Louisiana studies. Literature, customs and dialects, history and education

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LOUISIANA STUDIES.

LITERATURE, CUSTOMS AND DIALECTS,
HISTORY AND EDUCATION;

By ALCEE FORTIER,

ProftMMcr qf the French Language and Literature in J^lane University
^oj Louisiana,

NEW ORLEANS:
Published by F. F. Hansell & Bro.

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570

1894.

F. F.

HAT^SELL

& BBO.

• • • ••...•• •• ;

•* • • •

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PREFACE.

For the last ten years the author of this book has been de-
voting much time to the history of Louisiana, and he has pub-
lished in different literary and scientific journals a number of
papers on the literature, customs^ dialects, folk-lore, and history
of his native State. Some of these papers have been revised
and are now published in this book^ together with some new
studies. The work done has been mostly one of original re-
search and patient investigation, and the author hopes that his
Louisiana Studies may be of use to the future historian of
Louisiana, as history can not be written without taking into
consideration everything concerning the literature, the speech
and the inner life of the people. The author hopes also that
his book will be of interest both to Louisianians, who will rec-
ognize in it many familiar names, customs and incidents, and
to people outside of Louisiana, who will see a true picture, as
far as the author can judge, of the inhabitants of the Pelican
State.

ALC^E FORTIER.

Ntw Orleans^ yanuary 24^ 18^4.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART L— LITBRATURB.

PAOB.

I. The Frbnch Language in Louisiana....^ -^^^ i

II. Literature in the Colony»...^..^.»,..« ^.....^. 6

I. JuHen Poj^dra8..»».« ..^....^^..^ ^.^...^. 7

3. Poydras* poem, La Prise du Mome du Bdton Rouge^
par Monstigneur d$ Galves ..««. .^^....« 18

m. The French Literature of Louisiana ^ 33

1. History and Biographjr. ..^ 24

a. The Drama 32

3. Poetry — 40

4. Novels 55

5. Miscellaneous Works „ .^.^ 62

6. The AthiHie Louisianais^ ..^». 64

rv. English Literature ^ .^ 87

I. History, Biography, Literary Criticism..^ «„.. 91

3. The Drama.^ ^ ^ «. »^.^...^ioi

3. Poetry and Literary Sketches ...... — ...^...^...^..104

4. Novels -..^...^ -^ «.. .^..^..i 13

PART IL— CUSTOMS AND DIALBCT5.

L Customs and Superstitions in Louisiana^,. 135

II. The Creole Dialect.. 134

III. The Acadians of Louisiana and Their Dialect 148

I. A Brief History of Acadia 149

3. The Acadians in Louisiana — 162

3. The Acadian Dialect. — i8i

IV. The Islbnos op Louisiana and Their Dialect 197

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vi Table of Contents.

PART III.— HISTORY AND EDUCATION.

I. War Times (1861-1865) 211

1. Introduction 211

2. The Capture of New Orleans 214

3. Henry Watkins Allen — Battle of Baton Rouge 223

4. ** Dick " Taylor and the Campaigns on the T^che

and in the Trans-Mississippi Department 230

II. A Brief History of Education in Louisiana ...242

1. Colonial Times 242

2. Colleges and Private Schools Before the War 249

3. Public Schools Before the War 258

4. Public Schools in New Orleans 264

5. Public Schools Since the War 268

6. Colleges and Schools Since the War: 274

Tulane University of Louisiana 274

H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College 287

The Louisiana State University and Agricultural

and Mechanical College 289

Colleges of the Jesuits 291

State Normal School 298

Universities for the Colored People 299

Colleges and Schools in Rural Louisiana 301

Schools in New Orleans 305

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PART I.

LITERATURB.

I-^TKB FRENCH LANQUAGB IN LOUISIANA.

The history of the literature of Louisiana is in-
teresting and unique, as it is written in two lan-
guages. We may even note the curious fact of
men writing equally well in English and in French
and being thoroughly bi-lingual. It is, therefore,
of importance to know something about the history
and form of the French language as used in Louis-
iana. It is a well-known fact that the descendants
of the French in the colonies have always retained
the language of the mother country. In America,
as a general rule, the children of Germans, of
Spaniards and of Italians know very little of the
speech of their fathers, while we see Americans of
French origin retaining the language of their an-
cestors as a mother tongue down to the fifth and
sixth generations. * The same thing can be observed
in Canada, and we know with what tenacity the
Canadians have clung to their original language,
and how the French element, contrary to the ^en-

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2 Louisiana Studies.

eral law of the philosophy of history, seems to be
absorbing the English population.

The colony of Lotiisiana was founded by Iber-
ville in 1699, and New Orleans by Bienville in
1718. The French immigrants, with a few excep-
tions, belonged to a good class of society, and the
language spoken by them was pure and elegant.
In 1763 the infamous King Louis XV, after hav-
ing lost Canada and the Indies, begged his cousin,
Charles III of Spain, to take oH. his hands that
Louisiana which had cost so much money and
brought none to the government. The Louisian-
ians loved the mother country and were proud of
the name of Frenchmen, remembering only the
France of the 17th century, of the glorious days of
Louis XIV, of Rocroy, of Lens, and even of
Denain, and forgetting Rosbach and the infamy
of Louis XV. There was a revolution in 1768 in
Louisiana, and the colonists, despairing of remain-
ing Frenchmen, thought of proclaiming a republic
on the banks of the Mississippi, and expelled the
Spanish governor. History tells us how cruelly
O'Reilly treated the noble conspirators, and how
the Spanish rule, imposed by force, was afterward
mild and paternal. From 1763 to 1801, Louisiana
was a part of the Spanish empire, but French con-
tinued to be the language of the colony, and Span-
ish was merely the official tongue. Most of the
Spanish officials married ladies of French descent,
and the language of the mother was really that of
the family. A great many Creoles of Spanish ori-

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LrlTERATURE* 3

gin do not know a word of Castilian, but speak
French as well as native Frenchmen. The Span-
iards in Louisiana have left as traces of their
domination a high and chivalric spirit, a few geo-
graphical names and a remnant of their laws to be
seen in our civil code, but have exerted very little
influence on the language of the country.

When Napoleon took away Louisiana from
Spain and, not being able to keep the colony,
sold it to the United States in 1803, French
was almost exclusively the language of the inhab-
itants. They soon came to love with ardor the
great republic to which they had been trans-
ferred, and on the field of Chalmette the new
Americans were just as patriotic as the men from
Tennessee and Kentucky, and Andrew Jackson
praised the gallantry of the French Creoles.

Nevertheless, however attached to the institu-
tions of the United States, the Louisianians cher-
ished the language of their ancestors, and for a
long time did not care about learning English.
They were not less Americans in the sense of
nationality, for did not the Roman provinces
defend the Republic and the Empire as well as
Italy herseif ? Are the Swiss less patriotic because
there are four different languages spoken in their
country? Are not the Catalans as jealous of the
honor of Spain as the Castilians themselves?

For about forty years after the cession to the
United States, the Louisianians of French descent
studied little English, and, in reality, did not abso-

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4 Louisiana Studies*

lately need that language in their daily pursuits.
The Hon. Chas. Gayarre, the venerable historian
of Louisiana, has told me that in the Legislature
of the State there was a regular interpreter
appointed for each house, at a salary of $2000,
whose duty it was to translate, if required, the
speeches and motions of the members. It was, ii
seems, very amusing sometimes to see a Creole
representative abusing an American colleague,
who remained perfectly unconcerned, until the
interpreter, having translated the hostile address,
the party attacked would suddenly rise and reply
to his adversary in vehement terms, which had
also to be translated before the opposing member
could reply. In the courts of justice the jury,
which was always composed in part of men who
did not understand English, had to be addressed
in English and in French.

Of course, such a condition of things could not
last, for the population coming from the other
States soon outnumbered the descendants of the
original settlers and English became the official
language of the State. The laws, however, are to
this day published in English and in French.
J The Creoles of Louisiana, and I mean by that
expression the white descendants of the Frenc h
and Spanish colonists, have always occupied a
high standing in the community. Several of the
best governors of the State were Creoles, and
many went to Congress, and a number were
distinguished as judges, lawyers, physicians, and

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Literature. 5

writers, both in verse and in prose. The Creoles
are, in short, men of energy, in Bpite of the ca-
lumnious assertions to the contrary, [and, as a rule,
speak very good French. They generally pro-
nounce French well, and are remarkably free
from any provincial accent.

The French spoken in Louisiana is generally
better than that of the Canadians. It is easy to
account for this. The Canadians were separated
from the mother country in the middle of the
eighteenth century, and, even long before that
time, immigration from France was limited, and
the population was increasing rather by the ex-
traordinary fecundity of the inhabitants than by
the influx of immigrants. The language of Can-
ada has remained nearly stationary, and is almost
the idiom of the seventeenth century; that is to
say, it is sometimes quaint and obsolete. In Lou-
isiana, immigration continued for a long time, and
in the beginning of this century a great number
of exiles came from the French Antilles, and
added many persons of high birth and refined
manners to the original settlers.

We received, however, in 1765 the immigration
of the unfortunate Acadian exiles, who did not
contribute toward keeping the French language
in a state of purity. Although many rose to high
positions in the State, the language of a number
of them still constitutes a real dialect.

Another cause of the purity of our language is
the fact that during the old regime almost all

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6 Louisiana Studies^

young men of rich families were educated in
France. They received an excellent classical
education, but learned no Englieh. My father
told me that on his return home after a seven
years' course in a French college, he knew so lit-
tle English that he had to go to Lexington, Ken-
tucky, for some time to study the language of the
country. My grandfather, who was born during
the Spanish domination, spoke French only, and
did not allow English to be spoken in his family.
We are not so exclusive at present, and we are very
anxious that our children should know English
perfectly well, but we still consider French as the
mother tongue, as the language of the family.

Though French is still the mother tongue of
many thousands of Louisianians, the fact can not
be denied that it is not as generally spoken as be-
fore the war. Considering that our Creole authors
know that in writing in French they have but lit-
tle chance of being read outside of their State,
their patriotic and disinterested devotion to the
language of their ancestors is certainly remarkable
and most praiseworthy.

11-LlTBRATURBlN THE COLONY. JULIEN P0YDRA5.

His Poem, " La Prise du Morne du Baton
Rouge par Monseigneur de Galvez."

During the French domination the colony of
Louisiana improved very slowly, and although the
inhabitants were generally men of culture the

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LiTBRATURE. 7

population was so small that there could be no lit-
erary enthusiasm. We find, therefore, during that
period, no works written in Louisiana except the
reports of officers, among which may be mentioned
a paper in 1745 by Deverges, an engineer, upon
the mouths of the Mississippi river. Another doc-
ument is also of great importance ; it is the cele-
brated ^^ M^moire des Negociants et Habitants de
la Louisiane sur I'fivenement du 29 Octobre,
1768,'* written by Lafr^ni^re and Caresse, two of
the chiefs of the revolution of 1768, which was so
heroic and ended so unhappily.

During the Spanish domination the most warlike
and popular governor was Galvez. Julien Poy-
dras wrote, in 1779, an epic poem in French on
the campaigns of the young governor. The work,
"La Prise du Mome du Baton Rouge par Mon-
seigneur de Galvez,** is patriotic, and does full
justice to Galvez and his army.

In 1794 appeared **Le Moniteur de la Lou-
isiane,*' probably the first newspaper published in
Louisiana.

Julien Poydras, the author of the earliest work .<|»j5.
in our literature, deserves a special mention, and
I shall reproduce here an article published by me
in the New Orleans Picayune^ March 9, 1890:

The centennial of Washington's inauguration
has carried us back to the eighteenth century and
placed before our eyes the men and women of an-
other age. We see the gentiemen with their peri-
wigs ending in a queue tied with a ribbon, with

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8 Louisiana Studies.

their knee breeches, silk stockings, and shoes with
silver buckles. With the short sword at their side,
they enter the parlors and make stately bows to
the ladies, who, with jupes a paniers and stupen-
dously high head dresses and red heeled shoes,
receive them gracefully.

The manners were courteous and refined in good
society, and the Louisianians one hundred years
ago took pride in their social accomplishments and
elegance. Many of them were wealthy, but they
were ignorant of the luxuries which their poorer
descendants now enjoy, and their houses were
rough-looking and the furniture exceedingly plain.
The men who dwelt in these houses, and whom
we have just described in all their finery, had,
many of them, led adventurous lives before suc-
ceeding in conquering fortune. Some, like St.
Denys, had gone on distant expeditions and led
the lives of heroes of romance ; some had fought
the Indians and vanquished the Natchez and the
Chickasaws, while others had been engaged in in-
dustrial and agricultural pursuits, and had had to
overcome a thousand obstacles before reaching the
goal.

One of the latter was Julien Poydras, a mer-
chant, a planter, a statesman and a philanthropist,
whose name can be seen on a marble tablet at the
Charity Hospital in New Orleans as one of the
greatest benefactors of that noble institution. A
grateful people has given Mr. Poydras' name to
one of our principal streets, but Mr. Zenon de
Moruelle, of Pointe Coupee parish, has not thought
this a sufficient tribute to the memory of a worthy
man and a good citizen. He has caUed my atten-
tion to ^Julien Poydras' remarkable career and has
furnished me with the data necessary for this short

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Literature. 9

biographical sketch. It seems to me, now that we
are all occupied with the customs and personages
of the eighteenth century, that the life of a typical
representative of a past civilization may be of some
interest to the Americans of our times. Honesty,
perseverance and energy constitute the true man,
and are admired now as they always were, and
Julien Poydras, of the eighteenth century, may
serve as an example to the men of the nineteenth.

Julien Poydras de Lallande was bom in Nantes,
in Brittany, about the year 1740. He served in
the navy, but was made a prisoner by the English
in 1760, and taken to England. During his cap-
tivity he studied the English language, and even
German. He managed to escape after three years,
and went to San Domingo hidden in a merchant
vessel bound for the West Indies. From San Do-
mingo he passed over to Louisiana, where he ar-
rived, it is thought, in 1768. That year will ever
be memorable for the heroic revolution by which
the French colonists endeavored to throw off the
yoke of the Spaniards. They wanted to remain
Frenchmen, and they expelled the Spanish gov-
ernor; then, abandoned by the mother country,
they tried to establish a republic in Louisiana.
We know what was the fate of those valiant men
— Lafreniere, Villere, Marquis, Caresse, Milhet
and Noyan. They fell victims to O'Reilly and
are known to history as the martyrs of Louisiana.

It must have been very sad to Julien Poydras to
reach Louisiana only to see her become a Spanish
province. But to a man of energy and enterprise a
wide field was open in a new country admirably
situated for commerce and with a soil created by
the sediment which the noblest river in the world
had been depositing for centuries. The princi-

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lo Louisiana Studies.

pal agricultural product in Louisiana during the
eighteenth century was indigo. It was extensively
cultivated and yielded a large revenue. Com
also was cultivated, and the perique tobacco, so
celebrated to-day, was known to our ancestors a
Wndred years ago. Indigo, at the end of the
century, lost almost all its value, and the planters
were already threatened with ruin when cotton
was introduced in upper Louisiana. Whitney in-
vented the cotton gin in 1793, and fitienne de
Bor^ succeeded in making sugar in 1795. The
prosperity of the colony was assured.

Mr. Poydras remained but one year in New
Orleans, for he had understood, with a remarka-
ble intelligence, what profit could be derived from
a direct trade with the country parishes. He bought
some merchandise and started on foot from New
Orleans. Look at the young peddler with his
bundle on his back. He marches on briskly and
gayly. He reaches a plantation house. The lit-^
tie negro children swarm around him and look at
him with wonder. A servant notifies the lady of
the house of the arrival of the stranger. She has
a room prepared for him, and the master returning
from the field at midday greets him most cordially
and invites him to share the dinner of the family.
In the afternoon the merchant spreads before all
his stock of goods, and the lady buys something
for every member of the househeld, not forgetting
the favorite slaves, giving to the men large knives
and shining tin pans, and to the women copper
jewels and flaming headkerchiefs. Everywhere
the peddler goes he is received with unbounded
hospitality and he soon sells all his wares. Thus
did Julien Poydras, in a short time, accumulate a
large sum of money.

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LiTBRATURB. II

After traveling all over Louisiana he finally
bought a place in Pointe Coup^ and settled
there. Here again the young^ Frenchman had
shown his good judgment, for rointe Coup6e was
favorably situated for trade with the posts of
Natchez, Baton Rou^e, the Opelousas, Natchi-
toches, and even with New Orleans. The knowl-
edge of English which Mr. Poydras had acquired
during his captivity was of great use to him in his
dealings with the Americans, who were already
occupjring the Florida parishes. He soon added
to his plantation a large tract of land in the rear,
extencHng as far as False river. By a three-mile
route on his own plantation he came to a point
most important for trading, to reach which other-
wise he would have had to make a circuit of fif-
teen miles. He built a store at False river, and
the cultivation of cotton having become general in
Pointe Coupee and the more northern parishes, he
built a cotton gin on the Mississippi and one at
False river and derived great profits therefrom.

Julien Poydras was really a remarkable man
and endowea with wonderful energy and perse-
verance. He seemed to have been created for the
requirements of his epoch and to have known per-
fectly how to adapt himself to circumstances. He
was exceedingly sober and frugal, very gentle in
his disposition, and drew to him the sympathy of
all who knew him. His reputation for honesty
and ability rapidly spread, and his business rela-
tions extended all over the province. He traded
with the military posts of St. Louis, Ste. Gene-
vieve, the Illinois, Vincennes on the Wabash,
Ouachita, Arkansas, Natchez, la Roche kDarion,
now Fort Adams, Natchitoches, Baton Rouge, St.
FrancisviUe and West Florida. He provided the

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12 Louisiana Studies.

posts with European merchandise and received in
exchange indigo, cotton, salt meat, buffalo skins,
bears' grease and flour. He soon grew rich and
bought lands everywhere. He had agents in dif-
ferent parts of the province to attend to his
interests.

There being so little luxury in Louisiana at that
time the planters had to practice a forced econ-
omy, for money was plentiful in the parishes. Mr.
Poydras, being esteemed by every one, did a
flourishing banking business, as all had unlimited
confidence in his integrity. He even dealt with
the colonists at Nacogdoches, in the present State
of Texas.

Having succeeded in amassing a large fortune,
Mr. Poydras thought of returning to his dear Brit-
tany, where he had brothers and sisters whom he
generously helped. It was a natural feeling on
Qie part of a man who had left his country poor to
wish to return to his native town an important per-
sonage. We all like to show to the friends of our
childhood what we have been able to accomplish
in a few years of absence ; we all like to return
again to the places where had dwelt our father and
mother. It seems that we see again their sym-
pathetic faces, that we again hear their kind voices.
A Frenchman, especially, in whatever part of the
world he may be, never abandons the hope of see-
ing sweet France once more. Mr. Poydras, how-
ever, was disappointed, for while he was preparing
for his journey the Revolution broke out. He was
filled with horror at the excesses of the reign of
terror, and he said in one of his letters: **Men
gifted with reason, who with sangfroid shed tor-
rents of blood, are not worthy of the name of
men." Later, when order was re-established in

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Literature/ 13

France by Bonaparte, Mr. Poydras thought again
of returning to Europe, but having lost his broth-
ers and sisters he concluded to remain in Lou-
isiana. With his characteristic generosity he sent
for his nephews and nieces, of whom three came
over to him: Mme. Bonneaud, to whom he gave
a large plantation in Pointe Coupee ; Charles Poy-
dras and Benjamin Poydras de Lallande, whom
he instituted his universal legatee.

Two or three times a year Mr. Poydras went to
New Orleans. It is curious to note how he trav-
eled. The poor young peddler whom we have seen
in 1769 going with his pack from house to house,
twenty years later had his own boat in which he
leisurely descended the Mississippi. His craft, it
is true, was a flatboat covered with a tent, but he
had with him six oarsmen, a cook and a servant,
and lived in regal fashion, stopping on his way
at the plantations of his friends, of whom he had
a number in every parish, and being received
everywhere with that hospitality so characteristic
of our Southern country. When he went to the
Avoyelles, where he had large herds of cattle,
he crossed the impetuous Atchafalaya river on a
raft, holding by the bridle his horse, which swam
after him. So much accustomed was he to primi-
tive ways of traveling that when, in 1809, at the age
of seventy, he was elected a delegate to Congress
from the Territory of Orleans, he started from
Pointe Coupee on horseback, followed by one
servant, to reach the capital. It took him six
weeks to accomplish the journey. We are glad to
know by his letters that he returned to New
Orleans at the end of the session in a ship, as
a civilized man.

Julien Poydras was tall and well built, and his

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14 Louisiana Studies.

features were regular and pleasing. He was very
pious and led a most moral life. He never was
married. In spite of his numerous occupations
he found time to write poetry, and sang heroic
deeds on his lyre. He wrote an epic poem in
1779 on Galvez, the young and warlike gov-
ernor.

Although very wealthy, Mr. Poydras lived in a
simple and unostentatious manner. He was kind
to every one, and his house was open to all who
knocked at his door. In 1798 Louis-Philippe,
Duke of Orleans, on his way down the Mississippi
river, stopped at Pointe Coupee and was received
at Mr. Poydras' house, who, it is said, furnished
the exiled prince with money to continue his jour-
ney.

Mr. Poydras lived to a very old age ; a man ol
the eighteenth century, he never wished to change
his costume, and in 1824 the contemporary ol
Louis XV was still dressed as the subject of that
monarch more than fifty years before. This good
and estimable man was rather inclined to melan-
choly, in spite of his kindly disposition. Perhaps
he had perceived too well the vanity of things
human.

Having passed by many years the allotted three
score and ten, Julien Poydras was prepared to
take his departure from this world. In the begin-
ning of June, 1824, he took to his bed, for his
strength had abandoned him. Without any real
illness, his life was passing away, as the flame in
a lamp flickers and dies out when there is no
longer any oil to feed the wick. Although ex-
tremely weak, Mr. Poydras was always desirous
of standing up, **For,*' said he, **a man on his
feet never dies.** His friends would hold him up

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Literature. 15

for a few minutes each day, and it was while
standing and with a smile on his lips that he died.
Death must not have had any terrors for a man
whose benefactions were to continue beyond the
tomb. He bequeathed $40,000 to the Charity
Hospital, in New Orleans, was the founder of the
Poydras Asylum, in the same city, and gave $30,-
000 to establish a college for indigent orphans in
Pointe Coupee. To the parishes of Pointe Coupee
and West Baton Rouge he left $30,000 each for a
most noble and poetic purpose. Each year the
interest of the money bequeathed was to be given
to the young girls without fortune who had mar-
ried during the year. Of how much happiness
has Mr. Poydras been the author for more than
half a century! How many loving hearts have
blessed the name of the old man who, unmarried
and childless, had been anxious to provide the
means by which deserving young girls were en-
abled to enter the true sphere in which lies wo-
man's happiness — that of the wife and mother!

At his death Mr. Poydras left twelve hundred
slaves. He had always been opposed to slavery,
but had had to accept fiie institutions of the country
in which he lived. He ever hoped that the day would
come when the negroes would be emancipated, and
he said to his friends that the change from slavery
to liberty should be accomplished gradually. He
understood that in 1824 it was too soon to bring
about emancipation, but he thought that the minds
of the people could be prepared for the change,
and that it could be brought about without any
violent convulsions. He, dierefore, ordered, by a
special clause in his will, that twenty-five years
after his death all his slaves should be set free.
Unfortunately, when the year 1849 came those

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i6 Louisiana Studies.

directions were unheeded and the slaves were not
liberated. Whatever may have been the reasons
at the time for disobeying Mr. Poydras' instruc-
tions we can not but deplore that his wishes were
not respected. The liberation of such a large
number of slaves might have contributed to a
gradual emancipation of the negroes and have
spared our country untold miseries.

The bulk of Mr. Poydras' estate went to his
nephew, Benjamin Poydras de Lallande, who, in
1840, returned to France, where he married Mile,
de la Rouliere of th^ Chateau de la Gacherie,
near Nantes.

Julien Poydras was on intimate terms with
Governor Claiborne and General Wilkinson, and
took a great interest in public affairs. He was
president of the first legislative council of the
territory of Orleans, delegate to Congress from
1809 to 1812, president of the constitutional con-
vention of 1812, president of the senate from
1812 to 1813 and again, in extreme old age, from
1820 to 1821. The pioneer of the eighteenth cen-
tury, the peddler of 1769, had become a states-
man.

He lies buried in the cemetery of St. Francis
church in Pointe Couple parish.* There is no
marble monument to mark the resting place of
the philanthropist, but the most enduring of all
monuments is the memory of his exemplary life ;
for it can truly be said of such a man : the good
that he has done has lived after him and his name
is blessed.

It was thought for a long time that Poydras'
poem on Galvez was lost, but at the end of 1891

*A monument has lately been erected to Poydras in Pointe Couple parish.

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Literature. 17

Mr. H. L. Favrot, of New Orleans, told me that
he had a copy of the work in his possession, and
he has kindly allowed me to copy the poem and to
republish it.

Poydras' work has no great literary merit, but
it is interesting as an historical document, and it is
as such that I reproduce it here, giving an exact
copy of the original, with the spelling and punctua-
tion of the time. While speaking of the poem of
Poydras we must remember that in 1779 French
poetry was, in general, as cold and pompous as
Poydras' verses. The poetic inspiration of the
seventeenth century was dying out and was only
kept up by a few graceful and elegant writers.
The eighteenth century had but too many poems
like those of Louis Racine, J. B. Rousseau, Le
Franc de Pompignan, Lebrun and Poydras. The
style is bombastic, mythological comparisons
abound and are often ill suited. Poets like Vol-
taire, like Gresset, like Andre Chenier, were rare
in France in the eighteenth century. Why should
we expect to find them in Louisiana? Let us be
satisfied with Poydras' work and let us be thank-
ful to him for having given us a poem in 1779. It
is already a great merit to have been the first and
to have had enough patriotism to try to immortal-
ize in heroic verses the heroic deeds of our ances-
tors of the eighteenth century.

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1 8 Louisiana Studies.

la prise ou mornb ou baton rouob.

PAR MONSKIGNBUR DE OALVBZ.

Chevalier pensionne de I'Ordre Royal distingu^ de Charles
Trois, Brigadier des Armees de Sa Majesty, Intendant, In-
specteur et Gouverneur General de la Province de la Loui-
siane, etc.

A LA NOUVELLE ORLEANS,
Chbz Antoxnb Boudousquib, Imprimbur du Rox, bt du Cabildo.

M.DCC.LXXIX.

POfeME.

Quel fracas et quel bruit vient f rapper mon oreille?

Je dormois, tout a coup la foudre me reveille.

A ses coups redoubles je vois fremir mes Eaux^

Et trembler mon Palais, retentir les Echos.

Quel Mortel, ou quel Dieu vient ici dans sa rage,

Troubler la douce paix, de mon heureux Rivage,

OH sous mes sashes Loix, mes habitans cheris,

Couloient les plus beaux jours, sans peine et sans soucis.

Chers objets de mes soins, ils voyoient I'abondance,

Pr^venir leur besoins, toujours dans Paffluence,

Des biens vraiset reels, ils goutoient les douceurs;

Les faux, les superflux ne touchoient point les coeurs.

Ils ignoroient les noms de discorde, de guerre,

Et des autres fleaux, qui ravagent la Terre,

Dans le sein de mes Eaux, ils trouvoient les Poissons,

Le Gibier dans les Bois, les Roseaux pour Maisons,

Pour etancher leur soif, mon Onde la plus pure,

Et pour se reposer la plus belle verdure.

Leurs filches, et leurs arcs, sont des dons dans mes mains.

A moi seul ils devoient, leur bonheur et leurs biens.

lis vivoient satisfaits, sous mon heureux Empire

Mais un hardi Mortel! voyons ce qui I'inspire:

Charm ante Scaesaris, pars, voles vers ces lieux,

D'oH f entends ce grand bruit, et ce fracas affreux.

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Literature.

Lit d'un oeil attentif. en homme deguisee
Saisis tout avec soin, Paffaire cun>oiiiiii^e,
Viens m'instruire de tout, je desire savoir,
Si quelque temeraire, attente k mon pouvuir.
II dit, et Scaesarisy comme un trait fendit I'Ondei
Secouant ses cheveux, vit la clarte du Monde.
Sous les traits d^un mortel, elle va dans le Camp,
Et connut le Heros i son air triomphant.
Elle entend ses discours, et volt toute l*Armee,
A Tenvi I'un de Tautre, au Combat animee.
Le succes le couronne. on voit sur les Remparts
Des Ennemis vaincus, flotter ses Etendards.
Satisfatte Elle part, se replonge dans TOnde.
Et va revoir le Dieu dans sa grote profondo,
Sur son trone d*Erain, pensif il I'attendoit,
Sa tete sur sa main tristement reposoit.
Les ennuis devorans, s'emparent de son ftme,
II ne voit, il n'entend que le feu et la flamme.
En vain autour de lui, les Tritons empresses,
Tachent de rappeller ses esprits egarfes.
II n'est touche derien, son ftme est 6tourdie;
Tel on voit un mortel pret a perdre la vie.
La belle Messagdre, arrive des combats,
II la voit, il lui dit, viens, vole entre mes bras.
Ma chere Scaesaris, oh ma Nymphe cherie I
Je te vois, quel plaisirl satisfais mon envie.
Apprends-moi, quel malheur menace nos Cli.rats,
Quels moyens avons nous d'arreter leurs debats?
Tu sais ce que je puis, ma supreme puissance !
La Nymphe repliqua d'un air plein de dccence,
Dieu du Mississippi, terrible en ton courroux.
Quel pouvoir oseroit, s'opposer k tes coups. ^
Du Nord, jusques au Sud, tu etends ton empire,
Chaque peuple k Penvi, h tes faveurs aspire.
A ton ordre Pon voit tes deux bords s'ecrouler,
Hommes, betes et bois, dans Tabime rouler.
Quand soumis h. ta voix, ton Fleuve se courrouce,
Et tes lots entasses, pr^cipitent leur course,
Les h6tes de nos bois, effrayes du danger,
Quoique prompts, et legers ne peuvent I'eviter.

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20 Louisiana Studies.

Tes eaux dans leur fureur sappent jusqu^aux collinesy
Leurs tristes habitans perissent sous leurs ruinesi
Mais Dieu, pour cette fois, cesses de t*allarmery
Mon r^cit n'aura rlen, qui puisse t'enflammer.
Je I'ai vu ce Heros, qui cause tes- allarmes
II resemblait un Dieu, revetu de ses armes,
Son Panache superbe, alloit au gr6 du vent,
Et ses cheveux epars lui servoient d'ornement.
Un maintien noble et fier annongoit son courage,
L'h^roique vertu, brilloit sur son visage,
D'une main il tenoit, son Sabre eblouissant^
De I'autre il retenoit, son Coursier bondissant.
11 marchoit le premier, et son brillant Cortege,
Pleins d'une noble ardeur, et fiers du privilege,
De courir avec lui, le hazard des combats,
Desiroient les dangers, pour signaler leurs' bras.
Les braves Fantassins, les suivoient en colonne,
Tous bouillonnans du feu, de Mars et de Bellonne,
lis marchoient en bon ordre, k pas surs, et hardis,
M^prisant les perils, voloient aux Ennemis.
Apres eux Ton voyoit, marcher sans artifice,
De nos tiers Habitans, I'intrepide Milice;
Et leurs adroites mains, qui traQoient des Sillons,
Avec la mSme ardeur, elevoient des Bastions;
Et faisoient des Fosses, Parapets, et Tranch^es,
Machines et affuts, pour se battre invent^es.
Pour Part de conqu^rir ils semblent ^tre nes.
Leurs braves Ennemis, en sont ^pouvantes,
Jusque dans leurs Remparts, ils sentent leur courage,
Rien ne les garantit, des effets de leur rage.
La marche finissoit, par les Gens de couleur:
Vifs, ardens a donner, des marques de leur cceur.
L'intrepide Galvez, partout les encourage,
Ses discours, son aspect les excite au courage.
Cependant tout s'apprete, et l*AngIois le premier,
De ses bouches d'airain, lance le fer meurtrier.
Leurs coups pr^cipites, k Pinstar de la foudre,
Frappent, et renversent, reduisent tout en poudre.
En vain ils rallument leurs feux ^tincellans,
Rien ne pent ebranler, les braves Assi^geans,

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LiTBRATURB. 21

Malgr^ les traits m^rtels, qui menacent leur vie.

lis disposent bien tout, dressent leur Batterie,

Les Canons sont points, IMmpatient G^n^ral,

Met le feu au premier et donne le signal.

On le suit & I'lnstant, et leurs foudret de guerre,

Droit au Fort Ennemi, d^chargent leur Tonnerre.

II en est travers^^ 11 r^pond k leurs feuzy

Et le combat s'anime^ et devlent furieuz.

A se battre I'Anglois, redouble son courage;

Toujours avec fureur, 11 revient i la charge.

n r^iste longtemps^ It leur puissans efforts;

Mais il chancelle enfin, sous leurs coups les plus forts.

Leur boulets foudrojans, renversent ses terrasses^

Le ravage, et la mort, marquent partout leurs traces.

Fatigue de combattre, et toujours sans succ^s,

II ne se flatte plus, d'arr^ter leurs progr^s.

II met Pavilion Blanc^ pour marquer sa d^faite;

Le Camp le voit^ et dit la conquSte est done faite.

La Victoire en ce jour arrache des Bretons,

Les Lauriers toujours verds, dont elle ome nos fronts

Galvez victorieux, assemble son Arm6e,

Charme des sentimens, dont elle est anlm^e,

II lui tient ce discours, touchant, digne de liii,

Et qui doit dans les coeurs, graver son nom ch^rl.

Intr^pides Guerriers, compagnons de ma gloire,

Par vos mains aujourd'hui^ j'ai gagn6 la Victoire,

En Spartes, Ton vous voit, voler au champ d'honneur,

Et partout vous montrez, une insigne valeur.

Pour marcher sur mes pas, vous quittez vos campagnes.

Et vos tendres Enfans, vos fideles Compagnes.

Je sens ce que je dois k vos soins, vos Exploits,

Je saurai les vanter, au plus grand de nos rois.

Comptez sur sa justice, et ma reconnoissance.

Nos vertus recevront, leur juste recompense.

Oui le rang distingue, quMl daigne m'accorder,

N'auroit rien de flatteur s*il devoit arrSter,

Le cours de ses faveurs, un plus juste partage,

Entre nous, crojez moi, me plairoit davantage.

II dity et tout le monde par ses acclamations,

L'assure de son cceur, de ses dispositions.

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22 Louisiana Studies.

Scaesaris racontoit, et toute I'audience,

Dieu, Nymphes et Tritons, T^coutoient en silence.

Une secrette joye, animoit tons les coeurs,

Et tous se declaroienty en faveur des Vainqueurs.

Elle voit dans leurs jeux, leur curiosity peinte,

Et leur dit, ecoutez, ]e parlerai sans feinte.

Enfin nous les voyons, ces tems^ ces heureux terns,

Qui vont nous procurer, les plus grands changemens.

Les Ronces, les Roseaux, et l*Epine sauvage,

Ne deguiseront plus notre fecond Rivage.

Des Colons diligens, feront par leur travaux,

De nos deserts affreux, les sejours les plus beaux.

Nos plaines par leurs mains tous les ans cultivees,

D'abondantes Moissons, seront toujours ornees:

Nous verrons dans nos Pres leur bondissans Troupeaux,

Leurs Vergers, leurs Jardins, couvriront nos coteaux.

Cer^s, Pomone et Flore, et les Graces naives,

Se plairont avec nous, sur nos fertiles rives.

Le Zephire badin, de son souffle leger,

Entr'ouvrira les Fleurs, quMl aime h. caresser,

L'Abondance, et la Paix, seront dans nojs Contrees,

A Pamour, au plaisir, ^ jamais consacres;

Tant que dans nos Climats, ce genereux Vainqueur,

D'un Peuple qu'il cherit, fera tout le bonheur;

Le Dieu Pinterrompant, laisse eclater sa joie,

Je le vois, lui dit-il, c'est le Ciel qui Penvoie.

Qu'il vive dans le sein, de la prosperite,

Qu'il gofite le plaisir, de se voir adore.

Que ses grandes vertus, soient par tous ceUbrees,

Que ses belles actions, obtiennent des Trophees.

Je dirai ^ mes Eaux, de moddrer leur cours,

Et de fertiliser le lieu de son sejour.

Par des sentiers de Fleurs qu'il parvienne a la Gloire.

Que son nom soit ecrit, au Temple de memoire.

Chantez, Nymphes, Tritons, enflez vos Chalumeaux.

Tout respire la joie, en Pempire des Eaux,

Je veux a son honneur, instituer une F^te,

Qui consacre k jamais, sa nouvelle Conqu6te

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Literature. 23

CHANSON

SUR L*AlR, JUSQUB DANS LA MoiNDRS ChOSB| EtC.

Dois-je croire tnes oreilles
£t ce r^cit enchanteur.
Quo! I chaque jour des merveilles
De ce fatneux Gouverneur.
L*Ame grande et g^n^reuse
De ce Mortel demi Dieu
Croit la grandeur on^euse.
Si Elle ne fait des heureux.
Appollon pr6te ta Ijre,
Viens seconder mes efforts,
C'est un r^ve, c'est un delire.
Je succombe a mes transports.
L*ennemi lui rend les armes,
II le comble de bienfaits,
II goilte dans ses allarmes^
Les delices de la paiz.
C*est un h^ros magnanimei
Chantons tons k qui mieux mleuz,
Et d'une voix unanime,

Elevons-le jusqu^aux Cieux. '^ .

Au beau Temple de memoire^ <

Erigeons-iui des Autels,
Gijyez merite la gloire,
De devenir Immortel.
Fin.

Ill— THE FRENCH LITERATURE OF LOUISIANA—
18U-1893.

Jefferson having acquired the colony of Louisi-
ana for the United States in 1803, its population
and the material interests of the people increased
so rapidly that the territory of Orleans became a
State in 181 2. Two years later the first book

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24 Louisiana Studies.

of our own literature was published, a tragedy,
" Poucha Houmma," by Le Blanc de Villeneufve.
I shall not speak at present of this work, as I wish
to divide my subject into several parts: history
and biography, the drama, poetry, novels, and
miscellaneous works. I may add that in this re-
view of our Louisiana Literature I do not speak of
the journalists, of whom many were quite distin-
guished.

History and Biography. "'*^'

The history of Louisiana is exceedingly inter-
esting, and it early attracted the attention of a dis-
tinguished man, Judge Francois-Xavier Martin, of
the Supreme Court, who wrote in 1827 his history
in English.

As the majority of Louisianians in the beginning
of this century only spoke French, a history in
that language was very necessary to them, and
Mr. Gayarre evinced his patriotism when he pub-
lished in 1830 his "Essai Historique sur la Lou-
isiane.'' * The author was then but twenty-five
years old, but we can see on every page a great
enthusiasm for his subject and his devotion to the
State. The narrative is clear, and the method is
good, and we can already recognize in this essay
the author of the ** History of Louisiana." Mr.
Gayarre has been the Henri Martin, we might add
the J. R. Green, of Louisiana. He has spent al-

* Charles Gayarr^, ** Bssai Historique sur la Louisiane/' i Vol. lamo,
441 pp. Imprim^ par Benjamin Levy, Nouvelle-Orl^ans, 183a

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Literature. 25

most his whole life in writing and re-writing the
history of his native State.

In 1846, he published his ** Histoire de la Lou-
isiane '* * in two volumes. It comprises only the
French domination, but the work is of great value,
as Mr. Gayarre, who had been United States Sen-
ator and afterward Secretary of State of Louisiana,
had been able to procure many documents of our
colonial period, and had given them in full in his
history. The author seemed in this work to
wish to divest his writings of his own person-
ality, and he adopted the plan which has ren-
dered de Barante's ** Dues de Bourgogne " so
interesting, that of giving the documents of the
times, and causing the personages to relate, as it
were, their own history. This method is very at-
tractive, but it is not the philosophy of history.
Mr. Gayarre's own views were of too great im-
portance to be ignored, and his countrymen were
highly pleased when he gave his last work on Lou-
isiana written in English a more philosophical cast.
Mr. Gayarre was greatiy honored by his State in
his youth, and ialthough he has now no official po-
sition, no one is more venerated and esteemed in
Louisiana than our historian.

In 1841, Mr. Victor Debouchel published his
** Histoire de la Louisiane, depuis les premieres
decouvertes jusqu'en i840.''t The work is inter-

* Charles GaTarr6, " Histoire de la Louisiane/* a Vol. 8vo. Magne and
Weisse, Nouvelle<OrUans, 1846 and 1847.

t Victor Debouchel, " Histoire de la Louisiane.'* i Vol, i6mo, 190 pp. J.
P. Lelibvre, NouTelle- Orleans, 1841.

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26 Louisiana Studies.

esting and the style is clear and concise. The aim
of the author was to write a history for schools,
but which might be read with profit even by men
of culture. The dates are very carefully given at
the beginning of every paragraph treating of a
different subject, and the contents of each chapter
or **esquisse" are indicated by a well chosen
title. Mr. Debouchel gives some amusing details
about our old laws : in 1808, the fees of a lawyer
were $16 before the Supreme Court or the Cir-
cuit Court, and before a parish court $5. In 1809,
however, the fee was fixed at $11 for every case.
The last part of Mr. Debouchel's book is devoted
to the great financial crisis of 1840, when a spirit
of speculation seemed to have taken possession of
the Louisianians. The history ends with the fol-
lowing very encouraging enumeration of the
schools in Louisiana in 1840 : three large colleges :
Franklin in Opelousas, Jefferson in St. James,
Louisiana at Jackson; thirty academies, of which
six were for young ladies, and three convents.

Mr. Debouchel's work was followed in 1854 ^7
Mr. Henri Remy's, who published a well written
**Histoirede la Louisiane "* in the St. Michel^ a
weekly paper of the parish of St. James. It is
very much to be regretted that the publication of
this history was discontinued when the author had
only gone as far as 1731. The wars against the
Natchez and the Chicassas are related with many

* Henri R6my, " Histoire de la Louisiane.'* cf . Le Journal SU Michel
Paroisse St Jacques, 1S54.

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LiTBRATURE. 27

details and great impartiality, and we see very
often that justice was not always on the side of the
white man. If the savage was cruel in his warfare,
it must be admitted that he had generally been led
to hostility by the act of some inferior French
officer, as was the case with Chepar, at Fort
Rosalie. Mr. Remy praises Bienville as gover-
nor, but is very severe against the French govern-
ment and its unwise colonial administration.

Two works written by ladies, both teachers of
reputation in New Orleans, are now to be exam-
ined. Mme. Laure Andry imitated Lame Fleury 's
simple and conversational style, and succeeded
in producing a really charming **Histoire de la
Louisiane pour les enfants."* I have never read
a book which pleased me more ; it is so unassum-
ing and, at the same time, so entertaining.

Mme. D. Girard, an old lady of most wonder-
ful energy, who still teaches, although some of her
pupils are now grandmothers, published in 1881
her ** Histoire des Etats-Unis suivie de THistoire
de la Louisiane. "t It is a small book and more a
chronicle or chronology than a history, but is
very useful for reference.

We now come to a work which was received by
the people of Louisiana with almost filial respect.
Bernard de Marigny, whose ancestor had been a
companion of Iberville, after having been a mem-

* Mme. Laure Andry. " Histoire de la Louisiane pour les Enfants." j
Vol. i6mo, 163 pp. Bug. Antoine, Nouvelle-Orleans, 1582.

t Mme. D. Girard. * ^Histoire des Etats-Unis suivie de I'Histoire de la
Louitiaae.'* 1 Vol. iSmo, 84 pp. Bug. Antoine, Nouvelle-Orleans, 1881.

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28 Louisiana Studies.

ber of two State constitutional conventions, and for
many years, of the House and Senate of Louisi-
ana, presented in 1854 ^^ ^^ Legislature of the
State his ** Reflexions sur la Politique des Etats-
Unis. Statistique de TEspagne, de Tile de Cube,
etc."* The author was then seventy years old and
struggling with adversity, although he had once a
fortune of $4,000,000, and his father had received
with princely hospitality the exiled Louis-Philippe
d' Orleans. Mr. de Marigny was one of the most
tj^ical men of the old regime, generous, elegant,
brave and witty. His ** calembours " have become
as celebrated as his duels, and his eloquence was
natural and pleasing. His work begins with the
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, explains the
causes of the American Revolution, and gives a
rapid review of the annexations to the United
States, urging on the latter to take possession of
Cuba. The author then enumerates the conquests
of the European nations, and gives a glowing
account of the future of our union. Strange to
say, only seven years before the Civil War began,
he did not seem to have foreseen the terrible
events that were approaching. Mr. de Marigny
ends by claiming in a few touching words the
indulgence of his fellow-citizens: ** en raison des
motifs qui raniment mes forces et me font pres-
que oublier mes malheurs et mes vieilles annees."

* Bernard de Marig^ny, *' Reflexions sur la Politique des Btats-Unis,
Statistique de I'Bspa^e. de Pile de Cube," etc. i Vol. 8vo, 95 pp. J. L..
Sollte, NewTelle-Orleans, 1854.

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Literature. 29

** Histoire des Comites de Vigilance aux Attaka-
pas,"* by Alexandre Barde, is a true story, but
has all the interest of a romance. It relates the
efforts of some valiant men to free their parishes
from the bandits, who, like the Chauffeurs^ were
committing the greatest atrocities, and whom the law
was powerless to punish. The vigilants were men
of courage, of wealth and of culture, and among
them were Alexandre Mouton, ex-governor and
United States Senator; his son Alfred Mouton, the
brave general killed only a few years later at Mans-
field; Major St. Julien, a real chevalier; Alci-
biade De Blanc, afterward a judge of our Su-
preme Court; Alcee Judice, most eloquent and
intrepid; the Martins, the Voorhies, the Brous-
sards and many others of the best and most re-
spected families. Mr. Barde not only gives the
history of the committees ; he describes most ac-
curately the picturesque Teche country, and re-
lates all the legends and traditions of the Attakapas
region. I do not think that any history of Louis-
iana can give as correct an idea of life in our
country parishes before the war as Mr. Barde's
work. No one can begin to read it without finish-
ing it, and the adventures of our Louisianians are
as interesting as those of Dumas* celebrated
* * mousquetaires. ' '

** Esquisses Locales "t par un Inconnu (C)rprien

*Alkxandrb Bab de, "Histoire des Comit^s de Vijnlance aux At
takapas." i Vol., Svo., 428 pp. Imprimerie du Meschcaeb^ et de /'^va»/
CoureuTf St. Jean-Baptiste, 1S61.

fUN Inconnu (Cyprikn Dufour), " Esquisses Locales." i Vol. 8vo.,
147 PP* J' L* SoU^e.

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30 Louisiana Studies.

Dufour) 1847. This work was first published in the
Courrier de la Louisiane^ and excited the greatest
interest. The author presented a series of pictures
of the most prominent men of the day, and showed
the most consummate tact and. skill in his criti-
cisms. His style is sprightly and witty, and he dis-
plays throughout the utmost finesse. For us who
read that book after nearly fifty years, and who are
almost posterity for the men mentioned by Mr. Du-
four, we must admit that his judgment about his
contemporaries was almost always correct, and
that his predictions about their future were quite
prophetic. For instance, when he speaks of John
Slidell, the great Louisiana politician, so widely
known afterward through the ** Trent " affair, he
portrays the wily diplomat in the most graphic man-
ner. '* Esquisses Locales " is a very useful work for
the student of the history and literature of Louis-
iana. He can see in looking over the pages of
this little book all manner of men of the old
regime: lawyers, statesmen, journalists, prose
writers and poets. I only regret that Mr. Dufour
did not extend his gallery of portraits to the physi-
cians of the time, of whom so many were dis-
tinguished, and that he did not give us a glimpse
of old plantation life, by presenting to us some of
our refined, chivalricand intelligent sugar planters.
It is a great loss to our literature that **Un In-
connu," who was an able lawyer, has produced
only one work, for such a brilliant pen could have
given us some charming comedies of real life.

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Literature. 31

In the parish of St. James there is at a distance
of five miles from the river a settlement in the
woods; it is called *Ma Grande Pointe," and is
very prosperous. The inhabitants are all de-
scendants of the Acadian exiles, and have re-
tained the energy of their fathers. The men are
great deer and duck hunters, and cultivate the
land; the women are very pious and industrious.
It is there that old Perique manufactured the famous
tobacco carrots which bear his name. ** Le Destin
d'un Brin de Mousse,"* by Mile. Desiree Martin, is
an autobiography, and reveals to us the daily life of
these worthy people. The author speaks with great
reverence of her parents, especially of her grand-
father, a patriarch surrounded by a progeny oi
seventy-eight children and grandchildren. From
having been a most happy **gardeuse d'oies/'
Mile. Martin became an unhappy nun. After
many years passed in a convent she retired
to *Ma Grande Pointe," and related her
story and that of her ancestors to her little
nephews. Although an ex-nun, there is not a word
of irreverence against religion in the book; the
author seems to have been of a thoroughly truthful
and honest disposition. She communicates to us
all her feelings and we can but respect her
filial piety, her devotion to her God and her love
for Louisiana. Here is a pleasing and characteristic
passage: **Avant de mettre pied a terre, devinez

♦Mllk Desiree Martin, " Les VeilJ^cs d'une Soeur ou le Destin
d'nn Brin de Mousse." i Vol. i6mo, 230 pp. Imprim. Cosmopolite, Nouvelle-
Oricans, 1877.

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32 Louisiana Studies.

done, mes chers enfants, quelle idee enfantine me
vint? — De boire de Teau de votre fleuve tant
aim6.

— Tout juste, chere Louisa; je me lis apporter
un verre d'eau du Mississippi et je le vidai d'un
trait en disant; * Fontaine, je ne boirai jaimais de
meilleure eau que la tienne.' "

Before passing to another subject I wish to men-
tion, under the head of history, though not strictly
belonging to it, an address by Mr. Gayarre in op-
position to Mr, Livingston's report to the Legisla-
ture on the abolition of capital punishment.* The
work was published in 1826, and was one of the
earliest in our Louisiana literature.

The Drama.

Before the revival of the drama in France by
the rise of the romantic school; before ** Henri III
et sa cour; " before ** Hernani," and while Marie-
Joseph Chenier, Lemercier, and Ducis were still
masters of the stage, we had in Louisiana a tragedy
which may be read with some interest. Le Blanc
de Villeneufve, an ex-officer in the French army,
wrote at the age of seventy-eight, a drama on an
episode of Indian life. While employed by the
government among the Tchactas, from 1752 to 1758,
he heard the story of the father who had sacrificed
himself to save his son's life, and he says that
many years afterward he thought of writing a

* Charles Gayarr^, " Discours adress£ ^ Legislature, en refutation du
Rapport de Mr. "Livingston sur I'Abolition de la Peine de Mort." i Vol. i2mo
35 pp. Benj. Levy, Nouvelle-Orl6ans, i8z6.

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Literature. 33

play on this subject, in order to defend the Indians
from the imputation of having been savages with-
out any human feelings.

This work, **Poucha Houmma,'** is a regular
classical tragedy, and the unities of time, place,
and action seem to be well observed. The style
is somewhat too grandiloquent and Cornelian for
Indian personages; for instance, the play begins
thus:

Augustes descendans d'un peuple sans pareil,
Tr^s illustres enfans des enfans du Soleil,
Enfin void le jour otl la saison prosp^re
Va payer vos travaux d'un precieux salaire :
Ce jour, vous le savez, jadls par nos ajeux,
Fut toujours mis au rang des jours les plus heureuz,
Je n'ai jamais manque d'en c^l^brer la f^te,
Depuis soixante hivers ecoul^s sur ma t^te.
Que vos coeurs satisfaits s'expriment par vos chants ;
La terre, sous vox yeux, a place ses presens :
A notre bienfaiteur o£frez-en les premices.
Puisse-t-il agrer vos pieux sacrifices I
Pour moi, triste jouet du sort le plus cruel,
Je ne puis presider It I'acte solennel.
L'ancien de nos vieillards pourra prendre ma place, " \
Je dois me retirer, je le demande en grsLce.
(a part),

Malheureux que je suis, un reve me confond . • . •

We see then that, as in **Athalie,'* a dream is
pursuing Poucha-Houmma with its sinister omen.
He does not wish to preside over ** la Ffete du Petit
Ble," the most important of all the festivals of the
Hoummas. Tchilita-Be, Poucha's brother, exhorts
him to attend to his duties of chief, and asks him

*Le Blanc de Villeneufve, ** Poucha-Houmma." i Vol. lamo, 58 pp. Im-
primerie du Courrier de la Lne, Nouvelle-Orl^ans 1814.

