indians were met with, but evidences of their pres-
ence in the vicinity were to be seen in abandoned lodges, sac-
rificial mounds, and occasionally scaffolds upon which their
dead were laid, for it is the custom of the Sioux and Assini-
boin nations, as it is of others, to dispose of the dead by
laying them upon a scaffold ten feet or more in height, out
of the reach of carnivorous animals.

As the expedition approached a stream called Muscle-
shell, the country became more broken, the bluffs higher and
the river turbulent. Game also was less abundant, but still

plentiful enough to yield meat sufficient for the party. At

972

HUNTING THE TIROWN 'BEAR.

E grizzly bear has held his place as the most formidable animal of North
America, next to which is the brown bear, a next of kin, whose numbers
as well as ferocity constituted a real menace to travellers in the northwest. Lewis
and Clark make frequent mention of their adventures with this powerful and coura-
geous beast, in the hunting of which they had several almost miraculous escapes,
for being difficult to kill the brown bear is prompt to charge and persistent in l<i*
attacks, especially when wounded.

arn«

ter;/5/ ANA TERRITOR Y

•~» his i^i the antelope returns on a light

•<*jcct, ant! sometimes goes and' returns two

a, till they approach within reach v of the rifle;

^emetimes leave their flock to go ancUook at

ch

they decoj it from the party aad tfeea Mil
thft- country now traversed by the :
foc-uwie'1 • ar'i« k^des being

tu tnHitral resowngfc .especially &®k *lw* i
the earth, *a«! showed veins as modi a« six feet i)

in places akmotar^^^ fe^^W^ '

, . »> .: of -i brown or 1C

(jOMfl Ikliimn* vMc'lttalim' ^orh >nt ra >9*iq •iri'blaH «£d issd ^Issi^a SH*^^

. tTsrJmwT eHfodv -o»«{ an*di4c>rfkkiljiiJHt aTi^^Vi'/iMi^tiJAy l«r

«»w3kl .iRswrirjori idi ai eisflavBi) oJ aDcaarn IB^TI £ l»jitJAttW)3^J»biisJ e&-H»w ec

/* 1 1 * 1«-vJ - • T.T1 U/* triTTT *T* •••

J>fKirtttstedtliiHi4^i«^TdftV^ift^n3vb^ii3rfHono s^Km iidD bne

'Svfciuil4>9Ipi|^^Om^5,^Bl»X!9^v^d 5J3. ' fli|fi9#fta^093

!>HE n^isrl? oJ ttjfnoaq zi ijsad n 'fu-jrt>ib ao«<! iol

i >ns were met wit )cns

. v were to be ^^':
MS ami occasionally
for it is the ens;-
M it is of ochers.

-., ft t£affo}d ler> • -' in heit

ous anin

-.preached a stream called Musde-
,« more bro> ->Hi£fs higher and

[•m<r al«;n xv.'i' 't'lt, but still

'

party. At

'

PROGRESS AND ADVENTURES OF THE EXPEDITION

one point a large brown, or grizzly, bear was discovered,
and as its formidableness was now known ten men with guns
set out to kill it. The bear had no mind to avoid battle,
and when a volley of balls was shot into its body instead
of succumbing, as might have been expected, turned hunter
and pursued the men with such ferocity that they were
forced to retreat with precipitancy. Finding themselves
close pressed, and their guns now empty, the panic-stricken
hunters divided and ran in different ways. The bear there-
upon selected three to be his victims, whom he pursued so
relentlessly that they leaped down the river bank, a sheer
descent of ten feet, followed by the bear, which would cer-
tainly have caught at least one of them had he not been now
attacked by the other hunters, who, having had opportunity
to reload their rifles, luckily dispatched him as the three
men were swimming for their lives.

A little further west, near the point where Judith River
empties into the Missouri, Captains Lewis and Clark dis-
covered the remains of a great number of buffaloes that had
been driven over a precipice by Indian hunters. This
method of destroying these animals is thus described :
" The mode of hunting is to select one of the most active
and fleet young men, who is disguised by a buffalo skin
round his body, the skin of the head, with the ears and horns,
fastened on his own head in such a way as to deceive the
buffaloes; thus dressed he fixes himself at a convenient
distance between the herd of buffaloes and the river bluffs,

975

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

which sometimes extend for some miles. His companions
in the meantime get in the rear and sides of the herd, and at
a signal show themselves and advance towards the buffaloes ;
they instantly take alarm, and finding the hunters beside
them, run towards the disguised Indian decoy, who leads
them on at full speed towards the river, when suddenly se-
curing himself in some crevice, or behind some object, the
herd is left on the brink of the precipice. It is then in vain
for the foremost to retreat, or even to stop ; they are pressed
on by the hindmost rank, who, seeing no danger but from the
hunters, goad on those before them till the whole are pre-
cipitated over the brink. The Indians then select from the
crushed buffaloes as much meat as they can carry away,
leaving the rest to the wolves."

The river had now become little more than a succession
of rapids, with a current so strong that it was often im-
possible to row the boats, and resort to poling and cordelling
was necessary. This made their progress slow, besides ex-
posing the waterman to great hardships, for the banks
were slippery, and often so steep that those who pulled upon
the ropes were compelled to wade in water up to their arm-
pits while the temperature was only a few degrees above
freezing. The scenery, however, at these points was
beautiful and interesting, for the cliffs were of white sand-
stone which had become worn, by water flowing in rivulets
over the ledges, into figures that were often grotesque and

more frequently wonderful for architectural and sculptural

976

WHITE CASTLES AND SCENIC SHORES OF THE

MISSOURI. ^.J

E Upper Missouri is distinguished by its cleavage through precipitous bluff*
which often rise to a height of 509 feet. In Dakota and Montana the bankt
are sometimes castellated, and from a distance resemble the ruins of palaces, or
towers, domes, minarets, keeps, donjons, and other stately bits of baronial and
aspiring architecture. These regions besides being attractive to the eye were
favorite haunts of mountain goats which fifty years ago were almost at plentiful as
elk in the northwest.

, ft --1

TERRITORY

.'•« miles. His companions
in tS» *c nd sides of the herd, and at

a *;;, :• towards the buffaloes;

tlie hunter* beside

• H*; i decoy, wh

. when sudd<
>me ob]

•he precipice. It is then
to retreat, or even t ed

. }

1

»^i!sd srfl JtasJnoM bqs sJoisQ nl .isaJ.QOj Jo tdgbrf 2 ot 3«n mllo rioidw

ii s/Jt aJf': ,'<iJb « moil bne .balEllalKsa Mmbainoa 3is

>itiy» »Y3 ^rf» 01 avjtDsins snisd eabiead snoigr^

,,: M-orW« ft»«lfiSPflfc^*fiB *

w the b;. resort r

\e temp
beau

;ul for a and sculptural

976

vas

ivulets
•fc and

PROGRESS AND ADVENTURES OF THE EXPEDITION

magnificence, until there appeared towers, pillars, pedestals,
columns, castles, and other fantastic forms suggestive of
enchantment.

After numerous adventures and perilous escapes from
drowning, and from being dashed to pieces over precipices
which had to be scaled by the hunters, the expedition at
length, on June 5th, cached a large part of their stores,
tools, ammunition, etc., near the mouth of Maria's River,
and dividing the party Captain Lewis with four men set
out to ascend the Maria's River, while Captain Clark, with
the others of the expedition, continued on up the Missouri.
After proceeding up stream in light canoes for a distance of
thirty miles, Captain Lewis discovered that the river swept
sharply from the south, and fearing that by continuing in
the boats he would pass the Great Falls of the Missouri, of
which he had heard many reports, he made a portage across
the plains until the sound of roaring water fell upon his
ears, and he felt that one of the objects of his quest was
about to be attained. A few hours later his heart was glad-
dened by a sight which, as he describes it, " since creation
had been lavishing its magnificence upon the desert, was
unknown to civilization."

" The river immediately at its cascade is three hundred
yards wide, and is pressed in by a perpendicular cliff on the
left, which rises to about one hundred feet and extends up
the stream for a mile; on the right the bluff is also perpen-
dicular for three hundred yards above the falls. For

979

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

ninety or a hundred yards from the left cliff, the water falls
in one smooth, even sheet, over a precipice of at least eighty
feet. The remaining part of the river precipitates itself
with a more rapid current, but being received as it falls by
the irregular and somewhat projecting rocks below, forms a
splendid prospect of perfectly white foam, two hundred
yards in length and eighty in perpendicular elevation."
The Falls of the Missouri comprise four great cataracts,
two or three miles apart, which in their entirety compose
one of the grandest sights in nature.

After studying the Falls and making some observations,
Captain Lewis ascended the bank and passed over into a
valley beyond, where he saw a herd of buffalo grazing, one
.of which he shot, but almost at the same moment, to his
great terror, he caught sight of a huge brown bear not
more than twenty steps distant and evidently intending to
attack him. His gun being now without a charge, Captain
Lewis retreated towards the river, which it proved fortu-
nate for him was so near at hand, whereupon the bear was
more emboldened and pursued at top speed the retreating
hunter. It was a hard run of more than one hundred
yards before the Captain reached the water and plunged in,
believing he could make a better fight for his life in the
river than on the land. The bear hesitated at the bank,
and being more frightened by the Captain's pike than by
his gun, presently turned about and made off for the woods.

Almost immediately after escaping from the bear Captain

980

GREAT FALLS OF THE MISS'JL'RL

SECOND to Niagara, in America, are the great falls of the Missouri, three in
number, scattered over a distance of twelve miles, where the confining walls
of the stream rise vertically to a height, in places, of 500 feet. The firstis Blaclt
Eagle Falls, that have a descent of 26 feet; next'ih' succession is Rainbow Falls,
where the river hurls itself over 3 declivity of 50 feet; six miles below are the Great
Falls, where the. river is narrowed by walls 200 feet high to a width of 300 feet,
and where a-volume of water equal to that of the Mississippi dashes over a brink
90 feet high and throws up a spray/,as dense as thai irnni Niagara.

ninety or a UttftlfeK! y • -iff. the water falls

in one *!***)&. «ww 4ss^i, **** '-e of at least eighty

fet*. T1>s >ff -v : precipitates itself

•vci-'-r. .- •«=* eived as it falls by

r -8jtli ,v. »ij rocks below, forms a

i^rBv H white foam, two hundred
, . : : •&5*i f :i» perpc
\:,c - el

. - -. ': • • •
•

.

to|tai*qw&ffl

S

*iUw , .;i9i9ri^ ? t4)

)sr lo Jnaa*?^ B ave

>:. M*«vih>T*!c rawt

or ?o fiihi 193] oos ellfi?' vd bawoiicn ai layii arfl a»«riw. .•U*''!

^ipraUi

an I, '.'

_>re than or.-

; ' ' - . '•

for his life in the

-itated at the bank,

3 pike than by

; for the woods.

? bear Captain

PROGRESS AND ADVENTURES OF THE EXPEDITION

Lewis had an adventure with a creature which, though it
was of a brownish yellow color, the Captain declares was of
the tiger species. But perilous adventures seemed to multi-
ply, for a few hours later he was charged by three bull
buffaloes, which he escaped by almost a miracle, and the
following morning as he awakened he discovered an enor-
mous rattlesnake coiled upon a tree trunk under which he
had been sleeping.

Captain Clark joined Lewis at the Falls on June i6th,
where after consultation they decided to make a portage
around the cataracts, but as the two large boats were too
heavy to be carried they improvised a vehicle, with wheels
made from a cottonwood tree, upon which the boats were
securely fastened and conveyed over land, not -however
without much difficulty, for the country was extremely
rough, the ravines deep, and the banks high.

In passing along the river bank and watching the great
falls, which afforded a sight of almost incomparable grand-
eur, members of the expedition were surprised to see a
great number of carcasses and parts of buffaloes floating
down the stream, the cause of which, however, they were not
long in ascertaining. The valley abounded with these ani-
mals, as well also with bears, wolves, and foxes, the rich
grasses being the attraction for the former, and the presence
of these readily accounted for the abundance of bears and
wolves. Buffaloes, when they existed in almost incredible
numbers, had the very destructive habit of moving en

983

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

masse, so that when one became thirsty the entire herd
moved rapidly in a body to the water, and this habit of the
creatures above the Falls of the Missouri led to the
death of hundreds every day, for as the foremost would
gain the river's edge through a steep and narrow passage
in the bank, the vast herd behind would crowd them into the
swift stream which whirled them away and mangled their
bodies as they were swept over the lofty cascade. As the
carcasses floated ashore at points between the falls, they
afforded unlimited food to beasts and birds of prey, so that
for these reasons wild animals of the carnivorous species
were markedly abundant here.

The expedition set out June 19 to drag their boats across
the country, but soon found the large pirogues too heavy
to transport, and with reluctance they were abandoned, after
making another cache of the things which they contained.
In place of the heavy pirogues it was decided to build a
boat of skins, the iron frame of which had been prepared for
the purpose at Harper's Ferry. While some were building
the new boat others were sent out to hunt, a service which
might have been pleasant enough but for the abundance
and ferocity of bears which, being chiefly of the brown
and grizzly species, constituted such a peril as the hardiest
and best armed hunters might well shrink from meeting,
and from which in fact members of the expedition had many
hair-breadth escapes.

On Saturday, June 29, while the party was encamped on

984

PROGRESS AND ADVENTURES OF THE EXPEDITION

Portage Creek, accompanied by his black servant York,
his interpreter Chaboneau, and the latter's slave wife, Saca-
jawea, Captain Clark made an excursion towards the Mis-
souri Falls, but on the way they discovered an ominous cloud,
and to escape the threatening storm took refuge under a
ledge in a deep ravine, where, protected from the rain, they
felt themselves to be quite secure. In a few moments, how-
ever, a very torrent of hail descended, followed by a cloud-
burst that swept everything before it like an avalanche and
so quickly converted the dry ravine into an impetuous, dash-
ing, leaping, terrifying current that all the party were in
imminent danger of being carried away. Captain Clark was
first to give the alarm, and grasping the Indian woman
tightly was pushing her up the bank, she holding her child
in her arms, when it was discovered that his compass, gun,
and umbrella were on the bank. Attempt to recover these
put him in a fresh danger, for as he turned back the waters
caught him and rose above his waist before he could retrace
his steps, the total rise in five minutes being more than fifteen
feet, so that a moment more of delay must certainly have
resulted in their being carried away into the river and thence
dashed over the falls.

On July 4 the skin-boat was completed, the dimensions of
which were 36 feet long, 41-2 feet breadth of beam, and 26
inches wide at the bottom, which being light was capable of
carrying 8,000 pounds, besides her complement of men. In
celebration of both the natal day of our independence and

985

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

completion of the boat a table was spread on the plains and
a great feast of elk and beaver meat was prepared. At night
all that remained of their stock of spirits was distributed
among the men, who were thereby infused with such hilarity
that a riddle was brought forth, to the inspiring music of
which they danced until their festivities were interrupted
by a heavy shower of rain. A strange sight, indeed, and a
memorable one as well, in which the irrepressible instinct
of exuberant boyhood manifested itself amid the savagery
of environment, and the physical hardships which explora-
tion through a wild country entails.

Notwithstanding the jubilant feeling of the expedition at
completion of the large boat, upon which many days of hard
labor had been spent, it was found, after floating and load-
ing, that the vessel leaked so badly, due to a lack of pitch or
tar with which to close the seams, it was necessary to
abandon her and rely upon canoes, though wood suitable
for such a purpose was not to be found in the vicinity. In
their extremity they had no other choice than to use cotton-
wood trees, which though ill adapted, because the green
wood is very heavy, and trees that were found to be large
enough, and hollow, were so badly split as to be almost
wholly unserviceable, nevertheless a fleet of ten canoes was
constructed, the largest of which was 33 feet in length. As
the expedition numbered in all thirty-two persons, the
weight of these, with the baggage necessary to be carried,

loaded them to a depth that rendered navigation treacherous.

986

PROGRESS AND ADVENTURES OF THE EXPEDITION

On July 15 the party duly embarked, following up the
Missouri River, finding the country still abounding with
game, and meeting with no accidents or adventures until
on the 1 7th their passage was obstructed by rapids, while the
banks were so precipitous that cordelling was impracticable.
Finally, by double maneuvering the canoes, and the use of
head-lines carried out and attached to trees along the shore,
the boats were brought over the rapids without damage. A
few Indians were met, but they showed small disposition
to exchange civilities or cultivate the friendship of the white
men. In two places were found the ruins of what had no
doubt once been council houses, large circular structures of
wood, bark, and skins, near which were relics of several
lodges, evidently occupied at the time the council was in
session. The expedition also noticed at several places an
abundance of sunflowers in bloom, and ascertained that this
plant is frequently cultivated by tribes of Indians in the
northwest, who make use of the seed for bread and for thick-
ening soup. To prepare the seed for their purposes they first
parch and then pound them between two stones until reduced
to a fine meal, in which condition water and marrow-grease
is added in proper proportion, till the mass is reduced to a
thick dough in which manner it is eaten, and is said to be a
most palatable dish.

The expedition had now penetrated the country occupied
by the Shoshones or Snake Indians, but none of these had

98;

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

yet been encountered. It was desirable to meet with and
establish friendship with this nation, for besides being de-
pended upon to furnish information they were likewise
relied on to supply horses which were much needed, as the
head waters of the Missouri were indicated by a growing
shallowness of the stream, and cross-country traveling
would soon be necessary. Accordingly, Captain Clark set
out with three men over a mountain in search of an Indian
camp or village. The country was extremely rugged, for
the expedition was now nearing the Rocky Mountains, the
bold peaks of which, glistening with snow under a July
sun, were plainly to be seen apparently only a short dis-
tance to the west. Buffaloes were no longer to be seen, but
big horn sheep were very plentiful, while beaver were so
abundant that the creeks were choked with their dams.
After traveling for a distance of thirty or more miles, Cap-
tain Clark and his men found themselves almost entirely
disabled, and suffering greatly from cactus thorns that
pierced through their moccasins and wounded their feet in
the most dreadful manner. Neither had they met any In-
dians, nor were they likely soon to do so, because a party of
Indians had heard the report of Captain Clark's rifle, and
thinking their enemies were approaching set fire to the grass
as a warning to all their people.

Conditions being so unfavorable for a further effort to
meet any Shoshones, Captain Clark turned to the river again,

PROGRESS AND ADVENTURES OF THE EXPEDITION

and on the 22d rejoined Captain Lewis, when together the
ascent of the Missouri continued, though slowly and labor-
iously, for the river was now not only shallow but the bed
of the stream was a succession of rapids, and the current
very rapid.

989
10

DIVISION LI.

Passage of the Rocky Mountains.

ON July 27, the expedition discovered the three forks of
the Missouri, to which were given the names Jefferson,
Madison, and Gallatin, all shallow streams, but they were
each found to be navigable for crafts as small as those
used by the expedition. At this junction of the streams a
camp was made to give some of the men opportunity to
dress deer-skins for clothing, of which they were in great
need. It was on this spot that the Shoshones, or Snake In-
dians, had their village five years before when they were
attacked by the Minnetarees, and being driven out and pur-
sued three miles four men and as many women of the
Shoshones were killed, while four boys and all the women,
of whom Sacajawea was one, were made prisoners.

On the 3Oth, the canoes were reloaded and the ascent of
Jefferson River began, as from observation taken of the sur-
rounding country and direction of the stream it was hoped
that this route would lead most quickly to a pass through
the Rocky Mountains. The river, however, was so inter-
rupted by islands and blocked by beaver dams that progress
was extremely slow and laborious, which induced Captain

Lewis to leave the boats for the others to propel as best they

990

sac.-/j.Jir/-;.j f;r/7>/vc; THE AA//V.V

E success of the l^rwis aim Clark expedition wa«
of Sacaiawea, the Shoshone Indian slave wife of a Fr-
engaged to guide the party from Mandan' through th<
remarkable woman cudurffd.all the hardships and shared me

perils and pmar atfrdition. rarrs-ini: an infant a9lr I^Hr m

yet never a complaint Reaped iicr ,.P-. and her s>intx jfltfc ^Bi the
From the heail-v jtXt througfc tfce

Mountai: \;

of

camp \v

«*w»e 4t9i qte'ib; >?il* 4j

.

1 Tn t tfc ^Hi ef flfleri et»f K
•jmiJnfx? . ^niyiTKr. ,

>'! *h III ,.- .: , h ii Uli fi,T!( 104 hOAtitta !»• v.vjsv.-- !•• ••. r .,'•.!>:•

I baT! -ttS1'!

route \\

lands ar

was extremely slow an Captain

Lev. - c tlte b». best they

PASSAGE OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS

could, while he proceeded overland in advance, to examine
the country and character of the river. The channel was
found to improve several miles above the forks, not in
depth, but in freedom from obstruction as the beaver village
was passed; but a fresh difficulty was met with, as game be-
came much scarcer, until there was real seriousness in the
situation. The scenery was generally imposing, for Jeffer-
son River broke its way through gorges in which the cliffs
rose at times precipitous, or overhanging, to a height of
more than one hundred feet. Beyond these towering bluffs
the country was often level and very fertile, but except for
an occasional big-horn goat, rarely accessible to the rifle,
there seemed to be an utter lack of animal life.

Fortune had favored the expedition many times, nor did
the fickle jade forsake them in their present extremity, for
when hunger severely pressed the party Captain Clark dis-
covered a herd of elk, and so skilfully managed as to kill two,
while Captain Lewis had the good luck to shoot a brown
pheasant, upon the flesh of which the party broke their fast
and derived fresh courage to continue their journey through
an unknown land. Fifteen miles beyond game reappeared,
and the hunters killed five deer and one big-horn goat all in
the space of an hour, and on the following day one of the
men shot a panther which measured seven and one-half feet
from the nose to the extremity of the tail.

The river becoming shallower at every mile of advance,
and game likewise failing somewhat, Captain Lewis took

991

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

with him two of his men, Drewyer and Shields, and set off
with a resolution to find the Indians who, he was sure, were
in the neighborhood but were avoiding members of the ex-
pedition through doubt of their pacific intentions. This
timidity was not a matter for surprise, considering how har-
rowed the Shoshones had been by the Minnetarees for sev-
eral years, until their fighting strength and courage had
fallen to the lowest ebb. After following a trail for thirty
or more miles the party of three discovered a lone Indian,
armed with a bow and arrows, riding towards them, and
their hopes arose at the sight; but the Indian stopped short
and despite every effort to attract him, by spreading a
blanket — a sign of peace — and by holding up to his view
the most alluring trinkets, the horseman refused to draw
nearer, and when the party moved towards him he wheeled
his horse quickly and fled away at topmost speed.

The men who were left to proceed with the boats were
reduced to a sorry condition at length, for the banks being
precipitous, the current swift, and the shoals a constant men-
ace, the men were unable to make any progress except by
wading and dragging the canoes after them. This labor
and exposure, with insufficient food, brought on fever, while
their feet, protected with thin moccasins, were so bruised
that every step became a fresh agony. Notwithstanding
these grave hardships the men continued their exertions
without one murmur of complaint, save such as came from

the lips of Chaboneau, whose slave wife, Sacajawea, on the

992

PASSAGE OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS

contrary showed the most undaunted heroism, and was a
real inspiration to the expedition.

On Monday, August I2th, Lewis, Drewyer and Shields
found fresh evidences of Indians, and struck a path that
led into a valley through which Jefferson Fork flowed,
but as a greatly diminished stream, until five miles further
on they reached a point where the rippling water ran in a
course so narrow that in a fit of enthusiasm Drewyer set
one foot on each side of the stream and thanked God he
had lived to bestride the Missouri. Two miles further they
.reached the source of that river, which had never before
been seen by civilized man.

Captain Lewis reluctantly left this place and ascending a
mountain stood upon a ridge that forms the dividing line
between the waters that flow eastward to the Atlantic and
westward to the Pacific ocean, and thence descending, came
to a silvery stream of cold, clear water, which was found
to be the source of Columbia River.

Discovering another Indian trail on the I3th, Lewis and
his companions followed it a distance of four miles, until
they saw, upon an eminence one mile distant, two women, a
man and some dogs, whom he approached with great care,
all the while in a state of great anxiety lest they should be-
come frightened and move off, nor were his fears unfounded,
for though he unfurled an American flag and shouted
" tabba bone " — which signifies white man — the Indians
fled; but a mile further Captain Lewis came upon three

993

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

female Indians, one of whom took flight, but the others, an
old woman and her little girl, believing escape impossible,
sat down on the ground and bent their heads low as if ex-
pecting the white men — strange creatures to them — would
massacre them, a custom, which Lewis asserts, is common in
Egypt to this day. To their happy relief and astonishment
Captain Lewis laid down his rifle and raising up the woman
repeated the words " tabba bone," at the same time offering
her some beads, a mirror, and a little red paint. These over-
tures dispelled the woman's alarms and obtained her confi-
dence. The other woman also returned, whereupon Captain
Lewis also gave her several trinkets, and then painting the
cheeks of the three females with vermillion red, a ceremony
suggesting peace, sent them away to apprise their people of
his presence and to solicit their friendship. Two miles fur-
ther on the party met a troop of sixty Shoshone warriors
who had been notified of the white men's coming on a
mission of peace. The chief was first to approach, who,
being assured by Captain Lewis of his friendly intentions,
embraced him cordially with effusive caresses, and imme-
diately afterwards received Drewyer and Shields with sim-
ilar demonstrations. The warriors now came forward and,
dismounting, seated themselves in a circle. Captain Lewis
lighted a pipe and offered it to the chief, but before receiving
this mark of friendship the Indians took off their moccasins,
which was a custom that marked the sacred sincerity of their
professions when they smoke with a stranger.

994

PASSAGE OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS

Captain Lewis very appropriately notes in his diary the
analogy which some of the customs of these wild people of
the wilderness bear to those of holy writ, mentioning, for
example, the injunction given to Moses to pull off his shoes,
for the place on which he stood was holy ground.

After smoking a few pipes, and distributing some trinkets
and paint among the Indians, Captain Lewis gave the chief
an American flag which was to be a covenant of peace and
union between them, and these being received with great
satisfaction he was invited to visit the Indian camp four
miles distant. Upon reaching the lodge the white men con-
ducted them inside where the ceremony of pipe-smoking
was repeated, from a pipe that was made of transparent
green-stone, after which the chief placed before his three
guests cakes of service-berries and choke-berries baked in the
sun, the only food he was able to offer, upon which a hearty
meal was made.

On the following morning an Indian brought some boiled
antelope and a piece of salmon, the latter furnishing the
proof sought, viz., that the stream near which the camp was
made led directly to the Pacific. The chief gave Captain
Lewis information respecting the streams of the country
and of one large enough to float their considerable sized
crafts, but declared that there was no timber in that region
sufficiently large for building canoes, though the chief gen-
erously offered to supply the white men with horses, of
which the Shoshones had large numbers.

995

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Captain Lewis concluded to remain with the friendly In-
dians until time was given for Captain Clark to reach the
head waters of Jefferson Fork, where he would again join
the expedition and with information acquired meantime they
might make a portage to. the Columbia, or else leave the
canoes and convey their luggage by horses to that stream.
During this stay with the Shoshones Captain Lewis had
opportunity of witnessing an antelope chase by the Indians.
Game of all kinds was extremely scarce, and as the Indians
had no better weapons than bows and arrows, and a few
fusils obtained from traders through Indians on the Yellow-
stone, they were at such disadvantage in hunting as to be
more often without meat than otherwise. Their resource
therefore was to bring down antelopes by the strategy of
surrounding a herd and driving them to a common center.
In attempting this feat fifty or more mounted Indians would
surround a herd, and by furious riding and shouting keep
the animals running from one side to the other of the circle,
hoping to tire them or to shoot those that might try to dash
through the enveloping line. These hunts rarely yielded
more than two or three antelopes, and more frequently the
Indians returned on jaded horses without having bagged so
much as one animal.

Despite the travail of dragging canoes through scores of
miles of heavy current, of torn feet, feverish and half-fam-
ished bodies, Captain Clark made such progress that on

August 1 7th, he reached the junction of Red Rock and

996

PASSAGE OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS

Beaverhead branches with Jefferson Fork, where the whole
expedition was united, together with Cameahwait, chief of
the Shoshones, and eight of his warriors.

On the way back to meet Captain Clark a singular ex-
perience befell Captain Lewis. The Indians, like the white
men, were unable to procure game, on account of its ex-
treme scarcity, and famine was staring them in the face,
when by good chance Drewyer killed a deer. Immediately
this piece of splendid fortune threw the Indians into the
greatest excitement. " They dismounted in the utmost con-
fusion and ran tumbling over each other like famished dogs ;
each tore away whatever part he could, and instantly began
to devour it ; some had the liver, some the kidneys, in short
no part on which we are accustomed to look with disgust
escaped them; one of them who had seized about nine feet
of the entrails was chewing at one end, while with his hand
he was diligently clearing his way by discharging the con-
tents at the other; yet though suffering with hunger they
did not attempt, as they might have done, to take by force
the whole deer, but contented themselves with what had been
thrown away by the hunter."

The meeting between Lewis and Clark was associated
with an incident quite worth recording. The Indians were
extremely suspicious, nor could they be induced to accom-
pany Lewis on his return trip, except by promises of reward
and many appeals to their courage. When at length the
meeting took place it was found that some Indian women,

997

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

fearing treachery to their people, had followed in the rear.
When the canoes were dragged on shore Sacajawea was
first to greet the Indians, whom she immediately recognized
as her own people. Her joy was multiplied, however, when
a woman rushed through the crowd and fervently embraced
her, and saw that she was one who had been her companion
in childhood, and who like Sacajawea herself, and at the
same time, had been taken captive by the Minnetarees.
But a greater surprise and happiness was in store for
Sacajawea, for in the person of Cameahwait she recognized
her brother, who escaping the Minnetarees at the battle five
years before had meantime been elevated to the dignity of a
chief of his tribe. Sacajawea embraced her brother with
the greatest fervor while tears of joy fell in streams from
her eyes, but though the chief was moved by his sister's
caresses, it was in a much less degree.

