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---K-s/^rS^.j<c-,
^m.^
L. RICHARD'S
COirEEHENSIVE GEOGRAPHY
OF THE
CHINESE EMPIRE
AND
DEPENDENCIES
ff ® 1* ^ I
Translated
SHANGHAI
rrSEWF.I PRESS
1908
All rights re«erved.
••l •» ■ •
f
TO
ALL THOSE
WHO TAKE INTEREST
IN THE PROGRESS, WELFARE AND PROSPERITY
OF CHINA
THIS BOOK IS RESFFCTFl Ll;
XiX^^ PREFACE.
OrigiB of this Work. — Richard's ''Giographie de VEmpire
de Chin^' published in 1905, by the T'usewei Press, Shanghai,
was so appreciated in the East and at home, that an English
Edition of the work was immediately requested. The Chinese
Legation in London, Officials, Railway-prospectors, Merchants,
Travellers, Missionaries, and all who take a special interest
in China and Things Chinese, have at various times urged
the necessity of the work, and augured that it would be of
valuable service to the Public. The Translation, undertaken
and carried out amidst the drudgery of class- work with Chinese
pupils, remote from English surroundings, and without the
assistance of the valuable home libraries, was unavoidably
slow. As the work proceeded, it was remarked that the
various reforms adopted by China, the new status of the Man-
churian Provinces, and the progress of events in the Far East
would require some recasting of the original. The new part
has not been thrown into the shape of additional notes, but
has been welded into the old paragraphs, with as little di,stur-
bance as possible of the order of the original. The present
English Edition is thus enlarged and revised, bringing all infor-
mation, administrative, statistical and economic, thoroughly
up to-date.
Plan of the >Vopk. — This Work given a Physical and
Political description of China and Dependencies. The Physical
part groups aU facts around the .V natural Regiojis or Great
Basins of China : i^. the Northerji, around the Yellow River;
V. the Central, around the Yangtze-kiang; and 3*. the Southern,
around the Si-kiang or West River. A general outline of each
region precedes the description of the Provinces. Each Province
is the object of a particular study, in which its area, population
and boundaries, its aspect and characteristics, its mountains
and rivers, its geology, its fauna and flora, its climate, its
agricultural and mineral resources, its people, race and language,
its principal towns, its industry and commerce, its land-routes
and waterways are minutely and methodically exposed.
' 77i€ Coast-line, which extends along 6 Provinces of the \
Empire : X!himi, iihantung, Kiangsu, CWkiang, Fokien and j
Kwangtung, is treated in a special chapter. This has the
advantage of combining in a general study important notions
, lU PREFACE.
■ i' " .
• bearing on winds, currents and tides, which could not be easiW
connected with the study of each individual Province. The
description of the coast-line proceeds from North to South,
and follows the above mentioned order of the Provinces. For
fuller d^ails. the Reader is referred to the Index at the end
of this work.
The Political part describes the Government and Adminis-
tration, the various Religions* the Army and Navy, the
Educational system, . Agriculture, Industry and Mining, the
Railway* Postfil and Telegraph departments. In view of the
growing mtercourse with "other countries, and the expansion of
Foreign Trade, the chapter on this subject will be found specially
useful, an4«nq pains have been spared to enhance its value by
full statistical tables/ Appen4ix II lat the close of the volume)
embodies the latest Returns for the year 1006.
A brief account of the Rise and Progress of the Empire,
and of its International Relations, is appended to this part. It is
not a dry story of king9 and wa^s, but is intended to show the
deTelo{mient of the Nation, in its manifestations good as well as
evil. It will also a£ford a deep insight into the national mind
and life, so essentiletl for the proper understanding of Things
Chinese. The collection of dates cannot fail to be of service to
all Readers,and must be correlated with events and facts described
in the Physical part of the work.
Each chapter is followed by a library of references, and
a list of standard Authors (French, English, German), many of
whom are household words in connection with Chinese history,
literature and scholarly attainments. To all, the Translator is
much indebted for valuable information, and begs hereby to
tender acknowledgement.
A full list of the Cities, Tgwns and Open Ports, in the 18
Provinces and outlying Dependencies, complete the work. Every
proper name, romanised in EngKsh, is followed by its equivalent
Chinese pictograph, a novel and valuable improvement which
will help to avoid confusion in words so similar in sound.
The Index has been carefully prepared with the twofold
purpose of securing completeness, and rendering research expe-
ditious. The names of Authors and the titles of books are
printed in Italics, while figures in heavy type indicate the parti-
cular place where a subject is principally treated.
China is at present making every effort to take her place
in the comity of Nations. Her Administration and Army art
being re-organized, Schools are multiplied, Railways are opened,
Postal work is improved, the opium evil is to be suppressed
and a Constitutional Government is promised to the Country ir
the near future. Other improvements, in Finance, in Law
in National unity, will follow in due time. This awakening am
PREFACE. 11^* •
re-shaping of the country cannot but interest the Great Nations
of the world. Richard's Comprehensive Geography will help
much to make China and the Chinese people better known.
Should it also promote mutual friendship between. £jist and
West, it will have fulfilled a great need, and we hope be
welcomed by all classes of Readers.
Corrections and suggestions will be thankfully received
by the Translator, who expresses his many obligations to hi^s
friends for their valuable assistance and encourSgement in tKc >
completion of this work. • *
M, Kennelly, S.J.
Sicawei College. Shanghai ■ » - .
18 December, 1907. . '"^ '^ ♦.
I
SYSTEM OF OKTHOGKAPHY,
In the irajasliteration of Chinese proper naines, the Nan-
king Awanhwa or N^n kwanhwa ^ "^ ^ (Soulhern mandarin
dialect) has been adopted preferably to the Pekingese, spoken
only at the Capital and in a small portion of Chihli and Ho-
nan Provinces. The Nankingese disoriimi nates between the
initials si and hsi (as in f^ sin, a letter, a note; and ^
hsing, to go), tsi and ki (as in ^ tsi, to aid; and fg hi, to re-
member), which are so bewilderingly confused in the Pekingese.
The Nankingese is spoken by two-thirds of the whole population
of the Empire, and is everywhere understood. Its syllabary is
richer than the Pekingese, its** pronunciation purer (j£ -^ ch^ng
yin, correct or standard pronunciation, as the Chinese say) and
better, and being now largely adopted by the Postal and Tele-
graph Administrations of China, it is most likely to outlive its
competitors.
In the working out of details, familiar spellings are main-
tained, as Peking, Fooc/iow, AmG%, Canton, Chefoo, Soochow,
Fokien, Kansu etc. The vowels have their Italian or fixed
sounds. The aspirates, a most essential element of the Chinese
language, are indicated by an inverted comma (thus *), and the
short abrupt final vowels by the addition of h (as in H teh, to
attain). In all instances, the same sound is ever represented by
the same phonetical equivalents. The initials si and hsi, ts, tsi,
k and ch, sH and hsil have been carefully distinguished. The
compound consonants : hw, kw, Iv;, .<jw, sh\K\ sz, ts and tz,
recently adopted by the Postal Service, have been admitted and
followed. The initial nasal ng, followed by a or e, is maintained,
as its omission is considered unscientific and based on mere
convention. The final nasals an and en; ang and eng, ung and
6ng, ilan and Hen, so generally confounded by English writers,
have been represented by more exact phonetic equivalents. In
SYSTEM OF ORTHOGRAPHY. V
the alphabetical list, the aspirated characters follow immediately
the Qitftspirated, and these Fatter are followed in turn by those
of the short abrupt final vowel sounds. Throughout the work,
every proper name, romanised in English, has beside it its
equiTaJenI Chinese character or pictog^aph, a valuable improve-
ment, which will help to avoid confusion especially in words
which are similar in sound.
It is thus hoped that this system, which embodies the best
elements of Morrison, Williams, Wade, Giles and of the recent
Postal List, will meet with the approval of all competent Sino-
logues, and go far in solving the yet unsettled question of uni-
formity, at least so far as the English language is concerned.
M** H. B. Morale, the learned Statistical Secretary of the Imperial
Maritime Customs, to whom the work has hsen communicated
a» the sheets left the press, appreciated its system of ortho-
graphy in the following terms :. "as scientific romanisation, I
fully approve of your system, and I have serious fnuU only wif/i
your ngan." (Letter to the Author, 13 August, 1907).
Values of vowels, consonants, diphthongs, aspirates and nasals,
adopted in this Work.
The Mandarin dialect lacks the initial letters b, d, g, q, r, v, x and z ; and all
words end by a vowel, semi-vowel, n or ng.
Vowels and diphthongs.
a.
ai.
ao.
e.
6.
eh,
ei.
eu.
eul.
as in father.
as in aye.
(final) as ow in how, but
prolonged,
as in men, yet.
as the vowel sound in
earth.
short and abrupt,
as in height, or t in sigh
(many English writers
confound ai and ei).
as ou in souse (some
write it ou or ow).
as II in hull or skull,
with an approxima-
tion to rl, as in hurl,
(English and American
writers have trans-
literated this sound
in the most bewilder-
ing manner, thus :
|ir/i (Morrison).
'rh (Williams).
irh (Wade, Giles).
Hr (Jenkings).
rh (Edkins).
rl (Ballard).
I.
ia.
lao.
le. —
le/i.
i7i.
in.
ing.
10.
ioh.
iu,
o.
oh.
ow.*
u.
a.
uh.
ui.
as m pin,
as ya in yard.
i and ao sounded, but
slightly coalescing
into one sound,
as in the Italian word
siesta,
shorter than ie.
short and abrupt, as the
vowel sound in chick.
as the vowel sound in
chin, pin.
as in king, sing,
i as y in yawn,
short and abrupt,
as ew, in pew, yew.
as o in long.
short and abrupt,
as ow in /low (see eu).
as 00 in too, fool.
as u in abuse,
short and abrupt,
u as in too; i as in
height, both slightly
coalescing into one.
Consonants, aspirates and nasals.
The aspirate is about the same sound as initial h in English, but often somewhat
stronger. In English, the aspirate after a surd is a neglected sound, while in Chinese
it is a substitute for the lack of the sonants b, d, g hard and g soft. TJte Mandarin
dialect has 9 aspirates : the initial simple consonants k, p and t, and the compound
consonants ch, chw, kw, shw, ts and tz.
A nasal sound is performed by doting th« 1^ Mid oaiudng the voice to pass
into the nose.
Vll
ch.
— (always initial) as in
s.
— as in sand.
church, chair.
sh.
— as in shall, shut.
ch\
— the same sound aspirated.
.«?2.
— a peculiar sibilant, as
chw
. — as in chew.
if followed by a quies-
/.
— as in fat, find.
cent vowel.
h.
— as in hang.
8ze.
— an imperfect vowel so-
hs.
^ (always initial), a sibil-
und; e final as in table
ant sound as sh in
(Wade renders this
shin, she.
sound by ssfi, Wil-
hw.
— as w/i in what, -which.
liams by sz').
h
— as in the French jaune.
t.
— as in top.
jamais.
r.
— the same sound aspir-
k.
— as in king.
ated.
h'.
— the same sound aspir-
is.
— as in wits.
ated (in some places
ts'.
— the same sound aspir-
softened).
ated.
I.
— as in lamp, land.
tze.
— an imperfect vowel so-
m.
— as in man.
und; e final as in table
n.
— as in not.
(Wade and Giles ren-
p.
— as in pot.
der this sound by tzik;
P'.
— the same sound aspir-
Williams by tsz').
ated.
w.
— as in went, winter.
■KR)^
\
(X)NTENTS.
INTROTMTTIOX, U\.
(kM)graphy. Formation of the Rarth. Modifications of the crust of the
Karth. Formation of new lands. 1. — I^^neoiis and sedimentary rocks.
Formation of the soil of China, 2. — China in the various geological
periods. Formation of coal and sandstone. Modifications wrought on the
surface. Volcanic action and eruptions. Present geological action. Pre-
df)minant rocks of the Chinese soil. New modifications wrought on the
surface of China. 3. — Flora and Fauna of the first ages. Primitive origin
of the Chinese. Pre-Chinese races. First Chinese Settlers. 4. — Actual
China. Situation. Divisions. Boundaries. Area and Population. Reasons
of the unequal distributi(Jn of inhabitants. Difficulty of a collective view.
Study of the 18 Provinces, 5. — References. r».
BOOK I.
CHINA PROPER
or
The Eighteen Provinces.
General Notions, 7-20.
Names applied to the Country and People. Situation. Boundaries, 7. —
Shape. Area and Population, 8. — Geological constitution. Orography or
^Mountain Systems^ 10. -ytiistorical or Sacred Mountains. Plains, 13. —
^ — Hydrography, 15. — Lakes. Coast-line. Fauna and Flora.
16. — Diffusion of the Population, 18. ~ Present Division of China. The
Three Regions or Basins, 10. — References, 20.
SECTION I. —THE NORTHERN REGION, 21-89.
CHAPTRR I.
VHllevN of I ho Poh-ho ami of the Hwang^lio, 2i-84>.
Characteristics of this Region, 21. -— Provinces comprised in it. Geological
constitution. Loess or Yellow lands, 22. — Alluvial lands. Orography,
('liniate. Hydrography, 23. — The Hwang-ho, 24. — X'ariations in its
Coursr, 27. — I'low, 28. — The Great Wall, 29. — A few other particulars
conc<'rning the Northern Region. 29. — References, .SO.
CHAPTRR n.
Ueffion of Hie Ipper llwanir^lio iKansu ami Sliensh, 3I-4IL
Kansu niid Shrnsi Prf)vinces, IM . - I". Khiimi : Area. Population. Name.
M(»UfHhiri«'s. Cnpitnl. ntluT iVrfcclures. ',\2. — .\spect and Characteristics.
<ir(»ln/;i(iil ronHtitutinn . Orography. '^'^. — Climate. Hydrography, 3r>. —
Fauna arul I'lora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People).
CONTENTS. rx
Lan^age, 36. — Cities and Principal Centres, 37. — Industry and Com-
merce. Highways of communication, 38. — 2®. She>R8l : Area. Population.
Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Charac-
teristics, 39. — Geological constitution. Orography, 40. — Climate.
Hydrography, 41. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth.
Population (People). Language, 42. — Cities and Principal Centres, 43.
— Industry and Commerce, 44. — Highways of communication, 45. —
References, 46.
CHAPTER III.
ne^oii of the Middle Itwangylio (Sltaii.M mid Hoiian), 47-4V4.
Shansi and Shensi Provinces, 47. — 1^'. Sluuisi: Area. Population. Name.
Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 48. — Aspect and Characteristics.
G€>ological constitution. Orography, 50, — Climate. Hydrography, 51. —
Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People),
language. Cities and Principal Centres, 52. — Industry and Commerce.
Highway's of communication, 54. — 2". Hunan: Are.a. Population. Name.
Houndaries. Capitaj. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 5(». —
Geological constitution. Orography, 57. — Hydrography, 59. — Fauna and
Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Language.
Cities and Principal Centres, 01. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of
communication, 62. — References, 63.
CHAPTER IV.
ncifion of I he Lower Hwang-ho and of the Peh-ho (^Ihihli
and Shantung), 65-8t».
Chihli and Shantung Provinces, 05. — i°. Chihii : Area. Population. Name.
Boundaries. Capitals. Other Prefectures, 06. — Aspect and Characteristics.
Geological constitution. Orography, 07. — Climate. Hydrography, 09. —
Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. 70. — Population
(People). Cities and Principal Centres, 71. — Industry and Commerce.
Highways of communication. Open Ports, 78. — 2". Shantung : Area.
Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 79. — Aspect
and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 80.- — Climate.
Hydrography, 82. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral "W'ealth.
Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 83. — Industry
and Commerce. Highways of communication, 80. — Open Ports. Notes,87.
— References,
SECTION II. — THE CENTRAL REGION, 90-166.
CHAPTER I.
VallcTsof the Yangtze and of the Hwai-ho, 90-103.
Characteristics of this Region, 90. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological
constitution, 91. — Orography, 92. — Climate. Hydrography. The Yang-
tze River (name, course, changes of, distance of Ports on from sea-
coast, Navigation of, Steamboat Companies trading on), 93. — Further
particulars regarding this Central Region, 101. — References, 102-103.
CHAPTER 11.
Kegion of the Upper Yangtze (Szeehw'an), 104-119.
SzechWan Province, 104. — Area. Population. Name. Boundaries.
Capital. Other Prefectures, 105. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological
X CONTENTS.
constitution, 106. — Orography, 107. — Climate. Hydrography, 109. —
Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 111. — Population
(People, Races). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 112. — Industry
and Commerce. Highways of communication, 116. — Open Ports. Notes,
117. — References, 118.
CHAPTER III.
Kojjrion or I he Middle Yangtze (Hupoh and Hunau), 120-138.
Hupeh and Hunan Provinces, 120. — 1**. Hupoh : Area. Population.
Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics,
121. — Geological constitution. Orography, 122. — Climate. Hydrography,
123. — Lakes. Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 124. —
Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 125. —
Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 129, — Open Ports.
130. — 2". Hunan: Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other
Prefectures, 131. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution.
Orography, 132. — Hydrography, 133. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural
and Mineral Wealth, 134. — Population (People). Language. Cities and
Principal Centres, 135. — Industry and Commerce, 136. — Highways of
communication. Open Ports, 137. — References, 138.
CHAPTER IV.
Kegion of th<^ Lower Yangtze (Kiangsi, IVganhwei, Kiangsu), 139-100.
Kiangsi, Nganhwei and Kiangsu Provinces, 139. — 1°. Kiaugsi : Area.
Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 140. — Aspect
and Characteristics, Geological constitution. Orography, 141. — Hydro-
graphy, 142. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 142. —
Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 143. — Industry
and Commerce, 145. — Highways of communication. Open Ports. Note.
References, 145. — 2°. Nganhwei : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries.
Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 146. — Geological
constitution. Orography. Climate, 147. — Hydrography. Lakes, 148. — Fauna
and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 149. — Population (People).
Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 150. — Industry and Commerce.
Highways of communication, 151. — Open Ports, 152. — 3°. Kiangsu :
Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 153. —
Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 154. —
Hydrography, 155. — Fauna and Flora, 156. — Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth. Population (People). Language. 157. — Cities and Principal
Centres, 158. — Industry and Commerce, Highways of communication, 163.
— Open Ports. Notes, 164. — References, 165-166.
SECTION in. — THE SOUTHERN REGION, 167-237.
CHAPTER L
The Si-kiang Valley and the Coast-rivers of Fokien and Ch^kiang, 107-173.
Characteristics of this Region, 167. — Provinces comprised in it.
Geological constitution. Orogfriiphy, 168. — Climate. Hydrography, 170.
— References, 173.
' CHAPTER II.
Region of the Ippei* Sl-kli^ng (Yiinnan and Kweichow), 174-108.
Yunnan and Kweichow Provinces, 174. — 1". YUnnan : Area. Population.
Nnme. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 175. — Aspect and Charac-
CONTENTS. XI
teristics. Geological constitution, 177.— Orography. Climate. Hydrography,
178. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 180. —
Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal centres, 181. —
Industry and Commerce, 182. — Open Ports. Note, 183. — 2". Kweichow :
Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 184. —
Aspect and Characteristics. (Geological constitution. Orography, 185. —
Climate. Hydrography, 187. — Agricultunil and Mineral Wealth, 187. —
Population (People}. Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 188.— Industry
and Commerce. Highways of communication, 190. — Note. References, 191-
193.
CHAPTER 111.
Kcffion of the Middle and Lower Si-kian^ (Kwaii^i
and Kwangtung-), 104-210.
Kwangsi and Kwangtung Provinces, 19A. — 1". Kwani^i : Area. Popula-
tion. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 195. — Aspect and
Characteristics. Geological constitution. (>rngraphy. Climate. Hydrography,
196.— Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 198.— Popula-
tion (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 199. — Industry and
Commerce. Highways of communication. Open Ports, 200. — Note, 201. —
2". Kwang-tung: : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other
Prefectures, 202. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution.
Orography, 203. — Climate. Hydrography, 204. — Fauna and Flora.
Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 206. — Population (People). Language.
Towns and Principal Centres, 207. — Note (Hongkong, Macao, Kwang-
chow-wan). Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 211.—
Open Ports, 212. — References, 213-216.
CHAPTER IV.
The Coast Keg-ion (Fokien and ChOkiung-), 2t7-a«S7.
Fokien and Ch^kiang Provinces, 217. — P. Fokien : Area. Population.
Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 218. — Aspect and Charac-
teristics. Geological constitution. Orography. Climate, 219. — Hydrography,
220. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 221. — Popu-
lation (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 222. — Industry
and Commerce. Highways of comnuinication, 225. — Open Ports. Note,
226.-2^. Cliekiang- : Area. l*opulalion. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other
Prefectures, 227. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution.
Orography, 228. — Climate. Hydrography, 229. — Fauna and Flora. Agri-
cultural and Mineral Wealth, 281.- Population (People). Language. Cities
and Principal Centres, 232. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of
communication. Open Ports. Note. 235. — References, 236-237.
SECTION IV. —THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA, 238-294.
Preliminary observation, 238. — 1". (leiieral Notions: Extent of the coast-
line. Its configuration. Seas, 239. — (ieneral remarks on the seas of China
(the Yellow Sea, Eastern China Sea, South-China Sea), 241. — Nature of
the coast, 242. — Coast winds. Winter and Summer Monsoons, 243. —
Cyclones. Continental landstornis. Typhoons, 2'i5. — Fogs. Lighthouses,
buoys and beacons, 2'i(). — Tides, 249. — 2«. The Coast of Chilill : The
Poh-hai. Gulfs. Islands. Ice, 251. — Windy. Nature of the Coast. Ports,
252. — 3". Tlio Coast of Shandiiig : A. The N. W. Coast. B. The Miao-tao
Islands, 253. — C. The Coast of the Shantung Promontory. Bays. Capes,
254. — Islands. Ice.' Wind. Tide. Nature of Coast. Lighthouses, 255. —
Coast-towns (Chefoo, \\ eihaiwei, Tsingtaoj, 250. — 4**. The Coast orKian^-
su : A. The Coast to the N. of the Yangtze. B. The mouth of the Yangtze
^ III
Xn CONTENTS.
and the Port of Shanghai, 261. — Islands and sand-banks. Channels, 262.
— Lighthouses. Tides, 263. — W'oosung Inner and Outer Bars, 264. —
Height of water on Woosung Bars, 265. — Shanghai (Historical sketch.
Population. Industries and Manufactures. Trade. Shipping and Tonnage.
Table of Shipping. Inland Navigation), 266. — C. The Coast to the S. of the
Yangtze, 271. — 5°. The Coast of Ch^kiang : 1°. Bay of Hangchow and its
barrier of Islands, 272. — Lighthouses. 2°. Coast of Chekiang, S. of Hang-
chow Bay, 273. — Bays, 274. — Islands. Lighthouses. Coast-towns, 275.
— 6<>. The Coast of Fokien : Bays. Islands, 276. — Lighthouses. Coast-towns,
278. — 7°. The Coast of Kwangtung: Bays. Islands, 281. — Tides. Currents.
Lighthouses, 283. — Sea-ports (Hongkong, Canton, Macao, Kwangchow-
wan), 284. — Time-zones on the Coast of China. Note, 292. — References,
293-294.
SECTION v. — POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY,
295-485.
CHAPTER I.
4aOvernment and Administi^ation. — Revenue and Expenditure. — Imperial
Maritime Customs. — Army and IVavy, 21K(-3d8.
1**. (Government and AdminlKtration : The Emperor, 295. — The Kmpress.
Manchu Administration, 296. — Central Government, 297. — Provincial
Administration, 301. — Provinces of China and their Capitals, 304. —
Territorial Sub-divisions of the Provinces, 306. — Number of territorial
divisions in the 18 Provinces, 312. — General appellation of Officials.
The Yam^n, 313. — Rank and degrees of Officials. Hereditary reward
for Merit, 314. — 2**. Kevenue and Expeiidlluro : Chinese Currency, 316.
Cash. Sycee. Various kinds of Taels, 317. — Gold equivalent of Haikwan
Tael (1870-1906), 319. — Necessity of uniform Currency. 320. — Revenue
of the Empire. Taxes (land-tax, salt-tax, likin, native Custom dues, opium-tax,
miscellaneous), 321. — Expenditure of the Empire. Foreign Debt, 324. —
3**. Imperial Maritime Customs: Origin and development. Organization, 325.
— Ports and Marts open to Foreign Trade, 326. — Re\enue collected by
I. M. Customs, 327. — Apportionment of Revenue between Foreign and
Home Trade. Ports where trade is most important, 328. — 4". Army and
Navy: Manchu or Imperial Army (The Eight Banners), 329. — Provincial
Forces or Army of the Green Standard, 330. — Irregulars or Braves. The
New Chinese Army scheme, 331. — Reorganization of the Army, 332. —
Effectives of the Provincial Army down to 1904. Navy, 333. — Arsenals and
dockyards. Ports, 334. — References, 335-338.
CHAPTER II.
Population (People). ~ Lanflrua8:es. — Religious. — Rdueation, 339-31>2.
P. Population (People), 339. — Physical and moral characteristics of the Chi-
nese Race, 340. — Aboriginal tribes and remnants of former Races :Lolos, 342.
— Miaotze, Ikias, Hakkas, 343. — Hoklos. Yao or Yu tribe. Sai, Si or Li
tribe, 344. — Mosus (Musus), Lisus. Minkias. Sifans. Distribution of the
Population, 345. — Foreign (Commercial) Population in China. 346. —
2<*. LancHMS^s : Th^ Chinese Language, 347. — Mandarin. Varieties of
Mandarin. Dialects (number of persons conversing in each), 348. — Charac-
teristics of the Chinese Language. Chinese writing, 349. — Dialects and writi ng
of the Aborigines. Chinese Literature, 350. — 3<*. Religions: Confucianism.
Taoism, 351. — Buddhism, 352. — Ancestor worship. Shamanism, 353. —
Catholicism. Catholic Missions in China, 354. — Protestantism, 358. — Pro-
testant Missions to China, 359. — Mahomedanisni, 362. — Judaism, 363. —
CONTENTS. XIU
4®. Education: Old System of Education, 364. — Competitive examinations
and degrees, 3(\b. — Modern System of Education, 367. — Grades of Schools
and Degrees in new System, 368. — Normal and Special Schools. Admi-
nistration of the Schools. Private and Mission Schools, 369. — Old Style
military examinations. References, 370-392.
CHAPTER 111.
.V^ricMiitiii'o, :I93-40I.
Chinese Agriculture, 393. — Methods. Distribution of Crops. V^arious
agricultural products, 394. — Plants cultivated for food, utilized in industry,
395. — Tea. The Poppy-plant, 39(). — The sugar-cane. The cotton plant.
Useful trees, 397. — The Bamboo. Fruit-trees. Domestic animals.
Pisciculture and fishing, 398. — References, 399-401.
CHAPTER IV,
Mining: and Industry, 402-406.
Mining: Coalmines. Iron ore. Copper, 402. — Zinc. Tin. Quicksilver.
Gold. Silver. Argentiferous lead mines. Kerosene. Salt. Mining regulations.
Industry: 403. — Porcelain. Silk. Silk-filatures. Cotton-spinning and wea-
ving mills. Sugar refineries. Arsenals. Mints. Printing establishments,
404. — References, 405-406.
CHAPTER V.
Trade and Commerce, 407-484.
Home Trade, 407. — Trade with the outlying Dependencies. Foreign
Trade. Its Importance, 408. — Annual value of China's Foreign Trade
(1891-1905). Principal l^oreign Countries with which China trades. Annual
value of the Direct Trade with each country (1903-1905), 409. — Principal
Imports from Foreign Countries, 411. — Principal Exports to Foreign
Countries, 412. — Principal Re-exports. Value and Importance of the
principal articles of Trade (cotton piece-goods and yam), 413. — Sorts of
Opium imported. Net Importation into the Principal Ports, 414.— Principal
Exports from China : Silk and Tea. Sorts of silk exported. Total Export
of silk for the past 10 years, 415. — Sorts of Tea exported. Total Export
of Tea for the last 10 years, 416. — Tea: Exportation direct to Foreign
Countries. Principal Marts for export of I'ea, 417. —Share taken by each
Foreign Country in China's Trade. Shipping. Carrying trade between the
Treaty Ports, 418. — Trade of Shanghai (1903-1905), 419. — Traders and
Trading Houses in China. Trade and population of the Open Ports (1903-
1905), 420. — References, 422-424.
CHAPTER VI.
Means of Communiealion, 425-442.
Roads and Bridges, 425. — (iovernment Courier Roads, 426. — Modes
of conveyance and travel. Waterways, 427. — Canals. The Grand Canal,
428. — Railways, 430. — Railway lines completed and working (1907),
431. — Under construction, 433. — Projected, 434. — Postal Service, 435.
— Present TariflF: Imperial Post Office, 436. — Postal Sections and Work,
437. — Telegraphs, 438. — Steamship Companies trading to and from China,
439. — References, 441-442.
CHAPTER VII.
Rise and Progress of tlie Chinese Knipire. — Foreign Relations. —
Chinese Emigration, 44.1-485.
I**. Rise and Progre.ss of I he Chinese Empire. /". The Mythical Period,
443. — //". The Ancient or Legendary Period : 1". The Five Sovereigns.
XIV CONTENTS.
2^. The Three great Emperors (Yao, Shun, YQ), 445. — ///<>. The i? Dy-
nasties : 1". The Primitive Dynasties, 445. — I'he Chinese Imperial Dy-
nasties, Table of, 446. — The Hsia dynasty. The Shang or Yin dynasty,
4i8'. — The Chow dynasty, 449. —2". The Ancient Dynasties : The Ts'in
dynasty, 450. — The Han dynasty, 451. — The Minor Han. I'he Tsin
dynasty, 453. — The Liusung dynasty. J'hc Three Short-lived dynasties,
45/1. — 3«. The Mediaeval dynasties, 455. — I'he T'ang dynasty, 450. — The
Five Ephemeral dynasties. The Sung dynasty, 457. — The Yuen or Mongol
dynasty, 459. — 4^. The Modern dynasties : I'he Ming dynasty. 400. —
The Tats'ing dynast^', 461-471. — 11". Forolarn Relations, 471. — Famous
Travellers to and from China, 472. — Intercourse of Western Powers with
China from the XVI"' century to 1842, p. 473. — Relations of China with
Foreign Powers from 1842 (Treaty of Nanking), 475. — 111". Kmigrnlion
(Chinese abroad), 478. — References, 479-485.
BOOK II.
OUTER DEPENDENCIES.
CHAPTER I.
Manchuria or the Manchu Country, 48(V-.*>08.
Note. Area. Population. Name, 480. — Boundaries. Capital. Provinces
and Prefectural divisions, 487. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological
constitution, 488. — Orography. Climate. Hydrography, 489. — Lakes.
Coast-line, 491. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth,
492. — Population (People), 493. — Language. Religion. Towns and
Principal Centres, 494. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of commu-
nication, 501. — Railways in Manchuria, 503. — The Palisade. Adminis-
tration, 504. — Open Ports, 505. — Historical sketch, 500, — References,
507-508.
CHAPTER II.
Mong'olia or the Mong-ku Country, 509-522.
Area. Population. Name. Boundaries, 509. — Aspect and Characteristics.
Geological constitution, 510. — Orography and Hydrography. Region of
Kobdo and Urga, 511. — Region of the Mongolian Desert or Gobi, 512. —
Region of the Great Khingan (Hsingnan). Ordos Plateau Region, 513.
— Alashan Region. Climate, 514. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and
Mineral Wealth. Population (People), 515. — Religion. Language, 510. —
Tow^ns and Principal Centres, 517. — Industry and Commerce. Highways
of communication, 519. — Postal service (Russian overland^. Administra-
tion, 519. — Army. References, 520-522.
CHAPTER III.
Chinese Turkestan or tlio Now Dominion, also ealloH Siiikiang*, 528-587.
Area. I'opulation. Name, Boundaries, 523. — Prefectural divisions.
Aspect and Characteristics, 524. — (Geological constitution. Orography,
525. — Depressions. Passes. Climate, 520. — Hydrography, 527. — Fauna
and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 528.— The different Regions
and their Towns. 529. — I'opulntion iPeople). Religion. Language. Admi-
nistration. 533. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication,
53'j. — Historical Note. References, 535-537.
CONTENTS. XV
CHAPTER IV.
Tiliel or Sit^nir, 53H-ft57.
Area. Populntion. Name, lioundaries, 538. — Aspect, (ieologicnl consti-
tution. Orography, 53U. — Climatt*, 5U. — Hydrography, 542. — Fauna
and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 545. — Government and
Admini.strative divisions: Kingdom of Tibet, 545.— Kuku-Nor. Population
People and Races). Religion, 547. — Language, 548. — Taxation, tribute
and currency. Army. Towns and l*rincipal Centres, 549. — Industry and
Commerce. Highways of communication, 553. — Postal communication.
Open Trade-marts. Historical Note. Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan. British Rxpe-
dition to Lhasa. 554. — References, 555-557.
List of the Prefectures and Sub-prefectures (Departments aud Districts)
in the 18 Provinces, arranged under their respective Provinces and supple-
mented by the Indendancies administered by a Taot'ai), 558-58L
Prefectures and Sub-prefectures of Manchuria and Chinese Turkestan,
582-585.
Alphabetical List of the Cities, Towns and Open Ports of China and
Dependencies, 586-639.
Appendix L Signification of the Principal Chinese Geographical Terms,
640.
II. China's Foreign Trade in 11K)6, p. 645.
III. Statistics of Protestant Missions in China for the vear ending,
1905, p. 657.
IV. The Woosung Bar, Hwangp'u Conser\'ancy and Approaches
to Shanghai, (iaU.
,, V. Work and Progress of the Imperial Post Office in 1906, p.
661.
Index (alphabetically arranged , r)63.
Corrigenda, 712.
LIST OF MAPS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
In Text.
Fig. Page
1. Skflch-plan illustrating Formation of the Soil of China 2
2. Geological Map of Northern China according to Richthofen,
Pumpelly and A. David 9
3. Rough sketch-plan of the Tpper Hwang-ho 24
4. Sketch-plan showing changes in the course of the Hwang-ho. ... 28
5. Section of the Richthofen M** at their Southernmost Pass. ... 34
<). Loess Plateau of Shansi according to Richthofen 49
7. Section of the Mountains of Western Honan, proceeding from
HwaikMng Fu to Nanyang Fu, 58
8. Map of Northern Chihii and Approaches to Peking 68
9. Plan of Peking, with Index 72
10. Sketch-map of T'ientsin 76
11. Geological Map of Shantung according to Richthofen 81
12. Sketch-plan, Port of Ts'ingtao 85
13. Section of the Mountains from Tatsienlu to the Min River Plain. 108
14. Sketch-plan of Ch'ungk*ing 115
15. Wuch*ang, Hanyang and Hank'ow 126
16. Sketch-plan of Shanghai, with Inset of P'ootung 161
17. Geological sketch-map of the Chinese Provinces bordering on
Tongking, by M. A. Lecl^re 169
18. Approaches to Canton 171
19. Section of Yunnan and Kwangsi Plateaux 176
20. Sketch-plan of Canton and the Pearl River 208
21. Sketch-plan of Foochow and the Min River 220
22. Sketch-plan of Amoy Harbour 224
23. Section of the Pacific Ocean along the 20»»» parallel, N. Lat. ... 240
24. Diagram illustrating the Winter and Summer Monsoons. ... 244
25. Lighthouses on the N. Coast of China 247
26. Lighthouses on the S. Coast of China 248
27. Sketch-plan of the Lower Peh-ho and its Mouth 250
28. Sketch-plan of Chefoo Bay 256
29. Sketch-plan of Weihaiwei Harbour 257
30. Sketch-plan of Kiaochow Bay 259
31. Diagram showing swirl at mouth of Yangtze at flood and ebb
tides 264
32. Shanghai and the Hwangp'u River 264
33. Diagram showing Height of water on the Outer and Inner
Woosung Bars (1897-1902) 205
34. Sketch-plan of Samsa (Sansha) Bay 277
35. Sketch-plan of Hongkong including Kowloon and New Territory. 284
36. Sketch-plan of Macao with Dependencies of Taipa and Colowan. 288
37. Sketch-plan of Kwangchow-wan 290
38. Railway system of Manchuria 502
39. Section of Asia, following Meridian of Lob-Nor and Turfan. ... 540
40. Sketch-map of Southern Tibet 542
41. Height of Water on the Outer and Inner Woosung Bars {1902-
1906) 659
42. Shanghai and the Hwangp'u River tiOO
In Pocket.
1. Large Map of the 18 Provinces, in 7 colours (27 x 21 inches .
2. Physical and Political Map of China and Dependencies, in 5 colours
(15 X 10 A inches).
3. Map of the Hupeh Plain, in 5 colours (9 A x 8 inches).
4. Map of the Lower Yangtze Basin, in 5 colours (9 A x 8 inches).
LIST.
OF STATISTICAL TABLES.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
Area and Population of the Chinese Empire 5
Area and Population of the 18 Provinces 8
Distance (nautical miles) of Yangtze Ports from Shanghai. ... 101
Hank^ow shipping Table 128
Foreign Population of Shanghai 267
Gross and Net Values of the Shanghai Trade (1900-1905) 269
Custom Dues collected at Shanghai (1900-1905) 269
Share of Dues contributed by G. Britain, Germany etc 269
Shanghai shipping Table (1900-1905) 271
Gross and Net V'alues of the Canton Trade (1900-1905) 287
Total Value of junk trade between Hongkong and Macao (1900-
1905) 289
The 10 Ministries or Metropolitan Boards 299
The 8 Viceroyaltics 302
Provinces of China and their Capitals 304
Provincial Government 305
Territorial sub-divisions of the Provinces 306
Number of territorial divisions in the 18 Provinces 312
Insignia of OflFicinl Rnnk 314
The 9 Ranks of hereditary reward for Merit 315
Table exhibiting the sub-divisions of the Tael 31(i
Gold equivalent of the Hnikwan Tael (1870-1906) 319
Revenue of the Chinese Empire 321
Expenditure of the Chinese Empire 324
Ports and Marts open to Foreign 'IVade 326
Customs Revenue (1900-1905) 327
Share of Duties paid by Foreign and by Home Trades 328
Ports where Trade is most important 328
Bimner Ciarrisons in the Provinces 329
Effectives of the Provincial Army down to 190'j 333
Table showing increase of Chinese Population 346
Foreign Trading Houses and 'Traders in China 3'i6,420,654
Population speaking Dialects of the East and South of China. ... 348
Number of Syllables in the various Dialects of China 348
Statistics of Catholic Missions in China, 1906 356
,, ,, ,, ,, in Korea and Japan, 1906 358
Statistics of Protestant Missions in China 359-360; 657-658
M. A. Graduates in each Province, 1903 366
L.L.D. Graduates in each Province, 1904 367
Grades of Schools (New System) 368
Degrees conferred in New System 368
Annual Value of China's Foreign Trade, 1891-1905-1906. ... 409,645
Annual Value of direct trade with each Country, 1903-1905-1906. 409,645
Principal Net Imports from Foreign Countries, 1903-1905-1906. 410,647
Principal Net Exports to Foreign Countries, 1903-1905-1906
Principal Re-exports, 1904-1905-1906. ...
Importation of Cotton piece-goods and yarn
Importation of Cotton yarn
Opium imported
Silk exported for the past 10 years
Tea exported for the past 10 years
412,648
413,649
413,649
414,649
414,650
415,651
416,651
XVIII
LIST OF STATISTICAL TABLES.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
50.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
Tea : Exportation direct to Foreign Countries, 1 905-1 90r).... 417,652
Shipping : Vessels entered and cleared, 1903-1905-1906. ... 418,653
Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports, 1904-1905-1906. 418,653
Shanghai, Gross and Net Value of its Trade, 1903-1905 419
Annual Net Value of the Whole Trade of each Open Fort, 1905-
1906 420,654
Government Courier Roads or Postal Highways 426
Railway Lines, completed and working, 1907 431,432
,, ,, under construction, 1907 433
,, ,, projected, 1907 434
Postal Tariff ; Imperial Post Office, 1907 •. 436
Head and Branch Offices, Imperial Post Office, 1901-1905-1906. 437,661
Postal Sections and Work, 1904-1905-1906 437,661
Telegraph Cables in China 438
Steamship Companies sailing to or from China 439
Coast and Riverine S. S. Companies 440
Imperial. Dynasties of China 446
Emigration Statistics 478
Newchwang : Gross and Net Values of Trade, 1901-1906 499
GEOGRAPHY
OF
THE CHINESE EMPIRE.
INTRODUCTION.
"^CSeoyraphy. — (reography is uothing else than a description of the earth.
The Geography of (-hina will consist therefore in describing that part of Asia
which is called China.
But the description of the earth cannot be made without some preliminary*
notions of geology, that is to say, of the science of the earth, its fonuation, its cons-
titntion and its various modifications. By means of this study we can give a readier
acconnt of the snrface, of the distribntion of [the waters, and also of the fauna and
flora of China.
Formatian of the earth. — Tlio whole universe has been, in its elements,
created by God, that is to say made from nothing by His Almighty Power.
According to the hypothesis the most generally held among scientists, the
sun and its planets formed at first a single nebulous body, that is to say, an enormous
spheroidal mass of gas occupying an immense space.
This mass, animated with a slow movement of rotation, condensed in concentric
rings, tuniing around the common centre in the plane of its equator. Each of the
rings broke up. The fragments, forming in their tarn small spheres, continued, while
condensing, to turn around the principal mass. In this way the planets were formed.
The earth is one of these planets.
Separated from the sun, the earth, continuing to cool, passed slowly from the
gaseous to the liquid state. Blocks of solid matter soon began to float upon its snr-
face, as ice does on the surface of ponds, when the temperature has fallen for some
time below 32 degrees Fah.. Then these blocks fused together, forming like archipela-
goes upon the liquid mass, and incrusted this burning sea, somewhat as in the new egg
the shell hardens although the interior remains fluid.
Modlflcatlons of the criibt of the earth. » But this mass continued to
cool down, and its crust, which is none other than the shell of our globe, remained of
slight thickness. Hence splits and depressions, and when the compressed interior gases
found vent through less resisting parts of the crust, violent eruptions took place. These
covered the crust with volcanic outbursts, or upheaved within it what have been called
the eruptive rocks. This action, intense in the first ages of the earth, continues down
to the present day. Certain portions of the earth rise up, others become depressed :
islands suddenly emerge or disappear; earthquakes shake this or that part of the crust;
volcanoes cast around them fiery- or liquid matter, issuing from the bosom of the
earth.
FormatkNi of new lands. — Simultaneously with this interior work another
went on, and still continues on the exterior of the crust of the earth. As the central
1
CHINBSB EMPIRE.
core of the earth condeDsed by cooling, there occurred a similar condensation of some
of the constituent! of its gaseous envelope. Heav}* mists and abundant rains developed
over the crust an immense sheet of water. This mass, consequent on the never-ending
changes wrought on the surface of the crust, withdrew, now in one cavity, now in
another, thus forming mighty seas above which rose continents.
Upon these continents, as in the seas, living beings subsequently appeared;
plants, fish, birds, and quadrupeds. Some of these still exist, others have disappeared,
leaving their traces beneath the soil. Thanks to these marks, we can discover the age
of such or such strata of the earth. These strata are, in order of age, and beginning by
the oldest :
The Azoic
strata (without trace of life) or primitive,
The Primary
strata,
The Secondary-
strata.
The Tertiary
strata,
The Quaternary
strata.
Igneous and oedlmenlary rocks.— In these layers two kinds of rooks are found:
igneous rocks, of which the Azoic strata are formed, and sedimentary or stratified rocks.
The igneous (or Plutonic) rocks are formed by the solidifying of the exterior
layers of the molten matter : gneiss, mica-schist.
'The sedimentary (or Neptunian) rocks are formed by the disintegration of the
igneous rocks. These debris deposited at the bottom of lakes and seas, together
with the remains of animals, form, througli a process of drying and hardening, new
rocks [clay, sand-stone, limestone] .
This rapid and very incomplete sketch of the formation of the earth will enable
us now to study the formation of the soil of China.
Formation of the soil of China. — China, as we stated in the beginning,
forms a part of Asia, the South-Eastern. From primitive times two portions of Asia
seem to have emerged. In the North, in the region of Irkutsk and extending as far
as Korea, was the continent called Eurasia (formed by Europe and Asia), which soon
continued to the North by Anga-
ra. This continent occupied h
large portion of present Siberia.
In the South, in the present
peninsula of Hindustan, and
extending ,to Australia, was the
land of Gundwana (so called
from the ancient flora of Gpnd-
wana, common to its different
parts). Between these two conti-
nents, occupying consequently
nearly the whole space now
forming China, was the central
Mediterranean sea, called some-
times Thetys (the sea). In the
primitive period,therefore,China,
except Manchuria, the Western
border ot Mongolia and some
rpaitM of Tibt't, vvfts buried be-
Formation of^the soil of China.
[2 Sea. ^ Land.