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34 Louisiana Studies.

to relate his dream. The latter says that he had
dreamed that his son Cala-Be, who had escaped
after having killed a Tchacta, was to be put to
death the next day. In the second act, Cala-Be,
accompanied by his wife Fouchi, whom he had
married among the Attac-Apas, returns to his vil-
lage. In the third act is related the festival of
the '* Petit Ble," one feature of which was that
the children were to be flogged unmercifully by
their mothers on that day. While the *' Petit Ble "
was being celebrated, arrives Nachouba, a friend
of Poucha-Houmma, who says that the Tchactas
are coming to claim the murderer. The Houmma
chief thereupon orders his son to escape from his
enemies, and there is a touching struggle between
the father, who wants to save the son, and the
latter and his wife, who want to brave the ene-
mies. At last Cala-Be and Fouchi withdraw, and
Poucha-Houmma receives the Tchacta envoys.
There is an assembly of the tribe, and the Houmma
chiefs offer all their treasures for the life of Cala-
Be. The Tchactas insist, however, upon the law
of retaliation, and Poucha surrenders himself to
save his son. The tribe, in consternation, allow
their chief to be led away. In the fifth act Cala-
Be returns to submit to his fate, but he only arrives
after his father has been put to death, in his place,
and he listens with horror to Nachouba' s recital
of the last moments of Poucha-Houmma.

If we consider that the author of this tragedy was
seventy-eight years old when he wrote it, and if we

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^_ LlTBRATURB* 35

remember **Agesilas'' and "Pertharite** of Cor-
neille's old age, we must admit that our first Louis-
iana drama was, under the circumstances, a work
of some merit. At our last Exposition was the
portrait of Mr. de Villeneiifve dressed as a
Tchacta chief.

In 1839 -^' Lussan published in Donaldsonville
"Les Martyrs de la Louisiane,''* a tragedy in
five acts. It is worthy of notice, as the person-
ages are the heroes of the revolution of I768, The
Louisianians could hear on the stage their ances-
tors uttering words of defiance to O'Reilly and
offering their lives for their country. The princi-
pal character is Joseph Villere, father of our
second governor, a man of a magnanimous tem-
per. Having heard of the arrest of his friends in
New Orleans, he left his plantation to share their
fate, and was placed on a frigate, where he was
killedl by the sentinel on his attempting to run to
his wife, whose voice he had recognized. His last
words are really fine :

Je te devais mon sang.. ..toi.... que j'ai tant cherie....

Louisiane adoree....O ma noble patrie....

Dis, 81 j^ai 8u garder....rhooneur....et mon serment....

(Giving tiis blood j handkerchief to a sailor).
Pour ma femme....eUe est Ik....c*est mon dernier present!

In the last act Lafreniere and his friends are in
prison, and the former says :

Adieu done a la vie, k cet amour sacr^,

Dans le fond de nos coeurs si longtemps ^pur^!

* A. Lussan, " Martyrs de la Louisiane." x Vol. 8vo. isa pp. E. Martin
and F. Prou, Donaldsonville, iti|9.

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36 Louisiana Studies.

O mon pays I adieu ! nous tombons sans nous plaindre^
Si par notre trepas, tes maux doivent s'^teindre.

The conspirators are then led to execution, all
of them dressed most elegantly, and Lafreniere
exclaims :

Nous sommes pr^ts, monsieur! D'aujourd'hui cette enceinte
Pour la post^rite devient illustre et sainte;
Et, martyrs du devoir, son burin redoute
Grave nos noms au seuil de ^immortality.

This tragedy is of the Romantic school; the uni-
ties of time and place are not observed, and the
play seems to be of the style of " Hernani" and
of "Marion Delorme." All Louisianians, all
Americans, will read ** Les Martyrs" with enthu-
siasm, for it is indeed a most patriotic work.

Mr. Lussan's second drama, " Sara, la Juive,"
in five acts and in prose, hardly deserves to be
mentioned.

Among our most popular dramatists was Mr. L.
Placide Canonge of L'Abeille de la Nouvelle-
Orl^ans. He wrote the librettos of several operas
and many poems which have not been gathered in
book form. His two most celebrated works are
" Qui perd gagne,"* a comedy in one act and in
prose, and **Le Comte de Carmagnola,"t a
drama in five acts and in prose. The comedy
appeared in 1849, and was dedicated in a very
clever letter to Alfred de Musset. The work is a

♦ " Qui Perd Gagnc." i Vol. 8vo. Le Courtier de la Louisiane^ Nou-
velle-Orl6an8, 1849.

t L. Placide Canoiire,"LeComtc de Canna^nola." i Vol. 8vo. 58 pp.
Le Courrier de la Z>#iirMfafi^Nouvelle-Orlten8, 1856.

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Literature. 37

proverb, and Mr. Canonge has succeeded quite
well. His comedy is light and witty. A husband
wagers with a friend that he will come to a ball
with him and leave his young wife at home. The
latter has heard their conversation, and induces
her husband to play a game of cards with her, on
condition that if he loses he will spend the evening
at home. She renders herself so agreeable during
the game that the husband loses on purpose, and
then acknowledges that he has played **A qui
perd gagne."

** Le Comte de Carmagnola " (1856) was acted
several times in New Orleans, and was always
seen with pleasure. The subject was well chosen,
as the history of the Milanese shepherd, who rose
to be general-in-chief of Milan and then of Venice,
is in itself intensely dramatic. The author supposes
that the Duchess Beatrice de Tenda, while being
led to the scaffold, gives a paper to the young
Carmagnola in which she says that Bianca de
Visconti is not her daughter, but an illegitimate
child of the duke, and that the real heiress to the
throne is Michaela, who has been brought up by
Carmagnola's father.

Carmagnola is in love with Michaela, and it is
in order to recover her crown that he becomes
great. A pretty incident in the play is that both
daughters of Visconti love Carmagnola, whom the
duke fears and hates. The captain, after many
thrilling events, falls at Venice in the presence of

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38 Louisiana Studies.

Michaela and Bianca, who had vainly tried to
save him.

This drama, by its numerous incidents, may be
reckoned in the class of the **Trois Mousque-
taires " and of the **Bossu."

Among our Louisiana authors Dr. Alfred Mer-
cier is one of the best known. He has tried all
subjects except history, and has succeeded well in
every one. He is a dramatist, a poet, a novelist,
an essayist, a philosopher and a scientist. His
views are always original, and his style, both in
poetry and in prose, is elegant and correct.

Dr. Mercier published his first works in Paris in
1842. They comprise "La Rose de Smyrne,"
''L'Ermite de Niagara" and '* Erato." I shall
mention at present only *' L'Ermitede Niagara,"*
as it may be ranked as a drama, the author himself
calling it a mystery.

Pere Daniel, a hermit dwelling among the Tus-
caroras, has received in his ajoupa (his hut) a
stranger, EUfrid, whom he loves as his son.
Adina, a young Indian girl, comes every day to
visit the good father, and soon loves the white
man. She relates with a charming and almost
biblical simplicity her first interview with EUfrid :

Un jour, j'allais puiser ii la source voisine:
C'etait un jour superbe, et j'allais en chantant,
Heureuse de I'air frais et d'un ciel ^clatant.
Je Paper9U8 ^ I'ombre, aupr^s de la fontaine,

*Dr. Alfred Mercier, **l'Brmite de Niagara,** lamo., 176 pp. Jules
Labitte, Paris, 184a.

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LiTBRATURB. 39

Aussitdt je me tais^ et j'hMte^ incertalne
Si je dois avancer, mais avan^ant toujours.
n paraissait pensif : see yeuz suivaient le court
De I'eau qui murmurait It voix plaintive et baste.
En tremblani j'y plongeai ma vide calebasse;
n la prit sans rien dire, et sans rien dire encore,
Sur ma t^te il la mit pleine jusques au bord. J

Moi^ je l^ve les bras, pour prendre I'^quilibre.
Mais lui, voyant alors que je ne suis plus libre,
n depose un baiser sur ma peau qui brftlait.

In the second act we are introduced to the
council of the chiefs, where Maktagol, jealous of
Adina's love for Ellfrid, excites the Indians against
the pale face. The warriors attack the young
man's hut, but are repulsed, and Ellfrid wanders
in the night around the cataract. There, he is met
by the genius of the Falls, who, Adamastor-like,
addresses him, and exhorts him to go and explore
the subterranean palace of the River God, old
Niagara. The young man throws himself in the
cataract, and sees at the bottom Niagara and his
tributaries. The description of the poet is here
very fine :

Je ne sais quels rajons ^clairent ce lieu pftle,
Pareils a des reflets d'aurore bor^ale :
On dirait qu'une gaze, un crepuscule d'or,
Tend de pi is transparents le profond corridor.

On his return from Niagara's palace, Ellfrid
meets Adina, whose joy, on seeing him alive,
betrays her love. Pfere Daniel marries them, and
the Indian girls conduct the bride to her hut.
During the night, however, the Tuscaroras attack
Ellfrid, who is mortally wounded with a poisoned

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40 Louisiana Studies.

arrow. Adina sucks the blood from the wound,
but Ellfrid can not be saved, and his wife does
not survive him.

The plot of this mystery is interesting, and the
verses are good. As it is the only work of the
kind in our literature, I thought necessary to give
some details about it.

The last dramatic work published in book form
in Louisiana is a comedy in verse by Dr. C.
Delery, **L'ficole du peuple."* It is a keen
satire of carpet-bag rule in our State, and very
entertaining to those who have known the person-
ages who appear on the stage.

Although but few dramas have been published
in Louisiana, many good comedies have been
written to be played by amateurs. Judge Alfred
Roman and Judge Felix Voorhies, of St. Martins-
ville, have probably beeii the most successful in
these *' comedies de salon."

Poetry.

Louisiana, with its romantic history, its stately
river, its magnificent forests, its luxuriant vegeta-
tion, its numerous bayous overshadowed by secu-
lar oak trees, and its picturesque scenery on the
coast of the Gulf, seemed to be a fit abode for
poets. They were inspired by the climate, by the
nature of the country, by patriotism, by the chiv-

*Dr. Chas. Delery, " L'Bcole du Peuple." i Vol. lamo. Imprimerie
du PrQpagateur Cmtholiquet Nouvelle-Orlteas, 1877.

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LiTBRATURB. 4I

airy and bravery of the men, and, above all, by the
beauty and grace of the women. Our literature,
therefore, is rich in poets, richer perhaps than
that of any other State. We have many verses
published in Louisiana, and probably more still
which their authors have not given to the public.

Often has the father or the mother recited
touching lines, which have been treasured by the
children of the family as most precious legacies,
and which were yet to remain unseen by alien eyes.
I am familiar with many Creole poets whose works,
though unknown to the great world of literature,
would be read with emotion and pleasure, their
themes being the most sacred feelings of humanity.
Indeed, the gift of verse seems a not uncommon
endowment among a people characterized by so
much sensibility and vivacity as our Creoles. Of
the poems published by my countrymen, I regret
to say that I have not read all. In spite of their
merit, the works of Louisianians are now rare in
our State, and many of them I have not been able
to procure.

Among our earliest poets is Mr. TuUius St.
Ceran, who wrote ** Rien-ou Moi,"* in 1837, ^^d
** Mil huit cent quatorze et mil huit cent quinze,"t
in 1838. In this author we find a lively imagina-
tion and the greatest enthusiasm for his subject.
His poetic talent can not be said to have been of a

* TulUusSt C^ran, ** Rien-ou Moi.'* z Vol. 8vo, 194 pp. G. Brusl^, Nou-
velle-Orl£ans, 1837.

t * *Mil huit cent quatorze et Mil huit cent qninze." 1 Vol. Svo, 51 pp.
Gaux et Cie, Nouvclle*Orl6ans, 1838.

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42 Louisiana Studies.

high order, but his works may be read with inter-
est, as they show a sincere patriotism, and give an
idea of the feelings of the time.

Another work of great local interest is an epic
poem in ten cantos by Urbain David, of Cette, a
resident of Louisiana. The book, like that of
Mr. St. C6ran, was inspired by the glorious events
of 1815 and is entitled ** Les Anglais a la Louisi-
ane en 1814 et 1815."* The history of Packen-
ham's defeat is related with some force and with
many details which must be pleasing to the de-
scendants of the heroes of the battle of New
Orleans.

In 1846, there appeared in New Orleans a
poetical journal called '* Le Taenarion.^t Mr.
F61ix de Courmont took the satirical pen and
wrote several satires which were severely criti-
cised. It is amusing to read the defence of the
author; his replies are sometimes quite correct,
but he generally allows himself to be carried away
by his passion, forgetting that it is as natural to be
criticised as to be praised. Mr. de Courmont was
neither a Juvenal, a Horace, nor a Boileau, and it
is with pleasure that we turn from his satires to his
minor pieces. ** Le Morne Vert," " L' Amour,"
**Le Dernier des Caraibes " are really graceful
poems.

* Urbain David, " Les Anglais k la Louisiane en 1814 et 1811;." i Vol.
lamo. 60 pp. NouvelleOrMans, 1845.

t Fflix de Courmont, " Le Tacnarion." i Vol. Svo, Gaux and Cie., Nou-
velle- Orleans, 1846-47.

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Literature. 43

**Les Vagabondes*' by CamiUe Thierry,* con-
tains some charming verses. ** L'Amant du Cor-
saire " begins thus :

Petit oiseau de mer, toi qui reviens sans doute

D'un rivage lointain,
Oh I dis-moi, n*a8-tu pas rencontre sur tm route

Le svelte brigantin?

" Mariquita la Calentura " is a work of touch-
ing melancholy; it speaks of a poor woman,
legendary in New Orleans, pursued in the streets
by the gamins, and who had once been a beautiful
Spanish girl:

Tu parlais de Tamant fiddle,
De I'Espagnol qui, chaque soir,
Agrafait sa leg^re echelle
Aux murs vieillis de ton manoir.

a

Les Cenelles,"t a word which signifies a
small berry, is a collection of poems which are of
some merit. The authors are Valcour, Boise,
Dalcour, Dauphin, Desbrosses, Lanusse, Liotau,
Riquet, St. Pierre, Thierry and Victor S^jour,
whose work *' Le Retour de Napoleon" was
favorably received in France.

Mr. Constant Lepouz6,t a Frenchman residing
in Louisiana for twenty years, may be considered
one of our most correct and classical poets ; he
translated beautifully the odes of Horace and his
ninth satire, ** Le Facheux." It is to be regretted

♦ Camille Thierry, " Les Vaeabondes." i Vol. lamo. Paris,
t " Les Cenellcs." iVol. lOmo. Nouvelle -Orleans.
I Constant Lepouz£, Ponies Diverses. i Vol. 8vo, i88 pp. Bnisl^ and
Lesseps, Nouvelle- Orleans, 1838.

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44 Louisiana Studies.

that Mr. Lepouz^'s translations are so little known,
for the author must have been a remarkable Latin
scholar.

"Les Lazareennes,"* "Fables et Chansons,
Poesies Sociales," by Joseph D^jacque, is the
only work of its kind published in Louisiana,
where, I may add, it had very little success,
although it contains poems of no little literary
merit. The author seems to have been a socialist,
and in his book attacks the family ties and prop-
erty, repeating with emphasis Proudhon's cele-
brated words: ** La propri^t^, c'est le vol." This
is the only work published in Louisiana which
speaks unfavorably of our city and its inhab-
itants; the others evince a most sincere patrio-
tism. Mr. D^jacque had talent, as can be seen
from the following lines: ** D'Esprit Rebelle a
Malin Esprit.''

II semble qu'une F6e h titre d'apanage, . ^' ',.

A 8ur vous, blond lutin, eem^ ses dons d*amour,

Qu*elle a d'un diamant forrn^ votre visage,

Et d^rob^ vosyeux au tendre email du jour!

Que des plus belles fleurs exprimant les fluides,

Elle en fit une argile et modela vos chairs,

Ou bien, — comme Cypris, de ses langes hum ides, —

Qu'elle vous a tir^e, autre perlel des mers.

During our civil war, Mars and Bellona, as the
poets would say, had chased away Apollo and the
Muses, and but one poem inspired by the war

* Joseph D£jacque, " Les Lazar6ennes," etc. i Vol. 8vo, 199 pp. J.
Lamarre, Nouvelle-Orl6ans, 1857.

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LiTERATURB, 45

was produced. It is " Les Nemesiennes Con-
federees "* (1863) by Dr. C. Delery. The work,
as was to be expected, is most bitter agaiast the
Federals, and stigmatizes General Butler.

We have one specimen of didactic poetry in
Louisiana, **Homo,"t by Mr. Chas. Oscar Du-
gue, a well written poem in seven cantos, but
which is of little interest, and no more read than
**La Religion," ** La Navigation," or '* Les Jar-
dins." Mr. Dugue also published, under the title
of **Essais Poetiques," a volume of poetry said to
be very good. Unfortunately, I could not procure
a copy of the work.

It is with pleasure that, according to the division
of my subject, I return to Dr. Alfred Mercier's
poetical works: *' La Rose deSmyrne"t and
'* Erato." The former is a graceful and touching
orientate^ and relates the love of Hatilda, the Mos-
lem's wife, for a young and beautiful ^/a(?«r and
the sad fate of the lovers. The introduction of
this work is another proof of the intense love of
all Louisianians for their State.

D'otl vient done cette voix qui me traverse I'llme,
Comme passe le soir la brise snr la lame;
Vague comme le soft que soupire a longs traits,
La harpe eolienne au milieu desforlts?
C'est la voix du passe, cette voix caressante
Qui parle au voyageur de la patrie absente.

♦ Dr. C Dcl6ry, ♦• Les Nemesiennes Conf6der6e8." i Vol. i6mo.
Mobile, 18^,

t Chas. Oscar Dufpie, " Homo." i Vol. lamo, 305 pp. Paul Daffis,
Paris ^873.

X Dr. Alfred Mercier, ** La Ross de Smyme." ** Srato." lamo, 103 pp.
Jnles Labitte, Paris, 184a.

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46 Louisiana Studies.

Une ombre, un mot, que sais-je, un rien I'^veille en nous.
Ainsi, doux souvenirs, toujours me suivrez-vous?
Oh I maintenant, tandis que sous ce ciel de brume
Entre mes doigts glacee jes sens fr6mir ma plume,
Sous ce ciel, otl juillet est plus froid h Paris
Que ne le fut jamais d^cembre en mon pays.

** Erato" is a collection of short poems, of which
the best are '' Sur Mer," '* Patrie " and '' La Lune
des fleurs a la Louisiane." I can not resist the
temptation of giving a few lines of '* Patrie:"

Apr^s huit ans ^coul6s dans I'absence,
Je viens revoir le ciel de mes aieux :
Doux souvenirs de mon heureuse enfance,
Apparaissez un moment it mes yeux!

Voici mon fleuve auz vagues solennelles :
En demi-lune 11 se courbe en passant,
Et la cit^, comme un aiglon naissant,
A son flanc gauche etend ses jeunes ailes.
*****
Apres huit ans ecoules dans Pabsence,
Fiddle oiseau je reviens a mon nid ;
Le souvenir vaut parfois I'esperance :
C'est un doux songe otl l'4me rajeunit.

Scarron, the first husband of Mme. de Main-
tenon, whose sole title to a pension was to be *' le
malade de la reine," found the time, in spite of
his sufferings, to write *'L'£neide Travestie "
and to ridicule the heroes of antiquity. His was
not a touching note, and the song of his poetic
lyre had no pathos. If his body was affected, his
mind did not seem to suffer, very different in this
from Gilbert and Millevoye, whose beautiful
elegies one can not read without being deeply

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LiTBRATURB. 47

moved. Louisiana had her Gilbert, her Mille-
voye; his talent was of the highest order, and his
tender and melancholy verses can well be com-
pared to **Le Poete Mourant" and* 'La Chute
des Feuilles." It was in 1841 that Alexandre
Latil published his **Ephemferes, Essais Po^ti-
ques."* The author was an invalid and a prey
to an incurable disease, and his poems are a lamen-
tation and a prayer. Very often did the pen fall
from the weak hand, while from the heart were
surging his rhythmical complaints. The preface
to the work is exceedingly well written ; it is a
protest against the modern school and, at the same
time, an affectionate dedication of his verses to
his countrymen. The book was well received in
Louisiana, and Alexandre Latil' s name will be
long remembered as that of our most sympathetic
poet. Among the **Eph6mferes," I have noticed
**Amour et Douleur," ** Deception et Tristesse,"
'*Desenchantement," **A mon Grand-pere and
'*A mon Pere et k ma Mfere,'* the dirge of the
poet:

Encore un dernier chant, et ma lyre eph^m^re
S'echappe de mes mains, et s'eteint en ce jour,
Mais que ces sons mourants, d mon pere, ma mere I
Soient exhales pour vous, objets de mon amour.
De cet hymne d'adieu si la note plaintive
S'envole tristement pour ne plus revenir,
Vous ne I'oublirez pas; votre oreille attentive
L'empreindra pour jamais dans votre souvenir.

^Alexandre Latil, ** Les Eph^m^res, £ssais Po€t!ques.'* i Vol.
Svo, 198 pp. Alfred Moret, Nouvelle-Orleans, 1814.

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48 Louisiana Studies..

Helas! si du tombeau pergant I'^troit espace,

Mon nom pouvait^ un jour^ voler a Tavenir,

11 irait, parcourant sa lumineuse trace,

De V08 douces vertus graver le souvenir,

Dans son sillon de gloire it travi rs tous les igei ,

11 parlerait de vous aux dtres g^nereux;

II leur dirait comBien furent nobles et sages

Les sentiments divers de vos coeurs vertueux...

Mais non ! le faible accord de ma lyre plaintive

Expire autour de moi sans produire d'echos.

Ainsi soupire et meurt la brise fugutive

Qui d'un lac azure vient caresser les flots.

Ah! si Taffreux oubli dans son linceul immense

Ensevelit bientdt et mon nom et mes vers,

Je conserve, du moins, la touchante esperance

QuUls seront a vos coeurs toujours presents et chers.

One of our most prolific writers was Dr. Chas.
Testut;* he tried poetry and prose, but had a
greater reputation as a poet than as a novelist. His
small volume, **Les Echos," contains many
pieces written in all kinds of rhythms. One can
see that the author is a thorough master of versifi-
cation, and whether he tries the Alexandrine or
the short verse, even the four foot verse, his
poetry is always correct and natural, and the
rhymes are remarkably rich. Dr. Testut was a
striking example of the generally unsuccessful
practical life of a poet; although he had written
many volumes and been much admired, he
was at his death, after fifty years' residence
in New Orleans, in a position to which a man
of his talent should not have been reduced.

»Dr. Chas Testut. ** Les Schos," i VoL lamo. S04 pp. H. Midler,
Nonvelle Orleans, 1849.

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His poems are graceful and usually sad, and his
subjects are principally meditations or descriptions
of touching domestic scenes. His verses to Latil
are among his finest, and also ^^ La Demifere
Heure du Condamn^/' ** Le Jour des Morts '^
and ** Aux Jeunes Filles," from which I take the
following lines:

Si vous saviez quel r€ve, d jeunes filles.
Nous jette au coeur votre regard si doux;
Comme souvent^ au bruit de vos mantilles,
Nous tomberions muets it vos genoux!
Si vous saviez^ quand votre front balance
Les songes d'or caches dans votre oeil noir^
Quels chants d'amour tout remplis d'esperance
Nous confions It la brise du soir....
Si vous saviez comme^ au front des pontes,
Vos beaux noms d'ange allument des rajons;
Comme nos voix h vous chanter sont pretes,
Comme pour vous, loin des jeux, nous prions!
Nos premiers chants^ notre premier delire
Viennent de vous comme I'air vient des cieux;
£t des doux sons qu'exhale notre lyre,
Nous vous devons les plus harmonieux.

In our Creole population many ladies write
French admirably, but through a mistaken sense
of modesty their works have not been published.
It was not possible, however, in the nineteenth
century, where women in Europe and in America
have shown themselves equal to men in mental
ability, that no poetical work written by a woman
should be published by a Louisiana lady. It is,
therefore, with the greatest pleasure that I read
** Une couronne Blanche, Roman po6tique,'*by

i^

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50 Louisiana StudieiS.

Mrs. EmilieEvershed.* Don Fernand de Herfes,
after a life of dissipation, marries a very young
girl whom he loves, but whom his jealousy ren-
ders unhappy. A child is born, and is the consola-
tion of the countess; every day, over the little
cradle, a white wreath is placed, emblem of inno-
cence and piety. The infancy of the child is
beautifully described, and we look with joy at the
little thing, when she tries her first steps, and when
she fondly caresses her mother. One day a little
girl knocks at the gate of the palace ; her name is
Rosita, and she is blind. She pronounces the
word Dolora and holds a picture in her hand.
The countess understands the sad story; on her
death bed, Dolora, the victim, sends her child to
her father. The injured wife pardons the guilty
husband and receives Rosita as her daughter.
She and Bianca are brought up together, but
when the white wreath is placed on Bianca's fore-
head for her first communion she dies, and*' la
couronne blanche " is deposited on her tomb. Is
not this plot of a romance simple and poetic, and
do we not recognize the delicate touch of a
woman in those charming pictures?

Quand je ne pleure plus . . . . je vois ces jours heureux
Ou je pouvais baiser tes chers petits pieds roses,
Et tes petites mains, et tes levxes mi-closes ;
J'effeuille en souvenir tous ces biens precieux!
Parfois je r^ve encor tes premieres caresses,
£t tes premiers baisers, et puis tes petits bras

♦ Mme. Bmilie Evershed, *• Une Couronne Blanche." i Vol. 8vo. 263
pp. H. Bossange Paris, 1859.

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LiTERATURB. 51

S'attachant It mon cou . . . . je suis tet premiers pas! • • • «
MaU pour ces biens perdus, je n'ai que mes tristesses.

Est-ce done murmurer, Dleu qui brisez mon coeur?
Vous me Paviez donnee et vous I'avez reprise
Ma douce fleur du ciel, pur souffle de la brise :
Est-ce done murmurer un long cri de douleur?

** Les Epaves, par Un Louisianais/' * a volume
large and well bound, published in 1847, is now
before me. According to the editors, the manu-
script was found in a trunk saved from the wreck
of ** TH^cla/' a steamboat on the Mississippi river.
Although a well known Louisianian was supposed
to be the author, the name of the poet was never
positively ascertained.

The work comprises many poems written in a
lively and witty manner, but what is of greater
interest than the original verses of **Un Louis-
ianais '' is his translation of the epigrams of Mar-
tial, which may be compared to Lepouz^'s trans-
lation of Horace, mentioned above.

We now see the names of two brothers more
widely known outside of Louisiana than any other
of our poets: Dominique and Adrien Rouquette.f
To them may truly be applied the ** poeta nascitur,
non fit.*' From their earliest youth they held in
their hands the lute and the lyre, and in old age
the language of poetry seemed to be natural to them.
Poetry was a passion in the two brothers, and both

* ** Les Bpaves, par Un Louisianais." i Vol. 8vo, 388 pp. H. Bossange,
Paris, 1847.

t Dominique Rouquette, "Les Meschac6b^nnes." i Vol. 16010,159 pp.
Paris, 1838.

X — , " Fieurs d*Ani6rique.»' i Vol. 8vo,303 pp. H, M^ridier, Nouvelle-
OrUans, 1859. .

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52 Louisiana Studies.

have written many poems. Born in Louisiana,
they were educated in France, in the old Armorica,
the land of druidical legends, where everything
recalled poetical souvenirs. On their return to
their native State, they lived in solitary Bonfouca,
in the magnificent pine forests watered by those
romantic rivulets, the Tchefuncte, the Bogue-
Falaya and Bayou Lacombe, Around them were
the remnants of the Chactas, the faithful allies of
the French ; and in the wigwams of the Indians
the brothers used to sit to smoke the calumet with
the chiefs, or to look at the silent squaws skil-
fully weaving the wicker baskets which they
were to sell the next morning at the noisy " March^
Frangais.'* It is thus that Adrien and Dominique
Rouquette learned how to love nature and solitude,
and that they were impregnated with the sentiment
of poetry. When they write about the prairies, and
the forests and the Indians, their descriptions are
most realistic, and it seems to us that we see the
graceful Chactas girl in her canoe or swimming in
the limpid waters of the bayous, that we hear the
cry of the whip-poor-will, and that we are perme-
ated with the perfume of the m6Uze^ of the boisfort
and of the resinous pine tree.

We may perhaps regret that the brothers Rou-
quette did not vary their themes a little more, but
their poems have ** un gout du terroir " which can
not fail to be appreciated.

Dominique Rouquette's first work was **Les
Meschac6b^ennes,'' published in 1838. He pub-

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Literature. 53

lished also in 1857 a large volume, **Fleur8

d'Am^rique." I shall quote only a few lines of

the latter:

Lk Soir.

Dejit dans lea buissons dort la grive bAtarde:

La voiz du bdcheron, qui dans lea bois s'attarde,

A travers lea grands pins se fait entendre au loin ;

Aux boeufs libres du joug ajant donn^ le foin,

Sifflant une chanson^ le charretier regagne

Sa cabane otl Pattend une noire compagne,

Et fume taciturne, accroupi sur un banc,

Sa pipe, aux longs reflets du mel^ze flambant.

Loin dej'humide abri des joncs qu'elle abandonne,

La moustique partout et voltige et bourdonne,

Et nocturne taureau cach^ dans le Hmon,

La grenouille bovine enfle un rauque poumon. . . •

Un silence imposant et formidable plane

Sur les eauX| la f or^t et la noire savane ;

La nuit, comme I'upas, sous une ombre de mort,

Semble couvrir au loin la terre qui s'endort.

Adrien Rouquette was a priest; his principal
work is **Les Savanes," * a book of poems on
Louisiana subjects. He also wrote ** TAntoniade
ou la Solitude avec Dieu,"t along eremitic poem
from which I take the following patriotic lines :

Amerique, 6 patriel Amerique, d ma m^re!

S'il est un de tes fils assez l&che et vulgaire,

Pour t'entendre offenser ei ppu/^Q I'^njej^ - ; ^» ^y-* " " " 1> ;

Seul, sans pleurs, sans regyei^; (it'll fnjfeurfe t^ctentjerl^ >/

Que son nom e£Eac^ des pages''de*l^his1boire,

Etfac6 de tout coeur et dejWjjJe m^mojir<g,'; I -' '^ ^ J; :i i . .

Entoure du linceul d'un eWi»h^l oubl^ ;i ^ ^ a^ • - "« - - -

Dans la nuit du tombeau descende ensevelil

* Adrien Rouquette, <* Les Savanes." x Vol. lamo, 306 pp. Jules Labitte,
Pans. Alfred Moret, Nonvelle -Orleans, 1841.

t , " L.»Antoniade." i Vol. 8vo. L.. Marchand, Nouvelle-Orl^ans,

1I60.

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54 Louisiana Studies.

The following extract from **Les Savanes" is
very fine ;

L'Arbrk des Chactas.

C'^tait un arbre immense; arbre aux rameaux sans nombre.

Qui sur tout un desert projetait sa grande ombre.

Ses racines^ plongeant dans un sol sablonneux,

Rejaillissaient partout, boas aux mille noeuds;

Et, se gonflant It I'oeil , comme d'enormes veines^

Ou e^t dlt d'un haut-bord les c&bles et les ehaines.

Arbre immense et geant^ les arbres les plus hauts

A son pied sUnclinaient comme des arbrisseaux.

Deplojant dans les cieux sa vaste et noire cime,

11 s'y plaisait aux chocs que Pouragan imprime.

De sa circonference embrassant I'horizon,

Sous son d6me sonore, en I'ardente saison^

11 pouvait arbriter, endormis sur les herbes,

Tout le peuple chactas et ses troupeaux superbes.

* * f m * * m
PuiS; autour de cet arbre, arbre aux rameaux immenses,
Voltigeaient collbris^ aux changeantes nuances;
Papes verts, geais d'azur^ flambojants cardinaux,
Nuages d'oiseaux blancs et de noirs etourneaux

Et leurs plumes semblaient d' eblouissantes pierres!

Et Paigle, en les voyant^ e^t baisse les paupi^resl ....

* * « « « * «
Eh bieni cet arbre-roi, ce g^ant des for^ts,
Cette arche^ cette ^chelle aux infinis degr^s,

Un homme aux muscles forts, un homme h, rude t&che,
Suant des mois entiers, Pabattit de sa hachel

^ ." " ir a'ab|kt^;en"ftif; ^p^igr^ j'ossit content;

*•* Car,rdans"l?ai*bjre*,il YO^Cqt^elques pieces d'argenti

• ^ww^.A ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

\.l ^Mais-fti^til fus ▼akiqueur-a^ Parbre des Chactas,
" ' Itnpi^, il en est un que ttr n^itbattras pas;

Un arbre bien plus haut, bien plus fort, et dont I'ombre
Couvre I'Eden si frais et I'univers si sombre.
Bt cet arbre est celui que Dieu mSme planta,
L'arbre saint de la Croix; Tarbre du Golgotha;

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L'arbre que Phomme en y&in f rappe aussi de sa hache ;
II le f rappe en tons points^ et rien ne s'en d^tache;
Rien ; car Parbre toujours, gigantesque^ ^ternel,
S'elance, et va se perdre auz abimes du ciel I

We had also in Louisiana, besides the authors
whom I have mentioned, some poets whose works
I could not procure, among whom are Alexandre
Barde, Duperron, Guirot, and Calongne. In the
different poems which I have read their names are
mentioned quite favorably; Mr. Barde seems to
have been the best.

Of the poets whose works have not been pub-
lished, Anatole Cousin, Val^rien Allain and Eu-
ph^mon La Branche were the most popular.

In speaking of our Louisiana authors, I do not
refer to those who have left our State, such as
Albert Delpit, Henri Vignaud and Mme. H^lfene
Allain.

In concluding this review of our poets, I think
that it can truly be said that a selection of their
works would compare favorably with those of many
authors whose reputation is much greater.

Novels.

It is extraordinary that with its romantic history
our State did not produce more works of fiction.
The romances of Louisiana have not yet been
written in prose, although our poetic scenery has
inspired many a songstet'. We have, however, a
few novelists whose success should have encour-
aged others to follow their example.

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56 Louisiana Studies.

I have read two novels of Dr. C. Testut: " Le
Vieux Salomon''* and "Les Filles de Monte
Cristo." The former is intended to represent
scenes of plantation life, and was written in 1858,
but published only in 1873. It is to be regretted
that the author, in his pity for the institution of
slavery, should have introduced in his work a
planter worthy of Mrs. Beecher Stowe's Legree,
presenting thus as a type what was really an excep-
tion — a planter cruel to his slaves.

** Les Filles de Monte Cristo " is a continuation
of Dumas' admirable epic, and has a moral pur-
pose. In the original novel, Dantes, the millionaire,
appears as inexorable as fate, and punishes sternly
and without pity, rewarding sometimes, but those
always whojjhad been good to the poor sailor boy.
In the sequel, Monte Cristo devotes his immense
^Fortune to aiding all who are unhappy. Having
lost Haydee, he returns to France, after an ab-
sence of twenty years, with his daughters, Merces
and Gemma. On meeting his Mercedes, his old
passion returns, and the beautiful Catalane be-
comes his wife. Surrounded and assisted by all
those whom he had saved formerly, Dantes now
forms an association of which the aim will be to
look for misery and relieve the unfortunates.
Merces and Gemma, from fear of being loved for
their money, live as ouvriires for some time and

♦ Dr. C. Testut, " Le Vieox Salomon." i Vol. 4to, 176 pp» Nouvelle-
Orl^ans, 187a.

** Lea Fillea 4e Monte Cristo." Pamphlet form, 8vo,5ao pp. Imprimerie
Cosmopolite, NouTelle-Orl^ans, 1876.

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Literature. 57

are mamed to two deserving young men. They
and their husbands help Monte Cristo in his great
undertaking, and every day some wretch is rec-
onciled to life. At last Mercedes dies, and the
count soon follows to the grave his adored one.
Their bodies are conveyed to the isle of Monte
Cristo, and the filial piety of the daughters trans-
forms into a blooming oasis the barren rock,
where had landed, so many years before, the es-
caped prisoner of the ** Chateau d'If."

One can see in Dr. Testut's book a generous
idea and an ardent love for everything good and
true, and many incredible events and visionary
ideas may be pardoned when one remembers that
the author was inspired by a genuine philanthropy.

Mme. S. de la Houssaye,* of the Attakapas, a
member of one of our oldest families, is another of
our lady writers. She has published several novels
in the newspapers of her parish, and she is said
to be preparing for a Paris editor a work on
Louisiana, for which she is well qualified on ac-
count of her lively imagination and her numerous
family traditions. Her most interesting novel is
** Le Mari de Marguerite," published in F Abeille
de la Nouvelle-Orleans in iQS^y ^.s 2l feuilletQn.
It is the story of a spoilt and vain Virginia girl,
proud of her grandfather's plantation and fortune,
and dreaming only of heroes of romance. She dis-
cards her cousin and intended husband at the

*Mme. S.de U Houssaye/' Le Mari de Marguerite." AbtiiU de la
NouTelle-OrMani, 1883.

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58 Louisiana Studies.

sight of a handsome man, and abandons her
home to follow him to New England. Very soon,
however, she regrets the luxury of her Virginia
life and treats her husband most unkindly. The
great civil war breaks out, and Wm. Gray is re-
ported to have been killed. Then begins the
punishment of Marguerite: her grandfather dies
in a battle and she loses her fortune. Reduced to
poverty, the frail Southern girl, like so many noble
women, shows an indomitable energy, finally be-
coming a governess. Her husband returns under
an assumed name and refuses to recognize her;
he is at last touched by her love and sorrow, and
they both live happily in the old family mansion
recovered from the Federals.

The story is quite romantic, and the style is good.

Father Rouquette published in 1879, ** La Nou-
velle Atala," * an Indian legend. The work is
admirably written, and one can see the great en-
thusiasm of the author for his subject. As in
* * r Antoniade, ' ' Father Rouquette speaks of solitary
life, and exalts the sacrifice of a young girl who
leaves the world to live in a forest. The descrip-
tions of nature are very poetic, and Chatah-Ima's
Atala is no unworthy sister of Chateaubriand's.

Dr. Alfred Mercier's first work of fiction, *'Le
Fou de Palerme,"t is a novelette, in which is re-

* Adrien Rouquette, " La Nouvelle Atala." i Vol. i6ino. 138 pp. Pro-
pagateur Catholiqut^ Nouvelle-Orl6ans, 1879.

t Dr. Alfred Mercier, " Le Fou de Palerme," i Vol. i6mo, 140 pp.
Nouvelle-OrUans, 1873.

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Literature. 59

lated a touching love story. The plot is very
simple, but at the same time attractive.

** La Fille du Pr^tre *'* is a work of great philos-
ophy; the author attacks the celibacy of priests
with as much vehemence as George Sand had at-
tacked confession in ** Mademoiselle de la Quin-
tinie." The novel is divided into three parts:
*'Fausse Route, Expiation, Rehabilitation." A
young man, Theotime de Kermarec, is forced into
the priesthood by his parents, and, shortly after,
succumbs to his passions. His victim, Jeanne
Dubayle, flees from her home, and writes to her
lover that she is going to die. Theotime, in
despair, abandons the priesthood, and wants to
sacrifice his life for a noble cause, the independence
of Italy. He joins Garibaldi's army and behaves
as a hero. After the fall of the kingdom of
Naples, he takes part in a revolt of Poland
against Russia, is taken prisoner and sent to
Siberia. This is Expiation. Rihabiliiation must
soon follow, for Theotime has suffered and his
crime has been forgiven.

Jeanne had not killed herself, for while in
the act of throwing herself in the Seine, she is
saved by maternal love for her unborn babe. She
becomes the friend of Louise, a woman who is in
the same position as herself, and both go to the
hospital, where a young physician, Ludovic, takes
the greatest interest in Jeanne. The description

* ^t^La Pille du PrStre.'* 3 Vol. 8to. Imprhnerie Cosmopolite,

NoiiTelle-Orl^ant, 1877.

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6o Louisiana Studies.

of the hospital and the philosophical thoughts in-
spired by it have merit, and can be compared to
the like scene in ** Les Mysteres de Paris/' Jeanne
dies and leaves a daughter, Jeannette, who is
adopted by Ludovic.

Many years passed, and France has been van-
quished at Sedan, and the Commune has begun
its atrocious deeds in Paris. Theotime is a cap-
tain in the army of Versailles, when the capital is
taken. There is a terrible fight in a cemetery,
and Ludovic, Louise and Jeannette are engaged
in it. Theotime saves his daughter without know-
ing her, and after the war, goes to Italy. He
finally finds Jeannette, marries her to Ludovic, and
is rehabilitated by paternal love.

I give the entire plot of this work, because it
created quite a sensation in New Orleans, where
there are so many Catholics. Whether Dr. Mercier
was right or wrong in his crusade against celibacy
does not concern us ; but we must admit that he
handled his lance fearlessly and well.

** L'Habitation St. Ybars'** is a Louisiana
story, in which life before the war on a large
sugar plantation is very well described. Although
the work is of great interest as a novel, it is of
still greater importance for the study of philology.
Dr. Mercier, who is a master of the Creole patois,
uses it freely in his book and keeps thus an ad-

* "L'Habitarion St Ybars." i Vol. lamo, 231 pp. Kugf. Antoine, Nou-
velle-OrMans, x88i.

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Literature. 6i

mifable couleur locale. The following extract is
really charming for its simplicity and truth :

D6mon, St. Ybars' little boy, comes into the
kitchen with a cage, and Mamrie, the old nurse,
tells him: **Asteur assite la € cont6 moin com an
to f6 pou trap6 pap lai6.

D6mon termina son 'epopee, en accompagnant
sa parole de grands gestes qui 6pouvanterent les
oiseaux ; le male renouvela ses efforts pour passer
a travers les barreaux de sa prison ; sa tete 6tait
en sang. Demon le repoussa a I'int^rieur, en
disant avec impatience :

Reste don tranquil, b^te I

To bon toi, lui dit Mamrie; toote li so la-liberte
e to oule li contan. Mo sre voudre oua ga to sre
di, si ye te metd toi dan ain lacage comme 5a.

M^te moin dan ain lacage ! s'^cria D6mon sur le
ton de la fiert^ indign^e; mo sre cac6 tou, mo srd
sorti 6 mo sr6 veng6 moin sur moune lai^ ki te
emprisonnin moin.

Ahl ouette, tou 9a ce bon pou la parol, r^pli-
qua Mamrie ; si y€ t6 m^t6 toi dan ain bon lacage
av6 bon baro en f er, to sr^ pa cac6 arien ; to sre
xa€t€ en san, 6pi comme to sr6 oua ga pa servi ain
brin, to sre courb6 to lat^te ^ to sr6 rest6 tranquil
comme pap la va f6 dan eune ou deu jou.

NonI repartit D^mon, mo sr6 laiss^ moin mouri
de faim.

Qa c^ ain bel r^ponse, dit Mamrie; to fier
m^me! to pa ain St. Ybars pou arien.

Le malheureux pape, bris6 de fatigue 6tait
affaisse sur ses pattes; sa poitrine se gonflait
douloureusement ; ses yeux noirs ^tincelaient de
colore. Sa femelle, r^fugi^e dans un coin, faisait

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62 Louisiana StudIeiS.

entendre de petits cris plaintifs. Aprfes un mo-
ment de silence, D6mon dit:

Mamrie, ga comme fumel la triste.

C6 pa 6tonnan, reprit la bonne n^gresse, lap^
pens6 a so pitil y6 faim, yap6 p616 moman; m6
moman va pli vini; c6 lachouette ou kfeke serpen
ka vini 6 ka mang6 y6. D^mon devint pensif .
Tandis que sa nourrice voyait a une chose ou a
une autre, il contemplait ses prisonniers. II se
leva, et sortit sans rien dire. Au bout de quelques
minutes, Manrie le vit rentrer; son tr^buchet 6tait
vide.

EbenI dit-elle d'un air 6tonn6, cot6 to zo-
zos. Une fausse honte empecha D6mon de dire
ce qui en 6tait; il r^pondit d'une voix mal as-
sur^e: Ye chap6.

Y6 chapel reprit Mamrie en secouant la t^te,
to mentil mo pari6 to rende ye la liberty.

EbenI ci vrai, avoua D6mon, c6 vou faute;
ga vou di moin su fumel la e so piti te f e moin la
peine.

Les yeux de Mamrie se remplirent de larmes ;
elle tendit les bras a D6mon en lui montrant toutes
ses dents et en disant:

Vini icite, cdleral vini mo mang^ toi tou
cm.

It is a pity that '' THabitation St. Ybars " has
not been translated into English, for it is a much
more correct picture of Louisiana life than is to be
found in many other works better known outside of
our State.

Miscellaneous Works.

Under this title we may mention a collection of
thoughts and maxims of different writers, pre-

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LiTfiKATURE/ 6;^

pared by L. N. Fouche.* It is the only work of
its kind published in Louisianay and contains some
maxims of real philosophy.

**Les Yankees Fondateurs de TEsclavage aui
Etats-Unis et Initiateurs du Droit de Secession,"
by Dr. C. Delery,t was written like ** les Nem^s-
iennes Conf^d^rees ^' during the war, and is of
course a party work.

Not only did Father Rouquette write **rAnto-
niade" and **la Nouvelle Atala," in which he
describes the charms of solitary life, but in 1852
he produced *'la Thebaide en Am^rique ou
Apologie de la Vie Solitaire et Contemplative. "$
I must admit that, in spite of the numerous quota-
tions from the fathers of the church and the piety of
the author, the book had no attraction for me, and
that I found it uninteresting, and better suited to
the monks of the middle ages than to the Chris-
tians of the nineteenth century.

** Gombo Zhfebes,'' by Mr. Lafcadio Heam,|l is
a dictionary of Creole proverbs selected from six
Creole dialects. I have read with pleasure the
fifty-one proverbs in our Louisiana patois. The
translations in English and in French are very
accurate.

* L. N. Pouchy. " Nouveau Recueil de Pens^es. i Vol. lamo, 144 pp.
Capo, Nouvelle-Omans, 1883.

t Dr. Charles Del6ry, ** Les Yankees Pondateurs de I'Ssclavage aux
£tats-Unis et Initiateurs du Droit de S6:es8ion.'* i VoL 8vo, 31 pp. Paris,
1864.

II Lafcadio Hearn, " Gombo Zh^bes.*' i Vol. 8vo, 4a pp. W. H. Cole
man, New York, 1885.

1 Adrien Rouquette, " La Th^aide en Am^rique.*' i Vol. 8vo, 144 pp.
H. M6idier, Nouvclle-Orl6ans, 185a.

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64 Louisiana Studies.

Major John Augustin has published in the
Times- Democrat * some charming Creole songs.

Our contemporary literature is contained almost
exclusively in ** Les Comptes-Rendus de TAth^nee
Louisianais,"t the journal of a society established
in order to encourage the study of the French lan-
guage and literature. It is almost impossible to
mention all the papers published in the " Comptes-
Rendus." Many of them are works of great value.
I notice in the first volume: **Chroniques In-
diennes/' by Dr. C. Delery; ** Souvenir," a touch-
ing Indian story, and **de Tlnterjection Hal
Ahl" by Dr. C. Turpin; ** Cession de la Louis-
iane a la France" and " Esquisse biographique
de John Rutledge," by Hon. C. Gayarre; ** Em-
ploi des Torpilles, Batteries blind^es, et Canons
ray6s a Charleston," by Gen. Beauregard; " de la
Po^sie dans THistoire et de quelques Problfemes
sociaux," by Mr. C. Bl^on; *^de TH dite as-
pir^e," by Dr. Dupaquier; "LaTarentule," by Dr.
Hava; **Etude sur les Eclairs," by Dr. Alfred
Mercier, and by same author an interesting paper
on ** la Langue Creole;" ** Elle," a poem by Mr.
J. Gentil. Mr. O. Debouchel contributes several
pretty fables, and Mr. George Dessommes many
poems, of which ** Geoffroy le Troubadour" is a
charming romance of the times of Chivalry.

In volume II of VAthhiie I note Dr. O. Huard's
remarkable paper, *'De TUtilit^ de la Langue

•John Augustin, ** Creole Songs." Times- Democrat.
t**Comptes-Rendus de l*AtWn6e Louisianais." i Vol. 410, 518 ] p.
?876-i88i. I Vol. 8vo, 718 pp. 1883-1884. i Vol. 8vo, sai pp. 1^5-1886.

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Frangaise aux Etats-Unis;" ** Longfellow/' by
Mr. Jas. S. Hosmer; ** Un Ancetre de la Sainte
Alliance,'' by Mr. P.V.Bernard; **Centhuit Ans,"
by Mr. B. Rouen; **Le Matin," po^sie, by
Dr. Alfred Mercier; and a lecture by Dr. Mer-
cier, '*La Femme dans les Poemes d'Homfere."
In this volume also is a poem on La Salle by my
old father, Mr. Florent Fortier. May it be per-
mitted to his son to inscribe in this volume the
verses of one who was so dear to him, and who
was a true representative of our Creole planters,
whom the war had ruined, but who were to the
last energetic and noble.

La Salle. (1682-1882).

Quel est done ee h6ro8, ce fils de Pancien monde,

Qui bravant la temp^te et la fureur de I'onde,

Argonaute nouveau, sur des bords inconnus,

A plante son drapeau? Deux cents ans revolus

L'ont vu s^agenouillant sur la terre etrangere,

Offrir d'abord h Dieu sa fervente priere,

Et prenant du Sauveur le symbole adore

L'elever vers le ciel dans un concert sacr^.

Vous I'avez tous nomme: Ce h^ros, c'est Lasalle!

Lasalle, dont la gloire est pour nous sans rivale.

Si le Seigneur creant un miracle nouveau,

Te faisait, aujourd'hui, sortir de ton tombeau,

Quel sentiment d'orgueil gonflerait ta poitrine,

En vojant les bienfaits de sa grftce divine.

Ce fleuve, malgre lui, retenu sur ses bords,

Faisantpour les briser d'inutiles efforts,

Dompte par le genie, et portant sur son onde,

Dans des palais flottants, tous les tresors du monde.

Ces cites, ces palais, ces ^glises, ces tours,

RemplaQant le wigwam disparu pour toujours,

Et ton nom, prononc^ dans la langue cherie,

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66 Louisiana Studies.

Par les fils descendants de ta noble patrie.
Ce nom ne mourra pas, et tu verras demain
Tous les peuples unis, se tenant par la maini
Le coeur rempli d'amour, relever sur la plage^
Cette croiz, que jadis tu pla^s au rivage,
£t qui pourra redire aux peuples k venir^
De fiU reconnaissants le pieuz souvenir.

Volume III of rAthinie is also quite interesting,
but I shall note specially: ** La Race Latine
en Louisiane/' by Hon. C. Gayarr6; ** Dante
Alighieri, conference/' and **La Cur^e, po6sie/'
by Dr. Alfred Mercier; ** Le Bouvreuil," a
story by Dr. C. Turpin; **LeSoir, po6sie," by
Dr. J. J. Castellanos; '* Le Talisman de Gerard,
nouvelle/' by Mr. Gustave Daussin; **A ma
Soeur'* and ** A ma Fille, poesies," by Mr. Max
Cousin.