After the congratulations and ceremonies attendant upon
the meeting a council was held at which Captain Lewis ex-
plained the needs of his party, and with promises of abun-
dant reward for any service the Indians might render the
expedition, requested Cameahwait to supply horses and
guides to transport their baggage across the mountains.

The Indians, no doubt regarding the white men as having
some of the attributes of celestial beings, and being influ-
enced also by gifts of knives, tobacco, leggings, medals,
beads, looking-glasses, shirts, handkerchiefs and particu-
larly by the appearance of the negro York and the operation

998

PASSAGE OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS

of the air-gun readily consented to supply the expedition
with what was needed.

It was directly seen that portage of the canoes over the
mountains for so great a distance was impracticable, so
Captain Lewis directed Captain Clark to take eleven men,
with such tools as he had, and proceed with an Indian
guide to the Columbia River where/ if possible, he was to
select timber and build canoes. Meantime Captain Lewis
would explore the country, leaving Chaboneau and Saca-
jawea to go back with the Shoshones to their village and
secure the horses that had been promised. Lewis was ever
seeking information, as it became him well to do, respecting
the river which he hoped would take him to the sea, and of
the territory he must traverse. The Indians seemed well
disposed to tell him all they knew, but their real knowledge
was so little and their fears and ignorance so great, that it
was impossible to place reliance in their statements. All
were agreed, however, in the assurance that great dangers
must be encountered in any attempt to pass further west-
ward. The country was represented to be without game,
desert-like, and so rough that horses could not travel over
it, while it was so infested with a fierce and warlike people
called the Broken Moccasins, who lived like bears in holes,
that it was declared a party so small as the expedition must
surely be annihilated.

Although accounts given by the Indians of obstacles and
dangers that lay in the way might well have deterred a

999

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

brave man, they did not change the resolution of Captain
Lewis, who made an extended excursion into the country
to determine its character, and to meet other Indians from
whom he hoped to obtain information of a less discouraging
nature. While Captain Lewis was thus engaged, Captain
Clark proceeded in a westward direction, to a stream to
which he gave the name Lewis River, in which he found
great quantities of fish which the Indians caught by means
of weirs. He also met many Shoshones who were in-
variably kindly disposed, but the rivers were so rapid and
obstructed with boulders that canoeing on them would
have been impossible.

Captain Lewis having satisfied himself somewhat of the
general character of the country and that journeying by
water would be perilous until the Columbia could be reached
at a point below the cataracts and rapids, obtained twenty-
nine horses from the Shoshones, and loading these with his
baggage, set off with guides after Clark, who was now
following Bitter Root River, which flows northward until
it empties into Missoula River.

Although traveling through a well-watered country
and generally keeping within the valley of Bitter Root, the
journey was one of great hardship and severe privation.
After crossing the mountains at Ross' Hole, practically no
game was to be found except small fish and a few salmon
which could not be obtained in quantities sufficient to stay

the hunger of Captain Clark's party. Several Nez Perce In-

1000

NORTH FORK OF THE COLUMBIA, ANT)
UMATILLA iriCKEYUP.

E Columbia River is divided into two main streams near Walla Walla, one
branch rising in southern Idaho, and known as Snake River, the other
having its source in northwestern Idaho, where it is called the North Fork. It
was this latter branch that Lewis and Clark struck after passing Bitter Root
Mountains and they followed the stream down to its mouth. The Umatilla Reser-
vation is in Umatilla County, Oregon, where a few of the tribe, an offshoot of the
Nez Perces, are still to be found, living largely by fishing for salmon, but a few
are also engaged in agriculture, in which however the) are too indolent to succeed

aua. IN* 4td not change the resolution of Captain
Mk ar» extended excursion into the country
W*n**«t its character, and to meet other Indians from
>oped to obtain information of a less discouraging
While Captain Lewis v ,
••weeded in a westward ch

c g-avt the :i i.i . Le^ •
•t <jtiantitie« of fiih \vhfch th
*f weirs. He also KM-I n

1

iS\^Wj^

have

300 ,*UsW s!ls\iy -iB^n r.ms,y\te aism owl o)ni babivib ei

wriio .t^JWiw*^ ^rBftWh^ftf tjie

nalpwilnon ni aoiuoa ell gnivKri

;->iW#-«^inguId#iv

•

Af>

game « ^on

Wh! stay

the hun Several Nez Pcrc6 In-

PASSAGE OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS

dians were met from time to time, but these were quite as
starved and miserable as were the white men, and though
the Indians were hospitably disposed they were unable to
do more for their white visitors than give them information
respecting difficulties and obstructions which lay in the
route they were now pursuing. At one place Captain
Clark wrote in his diary : " These Indians, to whom this
life is familiar, seem contented, although they depend for
subsistence on the scanty production of the fishery. But
our men, who are used to hardships, but have been ac-
customed to have their wants of nature regularly supplied,
feel very sensibly their wretched situation ; their strength is
wasting away; they begin to express their apprehensions of
being without food in a country perfectly destitute of every
means of supporting life except a few fish." As if to make
their condition more intolerable the weather, though it was
August, turned so cold that ice a quarter of an inch thick
formed on still water, and the air was filled with frost,
which was felt more severely by reason of the poor nourish-
ment the men had.

A messenger was dispatched by Captain Clark to Captain
Lewis to acquaint him with the situation, and camp was
made to give his party opportunity to make pack-saddles
for the horses which he was expecting Captain Lewis to
bring. Having some superfluous baggage Captain Clark-
decided to prepare a cache and deposit it therein, which he
accomplished without being discovered in the act by the

1003

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Indians by secretly sending three of his men to a point nearly
one mile below the camp to make the necessary excavation.
Three days later Captains Lewis and Clark united their
parties, and continued their travels together, through a
country from which nature seemed to have withdrawn all
her favors, and with harsh judgment afflicted it with barren-
ness and almost impassable obstacles. Mountains were
gathered to oppose a passage westward, vegetation was
blasted, great stones lay everywhere in tumultuous con-
fusion, and animal life could find such poor support amid the
surroundings of desolation that it shunned the country, or
was to be met with at rare intervals. The prospect was
therefore gloomy in the extreme for the expedition, but this
fact in no wise diminished the enthusiasm or resolution of
the heroic captains and their no less courageous followers.
They argued that if Indians could exist in such a region it
must be traversed by them in quest of means of subsistence,
and where Indians could live or travel white men might do
as well. Besides, they had several Shoshones, including
Cameahwait, with them, hired, it is true, by the payment of
many trinkets as well as of articles of value, and with these
as guides the party proceeded with grim determination to
explore and pass through the land, however unforbidding it
appeared.

1004

DIVISION LII.

Characteristics of the Northwest Indians.

DURING the time that Captain Lewis was with the Sho-
shones, which was for two weeks, or more, he had abundant
opportunity to observe their customs, and to become ac-
quainted with their means of living. Very poorly provided
with weapons, and the country almost entirely barren of
game, the Indians were in a constant condition of semi-
starvation, but necessity had driven them to many expe-
dients to procure food, and taught them to use everything
procurable that might afford nourishment to their bodies.
In their season service and choke-berries were gathered in
quantity, so that the surplus above present needs was
pressed into cakes and then dried in the sun, for use at
other times of the year. Roots of many kinds were also
made to serve as food, some of which were boiled and eaten
like potatoes; others were used in the green state, while
several varieties after drying were reduced to a meal by
pounding and then made into a dough. To the taste of
white men these root foods were generally bitter and often
nauseating, but the Indians had acquired a great liking for
them, and had nothing to deplore except their scarcity.

The mountain streams contained many fish of the trout

1005

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

and salmon species, and these constituted the principal re-
liance for animal food. The Indians not being able to buy
hooks or nets were compelled to employ crude appliances,
and to adopt means for capturing fish that are not seen else-
where. From willows, found at places near creeks, they
made both nets and seines which were used to good purpose,
even though they were extremely clumsy and often broke
under the pressure of dragging against the current. The
seines were necessarily short, too, and these were therefore
most frequently used in dragging narrow streams. The In-
dians showed greater expertness in constructing weirs,
which, however, were soon destroyed when the streams were
raised by heavy rains. At a narrow outlet of the weir, left
for the purpose, the Indians built a netting of interlaced wil-
lows, large at the entrance and gradually diminishing to a
point into which fish would drift with the rapid current until
at times they were found collected in a compact mass, pro-
vided the netting was strong enough to support the pressure.

Several species of fish were taken by means of seins, but
salmon could rarely be captured in that way. The usual
means of securing these was by shooting with arrows,
though at the spawning season the well-known habit that
salmon have of moving up-stream was taken advantage of
by the Indians, who made a double-chambered willow net
and set it in a narrow run with the mouth laid down stream.

The Shoshones had no other weapons than bows and

arrows, but these they constructed with great skill. The

1006

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHWEST INDIANS

wood used was generally mountain ash, or cedar, not found
in their country, however. Knives were rarely owned by
these Indians, and hence this most useful article was es-
teemed above price, to gain which a Shoshone would barter
all his other possessions. Lacking knives they used bone in-
struments for fashioning flints and in manufacturing arrow-
heads, which were of obsidian, that resembles black glass,
and possessing like properties may be broken so as to leave
a fine point and sharp edges.

Lewis and Clark found in use among these Indians a
farinaceous root which when boiled tastes very much like
the Jerusalem, or Sunflower artichoke; but as this tuber
was of rounded form, and about the size of a nutmeg, its
species could not be determined, especially as it does not
grow in that country, and whence obtained Captain Lewis
was unable to ascertain.

Unlike the character of other Indians met with below
Mandan, the Shoshones, though extremely poor and al-
ways half starved, were strictly honest, hospitable, and
reliable. Though they set great value upon knives, they
never failed to return any loaned to them by Lewis and
Clark, which was the very highest proof of their honesty.
Neither were they a selfish people, for however hungry they
might be, any food which came to them, either by gift or
from the chase, was freely divided, so that there existed
among them, in perfect realization of the ideal philosphy,

a true community of interest.

1007
11

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Captain Clark relates a curious fact about the Shoshones,.
as follows : " One of the women who had been leading
two of our pack-horses halted at a rivulet a mile behind,
and sent on the two horses by a female friend. On in-
quiring of Cameahwait the cause of her detention, he
answered, with appearance of unconcern, that she had just ,
stopped to lie in, but would soon overtake us. In fact we
were astonished to see her in about an hour's time come
on with her newborn infant and pass us on her way to the
camp in apparent good health. We have been several
times informed by those conversant with Indian manners,
and who asserted their knowledge of the fact, that Indian
women pregnant by white men experience more difficulty in
child-birth than when the father is an Indian."

It may also be noted that the Shoshones are distin-
guished, in character, from many other nations and tribes
by their superior morality and decorum. They never
through selfish desire permit their conduct to become offen-
sive, but are deferential, and kindly considerate among
themselves as well as to others, while chastity is rigorously
enjoined among both sexes.

The Shoshones are migratory to an extent, as Lewis
and Clark found them, residing on the head waters of the
Columbia during summer, and in the fall cross the ridge
to the Missouri until, reaching the three forks, they are
joined by the Flatheads, and being then strong in numbers

they venture eastward of the mountains to hunt buffaloes-

1008

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHWEST INDIANS

At all times, however, they live in the greatest dread of the
Pawnees, their implacable enemies, from whom they seem
to be ever in flight, and are thus driven to take refuge in
Bitter Root mountains where subsistence is so precarious.

In their domestic economy, among the Shoshones the
man holds his wives and daughters as chattels, and may
dispose of them accordingly. A plurality of wives is
common, but consanguinity is respected; children are fairly
numerous, but the girls are rarely chastised and the boys
never, as it is believed that whipping would destroy
courage. Infant daughters are often betrothed or sold to
a grown man, either for himself or to become wives for
his sons; compensation is usually in horses, and the pur-
chaser permits the father to retain his daughter until she is
thirteen or fourteen years of age. While chastity is en-
joined, a husband uses his wives in any manner that may
bring him profit, even to hiring them to any one willing to
pay his price, a practise which has ever been prevalent
among nearly all Indian tribes.

Bravery is the first of virtues among the Shoshones,
and therefore no male of the nation is distinguished who
has not killed a white bear, stolen a horse from the enemy,
or taken an enemy's scalp. To kill an adversary is ac-
counted a good deed, but the larger honor lies in bearing
away his scalp, which is ever afterwards retained as a
trophy and proof of power.

The Shoshones are not given as much to superstitions as

1009

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

other Indians, though they hold to some singular beliefs,
one of the most remarkable of which pertains to the making
of a shield of buffalo hide. This defensive article they
always prepare from the skin of a two-year old animal,
which is spread over a hole in the ground in which hot
stones are laid and water thrown upon them. As the skin
becomes heated the hair separates and is removed by hand.
After the hide has been well dried and is contracted to the
required size a party is invited to perform the ceremony of
pounding the skin by dancing upon it, which partakes
somewhat of a festival, that may last several days. After
conclusion of these performances jugglers, or medicine-
men, of the tribe put a spell on the hide which is supposed
to render a shield made from it impervious to arrows or
bullets. The shield that is now made from the enchanted
skin is circular in form, about two and one-half feet in diam-
eter, adorned with crudely painted figures and fringed
with dressed leather.

. Besides using the shield to ward off blows and arrows
the Shoshones also prepare an armor formed of many folds
of dressed antelope skin glued together, with which they
cover their bodies and also those of their horses, finding it
an excellent protection against arrows.

"The names of Indians vary in the course of their life;
originally given in childhood, from some accidental resem-
blance to external objects, the young warrior is impatient

to change it by some achievement of his own. Any im-

1010

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHWEST INDIANS

portant event, the stealing of horses, scalping of an enemy,
or killing a bear, entitles him at once to a new name, which
he then selects for himself, and it is confirmed by the na-
tion. Sometimes two names may subsist together; thus
Chief Cameahwait, which means, ' one who never walk,'
has the war name of Tooettecone, or ' black gun,' which he
required when he first signalized himself. As each new ac-
tion gives a warrior the right to change his name, many of
them have several in the course of their lives. To give to a
friend his own name is an act of high courtesy, and a pledge,
like that of pulling off the moccasin, of sincerity and
hospitality."

It was on Friday, August 3Oth, that departure was made
up Salmon Creek, leave having been taken of the Shoshones,
who set out on a trip to the Missouri. Six Indians, how-
ever, were engaged to accompany the expedition to act as
guides, though their knowledge of the country which Lewis
and Clark determined to traverse was not great, nor were
they without misgivings. Indeed, as the way became more
fatiguing and game scarce, the Indians lost their courage
entirely, and all deserted except one old man.

On September 5th, the expedition, by good fortune, ar-
rived at an encampment of Ootleshoots, or Salish, Indians,
comprising thirty-three tents and four hundred souls, who
occupy a considerable region extending from the head wa-
ters of the Missouri to those of the Columbia. A council was
held with these Indians, whose friendship Lewis and Clark

IOII

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

secured by a distribution among them of medals and to-
bacco, after which seven horses were exchanged and thirteen
were purchased at the expense of a few articles of merchan-
dise, for the Indians possessed great numbers, and set much
less value on them than did the Shoshones.

Spending one night with the Salish, who had no better
food than berries to share with their visitors, the expedition
proceeded on their journey, traveling due north along Clark
River until the 9th, when they reached a point about twenty
miles below where the town of Missoula now stands, and
here going into camp named the place Traveler's Rest.
Having obtained much refreshment by a day's stoppage at
this spot, the expedition departed on the I2th, turning their
course due west along a stream now known as Lola Creek.
The mountains increased in both size and steepness until
passage over them with heavily loaded animals became so
laborious as to fairly exhaust both men and horses and no
more than five miles could be accomplished in twenty-four
hours. At one point several horses lost their footing in
making the ascent, one of which, that was loaded with a
table and small desk, rolled over down the mountain for a
distance of forty yards before His fall was arrested by bring-
ing up against a tree, an accident which happened to other
horses afterwards.

The mountains, which belonged to the Bitter Root range,
were covered with a scant vegetation and in every respect

the region was unfavorable for animal life. The streams,

1012

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHWEST INDIANS

too, while pellucid and sweet, contained no fish, from which
fact Captain Lewis concluded that large falls below must
exist, preventing fish from ascending. As the difficulties in
traveling increased, the miseries of the men multiplied, for
being unable to shoot any kind of game, or to find any fish,
their small store of provisions failed rapidly, particularly as
the party was a large one. The horses, too, being insuffi-
ciently fed, and exposed to the exertion of climbing very
steep and lofty mountains, lost flesh and strength until one
after another succumbed to their insupportable hardships,
or were killed to furnish food for the famished men.

The situation of the expedition became so desperate that
on the i/th of September Captain Clark was sent ahead
with six hunters to explore the country in advance of the
main party, and to kill some game if possible. In this ad-
vance expedition Captain Clark was so unsuccessful that
finding a small stream upon which he camped to be destitute
of fish and the valley equally so of game he named it Hungry
Creek. Two days later Captain Clark came upon a village
of Nez-Perces (Pierced Nose) Indians who gave him some
buffalo meat, dried salmon, berries and several kinds of
roots, which, considering their long abstinence, furnished a
sumptuous repast, for which the Indians were recompensed
with a few small presents. Overeating made Captain Clark
quite ill and he decided to remain in the village until some-
what recovered, while his hunters proceeded in their quest

for game.

1013

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

On the following day Captain Clark was visited by the
chief of another band, with whom, he smoked, and suc-
ceeded in purchasing a quantity of dried salmon, roots, and
berries which he sent back by one of his men and an Indian
to Captain Lewis. In addition to these supplies the hunters
found a stray horse which they shot and ate so much of the
flesh as satisfied their hunger, leaving the remainder hang-
ing in a tree in the path which Captain Lewis would be
compelled to travel, and which he soon afterwards found,
much to the satisfaction of his starving party.

News of the presence of white men in the country spread
in a few days to several tribes of Indians, who came to the
village where Captain Lewis was stopping, and who also
sought for and met Captain Clark. Among these Indians
was a chief named Twisted Tail who informed Clark that at
a distance of five-days journey was a large river into which
Lewis River emptied, and that a further journey of five
days down the river would bring them to the falls where
some white men had established themselves. This infor-
mation infused the men with fresh courage, which was in-
creased by their ability to purchase as much fish, berries and
roots as their horses could carry in their famished and worn
condition. Meantime Captain Lewis had proceeded and
likewise come upon an Indian village where his party ate
so heartily of the fresh food furnished them that nearly all
were seized with illness and for several days were barely

able to sit on their horses.

1014

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHWEST INDIANS

At length, after almost incredible hardships, the expedi-
tion reached the Clearwater, where camp was made to build
canoes, the stream being large enough to permit the safe
passage of such small crafts. But the food procured by
purchase from the Indians was soon exhausted, and as game
could not be found in quantities to suffice for their needs
one of the horses was killed for food, and to provide soup for
the sick. As the canoes were nearly finished the horses, to
the number of thirty-eight, were branded and turned over
to the keeping of three Indians, who agreed to care for them
until Captain Lewis should return. The saddles were buried
in a cache, with other things, and on October 7th the full
expedition, which Captain Clark had joined three days be-
fore, set off afloat on the Clearwater, which empties into
Snake or Lewis River and thence into the Columbia.

Several rapids were encountered, and in passing these
nearly half the number of canoes were so damaged as to
leak badly and wet their stores, so that frequent stops be-
came necessary in order to repair the injuries. Indians were
engaged from time to time to act as guides, but they in-
variably deserted. Nevertheless, the expedition continued
despite all disappointments, greatest of which still con-
tinued to be scarcity of food, in which extremity the men
ate crows, dogs, prairie wolves, and a root which directly
after being taken into the stomach caused the body to swell
to remarkable proportions. This soon subsided, however,

and no after-consequences were felt.

1015

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Chopunnish, or Nez Perce, Indian villages were found at
frequent intervals along the river, but these people while
peaceable were extremely selfish, and would make no return
for presents, being indisposed to traffic. They had count-
less herds of horses and kept great numbers of dogs for
domestic purposes. They refused to sell fish, but would part
with their dogs for knives and paint, considering it a dis-
gusting thing, however, that white men should eat the flesh
of dogs. These Indians were better clothed and better look-
ing than any others met with by the expedition, and were
distinguished for their cleanliness. Sickness among them
was uncommon, except that many were afflicted with
scrofula, for the cure of which they resorted to vapor baths.

Though the channel was interrupted by rapids which at
times were perilous to pass, the expedition made from
twenty to thirty miles each day. The Indians met with were
all engaged in fishing, fish in fact being almost their sole
article of food. Among the tribes, which are nearly all
branches of the Nez Perces, or Flatheads, Captain Lewis
pauses in the narrative of his journey to make special men-
tion of the Solkulks, a tribe not easily distinguishable by this
name. These Indians were found to be not only hospitably
disposed, but possessed some marked traits in common with
civilized people. The men were not only monogymous but
shared with their wives the labor of providing subsistence
as well as of all other laborious duties. They had also

marked respect for old age, to such an extent, in fact, that

1016

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHWEST INDIANS

the senile were cared for in the most sympathetic and gen-
erous manner, and their counsel prevailed to govern in
nearly all things.

It was noticeable that, while otherwise a robust and ath-
letic people, the Solkulks were nearly all afflicted with sore
eyes, caused no doubt by their occupation on the water,
where the sun reflected so powerfully as to in time produce
blindness. Their teeth, too, were found to be decayed, in
every case of grown persons especially, and very frequently
worn down to the gums, a condition which Captain Lewis
observes is caused by the manner in which these people eat
roots and fish. The former they devour freshly dug from
the ground, covered with sand and dirt, and the latter they
do not pretend to cook or dress, but warming the fish whole
eagerly bolt the skin, scales, and fins with the flesh.

As the expedition moved down the Columbia salmon be-
came more plentiful, until, by October I7th, they had reached
a place in the river where this species of fish fairly crowded
the water in incredible numbers, and at places were so con-
gested as to be pushed out on the shore, where the Indians
had only to gather, split, and dry them on scaffolds provided
for the purpose.

As it was essential to learn as much as possible of the
river in advance of the approaching canoes, Captain Clark
frequently left the boats and went on ahead to kill such game
as he might find and spread report of the coming expedition
so as to allay what might otherwise cause apprehension on

1017

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

the part of the natives. At one point, therefore, he ascended
a lofty hill above the river from which a wide expanse of
country was viewable, and in the far distance caught sight
of Mount St. Helens, laid down on a map prepared by Van-
couver as visible from the mouth of the Columbia. Return-
ing thence to the river and continuing in advance of the
party he passed a rapid at the lower end of which he shot
a crane that was flying over, and soon after a duck fell to
his gun, feats of skill which some Indians observed from the
shore. Captain Clark then having a mind to visit the vil-
lage which was on the bank opposite to where he shot the
duck, landed before five houses close to each other. To his
surprise the doors were closed, so going from one to the
other with his pipe in hand, as an overture of peace, he en-
tered a lodge in which were thirty-two persons, chiefly men
and women, who betrayed the greatest consternation, cry-
ing, and hanging their heads as if expecting death at the
hands of their visitors. By pacific means Captain Clark
succeeded in quieting their fears, which however were re-
newed when he lighted his pipe by means of a sun-glass.
By presenting the glass to a chief and distributing some
presents among the women, he presently restored tran-
quillity, but was not able to obtain the confidence of the
Indians until other canoes of the expedition appeared, in
which a woman was seen. This sight served to completely
reassure them, for they knew that women were never per-
mitted to accompany an Indian war party. The astonished

1018

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHWEST INDIANS

Indians therefore explained that Captain Clark must be a
celestial being, just fallen from the clouds, for they had
seen a crane and duck fall in the water near him, and the
sound of the gun, which they had never heard before, was
considered by them as a phenomenon announcing so extra-
ordinary an event. The belief was strengthened by his
bringing down fire from heaven with which to light his pipe,
a conviction which could not be removed until a chief was
persuaded to try the experiment of using the sun-glass.

These Indians, whom Lewis calls the Pishquitpaws, be-
came most hospitable when they had learned the true
character of their visitors, and enjoyed the music of two
violins played by the white men quite as much as they did
the trinkets that they received. Although living in a cold
country the Pishquitpaws wear few clothes, and three-
fourths of them have scarcely any robes at all. The fe-
males dress equally scanty, their covering being no more
than a robe that extends from the neck down the back to
the waist, where it is attached to a belt of leather drawn
tight around the waist. Their breasts are therefore fully ex-
posed to view, and being excessively large and pendant they
present a disgusting sight. Their cheek bones are very high
and their foreheads so flattened as to extend sharply
back from the nose, a shape obtained by compressing the
heads of their infants by means of a short board bound, at
the desired angle, on the forehead.

The manner in which they dispose of their dead is differ-

1019

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

ent from that practised by nearly all other Indians, and is
thus described by Captain Lewis :

" The place in which the dead are deposited is a building
sixty feet long and twelve wide, and is formed by placing
in the ground poles or forks six feet high, across which a
long pole is extended the whole length of the . structure.
Against this ridge-pole are placed broad boards and pieces
of canoes, in a slanting direction, so as to form a shed. It
stands east and west, and neither of the extremities are
closed. On entering we observe a number of bodies wrapped
carefully in leather robes, and arranged in rows on boards,
which were then covered with mats. This was the part
destined for those who had recently died. A little further
on the bones, half decayed, were scattered about, and in the
center of the building was a large pile of them heaped
promiscuously on each other. At the eastern extremity was
a mat on which twenty-one skulls were placed in a circular
form, the mode of interment being first to wrap the body
in robes, and as it decays the bones are thrown into a heap
and the skulls placed together. From the different boards
and pieces of canoes which form the vault were suspended,
on the inside, fish-nets, baskets, wooden bowls, robes, skins,
trenchers, and trinkets of various kinds, obviously intended
as offerings of affection to deceased relatives. On the out-
side of the vault were the skeletons of several horses, and a
great quantity of bones in the neighborhood, which induced

1 020

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORTHWEST INDIANS

us to believe that these animals were most probably sacri-
ficed at the funeral rites of their masters."

These people nearly all pierce the nose, especially the men,
who wear in the perforation a long tapering fragment of
shell, bead, or piece of porcupine quill. It is a strange co-
incidence, perhaps, that several tribes of Africans practise
the same custom, in which single respect there is an affinity
which might be taken as an evidence of common, though
remote, association, for otherwise it is difficult to conceive
how the painful and ludicrous habit could have obtained
between wild peoples who are now so widely separated.

1021

DIVISION LIII.

Passage of the Continent Conipleted.

THE expedition continued without special adventure, find-
ing the right bank of the river well occupied with Indian
villages, until October 22d, when they reached the great falls
of the Columbia, now called Calico Falls, from which point
to the Cascades the river is scenically grand beyond few
comparisons. " The black lava palisades rise in noble ter-
races, towers, chimneys, further down becoming merged in
the overtowering range. The frozen product of the volcano
runs athwart the stream and seemingly, also, with it, form-
ing a series of gigantic obstructions, across and through
which the river has eaten its way in a succession of rapids,
swirls, falls and cross currents."

Notwithstanding the tumultuous character of the river,
and the precipitous bluffs that lined the banks, Captain Lewis
found the shores, wherever they shelved, occupied by In-
dians who proffered him whatever assistance he might re-
quire. As a long and difficult portage was made necessary
by the falls, which had a sheer descent, at one place, of forty
feet, the services of these Indians was most gratefully ac-
cepted, for they provided horses upon which were conveyed

all the heavy baggage of the expedition.

1022

PASSAGE OF THE CONTINENT COMPLETED

A remarkable method of preparing fish for market was
employed by the Indians, which is thus described : " The
fish is first opened and then exposed to the sun on a scaffold.
When sufficiently dried it is pounded between two stones
till it is pulverized, and is then placed in a basket about two
feet long and one in diameter, neatly made of grass and
rushes, lined with the skin of salmon stretched and dried
for the purpose. Here they are pressed down as hard as
possible and the top covered with skins of fish, which are
secured by cords through holes in the basket. These bas-
kets are then placed in some dry situation, the corded part
upward. The whole is then wrapped in mats and made fast
by cords, over which other mats are again thrown. Twelve
of these baskets, each of which contains ninety to one hun-
dred pounds, form a stack, which is exposed till it is sent to
market ; the fish thus preserved are kept sound and fresh for
several years, and great quantities of it are sent to Indians
below the falls, whence it finds its way to the whites who
visit the mouth of the Columbia."

It must have been that the members of the Lewis and Clark
expedition formed a special liking for the flesh of dogs,
notwithstanding the great plenti fulness of fish, and many
water-fowl, for the journal of Captain Lewis makes frequent
mention of the purchase of dogs for food.