In the North, Eurasia.
In the South, the land of Gundwana.
Between the two the Central Mediterranean
Sea.
INTRODUCTION. 3
/-^ CSiina in the dilTereiii fireolo^iGal periods. — At the close of the Primary
period, the greatest portion of China emerged, save the Sonth -Western.
During the whole of the Primary' period and the first part of the Secondary
period, China remained nnder water. It then emerged definitively. Snhsequently
c&me foldings and dislocations, which evolved hollows like that of Sungaria, or emerged
in peaks like those of the Altai mountains, TMen-shan, K'nenlun, Nan-shan and Tibet.
Several of these summits, the K'nenlun and Nan-shan for instance, were formerly
very high, but erosion has greatly lessened them. Of the sedimentary coating that
covered the high summits, there remain but fragments in the less elevated parts, as
in the South- Western portion of China.
After the first half of the Secondary period, the geological constitution of China
was nearly completed. No trace is to be found of jura-limestone and chalk formations,
such as were formed elsewhere at the end of the Secondary period.
During the Tertiary and Quaternary period, China, now completely out of water,
underwent but modifications of its surface, and developed no new rocks.
Formatioo of coal and sand-6tone. — At the close of the Primary period,
immense deposits of coal formed along the coasts of Eurasia and Gundwana, in the
place now occupied by Yiinnan, Kweichow, Honan, Shensi and Shan si.
Great lakes occupied a portion of Eastern China from the Secondary period.
When these disappeared, they left behind a thick bed of rocks deposited in their depths;
to these rocks has been given the name of sand-stone, so abundant still in many pla-
ces of China, and particularly in Szechw*an and tliroughout the whole of Southern
China.
Modifications ivrou^iit on tiie surface. — At the same time the mountain-
tops were attacked by glaciers, winds, frosts and torrents, and the debris borne away ;
lakes were filled, the gentler hills became plains, islands like Shantung were joined
tog«*ther, and there were deposited in the North those thick layers of yellow and
fertile earth, called loess, which we shall have more than once occasion to speak about.
Volcanic Action and Eruptions. — Volcanic action does not seem to have
been intense. There remain traces of it however in the neighbourhood of Nanking, in
the North of Peking, in some regions of Mongolia and in Tibet.
The eruptive rocks play a more important part. These rocks, the principal of
which are porphyry and granite, were spread over a great part of China. The moun-
tains of Fokien, for instance, are mostly composed of porphyry. «
Present s^olo^ical action. — This work of geological formation still goes on
at the present day, and is more especially to be seen at the mouths of the great rivers
where new lands, called deltas, are continually forming.
Predominant Roolui of tlie Cliinese soil. — From what has been said upon
the geological formation of China, it is easy to account for the rocks that predominate.
For the most part the strata are either Primary or Secondary. The Azoic strata are
scarcely represented, covered over as they are by the others. Coal takes up a large
place, and loess covers a vast portion of Northern China, extending from Kansu to
Shantung and Kiangsu.
A peculiar kind of limestone, known as China limestone, and formed before the
coal-beds, is found all over China. Its thickness is at times 10,000 ft. and sometimes
more. It is the rock the most widely diffused throughout China.
Nevr modifications wrou^pht on tiie surface of Oliina. — It may be said
in general, that the surface of China slopes from West to East, the highest peaks being
found in Tibet and the vast low-lying plains in the East. This slope is moreover
4 CHIKBSB BMPIRB.
clearly indicated, by the general direction of the great rivers. But it has not always
been thos. Many actoal monntain-masses : Tibet, Szechw'an, Tiinnan, were onoe great
table-lands, that sloped in course of time to the East. It is thns thst the same layer
of Tocia is fonnd in the sea, on the coasts of Ton^king, and at an elevation of 6500 ft. in
Yunnan and Szechw^an. Other parts, now immense plains, were formerly mountains,
but the unceasing action of alluvion-charged rivers, and sand-laden winds grsdually
filled up the valleys, leaving nothing henceforth emerging but the highest peaks. The
table-lands were also vigourou&ly attacked by the combined action of climate and
water which constantly eroded and disintegrated them. Mighty glaciers, bke those
nowadays in Tibet and Ea«>tem Turkestan, dug out deep valleys; long frosts rent the
rocks; and the water, to find an issue, worked a passage through the least resisting
parts of the strata.
Lakes, encircled by a girdle of rocks, deposited there heavy alluvion, and then
filling up, overllowed their low banks. This action of the wster gradually wore way
the rocks, rapids dug deep gorges, until at last the lakes were drained, and left behind
a fertile soil, which brought prosperity to its possessors.
FWvtt MKl faoMi •£ ttee first a^es. — What were the pnmitive fauna and
flora of China ? This we can learn by studying its rocks. Suffice it to state that copious
vegetation once covered its high peaks; it is this vegetation which, buried in the
depths of the earth, has formed the present coal-fields. Animals, much larger than
these of to-day, among others the mammoth, inhabited the country.
The lln* HriMbitaata^f Ohina. THeir place ef eri^in. — \l*ho were the
first inhabitants of China ? In the present state of science, an answer to this question
is impossible. Did they come from the S.-W. by Burma ? From the X., by the great
plain of Siberia, or from the N. W. by the valley of the Hwang-ho? In the absence of
trustworthy documents, we will follow the Chinese traditions, according to which the
hundred familiet, the blaek-haired racf, came from the West.
THe llrst rMTllP iaJwhitBatiD (according to their ancient descriptive chara-
cters). — When the race first entered the country, they found it still covered with
swamps, and transformed it little by little into agricultural land. They had also to
dwell temporarily in mountain caves, and wage constaat war against wild animals : the
lion, rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, panther, bear, wolf etc... all these being then more
numerous than now. They came likewise into contact with a half- savage population,
frequently hostile, ^ith whom they had at times to dwell together, but were compelled
oftener to fight. Several of these races are still extant in China, in the S. especially :
the Lolos, and the Hiao-tze. Others, the I, seem to have been driven Northwards and
thence to have crossed over to America.
What were the life, manners, language, and religion of these first Chinese?
They were nomads, shepherds and hunters, but settled down gradually and cultivated
the soil. Covered at first with the skins of wild beasts, they learned later on to ma-
nufacture cloth and make garments.
Their food was meat and afterwards grain, when they became tillers of the soiL
They had a knowledge of copper and knew also how to work in wood. Shellf^ soon
replacetl by ingots of copper fulfilled the office of money. They were fond of noise,
dancing, and music. To preserve the memory of great events, they made knots on
cords, and later on, notches on sticks. Their writing first consisted of rude outlines.
At their head was a chieftain, whom they considered as the medium between heaven
and earth. Around him gathered several clans. The laws were very harsh and paren-
tal authority reigned supreme in the family.
Their religion recognized and honoured a Supreme Lord. They paid great
INTRODUCTION. 5
attention to natural phenomena, and tried thereby to ascertain the will of heaven; for
this purpose, they also applied fire to the carapace of the tortoise, and tried to discover
the future by the lines that resulted therefrom. They feared the influence of evil genii.
They did not bury their dead, but wrapping them up in bundles of hay, watched over
them until decomposition set in.
Actual China. — Having briefly examined ancient China, how its soil was
formed and shaped, and what were its first inhabitants, it now remains for us to study
what actual China is.
Sitnatioii. — By the Chinese Empire is understood all that part of Asia which V
lies between 53* and 10** N. latitude, proceeding from N. to S., and going from W. to
E., the whole region extending between the 74" and 134" longitude E. from Greenwich.
Divisions. — In this vast Empire, certain parts are governed more or less
immediately by the Emperor of China. Some are merely tributary states. The most
important region is caUed CHINA PROPER, and compHspa t.hfl ]« Pv^«.;»^^a It
is this latter whicli will be the principal theme of the present work. Mangjuiria,
Mojigolia, Eastern_Turkestan or the New Territory (Sinkiang) and Ti^t will afterwards
be studied, each in turn.
Boundaries. — China is bounded on the
N. and N.W. - By Siberia,
W. — Bj^ Russian Turkestan,
S.W. — By Hindustan,
S. and E. — By Tongking and the Pacific Ocean,
N.E. — By Korea.
Area and Population. — The population of the Chinese Empire, according to
jtUft- latest offioiai <!>onoiio inken in^\jj^h said to amount to 130,000,000 inhabitants.
These are distributed over the 4,278,352 square miles which form the country, as follows :
Population. Square miles. /
China Proper (i.e. the 18 Provinces) 410,000,000. 1 ,532,800.
Manchuria 8,500,000. 303,700.
Mongolia 2,580,000. 1,307,953.
Chinese Turkestan 1,200,000. 550,579.
Tibet 6,430,000. 463,320.
Reasons of the unequal distribution of inhabitants. — The climate, the
mountainous character of the country, the nature of the soil, explain this unequal distri-
bution of inhabitants in the different parts of China, as we shall see further on, when
studying in detail each of its Provinces. Manchuria, cold and hilly, is far from affording
its people the resources which abound throughout the rich and sunny plains of the
J 8 Provinces. Mongolia and Turkestan, frozen in Winter, excessively hot in Summer,
and swept continually by sand-storms exhibit but few fertile spots, wherein the bare
necessaries of life are found. Tibet, with its snow-capped summits, is a fit abode for man
only in those deep valleys where milder air is to be found.
Diaiculty of a collective vieiv. — It is by examining each of these countries /
in detail, that we can study their mountains, plains, table-lands, the distribution
of their waters, their climate, resources, and administration, in a word, everything
which constitutes tlieir geography. Their different features var>' too much, and
thereby hinder anything like a general view.
Situdy of the 18 Provinces. — The 18 Provinces forming the most important
part of the Empire will be the object of a more special btudy.
GU1NB8E EMPIRE.
References :
S. W. WUliams. — The Middle KiDgdom.
London, 1883.
Ooitlier.— Bibliotheca »iuica. Paris, 1904,
1905...
- Oordjer. — Les Etudes chinoises. Leide,
1895, 1898, 1003.
T'oung-pao (from ]8l»0;.
Bulletin du Comitc de TAsie francaiso.
Kevae frau^aiiM; d*exploration.
La Geographic.
Anuales de Geographic.
Geographical Journal.
RictaUiolen. — China. Berlin, 1877 83.
' Soulier. — Hi8tor>* of China.
Dii Halde. — Description fjrcogi-aphiquc
de I'empire de la Chine. Paris, 1735.
Mimoiresconcemant rhi8toire4e8 sciences,
les arts etc. cles Chinois. Paris, 1776.
Grosier. ^ Description gin^rale de la
Chine. Paris, 1818-1820.
J.F.Davto.— The Chinese. London, 1857.
FnuUiler. — Cliinc modeme. Paris, 1853.
Wiener. — Textes historiques. Hokien
fou, 1903 (Introdnction).
Meany. —Chinese Miscell. Shanghai, 1895,
9G, 99, 1905.
Ball. — Things Cliinese, 1905.
Giles. — A glossary of reference.
Pr.KuropatkiiB.— The orography of Asia
((ii'og. Journal. 1904 p. 176).^
For fjeuloijij :
Richibofeu. — China, and also : Letters.
Shanghai, 1873. |
Sucs0. — La face do la terre. Parib, 1897 !
et 1900. (2^ part cli. VII, VIII et XII S'l '
part, ch. III).
de Lappnreiil. — Lemons de geufcraphio ■
physique. Parin, 181H> (2*> le^on : Les i
terres asiatiqucH). |
Leprince-Kin^uet. — Ktude gvologique ■
sur le Nord de la Chine. PariB, 1001. ;
Leel^rc. — Etude goologiquo et miniere |
des provinces chinoi-ses voisinea dn Ton- •
kin. Parib, 1902.
Piunpelly. — (teological researches in
Chuia.
TieRseu — China, das Ueiche der achtzehn
Provinzen. Erster Teil. Die allgemeiue
geograpliie des Landes. Ikrlin, 1902.
Oh the Chinese Empire^ see also passim :
Echo de Chine, North-China Daily News,
China Review, Journal aHiatique,Biilletiu
de I'Ecole fran^aise d'Extrf*me-Orient,
Far Eastern Review, Ost Asia, Chine et
liflgique....
BOOK I.
CHINA PROPER
OR
THE EIGHTEEN PROVINCES
GENEEAL NOTIONS.
Ifaiues applied to tlie oountry and Its people. — We :
shall call the principal part of this vast Empire China proper \
or the 18 provinces, for such is the division that prevails at the ;
present day. The country is also called Ohina, presumably on \
account of the Ts^in ^ dynasty, under which it became better \
known to the nations of the West. This name underwent various '
tranformations such as : Jin, Chin, Sina, China. The Romans
called it Serica or the silk-producing land. In the Middle-Ages,
it received the name of Cathay. It is also known as the 3iiddie
KingtUnn (Ghung-kwoh rp g), this name being applied by the
Chinese to the central part of their country ; and as the Fiowerp
Kingdom (Hwa-kwoh |jlB). The Chinese are often called Hanr
fen (^ A)« ^^^ o^ H^^) ^h^^ being the name of a celebrated
dynasty.
SUnatlon.— China JProper lies between 18® and 43® North
Latitude, and extends from 98® to 122® longitude East from
Greenwich.
Boundaries. — China proper is bounded on the
N. By Mongolia,
W. By Chinese Turkestan and Tibet,
8.W. By Burma,
S. By Tongking % jjf and the Gulf of Tongking,
8
BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINCES.
8.E. By th§ South China Sea,
E. By the Easterfi Sea,
N.E. By the Yellow Sea, the Gulf of Chihli g[ H,
and by Manchuria.
fflimpe. — China is shaped like a fan, the handle of which
would be N.W. Kansu "g* J|f, and the semicircular edge, the
coast-line with two horns standing out 'at the two extremities.
To the N.E., is the Shantung ilj jK Promontory, and to the"
S.E., that of Leichow Fu ^ ^ ^, terminating in the sea by
the island of Hainan ft^ ^.
Area and Population. — The area of CFUna JPraper is
1,532,800 square miles, and its population 410 000 000 inhabi-
tants, distributed as follows, according to the oflicial census of
1902.
AREA AND POPULATION.
Provinces.
1
Area in
Population.
Persons
Square mii«es.
Per sq. mii,e.
Chekiang H jL
36 680 1
II 5«o 000
310
Chihli K 9k
115 830
20 930 000
180
Fokien jS }i
46 332
22 870 000
492
Ilonaii flr Jti
1 67 954
25 317 820
373
Hunaii M n
83398
22 169 000
265
Hupeh « «
71 428
35 280 000
495
Kansu -fr ft
125 483
10 386 OCX)
82
Kiangsi {£ JS
69498
26 532 000
382
Kiangsu fi |||
38 610
23 980 230
620
Kwangsi Jft JS
. 77 220
5 142 000
66
Kwangtung Jf| fH
100 000
31 865 200
318
Kweichow It^
67 182
7 650 000
114
Nganhwei* $ ffi
54826
23 672 300
432
Shansi ^| |f
81 853
12 200 000
149
Shantung ^ ^
55984
38 247 900
683
Shensi Hfi f|
75 290
8 450 000
112
Szechw'au E9 jll
218 533
68 724 800
314
Yiinnan ( M
146 718
12 721 500
i
86
• Also written "Auhiii" aud "Auhwei".
GBNBRAL NOTIONS.
It may be seen from the above tableau that the largest
Provinces are those of Szechw'an ajid Yunnan, and the smallest
one, that of Ch^kiang. The Provinces of greatest population are
those of Szechw'an and Shantung, Kwangsi has the least num-
ber of inhabitants. It is in Shantung and Kiangsu that the
population is most dense, while it is thinnest in Kwangsi. Gene-
rally speaking, the N. W. and S. W. Provinces are those in
which the inhabitants are the least numerous. This arises
-^--O)
GEOLOGICAL MAP OF NORTHERN CHINA.
According to Richthofen, Pumpblly and A. David
^ [I
AUavion. Yellow earth. Red alluvion Paleozoic. Metamor- Volcanic. Carboni-
of A. David. phic. ftrous.
10 BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINGBB.
principally from the mountainous and less fertile nature of the
country, and also from the various Mahomedan rebellions, which
overran these regions. In regard to mining prospects, as we
shall see subsequently, those latter are the richest in mineral
deposits. Industry, perhaps, will give them a new lease ot
life and activity, which will place them for wealth in equal
rank whith the others. These abound especially in agricultural
productions.
Geological oousftltutlon. — We have seen above how
the formation of the soil of the Chinese empire was effected.
It is especially in the N. W. and in the W. that China has
undergone the greatest upheaval. In the S. of the Yangtze-
kiang ^ -^ 2C) ^^^ ^^^^ calcareous table-land developed there,
sloped towards the E. sinking down however towards its centre,
in the portion occupied by the Siang-kiang jfB 2C, a tributary
of the Yangtze-kiang, and by several of the tributaries of the
Si-kiang fg f[]^ : the Liu-kiang ^ (£, Yuh-kiang ^ Jt, and
Tso-kiang ^ f£.
This calcareous table-land, nowadays much intersected
by the rivers that flow through it, offers the most varied and
fantastic features : table-lands, mountains, peaks^ spurs, conical-
shaped hills, pinnacles, and castellated forms. The parts that
have offered the greatest resistance to the work of erosion are
limestone, sand-stone, clay and the eruptive rocks. Those com-
posed of slate, on the contrary, have been deeply indented, and in
places completely eaten away by erosion. In the Western part
of this region are abundant deposits of coal, occupying a qua-
drilateral, whose corners are Laok'ai ^ pg, Yunnan Fu :p ^ ^,
Tungchw'an Fu Jjg^ )\\ }^ and Kweiyang Fu jH ^ jj^.
The coast region of Kwantung g^ 3^, Fokien jjg |^,
and Ch6kiang j^ f£ presents quite a different geological com-
position and belongs to another period. It is in great part
composed of granite and porphyry, the granite prevailing along
the coasts. Several islands are of volcanic formation.
To the N. of the Yangtze-kiang j^ ^ 2C) ^^^^ geological cons-
titution varies. In the N. W. the great upheavals, half covered
with a layer of loess, prevail. They continue Eastwards, sloping
down towards an immense alluvial plain^ which partially
encloses Shantung [1| ;^, formerly an island, composed of azoic
and primary rocks.
Oroi^rapby or JMIouulaln MjsteiuM. — Tiic massive and
elevated table-land of Tibet forms the centre or backbone from
which all the mountains of China branch off throughout the
country.
GENBRAL NOTIONS. 11
To the yarth, the EaHem - Mfuetdtm % ^ throwing out
numerous chains into Kansu "^ Jf", and splitting up towards
the E. into 3 principal systems :
1^ The AloBhan (Holan-shan 5K H ill) I'ange, running
Norlh^Eastwards through the Ordos plateau into the hend of the
Hwang-ho |^ fpf, then continuing through the Shansi il| |f
plateau, the In-shan f^ ^J mountains and Inner Hsingngan ^
^. The Alashan range attains towards the South an elevation
of more than 9800 ft. The Ordos plateau averaging in height
from 4,900 to 5,200 ft.,, slopes down in its Northward part.
The Shansi plateau, whose average height is from 6,500
to 8,000 feet, attains towards the N. an elevation of 11,500 ft.
The In-shan mountains extend S. E. of Mongolia and separate
it from China. We shall deal with them when describing this
high table-land.
To this system may be attached the Kansu '^^M mountains,
N. of the Ku-ku Nor region, their elevation frequently sur-
passing 16,400 feet. The range here inclines from the N. W.
towards the S. E..
2^. The Bastern K^ueniun ^ ^. properly so-called. This
range separates the basin of the Hwang-ho |^ ^ from that of
the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ iL, and takes successively, as it runs
from W. to E. the names of the Sik'ing shan |f j^ (Ij, Ts'inling-
shan l^*^ lU, Funiu-shan >^ ^{i ^J and Hwaiyang-shan fH ^
lij. These mountains have a descending slope from W. to E.
and attain an elevation of 13,000 feet, in several parts of the
Ts'inling, whose average height is about 6,500 feet. They rise
again to the same elevation in the Funiu range, which averages
only 2,600 feet in height. Further on, to the Eastward, they can be
easily crossed in the Hwaiyang range, which attains an average
elevation of 3,200 feet, and has a few peaks.double this altitude.
As far as the Hwai-shan range, the K^uenlun mountains form
a strong barrier between the Hwang-ho and Yangtze rivers.
These various chains cannot be crossed except near their extre-
mities, and the passes over them are all very steep.
S^" The Mh^Bhun % il| and KMung % f| ranges. The
12 BOOK I. THESIS PR0VINCB9.
former runs along the Northern limit of Szechw'an, the second
separates the Han-ho ^ fpf from the Yangtze-kiang ^^fL^ The
Min-shan attains an average elevation of 8,200 feet, and rises even
higher as it advances Westwards. The Kiulung has an average
height of 11,400 ft. Between these two mountains, there is
but one pass, that which the Kialing-kiang ^ ^ it has chosen
and whereby it enters Szechw'an gg j||.
Iii the Centre we find tjte high taJde-land of Sseechu^au,
or rather of Ch'<^ngtu ^ ^, composed of red sand-stone, excee-
dingly fertile. It reaches in elevation about 1,640 ft, and is sur-
rounded on the N.,E., and principally on the W., by high moun-
tains. These rise to an elevation of 19,680 ft and incline East-
wards as may be observed by the course of the rivers rising in
their midst. Their passes are diflicult. The principal one is
that of Tats'ienlu 4T ^ jjt^ near Pat'ang Q j|f.
Zn the South, the mountains of Eastern Szechw'an |B )\\
run from the N. W. to the S. E. and continue towards the W. of
Yunnan ^ '^, where they expand to the N. and E. into the
immense tabie-latids of YUniian, Kweichofv jH #| and Kwangmi
Jjl H . All three slope gradually from W. to E.. The Yunnan
plateau is the highest, and reaches an average elevation of
7,600 ft. while those of Kweichow and Kwangsi attain only
4200 ft. and 1000 ft, respectively. \
These 3 table-lands continue between the Si-kiang "^ Jt
and the Yangtze-kiang in the form of hills, the elevation of which
seldom exceeds 6000 ft. Wc shall call them the Nati-slum f^
ill or Southern inountains, a rather irregular mass, running
at first from N. W. to E., and which finally takes at the E.,
a North-Eastern and South-Western direction. The Nan-shan,
though not a verj^ high range, forms to some extent, a barrier
between the basin of the Yangtze-kiang and that of the Si-kiang.
Three principal passes unite the 2 basins. The Kwei-Ung ;g|
^ pass, between Kwei-lin ;g j^ and the valley of the Siang-
kiang Jffl ttl the Chel^-Ung jg ^ pass, between the basin of
the Siang-kiang and tho PeUkiaiig 4b it, u tributary of
GENERAL NOTIONS. 13
the Si-kiang; the Mei-Uno ^^ pass, between the basin of the
Kiang-si ^ |g and the Pei-kiang.
Otlier Systems. — Besides the above systems, which cover
nearly the whole of China, there Qy« 9 ^i^^^ ^'"^portftnt ^^^j"^^
extending along the coast, one to the South, and the other to
the North, forming the Shantung ^Ij jg promontory.
1® The TayU'Uno ^ J^ -ft covers a great part of Fokien
jjg ^ and of Ch^kiang j^ Ql- "^^^ range runs parallel with
the coast, North-East and South-West, and forms the boundary
line between these two Provinces. Its elevation ranges from
6500 ft to 9800 ft. The geological constitution of these moun-
tains is porphyry and granite.
2® The Shantutig ^ '^ hills are formed by several groups,
whose highest peak, the T'ai-shan ^ [Ij, attains 5,060 feet in
height. Gneiss and granite abound in them, and their passes
are less steep than those of the «Yii-ling. We shall examine
these mountains more in detail, their structure and their divi-
sion, when describing the Provinces in which they are found.
Htstorlcal or Sacred mountains. — Let us mention,
before concluding the orography of China, its 5 Sacred Mountains,
(Wu Toh 3Li^) famous in the annals of the country. These are
the following : the J^ai-shan ^ [I], in Shantung [Ij jg ; Hang-
Shan ^gUj, in Shansi lU||; Sung^shan ^ |1|, in Honan fp) ft' ;
Hwarshan ^ ^], in Shensi ^ |||; Hen^'Shan ^ [Ij, in Hunan
SB *•
Several other mountains are also famous. The principal are:
ihe S peaks of Boherla, near Atuntze, N. W. of Yiinnan ^ ^ ;
Ngintielrshan (ft ^ llj> in Western Szechw'an Q )\\ ; Wmfai-
Shan 3S1 il llj, in the N. of Shansi |1| |f.
Plains. — The Chreat Flain lies to the N. E. of China, and
occupies the greater part of Chihli jf; ^, Honan frj '^, Ngan-
hwei ^ ^, Kiangsu jx. |i| ^^^ Shantung ^j 3^. It is slightly
undulated and is of alluvial or loess formation.
Besides the Great Plain, there are others of lesser impor-
tance, the principal of which are : the Tungt4ng Lake plain j^ ;g,
that of Hank'ow 3| D and of the P'oyang Lake |^ ^, all of which
14 BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINCES.
are situated in the Yangtze ^^ valley. The plains of Hangchow
Fu lit M /j¥ And of Canton are much less important.
Climate. — Speaking in general, it may be said that China
enjoys two quite distinct seasons : 1® Thai produced by the
North-winds. This becomes more rigourous as one advances
Northwards. The weather is generally dry when dust-storms
prevail over the plains of the North. It lasts from November to
April. 2"^ That remOUng from the Southerpirfvinde. The chief
features of this season arc its excessive heat, which is moister
and more unhealthy along the coasts, while in the interior, it
is greater, but healthier and less depressing. Rain falls fre-
quently during this season and rivers overflow their banks.
Betiveen theee 2 Seasons are a short Spring and Autumn.
The winds change their direction and the temperature is un-
steady. Spring is generally ushered in by spells of increasing
warmth; Autumn, on the contrary, is mild and agreeable, and
lasts from the end of September till the middle of November.
At T^ientsin ^fftjff the thermometer falls in Winter to — 4
Fahrenheit, and rises in Summer to 100 F..
At Shanghai J^^ it reaches in Winter 17?5 or occasionally
10^5 F. and rises in Summer to 96®5, and sometimes to 102* P..
At CkMfiton it rarely falls in Winter below 32** F., while in
Summer the maximum varies from 96?8 to 100^4 F..
Taken on the whole, China enjoys a rather dry climate,
that is, it rains less there than in other climates lying within
the same limits of latitude. Szechw'an |S )\\ and the neigh-
bouring regions : lower Yunnan ^ ^, Kweichow J( ^, the
South of Kansu "H* 'Jfl and of Shensi Jgf^ |f are however exce-
ptions, the climate of these Provinces being foggy and rainy.
These features of the climate of China are especially due
to its situation, on the South of the vast and lofty table-land of
Mongolia. Hot air tends by its nature to ascend to the higher
regions of the atmosphere, while cold air, on the contrary, tends
to descend. In Winter, the high table-land of Mongolia, deprived
of the warmth of the sun, pours its cold air upon the regions
of China that are less elevated and whose air is warmer ; there
is then pradimd a current of air coming from the N.. In
^ummer|.^jii^Hbpntrary, the sands of Mongolia are heated by
pro^md a (
GENERAL NOTIONS. 15
the sun. They are thus covered by a warmer layer of air
than that of China, cooled by its rivers and the sea that bathes
it. A current then sets in from the 8.. As the sea changes
its temperature more slowly than the land, the coasts of China
undergo less variation in their climate than the interior.
These two great movements, bear also close relation to
the variations of the atmospheric pressure, and belong in fact to
the great phenomenon of the monsoons, to which the whole
Asiatic continent is subject.
Kydroffrapliy* — No country in the world is so well
watered as China. Her river system, like her mountain system, /
is intimately connected with Tibet. Her rivers rise there like !
her mountains and run in a West to Easterly direction. China\
poMesses 3 great rivers.
In the Northf the Hwang^ho (YtUmv Biver ^ ^)^ which
rises South of the Ku-ku Nor or Ts^ing-hai ^ j(|, takes an
extensive Northerly sweep round the Ortos plateau, forms the
Western boundary of the Shansi |]j |g plateau, and flows into
the Gulf of Chihli g ^. Its total length is about^^OO miles.
In the Centre, the Tangtze^kiang ^ ^ fL (Yang Kingdom
river), called also the Blue Biver. The Yangtze rises to the S.
of the Hwang-ho, and runs at first Southward, under the name of
the Kinsha-kiang (Golden sand river ^tJ?tt)» ^l^en takes a North
Easterly direction, leaving to the North-West the Szechw*an
IS/ll plateau, and flows into the Tung-hai y^^ or Eastern Sea,
a little to the North of Shanghai J:^. Its length isj,200jniles.
In the 8&uth, the Si^-kiang (Western river "gf ^), which
rises in the Yunnan ^ |^ plateau, and empties itself near Can-
ton into the South China Sea, after a course of ^,250 miles.
Of the m<fu>r rivers, which water through themselves, or
through their tributaries, the greater part of China, the vnost
important are the 3 following :
!• The Beh-ho (White river jQ fpf) rising in Mongolia,
runs through the Chihli £ j^ Province and flows into the Gulf
of Chihli.
2** The Bwei-'ho JUfpf which drains the Provinces of Honan
Jf ^ and Nganhwei ^ jK and flows into the Hungtseh lake
mm-
16 BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINCES.
3" The jmnrh'^'^W TfliC* which flows through Fokien j0j^,
and empties its waters into the China Sea, N. of Formosa.
The Mekmkn or lAxnH^aug'liiang f| t^ jT ^"^ ^^^ Sahveen
or L'H'kiang }jj[ JJ, are also important streams, but they drain ^ •■
only the lower and less considerable part of Yunnan ^ |{f. ^
. Of all these rivers, the Yat^f'tze ^ -^ is by far the most , :I
important, being an excellent water highway of communication.
Tfie Si'kiatiff ||g f£ olYers a good netw^ork of navigable chan-
nels but of less limited extent. The Htvang-ho H fpf is navigable ' -
only in some parts. The waters of all three, rise exceedingly in m
Summer when heavy rains fall, and the snows melt on the
mountain sides. Thp waters of the Yangtze then rise to 30, 45 i'
and even to 80 feet abt>ve the ordinary level, transforming •
marshes and even simple ponds into immense lakes. * :
liakes. — The principal lakes are found in the Yangtze
valley, and are the following : the Tufiglfifig ^ Jj^ lake, in
Hunan ^ "^ ; the JP'oyang % % lake, in Kiangsi iQ B ; the
T^aihn ;fc jjj J"^ Kiangsu it j||.
To the N. of the Yangtze-kiang, the most important is the
Ilungtseh ^ 3» which lies partly in Nganhwei ^ ^^ partly in
Kiangsu 2C |$- 1\\\^ latter Province is the one that possesses
the greatest number of lakes and water-courses. Let us mention
also the Utkes of the tabte-land of YHnnan g |(f , the two prin-
cipal of which lie, one near the town of YQnnan Fu .^ "^ ||Ef,
the other near Tali Fu ;fc g )flf.
Coast-line. — The coast is low and straight along the
Chihli jg IJk Province, but indented and abrupt along the Shan-
tung [Ij ^ Promontory, while it falls again to a low level and
almost straightens out till it reaches Ch^kiang j^ f£. From
Cht^kiang to the Gulf of Tongking ]ft ^, it is very steep,
indented and studded with numerous islets. It is here and along
Shantung, that the finest and deepest bays are found, and facilities
afforded for opening well protected and promising ports.
. Fauna and Flora. — As the fauna and flora of a
country bear close relation to its climate and soil, we shall finr*.
the animals and vegetation of China varying accordiner to both.
I
OBNERAL NOTIONS. 17
The lower portions of the Southern region alone possess a
tropical climate, and consequently the fauna and flora of
the tropics. The valley of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ iL,
although very warm in Summer, is too cold in Winter for the
animals and plants of the tropical region to live there. Still
less can they live in the region of the Hwang-ho JJfpf, covered
as it is during several Winter months with ice and snow, espe-
cially in the high mountains of the W.. We shall study sepa-
rately, the fauna and flora of each of these regions. A few words
only on the principal animals and vegetation of China, and
how they are divided.
Fauna. — Wild animalB* Neither the lion, elephant
(except in Southern Yunnan H ^) or rhinoceros, are met with
in China. The tiger, panther and bear infest the mountainous
regions. The wild bear, the Wolf and the fox abound through-
out the country. Several varieties of monkeys are found in the
regions bordering on Tibet. In the South-Eastern mountains
near Tibet, the yak or grunting-ox exists.
There are also in China several varieties of deer, the camel
and wild-ass (in the regions bordering on Tibet), the hare, the
rat, the gerboa etc.
IHnnesHe amlmais* China's domestic animals are princi-
pally the horse, ass, mule, camel, cow, zebu or humped ox,
water-buffalo, yak, sheep, goat, dog, cat, pig, rabbit etc...
Birds. There are a great number of birds, perhaps more
than in other countries. About 800 species are indigenous to
the country. The principal are the eagle, vulture, crow, magpie,
and pheasant, and among the tame birds, the duck, goose,
hen and pigeon.
BeptUes. The large and venomous kinds of reptiles are
rarely encountered, except in Kwangsi Jj| |f and Kweichow
jfcjHi- Various kinds of turtle and the salamander abound in
fresh and salt water.
lUh. Fish of various kinds are very plentiful, both in
the numerous inland lakes and rivers, as well as on the sea-
coast, and furnish excellent food for the people. China has no
lobsters but instead has an abundant supply of shrimps and
fresh- water crabs.
18 BOOK I. THE 18 PROYINGBS.
Floim. — Xn the Narihem reffUm, or that of the Hwang-
ho ^ }^, the Winter is generally too severe to allow the
development of perennial tropical vegetation ; however a good
number of annual (living only a year or a season) plants proper
to the tropics are raised, such as cotton, rice and sesamum. The
vegetation of this region is, in general, poor and little diversified.
The principal crops produced are indian-corn, millet, sorghum,
buckwheat, peas and wheat. The trees are few and include the
poplar, willow and pine. (The bamboo is not indigenous to
this region^ it being never found growing wild.) Fruit-trees
abound especially in Shantung |lj iK, and in the Western
Provinces. The principal are the peachy pear, and apple-trees.
The apricot, chestnut walnut and cherry-trees are also found.
(The persimmon and plum-tree are imported from the South.)
Jn the CentrtU regUm, that of the Yangtze m 7, the Winter
being generally milder, more varieties come to maturity.
Perennial tropical plants are however found only exceptionally
in some well shaded parts of Szechw^an \Bi)\\ and Hunan jgD f|f .
In this region are found the bamboo, the persimmon or date-plum,
the orange, the tea-plant and the camphor-tree. Rice and cotton
are cultivated throughout all the lowlands. Here also flourish
the gum, tallow, wax and varnish-trees, with the mulberry so
dear to the silk-worm. It has but one kind of palm-tree which
is indigenous.
Jn the Southern reffUm, that of the Si-kiang "g 2t, tropical
vegetation makes its appearance, though it is confined to the
lowlands. Summer rains are more frequent, and vegetation
luxuriant, without being however much diversified. The charac-
teristic plants are the sugar-cane, the banana and palm-trees,
the lichee, pine-apple, ebony, mahogany and teak-wood trees.
I>ifliuiioii of tlie Population. — From what has been
said so far, it is easy to see that the regions, which offer the
most favourable conditions of existence, are the Yangtze ^ ^
valley, the Great Norlh-Eastern plain and the country along
the coast. It is there also that the population is densest. The
North-Western regions: (Kansu ^TJf, Shcnsi p$|g, and Shansi
lU HOi £^nd those of the South-West: (Yiinnan ^ ^, Kweichow
jj( ^ and Kwang|dJUB» are less populous. The Chinese race
GBNBRAL NOTIONS. 19
occupies almost exclusively the Hwang-ho )( f^ region and that
of the Yangtze valley. In the valley of the Si-kiang U^t, it is
otherwise, and we find there several races mingled together.
Presenl; dlTtsioii or Clilna. — For administrative pur-
poses, modern China is divided into 18 Provinces. In past times,
this number has frequently varied. Some divisions are relatively
recent, for instance that of Kwantung ^ ^ and Kwangsi ^ fg ,
that of Hupeh jgg 4b ^^^ Hunan ^ ^, that of Kiangsu jT^ m
and Nganhwei ^ ^.
These six provinces formerly made but three. Kansu "^ ffj
is a Province of still more recent formation.
Tlie tluree Regions. — To render our plan easier, and
also because it is the natural division of the country, we shall in
this work, divide China into 3 regions or spheres, each of
which we shall study successively: the Northern region, the
Central, and the Southern region. On general lines, these
comprise :
1^ The Northerth regUni: the basins of the Hwang-ho )( f^ ,
and of the Peh-ho j^ fpf.
2® The €!entrai reffian: the basin of the Yangtze-kiang ^
3^ The Sauihem regUm: the basins of the Si-kiang '^XL^
and of the Min-kiang ^ XL-
To avoid dividing the study of a Province into two, we
shall at times be obliged to encroach upon a neighbouring
region. It is thus that the South of Shensi g)[ ^ belongs rather
to the Central region ; in the same way, the North of Kiangsu
{][ 2^ belongs rather to the Northern region^ lower Yunnan
H ]^ to the Central region and also the North of Kweichow
To facilitate likewise the work, we shall group in the same
study, those Provinces which are administratively connected. If
at times they have similar characteristics, it may be said that
they are oftener widely divergent. This will have the advantage
of impressing the main features of those Provinces more vividly
on the reader's mind.
Tables exhibiting the administration, ways of communica-
tion, and sources of wealth, will combine in a general view,
various notions scattered over the chapters describing each
Province in particular, and thus help to remember them better.
20
BOOK I* THE 18 PROVINCES.
References :
E. RecloB. ' G^ographie univerBelle. T.
VII. La Chine. Paris, 1882.
K. et O. Beelus. — L'Einpire du milieu.
Paris, 1903.
TieeseD. — China, das Reich der achtzehn
Provinzen. Berlin, 1902.
L. GallokB. — La structure de I'Asie ori-
entale (Aunales de Olograph ie. Mai
1905, p. 245-259).
rharahre de commerce de Lyon. — La mis-
sion lyonnaise d'exploration. Lyon, 1898.
Len>y-Beaulieu. — La Renovation de
PAsie. Paris, 1900.
PinOD. — La Chine qui s'ou\to. Paris, 1900.
Hue. — L'Empire chinois. Paris, 1887.
Monnier. — Le tour de TAsie. L'Empire
du milieu. Paris, 1899.
China. Diplomatic and Consular reports.
OonraDt.^ En Chine. Paris, 1901.
Bretsctaneider.— Early European resear-
ches into the flora of China. — Shang-
hai, 1881.
BreUsetaneider. — History of European
botanical discoveries in China. London,
1898.
Bret4Kfaiieiiler. — Botanicum sinicum.
London, 1888-92.
Henry (A). — Chinese names of plants.
(R. As. Soc. vol. XXV).
Fronehet. — Plantae ex Sinamm imperio.
Paris, 1884-1888.
Bureon et Franchet. — Plantes nouvel-
les du Tibet et de la Chine occidcntale.
(Journal de Botanique, 1891).
Natural History of North-China compiled
chiefly from the travels of P^re Armand
David. 1893.
Forbes and Hamsley. — An enumera-
tion of all the plants known from China.
1891.
DoTid. — Journal d'un voyage dans le cen-
tre de la Chine (Nouvelles archives du
museum d'histoire natnrelle t. VII, VIII,
IX et X).
DoTid. — Journal de mon troisi^rae voyage
en Chine. Paris, 1S75.
Swinhoe (Robert). — {Ser : J. Proo. China
branch, the Ibis..,).
Milne-Edwards. — Reoherches pour ser-
vir k I'histoire natnrelle des mammlfdres.
Paris, 1808-74.
David et Ooatalet. — Les oiseaux de la
Chine. Paris, 1878.
Proceedings of the zoological society of
London (passim).
The Ibis (passim^
Zi-ka-wei. M^moires coucemant I'histoire
natnrelle de Perapire Chinois.
Qeode. •— Conchyliologie fluviale.
Zi-ka-wei. — Bulletin mensuel de I'Ob&er-
vatoire magn^tique. — Chang-hai, 1874
and sq..
Zi-ka-wei. ~~ Calendrier de robaervatoire.
(From 1903).
P. Froc. — L'atmosphire en Extreme-
Orient, son itat normal, ses perturba-
tions. (Extrait des Annales hydrogra-
phiques, 1901-1902).
Raulin. ^ Hegenfall in China. 1886-1892.
Ratael. — Schnee und Eis in siidchina in
Jan. 1893.
China sea Directory (for the climate of the
ports).
Maps.
S. Chevalier. ^ Carte de la Chine. Zi-ka-
wei, 1904 (character and romanisation).
Bi^tsehneider. — Map of China. S* Pe-
tersburg. 2<» edit., 1900.
Service g6ogi-aphique de I'arm^e. Asie.
181>9-1901.
Service g^od^sique de I'Empire japonais.
Carte g^n^rale de la Chine. Tokio, 1894.
La unbans. — Politisch militarische Karte
von Ost Asien. Gotha, 1900.
IMadrolle. — Atlas de TEmpire chinois.
Paris, 1900 (in the press).
Bianooni. — Carte sp^ciale de la Chine.
Paris, 1900.
Oxenham. — Historical Atlas of the Chi-
nese Empire. Paris, 1900.
SECTION I.
THE NORTHERN REGION.
CHAPTER I.
VALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO ^ M AND OF THE
HWANG-HO 31 fiif.
CliaracteriBties of tlils Region. — Among the numerous
characteristics of this region, the follbv^ing are the principal :
1. The region lies immediately to the South of the Mongolian
table-land, the average height of which is 5000 feet. Its effects
are therefore felt more than elsewhere in China, hence the Winter
is exceedingly cold, and the Summer very hot.
2. Loess or alluvial lands are found there in abundance.
These are very fertile when rain falls sufficiently, hut in case of
drought, the country is exposed to famine.
3. Towards the West, the region is mountainous, but level to
the East. Communications with the neighbouring regions are
v^ry rare, except in the South-East.
4. The rivers and canals are scarcely navigable, hence the
great difficulty experienced in travelling, and the necessity of
using carts in the plain. During Summer, these vehicles sink
deep into the mud, while in Winter they raise clouds of dust,
anything like good roads being totally lacking.
5. The country is very much exposed to inundations, on account
of the erratic nature of the Hwang-ho ^ fif , the waters of which,
flowing above the level of the surrounding plain, are maintained
with the greatest difficulty within their too weak embankments.
'22 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.
ProTinces comprising tliis region. — Proceeding from
West to East, we find them to be the following :
Kansu ^ Tf,
Shensi ^ |g, ^
Shansi ilj |g,
Honan ^ lM>
Chihli It i^,
Shantung llj j|[.
Of these Provinces, three, namely Chihli, Shantung and
Honan are partly level ; and the others : Kansu, Shensi and
Shansi, mountainous.
Geological C!on8l;itntion. — The three maunia4n&ue Pro-
vinces are to a great extent covered with ioeea. In the takers,
which are chiefly of aUuvml fonnioHon, loess is but partially
found.
Shantung how&ver is an exception, being of granitic con-
formation almost throughout. Loess deserves special attention
because of its prominence in this region. What is ^^Iioemi'' and
what are its qualities?
IiOe8« or Yellow Eartb (Hwangt^u H J:). — JLoesB is a
solid but friable earth of a yellowish or reddish colour, very
fine and of great cohesion. It is rather porous, while its mass
is, as it were perforated by very fine tubes which branch out
in the shape of grassroots. Water permeates it like a sponge,
but does not transform it into mud. It is filled with the remnants
of extinct organic matter. It is not superposed in stratified
layers^ and has a great tendency to split vertically, especially
when a river has undermined its basis. Inundation and currents
dig beds into its surface, and the inhabitants find shelter and
protection in the numerous caves of its perpendicular cliffs* As
to its formation, it seems to be accounted for by the remnants
of countless generations of plants, embedded under sand and
dust, blown over from the desert. In some parts, it forms a
stratified mass, to the deptK of about 2000 ft, and imparts to
the country which it covers, a monotonous yellow hue; trees^
houses, fields, water-courses, all, even the very atmosphere, is
permeated with this yellow dust. The soil notwithstanding is
fertile, and would produce abundant crops^ were the climate a
little moister and the region better wooded. Decomposed. by
rain, loess resolves itself into 3 parts: Carbonate of lime, sAndy
which forms a rather barren element, and clay, which imparts
fertility to the soil.
AllnTiAl ^M^^Hlfe Alluvial lands are those formed by
■1%
GHAPTBA I. VALLEYS OF THE PEU-UO AND OF THE HWANO-HO. 23
the depoaita whjch rain^ rivers and glaciers^onstantlX-accumu-
late. The great Eastern Plain has teen fhus formed by a certain
species of clay, sand and debris of various kinds borne along by
the waters of the Hwang-ho % fSJ, the Peh-ho g ^ and very
likely by other more powerful rivers. This plain extends
constantly Eastwards, and in all likelihood, the Gulf of Chihli
BlUf will in the near future, be filled up by the continuation of
the said plain. Like the loess or yellow country, the alluvial \
lands are fertile, provided the clay casts off the rain, and does
not transform the country it occupies into immense marshes.