The volume of ^H^ Athinie^^ for 1887 comprises
about two hundred octavo pages; the articles are
quite varied and are all written with care. The
contributions of Dr. Alfred Mercier are the most
valuable; there is always to be found something
original in the works of the secretary of AVthinie.
His article on the condition of Hamlet, although
it comprises but a few pages, is an excellent psych-
ological criticism. Dr. Mercier' s poems are grace-
ful and harmonious. *' Tawanta " is the story of
an Indian girl near the Niagara Falls, who is aban-
doned by her lover for a pale-face rival. The In-
dian is sleeping in his canoe tied to a tree not far
from ^the dreadful cataract. Tawanta sees him,
she cuts the string, the canoe drifts into the rapid

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LiTBRATURB. 67

current, and the unfaithful lover awakes to die in
the frightful abyss. Here are a few graphic verses :

** La pirogue s'^loigne, elle glitse sans bruity
£t d'abord I'Indien ne sent pas qu'elle fuit.
Elle entre tout it coup dans ces courants rapidet,
Ou le flot se h^risse en crini^res liquides.
Et Ik plus de de saluti on vole comme un traiti
On arrive^ on bondit, 6n tombe, on disparatt"

** Camma '* and "la Sirfene/' by Mr. G. Daus-
sin, are two historical episodes related very skil-
fully as romances. * * Camma ' ' evinces a thorough
knowledge of the history of the Gauls of Galatia
and of their wars with the Parthians. The heroism
of the priestess of Diana is well described and
touching: she marries her husband's murderer,
but it is in order to be able to present to him the
poisoned cup. She will drink from it first, but
what matters it to her? she will be united in death
to her Sinat. Mr. Daussin is one of our most
promising writers.

Mr. B. Rouen's " Rayon de Soleil " is a charm-
ing little story, of which the plot is very pleasing
by its simplicity: An old man who has lost his
wife becomes h3rpochondriac and does not want to
see any longer the light of the sun. He sends for
a carpenter to fasten the windows of his room.
The young man is received in the house by the
daughter of the old man. The work is done, but
a few days later the carpenter is again called, for
the window is again open. The same thing hap-
pens several times, and the carpenter is always re-

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6^8 Louisiana Studies.

ceived by the young girl. He soon falls in love
with her and marries her after the death of the
father. He then learns from his wife that it was
she who was letting into the sick man's room the
beam of light that was to brighten her own life.

Dr. G. Devron has devoted much time to the
study of the curious points in the history of Louis-
iana. In one of his communications to PAthinie
he gives some interesting details about the last of
the Montezumas. His Excellency Seiior Don Al-
fonso de Montezuma committed suicide by cutting
his throat. He died at New Orleans, on October
22, 1836. His death was caused by a disappoint-
ment in love. Prescott, quoted by Dr. Devron,
says in a note of Book V, Chapter ii, of his ** His-
tory of the Conquest of Mexico," that the Count
of Montezuma shot himself with a pistol and died
at the age of at least seventy years. Carbajal Es-
pinosa, author of a '* History of Mexico,'' goes
further than Prescott, and says that Montezuma
killed himself on account of a love trouble, a -pe-
sar deque contaba entdnces mas de setenta ti ochenta
aflos de edad. (Chapter vii, p. 388.) These as-
sertions of Prescott and Espinosa threw a kind of
ridicule on the death of the last direct descendant
of the Emperor of the Aztecs, and we are grate-
ful to Dr. Devron for having proved that when the
Count killed himself through disappointment in
love he was not seventy or eighty years of age,
but only fifty-two. Dr. Devron obtained from the
curate of Santiago, in the town of Lorca in Spain,

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Literature. 69

an official copy of Montezuma's certificate of bap-
tism, in which it is stated that **Alfonso, Josef,
Antonio, Pedro, Nolasco, Nicolas, Diego, Manuel
de Sta. Gertrudis, hijo legitimo de D. Jose Mar-
silla Montezuma Caballerizo de Campo de SuMgd.
y de Da Saltadora Garcia de Alcaraz y Tor-
recilla," was born February 6, 1784, at i o'clock
in the morning.

Dr. Devron produced also an official copy from
the records of the Board of Health of Louisiana,
giving the same date to Montezuma's birth and
death as stated. This unfortunate gentleman,
who had large estates in Spain and who had been
chief civil magistrate in Madrid in 1816, 1817 and
1818, resided eight years in New Orleans. When
he died, in 1836, he did not leave enough to pay
his debts, as is proved by the following official
inventory of his property :

$2.65 en petite monnaie trouvee dans une de ses

poches, et produit de la vente ~ $324 87

Frais de cour 185 18

Laissant une balance de $^39 69

a partager entre les creanciers privilegies. le Dr. Puissant et
Calixte Labiche garde- malade, f.c.l., dont le compte etait pour
chacun de $300, et qui regurent individuellement $69.84^.

I reproduce these researches of Dr. Devron as
I believe that they have an historical interest; they
certainly entitle the author of them to great credit
for his industry and critical accuracy.

Mr. Gaston Doussan's paper, ** Lafayette en
Am6rique," is written with enthusiasm for the sub-

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70 Louisiana Studies.

ject. The author's partiality to his hero is cer-
tainly excusable in an American of French
descent, and we read with interest the glowing
tribute to the **h6ros des deux mondes.*'

Other articles of interest in the Comftes-Ren-
dus de FAthinie for 1887 are Dr. DelFOrto's
translations from the Italian, and Mr. Doussan's
*' Revolution Frangaise." Mr. M. Cousin has
several graceful poems, and Mr. George Des-
sommes a singularly touching sonnet, **A deux
Morts.*'

The Comptes-Rendus de FAthinie Louisianais
for 1888 form a volume of 234 pages — a very
creditable showing, if we consider that every word
published in our Louisiana magazine is original
matter and written by the members of the society.

Dr. Alfred Mercier contributes several poems,
of which one, ** Message,'' is so graceful and
pure that I can not refrain from reproducing it:

OtL done vas-tu, gentille amie,

De ee pas rapide et Ifeger? —

Dites-moi, Seigneur, je vous prie,

Otl demeure le beau Roger. •

Roger? c'est moi, ne t'en deplaise;
Entre et dis-moi ee que tu veuz. —
Puisque c'est vous, j'en suis bien aise;
D'un mot je vais combler vos voeuz. ^

Dis bien vite ce mot magique,— >
Mon message yous le dira. —
Quel est-il?— La fiire Ang^lique
Qu'en vain malnt galant adora,

Vous envoie un baiser bien tendre^
Sur met l^vres elle I'a mis. —

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Literature. 71

Sur tes l^rves je vais le prendre— ^

Prenez, cela vous est perm is. —

Ce douxbaiser veut qu'on le rendei

Pour un je t'en confierai deux. —

Beau Roger^ j'accepte Poffrande;

Pour un baiser deux valent mieux.

These charming verses, written by a man over
seventy years of age, are a good proof that the
atmosphere of Louisiana is not so stifling as it is
sometimes said to be. Two other poems by Dr.
Mercier, *^ Dans la Rue " and ^^ Ou sont-ils? " are
serious and slightly misanthropical, betraying a
feeling not common to our venerated poet, whose
philanthropy the writer of these lines has tried to
depict in an article entitled ** Un Poite Louisi-
anais.'' Dr. Mercier occupies so high a place
among omr Louisiana authors that I may be per-
mitted to quote the following extract from my
article: **Dr. Mercier, in his long career, has
seen all the miseries to which man is subject, but
he has also met with noble sentiments, and he is
one of those who believe that humanity is not en-
tirely bad, and that vices can be corrected by good
advice and kind words. It is this benevolent and
enlightened philosophy which draws to him all
who know tiie perpetual secretary of * TAthenee,'
and which is the principal charm of his writings.
Simple, modest and unselfish, he is not continually
occupied with himself, and he can see the world
such as it is, and revive in his works the person-
ages whom he has met in life. He seems to have
considered poetry as a relaxation from his more

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72 Louisiana Studies.

serious duties, and he calls the Muse to him, not
to confide his sorrows to her, as the author of the
^Nuits,' but to take his flight with her toward
those regions where are to be found charming
children, beautiful young girls and variegated
flowers. Although a physician, he has always
contrived to devote a few hours to literary labors,
and his love for the French language, his efforts to
preserve among us the tongue of our fathers, have
entitled him to the gratitude of his fellow citizens."
Dr. Devron continued in 1888 his interesting
studies on Louisiana history. In a letter of an
Ursuline nun, dated October 27, 1727, she says;

.... nos matelots pour faire nos berres fichoient
des Canes en terre en forme de berceau autour
d'un Matelas, et nous enfermoient deux a deux
dans nos berres ou nous couchions tout habilez,
puis couvroient le berceau d'une grande toile, de^
facon que les Maringouins et les Frapes d'abord,
ne pussent trouver aucun petit passage pour nous
venir visiter.

To this day, in our country parishes, the expres-
sion y^/V^ son 3^r means to draw the mosquito bar.

^*La Soiree du Colonel'* is a clever novelette
by Mr. G. Daussin, but Captain Fernand Bercier
is really too good-natured or very bold; he mar-
ries Miss Marechal, who had begun her acquaint-
ance with him by slapping him in the face lor not
having accompanied her well on the piano. In
spite of the invraisemblanceoi the plot the story is
well told and pleasing.

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The May number of the Comptes-Rendus is
filled almost entirely with contributions from
ladies. Mrs. Corinne Castellanos Mellen presents
" Feuilles Mortes,'' an admirable translation from
the Spanish of Becquer. The poetic melancholy
of the original is faithfully expressed in the trans-
lation. — **Les Poesies de Lamartine," by Mrs.
E. Aleix, is a conscientious and able study, writ-
ten with real feminine delicacy. The following
extract will show how well our Creole ladies write
French :

La noblesse et Tel^vation des pensees, la
d61icatesse des sentiments, la beauts harmoni-
euse de la forme, I'^legante purete du style, rap-
pellent les plus beaux vers de Racine. II parle a
toute intelligence eprise du beau, a toute ame
Uprise du vrai, et fait vibrer en nous, par une sym-
pathie irresistible, tous les sentiments qu'il ^prouve.
Avec des accents d'une tristesse infinie, il nous
fait sentir le neant des joies d'ici-bas; mais, en
mfeme temps, il nous donne Tespoir d'une destin^e
immortelle dans une autre patrie. Aux prises
avec ce douloureux mystere qu'on nomme la vie,
ce probleme insoluble et terrible lui arrache des
plaintes sublimes. A cot^ d'extases infinies,
d*61ans d' amour et de foi, il y a des gemissements
ineffables. H^las 1 il a tout ^prouv6, tout souffert.
Ahl pourquoi faut-il que dans toute existence
humaine, m^me les meilleures, les plus pures,

^' On sente toujours trembler des larmes,
Ou retentir une douleur?' "

** Causerie," by the Hon. Paul E. Th^ard, is an
eloquent and witty address on the French Ian-

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74 Louisiana Studies. ^

guage in Louisiana; and ** Voyage en Oc^anie,"
by Mr. P. Lamal, and ** Promenade au Canada,"
by Guy de Morant, are interesting descriptions of
travels.

In the July number of VAthiniey Mr. J. L.
Pejrtavin devotes a few pages to the refutation of
the ridiculous pictures in Mr. Cable's ** Creoles of
Louisiana."

Sir Humphry Davy, the great English chemist,
is so little known as a philosopher, and his last
work, ** The Last Days of a Philosopher," con-
tains such sublime thoughts, that we feel grateful
to Mr. Gaston Doussan for having given us an ab-
stract of Camille Flammarion's translation of Sir
Humphry's book. Mr. Doussan expresses in
graceful language the elevated ideas of the Eng-
lish scientist and of the French astronomer.

The last work published in 1888 in the Comftes-
Rendus de rAthinieis "Fortunia," a drama in
five acts, by Dr. Mercier. The play, like Hugo's
** Cromwell," was not written for the stage; it may
be called a dramatic novel. It is highly interest-
ing and at times very pathetic. The story is that
of a beautiful Brazilian lady who becomes insane
on hearing of her husband's infidelity, and who
dies miserably in a forest. The drama is quite
lengthy, and is certainly an important work. The
only characters in the play which I would criticise
are those of Ringsbie, the platonic lover of Fortu-
nia, and Donha Alves, her mother. The first has
remained too good a friend, after having subdued

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Literature. 75

his passions, and the second does not seem suffi-
ciently touched at the death of her unfortunate
daughter.

In 1888, besides the papers contained in the
ComfteS'Rendus^ we have "Lidia/' by Dr.
Mercier; "Tante Cydette,*' by Mr. George
Dessommes; and Pouponne et Balthazar/' by
Mrs. De Lahoussaye. **Lidia'' is an idyl; the
plot is very simple, it is the romantic love of two
noble and pure hearts. In this age of realism it is
good to have before one's eyes persons whose
ideal is kindness, beauty and intelligence; and the
sympathetic faces of Lidia, of Aur^lien, of soeur
Brigitte, cause us to forget our troubles and sor-
rows. "Tante Cydette,*' by Mr. Dessommes, is
a novel of New Orleans life, and depicts very
faithfully the customs of a certain class of our so-
ciety. The character of the matchmaking Tante
Cydette is quite vicu^ as the modernisants would
say. Mme. De Lahoussaye, who lives in the
Attakapas country, presents in "Pouponne et
Balthazar*' a story of Acadian life. The work
gives a good picture of the customs of the descend-
ants of the Acadian exiles.

1889 — ^The name which is seen oftenest in the
Comftes'Rendus de FAthinie is that of Dr.
Alfred Mercier, who although advanced in years,
has all the enthusiasm of a young man. An
excellent Greek and Latin scholar, a learned
physician, an admirer of Dante and of Cervantes,
he writes elegantly and forcibly both prose and

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76 Louisiana Studies.

verse. His works are well known in the State,
and he enjoys a well-deserved popularity.

** Sommeil, Rfeves, Somnambulisme" is an in-
teresting article by Dr. Mercier. He calls attten-
tion to the strange phenomena accompanying sleep
and mentions how Captain Rossel, who was shot
during the Commune, required so much sleep that
he had to be awakened by the jailor on the morn-
ing of the execution; while Emperor Justinian,
on the contrary, needed only one hour's sleep in
the twenty-four. Dreams, in particular, are care-
fully considered by the author, and we take an in-
terest in the subject on account of its importance
in the ancient drama and in the classic French
tragedies.

In 1843, on completing his studies in Paris, Dr.
Mercier took a trip to the Pyrenees. He describes
his journey in a charming manner, from notes
taken at 4:he time. Before leaving Paris he went
to pay a visit to his old friend, Lakanal, the cele-
brated Conventionnel, whose name is associated
with the history of education in Louisiana as presi-
dent of the College of Orleans. Lakanal intro-
duced the young Louisianian to the great sculptor
David (of Angers).

The author gives an excellent idea of the Py-
renees country, and the customs of the inhabitants
both in France and in Spain. Although half a
century has passed since the doctor visited the
mountains which nature has placed as a barrier
between the two great nations, and although the

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world has made wonderful progress since then, it
is doubtful whether in these mountainous regions
there has been any considerable change in the
manners and customs of the people. The Spanish
priests must still be drinking from the/(?rr^, the
young men must still be hunting the fleet moun-
tain deer, the bear and the wolves, and the hostess
of the inn on the roadside must still be selling to
the travelers, with a coquettish smile, red, green,
blue or yellow garters embroidered with gold 01
silver on which love-mottoes are inscribed. The
same costumes must still be seen as fifty years
ago; everything on the high mountains seems to
be immutable as the hard rocks which form them.
On leaving the Pyrenees the doctor exclaims :

Solitudes grandioses et douces, paix profonde,
ciel ^toil^, nuit po^tique et propice aux meditations
oil Tame sonde I'infini qui est en dehors d'elle et
celui qui est en elle, est-ce la derniere fois que je
jouis de vous? Je I'ignore; en tout cas, adieu et
merci I

In ^* Role des Medailles dans Thistoire des Pays-
Bas" Dr. Mercier makes an analysis of one ol
Edgar Quinet's noblest book, "Fondation de la
R^publique des Provinces-Unies." The author
pays a magnificent tribute to William the Silent
and Marnix de Sainte Aldegonde, and show show
the liberators of the Netherlands, in their inces-
sant warfare against Philip, used medals as a
means of rousing the anger and the patriotism of
the people. **The Revolution," says Quinet,

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78 Louisiana Studies.

** spoke incessantly to the people through thou-
sands of brass mouths."

Mrs. Eulalie L. T. Aleix contributes two charm-
ing articles to the Compies-Rendus for 1889:
^*Le Livre d'or de la comtesse Diane," and
'*Maximes de la vie par la comtesse Diane."
Both studies express a philosophy delicate and
entirely modern:

Quelle question redoutez-vous le plus? Celle
pour laquelle une r^ponse serait un aveu.

Aimez-vous mieux un coup de pied ou un coup
de patte? — Un coup de patte, parce que je peux
le rendre en restant bien elevee.

Quelle est la personne la plusaimable? — Celle
qui me persuade que c'est moi.

II est rare que la tfete des rois soit faite a la
mesure de leur couronne.

C'est le bruit que font nos illusions en s'envo-
lant qui nous les revfele.

•'Utilite des Langues Vivantes," by Mr. Fran-
gois Tujague, is a strong plea in favor of the teach-
ing of the modern languages, and especially of
French. He mentions the fact of the closer rela-
tions of men in different countries by means of
constant travel, and states how emigrants feel at
home in a foreign country, if they are able to
speak the language of the people among whom
they live. He speaks of the admirable literature
of the modern nations and of the great thoughts
embodied in their masterpieces, and concludes by
urging the Louisianians to study French most

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Literature. 79

diligently. He has faith in the perpetuity of the
French language in Louisiana, and says :

Croire que dans un avenir plus ou moins rap-
proch^, le fran§ais ne sera plus, en Louisiane,
qu'un souvenir d'antan, c'est avoir du bon sens
des Louisianais, de leur esprit de pr^voyance et de
leur amour du progres une opinion erron^e.

Dr, G. Devron makes some very interesting con-
tributions to the early history of Louisiana, and
publishes a letter giving curious details of the life
in New Orleans four years after the foundation of
the city. The letter was written by Father Raphael,
Cafucin sufirieur de la Mission. Dr. Devron re-
stores with critical accuracy a number of words
which had been torn from both edges of the paper.
The same letter was translated later by Mr. John
Gilmary Shea, and published in volume ii of the
Historico-Catholic Society of the United States.

Mr. J. L. Peytavin gives an ingenious explana-
tion of a problem in physics; I'abb^ Langlois con-
tributes a scientific paper on botany; Mr. H. Dubos,
a well written article on the **Avantages de la cul-
ture des Arts ; '* and Dir. Mercier and Mr. E. Grima
publish some graceful poems.

Mr. Grima' s **Pour un Nickel" is light and
witty, and Boileau would have called it ** un ^16-
gant badinage." A young lady enters a city car
and on going to pay her fare perceives that she
has forgotten her purse. She stands confused and
is on the point of leaving the car, when a young

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man, like a true knight, rises to relieve her of her
embarrassment and steps hurriedly to the box to
deposit the needed nickel. But, oh horror 1 he
seeks in vain in his pockets, not a cent is to be
found. He already thinks of rushing out and of
going into exile in some distant land, when on
touching his watch chain he finds a nickel in a
ring.

Marthe, ma vieille bonne, au moment de mourir

Voulant me laisser d'elle un dernier souvenir,

L'avait mis en mes mains: " Tiens, prends-le, me dit-elle,

Pour te porter bonheur.** Et Marthe disait vrai,

Mon bonheur est parfait. «La jeune demoiselle

'Qui n'avait pas de bourse et pour qui je pa^ai,

LUnconnue aux yeux noirs, est matntenant ma femme.

E^tre ses fr^les mains j'ai pu risquer mon dme.

Oui, nous sommes heureux, et, fortune mortel,

Mon bonheur si parfait n'a coute qu' nickel.

No analysis could give an idea of the harmonious
verses of Dr. Mercier. Let us quote the dialogue
between the Suns and the Night:

Les Soleils.

Nous sommes les Soleils, les vainqueurs de la Nuit;
Devant nous elle fuit et meurt. A nous I'espace!
A nous Teternit^, nous dont la flamme enlace
L'immensit^ profonde et partout resplendit!

Gloire k nous, rois puissants dont le regard f^conde
Les spheres decrivant leur orbe autour de nous I
Notre chaude clarte rfejouit chaque monde;
La vie est un bienfait de nos feux purs et doux.

A nous seuls appartient T^tendue infinie;
Immortels nous flottons et toujours avan^ons.
N^ de nos mouvements, des fleuves d'harmonie
Circulent dans Tether partout oil nous passons.

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^La Nuit.

Vous mentez, 6 Soleilsl It moi seule appartiennent
L'espace sans limites et Pimmortalit^.
Au-delk des lointains ou vos rayons parviennent,
Mon noir abime 4tend sa morne immensite.

Sem^s de loin en loin sur mon manteau d'ebene,
Vous ornez pour un temps ma severe beaute ;
II n*est permis qu'lt moi, moi votre souveraine,
De dire a haute voix: — J*ai toujours existe.

DMnnonibrables soleils, avant votre naissance,
Etincelaient dej^ sur Tabime sans fond;
Ou sont-ils aujourd'hui? qui pleure leur absence?
Qui cherche leur ^clat disparu de mon front?

Cessez donc^ orgueilleux, de chanter vos louangesl

Eclairez^ ^chauffez les^mondes habitus.

Je vous absorberai, passageres phalanges^

Quand par le temps qui fuit vos jours seront comptes.

Our literature published in 1889 is certainly very
creditable.

The articles which appeared in the Comptes-Ren-
dus de r AtMnie in 1890 are of a character more
varied than in 1889. The first paper which at-
tracts our attention is an ** Etude sur Robert-Ed-
ou^rd Lee," by Mr. G. Doussan. The author evi-
dently studied his subject carefully, and has ren-
dered full justice to the great Confederate chief-
tain. Let us be thankful to Mr. Doussan for pre-
senting to us a very interesting picture of a man
whose ''memory is honored by every American,
and who, in the opinion of many, is the most
perfect character in our history since Washing-
ton.

** Le Pugilat chez les Anciens et les Modernes,*'

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82 Louisiana Studies.

by Dr. Alfred Mercier, gives us an account of
prize-fighting among the ancients, and describes
the terrible duel between Epeos and Euryalos, in
the twenty-third book of the Iliad, and the combat
of Dares and Entellus, in the fifth book of the
-^neid. However horrible and brutal those fights
of the ancients appear to us, in spite of the beau-
tiful verses of the greatest masters of antiquity,
we must remember that they were the outcome oi
a civilization in which physical force and skill were
of the greatest use in battle. Now, however, as
the Doctor remarks, men are killed in wars at great
distances, and physical strength, as exemplified by
the combats described by Homer and Virgil, is no
longer necessary. Let boxing, therefore, be con-
sidered an hygienic exercise, and let us not adore,
as did the Greeks, athletes whose brutal exhibi-
tions are demoralizing and revolting to our sense
of delicacy.

Dr. Mercier, who has made a special study of
the Creole patois and who uses it with great charm
in his novels, has translated several of -^sop's
fables into our Louisiana patois. He gives the
fables imitated by La Fontaine, and shows that
those of -^sop translated into the naive and sweet
Creole patois are not unworthy to be compared
with those of the great fabulist of the seventeenth
century.

The following fables are really charming and
quaint in their new garb :

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CoMPER Renar, ""

Comper Renar entre dan ain boutic com^dien, i
fouille dan ton so bitin. Li trouv^ ain mask ki t^
joliman bien faite; li pran li dan so patte, 6 li di
comme ga : ** Ki bel lat^te 1 main pa gagnin la cer-
vel laddan/'

C16AL ± Froumis.

Dan tan liver froumis tap^ f^ s^cher grain dibl6
ki t^ umide. Ain cigal ki t^ bien faim mand^ y^
kichoge pou mang?. Froumis lay6 reponne:
*• Dan tan 16t6 cofer vou pa serr^kfeke nourriture?
Mamzel Cigal di y^: ** Mo t^ pa gagnin tan; mo
t^ toujour ap6 chants." Froumis parti rire 6 di
li:" Dan tan cho vou t6 chante; asteur ii frette,
vou dans6."

In **Paracelse'* Dn Mercier places before us
the famous and enigmatic physician, and makes
him relate to us his dream while under the in-
fluence of the powerful essence discovered by
him. Dolor, Aphrodite, Invidia, Avaritia, Politica,
Jocosa speak to him in vain ; he only heeds Pallas
Ath^n^, who leads him to her temple, and then he
converses with Vita, Fides, Novitas and Mors, and
although devoted to Scientia, he receives Poesis
as his best friend. This allegory, although fan-
tastic, is written with great force, and the lan-
guage of Paracelse is poetic and harmonious.

Dr. Mercier published also in pamphlet form a
long philosophical poem, ** R^ditus et Ascala-
phos." Reditus seeks solitude, and has taken
refuge in a lofty tower built upon a rock. He haa

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84 Louisiana Studies.

fled from the society of man and believes that he
is alone in his eagle's nest, when he hears a voice
near him in the darkness. He then perceives in
the light of the moon an old and gigantic owl. It
is Ascalaphos, whom the wrath of Ceres and Per-
sephone has metamorphosed, and who has been
condemned by the goddesses to live forever. He
has a long conversation with R^ditus, in which he
expounds to the latter the history and destiny oi
mankind. The bird of night then takes fiis flight
toward Africa, into the interior of which the white
man is at last penetrating, and Reditus exclaims in
verses really grand :

II a pris son essor. Quels vigoureux coups d'aile!
II va plus promptement que la prompte hirondelle.
II est deja bien loin. Ce n'est plus qu*un point noir;
A peine si mes yeux peuvent encore le voir.
Dans une vapeur d*or il plonge, et la lumi^re
L'absorbe. Je le cherche en vain dans I'atmosph^re :
Plus rien. Oh! si j'avais des ailes comme lui;
JMrais revoir le ciel ou mes beaux jours ont lui,
Les jours d'enchantement, d'esperance et d'ivresse,
Les jours si fugitifs de Pheureuse jeunesse.
Mais ne regrettons rien. Laissons s'^vanouir
L'image d'un passe qui ne pent revenir.

Dr. Deir Orto contributes to the Comftes-
Rendus some interesting translations from the
Italian. We feel pained at the sad death of Toto,
the ouistiti who dies of sorrow because he has
broken to pieces his lady-love, the porcelain mon-
achella.

Mr. Peytavin presents the result of important
researches made by him upon the vicissitudes

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Literature. 85

of the theatre in Richmond during the war, and
renders justice to the energy and love for his art
of Orsy Ogden, who, in spite of numberless ob-
stacles, managed to keep his theatre open until
the fall of the capital of the Confederacy.

Mr. George Dessommes' '*La Legende d'Or-
este " is a scholarly piece of work. The author
makes a comparative study of the Oresteia in
-^schylus, Sophocles and Euripides, and gives a
clear idea of the differences in the genius of the
great Greek dramatists.

*'Autriche-Hongrie," by Franz Kupetz, is an
interesting account of the present condition of the
empire of Francis Joseph, and '* Citrus trifoliata,"
by Dr. Devron, is a scientific botanical study.

Mr. E. Grima wrote, in 1890, several light and
graceful poems: *'Pourquoi Jean est reste gar-
con " is witty and amusing, and ** El^gie " is very
touching.

Dominique Rouquette, perhaps the best and
most original poet that Louisiana has produced,
died in May, 1890. I devoted a few pages in the
Com-pteS'Rendus de V Athinee to the memory of
the old bard of the Tchefuncte. I wish to
reproduce here one of his delicate and tender
poems.

A Mmb. Ad^ls C ♦ ♦ ♦

Dites, avez-vous vu, comme souvent je vols,
Sur les pieux vermoulus, au rebord des vieux toits
Une plante fletrie et reduite en poussiere?
Dites, avez-vous vu la sauvage foug^re,
Desscchee aux rajons de nos soleils d'ete,

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86 Louisiana Studies.

Sur un hangar croulant, tombant devetuste? —
La plante qu^a regret quelque pieu tremblant porte,
Fan^e, etiol^e, "k nos yeux semble morte;
Balancee au rebord du vieux hangar mouvant,
Ce n'est qu*un peu de poudre abandonnee au vent}
Mais qu'une fraiche ondee inattendue arrive,
Laissant couler sur elle une goutte d*eau vive;
La plante, benissant le torrent bienfaiteur,
Recouvre sa verdure et toute sa fraicheur;
Ainsi, dans notre coeur qu'un tourbillon emporte,
Dans nos cceurs oublieux, l'amiti<5 semble n\orte;
Mais le doux souvenir, la ranimant parf ois, '
Lui donne la beauts, la fraicheur d'autrefois.

I shall mention only briefly the works published
from 1891 to 1893. In 1891 Dr. Alfred Mercier
published a novel, ** Johnnelle." It is a work of
high philosophy, in which the author attacks in-
fanticide, that monstrous crime, but yet too fre-
quent. Mr. Edward Dessommes published in
Paris "Femme et Statue," a clever archaeological
study. Miss Marie Augustin published in 1892 a
strong and dramatic novel, ** Le Macandal,"
based on an interesting episode of the revolt of
the blacks against the whites in San Domingo.

The writers in the Comptes-Rendus dcT Athin^e
from 1891 to 1893 are nearly the same as those
in 1889 and 1890. We may add to that list
the names of Mr. A. Schreiber, Mr. Fdix Voorhies,
and Mr. H, L. Ducroq.

I take the liberty to mention here my historical
lectures, **le Chateau de Chambord" (1884),
**les Conquetes des Normands'' (1889), my
literary lectures, "le Vieux Fran§ais et la Litt^ra-

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Literature. 87

ture du Moyen Age'' (1885), ** Sept Grands
Auteurs du XIXe Siecle " (1889), "Gabriel
d'Ennerich," an historical novelette (1886), and
** Histoire de la Litt^rature Fran5aise " (1893).

The French literature of Louisiana is no un-
worthy daughter of that of France, and will long
continue to live; it is modest and simple, but
above all sincere in its love for Louisiana, the
United States and France.

IV.-ENQLISH LITERATURE.

The English literature of the State of Louisiana
is very extensive and we have so large a number
of authors in every branch that in such a short
sketch I can only mention the most important ones,
or, at least, the works which have marked the
development of our literature.

For a number of years after the cession to the
United States the conditions were not favorable to
English literature. The settlers from the United
States were not very numerous and they were too
much absorbed by their material interests to attend
to literary pursuits. As the prosperity of the State
increased more attention was paid to education,
but the culture of the people, as in other South-
ern States, was directed principally to statesman-
ship, and we had great orators, distinguished
journalists, but comparatively few authors of note.
It is proper to state, however, that the celebrated

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88 Louisiana Studies.

De Bow^s Review exerted a great influence, for
many years, upon literature. Its pages contain
papers of value on all kinds of subjects and it is a
complete encyclopedia of the Old South. The
institution of slavery is claimed by many as having
been detrimental to literary activity. It was not,
perhaps, so much slavery itself as the material
prosperity accompanying it which was a drawback
to literature. The Southern people were content
with attending to their mercantile and agricultural
interests and with governing the nation, to a great
extent, and although many were highly educated
few wrote in branches generally included in the
term literature. Too many, however, spent their
energy and their talents in defending with their
pens the cause of slavery, a cause which was
naturally considered by them legal and just. Slav-
ery, in that way, injured literature. Let us not,
however, scorn the Old South, for the New South
did not spring into existence in full womanhood as
Minerva of old ; it is but the continuation of the
Old South ; the New is possible only because the
Old has existed. The changes accomplished
since the war were the result of circumstances
existing before the war, and the expression the
New South should be taken rather as indicating 3
condition of things transformed but not new.

After the convulsion caused by the war literature
revived slowly in the [State; the excellent news-
papers in New Orleans, both in French and Eng-
lish, contributed largely to that revival by devoting

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Literature, 89

as they are still doing, a large space in their col-
umns to literary subjects. The greatest factor,
however, in the development of our literature in
the last few years has been the establishment in
New Orleans of the Tulane University. It has
raised considerably the level of education, and by
its public lectures and the influence of its faculty
and students has given a wonderful impetus to the
literary spirit. The State University at Baton
Rouge has also done good work in that direction.
It is but fair to state the influence exerted from its
foundation, many years ago, of the New Orleans
Academy of Sciences, and of the ** Geographic" and
**Quarante" Clubs. These societies are doing for
English literature in Louisiana what the *'Ath^n6e
Louisianais' ' is doing for French literature, and their
share in the intellectual development of our people
is considerable. The ** Geographic" and **Quar-
ante " Clubs were organized by the ladies of New
Orleans. Col. Johnston, in his excellent lectures
on Shakspeare delivered at Tulane University in
1890, says on this subject: '*The feeling has come
home to our best and strongest women, those
who mould and sway the opinions of the mass,
that they must not delay to enter into that higher
realm of thought which lifts humanity, even so
much as one step, nearer to the Divine Archetype.
And they have adjudged aright when they decided
that this was to be found in the best literature. For
the best literature embodies the best thought of the
highest thinkers, addressed to the hearts of all

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90 Louisiana Studies.

mankind/' The course of study pursued by these
clubs includes many important subjects, among
which we may mention : Study of Greek Drama,
of Ancient Religions, of Victorian Poets of Eng-
land, and of France in eighteenth century.

It is very much to be regretted that Art and
Letters^ a beautiful illustrated magazine pub-
lished in New Orleans in 1887, did not last more
than a year. Its influence on our literature was,
however, beneficial, and some of the best local
writers were contributors to it.

Current Topics is a sprightly little monthly mag-
azine edited by Mrs. P. W. Mount (Ruth Ramay).
It is to be hoped that its success is assured.

The Southern Art Union, an institution organ-
ized also by ladies, did a great deal of good in the
few years of its existence, and we will conclude
the list of factors in our intellectual and literary
development by mentioning the Louisiana Journal
of Education and the Louisiana Educational So-
ciety. The Journal of Education was founded in
1879 ^y Professors R. M. Lusher and W. O.
Rogers, and continued until 1888, owing to the
energy and devotion of Prof. Rogers. Its pages,
like those of DeBow^s Review^ contain a great
number of very important papers and form a large
part of our literature. The Louisiana Educa-
tional Society has stirred up public sentiment
throughout the whole State in favor of education
and has established at Ruston one of those noble
institutions, a Chautauqua.

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History, Biography, Literary Criticism
AND Sketches.

Louisiana will always claim as belonging to her
the great naturalist, Audubon, whose admirable
works, *' Birds of America" and ** Quadrupeds of
America," have excited the admiration of man-
kind. Audubon was born in Louisiana in 1781,
and she is proud of her son.

K in natural history we have but one name, in
political history we have several, and these have
generally devoted their talent to writing the history
of their State and country.

Our earliest historian is the learned jurist Fran-
Qois-Xavier Martin. His history of Louisiana was
published in 1827, and republished in 1882, accom-
panied by an interesting memoir of the author by
Judge W.W. Howe, and Annals from 1815 to 1861
by J. F. Condon. This work occupies a high rank
in our literature, and is written with French con-
ciseness and clearness. It begins with an excellent
topographical view of the State, gives a brief ac-
count of events in America before the settlement
of Louisiana, and relates with impartiality and
force the events in our colonial and State history
to the year 1815. The battle of New Orleans is
described in detail, as well as the events leading to
the imposition of the fine upon General Jackson.
Judge Martin justifies the action of Judge Hall,
and the opinion of such a profound jurist is entitled
to great weight.

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With the name of Judge Martin that of Judge
Gayarre is intimately associated, as both have writ-
ten histories of Louisiana which are the best which
we have. After having published his two histories
in French Mr. Gayarr^ rewrote his History oi
Louisiana, and published it in English in four vol-
umes. This work has placed Mr. Gayarre with
the greatest historians of America, and is recog-
nized by all as a standard work. It begins with
the Romance of the History of Louisiana, in which
the legends of the State are related in a florid style
suitable to the subject. The history proper is based
on original documents, and is narrated with such
impartiality that the author has been accused of
not condemning with sufficient severity the cruel
acts of O'Reilly.

Gayarr^'s History of Louisiana is so well known
that I shall pass to his Philip IL This work is not
in reality a history of the gloomy and cruel tyrant
of the Escurial, but a series of striking and forci-
ble tableaux which remind us of Carlyle's **French
Revolution." The author gives first a graphic
description of the horrible death of Philip, and
shows the sanguinary despot resigned, calm and
composed at the moment of appearing before his
judge, and calls attention to the curious psychical
problem involved in that death with its apparent
unconsciousness of guilt. The different scenes of
Philip's reign are presented to us: the probable
murder of his son, his efforts to suppress heresy
throughout Europe, his persecution of the princess

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Eboli and of Antonio Perez, the extraordinary re-
sistance of the latter, his defence by the people of
Saragossa and the ultimate loss of the fueros of
Aragon, and the complete enslavement of the
Spanish people. The reign of Philip, in spite of
his power, marks the beginning of the downfall of
Spain under the rule of the house of Austria, and
Mr. Gayarre has indicated clearly the causes which
led to the ruin of the great kingdom of Charles and
Philip. It is to be regretted that the historian did
not present to us some scenes of the conflict be-
tween Philip and his subjects of the Netherlands ;
he might have given us striking pictures of Alva
and of the heroes of the house of Orange.

Besides the above works Mr. Gayarr^ published
in different magazines a number of important his-
torical and literary papers. We may mention:
**A Historical Sketch of the Two Lafittes," ^'A
Louisiana Sugar Plantation of the Old Regime,"
**The New Orleans Bench and Bar in 1823,"
**Mary Stuart," **Don Carlos and Isabelle de
Valois," '* Literature in Louisiana," and **The^
Creoles of History and the Creoles of Romance,"
in which he refutes completely Mr. Cable's mis-
representations of the Louisianians of French and
Spanish descent. We shall again refer to Mr.
Gayarre as a dramatist and a novelist; we must
now consider Judge Alexander Walker's ** Life of
Andrew Jackson and Battle of New Orleans
i860." The author gives a brief account of Jack-
son's career before he went to New Orleans in

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94 Louisiana Studies.

1814 to defend that city from the invasion of the
English. He then describes minutely the memo-
rable events of December, 1814, and January,
1815, and his narrative is very interesting. Mr.
Walker was a patriot and he gloried in the
achievements of the Americans. He defends the
brothers Lafitte from the accusation of piracy and
robbery, and what is pleasing to a Louisianian
who reads this book, the author proves how
patriotic were the Louisianians in the war against
the English, how noble were the women of New
Orleans, how intrepid and devoted were the Louis-
iana soldiers, of whatever origin. The defeat and
complete rout of the British army by Jackson is
an extraordinary event in history, and Mr. Walker
can be said to have accomplished well the task he
had undertaken of narrating the heroic deeds of
our fathers in 1814 and 1815. Judge Walker's
son, Mr. Norman McF. Walker, is also a well
known writer. His paper, ** The Geographical
Nomenclature of Louisiana," published in the
Magazine of American History for September,
1883, gives proof of much research and explains
very ingeniously the curious and interesting geo-
graphical names in Louisiana. The town of
Gretna, named from the fact of an old justice of
the peace '* getting out of bed at any hour of the
night to marry a couple of young lovers from the
city;" Paincourtville, ** Short-bread Town," so-
called because a traveler passing through the
villagje many years ago was unable to ob-

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Literature. 95

tain from the poor inhabitants a single loaf of
bread.

No history of the literature of Louisiana, however
brief, would be accurate without the mention of the
distinguished scholar Alexander Dimitry, whose
learning was prodigious and who did such good
work for the cause of education in our State. It is
to be regretted that Prof. Dimitry has left no works
in book form; his sons, however, John and Charles
Dimitry, are able writers, and his daughter, Mrs.
Virginia Dimitry Ruth, was a well known poet and
litterateur. John Dimitry wrote a History of Louis-
iana for schools. Charles Dimitry is a novelist and
a poet and will be mentioned later.

While speaking of school histories it is proper to
mention Prof. H. E. Chambers' Histories of the
United States, published by Messrs. F. F. Hansell
& Bro., of New Orleans. These works are recog-
nized as possessing merit and are eminently teach'
able. Although written with impartiality, they pre-
sent in their true light all questions in which the
South was directly interested and do full justice to
the heroism of the Southern soldiers in the late
war. An important feature of these histories are
the search questions and list of books presented
for parallel reading.

Among the biographies of the great Confederate
generals none deserve a higher rank than Col. W.
P. Johnston's **Life of Albert Sidney Johnston."
The style of the book has been much praised, and
the author is recognized as being a master of Eng-

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96 Louisiana Studies.

lish prose. Gen. Johnston's character is one of
the noblest in our history, and his military career
was conspicuous for his devotion to duty. His ser-
vices in Texas, in the Far West, and in the South-
em Confederacy are related with many details and
with true filial love. Col. Johnston is also the au-
thor of lectures on Shakspeare, comprising studies
on Macbeth and Hamlet. His theory that James
VI, of Scotland, was the prototjrpe of Hamlet is
ingenious and well argued. Dr. W. T. Harris,
United States Commissioner of Education, has
spoken of Col. Johnston's book as being among
the best Shakspearian studies published in this
country.

The ** Military Operations of Gen. Beauregard,"
by Col. Alfred Roman, is another important work
concerning the Civil War. The life and campaigns
of the celebrated Louisiana soldier are described
minutely by Col. Roman, who wrote English
as well as French, and we take the greatest pleas-
ure in reading of the achievements of one of the
most distinguished generals and military engineers
in the Confederacy. Judge Gayarr^ has reviewed
favorably in the Southern Historical Society Pa-
pers the ** Military Operations of Gen. Beauregard"
and says: ** Henceforth, of our Civil War it will
be impossible to write the history without taking
this valuable contribution to it into the most serious
consideration."

The opinion of Gen. Beauregard on military
matters is always important, and tiie soldier world

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must have been well pleased when they read Gen.
Beauregard's ** Commentary on the Campaign and
Battle of Manassas" and his ** Summary of the
Art of War," published in 1891. The style is
clear and simple, I may say mathematically pre-
cise, and documentary evidence is given for the
statements advanced.

** Military Record of Louisiana " and ** A Sol-
dier's Story of the War," by Napier Bartlett, are
useful and patriotic works. One reads with emo-
tion the long list of our Louisiana soldiers, where
are to be met so often the words *' killed," ** died
of sickness," ** wounded," a sad but glorious
record.

Louisiana must be thankful to Mr. Bartlett for
his work, and also to Col. Wm. Miller Owen for his
excellent history of that fanious organization, the
* * Washington Artillery. " * ' In Camp and Battle ' '
relates with wit and pathos the camp life and the
battles of the celebrated battalion. There is humor
for some incidents and deep earnestness for others.
The author guides us in an interesting manner
throughout the whole war over numerous battle-
fields, and concludes with those words which
every Southern man, old or young, will heartily
approve : ** Sons of veterans, brave young hearts,
greet it (the United States flag) and rally under it,
and should our country ever become engaged in
foreign war and call to its aid the men of Louisiana,
be assured the Washington Artillery will take the
field at the first bugle blast, and again show the

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world of what stuff it was made in the days that
are gone, when the brazen throats of its guns
blazed forth on so many ensanguined battle fields
under the eyes of its beloved commanders, Lee,
Johnston, Beauregard and Longstreet."

The ** History of the Third Regiment Louisiana
Infantry,*' by W. H. Tunnard, is another work
which relates the brave deeds of our soldiers,
and which we read with pride.

One of our most heroic governors was H. W.
Allen. A monument has been erected to him
on the hill at Baton Rouge, where stands our
capitol, and our people will always remember the
name of the true patriot who was maimed for his
State and governed it so well in the most trying
period of its history. Before the war Henry W.
Allen was a planter in West Baton Rouge, and in
1859 ^^^'^ ^ ^rip ^^ Europe. He relates his voy-
age in *'The Travels of a Sugar Planter," and
we read the book with a feeling of awe at the un-
expected fate of the man who in i860 was a
peaceful traveler in Europe and so soon afterward
was to be a leader in one of the fiercest struggles
ever recorded. Governor Allen's literary work
must be cherished with veneration by the State
for which he suffered so much, and all should read
the tribute paid to his memory by Mrs. Sarah A.
Dorsey. Her ** Recollections of Henry Watkins
Allen/' written, it is said, at Gov. Allen's dying
request, was published in 1867. Mr. J. W. David-
son, in ** Living Writers of the South," quotes

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the following opinion of Mrs. Dorsey's book from
a Southern periodical: **This work presents the
most accurate account of the late war in the Trans-
Mississippi Department that has been given to the
public from a Southern point of view.*' The
battle of Mansfield, where were killed those valiant
men, Gen, Mouton and Col. Armant, is described
with great force.

The St. Louis Cathedral is so intimately con-
nected with the history of the State that Mr.
Louis J. Loewenstein rendered a service to the
community by publishing in 1882 his short history
of the sacred edifice.

** Municipal History of New Orleans,'* by W.
W. Howe, published in the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity Studies in Historical and Political Science
(1889), is a scholarly work which traces accu-
rately the different changes in our municipal gov-
ernment.

Norman's **New Orleans and Environs" de-
serves to figure in our list of historical works. It
was written in 1845, and describes a New Orleans
almost unknown to us who are living half a cen-
tury later. Mr. Norman, speaking to the men of
1895, says prophetically: ** We ask the kindness
of the critics of that period, should they deign to
turn over these pages, begging them to consider
that our humble work was produced as far back as
the benighted age of steam 1"

In 1892 Miss Grace King published an inter-
estin&r " Life of Bienville." The work is based

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on original documents and has great merit. Miss
King wrote also in collaboration with Prof. J. R.
Ficklen an excellent school History of Louisiana.
The work has been adopted for use in the public
schools in the State.

Gen Richard Taylor's ** Destruction and Re-
construction " is one of the most valuable works
we have on the history of the Civil War. Gen.
Taylor relates his campaigns in Virginia and in
the Trans-Mississippi Department and his work is
interesting and well written.

In writing the biography of the Hon. Chas.
Gayarre Mr. E. C. Wharton rendered a service to
his native State. It is a just tribute to a devoted
son of Louisiana.

" The Life of James Henley Thornwell,'* by
Dr. B. M. Palmer, is written in that admirable
style and with that wonderful eloquence which
have made Dr. Palmer's name so well known
throughout the country as a pulpit orator. It is
always interesting to read the life of a good man
written by a good man, and Dr. Palmer's biog-
raphy of Dr. Thornwell, as well as his ** Forma-
tion of Character," are works which elevate both
the heart and the mind.

Mother Austin Carroll has written the Annals
of the Sisters of Mercy and many papers published
in the Catholic journals.

We must not omit the important Historical Col-
lections of B. F. French.

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■ff
The Drama.

Our literature comprises few dramatic works, but
those which we have are of some interest. One of
the most tragic and noble events in our history is
the revolution of October, 1768, by which our an-
cestors drove out the Spanish governor imposed
upon them, and, not being able to remain French-
men, resolved upon proclaiming their indepen-
dence. It is well known that O'Reilly put to death
the chiefs of the patriots of 1768 and 1769. Their
names, however, have come down to us as those of
the Martyr Patriots^ and it is this theme which
Judge T. Wharton CoUens chose for a tragedy in
five acts and in verse. The work was written in
1833, and published in 1836; in the same year it
was performed at the St. Charles Theatre and
favorably received. The principal personages are
Lafr^nifere, Viller^ and Aubry. The first two are
most patriotic, and represented in their historical
character, but it is to be regretted that the author
should have made of Aubry a vile and mercenary
wretch, who plots with Gabriel, a half-breed Indian
brought up by Viller^, the death of the magnan-
imous planter and the ruin of his family. Aubry's
conduct in those sad events is far fr^m being
blameless, but he was not a murderer. The play
is too horrible, in spite of the love of Lafr6nifere and
Adelaide, Viller^'s daughter, and we must admire
the lofty sentiments of the author more than the
plot of the work. The verses are good, and Judge

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Collens can be counted among our poets. He
wrote also two works on psychology and political
economy, **Humanics** and** The Eden of Labor.**

Judge Gayarr^, whose name is to be seen on
every page of a history of literature in Louisiana,
published in 1854 **The School of Politics,'* a
dramatic novel, one of the most interesting works
that I have ever read. It is a sharp and amusing
criticism of American politics, and it is with the
utmost finesse that the author takes us behind the
scenes on the political stage and points to us the
wires as they are pulled by the rival candidates
for senatorial honors. A love story entwined in
the plot introduces an element of poetry in the
play, while Beckendorf, an honorable representa-
tive and beer dealer, who wishes to become an am-
bassador to Europe, is a burlesque and amusing
character. Randolph, the honest man, wins the
race for which he was apparently not striving, but
in his deep laid plans he is not as scrupulous as we
might expect from the most honest man in that
world of politicians. A few years ago Judge Gay-
arrj6 published another amusing comedy, ** Dr.
Bluff, or the American Doctor in Russia.'*

**The Late Lamented'* (1878), by Judge W.
W. Howe, is a very good comedy. Mrs Bil-
lington erects a mausoleum in her garden to her
first husband. Major Bagatelle, and her maid
servant, Mary, sings continually the praises of her
late lover, James Barber, in presence of her pres-
ent lover, John Poole. The deceased major and

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Literature. 103

James are lamented, as having possessed all vir-
tues, and Col. B. and John Poole are despised
'^because they are living." James, however, re-
turns from the battle field, where he is supposed
to have been killed, and says that Major Bagatelle
is among the Indians in the far \/est. On seeing
James alive Mary perceives that he is a drunkard
and a worthless fellow, and her mistress, on hear-
ing that the major is not dead, remembers his de-
fects, and begins to love her second husband.
Fortunately it is found out that James is a rogue
and that Major Bagatelle is not resurrected, and
both women are cured of their folly. Although
the principal incident of the play is suggested, as
the author says, by Octave Feuillet's *' TUrne,*'
the comedy is a work of merit.

Mr. Espy W. H. Williams has written a number
of dramas in verse, among which may be
mentioned *' Parrhasius," '* Witchcraft, or the
Witch of Salem," and ** Eugene Aram." Mr.
Williams has also published many poems in our
local press.

Mr. E. C. Wharton, a well known journalist,
wrote several dramas, which were acted with suc-
cess in New Orleans. He wrote a comedietta in
one act, ^'Tl'he Young Couple" (1851), expressly
for those remarkable youthful performers, Ellen
and Kate Bateman, who appeared in it in St.
Louis, New York and London. He also wrote
for them **Dick the Newsboy," which was later
^xtend^d to a three-act play by Mrs. Bateman.

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Mr. Wharton wrote also **The Toodlcs," a comei*
dietta in one act, and several farces which were
very successful. '* The Baggs-es," ** The J. J's,"
**Ten Thousand Filibusters," also ** House to
Rent,*' a dramatic sketch published in the Man-
haitan Magazine. Mr. Wharton was a man of
merit, but he was so modest that he did not have the
reputation which he deserved. Attention should
be ccdled to the name of an eminent Louisiana
playwright.

Poetry and Literary Sketches.

Our literature, both in English and in French, is
exceedingly rich in poets. We have many authors
who have left well known names, but whose works
are not easy to be found. I shall be satisfied with
naming those and shall give more details about our
best living poets.

J. W. Overall and M. F. Bigney were liberal
and enlightened patrons of literature in New Or-
leans. Both were poets, and Mr. Bigney pub-
lished in 1867 a volume called **The Forest Pil-
grims and Other Poems,'* among which the
«* Wreck of the Nautilus " has often been quoted.

Want of space forbids anything else but mention
of a number of our female poets. For a detailed
account of their writings I beg to refer to *' Living
Female Writers of the South" (1872), by the
author of *' Southland Writers," and to** The Liv-
ing Writers of the South" (1869), by J. W.
D^vi^epP! ?n th^se two bopks ^e fipd the nc^iioe

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Literature. 105

of M. Sophie Homes (Millie Mayfield), author of
** Carrie Harrington, or Scenes in New Orleans," a
prose work, and of two volumes of poems, ** Pro-
gression, or the South Defended," and ''A
Wreath of Rhymes;'* Mrs. Anna Peyre Dinnies
(Moina), '* The Floral Year," one hundred poems
illustrating a bouquet of flowers; Mrs. Marie
Bushnell Williams, a distinguished pupil of Alex-
ander Dimitry, whose translations from different
languages are admirable and whose poems are held
in high esteem; Mrs. Julia Pleasants Creswell;
Mrs. Eliza Elliott Harper; Mrs. M. W. Crear;
Mrs. Suzan Blanchard Elder, daughter of Gen. A.
G. Blanchard, whom it was my good fortune to
meet at the New Orleans Academy of Sciences, a
brave soldier and a scholar. Mrs. Elder has largely
contributed to the press under the nom de plume
** Hermine," and has written vigorous war songs
and harmonious poems; Mrs. Mary S. Whitaker,
the well known author of the novel ** Albert Hast-
ings " and of many poems, whose daughter Lily is
also a poet; Mrs. M. B. Hay; Mrs. E. A. Mori-
arty; Mrs. Louise (Clack) Richardson; Mrs.
Florence J. Willard, novelist and poet; Mrs. E.
M. Keplinger; Mrs. Virginia French, who can be
considered a Louisiana author, a talented poet and
novelist; Mrs. Mary E. Bryan, one of our best
Southern poets; Mrs. Alice Dalsheimer; Mrs. M.
G. GoodaJe. Many other names could be added
to the list, but in this brief sketch it is impossible
to give a complete acpouat of our female writer^t

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** Translations from Lamartine and Other
Poems," by James T. Smith, is a book which de-
serves to be better known. It is interesting to a stu-
dent of French to see how well Mr. Smith trans-
lates the works of the author of the *' Meditations."