Having accomplished a passage around the falls the expe-
dition made camp, being nearly exhausted by their exertion,

when to their surprise it was found that the Indians had

1023

12

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

stolen so many articles which had been entrusted to them to
carry that the place was called Robber's Roost. A greater
trouble was encountered, however, when the expedition
reached the Dalles, a place where the river is so nearly
choked by a huge and high black rock that the width of the
great stream is narrowed to forty-five yards, through which
the current dashes in a riot of agitation positively appalling.
Portage around the Dalles was so difficult that though the
peril of attempting to shoot the cascade was imminent and
extreme, decision was taken to hazard the chance, to the
great amazement of the Indians. By skilful steering and
rare fortune the canoes were sent through the whirlpools
and tempestuous waters with no other damage than the
wetting of some of their contents, a piece of good luck which
was repeated a few miles further down the turbulent river.
Though there still remained before them several difficult
passages in the river, Captains Lewis and Clark were grati-
fied to find the rapids growing less dangerous as the stream
broadened, and such game as deer, water fowl, and bear was
becoming more plentiful. The Indians, too, continued to
show hospitality notwithstanding some of the chiefs above
the falls predicted that the expedition would certainly be
attacked by the Nez Perces tribes below the falls. There
were, indeed, Indians in large numbers occupying the north
bank of the river all the way, and some of them manifested
a disposition to resent the white men's invasion, but their

hostility was conciliated by friendly overtures and a liberal

1024

DALLES OF THE COLUMBIA ANDKOOTENA1 FALLS.

moOTENAl Falls are a beautiful cascade formed by the Pend d' Oreille dashing
over a ledge forty feet high before the river discharges its waters into Pend
d' Oreille Lake, in Northern Idaho. This stream empties into the North Fork of
the Columbia, passing through charming scenery, which grows more tumultuous
and inspiring as the Columbia pursues its way towards the Pacific. The culmi-
nation of scenic beauty and interest is at the Dalles, about seventy miles above
Portland, where the bluffs narrow the river and the passage is obstructed by huge
rocks which nature in some one of her convulsions seems to have dashed down
from the mountain in a vain effort to choke the impetuous stream.

V ^

TERRITORY

ft di had been entrusted to them to

car-1 Jed Robber's Roost. A greater

ever; when the expedition

irly

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a disposition to

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PASSAGE OF THE CONTINENT COMPLETED

bestowal of gifts among the chiefs. Equally salutary, we
must believe, was the effect of the violin music which never
failed to put the Indians in excellent humor. At many of
the villages, therefore, where it seemed most important to
establish friendship, the two violinists in the expedition
would be asked to produce their instruments and to the music
of these a dance would be performed in which Indian women
were sometimes induced to join. Generally, however, in-
stead of showing desire to participate, the Indians would
sit in mute astonishment, seemingly entranced, or charmed
into immobility of countenance or expression. These enter-
tainments were often varied by the jig-dancing of York,
the negro, whose color, amazing strength, hair, and motions
were a source of infinite wonderment to the Indians, who
would gladly have adopted him into their tribes.

The tribes that occupied the north shore of the Columbia
are offshoots of the Flatheads, or Salish, but they each
speak a different tongue and are frequently at war with each
other, though on the opposite side of the river are the more
powerful nation of Snake Indians, who are the constant and
dreaded enemies of the Salish and Chilluckittequaw nations.
It was one of the instructions given by President Jefferson
to Lewis and Clark to use their influence and every power of
persuasion they might be able to exert, not only to win the
friendship of all Indians for white men and for the govern-
ment, but also, so far as possible, to harmonize the nations
and tribes with each other, that peace instead of war might

1027

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

prevail among them. This duty the leaders of the expedi-
dition performed not only in the letter and spirit of their
instructions, but so efficaciously that through their friendly
negotiations life-long enmities were terminated, and the
peace-pipe spread its incense of reconciliation along the
passageway of the white men.

By November ist the expedition had descended the Colum-
bia to within one hundred miles of where the City of Port-
land now stands, and the proximity of white men was in-
dicated by seeing kettles, pans, muskets, and brass vessels
for which the Indians had traded furs with white men who
in ships paid annual visits to the mouth of the Columbia.
There was also a difference in their villages, for the Chilluck-
ittequaw nation, which was now reached, showed the effects
of association with whites. Their houses bore some resem-
blance to civilized habitations, though this was in exterior
appearance rather than in interior accommodations. The
houses, which were made of boards and logs, were often
as much as fifty feet long by thirty wide, sunk in the ground
six to ten feet and raised as high above. To reach the floor,
therefore, a ladder was used, and as the beds were about
five feet above the floor these, too, were gained by the use
of a stepladder.- Under the beds is considerable space which
is utilized for the storage of fish, roots, nuts, and berries.
The fireplace, eight feet long, was sunk a foot below the
floor, before which were mats for the family to sit on.

There was no chimney, but a hole in the roof directly above

1028

PASSAGE OF THE CONTINENT COMPLETED

the fire allowed most of the smoke to escape. On the walls
were hung images of men, and bags that contained strange
things, which were to the Indians fetishes, the touching of
which was a sacrilege they would not permit. One of these
bags, the property of a chief, was the sacred repository of
fourteen forefingers, which the chief pompously and vain-
gloriously declared he had cut from the hands of as many
enemies. This constituted a powerful amulet worn about
his neck when going to war that gave him, as he believed,
immunity from danger. But great as was the chief's esti-
mate of the magic efficacy of the bag, he set a yet greater
value upon beads, possibly believing that it were easier to
obtain another bunch of forefingers than a handful of beads.
As Lewis writes : " But their great object is to obtain beads,
an article which holds the first place in their ideas of relative
value, and to procure which they will sacrifice their last
article of clothing or the last mouthful of food."

On Thursday, November 7th, 1805, the eyes of Lewis,
Clark, and their hardy followers were greeted with the glo-
rious vision of old ocean, which broke into view when they
were yet several miles distant from it, but the roaring music
of its breakers served to confirm that it were no fancy
wrought from the fabric of their desires. They brought
their canoes ashore at a spot which afforded small protection
from the tide and waves of the ocean, and there remained
wet, and in the utmost misery, for ten days before they dis-
covered the mouth of a small stream, half hidden by thick

1029

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

brush, into which they brought their boats for greater safety,
and then began to explore the neighboring country. The
weather was so stormy, and raining almost constantly for
several weeks, that the expedition was exposed to hardships
equally as great as those they had experienced in the Bitter
Root mountain region. For though there was no scarcity
of game, the beating rain made hunting almost impossible,
and their stores were so damaged, being without shelter,
that the party suffered from hunger and cold, and a general
weakening such as a long spell of sickness might produce.
They were from time to time visited by Chinnook Indians,
but these had no mind to sell food or enter into any trade
relations, though they showed no particular hostility.

Finally, the weather growing more settled and the canoes
being well secured, Captains Lewis and Clark made a jour-
ney up the coast, on a reconnoissance for several miles, but
rinding the country mountainous and unsuited for a camp
they doubled Cape Discovery, and proceeding southward
established a winter quarters on the river Netul — -now the
Columbia River — at a point six miles below the site upon
which Astoria stands. This place of encampment they
called Fort Clatsop, after a tribe of neighboring Indians, a
situation thirty feet above high tide and one that com-
manded a good view of what is now called Young's Bay, and
in the midst of a game-bearing country. The men were put
to work without delay preparing for winter, and by Decem-

1030

CAPE "DISCOVERY, MOUTH OF THE COLUMBIA.

E accompanying monogravure illustration affords an excellent photographic
view of the tongue of land at the mouth of Columbia River, Oregon, upon
which Lewis and Clark built Fort Clatsop— named for an Indian tribe— in which
they passed the winter of 1805-6, as particularly described in this volume. A re-
production of this fort sensed as the Oregon State building at the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition.

f TERRfTC

ht their boats for greater safety,
the neighboring country. The

raining almost constantly for

ition was exj.^^d to hardships

y had expericr the Bitter

•'ough there *,-., ,,o sea;
ahm

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PASSAGE OF THE CONTINENT COMPLETED

ber 24th had built seven log huts that afforded comfortable
habitation.

Christmas and New Year's day were celebrated by the
firing of guns and a dinner of elk flesh, eighteen of these
animals having been killed in one day by six of the men who
had been sent out to hunt. But while there was an abun-
dance and great variety of game all the members of the ex-
pedition preferred the flesh of dogs, concerning which taste
Captain Lewis writes : " Besides roots and berries, chief
Comowool and six Clatsops brought for sale three dogs and
some fresh whale-blubber. Having been so long accustomed
to live on the flesh of dogs, the greater part of us have
acquired a fondness for it, and our original aversion for it
is overcome by reflecting that while we subsisted on that
food we were fatter, stronger, and in general enjoyed better
health than at any period since leaving the buffalo country."

Captains Lewis and Clark made excellent use of their
time during their winter encampment by familiarizing them-
selves with the adjacent country and in acquiring informa-
tion respecting the customs of the score or more of Indians
of several tribes who almost daily visited them. Most of
these tribes were small in number, and all were poorly pro-
vided with weapons, their dependence being in bows and
arrows, in the manufacture of which they were astonishingly
expert, as they were also in the making of canoes. The
Chinnooks were most numerous, as they were the most
intelligent of the coast natives, and of these Captain Lewis

1033

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

gives very particular account in his diary. He speaks com-
mendingly of their character, as a people generally honest
and sympathetic, attributes which are not commonly found
among Indians.

Among many of the nations east of the Rocky Mountains,
such as the Sioux, Assiniboines, Minnatarees, etc., old age
is so little regarded that it is the practice when starting out
upon a long journey, to hunt, or migrate, those unable by
reason of their age to travel with the party are left behind
with meat enough to last a single day and bidden, even by
their children, to starve quickly. The Chinnooks, on the
contrary, pay the greatest respect for the senile, and absolv-
ing them from all labor or responsibility provide most gener-
ously for them to the end of their days. While polygamy
is not prohibited by the Chinnooks it is very rarely practiced,
nor do they sell their women and children. But they are
guilty of the custom of selling the favors of their females, a
habit which appears to be equally agreeable to both sexes.
They had not learned to use intoxicants of any kind at the
time of Lewis and Clark's visit, but they had the vice of
gambling to such a degree that it was a common thing to
see an Indian or family completely despoiled by another by
the laying of wagers upon being able to guess in which
hand a small pebble, shifted quickly from one hand to the
other, might be found. Their other games of hazard are
equally simple, in which every Indian participates so that
fully half their time is spent in gambling.

1034

PASSAGE OF THE CONTINENT COMPLETED

The Chinnooks in trafficking are alert and cunning, but
withal so suspicious that they never accept the first offer
made them for any article they may have to barter, even
though the price be double what they had expected to re-
ceive. Similarly they demand much more than they are
really willing to take, so that in negotiating with them
white men make their first offers as much too low as the
Chinnooks place theirs too high, the two coming finally to
an agreement through mutual concessions.

1035

DIVISION LIV.

The Return Trip Begun.

As winter wore away game gradually disappeared,
water-fowl going north, fish ascending the rivers to spawn,
and elk, deer and other animals upon which the expedition
depended migrated to the interior, leaving the men without
means of subsistence. It was the desire of Lewis and
Clark to remain at Fort Clatsop until traders, who annually
anchored their ships at the mouth of the Columbia, should
appear, but their situation would not permit of longer delay,
so they began, shortly after the middle of March, to pre-
pare for making the return journey. Through the kind-
ness of chiefs Commowool (or Cobaway) and Delashwilt,
of the Chinnooks, canoes were obtained and also a supply
of food sufficient to last for several days. To recompense
them for this hospitable act Captain Clark divided among
the Indians the seven huts occupied during the winter, to-
gether with the furniture used therein. As a further mark
of appreciation of their services he gave to each a certifi-
cate attesting the kindness he had received at their hands.
With the hope that traders might soon appear off the coast
and learn through the Indians of the expedition, Captain

Lewis prepared several copies of a notice announcing the

1036

THE RETURN TRIP BEGUN

successful overland passage of the expedition, pursuant to
instructions given by President Jefferson, with dates of
arrival and departure, to which he appended the names of
all those who participated in the trip. One of these he
posted up in the fort and the others were circulated among
the natives who were charged to see that they were not
destroyed but delivered into the hands of foreign traders.

After much leave-taking with the Indians, who came in
great numbers to pay their respects and express regrets at
the parting, the expedition left the fort at noon of March
23d, 1806, and set out in well-loaded canoes to ascend the
Columbia. The route was out of the mouth of the Nutal
and thence around Point Williams, a dangerous passage for
canoes but accomplished without accident. And it is worth
noticing, too, that though the expedition had numbered
thirty-two persons, and hardships almost intolerable had
been borne for nearly two years, there had been little sick-
ness and not a single death, except that of Sergeant Floyd,
which occurred on August 2Oth, 1804, at a point where
Sioux City now stands, and where his remains, once re-
moved, repose under a large stone slab appropriately
inscribed.

The trip up the Columbia was made with less difficulty
than the descent, for the information acquired on the
down passage served the expedition most usefully, while a
second meeting with Indians living along the river was
invariably cordial and confidential. The current offered

1037

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

some resistance, but the canoes were not heavily loaded,
and expert rowers sent them forward at an average speed
of twenty miles per day. Game, however, was scarce, and
reported to be especially so above the falls, nor were fish
found to be so abundant as in former years, for which
reason large parties of Indians were met coming down the
river on their way to the coast.

It had been impracticable, while descending the river,
for Lewis and Clark to learn much of the geography of the
country, for it was a struggle with them to obtain sub-
sistence for their large party, and this fact, added to un-
certainty as to the friendliness of nations who might be met
with, discouraged them from making excursions far from
the river. On the return trip, however, they had less to fear
from the Indians, those throughout the country having
lea/ned of the white men's visit. On making their return
journey, therefore, they gave more particular attention to
the outlying region. Reaching the Multnomah, now
called the Willamette River, Captain Clark passed up that
stream a distance of seven miles where he came to an island
twenty miles long and from five to ten miles wide, a large
piece of land that lies between the Multnomah and an arm of
the Columbia. The chief wealth of this island, and what
really renders it especially noteworthy, consists of nu-
merous ponds in the interior which abound with a plant
which Captain Clark called arrow-head, but to which the

Indians give the name wappatoo. This bulb he found to

1038

MULTNOMAH FALLS AND INDIANS 'BREAKING CAMP

XMVuLTNOMAH Falls are like a stream falling out of the sky for they have a per-
* •I*' pendicular descent of 850 feet, and dashing out of this amazing height in
a solid stream, from a distance they resemble a cleft in the mountain through wliidi
the horizon is seen beyond. These beautiful falls are visible from the Columbia
River which receives their discharge and tlience goes madly racing to the cascades
only a few miles away. This region, \vhic h is one of the most picturesque in the
world, is still occupied by Multnomah Indian^, whose numbers however, arc few
whereas at the time of the Lewis and Clark expedition they were a powerful nation.

loaded,
average speed

rce, and

..ere fish

r which

. down the

- u

• va
.

« ealiro, Wtfj.t.ylnb
rjo liila ei ,bhow

•)vnri v-jdj "Joi •{>'« 2(fl 1o Juo
irf ynisEffit iifit ^o JIH>
ii^uoirlj aicJnuom 31!

•jii) ni aupifiiutoiq l«oi. ;i;

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• itnomah

(

.^%-».r :> o an island

\ride, a large
J an arm of
I, and what
-{ nu-
a plant
^.he
,- ! to

THE RETURN TRIP BEGUN

constitute a chief article of food and is the principal staple
of commerce among Indians on the Columbia, of which he
writes :

" It is never out of season ; so that at all times of the
year the valley is frequented by the neighboring Indians
who come to gather wappatoo. It is collected chiefly by
women, who employ for the purpose canoes from ten to
fourteen feet in length, about two feet wide and nine inches
deep, tapering from the middle, where they are about
twenty inches wide. They are sufficient to contain a sin-
gle person and several bushels of roots, yet so very light
that a woman can carry one with esae. She takes one of
these canoes into a pond where the water is breast deep,
and by means of her toes separates from the root this bulb,
which on being freed from the mud rises immediately to
the surface of the water, and is thrown into the canoe. In
this manner these patient females remain in the water for
several hours even in the depth of winter."

Two days journey from the Columbia, Captain Clark
came in sight of Multnomah Falls, a beautiful cataract, in
the vicinity of which was a village of the Multnomahs which
Captain Clark visited and learned much concerning their
customs and domestic life. Though there were numer-
ous tribes, of many names, settled along the rivers, he ex-
presses the opinion that they are all branches of the
Multnomah nation, which is a powerful one. These
people live in log houses usually sunk in the ground two

1041

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

or three feet like those heretofore described on the Colum-
bia. They have for weapons, besides bows and arrows, and
occasionally a musket, swords made of iron, very thin, and
sharp on the edges and at the point. They also have
heavy bludgeons of hard wood, which they hang at the
heads of their beds as a protection against intruders.

Among the singular habits of the Multnomah Indians is
that of bathing their bodies every morning with urine,
though they make use also of hot, cold and vapor baths.

Their mode of disposing of the dead is to deposit them
in a structure formed of boards slanting, like a roof, from
a pole supported by upright posts. The bodies are laid
horizontally on boards under this crude protection and are
then covered with mats. In some places it was found that
in order to dispose of the bodies under this shelter they
were laid in rows one on top of the other as many as four
courses deep.

By April I5th, the expedition had ascended to the Dalles,
which owing to a rise in the river were much more difficult
to pass than when the party made the descent in the Novem-
ber preceding. Being poorly provided with ropes and the
current dreadfully swift, it was necessary to drag one canoe
at a time, and the labor of thus cordelling five canoes was so
great as to quite exhaust the strength of every one in the
party. To add to their distress, one of the canoes was
swept away and irrecoverably lost, while the Indians mani-
fested a disposition to take advantage of the situation and

1042

THE RETURN TRIP BEGUN

plunder them. In three days the expedition were able to
make only seven miles, so it was decided that the remainder
of the distance, by the Dalles, a distance of twenty-eight
hundred yards should be made by a portage, which was
safely accomplished and with much less exertion than had
been expended in the effort to cordell the boats.

Game was fairly plentiful, of deer, elk, and mountain
sheep, but Captain Lewis continues to mention the pref-
erence of the party for dog flesh, so that whenever they
could do so numbers of these animals were purchased of
the Indians for food.

Other rapids still remained to be passed before reaching
the falls, and as further portage was therefore necessary
Captain Clark was sent forward to endeavor to buy horses.
These animals being scarce along the Columbia he had
great difficulty in pursuading the Indians to sell him any
of their stock, nor did he succeed in buying four head until
he had offered more than twice their real value. A few
days later, however, Captain Lewis had greater success in
negotiating with some Eneeshurs, from whom he obtained
six more horses at a much less price than Captain Clark had
been obliged to pay. By the use of these the expedition was
able to make better progress, for the canoes were relieved
of so much of their load, transferred to the horses, that they
were easily paddled through places where the current was
gentle, or carried around such rapids as they had to pass.
But though relieved of one trouble the expedition met with

1043

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

another quite as harassing. Their first appearance in the
country served to awe the Indians, who regarded the white
men as beings almost if not quite supernatural, but acquain-
tance had dispelled this belief and the Indians now ex-
hibited their propensities to steal. Despite the watch-
fulness of every one in the party, as well also the vigorous
resentment which they visited upon those caught pilfering,
knives, tomahawks, and other articles continued to disap-
pear until several times Lewis and Clark were on the point
of inflicting the death penalty upon some of the thieves, but
were as often prevented by the intercession and good prom-
ises of chiefs.

The care of their horses at night was a matter of great
concern to the expedition, for though every precaution of
tying and hobbling was employed, some of the horses es-
caped almost every night and were not always recovered,
besides delaying the march in searching for them. But
as the journey eastward continued, the loss of horses was
not severely felt, as they were found to be so plentiful among
the Chopunnish that any desired number could be readily
purchased for a small recompense, in simple articles, be-
sides several were presented as gifts, until Captain Lewis
had accumulated a herd of twenty-three.

April 27th the expedition reached the mouth of Walla
Walla river, where, obtaining fresh guides, they crossed the
Walla Walla country, having now abandoned their canoes,
and on May 5th arrived at the junction of the Snake and

1044

THE RETURN TRIP BEGUN

Gearwater. At this point they met Twisted Hair, the
chief in whose keeping they had left their herd of horses in
November, when they took to canoes to journey thence by
water. A dispute had arisen meantime between Twisted
Hair and two other chiefs, named respectively Cut Nose
and Broken Arm, over the care of the horses, the result of
which was that the animals had been permitted to run loose
and were now so scattered that their recovery would occupy
much time and cause great trouble. But by the practise
of diplomacy Captain Lewis so adroitly managed as to
completely reconcile the chiefs, and by repeating his prom-
ise to Twisted Hair to give him two guns, with their com-
pliment of ammunition, when the horses left with him
should be produced, the old man sent out a party of his
young men to collect and bring them in. By this means
twenty of the horses were recovered, the most of which were
found to be in good condition. Half the saddles, that had
been buried with some powder and lead the previous fall,
were also recovered, and on Saturday, May loth, the expedi-
tion set out across country for Traveler's Rest, though at the
time the ground was covered with eight inches of snow.

Food soon failed the party, for being now in a very
mountainous country and with spring advancing game had
gone to the plains. Fortunately the Chopunnish were ex-
tremely friendly, and had such a large number of horses
that they very generously supplied these for food and also
some dogs, for which the white men continued to show a

1045

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

marked fondness. It is related by Captain Clark that while
the expedition was at dinner in camp they were visited by
a band of Chopunnish Indians, among whom was a young
man carrying a puppy. Seeing Captain Lewis eating the
leg of a dog, the young Indian was so disgusted by the
sight that he threw the puppy into the Captain's plate say-
ing, in his language, " Eat that." The Captain was so in-
censed by the insult that he dashed the pup into the Indian's
face and threatened to brain him with a tomahawk.

Visiting a band of Chopunnish, who were found in a
hut one hundred and fifty feet long, and nearly one-third as
broad, in which twenty-eight fires were burning, indicating
its occupation by as many families, Lewis and Clark called
a council of the three principal chiefs to whom they ex-
plained the purpose of the expedition, the power of the
United States, and the wishes of the President to cultivate
the friendship of the Indians who by a transfer of the terri-
tory of Louisiana had become subjects of the nation, and
among whom it was desirable that trading stations should
be established. Communication with the Indians was by a
circuitous route, for as Lewis and Clark spoke in English
to one of the men who understood French, the words were
repeated to Chaboneau, who in turn interpreted to his wife
Sacajawea, in the Minneteree tongue, who repeated the
language to a Shoshone and by him it was spoken again in
Chopunnish dialectf But this laborious circuit did not

diminish the effect, for the chiefs appeared greatly delighted

1046

THE RETURN TRIP BEGUN

at the information and good wishes thus communicated.
At the conclusion of the council Lewis and Clark amused
the Indians by showing to them a compass, spy-glass, mag-
net, watch and air-gun, all of which seemed to impress the
natives with the extraordinary power of white men, as it
was intended the exhibition should do.

After securing promises from the Chopunnish chiefs to
promote amicable relations with neighboring tribes and to
give adherence to the interests of white men and the nation,
Lewis and Clark were eager to continue their homeward
journey, but they were informed by the chiefs that passage
across the Rocky Mountains would be impossible at this
time of the year because of the great depth of snow and
inability to subsist their horses. This information was con-
firmed by the fact that the streams had but little water in
them, which indicated that the snow had not yet begun
to melt. Influenced by the counsel they had received, and
the reports of hunters they had sent out, Lewis and Clark
decided to establish a camp on the opposite side of the river
and there remain until the snow should abate so as to permit
a crossing of the mountain to be made. By swimming
their horses the expedition succeeded in gaining the oppo-
site bank of the Kooskooskee, where a camp was soon es-
tablished on a spot which the Indians had recommended.
Here they remained until June 24th beset by many diffi-
culties, of which that of procuring food was greatest, for

the salmon had not yet appeared so far up the river and

1047

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

game was so scarce that means of living was reduced to
roots and horse-flesh. During their stay at this place the
camp was visited daily by many Indians who brought their
sick to be treated, Captain Clark having become famous
among them as a great Medicine Man. As most of the
Indians were afflicted with sore eyes and scrofula Captain
Clark ministered to these with an eye-wash he had learned
to prepare in the form of a decoction made of herbs, which
had considerable efficacy in reducing inflammation. He
also lanced boils and posthumes of many suffering from
such afflictions, but his largest success was obtained by
recommending hot and vapor baths for those who were
troubled with scrofulous sores and partial paralysis. In
order to better administer this form of treatment ex-
cavations were made in the bank, which being tightly cov-
ered over with timber and earth left a space large enough
for one or more afflicted persons to dispose themselves com-
fortably. The enclosure was then heated with stones that
had first been placed for a sufficient time in the fire, and
upon these water was thrown in order to produce a steam.
When the patient had been left for a while enveloped by
vapor, or until perspiration was profuse, he was taken out
and plunged quickly into the icy water of the river. This
was frequently repeated two or three times, but though
seemingly severe this administration never produced in-
jurious effects and in a majority of cases proved highly

efficacious. During the entire time that they were in camp

1048

THE RETURN TRIP BEGUN

Lewis and Clark received the most kindly treatment from
the Indians, notwithstanding their store of merchandise
had now become so much reduced that they no longer had
any articles to barter, except a few guns which they re-
served as rewards for guides to the Missouri.

At length the rising river gave to them the glad signs
for which the expedition had so long waited, and with their
baggage securely packed, they set out with sixty-two horses
and two Indian guides for the Great Falls of the Missouri.
The snow, however, was still very deep in places, but so
firm that the horses could walk without sinking, and on
July i they reached Traveler's Rest, where their future
operations were planned as follows: Captain Lewis with
nine men was to pursue the most direct route to the Falls.
At this point three men were to be left to prepare for trans-
porting the baggage and canoes across the portage, while
with the remaining six he was to ascend Maria's River to
explore the country. The rest of the men were to accom-
pany Captain Clark to the head waters of Jefferson River,
which Sergeant Ordway was to descend for the canoes
and other articles that had been deposited there in a cache
on the westward journey. Captain Clark's party, which
would then be reduced to ten men, was then to proceed to
the Yellowstone at the nearest approach to the three forks
of the Missouri. He was instructed to build canoes at
that point and go down that river with seven of his party

to its mouth and there wait until he should be joined by

1049

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

the others. Sergeant Pryor with two others were then to
take the horses and proceed by land to Mandan, whence he
was to go to the British posts on the Assiniboine with a
letter to Mr. Henry, a trader, asking his efforts to persuade
some of the Sioux chiefs to accompany him to Washington
City.

With their plans thus adopted, and all preparations com-
pleted, on July 3d the expedition separated, with anxious
hopes of mutual success, and many expressions of regret
at the parting, which constituted a scene affecting for the
brotherly solicitude that was manifested. The bond of
fellowship and fraternal feeling had been firmly established
by nearly two years of hardships and perils shared in com-
mon and as the purposes of the expedition had not yet been
fully accomplished, the sorrow at separating was greater
because privations must still be endured and there would
henceforth be lacking the support which union of the whole
party had provided.

Captain Lewis with nine men and five Indians followed
down Clark's, now called Bitter River, to its junction
with Hell Gate River, and thence to Black foot River.
Proceeding after a short stop they crossed the Rocky Moun-
tains at Lewis and Clark's Pass, and thence to Medicine,
or Sun, River, which they followed down to their old camp
at White Bear Islands in the Missouri River near Great
Falls. At this point the Indian guides left the party, well

1050

THE RETURN TRIP BEGUN

satisfied in being paid for their services by a gift of two
guns and some ammunition.

At the Great Falls Captain Lewis divided his party,
leaving Sergeant Goss with five men to attend to the port-
age, while he with three men proceeded on horses to ex-
plore Maria's River and its valley. His route was towards
the northwest, across the Tansy, — now called Teton —
River to the upper Maria's and thence to the Blackfeet
Reservation, a distance of more than one hundred miles.
Game of many kinds was abundant, but not a single person
was met with. There being no occasion to follow the river
further, the head waters of which they had reached, Captain
Lewis decided to retrace his steps to Medicine River Fork
where it empties into the Cutbank, a branch of the Teton.

On Tuesday, the I5th, while pursuing their route towards
the Cutbank, an accident befel McNeal, one of Captain
Lewis' men, that came very near culminating in a tragedy.
Bears were so plentiful that it was a daily occurrence to
meet them, singly and in pairs, in the woods along the
streams, and as these animals were generally of the brown
species their ferocity made it dangerous for men to attack
them, as one shot was almost never fatal, and before time
was given to reload the enraged bear would invariably
charge. McNeal had been sent in the morning to examine
the cache at the lower end of the portage, but on the way,
and just as he reached Willow run, he passed through a

thicket in which he suddenly came within ten feet of a large

1051

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

bear. Sight of the animal so frightened his horse that
wheeling quickly McNeal was thrown almost immediately
under the bear. As the savage creature raised himself to
seize his victim McNeal, having no chance to shoot, struck
the bear with his gun such a savage blow on the head as to
break the stock, and knock the bear down. The interval
of respite from what had seemed to promise his inevitable
destruction was quickly improved by the hunter who ran
with his utmost speed to a near-by willow tree up which he
clambered with such agility as to escape the pursuing bear,
who however kept a close guard at the foot until late in the
afternoon, when he made off. McNeal waited a consider-
able time before venturing from his refuge, and then spent
the rest of the afternoon looking for his horse, which he
finally found two miles from the spot where the adventure
had taken place. Commenting on this incident Captain
Lewis observes : " These bears are, indeed, of a most ex-
traordinary ferocity, and it is a matter of wonder that in
all our encounters we have had the good fortune to escape."
Upon reaching the confluence of Medicine River and the
Teton, Captain Lewis discovered a band of eight Indians,
with thirty horses, on an eminence one mile towards his left.
This was a most unwelcome sight, for with his horses al-
ready jaded he could not hope to escape by flight, as the
Indians were resting and were in fresh condition to make
pursuit. He therefore advanced and made signs of friendly

intentions, hoping to conciliate any hostile feeling which the

1052

THE RETURN TRIP BEGUN

Indians might have by making them presents, a means which
he had employed successfully many times before. Nor did
it wholly fail in this instance, for the Indians, who proved to
be of the Blackfeet tribe, notorious for perfidy and their
propensities to rob, received their visitors with much show
of friendliness and decision was made to camp with them
during the night. Captain Lewis, however, warned his men
to keep a sharp watch and to resist the Indians to the last ex-
tremity should any attempt at robbery be made, which he
counted upon as being likely. Fortunately the Indians had
only two guns among them, and as their number was not in-
creased by the arrival of other companions, which he had at
first feared, Captain Lewis considered that his force of four
men was equal, with their superior arms, to the eight Indians
with whom circumstances had brought him in unexpected
contact.