^^roi^rmpUy. — No special feature requires to be added to
what we have stated above (p. 10 etc.), when speaking of the
mountain systems of China, We shall enter into more ample
details'when describing each Province in particular. Suffice it at
present to call attention to the fact, that a girdle of mountains walls
in the Hwang-ho Jj[ frj , and precludes every outlet, save through
the Chihli £ ffi plain, situate to the E. of Honan {EJ ^, a course
which in fact it formerly followed.
Climato. — The climate of the region is jy^ry «ftv^»'^ and
dry in Winter. The thermometer then descends frequently to —
■'^"V. in tne unihli jg jfH region, and the rivers remain frozen
during several months (an exception to this rule is to be made
for the S. of Kansu "^ jfl and Shensi ^ |||, where the climate
is mild but rainy). To withstand the cold, the inhabitants are
obliged to resort to the use of SJove-b^idM nr K^nM^m ^^^ npnn
which they lie down to rest for the night. These Stove-beds are
entirely unknown throughout the two other regions of China
(Central and Southern regions), where it is sufficient to be a
little more heavily clad during Winter. The Summer, although
very hot, is not unhealthy, for it is less damp than in the re-
gion of the Lower Yangtze ^ -^ ft.-
Dust-storms, so uncongenial to the traveller, and accompanied
by cold winds, are also a characteristic of this region. Their
violence is generally spent out when they reach the Nganhwei
^%, Province, and the North of Kiangsu 2Cj|||, where nevertheless
they are still dreaded by the inhabitants.
Hjrdroffraplijr. — All this region is watered by ihtjawang^
hf^"^^ and its tributaries, except Chihli ^^ drained by the
network of the reh-ho g }|jf, and Honan ^ ^, watered almost
throughout by the Jgwai-ho J| |Bf . We shall deal in detail with
this latter river, when describing the Central Region. As to the
Peh-ho ^19, its natural place will be found, when we shall
24
SECTION 1. THE NORTHERN REGION.
study the Chihli Province. At present, we shall speak only of
the Hwang-ho.
The Hwang-ho (TeUow river Jff jjij), '^'"gth ^.'^^^ mil^fl.
Like the Yangtze J| ^ it» '* rif^?fl in Tihft. flnnth nf tht Kn kn
Nor region, and the K*uenlun ^ {Hj' range. Here, at an altitude
of more than 13,800 feet, in the midst of jiagged hills, towering
a little beyond the plateau, the mighty river has its source.
Its course may be divided into 3 parts : the upper, middle
and lower.
1^ Upper C!oiirse. — In this part, which extends from its
source until it leaves the Kansu '^"1f[ Province, it is interrupted
by cascades and rapids, teems with boulders wrenched from its
banks, and is seldom navigable.
UPPER HWANG-HO.
CHAPTBtt 1. VALLEYS 01^ THE PEH-HO AND OF THE HWANO-HO. 23
the depoaita which rain^ rivers and glaciers constanAlx^CQUmu-
late.. The great Eastern Plain has Veen ihiis formed by a certain
species of clay, sand and debris of various kinds borne along by
the waters of the Hwang-ho % fij, the Peh-ho |g fjf and very
likely by other more powerful rivers. This plain extends
constantly Eastwards, and in all likelihood, the Gulf of Chihli
BlUf will in the near future, be filled up by the continuation of
the said plain. Like the loess or yellow country, the alluvial \
lands are fertile, provided the clay casts off the rain, and does .
not transform the country it occupies into immense marshes.
Orogm,phy. — No special feature requires to be added to
what we have stated above (p. 10 etc.), when speaking of the
mountain systems of China. We shall enter into more ample
details'when describing each Province in particular. Suffice it at
present to call attention to the fact, that a girdle of mountains walls
in the Hwang-ho Jj[ frif , and precludes every outlet, save through
the Chihli |E[ fit plain, situate to the E. of Honan fi}^ ^, a course
which in fact it formerly followed.
Climato. — The climate of the region is vecy.jieD;jece^amL
dry in Winter. The thermometer then descends frequently to —
■'^"V. in tne unihli jg jfH region, and the rivers remain frozen
during several months (an exception to this rule is to be made
for the 8. of Kansu "^ jfj and Shensi ^ |5' where the climate
is mild but rainy). To withstand the cold, the inhabitants are
obliged to resort to the use nf San^it^-hfid^ nr t^n/ngm ^^^ npnn
which they lie down to rest for the night. These Siove^beds are
entirely unknown throughout the two other regions of China
(Central and Southern regions), where it is sufficient to be a
little more heavily clad during Winter. The Summer, although
very hot, is not unhealthy, for it is less damp than in the re-
gion of the Lower Yangtze ^ -^ ft.-
Dust-storms, so uncongenial to the traveller, and accompanied
by cold winds, are also a characteristic of this region. Their
violence is generally spent out when they reach the Nganhwei
^^ Province, and the North of Kiangsu 2][j|||, where nevertheless
they are still dreaded by the inhabitants.
Hjrdroffraplijr. — All this region is watered by thjeja^uwmjg^- /
h^l^^ and its tributaries, except Chihli ^^ drained by the ■
network of the Pe^-Ap g }f|f, and Honan }f|f ^^ watered almost ,
throughout by the ^jvai-ho f^ |pf . We shall deal in detail with
this latter river, when describing the Central Region. As to the
Peh-ho ^19, its natural place will be found, when we shall
26 SECTION I. TUB NOKTHEKN KBdlON.
northerly direction, the Hwangho ^ fj} is forced Eastwards by
the mountain range, which forms the Southern limit of Mongolia.
Soon again the table-land of Shansi ilj "g compels it to flow
Southwards, until meeting the Ts'in-ling |^ ^ chain, it is obli-
ged to force a passage for its waters between the mountain and
the Shansi ^| "Jg plateau. In this part of its course^ up to
its Southward bend, it attains a width of over 425 yards,
becomes occasionally navigable^ and is not obstructed in its
channel as it was previously. In its bend from the N. of the Ordos
country, it has changed its course several times^ and left its
former bed, which is covered with a rich layer of alluvion and
produces a plentiful harvest.
As it advances from N. to S., it skirts the Shansi |1| |S
Province, which it separates from the Ordos country' and from
Shonsi ^ "g. It is from this latter Province that it receives
its principal tributary, the beautiful and turgid Welrho ff ^.
We shall have occasion to speak of it, when describing Shensi
^ H. Somewhat higher up, but on the left bank, it receives
tho J'^-Ao ^ ^, the great river of Shansi iIj f|. It runs
afterwards along the Hwa-shan ^ iIj mountains, and follows the
direction of tho Wei ho \^ ^, hemmed in between two cliffs of
yellow earth. The loess held in suspension by its waters im-
parts to them a yellow hue. Thus far, its bed is pretty high,
almost L300 feel above the 5>ea-lcvel.
S'' l«#wer OMirse. — On leaving the T*ungkwan Pass {K
im, the river enters the lowlands. Henceforward it takes suc-
cessively a twofold direction : \V. to E. till it reaches a little to
the N. of K*aifung Fu H i^ ^« when it swerves from South-
West to North>East« and pursues this direction till it enters the
tUilf of i'hihii It IK* I<) its first part« it divides Shansi |1{ f|
from llonan ^ iff, then bisects the Northern extremity of Ho-
nan ; in its second part« it runs along the great plain. North-
West of Shantung |lj 4(* Throughout its whole lower course,
its waters run through the plain. Here it is most to be dreaded,
because the mud and sand carried down by its stream, conti-
uually raise the bed of the river* which is several ^-ards above
tho K\ol piMlMwnroundinc country.
CHAPTBR I. VALLEYS OF TUB PBU-UO AND OF THB HWANO-HO. 27
To hinder its overflowing, embankments have had to be
raised. These hem it in, some nearer, others farther, ranging one
behind another at variable distances. In this manner, if one gives
way, another prevents the inundation. In its present state, the
work is still very inefficient, the dikes being weak, and cons-
tructed with materials that ofler little resistance. The mud and
sand, which frequently obstruct the Hwang-ho, render it also very
difficult of navigation. The only portion where it can be availed
of, is to the N. of Honan fpf "^^ and in the last 25 miles of its
course. But even in this part, a shoal prevents junks drawing
more than 6 ft. of water from passing.
From the T'ungkwan Jf JgH bend^ ferry-boats ply on the
river, and take from one side to the other thousands of travellers,
carts, animals^ and a vast quantity of general merchandise. In
crossing, the oar or sail is liped, or even if a suitable place is
chosen a long pole. In Summer when the waters are swollen,
the current renders the passage difficult; in Winter on the con-
trary-, water is lacking^ and there is danger of running aground.
Throughout all this part^ the Hwang-ho f)t fpf receives no
important tributary. The only ones needing special mention are ;
the Loh'-ho ^^, flowing into it from the right, through Honan
^ ^; and the Ta^iwho ^ ^, which rises in the Shansi ii| H
plateau.
TarlatlonB In Its €)oarse. — The Hwang-ho H ^ has not
kept regularly to its present course. In the past it has changed
many a time across the vast North-Eastern plain. Frequently
it has run to the N. or to the S. of the Shantung ii| J|[ mountains,
flowing in turn, either into the Gulf of Chihli {ft H or into the
Yellow Sea.
Formerly it followed the bed of the lower course of the
Peh-ho iS }BJ. Its last important deviation dates from 1851*..
Previously to this, it flowed towards the South, in the Northern
part of Kiangsu f£ H, whence it emptied itself into the Yellow
sea. In that year, its dikes gave way to the N. B. of K'^aifung Fu
Hi^jfiF* For two years, its course varied considerably, and finally
leaving the South, it definitively followed the bed of the Tsi-ho fff
28
SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.
^, a river so far of little importance. Since then its embankments
have burst several times. In 1877, it inundated an immense
region, and caused the death of a million of people. In 1898,
1,500 villages to the N.E. of Tsinan Fu HH ^ fff, and a still
larger region to the S.E. of the same town, experienced
its ravages. These changes of bed and the terrible
inundations that followed, have deserved for it the name of
**ChinfV8 sorrow^^^ **the Ungo'
vernahie,*^ **t1ie Scourge of
the sons of Han^% all of which
are indeed but too well merited.
The Mongols call it Karamuren
(black river). The name
** Hwang-ho'* (H fpj yellow
river), has been given it, becau-
se of the yellow land which it
traverses, and which imparts to
its waters a yellow tinge.
Neither along its middle or lower course, is there, any
important city built on its banks. Such a terrible neighbour is
always dreaded and therefore avoided with the greatest care.
Flow. — The flow of the Ilwang-ho H fpf varies much with
the season. It has been reckoned to be a little over 4,000 cubic
' yards per second, in its middle portion, near Tsinan Fu (Shan-
tung ilj y^) The flow is three times greater in the flood season.
It is on the whole relatively small for such a great river, but
this is accounted for by the waste of the water that filters
through the embankments or escapes through other causes. The
mud and sand, which it unceasingly deposits in the Gulf of
Chihli il; gj, constantly lessen the depth of this latter, and form
there new alluvial lands. Opposite the former mouth of the
river (1851) it can be seen what great quantity of sediment it
carries in its waters.
The Great; Wall. (10,000 li rampart ^ M :g j|£ Wan-
licli^aiig Cli^^ng). — The great Wall extends along the
Northern Provinces, from Chihli (IC |0( to Kansu "H* JH', skirting
them all to the N. ; we shall therefore describe it briefly
sketch, sliowiug the
various chanf(os in tlie conrne of the
Hwaug-ho.
CHAPTER I. \ALLBYS OF THE PEH-HO AND OF THE HWANG-HO. 29
here. It was built by ShihmvanaH fh B,^ (246-209 B. C),
of the Ts'in ^ dynasty, as a means of defence against the
Hun tribes, and was repaired under the reign of Haieniming
jgi^ (1465-1487 A. D.), of the Ming ^ dynasty. In a straight
line it is about 1,300 English miles in length, and with its
windings, over hilly districts and mountains, some exceeding
4000 feet high, it measures a distance of 1,500 miles. Its
height varies from 15 to 30 feet. At intervals of 200 yards, are
towers some 40 feet high. It is still in a fair state of pre-
servation, except on the Western slope, where it has in some
places entirely crumbled, this part being principally faced with
yellow earth. On the Eastern side, the bricks with which it has
been constructed, have enabled it to resist better. It attains in
this latter part, a thickness of over 20 feet at its base, and is fully
12 feet wide at its summit. TlWLQxfiat WallJias-jiowadays little
military importance, and serves only as a^gepgraphical boundary.
The passes are the only places where military posts are main-
tained. The most important of these are the following : the
Shanhaikwan Bass [}]\^^ mountain and sea Pass or Barrier)
at the Eastern extremity; — the Kalgan Pass (Ghangkia k'oAv
% lie D) at the N. W. of Chihli %^\ — the TSnmen Bass (goose
pass ff^ f^) at the N. of Shansi lij H ; — the Kiayu rass
(Kiayii kwan jftlS^M), at the extreme West leading to Barkul.
It is noteworthy that in speaking of China, one meets frequently
with such expressions as ''within the Great Wall" (Kwan-nei
g|^); and *'beyond the Great Wall'* (K*ow-wai P^), meaning
the region or country on the outer side.
A few otlier Particulars concerning tlie IVortherii
Region. — We will but mention them here, as they are to be
described further on.
Tlie Grand Canal {^f^ Yunrho. Transport river) con-'
nects the basins of the Hwang-ho j| fpf and Yangtze ^ ^ in
their lower Course.
Tlie Peking-Hankow Bailwajr will also connect Chihli jg;
H, Honan f^ ^, Hupeh j^ j/^ and the whole Western region.
30
8BGT10N I. THE NORTHERN REGION.
while the line from .feMmg l» Manehmria will henceforward
facilitate communications with Europe.
The great highway, which crosses Shansi [Ij "g, and con-
tinues through Shensi f^ || and Kansu -g* Hf, connects the
NoHhem Begion with Central Asia, while that of Kalgan and
several others, starting from the Northern Provinces, lead into
Mongolia.
(JBhr farther details, wee : section V. ch IV. Highways of
communication).
Among the minerai weaUh of the N., the principal is jfUr.
eoai. It abounds chiefly in Shansi [I] "g, Shensi |^ f|. Shan-
tung iIj j|[ and Honan ^ ]^. Jron is also found extensively
{See : Section V. ch IV. Mining and Industry).
References :
GfomArj. ^ China present and past. Lon-
don, 1895 (ch. 15, the Hwang-ho, p. 418
sq).
Ney KUas. — (Jonmal of the Geog. Soc.
1870. Feh. — On the Hwang-ho).
BouflQari. — The Yellow river, 1898.
BletckDikOtfT — La civilisation et les
grands fleuves historiques. (c. XI. Le
Hoang-ho et le Yang-tsc-kiang) Paris,
1889.
bnlMivli Hvari. — Une excursion k la
grande muraiUe de Chine (Magasin
pittoresqne. 1888).
lAirien. — La grande moraille de la Chi-
ne (Revae d'Extrtoie Orient. 1885).
MarCia. — La grande xnnraiUe de la Chine
(Revue scientiflq. 1891). /
WilliAmaon. » Jonmey in North China, v*^
London, 1870.
China : Imperial maritime cnstoma. I. —
Statistical series : N*6. Decennial imports.
1892-1901. Shanghai, 1901.
CHAPTER II.
THE REGION OF THE UPPER
HWANG-HO
(KANSU t M AND SHENSI f^ W-
The Provinces of Kanau "y* -ff, and Shensi ^ g* are both
governed by the same Viceroy, styled the Viceroy of 8hen-Kan
These two Provinces are traversed from N, W. to S, E. by
spurs of the K'uenlun ^ !^ ranges and are for the greater
part mountainous. Loes9 covers all the Northern part of Shensi,
and the North^Eastern part of Kansu, To the N. of both, lie the
elevated buttress^ridges of the Mongolian table^land. Influenced
thereby, their climate is dry and very cold (o'wards the N., while
it grows milder and enjoys more rain in the S,, this part being
included in the basin of^ the Yangtze m •^. Highways of com^
munication are difficult from one Province to another, and even
-within the same Province, should one wish to travel from N. to
S. or in the contrary direction.
Another remark not to be forgotten, and which applies
equally to the aforesaid Provinces, Fifty years ago, they were by
far richer, and more populous than at the present day. The
reason is, because they have been overrun and laid waste by a
twofold rebellion. The first, that of the T^tdpHngs ^ 21^, which
lasted /rom J_830 to 1864^ and affected especially the Yangtze region,
in the South, The second, still more disastrous, devastated the
whole of the N,, This was the Mahamedttn revolt, which broke
out there in 1861^ and was completely put down only in 1878^
after the taking of Khotan, the last stronghold of the rebels. The
number of those who were then killed in the two Provinces, is
estimated to be about 10,000,000. It was chiefly through the
agency of Tso Tsungt^ang £ ^ ^^ that order wa/? established.
32 BBGTION I. THB NORTHERN REGION.
V. Kansu "fr M
Area. — 125,483 square miles. In this respect, it is the
third province of China, being surpassed only by Szechw'an
B )\\ and Yunnan ^ ^.
Population. — 10, 386,000, thus giving 82 persons per
square mile. Kwangsi JJJ || alone is l«8s thinly inhabited.
IVaine. — It is so called from two of its principal cities :
Kawchow Fu -H* ^ /j^ and .Stt Chow ]j| j^.
Boundaries. — On the
N.
— Mongolia,
W.
— Sinkiang ff ^ and Tibet,
s.
— Szechw'an gg j||,
E.
— Shensi ^ jg.
Car^itai.— LANCHOW JFV f^ jW /j^, situated almost in the
centre of the Province, on the right bank of the Hwang-ho Jlfpf.
Oilier Prefeelinral Cities. — These are 7 in number :
•Oii the left banh of the Hwaftg-ho ^ ^, skirting the
yarthcrn frontier, and proceeding from W. to E. :
V' Kanchow Pu ff ^ «p,
2" Leangchow Fu m M ^,
3" Ninghsia Pn m H ifiP.
Betiveen Ku-kn Nor anfl Lanchow Vn :
4" Sining Pn W HI Iff.
On the right bank of the Hwang-ho, going from N.E. to
a.w. :
6" K*mgyang Pu Bl^ «P,
e-' P*mgleaiig Pn ^p ||c fl^,
7'^ KnngcVang Pu S li *.
There are also 6 independent Chow j^ cities : K'tiyuen
Chow EJgf jHI, King Chow ^j^, Kiai Chow ^j\\, T^in Chaw
'^ ^, St9, Chow m ^, Ngansi Chow ^ S Mi ^"^ ^^^ inde-
pendent Ting JH City : HwapHngchit^an T^ing .f^ 2p j|| J||.
(Independent Chows and Things, closely resemble Prefectural
cities, although of the 2"d and 3»<' order. We shall therefore
place them generally after the Fu ^ cities, or Prefectures of
the first order.)
CHAPTER II. KAN8U. 33
Aspect and Cliaraeterlstles. — The immense course of
the Hwansf-/io||jjjJ runs through the Province from S.W. to N.E.,
making headway with great difficulty, its bed strewn with rocks,
and navigable only from the spot where it touches on Mongolia.
On its teft, are long chains of mountains, sloping from N, W. to
S,E. and reaching an elevation of 6,500 to 20,000 ft. On the
right, towards the N., is an iminense loess plateau, into which the
Wei^ho fg }|J and its tributaries have cut deep channels. To
the South, are 2 parallel ranges, prolongation of the K'uenlun
% W« *^^ following the same direction as the mountains on
the left bank. The population swarms towards the centre, in the
environs of Lanchow Fu g| ^ jjSf, and to the South. Another
chain, bordered by important cities, rises towards the N., near
the Great Wall. The climate, dry and cold in the N., tones
down us one advances to the S., where it becomes mild and rainy.
Being an important place of transit, Kansu -^ JHf lacks neither
mineral nor agricultural resources and may subsequently become
prosperous and densely populated as in former times.
Geolo^i^^al constitution. — Kansu is sandy in its Northern part, sohistoun
and granitic in its mountain chains, which are a prolongation of the K'nenhm range.
It is also for the most part, especially in the E., covered over with rich loess terraces
which the inhabitants excavate for dwelling purposes. In several sandy plains, as at
Ninghsia Fu, Lanchow Fu and Su Chow, a well organised system of inigation makes
the soil yield splendid harvests.
Oragrapliy. — To the N.W. S pr^incipaZ chains^ running
in the same direction, N.W. to S.E.. They continue a little
on the right bank of the Hwang-ho J| :{pf, and fall gradually in
elevation from N.W. to S.E.. They are the prolongation of the
JEki9i€m K'uenlun ^ {^ range, and are sometimes called the
Nanrsh4in ^ ^J mountains (not to be confounded with the Nan-
shan range on the S. of the Yangtze ^ ^). These chains are:
To the N. of the highway leading from Leangchow Fu \^
^ ^ to Kanchow Fu -^ )^ )(f : tJie Shanfan jlj f^' mountains.
To the 8. of the same highway, the Bichthofen or T^ien"
Shan (celestial mountains ^ \\\) mountains. This chain which
rises in the N.W. to an elevation of over 20,000 ft, is crossed
with difficulty. Several of its peaks are snow-clad, and covered
with glaciers the whole year round. The most important pass of
• - 3
34
SBCnOK 1. THE NOETBKRN EB^KW.
the N.. Ihat of Lagiobo, is nearly
10,000 ft high. From its Xorth-
Eastem slopes run down, in Spring
and Summer, torrents which give
fertility to the country.
Further to the South, between
the Hwang>ho f| ^ and the Ta-
t*ung-ho;jl;2l«f, are the X«<Sm#
^ f^ tmmmmimimm, an irregular
mass, but better watered and
covered with woods and forests
on its sides and valleys.
Qmim «» tto &y two principal
chains.the moi>& Northern of w hich
is the ML^iwp aftgw M ff lU * inter-
sected in Its centre by the T^ao-
ho j% |vf : the other further to the
S. is the JKii ^M IK lb* <^>«^
also the Jai iwiy £ H by the
natives.
These two chains run in the
same dinfction. from W. to E .
They are ditHoult to orciss.and r^jch
an elevation of 6.500 to !0.0l»0 it.
Their summits are rather barren. ^" *
andoneofthem,theSha$olomoon- zf ^ ^
tain in the extr^pme Sooth, even |. g. 1^
exceeds this elevation. -^
T¥ IM irMH. between the Siking-shan W ff A- ^^^ &^
Hwang-ho H |i|. is an im^gular mass of anoostains aad hil!$. TW
ro^d however ti^c^m Singan Fu f| |( !|f Shensi ||( S ^ Lam-
chow Fu ^ ill ^ cn>sses it by pas^s^e^ w5L:>:i: r«;ach tear^y lO.«ftiM»
rt. The whole is a m^^uataur^^^jis reg^oc ;ercLiaa]:i&g ui lae X. by
.^ grcAl table land o: Ioe5$ wi;ii deep gcM**.
T^ IM >\R iS the .x^r-;:ri:ai:oc o: t^e Ibc^d^Xf zi 3&o«3.5
sloping Nor(h^E<iist\^arvis. >ii^h:Ie :be JRlir«»-«te»4^:t A-
2
X
I
CHAPTER II. KANSU. 35
out opposite the Aituhan (Holan-shan JHH llj),and exceeds even
10,000 ft in height. These two chains hem in the Hwang-ho )|
$J, as it issues from Kansu -^ Hf, while a long and very rich
plain lies to its left.
With the exception of a few plains to the North, the Province
of Kansu is therefore very mountainous.
Climate. — During the long Winter months, Kansu is covered with snow and
ice; all the rivers are frozen over, and the inhabitants though clad in skins, protect
themselves with difficulty from the cold. A bleak wind also blows from the table-
land of Mongolia. In Summer, the thermometer rises at times to 104 degrees F.. At
thisperiod, vegetation is luxuriant, and crops grow with great rapidity. An exception
however must be made for the South, which is very wet, owing to the rain-laden clouds
that are wafted up from the same direction. In some valleys, the climate there is so
mild, that the fruits of Southern China come to maturity, as the medlar or p'ip'a and
the persimmon.
Hydroffraplijr. — The greater part of Kansu '^'Hf is watered
by the Hwang-ho ^ ^ and its tributaries. We have already
described this river (see ch. I). Its chief tributaries in Kansu
"^ Tfl SLTe the following:
On the hifi batik, and flowing from the Southern side of the
Richthofen chain and the Tat^ung ;l^ ^ llj mountains, is the
SMkng-ho 5 W fRf) ^^ Which the VUmrmwren or Ta^ung-ho ;^
jH ^ joins its waters. (A vast number of torrents and rivers
water the whole region of the Tat'ung :;iic Ml lU mountains).
On the right hank, its principal tributary descends from
the Sik'ing || ^ mountains, which it crosses. It is called the
T'ao'ho ^|c fpff a long and winding stream, which empties its
waters into the Hwang-ho ^ fPf, a little beyond Lanchow Pu
Nf M M* ^^ ^^^^ bank, many other rivers flow into it from the
Sik'ing mountains, from the hilly region of the E. and from
the table-land of the N.E..
In their South-Eastern portions, these two latter regions are
watered by the Weirho ^ ^ and its tributaries. (For the
Wei-ho, see the description of Shensi.)
The extreme S. is watered by the KiaUng^hiang ^^fH^
which flows almost immediately into Szechw^an Q J||, and
traverses the whole N.E. of the Province before emptying itself
into the Yangtze-kiang # ^ JQ
In the N.W., skirting the Richthofen mountains, is the Heir
M^ Jl^ fpf, a water course of little importance save in the Sum-
36 8BCTI0N I. THB NORTHERN RBGION.
mer season, when it is swollen by the torrents which descend from
these lofty snow-capped mountains. Its waters, mingled with those
of the EMngoi, flow into a lake on the table-land of Mongolia.
Fftami and Flom. •— Kansa has remained one of the wildest regions of China,
on account of its isolation, its severe climatei and the difficulty of its means of commu-
nication. A great number of tigers, leopards, bears, wild boars, wolves and foxes,
are accordingly found there, as well as eagles and vultures. Game is plentiful.
Throughout the whole of the moist and wooded region of the S.E., numerous and
various kinds of birds abound. The flora of all this region, as well as that of the
IHit'nng mountains is also very rich : the pine, birch and beech thrive at the bottom of
the valleys and on the mountain sides. Higher up is found the rhododendron or rose-
bay, and flocks of sheep and goats are reared on the slopes.
Agricultural Wealth. — Although the elevation and sleep
slope of the mountains render cultivation difficult throughout a
great part of Kansu, in other places, as at Ninghsia Fu ^
X fff, Lanchow Fu j| ^ jj^", Kanchow Fu -^ j^ Jff and Su
Chow Hf ^, abundant crops are found : corn, millet, sorghum,
Indian-corn and even rice. In several parts, there are even two
harvests annually. The cultivation of rhubarb, formerly thriving,
has nowadays much diminished. On the other hand the cultiva-
tion of the poppy has increased, and tends to become universal.
Even in the Han-ti (dry lands ^)fe), which the people cover with
stones and shingle to maintain them moist, the poppy is largely
cultivated, as also the water melon and the common melon.
Fruit is the great wealth of the region. Besides the jujube-
tree found almost everywhere, apples, pears, apricots, walnuts,
plums, strawberries and myrtles abound.
Mineral Wealtli. — So far, it is but little known. Ex-
tensive coal-fields exist at the N.E. and E., and especially in the
vicinity of Kungch'ang Fu j|| g jj|^. Iron-ore, gold, sifver,
and petroleum are also found.
Population. — The population of Kansu is chiefly composed of ChineMey a great
number of whom are Mussulmans. The country* surrounding Ninghsia Fu is lai^gely
inhabited by Mongols. They are likewise found throughout the whole of the N. W.
and in the neighbourhood of Sining Fu. In this latter region there are also many*
Tiini7ut!t or Fautze aiid inhabitants of Korth-Eastem Tibet. In the S. a great number
of immigrants from Szochw'an have settled down.
The population swarms especially in the S. where it is very dense, as also
towanls the centre and E.. — The people of the S. are gentler and more cultured than
those of the N., but the latter are hardier. They are for a great part illiterate.
I^narwn*^. — ^ ''"'»«'' »8 spokon throughout the greater part of the Province,
save in the n^gions inhabited by tht> yfouQi^h and Taugntit. Turkish doe* not begin to
Ih^ spi^ken until furth»»r W., in Chiuest» Turkestan.
CHAPTER 11. KANSU. 37
Cities and principal Centres.— LANCHOW FU^ ^ jj^,
population, 500^000.
Capital city of the Province, and residence of the Viceroy
of Shenkan gjj ^y", is a very commercial city. Its environs are
well cultivated : gardens, orchards, tobacco-plantations, poppy-
fields etc.... Corn is imported from Sining Fu ^ % j^^ the
land near Lanchow Fu being considered too valuable to culti-
vate it thereon. A bridge of boats is established every Summer
over the Hwang-ho ^fpf , instead of the ice which has then melted.
Sining Fu "gf |^ jj^ at an elevation of more than 7,000 feet,
and with a population of 60,000 inhabitants, has important
commercial relations with Tibet. The Governor-general of Ku-ku
Nor has his residence there. The town was recaptured from
the rebels only in 1872.
NinghHa Fu ^ J }^^ population^ 12,000,— laid waste by the
Mahomedan insurrection, but rising slowly from its ruins. The
enterprising spirit of the Mussulmans has seized upon all the
sources of gain which exist in the country. The city is situated
in a vast plain, 125 miles in length. It is well watered by a skilful
network of canals, abounds in fields of rice, corn and poppies,
and is studded with numerous villages nestling amidst luxuriant
clusters of trees. Unfortunately, it is ill protected from the
inundations of the Hwang-ho H fpf, which has again devastated
it in the year 1904.
Leangchmv JFt« ?j^ ffl jfl^, population, 200,000.— The largest
agglomeration of the Province after Lanchow Fu ^ j^Jff- The
city stands at an elevation of over 6,000 ft.
Kanchow Fu [J* j^ )(f, •— A wretched town, built upon
moving sand. Its importance is especially due to its position
upon a frequented route.
8u ChaW^H\^ — in the North-Western extremity ofKansu,
and in the W. of perhaps the most fertile region of China.
In Spring and Summer it abounds with rice, wheat, millet,
maize, melons... jujubes, pears, peaches.
KHnayangFn^ ^ jS^ — ^^ad formerly 300,000 inhabitants,
but possesses now only one unimportant street.
38 Section i. the northern region.
Among the other towns may be mentioned : Chwngwek iMe»*
rfi KfJH, a commercial place where the Hwang-ho )| ^ begins
to be navigable ; "r:jn§^in Chow^^^ 150,000 inhabitants, to the
S. E. of Kungch*at%g Fu f^^}^. It \s perhaps the most impor-
tant market place of the Province after Lanchow Fu §| f\ }ff.
Kutn^m, to the S.W. of Sining Fu "Sli f(f^ ^^ ^^ exten-
sive lamasery, possessing a living Buddha. People come there
from afar on pilgrimage.
Industry and Commerce. — These are of no great
importance. Lanchow Fu Wi)^)ff ^^ ^^^ ^^^V remarkable centre
of industry, and manufactures chiefly cloth. The prindpca-
export articles are: opium, tobacco, furs, musk, wool and
medicinal plants. The impwrta are stulTs and salt.
\ Higliways of communication. — Communication is very
! difficult except by the few roads that cross the Province.
I Carts may be used on them. Outside these ways nearly all
traffic is carried on upon th^backs^^f men, the roads being too
difficult even for animals. The Hwang-ho )| ^ is not really
navigable until below Chungwei hsien ^ ^ JH) although rafts
are employed elsewhere. The principal roads are:
l"" The road from Singan Fk$ 'S^Hf (Shensi ^^) <o Imi-
chow JBki i|j)t|)j^. This follows the valley of the King-ho |E j|^,
passing by P4ngleang Fu ^ \% )(f, and continues beyond by
Sining Fu "gf 1^ )j^ as far as Tibet. (Another road leads from
Singan Fu (Shensi] to Lanchow Fu^ passing more to the S. by
Ts'inchow Fu ^ ;|t| ^j^. The way is very difficult.)
2'' The road from Ninghsia F^yg J[f^ to Su OhowJflJ\H.
This passes by Leangchow Fu \f^)\i{^ and Kanchow Pu '^^Jff,
and continues beyond into Sinkiang ^ j||.
3® A third road starts from Lanchow Fu §| ^ ^, skirts
the Hwang-ho and joins the preceding.
4'' The road leading from Lanchow Fk^lg^j^Jfi to Sseehu^im
m J||, and passing by Minchow fg^ j^ (Kungch'ang Fu jf; g }^).
Difficulty of conveyance and communication is the greatest
hindrance to the development of Kansu -^ Jlf.
Hote^— KaoBU '^ffy formerly made only one Province with
Sinkiang fH H, but was separated from it in 1882.
"i
dHAPTER II. SliENSI. 39
2" . Shensi B^ g
Area: — 75,290 square miles.
Popnlatlon : — 8,450,000, or 112 per square mile.
Name : — It is so called because this Province is situated
lo the West of the famous T'ungkwan fj p| pass. Shensi
means to the "IFe»e of the Toss.**
Bonndarles. — On the
N. — The Ordos plateau^ which is the Southern extension
of the Mongolian table-land. Shensi is separated
from the Ordos country by a portion of the Great
WaU,
W. — Kansu ^ Jf,
8. — Szechw*an Q )\\ and Hupeh jj^ ^fc,
E. — Honan fpf ^ and Shansi ilj "g. The Hwang-ho
Jl fpf separates it from this latter Province.
Capital. — 8INGAN FU |g ^ jj^, near the right bank of
the Wei-ho fg fpj and almost in the centre of the Province, as
Lanchow Fu H ^ ^j^ in Kansu -^^ ||.
Otiier Prefectures. — These are 0 in number : Aloftg
the WeArho fg Jpf, proceeding from W. to E.:
V Pnngsiang Pu JR J« ;ff ,
2«» T'ungchow Pu ig ^ fl?p.
To #/a6 i^. of the Wei'Fio, the lirsl in the extreme N., the
second mid-way between the Great Wall and the Wei-ho fg fpj :
3° YtllingPu<6*;fiP,
40 YAnngan Pu 3i 56 *P.
To the 8. of the Te'inrlifig ^ ^ mountains and along the
Han-ho ^ ^, as it runs Eastwards :
Sf* Hanchimg Fu ffi 4> iAP,
ep Hsingngan Fu X $ iAP.
There are aUo in Shensi RjISf H ^ inOepenOent Chows j^ :
Shang Chow ^ jt|, K'ien Chow |g ji\, Fim Chow % j^, Fu
Chaw Jlp ^, Soeiteh Chow |t ^ ^•
Aspect and Cliaracterlstlcs. — The^ .county^ w -exactly
divided into 2 parts by a well-mar/ied chain of mountains w/iic/j
tnay be crossed only vvie/i difficulty at its tv;o extremities. All
40 SECTION I. THB NORTHERN REGION.
activity i8 centered upon the 2 rivers, which flow one on t/ieAT.,
and the other through the S, The 2 valleys, especially the
Northern one, afford important passages to those travelling West'
ward. On the N. of the Wei-ho f^ fif a long plateau of yellow
land rises gradually towards the N.. To the S. of the Wei-ho and
especially of the T 'sin-ling |g ^ mountains, the yellow earth
disappears,
CSeolO^ioal constitution.— The Tsin-ling mountains are composed of granite,
Kchist, limestone rock and sand-stone ; the granite however predominates. On both
sides extends an immense layer of quaternary strata, which continues towards the N. of
the Wei-ho under the form of loess. To the S. of the Han-ho it takes the shape of schist,
Kaud-stone and the limestone rocks of Kiulung.
Orograpliy. — It is easy to remember and is most char-
acteristic.
On the N. of the Wei'ho fg \^ exists an extensive platoau
of loesB, which rises from the 8.E. towards the N.W. and is
more and more furrowed by ravines as one moves away from
the S.E.. This plateau terminates on the North side in a series
of chains which support the Ordos plateau, and rises on the S.
to an elevation of more than 4,000 ft.
On the South of the Wei-ho, rises the massive chain of the
Tt^in-iing ^ ^ mountains, a prolongation of the K*f*enlun
g -^ range. It runs from W. to E., reaching in height 9,000
ft, which it even surpasses in several places. One of the most
celebrated summits, which stands out a little to the W., is the
Tixp^'Shan :Jt S lU with an altitude of 11,500 ft. With
its steep rocks, perpendicular paths, its torrents and gloomy
forests, the Ts'in-ling S^ ^ is crossed with great difliculty.
Two pftssea are easier of access, one to the W., the other on
the E.. The Northern slope is the steepest and descends quite
abruptly upon the Wei-ho fg f^, the other inclines gradually
towards the Han-ho iSttRT* Richthofen compares the Ts4n-ling
to a heavy bar applied slantwise upon a wrinkled cloth with
parallel folds, and which would then be moved in a direction
perpendicular to its axis, till the folds deviated completely from
tho'point of contact.
On the SotUh of the MMmmlkB ]|| fff originates the Kiuhnw
CHAPTER II. SHBNSI. 41
^ fl chain. II is less massive than the Ts'in-ling range, runs
along the whole North-East of Szechw*an (Q )\\ ^nd continues
the 3Bn'Bhan f|g lL| of Kansu '^'Hf Province. It attains more than
12,000 feet in height. A pass traverses its Northern extremity
and connects through the Wuting 3ET pcMs, — [4,000 ft. high]
— the upper valley of the Han-ho ^fpf with 8zechw*an Q j||.
Climate. — The climate is widely different in the N. and in the S. of the
Ts'in-ling.
In the N.f it resembles that of the region of the Hwang-ho, with its dry cold, its
dust, and its violent storms.
In the S.y it is rather like that of Szcchw'au without Northern or Southern winds,
these being prevented from blowing by the two mountain ranges. From February to
October, the sky is overcast and the atmosphere damp, while excessive heat prevails in
Summer. The cold sets in only at the end of November. It is the fine season of the year.
Hydrograplijr.— On the J^., the Wei^ho fg {pf ^nd numerous
streams, running N.W. to S.E. All flow into the Htvang^ho
H J^, which skirts the E. of the Province, and is navigable only
from the place where it receives the Jt^h^ho ^ ^ from Shansi
llj Hf. The most important of these rivers is the Loh-ho j^iijf.
None however are navigable.
On the &, the Hanrho ^ fpf, which receives numerous
torrents from the Ts*inling ^-§| mountains, but is not navigable
in Shensi. Till it leaves this. Province, it runs through steep
gorges where it is obstructed with rocks and rapids. Junks of
small tonnage avail themselves of the flood season to travel to
Hanchung Fu ^ tfi ;fl^ (For the Hanrho ^ \%, see section II,
ch. III.)
The Weinho fg fpf. The Wei-ho is the principal tributary
of the Hwang-ho j| fpf. Its sources are in Kansu -^ Hf, near
the mining region known as Kungch*ang Fu ^g^* It runs like
all its affluents on the left bank — these are the most numerous and
important — through the i€kess plateau of the N., in which it cuts
deep channels. These beds diminish in depth as they advance
towards the S.E.. As it enters Shensi g^ g, the WH-ho jfl fp[
runs at a depth of 600 feet, amidst those towering stratified
cliffs so characteristic of the ioess region. It then widens and
swerves gradually from the ioess land. It is navigable after
llsingp^ing hsien ^ ^ j||. Henceforward up to the bend of
42 SECTION 1. TUB NORTHERN REaiOK.
the Hwang-ho H ^, near T'^ung-kwan |fj| H, boats of shallow
draught ply on its waters^ for although it is pretty wide in this
place, it never runs deep. — Its chief tributary is the Kimg-ho
^ fpf, an important river, which with its affluents, waters the
whole North-Eastern part of Kansu *^ )||f.
Fauna and Flora. — xliese differ completely in Northern aud Southern Sheusi,
the ridge of the Ts'in-ling constituting almost the dividing line. In the N. the fauna aud
flora are those of the H\vang-ho; in the S. those of the Yangtze (See Preliminary Notiofia :
fauna and flora, p. 10, 17). Wild animals are less numerous than in Kansu, though
they arc extensively met with on the Northern loess plateau and in the Ts'in-ling.
Aquatic hirds teem in the valley of the Wci-ho : the wild goose, heron, ibis, and snipe.
Asrlcnltnral Wealtli. — Agricultural products abound
in the 2 plains of the Wei-ho f^ ^ and of the Han-ho ^ |i^,
as well as on the loess plateau, wherever it can be tilled.
In certain parts of the Wei-ho plain, rice and cotton are cultiva-
ted, and there are 2 harvests every year, that of Spring yielding
corn, and that of Summer, cotton. Elsewhere, the crops raised
are those peculiar to the Northern region : barley, pulse^ peas,
lucerne, hemp, tobacco and Indian-corn. The valley of the
upper Han-ho ^ jpf perhaps much richer, produces besides
various fruits, abundant crops of corn, cotton and tobacco. Silk
is manufactured, and the mulberry, palm, bamboo and even
orange-tree are found there in abundance. Throughout the whole
Province, the cultivation of the poppy is the all-absorbing pursuit
of the inhabitants.
Mineral Wealth. — The Province is exceedingly rich in
coal mines but they are little worked. Iron, salt of inferior
quality (towards the N.), quartz veined with gold, nickel and
magnetite (in the upper valley of the Han-ho ^ ^) are also
found. Stones for building (marble, granite, and porphyry)
abound, especially in the Ts4n-ling ^ ^ mountains.
Population. — The population is very dense in the two valleys aud becomes
thinner as one travels away from these two centres. The people are largely agiven to
agriculture. As in Shansi, many skilful hankers are nevertheless found among them. The
alien clement is scanty: Mongols (in the N.),Szechw*an and Hnpeh lmmigrani^{in the S.).
Like Kansu, though for a shorter period, Shensi suffered exceedingly from the two
rehollions : that of the T'^aip^lng^ to the S. of the Ts4n-ling; and that of the Mutgulman»
to the N.. The city of Singan Fu was almost the only one which held out in the North.
LoD^ua^e. — It is only in the N. that a little Mongol is heard. Everywhere
elfae, Mandarin is the common tongue.
tiHAt>TBR 11. SHBNSt. 43
Towns and cUer Centres.
In Northern ShenH ^ || :
8INQAN FUfS^)^, a few miles to the 8. of the Wei-hgi,' i^<5^<
at an elevation of 1, 600 feet. — Population, about 1, OOO^^^O.
It is the capital and one of the most important cities of Shensi,
perhaps even of all China, not only because of its historical remi-
niscences, but also because of its site, the number of its inhabi-
tants and its wealth. Singan Fu or a neighbouring city has been
the capital of China under several dynasties. Jt.aoquired Itg "^
greatest celebrity, ejpejcially. during!. theL..T*ang J^ dynasty. It
was then called Siking (1^^ Western Capital)^. InlQOQ^ when the
Boxer insurrection broke out, the Court withdrew there for a time.
A short distance from it, towards the E., the Annals of the Empire
were burnt under Shih Hwang-ti ^^^ (246-209. B. C). The
Mussulmans who are said to have arrived there about the VIII*** cen-
tury, occupy quite extensive quarters and have a famous mosque.
Not far from the city, towards the W., is found a slab bearing date
from the VIII^^ century, and testifying that the Nestorians, an
heretical christian sect, were established there at that time. A cele-
brated museum, called the Pei-lin {^i^ forest of slabs or stone-
tablets) is rich with the remnants of ancient civilisation. The city
has its Tartar quarter, which is surrounded by a high wall. In the
centre of the town there is a large agglomeration of petty shop-
keepers. The Eastern suburbs is a very populous and rich quarter
where cloth, silks, porcelain, foreign-made articles and iron are
stored. In the year 189SL»-.a^-cotiOR«miH was established. within
the city._
Hsienyting hsien J^ ^JH This town is not far from Signan
Fu, and owes its importance to its being the terminus of naviga-
tion on the Wei-ho ^^fpf, hence great traffic is carried on there.
THingchmu Jt* |^ ^ jj^. — On the Lohho ^ fgf.
iSifigkwan hsien }£ BR JR* — ^^ *^® bend of the Hwang-ho
^ fif. It is rather a garrison town than a commercial place,
and owes its importance chiefly to its position which borders on
the Western regions.
44 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.
Hwctyimniao ^ ^ 1^- — This is a pilgrim resort and has
a ramous shrine. It is here that people start when making the
ascent of the Hwa-shan ^ (Ij, one of the 5 sacred mountains
of China.