**War Flowers" (1865), by John Augustin,
contains some pretty poems written during the war,
** many of them," says the author, '* having been
scribbled on the limber chest of a 12-pound Na-
poleon, many in the trenches^-others, more for-
tunate, had the honor of taking a position in a
lady's album." Major Augustin wrote also French
poetry, and was a distinguished journalist.

Mrs. Mollie E. Moore Davis, Mrs. Gideon
Townsend and Mrs. Nicholson are without doubt
our three best known poets.

Miss Moore (Mrs. Davis) began writing poetry
before she was nine years old, says the author of
'* Living Female Writers of the South," and she
was called ** The Texas Mocking-bird." We are
indeed fortunate that she has become one of Lou-
isiana's sweetest songsters. Col. C. G. Forshey
said of her: '* Taking Miss Moore's poems all in
all, they indicate a wide range of excellence, a
lofty sweep of thought, a subtle gift in allegory
and personification, and richness in exquisite fan-
cies." I have before me a volume of Mrs. Davis'
early poems, and I can but approve every word of
Col. Forshey's eulogy, ''Minding the Gap" is
touching and rich in local coloring, and ** Heart's
Ease," ** Going Out and Coming In," ** Forgot-

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ten/' ** Hidden Music,'* are soft and tender." I
liked especially ** Stealing Roses Through the
Gate," it is so gay and sprightly, and *' The Golden
Rose," a sad story of love and vengeance.

Stealing Rosbs through thb Gate.

Long ago do you remember,
When we sauntered home from school^

As the silent gloaming settled,

* With its breezes light and cool?

When we passed a stately mansion,
And we stopped, remember Kate,

How we spent a trembling moment
Stealing roses through the gate 1

But they hung so very tempting.

And our eager hands were small.
And the bars were wide — oh, Kittie,

We trembled, but wc took them all I
And we turned with fearful footstep,

For you know t'was growing late,
But the flowers, we hugged them closely,

Roses stolen through the gate !
Well, the years have hastened onward.

And those happy days are flown : ^
Golden prime of early childhood,

Laughing moments spent and gone!
But yestre' en I passed your cottage,

And L saw, oh, careless Kate !
Handsome Percy bending downward,

Stealing roses through the gate! ^
Stealing roses, where the willow

O'er the street its long bough dips:
Stealing roses — yes, I'll swear it.

Stealing roses from your lips I
And I heard a dainty murmur.

Cooing round some blessed fate:
Don't deny iti Wasn't Percy

Stealing roses from the gate? ,

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Mrs. Davis' later poems have not been gathered
in book form. Let us hope that we may soon have
another volume from our ** Louisiana Mocking-
bird." In that book would be found '* Pere Dago-
bert," and**Wanga/' that powerful poem pub-
lished in Harper's Weekly July 20, 1889. The
withered old woman at her incantations would re-
mind us of the witches in ** Macbeth," if there was
not in her a tender chord — ^love for husband and
children.

Her voice is hushed, she crouches low

Above the embers' flickering glow.

The swamp wind wakes, and many a thing

Unnamed flits by on furry wing.

They brush her cheeks unfelt; she heart

The far-off songs of other years.

Her eyes grow tender as she sways

And croons above the dying blaze.

Oh, de cabin at de quarter in de old plantation days,
Wid de garden patch behin' it an' de godevine by the do'.

An' de do'-yard sot wid roses, whar de chillun runs and plays,
An' de streak o' sunshine, yaller lak er slantin' on de flo'I

Mrs. Mary Ashley Townsend was first known
by her **Crossbone Papers," *' Quillotypes,"
** My Penny Dip," called by J. W. Davidson
**the best and wittiest plea for babies that has
ever circulated through Southern ephemeral litera-
ture." She published also in 1859 ** The Brother
Clerks, a Tale of New Orleans," but although
her prose is much admired it is through her poems
that she has acquired a national reputation. I
have iu3t read her two volumes of verse, and my

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Literature. 109

opinion is that Xariffa is one of the greatest poets
of America. ** Her blank verse,'* says a critic, ** is
remarkable for its ease, vigor and spirit;" her
sonnets are elegant, and her rhymed verse is har-
monious. In " Xariffa's Poems" we see ** Creed,'*
that poetic hymn which really began Mrs. Town-
send's great reputation. Here are the last two
stanzas :

I believe who hath not loved,

Hath half the sweetness of his life unproved ;

Like one who, with the grape within his grasp,
Drops it with all its crimson juice unpressed,
And all its luscious sweetness left unguessed,

Out from his careless and unheeding clasp.

I believe love, pure and true,

Is to the soul a sweet immortal dew

That gems life's petals in its hours of dusk —
The waiting angels see and recognize
The rich crown jewel, love, of Paradise,

When life falls from us like a withered husk.

** Down the Bayou and Other Poems," contains
that thrilling narrative ** The Captain's Story,"
and many other poetic gems. Mrs. Townsend's
tribute to Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston was worthy
of the subject, and her pen is always ready for a
patriotic work.

Another sweet singer is ** Pearl Rivers," Mrs.
Nicholson. A critic has said of her: **She is
one of Nature's sweetest poets, and as pure-hearted
as the blue river from which she takes her name —
a wild-wood warbler, knowing how to sing of birds
and flowers and flowing brooks, and all things

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beautiful." Pearl Rivers' ** Lyrics " seem to have
flown naturally from her lips, and hers is indeed a
*« Singing Heart:"

The world has bruised the singing heart,

It has wept tears like dew ;
And Slander^ with a poisoned dart,

Has pierced it through and through.

But singing hearts are hard to kill,

And God made mine with wings,
To flj above all earthly ill ;

And so it lives and sings. '

Mrs. Nicholson is proprietor of the New Orleans
Picayune, and writes often in that paper in prose
and verse.

Julie K. Wetherill (Mrs. Marion A. Baker) is
one of the most gifted among the many ladies who
write for the newspapers and magazines. Her
poems are graceful and harmonious, as ** Echo "
and **A Fountain Sealed, '* and also concise and
epigrammatic, as

A Meteor at Dusk.
Behold I one turns^ with wind-blown, golden head,

A backward glance to where the feasters stand,
Where songs arise, where bloom of wine is shed;

And so the lamp from out her slackened hand
Falls ; and the darkness falls ; and day is dead.

Mrs. Baker is a literary critic of great merit;
she is witty, accurate and forcible. Her articles
** The Seamy Side of Literature " in Lifpincotfs
Mafrazine and ** The Minutes by the Clock *' in the
New York Critic are models of good-natured
irony.

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Literature. hi

Mrs. James Durno (Felix Grey), literary critic
with Mrs. Baker, at the Times-Democrat^ has
written many poems and short stories for the Sun-
day issue of that paper. Mrs. M. R. Field
(Catharine Cole) writes in the Picayune and is
one of our best known litUrateurs. Her sketches
are always bright and clever. Mrs. J. C. Nixon
has given interesting literary lectures, and Mrs.
Bisland has contributed poems to our local press.
I must not fail to mention here that charming and
gifted writer, Miss Elizabeth Bisland (Mrs. Wet-
more), who began her literary career in New Or-
leans and who now has a world-wide reputation.
Mrs. Laura F.Hinsdale is also a well known poet,
and so are Miss Marcia Davies, Mrs. Caroline
Rogers and Mrs. J. G. Aiken.

Among the men who write poetry in our city we
must mention Charles Dimitry and Col. W. P.
Johnston. The latter has written a number of
poems which have added to his reputation as a
littirateur.

Among our poets we may mention also Richard
D'Alton Williams, the Irish patriot, who lived at
Thibodaux from 1856 to 1862, and is buried
there.

Joseph Brennan, another Irish patriot and poet,
was connected for three years with the New Or-
leans Deltay and died in New Orleans in 1857.

Among the writers from North Louisiana we
shall mention Mrs. Slaughter (Pleasant Rider-
hood), of Ruston* who has contributed to the

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112 Louisiana Studies.

magazines many sketches and stories, Mrs. Mattie
H. Williams, of the Shreveport Caucasiany and
Mrs. L. Jastremski (Olive Otis).

Judge A. A. Gunby, of Monroe, has published
a number of well written papers on literary and
educational subjects.

Mrs. Sallie Rhett Roman's articles in the Sunday
Times-Democrat and in the magazines have been
much admired. They are always written with
force and evince thought and excellent judgment.

James R. Randall, the author of * *My Maryland,' '
may be counted among our poets, as for sometime
Louisiana was his home.

Mrs. John R. Ficklen's paper on **Dream Po-
etry," in Scribner's Magazine^ evinces originality
and thought, and was favorably commented upon.

Mrs. Robert Sharp published in -^r/ and Letters
a charming description of a * * Vacation in Norway. ' '

Mr. Andrew Wilkinson's sketches of plantation
life are accurate and curious.

Mrs. Matilda A. Bailey's literary sketches hiave
been very popular.

I shall close this account of our poetry with the

following verses published by Col. Johnston in the

Century Mas^azine for 1884, and which teach a

lesson of Christian humility and self-f orgetfulness :

The Master.

ikN IMITATION.

Q. Tell me, O Sage I What is the true ideal?

A. A man I knew — a living soul and real.

Q. Tell me, my friend! Who was this mighty master?

A. The child of wrong, the pupil of disaster.

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Q. Under what training grew his lofty mind?

A. In cold neglect and poverty combined.

Q. What honors crowned his works with wealth and praise?

A. Patience and faith and love filled all his days.

Q. And when he died what victories had he won?

A. Humbly to live and hope — his work was done.

Q. What mourning nations grieved round his bier?

A. A loving eye dropped there a sorrowing tear.

Q. But history, then^ will consecrate his sleep?

A. His name is lost; angels his record keep.

Novels.

As with our poets the number of our novelists
is large, and I shall speak of the best known
and of the most recent. The first name to attract
our attention is that of Charles Gayarr^, who, be-
sides writing several novelettes, published two
novels, ** Fernando de Lemos " and '* Aubert Du-
bayet." Mr. Gayarr^ may not properly be called
a novelist, because in neither of his works does
he give a complete plot or tries to delineate a
character by the events in which the personages
are involved. ''Fernando de Lemos" has more
of fiction than ** Aubert Dubayet," but in both
works we see the historian of Louisiana, who
strives to instruct as well as to please. Many in-
teresting incidents are related in ** Fernando de
Lemos," and the author displays poetic feeling
and great imagination in the cemetery scenes with
the mad sexton. The episode of Backbone and
Sadfish is amusing, and the anecdote about Judge
Papillon is humorous; he decided his cases
with the help of two peas which he drew fronqi

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114 Louisiana Studies.

his pocket — ^black for defendant, white for plain-
tiff.

In **Aubert Dubayet," which is rather a history
than a novel, we have accurate pictures of the
men of the two great revolutions, the American
and the French. We should be grateful to Mr.
Gayarr^ for honoring the memory of Dubayet, the
Louisianian, who shared with Kleber the glory of
defending Mayence, who was a general of division
in the army of the Republic and who died at
thirty-eight minister plenipotentiary of France at
Constantinople.

Mrs. Sarah A. Dorsey, already mentioned as
an historian, was also one of our best novelists.
She was, as Mrs. Williams, an accomplished lin-
guist and read six languages. She wrote ** Lucia
Dare,'* **Agnes Graham," "A Southern Villegia-
tura" and ** Panola." Of these works I read
only the last, which gave me a great opinion of the
author's talent. The plot is well drawn, the char-
acters well sustained aud the style is good. " Pan-
ola" has a great quality, one not so common as
people might imagine, it is interesting. When
Mrs. Dorsey died in 1879 ^^e left to Jefferson
Davis his last home, Beauvoir.

Mr. Charles Dimitry has written poetry and sev-
eral novels, of which **The House on Balfour
Street" (1868) is a work of great force. It re-
minds one of Dickens, Hawthorne and Thackeray.
It has the sombre and somewhat repulsive gloom
of ** Dombey and Son," in the flight of Mrs. Dom-

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Literature. 115

bey and her pursuit by her husband; the philoso-
phy of ** The House with the Seven Gables/' the
sarcasm and bitter irony of ** Vanity Fair.^' The
character of Captain Vernon is too fierce, that of
Blacker too weak, but that of Mrs. Arncliffe is
gentle and natural, and the curiosity of Mr.
Creech, although exaggerated, leads to unraveling
the plot. Mr. Dimitry at a mature age might give
us an excellent novel.

Mr. John Dimitry is the author of the admirable
epitaph of Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston and has
translated into English the most amusing episodes
of Rabelais J inimitable ** Pantagruel et Gargan-
tua." ** Norodom," by Frank McGloin, is a story
of the East and is related with warmth and anima-
tion. The imagination of the author is really ex-
traordinary and the enchantments of the Palace of
Ferozia are worthy of those of the gardens of Ar-
mida. The style is too uniformly florid and leads
to monotony, but the book strikes the imagination
and is read with pleasure.

Dr. W. H. Holcombe, one of our distinguished
physicians, was known as a literary man by his
poems and by his.Swedenborgian studies, and the
public was well pleased when he published, in
1890, his *' Mystery of New Orleans.'* I take
pleasure in reproducing here what Dr. Holcombe
says of the Creoles of Louisiana: ** These men
were the root-stock or foundation-head of the
Creole civilization, a social state distinguished for
the courage and honorable bearing of its men, the

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beauty and refinement of its women, and the highly
polished manners of both sexes." Again he says:
'' The Creoles he met in private and at the clubs
spoke English so perfectly and fluently that only
the most attentive and cultivated ear could detect
any deviation from the standard. The differences
of accentuation and intonation were so delicate,
mere nuances^ that they never could be transferred
to paper, or represented by any possible species of
bad spelling." It is to be regretted that Dr. Hol-
combe should have given to some of his heroes the
names of several of the oldest Creole families in
Louisiana, a fact which is displeasing to those who
bear those names at present, and which is contrary
to usage. The doctor's novel appeared to me a
well planned and vigorous book, and his great
knowledge of hypnotism and other spiritual sci-
ences gives an air of reality to the most incredible
events. His treatment of the negro question is
fair and rational and will be approved by all im-
partial Southern men.

Miss Grace King is one of our best novelists.
She has written a number of short stories in
the different magazines and has won for her-
self quite an enviable reputation. '* Madrilene"
reminds us of Theophile Gautier's fantastic and
powerful poem, **LaCom^diedela Mort," and the
surroundings of the poor girl and her sad fate are
vividly described. This very vividness, however,
produces on us a somewhat painful impression, as
we are carried along breathless through the plot.

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Literature, 117

The style is forcible, but the sentences are some-
times a little too short. I may apply the same
remarks to *' Bayou TOmbre," ** The Christmas
Story of a Little Church," and the last two chapters
of '' Monsieur Motte," ** The Drama of an Even-
ing," and '* Marriage of Marie Modeste." I have
nothing but praises for '* Monsieur Motte " and
" On the Plantation." Life in the boarding school
is beautifully described, as well as the sweet love
of the old couple, Madame Lareveillfere and Mon-
sieur Goupilleau. The descriptive style of Miss
King is poetic and true to nature. The first pages
of ** On the Plantation" are really charming, and
give a longing for country life. Besides the above
works Miss King has written *'Earthlings," ** Bonne
Maman," and several other stories. We may pre-
dict a bright future to our young Louisiana nov-
elist.

Mr. George W. Cable's works of fiction are
well known, and, as a rule, have been much ad-
mired. While residing in Louisiana he wrote his
^'Old Creole Days," «* Madame Delphine," and
**The Grandissimes." He is a novelist of some
talent, especially in his short stories, and presents
tableaux with force, but his descriptions of Creole
life and his types of the Creole gentleman and lady
are utterly incorrect. They are misrepresentations
oi an honorable and chivalric race, and have ex-
cited the just indignation of every Louisianian of
die Latin race and of many of the Anglo-Saxon.

After reading Mrs. R. T. Buckner's ** Toward

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ii8 Louisiana Studies.

the Gulf" one feels a sensation of inexpressible
sadness at the fate of the sweet Bamma and her
pretty boy, but in spite of our pity for their mis-
fortune we must thank Mrs. Buckner for her cour-
age in telling us in such a touching and eloquent
manner that miscegenation would indeed lead the
South toward the Gulf^ toward a fathomless
abyss. Let the two races live separate, it is bet-
ter for both. The book is very well written and
the description of the Mississippi and of the cre-
vasse on the plantation is quite graphic. ** To-
ward the Gulf " is certainly one of the best works
in our literature.

Mr. Laf cadio Hearn began his literary career in
Louisiana and wrote his chief works in New
Orleans. ** Stray Leaves from Strange Litera-
ture" and ** Some Chinese Ghosts " are weird
and poetic, and ** Chita " is a remarkable work.
The style is brilliant and the author seems to paint
rather than to write, so vivid are his descriptions.
It seems as if we were present at the time of the
dreadful catastrophe which annihilated Last
Island; we hear the sound of music at the hotel, we
see the graceful couples gliding before us, while
the roar of the tempest keeps time with the dance,
and all at once there is a crash like thunder, the
ball room is rent by the fierce hands of the power-
ful wind, the waves sweep over the despairing
men, women and children, and soon numberless
bodies are carried along by the mad waters toward
the mighty gulf. On a table is a dead woman and

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Literature . 119

a child tied to her by a scarf; the brave fisherman
Viosca saves the charming girl, and Zouzoune,
the Creole child, becomes Chita, the daughter of
the Spanish couple. How poetic is Chita, and how
terrible is the death of the doctor, who imagines
thath is lost wife is calling him, her ch^riy and
who, in his delirium, calls Chita his own dear girl,
and yet dies without being able to kiss her golden
curls. Mr. Hearn could be compared with Pierre
Loti and ** Chita" with *' Pfecheurs d'Islande,''
if the high coloring of the style were not sustained
so long that it became somewhat monotonous.

** In War Times at la Rose Blanche,'' by Mrs.
M. E. M. Davis, will now attract our attention.
The book is full of pathos, so much so that in
reading it tears came very often to my eyes.
While looking at the father and sons going to the
war it reminded me of days long past when I saw
my brother and cousins **go to the front" full
of hope and ardor, and of the time of the return
home with ever3rthing lost except honor. The
devotion of the slaves is true, and in many families
there were Uncle Joshua, Mammy, Justine, Virgil
and Dandy. Mrs. Davis' style is exceedingly
pleasing, it is so simple and natural. How touching
are the Federal officer's words \ hen he announces
the death of the husband and father: ** He
stooped and bent one knee to the ground and
drew the child gently to him." "My son," he
said, putting the sword into the small hands and
closing them upon it, ** give this to your mother

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I20 Louisiana Studies.

and tell her that it was the sword of a brave and
honorable man who died a gallant death on the
battle field." I wish I could give longer quotations
from Mrs. Davis' book in order that all may see
what a charming work it is. Mrs. Davis has
written many stories and sketches, among which
we must mention Keren-happuch, a series of clever
papers on New Orleans life and scenes.

Mrs. Ruth McEnery Stuart is one of the most
gifted of Louisiana's daughters. I have read
with great pleasure her stories published in the
different magazines. **The Golden Wedding"
represents exactly the childlike and naive char-
acter of the negro who has not been spoilt by the
politician, and *' Christmas Gifts " is an interest-
ing story of slave times. **Camelia Ricardo"
and **Carlotta's Intended" give us an idea of
dago life, and although we catch a glimpse of the
dreaded mafia, the plot of both stories is graceful
and touching. Mrs. Stuart has now attained suc-
cess and will continue producing her life-like
novelettes.

Mr. E. C. Wharton's ** Warof the Bachelors"
is a long and carefully written novel in which many
incidents lead a well constructed plot to the con*
elusion.

Mr. George Augustin has published a volume
of stories, ** Legends of New Orleans," which
give promise for the future, and Miss Marie
L. Points has written in the Sunday Picayune
many interesting stories of local life.

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Literature. 121

" The Story of an Enthusiast" ( 1888), by Mrs.
C. V. Jamison, is a work in which the author dis-
plays great imagination and poetic feeling. The
story is somewhat weird and fantastic, but we take
a great interest in the fate of the unfortunate artist,
Markland, arid the sweet Dorethea. The '*head
with the black beretta," the sublime creation of
Raphael, seems to be a living personage and plays
the principal part in the plot. The secondary
personages are also powerfully drawn, and one
may well say that Mrs. Jamison's book is a well
written story, sad, touching and mysterious.

I have never read a more charming story than
** Lady Jane " (1891), by Mrs. C. V. Jamison. It
is so simple, graceful and touching, and the per-
sonages, including the heron, are so real. A little
boy meets on a train going to New Orleans a lady
and her little daughter and gives to the latter a
blue heron. The lady and her child fall into the
clutches of Madame Jozain and her worthy son,
Raste, at Gretna, and after the death of her mother,
poor little Lady Jane remains in the power of
Madame Jozain (Tante Pauline). We see them
a little later in Goodchildren street, where we meet
Pepsie, Tite Souris, M. Gex, Mile. d'Hautreve,
and the Paichoux family. They are all good
friends of Lady Jane, but Madame Jozain runs
away with the poor child, who soon falls into great
poverty. She is taken in Margaret's asylum, and
a friend of her mother's, Mrs. Lanier, discovers
who she is, with the help of Arthur Maynard, the

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132 Louisiana Studies.

boy who gave the blue heron. Lady Jane becomes
an heiress, rewards all her kind friends, and the
story leaves her a beautiful girl of seventeen, in
the company of Arthur Maynard.

Among the young authors in Louisiana there
are none more promising than Mr. Thos. Mc-
Caleb. A grandson of Judge T. Wharton Col-
lens he seems to have inherited the literary talent
of that gentleman, and while yet at school he gave
proof of his taste for literature by his well written
essays. Mr. McCaleb published in 1892 a novel,
** Anthony Melgrave,* ' which met with very flatter-
ing success. The story is pathetic and well told and
the author gives a correct description of American
society. The personages in the book meet and
talk and act in a natural manner, and the plot,
although romantic, is simple and interesting. We
read the work with great pleasure and keep in our
minds the names of the unhappy senora Cardenas
and her jealous son Enrique, of the beautiful
Marion Lemore and the distinguished Anthony
Melgrave, and we are delighted at the happiness
of the two latter personages, the most sympathetic
in the book.

Mr. McCaleb will soon publish a work on Lou-
isiana literature, and we believe that ** Anthony
Melgrave*' should occupy a high rank among the
novels written by our Louisianians.

"Southern Silhouettes," by Jeannette H. Wal-
worth, gives a good idea of Southern life and is a
book written with a noble purpose.

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Literature. 123

I can not close this account of the English
literature of Louisiana without calling attention to
the excellent papers published in the Louisiana
yournal of Education by my friends and col-
leagues, President Johnston and Professors
Rogers, Sharp, Ficklen, Jesse, Hurt, Ayres, Cald-
well, Pearce, and Deiler. Prof. Deiler has also
written in the German language some valuable
papers on the history of German immigration in
Louisiana: '*Das Redemptions-system in Louis-
iana,'* ** Sally Miiller, die Weisse Sklavin "
(1889), ** Geschichte der Einwanderung von 1820
bis 1890."

Col. J. W. Nicholson's mathematical works,
published in New Orleans by HaHsell & Bro.,
deserve to be included in our list.

In concluding this brief history of the literature
of Louisiana I beg to state that it is not presented
as a complete work. The aim of the writer was to
be just and conscientious in his work. If he has
shown that his native State deserves to occupy an
honorable rank in the literary world his labors will
not have been in vain.

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PART II.

CUSTOMS AND DIALECTS.

I-CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS IN LOUISIANA.

In order to understand fully the customs of a
past age and of plantation life before the war, we
must bear in mind that the planters lived in the
greatest opulence and possessed many slaves.
These were, as a rule, well treated by their masters,
and, in spite of their slavery, they were contented
and happy. Not having any of the responsibilities
of life, they were less serious than the present
freedmen, and more inclined to take advantage of
all opportunities to amuse themselves.

New Year's Day on the plantations was an oc-
casion of great merriment and pleasure for the
slaves. Its observance gave rise to scenes so
characteristic of old times that I shall endeavor to
describe them.

At daylight, on the ist of January, the rejoicing
began on the plantation; everything was in an
uproar, and all the negroes, old and young, were
running about, shaking hands and exchanging
wishes for the new year. The servants employed

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126 Louisiana Studies.

at the house came to awaken the master and mis-
tress and the children. The nurses came to our
beds to present their souhaits. To the boys it was
always, ** Mo souhaits k6 vou bon gargon, f^plein
Targent 6 k6 vou bienh^reux;" to the girls, **Mo
souhait6 k6 vou bon fie, ke vou gagnin ein mari
riche e plein piti/'

Even the very old and infirm, who had not left
the hospital for months, came to the house with the
rest of r atelier for their gifts. These they were
sure to get, each person receiving a piece of an ox
killed expressly for them, several pounds of flour,
and a new tin pan and spoon. The men received,
besides, a new jean or cottonade suit of clothes,
and the women a dress and a most gaudy head-
kerchief or tignon^ the redder the better. Each
woman that had had a child during the year re-
ceived two dresses instead of one. After the sou-
haits were presented to the masters, and the gifts
were made, the dancing and singing began. The
scene was indeed striking, interesting and weird.
Two or three hundred men and women were there
in front of the house, wild with joy and most boist-
erous, although always respectful.

Their musical instruments were, first, a barrel
with one end covered with an ox-hide — this was
the drum; then two sticks and the jawbone of a
mule, with the teeth still on it — this was the violin.
The principal musician bestrode the barrel and be-
gan to beat on the hide, singing as loud as he
could. He beat with his hands, with his feet, and

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Customs and Dialects. 127

sometimes, when quite carried away by his en-
thusiasm, with his head also. The second musi-
cian took the sticks and beat on the wood of the
barrel, while the third made a dreadful music by
rattling the teeth of the jawbone with a stick. Five
or six men stood around the musicians and sang
without stopping. All this produced a most strange
and savage music, but, withal, not disagreeable,
as the negroes have a very good ear for music,
and keep a pleasant rhythm in their songs. These
dancing songs generally consisted of one phrase,
repeated for hours on the same air.

In the dance called carahini^ and which was
quite graceful, the man took his danseuse by the
hand, and made her turn around very rapidly for
more than an hour, the woman waving a red hand-
kerchief over her head, and every one singing —

^^ Madame Gobar, en sortant di bal,
Madame Gobar, tignon li tombe.**

The other dance, called fiU Chactas^ was not as
graceful as the carahini^ but was more strange.
The woman had to dance almost without moving
her feet. It was the man who did all the work :
turning around her, kneeling down, making the
most grotesque and extraordinary faces, writhing
like a serpent, while the woman was almost immov-
able. After a little while, however, she began to
get excited, and, untying her neckerchief, she
waved it around gracefully, and finally ended by
wiping off the perspiration from the face of her

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128 Louisiana Studies.

danseur and also from the faces of the musicians
who played the barrel and the jawbone, an act
which must have been gratefully received by those
sweltering individuals.

The ball, for such it was, lasted for several hours,
and was a great amusement to us children. It
must have been less entertaining to our parents,
but they never interfered, as they considered that,
by a well-established custom, New Year's Day
was one of mirth and pleasure for the childlike
slaves. Very different is this scene from those de-
scribed in ** Uncle Tom's Cabin," for the slaves
were certainly not unhappy on the plantations.
The proof of this is, that, although our equals po-
litically and citizens of the United States, they
often refer to the time of slavery, and speak will-
ingly of those bygone days.
f Another custom which was quite interesting was
\ the cutting of the last cane for grinding. When
the hands had reached the last rows left standing,
the foreman (commandeur) chose the tallest cane, *
and the best laborer (le meilleur couteau) came to
the cane chosen, which was the only one in the
field left uncut. Then the whole gang congre-
gated around the spot, with the overseer and fore-
man, and the latter, taking a blue ribbon, tied it to
the cane, and, brandishing the knife in the air, sang
to the cane as if it were a person, and danced around
it several times before cutting it. When this was
done, all the laborers, men, women and children,
mounted in the empty carts, carrying the last cane

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Customs amd Dialects. 129

in triumph, waving colored handkerchiefs in the
air, and singing as loud as they could. The pro-
cession went to the house of the master, who gave
a drink to every negro, and the day ended with a
ball, amid general rejoicing.

Shooting at the fapegai was another great pop-
ular amusement. A rade bird representing a
rooster was made of wood, and was placed on a
high pole to be shot at. A calf or an ox was
killed, and every part of the wooden bird repre-
sented a similar portion of the animal. All who
wanted to shoot had to pay a certain amount for
each chance^ This sport is still a favorite one in
the country, both with the whites and the blacks,
but not so much so as before the war.

The negroes, as all ignorant people, are very
superstitious. 'The celebrated sect of the Voudoux,
of which so much has been said, was the best proof
of the credulity and superstition of the blacks, as
well as of the barbarity of their nature.

The idea of incantation and of charms for good

or evil is as old as the world. In Virgil's eighth

eclogue we all remember the words of Alphesi-

bceus :

'^ Tema tibi hsec primum triplici diversa colore
Licia circumdo, terque hsec altaria circum
Effigiem duco ; numero deus impare gaudet.*'

In the Middle Ages astrology was considered a
science, and sorcery was admitted. It is well
known that when John the Fearless of Burgundy
killed Louis of Orleans, the celebrated theologian

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130 Louisiana Studies.

Jean Petit proved to the poor Charles VI that
John had rendered him a great service in killing
his brother, as the latter had conjured the two
devils, Hermas and Astramon, to harm the king,
and they would have caused his death had not the
Duke of Burgundy, like a devoted subject, saved
his liege lord.

The religion of the Voudoux was based on
sorcery, and, being practised by very ignorant
people, was, of course, most immoral and hideous.
It is, fortunately, fast disappearing, the negroes
becoming more civilized. The dances of the
Voudoux have often been described, and were,
according to the accounts, perfect bacchanalia.
They usually took place at some retired spot on the
banks of Lake Pontchartrain or of Bayou St. John.

Although this sect is nearly extinct, the negroes
are still very much afraid of their witchcraft. The
Voudoux, however, do not always succeed in their
enchantments, as is evidenced by the following
amusing incident. One of my friends, returning
home from his work quite late one evening, saw on
a doorstep two little candles lit, and between them
four nickels, placed as a cross. Feeling quite
anxious as to the dreadful fate which was to befall
the inhabitants of the house, the gentleman blew
out the candles, threw them in the gutter, put the
nickels in his pocket, and walked off with the
proud satisfaction of having saved a whole family
from great calamities. This is how the Creoles
fear the Voudoux I

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Customs and Dialects. 131

The negroes are also very much afraid of the
will-o'-the-wisp, or ignis fatuus. They believe
that on a dark night it leads its victim, who is
obliged to follow, either in the river, where he is
drowned, or in the bushes of thorns, which tear him/
to pieces, the Jack-a-lantern exclaiming all the time,
^^Ai'Cy atCf mo gagnin toi^^^ — **Aie, aie, I have
you/'

The old negro who was speaking to me of the

ignis fatuus told me that he was born with a
caul, and that he saw ghosts on All Saints Day.
He also added he often saw a woman without /
a head, and he had the gift of prophecy. ^

/There are a great many superstitions among the
people in Louisiana, but they may be common to
all countries. They are, however, interesting:

1. A person must come out of a room by the same door through
which he came in ; otherwise there will be a misfortune.

2. Put nails in shape of a cross in the nest of a goose, that
thunder should not spoil the eg:g^ and prevent them from
hatching.

3. When a woman whistles, it makes the Virgin Mary weep.

4. When little children in their sleep put their arms on their
heads, we must put them down, for they are calling misfor-
tune on their heads.

5. When the palate falls, we must tie very tight a lock of hair
in the middle of the head, and the palate will resume its
natural position.

^ ^. A dog that howls at night announces the death of some
one.

7. A horse that neighs where there is a dead body announces
the death of some one.

8. When a hearse stops before your door it is a sign of mis-
fortune.

o. To kneel on the threshold it an omen of misfortune.

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132 Louisiana Studies.

10. When one eats a sweet potato one must eat first a piece of
the peel in order that the potato should not be too heavy
on the stomach.

11. If in walking your right ankle turns, you will have a
^ pleasant surprise; if it is the left ankle, a disappointment.

12. If your right ear is hot) some one is speaking well of you;
if it is the left ear, some one is speaking badly of you.

t 13. To pass a child through a window makes a thief of him.

14. To pass over a child lying down will prevent him from
growing.

15. You must always burn and not throw away your hair, be-
cause the birds will pick it up to make their nest, and that
will make you crazy.

*v^i6. If you make a child who stammers eat in the same dish as
a little dog, that will cure the child.
^^ 17, If your nose itches an old bachelor is going to kiss you,
L> and a young man is crazy to do so.

18. If you strike your "crazy bone," you will be disappointed.

19. If a child teething looks at himself in a mirror, his teething
will be painful.

20. To pass in front of a carriage at a funeral is a bad omen.

21. When a fly bothers you it is a sign that you are going to

receive a letter.

22. When a snake is cut to pieces, its friends come to get it to
put the pieces together,

23. When in taking leave four persons cross hands it is a sign
of marriage.

24. To dream of death is a sign of marriage; to dream of a
marriage is a sign of death.

25. It is a sign of misfortune to pass the loaf of bread turned
down.

26. When you cut a banana you cut the cross of Christ,
'^y. If you have a sore on the tip of the tongue, it is a sign that

you have lied.
^.^^2%, If you forget what you were going to say, it is a sign that
you were going to lie.

29. If you sweep the feet of a child with a broom, it will make
him walk early.

30. To turn a chair on one leg is a bad omen.

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Customs and Dialects. 133

31. If scissors fall down with one point in the floor you will
receive a visit, and it will come in the direction in which
the other point lies.

32. If you plant lettuce on Good Friday it will not grow.

33. If you plough on Good Friday the ground will bleed.

34. If you carry an Irish potato in your pocket it will cure your
rheumatism.

35. To cure a wart take a green pea, cut it, rub it on the wart,
then take the pea and wrap it in a piece of paper and
throw it away. The person who will pick it up will get the
wart.

~^6. To open an umbrella in the house chases away the lovers.
—37. To put an umbrella on the bed causes disputes.

38. To throw black pepper on a table is a sign of marriage.

39. It chases chicken lice from a chicken house to put in it
the head of a crocodile.

40. It cures rheumatism to tie an eePs skin on the leg or the
arm.

41. You must watch for a full moon if you want to make soap.

42. It makes the hair healthier to cut the ends of it at the time
of the new moon.

43. If you cut your nails on Monday you will secure a present
during the week.

44. If you wear green garters you will often receive presents.

45. If you walk on the tail of a cat you will not marry during
the year.

46. It is a sign of misfortune to stumble in a graveyard.

47. It is a sign of misfortune to light a candle in a room when
there is already another light.

48. It is a sign of good luck to meet a person who squints.

49. It is a sign that you will hear good news if you see a white
butterfly.

50. If a girl wears on her left leg a yellow garter which has
been worn by a bride she will marry during the year«

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134 Louisiana Studies.

II— THE CREOLE DIALECT.

While speaking of the French language in Lou-
isiana, it is necessary to say a few words about
ihat very peculiar dialect, if it may be called so,
spoken by the negroes in lower Louisiana. J It is
quite interesting to note how the ignorant and
simple Africans have formed an idiom entirely by
the sound, and we can understand, by studying
the transformation of the French into the Creole
dialect, the process by which Latin, spoken by the
uncivilized Gauls, became our own French. How-
ever ridiculous the Creole dialect may appear, it is
of importance to the student of philology; for its
structure serves to strengthen the great laws of
language, and its history tends to prove how dialects
have sprung from one original language and spread
all over the world.

To the negroes of Louisiana may be attributed
the same characteristics that Prof. James A. Harri-
son recognizes in the American blacks of the South,
that is to say, humor and a naivete bordering on
childishness, together with a great facility for imi-
tating the sounds of nature and a wonderful aptitude
for music. . Their language partakes necessarily
of their character, and is sometimes quaint, and al-
ways simple. Their plantation songs are quite po-
etical, and I may say, charming in their oddity. ^

Of course there is no established orthogra-
phy for the Creole patois, and this obscure
dialect of a Romance tongue is written, like the

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Customs and Dialects. 135

Spanish, without regard to etymology and simply
by the sound, though the letters, in passing from
the language into the dialect, have not kept their
original value. It is this misconception in hearing
that has given rise in the patois to the word-decay
so important in the formation of dialects, but we
may also observe in the language of the negroes a
great many examples of abbreviations due entirely
to the want of energy of the person speaking, a
principle well established by linguists, and of great
value. The negro does not wish to say embar^
rassi^ embiter^ affeler^ entendre^ vouloir^ aujour-
(V hui^ icorcheVy la-dedans^ capable, but will say:
^biUy ^-piU, Hendi^ ^ ouU, ^jordi, ^corchi^ ladan,
capab\ cutting off as many letters and even syl-
lables as possible, as we have done with the Latin
for our French.

The process of agglutination is very frequent in
the Creole patois, and we see such expressions as
in nomme (un homme) and di nommCy in dizef
(un oeuf), di lacloche (deux cloches), troi dizo
(trois os), in lari (une rue), which may appear
very strange, but are not more so than our deux
Her res and le lendemain.

The genitive of the Old French exists purely in
the Creole patois, and if the student of la langue
d' Oil finds it strange to see such expressions as
** en son pere verger," he will be quite astonished
to hear the Louisiana negro say: choaljile mouri^
which might indicate that Jules was a horse, if we
did not know that he was the owner of the animal.

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136 Louisiana Studies.

My friend, Dr. Alfred Mercier, even says that
there is a dative in the patois, imported by the
blacks from San Domingo, such as zii a moin^
my eyes, tchor a li^ his heart. I believe, however,
that this mode of expression is very rare, and that
the possessive adjectives are much more used:
mo ziiy so tchor.

PHONETICS.

With regard to the phonetics of the Creole dia-
lect, we may say that the letters have not changed
as much as in Negro-English.

Vowels.

a

is pronounced :

1. a in French: asteur, anon (allons).

2. o *' moman, popa.

e

1. e mute in French: nomme, fame.

2. e " " 'pMe, k^ke (quelque), Ute.

3. i " " piti, chimin, li (le).

4. in " ** donnin (donne).

i

as i in French: 'rive (arriv^).

o

1. o in French, cdte.

2. o in French word cotte : rose.

3. i in French: michie (monsieur).

u

1. i in French: lari, pini, vini, jige.

2. ou '^ la nouitte, tou souite.

3. oua '* mo oua 9a (jai vu cela).

y

I. z in French: zi6 (yeux). as consonant.
^, J " bayou. as vowel.

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Customs and Dialects, 137

DiPHTHONOS,
Oi

1. ^ in French: fret (froid) dret (droit).

2. oi " dezoi (des oies).

3. oin " moin (moi;,

4. o *^ zozo (oiseau).

ai

1. ai in French: lair (Pair).

2. in '^ connin (connais).

eu

I. ai in French: bonair (bonheur), lonair (I'honneur),

3. e « vie (vieux).

ou
o in French: 'Jordl (aujourd'hui),

au
au in French: au bor dolo (au bord de Teau),

ce
i in French: ser (soeur).
o " tchor (cceur).

Of the nasal sounds, an and in 'are as in French;
on is pronounced :

1. on in French: bonjou (bonjour), moune (monde).

2. o '* mo, to, so (mon, ton son).

un is in in French, pronounced inne^ when it rep-
resents the numeral adjective un.

Consonants*

b

is MB in French.

c
I. tch: tchor (coeur).

3. k in French: connin (connu)«
3. • " cila (celui-li).

d
I. d in French: donnin (donn6)«
3. dj DJ^ (Dicu)

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138 Louisiana Studies,

f

is as in French.

gand J
offen like z: manze^ (mang^), zongle (jongle).

h
is always mute^ and consequently disappears in writing: so
lonair (son honneur).

k, m, n, p
are as in French.

i.y: y^(les).

3. n : anon (allons) cf . Old French aner, whence aler and aller.

r
generally disappears, aspou for pour, n^g' for n^gre, vende for
vendre, or comes before the vowel, as dromi for dormi.

8

I. s. in French: so.

3. ch '* chong^ (songe).

t
I. t in French: tomb^.
3. k '< to kenne (le tien)«

3. tch ** tchombo (tenu),

and is always pronounced at the end of words.

q and x
are not necessary, as k takes the place of q, and the Creole
patois being written phonetically does not need x^ which
represents cs or gs.

▼
I, V in French: vini.
3. w in English: li oua (il a vu),

y

z in French (zie) (see vowels above),

z
is pronounced as in French, but is used to mark the plural, the

sound of the plural s being represented by z: de dezo

(deux os).
ez disappears, as that sound is represented by £.

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Parts of Speech.

THE article.

Just as the French have simplified the Latin
pronoun ille, ilia, illud into le, la, les, the negro
has formed his article by taking la for both gen-
ders singular: nomme la, fame la, and by chang-
ing les into yi for the plural, and joining it to the
singular la: nomme lay6, fame laye..

masculine singular: la

feminine singular : la

masculine and feminine plural : laye.

The partitive article does not exist in the patois,
as the words des or du are changed into di and
di, and joined to the noun as one word: mo manze
dipain e dipomme. De la disappears: mo boi
labifere. If we wanted to use the word with an
article, we would say: labifere la bon, divin la
mauvais.

du becomes di

des '' dh

de la disappears.

The indefinite article a or an is represented by
tftj pronounced inne for masculine and feminine.
The article is the most extraordinary peculiarity
of the Creole dialect; the French article is always
joined to the noun and the article in the patois
added, even in nouns taken in a partitive sense.

The elided article Tis represented also by la for
masculine or feminine: nabe la (rarbre); dolo la
(reau).

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140 Louisiana Studies.

THE NOUN.

There is no distinction of gender in the patois.
The article la serves for masculine and feminine
singular, and y6 for the plural, and the adjectives
are therefore always invariable. The grammar of
the noun is consequently very elementary. The
only diflSculty is to know how to form the noun,
and that difficulty can be overcome by applying
attentively the rules of phonetics given above, and
by observing the invariable agglutination of the
article to the noun.

A peculiar expression is that used for grande
personne and enfant: g^ran tnoune and piti moune^
personne not being considered.

THE ADJECTIVE.

The qualifying adjectives are all kept in the
masculine, and we have such expressions as don
micAfd la J bon michU layi; bon madame la^ bon
madame layi.

Possessive Adjectives.

masculine and feminine singular. '
mo, to, so.
masculine and feminine plural,
mo, to, so, with j^ placed after the noun: (mo piti jk).

Demonstrative Adjectives.

cila for masculine and feminine singular: nomme cila

fame cila

cila j^ for " " plural : nomme cila y^

fame cila y6.
ITuMERAL Adjectives.

in, d^, troi, cate, etc., primi^, d^xl^me, etc.

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Customs and Dialects. 141

Indefinite Adjectives.

The indefinite adjectives are the same as in
French, but pronounced differently: k6ke
(quelque), ki (quel), pligifere (plusieurs), etc.

The comparison of adjectives is by pli (plus)
and aussite (aussi), and of course there is no ir-
regularity, and meilleur is always pli bon.

THE PRONOUN.

Personal Pronouns.

First person. Second person,

ino(^)> moin (moi)t nou. to (tu and toi) toi, vou.

Third person.

li (le, lui and la), y^ (les).

y6 also represents lis, elles, eux, leur, se, en, y and sol.

Interrogative Pronouns.
Qui moune, que, qui ga.

Relative Pronouns
are not often used as ** la chose que je t*ai dite,*'
kichoge la mo t6 di toi. ( Observe kichoge formed
from quelque chose, and used as one word.)

Demonstrative Pronouns.
masculine and feminine singular: cila, cila la.

<* " plural : cila ye, cila lay€.

'< ** singular: 9a.

Possessive Pronouns.
In the possessive pronouns the t is changed into
k. Cf. M. Miiller's remark on the subject —
^'Science of Language," pages 181 and 182.
Vol. II.

mo kenne nou kenne

to kenne vou kenne

80 kenne to kenne

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142

Louisiana Studies.

Indefinite Pronouns.

The only point of interest about the indefinite
pronouns is that our very convenient word on is
changed into y6: y6 di Qa (on ditcela), and that
rien becomes arien.

THE VERB.

In all the Romance languages the verbs are
complicated and difficult. However, in that very
remote Romance dialect, the Creole dialect, the
verbs are very simple and easy. There is no dis-
tinction for the conjugations and hardly any for
the tenses. The forms ap^ from aprfes, U from
6te, sra and srai from serai, 7naU from all6 being
sufficient to indicate the present, the past, and the
future.

COUPE (couper).
Present Indicative.

mo ap^ coupe

to «*

li "

jjQ^ « h contracted into

vou "

mo t^ ape coup^
to " "

li " «

nou « «

YOU « «

Imperfect.

contratced into

map^ coup4

tap^

lape

noup^

voup^

y^pe

motape

coup^

totap^

litape

noutap^

voutap^

yetap^

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143

Past Definite, Indefinite, Anterior, and Pluperfect.

mo te coupe

mo coup^

to "

to "

H "
nou "

■ contracted into -

li "
nou "

vou "

vou "

ye « J

Imperative.

[ y6 U

Future.

malfe coupe — contracted into ma coup6

tale " '* " ta "

11 ale '* " '• la "

nou " ** 1

vou " " I not contracted.

y€ " " J

Future Anterior.

mo

to

11

nou

vou

sra

a
a
«

coup^

(€

a
it

Conditional Pres. and Past.

mo

to

11

nou

vou

sre

t€

(C

ii

u
u

coup6

u
u
u
u

The subjunctive does not exist in the Creole
patois. "II faut que je coupe" is **r fo mo

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144 Louisiana Studies.

coup6,** the infinitive being used instead of the
subjunctive.

All the verbs are conjugated on the model given
above of couper. The auxiliaries change entirely,
and avoir disappears, and is replaced by gaingnin
from gagner. So the conjugation of avoir is:

mo ap^ gaingnin or mape gaingnin
to «' «* " tape «

etc., the same as for couper, substituting gaingnin to coupi.

The verb 6tre only exists in the forms U^ sra,
sri used in compound tenses and in the expression
yi of the present, from est^ viz. : '* Oil fetes-vous?"
Oil vou yi. *« Oil sont-ils?" Od yi yi?

The passive is always replaced by the active
form, and the present indicative of fetre aime is:

Imperfect Indicative.
(on) y^ laimln moin

y<

toi

ytf

li

ye

nou

Ji

TOU

ye

y«

Ji\

t^ laimin moin

yi

it

toi

ye

it

li

ye

i(

nou

yi

u

vou

y*

ti

y<-

Future — y€ sra laimin moin, etc.
Conditional — ye sri laimin moin, etc.

Impersonal Verbs.

They are also expressed by yi.

Present Ind. — ye nege. Imperf. Ind.— y^ t^ n^g^.

Future — y6 sra n^g^. Cond. — y6 u6 n6g6.

Irregular Verbs.'^

Aller — is generally replaced by court as ** il est
all**' /i court J except in anon.

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145

cnvoyer-

-becomes yoy6

sortir — becomes sort!

dormir

a

dromi •

ouvrir

i<

ouvri

mentir

it

menti

courir

n

couri

venir

a

vini

mourir

(t

mouri

boire

((

boi

coudre

u

coude

naitre

u

nette

connaitre

((

connin

prendre

it

prenne

vivre

u

Vive

lire

u

ri

s'asseoir

u

assite

valoir

u

vau

voir

u

oua.

vouloir

t€

oul^

ADVERBS.

Contrary to all Romance languages, the Creole
dialect does not form its adverbs of manner by the
suSix menty Lidiiin mente. Instead of saying: "II
est mort bravement/' the negro says: It mouri den
brave or trt brave; ben or tre indicating man-
ner.

Adverbs of place — icite, lH, ala (voilH), enhau, enba, dihor,

divan.
Adverbs of time — dip! can, dimin, asteur, touzou^ zamain,

jordi.
Adverbs of quantity— in p^, boucou, etc.
Adverbs of interrogation — cofer, combien, etc
Adverb of doubt — p6tete.
Adverbs of affirmation and of negation^ as in French.

PREPOSITIONS.

The prepositions are almost the same as in
French. The negro, however, never says sur or
souSy but enhau and enba, viz. : ** en hau la table,
en ba la table.** Pour becomes fou.

The principal conjunctions are : e, ou, ni, main
(mais), pasqu6 (parce que), pisqu6 (puisque).

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X46 Louisiana Studies.

INTERJECTIONS.

As in all languages, any word may be used as an
interjection in the dialect, to express a sudden emo-
tion of the mind, but with the exception of the univer-
sal oh ! and ah 1 Bon D]6 (Bon Dieu ! ) is most used.

FORMS OF ADDRESS.

Michi^, madame, mamzelle, maite, timaite,
viemaite. Remark that mamzelle is used very
often by the negroes, even while speaking of a
married lady, in the same way that the French
did, down to the seventeenth century, when not
addressing a lady of noble birth, as ** Madem-
oiselle Molifere," the great Moliere'swife.

Mr. Littre, in his ** Histoire de la langue fran-
Qaise," says that the Iliad can be translated more
easily into Old French than into our modern lan-
guage, and he gives the first book of Homer's poem
written in the language of the thirteenth century.
I believe that Old French, in its turn, can be
translated very well into the Creole dialect, and I
give below a few lines of ** la Chanson de Ro-
land" in our Louisiana patois.

Old French.
Li quens Rollanz se jut desuz un pin,
envers Espaigne en ad turnet sun vis,
de plusurs choses a remembrer li prist t
de tantes terres cume li bers cunquist,
de dulce France, des humes de sun Hgn,
de Charlemagne sun seigneur kil nurrit,
ne poet muer nen plurt e ne suspirt.
mais lui meisme ne volt metre en ubli,
claimet sa culpe, si pfiet deu mercit:

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Customs and Dialects. 147

veire paterne ki unkes ne mentisi
saint Lazarun de mort resurrexis,
e Daniel des Iiuns guaresis,
guaris de mei I'anme de tuz perils
pur les pecchiez que en ma vie fis!
son destre guant a deu en purofrit,
sainz Gabriels de sa main li ad pris
desur sun braz teneit le chief ending
juintes ses mains est alez k sa fin.
deus li tramist sun angle cherubin
e saint Michiel de la mer del peril,
ensemble od els sainz Gabriel i vint:
Tanme del cunte portent en pare'is

Creole Dialect.

Conte Roland assite enba in pin,

cdte I'Espagne li tournin so figutre,

li commence pense boucou kichoge:

tou laterre ye li prenne comme in brave,

la France si doux, nomme so famille,

e Charlemagne so maite, qui te nouri li

li pa capab' peche crie 6 soupir^.

main li ve pa bli^ li mSme,

li confesse so pech^, mande bon Dje pardon:

'mo bon popa qui jam in menti^

qui te ressuscit^ Saint Lazare

et sauve Daniel de lion laye,

sauve mo zame d^ tou danzer

pou peche qu4 dans mo la vie mo fai.

so degant dr^t li ofri bon Dje,

saint Gabriel prenne li dans so la mala

enhau so bra li tchombo so latete,

so lamain ye jointe, e li mouri enfin.

bon Dje voye so zange cherubin

i saint Michiel d^ lamer p^ril,

avec y6 saint Gabriel vini

4 ye porte so zame dans paradis.

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148 Louisiana Studies.