A greater part of the night was spent in smoking, nor was
any attempt at molestation made until after sunrise, when
the Indians insolently crowded around the fire and then
stealthily one of them seized two rifles and made off rapidly
with the booty. Fields, who was on watch at the time,
promptly gave the alarm and set out in quick pursuit. Be-
ing very fleet of foot Fields soon overtook the thief and
drawing his hunting knife stabbed him to the heart. An-
other Indian had seized Drewyer's rifle but it was wrested
from him. The noise aroused Captain Lewis who, finding
his own rifle gone, drew a pistol from his belt and started to

1053

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

pursue the Indian in whose possession he discovered the
missing rifle. Meantime the other Indians were stampeding
the horses with the design of catching them afterwards, for
being well mounted themselves, while the whites were left
afoot, they counted this an easy thing to do. When it was
found that nothing else would now avail them except to
give the Indians a wholesale punishment, Captain Lewis,
who had meantime recovered his rifle, after giving them
warning of his intention unless they surrendered his horses,
fired at one of the Indians, at a distance of thirty paces, and
with an aim so true as to strike him in the belly, from which
he soon expired. The other six Indians made their escape
with one of Captain Lewis' horses, but in doing so their
flight was so precipitate that they left behind four of their
own, so that the party was in no wise disadvantaged by the
encounter.

Realizing his danger, as he regretted the circumstance
that had compelled him to take human life, Captain Lewis
lost no time in getting out of the country, as pursuit might
be expected from two bands of Indians who were known to
be hunting somewhere in the vicinity. So rapid was their
retreat that by ten o'clock the next morning they were at
the mouth of Teton River, fully one hundred miles from
where the fight took place.

Reaching the Missouri River Captain Lewis hastened to
the place where he expected to find Goss and his men, but'
to his surprise met Sergeant Ordway and party instead, who

1054

THE RETURN TRIP BEGUN

had come down the Missouri from the Three Forks in
canoes used by Captain Clark. Soon after, however, Goss
appeared, whereupon opening the cache that they had made
there more than one year before they loaded their luggage
into canoes, at the mouth of Maria's River, and turning
their horses loose on the prairie they started down the Mis-
souri, passing the mouth of the Yellowstone August /th.
Upon reaching the Yellowstone Captain Lewis was dis-
appointed by his failure to meet Captain Clark, but as the
place was favorable for making necessary repairs to the
canoes, the party went into camp, where besides accomplish-
ing other duties they made some clothes of deerskin, of
which all the men were greatly in need. Here they remained
until the loth, when they moved forward to Burnt Hills.
At this place a herd of elk was discovered on a sand-bar
that was thick with willows, whereupon Captain Lewis and
Cruzotte, one of his men, crossed over to attack the game.
They each shot an elk, and then reloading again went in
pursuit of the herd, but in a few moments Captain Lewis
heard the report of a gun and simultaneously felt a sharp
stinging sensation in his thigh, followed by a gush of blood.
Calling to Cruzotte and receiving no reply the Captain had
no doubt that he had been shot by an Indian, and retreated
to his canoe. The men were called to arms quickly and
ordered to prepare for defense, but investigation soon dis-
abused their fears of Indians being in the vicinity and con-
clusion was reached that the shot had been fired by Cruzotte,

1055

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

whose eyesight being bad had been mistaken by the color of
Captain Lewis' clothes into thinking him an elk. The wound
was a very painful one and bled profusely, though for-
tunately neither bone nor artery was ruptured, but he was
thrown into a high fever, and being unable to stand upon his
feet he was taken on the following day to the camp of two
Illinois traders, where, a few miles beyond, Captain Clark
and his party were found.

1056

DIVISION LV.

Explorations of the Yellowstone.

HAVING followed the fortunes of Captain Lewis and his
party upon their expedition to the valley of the Maria River,
we turn now to a consideration of the journeying and dis-
coveries of Captain Clark, who had set out on July 3d, with
fifteen men, including his Indian guides, and fifty horses,
to explore the Yellowstone.

The route pursued by Captain Clark was up the Bitter
Root River, and the first day's traveling, of thirty miles,
brought him to the Nez Perce fork, where the party camped
and celebrated the national holiday with a feast of venison
and quamish root. Sacajawea was the main dependence of
Captain Clark in guiding him through the country, for she
had many times traversed it with her people, who still occu-
pied the region at certain seasons of the year, when the
buffalo resorted to its plains to graze. By the 7th the party
had made such good progress that they reached Hot Springs
valley, one of the most delightful and fertile spots in the
northwest, distinguished as well for the hot springs that
are to be found in the plains, from which the water issues
at such a high temperature that Captain Clark boiled meat
in it to his satisfaction in twenty-five minutes.

1057

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

On the following day, July 8th, Captain Clark's party
passed from Shoshone cave to the west branch of Jefferson
River, down which they proceeded nine miles to the forks
where in the previous August they had cached a quantity
of merchandise, the most highly prized of which was to-
bacco, for the men had suffered from a deprivation of this
luxury until their desire for it was almost madness. Most
of the articles were found to be in good condition, except
that the dampness, caused by long burial in the earth, had
produced a mold offensive to smell and taste.

The canoes taken from the cache were loaded with the
baggage and sent down the river with a part of his force,
while with the others Captain Clark proceeded overland, on
horseback, to the Yellowstone. The country was beautiful
and abounded with deer, antelope, bear, beaver, big-horn
sheep and otter. The party again formed a junction at the
mouth of Gallatin River, where another separation took
place, Sergeant Ordway with nine men and six canoes being
instructed to descend the Missouri and join Captain Lewis
at the mouth of Maria River, while Captain Clark with ten
men and Sacajawea would proceed with fifty horses to the
Yellowstone.

The journey lay along the river bank for a considerable
distance and through a country generally level and amaz-
ingly productive. No incident of interest befel the party
until the i8th, when Gibson, one of the hunters, in attempt-
ing to mount his horse after shooting a deer fell on a snag

1058

EXPLORATIONS OF THE YELLOWSTONE

•which penetrated two inches into the muscular part of his
thigh. The wound was so severe and painful that it was
necessary to carry him on a litter between two horses, until
they could find trees suitable for canoes. Three days later
they had the misfortune to lose twenty-four of their horses,
that were stolen by a band of Crow Indians who had been
hovering on the flank of the party for several days. This
loss of half their horses was a special hardship, because
severe and continuous traveling had worn the horses' feet
so much that they were now scarcely able to carry any bag-
gage, while necessity compelled Captain Clark to impose
upon the horses that remained twice the burden they had
borne before.

On July 24th, canoes were made, in two of which Ser-
geant Pryor and three men embarked for Mandan, as al-
ready described, while Captain Clark and the remainder of
his party continued down the Yellowstone, in a flotilla of
canoes until they reached a spot where the town of Livings-
ton now stands. The journey was thenceforth one of much
delight and few hardships, for the expedition drifted on the
rapid current through a country of great diversity, in which
the landscape shifted from plain to mountain, and from
shelving beaches to beetling bluffs.

On July 25th, Captain Clark landed to make an examina-
tion of a remarkable rock that rose abruptly from the bottom
land two hundred and fifty paces from the river shore. This

strange formation was found to be a light-colored gritty

1059

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

rock, four hundred paces in circumference, two hundred
feet high, with the summit inaccessible except on the north-
east. On the sides Indians had carved figures of animals,
and other objects, and on the summit two piles of stones
were raised by them, but for what purpose it was not possi-
ble to ascertain. The prospect from this truly remarkable
elevation is thus described by Captain Clark : " From this
height the eye ranged over a large extent of variegated
country; on the southwest the Rocky Mountains covered
with snow ; and at the distance of thirty-five miles, the south-
ern extremity of what are called the Little Wolf Mountains.
The low grounds of the river extend nearly six miles to
the southward, when they rise into plains reaching to the
mountains. The north side of the river for some distance
is surrounded by jutting cliffs ; these are succeeded by rugged
hills, beyond which the plains are again open and extensive ;
and the whole country is enlivened by herds of buffaloes,
elk, and wolves." To this great rock, which is about ten
miles east of the present town of Billings, Montana, Captain
Clark gave the name Pompey's Pillar, upon which he cut
his name and the date of his visit. On the following day,
when they were one hundred and twenty miles below Pom-
pey's Pillar, the party reached the Big Horn River, the bank
of which Captain Clark ascended on foot a distance of seven
miles, and which he found abounding with beaver, and the
shores with big-horn sheep.

As the party continued their descent of the Yellowstone

1060

HERD OF BUFFALO CROSSING THE YELLOWSTONE.
AND BIG GAME ON THE MISSOURI.

XEWIS and Clark, in their reports to the government, make mention of several
instances of their expedition having been obstructed by vast herds of buffalo
crossing the route before them. This was a century ago, but as late as 1870 count-
less numbers of these animals roamed the plains, as did also elk and antelope,
which were particularly numerous along the Yellowstone and Upper Missouri,
upon the flesh of which the Indians of those regions largely subsisted. No where
else in the world, perhaps, was big game* so plentiful as in certain sections of the
west before the white man's invasion converted the virgin plains into farms and
cities.

LOWSIAM TERM'

rcYJf, it/*,*: K«fidred paces in cue'. , two hundred

led -V.^rit »ith the summit iijACi^B^feg except on the north-
faetst. O» the sides Indians »a4 cfcfv«d figures of animals,
in*** r£!s*r objects, and on (he fftflnmit two piles of stones
«W!Ns «b»ed by them, but for wfeat purjK as not possi-

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party rea- the bank

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with beaver, and the
-horn sheep.

; their d»- e Yellowstone

EXPLORATIONS OF THE YELLOWSTONE

many objects of interest and of animate nature claimed their
attention, so that the trip was an excursion of successive
attractions and changeful pleasure. At one place, where
the river spread out very broad, they struck some shoals in
which a buffalo seemed to be fast in a quicksand and on
which account the name Buffalo shoals was given to this
part of the river. At another spot where the banks were
high a large bear was seen standing upon a cliff as if sur-
veying the scene, and at yet another a wolf was perceived
meditating upon his surroundings, circumstances that were
seized upon to select names for points along the stream.

On August ist progress was retarded by such a multitude
of buffaloes that passage of the river was quite obstructed
by them, of which Captain Clark writes in his journal as
follows : " So great was the number of these animals that
although the river, including an island over which they
passed, was a mile in width, the herd stretched, as thick as
they could swim, completely from one side to the other, and
our party was obliged to stop for an hour. Forty-five miles
below were two other herds as numerous as the first crossing
the river." And again he writes : " Bears which gave us
so much trouble on the head waters of the Missouri are
equally fierce in this quarter. This morning one of them,
which was on a sand-bar as the boats passed, raised himself
on his hind feet, and after looking at the party plunged in
and swam towards us. He was received with three balls
in the body, whereupon he turned round and made for the

1063

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

shore. Towards evening another entered to swim across.
Captain Clark ordered the boat towards the shore, and just
as the animal landed shot it in the head. It proved to be the
largest female we had ever seen, and so old that its tusks
were worn smooth. The boats escaped with difficulty be-
tween two herds of buffaloes, which were crossing the river
and would probably have again detained the .party."

On Tuesday, August 3d, Captain Clark completed his
journey of eight hundred and thirty-seven miles down the
Yellowstone and landed at its confluence with the Missouri,
going into camp at a spot where the expedition had rested
April 26, 1805. But the mosquitoes plagued the party so
intolerably that with the hope of escaping these pests Captain
Clark had the canoes reloaded, and after writing a note ap-
prising Captain Lewis of his intention stuck it on a pole
at the river's mouth, and proceeded down the Missouri and
made another camp on a sand-bar. This move did not give
them the relief sought, so the necessities of their sufferings
from the mosquitoes compelled the party to continue down
the river until the 7th, when a rain and high wind left the
air clear and cold and relieved them of their tormentors.

On the following day Sergeant Pryor, accompanied by
Shannon, Hall, and Windsor, arrived but without the horses,
for, as they reported, soon after leaving Captain Clark a
band of Indians had stolen the horses, and diligent pursuit
had failed to recover them. Nothing else therefore could

be done than to pack such baggage on their backs as they

1064

EXPLORATIONS OF THE YELLOWSTONE

could carry and pursue their course towards the Yellowstone.
On the next night as they lay asleep a wolf bit the hand of
Sergeant Pryor severely, and another had attempted to seize
Windsor when Shannon was aroused and shot the bold
marauder. Reaching the river near Pompey's Pillar they
made two skin canoes, such as they had seen in use among'
the Mandans and Ricarees, and which Pryor described as
follows : " Two sticks of one inch and a quarter in diame-
ter are tied together so as to form a round hoop, which
serves for the brim, while a second hoop, for the bottom of
the boat, is made in the same way, and both secured by
sticks of the same size from the sides of the hoops, fastened
by thongs at the edges of the hoops and at the interstices of
the sticks; over this frame the skin is drawn tightly and
tied with thongs, so as to form a perfect basin seven feet
and three inches in diameter, sixteen inches deep, and with
sixteen ribs or cross-sticks, and capable of carrying six or
eight men with their loads."

Being unacquainted with the river, they thought it pru-
dent to build two skin-boats thereby to divide their guns
and ammunition, so that in case of accident all might not
be lost. In these frail vessels they embarked, and were
surprised at the perfect security in which they passed through
the most difficult shoals and rapids of the river, without
once taking in water even during the highest winds.

In passing the confluence of the Yellowstone and Mis-
souri, Sergeant Pryor removed the note from the pole, sup-

1065

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

posing that Captain Lewis had passed ; and learning where
Captain Clark might be found he pressed on in the skin
canoes to join his party.

On August 1 2th, Captain Clark continued to descend
the Missouri but an accident to one of the skin canoes com-
pelled them to halt to repair the damage. While thus en-
gaged they were rejoiced to see Captain Lewis' boats heave
in sight about noon, but their joy was turned to grief when
they learned of the wounding of Captain Lewis, who was
being comfortably transported on a bed in one of the canoes.

The entire expedition being now happily reunited, with
Dickson and Hancock, the Illinois traders, added to the
party, the trip down the river was renewed until a stop was
made at the grand village of the Minnetarees, just below
the mouth of the Little Missouri, near where Fort Berthold
afterwards stood. Here Captain Clark called a council
which was attended by many Indians, whom he sought to
persuade to send two or three of their chiefs with him to
Washington to meet the great father. The Indians might
have been readily induced to make the visit by promises of
gifts that Captain Clark had made them had it not been for
the fact that the Minnetarees were at war with the Sioux
and Ricarees, and they were afraid to venture any of their
chiefs within or passing through Sioux territory.

In the evening one of the men, named Coulter, applied
to Captain Clark for his release from further service, in

order that he might join Dickson and Hancock in a trap-

1066

SIOL'X HORSE-FACING AND TRADING
WITH THE MANDANS.

'TT'HE Sioux natiou has for a hundred years or more been the most war-like of
^ all North American Indians/and their fighting propensities long tested the
;>ower of the government, but though fierce, and nearly always engaged in depre-
dations or actual war, as a people they were fond of amusements, and no safer
passport among them was needed than a musical instrument. They were also
great p-amblers and took special delight in horse-racing on which heavy wager*
were laid. The Mandans, who while neighbors of the Sioux, possessed none of
their characteristics, for they were peaceful and to an extent -refined, as Lewis and
(Mark describes them. They were excelrent traders however, and gave travellers
a hearty welcome tP their country, always ready to bargain furs, pottery, beadwork,
apd other articles of their manufacture for whatever white? might have toexchange.

,
-

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on in the skin

..'•ic:d to descend
om-
age. W

sec Capt

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service, in
••: in a trap-

EXPLORATIONS OF THE YELLOWSTONE

ping expedition up the Yellowstone. The offer which he
received was an advantageous one, and as the purpose of
the expedition was almost accomplished Coulter received
his discharge, upon which circumstance Captain Clark com-
ments as follows : " We supplied him, as did his comrades
also, with powder and lead and a variety of articles which
might be useful to him, and he left us the next day. The
example of this man shows how easily men may be weaned
from the habits of a civilized life to the ruder but scarcely
less fascinating manners of the woods. This hunter had
now been absent for many years from the frontiers, and
might naturally be presumed to have some anxiety, or some
curiosity at least, to return to his friends and his country;
yet just at the moment when he is approaching the frontiers,
he is tempted by a hunting scheme to give up those delight-
ful prospects and go back without the least reluctance to
the solitude of the woods."

It may be added that Coulter was the man who in 1807
discovered National Park, or rather the country which has
since been made the great National Park of the Yellowstone.

After infinite persuasion, and many promises of reward,
and particulary by a present of the swivel gun to Chief
Borgne, one of the principal chiefs, known as Big White,
with his wife and son, agreed to make the trip to Wash-
ington. Chaboneau and his wife, Sacajawea, were also ur-
gently solicited to accompany Captains Clark and Lewis to

Washington, but he refused all offers to do so, preferring

1069

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

to remain with the Indians, among whom many years of
his life had been passed. As he could be of no further use
to the expedition Captain Lewis paid him the full sum of
his wages, amounting to $500.33, but nothing was given
Sacajawea, whose services the bargain with Chaboneau
included.

The purpose of their stop with the Minnetarees having
been completed, Captain Lewis gave orders to break camp,
whereupon there was a great wailing set up by the Indian
women, and all the warriors as well exhibited the utmost
grief at seeing their chief Big White, with his wife and
child, about to leave them, for they made no doubt that
he would never return. The parting scene was therefore
a sadly affecting one, and continued for some time, though
happily without changing Big White's resolution. Finally,
all being in readiness for the departure the boats were
pushed off shortly after noon, and in the evening of the
1 7th Mandan was reached, where a stoppage was made
until the following day.

As the returning expedition proceeded down the river,
they met several encampments of Ricaree, or Pawnee,
Indians and came also to a large village of Cheyennes, with
whom Captain Lewis held friendly councils, at all of which
he adjured the Indians to live at peace with one another and
so reconciled their differences by gifts and promises that
there was always acquiescence in his proposals and pledges
to follow his advice.

1070

EXPLORATIONS OF THE YELLOWSTONE

Meeting with no mishaps or detentions the expedition
made good progress down the Missouri, the channel of
which they found to be much changed since they ascended
it one year before. Game continued plentiful, though the
approach to civilization was indicated by meeting from day
to day traders who were passing up the river in pirogues,
or bateaus, laden with merchandise of many kinds to be ex-
changed for hides and furs with the Indians.

On September I5th, the party passed the mouth of the
Kansas, or Kaw River, which was a favorite rendezvous at
the time for Kansas Indians who lay in wait to plunder the
boats of traders. Captain Clark noted in his journal that
" About one mile below the Kansas we landed to view the
situation of a high hill, which has many advantages for a
trading house or fort ; while on the north shore we gathered
great pawpaws and shot an elk." It may be of interest to

observe that the high hill referred to by Captain Clark is
now occupied by the very rich, flourishing, enterprising and
important city of Kansas City.

On September 2Oth the party saw some cows grazing on
the shore, at sight of which there was great joy, for it be-
tokened their quick return to the delights of home, and the
following day Captain Lewis, who had by this time quite
recovered from his wound, and Captain Clark were given a
great welcome by the citizens of St. Charles, who detained
them until the following day with receptions and other public

civilities. But it was on the 23d, that upon their arrival at

1071

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

St. Louis these now famous argonauts received ovations
such as their heroism and achievements had most worthily
deserved. For several months there was almost univer-
sal belief throughout the nation that the adventurous ex-
plorers had been lost, and to have them return suddenly
all in good health and with the purpose for which they set
out completely performed brought infinite satisfaction to the
whole nation which it was the proud privilege of St. Louis
to first celebrate. As the party rounded to in their boats,
at noon, they fired a salute from all their guns which quickly
brought a large number of people to the shore, who being
apprised of their visitors quickly spread the news until every
person in the city, which at that time numbered about two
thousand souls, flocked around Lewis and Clark to do them
homage and to hear reports of their wonderful journeyings
of 2555 miles, from the mouth of the Missouri to where the
Columbia discharges its waters into the Pacific. The tale
is as fascinating as Ulysses might have told, for of adven-
tures, thrilling, touching and picturesque there is hardly an
end, with savage men, ferocious beasts, and the wildest
forces of nature, until we come to regard Lewis and Clark
as the boldest of heroes whose names most proudly embel-
lish American history.

1072

DIVISION LVI.

Subsequent Career of Lewis and Clark.

EVERY American should be as familiar with the heroic
deeds and beneficent accomplishments of Lewis and Clark
as they are with the story of Robinson Crusoe. The nar-
rative of their travels is not a whit less interesting, while
the result of their explorations comprehended the greatness
of the west and led to its settlement and rapid development.
In effect it added an empire to the nation.

But as we have briefly followed the expedition across the
continent, and are now able to draw conclusions as to its
mighty consequences, it remains to be told what were the
subsequent fortunes of the two hardy explorers, for it is
much to be regretted that, worthily great as were Lewis and
Clark, comparatively few there are who realize what they
did, or who indeed are the least acquainted with the history
of their performances. The fact may frankly be stated that
the annals of the nation contain surprisingly little concern-
ing the Lewis and Clark expedition, notwithstanding in
many respects it was one of the most pregnant incidents of
national expansion, and government establishment, con-
nected with our career as a people. If the reader has a mind
to test the truth of this observation, let him examine any his-

1073

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

tory of the United States and note with what elaboration the
story of the colonies is recounted, and likewise that of every
portion of the country lying east of the Mississippi; then
compare the meager attention given by historians to the
discovery, exploration and settlement of the great West ! He
is certain to be struck with astonishment at the partiality,
and wonder why this equally great field has been so slighted,
or, rather, that it should have been giver over, apparently,
to romances of the Indian story-teller.

As was stated in the first pages of this almost cursory ac-
count of the Lewis and Clark expedition, Captain Meri-
whether Lewis besides holding a captaincy in the army
was President Jefferson's private secretary, a man who
not only had a distinguished ancestry, but who had the edu-
cational and natural qualifications of a gentleman. These ac-
complishments were so marked that not only was he ap-
pointed, at his request, to lead the expedition, the success or
failure of which was destined to bring public appreciation or
denunciation upon Jefferson, but the President subsequently
chose to be his biographer, and to give him such meed of
praise as his distinguished services deserved.

It is important that the fact be mentioned, since it very
clearly indicates the great foresight of President Jefferson,
who, standing almost alone in the opinion, perceived the im-
portance of territorial expansion to preserve the homogene-
ousness, so to speak, of the nation, that directly upon the

close of the Revolution he publicly declared the great west

1074

SUBSEQUENT CAREER OF LEWIS AND CLARK

should be made a part of the national domain. It was with
the view to this end, that as early as 1792, when he was
Secretary of State, Jefferson proposed to the American
Philosophical Society a measure whereby funds should be
raised and a competent person engaged to explore the north-
west, " ascending the Missouri, crossing Stony (Rocky)
Mountains, and descending by the nearest river to the
Pacific." At this time Captain Lewis was stationed at
Charlottesville, and learning of Mr. Jefferson's proposal
solicited the appointment of leader of the expedition. But
Mr. Andre Michaux, a professed botanist, offering his ser-
vices at the same time was chosen, but was recalled by the
French minister when he had reached Kentucky, and the
expedition was thereupon abandoned.

" In 1803," as President Jefferson writes, " the act for
establishing trading houses with the Indian tribes being
about to expire, some modifications of it were recommended
to Congress by a confidential message of January i8th, and
an extension of its views to the Indians on the Missouri
River. In order to prepare the way, the message proposed
the sending of an exploring party to trace the Missouri to
its source, to cross the Highlands, and to follow the best
water communication which offered itself from thence to
the Pacific Ocean. Congress approved the proposition,
and voted a sum for carrying it into execution. Captain
Lewis, who had then been near two years with me as pri-
vate secretary, immediately renewed his solicitations to have

1075

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

the direction of the party. I had now opportunities of
knowing him intimately. Of courage undaunted; possess-
ing a firmness and perseverance of purpose which nothing
but impossibilities could divert from its direction; careful
as a father of those committed to his charge, yet steady in
the maintenance of order and discipline; intimate with the
Indian character, customs and principles; habituated to the
hunting life; guarded, by exact information of the vege-
tables and animals of his own country, against losing time
in the description of objects already possessed; honest, dis-
interested, liberal, of sound understanding, and a fidelity to
truth so scrupulous that whatever he should report would
be as certain as if seen by ourselves; with all these qualifica-
tions, as if elected and implanted by nature in one body for
this express purpose, I could have no hesitation in confiding
the enterprise to him."

In April, 1803, President Jefferson sent a draft of his
instructions to Captain Lewis, which however were not
signed until the 2Oth of June, and meantime the negotia-
tions for a transfer by France to the United States of
Louisiana territory had been concluded. Though the treaty
of transfer was executed in Paris, April 3Oth, official in-
formation of the fact did not reach the United States until
about July ist.

It was the middle of February, 1807, before Captains
Lewis and Clark reached Washington with their Indian

charges and reports. Congress being in session at the time,

1076

SUBSEQUENT CAREER OF LEWIS AND CLARK

the two heroes and their followers were presented to that
body and to the President, and in compliance with the Presi-
dent's recommendation there was voted immediately a
liberal donation of land which they had been encouraged to
expect for their services. Soon after this Captain Lewis
was appointed Governor of Louisiana, and Captain Clark
was made a general of the Louisiana territory militia and
agent of the United States for Indian affairs in that de-
partment.

Considerable time elapsed before Captain Lewis departed
to assume his official duties as governor, and when he
reached St. Louis he found the territory distraced by feuds
and contentions among the officers of the government, in
which respects politics and office-holding is not greatly dif-
ferent in our day from what they were then. Governor
Lewis, however, without taking sides with either, so
adroitly managed as to win the approval of both factions,
and his administration, though short, proved highly suc-
cessful.

We come now to the last days of this most talented and
courageous man, which his distinguished biographer, and
friend, President Jefferson, thus sympathetically and
sadly describes:

" Governor Lewis had, from early life, been subject to
hypochondriac affections. It was a constitutional disposi-
tion in all the near branches of the family of his name, and

was more immediately inherited by him from his father.

1077

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

They had not, however, been so strong as to give uneasi-
ness to his family. While he lived with me in Washing-
ton, I observed at times sensible depressions of mind; but
knowing their constitutional source, I estimated their course
by what I had seen in the family. During his westward
expedition, the constant exertion which that required of all
his faculties of body and mind, suspended these distressing
affections ; but after his establishment at St. Louis in sedan-
tary occupations, they returned upon him with redoubled
vigor, and began seriously to alarm his friends. He was
in a paroxysm of one of these when his affairs rendered it
necessary for him to go to Washington. He proceeded to
Chickasaw Bluffs, where he arrived on the sixteenth of
September, 1809, with a view of continuing his journey
thence by water. Mr. Neely, agent of the United States,
with the Chickasaw Indians, arriving there two days after,
found him extremely indisposed, and betraying at times
some derangement of mind. The rumors of war with
England, and apprehensions that he might lose the papers
he was bringing on, among which were the vouchers of his
public accounts, and the journals and papers of his western
expedition, induced him here to change his mind, and to
take his course by land through the Chickasaw country.
Although he appeared somewhat relieved, Mr. Neely kindly
determined to accompany and watch over him. Unfortu-
nately, at their encampment, after having passed the Ten-
nessee, one day's journey, they lost two horses, which

1078

SUBSEQUENT CAREER OF LEWIS AND CLARK

obliged Mr. Neely to halt for their recovery, while the
Governor proceeded, under a promise to wait for him at the
bouse of the first white inhabitant on the road. He stopped
at the house of a Mr. Grinder, who, not being at home, his
wife, alarmed at the symptom of derangement she dis-
covered, gave him up the house and retired to rest herself
in an out-house, the Governor's and Neely's servants lodg-
ing in another. About three o'clock in the night he did the
deed which plunged his friends into affliction, and deprived
his country of one of her most valued citizens, whose valor
and intelligence would have been now employed in aveng-
ing the wrongs of his country (the war of 1812-15), and
in emulating by land the splendid deeds which have honored
her arms on the ocean. It lost, too, to the nation the benefit
of receiving from his own hand the narrative now offered
them of his sufferings and successes, in endeavoring to ex-
tend for them the boundaries of science, and to present to
their knowledge that vast and fertile country which their
sons are destined to fill with arts, with science, with free-
dom and happiness.

" To this melancholy close of the life of one whom
posterity will declare not to have lived in vain, I have only
to add that all the facts I have stated are either known to
myself, or communicated by his family or others, for whose
truth I have no hesitation to make myself responsible."

Such above is the tribute which President Jefferson paid

to the life of Meriwether Lewis, and the imperfect account

1079

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

which he gives of the tragedy that ended the distinguished
services of what history must perpetuate as the most re-
doubtable, sagacious and successful American explorer.

The spot where Captain Lewis killed himself (by shoot-
ing) was about seventy miles southwest of Nashville, and
remains of the tavern in which the tragedy occurred are still
to be seen. Thirty-three years after his death, or in 1843,
the Tennessee Legislature formed Lewis county, in honor of
Captain Lewis, whose body was buried there, and in 1848,
$500 was appropriated to erect a monument over his grave,
which is almost in the center of the county. A report was
made by the monument committee to the General Assembly
of 1849-50, casting doubt on the suicide theory, and ex-
pressing belief that Captain Lewis was assassinated. Others
have since made investigations that led to the conclusion that
Lewis was murdered and robbed by his body servant, but the
preponderance of proof still favors the first report of his
death, at his own hands, though his servant fled, carrying
off Captain Lewis' papers, and was never seen again by any
one who knew him.