Futigsiati4f tu^^^}^ , — It is picturesquely situated upon a
high iocM terrace and on the Kansu ^ "ffj^ road which follows
the course of the Wei-ho ff JjJ.
Bing Chatv ^g ^. — On the King-ho ® ^. It is renowned
for its excellent fruit.
Tiiiin JP^ ij^^i}^. — In the extreme N.. A garrison town
and important market place for furs.
In Southern Shensi :
Hanchung Fu ^ ^ }^, on the hanks of the Han-ho and
at an elevation of 1,600 ft, like Singan Fu "g" -^^i^, — population
80,000. — It is a large commercial city and important centre in
the midst of a plain over 90 miles in length and from 25 to 40
miles wide.
Hsingngan Fu ^ ^ }^. — A more important commercial
centre than Hanchung Fu. Commerce is carried on with Sze-
chw'an Q j||, Kansu -^^ Jfj^ and Southern Shensi ^ J^.
Industry and Commerce. — These are more developed
than in Kansu ^ )|f, but are however in a rather backward
state. Besides the somewhat industrial centre of Singan Fu jg
^ |3^, a certain number of towns exist along the lower Wei-ho
?S ST' which engage in special branches of industry: T'ungkwan
hsien 'Ji^ PH j||, tin-ware ; Hwayinmiao ^ |^ J^, straw-shoes;
Ch'ihshui "^ 7X, incense sticks and bamboo articles ; Weinan
hsien {1 '^ j||i> a large coal-mart....
To the S., Sihsiang hsien 5 ^ j||> S.E. of Hanchung Fu
1^ ^^ fl^T and famous for its manufacture of gum.
Shensi ^ 0 imports silks from Ch^kiang ffi j^t and Sze-
chw*an B jll tea from Hupeh ^ 4fc and Hunan jj^ |j}, and
sugar from Szechw^nn 0 jl|. It estports opium, skins and furs.
Besides it is a place of transit for all goods coming from Tibet
and Central Asia, or going to these two regions.
CHAPTER II. SHENSI. 45
Shensi holds perhaps the first rank for the varnish-tree which
supplies varnish and vegetable tallow.
Higltways of comumnieatioii. — Two roads connect l^-
ngmi 1^* g jg ^ with Lanehow Fuf(jik\fff (Kansu -^^). The
most important of these is the Northern one, passing by P'ing-
leang Fu 2p Jf^ ^ (Kansu). It is a very beautiful road, and was
formerly bordered with trees like French boulevards. It was
constructed by Tso Tsungt'ang 4 ^ ^i the General who put
down the Mussulman rebellion. Besides these 2 roads, three
other important highwarjs deserve special mention.
1"*. The road leading from Singan ^^ "^^Jff to T^ung-
k^van hHen }} Mill- ^^ this latter place, it branches off into two,
one going at the S. of the Hwang-ho )(f ^ to Honan ^ f| ;
the other, crossing Shansi il] If, following the course of the
F^n-ho ^ fpf, and leading to Peking ;|t ^.
2''. The road connecting Singan Fki W ^ ij^ with Sxe^
chu^an^ This passes at the Weslern extremity of the Ts'in-ling
H'gl, over the T*iensha-ling ?5 j^^ pass, (3,300 ft. above the
Wei-ho, and .5000 above the level of the sea) and at the North-
western extremity of the Kiulung ;^ H mountains over the
Wuting 3E T P^ss (4000 ft. high). It is the famous road of the
golden^ ox ^Kinniu-tao ^^M) built at such enormous expense.
(According to local legends it was constructed in order to seize
oxen on the mountain, as it was thought Iheir fodder was changed
into gold.) ^
3'*'. The road connecting Singan lu with t^hang Chow ^
^. This passes to the E. of the Tsin-ling, and connects the
capital of Shensi |^ f| with South-Western Honan fp| ^ and
the middle course of the Han-ho ^ fpf.
We have previously mentioned the navigable rivers.
Note. — Sliensi is considered as the cradle of the Chinese
race. It is here that it grew up, developed, ~and expanded
totKe E. and S.. ^hensi commands all passes of the great
Eastern plains leading to Central Asia^ and thanks to the Sze-
chw^an gg j|j road, connects them easily with the whole South
46
SECTION I. THB NOKTHBRN REGION.
of the Emfiigfi^ The valley of the Wei-ho |f| )i^ is especially
of unparalleled importance in the history of China.
Beferences :
Roc*kliill.--Tho Land of the I^mas. New-
York, 1891. (ch. I.).
GrenarcL—Mission scieutiiiqiiede la Haute
Asia. Paris, 1898. (II'* p. pp. 46M72,
note on the ethnography of Kansu ; — I*^
part. p. 371 sq., from Sining to Peking).
Prjevalski. — Mongolie. Paris, 1880 (CIi.
IX. Province of Kansu).
Fotanine. — Expedition dans le Kan-sou.
1884-1887. St Petersbourg, 1891.
Voo Kreitoer. — Die Chinesische Pro-
vinz Kan-su. 1888.
Journal des Missions Beiges de Mongolie
et du Kan-sou, from 1892.
RouHBet.— A travers la Chine. Paris, 1878.
(ch. IS to 19 : Kansu and Shensi).
Lo uwaert. — Observations barom^triques
faites au S. du Kan-sou. S« P^tersboiirg,
1898.
Ricbthofen. — Letters. Shang-hai, 1878.
(p. 70-74, Shensi; p. 96-110, Northern
Shensi; p. 111-114, Southern Shensi).
David. — Journal de voyage. Paris, 1875.
(vol. I. ch. 7 to 17 and vol. II. ch. 18
and 19).
Leprince-Rin^uet. — (Tour du monde.
1902 p. 347 sq).
Swen Hedin. ^ Travels.
P. Havret. — La stMe de Si-ngan fou.
Ohanghai, 1895 et 1897.
HOffff.— Hsi-an (Singan). (Written for the
North-China Daily News).
CHAPTER III.
THE REGION OF THE MIDDLE
HWANG-HO
(SHANSI lU H AND HONAN ^ ^,)
The Provinces of Shansi jlj "gf and H&nan j^ f^ do not
depend on the same Viceroy as Kttnsu "fjf JHf and Shensi g|r n.
Each of them has its own Governor,
If we study them in common, it is because the mpwiUains-
of these 2 Provinces constitute a powerful barrier on the W. of
the Great North^Eastern Plain. Both also hem in the Hwang-ho
JIflf below its last great bend^ and before it enters the lowlands.
Moreover, both abounding in coal and iron, are partly covered
with loess or yellow earth, especially Sfutnai jlj "g". Finally they
have been in former times the residence of the Emperor of China
and the seat of the Capital,
The differences existing between them are very prominent :
8han»i ^J ^ is mountainous throughout; Hanan ^ f^
only in part. Shansi is very rich in mineral wealth: JSbnum in
^ricultural products. Access to ShanH is difficult save through
a few highways; Human on the contrary, except on the N,W.,
is rich in means of communication.
Both Provinces have suffered from the T'aipUvg ^ ^
rebellion.
48 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.
r. Shansi lU H
Area. — 81,853 square miles.
urnmber of Inhabltanto.— 12,200,000, or 149 per square
mile.
Haine.— Shansi lIlH BignideB ^^We^i of the Mouniaif^ff But
what mountains are meant? Perhaps the peaks which bound on
the E. the entire plateau of Shansi. It would however be more
exact to say that they are the mountains on the W. of Chihli
{If ^ as Shantung ]\\ ^ means E. of the same range, that is
of the T'aihar^shan ic ^ lU-
Boundaries. — Shansi is bounded on the
N. — By Mongolia,
W. — By the Ordos plateau (being part of Mon-
golia and Shensi |^ If,
S. — By Honan jpf ^,
E. — By Chihli it Jj^- — The Hwang-ho H Jlf
fixes exactly the boundary line on the W.
and S..
Capital city. — T^AITtfBN JFT7 Jc J^ ;j§f, which is situated
in the centre of the Province and on the left bank of the P^n-
ho ^ fpf.
Otlier Preftetnres or First class cities. Th4^ are S.
namely, To the N. of T^aiyueti JFVi -Jj J^ ^ :
V Shohp'ing Pu f! 2|i «P,
2^ Tattling Pu * H *,
3" Ningwu Pu W R «P.
To the S. of T^aipUen Fu, atUl alou^ the right batik of
the Fhu-ho ^ fpf as it runs into the Hwang-ho :
4« Pfinchow Pu }» ^ «P,
5° P'ingyang Pu ^ li HT,
6" P^nchow Pu m #1 fflP.
At the S.'Ba9terH extremity^ proceeding from N. to S..
7* Lungan Pu SB * «p,
8" Tsehchow Pu ^ #i ;j^.
There are besides in Shansi il||| lOiudepetidefU Chowe )^:
CHAPTBR III. 8HAN8I.
49
LOESS PLATEAU OP SHANSI [Ij |f .
According to Richthofen.
fiO SECTION I. THE NORTHERN RB0ION.
TUngting Ch4nv ^ £ M, JOMn Chaw ^ j^, T*ai Chaw f^ ^,
Baoteh Chmv %^j^f Hoh Chaw ^^, JEMoi cakawfj^fVi, Kiang
Chawlf^j^, aih Chaw {| ^, m'in Chaw\j^ jf\,LeaaChaw jj^JW.
I Aspeet and eluunielertotios. — Shansi is a plateau ascen-
hiing in gradual terraces and intersected by mountain-ranges towards
\the N.. It has long monotonous ridges of yellow land and several
^lluvial plains very rich and fertile. There is great difficulty of com-
munication. The people are industrious, but the soil is rather poor,
anSTTiifcompels them to seek elsewhere the prosperity they lack at
home. Coal and iron abound, but up to the present, the absence
of good roads has rendered the working of the mines rather
unprofitable. The Province has also a lengthy river, the Ffirimho^
^, which runs through its centre and develops there, more than
in the other parts, wealth and prosperity. Such are in brief, the
most striking features of Shansi.
Geological constitotion. — A layer of limestone covers a rich bed of coal.
Over the layer itself are found sand-stone and yellow earth. This latter reaches in the
S. a depth of 2,000 ft. In the N. there are'.long mountain-chains of granite, schist and
poi'phyry. In the Centre, skirting the Eastern bank of the ^Han-ho Htff^i is the Hoh-
shan ( |lj, a granitic and metamorphic mountain.
Orogimpliy. — Shansi is formed by a strong mountain
ridge, which, more or less wide, inclines gradually from N.
to 8.. This iitrge plateau^ varying in elevation from 2,600
to 5,000 ft., is flanked on the E., N.E. and N. by peaks
which ^ rise to a still higher altitude. Its steep slopes have
been deeply furrowed and eroded, and disclose to the eye at
the present day the calcarious and coaly deposits which cons-
titute its base. On the N., long chains traverse it from 8.W. to
N.E., and continue the massive crest of the Southern Ordos
table-land. These attain an elevation of 3,600 feet in the
Wutairwhan 3l S ll]. The Sirshan H Ul o^ T^aihamM^an
JC 'ff llj' which stretches along the plateau to the S.B., rises
only to 3,200 ft., although it appears to look higher when viewed
from the Ghihli |j|; ^ plain. Further to the W., running along
the left bank of the F^n-ho ^ fpfi i^ ^^^ Hahrshan || |Ii, the
height of which is 7,860 ft. In the emUre af the rravimee
there eooiete a series af degrtsaUms incUning in the direction of
GHAPTBR III. 8HAN8I. 51
N. to 8. and separated from each other. These are the dried-
up beds of former lakes, which have disappeared, leaving behind
a thick alluvial sediment more fertile than the surrounding loess
or yellow land. The number of these lakes is 7, and upon their
principal sites stand the following cities : Tat^ung Fu ;fc ^ ^,
(3,900 ft. high); T*aiyuen Fu ^c ^ ^ (2,600 ft. high); P*ingyang
Fu ^ H^ ^ (1,800 ft. high). The Southernmost, that of Hsiai
Chow jH i>H» attains an elevation of only 1,200 ft.
J&» the SL, is a mountain of sufficient importance to be men-
tioned, the ChunglfiaO'Shan tfij^lll (3,300 ft. high), which must
have been separated by an earthquake from the Hwa-shan ^ il|
(see section I. ch. I. p. 26.), which lies opposite to it. The
Hwang-ho now flows between the two.
Climate. — The climate of Shausi is severer than that of the N. taken in
general. This resnlts from the mediocre elevation of the country. Snow covers it
during the long Winter months and the thermometer falls to — i degrees F. and even
further. At T'aiytten Fu, the lake was frozen over from November to March in 1908-04.
The thermometer then fell to — 9 degrees F. and reached in Summer 82 F..
Kydi^iprapliy. — In the £L, there are two important
rivers, the jR§fi-Ao ^ ^ and the Ts^in-ho l^ jpf, both tributaries
of the Mwang^ho ^ fpf . In the N; the Province is traversed
by several large affluents of the Peh-ho j^ fpf. In the W^a, vast
number of streams cutting deep ravines in the soil empty their
waters into the Hwang-^ho )| jpf*
The I^hirho j^ fpjf is the largest river of Shimai. It rises to
the 8. of Ningwu Fu ^ ;^ ^, and after leaving T'aiyiien Fu
'M JSi Hf^ waters the most fertile part of the Province. It is
navigable only up to Kiang Chow ^f. jjjj, but from T*aiyiien Fu
to the latter city, a very frequented road traversing numerous
important centres, runs along its banks. It crosses the two richest
plains of Shansi [Ij'g : that of T'aiyiien Fu :fcjg /jj and that of
P4ngyang Fu ^ R^ Jj^. Its waters are wont to rise suddenly
and devastate the adjoining region.
The T/^inrho JtJSf, which descends from the 8.E. of the pla-
teau is of less importance. It waters however one of those regions
richest in mineral wealth: Tsehchow Fu j^f^fff] and one of the
most fertile and populous of all China : Hwaik'ing Fu ^ J| ^
(Honan M Hr)-
52 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.
Fauna and Flera. — There is nothing special to mention, save the huntings
gronnds in the North, which are reserved for the Emperor.
~ — ^KfHraltiuml Weftltli. —Agricultural products are conflned
to a great extent within the valleys of T'aiyiien Fu ikSiftf ^^^
Kiang Chow |j| j^, and consist mainly of cojn, tobacco, cotton
and sometimes rice. The climate is too severe to obtain two
harvests, so Shansi ill H ^^ compelled to procure from the
neighbouring plains the products it lacks itself.
Even as regards opium, reputed to be the best in China,
the crop is insufficient. — Shansi grows excellent gr^T*^** from
which wine is made, unequalled it is said, throughout China.
Mlneml Weftltli. — Minerals are the great wealth of Shansi
ill 'jl^ Province. They consist especially of pit-coal and iron.
No part of the world is perhaps so rich in cgal-fields. The three
principal mining-centres are the following: the basin of T^aiyiien
^^ -k B Jlf^ ^h^^ o^ P'ingting Chow iqji Jg ^ and the country
around Tsehchow Fu H ^ ^. On the S., to the B. of Hsiai Chow
^^, there is a salt lake called Luts^un ^^ which has consi-
derable importance^ X Taot^ai is in charge, to superintend
the collecting of taxes upon the salt, which is afterwards sold
extensively throughout Shansi |lj "g*, Shensi ^ ^ and Honan
FOpulaikMi — Shansi is hospitable, industrious and eager in the pursuit of
gain. The best bankers of China and her shrewdest merchants are recruited from this
Province. Nearly the whole commerce of the South of Mongolia is carried on by Shansi
traders, some of whom even go as far as Tibet. When enriched, they return to settle
down at home, bringing back with them the means of comfort, if not of luxury.
In the N., the population is largely made up of Mongols, who number 500,000.
They have their sacred mountain, the Wut'ai-shan, where they lovingly bury the
remains of their relatives. A large Mongol lamasery occupies its summit. They have
also their own town, Kweihwa ch'Ang, or the Blue City, called in Mongol Ku-ku Rhoto.
Lan^aa^. — Mongol is spoken throughout the N.. Everywhere else the Man-
d^rin dialect is prevalent.
Cmem and Principal Oentres. — T'AITVBffr ru -j^ gi
fff^ with a population of 230,000 inhabitants, is the capital of
Shansi [Ij fg ^^^ ^^^ residence of the Gk)vernor. It is situated
at an elevation of 2,600 ft., on the N. of a vast plain studded
with populous villages and neatly constructed houses. The valleys
which open out on the plain have nearly all mines, occupying
CHAPTER III. 8HAN8I. 53
each about 200 workmen, while rows of carta drawn bv oxea\
,and whe^^^^aTrnw ^y»"ff t^^<* coal dailj^Jo the capital. Formerly'
this city manufactured defensive weapons on a large scale, and
even at present it possesses an arsenal. It has its Tartar quarter
and important barracks for the soldiers. It is surrounded by
beautiful gardens and orchards. Its commerce is very brisk. In
several places throughout the plain, pit-coal, iron and sulphur
are found ; there is also in a neighbouring village a famous
spring which has been turned to advantage by the people.
To the If. of T'aiuUen J^ i: ff. fff -
Kweihica ch^htg 0| ffc JA-— population, 200,000 inhabitants.
— The Blue €Xty or Ku^Jcu Khoio comprises two towns, the one, '
religious and military, with its schools and its Lama monas-
teries (the grand Lama of Mongolia, actually at Urga, resided
formerly here) ; the other, largely commercial, is an important
market for skins and camel-hair ropes, imported from every part
of Mongolia and exported chiefly to T*ientsin Ji fjf f(f. The
environs are covered with fruit-trees.
TeOfung Fu -^ ^flfif. — A town situated 4,000 ft. above the
the sea-level, in a long plain of scanty fertility where several
volcanic peaks arise. There are important deposits of coal and
sodium carbonate in the vicinity.
To the S. of T*aiy^ilen Pu:
Fhuihmv Fu ^ jfl^ ^, — An important town, near a rich
valley abounding in coal.
P*ingy€nig Fu ZJ^JfU^J^. — population, 19,000 inhabitants. — It/
isj)ne of the oldest cities of China (tradition states that the |
Emperor Yao ^ resided there), but of its ancient splendour, Ihe'
only remnant to-day is a^magnificent city-wall. It is situated in a
vast alluvial plain where the system of irrigation is unrivalled.
Kianff Chaw l^jHi- — WilhiTTtTirKlrtrcf The Fiin-ho j^ jpfi
towards the W.. — It is a prettily situated town, the terminus
of navigation and the principal market-place of Shansi. It lies
in a plain of considerable ferlility and is in the neighbourhood
of coal-mineij.
54 8BGTI0N I. THB NORTHBRN RlftlON.
1^ the Acf I^oiyOen .F%« ic M iKFi descending towards
Chihli H H :
FHngUng Chaw Zp Jg ^. — 20,000 inhabitants. — A great
manufacturing (gold and silver-ware, iron) and commercial city.
In its vicinity is the rich coal-mine known as SMhpuhimU ^
Two other cities deserve also to be mentioned. They are
situated in the T*aiyiien Fu -^Mftf plain : F'ifHnfoo haien ^PJSfli,
population, 60,000 inhabitants, — an important market for exports
into Honan }IJ ^; and M^i haien j^ fli, a very commercial
town with a population of 30,000.
To the 8. A:
Taehehow .Fl* H jHi^) situated in a district which abounds
in coal and excellent iron-ore. As moreover, its communications
with the plain are numerous, it is the c^tre of a very industrial
ref^ionij^ principally iTQn ^worjLS .
Industry and Oommeroe. — In both of these, Shansi
holds a prominent place. This is the natural outcome of the
industry of its people, its rich mines and the poverty of its soil.
Several cities and large villages devote themselves specially
to industry. We have mentioned above P*ingting Chow ^ Jg
j^, famous for its goldsmiths' work ; others are engaged in the
paper, iron, and sulphur industries. Kiang Chow |j| j/l\ has
started lately a cotton-mill.
The eaoport articles are principally : coal, iron, salt and
products from Mongolia, such as skins and ropes. The importe,
which seem to exceed the exports, consist of corn, silk, woollen-
goods, tea and salted provisions.
BOi^liway* of Oommnnleatloii. — The communications
are difficult through lack of good roads. Transport is extensively
made u^on the . JDacks 4>f ani4nal6'4-oai»el9-,--imriiMh«iul.a88fifli —
The principal roads are :
Two carriage roaAs. — If they can be so called, for they
are very impracticable. — These are :
1' The road leading frwn OhSngOng JMi JE )K JlP (OUhli
GHAPtBR III. 8HAN8I. 55
itSS to ShenH gKlf , passing by T*aiyuen ¥m ±^}lf, P4ng-
yang Fu ip B| ^, P'uchow Fu ff jHi iflP and T*ungkwan hsien
!t M ili (Shensi). (At P*uchow Pu one may also cross the
Hwang-ho % J^, and proceed by T'ungchow Fu to Singan Fu
S ^ iff, Shensi).
2^ The road leading from T'oiyfim Su i;|S(^ to TcU^ung
•^^ :fc 1^ JKF* I^ passes by Y6nmen-kwan )B P^ M) a famous
and much frequented gate of the €hrta$ WaU. Here the road
branches into two : one branch going by Shohp'ing Fu ^^^
to Kweihwa ch'6ng|${tji|ft; the other leading to Kalgan {GhiMff,^
Two oiher roaOs or rather pathways are less frequented :
I'' One ttom Ttehehow FU ^ fl\ J(f to JP'ingyang JRi.
2^ A second from nehehow Fk* to T^atyiien JPk^, passing to
the W. of Lungan Fu }|| ^ ^.
J%e oniy good Waier'Highwafyo are: the Fhnrho ;{^fr^, from
Kiang Chow j|^ ^ to the Hwang-ho Hfi]'; and the Mwang-ho*
This latter is navigable from P»uchow Fu f|f ^ ;|^ to T*ung-
kwan hsien ft H) IR, and in several places to the W. of Shansi
^| 'jl^, especially near its North-Eastern bend.
Extensive traffic is carried on upon the road leading from
Chihli It iMt to T'aiyuen Fu *|5(^. Prom 2,000 to 3,000 mules
and asses, and 200 to 300 camels, pass every day opposite a
fixed place. The same activity exists in the N., at the Y6nmen
)]g P^ pass. The raUroad from CMngHng Fu J£%Jti (Chihli) i
to T'a^fiken JPIf^ connecting the capital of Shansi il| '^ with thalf
great trunk-line from Peking ;([j jjc to Hank'ow :^ P (Hupel/f
iW fll), 'Will afford easy tranport for the rich mines of Shansi \
and at the same time increase its wealth.
Mote. — We have seen above thatJP*ijigyang Fu ^ J^
^ was the capital of the celebrated sovereign Yao ^, in the
early times of the Chinese empire. In the S.E., the present
district town oQIsia.hfiifia J|.jR (Hsiai Chow f^, ^) had in its
midst the court of the Emperorp of the HsiaJI dynasty, the
first that governed China (2,205 to 1,766 B. C).
56 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REfilON.
2" , Honan M %
Area. — 67,95 i square miles.
Popnlallon. — 25,317.820 or 373 per square mile.
Ito IVame. — Honan fpf ~^ signifies Smah of the river,
and in fact the greater part of the Province lies to Ihc South
of the Hwang-ho JJi fpf , while only a small tract of land extends
beyond it on the North.
Bonndaiies. — Honan is bounded, on the
N. — By Chihli jt gt and Shansi 4IJ g,
W. — By Shensi |^ |g and Hupeh jgj fl:,
S. ~ By Hupeh JM ft,
E. — By Nganhwei ^ ff[, Northern Kiangsu f£
j|^, Shantung [i| }^ and Ghihli ]i[^.
CapittA. — K'AIFUNG FU^^)ff, situated in the Norlh-
East of the Province, and towards the South of the last great
bend of the Hwang-ho ^ f^.
Otber Prefeclnral Cities. — These number S, three of
which are to the North oftlie Hwang^fio. They are, proceeding
from the West to the North-East :
l"* Hwaik'ing Fu tt ft /fip,
2° Weihwui Pu > » #,
SoChangteliFiil^ai^MP.
T/a€ 5 others lie along Iho Southern course of the Hwang-
ho Jl ^, one to the N.W., another to the S.W., and the rest
in the basin of the Hwai-ho ^ fSjf .
4" Honan Fn fflrfll W",
^ Nanyang Pu W IB *,
6° Jnning Pu ift W «^,
7" Cli*enchow Pu » #1 flf,
8" Kweiteh Pu B It /fiP.
Honan has besides 5 independent C/unv cities : .HMl (^htnv
fj: ^, Sh^i Chow 1^ ^, Kwang Chow jft fH, fTu Chow ffc f^f
and Cheng Chow |^ j^.
Aspect and Cliaraeterlstlcs. — Honan is a vast fertile
plain, but exposed to the cold winds of the North, It has no
nutuval sepiiration^^fie East from the neighboxwing Provinces,
lonjmJAe Ea
CHAPTER III. HONAN. 57
but is closed on the S. and principally on the W,, by a semi' ,
circular chain of mountairiSf which ai/ow only few passages \
towards the Yangtze ^^ valley, and that of the upper Hwang-ho l
M ^^ Its fertility, compared with the other Provinces of the N.
has deserved for it the name of '^Iiand of tlie Oentml Flower",^
and perhaps the designation of Chung^kwoh S^ ^ or **Middle
Kingdom^' given lo the whole of China, may be traced back to
that origin. It affords also, excepting however the mountains of
the West. commQdinuf^ ftigh-uiays s>inH can exchange its products,
especially agricultural wealth, although coal is not lacking,
better than the other Provinces which we have previously studied.
The railwaii which runs through it and connects the basins of the
Hwang-ho H jpf and the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ ft, will henceforth
attract thereto increasing wealth and activity.
Geological cooBiitatioii. •— Yellow earth predominates in a large portion
of the North, and is mingled with alluvial soil in the basin of the Hwailio (H fif. In
the W., the Funin Mountains are composed of marble, sand-stone and granite. The
mountains which are their continuation to the S., are formed also of granite, schist
iiud gneisp.
Orosrapliy. — On tfie North of tFt^e Hwmig'-ho ^ fpf, the
surface rises slowly towards the N. E., but more abruptly to ihc
N.W., where it forms the first slopes of the T'aihcmg'Bhan >k^
llj range.
On the South of the Htvang-ho )| fpf :
Throughout the whole Western and South-Western part of
the Province, the last branches of the Bagtem K^ueniun ^ Ifjjff
throw out numerous spurs, which are called, proceeding from
N. to S., the Hwa-Bhan H ^.lUniu-shan^ ^ il|, and further
Southwards, the HwaUung-'Bhan f|| |£ ll] and JB[wti4)g€mtr^fum
tH 1^ ill* The whole mass varies from 2,600 to 3,000 feet in
average elevation, though it exceeds at times the height of 6,000
feet. The Funiu-shan reaches also an elevation of 7,800 ft. in
the rehy^m-shan g .^ llj, while the Sung-shan ^ \l\, an
important mountain-mass advancing into the plain to the S. E.
of Honan Fu fpf ^ ^, rises likewise to the height of 7,800 ft.
in the YangMing-shan |^ jfjft llj. The plain slopes slightly
down as these mountains advance towards the E..
58
8BCTI0N I. THB NORTHBRN RBftlON.
.ViOtlJ ui-
b4
a
I — r-r
i? ^. :*»
SI
I ' I
GHAPTBR III. HONAN. 59
The climate of Honan becomes milder as one advances Southward. Hero the
same prod acts grow as iu the valley of the Yangtze. lu the N., the cold and dust-
storms are severely experienced during the Winter season.
Hjrdrogimpliy. — The rivers may be divided into four
different systems.
1^ On the N* of the JStuang^ho ^ fpf , sever€a streame,
the principal of which is the Weirho ^ ^, run into the Grand
CanaL The Weirho is navigable up^ to Tao-k*ow Jg P, and
throughout the greater part of the year, even up to Siuwu hsien
ft f( fli ^^^^ Hwaik'ing Fu ^ J| ^, considerably higher than
Weihwui Fu f^ m ^. Numerous and limpid streams fertilise
all. this part of Honan fr^ ^.
2'' The foUowing empty themaeiveB into the Hwang-ho
On the N., the Ts^in-ho fjj^ fpf , flowing down from Shansi
^| 'jl^ (see description of this Province p. 51), and on the &, the
Z^h'ho f^ jSJ. This latter waters a very fertile valley running
parallel to the basin of the Hwang-ho and famous in the history
of China.
3^ On the 8.W. of the J^mtu^han jft ^ \\iy ^^ rivers,
the reh'ho jg ffif and the T^ang^ho jH fr^, which water the
whole region of Nanyang Fu "^ |^ fff^ and after uniting their
streams, flow into the Han^ho ^ fvf opposite Siangyang Fu Jfj^
fflf fff, in Hupeh ^ ^. The Peh-ho is navigable at all times
up to Nanyang Fu. — Another river, the Tan^fyiang -pj^fL^ runs
a little further Westward into the Han-ho ^^^ and is navigable
in Winter up to Kingtze-kwan ^ j^ ^, affording thereby a
highway to Singan Fu |g ^ ;|^ in Shensi Iff^ '^.
4* The Hwairho ^ Jfif and its tributaries, the principal of
which is the Sha-ho j^ ^. Nearly all its affluents flow from
N.W. to 8.E.. The Hwai-ho, after flowing for a time from W.
to E., but impeded in its course by the mountains of Western
Nganhwei $4(f runs in a North-Eastern direction upon entering
Nganhwei,and there empties its waters into the Hungtseh Lake
^ ^. It is navigable below Sinyang Chow f^ |^ JHi (Juning
Fu ^H;^). The Sha-ho is so likewise below Gheukia-k'ow ^Jgf,
D 1 where it receives the KkUurhoJl^ff and the TUrho jft fJi-
60 8BGTI0N I. THE NORTHERN RBOION.
\ The Hufong'ho, which bisects the Northern part of Honan
I fn}~^, is navigable from Szeshui hsien f£ tK IR ^^^^ K^aifung
U^'u Wi $i Hf^ ^ little ^o ^he ^'^ o^ Honan Fu, till it leaves
^ Honan ^ ]|f. Navigation on it is however rather difficult. At
low-water season, it is very shallow, and when the flood sets
in, the current is too strong for junks. To the N.E. of K*ai-
fung Fu, its former bed is still visible, and we shall deal with
it when describing North-Kiangsu f£ fjj^.
Fauna and Flora. — There is nothiut^ deserving any pai-ticulftr meution, Have
that in the S. the fauna and flora of the Central Region begin to appear in some
places.
, Agrlcnltnral Wealtli. — The soil of Honan is very fertile
' and produces excellent crops : corn, millet, sorghum, Indian-
corn, cotton and opium. The most fertile parts are 1^ the region
of HwaikMng Fu flUlJ^) a real garden with numerous planta-
tions of trees and shrubs; the soil is well irrigated. 2^ the
region of Nanyang Fu ^ |^ ;|^, which produces cotton, opium,
and a little silk. 3^ the Loh-ho jS'fpf valley, a splendid alluvial
country, growing corn, fruit and the poppy in abundance. The
Western mountains alone are barren, being for the greater
part destitute of trees. The Funiu {^4^ mountains are however
partially covered with dwarf oaks, upon the leaves of which
numerous silk-worms are fed. The rearing of the silk-worm is
the chief source of prosperity of this region.
Mineral wealtli. — The mineral wealth consists prin-
cipally of coal-mines (between Lushan hsien ;(imiJ|| and Ju Ohow
^^). Iron, tin and argentiferous lead-ore are also found.
Population. — The people are principally ^iven to agrioulture, and few
Rlien elements are fonnd among them. K'aifung Fu had formerly an important colony
of Jeivs^ hut they have now dwindled to only a few members. The population is very
dense everywhere, but particularly to the N. of the Hwang-ho, and in the country- sur-
rounding Nanyang Fu. An exception must however be made for the moantainous
district of the W..
Lankan gre. — Mandarin is Kpoken throughout the w^hole Province.
Cities and Principal €}enirem.—K'AIFl[JNG JPVjfUUfff.
— population, 200,000 inhabitants. Situated to the S. of the bend
of the Hwang-ho ^ f^, it was formerly a city of great imppr-
tance, but iy nowadays without either commerce or industry.
CHAPTER III. HONAN. 61
Despite the numerous embankments which surround it, it is
much exposed to the inundations of the Flwang-ho, to which it
has already fallen many times a victim.
To the North of the Hwang-ho )| fjf :
Hwaikfing JPli ^J|^. — a large city but doing no trade.
Tt^inghwa ehhi JKftUt* — ^ ^^^ miles to the East of
Hwaik^ing Fu, is a large emporium and carries on a consider-
able trade in coal and iron. It is moreover a very populous
city and an important transit centre. Stfi£L_ingtrum£nts are
extensively manufactured there, and it is the chief market for
the medicinal plant called ^^Ti-hwang** A 31 (a medicinal root,
perhaps allied to cumfrey and used as a febrifuge. — Williams.),
the sale of which realises £160,000 annually.
Taok^ow ehSn ^ D IK- — to the N.B. of Weihwui Pu. A
considerable commercial mart upon the Wei-ho D| }i^, which is
always navigable up to this place except when the ice has formed.
By this river, a large portion of the mineral and metallurgic
products of South-Eastern Shansi llj U, and also corn from
HwaikMng Pu fi|J|^i are exported to the N.E. Taoh'o^v rhAit^
is the terminus of the Honan fpf ]^ raUwtty.
In the part S. of the Hwang-ho J^j^. To the N.W. and W.:
Honan JPU fpf |f| /|^. — In the rich valley of the Loh-ho
f^ }i|. The city is advantageously situated at the crossing of
the highroads leading to Singan Pu 'jl^ ^ H^ in Shensi |j|{19.
It is nowadays of no importance. To the S., rises the sacred Sung-
shan Jjg ill mountain, and to its W. is the famous defile known
as Lung-m6n|KP^, whose banks are adorned with pagodas and
ancient sculptures carved in the limestone rock. Several of the
statues of Buddha are over 60 feet in height.
Ju Chow^j/l\. — A town situated in the midst of splendid
scenery and in a ^weH-jvatered valley. The environs were
formerly very industrial, but have lost their activity. The
manufacture of common pottery is still carried on and gives it
some importance.
62 SECTION I. THB NORTHERN REftlON.
iMBhan hBien 41 |Il IR. — Centre of .the silk trade in this
district. Paper is also manufactured as weih"ffft pottrry^ftnd
waggons with cast-iron wheels, much in demand throughout
the whole of this region.
To the 8. XL and 8. :
KtMnytinff Fk& -^ ^ f(f. — An important city, both as a
transit place and as the centre of a populous and fertile region.
MbfKfttMn^j^^:' — A very important commercial
centre between the Provinces of the N, E. and those of the W.
It has large warehouses.
Bit^yamg Chaw fS^f^- — ^^ important town and the head
of navigation on the Shih-ho Hip f^, a tributary of the Hwai-ho
jH jpf. It is the terminus of the high-road which comes from
the N., and continues Southwards over the mountains by a
mule-path. Numerous rafts bring salt from the maritime Pro-
vinces. The Peking-Hankow railway ]g ^ which passes near
it, gives it a still greater importance.
TotheJEL:
Cheukiarkfaw J^ if D • — to the W. of Ch^chow Fu |$ j^i
f[f. — The^ most._important comnvercial centre of Eastern Honan
fpf ^. It is situated at the confluence of 3 rivers. The Sha-ho
j^ jpf is navigable up to this place the whole year round, and
all three are navigable in the flood season.
Industry and Commerce. — If we except its iron and
earthenware trade, Honan is not a very industrial Province.
Its eoppart trade consists chiefly of agricultural products :
corn, cotton and opium, while its imparts are textile fabrics
from Hupeh ^ ft and Tientsin Fu 55 }> ;^ (in Chihli ft |t),
and iron supplied by Shansi llj Iff.
Klgliwi^s of commimleatlon. — Communications are
easy, save in the W. . We have seen to what extent the Hwang-ho
31 fpf, Wei-ho Ijf fpf, Hwai-ho fH ^ and Peh-ho g fff are
navigable. (The T*ang-ho ^ fp[, which joins this latter, is also
navigable as far as Sh6kM ch6n ^ jjj^ ^). The princfpia roade
0te i
CHAPTBR in. HONAN. 63
1*» The road ftwn BeMng ft ]{( to Hank'mu ^ p (Hupeh
m ft), passing by Changteh Fu jg ^ ;|^, Weihwui Fu % ^
fff, K*aifung Fu |B ^ ^iJf, Cheukia-k»ow ^ Sjf P and Sinyang
Chow em in (Juning Fu ?* ^ jj^f).
2^ The road leading from K^a4fung JFu to Singan JBk$ ||
^ Jfi (Shensi |^ ff), passing by Honan Fu ^ ^ jj^f and then
skirting the right bank of the Hwang-ho J| fpf .
3^ The road leading/rom Honan Fu to Siangyang Fu m^
jjj (Hupeh JMft), on the Han-ho g|fBf, traversing Ju Chow, Lu-
shan hsien and the Nanyang Fu ^^jj^ pass. This pass stands
at an elevation of 1,500 ft., and is situated between two moun-
tains whose altitude varies from 4,000 to 5,000 ft. It is nearly 25
miles in length, but offers no difficulty.
4'' The road leading from Weihwui Fu ^j^Jf^ to Honan
Fu, passing by Hwaik'ing ^^ ^ $k Jft*
5^ The road leading from J^aifung Fu to Fungffong Fu
JR, Rl JlJ in Nganhwei ^ fg, passing by Kweiteh Fu |5 ;§g jfl:.
The FeMfng-Hixnik^ow raiUoay passes by Yungtsch hsien
^ ^ H, Shenchow Yn^j^J^, Hsii Chow ^ ^, Yench'^ng
hsien g|i jjl |||, Sip'ing hsien |f iq^ J||, Suip'ing hsien ^ H^
JU, K4ohshan hsien {ft lU JH ^^^ Sinyang Chow fE ^ iKl*
Ainother Une, tJuU of Honan ^ ^, runs from Sinhsimig
^•^^ $^ ^ H ^ ^t^^ohfow ehhh ^ P i| on the Wei-ho %^.
A third Une, recently opened, runs from ChSng Chow fl^ji\
to K'aifung JFI* P| ^ jfl^.
Ifoie. — The ancient ^pital of China stood severaU
times in Honan f|if ^. It was situated in the valley of the Loh-
ho i&fij, in the environs of K'aifung Fu P|i|-^, or at Kweiteh
Fu U :§g[ JlJ. If we believe the legend, Fuhsi {^ ^ the first
Emperor of China, had also his capital there.
References
Gretiftrd. — Mission scientifiquo do la
Haute Adie. Paris. 1897. (ch. VII, p. 423
to 440).
Leprince-Rin^iiei. — Tour du Monde.
1902. (p..S14 sq. and p. 847 sq).
Roekhill.— The Land of the llamas. Now-
York. 1891. ch. I.
Williamson. — Journey in North-China.
London. 1870. (vol. I. ch. 9. and 10, Shan-
«i; ch, 15 to 19, Honan).
64
SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.
RIoMlMiren. — Letters. Shanghai. 1873
(p. lH-44), Honan and Shansi. — p. 77-
90, OhihIi» Monitolia and Shanai'.
Kerral. — Deux niartyrK fran^ais (au
Chan-si). Kome, 19*^3.
R^uMKi. ^ A travers la Chine. Paris. 1S78
(liv. II. eh. 11 and 12, Honan\
OlMiTM«ML ~ Le d4fil6 de Longmen.
(Joarnal Asiatique. 1002).
Wllltenui. ^ The Middle Kingdom. Vol.
I. A^ Edit. New-York. (Shansi. p. 78-79;
Honan. p. 79-80).
^GrOfder. — Ueneral description of China.
liiMidtm, 179r>. (Vol. I. .Shansi. p. 88-87;
Paris, 1875
HonaB.p. 73-78).
Davici. — Journal dcrvo3'age.
(vol. I. ch. 5 and 6).
TolMir. — Inscriptions juives dc K^ai-fong
fou. Chang-hai. 1900.
Marmy. — Historical and descriptive
account of China. Edinburgh. 1843. (Vol.
III. Shansi. p. 21-^.; Honan. 27-28).
LiUle A. — The Far East. Oxford. lOOTi.
(Shansi. p. 29-88; Honan. p. 39-40.
^fappa della Provincia di Ho-nan (Diseg-
nata'da un alnnno della Missione Ita-
liana di Kin-kia-kan).
CHAPTER IV.
THE REGION OF THE LOWER
HWANG-HO AND OF THE PEH-HO
(CHIHLI It ^ AND SHANTUNG |Ij jH).
Thi'fie 2 prow/nce/?, lihe tho 2 precedinti ones, aro indepen^
dent of each other. The former, ChihH ]|[ ||^ has however n
Vicerotj residing nt Paoting Fu ^ ^ fff, while Shanimig jlj ■$[
is ruled by a Governor, whose residence is at Tsinan Fufff'^fff.
' Like Shansi ilj f| and Honan ^ ^, CkiMH ]g[ ^ and
ShatUunff |1] )|[ differ widely from each other. CMhH g[ H in
times gone by, a gulf, but now filled up, is hemmed in by a
semicircle of high mountains, Shaniung, a former island, sur^
rounded little by little by alluvial deposits, strikes boldly out
into the ocean, ChihH has but one very shallow sea, which washes
the coast, and is very little indented. The caast^line of ShatUung
is dotted with bays, several of which are of great depth. €^ihH
is traversed by long rivers, which descend in cascades and rapids
from the mountains that surround it.
Shantung has long rivers only in the N.W., and they all
run in lowlands. The 2 provinces, as we shall see further on,
have many other distinctive characteristics.
Moreover, they are densely populated, and lack neither min*
eral nor agricultural resources. ^o//i are important from an
historical standpoint, ChihU possessing for several centuries the
Capital of China, and ShoMhmg having given birth to €km^teiiUB
(K'ung Futze ?L ik T- 5r>1.479. B.C.), and to his pHncipal
follower, MmH^s (mnqize i ^ 372-289 B.C.).
66 SECTION 1. THE NORTHERN REeiON.
r. chihii mm
- 115,830 square miles.
P^pulaUon. — 20,930,000 inhabitants, or 180 to the
'square mile.
It must however be remarked^ that as the greater part of the
inhabitants live in the plain, the density is greater therein.
Name. — Chihii 'n ^ signifies ^'MtecOif ruied^, or ^^im-
mediaMv o&eyintr*. It was formerly called BelrChlhU Jl^ g[||
or Nwrthem CMMi, in order to distinguish it from Kiangnan
fL ^ (the present Kiangsu fL Jg^ and Nganhwei ^ |g[), which
bore the name of Nan-CMMi li) ]|[ ^ or Southern ChihU.
II«an€Uurle«. — The Province of Chihii is bounded on the
N. — By Mongolia,
W. — By Shansi |lj H,
S. — By Honan ftj Iff and Shantung |I| JK,
E. — By the Gulf of Chihii |gf f| and Manchuria.
dapital*. — Two Capitals are to be distinguished in this
Province : Thai of China, which is BBKJJfG jf^ }^, also called
ttlmni^leii Fn Jig 5^ /ff, not far from the Western mountains,
on a tributary of the Peh-ho ^ fpf .
That of the Ftovinee of ChihU, which is JPAOTING FT
^ ^ Jl^, also on a tributary of the Peh-ho and situated to the
S.W. of Peking.
Otlier Prefeetures. — The§e are 9 in number :
To the N; in the mouniainoue region proceeding from W.
to E. :
r Stlenhwa Fu ft ft «p,
^' Ch'dngteh Fu fc ft MP> called also Jebol ( Jehho-eul Hif ft
warm river),
3« Yungp'ing Fu * T *.
1^ the 8. of Fektng, on the Peh-ho g ^ :
i** T^ientsin Fu ^ » ».
To the W. of the TrofHnee, descending from N. to 8. :-
&> Qo)deii Fa AT n «,
O'CMMllMraJE^W,
CHAPTBR lY. GHIHLI. 67
7»ShnntehFu«ft«,
8" Kwangp'ing Pu H T *,
9r Taming Fu :A: « *.
There are besides in Ghihli J^ ^, <? indei^endeni €Jhoum :
nuHhwa Chaw jg^ it jVi, I Chaw |^ ^, Ki Chmv ^ j^, Chao
Chaw }§ jf^, 8hen Chaw ^ ^, and Thtg Chaw £ ^.
Aspect and CliarafCierlsttcB. — T/ie traveller from Mon-
goliSLj descending from the high plateaux abounding in pasture-
lands, finds himself all at once in presence of mountains, -which
descend rapidly to a large plain, irrigated by turbid rivers, and
nearly all unfit for navigation. This plain, covered in Summer
wii/i an abundant harvest, but also with thick mud, as soon as
the rains set in, is swept in Winter by a cold blast, which covers
it with a cloud of yellow dust. It is nevertheless inhabited, but
by indigent families. The South^Western portion alone is remar-
hable for its greater fertility and its richer vegetation. Consi-
derable activity reigns throughout Chihli ||[ fj^, and is directed
especially towards Tientsin Ji ff^ fff and Peking ^fc '^, the two
great centres of the Province.