III-THB ACADIAN5 OP LOUISIANA AND THEIR
DIALECT.*

Everjrthing concerning French Louisiana seems
at this time to possess an interest for the public ;
and it has been my purpose, in some measure, to
give an account of its language, its literature, its
dialects, its folklore and its inhabitants. My pa-
pers published in the Transactions of the Modern
Langtiage Association have been so kindly re-
ceived that I feel encouraged to continue my la-
bors in a field vast and fertile but difficult to ex-
plore. The work to be done is, to a great extent,
one of original research and of patient investiga-
tion, and it will require several years to present a
tolerably complete tableau of picturesque French
Louisiana. I now desire to present another feature
of the picture by giving a sketch of the Acadians
and their dialect. It may not be amiss to begin
this study by taking a bird's-eye view of the his-
tory of Acadia, from the settlement of the colony
to the dispersion of the inhabitants. We shall
then accompany Evangeline to the beautiful banks
of the Tfeche and follow her canoe and that of
Gabriel as they glide along its placid waters, leav-
ing scarcely a ripple on the gentle stream which
the names of the unhappy lovers have rendered
immortal.

*Por this sketch of the history of Acadia I have taken m my chief
guide Parkman's admirable "Narratives," although I do not always
share his opinions and arrive at the same conclusions. For a complete
bibliography of the subject see " Critical and Narrative History of America,"
edited by Justin Winsor.

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Customs and Dialects. 149

I.

Even before the time of John Cabot the Nor-
mans, the Bretons and the Basques are said to
have known Newfoundland, and the first descrip-
tion of the shores of our United States was made
in 1524 to a French King, Francis the First, by
the Florentine Verrazano. Ten years later we see
the bold son of St. Malo sailing on the broad St.
Lawrence, which was to be the scene of so many
conflicts for the possession of its rugged shores.
In 1535 Jacques Cartier saw the future site of
Quebec and Montreal and became acquainted
with the Indian tribes, the future allies of the
French in their contest with the English. New
France was discovered, but who was to establish
the first settlement in the name of the most Chris-
tian King? In vain did Jean Francois de la Roque,
Sieur de Roberval, in 1542, brave the terrors of the
Isle of Demons and attempt to plant a colony in
New France. Of his ill-fated expedition nothing
remained but the name of He de la Demoiselle,
where the stern Roberval abandoned to the de-
mons his niece Marguerite to punish her for an
unhallowed love. The Marquis de la Roche
with his ship load of convicts was not more suc-
cessful in 1598 than Roberval half a century be-
fore. Champlain and de Monts were to be the
fathers of Canada and Acadia. The former had
been sent on an expedition to the new world by
the Commander de Chastes, and on his return to
France associated his fortunes with those of de

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} 150 Louisiana Studies.

Monts, who had just been made Lieutenant-Gen-
eral of Acadia.

' ** The word Acadia/' says Parkman, " is said
to be derived from the Indian Aquoddtanke, or
AquoddiCy meaning the fish called a pollock. The
Bay of Passamaquoddy, 'great pollock water,'
derives its name from the same origin."

The region designated by this name comprised
a large territory, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick
and Maine, but was later considered to embrace
the peninsula of Nova Scotia only. The climate
was much milder than that of Canada, and all
travelers describe the country as beautiful. The
tide in the Bay of Fundy is grand, and there are
excellent ports along the coast. We need not
then be astonished that Poutrincourt, one of de
Monts' companions, was so pleased with the Port
Royal that he obtained a grant from de Monts,
and, in 1605, established a colony which, after
many vicissitudes, was destined to be celebrated in
history and in romance. De Monts himself, with
Poutrincourt, Champlain and Pontgrav6, had, in
1604, founded a settlement at St. Croix, but the
place was badly chosen, and after a winter of
misery the colony was transferred to Port Rojal.
De Monts was a Calvinist, and he had taken with
him to the New World both Catholic priests and
Protestant ministers, who, it can well be imagined,
were not on very good terms. Such were their
quarrels that the sailors buried in the same grave
a priest and a minister '^ to see if they would

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Customs and Dialects. 151

He peaceably together." De Monts returned to
France to protect his fur trade monopoly, and left
Pontgrav6 in command at Port Royal. He was
absent many months, and Pontgrav^ had aban-
doned the colony, leaving only two men in charge,
when Poutrincourt arrived with supplies. Pont-
grav6 returned, and another attempt was made to
establish Port Royal on a solid foundation. The
poet Lescarbot gives an interesting account of the
winter passed without very great sufferings, and
already the colonists were beginning to hope,
when, in the summer of 1607, news was received
that de Monts' charter had been rescinded and
that the colony must be abandoned. The settlers
departed with heavy hearts, leaving the Indians
full of sorrow. The French had been humane
and friendly to the savages.

The settlement in Acadia had apparently failed,
but Poutrincourt was not discouraged. He ob-
tained from the King a confirmation of his grant,
formed a partnership with the Sieur Robin, and in
1610 returned to Port Royal with other settlers.
Unhappily, however, the year 1610 was as fatal to
Acadia as to France : the great King, Henry IV,
was murdered, and soon afterward, Madame la
Marquise de Guercheville obtained from Marie de
M^dicis a grant of all Acadia. The pious Mar-
quise was associated with the Jesuits and wished
to convert the Indians. Her agents and priests,
especially the able and energetic Father Biard, did
not agree with Poutrincourt and his son Biencourt,

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152 Louisiana Studies

and discord was supreme in the colony, when, in
1613, a heavy blow fell on the rising settlement.
Samuel Argall, already noted for having abducted
Pocahontas, heard of French Port Royal, captured
a part of the inhabitants and dispersed the others.
Father Biard and Madame de Guercheville's com-
mander, Saussaye, finally reached France, and the
good lady's plans for saving the souls of the
Indians were frustrated.

Biencourt had escaped during the destruction of
Port Royal and was roaming in the woods with a
few followers, when Poutrincourt arrived with
supplies. At the sight of his son's misery, the
Baron lost all hope for his colony and returned to
France, where, in 1615, he died a soldier's death.
Biencourt, however, rebuilt Port Royal and kept the
colony alive. Little progress was made, as in
1686 the whole population of Acadia was only 915.
There had been troublous times in the colony from
1613 to 1686, and several masters had ruled the
country. In 1621 , Sir William Alexander obtained
from James I a grant of New Scotland and tried
to establish baronetcies in Acadia. His plans were
but short-lived, as the English surrendered the
province to the French in 1632 by the treaty of St.
Germain. Louis XIII appointed M. de Razilly
Governor of Acadia, and the latter named as his
lieutenants, Charles de la Tour and the Sieur
d' Aulnay. Here comes a romantic episode : the
two lieutenants, as in duty bound, quarrelled and
made war upon each other. La Tour went to

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Customs and Dialects. 153

Boston to obtain aid against his rival, and in his
absence d'Aulnay attacked his fort. The place
was most bravely defended by Madame de la
Tour, but she was defeated and died of mortifica-
tion. Her husband struggled for some time with
little success against d'Aulnay, but the latter died,
and la Tour settled all difficulties by marrying his
rival's widow, a queer but not unwise proceeding.

Acadia had become once more peaceful in 1653
by la Tour's marriage, when one year later the
English took possession of the colony. Cromwell
was ruling England at that time, and he under-
stood how important it was for the English settle-
ments on the Atlantic that Acadia should not
belong to the French. By his orders Major
Robert Sedgwick, of Charlestown, and Captain
John Leverett, of Boston, subjugated Acadia,
which was kept by the English until 1668, when, by
the treaty of Breda, it was restored to the French.

For twenty-two years the colony enjoyed peace
under French rule, and the inhabitants led com-
paratively quiet lives, enlivened by some adven-
tures with the Indians and the English. A very
romantic character is the Baron de St. Castin, the
son-in-law of Matakando, the most powerful Indian
chief of that region. In the company of his Indian
relatives the bold Baron waged incessant war
against the English.

In 1690 Frontenac was for a second time gover-
nor of New France, and by his energy and cour-
age he saved the colony from ruin. He repulsed

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IS4 Louisiana Studies.

the attacks of Phips against Quebec and of Schuy-
ler against Montreal, carried war into the English
possessions and nearly broke the power of the
Iroquois. He was not, however, able to save
Acadia from the enemy. This settlement was too
remote from Quebec to be effectually protected
and fell again into the hands of the English. In
1690 William Phips sailed from Boston with a small
fleet and reduced the principal Acadian settle-
ments. He obtained great booty and was well
received on his return to Massachusetts, although
his expedition seems to us more like a piratical raid
than legitimate warfare.

Acadia was again restored to the French in
1697 by the treaty of Ryswick, and when Fron-
tenac died in 1698 Louis XIV was still master of
all New France. Frontenac is a most interesting
and heroic character; he was proud and stern,
but at the same time most brave, skilful and
shrewd. His name and that of Montcalm are the
greatest in the history of New France.

Nearly one hundred years had passed since de
Monts had landed in Acadia, and the unfortunate
colony had been thrown about like a shuttlecock
from the French to the English and from the
English to the French. In the beginning of the
eighteenth century three expeditions sailed from
Boston to conquer Acadia. The first two were
not successful, but the third, commanded by Gov-
ernor Nicholson and composed of thirty-six ves-
sels, took Port Royal and subdued the country.

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Customs and Dialects. 155

The whole number of inhabitants in 17 10 was
twenty-five hundred. Three years later, by the
treaty of Utrecht, Acadia was formally ceded to
England, and France, in order to compensate for
the loss of Port Royal, called by the English An-
napolis, had to build on Cape Breton the celebrated
fortress of Louisbourg. The Acadians had fought
bravely for their independence, and it was only
after a gallant resistance that Subercase had sur-
rendered Port Royal. The English imposed their
domination upon Acadia by force, and it is not
surprising that the inhabitants refused to become
Englishmen and did all in their power to remain
faithful to their king, their religion and their
language !

L'abbe Casgrain in his charming book, ** Un
Pelerinage au Pays d'Evang^line," has given a
beautiful description of Acadia and calls attention
to the poetical and expressive names of some parts
of the country: Beaubassin, Beausejour, le Port
Royal, la Grand-Pr^e, names characteristic of the
simple and peaceful disposition of a people who,
if left to themselves, would have been satisfied
with praying to their God and attending to their
numerous children. In 1885 I'abbe Casgrain vis-
ited all Acadia, and manifests his delight on seeing
a land of quiet and happiness, a land of which a
great part has again become French. What a con-
trast between the Acadia of our days and that of
1755 1 The descendants of the exiles have pros-
pered once more in the land of their ancestors.

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but their present state of contentment does not
make us forget the misery of the past. The field
that was once the scene of a bloody battle may
now be covered with green turf and variegated
flowers, but still there will rise before us the faces
of the dying and we shall hear the thunder of the
cannon. La Grand-Pr^e and Beaubassin may pre-
sent an attractive sight, but the names recall to
our minds the scene of a dreadful tragedy.

By the treaty of Utrecht it had been stipulated
that the Acadians might withdraw to the French
possessions if they chose. There is no doubt that
the English governors did all in their power to
prevent the emigration to Cape Breton or to Can-
ada, and, as they were not harsh, as a rule, to the
inhabitants, the latter preferred to remain in the
country of their ancestors. They refused, how-
ever, for a long time to take the oath of allegiance
to the English sovereign, and when a part of the
men took the oath, it was with tacit if not ex-
pressed understanding that they would never be
compelled to bear arms against the French. That
the priests in Acadia and even the Governor of
Canada tried to keep the inhabitants faithful to the
French king, in spite of their being English sub-
jects, there is no reasonable doubt. We can hardly
blame this feeling, if we consider what great
rivalry there was at the time between the English
and the French in America, and also the spirit of
intolerance then everywhere prevalent. The priests
must have considered it a duty on their part to try

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to harm the English heretics, and although we
may not approve the act of some of them nor the
duplicity of some of the French agents, we do not
find in their conduct any excuse for the cruelty of
the English.

Seeing how disaffected the Acadians were with
their new masters, the Marquis of Cornwallis, in
1749, laid the foundations of Halifax as a protec-
tion against Louisbourg, A number of the inhab-
itants had escaped from the colony at the instiga-
tion of Tabbe LeLoutre, says Parkman, and had
gone to the adjoining French settlements. Their
lot was a sad one, as the French were not able to
provide for them and the English would only re-
ceive them as English subjects. It is not aston-
ishing that they should make a kind of guerilla
war with their Indian allies against the English
and that they should attempt to excite their coun-
trymen against the conquerors. It must be ad-
mitted that the English were in great peril in the
midst of men openly or secretly hostile to them ;
but no necessity of war can justify the measures
taken to rid English Nova Scotia of her French
Acadians. Let us now relate briefly the terrible
event which has made the word Acadia sadly
celebrated.

In 1755 the Governor of Acadia was Charles
Lawrence, a man destined to obtain an unenvia-
ble notoriety. He resolved to expel the French
from the posts which they still held in the colony.
A force of eighteen hundred men commanded by

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Colonel Monckton started from New England and
captured Fort Beausejour, which the cowardly and
vile commandant, Vergor, surrendered at the first
attack. On the plains of Abraham he was also
to be the first to yield to Wolfe and to cause the
defeat and death of the brave Montcalm, the fall
of Quebec, and the loss of Canada.

After the capture of Beausejour, Fort Gaspe-
reau surrendered also, and there was no longer
any obstacle to prevent Lawrence from accom-
plishing a design which he must have been cher-
ishing for some time. The Governor determined
to remove from the province all the French Aca-
dians. He required from the inhabitants an oath
of unqualified allegiance, and on their refusal he
resolved to proceed to extreme measures. Park-
man says that

*« The Acadians, though calling themselves neu-
trals, were an enemy encamped in the heart of the
province," and adds: '* These are the reasons
which explain and palliate a measure too harsh
and indiscriminate to be wholly justified."

It is impossible to justify the measure in any
way; fear of an enemy does not justify his mur-
der, and the expulsion of the Acadians was the
cause of untold misery both physical and moral
and of the death of a number of men, women and
children. If the harsh removal of the Acadians
is justifiable, so is Bonaparte's massacre of the
prisoners of Jaffa. He could not provide for

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them as prisoners, and if he released them they
would immediately attack him again.

Governor Lawrence was so much the more in-
excusable, because the only Acadians that gave
him any cause of anxiety were those of Beause-
jour, and they had been defeated. The inhabitants
of the Basin of Mines and of Annapolis were
peaceful, prosperous and contented, and although
they might have sided with the French in an inva-
sion of the province, they never would ,have
thought of revolting against the English. /They
were an ignorant and simple people, but laborious,
chaste and religious. Their chief defect seems to
have been an inordinate love for litigation, a trait
which they inherited from their Norman ancestors,

Lawrence took away the guns of many of the
inhabitants by an unworthy stratagem, and then
he ordered the ruthless work to be done. Monck-
ton seized the men of Beausejour, and Winslow,
Handfield and Murray did the same at la Grand-
Pree, at Annapolis and at Fort Edward. Let us
picture the scene at la Grand-Pree.

Winslow issued a proclamation calling upon all
the men to meet him at the village church on Sun-
day. There he was at the appointed hour with
his two hundred and ninety men fully armed to
meet the intended victims. Four hundred and
eighteen men answered the call and assembled in
the church. What was their consternation on
hearing that they were prisoners, that all their
property was confiscated, and that they were to

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be torn from their homes with their families. No
resistance was possible, as the men were un-
armed. They were put for safe keeping on board
four ships, and on the 8th of October the men,
women and children were embarked. This was
le grand derangement of which their descendants,
says Tabbe Casgrain, speak to this day. Wins-
low completed his work in December and shipped
2510 persons. Murray, Monckton and Handfield
were equally successful, and more than 6000 per-
sons were violently expelled from the colony. A
few managed to escape, although they were tracked
like wild beasts. In order to compel them to sur-
render, the dwellings and even the churches were
burnt and the crops were destroyed. The fugi-
tives suffered frightfully, and many women and
children died of misery. In this scene of perse-
cution we are glad to see the brave officer Boishe-
bert defeat a party of English who were burning
a church at Peticodiac. Unhappily, as already
stated, no resistance could be made, and the un-
fortunates were huddled together like sheep on
board the transports, to be scattered about all
along the Atlantic coast among a hostile people
speaking a language unknown to them and hav-
ing a creed different from their own.

Who can imagine the feelings of these men and
women when the ships started on the fatal journey
and they threw a last glance at their once beautiful
country, now made '* desolate and bare!" How
many ties of kindred and of love were rudely

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torn asunder! The families were not always on
the same ship, and the father and mother were
separated from their children, and many Evange-
lines never met their Gabriels. The order of
expulsion was harsh and cruel, and it was ex-
ecuted with little regard for the most sacred feel-
ings of the human heart.

We shall not follow the Acadians in their wan-
derings. Let us only state that their lot in the
English colonies was generally a hard one. Very
few remained where they had been transported.
Many returned to their country after incredible
sufferings, to be again expelled in 1762; some
went to France, where they formed a settlement
at Belle Isle; some went to the Antilles, and some
at last found a true home in hospitable Louisiana.
At the peace of 1763 a number of Acadians re-
turned to Nova Scotia, and their descendants, to-
gether with those of the inhabitants who had
escaped from the persecution, number now, ac-
cording to Tabbe Casgrain, more than 130,000
souls. This fecundity is wonderful, and if we
consider the tenacity of those people, their attach-
ment to their families, to their country, to their
religion, we may indeed say, with the warm-
hearted Canadian abbe: **The Acadians areas
astonishing for their virtues as for their misfor-
tunes.'' We now close this brief sketch of the
ancestors, and proceed to a study of their de-
scendants living in Louisiana.

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II.
Mr. Gayarr6 in his ** History of Louisiana/'
says:

Between the ist of January and the 13th of
May, 1765, about 650 Acadians had arrived at
New Orleans, and from that town had been sent to
form settlements in Attakapas and Opelousas under
the command of Andry.

Many others of the unfortunate exiles came to
Louisiana, some from the Antilles, but the greater
part, in rude boats built by themselves, floated
down the streams flowing into the Mississippi and
reached New Orleans, where they expected to find
the white banner of France. Two years before,
however, the infamous treaty of Paris had been
signed, and Louisiana now belonged to Spain.
The Spaniards had not yet taken possession of the
colony, and the French officials received most
kindly the unhappy strangers. There they were
on the levee of New Orleans with their wives and
children, helpless, destitute, possessing only a few
articles of wearing apparel, they who a few years
before were prosperous farmers with comfortable
homes and fertile fields. But at last their journey
was ended and they were again to find a home and
lands much more fertile than those which they had
left. About fifty miles above New Orleans the
Acadians gave their name to one of the parishes
of Louisiana, and the Acadian coast, now called
St. James, was one of the first settlements made
by the exiles. Later they spread all along the

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Mississippi river and the adjoining bayous, and
their descendants are to be found in every parish
in lower Louisiana. They form an important and
useful part of our population, although many of
them are as simple and ignorant as their ancestors
of 1755. They are, however, generally honest
and laborious, deeply religious and very much
attached to the idiom of their fathers. Many rose
to the highest position in the State, and we have
among us to-day elegant ladies and cultivated
gentlemen belonging to the Acadian race. They
are proud of their ancestors, and justly so, because
if the latter were peasants, they were, at the same
time, martyrs to their religious and patriotic feel-
ings. If there ever was any prejudice against the
Acadians among the descendants of the early col-
onists, it existed only among narrow-minded people
and was not manifest.

Having thought of the Acadians and their dia-
lect as an interesting subject to study, I determined
to pay a visit to the Attakapas country made
classic by the genius of Longfellow. In the
beginning of September, 1890, 1 left New Orleans at
7:30 A. M. by the Southern Pacific Railroad and
arrived at St. Mary Parish alter a journey of five
hours. Along the route the train passed through
fields of tall sugar cane, yellow corn and golden
rice. Every now and then we crossed a bayou, or
a marsh or a forest. Shortly after leaving the city
we reached ** Bayou desAUemands" named for
the German settlers who had been sent to America

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by the famous John Law. In the middle of the
bayou is an island covered with trees and briers,
on which is a hut which serves as a hunting lodge
for the sportsmen, whose canoes for duck-shooting
are to been everywhere. Trees grow to the edge
of the water of all our bayous and render the
smallest stream picturesque.

After passing another beautiful stream. Bayou
Boeuf , we see a few of the Indian mounds which
are so interesting to the archaeologist and the eth-
nologist, and at Morgan City we cross the wide
and turbid Atchafalaya, the rival of the Missis-
sippi, and which threatens, if not curbed by arti-
ficial means, to divert the waters of the great river
from its present channel.

A few miles after passing Morgan City I leave
the train and am soon on a plantation situated on
both sides of the Teche. After dinner I take my
little nephews with me and we go to the bayou.
There is in front of the house a drawbridge which
is opened every time a boat or raft passes. We sit
on the bridge and I look on the waters flowing
beneath and I can hardly see the direction of the
current. A few months before the bayou had been
a torrent overflowing its left bank. St. Mary Par-
ish is one of the most prosperous in Louisiana, and
everywhere there are central sugar factories with
the most modern appliances, the powerful mills, or
the diffusion process, and through this busy scene
of progress flow the tranquil waters of the Tfeche,
its banks covered with moss-grown live-oaks.

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Here is the same spectacle which the poet has so
admirably described. It is civilization now, but
side by side with the primeval forest. Under the
stately oaks the children run and play while I lie
upon the grass and meditate. My thoughts return
to the past and I imagine what must have been
the feelings of the Acadians when they saw for
the first time in 1765 the beautiful Attakapas
country.

Not far from the plantation where I visited is a
village called Charenton. It is but a hamlet, but it
possesses a church and a convent of nuns. The good
sisters of St. Joseph have established a school for
girls which does great good to the neighborhood.
The mother superior, a very agreeable and intel-
ligent lady, is a descendant of the Acadians.
Very near the village is a settlement of Indians. I
observed them with curiosity, as they are the sole
remnant of the Attakapas tribe, the fierce man-
eaters. Some of the squaws are handsome, and
the men have the real Indian type, although I am
told that the tribe is rapidly disappearing and
mingling with the negroes. The women make
very pretty reed cane baskets, quite different in
design from those which the Choctaws sell at the
French market in New Orleans ; the men cultivate
a little patch of ground and sell fish and game.
One hundred years ago the Indians were numerous
on the Tfeche; they seem to have melted away
without being molested. The mere contact of
civilization was sufficient to cause them to vanish.

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It seems to have been an inevitable destiny, and

we may say in the words of Victor Hugo :

'^ La chose eimplement d'elle-m^me arriva
Comme la nuit se fait lorsque le jour s*en va.

Two miles from Charenton is the Grand Lac,
which I desired very much to see, so one morning
at daybreak I started in a light buggy with the
oldest of my nephews, a Sophomore of Tulane
University. There is in reality no route leading to
the lake ; we had to pass for several miles through
a forest on the bank of the Teche and it gave me
great pleasure to see the bayou where it appeared
most wild. After a ride of two hours we left the
shore of the Teche and turning toward the interior
we soon arrived at the lake. I felt delighted at
the sight :^ before us stretched the blue waters,
which a light breeze caused to undulate gently,
and in the distance could be seen the sails of two
schooners which seemed to be the wings of marine
birds skimming the surface of the waves. All
around the lake is a forest, and on the trees we
could see the cardinal bird with his scarlet robe,
the jay bird with his silver and blue jacket, the
black bird with his golden epaulets, and what
pleased me most, numberless mocking birds, those
admirable songsters, which the impudent English
sparrow is rapidly driving away from our Southern
land.

Being so near the Atchafalaya, the Grand Lac
is liable to overflows and, last spring, its water in-
undated a large extent of country. A levee made

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in great part with shells has been erected by the
owner of the plantation immediately adjoining the
lake 9 and as there are large oak trees on the bank,
the place is a favorite resort in summer for pleasure
seekers: While we were crossing a little bayou by
means of a tree which the wind had thrown down
and which served as a suspended bridge, we saw
an old Indian on the other side. He appeared to
us as the spirit of the lake summoned to protect
it from the pale face, and already our imagination
was taking its flight toward fairy land when we
were suddenly brought back to reality by the voice
of the red man, who was speaking to us in
English. Never did our national idiom appear to
me more prosaic than in the mouth of this
descendant of the Attakapas. We hastened to
leave him and turned our eyes again toward the
lake. Here my mind reverted to another scene
and events long past presented themselves to me.
In the year 1862, after the fall of New Orleans, our
plantation being on the Mississippi, fifty-seven
miles from the city, my father thought that it
would be more prudent to put his family out of the
reach of the invading army and he sent us to St.
Mary parish, where there was a Confederate
army to protect the Attakapas country. After a
few months, however, the Federals spread over
the country, and it was thought advisable that we
should return home. My brother, aged seventeen,
enlisted as a Confederate soldier in the Trans-
Mississippi department, and my father started

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with the younger children on the return journey.
We embarked in two large skiffs, with two Ind-
ians in each one as oarsmen, and we went down
the Tfeche. The trip was most pleasant to me, as
we passed through numberless bayous, stopping
at night at the houses of friends, and taking our
meals during the day under the shade of some
large tree. I have no recollection of the route,
which ended only at the mouth of Bayou Plaque-
mines, in Iberville parish, where there were car-
riages to take us home; but although only six
years old at the time, I shall never forget the anx-
iety of my father, when, on entering the Grand
Lac, the booming of a cannon was heard. It was
thought to be a Federal gun-boat and our Indians
were ordered to row most diligently. Twenty-
eight years had passed since I had crossed the
Grand Lac as a fugitive, but yet on that Septem-
ber morning of 1890 I thought I heard still the
voice of our devoted father encouraging his little
children with his tender words of love.

While in St. Mary I had occasion to visit a
number of planters, who received me very kindly
and who did all in their power to help me in my
work. They introduced me to some Acadians and
communicated to me a few characteristic expres-
sions of the Acadian language. I was, however,
anxious to see St. Martinsville, and, after promising
to return to St. Mary, I took the train and went to the
oldest town on the Teche. It was with real
pleasure that I started on my journey; I had never

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gone to that part of Louisiana before and every-
thing was new to me. I passed on my way Jean-
erette and New Iberia in Iberia parish. They are
both thriving towns, the latter especially, on ac-
count of its proximity to the celebrated salt mines
on Avery Island. It has a handsome Catholic
church, an elegant public high school and some
beautiful private residences. The following ex-
tract frpm Judge Martin's ** History of Louisiana '^
gives a very good idea of the geography of the
Teche country:

The Teche has its source in the prairies, in
the upper part of the settlements of Opelousas,
and during the season of high water, flows par-
tially, into the Courtableau. As it enters the set-
tlements of Attakapas, it receives from the right
side Bayou Fuselier, which Bayou Bourbeux con-
nects with Vermilion river. A little more than
twenty miles farther, it passes before the town of
St. Martinsville, and reaches, fifteen miles after,
the spot on which the Spaniards, soon after the
cession, made a vain attempt to establish a city,
to which the name of New Iberia was destined;
twenty miles from the mouth of the Tfeche is the
town of Franklin.

I may add here that the Tfeche becomes a noble
river shortly before mingling its waters with those
of the rapid Atchafalaya. From Jeanerette to
New Iberia the fields presented the same beauti-
ful crops of cane, rice and corn which I had seen
along the route from New Orleans; but after pass-
ing New Iberia, cotton begins to be seen, and I

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noticed in one patch of ground the curious fact of
our four great staples growing side by side— cane,
cotton, rice and corn. Such is the wonderful
fertility of our soil.

St. Martinsville does not lie on the Southern
Pacific Railroad, and it is only lately that it has
been connected with the main line by a branch
leading to the Tfeche. This may account for
the stagnation of business in the town, which,
before the war, was very prosperous. I had let-
ters of introduction to several distinguished gen-
tlemen, but I saw on arriving in that Creole town
that a Creole needed no credentials to be well re-
ceived. I found myself among friends, I may
say, among relations, as all the persons I met knew
my family and I knew theirs. French is essentially
the language of the inhabitants and it is well
spoken by the educated class. The latter speak
English also, but the lower class speak the
Acadian French mixed with the Creole patois
and a little English. In the interior settlements
(au large) little or no English at all is spoken,
and at Breaux Bridge, in St. Martin parish, and in
the adjoining parish of Lafayette, French is
taught together with English in the public schools.
Although we desire to see every child in Louis-
iana speak English we wish every one to speak
French also, and I was very glad to see how the
people of St. Martin are attached to their French.
Among those who have done the most to en-
courage the study^ of French in his parish is Mr.

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F^lix Voorhies, a descendant on his mother's side
of an old Acadian family. He has established a
dramatic society for which he has written several
charming comedies, and although he writes ele-
gant French he is perfectly familiar with the
Acadian dialect. I am deeply indebted to him
for the interest he took in my work and the help
he kindly gave me.

There is but one hotel in St. Martinsville ; it is
a large house with a wide gallery and massive
brick columns. Everything is as in ante-bellum
days; no register awaits the names of the guests,
and the owner seems to have implicit confidence
in the honesty of his boarders. As the criminal
court was in session, the members of the jury
were taking their dinners at the hotel when I ar-
rived. There being no place at the table for me,
I was given a comfortable rocking chair and I sat
in the dining-room during the dinner of the jurors.
As several of them were Acadians, I listened very
attentively to their conversation and took notes
while they were speaking. All of them spoke
French, but the influence of English on their
French was sometimes apparent. One of them,
speaking of an important criminal case, said to
the others: ** Vous serez tous lockes (locked up)
ce soir." Another, to express his contempt of
the argument of a lawyer, said: ** Qa, 5*a n'a pas
grand fion av6 mou6" (that does not produce
much effect on me); and his friend replied: **I1
aura un bon bout (pronounced bouie) encore avec

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172 Louisiana Studies.

cette affaire.** Although I was verj'^ hungry, I
was sorry to see the jurors leave the table to go to
the court house to be lockis.

After dinner I took a walk over the town, and
never have I seen a more quiet and orderly place
and one where there are so few bar-rooms. The
life in that old Creole town reminded me of autre-
fois^ as depicted to me many times by my aged
friends. There was not much animation in busi-
ness, but order and decency prevailed ever3rwhere
and the people were uniformly affable and polite.
I spent the evening very pleasantly with my host,
his wife and his grandmother, conversing with the
old lady about the past.

I awoke very early the next morning, and on
opening the window of my room I saw a pretty
sight: the bayou was just beneath, its waters green
with water plants and rushes, and in the distance a
prairie, above which was rising resplendent a Sep-
tember sun. A knock was heard at the door, and
answering it I found a little negro girl bringing me
a cup of real Creole coffee.

At a short distance from the hotel is the church,
on the green before which stands the statue of the
last curate. Father Jan, who died an octogenarian,
beloved by his parishioners. The present priest.
Father Langlois, is a botanist of great merit who
has made important discoveries in the flora of
Louisiana. He is a corresponding member of
rAth6n6e Louisianais, and I determined to pay
him a visit. He received me very kindly and

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showed me his admirable botanical collections.
I asked his permission to look over the church
register, and on turning to the year 1765 I saw the
record of the first child born of Acadian parents
in St. Martin, probably the first born in Louisiana.
I give here the exact copy, with the original spell-
ing and punctuation, as per certified copy kindly
made for me by I'abb^ Langlois:

Lan tnille Sept cent soixante cinq le onze
' may je p*" capucin Missionaire apostolique cur^

obiit de la n^** accadie soussigne, ay Baptise avec les

16 ejusdem ceremonies ordinaires de leglise marguerite anne
r*ean "^® ^* veille de legitime Mariage d'olivier thibau-

frangois ^^"t ®* ^® magdelaine Broussard ses pere et mere

y le parrain a este Rene trahan, et la Marraine

^^^■^^■" Marie thibaudaut qui ont declare ne savoir signer
de ce requis selon Tordonnance aux attakapas les
jours et an que dessus

(signe) £. jean francois c. cur6
Masse
Anoyu

Olivier Thibaudaut, the father of the little girl
bom in 1765, was a descendant of the celebrated
meunier Thibaudaux, seigneur de Chipody in
Acadia in Poutrincourt's time. The family is
exceedingly numerous in Louisiana, and they
have given their name to one of our towns on
Bayou Lafourche. One of the Thibodaux was
president of the Senate in 1824, and was acting
Governor for a few weeks, after the resignation
of Governor Robertson. The Broussards, the
family of Olivier Thibaudaut's wife, are also very
numerous in the State. Thibodaux, Broussard,
Landry, Leblanc and Bourgeois are the largest
families in Louisiana of Acadian descent.

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174 Louisiana Studibs.

In the register of St. Martin church I saw also
the name of a distinguished Louisianian, a profes-
sor in the Oratorian order in France and curate
of St. Martin for many years. Etienne Viel trans-
lated in beautiful Latin verse the twenty-four
books of Fenelon's ** Telemaque." Louisiana
may well be proud of a writer of whom Barth^le-
my, the author of the ** Nemesis," has said:

"Viel, qui dc Fcnelon virgilisa la prose."

There being such vast prairies in the Attakapas
the Acadian settlers compared them with the wide
expanse of the ocean and applied to them many
nautical terms. They say aller au large y or
mettre a la voile when they start to cross the
prairie, and an island is, in their language, a piece
of wooded ground in the prairie. I was shown
Pile des Cypres while in St. Martin, It is in a
prairie which is not far from the Grand Bois, an
immense forest which begins in the Attakapas
country and extends as far as the Arkansas line.
In the Grand Bois, near St. Martinsville, are a
number of lakes, of which one. Lake Catahoulou,
is two and a half miles long and three-fourths of
a mile wide. It is one hundred and ten feet deep
and is said to be beautiful. It is a great place for
hunting and fishing, but is full of alligators and
gar-fish. I was shown an Acadian who, being in
a canoe on a fishing excursion, was followed by a
gar-fish twelve feet long. He seized an oppor-
tunity and jumped on the back of the fish, which

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dived with him to the bottom of the lake. On
arising from the water our hero said to his terrified
companions: ** Now, he will not return. '^ This
individual was a real type and his c6nversation
was very instructive in its quaintness.

St. Martinsville was the home of a true hero,
Alcibiade De Blanc, ex- justice of our Supreme
Court. It was he who started the White League
movement which was to save Louisiana from
carpet-bag and negro rule. Not far from the
town, in Lafayette parish, lived another true and
chivalric Louisianian, Alexandre Mouton, ex-
Governor and United States Senator, who was
the son of an Acadian exile. He died lately at a
very advanced age, and Louisiana could but bless
the English for sending her a race that could pro-
duce such men as the governor and his son, the
valiant general who fell a victor at Mansfield.

The eminent men that have arisen among the
Acadians in Louisiana show what good elements
there are in that race, but unfortunately, they are,
as a rule, lacking in ambition. They are labori-
ous, but they appear to be satisfied if, by cultivat-
ing their patch of ground with their sons, they
manage to live with a little cpmiort. The mother
and daughters attend to the household duties and
weave that excellent fabric called the colonnade.
The greatest defect of the Acadians is the little
interest they take in education ; a great many are
completely illiterate. As the public school system
progresses, education will spread gradually among

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them, and being an intelligent race they will pro-
duce many men like Alexandre Mouton Educa-
tion will, of course, destroy their dialect, so that
the work of studying their peculiar customs and
language must not be long delayed.

On Sunday, September 21, I went to church,
where I saw the whole population of the town,
and after bidding adieu to my newly made friends
I left St. Martinsville, where I had met kind gen-
tlemen and fair ladies, taking with me a good
stock of Acadian expressions. A few hours later
I was again in St. Mary parish. I wished this time
to live in the prairie, where I thought there would
be a better chance of observing the Acadians.
The prairie is now entirely cultivated around
Jeanerette and is dotted everywhere with the cot-
tages of the small farmers and with the comfort-
able houses of the large planters. For a week I
roamed all over the country with some friends
who were kind enough to take me to the places of
interest and to the persons who might help me in
my work.

Having heard that every Saturday evening there
was a ball in the prairie, I requested one of my
friends to take me to see one. We arrived at 8
o'clock, but already the ball had begun. In the
yard were vehicles of all sorts, but three-mule
carts were most numerous. The ball room was
a large hall with galleries all around it. When
we entered it was crowded with persons dancing
to the music of three fiddles. I was astonished to

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Customs and Dialects. 177

see that nothing was asked for entrance, but I
was told that any white person decently dressed
could come in. The man giving the entertain-
ment derived his profits from the sale of refresh-
ments. My friend, a wealthy young planter, born
in the neighborhood, introduced me to many per-
sons and I had a good chance to hear the Aca-
dian dialect, as everybody there belonged to the
Acadian race. I asked a pleasant looking man:
**Votre fille est-elle ici!*' He corrected me by
replying: " Oui, ma demoiselle est Ik.^' How-
ever, he did not ssiy mes messieurs for his sons, but
spoke of them as mes garfons, although he showed
me me his dame. We went together to the re-
freshment room, where were beer and lemonade,
but I observed that the favorite drink was black
coffee, which indeed was excellent. At midnight
supper was served; it was chicken gombo with
rice, the national Creole dish.

Most of the men appeared uncouth and awk-
ward, but the young girls were really charming.
They were elegant, well-dressed and exceedingly
handsome. They had large and soft black eyes
and beautiful black hair. Seeing how well they
looked I was astonished and grieved to hear that
probably very few of them could read or write.
On listening to the conversation I could easily see
that they had no education. French was spoken
by all, but occasionally English was heard.

After supper my friend asked me if I wanted to
see le fare aux petits. I followed him without

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178 Louisiana Studies.

knowing what he meant and he took me to a room
adjoining the dancing hall, where I saw a number
of little children thrown on a bed and sleeping.
The mothers who accompanied their daughters
had left the little ones in the pare auxfetits before
passing to the dancing room, where I saw them the
whole evening assembled together in one corner of
the hall and watching over their daughters. Lefarc
aux petit s interested me very much, but I found the
gambling room stranger still. There were about a
dozen men at a table playing cards. One lamp
suspended from the ceiling threw a dim light upon
the players, who appeared at first very wild, with
their broad-brimmed felt hats on their heads and
their long untrimmed sun-burnt faces. There
was, however, a kindly expression on every face,
and everjrthing was so quiet that I saw that the
men were not professional gamblers. I saw the
latter a little later, in a barn near by where they
had taken refuge. About half a dozen men, play-
ing on a rough board by the light of two candles.
I understood that these were the black sheep of
the crowd and we merely cast a glance at them.
I was desirous to see the end of the ball, but
having been told that the break-up would only
take place at 4 or 5 o'clock in the morning, we
went away at i o'clock. I was well pleased with
my evening and I admired the perfect order that
reigned, considering that it was a public affair and
open to all who wished to come, without any en-
trance fee. My friend told me that when the

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Customs and Dialects. 179

dance was over the musicians would rise, and
going out in the yard would fire several pistol
shots in the air, crying out at the same time : le
bal est jini.

The names of the children in Acadian families
are quite as strange as the old Biblical names
among the early Puritans, but much more harmo-
nious. For instance, in one family the boy was
called Duradon, and his five sisters answered to
the names of Elfige, Enyon^, M^ridi^, ^Oz^ina
and Fronie. A father who had a musical ear called
his sons Valmir, Valmore, Valsin, Valcour and Val-
6rien, while another, with a tincture of the classics,
called his boy Deus, and his daughter D^ussa.

All the Acadians are great riders and they
and their little ponies never seem to be
tired. They often have exciting races. Living is
very cheap in the prairie and the small farmers
produce on their farms almost everything they use.
At the stores they exchange eggs and hens for city
goods.

Several farmers in the prairie still have sugar
houses with the old-fashioned mill, three per-
pendicular rollers turned by mules or horses.
They have some means, but are so much attached
to the old ways that they will not change. It will
not be long, however, before the younger genera-
tion replaces the antiquated mill with the wonder-
ful modern inventions. The Acadians are an in-
telligent, peaceful and honest population; they are
beginning to improve, indeed many of them, as al-

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ready stated, have been distinguished, but as yet too
many are without education. Let all Louisianians
take to heart the cause of education and make a
crusade against ignorance in our country parishes !
Before leaving the prairie I took advantage of
my proximity to the gulf to pay a visit to Cote
Blanche. The coast of Louisiana is flat, but in
the Attakapas country five islands or elevations
break the monotony. These are rugged and
abrupt and present some beautiful scenes. A few
miles from the prairie is a forest called Cypremort;
it is being cleared, and the land is admirably
adapted to sugar cane. The road leading to Cote
Blanche passes for three miles through the forest
and along Cypremort Bayou, which is so shallow
that large trees grow in it and the water merely
trickles around them. On leaving the wood we
enter on a trembling prairie over which a road has
been built, and we soon reach Cote Blanche. It
is called an island, because on one side is the gulf
and on the others is the trembling prairie. We
ascended a bluff about one hundred feet high and
beheld an enchanting scene. In the rear was
the wood which we had just left, stretching like a
curtain around the prairie ; to the right and to the
left were a number of hills, one of which was one
hundred and fifty-seven feet high, covered with
tall cane waving its green lances in the air, while
in front of us stood the sugar house with large
brick chimneys, the white house of the owner of
the place, the small cottages of the negroes on

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Customs and Dialects. i8i

both sides of a wide road, and a little farther, the
blue waters of the gulf. I approached the edge
of the bluff, and as I looked at the waves dashing
against the shore and at the sun slowly setting in
a cloudless sky, I exclaimed: ** Lawrence, de-
stroyer of the Acadian homes, your cruelty has
failed. This beautiful country was awaiting your
victims. We have here no Bay of Fundy with its
immense tides, no rocks, no snow, but we have a
land picturesque and wonderfully fertile, a land
where men are free — our Louisiana is better than
your Acadia P'

III.
I am indebted in part for the list of proverbs
and curious sayings I shall offer to the Hon.
F^lix Voorhies, of St. Martinsville, who made the
following interesting remarks to me about the
Acadian dialect:

Each locality has its peculiar patois; thus at the
upper limit of our parish, one uses expressions
which are never heard at the lower limit. The
dialect in Lafourche differs essentially from that
which is in use in St. Martin, at Avoyelles or on
the Vermilion Bayou.

The remarks of Mr. Voorhies are correct, as I
have myself observed, and they may apply with
equal truth to the patois in France, where differ-
ences are found in the speech of the peasants liv-
ing within the same dialect boundaries. Local
influences have always modified the language of
uneducated people, even when they belonged to

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i82 Louisiana Studies.

the same race ; political influences have also been
very powerful; for instance, the more or less com-
plete subjugation of the conquered by the con-
querors. The difference of races, however, is
the greatest cause of the different dialects.

Just as the Latin gave rise to the eight Romance
tongues, the langue d'oi'l was divided into differ-
ent dialects, due in great part to the difference of
races in the provinces of the north of France. In
the same way we may account for some of the
variations in the Acadian dialect of Louisiana.
Canada and Acadia were settled mainly by emi-
grants from Normandy, Poitou, Aunis, Brittany
and Picardy, with a few from Paris. The dialect-
ical peculiarities of the ancestors may still be
found, to a certain extent, among the descend-
ants, although they must have been very much
weakened by long residence in America. The
constant intermarriage of people whose fathers
were from different provinces tended certainly
to erase the peculiarities of speech, and at the
time of the dispersion of the Acadians in 1755, their
language must have been nearly uniform. I
should, therefore, arrive at the conclusion that the
differences in the Acadian dialect in Louisiana are
due more to local influences than to the provincial
peculiarities of speech of the Norman or West
France ancestors. The English language has
naturally exerted a great influence on the Louis-
iana Acadian patois, and so have the Spanish and
Creole patois, producing thus a very interesting

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Customs and Dialects, 183

speech mixture. The dialect by contact with for-
eign languages has lost somewhat of its simplicity,
observes Mr. Voorhies,but it has gained in origi-
nality. The following expressions, of which
some are very quaint and picturesque, bear out the
truth of the above assertion. As I intend to con-
tinue my studies of the Acadian dialect in the dif-
ferent localities, so as to be able, by a study of the
peculiarities, to arrive at a better understanding of
the whole subject, I shall indicate from what par-
ish the different specimens are taken.

I. From thb Parish of St. Martin.

Roufilhr^ sommeiller, from roupilUy Spanish ropillay diminu-
tive of ropa. In connection with this word it is proper to
state that the Acadians sometimes use expressions which
are in reality good French, but not in common use.

Se j^alancer^ corruption of se balancer.

Piontevy ronfler par saccades. Probably a corruption of pioneer
in the argot.

Un homme veule^ un homme faible. Veule like roufiller is
found in Littrb, but is seldom used.

Un chemin michantj un chemin boueux. A curious use of
mechant, but which any one can understand who has seen
the hard, sticky mud in the prairies.

Dans Its Fordoches^ dans la mis^re, dans I'embarras. Les
Fordoches, a remote settlement.

Rifler la morty to be in danger of death. Rifier^ to pass very
near something.

Viretafpty a slap with the back of the hand.

BUmezir, corruption of bl^mir.

Tripe ipurie^ a very lean person. Vulgar but expressive.

ye te garde un pUit de ma chienne^ tu me payeras cela; you
will answer for that.

Un plein de soupe, a greedy man.

f/n carencroy a great meat eater.

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184 Louisiana Studies,

Poser la ckfque etfaire ie mort, demeurer coi. A man must be
quite disconcerted to stop chewing and lay down his to-
bacco without saying a word.

Ckarrer, to converse. Very much used. See "Mireio,' vi.
" Et tout en fasent la charrado."

Ftndre son g^argannay to beat some one. Garganna from
Spanish garganta.

Un bengale^ a man to be feared. From Hgre du Btngale,

The Acadians use the following expressions
borrowed from the Creole patois:

Mon gardemangery the stomach.

Mon tendiy the ear.

Mon sentiy the nose.

Mon oi dairy the eye.

Faire ckiquer foteauy to prevent a young man from dancing

with a young girl.
Y a fas fassi tantdty there must be no delay, let the matter be

settled immediately.
Un candiy a man without energy, as soft as candy.
Un guimey a young cock; from the Eng. game.
Gariony a stallion. (See Eng. and Scotch ^arr<i» and^arr<m,

a gelding, a work horse.)
Badjeulevy to speak \o\x^y gueuUy pronounced djeule,
Mariockery to live in concubinage.
Ckeval des chemins^ a horse which ambles.
Virer de Vctily to die. The word virer, to turn, is very common.

It is used in many compounds: vire-mouckesy the tail, viVe-

ckiensy the horns of a cow.
Un beau teJkocj a fine fellow (ironically). TcJkoc probably from

coq.
your four dairy Zkerbey to flee. Used as an order.
Une romainey a fine dress.
Flanquer un veun-tu couriy to give a good beating, to make him

run.
Dans les foun de boisy same as dans les Fordochesy to be in

distress.
Tailler dans le gingasy to lie.
Confer la feau ckatouiy to exaggerate. Ckatoui, the raccoon.

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Customs and Dialects. 185

Des racatchas^ long spurs. (Fr. raca^ Provencal racca^ a
worthless horse. Diez, " Etymologisches Worterburch.")

Dichirer la couverte en deuny to fall out with some one, cor-
responding to rompre la faille »

Un gros dos, a rich man.

Faire la djeule douce^ to play the hypocrite.

Un grand tinguilinguey a tall, awkward fellow.

Une catin, a doll ; as in the Creole patois.

Mettre au fare ox farqtier des antmaux, to take them from the
prairie and place them within enclosures. Mettre an cor-
raili is also frequent, from Spanish corral,

Une chdtiney a woman with light hair (cheveux chlLtain).

Unegerminey a first cousin.

Tonner les moutons, corruption of tondre.

Crier four la firogtie, te call for help. Often used while play-
ing cards. From the language ot hunters.

Fendre son bisctniy graisser sa caloquinte^ to beat.

Claion^ a gate, probably from French claie^ *' old French cloie^
Provengal cleda. Middle Lat. clida and clta^ diminutive
cletella. Of Celtic origin." (Diez, <*Etymologisches W3r-
terbuch.")

Hiichery to call in a loud voice, from " hucar^ Provencal ucar
and uchary Picard huquer, Piem . tichh. From hucher comes
kuchety hunter's horn. Norman houter, English hoot."
Diez, " Etymologisches WSrterbuch. Monte sur le claion ei
kucke-les is often heard.

Une galliney a game cock, from Spanish gallina.

Une bocottey a small woman, fat ^nd not elegant.
Eire sans riserve^ to be ready for the fight.
Lefasser au car let , to beat him.

With regard to the fondness of the Acadians for
nautical terms referred to above, the following
lines sent me by Mr. Voorhies on the subject are
very interesting :

lis vous diront: En gagnant le large y vous
aurez i votre gauche une He que vous cdtoierez.
Vous verrez un grand bois dans le lointain— quand
vous aurez navigui une bonne partie de la journ^e.

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i86 Louisiana Studies.

vous arriverez a ce bois dans Vanse x, y, ou z. II
y a la une maison ; vous n'aurez qu'a ^^/^r, et un
tel viendra vous recevoir. Si vous pouvez con-
tinuer, il vous pilotera dans ce bois, autrement
vous n'aurez qu'a virer de bord et revenir ici.

II. From the Parish op St. Mary.

Vanse is the prairie advancing in the wood like a small bay.

II a plongi^ he gave way (he ^* dived '*) through fear.

Haler^ to pull. * Much more common than tirer.

Chapoter^ to whittle a piece of wood ; corruption of Eng. chip.

yabloroc, a lantern.

Claion^ not onlj in meaning of gate, as in St. Martin, but
synonymous with /arc explained above.

Mialevy to weep, from miauler^ Venfant miale.

Mon cachembau^ my 'pipe. Proven9al cachimbau. See
" Mir^io," xii.)

Avoir ie respire court et le discours igarkj to be dying.

Fort oyer, to swim.

Comportement cPun ckeval^ the gait of a horse.

Faire ckaudilre ensemble, to marry.

Patckarac ici^ fatcharac Ih, to strike right and left, probably
ixovapatatras,

Tchicadence, m^che de fouet.

Se^imper, to dress oneself well; from Sid], ^m^ant,

Ak! laguinche, Ah I the disagreeable woman; iromgrincheust,

Du fard, for la farce,

Les agrhs, the harness. Another nautical term.

Unfouyon, a finger sore; probably ixom fouiller, the sore being
deep enough to be dug into.

Griminer la terre, to pulverize the ground.

Terliboucher, to laugh.

Les icllxes, lightning.

CaUler, to back out in a fight, to shrink, as the milk on becom-
ing clabber.

Une lionhse, a lioness; from the English.

Garocke, to whip; probably another nautical word from garo-
ck^ir^ cordage.

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Une 6erc€y a rocking chair.
Uu morce, a piece.

Customs and Dialects, 187

La routine, the road. The expression, Prends ta routine h

volontdy is to dismiss some one.
Une balleusey a dancer; from bal^ but reminds us of old French

baler*
Faire sa crivdson^ to die.
Desselle-toi que je te monte^ Bnlkve ta soutadh'e que je te monte^

prepare for a fight.
Cela fait Mir! It makes one shiver, it is astonishing. A com-
mon exclamation.

Both words may perhaps be
curious examples of the shorten-
ing of words so common in the
patois. Or are they from O. Fr.
bars and Lat. mors-us /
Bmbancker, to sit together on a bench.
^a quine, it is progressing : from quine in a game.
Macorne^ marriage. An Acadian called Charles, going to the

marriage of the daughter of another Charles, said : y*vas

h la macorne h la fille h tocaille,
ChUy in common use for tombi. The following expression was

heard at the house of an Acadian: ^u*a qu^alle a qu*a

crief — Allea qu*alle a cku.
Un branle, a cradle. A good word, as the cradle used to hang

from the ceiling of the room.
Centre ceinturey a ditch.
Des cigalesy com shucks; a corruption from cigars^ as the

shucks have somewhat the shape of a cigar,
Barrihre en filiney a fence with palings.

Phonetics,*

^^pronounced generally A and a as in French, but the ten-
dency is to lay much stress upon the A and to make it a.
The a is often changed into <?, as in the Creole patois,
Pofay meman,

e— thea is generally lost; the E often becomes a: chare for
ckh'ey alle, for elle; Noal for Noil; e remains; 9 becomes
va. : mesure, becomes muisure.

f^— remains, or has the sound of iL in Jiolef lion, pion,

•The Phonetic signs are from Passy's **Les Seas 4a Fraacait."

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x88 Louisiana Studies.