Amos Stoddard served as governor of the territory of
Upper Louisiana from 1804 to 1805, and was succeeded by
James Wilkinson, 1805 to 1807, who in turn was succeeded
by Meriwether Lewis whose service continued from 1807
to 1813. In the meantime, or in tne year 1812, the name
of Upper Louisiana was changed to the Territory of Mis-
souri, and the following year, upon the death of Governor

1080

SUBSEQUENT CAREER OF LEWIS AND CLARK

Lewis, President Madison appointed Captain William
Clark governor of the new territory. By reappointment
Clark continued to serve as governor until 1821, when
Missouri was made a State. He offered himself as a candi-
date in that year, but was defeated at the State election by
Alexander M'Nair, who thereby became the first governor
of the State of Missouri.

In 1822, Captain Clark was named by President Monroe
to be Superintendent of Indian Affairs, a position he held
for sixteen years, or until his death, which occurred Septem-
ber i, 1838, at the house of his eldest son, Meri wether
Lewis Clark, in St. Louis, aged 68 years. Captain Clark
was born in Virginia in 1770, but I have not been able to
learn the place. When a lad his parents moved to Louis-
ville, and in 1791, he entered the army with his distin-
guished brother, General George Rogers Clark, and rose to
the place of captain, but his health failed and he was com-
pelled to resign in 1796. During this five years of service
Lewis was a subordinate under Clark, which comradeship
in the army caused Captain Lewis to urge the appointment
of Captain Clark as his associate in command of the
expedition.

Not much is recorded in history of the men who followed
Lewis and Clark. Of Ordway and Pryor we know
nothing. Floyd died near Council Bluffs. Patrick Goss
succeeded Floyd as sergeant, and besides being a man of

invincible courage kept a journal of the expedition that was

1081

16

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

published in 1807, and is scarcely less interesting and valu-
able than the records of his superiors. He died at Wells-
burg-, W. Va., at the ripe age of ninety-nine years. John
Coulter loved the life of an explorer and trapper so well
that he never returned to civilization. He made a trip to
the head waters of the Yellowstone, and thence he pene-
trated the region now known as the Yellowstone Park, in
which he spent some years trading and trapping. It was
while thus engaged in this region that he and a single com-
panion were attacked by Indians. The story is to the effect
that the fight lasted for some hours, when his companion
was shot to death, whereupon finding further defense im-
possible Coulter retreated, pursued hotly by a large band of
savages. He was wounded several times, but managed to
reach the cover of a dense forest into which he plunged and
finally eluded the Indians. There is another story of the
same incident which represents that Coulter was shot down,
with his companion, and scalped. Believing him to be
dead the Indians left. A few hours afterwards he is said
to have revived and found his way to a trapper's cabin,
where he was cared for until quite recovered.

The two Fields brothers and Shields were especially
commended by Lewis and Clark for their usefulness to the
expedition, but history is silent as to their doings after their
return. Shannon, who was a Pennsylvanian, and the best
educated man in the party, seems to have been largely

1082

SUBSEQUENT CAREER OF LEWIS AND CLARK

relied upon to revise the report of his commander. He re-
turned to Pennsylvania and afterwards held the positions
of United States Attorney, State Senator, and Circuit
Judge. Of the other members of the expedition we know
nothing.

1083

DIVISION LVII.

Explorations of Pike and Fremont.

THE Lewis and Clark expedition was the real beginning
of effort to determine the character and resources of the
great West, and results of that expedition were immediately
apparent in a rapidly developing interest and a growing be-
lief in the probable productivity, in furs, minerals, and agri-
culture, of the vast territory acquired by purchase from
France.

The second expedition sent into the territory was a mili-
tary one, dispatched in 1805, before the return of Lewis and
Clark, with a view to acquainting the Indians and Cana-
dian traders of the North with the facts concerning the
purchase from France, and inducing them to accept the
sovereignty of the United States. This military expedition,
for which General James Wilkinson, commanding officer of
the army of the United States, was responsible, was placed
in charge of Lieutenant Zebulon M. Pike, born in Lamber-
ton, New Jersey, 1779, who was instructed to proceed north
carrying notification of the purchase treaty to all the people
of that section, and to discover if possible the source of the
Mississippi. Pursuant to his orders Lieutenant Pike with

twenty men embarked at St. Louis, August 9, 1805, in a

1084

EXPLORATIONS OF PIKE AND FREMONT

keel-boat to ascend the river to its head waters. As the
boat was seventy feet long, and well loaded with provisions
for a four months journey, the up-river trip was slow and
fatiguing, so that it was not until September 22 that the
party reached the Falls of St. Anthony.

Lieutenant Pike held a council with a large body of
Sioux near the Falls, who received him civilly and ex-
pressed themselves as being pleased to transfer their alle-
giance to the United States. They also gave Pike such,
information as they possessed respecting the source of the
Mississippi, which, however, was not considerable, for their
hunting grounds extended west, and very few of them ever
went north of Mille Lacs. After a short stay at this point
Pike made a portage around the Falls and continued his
ascent of the river to Leech Lake. Winter coming on the
ice prevented use of the keel-boat when he had reached a
point about fifty miles above St. Anthony, which compelled
him to have recourse to sleds the rest of the way. The cold
was so severe, and the route was beset with so many difficul-
ties, chief of which was a lack of provisions, that it was not
until February that the party came in sight of Leech Lake
upon the south shore of which a camp was established and
maintained until March i. Meantime Pike met several
bands of Indians, with all of whom he held councils and dis-
tributed presents, by which pacific means he gained their
friendship and confidence, and obtained their assurances of

fidelity to the new government. He also made an examin-

1085

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

ation of the country, from which he concluded that Leech
Lake must be the source of the Mississippi, and with this
belief he returned to St. Louis, April 30, and so reported.

In July, 1806, Lieutenant Pike was commissioned by
General Wilkinson to conduct another exploring expedition,
to seek the head waters of the Arkansas, and to visit and
make a report on the mountains of what is now Colorado.
In obedience to these instructions Pike departed again from
St. Louis, with a company of twenty-three men, proceeding
by keel-boat up the Missouri as far as the mouth of Osage
River, in order to escort fifty-one Osage and Pawnee chiefs,
who had been on a visit to Washington, to their villages on
the Osage. From this point he left the river and continued
his journey overland to a Pawnee village in Kansas, where,
however, instead of being kindly received, some hostility was
shown by the Indians towards the expedition. This ex-
hibition of unfriendliness was due to Spanish influence,
which was dominant throughout the West and Southwest,
for there was pronounced objection to the act of France in
making a transfer of the territory, and in some places
threats were made boldly that the Spaniards would never
accept or acknowledge United States dominion over the
territory.

The Pawnee Indians were in sympathy with the Spanish,
having given it, so to speak, in exchange for many presents
and the profits of trade that had long been maintained, but

they offered no other opposition to the expedition than a

1086

EXPLORATIONS OF PIKE AND FREMONT

threat to intercept it. Pike disregarded these manifes-
tations and continued his journey of exploration, seeking
the source of the Arkansas. He halted at a point where
Great Bend, Kansas, is now located, and dividing his party
sent ten men down the river to examine the country, while
with the others he followed the stream as far as the place
where Pueblo now stands. This brought him into view of
the Rocky Mountains and toward the north he discovered a
peak which towered so high above all the others that his
adventurous spirit immediately appealed to him to scale its
lofty heights. The rare atmosphere of that region renders
distances very deceiving to those who are not accustomed to
traveling in Colorado. Upon his first view of the moun-
tain therefore Pike thought the distance was not more than
four or five miles, when in fact it was more than fifty in an
air line, and half as much more by the route necessary to
travel in order to reach it.

Pike had made a camp on the river, at Pueblo, and on the
24th he set out with three men to climb the mountain, be-
lieving it possible to accomplish the feat in one day. They
pushed on, astonished to find the mountain apparently re-
ceding, and unable to understand why so little exertion
should exhaust their strength. Taking few provisions with
them, and being scantily clothed, the party suffered greatly,
and after three days of fruitless effort to reach the great
mountain they returned to their camp on the Arkansas.

Thus was the first attempt to scale Pike's Peak, by which

1087

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

name it has ever since been called, defeated, nor was it until
discovery of gold in the vicinity, 1858, that its summit was
reached by a white man, George F. Ruxton having that
honor.

Breaking camp at Pueblo, Pike continued his explora-
tions, through the Grand Canon of the Arkansas, and thence
up Oil Creek to South Park, the most magnificent scenic
cection of Colorado, where he made a camp and spent some
time examining the country. He found game of many kinds
in great abundance including a few animals, such as moun-
tain lions and grizzly bears, with which no one of his party
desired to come in contact. It was here, however, that moun-
tain goats were found particularly numerous, the only region
in North America where the few survivors of this once
plentiful animals are now to be found.

Leaving South Park, Pike continued westward, following
the South Platte for a while, until he reached the head-
waters of the Arkansas, near where Leadville now stands,
and then descended it for nearly fifty miles, where he went
into camp, for the weather continued very cold and snow
was so deep as to render traveling extremely difficult.

Having discovered the source of the Arkansas, Pike set
about the undertaking, even though it was now midwinter,
of seeking the rise of Red River, it being desirable to ascer-
tain the sources of these two streams in order to fix the
western boundary of Louisiana territory, as elsewhere ex-
plained. The weather somewhat moderating, and con-

1088

EXPLORATIONS OF PIKE AND FREMONT

ditions in camp being almost intolerable, by reason of a
great and growing scarcity of food, Pike set out, on Janu-
uary 14, 1807, up Grape Creek and through Wet Mountain
Valley, thence over the Sangre de Cristo Range into San
Luis Valley. In performing this journey the hardships of
the party were terrible, for their feet were frost-bitten, and
life was barely sustained by the little food that was left
them, for game was no longer to be found.

Reaching the Rio Grande del Norte a descent of that
stream was made to the junction of the Rio Conajos on
January 3ist, where another camp was made and a stock-
ade was built, for the party was now in Spanish territory.
While encamped here Pike received an invitation from the
Spanish Governor to visit him in Santa Fe which he accepted
without suspicion of any ulterior design upon the part
of that official. It developed very soon, however, that the
Governor's purpose was to lure him well within the lines
of Spanish dominion, for he was taken prisoner, without
any explanations being vouchsafed to his importunities, and
after being led about from one post to another through New
Mexico and Texas, at length he was delivered to the United
States garrison at Natchitoches, Louisiana, July i.

A mystery which has never been unraveled surrounds
this transaction. Though held as prisoners, Pike and his
small party were treated with many courtesies, as though
an understanding might have existed between General

Wilkinson and the Spanish Governor. Many have main-

1089

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

tained that Wilkinson was a party to Burr's plotting to
found an empire in the Southwest, or Mexico, and that
his object in sending Pike to explore the sources of the
Arkansas and Red River was to acquire information, not
so much concerning the country as to ascertain the feeling
of the Spaniards living in the Southwest towards Burr's
ambition, which had become well known. It is also asserted
that Spanish influence had been courted by Wilkinson by
the proffer of a large sum of money to the Spanish Gov-
ernor as a consideration for his support of Burr's enterprise.

These assumptions were subsequently made the subject
of court-martial proceedings against Wilkinson, who was
charged with being a confederate of Burr, but Wilkinson
was acquitted and restored to command of the army. Sus-
picion of Pike's complicity with the conspiracy was never
entertained, however, and the results of his expedition served
to distinguish him as one of the boldest and most sagacious
explorers that have penetrated the West. He was rapidly
promoted, to a brigadier-generalship, and in the war of 1812
he led the attack on York, Upper Canada, and was killed by
an explosion of a magazine within the captured fortifica-
tions.

The explorations of Colonel John C. Fremont were far
removed, in point of time, at least, from those of Pike, and
yet though undertaken thirty-five years later, in a sense
they represent a continuation of the efforts of Pike to ac-
quire geographic and topographic information respecting

1090

EXPLORATIONS OF PIKE AND FREMONT

the mountain country that was regarded, indefinitely, as
the western boundary of Louisiana Territory.

Fremont was born in Norfolk, Virginia, 1813, and was
educated for the navy, receiving his degrees in 1835 and
soon after became professor of mathematics in that branch
of the service, and was assigned to the training ship Inde-
pendence. Leaving the navy he joined the U. S. corps of
topographical engineers and was engaged for a while in the
government survey of the Mississippi, during which time
he married Senator Benton's daughter. His service in sur-
veying the Mississippi and Des Moines rivers created in him
a strong love of frontier life and an ambition to explore the
unknown regions of the far West. This desire was grati-
fied by a commission appointing him a second lieutenant,
and receipt of instructions from President Van Buren order-
ing him to make an exploration of the Rocky Mountains,
and to find, if possible, a practicable route through that great
continental range.

Lieutenant Fremont with a force of eighty men outfitted
at St. Louis for the trip, upon which he departed in the
spring of 1842, and passing directly west, over the plains
of what is now the great State of Kansas, he struck the
South Platte River near the spot where the large and enter-
prising city of Denver was a few years later (1858) located.
He conducted his expedition into South Park, and kept along
the east side of the Rocky Mountains until he reached a
point in North Park, where a passage-way was discovered

1091

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

through the range at what was thereafter, for several years,
called Fremont's Pass, but which is known now as South
Pass, a name by no means appropriate for it is not the most
southerly pass through the Rockies, and the change robs
its discoverer of a credit which the nation should take a
pride in perpetuating.

Fremont extended his explorations north to the Wind
River country, Wyoming, where the Shoshones have their
reservation, and it is probable that he advanced a distance
into Yellowstone Park. He also ascended to the summit
of the loftiest mountain of the Wind River Range (13,750
feet) which has ever since borne the designation of Fre-
mont's Peak.

Having gathered much information concerning the geog-
raphy and character of the West as far as the Rocky
Mountains, thereby fulfilling all his instructions, Fremont
returned and submitted a report of his discoveries, which
was laid before Congress and attracted very great attention
throughout the United States and Europe.

The success of his expedition, and especially the large
interest which it aroused, prompted Fremont to plan another
without delay, his second purpose being to explore the
country between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific.
The journey thus projected was into a land that lay wholly
outside the Louisiana Territory, but being contiguous it has
a connected interest, since to Fremont the credit must be

given of finding a way to the Pacific which in some respects

1092

A MISSOU'PJ PIONEER'S HOUSE.

E first settlements formed in Missouri were along the main rivers, in the
valleys where the land was richest and where a means of reaching St. Louis
was furnished by the current. The picture herewith is that of a typical bouse of
a Missouri pioneer, built substantially of logs and covered with clapboards, be-
cause neither lumber nor shingles were obtainable in such remote sections fifty
years ago. Houses of this character may occasionally still be seen in the country
districts of Missouri, which have survived and continue to be habitable even a
century after they were built.

NA TERR! 7OS¥

-•%fl 3* what was t'ter-atie-r, for several years,

:*ans, but whuri »v known now as S<
i<; no means appropriate for it is not the most
through the Rockies, and the change robs
of a credit whkti the nation should take a
tuating.

s#>rth Wind

that 5v , -
iwf- Yeik>wstone Pars. iJo 5
of the loftiest mountain of the
feet) which has e^r stnce borne the

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«iuoJ ^^1(1^31 io «n*;-3in £ aia^iw bnr. teMlji

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-ad ,- -itiw baravoD bne «go! ^r

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75°
t?re-

the

\\

js it has

i the crci;:-i must be
." respects

EXPLORATIONS OF PIKE AND FREMONT

is more valuable to commerce than that discovered by Lewis
and Clark, for it led to a more rapid development of Louis-
iana Territory.

Fremont started on his second expedition in May, 1843,
and from Independence, Missouri, he followed the Kaw
or Kansas River to the junction of the Republican and
Solomon rivers. He found these streams so low that no
attempt was made to ascend them, but kept on the trail west,
as he had done the year before. At this time the country
was full of game and Indians, pursuit of the former fur-
nishing as much excitement as flight from the latter, but
Fremont's party was large and well armed, and had small
reason to fear attacks, especially as he was careful to give
no offense to the Indians.

In his second expedition Fremont crossed the Rockies
at the Pass he had discovered in 1842, and on September 6th
he came in sight of Great Salt Lake, of which, though it had
been seen by earlier explorers, no reliable knowledge ex-
isted as to its real extent and character. Fremont crossed
the lake and thence traveled northward to the head-waters
of the Columbia, suffering almost insupportable privations
and hardships on the way, for the country was extremely
mountainous, the snows deep, and the thermometer usually
away below zero, and the region was never before traversed
by a white man. When at length he reached the Columbia
his situation became deplorable in the extreme, for his pro-
visions were almost exhausted, game was not to be found,

1095

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

and his Indian guides deserted. In this extremity he did
not waste time in repining, but with the courage of despera-
tion he broke camp and determined if possible to make his
way to San Francisco though without guides, a bold resolu-
tion which he accomplished in forty days, reaching Sutter's
Fort on the Sacramento March, 1844, but both he and his
men were so much reduced by their sufferings as to appear
more like mummies than like live men.

For his valuable services in exploring so large a part of
the West, Fremont was promoted to be a captain upon his
return to the United States in January, 1845, an^ m tne
spring of the same year he set out upon a third expedition to
explore Great Salt Lake basin and the coast of California.
Having accomplished the former he pushed on to California,
where he arrived in time to take part in the troubles which
followed a declaration of war (1846) against Mexico.
Fremont organized the settlers of North California and
led them against the Mexicans of that section who were
soon expelled. His activity in the war continued and he
cooperated effectively with Commodore Stockton in com-
pleting the conquest of California, but he fell under the
displeasure of General Kearney, and was court-martialed
by that officer upon a charge of disobedience. The sen-
tence, however, was directly set aside, and when he again
returned to the United States, in 1847, it was as a popular
idol.

Fremont led two other expeditions across the Continent,

1096

EXPLORATIONS OF PIKE AND FREMONT

viz., 1848, 1853-1854, in which he discovered new routes
across the Rockies, and contributed greatly to the geographic
knowledge of the far West, so that he came to be called
the " Pathfinder." So famous and popular did he become,
that in 1856 he was made the Republican party's candidate
for the Presidency, but was defeated. In 1861 he was
placed in command at St. Louis but was removed for issu-
ing an emancipation proclamation. In 1878 he was ap-
pointed Governor of Arizona. His death occurred in 1890.
Besides the explorers whose expeditions have been thus
briefly described there were many others, unofficial, who-
crossed the continent in prosecuting their business as fur-
traders or with other commercial objects in view. Among
this number entitled to mention, at least, were the following :
John D. Hunter, 1821 ; Wilson Price Hunt, who made the
trip from St. Louis to Astoria in 1811; General William
H. Ashley, 1824 and 1825; Nathaniel J. Wyeth, in 1832;:
George Catlin the same year; Maximilian, Prince of Wied,.
1833; Captain Bonneville, U. S. A., 1832 to 1835, who was
the first man to drive a wagon through South Pass. But
there is a literature dealing with individual expeditions and
adventure of almost boundless extent and almost corre-
sponding fiction.

1097

DIVISION LVIII.

The Missionary Labors of Father De Smet.

THE explorations which we have followed in the preced-
ing divisions relate almost wholly to expeditions which were
under the direction of the governments of Spain, France
and the United States, and therefore represent the steps of
civic development of the great West. But while these
brought about reclamation and settlement of the trans-Mis-
sissippi country, there is coincidently another force, strictly
moral and religious, that was being put forth to reclaim the
savage hordes that held priority in that vast region, and to
the influence of missionary labors must be credited very
largely the honor and glory of having brought the peace and
prosperity of Christianity which must precede permanent
settlement and the fruitage of tranquillity, content and do-
mestic happiness.

High among the names on the roll of honor as advance
agents of civilization, who have braved the dangers of foe
and forest in the northwest must be written those of the
Christian fathers of the Catholic church, as well also the
missionaries of other denominations, those gentle civilizers
who went, not for ambition, or gain, or adventure, but to

carry the message of peace to savage tribes, their only

'1098

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

weapon the cross, and their only armor a love for humanity.
Gentle, tolerant and kind they met with gentleness, toler-
ance and kindness among the Indians whose character
spelled murder, rapine and revenge to all who were not as
pure in heart as Sir Galahad. It is well to have their testi-
mony, for without it they would have no defense and the
old aphorism " the only good Indian is a dead Indian "
would never have been refuted. Father De Smet was one
of " those quiet teachers who worked to heaven's own ends,"
and was a splendid example of the self-sacrificing Jesuit
missionaries who, when every white pioneer was prepared
to treat the aborigines as a mortal enemy, spent his life in
an endeavor to instil the gospel of love and brotherliness
into the hearts of the savages.

Peter John De Smet was born in Dendermond, Belgium,
in 1 80 1. In company with five other students he sailed for
America in 1821, and went direct to the Florissant Missions,
near St. Louis, where he completed his education. He was
one of the founders of the University of St. Louis, and
was a professor in that institution from 1828 to 1838, in
which latter year he became a missionary among the Pota-
watamies and afterwards a very zealous and successful one
among the Flatheads and other tribes of the Northwest.
In a series of what he calles " Rocky Mountain Letters " he
tells of his work mong the Indians in the Oregon country.
" The Indians," he writes, " are in general carelessly judged
and little known in the civilized world; people will form

1 099

16

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

their opinions from what they see among Indians of the
frontier, where fire-water and all the degrading vices of the
whites have caused the greatest havoc ; the farther one pene-
trates into the forest the better he finds the aborigines, illus-
trating the poet's sentiment that " while the ocean in the in-
most depths is pure, yet the salt fringe which licks the shore
is foul with sand." So stirred was De Smet with mission-
ary zeal that he went to Belguim for help in 1844, returning
to Oregon after an eight months voyage around the Horn
with four priests and six religious ladies of Notre Dame of
Namur, who aided him in his subsequent labors among the
American Indians. He gives a graphic description of the
danger they encountered in crossing the dreaded bar off the
mouth of the Columbia. The captain of their vessel, The
Indefatigable, had no chart, and taking the wrong channel
soon found his vessel was in very shallow water, having
only two and a half feet under the keel. The hearts of
all on board sank with despair, with shipwreck staring them
in the face, when unexpectedly they fell into deeper sound-
ings; the bar was crossed — miraculously as they believed —
effecting a landing at Fort George, or Astoria. They were
received with great demonstrations of joy by the few whites
who were there and taken in Hudson Bay Company's boats
to the settlement of Willamette. Here the sisters opened
a boarding Academy for girls, in a house which was being
prepared for them, but which as yet had neither doors nor
sashes. Owing to the scarcity of mechanics some of the

IIOO

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

good Sisters set to work themselves handling the plane,
glazing, painting windows and doors, etc., until by zeal
and heroic effort they completed the building and soon had
fifty boarders.

The grandeur of the scenery turned the gentle-hearted
priest into a poet, and many are the beautiful descriptions
interspersed in his faithful chronicles of converts made
among the Flatheads, Assiniboins, Pend d'Oreilles, Cceurs
d'Alenes, and other tribes of the far northwest. At one
time he regards an illness with which he was visited as sent
upon him in punishment for the too natural pleasure he felt
in contemplating the beautiful scenery by which he wa3
surrounded. He describes the peaks of the Cascade Moun-
tains, several of which rise sixteen thousand feet above the
level of the sea. " From one single spot," he says, " I con-
templated seven of these majestic summits whose dazzling
white and conic form resembles a sugar loaf." It is esti-
mated that Father De Smet in the course of his labors trav-
eled five times the circumference of the globe, building
schools translating prayers into the Indian language, teach-
ing agriculture, and in other ways creating bonds of sym-
pathy between the races. When he went to establish new
stations he always carried with him simple implements of
agriculture, and he gives many instances of having in-
fluenced wandering tribes to abandon their itinerant lives
and build permanent abodes.

The Indians of Oregon, as the entire northwest country

HOT

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

was then called, subsisted on game and fish, but when
these were exhausted they lived on roots, grain, berries
and fruits, such as blackberries, mountain cherries and
service berries. The camash root was a very important
edible with them; Indian women laboriously dug it up by
means of long crooked sticks, and when a certain quantity
was thus obtained they excavated a trench and covered the
bottom with a closely cemented pavement, which they heated
with live coals; upon these was placed a layer of wet hay,
then a layer of camash roots successively, until the trench
was filled. The whole was then protected by a layer of bark
on the bed thus formed whereupon the Indians having
thus prepared for the baking, they built a fire which was
overlaid with earth and was kept burning for fifty-six
and sometimes for seventy hours. By this process of
cooking the camash acquired a consistency equal to that
of thick paste. It was then made into loaves or boiled with
meat and made a very palatable dish.

The Arcs-a-plats tribe of Flatheads De Smet found to
be extremely improvident, changing from the greatest
abundance to extremest scarcity. They feasted one day
and passed the next in total abstinence. Once a year they
celebrated the grand fish festival. Only the men had the
privilege of assisting at this function. Around a fire fifty
feet long, partially overlaid with stones the size of a tur-
key's egg, eighty men ranged themselves; each man was
provided with an ozier vessel cemented with gum and

1 102

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

filled with water and fish. All preparations being com-
pleted and each man at his post, the chief, after a short
harangue of encouragement to his people, finished by a
prayer of supplication to the " Great Spirit," whom he
petitioned for an abundant draught. Having performed
this preliminary the chief gave the signal to commence,
and each one, armed with two sticks flattened at the
ends made use of them instead of tongs to draw the
stones from the fire, and put them in a large kettle. This
process was twice gone through with, and in five minutes
the fish were cooked. The party now squatted around the
kettle in the most profound silence to enjoy the repast,
trembling lest a bone be disjointed or broken, an indis-
pensable condition to insure a large catch. Should a sin-
gle bone be broken it would be regarded as a bad omen,
and the unlucky culprit would be banished from the feast
lest his presence should entail some dreadful evil.

Agriculture was found to be wholly unknown to many
of the tribes whom De Smet reports were living almost
entirely by hunting and fishing. The hunters, among the
Assiniboins, set out in the morning, kill all the game they
can find and suspend it to trees as they pass along. Their
poor wives, often bearing two children on their backs,
tardily follow their husbands and collect what game has
been killed and carry it, however great the distance, to
their lodges. On the subject of the cuisine a la sau-
vage the good father describes a certain dish which is

1103

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

considered by Indian epicures as a great delicacy. They
first grease their hands and then collect in them the blood
of some animal, which is transferred to a kettle half-
filled with boiling water. Into this mixture of blood and
water a quantity of fat and hashed meat is placed, the
latter being prepared by a dozen old women who use only
their teeth for the purpose. This mincing the meat requires
much time and patience, as mouthful after mouthful is
slowly masticated and conveyed to the cauldron to com-
pose the choice ragout of the Rocky Mountain Indians,
another evidence that the Indian wife is the industrious
member of the family. They add to this piece de resis-
tance, by way of a dessert, an immense dish of crusts, com-
posed of pulverized ants, grasshoppers, and locusts, that
have dried in the sun. Cleanliness is by no means
an Indian virtue, and it must certainly have been a diffi-
cult matter not to have shown a natural disgust when in-
vited to partake of their hospitality. De Smet relates
how an old woman whose face was anointed with blood-
(the Indian's mourning weeds) presented him with a
wooden platter filled with soup, and observing with a care-
ful hostess' concern for her guest that the horn spoon she
had given him was dirty and covered with grease, she had
the complaisance to apply it to the broadside of her tongue
before putting it into his broth.

Cannibalism was not unknown among the Indians in
time of great famine. One of the chiefs of the Assini-

1104

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

boins told the " black gown " that one of his nation
having been reduced to starvation had eaten successively
his wife and four children. As an offset to this story
another missionary relates that at Akena, one of the Gam-
bia isles, he had seen an old woman who having had eight
husbands had eaten three of them during a famine plague.
The Cree nation was considered a very powerful one,
numbering more than six hundred wigwams, and were for-
midable enemies of the Blackfeet, a tribe noted for its cruelty
and rapacity, against whom they were meditating a raid at
the time of De Smet's visit. As a preparation for the foray
they resorted to every kind of jugglery and witchcraft to in-
sure the success of their expedition before setting out. The
woodcraft of the Indian is proverbial, and being an instinct
they are seldom confused as to direction, but in the present
instance the Crees decided superstitiously to blindfold a
young girl and trust her to serve them as a guide, for she
was so invested as to excite their belief that she would be
directed by the Manitou of war. In case the expedition
succeeded she was destined to become the bride of the
bravest warrior leading the attack. The blinded girl led
them a wild march, now east, now west, north or south, it
mattered not to the superstitious followers, but after two
days of this vain marching they finally were discovered by
a party of seven Blackfeet who prepared an ambush, from
which they attacked eight hundred Crees, in which seven

1105

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

were killed and fifteen wounded. The arrows of the Black-
feet having been expended they were at the mercy of the
Crees, who cut them to pieces. But their own losses filled
them with consternation and they removed the bandage
from their young leader's eyes and having decided that
the Manitou of war was unpropitious they hastily dispersed,
taking the nearest road back to their villages.

The Crees were the only nation that had the custom of
staining the faces of their warriors who had fallen in com-
bat, clothing them in their richest ornaments and exposing
them in places where they might easily be found by their
enemies and cut to pieces, an opportunity which an enemy
never suffered to neglect, but which a Cree warrior consid-
ered a most fitting end. Other nations carried away and
hid their dead, considering it a dishonor to be mutilated
after death.