Geolosieal vanmtiUtUon, — The f^^reHt Eastern plftiu of Chihli is entirely
composed of allavium, depositrd doubtless by the delta of the Yellow River (Hwang-
ho) and by the Pch-ho. A small tract of yellow earth is found towards the W.. The
mountainous region contains chiefly China limestone, and is travorsed in many places,
as it abuts on the plain, with volcanic streaks of porphyry and granite. Then further
on, are found granite, schist, and gneiss, partially buried l)eneath volcanic eruptions
and yellow earth or loeaa. Generally speaking however, especially in the volcanic region
of the N., the China limestone is prodominant, and is covered over with rich coal
measures. The denndod layers arc conspicuous in the mountains which lie to the W.
of Peking.
ihemt^emp^. — The piain rises gradually ^ith only a few
undulations up to the mountains. These then soar abruptly,
running in the direction N.E. — S.W., and constitute the pro-
longation of the chains, which we have already noted on the N.
of Shansi (il |f . They form towards the W. several parallel
lines, which are called, as they proceed from the plain towards
Mongolia : the Hmtg-shan |[ (Ij, Sfiaawutfinirshan ij> £i| ll]i
Hw€mguang-ah4m %iHi\U^ and the Kulu-shtm ^ K |lj. This
latter extends to the N.W. of Kalgan (^^D Changkia-k'ow),
under the name of the Yinrshan ff^ |lj and the Wei-shtm If^ |lj
68
8BCTI0N I. THB NORTHBRN REGION.
NORTHRRN GHIHLI
anil
Approaches to Peking.
GHAPTBR IV. CHIHLI. 69
mountains. The Wei-shan has the highest peak in Ghihii ||[^:
the JP0i%-elk'a jg ^, i^hich attains an elevation of nearly 10,000
feet. Towards the N.E. these mountains descend gradually,
praoeeding from the Peh-shan to Jehol (Ch'^ngteh Fujfc^ftf).
In this very hilly region, there are large valleys, which are
used for agricultural purposes, when they are covered with
loess or volcanic earth.
. — The climate of Chihli is excessively hot id Sammer, both on the
moantains And in the plain. The Spring is dry; rain sets in only in July and August,
and ialls principally in the plain. It is very cold in Winter, and the rivers ant froiseu
over from the middle of November. When snow falls, it melts quickly in the plain.
The inequality of the raiu-fall renders the harvests very precarious, and so tlie Provinoe
verges often on scarcity and suifers even from famine. Moreover, the Summer rains
make the roads impracticable, and the dry persistent westerly gales of Winter, raise thick
clouds of dust (the famous Peking dust-storms, March to Jane) throughout the plsip.
y. — Chihli ||[f| is exceedingly well irrigated,
and its rivers flow into the Gulf of the same name. The most
important is the Beh'h^ ^ )!f, with its numerous tributaries.
The others are : to the N., the JAoanF-ho ^ fjf; io the A, the
JimM^-^ H S|, the Weirho y^ ff and the Chmng-f^ » fff.
These latter streams traverse only the Southern extremity of
the Province. The Wei-ho, as we have seen (see Honan pf j^
section I. ch. III. p. 59), is navigable there, but the Hwang-ho
is not. The Chang-ho, which comes from Shansi |il ||f, and
runs for a considerable distance beside the €frand Canai, into
which it finally flows, is also unfit for navigation.
The Teh-ho g {if (white river). — The Peh-ho rises in tb^
Yin-shan |^ ^j mountains. After running parallel to the OrMt
Wall, and descending suddenly between denuded mountains, it
enters the plain to the N. of Peking 4t JlCi already swollen by
several torrents. It becomes navigable however only at T^ung
Chow j(^. Henceforth, it runs S.E. and assumes great impor-
tance at T4enliin Ji^JH- From this city to the sea, it takes an
Easterly dirbotion, and empties its waters into a muddy bay. The
bar which exists at its mouth, has only about three feet of water
on it at ebb-tide, which renders the passage very difficult.
It is al Tientsin Ji^fH, and on its right, that it receives
70 SBCTION 1. THB NORTHERN RBSION.
its principal tributaries : 1* the Sangkanrho ^ JK }9i called
also Yt^ho ?a fl^f and Yungtlng-ho ^ ^ f^. 2« the JBTtH'o-
*• ?)t i*6 fPfi which comes from Northern Shansi jlj If. The
Sangkan-ho receives on its right the Ta&'ho JK 19) ^ tributary
of which, the T^ingffuenrho ^ ^ ^, \s navigable as far as
Paoting Fu fli J£ jff.
These two rivers have this in common, that rising in denuded
mountains, and flowing down into the plain, they at times over-
flow their banks and cover the country with an immense sheet
of water. The region around Tientsin is especially exposed to
these terrible inundations. Here also are found the principal
lakes of the plain.
The lAiKmrho ^ fij, after having made an immense sweep
to the N. of Dolon-Nor (city in the N. of Ghihii ii[9|. — Mongol,
'*seven lakes''), traverses from N.W. to S.E. the whole moun-
tainous region of North-Eastern Chihli ||[ §|, then passes to
the S. of Jehol (Ch'^ngteh Fu ^ |g /j^), and flows into the
Gulf of Ghihii, a little beyond Yungp4ng Fu ^ 2p j|(.
No large river flows through Peking if^ 7|r, but only two
streams of little importance.
\ and Flora. — The fauna aud tiora of Chihli, are those of the Northern
lU^ioii, intersperHcd as one advances towards Mongolia with the characteri»tiu«
peculiar to those high tahle-lands. [see Book II. Mongolia : fauna aud flora).
Agriciiltiiral Wealili. — The agricultural wealth of Chihli
consists in corn, barley, buck-wheat, millet, sesamum^ beans
and peas. Fruit grows plentifully in the S.W., especially grapes.
— Horses, donkeys, mules, oxen and the Mongolian camel are
found extensively throughout the country. In the mountainous
region, cows, sheep and goats are reared, and largely supply
the Chihli j|[ ^ markets with food.
Fish is very scarce in the rivers and ponds of Chihli ; a
few kinds however are caught in some of the lakes.
Mlneiml Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of Chihli consists
mainly of coalmines, which are found principally to the W. of
Peking, and at K^aip^ing |g^, near the railway, which runs from
T'ientsin ^^Hf to Manchuria. Kaolin and sand-stone are also
CHAPTBR IV. GHIHLI. 71
found, as well as a great quantity of stone for building purposes.
F^pulaUon. — The population is very deuse throughout tlie whole plain, and
principally towards the 8. W. — In the mountainous region it is centred in the most
fertile valleys.
The inhabitants of C'hihli are hardier, more robust and braver than those of the
Southern Provinces. This is due to the predominance of Tartar blood iu their veins,
the stimulating and cool climate, and their dry-grain diet : wheat, millet and
sorghum.
At Peking, more than elsewhere, a large admixture of several races is found :
Chinese from the 18 Provinces, MotigoU and Manchus. Constant intercourse is main-
tained with Mongolia, but much less with Sinkiang and Tibet.
ClttM and PHnclpal Centres.— flBKXyo ;jt}j(, the Ca-
pital of China, is built on the Tunghwui-ho, atributary of the Peh-ho
l^jif . It received the name of Peking (Northern Capital), to distin-
guish it from Nanking ^ ;^ (Southern Capital), under the Ming ^
dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644). Peking was originally founded by the
Leao jJK dynasty A.D. 920, and then called Yenking ^ -fiC. The
Kin Tartars or Colden Horde, conquered the House of Leao, and
occupied the site of Peking from A. D. 1115 to 1234. The Kin
Emperors were in turn ousted by the Mongols, who made it
their capital under the name o( ShuniHen JBU 1^^^ (city obedient
to heaven). Its Mongol appellation, according to Marco Polo,
was Kambalu (city of the Khan). In 1341, the Mongols were
driven out by the native Ming ^ dynasty. These established
their first Capital at Nanking, but owing to renewed Tartar in-
cursions, Tungioh ^ HI (1 403-1425), the 3^^ Emperor of the Ming
dynasty, removed in 1416 to Peking, which has remained the na-
tional Capital ever since, about 500 years, without interruption.
The actual city has a population varying from 600,000 to
800,000 inhabitants. It stands upon a flat plain, and is composed
of 2 parts, both forming a rectangle, and communicating with
each other : the Tartar CUp on the N. and the Chinese CUif to
the 8.
The TarUjar CU^, called also the Interkn' CUlf (^ ^
Nei ch'dng), comprises the Imperial Bredntim (^ J^ Hwang
ch*^ng) and the Bed JPoHMden CU^ (IU ^ ^ Tzekin ch*6ng).
It has also numerous temples, courts and parks. The rjeaation9
are in the S.E. of the Tartar City.
72
8ICTI0N I. TUB NOanWUM MMiON.
PLAN OF PEKING
. :« « ^ H
A. HWANG CH'ENG ^ Jg(.
Im^iial Cily (within the Tartar CityX
B. NEI CH'£:NG 9% M-
Northern or Tartar City,
rv
C. WAI CH*feNG ^ M-
Southern or Chinese City.
CHArnWIV. CMIBLI.
73
INDEX
TO PLAN OF PEKING.
1. — Nganiing mht ^^ Jg I").
Peaceful Gate.
2. — Tehshengmht H H ffl.
Gate of Victory.
3. — Prefecture cf Shunt' ten Fu^^Jim^
4. — Sichih ffUn JS ([ fl.
Direct West Gate.
Western Church (H.C.X
6. — Tmgchih^m^n ^j ([ H-
Uifect Kaal V*te.
7. — ri#f^a« m^n Hi 56 H-
Gate of Temaitrial l*eac<f.
8. — Feuch'ing mhi JJJR H-
Gate of Abundant Wealth.
9. -- Singan tpUn B $ fl-
Gate of We»tem Peace (It^rior gale
leading to the Imperial CKyX
n^ _ Sin^itHentsU'l'ang if(^X±M
New Pdt'ang (R. C. Cathedral).
ir. — /V'/-A<ii * J>.
Northern I«ake.
12. — Chung-hai ^M-
Central Lake.
13. — Chi$qyangminiiliW^ fl.
Gate of the Riilig^ Bun.
14. ~ Tat\'ing min^^\^.
Gate of Great Purity (reigning title of
the preaent Manchu dynasty).
I5v ~ Chingyang mht i li H-
. Meridian or Noonday Gate.
16. — Railway station to Hank'ow*
17. — Railway station to T^ientsin,
18. — Foreign Legations,
19. — Sipien m^n B *[ fl-
West-privy Gate.
20 — Changi min |^ B Pi-
Gate of Pompous Ccremon\-.
2£. — SUenwu mSn 1[ Jft R.
. Gate of Military Renown.
- Ch^ungivfn fnin ^ * H-
Gate of Hublime Uterature.
- Tungpien min % B PI-
Kast-privy Gate.
- kwangk'ii mht B til Pi-
Gate of the Large Canal.
— Siennung't'an A K Jf.
Temple oi Agriculture.
- T^tem^n % JB.
TempJPff Heaven.
^ KllfWl«« fnM ^ * Pi-
Gale of Peace (on the rightX
— Yungting min ^^r\,
GatI' of Perpetual SUbility.
— Tsongan mM ;£ £ H-
Gate of Peace (on the leflX
— Railway to Tientsin.
H 8BCTIOH I. THto NORTHBRN R&eiOH.
The CMne&e Ciiif contains 2 parks in which are the
TempieB c/ Hea^fen and of Aarieuliure. It is the great centre of
industry and commerce.
Both cities cover an area of 40 square miles, but there are
many empty spaces. Two streams run through them, but are
scarcely sufficient to supply the great city with water. Thick
walls surround the Capital, and are so broad at the top, that
one could drive several waggons on them side by side.
The roads of the Chinese City are constantly crossed by
caravans of camels, mules and asses, transporting wool, tea and
coal. ~
Peking is not only the residence of the Btnperor and his
Court, but also the seat of the Orana ComnoU^ the Grand
Seereimriai, the various BoardB, and the Gmri of Ommf. The
city has its special administration, distinct from that of Chihli
llfl, and at the head of which is a Maifor or Qovenmr called
Kimiffu 3j[ JH (Imperial Prefect) or JPW-trin J^ ^ (Metropoli-
tan Gk)vernor).
The Port cf Bek4$kg is at a short distance to the E. and is
called Tfung Chaw JH W- It is situated on the Peh-ho. Rail-
ways bring the capital into easy communication with Hank*ow
^P, the great central mart of China, and with Europe, through
Manchuria. Tientsin connects it^lso with Japan, Shanghai,
Canton, and the other important places on the coast.
The Summer Baiaee of the Emperor is to the N. W. of
the Tartar City, and is called the TuenmimthTmen H 91 H
(round bright garden). The Emperor has also his private hun-
ting-grounds to the 8. of the Chinese City. They are called the
Vofi-rtcm Hi is (Southern Park) or NmUkaU^e f|jK ?.
Several reasons determined the Emperors of China to select
this place, in preference to any other that seemed more central,
such as Nanking ^ ]K or Singan Fix ^ ^ )ff. In the eyes of
(he Mongol or Manchurian Emperors, it has been chosen, beoause
of its proximity to their native country; in regard to the Chinese
limpcrors, because of the greater facility it afforded to control
both countries. Moreover, it is central with respect to the 18
CHAPtBR IV. CHIItLI. Ih
Provinces, to Mongolia and Manchuria, the most important parts
of the Empire.
JPAOTINO ru^iEftf — Population, 80,000 inhabitants.
Provincial Capital of Chihli, and official residence of the Viceroy.
As a city, it is unimportant and devoid of activity, but the Pe-
king-Hankow railway will undoubtedly arouse it from its torpor.
A university was erected there in 1901.
IHatiMn Fk*^ fit )ff. — Population, 750,000 inhabitants.
_TlifintsuL.j£..tbe most important commercial and industrial
city of the whole N.. It is situated at the junction of the Peh-
ho 1^ jif with the Grand Canal, a little below the place where
its principal tributaries enter the Peh-ho. Besides, the railway
brings it into constant communication with Peking ^ "^ and
Manchuria. England, France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Belgium,
Russia and Japan, have Settlements there. The Peh-ho attains
there a width of 300 yards, while a wharf, nearly two miles long,
aflords steamers and junks every facility for coming alongside.
Commerce in skins, bristles, furs, ropes and camel-hair fabrics
is very important. T^ientsin exports also a vast quantity of wool
and coal, while the market of rice and stuffs is very extensive.
The city has vast stores of cereals, and an abundant supply of salt,
of which it holds the monopoly. — The Viceroy, although not re-
siding officially in the city,has his Yam^n ^f^ there, and close by
it, is an important arsenal. — As to industry, cotton mills deserve
special mention. Since the Boxer Insurrection, in 1900, the aspect
of the city has completely changed. Wide roads have been
opened, the city-wall has been pulled down, the course of the
river straightened out, electric lighting and tramways introduced,
and a system of pure drinking-water established, so that the city
of late shows all the signs of active development and progress.
To ihe 8. W. of BanMng I'V* ^ ^ /(Sp, on the road leading
from Ch^ngting Fu jE £ j|( to Shansi |lj |f :
HwokMk JMen 9|jKIK* — ^ market-place of great impor-
tance from a commercial and industrial point of view. It is the
trading centre between Shansi and Chihli. Excellent stoneware
is manufactdred^ere, and the article is in great demand.
76
8BCTI0N I. THB NORTHBRN RBGIOM.
SKETCH-MAP OF T'lENTSIN
Ji m )ff
CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. 77
TiUheN. JB.€f Tungp^ing J^ ^ ^ ^ :
UlUMilaU-kwan lU Ik H (mountain and sea-barrier).
Population, 30,000 inhabitants. It stands at a distance of
two and a half miles from the sea, and is situated near a famous
pass, which gives it importance. A military station is established
there.
Fehiai'^ko. — A celebrated watering-place, some 22 miles S.
W. of Shanhai-kwan, and 9 miles from the portof TsMnwangtao.
^ the MminkHno%i9 region^ to the W. :
aSealiwm Vm 'MltJff- — Situated in a region covered with
loesfi, and owing its prosperity to its being in the centre of a
number of large valleys. Cereals, vegetables and fruit thrive
well in the whole region, and supply largely the Peking markets.
Kalgftn or ChangMa-kfaw ^ ^ 0, with a population of
30,000. It is one of the most important commercial centres in
Ohioa, and the great emporium of the tea trade with Siberia and
Russia, during the Winter season. JJearly half a million camels
are employed in this transport.
DolMt-lVor (Tohinnoheul ^ H ^ IK • — Mongol, ''seven
lakes'*).
At a short distance from Shangtu J: ^^ the ancient Summer
Capital of the Mongol Sovereigns, but now in ruins. DoYon-Nor
has a population of 15,000 half-Mongol inhabitants, and is rather
an encampment than a city. It is the great market for horses
brought in from Eastern Mongolia. A few miles from the town
are Lama monasteries, which have given to the place the name
of Lama-miao (IN PK M Lama temples).
Tg the NgrthrJOoBi. :
JTeli^l ^ ^ ^ (Jehho-eul, warm river).
Formerly the cherished country-seat of the Chinese Em-
perors. The park is surrounded by a battlemented wall, which
has a circuit of 15 miles, while the palace and its appurtenances
occupy a vast space. A great number of monasteries are built
in the environs. The city, although abandoned by the Court,
possesses still many officials and a strong muster of troops.
78 8BGTI0N I. THB NORTHBRN RBftlON.
The Prefecture of Jehol, called in Chinese 7j( H JH^ (Oh^eng-
teh Fu), is governed, not by a civil officer, but by a Military
Lieutenant-Gk)vernor or Tu-T'ung ^ |(.
IndoBiry wnd Cenmieree. — Besides the industries already
mentioned, several others may be quoted, though none attain
any great importance. The principal are distilleries, dyeing
works and cotton manufacturing.
A very brisk commerce is carried on with Mongolia, Man-
churia and Japan, the entrepot of which is Tientsin Ji ff/L )lf.
The chief faiiiwrf articles are : fabrics, tea, rice, fruit, opium,
skins, furs, timber, coal and iron.
The eaoparts are : skins, bristles, ropes, camel-hair carpets
and wool.
Kigiiways of e^aiBiinloatloB. — Besides the rwriiwa^^
the Grand Canai (see for both : Section V. ch. VI. Highways of
communication), the Peh^ho g fjf and some of its tributaries,
the principal ways of communication are :
!<" The road from FeMng 4k M ^ Shanhai kmm% |1| Hi Hi
passing by T*ung Chow f| ^ (at the E. of Peking), and Yung-
p*ing Pu ;^ 2p ;ft:.
2^ l%e rmulfrmn F^Mm^ to XMon-JITor, passing by Fungning
hsien ^%^^9SieT\i9L\\ii% crossed the Kupei-k^ow iffjbn pass.
3^ The road from FeMng to KaXgan, (proceeding thence to
Urga), passing by Suenhwa Fu Sffcjj^tand crossing the Ohang-
kia-k'ow S )|t D or Kalgan pass.
4^' The road fronk FeMng to Z'«4yAm A* :1c jR jNFt in
Shansi lU S, and thence to Singan Fu f| $ J|p (Shensi m |f ),
passing by Paoting Fu fit ^ ^jj^, and Ch^ngting Fu JE j^ JNf.
5*" The road from F^Mn^ to Totmm l'^ H ^ JHf (in Shan-
tung ilj %), passing by Hokien Fu JJ B| ;ft=.
Open P#rte. — Two ports are open to Foreign trade in
the Province of Chihli H ^ : — T^imtohi ^ H jj^ and TUfimr
wamg-tao |^ £ A« depending on Yungp'ing Fu ^ flt JJ^f. —
There is besides a custom-house at Tak^ ^ jjff , and Tmmtikm ]|[
^, near the estuary of the Peh-ho g ^, on the hi^way to
T'ientsin 55 H ^flf.
CHAPm IV. SHAMTtma. 79
a*. Shantung ili M
AreiU — 55,984 squnre miles.
P#|NiHUtoB. — 38,247,900 inhabitants, or 683 per square
mile.
This province has the densest population of China, and as
to the number of its inhabitants, it comes immediately after
Szechw^an 0] j||.
Mame. — Shantung |Ij jK means ^Av## of the Maunitrtn^^
and, in fact, a great part of the Province lies to the E. of the
T^ai-shan |g (Ij, the famous mountain frequented by so many
pilgrims.
B««M4arlMU — Shantung is bounded on the
N. — By the strait of Chihli jt 9|, the Gulf and
Province of Chihli,
W. — By Chihli |t 91 and Honan ^ |f;,
S. — By Honan ^ Hf, Kiangsu fl; j|| and the
Yellow Sea,
E. — By the Yellow Sea H ji|.
€)m;i^UM.—TaiirAir ru ^ l/H Jff, which stands at a short
distance from the right bank of the Hwang-ho J|Jf, and to the
N. W. of the T^ai-shan |f| |Ij mountain.
OiiMr Piefeetnes. — l^e^ mte mIim^ as follows :
T»ihtS.W.z
V Ts'aochow Fn W ^ ff •
AUmg IM CfWMf Gomol or near it, proceeding from N. to S. :
d^Tmigcli'aiig Fn JR A Mf*
»>Te]ichowFn«^)f|f,
^ Ichow Pn » « *.
Toik^V.^ 9oUHf firmn W.to A:
Sr Wuting Fn ft % tt,
6»TB'ingchowFnWM»>
S^Tdngchow Fa C W Mr.
To the A of TMrnrn^ A*.-
9" T'aingan Fa « 5K /ff-
80
SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.
There are also in Shantung S independent Chow eiUes /
TMming Chaw K t| M. JAnt^ing Chow 1^ ^ j^, and Kiao
ch0w m «
Aspect wnd Oliaimctorisitc0« — Shantung is made up of
i* a mountainous region, w/iic/i lies to the E. of the Hv;ang'ho
Jl fif, ^nd of the Grand Canal; 2^ of a level region situated to
the W,. It is of all the Provinces, except Kwangtung j|| J|[, the
one that has the greatest length of coaKt^line. Its coasts are prO"
foundly indented and abound in deep hays and excellent harbours.
To the W., its great plain differs but little in aspect from that
of Chihli j|[ jj, wrhile to the E,, numerovis rivers rise in all its
mountains and hills. ToxK^ards the E., the Province is rich ih
coal and metals; to the W., cereals and fruit abound. It enjoys
moreover a very mild climate, because of its proximity to the
fiea. The Grand Canal has hitherto afforded it an easy outlet for
?r«? products, but ere long, its railways will still further* increase
?7« wealth. The historical memory of Confucius (K'ung Futze ^
^ ^) imparts to it also a certain celebrity, as well as the pre^
sence of the T'ai-'Shan ifj^ i|j, one of China's five sacred mountains.
Cle#lo^<*Al c—atitttti— . — Slia;itung wu formerly «n island cat off from
the coiitineni by Aii arm of the Yellow S«a, but in, the coune of time bcwmme linked
witli the mainland through allnvial depoftilR. This name alluvium mingled with Iopum,
predomiuateA in the \V.. Ifi the centre, a large portion of the aoil is composed of gneifw,
mixed with limestone and jblay. In the R., gneiss is also found, but mingled to % grNii-
i r extent with granite, sand-stone and limestone, while to the N. especially, it is veined
with basalt and porphyry.
Or^simplur. — Adjacent to the Mwang-ho j| flf and the
Grand Canalf a vaM piain extends to the N. and to. the S. of
these 2 rivers.
In the centre is an important nkoumtain mmm formed hy
several chains, whence issue in all directions a great number
or rivers. The principal peak is the T^airohan f^ |1|, wbich
attains an altitude of 5,060 feet.
To the Baet of Kiao Chow J§ ^ Bait is another mass, for-
med by several chains, running N.E. to S. W. and of which the
highest, called the Lao-shun ^ ilj, rises to 3,700 feet. A Ihinl
chain exists to the S. E. of Chefoo ^ ^. It is a spur of the
K^nrntmiLM Ilk |lj rnnire. and is only ?,9i0 feet in height.
i-t«».gyi«a
CHAPTBR IV. SHANTDNA.
81
GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SHANTUNG |Il y^
according to Richthofen.
8? SECTION I. THE NORTHEHN HBGION.
Clim.'iti*.— The climaU-, iiiiMi r in tin- S. is in ^fncval \. i v Inalthy. The N.W.
i.j<.n«Mni i kt I nlv ft !t -in th<' Xin'tlx-m r^r.^'st, and tin- S. K. nioniM.'Ui (r.\ \.\n Smitln'm
coa^t Tlu' rftiny t?. nf-.'H ( lmv-i. ? c > ii^ July and August, and llic- snow wl-icli rnll: in
al)iindanr<- during- Winter, di^^aitpiar-. v-ry M"i<'kly. In JulyJotrH art- fnqiii-nt iiimn lln^
(Mil t :. At Clu-foo thii( i.- ana .-a;.-, rainfftll .>f 21,1 inohcs, and ir»,n ii-rl,. - nl Tx'iir^'tact.
In Winti-r. tli'- rnrks f.n t'n- Nin'tln rn K('afoa'5t aiv at tiiiu s rovfrod will' Uo. Tliis
aris«<< froMi ilir> wa- «<5 )r«nk:iv_' on ti.. -ili'^rr.ni d tin- icr mflv la«t fr.v «;i v« ml wi i k-.
Hydrofn^pliy* — To the W. arc long rivers confined lo the
plain and running through the lowlands. The principal ono is
th«^ n^iHinif'ho |5[ }fij, which runs from S.W. to N.E., and crosses
the Oraml Onial (its hod is then 16 feet above the level of
the C-anal). The Hwang-ho being far higher than the neigh-
bouring country, is maintained within its bed by embankments.
Thes«* sometimes irive way and thus cause dreadful inunda-
tions. It is navigable only during the last '25 miles of its course.
(see J^ection T. Ch. I. p. 27V — Several other streams are also
navigable, especially the T'nFutir-ho ^ i|^ fpfi which runs to
the N. in n panilh^l direction with the Hwang-ho fl fjir. Tsinan
^''" ?!f I& )fiF j'^ connect(»d with the sea by a naviffafde c^tfiai,
which in the last ]»Mrt of its course, follows the bed of the
SiiioU^i'mf^ho /\\ ^f JmJ. — Nearly all the rivers, which run
through the mountainous part, bear the aspect of torrents, and
none of them have any r<al importance.
In the S.f '2 large rivers How into the Qntntl ikitiai : the
t-ho ffl^ JnT «'in(l the Tfitrrtt-fio :fc St fpj-
At the West^Tfi nctreuiity, but terminating at the Grand
('anal, is the Wvi-ho ^j }pj. navigable throughout the grcat«-r
part of its course, as we have stated when describing Honan JpJ "j^.
The iiranfl Cutkul or Yvu-ho iy^ |p[ transport river), traverse's
ilir whole Wf»sl'rn and >(>iith-Weslern part, and runs through
S4'vrral lakes. Its higlnsl point is at its junction with the Tawen-
*^<' 'M vi W \'^*"'' ^^ectiuii \'. Ch. VT. Means of Oommunication).
The Province has several iakes, the most celebrated of which
are : the TsiiiL'--shui fjlf 7}^ lake, to the N. of TsMngchow Fu J|^
^ }(f : -_ the l>eli-meh Y\ 5* i?*!^*'. to the N. W. of Kjjio Chow
J5 ^ iK.y; -- the ChaoyauLi- ||,^^ |C| and Wei-shan ^ [I] lakirs,
alon£r the irrand ('anal, as il leaves Shantung \\\ ]i(.
GHAPTBR IV. SHANTUNG. 83
Fauiia andFIOni.— The faunaand flora are those of the Northern Region. Shan-
tnng abonndfl also in wild boars, wolves, foxes, badrrers, partridp^es, qnails and snipe.
The principal trees met with are : the pine, oak and poplar: willows and the
cypress-tree are also ver>' plentiful.
Agricaltniml Prodneto.— These are abundant in the great
Western Plain, and consist principally of millet, corn, barley,
sorghum, maize, peas, cotton, hemp and the opium poppy. Rice
grows only in the extreme 8.
Numerous fruit-trees give a plentiful crop of pears, apples,
peaches, apricots, plums, grapes and jujubes.
Shantung [Ij ^ furnishes also a vast quantity of silk, both
common and wild, (the woven stuff is called pongee), the latter
being produced by a silkworm that feeds on oak-leaves.
The country possesses besides, good strong mules as well
as horses, oxen and goats in great number. The camel is found
only in the Western part.
Various kinds of good fish are caught on the coasts and
rivers, such as the sole, cod and mackerel... also crabs, shrimps,
oysters and mussels.
Mineral Wealtli. — The principal mineral wealth of the
Province is found in the centre. Coalfields exist in 3 places :
at Wei hsien mH, Pushan hsien JS llj jR, to the S. W. of Ts'ing-
chow Fu ^ ^ /l^, and at Ichow Fu fjf ^ |flf. — Iron, copjier,
argentiferous lead-ore, gold, diamonds, gypsum, clay and sand-
stone are found, as well as building stone in great abundance.
Populatioii. — The poi»iilation is very crowded in the plain, but much less in
the mountain districts, <'xcept near the larj^e centres.
The people of Shantung an; a vigorons and sturdy race but rather pii;<iiariona.
In the nt'ighbourhood of TAngchow Fu are found some 200,000 imniigrantR from Hu-
p«'h, who arc much more militant and less religious than tin- natives of the rrovinc*-.
They entered the country, and settbd down there about the middle of tho XIV*'- cen-
tnr>' A. D.
Lan^oa^e. — Then- is nothing deserving any particular mention. Mandarin
in spoken, but with the rudo accent, of the North.
CltlM and PrtncliMtl Centres. — T8INAN rv p jf; ;|^,
4 miles to the South of the Hwang-ho.
Population, 100,000 inhabitants. The Governor of Shantung
llj ^ resides there. The walls enclpse a very large space,
8^ SECTION I. THE NORTHERN RBftlON.
Tsinan Fu was formerly famous for its silks and its imitation
precious stones. Nowadays it is the j^reat commercial q^nt^^ ^
all Western Shantungs ji vast trading, jaaarjt. but not a manufac-
turing centre. The city owes much to its late Governors. At the
present day it has a university, a military school and a well-
organized police force. A highway connects it with the Hwang-
ho )| jif, which flows at a distance of nearly 4 miles to the N.
AUmg ihe Ormnd CkMnai :
lAnUHng Chaw J^^ f\/{.— Population, 48,000 inhabitants.
Formerly a very considerable town on account of its trade and
its extensive warehouses, but it has much declined since it
was taken by the T^aip'ings ^ ^ in 1855. T^^'^^nufftfit^'^^ ^^
bricks however gives it even nowadays some importance.
IMnhHf Chaw ^^f^.— Population, 150,000 inhabitants.
One of the most populous cities of Shantung il] ^ formerly a
large trading centre^ now an industrial city, where copper,
iron and bamboo articles are manufactured. The town exports
a vast quantity of salt provisions.
2^ the Narth:
l^ingchaw FuH ^flf. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants.
A town destitute of industry and commerce, but to which the
coal-mines in its vicinity and the passage of the railway impart
some activity. Not far from it is B^hskan hMm^ -|f ilj j||, which
supplies excellent coal, and manufactures pottery, glass, oil and
bricks.
CheU'U^un j^ Ijff;, depending on Gh^angshan hsien £ |1| JKi
is a great distributing centre whence the silk manufactured in
the Province is exported.
IjmUihmv Fu % fl{)^. — Population, 80,000 inhabitants.
A town deriving importance from its position. It is famous for
its marble quarries and its soapstone.
TSngettaw I^9)'^)(f.— Population, 40,000 inhabitants. It
occupies a fine position on the coast, and was formerly a great
commercial city.
C9uifbo S ^ or Yentai j@ S- — Population, 82,000 ia-
CHAPTSR IV. SHANTUNft.
85
habitants. An important comflxcrcial port open to foreign iracter
WeShoflwei JlJc M( IK- — ^n excellentjnrhflnr ^"^ fl*M4H^^flg1',
leased to Great Britain in 1899, and now used as a large supply
station and sanatorium. The town is governed by Chinese
officials under the direction of a British Commissioner.
Baif* Leased to Germany in 1898 for 99 years, and vigorously
developed into a great trading and promising port. It is 3^
^f Shanghai.
PORT OP T8*INGTA0 T^f ft.
Wei JMen |K IK* ~ Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A
laigejown situated near the great commercial highway of that
86 SfiCTIOK I. THB NORtHBHN RBOIOK.
region and monopolizing all business. The new railway passes
close by, and affords easy transport for the coal which lies in
abundance to the S.E. of the city. It is a great mart for goods,
such as cotton, tobacco and coal. Wei hsien is the great com-
mcrcial centre in Shantung for the sale of straw-braid.
Indastry wnd Oommeree. — A certain number of cities
arc engaged in industrial pursuits. We have already mentioned
several. At Pohshan hsien 1^ lU JK^in the prefecture of Ts*ing-
chow Fu ^ ^ ^, clay is utilized in making pottery renowned
throughout all Northern China. Close to this, a special kind
of sand-stone is employed in the manufacture of enamel cloi-
sonne. In other places, stone and marble quarries abound,
while gypsum, and asbestos are also extracted.
Commerce is principally carried on through the treaty-ports
• and the Grand Canal, T'ientsin ^ j^ and Shanghai J: ^ being
the great distributing centres. The chief exparia are : fruit,
pottery, bricks, beancake (used for manure) and straw-braid.
The itnpartB consist of fabrics, rice and petroleum.
HlgliwajB of OoniBiaiilcatloii. — We have spoken of
the navigable waferways. Further on we shall study the coasts
(see Section IV. The Coasts ; and Sect. V. ch. VI. Means of
Communication.) A raUway links Ts'ingtao ^ i% with Tsinan
Pu P ^ Wi via Wei hsien ]^||, and will soon extend to T*ien
tsin Pu 55 ^ ^ (see the same ch. VI, as above). Moreover,
several roads connect Shantung [Ij ^ with the other Provinces.
1*» Theroaafrem FtMing it -ff, to IMmm JPk$, passing by
Teh Chow H ^. This forks off at Tsinan Pu into two roads :
one continuing Southwards by T'aingan Fu ^ ^ ;)|i and Ichow
Fu W W )ff towards Kiangsu fLjS^; the other, leading to the B.
by Laichow Fu ^ ^ /j^, TAngchow Fu » ^ ;flp and Ohefoo
-^ ^. From this latter road a branch runs to Wei hsien J|| JK
and Ts'ingtao ^ ft.
2*" A road almost paraUel to the Grand Canai starts from
Teh Chow Uf W, in the N., passes by Yenchow Fu ?^ j^ J^^
and goes on to North Kiangsu by Siichow Fu :^ ^ J||^.
CHAPTBA IV. SHANTUNG. 87
Open Porto. — Four ports arc open to Foreigri trade :
C'/5w?/bo -g^ (in the prefectun^ of Tcngchow Fu ^ ^ fl^), TMfmn
^* 9t^ )ff^ ^^ hMen JH fl (in the prefecture of Laichow Fu
M W /fiP)» ^"^ Cheu-U^un ^ ;f;^ (in the prefecture of Tsinan Fu
W S /ff)' Two ports are leased : one to Great Britain, namely
Weihaiwei J^ ^ $^, which depends on Tengchow Fu S jHI /^ ;
the other to Germany, namely Tei^in^tao |J ]^. near Kiao Chow
Of ji\. This latter has a custom-house.
Notes. — 1". The T^ai'-Bluin ^ ^ mountain is situated
5 miles to the N. of T'ciingan Fu ^ ^ ^. It was a famous
pilgrim resort twenty centuries before Ihe Christian era, and as
tradition records, the ancient monarch Shun ^ (one of the (irst
Emperors of China, who reigned \\. C. 2,255 to 2,205), is said to
have sacrificed there. At Iho present tlay, each sect has erected
temples and monasteries on ils peaks, and thousands of pilgrims
throng to them in the Spring season.
2^ The Sub-prefecture or district city of KHifeu hsien |t|| {^.%
(Ycnchow Fu '^ ^ ^) is the ])irth ])lace of Omfn^diis (Kung
Futze :JL ^ "?)• ^^^' ^v^s '^^^'"^ there 551 H.C. (2^^ year of the
reign of the Emperor Ling-wang fj 3^, of Ihc Cheu-dynasly),
and died in 479. lie travelled much, olTering his services to
several princes, but with scant success. His leaching may l>e
summed uj) in a few ethical principles, and some maxims on
state-government, gleaned from the sages of anti<iuity.
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liCbOiicq. —Vie ilv: Mj^rDiilKir. Paris, 1^7'.!
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8ECTION I. MS NORTBIRN RMION.
Garrem. - Carte du Tohe-U S. E. Fwis,
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BMUendbrtf O. F. Von.— The VertebraU
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A. Soc. 1876. art. 2. p. 41-112).
WIUIaimMMi A.^ Notes of a journey from
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(N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1866. art. I. p. 1-26).
Hedley J. — A trip into the ChihU Pro-
vince. (Geog. Journal. 1906. p. 618-525).
PROVINCE OF SHANTUNG.
Fao^el.— Description du Chan-toung (Re-
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CHAPnR IV. SHANTUNG.
80
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Ultte A. — The Far East. Oxford. 1905.
(Shantang. p. 44-48. --Tsingtao. ibid. p.
48-52).
flarker K. ■. — Bevenne of Shantung.
(N. C. B. B. A. Soo. 1895-96. p. 182-84).
WilllainllB A. — Notes on the prodno-
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C. B. R. A. Soc. 1867. art 8. p. 04-73).
I J. — Notes on the Shantang
Province. (N. 0. B. R. A. Soc. p. 1-80).
needier ■. M.^ Notes on the mineral re-
sources of Kastem Shantung. (N. C. B.
R. A. Soc. 1887. p. 22-28).
TeclMpe A.— Der T*ai-sohan. Tentschou-
fu,l906.
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181-140).
SKcrnoN II.
THE CENTIfAL IJECilON.
CHAPTER I.
VALT.KYS OK TMK YAN(;TZK % if- tL AND OK THE
IIWAI-HO fft fiif.
</liaracterlsll<M of tloAn Roslon. — We now pnler upon
I ho inoi^t important region of China, the richest, the most popul-
onsj the largest and the most favoured by the facility of its com-
munications.
1 . The valley of tlie Hivai-ho ff| jpj fias but a very secondary
importarice, as this river irricfates only the North of Nganhvcei,
after having crossed the Honan }nf ~^ Proviiice, w/iic/i we hatye
already studied. But as it forms a x])ecial system, and traverses
an intermediate rogioity situaieil bet\KH'en that of the North and that
of the Centre, it is preferable perhaps to describe it here. We
shall study this river particularly u*/icn treating of Nganhv^ei 4jf
JK and Northern Kiangsu fji H (See : Ch. VI. of this Section).
What we are going to say here may be applied more especially to
the region drained by the Ttmtgttse Wl "f iL '"^^^^ ^^^ affluents,
2. The region has a great central artery of communication, the
Yangtze |R "^ flC* ^^ith a very important network of navigable^
rivers flowing into that vast stream. All kinds of wares and
merchandise are borne on its waters and distributed throughout
the Provinces that border on its banks.
3. It has a temperate climate and is not subject to the
great variations of the North. It is indeed very hot in Summer.
but does not e.xperience the e.xcessive cold of the Winter. The
/
i
CHAPTER I. VALLBYS OF THE YANGTZE AND OF THE HWAI-HO.
91
K^amg JX or SUnfe-hed is therefore unknown there, iind the rivern^
are not frozen in Winter. The r:iiny season in Summer is con~
stant, and the crops are less irregular than in the North.
4, /( is the region M?here tea, rice, silk and cotton abound,
while the sugar-cane is cultivated only in some places.
5. Less rich in coal-beds than the North and South, it /s
not however destitute thereof, and its mineral wealth is great,
pspecially in Hunan fg\ "^ and Szechw'an pg )\\.
G. This Central region of China is connected with those of
the North and South by several frequented highways.
7. It is the lake region, and includes some expanses of wa-
ter which are very large, such as the Tungt'ing ^ fj^, P'oyang
IS f§, T'aihu ± JS8, Hungtseh ^% % and Ch'aohu J| ^ lakes.
8. It is the great manufacturing region : industries of silk
and yam being found in Kiangsu fL^'y ^f Indian ink in Ngan-
hwei ^ H; porcelain ware in Kiangsi iL f^; cotton cloth and
steelworks in Ilupeh ^ ;|t; silk, salt and oil in Szechw'an ^ )\\,
9. It is the region of the great treaty jforts open to Foreign tra-
de: Shanghai ± ft^, ChCmkiang ^ f£, Wuhu ^ f^, Hank'ow ^ p ,
Ch'ungk^ing J[ ft, Hsixchow ^ f\\, this last in Szechw'an pI j|| .
ProirlBcea e^mprised in tlilB Roglon. — They arc the
following, proceeding from W. to B. :
Szechw'an H j||,
Hunan JM r|,
iiupch m *>
Kiangsi fL |f,
Nganhwei ^ ;|K,
Kiangsu fL j|^.
Geological CoutiUtation. — The io€8S or yellow soil
which has been found so abundantly in the Northern region,
exists here only excei)lionally, in the Province of Nganhwei ^
JK and in that of Kiangsu f£ ||, so iar as Ch^nkiang H f£.
The predominating formations of this region are alluvium, lime-
stone and sand-stone. The Szechw^an Q )l\ table-land is for^
med chiefly of this latter rock.
Immense lakes, larger than those of the present day, for-
92 SECTION II. THB CBMTRAL RBGION.
merly covered the Eastern plain, as also the low parts of Hunan
fl ^, Hupeh fl jk ^^^ Kiangsi {£ f|. The actual sheets of
water are the remnants of those ancient lakes. Little by little
they wore away the low portions of the rock-bound banks which
hemmed them in, and their waters formed an immense river, the
Yangtze-kiang JH 7 {C, which carried their overflow to the
sea. As the water ran off, it gradually eroded the rock, and
dug a deep channel through the lakes. Their original surface
area was thus much diminished. As they lessened in extent,
vast alluvial deposits were disclosed, some of which when dried
up proved exceedingly fertile; others remained still saturated
with water, and these formed swamps. All these swamps are
anew enlarged into lakes when the Summer floods set in. Such
lakes and swamps are therefore of great advantage ; the waters
rush to them and leave behind a large quantity of alluvium.
For this reason, the inhabitants are not obliged to construct, as
on the banks of the Hwang-ho j| ^, high embankments, which,
when they give way, produce such terrible disasters in the region
of the North. It has been necessary, however, to erect dikes
in many places along the banks of the Yangtze |§ 7 {t« in
order to protect the lowlands.
€hP98>ttpk]r. — The land surface inclines both on the N. and
S. towards the Yangtxe H ^. The outlines of the basin are
distinctly traced. T^theW^the Bhuisrn JCSmrImm J|| H extends
its different branches even into Nganhwei j|f |||. These are the
Mft«<ii9-MM V II lb, 2>iMiNif ji il, J^^
yiir 9km% SA III- T9 ikB A, mrm jifaiiaiMi/ those of Yun-
nan fl llf, Kweichow H ^ and Kwangsi jH f|, continuing in
the NmUkH^ fl H or Nanshan f| |1| and the gW^iifciy AjRH
mountains, form the water-parting of the Yangtie |§ ^ from
the Si-kiang f| f£, and the coast-rivers of Pokien H H and
Oh^kiang m {[* Nowhere, save to the W.,are there any high
peaks. The general configuration of the Northern chains is oloar
enough, but it is quite otherwise to the 8., where the grouping
is rather irregular and too little known to enable us clearly
to d^ribe its features.
y
GHAPTim I. VALLBT8 OF THE YANOTZB AND OF TAB HWAI-HO. 93
CniBUKle. — During Winter, the thermometer descends sel-
dom below 14* Fahrenheit, and rises in Sammer to 104'' F. The
rainy season is in Summer. This period is much damper in
Kiangsu 2L jfilf because of its proximity to the sea, and the large
sheets of water scattered over the country. In Szechw'an B )\\
likewise, the climate is very damp and fogs are frequent. The
cold dust-laden winds cease in the Province of Nganhwei ^ ^,
but on the other hand, mosquitoes and the close heat atten-
dant on the frequent thunder-storms render the Summers very
unpleasant.
Hydroci^pliy* — The Central region is the most favoured
part of China, both for the number of its rivers and the advan-
tages derived from them. As the Yangtze ^ ^ {t receives
all these streams, and traverses the region from E. to W., we
shall study this river more particularly.
TMMI TANOTZB BIFBR #| ? {£• --^
lim Comme — The Ytm^Ufe rises in Tibet, and runs at first
towards the S. B. It makes a great bend to the S. of Szechw'an
B j||, then two others of less importance (also Southwards)
at the W. and E. of Hank'ow ^ Q (Hupeh ^ :{(; Province),
and after making a last one towards the N., it approaches Nan-
king {H jjC) and empties its waters into the Eastern China Sea,
a little to the N. B. of Shanghai.