»— the O hardly exists, dose and cSie being both pronounced

chose and cote.
u — pronounced 9 : une becomes one.
y — has the sound of L in paysy mats,
af — has the long sound in vrai (vro) .
Of>— has kept in many words the Norman WE in moif Tilinois

tot J etc., pronounced also e: froid becomes f red; refroidir

htcomes fredir; becomes sometimes UAN : m<?i often pro-
nounced mUAN.
au — pronounced o, povre.

em — ^becomes m : Eug^hte, Europe becomes mg^ne mrope.
<Ntf— becomes sometimes o : ot^ est-cef pronounced o est-ce?
un — the n of the nasal is heard and the un often becomes aeiV.
e — pronounced very often tch: cur^ (tchurQ.
if^becomes dj: I>ieu (Djeu). At the end of words sounds

like / as in quand followed by a consonant: quand

(quante le ferez-vous?).
yL_always pronounced at end of word nerfsy ceufsy etc.
k — The h aspirate hardly exists : des zharicots, des zh^ros, etc.
y— sometimes z, Zoz^ for Joseph,
/—often dropped: i va for U va; the L always pronounced

like y.
M — sometimes ft: mafii^re.
^—always pronounced in anq,
r— very often dropped : pou for Pour^ jou for jour^ etc. ; by a

curious transformation recette becomes arcette, prenex

becomes pernez.
^^pronounced at end of word : alors becomes alorse ; changed

into r: tantpis becomes tant pire.
t — often not pronounced : piasse for piastre,
jy_pronounced like s at end of word : eusse, "ceuse, deusse,

sisse, disse for eun^ ceuxy deust^ six, dix.
g — is sometimes replaced by j: J^non for Zinon,

With regard to the parts of speech there is little
to observe in the Acadian dialect; there is, of
course, a great deal of contraction, of abbrevia-
tion, as in the language of all uneducated people :
fva^ fVvoiSy cUe femme^ etc. The liaison with

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Customs and Dialects. 169

the 5 and / is generally incorrect; the / being pro-
nounced like Zy and the 5, though more rarely,
like /; un gros-t-homme. On account of the
/ia/5^«, which is much more frequent in the dialect
than in the French, the hiatus is almost unknown
in the former.

The peculiar part of the syntax of the Acadian
is the use of the pronoun of the first person singu-
lar with a plural verb : fitions^ favtonSy and often
that same form of the verb used with the pronouns
of the third person : // HionSy Us itions. Instead
of favons the contracted form fons is frequent.
The neuter verbs such as allery -pariivy sortir^
etc., are usually conjugated with avoir. The re-
flexive verbs have generally dropped the auxiliary
iire.

The formation of nouns from verbs is common
as in French. Mr. Voorhies calls my attention to
two interesting words : Une -piseixovafeseryune
tromfe {une erreur)^ from se iromper. I refer
briefly here to the peculiarities of the dialect, as in
the longer specimens given below the points of
interest will be fully explained.

The two following letters are interesting, not
only as specimens of the dialect, but also with re-
gard to folklore, as the customs and manners of
the Acadians are described. I am indebted prin-
cipally for the subject matter to Mr. Z^non de
Moruelle, formerly of Pointe Couple parish, whose
valuable suggestions with regard to writing the
dialect I also desire to acknowledge.

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190 Louisiana Studies.

Premiers Lettre.
Bayou Choupiqmy les Novembre^ i8go,
MoN CHER MussiEU Philologue:

D'abord Tpublic s'a int^ress^ a connaite notre histoire,
mouan^ j'va dire tout 9a j'connais et pi' les aiitres vont conter
Sa ils savions.' Pou 9a je connais, j'ai toujoure attendu^ dire
que les premiers Cadiens qu'a venu icite ^tions arrives du
Nord par le Missippi. lis venions des Illinou^s et sMtions
^parpill^s tout le long du fleuve et ceuzes*^ qua quitt6 la grand
bande avions arr^te cot^ nous autres. Ils ^tions tous des
chasseurs et des coureurs des bois. La beauts des chauva-
gesses les avions tenths ; 9a fait j en a plein dans eux autres
qui s^avions mari^ avec ces filles des bois. Mouan j'en con-
nais plein des families ipite qu'a du sang chauvage et meme
quMls ^tions bien fiers de descendre des premiers habi-
tants; i^ s'disions les seuls vrais Am^ricains. Pour lors
done eune fois ^tablis icite .tous ces gaillards-lk s'avions
mis k travailler dur; et pi i s'^tions bati des cabanes
et avions d^fr^chi^ et nettey^ d'la terre et chacun dans
eux autres a eu eune d^sert^ pou cultiver du mais, du tabac,
de Pindigo, et boucoup plus tard du coton et pi ensuite a venu
la canne et ensuite le riz.

Nos grands-popas avions eu boucoup des pi tits. Qsl me fait
jongler dans mon jeune temps, quand ma pauvre d^finte
moman me faisait carder du coton pou faire la cotonnade; les
ills ^tions tindus' bleus ou rouges. Alors on avait des bien
jolies tchulottes et des v^reuses^° pou aller vous promener
Pdimanche. On avait ^t^ d'auparavant It la messe pour ap-
prendre le cat^chime avec le tchur^ et pi quand on ^tait par^^ *
on faisait sa premiere communion. Oh I maisc'^tait eune beau
jour, on sentait qu'on ^tait l^gere comme une plume. A rien
m*aurait pas tent^ pou faire eune p^ch^^ a rien aurait pu me
faire virer^ ' de bord et prendre eune mauvais chemin comme
les mauvais garniments.

X Moi. a Puis.

3 The first person plural of the verb used with pronouns of first person
singular and third person plural.

4 Entendu, 5 Ceux. 6 Ils, 7 Di/richi,

8 Champ t a curious expression. The word distrt must have designated
the prairies. 9 Teints. 10 Vartusts, 11 Prit,

\% Virtr de bord, one of the nautical expressions so common among the
Acadians.

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Customs and Dialects. 191

Aussitdt on ^tait assez grand pou travailler la terre, on soi-
gnait les bStes. Notre popa nous donnait toujours eune tite
taure^' pou commencer et au bout de qu^que temps alle^*
avait un veau, ga fait que chacun dans nous autres avait un p'tit
commencement pou nous marier.

Nous autres dans la campagne on se mariait jeune. On
courtisait les fiUes et eune fois un gar9on avait choisi sa pr6-
tendue, la noce tardait pas boucoup. Oh! mais du Djiab si on
s' amusait pas bien mieux qu*^ c't* heure. A eune noce ou
eune bal on dansait des rigodons^ et c^etait si tentant que les
violoniers memes quittaient leur violon et se mettaient k cor-
cobier comme les autres. Ah I tu peux guetter^* va, c'etait
pas comme a cH'heure^ non. Parlez-moi des autres fois, oui.
A present k n'importe qui temps i dansions; nous autres on
dansait jisque quand la saison commen9ait a fr^dir, mais par
exemple, quand le Mardi^* Gras tombait un samedi, i avait pas
de Catherine,^ ^ i fallait un bal. Dans les grands chaleurs on
avait pas le temps, on travaillait trop boucoup dur la charrue;
i fallait rabourer la terre, renchausser et dechausser I'mais et
Pcoton, et pi k la fin de Pet^ faire des mulons de foin et de
paille. JVous garantis on etait souvent mal en position avec
le soleil qui vous grillait la caloquinte,^^ les chouboulures, les
maringouins, les bStes rouges et les poux de bois. On avait pas
m^me le temps de charrer^' un peu, comme disait nainaine"
Soco.

Sitdt le soleil 6tait couche fallait jongler a boire eune bonne
tasse de lait et manger un peu de couche'^ couche et pi aller
s'fourrer en bas le bere 22 pou dormir un peu et se lever a la
barre du jour. Cre mille miseres i avait des moments on
fumait'3 un vilain coton; surtout quand notre defint popa
vivait. II etait toujours le premier deboute; i fallait filer
raide. Mai povre defint, les Bon Djeu Pa pris, et mouan
mSme je suis aprdsprocher'* c8t^ le cure pou garder sespoules.

13 Ginisse» 14 Elle,

15 Tupeux abetter ^ va: You may say what you please.

16 ^uand le Mmrdi Gras tombatt un samedi: In carnival time.

17 J avait pas de Catherine: It had to be done. 18 La tcte.

19 Charrer, to converse. 20 Marraine, ai A dish made with com

meal. 23 La moustiquaire.

>3 Onfumait un vilain eot0n, for onfilait: We were in an embarrassing
situation,

34 Procher eiti le euri pou garder ses poules: I shall soon die; I shall
be in the cemetery to take care of the curate's chickens.

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Bon D|eu merci; au Jour d'aujourd'hui tous me pitits sont
grands. Je leurs y ai donne tout 9a j'avais, et comme
i me reste plus arien, 9a c'est juste que 9a j'ai fait pou
eux autres ils le faisions pou mouan. J'ai pas fait avec
eux le partage k Montgommery, C'^tait dans le temps k d'Arta
guette'* que ce fameux lapin 1^ vivait. C*^tait un gail-
lard quMtait plus coquin que b6te; quand rl allait a la
chasse avec ses camarades, comme il ^tait fort comme eune
cheval il commengait toujours par grogner faire semblant
t*etre en colere. I leur faisait eune bonne cache et quand il
fallait partager le gibier il prenait tout et laissait la restant pou
les autres. Qa fait depi ce temps-la nous autres ons dit tou-
jours le partage a Montgommerj.

Ma plume connait galoper qu^quefois dans Ppass^, alle prend
Testampic," mais je connais Parr^ter quand meme j dois li
mettre eune bridon. Comme je me sentions lasse j'vas finir
icite ma premiere lettre^ et je vous promets, Mussieu, de vous
^crire encore anvant le jour de Noal. On doit faire eune grand
r^veillon si vous voulez venir. On va se revoir plus tard.

Je vous salue de loin^

Batis Grosbosuf.

Deuxieme Lettre.

Bayou Ckotipique^ le 12 Novembre^ i8go,

MussiEU Philologue — ^Vous me dlsez comme 9a dans vot'
r^ponse que ma lettre vous avions fait bien du plaisir et pou je
continue k vous conter les a^aires des premiers Cadiens qu'
etions venus icite. C'est jus au fur et k musure j'^cris que 9a
m'revient. Pour lors done jevas tout vous dire tout 9a je con-
nais. P'ti brin '^ par p'ti brin 9a va finir par faire eune gros
tas. Biensury en a des choses qui allions vous interboliser,'^
parce que c'est pas un p'ti morceau j'avions pou conter.

Les Acadiens avions ete chasses par les Anglais. C'est des
fameux coquins qu'^tions pou ainsi dire des pirates, ils avions
profite de leur butin apres que ces malheureux avions parti de
leur payS; et les coquins savions empar^ de leur maisons pou

ac Very long^ afiTO* D'Artag^ette and Vincennes were burned by the
Indians. a6 Le mart aux dtnts: Stampede

at A curious rendering^ of *'petit 2i petit I'oiseau fait son aid."
as Surprendre.

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Customs and Dialects. 193

eusse rester et pi ils avion& eu des deserts'* tou bien cultives.
Les Acadieno leurs y avions toujours garde un p'tit chien'®
de leur chienne et k chaquefois qu'ils entendions dire God-dam,
c'est comma si on leur jetait de la cendre chaude dans e dos.
Nos a'ieux aimions la chasse Le grand-popa de mon popa
etions grand chasseur. Bon matin il etions debout et apr^s
s'avoir rince^^ la dalle, il fallait qu^que chose pou bousiller^'
I'estomac. II partait, mais bien sur, aussi bien que le Bon
Djeu a fait les pommes, il revenait charge de gibier; des can-
ards, des chevreuils et des ours. Alors il evitait*^ jes amis pou
diner avec lui; c'etait des vrais ramequins,^* des vraies bam-
boches. La on d6cidions donner un bal pou amuser la
junesse. Un p'tit gar^on i cheval allions porte en porte eviter
tout le monde. On ^tait pas fier, on etait :out 6gal nous
autres. D'abord on etait honn^te, on demandait pas la
restant. Le monde venions k pied, d'autres a cheval, bou-
coup en charrettes. On avait pas caliche ou barouche; on
attelait Ti Gris et Ti Noir et 9a vous trottions sur le chemin
comme les grands chevals qui venions du Kentucky. V'l^ la
chanchon on chantaitdans c'tempr %, ecoutez-bien :

Premier Couplet. 3 ^

Depi que j'ons fait connaissance

D'un certain tendron,

J'ons courons k Taccointance,

J'ons perds la raison.

Je ne connais dans la nature

Rien de plus flatteur

Que Paimable creature

Qui me tchient au tchoeur, 6is*

Second Couplet.
L'autre jour en cachette,
AUeme fit present d'un b^cot.^'
Ah I ma bouche en devint muette
Et j'en restai tout sot.

39 A pretty expression : "des d&erts bien cultives."

30 Garder unytit chien de Uur chienne; avoir une dent contre quelqu'un.

31 Aprit avoir hu. 33 Remplir» 33 Invitait, 34 Grands diners,
35 The sonif is naive and rraceful, altnough the metre is not always cor-

lect. 36 Un baiser.

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Ce b^cot-lk au fond de mon ime

Imprima le bonheur;

II redoubla la flamme

Qui me tchient au tchoeur. bis*

Troisieme Couplet.

II n'y^a Hen de remarquable;

Par tout un soleil.

Dans le monde habitable

On trouve tout pareil.

Mais alle a ma douce amie.

Un pitit air flatteur

Une fidgire de fantaisie

Qui me tchient au tchoeur. bis.

QuATRiEME Couplet.

La beauts la plus tentante

Peut me faire les yeux doux.

Ah! je lui dirions: vous 6tes charmante

Mais 11 Ti*y a rien pou vous.

Ce n'est pas que sa fidgire jeune et belle

Ne soit pleine de fnucheur,

Mais ce n*est pas vous qu'^tes la demoiselle

Qui me tchient au tchoeur. bis.

On ne s^emb^tait pas k faire de la politique comme vous
autres avec vos Elections It tous les six mois. Nous, les autres
fois, le Gouvemeur nommait un commandants^ dans notre
paroisse. II ^tait capitaine des armies du roi, et grand jige, et
comme on avait pas de proces, il avait pas grand chose k faire;
jus fumer sa pipe^ et pi se promener le matin et se reposer
I'apr^s midi. Qu^quefois le commandant r^glait une succes-
sion et il gardait une bonne part pou lui aussite; 11 disait il
^tait h^ritier nonmm^ par le Gouvernement.

Quand y avait un mariage tous nous autres on accompagnait
|es mari^ It TEglise et apres la 9ar^monie on revenait en chan-
tanty et k la noce on tirait des coups de fisil. C'^tait eine habi-
tude, 9a prouve que nos ajfeux aimiont la poudre et qu'ils n'en

17 During tlM Spanish domination.

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Customs and Dialbcts. 195

avions pas peur. Lendemain de la noce chacun reprenait son
ouvrage pou travailler dans le desert. Mouan, comme jMtais
piti, je montions a califourchon sur le cheval de charrue et
mon grand f r^re tchombonsait ^ ^ les guides : ga allait pu vite
comme 9a.

Quand y avait un enterrement nous autres on portait le mort
en terrc sur un bojard H bras. Tout le monde accompagnait
le pauvre defint et comme c'etait fatigant, les porteurs etions
changes de temps en temps. Q^ allait tout doucement, mais
quand la ^aremonie Etions finie on revenait raide reprendre
Pouvrage, parce qu'on fouinaitpas dans ce temps-l&. Oh I non,
on bouquait '• pas su Pouvrage.

Aussite si on etions pas tou riches du moins on avait de quoi
quand la guerre a venue. Dans les families le plus vieux gar-
9on etait cila qu'allait ^ Pecole et par ensuite quand il ^tait
assez savant il montrait i tous les autres de la famille. Le
second ^tait charpentier, le troisime forgeron et le quatri^me
cordonnier. Les filles faisiont la cotonnade et coudaient;*®
c'^tait toutes des bonnes couturieuses,*^ par ainsi tout se faisait
su Phabitation.

On avait pas ni Raide*' Rode ni Estimbotte ^^ mais quand
c*etait pou voyager on etait pas embarrass^. On allait aux At-
takapas et aux Opelousas ^ cheval et les femmes venions tout
de m^me comme les hommes. On campait dans le bois le soir,
on allumait ein bon feu pour chasser maringouins et les tigres,
on faisait du caf6 et on charrait jusqu'k menuit. Les hommes
faisions la garde et au p'tii jour on se remettaiten route. .Mais
quand on arrivait chez des amis ou bien des parents dans la
prairie, alors c'^tions des contentements, des plaisirs, des diners
jusqu*k on etait tann6.** On ^taittrop contents nous en tourner
cdt6 nous autres parce que on etait Jasse s'amuser, i fallait
penser a travailler. Mais tous les ans on faisions ces voyages,
parce qu'on apprenait boucoup des qu^ques choses. L'homme
qu'est bien instruit c'cst cila qu'a boucoup roule sa bosse dans
le monde.

Faut je vous conte un charibari ** qu'on a donn^ a un vieux
qui s'avait mari^ icite cAt6 nous autres. A ce charibari le

38 A verb formed from tenir bon,

ig On n€ rteulait pus, ^ Cousaitnt, 4\ Couturi rts, 4a Railroad.

43 Steamboat 44 Fatigu^. 45 Charivari,

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monde ^tions venu de tous cdt^s, mais on a fait tant du train^*
et du tapage, c'^tait un tumulte qu'avait boulevers^ tout le
voisinage. Alors le commandant avions donn^ Pordre de finir
tout 9a, aussite 9a Pa arrets net. Mais les chicanes et les cha-
mailles avions continue dans le jour; 9a fait y en a eu plusieurs
batailles et duels et plusieurs jeunes hommes s'avions mas-
sacre k coups de fisils; 7 en a deux qu'avions €t6 tu^s. Mouan
je m'a trouv^ compromis comme t^moin. J'ai-t-^t^ oblige de
d^camper.

Je m'ai embarqu^ dans eune pirogue et j'avions d^riv^
jusqu'k la ville cot^ mon parrain. Quand j^^tionslas flaner et
naviguer *^ k la Nouvelle-Orl^ans j*ai parti k pied pou tourner
chez mouan coate qui coftte. J'avions trouv^ du monde je
connaissions tout partout, 9a fait j'^tions pas oblig^ tcheman-
der** a manger ni pou coucher. ^a c'est le plus joH voyage
j'avions jamais fait. J'ai pris deux ans pou m'en revinir. II
faut je vous dis, je suis violonier de mon ^tat, pas un bal s*a
jamais donn^ sans c^est mouan qui joue. J'avions arriv^ un
samedi ^ St. Jacques, y avait un bal, mais le musicien s'a
trouv^ malade. J'ai offri *• mes services, ah I comme tout le
monde ^tions content, Lendemain j'^tions ^vit^ dans tous les
maisons. J'avions reluque la veille au soir une belle Aca-
dienne; Maginton m'avait tap^ dans Poeil. Alors, je Vy ai
dit tout suite: *^ la belle, vous me plait, si vous disez oui on va
se marier." Alle* m'ar^pondu: "Tape, 9a me va." Je m'ai
marie avec alle et on^° a rest^ c6te son pere jusqu'a plus de deux
ans. Par apr^s j'avions appris la mort Ji ma pauvre moman .
J'ai revenu au Bayou Choupique pou r^gler la succession. Ma
foi, quand j'ai eu ma part j'ai dit comme 9a, tant pire pou les
amis j'ai quitt^ derri^re, mouan, je vas rester icite dans mon
pays. Vousvoyez, Mussieu Philologue, otl I'ombril ^^ est en-
terre on veut toujours rester; y a queque chose comme qui
dirait qui vous amarre ^^ 111.

On dit le Cadien connait pas a rien parce qu'il a pas d'indu-
cation, mais 11 faut li donner eine chose, il aime son pays, sa
famille et ses amis, et si yen a qui rougissent quand on les ap-

46 Du bruit. 47 Se promener, 48 Detnander.

49 This incident is true, as well as the marriage that followed.

50 On ioTHOus, orj'e, is very common.

51 0«} Pan est nd, 5a Another nautical term for attache.

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Customs and Dialects. 197

pelle Acadiens, mouan je vas vous dire^ Mussieu Philologue^
j'en suis bien fier. Pensez-vous pas que j'avons raison?
Je vous salue de loin,

Batis Grosbceup.

I hope that this brief sketch of the Acadians
of Louisiana and of their dialect will be an intro-
duction to a more complete study of the subject
hereafter.

IV.— THE ISLENOS OF LOUISIANA AND THEIR
DIALECT.

My attention having been called to the Islenos
of Louisiana as being a fit subject for study, I
determined to visit those people and to give an
account of their mode of life and language. I
have hardly as yet been able to collect enough
material for a paper, but knowing the interest
which is taken in this subject by several Ameri-
can scholars, and in Europe by such men as Pro-
fessor Schuchardt, of the University of Gratz, and
others, I thought it best to' present the few notes
which I was able to take on the occasion of two
visits to the country of the Islenos.

In Judge Martin's History of Louisiana (Edition
1882, page 224), he says:

The province now received (1778) a consider-
able accession of population by the arrival of a
number of families, brought over at the king's
expense, from the Canary Islands. A part of
them formed a new settlement at the Terre-aux-
Boeufs, below New Orleans, under the order of

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Marigny de Mandeville ; a part was located on the
banks of the river Amite, behind Baton Rouge,
under the order of St. Maxent, and formed the
settlement of Galveztown ; the rest formed that of
Valenzuela, on Bayou Lafourche.

A house was built for each family, and a church
in each settlement. They were supplied with cat-
tle, fowls and farming utensils; rations were fur-
nished them for a period of four years out of the
king's stores, and considerable pecuniary assist-
ance was also afforded to them.

Judge Gayarr^, in his History of Louisiana,
repeats Martin's statements about the Islefios, and
in DeBow^s Review , Vol. Ill, page 23, we see, in
an address delivered by Henry A, BuUard, the fol-
lowing words :

Little colonies from Spain, or the Spanish
islands on the coast of Africa, were scattered in
different parts of the country. Such were New
Iberia in Attakapas, Valenzuela in Lafourche,
Terre-aux-Bceufs and Galveztown. They still retain
(January, 1847), to a certain extent, their lan-
guage, manners and pursuits.

A few lines further Judge BuUard adds :

The little colonies of Spaniards at New Iberia
and Terre-aux-Boeufs never had any written con-
cessions, they were put in possession by the public
surveyor, and it was not long since the change of
government that their descendants obtained an
authentic recognition of their title from the United
States.

In DeBow^s Review^ Vol. XII, page 23, men-
tion is made of Madame Arroyas, one of the emi-

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Customs and Dialbcts. 199

grants from the Canary Islands, who was still liv-
ing in 185 1, aged upward of ninety. The popula-
tion of Galveztown in 1788 was given as 256.

The above historical facts are the only ones to
be found about the Isleftos. They came to Louis-
iana during the administration of the heroic Gal-
vez and received from that chivalric governor the
same kind treatment which he extended to all of
his Catholic Majesty's subjects under his care.
Marigny de Mandeville, under whom the Canary
Islanders settled at Terre-aux-Boeufs, was a dis-
tinguished Louisianian whose ancestor had been a
companion of Iberville in 1699. It was his son,
Bernard de Marigny, who received in New Or-
leans with such princely hospitality the exiled
Louis-Philippe d'Orl^ans.

On a beautiful day at the end of June, 1891,
my friend Dr. J. Dell' Orto and I took the New
Orleans & Shell Beach Railroad and started for
St. Bernard parish. Our train passed through
historic ground, for shortly after leaving the city
we saw the plain of Chalmette, where Wellington's
veterans were defeated by Jackson and his brave
troops, among whom were many Louisiana Creoles.
We saw the charred ruins of Viller^'s house where
were established Pakenham's headquarters; we
looked with sorrow and shame at the monument
erected to Jackson on the battle field, and which
stands dilapidated and unfinished. We crossed
the canals and bayous by which the British troops
had come from the lakes; we passed Poydras

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200 Louisiana Studies.

plantation, which had belonged to the poet, states-
man and philanthropist, the friend of the sick, of
the orphans and of indigent girls. After a journey
of two hours we left the train at St. Bernard sta-
tion, where Dr. Dell' Orto had some friends.

nJ The descendants of the Canary Islanders are
known in Louisiana as les Islingues. The prin-
cipal families are the Estopinal, Nunez, Serpas,
Ojeda, Guerra, Gonzalez, Gutierrez and Guajiro.
There is also the Puig (Puch) family, which is
Catalan, but descended from the Ojedas. A num-
ber of these people are men of education and of
some wealth ; the senator from St. Bernard parish
is an Estopinal and the sheriff is a Nuiiez. The
great majority, however, as with the descendants
of the Acadians, are poor and ignorant. They
cultivate their little patch of ground and raise vege-
tables, chiefly potatoes and onions. They are also
great hunters. They all speak Spanish, but a
few speak the Creole patois and the younger ones
speak English. Their language is not as corrupt
as might be expected. You may judge by the fol-
lowing conversation which we had with an old
woman who could neither read nor write :

— Buenos dias, sefiora; ^eslaes lo que llaman Uds. la Terre-

aux-Boeufs?
— Si, seflo (^sefior); la Terre-aux-Boeufsf que sirve mas para

los buejes, que para los cristianos.
— I Ud. naci6 aqul?

— Si, seflo (sefior) ; mi padre y madre eran Espafioles.
— I De que parte de Espafia?
— Islefios.

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Customs and Dialects. 201

— I Como Islefios? i De que isla?

— ^Yo no se. Islefios — es to do lo que se.

— I Eran todos Islefios los primeros habitantes de aqui?

— Casi, pero el s€0o (sefior) Puig era Catalan.

— I Que lengua se habla mas aqui?

— Antes en este punto no se hablaba mas que el espafiol— ahora
de pocos afios se habla mas la lengua fransesa (francesa).
Hoj en dia (with regret) la lengua espafiola se va ^aa tras
(paraatras); tienen verguensa (verguenza), les dac<>r<fe-
dad (cortedad) de hablar el espafiol — los nifios ya la van
dejando^ estan cogiendo la lengua inglesa.

— I Como aprendi6 Ud. espafiol?

— ^De mis padres.

— i No lo estudid Ud?

— No, seHo (sefior).

— I Habla Ud. f ranees?

— Si, seHo (sefior), he aprendido muchas palabras que mescio
(mezclo) con el espafiol.

— I Sabe Ud. el nombre de los viejos Espafioles, primeros habi-
tantes de la parroquia?

— Oh! son muchos; pero jo no tengo memoria; por eso, no
puedo darle rason (razon). Yo padesco (padezco) mucho
de mal de cabesa (cabeza) que me corta la memoria ; pero
nuestro vesin0 (vecino) Felipe Gutierrez podril darle mas
rason (razon) que yo.

— I Su marido de Ud. vive?

— No, seHo (sefior) ; muri6 haril sinco (cinco) oseis afios, de la
edad de ochenta afios.

— I Haj muchos de esta edad que viven todavia en la parroquia?

— J Oh! si, los vesinos (vecinos) podran darle rason (razon)
mejor que yo.

— i Sus hijos hablan espafiol?

— Si, se0o (sefior), todos.

— i Que tal la salud de Ud?

— Asi, asi; ademas de la cabesa (cabeza) sufro tambien del
estogamo (estomago).

— Adios, sefiora; no quiero molestarla mas; muchas gracias de
8u bondad.

— ^Nada, seno (sefior); al contrario, me alegro mucho de tu
Tisita; me ha alegrado el corason (corazon).

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202 Louisiana Studiss.

Translation.
— Good morning^ Madam; is this what is called la Terre-

aux-Boeufs?
— ^YeSy sir; la Terre-auM-Bctufs^ which is of more use to oxen

than to Christians.
— Were you bom here?

— ^Yes, sir; mjr father and my mother were Spaniards.
— From what part of Spain?
— Islanders.

— How, Islanders? From what islands?
— ^I do not know. Islanders, that is all that I know.
— ^Were all the first inhabitants Islanders?
— ^Almost all, but Mr. Puig was Catalan.
— ^What language is spoken most here?

— Formerly in this place nothing was spoken but Spanish —
now for the last few years the French language is spoken
most. To-day the Spanish language is going backward;
they are ashamed, they are afraid to speak Spanish— the
children are already abandoning Jt; they are taking hold
of the English language.
— How did you learn Spanish?
— From my parents.
—You did not study it?
— ^No, sir.

—Do you speak French?
— ^Yes, sir; I have learned many words which I mix with the

Spanish language.
— ^Do you know the number of the old Spaniards, the first in-
habitants of the parish?
— Oh! there are many; but I have no memory; for that reason
I can not answer your question. I suffer very much from
headaches, which deprive me of my memory, but our neigh-
bor, Philip Gutierrez, may answer better than I.
— Is your husband living?

—'No, sir; he died five or six years ago at the age of 80.
—Are there many of that age who are now living in the parish?
— Oh, yes; the neighbors will answer better than I.
— ^Do your children speak Spanish?
—Yes, sir; all.
—How is your health?

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Customs amd Dialects. 203

— So, so ; besides having headaches, I suffer from my stomach.
— Good by, madam. I do not wish to trouble you any longer.

Many thanks for your kindness.
— Not at all, sir ; on the contrary, your visit pleases me very

much; it has pleased my heart.

An Islefto speaking of the bad condition of the
public road said :

'' Las autoridades no se curan de arranckar el camino, y el
probe ipobre) paga paa too (para todo)."

From the above specimen of the language of the
Islenos we see the tendency to abbreviate by drop-
ping the final consonant, seflo for seflor^ and even
the middle consonant, faa too for fara todo. In
faa tras we notice the shortening of para and the
use of the shorter tras for atras.

The c before e and 1 is invariably pronounced
s: franses for francesy sinco for cinco.

The z is also pronounced s: vergiiensa for ver-
giienzay mesclo for mezclo^ rason for razon^ ca-
besa for cabeza.

A most curious metathesis is estogamo for esto-
mago. Some peculiar expressions are les da cor-
dedad {cortedad) de hablar esfaflol; estan co-
gtendo la lengua inglesa {cogiendo^ taking hold
of) ; mal de cabesa {cabeza) que me corta la
memoria; arranchar el camino.

The old woman was not lacking in humor, as
we see by her remark, ^^La Terre-aux-Boeufs que
sirve mas far a los bueyes que far a los cristtanos.^*
She lived alone in her cabin with two young

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daughters and told us that they earned their living
by cultivating the ground.

My second visit to the Isleiios was on Novem-
ber 29, 1891. Mr. Ben Olivier had kindly invited
me to spend the day with him at his father's plan-
tation in St. Bernard parish. The Olivier family
is one of the oldest and most distinguished in
Louisiana. Their name originally was Olivier de
Vezin, and now some members of the family are
known by the name of Olivier and others of De
Vezin. There being a number of families in the
State descended from the French nobility, names
of landed estates have often become family names,
the Le Bretons are Des Chapelles, St. Mesme,
D'Orgenois; the Soniats are also Du Fossat, and
the Beauregards are also Toutants, the Confederate
general being called Beauregard and his brother
Toutant.

Mr. Olivier lives in the same house where he
was born eighty-seven years ago. He is a most
affable gentleman, and I received from him and
his family a very cordial welcome. We were fur-
nished with horses and o n we started, Mr. Ben
Olivier and I for V Ile^ where live those descend-
ants of the Spaniards, who are yet the children of
nature. Shortly after leaving the Olivier planta-
tion we passed the former place of the Chevalier
de Reggio, of princely blood. General Beaure-
gard's maternal grandfather. The house where
lived the old nobleman exists no longer, but fortu-
nately the dwelling where was bom General

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Beauregard is still in existence, and we had seen
it from the train a few minutes before.

La Terre-aux'Bceufs is a narrow strip of fertile
land about ten miles from the Mississippi river.
On the right is Lake L^ry and on the left Lake
Borgne. As we advanced toward the gulf the
strip of land grew narrower, and after a ride of a
few miles we could see on both sides of us the
trembling prairie. As we rode along we passed a
number of small farms where nothing was culti-
vated but the onion, and every person we met
spoke Spanish. To Mr. Olivier's greeting, ^ i como
esta^ faisano? a courteous reply in Spanish was
given by men and boys. A small boy with a gun
larger than himself was on the roadside, and
when we asked him about his game he answered,
na. The hunt had been nada to him.

After riding five or six miles we reached a dense
wood where could be seen immense oak trees
with gigantic trunks, but shorn of their largest
limbs by the powerful wind which blows from the
gulf. The forest is called ^' Bois du Lac," or by
the Isleiios, '* Bois delLacre.'' It took us about an
hour to cross it, after which we reached the
Spanish settlement. The scene was wild and
strange : Bayou Boeuf , which was a mere ditch at
the Olivier plantation, had become a deep and
rapid stream of salt water. It has two branches,
one flowing into Lake L^ry and the other into
the gulf, which is at a distance of five or six
miles. The land comprised between the two

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branches of the bayou was r lle^ which we had
come to see. The dwellings are on both sides of the
bayou and are mostly palmetto huts. As it was a
cold day nearly all the men had gone hunting and
fishing, and the women were indoors; a few
children, however, dark-haired and brown, were
running about in the cold wind, bareheaded and
barefooted, and a young man in a canoe was
crossing the bayou in the direction of a hut, be-
fore which was standing a young girl, probably
Innocente, said Mr. Olivier, the belle of the vil-
lage with Agrippina.

The Spaniards on Vile live entirely by hunting
and fishing. The women fish in the bayou in front
of their huts, but the men go to the gulf for fish-
ing and to the lakes for hunting. They bring back
immense quantities of fish and ducks, which are
sent to the Olivier railroad station, ten or twelve
miles distant, in small carts drawn by oxen, yoked
Spanish fashion, by the horns. The land does
not belong to the Islenos ; they build their huts
and pay one dollar a month for the rent of the
land. The palmetto huts struck me with amaze-
ment — how could human beings in a civilized
country live in such dwellings! There is no
chimney, and the fire is made in the hut on a few
bricks, the smoke escaping through an opening in
the roof.

In order to see the Islenos at home we called on
old Pepe Martin, whom Mr. Olivier knew. The
old man received us very well and gave us a cup

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Customs and Dialects. 207

of coffee and biscuits. His sixteen-year-old
daughter took charge of our horses and we sat at
a rough table with old Pepe. His wife was seated
. by the fire holding a baby on her knees, while a
two-year-old boy was crouching in a corner and
looking at us with astonishment and fear. Pepe
smoked with relish a cigar which my companion
gave him and Mrs. Pepe seemed to enjoy her
cigarette. She listened with attention to the con-
versation and smiled at the jokes of her husband,
but did not utter a word. We were really with the
children of nature, where man is supreme and
woman is nothing but an obedient being. We
learned indeed from Pepe how uncivilized were
the Isleflos of Vile; not one person in the whole
number of about three hundred inhabitants could
read. They lived without the schoolmaster and
the physician, and only needed the priest for the
marriage and funeral ceremonies. Here were men
and women living without instruction and without
religion, and I could not help pitying them. They
seemed, however, perfectly contented; they were
very poor, but the palmetto hut was warm, the
hunting and fishing furnished food, the mother
and children were in good health, the father was
strong and jovial. He said, speaking of the game,
** no hay becassina, fero fatosV We could see^
looking at the walls covered with soot, that rac-
coons were more plentiful than snipes; every-
where were hung skins of the favorite game of the
negro.

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The Isleflos are a pure race; they have a perfect
horror of the negro and marry among themselves.
Both boys and girls marry from the age of fifteen,
said old Pepe, and there are many children in
each family. The women are rather handsome
and are very dark, owing as much to the hard life
which they lead as to their natural complexion.

We asked Pepe to give us a song, and he sang the
following decima de amoTy as he said, which I
wrote under his dictation:

Una Decima de Amor.

Si tu amor quieres vender

Ser£ una fiera batalla;

Yo sere un rayo con ala

Hata (hasta) ganarte, mi vien (bien).

Se alguno con falsa kasaHa (haza&a)

Hablara de tu hermosura,

Veras, en defensa tuya,

Ser6 un fiel leon en batalla.

Amor, luchando, se halla

Hata (hasta) que gane la palma;

Asi, dile que se vaya.

Yo sigo tu entendimiento,

Porque le cortare el viento;

Sera una fiera batalla.

Lo sifio de Dio (Dies) ven ano (vengativo)

M'ensenara i, querer.

Disen (dicen) que me ande ver

£n tu braso (brazo) colocado.

Aqui me tienes potrado (postrado)y

Dime tu fiel verdadero.

En defensa de tu sielo (cielo)

Yo sere un rajo con ala.

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Customs and Dialects. 209

A Love Song.

If you wish to sell your love

There will be a fierce battle;

I shall be a thunderbolt with wings

Until I can win you, my love.

If any one with false exploits

Will speak of your beauty,

In truth, in your defence,

I shall be a faithful lion in battle.

It is by struggling that love is found

And the crown is gained ;

Therefore, tell him to depart.

I shall do what you desire

Because I shall put him to death;

It will be a fierce battle.

The avenging saints of God

Will teach me how to love.

They say that I shall see myself

Resting in your arms.

Here you hold me at your feet;

Tell me indeed that I am your faithful lover.

In defence of your heaven

I shall be a thunderbolt with wings.

Old Pepe's decima is far from being a correct
poem; it is, however, queer and expressive. We
may pardon mistakes in prosody to a man who is
a '* thunderbolt with wings," *' a faithful lion in
battle,'' and " a tender lover at the feet of his
lady-love,"

We notice the omission of the s, hata for hasta^
fotrado iox -postrado ; the softening of b into v, mi
vien for mi bien ; the z and the c before e and i
pronounced like s, braso for brazoy hasafia for
hazanuy disen for dicen^ sielior del; vengano for
vengativo is curious.

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As we had a long ride awaiting us we were soon
obliged to bid farewell to Pepe and his interesting
family. We returned to Mr. Olivier's plantation,
paid a visit to the sugar house, where was boiling
the fragrant syrup, and late in the evening took
the train for New Orleans. While on our way
back to the great city of the South, where civili-
zation is so highly developed, where are to be
found all luxuries, I was haunted by the vision of
the palmetto hut, and of the old man who said :
**iVb quiero na ma que habitual (beans) cafe y
-pan.** What is it that satisfies us, civilized men?

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PART III.

HISTORY AND EDUCATION.

I— WAR TIMES (1861-1865).

Introduction.

When Louisiana was ceded to Spain in 1763
the colonists were in despair, and still more so
after the cruel execution of Lafrdnifere and his
brave confederates. The rule of the Spaniards,
however, was mild, and the Louisianians were
happy under the domination of the King of Spain.
In 1801 the colony was ceded back to France,
but the French took possession of it in 1803 only
to surrender it to the United States. The pur-
chase of Louisiana was one of the wisest deeds of
Jefferson and the most fortunate thing for the
Louisianians. From that time they knew that
they would be independent citizens and no longer
subjects to be bartered and sold like cattle at a
despot's will. In 1812 the Territory of Orleans
became the State of Louisiana, and Claiborne,
the territorial governor, became the governor of

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212 Louisiana Studies.

the State. The inhabitants had learned to respect
and esteem him during the nine years of his ad-
ministration of the territory, and they showed great
confidence in him during the trying moments of
the English invasion.

All Louisianians in December, 1814, and Jan-
uary, 1815, showed themeelves devoted Americans,
and they were warmly commended by Jackson.
The rout of Pakenham's army is one of the most
glorious events in American history and was a
happy omen for the future of the new-born State.
Indeed, from the battle of New Orleans in 1815
to the civil war in 1861, Louisiana enjoyed won-
derful prosperity. Agriculture and commerce
were developed, schools were carefully fostered,
and the wealth of the people was continually in-
creasing. The governors of the State had been
able and conscientious, the laws were liberal, and
only one thing seemed to be a cause of anxiety
for the future — it was slavery. This great question
brought about for a time the disruption of the
Union, although the South did not fight only to
maintain slavery. The Southern men were in
favor of States' rights, and when they believed
those rights to be attacked they seceded from the
Northern and Western States. There is no doubt,
in my mind, that if the South had been victorious,
slavery would have been abolished. Emancipation
would have been gradual, but it would surely have
come, and without the evils that accompanied a
sudden emancipation, which disorganized labor

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History and Education. 213

and caused such wide-spread ruin. Let us not,
however, consider what might have happened.
The war took place, the slaves were freed and be-
came citizens, and the South passed through the
terrible ordeal of Reconstruction. She is now free
once more, and free within the Union, and surely
not one of her sons wishes now that it had been
otherwise. But the men of the South fought
valiantly for their cause and should be proud of
these four years of our history, 1861 to 1865. Let
us cast a glance at the events which took place in
Louisiana in war times and we shall honor and re-
vere the men who defended so heroically the soil
of their State against such tremendous odds.

Never had Louisiana been more prosperous than
in i860, but at the end of that year the election of
Lincoln foreshadowed great and serious events in
the country. South Carolina seceded from the
Union in i860, and Governor Thomas Overton
Moore, of Ldluisiana, called the Legislature
together in extra session in December, i860. An
election for delegates to a State convention took
place on January 7, 1861, and preparations for
war were begun. The convention met on Janu-
ary 23, and elected ex-Governor Mouton as presi-
dent. On January 26 an ordinance of secession
was adopted and signed by one hundred and twen-
ty-one delegates, seven refusing. Delegates were
sent to the convention held at Montgomery to or-
ganize the Southern Confederacy, and Louisiana
severed the ties which bound her to the American

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Union and cast her lot with the other South-
ern States. For four years she was one of the
Confederate States of America and on many a
bloody battle field her sons fought gloriously and
well.

The Capture of New Orleans.

To retain control of the Mississippi was of the
utmost importance to the Confederacy, and the
Federals exerted their utmost efforts to open the
river and its most important tributaries. Forts
Henry and Donelson fell after a gallant resistance;
Island No. lo was also taken, and at the end of
1861 there only remained above New Orleans two
points — ^Vicksburg and Port Hudson — which might
prevent the Federal fleet, called the Western Flo-
tilla, from sailing down the river to New Orleans.
The latter city, in April, 1862, was almost with-
out an army to protect her, as Louisiana's sons
were nearly all at that time on distant battle fields.
Gen. Mansfield Lovell, commanding the depart-
ment, had only 6000 men under him, and he
seems to have done all in his power to protect the
city. The Confederate government provided some
vessels for the defence of the city, but did not act
with sufficient celerity in completing the iron-
clads which were then building. The fleet of
rams and improvised gun-boats were to support
Forts St. Philip and Jackson, but did not do all
that might have been expected of them. The com-
manders of the vessels, with few exceptions, were

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History and Education, 215

not men of experience and ability. They cer-
tainly were not equal in talent to Farragut and
Porter.

Admiral Porter, in his article in the Century
Magazine (1885), **The Opening of the Lower
Mississippi," says that in November, 1861, he
communicated to President Lincoln and the Sec
retary of the Navy a plan which he had formed
for the capture of New Orleans. The plan was
approved by Gen. McClellan, and Captain Farra-
gut was suggested by Commander Porter to com-
mand the expedition. On the 20th of February,
1862, Flag Officer Farragut arrived at Ship Island
and began to arrange his squadron. He soon had
seventeen vessels, mounting one hundred and sev-
enty-seven guns, and a large mortar flotilla com-
posed of six steamers and a number of schooners.
Forts Jackson and St. Philip were well fortified,
had a brave garrison of about seven hundred men
each, commanded by a gallant and able man,
Gen. Duncan, and the obstructions in the river
** seemed formidable,'' said Farragut's chief of
staff. He reported them to consist of t^ eight
hulls moored in line across the river, with
heavy chains extending from one to the other.
Rafts of logs were also used, and the passage
between the forts was thus entirely closed." The
obstructions, it is said, would have been far more
effective if Beauregard's plan of a double swinging
boom raft had been adopted.

Admiral Porter says that the raft plaged across

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the river **was not formidable or ingenious/'
The Confederate fleet consisted of twelve vessels,
and a number of fire rafts had been prepared.
Unfortunately, the machinery of the iron-clad
** Louisiana " was not completed and she had to be
secured to the river bank during the engagement
with Farragut. The machinery and boilers of the
gun-boats were protected with cotton bales.

The Federal fleet crossed the bar with some
difficulty, and when about three miles from the
forts Farragut ordered Commander Porter to
begin the bombardment with the mortar vessels.
The mast heads of the latter were covered with
brush and it seemed to be from the trees that the
firing proceeded. This was on April i8. The
forts returned the firing, but they suffered exceed-
ingly from Porter's mortars. On the 20th the
cable in the river broke in two, and on the 24th
Farragut attempted to pass the forts with his fleet.
General Duncan had requested Commander Mitch-
ell to send the ** Louisiana'* below the forts to stop
the advance of the Federals, but the Confederate
officer in nominal command of the fleet did not
heed General Duncan's request. The Federal
fleet advanced in three divisions — the first, of eight
vessels, commanded by Captain Bailey; the second,
of three vessels, by Farragut, and the third, of six
vessels, by Captain Bell. The mortar vessels
engaged the water batteries of Fort Jackson, and
Captain Bailey, at 2:30 a. m., pushed on boldly
up the river. The two forts cannonaded furiously,

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History and Education. 217

but did no real damage to Bailey's ships, which
passed the forts and attacked the Confederate
vessels. Let us call attention here to the admi-
rable conduct of Capt. Beverly Kennon in the ram
* * Governor Moore." The latter attacked the gun-
boat ** Varuna," rammed her, and having only two
guns (32-pounders), and being placed in such a
position that she could not lower her guns so as to
strike the *^ Varuna," Captain Kennon ordered the
gun to be fired through the bow of his own vessel.
The ball passed through the ^* Governor Moore "
and struck the ** Varuna," and through the hole in
his ship Kennon fired again at his adversary.
The ram ** Stonewall Jackson " came now to the
Moore's assistance and rammed the **Varuna,"
which sank shortly afterward near the river bank.
Captan Kennon's ship was afterward attacked by
several vessels and was abandoned and burned,
and such was also the fate of the ** Stonewall
Jackson."

Farragut's flag-ship, the " Hartford," was
severely treated by the forts and came near being
destroyed by a fire raft pushed boldly against her
by the tugboat **Mosher." The Confederate
ram ** Manassas" did good service, but Farragut's
division succeeded in passing the forts and joined
Capt. Bailey. The third division, under Capt.
Bell, passed without much resistance and the fleet
proceeded to New Orleans. Gen. Lovell, who had
come down the river to have news of the fight at
the forts, returned hurriedly to the city, and, sur-

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rendering it to the civil authorities, withdrew his
army from New Orleans. There seems to be no
doubt that there was nothing for him to do after
the enemy's fleet had reached the city. He would
have uselessly exposed old men, women and
children to a cruel bombardment.

Commander Porter, after Farragut's departure
for New Orleans, remained with his mortar fleet
to capture the forts, and to him Gen. Duncan sur-
rendered on April 29. The iron-clad ** Louisiana"
was burned by Commander Mitchell, who was
taken prisoner. The Confederate soldiers had
done all that brave men could do in defending their
flag, and even their enemies admired their con-
duct.

Farragut easily silenced the Confederate bat-
teries at Chalmette, and at 10 o'clock, April 25,
1862, reached New Orleans. The scene was
weird and grand : the river boats were burning and
floating down, a mass of flames, the cotton and
sugar on the levee were also set on fire, the rain
was falling in torrents and large crowds were on
the river front looking with despair at the huge
Federal gun-boats. Farragut sent immediately
Capt. Bailey to demand the surrender of the city,
but Mayor Monroe said that Gen. Lovell was the
proper person to see. The latter replied that his
army had already left the city and he was going to
join them. Capt. Bailey also asked that the
mayor lower the State flag which had been hoisted
on the City Hall. The matter of the surrender of

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History and Education. 219

the city and of the lowering of the flag was sub-
mitted to the council by the mayor, and the latter 's
position was sustained. Mayor Monroe said that
the Federals could take the city if they wished, as
no resistance was possible. ** We yield," said he,
** to physical force alone, and maintain our alle-
giance to the government of the Confederate States.
Beyond this a due respect for our dignity, our
rights and the flag of our country does not, I
think, permit us to go." The mayor's principal
adviser in those trying times was the Hon. Pierre
Soul6, the great orator and statesman. By his
courage and eloquence he calmed the people and
prevented any attack against the Federal officers
sent by Farragut. Pierre Soule certainly rendered
an immense service to New Orleans on that occa-
sion, and he also, by his advice sustained Mayor
Monroe in the courageous and dignified position
which he took. After several days of negotiation,
during which Farragut threatened to bombard the
city, it was finally decided that New Orleans would
not be surrendered and that the Federals would
rake possession of it. They were also to lower
the State flag placed on the City Hall by the
mayor on the 20th. Mr. Marion A. Baker, at that
time secretary to the mayor, has given such a vivid
description of the last scene in the great drama
begun at Forts Jackson and St. Philip that we
wish to quote the last paragraph of his article pub-
lished in the Century Magazine of i886, page
462:

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220 Louisiana Studies

As soon as the two officers left the room, Mr.
Monroe also went out. Descending the front
steps he walked out into the street and placed
himself immediately in front of the howitzer
pointing down St. Charles street. There, folding
his arms, he fixed his eyes upon the gunner, who
stood, lanyard in hand, ready for action. Here he
remained, without once looking up or moving until
the flag had been hauled down by Lieutenant
Kautz and he and Captain Bell reappeared. At
an order from the officers the sailors drew their
howitzers back into the square, the marines fell
into marching order behind them, and retired as
they had come. As they passed out through the
Camp street gate Mr. Monroe turned toward the
hall, and the people, who had hitherto preserved
the silence he had asked from them, broke into
cheers for their mayor.

I shall not relate Butler's tyrannical, cruel and
corrupt administration in New Orleans. The ex-
ecution, or rather the murder of Mumford; his
wholesale spoliations, and especially that of the
office of the Consul of Holland; his insults to the
patriotic women of the city, have branded his name
with infamy, not only in America, but in the* whole
civilized world, and his conduct was disavowed
by the Federal government, which recalled him
after a few months and superseded him by
Banks. I do not believe that there will now be
found any man of honor and of true courage that
will excuse in any way Butler's infamous Order
No. 28:

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History and Education. 221

Headquarters Department of the Gulf,
New Orleans, May 15, 1862.

^General Order No. 28.']

As the officers and soldiers of the United States
have been subjected to repeated insults from
the women (calling themselves ladies) of New
Orleans, in return for the most scrupulous non-
interference and courtesy on our part, it is ordered
that hereafter, when any female shall, by word,
gesture or movement, insult or show contempt for
any officer or soldier of the United States,
she shall be regarded, and held liable to be
treated, as a woman of the town pl)dng her avo-
cation.

By command of

Major General Butler.
G. C. Strong, A. A. G., Chief of Siaf.

After the fall of New Orleans the Federal gun-
boats ascended the river, and being attacked by
Confederate batteries on the banks, bombarded the
plantations as they passed. This was natural where
there were batteries, but, too often, houses were
bombarded, in front of which stood no batteries.
How well do I remember the flight of our whole
family to the river front to seek the protection of
the levee, whenever a gun-boat was coming.
There we stood behind the levee, my sisters
and myself, our school-mistress and our nurses,
while our father stood on the levee to look at
the Federal gun-boats and at the shells, which
generally passed over our heads, but which, occa-

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222 Louisiana Studibs.

sionally, were buried in the levee and covered us
with dust. Our house was never touched by the
shells, but those of a number of our relatives and
friends were considerably damaged, and I remem-
ber seeing cart loads of balls strewn in the yards.
How dramatic all this was: the huge iron-clad
*^Essex" passing in triumph the river batteries, her
shells whizzing like huge meteors over our heads,
and we helpless against the invaders 1 I remem-
ber also the holes dug in the ground and covered
with thick beams and several feet of earth, the
inside arranged like a comfortable room and filled
with provisions of all kinds. Then came the Fed-
eral soldiers in garrison on the plantation, and
well behaved; then the insolence of some of the
liberated slaves, the temporary arrest of my father
and grandfather, the serio-comic scenes at the
provost marshal's court, where, too often, favors,
or rather rights, had to be bought ; then the flight of
the family to the Teche and the pillaging by the
conquering army ; the return home and then com-
plete ruin. From this ruin we, sons of rich
planters, have now partially recovered, and the
men of 1894, who were boys in 1862, do not keep
any unkind remembrance of War Times. They
shall, however, never forget the exciting scenes,
in which several years of their boyhood were
passed and which changed so completely the ca-
reer of so many Louisianians.