Indian legends and traditions bear a strong resemblance
to the mythologies of more ancient and highly civilized
races, which argues a common origin. The good father
relates them as they were told to him, with Indian imagery
and dignity, some of which embrace the following :

In the country of the Blackfeet there are two lakes, one
called the lake of man, the other the lake of women. From
the first of these issued a band of young men, handsome
and vigorous, but poor and naked. From the second
emerged an equal number of young women, industrious and

ingenious and who made themselves clothing. They lived

1106

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

a long time separate and unknown to each other, until the
great Manitou, Wizakeschak, visited them. This good
chief taught the young men to slay animals in the chase and
conducted them to the dwellings of the young women, who
received their guests with many manifestations of pleasure.
Each young woman selected a guest, before whom she set
a dish of seeds and roots, but not to be outdone in the
matter of entertainment the men arose and sought the
chase, returning soon with an abundance of game which
they cooked and set before the women, who feasted upon
the meat, the while admiring the strength and skill of the
hunters. The men were equally delighted with the industry
and ornaments of the women. Both sexes began to think
they were necessary to each other, whereupon Wizakeschak
presided at the nuptials, at which it was agreed that the
men should become the protectors of the women and pro-
vide the necessaries for their support, whilst all other family
cares and labors should devolve upon the weaker sex. The
Blackfeet women, after " the eternally feminine " habit,
bitterly complained of the astonishing folly of their mothers
in accepting such a proposition, declaring if it were to be
done over they would know much better how to arrange it.

The Pottawatamies, who dwelt where Omaha and Council
Bluffs now stand, had a pretty legend, handed down from
their remote ancestors, which runs thus :

There are two Great Spirits who are constantly at war
with each other. One is called Kchemnito, the Spirit of

1107

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Good, and the other Mchemnito, the Spirit of Evil.
Some believed the two to be equally powerful, and through
fear of the wicked spirit a few Indians offer to him their
honor and adoration, whilst others, doubtful which is the
more puissant, endeavor to propitiate both. The greater
part, however, believe Kchemnito is the first principle, the
first great cause, to whom alone is due all worship and
Mchemnito should be despised and rejected.

Kchemnito at first created a world which he filled with a
race of beings having nothing but the appearance of men —
" perverse, ungrateful, wicked dogs " — who never raised
their eyes in prayer to the Great Spirit. Such ingratitude
aroused him to anger and he plunged the world into a great
lake whereby all the people were drowned. His anger thus
appeased, he created anew a beautiful young man, who,
however, appeared very sad and dissatisfied with his solitary
condition. Kchemnito thereupon pitied his condition and
gave him, during sleep, a sister as a companion to cheer his
loneliness. When he awoke he rejoiced exceedingly and
the two lived together for many years in a state of innocence
and perfect harmony. At length, however, the young man
had a dream, which he communicated to his sister. " Five
young men," said he, " will come this night and rap at the
door of the lodge. The Great Spirit forbids you to laugh,
to look at them, or give an answer to any of the first four,
but laugh, look and speak when the fifth presents himself.

She acted according to his advice, and when the first four

1108

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

came she gave them no recognition, but when she heard the
voice of the fifth she opened the door to him and laughed,
spoke, and welcomed him; whereupon he entered imme-
diately and became her husband. The first of the five
strangers, called Sama (tobacco), having had no answer,
died of grief; the three others, Wapekone (pumpkin), Esh-
ketamok (watermelon), and Kojees (the bean), shared the
same fate. Taaman (corn), the bridegroom, buried his
four companions, and from their graves there sprung up
shortly after pumpkins, watermelons, beans and tobacco.
From this union between Taaman and the woman are de-
scended the American Indian nations. In these legends we
perceive many traces, though much obscured, of the tradi-
tions of the deluge, of the Creation, of God and the Devil,
Adam and Eve.

Another legend of the Pottawatamies is an echo of the
Norse and Egyptian mythology: A great Manitou came
on earth and chose a wife from the daughters of men, who
bore him four sons at a birth. Nanaboojoo, the first born,
was a friend of the human race and a mediator between
man and the Great Spirit. The second was Chipeapoos,
the man of the dead, who presides over departed souls. The
third was Wabossa, who was changed to a white rabbit ; he
fled to the north and was there considered a great Manitou.
The fourth was Chakekenapok, the man of flint or fire-stone.
His mother died in giving him birth.

Nanaboojoo, having arrived at the age of manhood, re-
nog

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

solved to avenge the death of his mother, for among the
Indians revenge was considered honorable; he pursued
Chakekenapok all over the globe. Whenever he came
within reach of him he fractured some member of his body,
and finally destroyed him by tearing out his entrails. Each
fragment of the body of this stone man became a large
rock, his entrails were changed into vines of every species,
and the flint stones indicate where the combats between the
two took place.

Nanaboojoo taught the art of making weapons, hatchets,
lances, and arrowheads. He was the intercessor with the
Great Spirit; the Manitous who dwell in the air taught him
the art of medicine, which mysteries, by order of the Great
Spirit, he confided to the sons of men. He left the care
of roots and herbs, which are endowed with the virtue of
curing maladies, to Mesakkumnikokwi, the great-grand-
mother of the human race, and in order that she be not in-
voked in vain it was strictly enjoined on the old woman
never to quit the dwelling. For this reason when an In-
dian makes a collection of roots and herbs for medicines he
deposits at the same time on the earth a small offering to
Mesakkumnikokwi.

Among his many beneficent deeds Nanaboojoo placed
four spirits at the four cardinal points of the earth, for the
purpose of contributing to the happiness of mankind. That
of the North produces ice and snow, in order to aid in dis-
covering and following wild animals. That of the South

mo

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

causes the pumpkins, melons, maize and tobacco to grow.
The spirit of the West gave rain ; that of the East gave light
and commands the sun to make his daily walks around the
globe. The thunder was to the Indian mind the voice of
spirits having the form of large birds, which Nanaboojoo
had placed in the clouds. When the cry of these birds was
very loud the Indians burnt tobacco as smoke offering to
appease them.

Nanaboojoo still lives, resting himself after his labors
upon a cake of ice in a great lake, where many Indians fear
one day the whites will discover and drive him off; then
the end of the world is at hand, for as soon as this god puts
foot on the earth the world will take fire and not a soul
shall escape the flames.

The Indians of the Northwest perpetuate these fables in
nearly all their songs. They also believe that the souls of
the dead, in their journey to the great prairie of their ances-
tors, pass a rapid current, over which the only bridge is a
single tree, kept constantly in violent agitation, but managed
in such a way that the souls of perfect men cross in safety,
whilst those of the wicked slip off into the water and are
lost forever.

The Pawnees had nearly the same ideas concerning the
universal deluge as those of the Pottawatamies. In rela-
tion to the soul they believed that it resembles the body in
form, but is the dual, inextinguishable part, which detaches

itself when the breath expires. If a man has been good

i in

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

during his life, kind to his parents, a good hunter, a brave
warrior, his soul, or simulacrum, is transported into a land
of delights and abundance. If on the contrary he has been
wicked, hard-hearted, cruel and cowardly, his soul passes
through narrow straits, difficult and dangerous, into a
country full of confusion and unhappiness.

In their religious ceremonies they sang and danced before
a bird stuffed with all kinds of roots and herbs used in their
practise of medicine and incantations. They have a tra-
dition that the morning star sent this bird to their ancestors,
with orders to invoke it on all important occasions. Before
the invocations they filled the calumet with a sacred herb
contained in the bird, puffed out the smoke toward the star,
and invoked its aid for success in hunting or in war, and to
petition for snow, in order to make the buffalo descend
from the mountains, or to appease the Great Spirit when
calamity befel the nation. De Smet believed that the Paw-
nees were one of the few aboriginal tribes, descended from
the ancient Mexicans, from whom was borrowed the cus-
tom of human sacrifices. They justified it by saying that the
morning star, by means of the bird, taught them that such
sacrifices were agreeable to it, and would bring down upon
their nation the favor of the " Great Deliberator," another
name for the Great Spirit. So when a Pawnee took a vic-
tim he dedicated it to the morning star, but at the time of
the sacrifice he turned the prisoner over to the hands of the
jugglers and medicine men for execution. An eye-witness to

III2

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

one of these sacrifices related to De Smet in detail the mar-
trydom of a young Sioux girl named Dakotha, fifteen
years old, who had been taken prisoner by the Pawnees six
months before. During the time of her captivity she was
treated as a highly favored visitor, receiving every mark of
regard that savages are capable of bestowing. She was the
guest of honor at all the fetes and festivals of the village,
for it was the Pawnee custom to conceal their horrible de-
sign from their victims. The month of April, being the
season for planting, was the one selected for the sacrifice, as
according to their belief a human offering was rewarded by
the " Great Deliberator " with an abundant harvest. After
all their grotesque dances, their cries, chants and vocifera-
tions, preceded by ten musicians who made the most ex-
cruciating music, the savages went to present the calumet to
the buffalo heads placed on the tops of the lodges of the vil-
lage, which were preserved as trophies of their skill in the
chase. At each puff the multitude raised a furious cry, the
whole village joining in the procession. They stopped be-
fore the lodge of the Sioux god and made the air resound
with horrible imprecations against their enemies and the
unfortunate victim who represented them. From this mo-
ment the girl was carefully guarded and beguiled from the
slightest suspicion that she was to be the victim of the com-
ing sacrifice. They told her a great feast was to be pre-
pared in her honor, and they fed her well that she might be
more acceptable to the " master of life." The second day of

1113

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

the ceremonies two old female savages, who with pipes in
their mouths, ornamented with scalps their husbands had
taken from their enemies, passed through the village, danc-
ing meantime around each akkaro, solemnly announcing
that " the Sioux girl has been given to the master of life
by wise and just men, that the offering was acceptable to
him, and that each one should prepare to celebrate the day
with festivity and mirth."

About ten o'clock the morning of the third day all of the
young women and girls, armed with hatchets, repaired to
the lodge of their victim and invited her to go into the forest
with them to cut wood. She unsuspectingly accepted the in-
vitation ; a tree was selected by one of the old squaws for her
to cut down. Unconscious that the tree was to supply the
wood for her own sacrifice the poor child worked away as
though a great honor had been reserved for her until the tree
was felled, which being cut up into sticks was carried to the
village, the others giving her very little assistance. On the
morning of the fourth day a savage visited all the lodges to
announce that each family, in the name of the Master of
Life, must furnish two billets of wood about three feet long
for the sacrifice." Then thirty warriors, decked in all sorts
of ornaments, their heads adorned with deer and buffalo
horns, presented themselves at the hut of their captive, who
had been prepared for their coming by being arrayed in the
choicest finery known to Indian taste. She was delighted

that the time of the great feast had come, for she had been

1114

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

made to believe that she would be the honored guest. At
the first cry of the Indians appointed to be her executioners
the poor child came out and placed herself at their head.
The warriors followed in single file. They entered succes-
sively into all the huts, where the utmost silence reigned.
The Sioux girl walked around the fireplace followed by the
warriors, and upon leaving the principal squaw gave her two
billets of wood which she in turn presented to two of the sav-
ages. The refinement of cruelty was attained in causing her
to collect the wood for her own cremation. After gathering
the sticks she took her place in the rear of the band. On the
fifth day an aide-de-camp of the chief of sacrifice went about
the village announcing the necessity of preparing the red and
black paint. After the colors had been collected with many
ceremonies the men and women, boys and girls, painted and
decked themselves with whatever they possessed that seemed
valuable to their savage fancy, and thus equipped they lis-
tened attentively for the signal for the sacrifice. To shorten
a long and painful story, the young girl was conducted by a
band of warriors to the fatal spot. She was still unsuspect-
ing and happy, but when she saw no evidence of a feast, only
a solitary fire and the three posts which she herself had car-
ried from the forest, an awful presentiment flashed across her
mind. There were none of her own sex present. She wept
and implored them not to kill her, but while trying to calm
her fears they compelled her to mount the three posts where

she was secured with cords, thus no longer concealing their

1115

17

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

intentions. She wept and prayed, but her cries and supplica-
tions were drowned in the melee, while in a furious and tri-
umphant manner they danced and exulted around her, and
divested her of all her ornaments and dress, after which the
chief of sacrifice advanced and having first painted half her
body black and half red, he scorched her arm-pits and sides
with a pine-knot torch. After these preparatory rites, amid
the screams of the tortured girl the chief gave the signal for
the entire tribe to participate, who came rushing to the spot,
filling the air with their horrible cries. In the twinkling of
an eye their bows were bent and their arrows adjusted.
The arrow of the chief of sacrifice was the only one barbed
with iron. It was his province to pierce the heart of the
victim. For a moment a profound silence reigned; no
sound broke the stillness but the moans and sobs of the girl,
who hung trembling in the air, while the chief of sacrifice
made a last offering of her to the Master of the Universe.
Then his arrow sped to her heart, and upon the instant a
thousand arrows quivered in the body of the hapless child,
until the body was as full of arrows as are the quills upon
a porcupine. While the howling and dancing continued the
great chief of the nation mounted the post and plucked out
the arrows which he threw into the fire, all except the iron
barbed one which he reserved for future sacrifices. He then
collected the blood from the mangled flesh to saturate maize
and other seeds which stood around in baskets ready to be

planted. As a last rite the chief plucked out the still palpi-

1116

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

taling heart and ate it while uttering the fiercest impreca-
tions against his enemies. The sacrifice was completed and
the satisfied savages spent the remainder of the day in feast-
ing. The example of fanatical cruelty called for retaliation
from the Sioux who, burning with a desire for vengeance,
resolved to destroy as many Pawnees as there are bones in
the body, and a war between the two nations was precipi-
tated, in which the Sioux made good their resolution, nor has
reconciliation been established between the two peoples to
this day.

This story of sacrifice, to which Father De Smet gave
credence, might have been related, without fear of doubt,
had it applied to an Aztec, or Toltec, ceremony, even at the
time of the Cortez invasion of Mexico (1520), describing
their manner of sacrificing prisoners to the sun god by pluck-
ing out the heart and holding it aloft as an offering to the
great orb of life. If the report which De Smet takes pains
to give with such amplitude be that of an actual occurrence,
a link is thereby forged which connects the ancient civiliza-
tion of the Mexicans with the Indians of the North. And
in this connection it is interesting to recall that the Mound
Builders, who built such extensive earth tumuli in Illinois
and Ohio, migrated westward and appear to have separated
at the Mississippi, one branch of the nation proceeding south-
west, through Kansas, Arkansas, New Mexico and thence
into Mexico, while the other division traveled northwest to

Oregon, both divisions leaving earth mounds that mark the

1117

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

courses of their journeys. If this theory be a correct one
it is possible that some communication existed between mem-
bers of the two branches, in which case the customs of one
branch may have influenced the other, or both may have
followed, in modified forms, the superstitious practises of
their ancient progenitors. It is singular, however, that no
other traveler, whether missionary or explorer, has left us
any reports in the least similar, or related in any wise to
that of the sacrifice which De Smet has borrowed from what
he called an eye-witness.

Father De Smet accomplished more perhaps than any
other missionary in his day, not only in converting Indians
but in conciliating tribes that were at enmity and in estab-
lishing among them churches, schools, and industries. He
succeeded even in persuading several tribes to cultivate the
soil, and by raising cereals and fruits to prepare themselves
against famines when game should become excessively
scarce.

So large was his influence among the Indians that on
several occasions he was commissioned by the United States
Government to settle differences that had provoked uprisings
in the Northwest. His labors as a missionary extended
over a period of forty years, during which time, however,
he made several visits to Europe to collect funds for the sup-
port of missions he had founded and to enlist young men in
the same field of effort. The pious work in which he en-
gaged required him to travel by horse, foot, and canoe

1118

MISSIONARY LABORS OF DE SMET

through the valleys of the Missouri, Yellowstone, Platte,
Columbia, Humboldt, and Saskatchewan, and though com-
pelled to meet all the tribes of those regions, at all times,
his black gown caused him to be respected and by his man-
ners there was quickly won first the admiration and then the
veneration of all the Indians of the North.

The entire Northwest was for a long time dotted with
log mission houses which were built under Father De Smet's
direction; and the simple cross that rose above their front
gable was to the Indians a symbol almost as much of the
piety of the man as a sign of redemption. These houses of
the faith, which were near streams in which thousands of
red men were baptized and the solemn service of mass which
spread peace upon the wilderness, have disappeared, but in
their places, in many instances, fine churches have been
erected and thriving towns have been established, the wilder-
ness and savagery being converted into fruitful fields, peace-
ful plenty, and domestic content.

Father De Smet quitted his earth labors at St. Louis May
23, 1873, and his body was committed to the God's Acre of
St. Stanislaus, Florissant, where it reposes with no other
mark of distinction than a modest slab that recounts the
simple annals of his birth and death.

1119

DIVISION LIX.

Extension of Settlements and Disputes with England.

WHEN the " Territory of New Orleans " was established
the remainder of the province was designated as the
" District of Louisiana " until Congress should set up a
separate government for the two districts. During this
period the country was occupied by United States troops,
which were stationed at or in the vicinity of the largest
settlements along the Mississippi River. The first civil and
military commandant of the " District of Louisiana v was
Major Amos Stoddard, whose headquarters were at St.
Louis, the capital of Upper Louisiana. Besides being a
most capable officer Major Stoddard was a fine scholar, to
whose services as a distinguished executive he added the
equally important work of preparing a splendid history en-
titled " Stoddard's Sketches of Louisiana," from which
many of the facts used in this compilation were obtained.

It will be seen by the foregoing that the nucleus for two
States existed west of the Mississippi and south of the Mis-
souri, for settlements followed the rivers, a greater number
occupying the valley of the Arkansas, which necessitated
the establishment of a military post on the Arkansas fifty

miles above where it empties its waters into the Mississippi ;

1120

EXTENSION OF SETTLEMENTS

but at this time the population of the Arkansas district, ex-
clusive of the garrison, was less than four hundred persons,
while the number of persons that occupied the east and west
banks of the Mississippi, between Cape Girardeau and St.
Louis, was fully six thousand, thus showing that the great
tide of immigration into the Louisiana territory was flow-
ing northward along the Mississippi valley. Settlement of
the northwest territory, which included the vast district com-
prising what are now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and
Wisconsin, was very much more rapid until 1815, when the
war with England and the northwestern tribes being ter-
minated, Americans from Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee
began to pour across the river boundary and locate in
the fertile districts west of the Mississippi, so that very soon
French customs, language and laws, which had previously
predominated in that section of our country, were materi-
ally changed and gradually gave way completely to usages
and manners wholly American. But up to 1815, and even
for some time later, as Monett in his " History of the Mis-
sissippi Valley " observes, " St. Louis was a French town,
extending along the river in long, narrow, and sometimes
filthy streets, lined with frail modern tenements, contrasting
strongly with the few large stone houses, plastered and
white-washed, near the river, and the romantic circular
stone forts in the rear, also white-washed with lime."

Before the end of 1816 pioneers advanced into the terri-
tory now comprised by the State of Missouri, for a distance

II2I

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

of nearly one hundred miles west of the Mississippi, and ex-
tended along the Missouri as much as two hundred miles
above its mouth; and at the same time settlements spread
rapidly along the White, Arkansas, and the St. Francis
rivers, the increase being so great as to reqire some change
in the administration of laws which were found to be poorly
adapted to the mixtures of French, Indians, and Americans
in so large a district, for Catholics were in the ascendency
in the vicinity of St. Louis, while Protestants predominated
in the region embraced by the present State of Arkansas.
Accordingly, Arkansas, which at the time included what is
now Indian territory, with an aggregate population of four-
teen thousand, of whom 1700 were slaves, was organized as
a separate territory in 1819, while Missouri, with a popula-
tion of nearly seventy thousand, of whom ten thousand were
slaves, was thought to be entitled to statehood.

When St. Louis, in 1804, was first occupied by the United
States, upon the cession of Louisiana Territory, it did not
contain more than one thousand inhabitants, which in-
creased to twice that number in 1816, but its growth was
more rapid thereafter when its advantageous situation be-
came better known, and the fur-trade with western tribes
more fully developed. Indeed, by 1818 the city was re-
garded as the great western emporium of a fast increasing
commerce with Santa Fe and the northwest, and by the
census of 1820 its population was given at four thousand
six hundred inhabitants.

1 122

EXTENSION OF SETTLEMENTS

The importance of St. Louis, its situation, commanding
position and rapidly growing commerce were factors in
Missouri's application for statehood, which would have been
readily granted without contention but for the fact that ad-
mission was sought as a slave State. This opened the door
to a dispute so bitter that for a time it actually threatened
a disruption of the Union. Throughout the territory of
Louisiana African negroes had been recognized as chattel
property, upon the labor of which the people felt themselves
dependent for agricultural prosperity. The cession treaty
secured to the inhabitants of the territory not only the pro-
tection of the United States but guaranteed to them the full
enjoyment of their religious and property rights, under
which guarantee the people contended that Congress had no
power to disturb the relations existing between master and
slave.

Regardless of treaty stipulations the enemies of slavery
zealously opposed the legal extension of servitude west of
the Mississippi, and urged that the admission of Missouri
as a State should be made only upon condition that renuncia-
tion of the right to hold slaves within her limits be ex-
pressed in the application. After two years of fierce debate
in Congress, and an angry agitation between North and
South, that many times broke into factional hostilities, a
compromise was reached whereby it was mutually agreed
that the institution of slavery should be recognized in Mis-
souri, but that it should not be extended further west or

1123

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

north, but only south of latitude 36° 30', which was the
established southern boundary of the State. With this
agreement Missouri was admitted to the sisterhood of com-
monwealths in 1821. But it is worthy to be noted here
that an obnoxious provision was inserted by Congress in
the bill, which provided that the legislature of the new State
should declare by act of legislation, " That the Constitution
should never be construed to authorize the passage of any
law (and that no law shall be passed in conformity thereto)
by which any citizen of either of the States of this Union
shall be excluded from the enjoyment of any of the privi-
leges and immunities to which such citizen is entitled under
the Constitution of the United States." This clause very
clearly extended the right of suffrage to free negroes, a con-
dition too repugnant to Missourians, accustomed to hold
slaves, for their peaceful acquiescence, and though it was
assented to, under the force of circumstances, the provision
was not enforced, nor was the spirit of the limitation of
slavery observed.

So rapid was the increase of the population of Missouri,
t>y settlement therein of emigrants from Kentucky, Tennes-
see, and Ohio, that by 1830 two counties had been organized
and the total number of inhabitants was shown to be 140,-
445, of which about 26,000 were slaves, or persons of color.
Six years later fifty-eight counties had been organized with
a population of 244,208 souls, of which number 50,000 were

slaves.

1124

EXTENSION OF SETTLEMENTS

Settlement of Arkansas was less rapid than of Missouri,
but the growth of population in that territory was neverthe-
less astonishingly large, especially in the valleys of the many
streams that flow towards Mississippi River. Indeed, by
1834 the tide of emigration westward advanced with such
force as to sweep across Missouri and Arkansas until in a
few years it was arrested by the Rocky Mountains, and
thence spread south to Texas and the Republic of Mexico.

In 1836 Arkansas was admitted to statehood, at which
time the population was 60,000, of which number 10,000
were slaves. Thereafter her increase was in proportion to
that of Missouri, for a liberal constitution, adopted at Little
Rock, June I3th, 1836, as well as the fertility of her lands,
attracted to the State so large a number of thrifty American
settlers that by 1840 the population had grown to 97,574, of
whom 19,935 were slaves, distributed among the forty
organized counties of the State.

Up to 1832 the attention of pioneers from eastern States
had been directed to Missouri, Arkansas, the farther west,
and Texas, so that the very fertile territory of Iowa had been
left wholly neglected, in the possession of native tribes. It
will be remembered that in 1829 a fierce war broke out be-
tween the whites of Illinois and the Indians who resisted
the advance of settlers in that State. This struggle, known
as the Black Hawk War, continued with great fierceness
for three years, when Black Hawk and his confederates

1125

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

were routed so effectually that to escape their pursuers they
fled into Wisconsin, but were soon after driven across the
Mississippi into Iowa. By a treaty of peace concluded be-
tween the Federal government and Black Hawk, in Sep-
tember, 1832, the Indians signed a relinquishment of all
lands for a distance of fifty miles west from the Mississippi
River, and from the Des Moines River on the south to the
Yellow (or Upper Iowa) River on the north, a tract of
land which comprised nearly one-third of the present State.
By the terms of this treaty the Indians stipulated to with-
draw from the territory thus relinquished by June, 1833.

Retirement of the Indians was promptly followed by an
invasion of the territory by a host of pioneers who quickly
occupied the west bank of the Mississippi and the rich al-
luvial valley of the Des Moines. The first white settlement
was made in November, 1832, at Fort Madison, where a
colony led by Zachariah Hawkins and Benjamin Jennings
was established, but it was not until 1835 that Fort Madison
was town-platted and lots were exposed for sale. It is proper
in this connection to mention the fact that Fort Madison was
established as a post in 1808, upon a recommendation made
by Lieutenant Pike in 1805. Being in the heart of the
Indian country and the garrison a small one, the post was
attacked in 1813 by a large force of Indians, who being un-
able to reduce the fort by assault, beleaguered the garrison
for almost a month until threatened starvation compelled

its evacuation. Being beyond the reach of American set-

1126

EXTENSION OF SETTLEMENTS

demerits the garrison contrived to open a covert way from
the southeast blockhouse to the river, and upon the ap-
pearance of a night favorable to their purpose set the fort
in flames and then made good their escape down the river.

In the autumn of 1833 a town-site was established at Bur-
lington, which four years later became the capital of the
territory of Wisconsin. In the following year Dubuque
was laid out into town lots, this name being given the place
in honor of Julien Dubuque, a Canadian who visited the
region as early as 1786, and having discovered considerable
mineral wealth in the country, in 1788 obtained from the
Indians a formal grant of land comprising one hundred and
forty thousand acres on the west bank of the Mississippi.
This grant was confirmed in 1796 by Baron Carondelet,
and the king's title was duly issued, in which the boun-
daries of the tract were fixed. Dubuque acquired great
wealth by mining operations in the vicinity of what is now
the city of Dubuque, and dying in 1810 he was buried on
the bluff one mile below the city. Many years after a
monument was erected over his grave, which still remains
to mark the spot.

The District of Iowa, with the District of Wisconsin, was
attached to the Jurisdiction of Michigan territory until
1836, when the latter was erected into a State. At this
time the aggregate population of Iowa District was 10,531,
although only two counties, Des Moines and Dubuque, had

been organized.

1127

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

The very rich agricultural lands of Iowa soon became
noted, and such a tide of immigration followed that it
quickly overflowed the boundaries fixed bv the Black Hawk
treaty of 1832. To prevent conflict between the settlers and
Indians a treaty was concluded with the Sauks and Foxes
in 1837, by which the Indians relinquished title and all
rights to practically all the territory now comprised by the
State, and retired west, to the Dakotahs. The growth of
settlement continued so rapid that in 1838 the District was
subdivided into sixteen counties with a total population of
22,860 and a territorial government formed, the boundar-
ies of the territory of Iowa being fixed to comprise " all
that region of country north of Missouri which lies west of
the Mississippi River, and of a line drawn due north from
the source of the Mississippi to the northern limit of the
United States." The following year the capital was es-
tablished, on a beautiful spot of ground, from which the
Indians had not yet retired, and called Iowa City, and seven
years later (1846) the territory, which then had a popula-
tion of nearly 90,000 persons, was admitted to statehood.

The rapid increase of settlement in Iowa, and Wisconsin
territory, the sources of which were almost entirely from
northern States, soon caused the attention of pioneers to be
directed to the country further west; for though opportu-
nities for occupying rich lands were still abundant in Iowa,
pioneers were ever seeking an Eldorado that lay beyond

their immediate vision. About 1840, therefore, there sud-

1128

EXTENSION OF SETTLEMENTS

clenly developed an ambition upon the part of border set-
tlers to locate in the valley of the Columbia River, which at
that time was the westernmost limit of the Louisiana Pur-
chase Territory. This desire no doubt was created by re-
ports of the explorations of Lieutenant John C. Fremont,
who had passed through the Territory of Nebraska, to the
sources of the Platte, and thence across the Rocky Mountains
at South Pass, which opened a way to the Pacific. His
glowing reports of the beauty and fertility of the country,
not in the least exaggerated, were reenforced by equally
alluring descriptions given by missionaries who were labor-
ing among the Indians along the Willamette River, and the
restless tide of men moved forward confident of finding in
the far west country a land blessed with a bounty which
nature had bestowed in her most generous mood.

So great was the movement westward that by 1842 a
good wagon-road was marked out to South Pass, through
which thousands of emigrants poured and distributed them-
selves in the valley of the south fork of the Columbia. At
this time there was a dispute between the United States and
Great Britain over the possession of Oregon. That coun-
try was first visited by Drake in 1558, and by Juan de Fuca,
a Portuguese, in 1592. In 1792 Vancouver, an English
officer, surveyed the coast from 30° to 60° north latitude,
but previous to this latter date Robert Gray, of Boston, a
coast-trader had discovered the Columbia River, up which

he sailed several miles. The Federal Government con-

1129

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

tended that no landing had been made in Oregon territory
by either Drake or Vancouver, and that penetration of the
interior by Gray, an American citizen, entitled the United
States to priority by discovery and occupation. This con-
tention was reenforced by the contention that Lewis and
Clark had surveyed the country in 1804-06, which further
confirmed the title to America. England refused to recog-
nize any of these claims, but in 1818 the United States and
England agreed upon a treaty of joint occupation, which
was renewed in 1827. Dr. Whitman, a missionary, made a
perilous journey on horseback to Washington territory in
1842-43, and the reports of his travels and discoveries served
to renew agitation of the question of territorial title, which
grew in fierceness, by reason of the formation of a provis-
ional government by the new settlers in 1843. I*1 tne pres-
idential campaign of 1844 the Democratic platform de-
manded the reoccupation of Oregon, and opposition by Eng-
land led to the political war-cry " fifty-four-forty or fight."
War with England over the " Oregon Question," which
seriously threatened, was averted by the treaty of 1846
whereby the northern boundary of the United States was
extended to the strait of Juan de Fuca, along the 49th de-
gree of latitude.

With settlement of the boundary dispute the growth of
Oregon's population increased amazingly, and in 1848 the
territory of Oregon was established, which included the

present States of Washington and Idaho, from which, how-

1130

EXTENSION OF SETTLEMENTS

ever, it was divorced in 1853. A State Constitution was
adopted in 1857, which forbade slavery, but the anti-negro
provision prevented admission of the State into the Union
until February, 1859.