Pr^TtiMMMi wlilcli it traveMes, mm H ll^wa Htmmm W*
to £• — The Yangtze traverses the following Provinces : Yiin-
nan f| Hf, Szechw'an B j||, Hupeh fg^ ^, Kiangsi ft Mi Ngan-
hwei ff ^ and Kiangsu ft jK*
Ito name. — It is generally called the Yim^ime'Kimmm %
^ It J but in several parts of its long course, other names have
been also applied to it. Up to the Szechw^an Q ||| bend, it is
called the Ukm^^mren^ the MmrfUrumi, the lVI^«iMi« fy H^
(white river) or also the KimBhrn-Mang jt t^ iL (golde«*sand
river). At Hsuchow Fu §( ^ Iff.'ii is styled the Hu-Mmmtf fi ft
(great river), which corresponds to the MImrkkmg |K iC ^^
94 8BCTI0N II. THE GBNTRAL RBGION.
Chinese literature and geography. Up to the TungtMng lake, it
is known as the ChUtfi4f'kiaftg ^ f£ (long river). In the latter
part or its course it is called the Yangtme-hUmg m ^ 2ll* It
owes this last name to the ancient Yang ^ Kingdom established
formerly near its then mouth in Kiangsu fji j|||, — capital, the
present Yangchow Fu ^ ^ J|^ — and which imparts its name
to the whole course of the river. The rendering San «/ the
Ocean ^ ^ tt Js utterly unfounded, and based only upon the
similarity in sound of two Chinese characters, ^ and j^, both
pronounced Yang. Instead of Yang ^, character of Yangchow
Fu, another Yang ;^ signifying poplar-tree is also found in
some Chinese geographies, but this is erroneous.
Foreigners sometimes call it the Bhie lUver^ presumably to
contrast it with the Yellow Uiver of the North.
Ttfi dlflfereiit iMurto. — The Yangtze may be divided into
three principal parts : the first, torrential; the second, semi-
navigable; and the third, navigable throughout.
r \^ The tarrenUai pcurU — This extends from its source to
^ PMngshan hsien ^^ llj )||i a little above Ilsiichow Fu j^ ^ ^,
called also Suifu. The river rises in the centre of the high
Tibftan plateau, in a region up to the present insufficiently
explored. It seems at first to follow a S. E. direction, and re-
ceives in this part numerous torrents.
When it has reached the S. of the sources of the Hwang-
ho ^ fpf, from which it is separated by the Baiankara range,
it takes a N.W. — S.E. direction. At the town of Sogon-gomba,
its bed is still at an altitude of 15,700 ft. It then flows between
perpendicular mountain barriers, which separate it from the
Hwang-ho and the Mekong (Lants'ang-kiang f| ^ JL)- Its
width is 400 feet, and its depth from 20 to 26 ft. Throughout
the whole of this region, its course is rapid. A little above
r»atang g, ^ (Pat*ang), it passes through a large valley where
its bed is at an altitude of only 9,000 ft. It then assumes a tor-
rential aspect and flows between narrow defiles to the W. of the
Szechw'an Alps (thus shall we style the high mountain mass
ph forms the Western limit of Szechw*an |S jl|). The river
CHAPTBR I. VALLBY8 OP THE YANGTZE AND OP THE HWAI-HO. 95
continues in this same direction till it impinges on the high table-
land of Yunnan ^ ^. Impeded in its course, it cuts its way
with difficulty through the Szechw'an Alps, forming three great
bends (the first, from Chungt^en tft ^; the second, from Yung-
pei t*ing ^ 4b JNI > ^^^^ third, from Huili Chow -§• Jg ^).
Before its last bend, it receives its longest tributary on the
left side, the Taiung-kianff ® f| JH, torrential like itself, and
rising near the sources of the Hwang-ho f| fpf . After this bend
the Yangtze ft -^ jtC flows at an altitude of ?,600 feet, and is
skirted on both sides by powerful ranges and mountain masses.
On the left, are the Szechw'an Alps, and on the right, the last
spurs of Yunnan H ^ and of Kweichow j^ jHi» It is thus
compelled to follow a S. W. — N. E. direction, which it keei>s
till it reaches I'-ingshan hsien ^ ^j J|f, in the prefecture of
Hsiichow Fu ^ ;H1 ^ ^^ ^^is latter town, its bed is at an
altitude of only 1.000 ft. It has flowed through a distance of
1,250 miles, but has still to run 1,800 more before it reaches
the coast. A little above P'ingshan hsien is a rapid almost
impossible to pass.
In all this part, the river may be crossed only where it is
dammed for mill-streams.
^^: ' 2" The setni-fiat^gabf^ part. — This extends from P'ing-
shan hsien ^ lU JB to Ich'ang Fu '£ g ^. lielow P'ingshan
hsien, the direction of the river inflects Eastwards. From the
last bend at PMngshan hsien it runs S.8. W. — N. N.E.: now it
turns W.8.W. — E.N.E. Alter Wan hsien ^ f| (in K'weichow
Fu 5^ ^ fff)^ it tlows even W.-E., its waters being obstructed
by the Tapashan ;^ C* llj mountains, which form the North-
eastern boundary of Szechw*an flj j||. The river having no
longer suqh a steep incline, becomes navigable, except in the
region of the rapids.
Up to K'weichow Fu ^ )^ f^^ the river is from 500 to
050 yards wide, but further down, it narrows in and flows be-
tween two high ranges, its breadth being only 200 to HOO yards,
but it widens out soon again till it reaches the Wushan ^ |lj jj^
gorges.
/ /
96 SBCTION II. THE GBNTRAL mieiON*
V
The vmi^aa appear in numerous succession, one of the
fiercest being between Ich'ang % ^ Jff and Patung £ JK f|-
When the water is low, the new rapid — Sin-t'an tiJ^ or Sin-
lung-t'an 0f till — ^^^^ Yiinyang hsien 4i |li JK* ^^ ^^bo very
dangerous. If the descent of those rapids is an expeditious
matter, it is however not unattended by danger (as regards
three or four of them at least) ; their very slow, tiresome
ascent is still more dangerous. The boats used in crossing
them have ap enormous scull in firont. This is manned by 4 or 5.
men, and is intended to strengthen the rudder. In the low-
water season (Spring and Autumn), and especially in Winter,
they are more easily crossed, and the distance from Ich^ang
tt fi JfiF ^ Ch'ungkMng Jt Jtt ftf ^^Y ^ covered in a few
days, although this same journey requires sometimes as much
as 30 days and more, and at the least 3 weeks. The time
requited to perform the voyage varies in fact to a great extent,
and depends especially on the buoyancy of the boat and the
number of the trackers.
In this part, the Yangtze J| ^ jl receives 0h CM k^ from
Szechw'an |B j||, its chief affluents, l"" the Mk% kkmtf H {£
or Ch*6ngtu river AH /Iff, which has long been considered, and
is still considered in China, as the parent branch of the Yangtse,
on account of its importance. 2* The KiaMm0^kimm0 jft ft {£•
Both of those are navigable, as are also several of tkeir tribu-
taries. €)H ike Htiki, the Yangtze receives the JMMUflHir 4t tC
or ClM*w*iii Ht }|C, and the W^a^kkm§ A fiCi two rivers
suitable for navigation, and coming both from Kweichow JH Mv
At Hsiichow Fu §( ^ J^f, the bed of the river is at an alti^
tude of 900 ft.; at Ch'ungk'ing fl; JURp, it is only 600, while
at Ich'ang jK fi JKp, it hw fallen to 130 ft. This latter port
is distant 2 J 75 miles from the sources of the Yangtze, and 960
from P'ingshan hsien P |1| H. Before the river reaches the
ocean, it has still to flow a distance of another 960 miles.
It is in this portion of its course that its waters rise
highest, reaching sometimes to 96 feet beyond low-water mark.
B"" The iimfprtlpgipi — This extends from Ich'ang ft g JNf
^
CHAPRR I. VALLBY8 OF .t^HB YANaTZR AND OF THE HWAI-HO. 97
to the sea. In this last part of its course, the river makes two
hends to the 8.; the first, which is the more apparent, occurs
to Ihe N. of the Tungt'ing |l) fj^ lake ; the second, to the N.
of Lake P'oyang KM* A third is faintly traceable to the N.
of the T'aihu :lc fH lake.
Running in the imoiands, the Yangtze JH 7 ft ^^^ ^ ^^^
rapid si^pe^ and a very winding course, especially from Tch^ang
A & ftf ^ Hank^ow ^ p. During all this period, it runs
in level ground covered with lakes and marshes, into which it
pours the overflow of its waters when the flood-season sets in.
It is always the eiape of the ioftd surface which imparts to
it its Mf'eeHan, and not the aflluents flowing into it, although
this direction is modified whenever it receives an important
tributary. The first change of direction is where it receives
the waters of the Siang-kiang Jfg f£ and of the Tungt'ing ^ J§|
lake ; the Second, where it receives those of the Han-ho M fpj ;
the third, those of the "^n-kiang jf^ Jt and of the P*oyang
lake f5 M! while a fourth has already been formed, before it re-
ceives the waters of the Grand Ganal, but then becomes more
marked.
In all this part, the river is eaMy na^figiibie, and large
steamers can sail up to Hank^ow i^ D* In this third portion
of its course, it receives four targe affluents: one on the left,
the Tioftkrho j)( jlf or Hanrshui ^ H/i ; and three on the right :
the Tuettrhiafiikg ^ {L ^"^ ^^^ Sianfr-kinnff ffg f£^ which flow
into jt through the Tungt^ing ^ Jg lake ; and the Kan-kiang
H 2C, which reaches it by the P'oyang lake % jS^. All these
rivers are navigable, [see for these tributaries, as well as for
those from Szechw'an B }\\ and Kweichow j^ ^, the Provinces
they traverse).
The riv^r throughout all this lower part often exceeds a
mile in width, and is from 30 to 60 feet in depth. At its estuary,
where it is divided into two branches by Ts*ungming ^ ^\
island, it is 20 miles wide, reckoning from the extremity of
Haim^n jllP^to the mouth of the Hwangp'oo f| •j^; and 60 miles,
if we reckon from Haim6n to P*ootunc: Point fl||]ft. The rise of
98 8ICTION IK TRB CINTRAL RBeiON.
the waters in the Summer season, makes it run 30 feet or more
higher than the usual low- water level. It then overflows its
banks. Ships drawing up to 25 feet, can at this period of the
year, sail up to Hank^ow ;$ Di in Hupeh.
Near its mouth, it receives the Hwangp^oo )( tt^^ Shanghai
river, the waters ef which at high-tide run into a multitude of
canals, and establish easy communications throughout the whole
neighbouring country.
Changes in the course of the Y€mgtKe ft ^ 2C. The Yang-
^ze has not always followed its present channel. The two
principal changes seem to have alTected its upper and lower
course.
!• Its ufper couree. — After skirting the W. of Szechw*an
m J||, the river seems to have formerly run in the valley of the
Sungkoi or Red River, which empties itself into the gulf of
Tongking % }}(. An upheaval of the Yunnan H ]^ plateau occur-
ring later on, obstructed this course, and forced the river to work
a passage to the E. through the chains of the Szechw^an.Alps.
2® Its lower eouroe* — The river flowed formerly into the
sea through 3 branches : the Northern, which it follows even
at the present day; the Southern, which commenced at Wuhu
hsien ||f| M JHf ^"^ ^^" Eastwards towards the lake region of
South Kiangsu ^ ]||, until it reached the Northern extremity of
the T*aihu >lc Hfl O^" Great Lake. Here, it branched into two :
one, the Woosung ^ ^ river, commonly called Soochow Creek;
the other, an outlet which flowed into Hangchow |( ^ Bay^ in
the Province of Ch^kiang ^ f£.
The toua length of the Yangtze is 3,200 miles.
JMoimnee of the pHnoipai porto oh the Yangtme firovn the
Shanghai J: j|| on the Hwangp'oo )( i| 45 miles.
Hank'ow ^ D 630 ,,
Ich'ang igjff 1,000,,
Hsiichow ^j^Jff 1,500,,
Mean flow of water. — It is hard to estimate even approxi-
mately the mean volume of the Yangtze waters. It has been calcu-
GHAPTBR I. VALLBT8 OP THB TANGTZB AND OP THB HWAI-HO. 99
lated, that at Hank'ow ^ Dt the flow per second is 173,000
cubic feet at low-water lev^ ; at high-water, it attains 1,270,000,
which would give a mean of 540,000 cubic feet per second. At
the 4iiQ]jth, its average flow" is esHmated to be 650,000 cubic
feet per qecond^ but to be nearer the reality, this result should
be more than quintupled. Giving the river a width of 6 miles,
a depth of 5 fathoms, and a current running 3 feet per second,
that is to say 2 miles to the hour, we would thus have a mean
flow with a volume of 3,530,000 cubic feet per second ; but this
result is in fact greatly inferior to the reality.
Area «/ Hb ia*in.l— The Yangtze river drains in this
Central Region an area of 700,000 square miles.
J^pMlaWofi. — The population of the Yangtze basin is reckoned
to be 200,000,000 inhabitants, and embraces the Provinces of
Szechw^an, Hupeh, Kiangsi, Nganhwei, Kiangsu and the
Northern parts of Yiinnan and Kweichow.
nOai imflmenee. — The tide is felt to a distance of 375
miles from the mouth of the river, or a little beyond Wuhu HH
mm-
Share UOeen h§^ the FerU ef th4e Begien to CM fereli§m
eemmeree ef China. — The ports of this region absorb almost
60 7o of the whole commerce of China with foreign countries.
TangUm shlpp4na» Arnmal ienmage. — According to the
returns of the Imperial Maritime Customs (1902), this amounts to
2,000,000 tons, borne in 1,733 steamers which have transported
1,800,000 tons, and 1,196 junks carrying 185,000 tons.
Na/HaaUmn ef the Biver.
At He meuih. The Yangtze is obstructed at its mouth by
sandbanks, which leave but a depth of 13 to 16^ feet at low-
water. At high-water, however, the largest steamers can enter.
From Ue mouih te Ebrnkfaw. A regular service of large
steamers is maintained up to Hank^ow.
From Hanh^ew i^ D <^ Ith^ang jiC g Jgf . Large freighters
ply as far as Ich'ang ; the river is however filled with shoals,
and boats cannot find in Winter more than 6^ feet of water.
Beyond Ich^ang is the region ef therapide. Here, native
/
100 SBCTION II. THE CENTRAL REaiON.
junks and cargo-boats must be hauled through the rapids, but at
medium or low-water season, small steamboats can easily cross
them.
From Ch'ungk'ing jt JE ^ ^ HsUehow (Suifu) ^ jl\ Jif.
Despite the rapids, the channel is still easily navigable for large
junks. Small steamboats can also run there without difficulty.
From HMehaw JP^ ^ jV{ )ff ^^ rHngahan JMen J| [Ij ||.
This part is navigable only for junks.
Timere quired for the voltage. JHeUmee-itMe en the
TangUie. -^"^ - -
From Shiti^hai to Hank^ow. — Distance, 600 miles.
3 days by steamboat. Owing to an elaborate system of buoys
and lights being erected at the more dangerous places, steamers
can proceed on the journey day and night.
From Hmtkfew to leh^aung, — Distance, 370 miles.
4 days by steamboat. During the Winter season, boats can
travpl only during the day-time, as lights and buoys are lacking
beyond Hank*ow.
From Ich^aing to Ch'ungl^ing. — Distance, 400 miles.
20 to 40 days are here required, and the journey can be
performed only in junks hauled by trackers. The hire of a boat
costs from 150 to 200 taels {.£ 22 to £ 30). At the flood-season,
the voyage becomes very diflicult, and accordingly much more
time is required.
From Ch*Mngh'ii%a to HeOchow JPW (Suifu). — Distance, 100
miles.
Large junks hauled by trackers take about 20 days. The
downward voyage is performed with varying rapidity, and
depends principally on the velocity of the current. Junks which
take 20 days to make the up-voyage, may sail down in three
days, or even less. The difTerence is not so great for stea-
mers, but the up-voyage often requires double the time taken
in going down, (for the navigation of the tributaries of the Yang-
tze, 000 the Provinces they traverse).
Steamboat Companiee trading on the Yangtee. — -
Several steamboat Companies carry on regular services with
the large ports between Shanghai J: % and Ich'ang g|[ g.
CHAPTER I. VALLBY8 OF THE YANGTZE AND OF THE HWAI-HO. 101
The principal are : — ''The China Merchants Steam Namga-
lion C«" (Chinese). — *'/nc/o-C/iina Steam Navigation C^*\ Agents,
Jardine, Matheson and C*. and ''China Navigation C^'\ Agents,
Butierfield and Swire (these two, English) — ''Norddeutscher
Lloyd'\ Agents, Melchers and C*; and "Hamburg- America Line"
{Yangtze Steamers). Agents, Arnhold, Karberg and C® (both
German). — "Osaka Shosen Kaisha'' and ''Yangtze Shipping C*^"
(both Japanese). — There is also a French C": "Compagnie Asia^
iique de Navigation''. Agents, Racine, Ackermann and C*. — The
boats of mostly all these Companies call at the following ports :
JDitUtnce fnnn Shanghai.
miles.
Kiangyin jtt ^
105
ChdnkiangH ^
165
Nanking * j^
212
wui.u m m
264
Ngank'ing^ H
Kiukiang X iL
370
458
Ilank'ow ^ p
600
From Hank^ow, small steamers run regularly to Ich^ang
^ g flf^ a distance further up of 370 miles.
Numerous small steamers ply on the large canals throughout
the whole region around Shanghai _t fli*
JPiiriher parHcuktrB regarding this Central Begimu
1*. Like the preceding region, this would naturally comprise
^arts of Provinces which we place elsewhere : thus the South of
Kansu -Q* m and Shensi ^ If ; the N. of Yiinnan ^ |f| and
Kweichow j|| ^. On the other hand, the N. of Nganhwei ^ ^
and Northern Kiangsu jQQ ^ should on account of their general
characteristics be attached to the Northern Region. In order to
avoid the inconveniences arising from the division of these
Provinces, we shall describe here only the 6 Provinces mentioned
above. (000 p. 91).
2* In this region, the caravans of camels so common in the
N. disappear altogether. They cease at the N. and W. of
Szechw'an H Jli* the N. of Honan ^ ^, of Nganhwei ^ ^,
and of upper Kiangsu ^ jt|. Camels are seldom seen 8. of the
102
8BCT10N II. THB CBNTEAL RBOION.
Yangtze ^ 7 jH; on the contrary, conveyance by carts becomes
more and more frequent. In the mountainous region, on accpunt
of the lack of roads, they are of little use, and the level parts
are too intersected with canals, lakes and bridges of primitive
construction to render them serviceable, and so boats take their
place. Everywhere else, mules, horses, asses and sedan-chairs
borne by coolies, and not by mules as in the N., are the chief
means of transport. The jinricsha (\ fj JfL j^nlihch'^. Man's
strength cart), where the roads allow it to be used, is coming
more and more into favour. It is faster and more comfortable
than the wheelbarrow. This latter has however the advantage
of being able to travel almost everywhere, and so it is very
largely used by the natives.
S"" The erainA Cemai and the Bekk^g^Hankfaw rmikvm^
A Mi establish easy communications between this Region and.
the N. Other railway lines, and among them, that from Han-
k'ow to Canton, and from Szechw'an H j|| to Yiinnan Fu f| {I
Jffy will render the same service in regard to communications
with the Southern Region. (000 Section V. ch IV. Means of
Communication) .
References :
S. dwrmlier. — Le Hant Yang-tse-
kiaDg, de I-tch'ang foa k P^ing-chau bien.
Voyage et Description. Atlas. Chang-
hai, 189J>.
Bmm d'Anty.— Navigation & vapcur sur le
Haut Yang-tse-kiang (GAog. 15 aoat,1903).
de Vaalserre. * Chine. Le Fleuve Bleu
et son Bassin (Rev. Ck)loniale, 1900).
de Vaoleerre.— Le Fleuve Bleu, de Soei-
fou i la hauteur de Tali fou (Gdogr.
1900. vol. 1. p. 449 sq).
MroiT»l. * The Laud of the Dragon.
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MelcknUiOir.- La Civilisation et les grands
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Byae6ric.^ Notes sur les rapides du Yang-
tse-kiang (Annales de Gtog. 1895-1896).
de Beiaare.— Le Fleuve Bleu. Paris, 1899.
MeHBier.—L'Enipire du Milieu. Pari8,18W.
Mliiistdre de la Guerre. — Service gto-
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Aloook.— The Journey of AIai||;ary (Kiang-
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London, 1876.
de Vlllard. ^ Map of the Yangtso-kiang.^
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Hoiinit. — Dans les rapides du Fleuve
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■oan*. — AUas du Haut Yang-tM. 21
feuilles, 1905.
Gatslair. — China opened. Loudon, 1888. '
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BkOMOp Bl" J. F. — The Yangtze Valley -
and Beyond. London, 1899.
Barclay Parsoni W.— From the Yaog— -
tze kiang to the China Sea. (Geog. Joor-
tuJ. London, 1902. Vol. XIX. p. 711-
CHAPTBR I. VALLBT8 OP THB YANGTZE AND OP THE HWAI-HO. 103
Wllh.l— J. — > On the Ancient Moaths of
the Yangtze kiang. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc.
p. 77-64. Shanghai, 1060).
OolqpitaOaD A. K. «- The Overland to
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Boame F. S. A. — The new Rapid on the
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SiODke G. B.~ A trip in Summer through
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lbuiM>ldO.O.«Recent Exploration and
Economical Development, in Central and
Western China. (Geog. Journal. London,
1904. p. 281-81S).
Idegtndwe Dr F. A. — Deux ann^es au
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Cheugtu. p. 5-194).
Dm^Ui Sir J. F. — Chinese Miscellanies.
London, 1875. (Valley of the Kiang to the
Port of Hankow, p. 175-191).
Gill W. — The River of Golden Sand.
London, 1888. (Ch. IV. p. 44-58. Shang-
hai to Ichang — Ch. V. p. 59-81. Ichang
to Chungking).
Cfuppy H. B. ^ Notes on the Hydrology
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Oftrles W. B. — The Yangtze Chiang.
Geog. Journal. London, 1898. (vol. XII.
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LiUle A. — Through the Yangtze Gorges.
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to Ichang — Ch. IV. p. 50-86. Above
Ichang. — Ch. XII. p. 253-171. Physio-
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Little A. ^ Notes on Szechw'au and the
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Little A. — The Crux (Yehtau, 60 miles
above Ichang) of the Upper Yangtze.
(Geog. Journal. l.ondon,1901. vol. XVIII.
p.498-508).
Uttle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1915.
(Ch. IV. p. 53-68. The Yangtze River).
CHAPTER II.
THE REGION OF THE UPPER
YANGTZE
(SZECHWAN n jll).
This region nalumUy comprises the Province of Szechvf'an
H }\\, also lower YiXnnan ^ ^, and the Northern part of Kweichow
j^ ^ . These three parts are closely connected through their rivers,
which all flow into the Yangtze :B| ^ ff. Their mutual relations
are unceasing, their inhabitants have many characteristics in
common, their climate is practically the same and more liable to
fogs than in the rest of China, Their isolation is also identical, for
all three experience the same difficulty of commufUcation with the
neighbouring regions. To avoid dividing into two the stvuiy of
them, we shall here describe only Szechw'an fi j||.
Szechw'an H j|| alone, like Chihli jH ^, has the special
privilege of having its own Viceroy, who resides at Ch'Sngtu
A M J(f' //^'"imrd in between Yiinnan .f| ^ and Kansu '^ Jfl,
it is the only link that connects the Northern with the Southern
region. It is also completely isolated, for its Western, Northern,
atui eren North^Easlern mountains offer but few passages into
Tibet, Khhhu, hwI the valley of the Han-ho ^ fif.
CHAPTER II. SZBCHIV'aN. 105
Szechw^an \S )\\
Are*. — 218, 533 square miles. It is by far the largest
of the 18 Provinces. This results from its recent extension,
whereby it has acquired a part of Eastern Tibet. Yunnan ^
^, which comes immediately after it, has but an area of 146,
718 square miles.
Popniattoii. — 68,721,800 inhabitants. A more correct
approximation would be about 45 to 50,000,000. It is the most
populated Province of the Empire, Shantung |1| j|[ being next
with 38,247,900 inhabitants. Its population however is not the
densest, as it has but 314 persons to the square mile, and is
surpassed in this respect by 8 other Provinces. The reason
is, because the population unusually dense upon the table-
land, is very sparse towards the W. and particularly along the
whole fringe of the plateau.
NwHie. — Szechw'an H /l| signifies **Four Rivers''. These
4 rivers to which it owes its name are, proceeding from
West to East : the Yalungkiang ^^ ft, the Min-kiang fg^ ^:,
the Ch'ung-kiang jl|i f£ and the Kialing-kiang |^ R jtC*
B««dmrlMi. — Szechw^an is bounded on the
N. — By Shensi ^ 'gf and Kansu -Q* ||,
W. — By Tibet,
8. — By Yiinnan ^ ]|f and Kweichow -^ jf|,
E. — By Hunan jM fH and Hupeh HH ;||;.
Ctepttal. — CB^BNQTV JPT^ jA IK ^1 in the centre of the
Province, a little toi^ards the N. W. It is built on the Min-
kiang IK a:-
IMher Preftetnr^s. — Thme are 11 in number.
T^ikeir.ef ChfM%0tm:
I- LungngaA Fa M S 1^-
T9 ihe 8. W. ef €fh^h%giu:
2*" Yachow Fa II M MP.
106 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.
3» Kiatmg Fn X % ff.
To the N. A of Ch'Sna^iu, and in the order of dmanee:
io T'nngchw'an Fu WL )\\ Hf,
5»Shimk'iiigFulRftJff,
e» Paoning Pu » Hf *f ,
T** Suiting Fu ft % «p.
Deoeending the ratnnoe, to theieft:
8» HsUchow Fu (Suifu) Ik M «P,
9»Ch*uiigk*ingFua»J(|P,
lO^'EwWhowFuH^fiP.
To the 8. W., in the Sgeeh^an Atpe:
IV" Ningyuen Fu W a *•
Besides, there are in Szechw'an Q J|| 8 independent
Chaum ^ : T»e Ohaw ^ j^, Mien Ch&w H ^, Men Chaw
jK W, Tiu^ana Chaw g Kl M, Chung Chaw ^ M, Met Chaw
jg ^, XfiOng Chaw jp ^ and Xu Chaw }t M- — There are
also S independent T*inge || : HMpung TUng ^^t$, Shlhehu
T'ing 7^ f£ ||, and 8ungp^an THng ;& tf ||-
Aspeei Mid Cluurftoierlfltlcs. — Szec/iWan t^* composed of
a plateau of red sandstone sloping towards the S.E. Irrigated by
several rivers, it is rich in minerals, fertile, populous and sur^'
rounded by high mountains, less massive and less elevated to the
N.,E. and 6'. than to the W, hi the W. are high chains sejMira-
ted by long and impetuous torrents. Bisecting the Province from
S. W. to N. E., flows the Yangtze fl| ip it» ^*'^ ^^^ almost
useless for navigation in the mountainous region of the W,, while
it is navigable in the Eastern part. The population is of a very
mixed kind, not only to the W. where half-savage tribes, Sifans
II H in the N.W., Lolos ^^ in the S. and riumerous Tibetans
are still found, but also in the Chinese part, to the E. of the
Min-kiang HJ f£. This region is especially given to agricuiture.
It has however its mines, its industry and commerce, all in a
most thriving condition.
GeolO^U'al oonHtliutlOii. — The K. of SzocbNv*wi, formerly the bed of a
dric<l up Uk(s iu an iiiimunHu baBiii of red and green sandstone. Between the llin-
kian^ and thu THpa-uhan, the thickness of the sandstone formation is very gnat.
CHAPTIR II. SZBCHW^AN. 107
while beneath it lies a thin coal geam. It is encircled on all sides by primitive and
primary rocks (gneiss, granite, schist), which once formed the borders of the lake.
The waters eroded the rocks of the E., and thus found an issue on this side. The flow
seems to have been at first great, but diminished little by little, as the outlet deepened,
till it became eventually the actual bed of the Yangtze t§ ^ ft river.
r. — Three-fourths of Szechw'an Q )\\ are co-
vered with high mountains. The table-land of red sandstone
alone is an exception. For the sake of clearness, we shall divide
the mountainous region into three groups, all running in different
directions.
1"^ Qrwip. — The North-Eastern mountains of Szechw^an
B JIh separating it from Kansu -^ m, Shensi ^ If and Hupeh
jH 4b, form the first group. This is the last Southern spur of
the K^uenlun JH ^ mountains. The range is called to the
W. the MiMrBhan IK lljt to the E. the Ki/uUang ji ||, the
Ta9ar9han :A: G» |1| or the Kiut^^aa-shan ^ ^ [Ij. The first
has an average elevation of 8,200 feet. Between the two, there
is a depression which is crossed by the highway from Peking
4b 3$( to Ch'6ngtu Jift US jj^. This is called the Wuting J[ f
pass ; its elevation is 4,000 feet.
V^ Srmip. — This is the largest as well as the highest,
and forms the boundary limit between Szechw'an 19 j|| and
Tibet. It is composed of long and elevated chains running from
N. W. to S. E., and separated by deep gorges. These chains
often attain a height of from 16,000 to 19,000 feet. We shall
call them by the name of the 8zechw*an Alps. They extend up
to the Min-kiang ff^ jtL- "T^^ principal road which crosses them
is that from Tatsienlu ff 11 Jt to Batang E jf (Pat*ang).
V^ Qvenp. — This extends to the E. of Szechw'an m j||,
and reaches to the S. of the Yangtze i| -^f it. Its chains have
a N. B. --S. W. direction, and rise sometimes at the S. of the
river to an elevation of about 6,000 feet.
The Bed Baeku This basin varies in altitude from 650
to 1,900 feet, and contains but few plains, the principal being
that of Oh'togtu )^ M ftf- ^t is broken by hills which run
generally in a rather confused direction. This results from the
108
SBCTION II. THB CBNTRAL REGION.
UI«((| J^IAI^I UI]V
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CHAPTER II. BZSCHW^AN. 109
action of the rivers upon the soft red sandstone. The height of
these hills above the bottom of the valleys ranges generally from
350 to 2,000 feet, but some of them attain a higher elevation.
Towards the E., they run into the third group of the moun-
tainous region, and follow a N. E. — 8. W. direction.
To the W. of Kiating ^^ M^ fif is sl celebrated mountain
frequented by Buddhist pilgrims, and called the €>mei or iVpo-
mei-^han Kg Ji (Ij. It rises to a height of 10,150 feet.
Otimate. — There ig an exceedingly great difFerence between the climate of the
mountainous parts and that of the table-land. This latter place, sheltered as it is by
the mountains which surround it on the N.W., N. and N.E., has a very mild climate,
but fogs are of frequent occurrence. Owing to the great moisture and warmth,^
klkrvests are generally gathered. The table-land is not swept by those violent winds
which prevail further to the N. and upon the. TUnnan plateau. In the S., bordering
on the Yangtze m ^ {£, and in the valleys which slope towards it, the moisture and
great warmth render the climate semi-tropical.
Hir^racraplu^. — We have already spoken above of the
TangUmJ§ ^ ft, and of the ToMna-Mang H 9 jt (p. 93-95).
Several rivers flow into the Yangtze : —
JP^'om the yarih, deBeendimg the river :
The Min^Mang fg j5l, which rises quite to the N. beyond
Sungp^an H^ tt« at an elevation of more than 13,000 feet^ and
becomes navigable for small craft when it enters the Gh'^ngtu
A IS plaii^- Here it splits up into numerous branches and conti-
nues its course to the R. It is navigable for junks below Kia-
ting Fu jft i£ Ij^i and flows into the Yangtze |§ ^ 2C near
Hsiichow ^ M iff- ^^ receives on the right the TiiiU'ho ^ j||F
jp[, a long torrent obstructed by. boulders and rapids and quite
unfit for navigation. However, an affluent which it receives on
the left, the Tarho ^fgf^ is navigable up to Yachow Fu JH^^.
The ChHmg-kkmg # ft. This is a shorter river which
rises in the N. of the Gh'Sngtu jft ^ plain, and is navigable
below Kien Chow j|| ^. It irrigates in its lower part a very
industrious and fertile region, and terminates near Lu Chow |||
The Kialiikg-kUmg JK |$ j^. This is the longest of the
three rivers. It rises in Kansu -^ jlf, passes into Shensi ^ ff
110 SBcnoN n. the cintiul imion.
and thence into Szechw^an Q j||. It here receives from Kansu
"ti* M ^^^ F^eh-^ui 1^ yfi, Afler numerous windings, it passes
through Paoning Fu ^ ^ Jff and Shunk'ing Fu Jf^ ft Jff, and
ends at Gh'ungk'ing Fu £ J| j|^. It is navigable for junks below
Paoning Fu ^ ^ Jff, though in fact the navigation is easy only
up to Hoh Chow ^ ^, and for small craft as far as Kwangyuen
hsien fi tcM- On the right it receives the Ftm^K4am0 fff ^,
the Lungngan Fu f| j|^ jj^ and T'ungchw^an Fu '^ j|| Jff river,
which is navigable up to Ghangming hsien Ij^ fjfl JH, and even
to Ghungpa' rf 1^ \ and on its left the KHHko fg jlf, navigable
for junks up to Suiting Fu |g^ ^ j)^, and even further for small
boats. These two affluents join it almost at the same time
near Hoh Ghow ^ ^.
A common feature of these three rivers is that they gene-
rally run from N.W. — 8.E. ; owing to the climate they have
always water in abundance, their current is rather strong, and
they are often obstructed by rapids. The descent is made quick-
ly, but the up-journey is difficult and requires much time. It
is not only for navigation that their waters are of service, the
inhabitants turn them very adroitly to advantage for the irriga-
tion of their fields, chiefly in the Ch'^ngtu plain ^ ^ fff.
F^om the & :
The rivers which flow here have neither the same length,
nor the same importance as the preceding ones. The principal
are, as one descends the river:
1 . The Hung-kiang i^ 2L> which flows into the Yangtze
ift *? £C at Nganpien $ A, a little above Hsuchow HtJUftf-
Although navigable only for a short distance, it is the principal
water communication between Szechw'an B )\\ and Y&nnan
««.
2. The HMuung-ho ^ ^ ji^, navigable for small craft up
to Ilsiiyung TSng ^ ^ ji||. It flows into the Yangtze at NahkM
hsien |^ ^ JH, a town depending on Lu Ghow K f^.
3. The Hoh-ki4mg ^ fL or Ch^ihshui ^ :^, navigable
for large boats up to Tap^ingtu ;)t ^ flf (ford or ferry of great
tranquillity) in Kweichow Jt j{\.
CHAPTBR n. bzbchw'an. Ill
4. The Wu-ktang j^ f£. This river is navigable np to
Kungt'an H H^ as it enters Kweichow j(; jH|» and even to Sze-
nan Fu ^ ^ ^ in Kweichow. The salt from Szechw'an
m j|| is carried through this waterway. Numerous rapids
render frequent transhipments necessary. Its valley is very
narrow and its current rather strong. The difference betwaen
low and high-water level reaches even to 60 feet. — The very
peculiar build of the boats which sail upon this river makes
them appear as if they were lying half down on their sides.
To the S. E. of Szechw'an (9 j||, there is a small affluent
of the Tuenrkianff ^ f£, which becomes navigable at the large
village of Lungt'an H jp. It is the chief means of communi^^
cation for all traffic between Szechw^an Q )\\ and Hunan ^ f^.
Szechw'an Q Jj) has neither large lakes nor canals. A canal
connecting the 3 rivers of the N. would render immense service,
and establish between the W. and E. of the table-land easy
communications, which are at present very difficult. It seems
however that such a prospect cannot be easily realised.
and Flora. — The fauna and flora of Bzechw'an are far richer than
those of the other Provinces.
In regard to the fauna, suffice it to mention especially the great number of ante-
lopes, deer, >'ak8, bean, monkeys and parrots found in the region of the Szechw'an
Alps. Several kinds of silkworm, as well as the wax insect, are peculiar to this Pro-
vince.
As to the flora, besides rich pasture-lands, Szechw*an has splendid yew-trees,
rhododendrons or rose-bays and giant azaleas. It possesses also a great variety
of bamboos, a peculiar kind of tea called "white tea*', while to the E. there are
flne forests abounding in different kinds of wood, bindweed and other tropical
creepers. The tallow, varnish, soap and wax-trees, the China-grass plant (ramie-fibre-
Boehmeria nivea) and lac-tree are also found in this Province. The best rhubarb
of China grows in Szechw'an.
AcH«iiltaral Wealtli. — Agricultural produce is the chief
'wealth of Szechw'an B J||, and consists principally of opium,
silk, tea, rice, sugar, hemp, vegetable wax, indigo, shellac,
wax, varnish, timber, medicinal plants and oranges. On the
mountains, sheep, goats and yaks are abundantly reared ; and
upon the plateau, buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies.
Mineral Wealtli. — Salt (found in 3 principal places : Tze-
112 WCTION II. TUB CBNTHAL RBOiON.
liu-tsing: g $K #« Kiating Vu ^ ^ fff and Paoning Fu OHi H
Iff), also coal, iron, eopper, silver, gold and petroleum.
Up to the present day, the activity of the inhabitants has
been especially directed towards agriculture. They have how-
ever worked some salt-pits and coal-mines.
FopalaiiOn. — In the S. of the Szechw'an Alpn, an almost independent raoe
inhabits the Ki«iich*ang K J| 'valley, and the neighbouring country. They are called
yianite flI'T' (barbarous tribes of the South), or Iro2o< m |B, also written }S^ Lao-
lao, and |K K Lii^liM) (wild hunters). The Chinese call them sometimes iHi jm Kwolo
(monkey-nosed savages). In the N. W. are the Si fan ffif tribes, who have reoo^ized
the supremacy of China, and are governed by Chinese ofiScials. TihetuM with their
lAnias and monasteries are extensively scattered throughout the W. They are eitpe-
cially numerous in the neighbourhood of Batang or Pat^ang Q i^- (^or a more com-
ph'te account of these aboriginal tribes, Me Section V. Ch. !!.<.
The Chinese race is predominant throughout the rest of Ssechw'an, bat th«>ir
features vary exceedingly : some are of the Mongol type, others belong to the Himloo
or even the Aryan branch. Many have blue or grey eyes, and some have brown hair.
These varieties result from the position occupied by Szechw'an, it being the limit and
liorder-land where widely different races come into contact with each other. Revola-
tions have also largely modified the population of the country. Among those upheavals,
we must mention the great massacre which took place there at the close of the Ming
dynasty. Three-fourths of the inhabitants are said to have been exterminated. To
repeople the Province, a large number of immigrants flowed in towards tiie middle of
thr XVII*** c«Mitnr>'. Traces of this immigration are still met iiith at Ch*ungking,
where the local Council of the Gentry* is called Pah8h(^ng A H the 8 Provinoen),
alluding thereby to the 8 Provinces, to which the members of the Assembly originally
iM^longed. The predominating element of the population is said to have a striking
resemblance with the aborigines of Yiinnan, as the Karhtfna (Burmese, **wild men*'),
who inhabit the Burma-Chinese frontier, and Mhose principal characteristics are : a
triangular face, large, obliqut-ly-set eyes, light hair, and extremely short stature (4 ft. 8
to 5 feet). ~ In the K., a portion of the population is made up of families that came
from Hunan.
The people of Szechw*an are shrewd, active, quarrelsome, but nevertbeleM very
polite. They are also hospitable, and migrate easily from their homes, being fonnd in
KauHU, Shensi, Kweichow, and even upon the lofty table-lands of Yiinnan.
The inhabitants,orowded especially upon the *'Red Basin'* or sandstone plateau,
are v(>ry numerous in the rh*Angtu plain, which is dens<-]y populated.
Lanyuace. — The Loloa, Si fan tribes and Tibetant have their own particnlar
diaWts, and these are pretlominant in the Szechw'an Alps. Kverywhere « Ise, Man-
tlnrin in generally spoken, and with a peculiar clearness of enunciation.
Towns an4 Prlncipi^l Centres.
CH^BNBTV FV ^ig^Jff. — Population, from 150,000 to
500,000 inhabitants. It is situated in a beautiful plain, and is the
provincial capital and residence of the Viceroy. Its walla, which
CHAPTBR II. SZBCHW'AN. 113
are over 12 miles in circumference, enclose, like Peking, three
parts: the Chinese, Tartar and Imperial cities. The Chinese
city, which is the most important, has some fine streets lined
with rich shops. Besides its flourishing commerce, Ch^Sngtu
has also various industries. Large boats can reach it by the
Min-kiang Kg fL during 6 months of the year, from May to No-
vember ; and smaller ones during the rest of the year. It has a
military and medical school, a university, an arsenal and a mint.
Numerous officials reside there awaiting appointment.
The €h*hHftu lYaifi.— The Ch'^ngtu plain is about 70 miles in
length by 30 in width. Few regions in China can compete with
it in wealth and prosperity, the density of its population and the
perfection of its irrigation system. It comprises no less than 18
Chows ^ (departments) or hsiens||| (district cities), most of which
are very populous. Its population is reckoned at about 5,000,000.
The great thoroughfare leading from P^ingshan hsien J^ (Ij JH
to the capital, is during a distance^ of 50 miles, like one long
street lined with houses. The plain is well cultivated, and is
covered with rice, cotton, beans, sesamum, poppies, sugar-cane,
tobacco, corn and mulberries ; in fact not a single patch is left
untilled.
To the N. mf Chfhtgtu Fu :
Chungpa tf> j^. — A large centre, situated a little to the N.
of Changming hsien !j^ ^ H (dependent on Lungngan Fu H 4|^
jjjf), and upon the Feu-kiang J|f 2t- ^' ^^^ ^ population of from
25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, and is chiefly a mart for the sale
of medicinal plants, which realise a sum of more than £ 120,000
annually.
Sungp^an T*ing @ j# ||. — Population 10,000 inhabitants.
An important border city and mart for the sale of wool, musk,
rhubarb, deer horns, skins and sheep brought in from Tibet
and Kansu -y* jlf. Tea is sent in exchange to Tibet. The
climate is very healthy, and there are rich pasture-lands in the
neighbourhood.
To the W.:
Tarchendo or TuMenlu THtig fT Iff ilt H* — At an altitude
ft
114 ncnoN ii. thb cbntral bimon.
of 8,850 feet and with a population of 20,000 inhabitants. The
town is largely Tibetan, and carries on an important trade in
musk, wool, gold, furs, medicines, bristles and yak tails, all
coming from Tibet. It exports thither chiefly tea, and also
silks and cotton goods.
Tmek^w m$^ f^ Jff. — Population, 30,000 inhabitants.
K4a$k%g J^ jR % Jff. — Population, 150,000 inhabitants.
It is the great mart for white vegetable wax, and the principal
silk-producing centre of Szechw^an.
n&Mu fwi$w li $K ^- — r A_great industrial centre with its
thousand salt-wells, its bamboo scaffolding, its numerous junks,
its roads constantly enlivened by caravans, carriers, and flocks
of buffaloes led to work at turning the wheel. The brine-wells
extend over an area of 60 square miles.
Ai&ng the Tungime Jbiang §| -^ 2tf following its downward
course:
JOMekmw A* ft iW jjfiF or ShUJ^— Population, from 40,000
to 50,000 inhabitants. — Hsiichow is a commercial port at the
mouth of the Min-kiang f|^ fL. Trade is especially carried on
with Yunnan K ^ and the Kiench'ang ^ -f^ valley. The toi|N>r<t
consist in medicines, opium, metals, musk and indigo. The
empmrU are : white wax insects, petroleum, cotton-yam and
cloth, which are exported to Yunnan ^ 'jlf.
IM Chaw {11^. — Situated at the mouth of the Gh^ung-
kiang ^ f£. It is a trading place, but by far less important
than the preceding one.
ChUtngkHng M M Jif— Population^ 620,000 inhabitanti.
This city derives its importance from its commerce. It is the
principal trading centre of Szechw'an, which finds in it a mart
for all kinds of merchandise. Its imparts are : cotton-yam and
piece-goods, woollen goods, bazaar articles, ginseng, aniline
dyes, soap, silk-stuffs, silk ribbons, metals and petroleum. Its
emparU are : opium, silk, skins, vegetable wax, musk, hemp,
medicinal plants, sugar, oil, tobacco^ wool, bristles, feathers,
metals and straw-braid. Extraordinary activity prevails in the
CHAPTBR II. B^BCHW^AM.
115
^ift/'l >*
riLni4
^^^ fittUt
'1^:^'^
CH'UNOKINO ft H iff.
streets, and numerous rich shops filled ivith merchandise are
everywhere apparent. Its harbour is visited by hundreds of
junks of large tonnage.