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History and Education. 223

Henry Watkins Allen — Battle op
Baton Rouge.

No man should be more honored by the people
of Louisiana than Henry Watkins Allen, the war
governor^ and we believe that it may be of inter-
est to give a brief account of his life as related by
Mrs. Sarah A. Dorsey in her '* Recollections'* of
her hero.

Allen was born in Prince Edward county, in
Virginia, April 29, 1820. His father, Thomas
Allen, was a physician, a man upright and stern;
his mother, Ann Watkins, was most gentle and
lovable. Dr. Allen lost his wife and moved to
Kay county, Missouri, in 1833. His son Henry
was sent to school for some time, then he was
placed in a store as a clerk, but he finally pre-
vailed upon his father to send him to college. He
remained at Marion College, Missouri, for two
years, but ran away at the age of seventeen and
went to Grand Gulf, Miss. He became private
tutor in a planter's family and then opened a
school at Grand Gulf. He read law in the mean-
time and was admitted to the bar and was getting
a good practice, when, in 1842, he left for Texas
at the head of a company to fight against Mexico.
He took part in the battle of San Jacinto and
behaved with great gallantry during the six
months for which he had been mustered into the
service.

On his return to Grand Gulf he again practised
law, and meeting Miss Salome Ann Crane, a bright

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224 Louisiana Studies

and beautiful girl of eighteen, he fell in love with
her, and, her parents objecting to the match, *Hhe
young people," says Mrs. Dorsey, ** took matters
in their own hands, eloped together one bright
moonlight night, and were married at Grand Gulf
on the 4th of July, 1844." Four days after his mar-
riage Allen fought a duel, and wounding his
adversary was himself severely wounded. He
was elected to the Legislature in 1846 and served
with distinction. He was at that time perfectly
happy, having been reconciled to his wife's pa-
rents and given a home on a plantation by his
father-in-law. His beloved Salome, however, fell
ill, and died after six years of wedded life.

Allen, at the death of his wife, left Grand
Gulf and moved to a plantation in Tensas parish,
Louisiana. He soon afterward went to Cooper's
Wells, in Mississippi, for the benefit of his health,
and there he met an old planter from West Baton
Rouge, who took such a liking to Allen that he
induced the latter to accompany him home. He
afterward enabled his young friend to become the
owner of a large estate. Allen went to reside
in 1852 on his plantation, ** Allendale," in West
Baton Rouge, and in 1853 was elected to the
Legislature. In 1854 ^^ went to Harvard Uni-
versity for some time to study law, and in 1859 ^^
undertook a journey to Europe. In his ** Travels
of a Sugar Planter " he described his impressions
of the old world. In 1861 he went to Virginia,
then to Havana, where he stayed till May.

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History and Education. 225

On returning to Louisiana he immediately en-
rolled in the Delta Rifles, and shortly afterward,
became lieutenant-colonel of the Fourth Louisiana
Infantry, of which Robert J. Barrow was colonel.
Four companies of the regiment were sent under
Allen to Ship Island. They remained there sev-
eral months and were thoroughly disciplined by
their chief. Allen was afterward stationed at Fort
Berwick Ch^ne, at the mouth of the Atchafalaya,
and in March, 1862, the Fourth Regiment having
been sent to Jackson, Tenn., Allen was elected
colonel of the regiment and appointed military
governor of Jackson by Beauregard. At the bat-
tie of Shiloh, on the first day, Colonel Allen was
wounded by a minie ball which passed through
his cheek. He put some cotton lint on the wound,
tied his handkerchief around his face and con
tinned to fight. On the second day he led a des-
perate charge of his regiment, and Mrs. Dorsey
says that a gentleman on Beauregard's staff said
of him: *« There was Allen, his face tied up in a
bloody handkerchief, with a bit of raw cotton
sticking on his cheek — which certainly did not
improve his beauty — one minute entreating, pray-
ing, weeping, tears streaming as he implored the
men to stand; the next moment, swearing, raging
at them, abusing them, berating them, giving them
every angry epithet he could think of; then
addressing them in the most affectionate words.
But he succeeded in gathering together not only
his own men but a number of stragglers from other

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226 Louisiana Siudibs.

regiments, whom he coaxed or abused back into
the ranks. The last I saw of him he was off with
them like a whirlwind into the thick of the battle.
It made me both laugh and cry to watch him. He
was a regular Murat — ^but instead of the white
flume ^ it was the white specks of cotton, and head
tied up in the white handkerchief, that was always
in the van."

After Shiloh Allen was sent to Vicksburg,
where he behaved with his usual gallantry. Let
us here call attention to the heroic work done by
the ram ** Arkansas." The little vessel was built
on the Yazoo river, and on the 15th of July, 1862,
she ran the gauntlet of the whole Federal fleet be-
fore Vicksburg, numbering **in all forty gun-
boats, mortar boats, rams and transports." She
was attacked by the *' Tyler" and the ''Caron-
delet" and the ** Queen of the West," and the
tremendous iron-clad ** Essex," but sped on,
striking right and left, and moored at last under
the batteries of Vicksburg. The city was well
defended, and that part of the river was held by
the Confederates. It was now important to free
Baton Rouge from the Federals.

The capital of Louisiana was captured by Far-
ragut on May 28, 1862, and bombarded, and in
July the place was garrisoned by about 3500 men
and protected by five gun-boats and a few trans-
ports. Gen. Van Dorn ordered Gen. Breckin-
ridge to attack the Federals at Baton Rouge, and
the latter took with him AUen and his Fourth

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History and Education. 227

Regiment. It was resolved that the attack
by land would be supported by the famous
*^ Arkansas" on the river, for it was useless to
fight a battle which, if successful, would be a
barren victory, as long as the Federal vessels lay
before the city and could bombard it. Van Dorn
informed Breckinridge that the ** Arkansas " would
co-operate with him on the 5th of August, and on
the 4th the Confederate army, numbering about
2600 men, left Camp Moore and marched on Baton
Rouge. Fauntleroy's Battery opened fire at day-
break and soon the fight became general. Allen
was on the left wing near the State House, under
General Ruggles, and commanded the Third and
Fourth Louisiana and Boyd's Louisiana Battalion.
He charged with impetuosity, having been told by
Ruggles, '* to march straight to the front until he
was ordered to stopJ*^ No obstacles could make
the Confederates stop — neither walls, nor fences,
nor thick hedges of cherokee roses through which
no bird could fly. On they marched, driving every-
thing before them, until they saw their beloved
commander fall, shot through both legs. There
was a momentary pause, but again the troops
rallied and pressed forward, as everywhere else
on the battle field, under Breckinridge himself,
and Helm and Hunt, and Buckner and Clark,
and Breaux and Thompson and other valiant men.
The battle raged near the Protestant Cemetery,
near the State House, through the streets of the
city, and the enemy were driven back to the banks

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228 Louisiana Studibs.

of the river under the protection of their gun-
boats. Breckinridge was victorious, and waited
anxiously for the arrival of the * 'Arkansas, "with-
out the help of which the land victory was fruit-
less. Alas I when about five miles from Baton
Rouge the machinery of the vessel was deranged
and the gallant ram was put on fire by her crew,
and going down the river passed by the enemy's
fleet and exploded. Such had been the fate of
the ** Louisiana," and ** Stonewall Jackson," and
** Manassas," and ** Governor Moore" and other
vessels while resisting Farragut's advance. Breck-
inridge retired to Camp Comite, then he fortified
Port Hudson and left Gen. Bowen in command at
the Comite river.

Allen's life was at first despaired of, but after
many months he recovered sufficiently to offer his
services again to the Confederacy. He was made
brigadier-general in September, 1863, and sent to
the Trans-Mississippi Department. Soon after-
ward he was elected Governor of Louisiana, and
was inaugurated at Shreveport on January 25,
1864. He displayed in his new functions great
administrative ability and labored incessantly for
the good of the people. He prevented the cotton
in the State from being burned and accumulated
large stocks of provisions, medicines and objects
of prime necessity, with which he relieved the
wants of the needy. He provided the ladies with
cotton cards with which they wove clothing for
the soldiers in gray. **This gift," says Mrs.

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History and Education. 229

Dorsey, ** awoke unspeakable gratitude in our
breasts." The War Governor inspired every one
with his zeal and patriotism and sent re-enforce-
ments to the army of Kirby Smith, whom he helped
in every way in his power. Until the surrender of
Lee and Johnston, Governor Allen stood at his
post and was idolized by the people whom he
served so well. After Appomatox he, the man
with the martial spirit, was averse to continue a
useless and disastrous struggle and he aided pow-
erfully in bringing about the capitulation of the
department. He had not thought of himself, for
he knew that the end of the war was to make of
him an exile. We wish to quote here a few lines
of his farewell address to the people of Louisiana
on June 2, 1865:

My countrymen, we have for four long years
waged a war, which we deemed to be just in the
sight of high heaven. We have not been the best,
the wisest, nor the bravest people in the world;
but we have suffered more and borne our suffer-
ings with greater fortitude than any people on the
face of God's green earth. Now let us show to
the world, that as we have fought like men, like
men we can make peace. Let there be no acts of
violence, no heart-burnings, no intemperate lan-
guage, but with manly dignity submit to the inev-
itable course of events. Neither let there be any
repinings after lost property; let there be no crim-
ination or recrimination, no murmurs. It will do
no good, but may do much harm. You who, like
myself, have lost all (and oh, how many there
arel), must begin life anew. Let us not talk of

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230 Louisiana Studies.

despair, nor whine about our misfortunes, but with
strong arms and stout hearts adapt ourselves to
the circumstances which surround us.

Governor Allen's noble words have been heeded
by the people of Louisiana, by the people of the
South. They have not despaired in their misery,
but have labored bravely to repair the dis-
asters of the past. They have succeeded, for
in all their woes they had kept their honor intact,
and the future was theirs, according to the words
of the historian, Henri Martin, speaking of France
after the defeats of the war of 1870: '* Qui garde
rhonneur, garde Tavenir."

Governor Allen went into exile in Mexico, where
he struggled for a few months against poverty and
pain. He established a newspaper and worked
for a living — he who had had millions at his disposal
when he was governor. He died in the city of
Mexico, on April 22, 1866, and was buried in the
Confederate uniform. His remains have been
brought back to Louisiana soil and they now rest
under a monument erected in front of the capitol
of the State, not far from the place where he
fought and fell in defending Louisiana.

**Dick" Taylor and the Campaigns on the

T:feCHE AND IN THE TrANS-MiSSISSIPPI DE-
PARTMENT.

In his book, ** Destruction and Reconstruc-
tion," General Taylor gives a most interesting
account of his campaigns during the Civil War,

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History and Education. 231

and we can not take a better guide to lead us over
the battle fields in Louisiana.

Richard Taylor was born in New Orleans and
was the son of Zachary Taylor, the hero of Buena
Vista. In 1861 he resided on a sugar plantation
in St. Charles parish and was a member of the
State Senate. He was also a member of the
convention which adopted the ordinance of se-
cession, and at the beginning of the war he was
appointed colonel of the Ninth Louisiana In-
fantry. The regiment left immediately for Rich-
mond, but arrived a few hours too late to take part
in the battle of Manassas. Taylor introduces us
to all the great Confederate officers at that time
and gives his opinion of their character and genius.
He pays a splendid tribute to A. S. Johnston,
Jackson and Lee, and deplores the misunder-
standing and ill feeling existing between Joseph
E. Johnston and Davis. He was appointed a
brigadier-general by President Davis and took
part in a number of battles in Virginia. He must
have been devotedly attached to his soldiers, for
he always refers with great feeling to the death in
battle of his officers and men. He appreciated
also whatever was humorous or quaint, as the fol-
lowing extract will show : ** Breaking into column,
we pursued closely. Jackson came up and grasped
my hand, worth a thousand words from another,
and we were soon in the streets of Winchester, a
quaint old town of some five thousand inhabitants.
There was a little fighting in the streets, but the

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2 32 Louisiana Studies. .

people were all abroad — certainly all the women
and babies. They were frantic with delight, only
regretting that so many ** Yankees" had escaped,
and seriously impeded our movements. A buxom,
comely dame of some five and thirty summers,
with bright eyes and tight ankles, and conscious
of these advantages, was especially demonstrative,
exclaiming, **Oh, you are too late, too late!"
whereupon a tall Creole from the Tfeche sprang
from the ranks of the Eighth Regiment, just pass-
ing, clasped her in his arms, and imprinted a
sounding kiss on her ripe lips, with ' Madame 1
je n'arrive jamais trop tardi' A laugh followed,
and the dame, with a rosy face, but merry twinkle
in her eye, escaped/*

Taylor was sent to take command of the Louis-
iana District in 1862, and in his book, he gives an
accurate and interesting description of the topog-
raphy of Louisiana and of 'the character and
customs of the inhabitants. He speaks very kindly
of the Creoles, and after praising highly the
heroism of ex-Governor Mouton and of Laclair
Fuselier, the fiery and patriotic old man ever to
the front in battle, he says : ** I have dwelt some-
what on the characters of Mouton and Fuselier, not
only because of their great devotion to the Con-
federacy, but because there exists a wide-spread
belief that the Creole race has become effete and
nerveless. In the annals of time no breed has
produced nobler specimens of mankind than these
two; and while descendants of the French colo-

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History and Education. 233

nists remain on the soil of Louisiana their names
and characters should be reverenced as are those of
Hampden and Sidney in England."

Gen. Taylor had to contend against great dif-
ficulties in his department, for the Federals had
possession of a large part of the State, and after
the battle of Baton Rouge, felt more powerful
than ever. At Bayou des Allemands they had a
post of two hundred men and harassed and plun-
dered the inhabitants in the vicinity. Col.
Waller, by the orders of Gen. Taylor, attacked
and captured the post, where he found booty of all
kind gathered by the Federals. The Confederate
general complained of these robberies to Butler,
who, says Gen. Taylor, gave orders that the pil-
laging should be stopped. It is probable that
Butler wanted to have himself the monopoly of
that kind of warfare.

The next engagement in Louisiana took place at
Labadieville. There Col. Leopold L. Armant, of
the Eighteenth Louisiana, met, with five hundred
men, a force of four thousand men under General
Weitzel, and checked for a time the advance of
the enemy. Armant was serving under Gen.
Alfred Mouton, and no braver man ever lived. I
can not help calling attention specially to the
Eighteenth Regiment. While a boy during the
war I heard continually my relatives and friends
speaking of the famous ** Dix-huitieme.'* At
Shiloh it was commanded by Alfred Mouton as
colonel, and my uncle, Alfred Roman, was lieu-

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234 Louisiana Studies.

tenant-coloneL Mouton was wounded at Shiloh,
and Roman became inspector general on Beaure-
gard's staff at Charleston, and Armant became
colonel of the regiment. His grandfather's plan-
tation in St. James parish was adjoining that of
my grandfather, Valcour Aime, where I was born
and was living at the time of the war. A number
of men from St. James were in the Eighteenth
Louisiana! and I took a special interest in that
regiment. The impressions of childhood are so
strong that I shall always remember vividly the
deeds of the soldiers on the Tfeche and in the
Trans-Mississippi, and the siege of Charleston, as
related to me during the war. In Cornay's Bat-
tery were my only brother and my first cousins,
George Ferry and Michel Fortier ; in the Eighteenth
Regiment were some of my best friends; at
Charleston, with Beauregard, were my uncle
Roman and my cousin, Capt. Albert Ferry. Al-
though the operations in Virginia were grand and
admirable, and although I reverence and love Lee
and Jackson, I feel personally attached to the
soldiers of the Trans-Mississippi, and to Beaure-
gard and his men, as I heard them mentioned
daily in my childhood. It is therefore a pious
task on my part to devote a few lines of homage to
the army in which served my brother Louis, the
boy soldier, who did duty for two years on the
Tfeche and in the Trans-Mississippi Department,
and died before he was twenty, two months after
his return home.

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History and Education. 235

At about the time of Armant's engagement with
Weitzel there happened a fortunate event for the
Confederacy. Near New Iberia, on Bayou Petite
Anse, on what is now known as Avery Island, an
immense mine of rock salt wonderfully pure was
found while digging salt wells. Judge Avery, the
owner of the place, generously placed the mine at
the disposal of Taylor and his army, and it was
indeed a boon.

Vicksburg, still held by the Confederates, and
Port Hudson being well fortified, the river between
these two points was practically closed to the
enemy. They evacuated Baton Rouge when
Taylor moved on the Lafourche country,
but Mouton having abandoned Lafourche and
gone to Berwick Bay, Weitzel followed him. The
Federals entered Berwick Bay with their gun-boats,
and the Confederates had, as far as possible, to
place batteries on the banks of every navigable
stream or bayou. In the artillery work Major
Brent did admirable service, and Cornay's Battery,
which had fought bravely against Farragut in de-
fending Forts Jackson and St. Philip, was of great
help to Mouton. The latter was now at Camp
Bisland, on the Tfeche, about midway between
Franklin and Jeanerette. The ** Cotton,'* a large
river steamer, was converted into a war ship with
the aid of a few pieces of railroad iron and some
bales of cotton. That vessel, commanded by
Capt. Fuller, co-operated with Mouton in defend-
ing the Tfeche. Unfortunately Weitzel succeeded

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236 Louisiana Studies.

in driving away Mouton's pickets, and the " Cot-
ton" after the loss of many men, was destroyed by
Mouton's orders. This misfortune was com-
pensated by a most daring expedition. The
** Queen of the West," a Federal steamboat ar-
ranged as a ram, passed Vicksburg and entered
Red river. There she was disabled by a shot
from Fort De Russy and captured. This event
had hardly happened, however, when the ** Ind-
ianola,'* a powerful iron-clad, appeared below
Vicksburg. The ** Queen of the West*' was re-
paired, and the ** Webb, a fast and strong tug, was
protected as well as possible, and Major Brent
started on Febuary 22, 1863, with both vessels to
attack the *' Indianola." Such an expedition,
with such means, **seemed madness," says Taylor,
but the boldness of the Confederates was re-
warded. Their two vessels rammed the ** Indian-
ola," one after the other in the same spot and sank
her. But this heroic action was of little use, for
shortly afterward Farragut passed Port Hudson
with several gun-boats, and the river up to Vicks-
burg was again lost to the Confederates.

The Federals, in April, undertook to dislodge
Taylor's army from Bisland. The latter had less
than three thousand men and was attacked by a
force of sixteen thousand men ; Weitzel and
Emory with twelve thousand men advancing up
the Teche, and Grover by Grand Lake. On the
13th of April a desperate battle was fought at
Bisland and the Federals were repulsed, but Tay-

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History and Education. 237

lor's position was turned by way of Grand Lake
and he had to retreat from Bisland. He retreated
in perfect order to Opelousas, and the Federals
were at liberty to throw their forces against Port
Hudson. The gallant resistance on the Tfeche
had, however, produced an excellent moral effect,
and the Louisianians still had some hope of pre-
venting the enemy from spreading all over the
State.

Porter passed the batteries at Vicksburg, and
Fort De Russy on Red river was abandoned by
the Confederates, and Alexandria captured by
the Federals. Banks, however, soon abandoned
Alexandria to march against Port Hudson, and a
part of his army encamped at Berwick Bay. Mou-
ton and Green returned from the Texas line to the
Tfeche country, and Taylor was ordered by Gen.
Kirby Smith to try to ^^ do something^* for Vicks-
burg, now pressed closely by Grant. He moved
on to the Tensas river, but could accomplish noth-
ing against Grant. He returned to Alexandria,
and there made some very successful raids against
the enemy. On June 23, 1863, he carried the
Federal post at Berwick Bay and captured twelve
guns, a great abundance of arms and provisions
and many prisoners. He sent Mouton to Thibo-
daux. Green to Donaldson ville, and his scouts
even advanced on the right bank of the river to a
point sixteen miles above New Orleans. An at-
tack on the city might have been attempted, but
news was received of the fall of Vicksburg on

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July 4, 1863, and of Port Hudson on July 9, and
the Confederate army had to withdraw into the
Red river country trans Mississippi.

General Green, who was one of Taylor's most
eflScient oflScers, defeated the Federals twice — once
on the Fordoche, in September, and once on the
Courtableau, in October, 1863. In the winter of
1863-64 Prince de Polignac reported for duty to
General Taylor, and was given the command of a
Texan brigade. The men, at first, were opposed
to him, but he soon gained their confidence, and
showed himself later a worthy successor of Mou-
ton as commander of Louisianians. General de
Polignac, by his gallant conduct in the Trans-
Mississippi, has wiped out the odium attached to
his name by the narrow-minded, incompetent and
despotic policy of Polignac, minister of Charles X.

General E. Kirby Smith was in command of the
whole department, but his field of operations was
so vast that, with his headquarters at Shreveport,
he left the immediate direction of the troops in
Louisiana to General Taylor. The latter now
prepared to resist an attack of Porter's nineteen
gun-boats and of Banks' army composed of 18,000
men under Franklin and 10,000 under A. J. Smith.
The Confederates retreated from the Atchafalaya
to Mansfield, a distance of two hundred miles.
There Taylor resolved to make a stand against
Banks and advised Kirby Smith that he would
give battle on April 8, 1864, unless he received
contrary orders.

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History and Education. 239

,The Confederates numbered eighty-eight hun-
dred men and Banks had an army of twenty thou-
sand, and was supported by Porter's gunboats and
transports, but the Federal commander was so
incompetent and his army was so divided that Tay-
lor was enabled to attack him at Mansfield with
about an equal number of soldiers. The Louis-
ianians under Mouton were inspired with a mar-
velous ardor, and rushing through an open field
into a ravine upon the enemy entrenched in a
wood, they suffered heavy losses. There fell
Beard, Caufield and Clack of the Crescent Regi-
ment, Walker of the Twenty-eighth and Armant
of the Eighteenth. Leading the Eighteenth,
sword in hand, Armant was struck by a ball in the
arm; again he was shot through both thighs; he
fell, but raising himself on his wounded arm he
called upon his men to advance, and waved his
sword in the air until he was killed by a shot in
the breast. The heroic Mouton was also killed
at Mansfield, and the victory won on the soil of
Louisiana cost her the lives of some of her most
worthy sons. Taylor had been ably seconded by
Generals Walker, Green, Polignac and others.

The day after the battle of Mansfield, Taylor,
re-enforced by about 5000 men, attacked Banks at
Pleasant Hill. The Confederate army numbered
12,500 men and the Federal 18,000. The battle
was hotly contested and lasted until night, but the
Federals retreated and left the field of battle
to Taylor. Although no great results were ac-

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240 LoxnsiANA Studies.

complished by these battles, Mansfield and Pleas-
ant Hill are yet glorious names in the history of
Louisiana. With a small army the Confederates
had defeated Banks and inflicted on him very
heavy losses. The question now was to cut off
the retreat of the Federal army and fleet, and
Taylor was anxious to begin the pursuit. He
says in his book that Kirby Smith was not in
favor of his proceeding too far from Shreveport,
and did not co-operate with him as he should.
However, an attempt was made at Blair's Landing
to cut off Porter's fleet, which, on account of the
low water, was advancing slowly in Red river,
and in that engagement the gallant Green, the
best general left to Taylor, was killed. The Con-
federate general, in his history of his campaigns,
devotes a few touching words of regret to Green,
and also to Captain Cornay, killed shortly after-
ward while attacking the gun-boats. ** Captain
Cornay," says Taylor, **who, with Mouton, Ar-
mant, and many other Creoles, proved by distin-
guished gallantry that the fighting qualities of the
old French breed have suffered no deterioration
on the soil of Louisiana,"

General Kirby Smith having gone with an army
of 7000 men to meet Gen. Steele, who was then in
Arkansas, Taylor was left with an insuflicient
force and was unable to prevent the escape of
Porter and Banks. He, however, harassed them
considerably and destroyed some of the vessels
and transports. The Federals succeeded on May

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History and Education. 241

13 in building a dam to cross the falls in Red river
at Alexandria, and on May 19, 1864, they crossed
the Atchafalaya and were beyond the reach of the
Confederates, Taylor had accomplished a great
deal in that campaign with an army of about 13,000
men, reduced later to 5800. **Our total loss,"
says he, **in killed, wounded and missing was
3976; that of the enemy nearly three times this
number.

After the retreat of Banks Gen. Taylor applied
to be relieved from duty, and returned with his
family to Natchitoches. There he was informed of
his promotion to Lieutenant-General and assigned
to command on the east side of the Mississippi.
The end, however, was near; there were Sher-
man's march and Hood's defeat, the Confederacy
was attacked on all sides, and the last few months
of the war were nothing but a heroic struggle
against overwhelming forces. Gen. Taylor speaks
highly of the defence of Spanish Fort by Gen.
R. L. Gibson, and he relates his surrender to
Gen. Canby, and states how he met later in New
Orleans Generals Price, Buckner and Brent, who
had come to surrender the Trans-Mississippi De-
partment.

Thus the war in Louisiana ended. No soldiers
fought better than the sons of the Pelican State,
and the history of her regiments is a long tale of
heroism*

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242 Louisiana Studies.

II— A BRIEF HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA.

Colonial Times.

Great interest is always taken in looking toward
the past and living, as it were, with the men and
women of preceding generations. It is by observ-
ing their customs and manners and by studying
their civilization that we are enabled to understand
our own. Progress is but a gradual development
of ideas and forces, and although some great men,
some unforeseen events, may give a sudden and
rapid impetus to civilization, there are always to
be found some causes for revolutions and for the
success of great men, independently of their
genius. Was it possible that the condition of
education should have been the same in the colony
of Louisiana as it is in one of the sovereign States
of the American Union? Was a complete system
of free public schools possible in Bienville's days?
Evidently no. The educators of France, in the
eighteenth century, were the religious societies. If
there was to be any education in a French colony
it could only be given by the religious orders.
Bienville, therefore, acted for the best interests of
the colonists in his endeavors to procure edu-
cation for their children, and our ancestors in
French and Spanish colonial days were not as
neglectful of the great cause of education as they
are generally supposed to have been. Mother
Austin Carroll, of the Sisters of Mercy, contrib-
uted to the American Catholic Review for 1886

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History and Education. 243

and 1887 two valuable papers on colonial educa-
tion in Louisiana, and guided by her, we shall pay
a visit to the New Orleans of 1723. The future
metropolis of the South had already been in exist-
ence five years when the sagacious Bienville suc-
ceeded in having the seat of government trans-
ferred from the sandy shores of Biloxi to the fertile
banks of the Mississippi. The hundred huts men-
tioned by Charlevoix soon became spacious man-
sions, which, although rough looking and un-
wieldy, contained in their poorly furnished rooms
and wide halls elegant gentlemen and ladies and
charming children. The parents had been edu-
cated in France. Where were the little ones to
be instructed? The wealthy inhabitants sent their
sons to the colleges of the mother country, but
could girls be separated from their mothers, and
what was to be done with the sons of the poor?
A worthy Capuchin monk, Father Cecil, opened
a school for boys near his church, and was the
first teacher in Louisiana. As to the teachers for
giiis, Bienville thought of the soeurs grtses of his
native Canada; but having failed in that direction,
he consulted Father Beaubois, superior of the few
Jesuits at that time in Louisiana, and was advised
by him to procure the services of the Ursuline
nuns. A treaty was signed on September 13, 1726,
between the nuns and the Company of the Indies,
and Bienville, although he was no longer governor
when the Ursulines arrived in Louisiana, is en-
titled to the honor of being the founder of the

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244 Louisiana Studies.

first girls' school and the first hospital in the
colony.

It was no easy matter for the Ursulines of Rouen
to obtain permission to leave France, but through
the intercession of Cardinal Fleury, that benev-
olent monarch, Louis XV, ^;77r/V?^^5/v gave his con-
sent to the departure of the nuns. They met at the
monastery of Hennebon, in Brittany, went to
Paris in January, 1727, and finally embarked at
Lorient on February 22. The nuns were twelve
in number; their superior was Mother Tranche-
pain, a converted Calvinist, and among the sisters
was the gifted Madeleine Hachard, to whom and to
the mother superior with the singular name we
owe the interesting and charming letters which
tell us of these events in our early history. The
expenses of the nuns were to be paid by the com-
pany, a plantation and a convent were to be given
them, each received 500 livres, and 600 livres
were guaranteed until their plantation should be in
cultivation. They were, besides, free to return
to France if not pleased with the colony.

After a long voyage they reached New Orleans
on August 7, 1727. The description of the coast
from the Balize to the town, by Madeleine Hach-
ard, is most curious and realistic. On arriving at
New Orleans the Ursulines were very cordially
received by Gov. P^rier and his wife, and all the
inhabitants. The latter pointed out their town
with pride, and compared it with Paris, an opinion
which Madeleine Hachard hardly shared, although

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History and Education. 245

she says that the ladies were dressed with ** rich
gold-striped stuffs." Bienville's house, the best
in the colony, was given to them as a residence
until their monastery was completed. The follow-
ing description of the house, where was estab-
lished our first girls' school, is interesting:

It was situated in the square now bounded by
Bienville, Chartres, Douane and Decatur streets.
It was two stories high; the flat roof could be used
as a belvidere or gallery. Six doors gave air and
entrance to the apartments on the ground floor.
There were many windows, but, instead of glass,
the sashes were covered with fine, thin linen,
which let in as much light as glass, and more air.
The ground about the house was cleaned, it had a
garden in front, and a poultry yard in the rear, but
the whole establishment was in the depth of the
forest; the streets, marked by the surveyor some
years before, had not yet been cut through as far
as Bienville street, on which the nuns' garden
opened ; on all sides were forest trees of prodig-
ious height and size.

The Ursulines remained seven years in Bien-
ville's house, and removed in 1734, amid a great
pageant, to their new building on Cond6 street.
The venerated mother Tranchepain had died a
short time before the transfer, but Bienville, the
real founder of the school, was again governor for
the third time, and accompanied the sisters with
his brilliant staff to church, and then to the mon-
astery. On July 13, 1734, when the Ursulines
entered the building, where they were to reside

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ninety years, they had twenty boarders, three
parlor boarders, three orphans, seven slave board-
ers to be instructed for baptism and first com-
munion, many day scholars and ** many black
and Indian women, who attended our school
every day for two hours." As wives were very
scarce at that time the girls married at thirteen or
fourteen, and most of them must have preferred
attending to a husband's household than obtaining
a higher educatioi\, *' but henceforth no girl was
allowed to marry without being first instructed by
the nuns."

Their school was certainly an excellent one for
the age, and they seem to have been particularly
successful in teaching music. The girls educated
by the Ursulines were superior in culture to the
boys, who had little opportunity of obtaining an
education, unless they went to France. With a
keen appreciation of the disadvantages under
which the men were laboring in Louisiana, and
wishing to make them the equals of their wives,
Bienville and Salmon wrote to the French gov-
ernment on the 15th of June, 1742, the following
remarkable letter, which must be quoted in a his-
tory of education, however brief:

It is long since the inhabitants of Louisiana
made representations on the necessity of their hav-
ing a college for the education of their children.
Convinced of the advantages of such an establish-
ment they invited the Jesuits to undertake its crea-
tion and management. But the reverend fathers

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History and Education. 247

•
refused, on the ground that they had no lodgings
situated for the purpose, and had not the necessary
materials to support such an institution. Yet it is
essential that there be one — at least for the study
of the classics, of geometry, geography, pilotage,
etc. There the youths of the colony would be
taught the knowledge of religion, which is the
basis of morality. It is but too evidently demon-
strated to parents how utterly worthless turn out
to be those children who are raised in idleness and
luxury, and how ruinously expensive it is for those
who send their children to France to be educated.
It is even to be feared from this circumstance that
the Creoles thus educated abroad will imbibe a
dislike to their native country, and will come back
to it only to receive and to convert into cash what
property may be left to them by their parents.
Many persons in Vera Cruz would rejoice at hav-
ing a college here, and would send to it their
children.

Mr. Gayarre, from whose history the above letter
is taken, says:

This joint application of Bienville and Salmon
for a college was set aside on the ground that the
colony was too unimportant for such an establish-
ment.

As the Jesuits were suppressed in Louisiana in
1763, and their plantation confiscated and sold for
$180,000, no college was established by them
before 1847. The Ursulines, however, continued
to prosper during the French and Spanish domi-
nations, and the boys managed to obtain an edu-
cation of some sort, as all the accounts about the

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colonists mention them as being ** refined and
elegant." UUoa, the first Spanish governor, was
a distinguished scholar, but could do nothing for
education on account of the hostility against him.
O'Reilly patronized schools, as did every other
Spanish governor. The Spanish oflScials took a
great interest in the Ursulines, as most of them mar-
ried Creole girls, pupils of the good sisters. The
government established Spanish schools, to which
were sent as teachers some able scholars from the
universities of Spain; but such was the attach-
ment of the colonists to the French language that
the Spanish schools were little patronized. The
Ursulines, also, although they received among
them several Spanish ladies, remained so devoted
to the French language that Bishop P^nalvert
says, in i79S-*

Excellent results are obtained from the convent
of the Ursulines, in which a good many girls are
educated, but their inclinations are so decidedly
French that they have ever refused to admit among
them Spanish women who wished to become nuns,
so long as these applicants should remain ignorant
of the French idiom, and they have shed many
tears on account of their being obliged to read in
Spanish books their spiritual exercises and to com-
ply with the other duties of their community in the
manner prescribed to them.

When Louisiana was ceded to Napoleon the
nuns were terrified at the prospect of living under

♦Gayarr^, page 378, Vol. III.

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History and Education. 249

a government born from the French revolution,
and sixteen of them petitioned Charles IV for
permission to retire to Havana or Mexico. They
left in 1803, in spite of the friendly remonstrances
of Commissioner Laussat. The sisters remaining
in Louisiana, being anxious for their rights, wrote
to the President, through Bishop Carroll, and re-
ceived very kind letters from Madison, then sec-
retary of state, President Jefferson and Governor
Claiborne. They left their monastery on Conde
street in 1824, and went to the spacious building
which they now occupy. There they continued to
prosper, and received visits from Jackson and
many distinguished men. Their old convent was
for some time occupied as a State HSuse, and is
now the residence of the Archbishop of Louisi-
ana. Colonial education was almost entirely in
the hands of religious societies. We shall now
see the efforts of the people, represented by their
Legislature, to establish a system of popular edu-
cation.

Colleges and Private Schools Before
THE War.

The legislators of the Territory of Orleans and
of the State of Louisiana took a great interest in
education, but made the mistake, for a number of
years, of establishing too many colleges and acad-
emies, instead of laying a broad foundation to an
educational system by establishing elementary
schools. They made, however, attempts in that

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250 Louisiana Studies.

direction, as will be explained in the article refer-
ring to public schools.

^Of the colleges established by legislative enact-
ments, so many have had an ephemeral life that it
would be useless to refer to them. In this short
sketch only those institutions will be mentioned
which have exerted a decided influence on our
educational history. All the colleges, acade-
mies and schools which have lived and died in
our State have doubtless played their part in the
development of the education of our people, but
from want of space they can not be included in
this sketch.

Prof. R. M. Lusher, who for many years was
an efficient State superintendent of education,
wrote in the Louisiana yournal of Education a
series of articles on ** Legislative Education in
Louisiana.'* The writer desires to acknowledge
his indebtedness to him for matters pertaining
to legislative enactments concerning education.
In 1804 projects were formed for establishing a
college in New Orleans, and in 1805 the celebrated
College of Orleans opened its doors to the youth
of the territory. It had an existence of twenty
years, and was the alma mater of many of our
distinguished men. The Hon. Charles Gayarr^,
the historian of Louisiana, has given an interesting
account of the College of Orleans in his ** Fer-
nando de Lemos." He speaks of Jules Davezac,
who was principal in 1812; of Rochefort, principal
and professor of literature, who was passionately

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History and Education. 251

fond of poetry and Latin and had a horror for
mathematics, while Teinturier, the mathematician,
despised literature. He mentions Lakanal, the
last principal, whose nomination to that office was,
it is said, fatal to the institution, as the parents re-
fused to confide their children to a regicide.
Lakanal, however, had been the founder of the
admirable system of education prepared by the
men of the French revolution, and might have
done much good to the College of Orleans had
there not been such opposition to him in the
city.

Mr. Gayarr^'s ** Fernando de Lemos ** begins
thus:

The church of St. Augustin, at the corner of
Hospital and St. Claude streets, now stands on a
portion of a large tract of land once appropriated
to the College of Orleans, the first educational in-
stitution of Louisiana which was incorporated by
her Legislature ; it flourished for a short time with
a promise of duration, but it soon disappeared,
leaving few traces of its existence save a fragment
or two of its long dormitories, which have been
converted into private dwellings, and save, also, a
few sexagenarian gentlemen who, by their classical
attainments and fine manners, show that the de-
funct institution was not without its merits, and
had, in some instances, at least, accomplished the
purpose for which it had been erected.

The course of studies was good, and instruction
in the languages comprised Greek, Latin, French,
English and Spanish.

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In the room containing the archives of the city of
New Orleans are the files of several old newspapers.
It gave us great pleasure to look over the pages of
papers published from 1804 to 1819, but we found
in them little reference to education. In PAmt
des Loisy of September 24, 1819, is an announce-
ment of the literary exercises and examinations of
the College of Orleans. On September 24, public
examinations in arithmetic, geometry, algebra, me-
chanics; September 25, Latin, English, French,
Spanish; September 27, the pupils of the first
English class will deliver addresses on the follow-
ing subjects : Love of Country, The Defeat of the
English at New Orleans in 18 15, Eulogium on
Washington, The Advantages of Public Educa-
tion, The American Independence, Eulogium on
Franklin. Nothing certainly could be more patri-
otic than the subjects of these addresses; one
could see that the Louisianians remembered with
pride the battle of New Orleans.

The pupils of the French class were to read
essays in verse. It is expressly stated in the an-
nouncement that the addresses to be read were
composed by the pupils, while those which were
to be recited were composed by the professors. A
French comedy in five acts and inverse, **Les
Incommodit^s de la Grandeur," par le Pere Du
Cerceau, was also to be played by the students.
Father Du Cerceau is now forgotten, although his
works were popular for a century. He was born
in 1670, and was killed in 1730 by the accidental

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History and Education. 253

discharge of a gun in the hands of his pupil, the
Prince of Conti.

The names of young men and boys of our best
families are to be seen in the list of pupils who
won prizes. Mr. Gayarr^, then fourteen years
old, won the prize for algebra, and the best pupils
in the first class seem to have been Antoine Dol-
honde and Edward Fortin. The poem, *'L'Or-
anger," publishf d in V Ami des Loisoi September
4, 1819, was probably written by Dolhonde or
Fortin, the two best poets in Prof. Rochefort's
class. The poem, written in French, was cer-
tainly very creditable in a young student, and
shows that much attention was paid to the muse in
the oldest secular college in Louisiana.

In February, 1825, the College of Orleans was
superseded by the College of Louisiana, estab-
lished at Jackson, East Feliciana. The latter in-
stitution became later the present Centenary Col-
lege of Louisiana.

In 1840 and 1841 large sums of money were ap-
propriated to the following colleges and acade-
mies: College of Louisiana, College of Jeffer-
son, College of Baton Rouge, College of Frank-
lin, College of Alexandria, Montpellier Academy,
Johnson Female Academy, Spring Creek Acade-
my, Claiborne Academy, Poydras Academy, Provi-
dence Academy, Minden Seminary, Springfield
Institute, Plaquemine Academy, Franklin Acade-
my, Catahoula Academy, Pine Grove Academy,
Greensburg Female Academy, Vermilionville

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Academy, Clinton Female Academy. ** For the
support of education," says Mr. Lusher, ** prior
to the establishment of a general system of ele-
mentary free public schools, i. ^., from 1812 to
1845, inclusive, it will have been seen that Lou-
isiana expended $1,636,897.61." This amount
had been expended chiefly for fostering acade-
mies and colleges; but, says Mr. Lusher again,
**no appropriations of public funds were ever
made to those institutions (private academies)
save on the condition that they should board and
instruct, free of charge, ten or more indigent
pupils," and ** a similar obligation was imposed on
most of the colleges."

With regard to money derived from lotteries for
the support of education, one can not but approve
heartily the following words of Mr. Lusher: **On
the same memorable day (April i, 1833), the
General Assembly of Louisiana wisely dethroned
the genius of folly which had so long presided
over the cause of education in Louisiana, by de-
creeing that the privilege of drawing lotteries for
the support of schools should expire on January i,
1834, ^^d that thereafter lotteries should be pro-
hibited."

With regard to private schools and teachers ex-
isting in the beginning of the century, we believe
that the best way to give an idea of their course of
studies is to copy some old newspaper advertise-
ments. The following is from the Louisiana
Courier of October 15, 1810:

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History and Education. 255

education for young ladies.
No. 32 Toulouse Street.

Mrs. Martin, a native of London, lately arrived
in this city, informs the ladies and gentlemen of
New Orleans that she intends to open a school for
young ladies. They will be taught the English,
French and Italian languages grammatically, writ-
ing and arithmetic, geography, history, mythology,
chronology, etc.; embroidery, print and crape
work, French darning and every kind of fancy
work, as well as plain sewing and marking, etc. ;
music, dancing and drawing by the most eminent
masters.

Mrs. Martin hopes by her unremitting assiduity
to merit the patronage and esteem of the public,
and the strictest attention will be paid to the
morals and deportment of those pupils consigned
to her care, either as boarders or day scholars.

Mr. Martin will attend, himself, to the French
language, writing and aridimetic. He will on the
same day open an evening school for gentlemen,
from 6 till 9. For terms apply at the house. Mr.
Martin will attend ladies and gentlemen at their
houses.

As can be seen, there were enough branches
to choose from in the Martin School. Here is
another from the Louisiana Courier of July 16,
1810:

A young man of good character wishes to teach
the French grammar, arithmetic, history, geogra-
phy and mythology. Persons desirous to take
lessons will be attended upon at their dwellings.
Apply at this office.

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The importance attached to mythology in 1810
should induce us to pay more attention to this in-
teresting and necessary study.

And here is still another from the Louisiana
Courier of September 12, 18 10:

A person well qualified to teach the French
wishes to procure a few scholars, and having
some knowledge of the English, he would under-
take to instruct American gentlemen in the rudi-
ments of that language. Apply at this office.

It is not probable that the specimen giyen of the
teacher's knowledge of English brought him many
American gentlemen to instruct.

The Louisiana Courier of June 30, 1819, has
the following announcement:

FRENCH AND ENGLISH SCHOOLS,

Corner ofPoydras and Magazine Streets^ Suburb
St. Mary.

That school disposed for the reception of young
persons of both sexes can not fail to be acceptable
to the inhabitants of the Suburb St. Mary, since
it presents to them the double advantage of having
their children instructed on moderate terms and at
a short distance from them.

There will be taught there for $4 per month
reading, writing, grammar and arithmetic. The
director of the school having procured the as-
sistance of an able teacher of the English lan-
guage, that language, as well as history, geography
and drawing, will be taught for $3 a month more.
The pupils will, besides, provide themselves wiA

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History and Education. 257

books, pens, ink, etc. The school will be opened
on Monday, the 5th of July, at 9 o'clock a. m.
For further information apply to Messrs Roufignac
and Layet, at the Suburb St. Mary.

It is evident by the wording of the notice that
the English language was not included in the reg-
ular course of studies, and that the reading, gram-
mar and arithmetic referred to were taught in
French. It is also curious to note the fact of a
school session opening on the 5th of July.

We find, also, in 1819, notice of a day school
for young ladies and an evening school for young
gentlemen, kept by Mr. and Mrs. Bournos. In
V Ami des LoiSy of July 5, 1819, Mr. Cuvillier
announces :

** That he has just opened a school in which he
teaches to read, write and the first elements of
arithmetic, in two months at the soonest, three
months at the latest. He corrects also the most
vicious handwriting, in six, seven or eight lessons,
according to the method known by the name of
writing in six lessons . ' ' He further declares * * that
any engagement contracted with him will be con-
sidered null and void whenever a person not un-
provided with intelligence will not have learnt in
the time prescribed."

The classes were held from 5 to 9'in the morn-
ing, and from 4 to 7 in the evening. It is a great
pity that Mr. Cuvillier's method, for which, says
he, he had exclusive rights for all the United
States, should not have come down to us Per-
haps, however, it frequently happened with Mr.

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258 Louisiana Studies.

Cuvillier's pupils that they were ** unprovided
with intelligence." It was their fault, and not that
of the method, if they did not learn in the time
prescribed.

Among the earliest schools in New Orleans was
that of Jeannin & Dubayle. Mr. Jeannin was a
graduate of the Polytechnic school in France,
and an able teacher of mathematics. When the
Ursulines left their first convent on Cond6 street,
Tabb^ Portier, who afterward became a bishop,
kept a school in the former monastery of the
nuns. This institution became, a little later, a
central school, with J. B. Moreau as principal. It
was there that Dr. Alfred Mercier, the distin-
guished physician and author, was educated.
Many elderly gentlemen in the city were educated
at Mr. Boyer's school in the thirties, and many
middle-aged men went in the fifties to the Audubon
college, kept by Prof. S. Rouen, who was an ex-
cellent teacher of French. The best school for
girls in New Orleans, before the war, was that of
Miss Hull.

Public Schools Before the War.

We have seen that from 1805 to 1845 numerous
colleges and academies were established in the
various parishes of the State by the Legislature.
Let us see what were the provisions, however
meagre, which were made during that time for
elementary public schools. In 1808 an attempt

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History and Education. 259

was made to provide by taxation for public
schools, but the next year the act was practically
annulled by a provision that *' none but those
willing to pay the tax should be required to con-
tribute it.'* In 181 1 $2000 a year were appro-
priated for schools in every parish, except Orleans,
and for several years, until 1827, a small amount
was given nearly every year for public schools.
The Constitution of 181 2 made no provisions for
colleges or schools, and it was left to the Legisla-
ture to use its judgment m the matter. It should
have been stated, however that in 1806, says Mr.
Lusher,

The Legislature had instructed the sheriff of
each parish to call upon all heads of families to
meet on a convenient day, and to select five com-
missioners to adopt a plan for establishing free
public schools, at the expense of the parish, and to
report said plan at the next session of the Legisla-
ture. The regents of the College of Orleans were
also directed to report a plan for such schools in
the city of New Orleans.

Public schools had, therefore, been established
in the parishes, but how far they were free can be
judged from the fact that when, in 1826, the
College of Orleans was abolished, two primary
schools and one central school were established
in New Orleans, in which gratuitous instruction
was limited to one hundred pupils. In 1827 the
amount allowed each parish was $2.62^ for each
voter, as per census, but the maximum was not to

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exceed $1350 yearly, nor the minimum to be less
than $800.

In 1829 the Poydras College for indigent fe-
males was established in Pointe Coupee from
$20,000 left by that philanthropist, and $1800
added to the amount by the Legislature. The
college building was unfortunately burnt a few
years ago.

In 1831 appropriations for public schools were
$43,705.07, while only $10,000 were given to col-
leges. From 1831 to 1835, inclusive, more money
was appropriated for public schools than for col-
leges, and in 1834 *^^ secretary of state was made
ex'officio superintendent of schools to receive re-
ports from parish officers and have them brought
before the grand jury if derelict in their duties.

In 1836 the president of the board of regents of
the public schools of New Orleans was author-
ized to draw on the State treasurer for sums to
meet current expenses of the schools until regu-
lar appropriations could be made, provided the
amount should not exceed $10,000. In 1837
Louisiana accepted the surplus revenue from the
Federal government, and the faith of the State
was pledged therefor. Later, part of that fund
was appropriated for colleges and academies. In
1839 appropriations for public schools were $45,-
663.02, while nearly $80,000 were granted to col-
leges and academies. In 1841 the councils of the
municipalities of New Orleans were required to
levy taxes as might seem just and proper for the

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History and Education. 261

establishment of one or more schools in each mu-
nicipality for gratuitous instruction of children,
and the State treasurer was to pay the municipali-
ties $2,625^ per taxable inhabitant, provided the
aggregate should not exceed $10,000. In 1841 the
public schools received $44,487.64, while colleges
and academies, as usual, were granted nearly
double that amount.

The reports of the State superintendents of ed-
ucation to the year 1869 having been lost during
the war, the following figures from the United
States census of 1840 are interesting and im-
portant:

Orleans parish, city of New Orleans (three mu-
nicipalities) , universities and colleges, 2; number
of students, 105 ; academies and grammar schools,
10; number of scholars, 440; primary and com-
mon schools, 25; number of scholars at public
charge, 130; number of white persons over 20
years of age who can not read and write, 171 ;
State of Louisiana, total number of universities or
colleges, 12; total number of students in universi-
ties or colleges, 989; total number of academies
and grammar schools, 52; total number of students
in academies and grammar schools, 1995 ; total
number of primary and common schools 179;
total number of scholars in common schools, 3573;
total number of scholars at public charge, 1190;
total number of white persons over 20 years of
age who can not read and write, 4861.

In 1842 appropriations for public schools were
$15,668.05 and for colleges and academies double

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that amount. In 1843 and 1844, for public schools,
$22,966.74 and $28,459.71; for colleges and
academies nearly three times as much. The mis-
taken policy of fostering higher and secondary
schools to the detriment of the primary schools
was, however, soon to cease. Already the patri-
otic governor, A. B. Roman, had uttered these wise
words in 1834:

Common schools, wholly free, are the only
ones that can succeed under our form of govern-
ment. They break down the odious distinction
which exists in those in Louisiana between the
children of the poor and those of the
rich, they oblige the rich as well as the
poor to be interested in the selection of
competent teachers to take charge of them,
and they offer the best of all possible
guarantees, to wit: experience. This infallible
teacher of all statesmen of the land has proved
that the project of educatmg the indigent class
gratuitously, in schools opened for the children of
the opulent, who pay for their insti*uction, is an
illusion in a country where the first ideas imbibed
by man are those of liberty and equality.

The Constitution of 1845 really created the pub-
lic school system in the whole State. In that year
appropriations for public schools were $48,420.70
and for colleges only $12,500.

The Constitution of 1845 ordained that a super-
intendent of education should be appointed to hold
office for two years, and by Article 134 it was
ordained that the Legislature should establish

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History and Education. 263

free public schools throughout the State, and
provide means for their support, by taxation or
otherwise.

In 1846, $18,488.08 were appropriated for'' free
public schools " and nothing whatever for colleges
and academies. A new era had begun. By Act
225 of 1847 the school age was between six and
sixteen, and one mill on the dollar was to be
levied on the ad valorem amount of taxable prop-
erty in each parish. The superintendent was to
receive $3000 a year and was required to visit
annually each parish in the State. Fortunately
for Louisiana the first superintendent appointed
was the eminent scholar and friend of education,
Alexander Dimitry. Under his vigorous admin-
istration the schools prospered marvelously. As
an evidence of the interest taken in the cause of
education in 1849 and 1850 is the fact that in these
two years $602,828.63 were paid by Louisiana for
the support of free public schools. Large amounts
were also paid in 1851 and 1852, but the efficiency
of the whole system of education in rural Louisi-
ana was impaired by two unwise provisions of an
act passed in 1852, abolishing the office of parish
superintendents, exempting the State superintend-
ent from making annual visits to the parishes and
cutting down the salary of that officer to $1000.
The schools, however, continued to prosper, and
when the war broke out in 1861 they were in a
flourishing condition,

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264 Louisiana Studies.

Public Schools in New Orleans.