113*

18

DIVISION LX.

War With England,— Battle of New Orleans.

LOUISIANA, like New England, was for more than two
score years a storm center of conflict between England and
America. It will be remembered that by the treaty of 1778,
made in recognition and for recompense of the services ren-
dered by France in our revolutionary war with England, the
United States became bound to assist France in case of rup-
ture between that monarchy and England. But notwith-
standing this treaty obligation, when war was actually de-
clared between France and England, in 1793, President
Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality, an act which
Jefferson made bold to declare " was in truth a most unfor-
tunate error.'' Aside from the question of violation of na-
tional honor, opponents of the Washington administration
believed that France would triumph in the conflict even with-
out the assistance we had pledged, and they therefore
strongly urged that the only certain way to compel Great
Britain to observe the rights of justice touching the nav-
igation of the Mississippi was by strengthening the arm of
France and thus holding her to an alliance, defensive and
offensive, with America. It presently fell out that this con-
tention had been well made.

After Napoleon's great campaign of 1796-97, England

1132

MAP OF THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS.

^T'HB map which is printed on the accompanying page was made, directly after
^•^ the Battle of New Orleans was fought, by an artist who was an eye witness,
and it has been accepted as an accurate illustration of the disposition and move-
ments of the American ami British forces in that memorable engagement. The
picture is a part of the bistoricalrecords of New Orleans, loaned to the author to
be reproduced for use in "Louisiana and the Fair."

.ii, «

pf VISION LX.
War Wm Eft£iiH4r-&ftit!e of New Orleans.

v-'. .•**>: Ne-i ,;r r.:0i.

•:=-. r.k ;

But notwith

/qfifjcno-jo^ arij no balnhq zi ffoidw.

t :iw i8aS5m^i

:^W

>}j{ei}iia LOB ncDiwrnA arij

nflict ev

Britain to obser>

igatu

i

Frat.ce and thus h . and

con-

>/, England

WAR WITH ENGLAND

made overtures for peace, which resulted in the treaty of
Amiens, upon terms dictated by France. But our bad faith
towards the country that had befriended us in the greatest
hour of our national peril lost us the sympathy and interest
of France, and by such loss England was encouraged to
acts of hostility that culminated in the war of 1812. More
than this, we would have been plunged into war with Eng-
land much sooner had we not cringingly consented to Jay's
treaty, that seriously compromised both our dignity and
honor, and which compelled us at last to secure full nav-
igation rights to the Mississippi by a purchased treaty.

England, finding herself free from continental opposi-
tion, became at once eager to engage in war with America,
hoping thereby to retrieve what she had lost by the revolu-
tion, and began to provoke strife, first by refusing to sur-
render western posts according to the treaty of 1783, and
then by encouraging Indians on our frontier to open hos-
tility. At the same time she seized French goods in Ameri-
can vessels, and even worse than this she claimed and en-
forced the right to impress British-born seamen found any-
where outside the territory of a foreign State. In exercis-
ing this unwarranted privilege she halted our ships on the
high seas and also impressed American sailors, a policy so
outrageous that the Jay treaty was powerless to prevent re-
taliation upon the part of Americans, and the war of 1812
was soon precipitated.

France was so distinctly unfriendly, smarting under the

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

offense of her violated treaty, as well also indignant because
of the terms of the Jay treaty, that we might have found
her arrayed against us had it not been that Napoleon had
quite enough at home to fully engage his activities, for
meantime war had broken out between Russia and France.

It does not belong to this history to follow the fortunes
of our last war with England, except so far as the effects
appertain to Louisiana, nor to describe Major-General
Jackson's campaign against the Creek Indians, which was
confined to Alabama. But the renown which General
Jackson obtained by his victory at the Horse-Shoe, or To-
hopeka, on the Tallapoosa River, March 27, 1814, which
crushed the Creeks, made him, logically, commander of our
forces at New Orleans, against which the British had
planned an attack, with the design of making a conquest of
Louisiana.

Learning of the purpose of the British, after reducing
Pensacola, and expelling the enemy from Florida, Jackson
hastened to New Orleans to place that city in a state of de-
fense. Finding great apathy existing among the Spanish
residents and the French Creoles, Jackson declared martial
law, mustered the militia, and began enlisting volunteers,
among whom to offer their services were many free colored
men, but despite his energy and patriotic appeals his force
was alarmingly inadequate in numbers; the volunteers and
militia were also wholly without military training, and there

was also great lack of arms. Under such exigencies every

1136

WAR WITH ENGLAND

possible means were employed to augment his army. Boun-
ties were offered to volunteers who would serve on the
armed brig Louisiana and the schooner Caroline, an em-
bargo for three days was decreed by the Legislature, and
several convicts confined in the city and State's prisons were
liberated upon their oaths to serve in the ranks. At this
time Lafitte and his band of pirates, who had long ravaged
the Gulf commerce, came forward and offered their services
to Jackson upon condition that Governor Claiborne would
grant them amnesty for their past crimes, a proposal which
was eagerly accepted, and, it may be added, these men,
under their daring leader, rendered such services in the
defense of New Orleans as well merited their pardon by
the civil government. By these several inducements Jack-
son increased his total force to about 6000 men, a greater
part being unacquainted with military discipline but other-
wise qualified, by indomitable courage and ability to use a
rifle with deadly accuracy.

Jackson wisely chose to establish his position, for the
most effective defense of New Orleans, at Chalmette, two
miles below the present city limits, anticipating that the
enemy would ascend the river, and hastily fortifying that
point he waited the approach of the invading army..

On December 14, General Sir Edward Pakenham, the
hero of Salamanca, entered Lake Borgne with a fleet of
sixty vessels that brought 7,000 well drilled British vet-
erans, who had served under him in Spain. This large

H37

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

force being landed operations began at once, and several
small engagements took place between outposts of the two
armies before January I, upon which date Pakenham was
reenforced by 4,000 more men, when a general advance on
the city was begun. Jackson disposed his force in three
detachments, two on the north bank, of twenty-five hundred
men each, and one on the south bank, under General
Morgan, of eight hundred men. This double line was pro-
tected by several batteries and redoubts, and cooperating
with them was the armed brig called Louisiana, accom-
panied by the schooner Caroline that carried two pieces of
heavy artillery.

General Pakenham decided to make the attack in three
divisions, and in pursuance of this plan on the night of
January 7 he ordered Colonel Thornton forward to attack
General Morgan, and at dawn of the 8th the British second
division, under General Gibbs, made an assault on Jackson's
left, which opened an engagement memorable for its fierce-
ness. Jackson's men fought behind hastily constructed
breastworks of cotton-bales and sand-bags, which afforded
them such excellent protection that they resisted many at-
tempts to dislodge them, while the accuracy of the Amer-
ican fire was so great that the attacking columns were swept
away with fearful havoc. Being frustrated in his first
attempt to carry Jackson's position Pakenham ordered up
his third division, commanded by General Keane, which fell

with such force upon Jackson's right as to spread some dis-

1138

WATTLE OF \EI-r ORLEANS.

£| LTHOUGH not to be classed with the most sanguinary or desperately fought cn-
*» gagements that have taken place in the United States, the Battle >••
Orleans, fought January 8, 1^15, nay be regarded ,as being one of the most impor
taut. It is rightly thus classed because of the fact that while the city was defend
by only 5000 generally raw levies, and \vithouttime being given to put the place n>
a >.tate of strong defense, it was attacked by 10,000 of Wellington's veterans, frr
tr om their victory at Waterloo. Notwithstanding this disparity the English wt
:ecisively defeated with a loss of 700 killed and 1400 wounded, while the .•
can casualties were only 8 killed and 13 wounded. ^.ickenham.

:r,ander of the British forces, was mortal Iv wounded.

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

e being tar . n at once, and several

sinal' i; *:t\veen outposts of the two

anniejj r-e&.i-i- which date Pakenham was

ret'- *ben a general advance on

v.'?.>, fa Mjsed his force n\ three

* *v t1^ ft , ?.i twenty-five hundred

•,rfe, and oflft *»• tfe« sots^k l)«iikt under

Ib them was the
•

"'TI^W^f^'RfW.1' 10 Y1En'u8n£8 Jeom srij rf)iw baeesb ad ol Jon HOUOHTJ IT
•tfl arft .ealsjg balinU arlJ ni 93£[q iwdsJ avfirf Jsrf} eJ

.«.6 '

bnc .aaival wsi xllEisnsa OCKJJ vino vd"

.
ia ««o! E riliw tv

' „• '• ,,;•-! - ..-. '

^5hi«r1**W KMt!n!w«n
hastily

at-

the Amer-

. urns were swept

;ed in his first

' enham ordered up

u Keane, which fell

: iebt as to spread some dis-

WAR WITH ENGLAND

may among the Americans, and caused them to abandon a
part of the works. At this critical juncture Jackson's bat-
teries were turned upon the enemy with such deadly pre-
cision, reenforced by a concentrated fire of musketry, that
the British were thrown into disorder and lost more ground
than they had gained by the assault.

Recovering from their reverse the British prepared to
renew the attack, by reenforcing Gibbs with one-half of
Keane's division, with which large force a charge was or-
dered against Jackson's strongest position. Their advance
was in solid lines, sixty men deep, and with great resolu-
tion, firing by platoons, and showing the highest state of
military training, as if executing manceuvers unattended
by peril1. The Americans reserved their fire until the
enemy had approached within effective range, when sud-
denly artillery and musketry burst forth in one awful deadly
roar, the effect of which was horrible to behold, while a con-
centrated fire from the guns of the Louisiana and Caroline
was scarcely less effective. But though the British ranks
were decimated, the survivors rushed on, so inflamed by
war's excitement as to be mindless of all else save ambi-
tion for victory. The Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen,
upon whom Jackson placed his chief reliance, formed four
ranks deep and when the still advancing British came within
a few feet of the parapets, fired line by line a steady stream
of musketry, so fearfully galling that no bravery could with-
stand it. General Pakenham and Gibbs were both mor-

1141

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

tally wounded, and General Keane and Major Wilkinson,
next in command, also fell and were borne from the field,
at sight of which the British immediately lost courage and
fell back in great confusion. In the meantime, however,
Colonel Thornton had captured General Morgan's position
on the south bank of the river, but this victory was dearly
obtained, and of no advantage because the main army of the
British, on the north side of the river, had been so com-
pletely routed that Thornton was recalled, and a retreat to
the ships was at once ordered by General Lambert. In this
remarkable battle, which was concluded by 9 a. m., the
British lost 700 killed, 1,400 wounded, and 500 prisoners,
while almost incredible to relate, the total American loss was
only seven killed and thirteen wounded. This battle is also
famous for its having been fought fifteen days after the
treaty of Ghent had been signed, by which peace between
England and the United States was concluded.

It had been intended by General Pakenham that the
fleet should cooperate in the attack, for which purpose a
squadron of two bombarding vessels, also a big schooner
and sloop armed with heavy artillery had besn ordered out
of Lake Borgne, to ascend the Mississippi and reduce forts
St. Philip and Jackson, seventy miles below the city. These
vessels, however, found so much difficulty in overcoming
the strong current that they did not approach within sight
of Fort St. Philip until the Qth inst. Although the British

army had been decisively defeated before New Orleans the

1142

- •

• "-•'"•'• '— ^f jf\,

' '. • 1-....4. .j.

OLD CABILDO, -CltTHE'DRAL AN'D CIULMETTE

CEMETERY, NEH' ORLEANS.

. ,.;•:.

Cabildo and Cathedral at New Orleans have a pjnce among the most
historic buildings of America. It was in ti,e fejrmer that the Spanish
Municipal Legislature held their sessions, (.1722) when ; organizati n of the
city was completed, and in the latter were celebrated f!ir church ( eleb
that early day. Serving as a city hall and rapitol it was in and before th< (
that the ceremony of transfer took place when the territory of Louisiana wai
formally conveyed to the United States, December 20, 1803. Chalmette Ceme-
tery, near New Orleans, was the sir* upon which an 'engagement was fought
between Jackson and Packenhahv J?Kcerrtber 14, 1814,. which. was preliminary to
the battle of New Orleans. The monument marks thvjtpot upon which Jackson
is said to have stood when directiiig>the fight in. which the English were defeated
with a loss of 1 50 men.

I Major Wilkinson,

c from the field,

lost courage and

e, however,

sition

I

* ••-••'

>i^

rfeinsq2 atfl Hull larmo! sdl m KKW ll .jtorismA ' >i^

9,lt to nJJ«8)itf^'^6 featt^t- -^-'^^': ./AVk the

k> enuiici^i i^^^faftideQ8,

'

oiilidc'J M(I sioVj.' '/ )i loJiu^a bns Ilfid yli^B «B gniviaS .^fib. ^Iira JcriJ

(fXcftiJMe^aifeto 1ih«i^t^,<4^i^^^ to was
-9m»: ^H^ffi^l? ^^flHd^l.01 "Wtf^barftte1^ also

/ nciqu atie arft ecw .ancahO waVI lean (^iat

the

of

.< ^ycri ol i.
.

•W0f nv^eol G niiw

fte* or whir;

'

hese

coming

within sight

- :.-i the British

N'ew Orleans the

WAR WITH ENGLAND

day before, a vigorous bombardment was begun against
Fort St. Philip, which was met with a no less energetic fire
from the water batteries that soon compelled the attacking
squadron to withdraw a distance of two miles. From this
safe position the enemy continued to throw shells at the fort
until the i/th, when a heavy mortar was mounted and turned
against the ships with such effect that they abandoned the
enterprise on the i8th, and the following day the entire
British army embarked and hastily retreated, leaving be-
hind fourteen pieces of artillery, a large quantity of am-
munition, and sixteen wounded men, two of whom were
officers.

At the time the battle of New Orleans was fought the
total population of Louisiana was less than one hundred
thousand souls, about one-half of whom were blacks, and
of the whole one-half were concentrated in the city of New
Orleans, and along the river thirty miles below and seventy
miles above the city. The inhabitants were largly Creole
French, with a mixture of Anglo-American and Spanish,
the latter being fewest in number. Some attempt had been
made to settle the delta of Red River, between Alexandria
and Natchitoches, and to extend French influence along the
Washita, but these efforts were not attended with much
success. But by defeat of the British fears of foreign in-
vasion were dispelled, and with assurance of peace Louis-
iana began a prosperous career that has continued to this

day. Steam navigation of the Mississippi was promoted

1145

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

and with commerce and agriculture engaging the activities
of the people New Orleans became the great repository of
the valley and grew in population and wealth at an amazing"
rate. Immigration from England and the States rapidly
increased until by settlement and intermarriage Anglo-
Americans predominated not only in New Orleans but also
throughout the State, and development of the agricultural
resources of Louisiana, especially the production of cotton,
sugar, and molasses, made her one of the richest States in
the Union, and New Orleans one of the most important
cities in Americaa which as a port of export has stood
second to New York since 1840.

The first constitution of Louisiana, adopted in 1812, ex-
hibited a strong French sentiment favoring a monarchical
form of government, and partook also, in many of its feat-
ures, of the aristocratic character that distinguished the
Spanish dominion. This was found to be inconsistent with
the democratic spirit of our republican institutions, and so
poorly adapted to the new regime that after much debate
a new constitution, liberal in its character, was drafted in
1844 and went into operation in January, 1846.

1146

DIVISION LXI.

Development of Western Commerce.

EXPLORATION of the great West, which occupied more
than two centuries — from the time of De Soto — was fol-
lowed by slow development, for a long while, because of
primitive methods employed in the arts of navigation. Na-
ture provided amply by supplying conditions more favorable
than are to be found in any other part of the world, but men
were unable to avail themselves of natural advantages to a
degree that would make development rapid. The great
rivers of the West invited effort to utilize them as highways
of commerce, but until the application of steam to means of
navigation was discovered these splendid waterways re-
mained practically neglected except as they were used to
float canoes of savages and pirogues of voyageurs.

It is wonderful to the minds of this generation that no
steamboat appeared on any of the rivers of the world until
the initial service instituted by Fulton on the Hudson in
1807, although the theory of steam navigation had been
evolved more than two hundred years before, and such a
patent was obtained by John Fitch in 1791. Credit for the
invention, to which America, and the West especially, owes
so much, is given to many persons, who support their re-
spective claims with creditable evidence, but there is general

1147

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

acceptance of Fulton's priority, because his employment of
the principle was its first practical commercial application.

Prior to the use of steamboats commerce on the western
rivers was conducted by means of pirogues, keel-boats,
barges, mackinaws, and flatboats, the two former kinds being
propelled by oars, while the latter were loaded at upper
points on the river and floated to their destination below.

As early as 1794 a mail service was put into effect on the
Ohio, in which boats of twenty-four feet length and manned
by five boatmen were employed, but was so little profitable
that the enterprise was abandoned in 1798. Long before
this date, however, keel-boats were used not only on the
Ohio, but also on the Mississippi, a freight service being
maintained between Kaskaskia and New Orleans as early
as 1740. Keel-boats were navigated by a class of men who
achieved more or less fame through their dissoluteness and
fighting propensities; nor is this surprising when we re-
flect that they were not only subjected to hardships as pio-
neers, but their employment was hazardous in the extreme.
There were few settlements along the rivers, and conse-
quently but little intercourse with civilization was possible,
while to the dangers of navigation were the added perils,
to which the boatmen were subjected, of being attacked by
Indians, or by murderous pirates that rendezvoused at points
where they would be least likely to be discovered. The
mode of life therefore naturally developed a reckless spirit,

for there were neither the restraints of law nor the in-

1148

JACKSON SQUARE, NLlt ORLEANS.

B of the handsomest of the many beautiful hpots in New Orleans is Jackson
Square, which occupies a place of historic prominence, directly opposirt
the Cabildo (City Hall) and Cathedral. In the center is an equestrian statue .it
General Andrew Jackson, whose pallant and victorious defense of the city ir.
is thus commemorated.

acceptance of Fulton's
the principle \va* *u £

Prior

«

!*ftcause his employment of

; mercial application.

••*e on 'the western

•trues, keel-boats,

'>eing

th;

*»••• '-^.Y on the

h>

i ni

<i<l»iilfcaskWi>art«P

i vijp sritio MqsHUtiiQOOlMV bne inclifi^ ?«orfw .noejl-

>ats were navigMed % a

their dissoluteness and

.

ed by

oints

ed. The

^s spirit,

nor the in-

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

fluence of society. But while these early boatmen were
often of bad character, they as frequently showed to ad-
vantage as a jolly, rollicking, and contented class, loyal in
their comradeship, and faithful in the service of their em-
ployers, while their lives, though almost constantly in
danger, were rendered agreeable by the good fellowship that
was maintained.

A trip from Pittsburg to New Orleans usually occupied
one month ; from St. Louis the time was about three weeks ;
but the return journey required more than four months, and
the hardships were proportionately greater. Trusting the
boats to the current, little labor was necessary to keep them
in the channel, and landings were not frequently made ex-
cept at settlements, but the up-trip involved privations,
dangers, and exertions that only the stoutest hearts and the
most rugged natures could endure. Keel-boats were pro-
vided with sails but these were not often of much service,
reliance in other means of propulsion being necessary. The
crew, thirty or forty in number, under the command of a
resolute master, were compelled to expose themselves to
such fatigues as few persons could be engaged to bear in
these days. The favorite means employed for drawing the
boats up stream was known as warping, which required
three or four shore-men to carry a cable in advance and
make one end fast to a tree, whereupon others on board
would attach the other end to a capstan and wind up the

cable, or by sheer strength pull the boat until it was nearly

1151

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

abreast of the point where the fastening had been made.
This process was repeated so long as the character of the
shore permitted, but very ofter sand-bars, shoal water, and
precipitous banks made warping impossible, at which times
poling and cordelling was necessary ; this required that some
of the men divest themselves of clothing and wade through
mud and water, drawing the boat by the application of all
their strength, while exposed to attacks of mosquitoes,
pirates, and Indians. Pirogues were open boats propelled
by oars, but these, while being capable of transporting furs,
were not sufficiently large for the commercial needs of
heavy cargoes that passed between New Orleans and the
north.

It is extremely interesting to read at this time the in-
ducements offered to the traveling public by managers of
transportation companies prior to the use of steamboats, for
though keel-boats were designed primarily for freight, im-
provements were presently introduced which adapted them
to passenger traffic. One of the bills posted by a Pitts-
burgh and Cincinnati Company in 1809, evidently prepared
by a crude hand, reads as follows :

" Two boats for the present will start from Cincinnati for
Pittsburgh, in the following manner :

" First boat leaves Cincinnati this morning at eight
o'clock and will return to Cincinnati so as to be ready again
to sail four weeks from this date.

" Second boat will leave Cincinnati on the 3oth inst, to re-

1152

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

turn in four weeks as above. And so regularly each boat
performing the voyage to and from Cincinnati to Pitts-
burgh once in every four weeks.

" The proprietor of these boats has naturally considered
the many inconveniences and dangers incident to the com-
mon method hitherto adopted by navigating the Ohio, and
being influenced by a love of philanthropy and a desire of
being serviceable to the public, has taken great pains to
render the accommodation on board the boats as agreeable
and convenient as they could possibly be made.

" No danger need be apprehended from the enemy, as
every person on board will be under cover made proof
against rifle or musket balls, and convenient port-holes for
firing out of. Each of the boats are armed with six pieces
carrying a pound ball ; also a number of good muskets, and
amply supplied with plenty of ammunition ; strongly manned
with choice hands, and the masters of approved knowledge.

" A separate cabin from that designed for the men is
partitioned off in each boat, for accommodating ladies on
their passage. Conveniences are constructed on board each
boat, so as to render landing unnecessary, as it might, at
times, be attended with danger.

" Rules and regulations for maintaining order on board,
and for the good management of the boats, and tables
accurately calculated for the rates of freightage, for pas-
sengers and carriage of letters to and from Cincinnati to
Pittsburgh ; also a table of the exact time of the arrival and

H53

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

departure to and from the different places on the Ohio, be-
tween Cincinnati and Pittsburgh, may be seen on board each
boat, and at the printing office in Cincinnati. Passengers
will be supplied with provisions and liquors of all kinds' of
the first quality, at the most reasonable rates possible.
Persons desirous of working their passage will be admitted
on finding themselves; subject, however, to the same order
and directions from the master of the boat as the rest of
the working hands of the boats' crew."

It was in such vessels as these, propelled wholly by mus-
cular strength in the various ways of cordelling, warping,
poling, rowing and sailing, that commerce on the western
waters was carried on prior to the year 1811. It was in
1809 that the first flat-boat, or " broad horn," as it was often
called, was floated with a cargo from Pittsburgh to New
Orleans, and two years later the first steamboat was built
at Pittsburgh, by Nicholas J. Roosevelt, at the expense of
Livingston and Fulton, proprietors of the Hudson River
line, and sent upon her maiden trip. This boat, which was
named New Orleans was one hundred and sixteen feet
in length with a beam of twenty feet, and cost $38,000.
Her hull was fashioned like that of a ship. She was pro-
vided with a single boiler, and a thirty-four inch cylinder,
but with this small power she was capable of making ten
miles per hour down stream, and a four miles speed against
the current. Very naturally grave doubts were entertained

as to her safety, while the appearance of such a craft excited

1154

MOVERS fBY FLAT-BOAT O\ THE^IISSISSIPPL

||VRECED1KG the use of steam for navigation purposes, transportation was carried
li*^ on by means of pirogues, keel-boats, Mackinaws and Hatboats. When the
tide of emigration poured out of the eastern states into the .valleys of the Ohio ami
Mississippi, the use of flatboats became extensive, not onry -for conveying freight.
but equally so for transporting families and their poseasions from river points i;i
the north to destinations below. In these journeys it was a common thing to sec
boats floating from the upper Ohio and Mississippi laden with household utensil?
nplement*, horses, oxen, and cows, *o that apon making a landing the etui
grant could homstead a tract of valley lam! and immediately begin farming.

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

departure to and fro places on the Ohio, be-

tween ( iv be seen on board .

boat, a. .-;;-: .^ti. Passerti

of all kind
rates possible,
cted

It Y

•Bfrvfc^.

ootntiMff fe^ '«JTP t if 1 w ' WW-^lli

bild

arfj ftjdW..,, .elfiodlfifl box BW£fli3bj;M-,ei£Qcf-b;ul .eausoiiq

waKrs Tvas earnea on pribr to me v^t J

hue ojrfO 3ri) io e^sllfiv srfi oini eaftrtR msleSa »r1J lo4Lr^b9t

ei({3iSr»§int|iaidthft)ifi|ifib 4krf,4)d««^x3r9^iw4^(hia)^

n; ftJfUOfjLJipvn m^iWnojasMoci Haifa bns esilimsjl gnina^enBil 10! oe vllsuoilud
39« o) gnin/ nomrrioo'E ecw ji e3rnuo sSjnl^Wl .woiaci nronBnnasE/of n:

i3 -T:' ' :a? 'ine n'XP ,e3«iorf ,

t jtA

•

v Under,

'-•ing ten

against

>ts were entertained
f. of such a craft excited

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

both fear and ridicule among those on shore who saw it for
the first time. But the voyage was completed successfully,
though not without several mishaps, and inauguration of
steam navigation quickly followed the experiment, upon
both the Ohio and Mississippi rivers.

The same year, 1811, a steamboat was built in New
Orleans for the New Orleans and Natchez trade, and three
years later a four-hundred-ton boat, called the Vesuvius,
with cabin accommodations for one hundred persons, began
plying regularly between Pittsburgh and New Orleans, the
up-trip consuming about thirty-five days.

The sixth steamboat that was built for the western river
trade, in 1815, was the Zebulon M. Pike, which has the dis-
tinction of being the first steam vessel to ascend the Mis-
sissippi above the Ohio, and the first to touch at St. Louis.
This boat had a barge-hull, with cabin on the lower deck,
and was driven by a low pressure engine, with a walking
beam. She was unable to overcome a strong current, so
that the crew were frequently compelled to reenforce her
steam power by the use of poles. The trip from Louis-
ville occupied six weeks, for the boat did not run after
dark, and she arrived at St. Louis August 2d, 1817. The
master of this craft, Jacob Read, reporting the incidents of
this remarkable trip, wrote the following : " The inhab-
itants of the village (St. Louis) gathered on the bank to
welcome the novel visitor. Among them was a group of
Indians. As the boat approached, the glare from the fur-

1157

19

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

nace, and the volume of murky smoke, filled them with dis-
may. They fled to the high ground in the rear of the vil-
lage, and no assurances of safety could induce them to go
nearer the object of their fears. They ascribed supernatural
power to a boat that could ascend a rapid stream without the
aid of sail or oar. Their superstitious imaginations beheld
a monster breathing flame and threatening extinction of the
red man. In a symbolic sense their fancy was prophetic,
the progress and civilization of which the steamboat may
be taken as a type is fast sweeping the Indian race into the
grave of buried nations."

The thirty-eighth steamboat built was the Independence,
launched at Pittsburg in 1819 and intended to carry the
Yellowstone expedition. At the same time another boat,
of the same capacity, 50 tons, was built at Pittsburgh and
named Expedition, because she was designed, like the Inde-
pendence, for the Yellowstone trip. These two crafts were
the first two steam vessels that attempted to combat the
strong current of the Missouri, which they successfully ac-
complished as far as old Chariton (Glasgow), as did also
the Western Engineer in the same year, 1819, which latter,
in fact, carried the expeditionary force to the mouth of the
Yellowstone. The rapid improvement in the construction
of vessels for western rivers and development of commerce
is indicated by the fact that between and during the years
1815 and 1819 sixty steamboats had been built and were in

operation on the Ohio, Mississippi, and Red rivers, the

1158

A DANCE 'BY JOLLY FLA'l BOATME\\

'JT'HE Flatboatmen of the Ohio and Mississippi constituted a class which bore
^•^ much resemblance to that recklessly adventurous division of frontiersman
knbwn as Courreurs des bois, for what cue was to the river the other was to the-
wuods, bold to a degree and as riotous in disposition as they were courageous in
emergencies. The flatboat came into use as a necessity to river transportation,
before steam was employed, but it survived as a means of cheap carriage of freig
foil nearly fifty years after steamboa'ing wa;« successfully inaugurated.

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

nace, and the volume of murk/ smoke, filled them with dis-
may. They fkd to $MS tu^ 3* wad in the rear of the vil-
lage. and ru> a*kfcr-. £" M^r could induce them to .go

nearer t*v' b^ ? :?\ rr< -v r^i They ascribed supernatural

po*«xr to # btjB.i ihafei *^ys4 »i*:*ijj. » rapid stream without the

a^-d r+f sail i*r.«5*r, Thtir sapefsthk»(us sroagias^om beheld

a i master breafhicg ftam« and threatenmg txn^:

rexi man. In a symbolic sense tittnr fancy was jp

.the or X'r"< onboat may

he r;*kisn a;s a ty» •' ;s j';-.^ ,-^« ...

grave of buried nations."

jW«^i^q^

io noieivib zinnLiinavhs ,vj(!«slao3i JcHj ol s^nEldrfiaeai rloi/m 1

,noi}». p*.^tin9p9a A CB MU olni amc-j )S9di£ft srIT .tai an 9

&&

4'^Wamiw^^dm«rfte^^3 'Wl

the

Khey su(
(Glasg«
year, 18:

' the

>ent ^t ruction

ommerce

s-'Sf the years

1815 and 1819 ;md were in

operation on the Ohi ! rivers, the

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

greater number of which were constructed in the latter
year.

While many boats plied regularly between St. Louis, New
Orleans and points on the Ohio, in 1819, it was not until
May, 1823, that navigation of the Upper Mississippi was
attempted, when the steamer Virginia ascended the river to
Fort Snelling, and it was not until January i, 1842, that a
packet company was formed to operate boats between St.
Louis and Keokuk, nor till 1857 that the service was ex-
tended to St. Paul.