Fbu Chma fg JW- — Population, 100,000 inhabitants.
Formerly the great opium mart of Szechw^an, but now a
decadent town. The leading merchants met there, and fixed
the market-price of the article.
Wan h9ien ^ ||. — Population, 140,000 inhabitants. After
Ch'ungk^ng, this is the most important po^ nn^Afl TTppar v^^g-
tze m ^ jm. It is a grPftt. <iiBtTibuting rpntrA^lAr nnttnn-y5tm,
ciSUuii elotfay-raw cotton and Hupeh j0| iH^ fabrics. Opium is
also extensively exported, and sugar and rape-oil in small quan-
tities. A wide coal-field stretches to the rear of the city.
KM^eiehow 1^ f| M ^) more commonly known under the
name of Ku^ei Fki. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants. It is a
small distributing centre and exports : cotton-yarn and fabrics
from Hank^ow ]^ Di and fans from Canton. Salt, extracted
in the neighourhood, is likewise exported. Being a frontier
custom-station, it collects Likin in behalf of two Provinces.
116 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL RB6I0N.
IV» tfie S. W., in the Kiench*ang j£ ^ wiUey:
Ningyuen Fu ^ ^ fff. — Chief town of the Kiench'ang
region. It is situated in a very fertile valley, abounding in
fruit-trees and producing three crops annually. It is in this
country, inhabited by the IaOos, that the most productive wax-
insects are found. Thousands of people flock there every year,
in April, to collect them.
To the W. €Mim) in the S»eeh*wan Alpe :
TMang JJ IJ. — It comprises a Tibetan town with its pal-
aces for the two petty Kings; a Chinese town with crenelated
walls, and a Lama monastery built on a small eminence, and
inhabited by 1000 Lamas.
Baifang or Ta^ofng g^ |}. — It lies in a beautiful plain
covered with corn in Summer. It has also its two rulers and
its Lama monastery. Several Chinese officials represent the
Emperor. It is a frontier town and hence an important halting
place.
Industry an4 Oommeree.
The industry of Szechw'an B J|| is pretty brisk. The
Province manufactures principally : silk, cotton cloth, cooking
utensils, paper, Indian ink, sugar, indigo and tobacco. Coal-
mines are extensively worked, but the coal is of inferior quality.
The chief silk-producing centres are, in the order of their
importance : Kiating Fu ^ £ j|^, Paoning Fu ^ ^ /|^, Shun-
k*ing Fu Jl H ;ff, T*ungchw*an Fu {f /H M- The production
is estimated as reaching annually about £ 1,000,000 sterling.
The Province trades with Hupeh jJjQ 4fc» Hunan j0| lift Yiin-
nan ^ ^ and Tibet (For imports and eoQports, aee Ch'ungk'ing).
HtgUwayiai of Coinraniilcatloii. — .We have already des-
cril)od the navia€Me rivers. On all of them traffic is brisk and
unceasing. The Province owns no less than 10,000 junks, which
trnde on the Yangtze and its tributaries, and give employment
to a population of 300,000 boatmen. The roads are also much
frequented. The principal are:
1° The road which comes front 8. ShenM [ijik g, passes
through Paoning Fu fl|i ^ ;fip, T^ungchw'an Fu {f JM Jff»
CHAPTER II. SZBGHW'aN. 117
Ch*6nglu Fu )§L iJH fff, Yachow Fu j}| iW ^i and continues
Unvardm Tibet by Tatsienlu fl" ^ J|» ^'^'^^S ^M a^d Bat'aiig
2" The road going from Yachow JP%* ijfl ^ ^fip to Tumhan
S A) passing through the Kiench'ang ^ ^ yaiiey.
3° The road frmn Ch'Stifftu J^ ^ ^ }ff io Mauchaw FHi,
^ ifl iff > skirting the Min-kiang |||g ft, and continuing along
the S. of the river : one branch running Westward, towards
Yiinnan ^ ^ ; another proceeding Eastward, towards Kwei-
chow Jl ^.
4*> The road from Ch'Sngiu JPki JSft flj jff to Ch'ungk'ing
^^ M M Hf^ passing through Tze Chow Jf j{\.
5^" The road from Ch'Sngtti 1^ J$ tf jff to Ich*ang Fu
!0[ S iffi passing through ShunkMng Fu Jg H jj^f* Suiting Fu
fie >£ ;fiF» and Wan hsien H ||.
8zechw*an is chiefly jleficient in ^crosshrqads.rypiupg Xrom.
W. to E. The rapids of the Upper Yangtze ^ ^ fL have
also been, even to the present day, a great hindrance to
the expansion of its trade. When the Yiinnan g ^ railway
shall be completed, it will largely promote the interests of this
Province.
Open PorUi. — In Szechw'an, there is but one port,
{Jh*ufkgk^ifkg JFW £ J| ^, open to Foreign trade.
Ifotes. — 1®. Szechw'an was formerly part of the State of
Shu ^, hence its present literary name. It was for the purpose
of connecting more easily this State with the Ts^in |^ kingdom,
that the first road mentioned above, and known by the name of
the *^road of the golden ogc^^ ^ ^ jg, was constructed at such
considerable expense. Popular tradition however assigns another
reason for it, as we have previously stated [see p. 45).
2**. lA T^aipeh 5^ ^ ^, the most famous poet of the T*ang
JH dynasty, was born in this Province A. D. 705-762.
S"". Mount Omei or Ngomei t^ M ]h^ which lies to the W.
of Kiating Fu ^ % fff, is a pilgrim resort for Buddhists, who
flock there especially in Summer. The country around is excee-
dingly beautiful and well wooded. On the sides of the mountain,
118
8BCTI0N II. THB CBNTRAL RBftlON.
the extraordinary jjumber of 56 pagodas hfifl ^^''" of^ntori^ the
highest being situated at an elevation of 10,000 feet.
Beferences
Lft Mission Lyoiinaise. Lyou, 1896. (I^re par-
tie, li V. II et liv. Ill, c. 1 et 4 — !!• partie,
Icre s^rie. Rapport sur le Se-tchoan ; 2«
s^rie. Mines du Se-tohoan. Rapport sur la
Boie. Appendioe. Note sur les operations
chinoises k Tchonng-king).
RiclilhOfeii. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873.
(p. 115-143. Province of Szechw*an).
Bulletin dn Comit6 de TAsie Fran^ise. —
1903, p. 21. (La situation 6conomique du
Se-tcboan k la fin de 1901).
Meyners dVslrey. — Notes de Voyage
au Setchouan et au pays des Mau-ze.
(Soc. G6og. 1894).
Von Bosttoom. — Eine Rei»e in westli-
chen China. Wien, 1895.
WinleriioChBai. — View of the Chinese
Empire. London, 1795. (p. 100-102).
Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 125-157).
Vi^neron. — Deux ans au Se-tch'oan.
Paris, 1881.
Madrolle. — Itin^raire dans TO. de la
Chine. Paris, 1900.
Legenrtre D' A. F. — Deux ann^es au
Setchouen. Paris, 1906. (Ch. XV. p. 145-
194. Description G^og. de la Province de
Setchouen. — Ch. XL VI. p. 189-502. Sol
et sous-sol, productions. — Ch. XLVII. p.
503-526. La transformation teonomique
dn Setchouen).
Da Hal<le. — Description of the Empire
of China, London, 1788. (Vol. I. p. Ill-
118).
Chitilair. — China opened. Loudon, 1838
(Vol. I. p. 165-168).
Marray's China. — Edinburgh, 1843.
(Vol. III. p. 41-45).
Grosler. — General Description of China.
London, 1795. (Vol. I. p. 93-97).
. Bisiiop M" I. — A Journey in Western
Szuchuan. (Geog. Journal. 1897. Vol. X.
p. 19-50).
IK" I. — The Yangtse Valley and
Beyond. London, 189*J.
GUI W. — The River of Golden Sand.
London, 1883. (Ch. VI-VIII. p. 82-168).
Hart V. — Western China. Boston, 1888.
PSArker E. H. — Chinese Revenue, Sze-
chuan (N .C.B.R. A. Soc. 1895-00. p. 136-39).
ParlLer E. H. — Up the Yangtse. Hong- /
kong, 1891.
Litton. — Journey to N. Ssu-ch'uan. (For-
eign Office MisceU. N*» 4r.7. 1898).
Pratt. ^ To the Snows of Tibet through
China. London, 1892.
Balier E. O. — A Journey of Exploration
in Western China. (Roy. Geog. Soc. Sup-
plementary Papers. London, 1882. Vol
I. P* 1. p. 1-152).
Maniltold O. O. — The Problem of the Up--^
per Yangtze Pro^ces and their Com-
munications. (Geog. Journal. 1905. Vol.
XXV. p. 589-620).
Lo^an Jack E. ~ Two trips to the N. of
Chengtu. (Geog. Journal. 1908. Vol.
XXI. p. 282-288).
Von ROhtliom A. — Thu Salt Adminis-
tration of Szechw'an (N. C. B. R. A. Soc.
1892-1893. p. 1-SJ).
Vale J. — Irrigation of the Cliengtu Plain
(N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1899-1900. p. 105-
119).
Vole J. ~ Irrigation of the Chengtu Plain
and Beyond (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1905. p.
36-50).
HOBle A. — Three Years in W. China.
London, 1890.
Hosle A. — Journey through Ssuohu'an,
Yunnan and Kweichow. (China Blue
Book. N* 2. 1884).
Ho«ie A. — Journey in Central Ssuohu*an.
(China Blue Book N" 2. 1885).
Hooie A. — Report on the Province of
Ssuch'uan. (China. N! 5. 1904).
CHAPm II. BZBCHW^AM.
119
-1896-97
Ssacb'uan. (Ch. III. p. 29-72).
China. Imperial Marit. Customs. Decen-
nial Report, 1892-1904. ShauKhai, 1904.
(Chungking. Vol. I. p. 183-179).
LiUIe A. •* The Far East. Oxford, 1905.
(Szechuan. Ch. V. p. H9.77. The Cheug-
tu Plateau. Ch. VI. p. 78-90).
CHAPTER III.
THE REGION OF THE MIDDLE
YANGTZE
^ (HUPEH in * AND HUNAN JM *)•
Hiip^ and Hunan constituted formerly only one Province,
called HfihibafHi^ j0| ^, -which under K'anghsi j|| Jf^, v?a8 divided
into two. These two Provinces are nowadays administered by
one and the same Viceroy, styled the Viceroy of Huhwang or
Liatiffhu j9| j0|. He has his residence at Wuch'ang jg^ g fff.
Both Provinces^ occupying the centre of China, have the follo-
wing common featureB : both slope towards the TanffUse m ^
f£, where are also their lakes and plains. Both have their great
river penetrating deeply into the interior : the Hanrho jf^ ff in
Hupeh JH ^, the Siang-hUmg M XL in Hunan JH ^. Both
have likewise their more hilly portions on the W., and in regard
to both, the Yangtze serves as a connecting link.
But there are also several chmraderiMcs wherein ^e§f di^H^BT.
Hupeh ^ ^ has in its lower part only lakes of moderate size,
while a great lake extends on the frontier of Hunan fH^ ||f . HU"
peh j0| :||; has its great plain almost as vast as its mountainous
region ; Hunan j|| fff, save on the borders of its great lake, is
mountainous throughout, Hupeh j0| ;Jt is wealthy, owing espe-
cially to its industry, its commerce, its cotton and rice fields ;
Hunan jfjg |Jf, because of its coal-mines, its tea and its forests.
Hunan j0| ^ and Hupeh ^ ^ are in close relation with Sze-
chw'an jg j||, and the region of the lower Yangtze |§ ^, but
Hupeh is chiefly in communication with the Northern region,
while Hunan m ]^ is connected rather with the Southern,
CHAPTBll III. HUPBH. 121
Areiu — 71,428 square miles.
PopvlaAlon. — 35,280,008, or 495 to the square mile.
As to the density of its population, Hupeh is the third Province
in China, and is almost equalled by Fokien fg j|[.
Urame. — Hupeh ^ 4b signifies : '*JV. of^ke Lake''. The
lake meant is obviously the Tungt4ng lake ifl Ji iM*
Bonndarles. — Hupeh is bounded on the
N. — By Honan ^ ^ and Shensi ^ If,
W. — By Shensi ^ If and Szechw'an Q j||,
S. — By Hunan ^ ^ and Kiangsi {£ If*
E. — By Nganhwei ^ ^.
Capital City.— WVCWAIfG J^Uf^^fff, upon the right
bank of the Yangtze ^ -^ iL> and opposite the mouth of the
Han-ho ^ fij.
Other Prefeotnres. — The^e are nine 4n number.
To the N., descending the Hannrho ^ ^ :
1" Yuenyang Pu Rp P& Jflp,
7? Siangyang Fn M lA W,
3" Nganlnli Pu « « *.
To the B. of Nganiuh J^n fi jj^ Jff :
4» Tehngan Fu Mi JB ^.
neecemUng the TangtMe ^ ^ tL :
5r Ich'ang Fu S I #,
&* Kingchow Pu IW * #,
7** Hanyang Pu« M *,
8" Hwangchow Pu H ^ Jflp.
TO the 8. W. :
9" Shinan Pu jtt M JNP.
There is besides in Hupeh one independent Chow j^ : King-
iwM Chow ^ P^ iWI-
Aspect an4 CliaraetertotieB. — Hupeh ^ 4: is an elon^
gaied Province, and extends from W, to E, It is rather narrow.
122 8BCTI0N II. THB CB1«TRAL RBOION.
where the Tangtme ^ ^ ft rwns through the rapids, and where
it winds afterwards and flows with a slight descent, A beautiful
river, the Han/^ho ^ ^^ joins it to the W. Between the two
streams^ from Kingchow Fu ^ j^ )ff dov^nwards, the country is
dotted with lakes and marshes, and possesses rich fields of cotton,
rice and poppies. Below Hank'ow ^ P, the mountains hem in
the river more and more as it advances towards the E, At the
confluence of the Han-ho ^ fpf with the Yangtze JH ^p ft, there
is a natural trading-mart admirably situated, a great attractive
and distributing centre. As the largest steamers can reach it, it
is the principal emporium for the products of the country, and the
chief place of supply for the central Provinces of China. Three
large cities, forming almost one, are built there, and develop
unceasingly. We have called it so far, and will still continue to
give it the name of its most active and populous part : Mtmt^^w
m a-
CSeoio^ical comUSbvttiOik. — One half of Hnpeb is made up of an allnvuJ plain.
These lowlands were in prehistoric times the bed of an immense inland lake, and are
even at the present still covered with lagoons and swamps. The other half of the
Province is mountainoas. To the N. and W. as well as on the banks of the Han-ho,
sandstone and limestone predominate, interspersed in places by schist, granite, conglo-
merate and marl.
Ow^^prmphj* — To the N., two branches of the
Kfuenimi ^ •jBt ^^™ ^^ ^^^ Han-ho i^ fpJT* ^" ^^^ '^^ ^^ ^ P^*^"
longation of the JFunlm whan ^ 4^ (I] , the HumiUmt^ wkmn JH
m ill and the Hkwrfyoti^-tfJkm }g| ^ ill* known also as the
MMMna ;fc |$. This latter chain, the average height of which
is 2,940 feet, slopes gradually towards Hupeh j0| 4b) ^^^ affords
several easy passages, one of which, that of Hank^ow 10 D to
Sinyang Chow 1^ fii M, in Honan j0| ;|f, has been utilized by
the Peking-Hank^ow railway line.
On its right, the jan-mhtm IK [Ij continues through the
^^apoF-^^an i^ ^ ]JH or KUOHaa^^hmn X flk Uit ^^^ I'lses to
11,500 feet. The WuUmg-shan fC # lU, on the right bank of
the Han-ho ^ jsj, reaches an altitude varying from 8,000 to
9,500 feet.
GHAPTBR III. HUPBH. 123
To the W., is a rather irregular mountain mass, the altitude
of which attains nearly 3,900 feet. It is a prolongation of the
Kweichow JK )i\ table-land, and we shall call it ihe4Jhinan Fk*
Mim fff ^'ongey from the principal city in the vicinity.
The rest is but an immense piain, about 100 feet above the
sea-level, and only a few yards above the level of low-water in
the river. A few mounds and hills are the most that can be seen.
Olhnate. — The climate of Hupeh is pretty much tho same as that of Shanghai,
'lliftt^iB less moist. The sea-breeze is however absent to cool the Summer atmosphere.
At tmH seasou, the nights are sometimes almost as warm as in the day time.
Hydroi^rmpliy. — Two principal rivers irrigate this Pro-
vince: the TitngttBe ^^iL ^"^ i^^ tributary, the Mim^ho iKfpf.
We have already described the Yangtze («0e Section II.
Ch I. p. 93-98). Besides the Han-ho ^ flj, it receives also nu-
merous rivers flowing from the Hwaiyang-shan JH H( |lj , Tapa-
shan :^ £ llli and Ohinan ^^ M f^ )ff mountains.
The Hanrho i$ JpT^ or more exactly the Han^'^hui ^ ;|c,
or Man'kiang ^ j^, according to Chinese maps, rises in Shensi
^ fl, near the frontiers of Szechw'an |29 )\\, The Han is now
navigated by small steamers as far N. as Siangyang Fu ^ Jf^
fff^ a distance of 300 miles, and during the Summer freshets,
by junks and small craft, up to Hanchung Fu M ^ )(f^ in
Shensi gf^lf , 600 miles further. Throughout the whole of Shensi
Dl[ If , it is obstructed by rapids, and navigation thereon is
difficult and dangerous. Above Hsingngang Fu H ^ ;|^, and
till it leaves Shensi ^ |f , it traverses abrupt gorges, and its
bed is strewn with rocks. It becomes really navigable only at
Laoho-k*ow jS fif Q» where it widens out rapidly and attains
2,600 feet in breadth. Further on however, it narrows in, and
at its mouth has a width of only 200 feet in low-water season.
In this part of its course, it has a peculiar feature, already
noticed when speaking of the Hwang-ho )f f^ : its bed is
higher than the neighbouring plain, and this has necessitated the
construction of embankments. During the Summer freshets the
level of the Han-ho ^ ff rises 22 feet, and sometimes more,
beyond the surrounding plain.
124 SBGTION II. THB GBNTRAL RSaiON.
The Han-ho ^ ^ has a threefold direction in Shensi ^ f|,
and a little further on, runs from W. to E. At Yuenyang Fu
f& Jfk Jtf^ ^^ takes a South-Easterly course, while midway
))etween Nganluh Fu ^ g| ^ and Hanyang Fu M ffk Jff^ ^^
assumes its primitive direction. In this last part, it runs at its
highest level above the plain, and its windings are most nume-
rous.
In April and May, its waters begin to rise, and large junks
can then sail on it. In Winter, numerous sand-banks extend
between Shayang j^ ^ and Siangyang Fu Jf^ Jf^ ]ff, and leave
only one channel open for navigation. To travel from Hank^ow
]g| p to Hanchung Fu ]^ + /flp, 60 to 100 days are required,
and 15 days at least to make the down-river trip.
The Han-ho ^ fpf receives on the left ttvo affluenis, both
important, especially the second. These are :
The Tim-kiatHf f\^ f£y which comes in from Eastern Shensi
^ H above Laoho-k*ow ^ fpf P ; and the Fieh^ho ^ fpj, swollen
by the T^anff'-ho )§ jjf, from Honan ^ ^. It empties its waters
into (he Han-ho ^ fpf, opposite Siangyang Fu Jf^ ff^ Jff,
The first river is navigable only during part of the year,
and the two others the whole year round {see Sect. I. Ch. III.
p. 59. Honan).
Ijakes* — Aseries of lakes extends between the Han-ho ^
^ and the Yangtze jj -f £C« Their volume varies according
to the season, and they are connected by a network of rivers.
Flotillas of small junks and boats ply unceasingly on their wa-
ters, and fish is found in them in abundance.
Fauna xind Flora. — Tho fftuiia niul flora of Ilupoh arc those of the Central
Ko{j;ion, hut they are richer and more ahuudant in the S. than in the N. throaf^hout the
Han-ho valley. Tlie flora of the mountains to the W. of the Ilan-ho is the richest
and most remarkahle of the world. It probably includes more than 5,000 species,
and comprises plants of the semi-tropical, temperate and Alpine regions.
Agrlcnltural Wealtli. — The staple productions are :
cotton, rice, corn and tea. Cotton is cultivated principally in
the Han-ho ^ ^ plain. The chief producing centre is Mienyang
GHAPTBR III. HUPBR. 125
Chow )i$ fiS ;H| ;. Hwangchow Fu ^ j^ Jff produces also a crop
much esteemed in Szechw^an Q j||. Rice is grown, but to lit-
tle extent, in Ihe Han-ho valley, save in some places enjoying
good exposure. On the mountains, to the W. of the Hanho ^
}ij, mushrooms are extensively gathered. They grow on the
dead or decaying wood of the oak, and are called by the natives
;#; 5 muh-eul (wood-ears). They fetch a high price in the
market, and are sold throughout the whole Empire.
Mineral Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of Hupeh ^ jt
is inconsiderable, except to the S. of Wuch*ang Fu ^ g jj5f,
where coal, iron and chalk-stone exist. In other places are found
iron, zinc, rock-crystal and coal, this latter near Siangyang Fu
MkfSfJtf- ^"* ^he greater part of the coal used in the Province
comes from Hunan JM ^*
Gold-washing is carried on, but in small quantity, in the
Han-ho.
Popalation. — The population of Hupoh is dense in the plain. The people are
gentle, poAce-abidin^, and enj^aged for the most part in ap^ricnltnral or fishinp pursuits.
Some of the inhabitants of the W. have migrated to Npanhwei.
Lan^un^e. — Nothinjj: very special to mention. The Mandarin dialeet is spo-
ken throughout the Province.
€ltle« »nd Principal Centres.
The Hank^ow group. — This comprises three cities : one
on the right bank of the Yangtze ^ ip JQ : Wnch^ang Fn f^ g
1^, capital of the Province; the two others, on the opposite
bank: HdfOefaw ^ Di on the left bank of the Han-ho ^ fpf,
and Hanyimg Pu^^ Jif, on the right.
WUCWANG JFTT-J^gjjJ. — Population, 500,000 inhabitants.
A large walled city, well constructed and inhabited chiefly by
officials. The Viceroy of Hukwang ^ ^ resides there. The city
has a military academy and an agricultural school.
Hank^ow jH D- — Population, 870,000 inhabitants. This
city, reckoned as one of the four emporiums H (Ch6n) of the
Empire, is governed by a special official of Taot*ai rank, who
is Superintendent of Customs and resides there.
126
SECTION II. THE CEMTBAL RESION.
Wl-rH'ANG ^ iJ,, HANYANG ^ Hf AND HANK'OW H p.
CHAPTER III. HUPBH. 127
Besides the Chinese quarters, the city has also several
Foreign Settlements: English, Russian, German, French and
Japanese. Hank^ow is the most commercial of the three cities.
Opposite it, the river is 1,300 yards wide, and the largest stea-
mers can come alongside its docks. It is connected either direc-
tly or indirectly with the most important waterways of the Em-
pire. Through the Yangtze |K ^ {t and the Han-ho ^ fpf,
Hank^ow receives : rice, sesamum, tobacco, sugar, medicinal
plants, tea, coal.... Musk and furs come from Tibet; petroleum
from the United-States, Russia and Sumatra ; cotton piece goods,
cotton-yarn and sugar from Hongkong ; opium and silk fabrics
from Szechw'an Q )\\. Its chief export article is teoy two-thirds
of which is produced in Hupeh ^ :[[^ and Hunan jg^ |f|, and
one-third in Kiangsi JQ f|. This tea is re-exported chiefly to
Russia.
Btmm»»^ -^ ^ l%^- — Population, 400,000 inhabitants.
The real Hanyang Fu is about a mile and a half distant, but the
place on the banks of the Han-ho ^ fpf seems more and more to
take this name. The city is principally industrial. It has its
forges, blast furnaces and foundries, which supply largely the
material required for the Peking-Hank'ow railway. It manu-
factures alto fire-arms, has started cotton-mills and silk-filatures,
and possesses immense timber-yards.
The river, as it flows along these three cities, and especi-
ally at the mouth of the Han-ho ^ fvf^ exhibits the greatest
activity, and is covered with long rows of junks and steamers,
which load and unload their cargoes. The same activity and
bustle are noticed in the streets of the three cities, but especially
in those of Hank*ow ^ p. Next to Shanghai J^ f(|, Hank*ow
is the most important port of the Yangtze ^ ^ fiCi o^ which it
is the chief emporium, while the railway connecting it with
Peking, imparts to it still more value.
Shanghai has undoubtedly far more importance, but it is
rather a seaport than a river-port, and thus Hank*ow depends on
it, and will continue to depend on it for a long time to come.
128
SECTION II. THB GBNTRAL RB0ION.
HAKK'OW. Table of Shipping. 1900-1906.
YEAR
1900
1001
1902
1903
1901
1005
Ent<»ml Iiiwanls.
^ Total.
Steamers) ^»j^{^ ^.^^ Toiis.
1.152
1,273
1,S42
1.377
1.417
2,eoe
Cleared Out ward*.
Totftl.
23fi
254
219
1.681
1,241
1,388
1.527
1,561
3,008
2.6.'>8
1.201 I 2,003
I
. i steamers
. i'
1,106,5U ,j 1,162
1.310,298 1 1 1,865
1,456,002 !| 1,340
1.635,926 ii 1,366
1,684,45;^ 1,430
1,087,809 :: 1,602
Sailing
Veftselfl
901
075
1,161
1,635
1,236
1,296
Na
2,068
2,240
2.510
3,001
2,666
2,90(»
Tons.
1,161,162
1.367,948
1,548,101
1,034,012
1,687.860
1,966,840
Besides, under Inland Steam Navigation Rules, thefe entered
and cleared at the port during the year 1905, 2,760 small
steamboats, transporting 65,653 tons.
The number of Foreign firms doing business in the port,
during the year 1905, was 114 : 32 British, 25 German, 18
Japanese, 12 American and 27 of other nationalities. Foreign
residents totalled 2,151 : 537 Japanese, 50 i British, 500 Ame-
ricans, 162 Germans, and 448 of other nationalities.
AUmg the Yamatze ^ ^ fL^ descending the river :
If^*ang % g llljf. — Papulation, 45,000 inhabitants. A
commercial port, situated below the rapids of the Yangtze.
This position gives it importance, both as an emporium and as
a centre for transhipping cargo. It has the advantage over
Shashi |||||^ 7^, of being protected from the current during 8
months, owing to the proximity of an island.
Shatihi ^ rfi. — Population, 80,000 inhabitants. Shashi
is a great commercial mart, and its docks occupy on the right
bank of the river a length of two or three miles. It is practi-
cally the port of Kini^chow Fu ^ ^ /|^, and the great cotton-
market of the country.
Hwangchow 1^ || j^ jjtp.
Upati the Hat^'ho ^ ^, going down-stream :
Laoha^kfaw ^ ^ Q- A considerable port and market-
town. It owes its importance to the fact that the river begins
CHAPTBR III. HUPBH. 129
to be easily navigable there, and to its being at the junction of
two roads, one coming from Shensi |K( H ^y ^^^ Han-ho ^ ^,
the other from Shansi [Ij H ^y *^® Tan-kiang f^ f£.
Bkangyang JFk$ Wkftj^ffi' — It owes its importance to its
situation at the confluence of the Han-ho JH ^ and the Peh-ho
1^ ^. This latter river is the great commercial waterway for
trading with Honan {if|' Iff . It is less important however than
the towns lying on the opposite bank of the Han-ho : Ijunghin
fit ^1 PO^^ situated at the mouth of the Peh-ho, and Banr
eh*%$ig H ji^. Both of these places hold large fairs, and carry
on petty manufactures, such as ribbon and silk-making, ivory
and bone-carving.
Industry and Contnieree.— Besides the industries already
alluded to, the manufacture of cotton cloth deserves a special
mention. There is scarcely any place in Ilupeh ^ 4(^, where
the people are not engaged in weaving cotton cloth for expor-
tation. A special kind, called broadcloth (^ ;j|f hwang-pu), is
chiefly manufactured. All this cloth is exported to Szechw^an
15 }\\, Kweichow jH j/i\ and Yunnan H ^.
Trade is (irincipally carried on through Hank^ow ^ P,
and we have already seen in what it consists. Upon the Han-
ho ^ f^, the chief imports are coal and timber, both of which
come from Hunan ^ ^. The main eaypart article is raw cotton,
which is despatched to Szechw'an 0 )\\ in large quantity.
IItg:1iwnyB of Commnnlcaiton. — Besides the rich network
of streams, especially throughout the whole plain, Uke prindpml
roads are:
l*" The road from Peking 4k TSC ^ Hankfow ^ D- This
road crosses Honan ftj ^ Province, and after reaching Hank'ow,
proceeds to Yohchow Fu -g j^ jj^ (in the Province of Hunan),
and finally leads to Canton.
2'' The road from Ngmihwei $ ^ to HatUsfow ^ Q,
passing through Hwangchow F\x f( j^ fff.
3* The road which comes from Monan jpf ^, via 9Umff-
Uang Wu $i f^ Jff. A little to the S. of this latter place, it
hrofiehes off^nio 2 : one going via Kingchow Fu ^ j^ j|( and
9
130 SBCTION II. THS CBNTRAL RBeiON.
Shashi ^ TfT, to Ch*angteh Pu f^ H ^ffi in Hunan ^ It ^ *^
other leading to Hank'ow g| P , via Nganluh Fu ^ |^ /jj. — The
main highway continues also to the N. of Sianayang FU and
UadB to Southern Shenoi ^Jg- — The land-road from Hank^ow
^ D to Hanchung Fu ]^ rf« jjtp (Southern Shensi), is much
shorter than the water route on the Han-ho ^ ^. Travelling
by the latter, there are 1,120 miles from Htnk'ow to Flancliung
Fu, whereas the land-ro^d running between the two, reduces
the distance to 6'?0 miles.
(For Railways, oee Sect. V. Ch. VI).
Open Porta. — Hupeh f^ :\\^ has three ports open to
Foreign trade : mmk^ow ^ D , Ieh*ang £ g and Shashi fp 1$
(this latter depending on Kingchow Fu ^ j^ fff). There are
besides,lMro porU of eaii: WufMeh ^^, depending on Hwang-
chow Fu K iW ^1 And Luhk^i^kfow ]StM O, depending on
Hanyang Fu ^ fSf J(f' — P^*^ of eaU are those in which only
passengers and luggage may be embarked.
GHAPTBR III. HUNAN. 131
2°. Ihman MM
Area. — 83,398 square miles.
Populmilon. — 22,169,000 inhabitants, or 265 per square
mile.
Name. — Hunan ^ ]f) means **Houih of the lak^^ and
in fact nearly the whole Province is situated to the 8. of the
TungtSng lake i^ Jg i|.
Ronndarlefi. — Hunan is bounded on the
N. - By Hupeh ^ *,
W. — By Szechw'an Q )\\ and Kweichow :S !H|. '
S. — By Kwangsi J)| ]S and Kwangtung )f( %,
E. — By Kiangsi f£ ||.
On the N., the Yangtze ^ iF it forms during a short por-
lion of its course, the boundary line between Hunan ^ "^ and
Hupeh JJO 4fc^ tl^at is, from Yohchow Fu ^ ^ j^ to a distance
of nearly 60 miles further down.
Capital. — CWANQSMA TV -g 3? ;|ljf , on the right bank
of the Siang-kiang jffl it-
Otlier Prefectures. — The^e nuwher HgM^ awl are:
On the y. W.:
V Ytrngshnii Pn ^ )H Wf •
On the Tuen-Manff ^jq J£ :
2^ Ynenchcw Pn r^ ffl W,
3" Ch*§iichow Pn JR « «p,
4** Ch*aiigteli Pn * tS *.
Of» the n&'Mang ^ ^ :
5« Paok'ing Pu 5J » ».
On the Siang-kiang ffH fji, deeeenMt^ its cotifM* :
e» Yungchow Pu * ^ «r,
7° Hfingchow Pu «f #1 »,
BP Yohchow Pu S ^ W.
There are also in Hunan four indpppndont r/?ow.<? ji\ : 14
€;hMif jf ^, Ku^eiyang CFmvf i^l |^ W, TfHvg Chntr f^ ^
and Ch^hig Chaw |J0j jHI— and pvp iiifJcpendent T'ivf]f^ J||; Fftng-
132 SECTION II. THE GBNTIIAL RSeiON.
Hwang T*ing JHL jSi Hi ^^^^'^'^^ T*ing ^ £ j||« Kiendkmo
^^^^ lit jVi M^ ^tf^'^^^chaw TUng ^ ^ H. and Nanchaw
Affpect »nd CliaraeterlBUiMi. — Hunan is a mountainoua
country covered -with forests^ vchile ioa^plnntations and rice-fields
are found in 8ome valley fi. The country is deeply carved up by
the SUtng-Mafig Jfg ^ and its affluents, all flowing into the
great Tungifing take ^ fl^^, "which overflows its banks in Sum-
mer, but is nearly half empty in Winter, All activity converges
towards this lake, and conveys thither : coal, tea and timber,
which constitute its principal wealth. Through the S,, the Province
has easy communications with Kwangsi ^ ]gf and Kwangtung
J( ]ft, hence its importance as a transit centre for all goods pro^
ceeding to these Provinces,
Geolo^eal constitution. — lied BandBtone predoiniuatcs iii the monntainous
part, intersectc'd here and there with limeBtone, conglomerate and fi^nite, and overlyinf;
almost everywhere thick coal measures. The portion bordering on the Tnn^*inf;: lake,
belongrt like the f^at plain of Hupeh, to the allnvial formation deposited by the vast
inland sea which once covered the whole of this rep^on. The bottom of the Tnnfift'ing
lake is formed of micaceous sand. A similar formation gives rise in the Siang-kiaug
(Siang river) to quicksands, which are very dangerous for boats.
Orograpliy. •— The mountainous part of Hunan is excec-
dingly and wonderfully broken up. As one approaches H^ngchow
^" ft iW ^1 ^^^ mountains form a less compact mass, and
branch ofF into a considerable number of low hills. It is towards
the 8.W. and W., that Ihe highest altitudes are found, but these
seldom exceed an elevation of 3,250 or 4,000 feet. The Hhtg^
Shan ^ [Ij, one of the five sacred mountains, which is situated
to the N.W. of H^ngchow Y\x^ ^ ^, has scarcely an elevation
of 3,000 feet.
Beyond the banks of the lake, there are hardly any plains,
the only ones of importance being those of Leiyang hsien ^ ff^
m and H6ngchow Fu ^ ^ J^.
Climate. — The climate of Hunan resembles that of Flupeh. In the mountain-
ous region, it is rather like that of Kweichow, where it is moister than in Hupeh. At
Yohchow Fn, the thermometer ranged in 1002, from 23'' to 95° Fahrenheit.
Hydroi^rapliy. — A river traverses the Province from 8.
to N., the Siang'^kUmg j|g jtti which receives on its left two
GHAPTBR in. HUNAN. 133
considerable afTluents: one, the Txe-Mang "jK f£, before flowing
into the lake ; the other, the Y^ien^Mting \jc f£, before it issues
from the lake. The waters of the Yuen-kiang and the Siang-
kiang, even at flood-season, can be distinctly traced as they
flow through the lake, and so the Yuen-kiang may be really
considered as an aflluent of the Siang-kiang.
The Siang-kiang p^ f£ rises in the N. of Kwangsi J(| f|.
It is navigable for large boats up to H^ngchow Fu |ig ^ ^,
and for small craft up to the frontier of Kwangsi JH ]§. One
of its affluents, the Leirho ^fpj, is also navigable to the frontier
of Kwangtung ;J| ^. In Winter, junks with a draught of five
feet, sail up as far as Yohchow Fu -S* ^ Jj^ ; those drawing
three and a half, can go up to Siangyin hsien ^ |^ J||, and
those requiring two and a half feet can reach Siangt*an hsien
^ JV JH- Three Steamship Companies have opened regular
services between Hank^ow ^ D and Ch^angsha Fu ^ ^ ^.
The Tze'hiang ^ fL'i^ navigated with difliculty, on account
of its numerous rapids, which have deserved for it the name of
T*€mrho f^ ^ (river of rapids). Only small craft can ply on
its waters.
The Yuen-kiang \jt fC rises in Kweichow J|; jij. There,
it receives on the right its longest tributary, the Ts^ingsFiui g|
;fC. The rapids, which commence 35 miles above Gh'angteh Fu
'^ ^ J^, render navigation on it rather diflioult. Nevertheless,
thousands of small boats traffic unceasingly upon its Waters and
those of its principal aflluents, even up into Kweichow j|; j^f,
and to the S.E. of Szechw'an Q J||.
In the N.W., the TA-shui |[{[ ;);, which is navigable in its
lower portion only.
The Tungtfing lake ^ Jg fjjQ is about 75 miles long, by
60 broad in Summer, while in Winter, it is but a marsh through
which flow several streams. In Summer, the overflow of the
Yangtze ^ '^ it runs into it, forcing back the waters which it
receives from the Siang-kiang {ffltC and its aflluents. In Winter,
the lake pours its waters into the Yangtze, with which it com-
municates through the Yohchow Fu ^^jj^ canal. Modifying its
134 8BCTION U. THE CBNTRAL RB0ION.
aspect according to the seasons and the rise of the waters, it is
however the centre of a very active movement of boats, owing
to a system of sluices which adapts it to navigation in all sea-
sons. Thousands of junks carrying rice, timber, coal and salt,
traverse it unceasingly. Immense rafts composed of an assemblage
of beams and planks, attaining sometimes 330 feet in length, in
fact floating villages with their huts and inhabitants, traverse
its waters. A network of canals surrounds it, but the land
is too low and inundations too much feared, to enlice anybody
to settle down near its banks. The few villages found in the
environs are all enclosed within high embankments, which pro-
tect them when the waters rise.
In the N. the T^aifgHng -jj^ 2^ canal, much longer than that
of Yohchow Fu ^ ;H1 il¥i t>ut less important, connects the lake
with the Yangtze |K ? {£, a little to the S. W. of Shashi ^
1^ (dependent on Kingchow Fu ^ ^ /f^f , in Hupeh ^ ft). The
canal of Ngeuch*i-k'ow ^ ift Di more to the E., is better and
moreover is navigable nearly the whole year round.
Fauna and Flora. — Nothint^' cl< starves any particalar mentiou save that the
moiiiitaiiis of the W. are wooded, a circumstance pretty rare in China. In the foivsts,
Konie f,Mp:antic trees are still found. Notwithstanding the excellent climate, there is
litth" silk, sugar or opium produced in the Province.
Afi^ciiltiiral Wealtli. — Tiiis consists chiefly oitea, which
is one of the best in China, and supplies in part the demand of
the Hank'ow j|| P market. Besides, Hunan jjyj ]g produces
rice, cotton, tobacco, oranges and oily tea. Among the trees,
we may mention the pine, oak, cedar and camphor-trees.
The best tea grows at Nganhwa hsien ^ flj |||, Ch'angsha
Prefecture -ft jj? jj8f , to the S.W. of the lake, while it is exten-
sively cultivated in the region of the lower Siang-kiang jfg j^,
up to H6ngchow Fu :f|f j^H iff '^^^ beyond. The W. of Hunan
produces no tea.
Mineral Wealtb. — The mineral wealth of Hunan consists
principally of coal* When ascending the Siang-kiang jfg j^t, the
coalfields commence near 8iangt*an hsien }^ ^ J||, and extend
to the E. as far as Kiangsi jX Bl) ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^' ^ ^ distance
CHAPTBR III. HUNAN. 135
as yet unascertained. Goal is chiefly extracted at P4nghsiang
hsien J^ ^JR (Yuenchow Fu ^ ;Hi iff), in Kiangsi fl |f, upon
the Li-ho ]^ j^, but it is transported on the Siang-kiang j^lQ f£.
The largest coal-beds are found to the S. of the confluence of
the Li-ho {§ ff with the Siang-kiang }|| jX. Its extraction is
easy, and the mines have been worked for a long time. This
coal is despatched even to Shanghai J: ^. In the Southern
part, anthracite coal predominates, but further to the N., between
Siangt^an hsien }|| if HI and P'inghsiang hsien |$ ^ J||, the
coal is bituminous. As anthracite coal is principally exported,
it is called Hunan coal. t;
Hunan ^ ^ has also rich deposits of gold, silver, iron,^"^
copper, lead, zinc, antimony and sulphur, but the mines are
not much worked, and await the advent of scientific enterprise.
PopulatUm. — The population is concentrated especially along the Siang-kiang,
and in the lower course of the Yuen-kiang. Many officials are natives of this Prov-
ince, which was once famous for its schools. The people of Hunan have always betrayed
a violent anti-foreign feeling towards Westerners. They are renowned throughout
China for their military spirit. — In the S. E. are found immigrants from Kiangsi.
The S. W. is inhabited by the semi-independent tribe of the Miaotse "f^ ^ (shoots,
sons of the soil), or Yaohu H p (jackals), of whom we shall speak again when dtiscri-
bing the Southern Provinces and the different races of China. They form '/» of the
whole population of Hunan.
LanSaa^. — The Miaotee have theii* own peculiar dialect. Everywhere else
Mandarin is spoken, but the local accent with which it is pronounced renders it less
distinct than that of the N., and makes it hard to be understood.
€itle« and Principal Centres. — CH*ANGSHA JfV ^
^ J^ (long sands). — Population, 500,000 inhabitants. The city
is principally engaged in the manufacture of furniture, paper
and various gold articles. Besides, it is an important commer-
cial place, situated in a rich and fertile region, which allows it
to absorb alone one-third of the foreign imports which are
brought into the country.
Aiang the Stang-Mang ^ f£^ proceeding down-stream :
Hhi^aunv JFt* If ^ ;jjf. — Population, 20,000 inhabitants.
An important trading mart and transit centre at the junction of
two highways: one coming from Kwangsi Jf fj, the other from
Kwangtung Jl )|t- — Upon this latter, and on the banks of the
136 8BCTI0N II. THB CBMTIIAL RBeiON.
Lei-ho ^ fify is Leii^ang hHen 3|^ HI J||. It has a population
of 4,000 to 5,000 inhabitants, and is the centre of a mining
region.
atanffifim hHen }tt # H. — Population, 300,000 inhabi-
tants. A great depot where commission agencies are esta-
blished. The shops are thronged with customers, even more
than at Ch'angsha Fu. The city extends to a distance of nearly
4 miles along the Siang-kiang f|fl {H, whence originated the
idea that it was more populous than it is in reality.
fltoft^ym hHen fM |t f|- — Population, 20,000 inhabi-
tants. It is a rather important port. The town is transformed
into an island in the flood-season.
Toh<^aw -Flft •£ iW jfiF- — Population, 20,000 inhabitants.
A trading city which prospers, thanks to its site. It is built
on the canal which connects the waters of Ihe lake with those
of the Yangtze # ^ JQ river.
On the YuenrMang ^ j^ :
Ch*angteh F^ % % f(f.— Population, 300,000 inhabitants.
Situated at the mouth of the Yuen river, it is the {>reai central
mart of N.W. Hunan ^ ^. It exports to Kweichow jK ^ and
Szechw^ri"'P71/ cotton-yarn and piece-goods from Hupeh
^ Jf^^ also foreign-made cotton goods ; and imports from Hupeh
and Hunan: salt, opium, oils, varnish
Indasiry »nd Comuieree. — The extraction of coal, tree-
growing, pottery and brick-making to the 8. of Ch'angsha Pu
-fk IP fif constitute important and thriving industries. This
latter city has also its special products, which we have already
mentioned.
Comuieree. — The eaopart arHclee are : coal, tea, wood,
pottery and bricks, silver, antimony-ore, hemp, hides, beans
and preserved eggs. The imparU are : cotton and woollen
goods, copper, salt, opium, sugar and petroleum.
The commercial movement of the Province is important.
Through the canal of Yohchow Fu {| ^ J^ alone, the annual
number of junks sailing to the interior reaches 26,000.
GHAPTBR III. HUNAN.
137
Higliwayfl of Communleatlon.— The principal highways
arc the water raufsaJSiheRdy mentioned, especially the Siang-
kiang ffg jt. The mosi important roads are :
1^ The Wueh^ang Fu "^ ^ J^ road in Hupeh ^ ^fc.
This runs along the Siang-kiang, and passes through Yoh-
chow 1^ © '>H iff' Oh*angsha Fu ^^ }^, Siangt^an hsien
itt tS H and Hengchow Pu ^ ^ ;j5f. Here, it branches into
two : one keeping to the W. and passing through Yungshun Fu
^ li iff* towards Kwangsi ^ H; the other to the E., running
through Ihe Lei-ho ^ fpf valley. It then goes over the ChelUhig
® ^ paea, and continues into Kwangtung J| ^. Between
Ichang hsien £ j|l JR, terminus of navigation upon the Wu-shui
^ ;^, and Ch'^ng Chow ^ ^, the head of navigation on the
Lei-ho ^ fpir, a road connects the two basins. This is a very
ancient route, and is paved. It is 30 miles long, and furnished
from end to end with inns, warehouses and cattle-sheds, all
bespeaking the great activity that prevails throughout it.