We are greatly indebted for the following facts
to the kindness of the Hon. William O. Rogers,
who has done more for the city schools than any
other man ever a resident here. The city of New
Orleans was divided by the Baron Carondelet, in
1792, into four wards. Its revenue amounted to
less than $7000. In 1804 New Orleans was made
a port of entry, and Bayou St. John a port of de-
livery. The city was incorporated by the legisla-
tive council of the territory in 1805. At that
time, and for several years after, the city did not
extend below Esplanade or above Canal street.
There was not a paved street in the city. This
was the old first municipality. The increase of
trade caused many English-speaking people to
move above Canal street, as far as Gravier street,
and this led to the establishment of the second
municipality. It was called the Garden District,
because the residences were scattered and sur-
rounded by cultivated land. At the time of the
war these four districts constituted the city of New
Orleans. Their organization was unique. Each
municipality retained some features of individu-
ality. Each had its separate system of public
schools, its board of school directors, with a school
superintendent and a system of high, grammar and
primary schools for which they were separately
responsible. At the same time these separate
districts were in close relation with the common

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council of the city, to whom reports were annually
made, and upon the basis of these reports the an-
nual appropriations were made, the directors
elected and the interests of all protected. The
annual cost of maintaining the public schools of the
city averaged about $250,000; unnecessary ex-
penses were naturally incurred. The public
schools were first organized in 1841. Samuel J.
Peters, Joshua Baldwin, Dr. Picton, J. A. May-
bin, Robert McNair, Thomas Sloo, were prom-
inent in this movement. They were distinguished
for public spirit and for energetic devotion to their
work, giving much time and labor to the details of
opening the public schools. The best systems of
Europe and of the Northern States were carefully
studied. They called to be first superintendent,
Mr. Shaw, of Massachusetts, and had the guid-
ance of Horace Mann, then at the height of his
fame and usefulness as a great educator. As a
consequence of these labors the public schools of
the second municipality soon acquired a great
reputation. They were patronized by all classes,
rich and poor. The high schools, one for boys
and the other for girls, were especially aided by
the scholarship and devotion to them of the dis-
tinguished Joseph A. Maybin, a brilliant lawyer,
an eloquent speaker, and an honored citizen.

The success of this movement gave an impetus
to public education in the districts, and soon each
was vying with the others in efforts to increase the
number and efficiency of the public schools,

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Having separate boards of directors and school
management, the schools partook of sectional en-
vironments. Below Canal street the lessons were
given mainly in the French language, and the
teachers were required to be examined first of all
in their knowledge of the French language and
literature. In those days many families never
crossed into the American portion of the city.
Above Canal street French was taught in the high
schools, but the main part of the education of the
children was in the English tongue. In these two
grand divisions of the city the schools were as dis-
tinct, the tastes, aims and aspirations of teachers
and pupils as different, as the peoples of England
and France.

When, in the civil war, the city fell into the hands
of General Butler, he abolished these district lines
and made one of his adherents the superintendent
of the schools of the whole city. It has continued
to be the form of government to this day, thus bring-
ing our city in accord with the grand sweep of
the educational work of the whole country. Where
there were once ten or twelve high schools — the
neighboring cities of Lafayette, Jefferson and
CarroUton having been united in the corporate
limits of New Orleans — there are now three high
schools, one for the boys and two for the girls.
Among those who have contributed to the success
of our public schools, before or after the war, should
be named. Gov. L. A. Wiltz, Robert Mills Lusher,
William O, Rogers and A. R . Jennings. The

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History and Education. 267

latter was founder of the Lyceum and Library
Society, and for many years its devoted director.
He selected the admirable list of works which con-
stitute the basis of that library. He organized
public lectures by such men as Gliddon, Agassiz
and others. Upon the methods which he origi-
nated the library grew rapidly, and for a time
had a great success. The public library of St.
Louis, Mo., which has grown to be one of the
most important factors of education in that city,
was copied after the details of our own library.
Mr. Ira Divon, the efficient superintendent of the
St. Louis public schools, came to New Orleans
for the purpose of examining into the workings of
our Library and Lyceum Society and acknowl-
edged publicly his indebtedness for the valuable
suggestions and information derived from it.

In 1870, during the State superintendency of
Thomas W. Conway, an effort was made to mix
the races in the public schools, and an act was
passed through the Legislature imposing severe
penalties upon any person refusing admission to
any public school of the State to a pupil on ac-
count of **race, color or previous condition."
The attempt to enforce this law in the public
schools was immediately and emphatically re-
sisted. Colored children, instigated to apply for
admission to white schools, were firmly refused by
the teachers, under directions of the city school
board. In several instances, where the colored
pupils had been admitted, upon a concerted

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movement, large companies of parents visited the
schools and required the obnoxious classes to
withdraw. Great excitement prevailed in the
city, and it looked for a time as if serious trouble
would result. By degrees the excitement sub-
sided and colored children were placed in their
own schools. An equitable distribution of school
funds and buildings was made, and the arrange-
ment has since existed to the satisfaction of both
parties. No attempt of a general nature has since
been made to mix the races in our public schools.

The schools are now conducted by an efficient
board of directors and superintendent and are
doing very good work. The number of children
enrolled, December 31, 1893, was: boys, 11,216;
girls, 12,272. Total 23.488.

The school buildings in New Orleans are very
fine, thanks to the generous donations of John
McDonogh, whose history is too well known to be
repeated here. Mr. William O. Rogers, as already
stated, contributed powerfully by his energy, his
tact and his good judgment to the success of the
city schools. He is now secretary of the Tulane
University, and is still doing good service for the
cause of education in Louisiana.

Public Schools Since the War.

In i860 an annual allowance of $6.50 per child
enumerated was required for the support of the
free public schools, and $650,000 were appropri-
ated by the Legislature out of the current school

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History and Education. 269

fund. We see then how prosperous were the
schools in the year preceding the war. From 1861
to 1865 little could be done for the cause of educa-
tion, but in 1866, with the Hon. R. M. Lusher as
State superintendent, the schools were recovering
from the effects of the war, when the infamous
Constitution of 1868 threw everything in a state of
chaos. Mr. Lusher was ousted from the position
which he was filling with so much profit to the
State and credit to himself and replaced by an in-
experienced and injtldicious officer, T. W. Con-
way, whose endeavor was to please the politicians
who were ruining Louisiana, the carpet-baggers
who had managed to obtain the control of affairs
through the ignorant negro vote, and who, from
1868 to 1877, misdirected the affairs of the people
of the State. Conway and Brown, as superin-
tendents of education, were influenced by their
superiors, Warmoth and Kellogg, and the schools
were in the same wretched plight as every public
department. The State was called upon to in-
struct an immense number of negro children,
while the whites, who alone bore all the burden of
taxation, were impoverished, and the school fund
was misappropriated by the miserable men at the
head of affairs. It is not to be wondered at that
for several years the schools were entirely inade-
quate to fulfil the purposes for which they had
been established. In New Orleans, under the able
direction of the Hon. William O. Rogers, and
thanks to the devotion and patience of the faithful

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corps of teachers, the schools rallied sooner than
in the country parishes, but we have seen what
trials were undergone by the patriotic people
who were endeavoring to rebuild the city
public schools. On September 14, 1874, ^^e
men of New Orleans broke the shackles which
bound them to the Reconstruction government,
and although the White League was met with
the power of the United States government, and
had to yield to force, on January 9, 1877, the
work begun on September 14 was completed, and
Louisiana was freed from partisan rule. She ac-
cepted the condition of things brought about by
the war, and resolved to instruct, as far as lay in
her power, the white and the black children in the
State. The Constitution of 1879, however, was
not sufficiently liberal and wise with regard to
public education, and only appropriated about one
mill for that purpose. It is certainly a difficult
task to educate with limited means a large number
of children, but the work has been going on
bravely. There is some progress every year in
the matter of the duration of the school term, and
with local taxation courageously borne, we can be
assured of arriving at success. Let us count on
our own efforts, on our energy, to educate the
children of Louisiana, and on no external aid.
He alone deserves to succeed who has faith in
himself and in his own State. The white children
must be educated, that they might become intelli-
gent citizens, and the blacks must be instructed in

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History and Education. 271

order to develop them and to draw them from the
ignorance which makes them an easy prey to un-
scrupulous and designing politicians. Let us see
what is now the school system of Louisiana.

The State Board of Education established by
Act 81 of 1888 consists of the governor, attorney-
general, superintendent of education ex officio^
and of six citizens to be appointed by the gov-
ernor, one from each congressional district of the
State. The board appoints the school directors in
every parish, except in the parish of Orleans,
selects and adopts a series of text-books for all the
public schools, prepares rules and regulations for
guidance of the schools and directs what branches
of study should be taught. The first board con-
stituted under the law of 1888 was composed of
Governor NichoUs, Attorney-General W. H.
Rogers, Superintendent of Education Joseph
A. Breaux, Franklin Garret, of Monroe; W.
H. Jack, of Natchitoches; William Clegg, of
Lafayette; C. E. Gate, Hammond; Rev. I. L.
Leucht and Prof. Alc^e Fortier, of New Orleans.
Jos. A. Breaux was appointed a justice of the Su-
preme Court, and W. H. Jack succeeded him as
State superintendent. That important office has
been filled by honorable and competent men since
1877, to-wit: R. M. Lusher, E. H. Fay, Warren
Easton, J. A. Breaux and W. H. Jack.*

The parish superintendent, whose office is of

*In 189a A. D. Lafargue was elected State Superintendent.

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such great importance, has a compensation entirely
inadequate, $200 per annum. The salary of the
State superintendent and of the city superintend-
ent, $2000 each, is also too small. The following
facts with regard to the school funds are copied
from an address delivered by the Hon. W. H.
Jack, on June 3, 1891:

The public school funds are also fixed and es-
tablished by the organic law. These are expressly
declared to be : First, the proceeds of taxation for
school purposes as provided by the Constitution ;
second, the interest on the proceeds of the sales
of all public lands heretofore granted by the
United States for the use and support of the free
public schools; third, of all the lands and other
property which may hereafter be bequeathed,
granted or donated to the State and generally for
school purposes; fourth, all funds or other prop-
erty than unimproved lands bequeathed or granted
to the State, not designated for other purposes ;
fifth, the proceeds of vacant estates falling under
the law to the State of Louisiana;" also ** pro-
ceeds of all fines imposed by the district courts
throughout the State, and amounts of forfeited
bonds, collected in criminal cases, less costs and
commissions.

The taxation for school purposes does not mean
more than one and one- eighth mills and consists
also of a poll tax. With regard to the trust funds
we may state that the proceeds of school lands,
sixteenth sections, etc., were considered a loan
made to the State, on which 6 per cent, interest
was to be paid. In 1872 this sacred fund was out-

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rageously sold at auction, and the amount realized
was used to pay fraudulent bonds. The Constitu-
tion of 1879 recognized the free school fund of
$1,130,867.51 and promised to pay 4 per cent,
interest; also the seminary fund of $136,000, pro-
ceeds of the land granted by the United States
government to establish a seminary of learning, on
which there is an interest of 4 per cent.

In an address delivered in 1880, Mr. E. H.
Farrar, in the case of the agricultural and me-
chanical fund, said:

There was not only a reduction of the interest
from 7 to 5 per cent., but the principal, which
had already been reduced 40 per cent, by the
funding law of 1874, was not restored. The
convention of 1879 decreed that this interest (on
the last three funds), amounting even in its re-
duced form to nearly $60,000, should be made a
burden upon the funds annually raised for the
purposes of public education.

We may say, therefore, that in reality no inter-
est whatever is paid.

In concluding this article on the public schools
since the war, we take pleasure in quoting the
following words from the address of the efficient
State Superintendent, W. H. Jack:

We do not pretend to say that our system is by
any means perfect, or that its success is commen-
surate with our desires. We do mean, however,
that the people, black and white, throughout the
State, are thoroughly alive to the importance of
public education, and that instead of illiteracy

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being on the increase, we are stamping it out
faster than any other State in the Union, except
Virginia.

Colleges and Schools Since the War.
tulane university of louisiana.

Of the colleges and schools since the war Tu-
lane University of Louisiana must be placed first,
the following account of which is chiefly derived
from a history of that institution written by Presi-
dent William Preston Johnston :

The Tulane University of Louisiana came into
existence as such by operation of law in July,
1884. But its origin is just half a century earlier.
Its starting point was the organization of the
''Medical College of Louisiana," in September,
1834. T^^^^ was chartered April 2, 1835, and in
March, 1836, issued the first degrees in medicine or
science ever conferred in Louisiana or the South-
west. In March, 1839, ^^ issued its first degrees
in pharmacy. The first faculty consisted of
Thomas Hunt, dean and professor of physiology
and pathological anatomy; Charles A. Luzenberg,
surgery; J. Monro Mackie, theory and practice
of medicine; August H. Cenas, obstetrics and
diseases of women and children; Ed. H. Barton,
materia medica, therapeutics and hygiene ; Thomas
R. Ingalls, chemistry; John H. Harrison, adjunct
professor of anatomy, and Warren Stone, demon-
strator of anatomy. A gradual reconstruction of
the faculty occurred, and we find Dr. Warren
Stone filling the chair of surgery from 1838 to
i873,when he was succeeded by Dr.T. G. Richard-
son, who had, however, entered the college as

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professor of anatomy in 1859. ^^* James Jones
held different chairs in the college from 1836 to
1874; ^^- Cenas, from 1840 to 1866; D. J. L.
Riddell, 1837 to 1862; Dr. Harrison, from 1836
to '1849, and Dr. Thomas Hunt, from 1835 ^^
1867. Dr. S. M. Bemiss filled the chair of theory
and practice of medicine from 1867 to 1884; Dr.
Samuel Logan, from 1873 to 1885, ^^^ Dr. S. E.
Chains, that of physiology and pathological
anatomy from 1868 till the present time. Since 1853
the deans have been Dr. Thomas H. Hunt,
1853-65; Dr. T. G. Richardson, 1865-85, and Dr.
S. E. Chaille since 1885.

The following facts are taken from a sketch
of the medical department written by Dr. S. E.
Chaille:

It is the oldest medical college in the South-
west; it is, in age, the third south of the Potomac
and Ohio rivers, and the fifteenth in the United
States. Only four of the fourteen older colleges
exceed in the number of students the medical de-
partment of Tulane University, and it ranks, if age
and the number of students and the alumni be
considered, as first in the Southwest and South,
and fifth in the United States.

The first course of lectures was delivered in the
State House, the second at No. 40 Royal street,
and for some years after in different buildings. In
1843 the present law department was erected as a
medical college on a plan by Mr. Darkin, an
architect of repute. Four courses of lectures were
delivered there, when the present medical college

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building was erected on Common street, now
Tulane avenue. The Constitution of 1845 or-
dained as follows :

Article 137. Ah university shall be established
in the city of New Orleans. . It shall be composed
of four faculties, to-wit: One of law, one of medi-
cine, one of the natural sciences and one of
letters.

Article 138. It shall be called the University
of Louisiana, and the Medical College of Louis-
iana, as at present organized, shall constitute the
faculty of medicine.

Article 139. The Legislature shall provide by
law for its further organization and government,
but shall be under no obligation to contribute to
the establishment or support of said university by
appropriations.

The act of organization (Act of 1847, No. 491,
page 39), with some trifling changes, was re-en-
acted in 1855, and is substantially embodied in the
revised statutes of 1856 and 1870. The control of
the university was vested in thirteen administra-
tors, of which body the governor, the chief justice
and the mayor of New Orleans were ex-officio
members, and the others were appointed by the
governor, with consent of the senate. With some
small changes, this remained the governing body.

The first board of the University of Louisiana
was composed of the following members : George
Eustis, chairman; A. D. Crossman, Gov. Isaac
Johnson, Maunsel White, Isaac T. Preston, Levi
Pierce, W. P. Hart, Preston W. Farrar, R. C.

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History and Education. 277

Nicholas, Isidore Labatut, M. M. Cohen and W.
C. Micou. Their first meeting was held April 27,

1847.

The law department was organized under a
plan presented to the board of administrators by
Judge Isaac T. Preston, May 4, 1847. The first
law faculty was constituted as follows: Judge
Henry A. BuUard, Richard Henry Wilde, Judge
Theodore H. McCaleb and Randell Hunt. Prof.
Wilde died in November and was succeeded by
Judge Thomas B. Monroe.

In 1850 Christian Roselius became a professor;
in 185 1, Daniel Mayes; in 1854, Sidney L. John-
son; in 1855, Alfred Hennen; in 1865, Alfred
Phillips; in 1869, CarletonHunt; in 1870, Thomas
Allen Clark; in 1873, Thomas J. Semmes. Since
then, Charles E. Schmidt, Henry C. Miller, James
B. Eustis, W. F. Mellen and Henry Denis also
filled chairs in this department.

At the law school the common law is taught,
but the civil law is made a special study. The
degree of bachelor of laws granted by the univer-
sity entitles the person on whom it is conferred to
admission to the bar of this State. The graduates
of the school constitute a large number of the
most respectable practitioners of law in Louisiana.
Some of them occupy high judicial positions.

The history of the academic department before
the war is one of failure, although strenuous
efforts were made by competent men to establish a
good college. A committee was appointed by the

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board of administrators to ** report on the ex-
pediency of organizing the department of letters
and natural sciences, and on the means that can
be commanded to that effect." Rev. Dr. Francis
Liston Hawks was elected president of the Uni-
versity of Louisiana, and served as such until his
removal from the State, May i, 1849. Plans
were also formulated to raise funds, but the only
amounts subscribed were $500 each by Glendy
Burke and Judah Touro. The minor expenses
were paid by the administrators. A preparatory
department was organized on November 23, 1847,
and George C. Anthon was chosen as principal.
The school was supported by tuition fees, supple-
mented by private subscription. The Legislature
appropriated $35,000 for books, buildings and
apparatus, on condition that no portion of that
money be paid for salaries of professors, teachers
or officers of the university. The minutes state
that $3839 were paid for books, furniture and
apparatus for the preparatory school. George C.
Anthon resigned April 25, 1850, and was suc-
ceeded by C. W. Sears.

Judge T. H. McCaleb was elected president of
the university on June 25, 1850, and held this office
until his resignation, June 25, 1853. In the
meantime a large part of the university buildings
were put under lease, and again sublet as ice-
cream saloons, and club rooms, with music, danc-
ing, beer and wine, and for other inappropriate
purposes. This state of things was not remedied

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until it became an intolerable nuisance and
destroyed the reputation and value of the school.
In the winter of 1855 the school was reorganized,
with Mr. Sears as dean and professor of mathe-
matics; J. D. B. DeBow, the distinguished editor of
DeBow*s Review y professor of commerce; Mr.
Glutton, geology; M. Roux, French; Mr. Kohl-
meyer, Hebrew and German, and W. P. Riddell,
chemistry.

On April 24, 1856, a new board entered upon
their duties. On December 23, 1856, L. Dufau
was chosen principal of the grammar school and
professor of moral science; J. Gentil, professor
of French, and W. H. Peck, professor of belles-
lettres. On April 14, 1857, all appointments of
professors and officers in college and high school
were revoked to take effect June i, 1857, and the
east and west wings were leased to Messrs. Sears
and Dufau, to be conducted as a private enter-
prise, under the general supervision and patron-
age of the board. The lease was rescinded on
February 15, i860. In a report to the Legislature,
the board states :

The collegiate department has not prospered,
owing to the want of resources and not having
been favored with any appropriations by your hon-
orable bodies. The scholars number 40; in the
grammar school there are 100.

The institution was closed in i860, and the war
intervening, no effort was made for many years
to sustain an academic department.

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Dr. Thomas Hunt was unanimously elected
president of the university on March 2, 1866. He
died March 23, 1867. His brother, Randell Hunt,
was elected April 30, 1867, to succeed him as
president.

In 1877 the following board of administrators
was appointed by Gov- Nicholls: Judge J. H.
Kennard, president; Judge H. N. Rightor, W. E.
Seymour, Alfred Moulton, Thomas A. Adams, E.
F. LaVillebeuvre, D. C. Labatt, J. B. Lafitte, and
Gov. F. T. Nicholls, Chief Justice Manning and
Mayor I. W. Patton, ex officio.

In 1878 the board of administrators organized
again the academic department, and it was opened
on November 4, 1878, with R. H. Jesse as dean
and professor of Latin and Greek and of English
literature; J. L. Cross, professor of mathematics
and natural science; M. P. Julian, professor of
French and French literature, and R. B. Mont-
gomery, professor of penmanship and com-
mercial course. The courses were modeled after
the system of the University of Virginia, and were
elective. There were three classes — ^junior, in-
termediate and senior — and a diploma was given
for the completion of the course of studies in
each school. Graduation in a certain number of
schools entitled the students to degrees. In the first
year sixty students were matriculated, and the con-
vention of 1879 having been memorialized by the
board, the Constitution contained a provision
which recognized the University of Louisiana in

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History and Education. 281

its three departments, and authorized the Legisla-
ture to appropriate for its support an amount not
to exceed $10,000 annually.

In November, 1879, ^ preparatory department,
or high school, was organized, with Prof. Alcee
Fortier as principal and Prof. E. L. Bemiss as
associate. In 1879-80 there were 89 students in
the high school and 88 in the academic depart-
ment. It was therefore necessary to increase the
corps of instructors, and in October, 1880, both
departments were reorganized. L. C. Reed was
appointed principal of the high school, with five
associate teachers, and in the academic depart-
ment. Brown Ayres was appointed professor of
physics, mechanics and chemistry; Robert Sharp,
of Greek and English language; J. H. Deiler, of
German, and Alc^e Fortier, of French language
and literature. Considering the limited means at
its disposal, the institution was exceedingly pros-
perous until its absorption into Tulane University
in July, 1884. The building formerly known as
the Mechanics Institute was bought for $20,000,
given by Mr. Tulane, and is now Tulane Hall.
The Fisk library was transferred by the city to
the university, and has been exceedingly valuable
to the public in general and to the students.

The dean of the academic department of the
University of Louisiana, from 1878 to 1884, was
Prof. R. H. Jesse, a man of remarkable executive
ability, force of character and of excellent judg-
ment and scholarship. The success of the insti-

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tution under his charge was so great that Mr.
Jesse, in 1891, was appointed president of the
University of Missouri. The university was also
greatly indebted for its success to Judge J. H.
Kennard, president of the Board of Administra-
tors, a man of great intelligence and energy.

The University of Louisiana became the Tulane
University in 1884, through the munificence of
the great philanthropist, whose life, from a sketch
placed at our disposal by Col. Johnston, we shall
narrate briefly.

Paul Tulane was the son of Louis Tulane, who
was bom in 1767, at Rille, France, and whose
father and grandfather had held the office of
probate judge at Tours. Louis Tulane immigrated
to San Domingo, where he had a brother-in-law,
who was a wealthy planter. The latter was mur-
dered with all his family during the insurrection
of the slaves, and Louis Tulane, in 1791, escaped
with his wife to the United States. He settled in
1792 at Cherry Valley, near Princeton, N. J., and
there his son Paul was born in 1801. His mother
died in 1813 and his father in 1847. Paul Tulane
had only an elementary education, and at the age
of fifteen he entered the store of Thomas White,
at Princeton. In 1818 his cousin, Louis Tulane,
of France, came to the United States and took
him as a traveling companion. They visited Jack-
son at the Hermitage and Clay at Lexington, and
Paul Tulane met on the first steamboat from New
Orleans to Louisville some Creole gentlemen who

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History and Education. 283

were talcing their sons to college in Kentucky.
When he was living in Louisiana he said that it
seemed strange to him that young men should
leave their State to be educated, and that he
should like to see a good college built in Louisi-
ana, where the boys could be educated at home.
"This," says Colonel Johnston, '*was probabl}r
the origin of that great purpose, which grew and
developed until it found its expression in his en-
dowment of Tulane University."

Mr. Tulane went to reside in New Orleans in
1822. The yellow fever was raging, and "it was
easier," said he, "to secure a place where so
many were vacant from death or abandonment."
He soon established a business for himself, and
was very successful in all his undertakings. He
1 ad the reputation of being an honorable and pru-
dent business man, and was exceedingly char-
itable. When the war broke out he was quite
wealthy, and although he lost considerably at that
time, he had still a handsome fortune after the
war, having invested a part of his gains in New
Jersey since the year 1840, on the advice of his
father, who was then living in France, and who
warned him against the results of the probable
abolition of slavery in the South.

In 1873 Mr. Tulane removed permanently to
Princeton, N. J., where he lived in a fine man-
sion surrounded with thirty-four acres of ground.
He continued his benefactions in his old age, and
he told Col. Johnston that from the close of the

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war to 1882 his gifts made for the education of
young men and women averaged $15,000 per an-
num. He never married, and his life in New
Jersey was plain and unostentatious.

It was on April 18, 1881, that Mr. Tulane told
Gen. R. L. Gibson that he desired to give his
property in New Orleans for the education of. the
youth of Louisiana. Gen. Gibson drew a plan
by which the donation was to be put into effect,
and Mr. Tulane approved it. The plan, and a
letter from Mr. Tulane expressing his intentions,
were sent to Dr. T. G. Richardson, **with the re-
quest," says Gen. Gibson, **that he would call
in consultation Judge Charles E. Fenner, Judge
E. D. White and Mr. James McConnell, who had
been designated by Mr. Tulane, and put the whole
matter into shape according to the laws ol Louis-
iana. Their advice was also desired in the selec-
tion of additional administrators and for the
execution of the trust. '* The first board of ad-
ministrators chosen by Mr. Tulane consisted of
the above named gentlemen and of Messrs. E. H.
Farrar, P. N. Strong, Rev. B. M. Palmer, Rev.
Hugh Miller Thompson, Charles A. Whitney,
Samuel H. Kennedy, Walter R. Stauffer, Cart-
wright Eustis, Henry Ginder, John T. Hardie,
R. M. Walmsley and William O. Rogers.

**Mr. Tulane's first donation,'' says Col. John-
ston, **was valued at about $363,000. He sub-
sequently made other donations, until the amount
given by him aggregated $1,050,000. It was hit

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History and Education. 285

expressed intention to add largely to this sum, but
as he died without a will, these intentions were
never carried out." He died March 26, 1887,
and was buried at Princeton, N. J. Great honors
were paid to his memory in New Orleans, and he
is considered in Louisiana as the greatest bene-
factor the State ever had.

Mr. Tulane had stated in general terms in his
letter that his donation was for the education of
the white youth of Louisiana. The Board of
Administrators concluded to found an institution
of learning, and in January, 1883, they selected
Col. William Preston Johnston as president of the
proposed institution. Col. Johnston was at that
time president of the Louisiana State University
at Baton Rouge, and had been formerly a pro-
fessor at the Washington and Lee University in
Virginia.

By an agreement with the State of Louisiana,
the University of Louisiana served as a founda-
tion for the Tulane University. The right of ap-
pointing to a scholarship was given to each repre-
sentative and senator in the State, so that a great
number of students are educated without cost at
the university. By an amendment to the Consti-
tution voted upon in April, 1888, all the property
belonging to the Tulane educational fund was
exempted from taxation.

** Tulane University," says the catalogue, **is
divided into the university department of philoso-
phy and science, Tulane College, Tulane High

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School, H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College
for Young Women, the Law Department and the
Medical Department. ' ' In the university proper the
student **must receive the inspiration of the scien-
tific spirit and pursue his studies by the scientific
method, under the guidance, but not under the
authority of a professor." The university work
leads to the degrees of Master of Arts, Doctor of
Philosophy, and the engineering degrees.

Tulane College offers four courses of study:
Classical, literary, scientific, and engineering;
each leading to a baccalaureate degree. A man-
ual training school has been established, and a
thorough course in drawing is offered.

♦Tulane High School prepares the students to
the college ; the instruction is given in two paral-
lel and equivalent courses of study, to- wit: First,
classical; second, literary and scientific. The
faculty has fourteen professors, assistant profes-
sors and instructors. Prof. Ashley D. Hurt has
been head master since 1884.

Tulane University, in all its departments, is
progressing rapidly and is destined to be a most
important factor in the development of the civili-
zation of the State. Mrs. T. G. Richardson has
made a donation of $100,000 to the medical col-
lege, and a new building has been erected for that
department on Canal street. A large lot has been
bought on St. Charles avenue for the university

« Tulane High School will be discontinued at the end of the •ettion of

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History and Education. 287

proper and college, and commodious buildings
will soon be erected. The work of Tulane Col-
lege is extensive and thorough and may be com-
pared with that of the best colleges of the United
States. The university courses have been very
successful, and the independent and original work
accomplished by the students has been most grati-
fying. Louisiana has good cause to be thankful
to Paul Tulane and to honor and revere the mem-
ory of the excellent man who toiled that others
might reap the benefits of his labors.

H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College.*

The H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for
young women was founded in 1886, as a memo-
rial to her daughter, by Mrs. Josephine Louise
Newcomb, of New York City, the widow of War-
ren Newcomb, formerly a successful and highly
esteemed merchant of New Orleans. The origi-
nal fund of $100,000, afterward increased to
$220,000, was entrusted to the administrators of
the Tulane educational fund, who established the
college in accordance with the design of its
founder, and made it a department of the univer-
sity.

It is the aim of this college to offer to the young
women of Louisiana and of the South educational
opportunities similar to those supplied by female

• The writer is indebted for this sketch to Prof. Brandt V. B.Dixon
piMideat of the college.

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288 Louisiana Studies.

colleges of the first rank in other parts of the
United States, and its various courses of study are
devised in accordance with this purpose.

The college was opened for the admission of
students in October, 1887, in a large residence,
bought for the purpose, situated on Howard
avenue and Camp street. Here it remained for
three years, by which time it became evident that
more space and better facilities were required.
These were secured by the purchase and building
of its present home on Washington avenue, in the
choice residence portion of the city. Here it is
finally located on a large square of ground, more
than three acres in extent, shaded by numerous
live-oaks, palms and other trees and shrubbery.
The main building, in the Italian style of architec-
ture, contains, in addition to numerous class rooms
and studios, a large assembly hall, a chapel,
library and memorial room. The physical, chemi-
cal, and biological laboratories are well equipped,
and placed in a separate building.

Besides the usual college courses, classical,
scientific, and literary, special facilities are offered
for the study of art. The normal art course is
similar to that of the Massachusetts Normal Art
School in Boston, and a specified amount of art
instruction forms a part of each regular course of
study. Industrial art receives particular attention
and includes among other features clay modeling,
casting in plaster, wood carving, perspective model
and architectural drawing and design. Excellent

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History and Education. 289

opportunities are likwise offered to special students
in other branches of art, such as drawing from
cast and from life, painting in water and oil, etc.

Owing to the want of suitable academies and
fitting schools in its locality it was found necessary
at the outset to organize a preparatory department
and to modify somewhat the usual college course,
but the growing appreciation which has been
shown to this institution, and the increasing
demand for advanced study on the part of its
students, has enabled its officers rapidly to raise its
standards of admission and of graduation to those
which are maintained by the foremost colleges
elsewhere.

With its steady advance in grade and equipment
and its rapidly growing corps of students, it is
attracting wide-spread attention throughout the
Gulf States as the representative women's col-
lege of that section.

The Louisiana State University and Agri-
cultural AND Mechanical College.

The following historical statement of the Louis-
iana State University and Agricultural and Me-
chanical College is taken from the catalogue of
the university:

The Louisiana State University and Agricul-
tural and Mechanical College had its origin in
certain grants of land made by the United States
government in 1806, 1811 and 1827 **for the use
of a seminary of learning.'* In 1855 the Legisla-

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ture founded the Louisiana State Seminary of
Learning and Military Academy, locating it three
miles from Alexandna, in the parish of Rapides.
The institution was opened January 2, i860, with
Col. William Tecumseh Sherman as superintend-
ent. Its exercises were suspended June 30, 1861,
on account of the war, but were resumed October
2, 1865. '^^^ college building was burned Octo-
ber 15, 1869, and on the first day of November
following, the institution resumed its exercises in
Baton Rouge, where it has since remained. The
Louisiana State Agricultural and Mechanical Col-
lege was established by an act of the Legislature
approved April 7, 1873, ^^ carry out the United
States act of 1862 granting lands for this purpose.
It was located at the Chalmette ^battle ground, but
temporarily opened in New Orleans, June i, 1874,
where it remained till its merger with the univer-
sity. On January 2, 1877, the act as passed by
the Legislature of 1877, uniting the State Univer-
sity and Agricultural and Mechanical College, and
locating the same temporarily at Baton Rouge,
became a law, and was promulgated June i,
1877.

The two State institutions, as thus united and
constituted into one and the same institution of
learning, began their first joint session on October
5, 1877, under the name and legal title of the
Louisiana State University and Agricultural and
Mechanical College.

The United States government generously gave
up the splendid buildings and grounds of the
military garrison, at Baton Rouge to the State
University and Agricultural and Mechanical Col-
lege, August 27, 1886, where the institution is now
domiciled.

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HiSTORT AND BmJCATION. 29I

Three courses of study have been established :
The agricultural, the mechanical and civil en-
gineering, and the literary. There is also a course
in book-keeping. A preparatory department or
sub-freshman class is attached to the college.
Col. J. W. Nicholson is president of the univer-
sity. The institution is prosperous and is doing
good work for the cause of higher education in
Louisiana.

The Colleges of the Jesuits.

The history of the colleges of the Jesuits is
taken from notes kindly furnished the writer by
the Rev. Father Hogan, S. J. While speaking of
colonial education, we quoted the letter of
Bienville, in 1742, in which he asked for the es-
tablishment of a college in Louisiana and sug-
gested the Jesuits as the proper parties to conduct
the institution. Two facts are inferred from the
letter: First, that before 1742 the Jesuits had no
establishment of education in lower Louisiana,
nor is it likely that they had any in the twenty-one
years that elapsed from 1742 till 1763 (the year of
their expulsion from Louisiana by the French
government) , since they had charge only of the
Indian missions of the entire Mississippi valley
and were practically excluded from all spiritual
jurisdiction over the colonists. The spiritual di-
rection of the colonists had been given to the
Capuchin Fathers by the Bishop of Quebec,
under whose jurisdiction was all French North

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292 Louisiana Studibs.

America* The Jesuits had a residence in New
Orleans, indeed, but it was only to serve as a
centre from which to draw mission supplies. The
second very evident fact that we see in Bienville's
letter is the opposition of the French government
to any Jesuit college in lower Louisiana. A
Jesuit college had, however, been granted to
upper Louisiana. Three different historians are
witnesses to this fact. Rosier, in his ** Early
Settlement of the Mississippi Valley," page 27,
tells us that the missionaries (Jesuits) had a col-
lege and monastery at Kaskaskia, in Upper Louis-
iana, in the year 1721. And Bancroft, ** History
of the United States," Vol. Ill, speaks of a Jesuit
college in Quebec.

**Its foundation," writes he, ** was laid under
happy auspices in 1635, just before Champlain
passed from among the living; and two years be-
fore the immigration of John Harvard, and one
year before the general court of Massachusetts
had made provisions for a college."

In Heriot's " Canada," page 30, the author
says:

The college of the Jesuits at Quebec was long
considered as the first institution on the continent of
North America for the instruction of young men.
The advantages derived from it were not limited
to the better class of Canadians, but were extended
to all whose inclination it was to participate in
them ; and many students came thither from the
West Indies.

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History and Education. 293

From all the early documents of the colony,
thus far accessible, we gather that no university or
college or high school existed in lower Louisiana
under the French domination. The colonists and
their governor, Bienville, petitioned the home gov;
ernment for a college, to be in charge of the
Jesuits, and were refused. The Jesuits, indeed,
were expelled from the colony in 1763, and the
college dreamed of by Bienville was to become a
reality only in the following century.

Hardly had freedom asserted its sway in
Louisiana under the American flag than the So-
ciety of Jesus reappeared after an absence of
sixty years. In 1823, at the suggestion of John
C. Calhoun, secretary of war under President
Monroe, Bishop Dubourg, of New Orleans, in-
vited the Jesuits of Maryland to christianize the
Indians of upper Louisiana, by establishing mis-
sions and schools among them. Later on one of
these schools developed into what is now known as
the University of St. Louis. Already in 1834
may be seen upon its rolls as many as fifty
names of students from the vicinity of New Or-
leans, whilst in 1837 more than half of the entire
number on the rolls were from Louisiana. These
Jesuits of upper Lpuisiana gradually extended their
labors southward to lower Louisiana. They es-
tablished colleges at Cincinnati, Bardstown (Ky.),
and at Grand Coteau, La. This latter was the
first college established by the Society of Jesus
within the limits of the present State of Louisiana.

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3^ Louisiana Siudibs.

The College of St. Charles, Grand Coteau, La.,
dates back to 1835, when Archbishop Blanc, of
New Orleans, desired the Society of Jesus to take
charge of a college at Iberville. They acceded
to the request of founding a college, but did not
regard the proposed site as favorable. The
claims of Donaldsonville were also considered,
but preference was given to a beautiful spot in the
Attakapas country which, on account of its slight
elevation, was called Grand Coteau. At its open-
ing in 1835, *^ establishment consisted of one
log house and one large frame building. In their
stead are at present two large, imposing edifices,
many outhouses and one of the finest churches in
that section of .the country. Over sixty boys,
boarders and day scholars, answered the first an-
nouncement of the new institution. In after years
the roll usually varied with the varying fortunes of
the State, but the average number of pupils was
about 130. This was considered highly satisfac-
tory in the midst of an agricultural country, where
prosperity depends upon the annual crops, whose
condition is ever fluctuating.

The programme of studies was the same that
usually prevails in Jesuit colleges. The profes-
sional staff included from twenty to thirty profes-
sors. This college is said to have enjoyed the
singular privilege of being the only one of the
Confederacy, west of the Mississippi, not closed
during the war, thanks to the protection of both
governments that successively ruled in those parts.

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History and Education. 395

In 1891 it underwent a radical change. Though
still prosperous enough, its faculty thought that
owing to an abundance of colleges and high
schools in the Attakapas country, it might enter a
new sphere of usefulness. It was, therefore, con-
verted into a seminary of higher studies for the
Catholic priesthood. It has, therefore, ceased to
be a seat of secular learning and will henceforth
be devoted only to religious purposes.

St. Joseph's College, Baton Rouge, La., was
established in 1849, at the request of Archbishop
Blanc, of New Orleans, when the Society of
Jesus assumed charge of the spiritual interests of
the city of Baton Rouge in the latter part of that
year. The then parish priest of the city, Rev. A.
Martin, withdrew to the town of Natchitoches,
which, three years later, became the seat of a bish-
opric, of which he himself became first bishop. The
site chosen for the college was four blocks in the
rear of the old parish church in the section of the city
called Spanishtown, which was at the time thinly
settled. The erection of the buildings began in
July and was completed in time for the opening of
classes in October of the same year. A charter
obtained from the Legislature of the State of
Louisiana conferred upon it the power of bestow-
ing all the degrees of a university. The enter-
prise went on with varying fortunes from 1849 till
1856. It gradually became evident that circum-
stances did not as yet justify the establishment of
a first-class college there. Through all these

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2^6 Louisiana Studies.

years of its existence the programme of studies usual
in Jesuit colleges was followed as closely as pos-
sible. A competent faculty was in charge and all
that ability and zeal for education could accom-
plish was done to secure success. Though the
number of students on the rolls often went beyond
a hundred, still this attendance was too scanty and
irregular to answer the hopes of the faculty. The
town, was also at that time, a fever centre, and on
account of the ravages of sickness amongst pro-
fessors and pupils studies were, on several occa-
sions, entirely suspended. Thus a combination
of reasons caused the closing of the college.
This the faculty did with great reluctance in the
autumn of the year 1856. The members of the
staff went to reinforce the faculties of other Jesuit
colleges in the South, whilst numbers of the
pupils sought admission into these same colleges in
order to complete their interrupted course of
studies.

The College of the Immaculate Conception,
New Orleans, La., situated on the comer of Com-
mon and Baronne streets, and in the centre of the
city of New Orleans, dates back to 1847. Common
street, upon which the present structure is partly
situated, is said to derive its name from the fact that
150 years ago it was the boundary line or common
between the city of New Orleans and the historic
Jesuit plantation that covered all the land now known
as the First District. In 1847 the Jesuits re-entered
New Orleans upon the invitation of Archbishop

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History and Education. 297

Blanc and secured the present site for a church and
school. A brick building, three stories high and
40 feet wide by 150 feet long, was immediately
erected, and together with an adjoining frame
house formed the new college. Where are now
the parlors was then a large hall that for long
years did the duty of parish chapel. With time
the primitive establishment jdelded its place to the
present vast structure, and the modest chapel gave
way to the present magnificent church. The col-
lege opened in the autumn of 1849 with a profes-
sional staff of ten members and an attendance of
100 pupils. From that time on to the outbreak of
the civil war the average number of students was
250. And from the close of the war on, this num-
ber slowly but in cessantly swelled. The system
of studies existing in all Jesuit colleges has been
followed as faithfully as circumstances permitted.
In Louisiana circumstances have not yet permitted
full development, or allowed their programme of
education to expand into a university. The aim,
therefore, of the Society of Jesus has thus far
been to offer to youth a collegiate course. It
ordinarily includes the primary school, the high
school, and the college proper, and, therefore, its
classes are usually the following 2 The rudiments,
the grammar classes, then the poetry, rhetoric, and
philosophy classes. The plan of studies embraces
ti>e following courses: Post-graduate, classical,
^d commercial. There is a also a preparatory
department, to which are admitted students who

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298 Louisiana Studibs.

know how to read and spell creditably and who
know the elements of arithmetic. In all classes
the day's work begin and ends with prayer. The
Catholic religion alone is taught, but non- Cath-
olics are also welcome and their religious opinions
are studiously respected. The Jesuit colleges count
among their graduates many of the most dis-
tinguished men in Louisiana.

The State Normal School.

The following sketch of the State Normal
School is taken from the catalogue :

The Louisiana State Normal School was found-
ed by an act of the General Assembly approved
July 7, 1884. Under the provisions of that act
the State Board of Education selected the town
of Natchitoches as the domicile of the school, and
appointed as its Board of Administrators the fol-
lowing residents of the place: David Pierson,
E. E. Buckner, L. Caspari, T. P. Chaplin, H.B.
Walmsley. The board organized with Judge Da-
vid Pierson as president, and on December 29,
1884, elected Dr. Edward E. Sheib, of Baltimore,
president of the faculty. The school began its
first session in November, 1885, and Dr. Sheib
continued in charge until May, 1888. By an act
of the General Assembly, approved June 20, 1888,
it was enacted, ** that the Board of Administrators
of the State Normal School shall consist of six
competent white citizens, who shall be selected
and appointed by the State Board of Education,
one from each of the first five circuits of the courts
of appeals and one from the city of Natchitoches.'*
The Board of Administrators, appointed under

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History and Education. 299

this act, met at Natchitoches, July 2, 1888,
and organized with Hon. W. H. Wise, of
Shreveport, as president. The position of presi-
dent of the faculty was tendered to Thomas D.
Boyd, professor of history and English literature
in the Louisiana State University and A. and
M. College, who promptly accepted the office
and entered upon the discharge of its duties. The
State Normal School has for its object to train
efficient teachers for the public schools of the
State of Louisiana. It proposes to accomplish
this end: i. By giving those students who take
the full three years' course an accurate knowledge
of all the branches taught in the public schools.
2. By giving them an insight into the laws of men-
tal development, the history and philosophy of
education and the science and art of school teach-
ing and school management. 3. By instructing
them in the best methods of teaching the com-
mon school branches, and by requiring them to
put those methods in practice by actual teaching
in the practice school. 4. By seeking to develop
in them a high order of character, independence,
self-control, love of learning, faithfulness to duty
and zeal for teaching.

Universities for the Colored People.

The university for the colored people, known as
the Southern University, was established in the
city of New Orleans by the Constitutional Con-
vention of 1879, which provided that it would be
entitled to an annual appropriation by the Legis-
lature of not more than $10,000 nor less than
$5000. In 1886 a special appropriation of $14,-

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300 Louisiana Studies

ooo was secured for completing the new university
building on Magazine street. Says the catalogue :

In view of this special appropriation the annual
appropriation of $10,000 was cut down to $7500.
The university is organized with the following de-
partments: I. Grammar school, composed only
of the seventh and eighth grades. 2. The normal
department. 3. The high school department for
boys and girls.

The establishment of the Southern University is
a proof of the good will of the whites toward the
colored people, and of their desire to see them as
well educated as possible.

The catalogue of the Straight University says:

The Straight University dates back to 1869,
when the American Missionary Association pur-
chased the ground on Esplanade street, upon
which to establish a university for the higher
education of the colored people. A building was
erected by the United States government, and
dedicated in February, 1870, receiving its name
in honor of Hon. Seymour Straight, who was a
liberal donor to the institution, and who has
always been its generous friend. In 1877 ^^^
building was destroyed by fire, and almost imme-
diately ground in a far more desirable situation
for the purpose was purchased, and the present
university building erected on Canal street. It
was ready for occupancy October, i, 1878.

The Straight University has done much good to
the colored people in Louisiana. It has an indus-
trial department with good promise for the future.

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History and Education. 301

The Leland University calalogue says:

The Leland University owes its existence to the
wise forethought and broad generosity of the late
Holbrook Chamberlain and his estimable wife. It
was incorporated in 1870. The school was
opened in 1874.

The courses comprise the following: Theolog-
ical college, college preparatory, normal, inter-
mediate, and model school. The institution
belongs to the Baptist denomination. It is situ-
ated on St. Charles avenue.

The New Orleans University is mainly sup-
ported by the Freedmen's Aid Society of the
Methodist Episcopal church. It opened in 1865
and received a charter in 1873. It is situated on
St. Charles avenue. The institution possesses a
theological department and a normal department,
together with the usual college courses. It has
also a good beginning for an industrial school.
With four universities in New Orleans, and with
public schools throughout the State, the colored
people in Louisiana have an excellent opportunity
of acquiring a good education.

Colleges and Schools in Rural Louisiana.

The colleges and schools in rural Louisiana are
numerous; and it is impossible in such a brief
sketch to mention all the schools in the State or to
give an idea of their courses of studies. Only the
most important institutions will be named, and the
date of opening given : Jackson — Centenary Col-

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303 Louisiana Studibs

lege of Louisiana, opened 1839; Methodist Epis-
copal South denomination. Keachie — Keachie
College, opened 1856; Baptist denomination.
Shreveport — ^Thatcher Institute, opened 1870.
Coushatta — Male and Female Institute, opened
1887. Mt. Lebanon — Mt. Lebanon University,
opened 1853. Mansfield — Mansfield Female Col-
lege, opened 1855; Methodist Episcopal South
denomination. Clinton — Silliman Female Col-
legiate Institute, opened 1852. Minden — Min-
den Female College, opened 1850. Jackson —
Feliciana Female Collegiate Institute, opened
1850; Presbyterian denomination. Shreveport —
Shreveport Seminary. Arcadia — E. A. S. Male
College and Arcadian Female College, established
1886. Homer — The Methodist College, estab-
lished 1856. Natchitoches — St. Joseph's College.
Thibodeaux — ^Thibodeaux College , established
1859. Fort Jesup— Masonic Institute. The sis-
ters of the Sacred Heart established a convent at
Natchitoches in 1846. Besides their large institu-
tion in New Orleans they have a convent in St.
James parish. The Daughters of the Cross
established their first convent at Cocoville, or
Hydropolis, in 1855. They have established in-
stitutions at Fairfield near Shreveport, Shreveport,
Monroe, Marksville and Mansura. The order of
St. Joseph has convents in New Orleans, St. Mar-
tinsville, Opelousas and Charenton.

Jefferson College, in St. James parish, had so
great a reputation before the war that it is proper

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History and Education. 303

to devote a few lines to the history of that institu-
tion. The following is taken from De Bow's Re-
view^ Vol. XI, page 437 :

On February 16, 1831, the College of Jefferson,
in the parish of St. James, was incorporated by an
act of the Legislature. The project of creating
that institution had been set on foot a few years
before through lists of private subscriptions opened
by a number of public-spirited gentlemen, at the
head of whom was Gov. A. B. Roman. His zeal
for establishing a college on a scale commensurate
with the wants of the State caused him to be con-
sidered as its principal founder. Twelve thou-
sand dollars were subscribed in the parish of St.
James alone. The college was opened in the
spring of 1834, ^^^ was for some years liberally
supported by State appropriations. The cost of
the buildings was $124,000, and that of the land on
which they were erected $10,000. It contained a
numerous body of able professors, averaged dur-
ing the last five years of its existence above 200
pupils, and could be compared without any disad-
vantage to any other institution of the Union. In
1842 the main buildings were destroyed by a con-
flagration; part of them being insured were after-
ward rebuilt, and the college was opened again
for the reception of pupils, but it never recovered
from the shock it had received. The State hav-
ing ceased to support it as she had previously
done, the doors of tiie institution were soon finally
closed.

In 1855 the Louisiana College was incorporated
by the Legislature. It was the old Jefferson Col-
lege resurrected, principally through the efforts of

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304 Louisiana Studies.

that distinguished planter and philanthropist^ Val-
cour Aime, aided by Governor Roman» Florent
Fortier, Septime Fortier, A. Ferry, J. D. De-
nfegre, Valcour La Barre and others. The college
was very prosperous under the presidency of
Louis Dufau, and took again the name of Jeffer-
son by an act of the Legislature on March 5, 1861.
C. O. Dugu6, one of the best French poets of
Louisiana, was president of the revived Jefferson
College. In an address delivered on September
6, i860, he pays a well deserved tribute to Val-
cour Aime, the principal benefactor of the college.
Jefferson College closed its doors during the
war, as all the students who could bear arms went
to fight for the Confederacy. In 1865 Valcour
Aime, who held the greater part of the shares of
the college, about $25,000, being anxious to see
the institution revive, most generously gave his
shares to the Marist Fathers. The latter pur-
chased some of the outstanding shares, and, taking
possession of the college, again opened its doors
to the youth of the State. It is, however, a mat-
ter of surprise to the writer that the Marist Fathers
do not acknowledge publicly in their catalogue
their debt of gratitude to Valcour Aime, and trace
the history of the institution to its origin in 183 1.
It would be strange indeed if the Tulane Univer-
sity were ever to forget Paul Tulane. Why have
the present owners of St. Mary*s Jefferson Col-
lege apparently forgotten Valcour Aime, the pious
man, the friend of education and of the poor?

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History and Education. 305

Louisiana has also institutions at Baton Rouge
for the deaf and dumb and the blind.

Schools in New Orleans.

One of the best commercial schools in the South
is the Soule Commercial College and Literary
Institute, founded in 1856 and chartered in 1861.
It receives students of both sexes, and its gradu-
ates are thoroughly prepared for commercial life.

There is also the Southern Commercial and Lit-
erary College.

Among the best private schools for boys in the
upper districts of the city are those of T. W.
Dyer (1885), L. C. Ferrell (1888), H. S. Che-
net (1892), and Louis L6che. In the lower
districts we have the schools of Durel for boys,
St. Isidore school of the Christian Brothers (1879),
the Pinac school for boys and girls, the Henrion-
net school, the Vatinel school, and the Picard school
with separate departments for boys and girls.
For girls we have the Guillot Institute, founded in
1868, the C^nas School, the Columbian Institute
and the Augustin Fortier school, and many
others.

In the upper districts, among the numerous
schools for girls, may be mentioned the Carnatz
Institute (1865), Southern Academic Institute
(1881), the Dykers School, the School of Mrs.
Blake and Mrs. Chapman, the school of Mrs.
Nixon, and the Home Institute conducted by Miss
Wright.

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3o6 . Louisiana Studies.

The Sylvester-Larned Institute for Young La-
dies, established in 1868, exerted during its ex-
istence for a number of years the greatest influence
on the education of the young ladies of the upper
district. Prof. William O. Rogers was president
of the school and- of the board of directors. ^

The Union Frangaise has a flourishing school
for girls on Rampart street. It gives free tuition
to many children, and asks of the others but a
nominal fee.

The convents of the Sacred Heart, of St.
Joseph, of the Sisters of Mercy, and other Catholic
institutions, have a large number of pupils in their
establishments.

In 1866 A. V. Romain "established his Classical
and Commercial school, which soon became an
excellent institution. The writer was a student
there, and desires to acknowledge his indebted-
ness to the teachers who labored for him so faith-
fully and ably — ^A. V. Romain, George Gessner,
L. A. de Montluzin and William Walker. When
Mr. Romain died, in 1872, New Orleans lost one
of her foremost educators. Of his associates only
one is still teaching; it is Prof. George Gessner,
now connected with Tulane University, than whom
no one has ever been more devoted to his pupils
and more zealous in his work.

In a history of education it is proper to mention
Mme. M. D. Girard, who for half a century has
been teaching in New Orleans, and the brothers

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History and Education. 307

Uber, who celebrated lately the fiftieth anniver-
sary of the foundation of their school.

One can see by this brief sketch of the history
of education in Louisiana that great efforts were
made in the past to educate our people. Much is
being done now for the cause of education, and
we have every reason to hope that Louisiana will
soon stand on a par with regard to the general
instruction of her people with her most favored
sister States.

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AX 000 b07 131

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