At this time Quincy was the most important town north
of St. Louis, and south of St. Paul, in which the first house
was built in 1822, became a town in 1834, and was incorpo-
rated as a city in 1839. Alton was also of some consequence
for an Indian trading station had been established there
in 1807, and the town laid out in 1817.

Development in river service was so rapid that in 1832
the number of packet boats in regular service was two hun-
dred and thirty, with an aggregate tonnage of thirty-nine
thousand. But besides this great fleet of steamers there
were four thousand flat-boats descending the Ohio and Mis-
sissippi annually, that carried one hundred and sixty thou-
sand tons of freight, the estimated values of the annual car-
goes of steam and flat-boats being somewhat in excess of
$26,000,000.

With the foregoing facts before us, information respect-
ing the development of western river navigation may be

condensed as follows: The schooner Griffin, built by La

1161

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Salle, was the first considerable craft that was launched on
the Great Lakes, an event that took place in 1679. On the
rivers canoes were the sole dependence until about 1720,
when Mackinaw boats were first built, capable of carrying as
much as three tons, followed ten years later by the barge,
with a capacity of forty tons. This unwieldy vessel gave
place to the keel-boat, a fleet of four being constructed at
New Orleans in 1751 and started with full cargoes for Fort
Chartres. Two of these, however, met with accidents on
the way, so that only two reached their destination, but the
enterprise nevertheless yielded a profit and this method of
transportation therefore continued on the Ohio and Mis-
sissippi until it was superseded by the steamboat. It may
be noted, also, that while the energies of steamboat-men were
largely devoted to the Ohio and Mississippi, settlement of
northern Louisiana and Arkansas likewise attracted so much
attention that in 1815 the steamer Enterprise made a trip
up Red River as far as Natchitoches, and in 1822 the Eagle
ascended the Arkansas River to Little Rock, where she
discharged a cargo and then proceeded one hundred and
thirty miles further up that stream to a station called
Dwight, where the Cherokee Mission was established.

Steam navigation of the Missouri though undertaken by
the government, in 1819, and proved to be possible, did not
attain to any importance until about 1840 when packet com-
panies were organized to transport the vast number of em-
igrants that were pouring out of the eastern States into

1162

1*c*"-W3W*«&

STEJ

I-.L

THE MISSOURI A
STOXF

HE illustrations

'•jr on tiie ;j . .in excellem

understanding of the difficulties and perils which attend*- u of thr

Missouri and Yellowstone natural

j highways of commerce between the Northwest and St. Louis. The rapid
j current washing alluvial shores kept the Mi>souri channel obstructed with •najM
j upon which hundreds of steamboats were \\recked. The Yellowstone also has a
j very rapid current, an i .:,a... snoals that render navigation so ha/ardous, an i
during low water impossible, 'hat at no lime ha* there ever be^

.

Salle, was the first as launched on

the place in 1679. On the

?nce until about 1720,
•ying as

.

v Orlear
Chartrc

the vttfc^jfc,, Avre°^ iMttfe

enterprise neverthele^^Y^c^^jpj^: and this method of

iMMgttrtatiaiHilftp^

"<J&> fflBf ^f i^^^^sWflMktetf $^^b£&frhtK&? ««f^¥i ^

hnulcu 9To« 3111 baluiilsnoo eiB^yVfiBrmol rbiiiw .envii snoJewoltaY fans i

bi^e, mated, alw^hrt mkm^m^^S^^
**t£(£lfy b^H!^l^C¥fi>cilQIHy ^rilF'JMi^f^to

c >Bn Belr anoJ^woflsy 311 I •// 913W elEodm£3)»! 10 abaibnud

K*^td o« ^..tc^vtrt v,(\^4*lh^^JW^^ i^^^,

'i *)i no gniiBCK^i

ailed

txlertaken by

the g<jve.nmt;! iible, did not

• ny imp'^ -n packet com-

panies were organized to ' .umber of em-

igran- were pouring o iStern States into

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

Missouri, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska. This great tide
of humanity rose higher in 1849 and 1850 by reason of the
gold discoveries in California, so that notwithstanding the
dangerous character of the investment, steamboats mul-
tiplied on the Missouri until five companies were operating
a total of sixty boats at one time on that stream. Out of
this number one or more would be sunk almost every week,
but others were quickly made ready to take the places of
those lost, for it was not an uncommon thing for a boat to
reap a profit on a single trip twice as great as her origi-
nal cost.

A very large business was done between St. Louis and
Westport, which latter place, now absorbed by Kansas City,
was the western terminus of the Santa Fe Overland line,
which transported, by ox-teams, an enormous amount of
freight, and continued in operation, with varying fortune,
until construction of the Union Pacific railroad, 1869.
There was also immense traffic between St. Louis and St.
Joseph from which latter point the pony express and stage
lines started, the former carrying the mails, and the latter
conveying passengers to all points on the route as far west as
California. Other lines were formed shortly before the close
of the Civil War to carry freight, chieflv, as far north as
Fort Benton, whence it was transported by teams to Oregon
and Washington, a trade that was immensely profitble until
the Northern Pacific Rilroad extended its line westward to

1165

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Bismarck, when steamboating on the Missouri rapidly de-
clined until by 1880 it had practically ceased to exist..

Although the Missouri river is no longer the highway of
a considerable commerce, railroads having sapped its vitality,
so to speak, the fact must not be forgotten that the credit of
the first rapid development of the northwest is most largely
due to that stream, which though treacherous and dangerous
to navigate yet offered the most convenient and expeditious
means for both travel and freight transportation that was
possible before railways superseded the slower and more
hazardous expedients of boats.

The Missouri-Mississippi has a total length of 4221 miles,
and is therefore the longest river on the earth's surface. At
Fort Benton the waters are 2565 feet above sea-level, an
elevation so great as to create a current of such rapidity that
the banks are fairly devoured, so that there is a constant
shifting of the channel, so great in fact as to frequently
change the course of the stream and to do enormous dam-
age to farms along its shores. It has been computed by hy-
drographic surveyors that the amount of earth carried away
by the Missouri annually is 550,000,000 tons, a quantity,
measured by weight, which is almost twice the tonnage of
freight hauled yearly by all the railroads of the United
States. This terrible erosion of its alluvial banks is natur-
ally followed by corresponding deposits, by which islands are
formed in a night, cut-offs are created, and uprooted trees,

whirled down the stream at its flood, are grounded when the

1166

./'/•' THE MOU^THh M/SSfSS/PP/.

~f\ FTER the unfortunate expedition of Narva*/ 'r, DeVaca, bot:

** of whom must have seen the Mississippi, tHHBHFgenern! belief in the i
istence of a large stream that bisected North America, but strange enough ('
impression prevailed that this supposititious river taking its rise in Illinois How^ •

••.ird to the Pacific. It was reserved for DeSoto to remove this'false l>el;
but Spaniards made small use of the discovery until the French fo <
Orleans and began to settle along the river. Then Spanish interest began a-
to intensify, for Florida belonged to Spain and jealousy wa« ar
acquisition of adjoining territory. The Mississippi accordingly soon beramr .
'vous for Spanish ships, attracted by coi: 'portunities t>ffr

Orleans and trade of the vallev.

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Bismarck, when steam; >ri the Missouri rapidly de-

clined until by 1880 it had pra<. reused to exist..

Although the Missouri >. -r the highway of

aeons; • ipped its vitality,

'. :n that the credit of
;?:ost largely
*
yet offered the

travel and freight transportation that was

^bmmfrm^vV&^b vftf, #Bff •
, hazardous expedients of boats.,

mud .*DB /3U ,3iBi:*e*fi MftbnB VSBVIK/ 10 noilibsqxa aisnuttolnii ari> am"

ia totai4engfch«0£ 4^/4 xni

<i

inj Jsrit D»lisv9

idinb\a^65ecSect
r^

gnoie s

515T!o •itnrumtqqo n5f5TWilTro'j a *ra6iJl

change the course o* th« stream'titfei^rt»id<5» «f.*ri»«-

>ng its shores. It has been

'

•

es. This u.i ^>ank» is natur-

; followed by corresp ^nds are

ned in a night, cut-offs and uprooted trees,

whirled down the stream at its ftuud, arc grounded when the

ii

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

high waters subside, thus choking the channel and shifting
the bed.

But though the river offered many dangers to those en-
gaged in navigating it, nevertheless it was an agency of in-
computable importance for many years, and to its valley
was accordingly attracted settlers in great numbers, while
its waters bore onward, towards the expanding west, that
great multitude who sought gold and homes beyond the
Continental Divide.

1167

DIVISION LXII.

Development of Western Commerce— Continued.

THE first structure built by whites on the Missouri River
was Fort Orleans, established by the French two hundred
miles above its mouth as early as 1750, but this post was
soon abandoned, and is now so nearly forgotten that it is
rarely mentioned in any annals of the west. A few years
after the founding of St. Louis, and soon after the death of
Laclede, his two step-sons, August Chouteau and his younger
brother Pierre, in prosecuting the fur trade located several
posts along the Missouri, and in about 1790 Independence,
and Westport, Missouri, were made trading stations. These
two places survived and grew steadily, though slowly, until
the opening of the Santa Fe trail, when being made the
western terminus of that great overland freight line they
soon after became second to St. Louis in importance, a posi-
tion which they held for many years.

Westport was much more convenient to the river than
Independence, and when therefore water transportation, by
keel-boats, was inaugurated on the Missouri, the business
of Westport, though it was five miles from the river, rapidly
increased until that town took decided precedence of its
rival, and so continued for a long while even after the found-

1168

KANSAS CITY AND 'RIVER P/Effr, 1-SW.

of a gazetteer of 1850, show* that no such town as Kaasas City
' existed, though Westport, which is now a suburb of that thriving metropo
Us, was a town of importance, deriving its consequence from a large trade whir
it eajoyed as the eastern terminus of the Santa Fe trail. Steamboating on tl
Missouri, in conjunction with the building of the Missouri Pacific railroai
brought Kansas City to the front, because it was on the river, while Westport la
rive miles from the south shore. Though only a post village in 1860, shadowed
by the greater importance of Westport, Kansas City began from that date to grov
at an amazing pace, nor has its increase had any interruption since, until toda
it is one of the great cities of America.

XII.
De\ merce— Continued,

:;e Fren.
miles above

4tMdoptaiMtir9i9lv o^fceartTv

Wftaft o

921BI s fnoir93n9upoeno3 en jnivnab ,9DnBnoqmi 10 nwol s ecw (

&W£b«o stofttSOT%}iA£gi(>sib(^otitim£a4 ^^'eBdiWig^rji

|rf^1^&*^

slinw .tavn srJJ no esw Ji szucaad ,)noii anj oJ ^JiJ ifttoc.21 Jnguoio

wqixj. «i ^e ' ••( ^yp ^^A^^'f r^rjpri?-' ;

X*8oJ tiJnu IB b*n 9«B3iDni ell esn^on ,30Kq 3

«iia*ri^ . I4i«ti^i*3^ W

n after i

Ind>

ness

:ver, rapidly

increased until ience of its

rival, and so continued . after the found-

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

ing of Kansas City, in 1838, with which it is now incor-
porated. Indeed, owing probably to bluffs, that afforded
a poor landing for boats, Kansas City remained a post
village until 1860, when steamboating on the Missouri
began to assume a prominence that grew so rapidly as to
quickly supersede all other means of transportation. Car-
goes of freight destined for the Southwest had to be dis-
charged at Kansas City, and this immense trade caused the
town to grow at an amazing rate until in a short while it
took rank as the leading city west of St. Louis, a position
which it continues to hold, if we except San Francisco.

The Santa Fe trail was, in its day, a commercial highway
of the most vital consequence to the west. There was an
enormous extent of uninhabited territory between Westport
and Santa Fe, but at one end was the outlet to Mexico, and
at the other lay the approach to the resources of the East,
and these inducements were ample for pioneers though re-
ward for the dangers, hardships, and expense incidental to
overland freighting at the time were in no sense commen-
surate with the investment or occupation. The greatest
amount of traffic on the overland trail was during the war
with Mexico, or from 1846 to 1848, when a great part of the
government stores for the army operating in northern Mex-
ico were transported by that route.

Fort Leavenworth was established in 1839, and St. Joseph
was founded two years later, followed by the locating of
Omaha in 1845, places which quickly sprang into prominence

1171

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

and greatly increased their importance immediately follow-
ing discovery of gold in California. Westport, Leaven-
worth, and Omaha became outfitting points for all overland
parties going to California, and later, when the excitement
over reported gold discoveries in the vicinity of Pike's Peak,
Colorado, was at its height, these three towns furnished sup-
plies for all the gold-seeking expeditions to that camp.

The fur-trading interest of the northwest yielded such
large returns for the money invested that comparatively few
persons engaged in that pursuit were seduced from their
satisfactory engagements at the time to follow the hosts of
gold-seekers that poured into and across the Rocky Moun-
tins. On the contrary, they improved their opportunities to
the utmost with the result that the industry flourished amaz-
ingly, and may be said to have been at its height in the early
fifties. In 1850 Fort Benton was established, which af-
forded protection to fur-traders from the hostile Indians
that infested that region, and soon became an important
post by reason of its location at the head of navigation on
the Missouri, which also made the station headquarters for
the fur-trade of the Northwest.

This was the condition of affairs in the West up to 1856,
in which year the situation was suddenly changed by dis-
covery of gold on Deer Lodge River, Montana, which caused
a stampede to that region, in which excitement many fur-
traders participated, though the strike proved to be a dis-
appointing one. Seven years later, 1863, the Alder Gulch

discovery, in Nevada, furnished fresh excitement, and the

1172

CHIEF LITTLE LKOIfS ITGHT // 7777 77/7 v'O ;

•ff.N the accompanying pages are contained an actoui ,.r the on use and resuk'
•• the Sioux uprising in Minnesota in 1862. Marauding bands of India:
ctnsed by delay of the Government in paying1 their allowance in accordance -.\
treaty terms, attacked several small settlements and kijltai of \»hitr«

I.ktle Crow, a SiotU^lflH, • -. u!iich he -t:

resolutely i tinj; a conoidera! -c- ;

\vhile thev were upon the point of attacking S*l« of tiie \>

*

AJFter this ri^ht however. Little Crow not only refu»ei! to procteii fu:
the renr<;-adi->, hut jo. 'id thu« caused a fmt-Til iipn-ing of Siuuflnich

wps not suppressed until nearly one i. white population rled dHBrur

from the State.

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

and greatly increased their importance immediately follow-
ing discovery of g »"ornia. Westport, Leaven-
worth, and Omaha f*ing points for all overland
parties goiru, r, when the excitement
ovc« :uity of Pike's Peak,

furnished sup-

i\WSV

persons engaged u\

)o tlluew bnc ueuif-j 5711 TO JIIIIOODE nff bsniMno ; |j

J

i Ofli t&hft iciMiftnaBy ? .^ey i iln^x^ved'theitooppeitututtesi itw

iwtJfiiilYl'Ll'JsiflP'isbi'ncp ft3iiJlE»l3b.niJ)3bMD'jtu bnr,.oL> oj.vli:

tiiTmost wlm; me result mat me industr\' Hounsned urna?.-

banoxmcg vlnsM snl fo sno gniiTofinGTo Tflloq am noqu siSw xfsnT STInw

ua^gl^iaaaclififibyibe ^a>kl)t(>/haiveHb«ei&a4nU hei^htinl^theHeari^

H'->irf*i>tiix>i2 1»*-S(iiai»ui IsiMi^m c La^ur/i ^uili bris aiifjl Laaioi iiuf ,*;-jL)ft^'i3i »(i>

limes... in Icy> Fort Hentqn .was .estauli^neaj, wnicn af-

i«na) in LsH aoticluqvq tMnti if)o> siif ifcn sno vlTftn TiTiiu Bt

forded protection to fur-traders from the hostifcnimto*n«i
• m, and see: :ant

f navijTi

the Missouri, which also made the station headqua:
the fur-trade of the Northwest.

. was the condition of ai; .856,

in whir .,tion w< dis-

covery of gold o ; caused

a stampede to that re* !i excitement many fur-

traders participated, th ike proved to be a dis-

appointing one. Seven years later, 1863, the Alder Gulch

discovery, in Nevada, furnished fresh excitement, and the

1172

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

mines proving even richer than the first reports indicated,
Virginia City was founded and became the most flourish-
ing mining center in the West. In the succeeding year an-
other gold discovery was made in Montana, on what was
called " Last Chance Gulch," and the town of Helena was
established in the immediate vicinity, which grew so rapidly
that in a year it had become a place of marked importance
and has never since ceased to thrive as a mining center.

Commercial development of the country lying west of the
Mississippi was rapid and uninterrupted for many years,
or until 1862, when an uprising of Indians in Minnesota
placed a temporary check upon immigration into that terri-
tory and seriously affected the prosperity of the whole North-
west for many years thereafter. The trouble had its be-
ginning in 1857, when a band of fifteen renegade Indians,
under Inkpaduta, made a sudden descent upon settlers on the
shore of Lake Okechobee, an arm of Spirit Lake, Iowa, and
murdering forty-seven men carried three white women into
captivity, only one of whom contrived to effect her escape,
several years afterwards.

Report of this outrage produced intense excitement, and
was promptly followed by the government making a demand
upon the Sioux to deliver up the murderers, to be dealt with
by the constituted authorities. In pursuance of this demand
Chief Little Crow, with one hundred warriors, went in pur-
suit of the red-handed villains, three of whom were over-
taken and shot to death, but having accomplished this much

1175

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Little Crow refused to make further effort to punish the
murderers, and the government permitted the outrage to go
unavenged. This exhibition of apparent indifference upon
the part of the United States authorities emboldened Little
Crow to organize his people who hoped by a show of force
to intimidate the government into making prompt payments
of annuities which he claimed were long overdue. He
shrewdly estimated that the government being at the time
engaged in a war for the Union could afford small resistance
to a revolt of the great Sioux nation, and he believed oppor-
tunity was at hand for the Indians to recover possession of
lands in Iowa and Minnesota relinquished by treaties with
the tribes of the North. The government, acknowledging
that the annuities were due, pleaded inability to meet these
obligations at once, and sought by many promises to placate
the Indians, but without avail.

On July I4th, 1862, Little Crow with 5000 Sioux appeared
before the agency at Yellow Medicine and demanded rations
for his people, which of course could not be supplied, where-
upon he retired sullen and threatening. No disturbance,
however, was made until the 4th of August, when 150 armed
Indians forced their way into the parade grounds of the post
and breaking down the door of the warehouse took away all
the provisions stored therein. On the same day another well
armed party of Indians presented themselves before the com-
mandant at Fort Ridgely and asked permission to enter the

fort and hold a dance. Their real intent was to massacre

1176

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERX COMMERCE

the garrison, as it was afterwards learned, and this suspicion
being felt by the officer, instead of granting the request he
assembled his force of thirty men under arms and pointing
a well loaded howitzer towards the Indians ordered them to
be gone at once.

About the same time an uprising took place at the town of
Acton, where stores were plundered, and a man named Hun-
ter was shot dead. This act precipitated war at once. The
settlers rallied to make all the defense possible, but their num-
bers were small as compared with that of the Indians, who
began a riot of massacre and outrage horrible to contemplate
even at this time. House after house was burned, the men
murdered, and the women taken captive, or subjected to
indignities worse than death. The story of heroism, suffer-
ing, torment, and murder of the war of 1862-3, as waged by
the Indians against the pioneers of Minnesota, is one too
tragic to be followed in all its ghastly details, the most terri-
ble feature of which perhaps was the massacre at Big Stone
Lake and the heroic defense of New Ulm. The Indians
moved with such celerity and struck so remorselessly that
eighteen counties, with a population of perhaps 40,000 were
completely desolated. Terror seized the people, who fled
precipitately, spreading panic, until they reached the
Mississippi, and thousands left the State never to return.

After months of massacreing, almost without meeting
resistance, the Indians, as if surfeited with killing, relaxed
their hellish efforts to exterminate the whites, and began to

1177

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

consider means for their own existence, for the country had
been devastated and starvation seemed to threaten every
living thing. This lull in hostilities was taken advantage
of by Colonel Sibley to organize an expedition of sufficient
force (2,500) to cope with the Indians. It was now war
indeed, not massacre, but fierce battles in which the Indians
were invariably worsted and gradually driven west until not
a Sioux warrior was left to contest upon the soil of Minne-
sota. Little Crow and a large party of his people managed
to escape, but three hundred were captured, who being tried
for murder were condemned to death. Two hundred and
sixty-two of this number had their sentences commuted, but
the other thirty-eight were sent to the gallows at Mankato,
December 26th, chanting a death song. Little Crow was
soon afterwards shot near Hutchinson, by a man who claimed
that he mistook the chief, who was gathering berries at the
time, for a wild animal. No one ever attempted to investi-
gate the -circumstances, general relief and satisfaction being
felt that the savage was dead. The results of the uprising
were some compensation for the lives lost and two millions
of dollars of property destroyed, for the Sioux were com-
pelled to surrender their lands along the Minnesota River,
and to accept a reservation in southwestern Dakota. In
writing a history of the Minnesota tragedy of 1862, A. L.
Mason sums up the results as follows:

" The Great Sioux Massacre stands completely without

a parallel in all the bloody history of the conflicts between

1178

/ \C1DL\T IX THE MINNESOTA IN'DIAN WJR.
OF 1862.

'T^'HE Sioux outbreak which wrought such terrible havoc in Minnesota in 1862.

^^ was not entirely confined to that state, but spread to Iowa where a masiacn

ites occurred on Lake Okebojee. The Indiana killed all the men, some

in number, and carried off three women, two of whom died from the abuse

vhich they were subjected, but the third after enduring captivity for severs

managed to escape, or rather her liberation u. Siou*

"ere placed upon a reservation in Dakota.

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

consider means for their own existence, for the country had
been devastated and s- i seemed to threaten every

living thing. This lull in hostilities was taken advantage
of .by Colonel SiWey to ot;. n expedition of sufficient

force (2,500) to c it was now war

indeed, not n\i-

a S

.rge par
SV&WWft iHT^mftWW^^la^rWMB'Wkg^

for murder were conden^ft&T^ death. Two hundred and

i3£eE£m JS aisrfw cwol oJ biwiqe Jud ,9lBl« JcHl ol banrtnoD

TOT yliviiqBD ^niiubna latls Tnint arlJ Jud ,b3m[due 9i3W yanJ noinw oJ

aiiw tvaifiU ahetn£Kiti>dH&fth*n6OTi<b,yq3:daaji

that he mistook the

time, for a wild animal. No one ever attempted tc

gate the circumstances, general relief and satisfaction being

fe!' •> of the

we-

of om-

pelled iver,

air In

wr ustory of the Minn«.- ', A. L.

urns up th<

;je Great Sioux Massacre stands completely without
ilel in all the bloody history of the conflicts between
1178

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

the red and white men on the American continent. In its
suddenness and extent, in its monstrous atrocity, and its
Satanic perfection of details, it must take rank with the
greatest massacres of all time. Occurring as it did at a
period when the people had no more apprehension of our
Indian war than do the inhabitants of any farming region of
the Middle States, it found its victims utterly unprepared
for resistance or defense. There are no means of accurately
knowing the number of persons who were slain on the terri-
ble 1 8th of August and the succeeding five days. If the
estimates of the best authorities are to be received the num-
ber ranged between one and two thousand people who were
massacred in cold blood. Besides the actual bloodshed, the
massacre resulted in the total depopulation of a territory
larger than the State of Vermont."

Colonel Henry M. Sibley, who drove the Sioux nation
from Minnesota, was the first governor of the State, elected
upon its admission to the Union in 1858.

It may be mentioned in this connection that a missionary
post was established at St. Paul in 1838, and that the first
house erected in Minneapolis was built by a man named
Stevens, in 1842. From these beginnings the twin cities
have developed into metropoli of the North, and the latter
now holds the distinction of being the greatest producer of
flour in the world, while the former is the capital of the
State.

Though the great Sioux nation was compelled to leave

nSi

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

Minnesota, and several were punished for joining in the up-
rising of Little Crow, as a people they still retained their
reputation of being the strongest and most warlike of all
the tribes of North America. Prior to their expulsion from
Minnesota the Sioux were the predominant nation of the
North, whose range was east to the Mississippi and west to
the Rocky Mountains. Defeated by Colonels Sibley and
Sulley the main body retired to their reservation on the
Missouri and in the Black Hills, but though diminished in
numbers and curtailed in power they did not relinquish hope
of one day regaining the lands of their fathers. Next there-
fore to the Apaches, of the Southwest, the Sioux were the
most hostile with which the government had to deal, and
most of the campaigns thereafter were directed against them.
They hung on the flanks of civilization's progress, harassed
the builders of railroads, and committed excesses of every
kind, culminating in the battle on the Little Big Horn in
1876, where the Sioux under Sitting Bull annihilated Custer
and every one that composed his heroic company. It re-
mained for General Miles to finally break the power of that
savage nation, whose strength failed utterly and their hope
expired with the death of Sitting Bull at Wounded Knee,
killed by one of his own people who was employed as a mem-
ber of the government police.

In the meanwhile the work of reclamation went on and
development of the West continued despite opposing obsta-
cles of nature and savagery. St. Louis, the great entrepot of

1182

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

the West, received an impetus to its prosperity with the
advent of the railway, the first to reach the Mississippi at
that point being the Ohio & Mississippi Railroad, in 1849.
Jefferson City was laid out as early as 1822, and was at once
made the seat of State government, the territory of Missouri
having been admitted to statehood in 1821. When there-
fore St. Louis got a railroad on the east, the people of the
State clamored for rail connection with the capital. Out of
this demand grew the Missouri Pacific Railroad, which being
organized in St. Louis began construction westward in 1851,
and in 1856 the line reached Jefferson City, and was ex-
tended to Kansas City in 1865.

The first line of railroad to reach the Missouri River was
the Hannibal & St. Joseph, which crossed the State and made
its western terminus at St. Joseph in 1859. Thereafter
railroad building in the west assumed great activity. In
1867 the Chicago & Northwestern completed its western line
to Council Bluffs, and in the following year the Sioux City
and Pacific entered Sioux City. But the greatest of all
railroad enterprises in America was the construction of the
Union Pacific, which starting from Omaha completed its
connection with the Pacific in 1869. During the building of
this line, which penetrated hostile territory, and ran across
a stretch of two thousand miles of unsettled country, the
workmen were exposed to attacks of Indians who resented
this invasion of their hunting grounds, and might have de-
layed completion of the line for many years had not the gov-

1183
20

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

ernment sent troops to guard the men engaged in the work.
Nor did the presence of soldiers wholly prevent depredations
on the road, for Indians made frequent attacks and continued
to menace the operation for several years after the line was
finished.

A short while before the completion of the Union Pacific
another great transcontinental line was projected to connect
Duluth with Portland and Pacific coast cities. A company
was organized and work of building was begun in 1870,
which was prosecuted with so much vigor that in the fall of
1872 the line had extended as far west as Bismarck.

To speak with accuracy, projection of a railroad across
the continent existed in the condition of an abstract proposal
as early as 1834, when the idea was promulgated by Dr.
Samuel B. Barlow, who favored a northern route. To this
same end a memorial was presented to Congress in 1846
which received so much attention that a bill providing gov-
ernment aid for the building of a transcontinental line came
to a vote and received such strong support that it was de-
feated by a small majority. But interest was fully aroused,
to such an extent that the United States Government, in
1853, sent out five expeditions to explore the country between
the Missouri River and the Pacific, along the lines of the
32d, 3$th, 38-39^, 4ist-42d, and the 47 and 49th par-
allels of latitude, to make report on the most feasible route.
These surveys and explorations, under control of the War

Department were accordingly made, and sent to Congress

1184

DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN COMMERCE

in 1855, upon the reports of which many Pacific railroad
bills were prepared and introduced, providing government
land subsidies and money appropriations for two lines, viz.,
one on the 38-39^ and another on the 47-48^1 parallels.
These bills were debated, amended, referred, and otherwise
delayed until political exigencies, in 1862, made rail con-
nection with California imperative, and accordingly the
Union and Central Pacific railroads, one starting west from
Omaha, and the other east from San Francisco, were sub-
sidized and financed so that the work of construction was
begun in 1863, and finished in 1869.

The Northern Pacific was incorporated by act of Congress
in May, 1864, but surveys^vere not begun until 1867, and it

B

was not until three years later that the work of building was
entered upon, this delay being due to difficulties encountered
in financing the enterprise notwithstanding the liberal grant
of lands made by the Government to promote the under-
taking. Work was begun from both ends of the proposed
line, as in that of the Union Pacific, and was pushed with
great expedition until the panic of 1873 put a temporary em-
bargo upon further operations, at which time the road was
operating the east end from Duluth to Bismarck, and the west
end from Columbia River to Tacoma. Then came bank-
ruptcy to the company and a reorganization in 1875, but re-
sumption of construction did not begin until 1879, and it was
not until 1883 that the road was completed, at which time
the eastern terminus was established at St. Paul.

1185

LOUISIANA TERRITORY

To these two pioneer railroads development of the great
West is essentially due. Before their coming the country
west of the Missouri River was practically inaccessible ex-
cept to the hunter, trapper, and gold-seeker, and the land was
unavailable for any purposes of cultivation. How like
magic the results appear. The buffalo, elk, bear, wolf, ante-
lope which so abounded on the plains forty years ago have
disappeared, but the lonely landscape of that time has become
vivified and resonant with the stirring activities and cheer-
ing clamor of thriving towns, and stately cities. Where the
prairies were formerly wooed only by sweeping winds, and
wild animals and reckless savages held sway, there are now
to be seen infinite stretches of wheat-fields, vast herds of
cattle, and fruitful industry is sowing and reaping while
peaceful content, following development and prosperity,
possesses the land.

1186

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