2« The road which goes from the S. of the Yangtze ^ ^
jX, opposite Shashi g^T^, in Hupeh, to Kweichow j^jHi, passing
through Ch'angteh Fu % % M^ Ch*^nchow Fu jg jfjj iff and
Yuenchow Fu \x j^ jff.
Open Porto. — In Hunan Jijfl ^, there are two ports open
to Foreign trade : Yohctunv JPw # ^ iff» and Ch^angaFui 1%
References :
PliOVINCE OF UUPETL
Mission Lyoiumise.— Lyon, 1898 (2« par-
tie. Notes surle Coramorce do Hau-k*eou.
p. 357, le centre de fabrication de Cha-
cbo. Voir aussi I»« partie. Liv. III,ch.IV).
David. — Journal de voyage. Paris, 1875.
(Vol. II, ch. 20, 21, 22. Le Han et Han-
k'eou).
Ronsset. — A travors la Chine. Paris, 1878.
(cb. 8-11, and ch. 18).
Du Ualde. — Description of the Empire
of China. (Vol. I. p. 98-100).
Gutalair. — China opened. (Vol. I. p. 108-
112).
Parker E.II. —Chinese Itevenue, Hupeh.
(N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1895-90. p. 115-117).
UUie A. J. — Through the Yangtse Gor-
ges. London, 1898. (Ch. II. p. 15-30.
Shanghai to Ichang. — Ch. III. p. 37-50.
Ichang and its Environs. — Ch. XI.
Hankow).
Little A.J. —The Far East. Oxford,1905.
(Ch. IV. p. 91-96. Hupeh).
138
SECTION II. THE CENTRAL RBGION.
Roohop.— NottJHdu voyage »ii Chine Ct'n-
Uale. (liuUetiii dc la Soc. Geog. Comni.
Paris, 1898).
WIIIianM. — The Middle Kingdom. (Vol.
I. p. 120-122).
Grosier. — General Description of China.
(Vol. I. p. ti9-73).
WlnterboUiain. — View of th«- Cliinese
Empire, (p. 83-8(J).
Murray's ChlnA. - (Vol. III. p. 28).
Gill W.— The lUver of Golden Sand. Lon-
don, 1883. (Ch. IV. p. 10-.%fi. Hankow and
Shasi descrihed).
Allan O.W.— Hankow.lEastof Asia Maga-
zine. Shanghai, 1903. Vol. II. p. 2C5 273).
OomabyW.— Morning walks around Han-
yang. (East of Asia Magazine. Vol. I. p.
2«i2-268. Vol. II. p. 279-283. Vol. III. p.
2:<2-237).
Stuhlmaim P.— Shasi. (East of Asia Ma-
gazine. 1902. Vol. I. p. 119-200).
Woodbricise S.I.~Kuliug. (East of Asia
Magazine. 1903. Vol. II. p. 327-33<>).
l^uUetin dii Comite de I'Asie Fran^st*.
1902. .p. 24(5-253. Han-k^eou).
China. Imperial Maritime Customs. Decen-
nial Reports. Shanghai, 1904. (Hankow.
Decennial Report, 1892-1901. p. a»3-32i.
— Ichang. Decennial Report, 1892-1!H)1.
p. 179-219. — Shasi. Report, 1896-1901.
p. 221-25()).
RioliUiofeii. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873.
(The Han River, p. 13-16).
- Parker E. H. — Up the Yaugtse. Hong-
kong, 1891.
China. Imperial Maritime Castoms. lUs-
tums of Trade, 1905. (Ilaukow trade Re-
port, 1905. p. UM81. — Ichang trade
Report, 1905. p. 102-112. - Shasi trade
Report, 1905. p. 113-123).
PliOVINCE OF HUNAN.
Williiims.—The Middle Kingdom. (Vol.
I. p. 122 123).
GrOsier. — (ieneral Description of China.
(Vol. I. p. 69-73).
Winterbotham. — View of the Chinese
Empire, (p. 8:^80).
Murr.»y'« China. — (Vol. III. p. 28).
Du llalde. — Description of tlie Empire
of China. (Vol. I. p. 100-102).
GutzlalT. — Clihia opened. (Vol. I. p. lOS-
112).
Parker E. II. —Chi iiosr Revenue, Hunan.
(N. C. 15. R. A. Soc. lS9r,-9o. p. lU-Uh).
Ban* lay ParsOns \V. — Voyage tlnough
Uunun. (Gtog. Journal, 11M)2. p. 711-73:;).
Kielithoren. — Letters. Slianghai, l.s7o.
(lluuan. p. 1-13).
Gill W.— The River of (iolden Sand. Lon-
don, 1883. (Tuugting lake described. Ch.
IV. p. 52-53).
OarlesW.R.— The Yaugtse Chiaug.(Geog.
Journal, 1898 Vol. XII. p. 235-237).
Preston T. J. — Progress and Reform in
TIanan Province. (East of Asia Magazine,
1905. Vol. IV. p. 210-219).
Wingrate A. -Recent Journey from Shang-
hai to Rhanio, through Uiuian. (Geog.
Journal, 1899. Vol. XIV. p. 609-616).
Little A.J. The Far Kast. Oxford, 1905.
(TTunan. p. %-99).
China. Imperial Marit. Customs. Dcoeuuial
Repoits. Shanghai, 1904. (Yochow.Reiwjrt
1899-iyul.p. 251-21>1).
China. Rctuvnb of Trade, 1905. (Ch'augsha
trade Rcpoi-t, 1905. p. 123-13;^.— Vochow
trade Report, 1905. p. 13M43).
CHAPTER IV.
THE KECaON OF THE LOWER
YANGTZE
(KIANGSI a If* NGANHWPn^^R AND KIANGSU aH).
These three Provinces are governed by the same Viceroy,
styled the lAang^hiang p^ XL Vieeropf -who resides at Nanking
ift M ^^ Kiangning fE Iff.. For this reason, we shall study
them together. Kiangsi jtt f| has however this particular feature
that its Governor has the charge of nearly all civil affairs, and
depends on the Viceroy only for military matters.
KUnngai differs widely from the other two Provinces. It is
nearly all covered with mountains, has hut one lake which irri-
gates its extreme N.. only one highway of communication, and
one navigable route which traverses it from S. to N. The other
two Brovinees, on the contrary, are covered with immense plains,
intersected with canals and navigable rivers, and watered by
several large lakes. The whole Northern part of Nganhwei ^ ^
and Kiangsu f£ Jf^ borders on the hasiji of the Hwang^ho Jjf fnj,
and partakes of its characteristics, while to the S. of Kiangsi f£
U, the climate, productions and. even the dialects resemble
those of Kwangtung ^ Tg.
The three Provinces have this in common, that the same
river flows through them, and their productions are to a great
extent the same. All three have greatly suffered from the T^tU'
pHuff rebeliiou, which 50 years ago devastated them and reduced
their population.
140 8BGTI0N II. THB GBNTOAL RBGION.
l"", Kiangsi tH S
Area. — 69, *98 square miles.
Popnlallon. — 26,532,000, or 382 to the square mile.
Marne. — Kiangsi {H |f means **Wmi reach of the Kianff*\
This Province is in fact to the W. if we consider the Kiangsu
and Nganhwei ^ '^ Provinces, sometimes styled collectively
Kianf/nan f£ ^, or Provinces S. of the Kiang ^, a name which
would better suit Kiangsi, as it lies entirely to the S. of the
Yangtze ^ ip jQC river.
JBonndartes. — Kiangsi is bounded on the
N. — By Nganhwei ^ ^ and Hupeh Hfg ^fe,
W. — By Hunan ^ ^,
S. — By Kwangtung j|| ;^,
E. — By Fokien || ^ and Oh^kiang f^ ft.
VwLpiiMl. — NANCIFjiNG PU ^ ^ )ff, on the Kan-kiang
g( Jc, to the S. of the P^oyang f) ^ lake.
Other Prefeotares. — These are 12 4n number,
rraeeeditifjf from the Yangtze ^ ^ tL towarde Kwatig-
tung J5JJ ;^, through the lian-kiang @ ft vaUey :
r Kinkiang YuiiilM,
2r Nank*ang Pu W fll fflp,
3^ Linkiang Pu tt ft ff,
d'' Kihngan Fu W ft fl§P,
6" Kanchow Pn « ^ «,
6" Nanngan Pn ffi ft W".
i)n the Weetem affluetUs, going from S. to N. :
7" Yuenchow Pn fi ffl «P,
8» Shuichow Pu 5» ^ «P.
€hi the FJaetem ajfflftente, going also from S. to N. :
9" Kiench'ang Pu ili A M¥,
W Puchow Pu » ^ W,
11" Kwangsin Fu J» ^ fflp,
12" Jaochow Pu 1» ^ jfr.
There is also in Kiangsi ft H one independent Chtnv^:
Ningtu Chow ^ i( M-
CHAPtBR lY. KIANG8I. 141
Aspect and C^iaraeiertslles. — Of all the Provinces in
China, there is none which is so simple in structure. Hunan
iM 1^» ^^^ neighbouring Province, is the one which resembles it
most, Kiangsi fl[ If, entirely mountainous, except in its low
part (to the North), is traversed from S. to N. by a great valley
through which pows the Kan^hiang jH j^l, and into which run
all the affluents of the same river. These affluents, or nearly
all of them, rise within the Province, A great lake occupies the
low-lying part of the Province, and fulfils the same duty as the
Tungt'ing lake f^ ]^ ^, overflowing like it in Summer, and
becoming empty in Winter, Junks likewise ply on its waters.
Tea, rice, cotton, silk, as well as porcelain ware, constitute its
principal riches. Its mineral wealth has not been so far availed
of. At the present day coal-mines begin to be worked in the
Western part, but the export takes place chiefly through Hunan
W W •
Geological constitution. — The ^eolo^y of Kiangsi has bo far been bnt little
explored. Ked sandstone seems to predominate in the W. It overlies, as in TInnan,
rich coal measures. In the E., although red sandstone is abundantly found, still as
one advances in the same direction, it is replaced by granite and porph5'r5\ The
sandstone wonderfully broken up, ofTers in this Province the name picturesque {(-n-
tures which we have already mentioned in Hunan. It imparts great variety and
charm to 4he country, otherwise so rich in limpid streams, and also in trees and
shrubs.
Orograpliy. — With the exception of the great pittin
which surrounds the P*oyang ^ ^ jjfl lake, and extends to the
S. as far as Linkiang Fu gg it ifiF» ^^^ country is covered with
mountain chains and ridges running in the general direction
S. W. — N. E. To the E., the high mountains of Fokien JH ^
interpose a powerful barrier between the two Provinces. Else-
where, their altitude reaches 1,600 feet and seldom surpasses
3,200 feet.
Climate. ~ The climate of Kiangsi generally is hot in Summer. During Winter,
the lakes between Kinkiang and the mountain-background are occasionally frozen.
In the neighbourhood of the P'oyang lake, the climate resembles much that of Hank'ow
and Hupeh. In the S., as evidenced by the flora, it is tropical like that of Canton.
Hydrograpliy* — The water system of Kiangsi is compo-
sed of a large river flowing into the YtMngixe |§ ^ it, a large
142 SECTION II. THB CBNTRAX RBGION.
iake which receives this river before it reaches the Yangtze, and
numerous afTluents flowing from both sides into the Kan-kiang
mtL
The Ktm-kiang ^ fH rises in the 8. E. of Kiangsi, and is
then called the Kuna-Bhui "^ if^. On the W., it flows up to
Kanchow Fu ^ ^ )|^, and receives there the ChmMf-^h^tfi j|t
^. It runs subsequently to the N. E. as far as the P*oyang
^ 1^ lake, into which it empties its waters through several
mouths. Above Kihngan Fu ^ $ Jf^y it has a certain number
of rapids which are called the Shihpahrl^an '^ A fl (eighteen
rapids). In the flood-season, it is however navigable for small
steamers up to Nanch'ang Fu "^ g /|^ ; for junks of middling
tonnage up to Kanchow Fu ^ ^ ^, and for small craft up to
Nanngan Fu ^ ^ ;fif.
The T^^fffamg laks ^If^M ^^ ^^^ miles in length and almost
20 in breadth. It is very deep like the TungtMng lake S| JH iMi
especially in its Southern part. In the flood-season, it rises to
nearly 30 feet above the ordinary level, and overflows into all
the neighbouring marshes. It is dotted with numerous islands,
while its Northern banks, though rather steep, are covered with
trees and villages. Its violent storms are greatly feared.
Numerous small steamboats convey passengers across its
waters. The Hukfow ^ Q canal connects it with the Yangtze
Sr iF tt river.
Throughout the Province, there are numerous ponds which
are used for rearing fish.
Fauna and Flora. — Tho fauna and Hora of Kianprsi are peculiar, aft tlipy
bolonf* like those of Hnnan to the Romi-tropical ro^ion. The RpocimonR of the fanna arp
ratbor raoafjro thr«n^h lack of extcnsivo forrsts. Even the birds arc not very nnmeroiifl,
oxcopt tho palmipeds or w<*b-footod, which abound in Winter on the laken. A few
kinds of serpcjuts arc found, but thoy arc not of a dangerous sort.
The country is well wooded and iioasesses tall firs, camphor-trecR, oaks,
banyans, canielliaH, kidney-btan trees and azaleas. Trees of large girth are randy
found, and this ntTicssitatcs the importation of wood for building purposes.
Aiprtealtnral Wealth. — This consists chiefly of rice,
aotton, tobacco and hemp. The Province has also the ordinary
crops of the N. : corn, barley, millet, sorghum and indigo.
Tho tea-plant is confined mostly to the N. W.
CHAPTBR IV. KIAN6SI. 143
BuiTaloes and zebus, or humped oxen, are largely employed
in tilling Ihe ground, but few horses and asses are found, and
so goods are transported either by water or on the backs of
carriers.
Mtneiml Wealtli. — Goal is extensively found in the N. W.
and also in the E., at Lohph'ng hsien ^ 2^ )||. Excellent Kaolin
(Kaoling 'f^ ^, literally high ridge or pass — Decomposed
granite made into paste, and forming an important ingredient in
all kinds of porcelain), abounds in the N. E. and is used in ihe
manufacture of the famous Kiangsi porcelain.
Population. — The popnlation is espocially crowded in the N. of the Troviiice i
and in the valleys. The country was formerly mnch more populated, but like its neif^h-
bours, it suffered severely from the devastation of the T'aip'infjs. A large number of
immigrants poured in from Hupeh to cultivate the vacant lands. The people rival in
business-ability those of Shansi, but the majority are engaged in agricultui*al pursuits
and lead a rather secluded life.
• Lan^uo^e. —Mandarin is spoken in the E. and S., but intermingled with various
dialects. In the extreme E., a peculiar dialect is spoken, whicli n sombles much that of
Fokien.
dliles and PHnctpal Centres. — NANOWANG JFU ^
^ Jff. — Population, 300,000 inhabitants. It stands in the
centre of an alluvial plain, and was originally built on the
shore of the P*oyang lake, which has since receded 30 miles
Northward. During the T*aip*ing rebellion, it successfully
withstood a long siege, until the arrival of the Imperial troops
from the N. compelled the rebels to retreat. Of late it has
risen from its ruins, become an important trading town and has
also some manufactures.
To the N. of take T*o^fmng :
K^Uhkmg J^ JL tt Jff- — Population, 36,000 inhabitants.
One of the Yangtze ports open to foreign trade in 1861. It is
12 miles distant from the outlet of the P^oyang lake. It has
considerable commerce in tea, which it exports principally to
Hank*ow ^ P and Shanghai J: ff|. There are two fine granite
quays along the river front, which widens out there to 5,000'
feet. To the rear of the city are the Lu-shan ]( \\\ mountains,
which attain a height of 4,000 feet.
144 8BGTI0M II. THB GBMTRAL RBGION.
Kiuttnff ji ^ (nine ridges). — An excellent health resort
and aanaiariufn open for Foreign residence since 1895. The
Summer is delightful and the climate pure and bracing. It is*
5 hours* distance from Kiukiang, and the journey may be made
in a sedan chair.
*TaocIiow JP^ ^ )^ J^' — Built on the Eastern bank of the
P^oyang lake, it is with Nank^ang Fu ^ j^ fffy the great empo-
rium for the sale of the porcelain manufactured in the Province.
Kingieh ehSn ^^^^ (mart of brilliant virtue). — A cenlge
manufacturing highly esteemed porcelain. It extends in a plain
along^the l^anks ofthe river Chiang ^ gjli ^^^ Js flanked by high
mountains. It was established A. D. 1004, under an Emperor
of the Northern Sung ^fc tIc dynasty, whose title of reign it
bears. The kilns destroyed by the T'aip*ing8 have been rebuilt.
Activity begins to reign anew, but the porcelain turned out is far
from equalling in colour and finish that of former times. At tbcf
present day, it has but 160 furnaces (instead of 500), and employs
100,000 workmen (instead of 1,000,000). The finest porcelain
manufactured there, is despatched annually to Peking for the use
of the Emperor. A small amount of fancy articles is exported
to Europe and America. The remainder, consisting especially
of rice bowls, is sold cheaply throughout the country, but it
possesses the practical qualities of hardness, solidity and useful-
ness. The value of export sales amounts annually to about
3,000,000 taels, or £ 480,000 sterling. '
IndiMtry and Commeree. — The principal industry is
the manufacture of porcelain. The weaving of silk and cotton
cloth, the preparation of tea for export purposes, a few soap
and glass manufactories, match and paper-making occupy a
large number of hands.
The chief eoftparts are : porcelain, paper, tea and tobacco,
while the imparts include cotton cloth, linen fabrics, petroleum,
mulberry-trees, sugar, salt and fans. The traffic through the
Province, principally with Canton and the Northern region, is
considerable. From 20,000 to 30,000 junks visit annually the
port of Kiukiang.
CHAPTBE IV. KIANG8I.
145
Highways of €)oinni«Mieatton. — Besides the navigable
waterways already described, a single but very important route
deserves to be particularly mentioned : it is that which follows
the Kan-kiang j|| fL valley and proceeds to Canton J| ]|C. It
is the way formerly known as ^^Ambtumidaraf rouU^^^ and by
which several embassies journeyed from Canton to Peking 4b
^. It runs to the S. over the MeUing ;ff| ^ pasB, which owes
its name to the numerous plum-trees that grow in the neigh-
bourhood. It was over this pass, that the embassies to the Court
of Peking of Lord Macartney and Lord Amherst passed when
returning to Canton, the former in 1793 and the latter in 1816.
In the N. W., a short raUwaw W»»e conveys the coal from
the P^inghsiang hsien jl^ ||p f| mines to Liling hsien H 8^ f|,
in Hunan fJH ^.
Open Porta. — In this Province, there is but one port
open to Foreign trade : KiukUmg ^ it jfr. Further on, Hu-
k^mv h9ien ^ p fl is a port of coil.
Note. — To the W. of the P'oyang lake flS |A j|j0 are the
ffote and graUo of the ffhUe deer (pehluh-tung j^ j£ jp^),
where lived and taught ChtthH ^ D( (A. D. 1130-1200), the
disciple and commentator of Confucius. The spot is a celebrated
place of pilgrimage for Chinese literati.
Beferences :
Willians. ^ The Middle Kingdom. New
York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 91-93).
Grosier. — General Description of China.
London, 1795. p. 46-51.
VTialerbotliaiii. — View of the Chinese
Empire. London, 1795. p. 66-79.
Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 1813.
(Vol. in. p. 26-27).
Da Halde. — Description of the Empire
of China. London, 1738. (Vol. L p. 79.*'8).
Gatalair — China opened. London, 1888.
(Vol. I. p. 81-90).
David. — Journal de Voyage. Paris, 1875.
(Vol. II. Oh. 23-28).
^"^^^ Bocber. — Notes de voyage en Chine
Centrale. 1898.
topography of Kiangsi (Chinese Reposi-
tory. Vol. XI. p. 375-386).
Parker E.H.~ Chinese Revenue, Kiangsi.
(N. C. B. H. A. Soc. 1895-96. p. 120-123).
Davis Sir J. F. — Sketches of China,
London, 1811. Ch. 14.
LiUloA. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.
p. 99104.
01e«nel W. J. — Region of the Poyang
liake. Central China. (Geog. Journal.
1906).
Decennial Report of the Trade of Kiu-
kiang. 1892-1901. (China. Imperial Marit.
Customs. Vol. I. Yangtse Ports, p. 325-
366).
Returns of Trade for Kiukiang, 1905. (Imp.
Marit. Customs, p. 184-196. With sketch-
map. of the Poyang lake,by W.J.Clennel).
Geogr.Notes on the Province of Kiangsi.
(China Review. Vol. Vll. N« 2-5). . ,
10
146 8BCTI0M II. THB CENTRAL RBftlON.
2^ , Nganhwei $ jfe
Ar«u — 54,826 square miles.
Population. — 23,672,300 inhabitants, or 432 to the
square mile.
Name. — The name of this Province comes from the
combined names of two of its principal towns : l^jTOftk^ng Fu
* J* *f> and Hweichow Fu % j^ Jff.
Boundaries. — Nganhwei is bounded on the
N. — Hy Honan Jf ^,
W. — By Honan Jf -^ and Hupeh f^ :|k,
S. — By Kiangsi fL H and Gh^kiang ffi i£,
E. — By Kiangsu i£ H.
Capital. — NOANK^ING FV ^ J/tHf. to ihe S.W. of the
Province, and on the left bank of the Yangtze #| ^ JC river.
Otlier Prefectures. — These are seven in nimnber*
To the N.W.J one; and to the EL, another:
1" Yingchow Pu ffl ^ *,
2° Fimgyang Fu A A MP.
A lUOe to the N. of take Ch*ao Jk '
a> LUchow Fu ■ M «.
To the & of the Yangtze, proceeding dokm-eireftm :
i'* Ch'ichow Fu yOi M Jl!P,
5* T'aip'ing Fuik^fff.
To the S. of T'aipHng F^ ^ I^ fff :
e^ Ningkwoh Fu « « «,
7<*HweichowFu«Mjf)f.
There are also in Nganhwei ^ ^ five independent Chmv
^ eUies: Kwangteh Chow jK Ifii M, Ch'u Chow fg^ ^, Ho
Chow Tfo jHlf lAihngan Chow ':f^ ^ )^ and Soe Chow fH fH.
Aspect and Cbaracteristics. — Nganhwei ^ ^ compri-
ses three quite distinct regions. On the 8. of the river, the
country is mountainous^ rich in tesj cotton and industries, .fo
the cemre^ between the TiV9T jmi the /fwai-Zio ffk^^ it is partly
^
CHAPTBR IV. NOANHWEI. 147
mountainous, partly flat and marshy, and dotted with lakes as
Kiangsu ft fjj^ is approached. The people are not so rich as to
the S. of the river, and productions are less abundant^ though
tea is still grown. IH the N., beyond the Hwai-ho ^ Jf , there
is a vast plain with a few hillocks. It is the prolongation of the
Great Northern Plain, with its dense and impoverished population,
its cold dust storms, its waggons and its monotony of vegetation.
Throughout Nganhwei ^ ^ however^ communications are facili-
tated by numerous navigable waterways, even in the mountainous
region of the S, Nganhwei ^ jff^ combines in the same Province
the characteristics of three regions : of the N., the Centre, and the
Coast Region of CMkiang fjf^ JL a^d Kiangsu jH jflf. All three
are found in its vegetation and animals, in the character of its
inhabitants^ and even in its language,
Geoloerlcal confititation. — The Great Northern Plain extends into the upper
part of the Province. The soil is a mixture of alluvium and loess, and the surface is
diversified hy the prolongation of the last spurs of the K*uenlun range. These moun-
tains terminate not far from the Hungtseh lake, and are composed of sandstone,
marble and granite. In the S., we find a prolongation of the mountains of Fokien and
Ch^kiang. Their formation is chiefly of granite, limestone and schist, while alluvial
lands are found at the bottom of the valleys and along the Yangtze river.
ihpofgrmpUy. — To the N. of the Yangtze ^ ^ fL, contin-
uing the BuHtHf€mg''Shan ^ |^ |i| and skirting the N. of
Hupeh jjJD 41^, are the Hoh-Bhan ^ |i| nwunitrins. These
extend from S.W. to N.E. between the Yangtze #| ^ Jc and
the Hwai-ho ^ ^. They afford beautiful sites, have difficult
passages, and rise in places to an elevation of 6,500 feet. Their
average height varies from 1,600 to 3,300 feet.
To the S. of the river, is the Hwang'Shan ^ |i|, which
follows the same general direction, and reaches at times an
altitude of 6,560 feet. It is however a very confused chain,
especially in the Hweichow ^^ % j^ ftf region. Its numerous
valleys seldom exceed a few hundred yards in breadth.
dimate. — Nganhwei enjoys a climate similar to that of the Northern Region,
especially in the plain N. of the Hwai-ho. In the mountainous tract of the Centre, the
cold is intensely felt in the Winter season, and snow at times blocks up the roads.
Snow is also found occasionally on tlie mpnntains of the ^nthern pfirt, but the climato
is mjld^r ftere |n generi^,
148 SECTION II. THB CENTRAL RBftlOK.
Hydropmplur. — The rivers of Nganhwei ^ % run in
three distinct basins :
1^ ^ the N. — The Hwai-ho JH fE|, commonly called the
Mwai. This stream rises in the S. of Honan fE|^, and is navigable
there below Sinyang Chow # |# jHI- When it reaches Ngan-
hwei ^ Ht, it is already a large river. It is in this Province
however that it receives on its left bank its principal affluents :
the Sha-hm ^^j^, FtirhmXt^, Km-h^ {ft ^ and SM-km^fff.
The Hwai-ho JSfEl runs in Nganhwei ^^ from S.W. to N.E.,
and flows into the HungUeh ^flt lake. Formerly it received a
part of the waters of the Hwang-ho )| j^, through the Sha-ho fjf
j!|', which is still its principal affluent. The Hwai-ho is trom 500
to 1,300 feet wide, and is subject to violent floods which inun-
date the surrounding country to a distance of from 10 to 20 miles.
It is navigable, as are also the greater number of its tributaries,
but canals connecting them together are sorely needed. Yii Jl|
the Great, it is said, had formerly opened several, but they have
been allowed to silt up, or are obstructed by fish preserves.
2<' In me cenlra.— The YmHn»e H^fll, which is very wide
and deep throughout all this part of its course. It receives on
both banks numerous streams, of which several are navigable.
In Summer, it overflows its banks, especially the left, in the
flood-season. It then forces back, even as far as lake Ch'ad j|,
the waters of the rivers which flow into it. We have described
above [eee ch. I p. 98) the different branches through which it
flowed formerly through the S. of the Province.
S"" In the eaOreine A, near Hwelchow Fu ^ ^ J|^, the rivers
run partly towards the P'oyang lake flS lA iM* >" Kiangsi; and
partly towards Hangchow Fu U ^ ;fif bay, in Ch^kiang Province.
ijOces. — Lakes abound in the Province, especially along
the Northern bank of the Yangtze. The principal are: the
Mtmgt^eh lake f^ M M^ which we shall find again when
describing Kiangsu fL fti ^^^ ^^^ Ch^aifk'hu J| j||.
The Ch'oMk-hu Jl iKQ, to the S. of Liichow Fu Ji ^ j||^, fills
the bottom of the basin formed by that region. It teems with
CHAPTER lY. N6ANHWBI. 149
fish, and is navigable for large junlcs. Its circumference is
about 125 miles. Rivers flow into it from every side, except
on the E., where it empties itself into the Yangtze ^ ^ fL
through a large canal.
Fauna and Flora. — The fanua and flora of this Province vary according to
the three regions of which it is composed. Meagre in the North, they become more
numeroas and rich in the centre, especially in the mountainoas part, where there are
still some tracts pretty well wooded. The Southern region abounds in splendid forests,
though some are more denuded since 18G0. In these forests are found beautiful speci-
mens of the camphor-tree, the thuja, the cuuninghamia and the yew-tree. The fauna is
also rich in deer, wild boars and panthers. It is said even that there are some monkeys,
which have probably crossed over from the mountains of ChCkiang or of Fokien. In
the N. are found numerous aquatic birds: swans, cranes, bustards, pelicans, storks and
herons.
Agrlealtaiml Wealili* — Agricultural products diminish
from S. to N. In the S., besides the productions peculiar to
the N., tea, rice and cotton are extensively cultivated. In the
N.y rice and tea are lacking, and only wheat, beans, sorghum
and millet are found. In the Central part, tea and rice grow,
but much less than in the S. The best tea is that of Luhngan
Chow jri 4t )^i sometimes called 9ungto ijg^ m (pine range) iea^
from a mountain of the country. The Hweichow Fu §( JHI j||
tea is also much esteemed. If the timber of the same district
were exported, it would be likewise a source of prosperity for
the country. The poppy is cultivated more and more throughout
the whole Province, chiefly in Yingchow Fu |p jt| j|^, and Lii-
chow Fummfif
Mlnend Wenlih. — Coal is extensively found in the S.,
but the mines are little worked up to the present. Iron-ote
is extracted at Hoh-shan ^ |1|, and it seems that formerly
gold, silver, copper and lead mines have been worked in the S.
Pupnlalion. -- The poorest portion of this Province, that of the N., is also the
most populoua.^ The inhabitants are very simple, but robust and hard-working. They
^reckon but few scholars from their ranks. In the Centre, the population is still denser,
except in the mountainous part. This region produces a few more scholars. The South-
em part is the one that suffered most from the T'aip'ing rebellion. It is now however
being gradually repeopled, owing to immigrants from Hupeh and Honan.
The people of Hweichow Fu,in the extreme S.,form a category by themselves.They
are shcttwd business-men, and living in a place abounding in resources, have succeeded
in makiiig large fortunes. During a considerable portion of the year, the men travel
150 ncnoM ii. the cbhteal BiftioN.
on business, and leave their liomes in charge of immigrants and slaves from Ngank'ing
Fa. The former constitute one-third of the population, and the latter nearly one-sixth.
Lnn^nasc. — Mandarin^ but more or less altered, is spoken everywhere, except
in the S. The Northern dialect much resembles the language of Ghihli. Hweichow Fu
has a tongue so peculiar that it seems to form a dialect by itself.
dliles Mid Principal Centrem.—NGAlfKfJDrG JPV^ft
Iff. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants. Capital of the Province,
and a port of call on the Yangtze. It has a military academy
and a provincial mint. The city is beautifully situated and
has a certain commercial importance. The suburbs extend on
both sides along the Yangtze.
On the right bdnk of the river:
Wuhu heien K| JjJ ||. — Population, 137,000 inhabitants.
^ treaty TOTt and important city exporting rice, wheat, cotton,
tea, opium,- furs, timber", sugar, paper and feathers. The prin-
cipal export articles are : rice, cotton and tea. All other goods
are imported and distributed throughout the Southern Region.
There are also a few industries, such as a flour-mill and an
egg factory. The total net value of the port has been in 1903,
Hk. Tls. 24,542,783; in 1904, Tls. 23,223,383; and in 1905,
Tls. 30,623,809. The new General Foreign Settlement was
opened on the 16«»» May, 1905.
T^aip^ing JP** ic ^ iff- ^ A. scholarly and military town.
It has however some steel and copper works, and manufactures
vermilion.
Xn the eadreme SL :
BweUhow F^ flLJf\ Jd- — Centre of the tea-packing dis-
trict. It is also famous for its Indian ink. The country around
is one of the richest of Nganhwei, and furnishes timber and
bamboo, which are largely exported.
To the N. of lAOoe CWao :
Hohfei heien 'fr- flC JK (dependent on Liichow Fu). — The
native home of Li Hungchang, China's great modem statesman
(1823-1901).
To the N.B>:
Fungyang i^ j@L |^ jff (Rising phoenix). — Birthplace
of the Mings Q|. The first Emperor of this dynasty, Hungwu
GHAPTBR IV. NC^ANHWEI. 151
Wi ^f resided there in A. D. 1368, before he transferred the
seat of Empire to Nanking f^ "fiC* In the neighbourhood, 5
miles to the 3.W., the mausoleum which he erected upon his
father^s burial place is still to be seen.
To the N.W.:
JPoh Chaw ^ iHI* — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A
large city, where an important trade in hides is carried on.
IndiMtry and Cyommeree. — The most important indus-
trial region of the Province is Hweichow Fu ^ ^ ^, famous
for its ^^Indian ink^^, its engravings on copper and its varnish ;
eacTr^f the district cities of this region has its special branch
of trade. In other places, silk is manufactured, and iron-works
carried on.
Nganhwei ^ ^ eccpariB: tea, rice and cotton, and imports:
furs, sugar, opium, cotton fabrics and paper.
KIgliwayB of Oommanlcatlon. — Besides the numerous
navigable rivers, some of which are practicable only for 6
months, the princlpai highways are.
To the N. of the Yangtze :
All the roads radiate from LiMtaw ^^^ ft j{\ Jtf, and lead
thence :
1^ To the N.B», towards Shantung [Ij ^, via Hwalyuen
hsien HE ^ H, ^nd Suh Chow ^ %.
2* To the JV.IF., towards Honan jpf ^, via Ch^ngyang-kwan
JE It R, and Yingchow Fu ^ « jff .
Z"" To the A IT,, towards Hupeh Jjfl ft, via T*ungch*6ng
hsien ;tg :M H, and T'aihu hsien :ic ^ H* At T'ungch^^ng
hsien a branch-road runs to NgankMng Fu ^ JH )|^.
A road distinct from the others, coming from Peking, and
formerly one of the finest of the Empire, starts from Fungyang
T^^ M.% M' ^"^ proceeds via Ch*u Chow Jlfe ^ to P'ook'ow
^ D, opposite Nanking 'HH "^^ A cross-road connects it with
route n® 1, mentioned above.
To the 8.^ the Yangtze :
1® A road coming from Nanking ^ ^ skirts the right
bank of the Yangtze, passes through Wuhu ^ ^ M and
1^2 8BCTI0M It. THB CKMTRAL iMlON.
Gh'ichow Fu ^ ^ Jl^, and terminates opposite Ngank'ing
2^ Several roads start from Hweichow Fvt ff^ j^ Jff. All
of them are kept in a state of good repair, and they connect the
district towns with each other.
To the y» of the Hwairlio f^ fjf^ the roads are wide and
carls travel on them. Everywhere else conveyance is performed
by carriers and pack-animals. A great number of ponies, mules
and asses are employed in this transport.
Open Ports. — In this Province there is but one port
open to Foreign trade: Wiihu ^jgf^. There are besides two
ports of eail : Ngankfing JP^ ^ ft fif and Tatfun^ ^ j||, in
the Prefecture of Ch'ichow Fu f^ f(/i fff.
GHAPTBR IV. KIANMU. 153
3^, Kiangsu it M
ArMU — 38,610 square miles. Next to Ch6kiat>g j|f {Ct
Kiangsu is the smallest Province of China.
P^pnlaii^ii. — 28,980,230 inhabitants, or 620 to the
square mile. It is, especially in the S., the most densely popu-
lated Province of the Empire, and comes immediately after
Shantung |lj %.
Ifame. — The name of this Province is derived from the
combination of the names of two of its principal cities : Kiang-
ning Fu in H: flfif or Nanking ^ jjt* and /Stoochow Fu 1^ ^ J)^.
Boundaries. — Kiangsu is bounded on the
N. — By Shantung |ll %,
W. — By Honan fH |f| and Nganhwei ^ fjjf^^
8. — By Ch^kiang ^r tL
E. — By the Yellow Sea j( % (Hwang-hai).
CM^plial. — NANKING ^ ^ or Ktanffiitos Fn HI Hf A"-
Former Capital of the Empire, and nowadays the residence of
the Viceroy of the Liang-kiang fff jTt, or two Kiangs. It is built
at a short distance from the Yangtze Ji -^ it river.
Otlier Prefeelwral Cities. — The&e are 7 in nun^er.
On ike Grand Canai :
vsoocEowYummw.
T^ the 8.BL of Soeeh&w JPW ;
2" Sungkiang Fu S tc JRf.
AUmg the Grand €kinai, to the N.W. of Soochow FW ;
30 Ch'angchow Fu • /H Mf .
io Chftnkiang Fu IR tc H^f .
AUm9 the Grand €fanai, proceeding from 8. to N :
5» Tangchow Fn H ^ JKP,
6° Hwaingan Fn it £ ffip.
To the N W.f near the fortner bed of the Bwang^ho )|f ^ •
7° StichowFutt^MP. '
154 8BCTI0N II. THB CBYITRAL RBOION.
There are besides in Kiangsu fL M '^ independent Chmw
^ eUUs: Hai Chaw % ^. T'nng Chatv Jft ^ and T'aUt^ang
Chow >(c ^ W ; and miejndependeni T'ing jg ; Haimhi THng
A^peei and Chu«eterlstics. — Like Nganhv^ei ^ %,
Kiangmi is traversed in its /ouer part hy the Yangtze ff^ ^ fL
river, and is divided into 3 regiattm: — The first or NcHhem
extends almost to Hv^aingan Fu f^ ^ )ff. This tract is poor,
densely inhabited^ and has all the characteristics of the Northern
plain. It has however no navigable river like \orthern NganhyK-ei,
and the fwtner bed of the Hwang-ho J| fpf runs through it
from N.W, to S.E. Thii^ bed is half filled up in the flood-season.
The second or Central extends from H\Kaingan Fu f^^fff
to the Yangtze ^ ip fiQ. It is a region covered vrith 8haI/ow
lagoons, «uamps, and canals, very poor also, though in Summer
rich crops of cotton, maize, v:heat and rice are raised. Fish
abound, and afford it a resource -which is lacking in the Northern
region. The Orand Canal, the numerous lakes and canals, the
rivers which traverse this part, render communicationii very easy.
Tlie third or Southern one comprises all that region which
lies to the S. of the Yangtze ^ ^ fL river. A little mountain-
ous to the W., it exhibits toxKards the E. a long and inextricable
maze of lakes, rivers and canals. The Cfmnd Canal runs through
it, and it is the most fertile part of the v:hole Proviiice. Fiice,
silk, cotton and fish are plentiful, -while the neighbourhood of the
great commercial and industrial city of Shanghai J;;, f^ contributes
much to increase its prosperity.
Geologrieol coiwlHatiOn. — KiangKu is largely a low, wido, alluvial plain,
formed by the silt of China's two ^T^at rivora: tlie Ilwang-ho in the N. and the Yang-
tze in the S. Loess however covers a rather large part of the eountrj', both to the N.
of the Yangtze, and also to the S., down to Cbenkiang and Nanking. In the bills ex-
tending along the S. of tlie Yangtze, the predominating formations aru : sandstone or
quartzite, then limestone and conglomerates. Around Nanking, volcanic rocks betoken
that tho region was formerly the scene of violent eruptions.
Orognrapliy. — From end to end, except to the W., Kiangsu
fC jH is a vast plain broken merely by a few undulations. To
the 8, W., in the environs of Nanking )|f JjCi ^^^^^ ^^^ found,
CHAPTER IV. KIANG8U. 155
and attain along the river an elevation of from 500 to 1,950 feet.
Several hillocks also dot the country on the banks of the T^ai-
hu ;;i^ Jig or great lake, and extend to within some 20 miles to
the S. W. of Shanghai. In the N., the Shantung ||j ^ hills
continue in a series of low undulations.
Olimate. — In the N., in the Prefectare of Siichow Fn, the climate is that of the
Hwang-ho region with its rather severe Winters, its dry heat, and its cold wind covering
the whole country with dast. Everywhere else, the climate of Shanghai prevails with
its almost mild Winters, snow falling seldom and melting quickly; its N. W. wind in
Winter, its S. W. in Summer ; its moist and unhealthy heat during the latter season,
and finally its heautiful Autumn period. Owing to the proximity of the sea, the differ-
ences of temperature are less felt than in the interior.
BjdragmpiMy. — Besides the Yanfftze ^ ^ ^, of which
we have already spoken (p. 93-102), there is no other stream
to be mentioned, except the Htumi^oo J(f -j^, or Shanghai
Jt ^ river, which is a large, deep and useful waterway. It
rises to the S. W. of Sungkiang Fu ;^ ^ jjSf . Ships of heavy
tonnage can sail up to Shanghai, and the river is connected
with a very important network of canals and lakes. When
the tide rises, all these canals are filled up, and when it falls,
they are almost dry, except a few large ones which are always
navigable. At high-water, the whole volume rushes up the
Hwangp^oo tJ| ^, making thereby this river the great thorough-
fare for all boats that ^OTn<> up q«^^ ^^ffppnH y{\\\{ th? V'^^_
To prevent inundations (such as the one that occurred on
the !■* and 2"^ September, 1905, and 'caused such terrible
havoc), embankments have been built on the E. to oppose a
barrier to the inroads of the sea.
The canals of the Central region are less numerous, and
receive their waters from several quarters. The larger ones
alone are navigable, and on the whole, do not render to the
country the same services as those of the S. Two embankments,
running from N. to S., protect the lowlands situated to the E.
of Yangchow Fu ^ jHi jfif ^^^ Hwaingan Fu }{| ^ J)^, from the
waters which flow from the W. and threaten to inundate the
country. The first of these embankments is formed by the Eastern
bank of the Grand Canal ; the second known by the name of
'*Fankung-ti" %^^ (Duke Fan's dike) is parallel to the first,
156 SICnON II. THB CBNTIAL KMION.
and about 40 miles distant from it. The whole country to the
E. of the Grand Canal is called the HBim'hm f ^, or region
below the level of the Canal.
(On the Grand Canal, see Section V. Ch. VI.).
lAtkeB are numerous both in the N. as well as in the S.
Th€ mo&t imparioiU are :
Jnthe 8.: the T'ai^hu :ic M or Great lake, situated to the
W. of Soochow Fu jl^ jHi ^* I^ >s ^^ immense sheet of water,
as large as the P'oyang % m lake at high-water season, but
less exposed to the same great variations of volume. Some ten
islands, three of which are inhabited, and several islets dot its
waters. Small steamboats can ply on parts of it. It is infested
with pirates. Fish abound in it, and numerous fishermen draw
therefrom their livelihood. In Winter, it pours its waters into
the Grand Canal, while in Summer its current varies according
to the rainfall of the surrounding country. When the rain is
heavy, its overflow runs off into the Grand Canal, but should
the season be dry, the Yangtze % ^ fL sends down to it the
excess of its waters.
In the y. : the Hungteeh ^ H UOse, which is almost as
large as the T'ai-hu. Its waters lie partly in Nganhwei jgf %
and partly in Kiangsu {l jK* Heavy-laden junks can cross it
in its entire length, and navigation is very brisk on its waters.
The Hwai'ho {|| fjf runs into it on the W. The country which
lies to the E. of it being very low, a stone causeway has been
raised to protect it. The lake teems with fish. Channels con-
I nect it on the N.E. with the Qramd Canals and on the S.E.
I with the JFiTooifiu ^ % iake, which is situated to the W. of the
I Grand Canal.
To the E. of the Kaoyiu ^ % lake and of the Orand
Canal, is found the JMeung ^ HE kOce.
Wmmm mad Flora. — In regard to the fauua and flora of Kiangsu, the i
observations are to be made as (or the Province of Nganhwei. The Northern regjon,
around Siirhow especially, is in nowise different from that of the N. of China. It is
even less rich and has but sparse clumps of bamboos, while the willow, poplar and
a fuw acacias arc the only trues that afford a little vurduru to this impoverished tract.
The mulberry is scarce, and ibe ocmaftlj hM neither rice uor the tea-pUot. Then are
GHAPTBR IV. KIANGSU. 157
a few frnit-trees, and the fruit is excellent, especially the peaches. The Central region
is not much superior to the Northern, but its canals and lakes teem with fish, and the
cotton which grows there is of excellent quality. The Southern region is the most
favoured, cotton, rioe and the mulberry constituting with the ordinary cereals the
staple products. The bamboo thrives well, but the tea-plant is backward. The hills
are completely denuded. In the Yangtze river, as well as in the canals and lakes, a
great variety of fish is found.
On account of its general configuration, the absence of forests and the universal
density of the population, this Province is one of those which has the least number of
wild animals.
Asrlenltniml Wealtli. — In the Narihem pari, the poppy
18 extensively cuUivated, and the cereals found there are those
of the Northern region. In the eetUre, cotton is the staple
crop, while rice and the other cereals of the N. are also grown.
The enterprising population of Haim^n fj^ p^, accustomed to
make the best of their marshes, are constantly reclaiming new
lands from the sea. In the Southern part, rice, cotton, silk
and vegetables, form with the ordinary cereals an abundant
source of wealth. Owing to the fertility of the soil and the
warmth of the climate, as much as 3 crops are produced an-
nually.
Around Nanking ||| }{(, and in the Northern part of the
Province, donkeys abound; elsewhere the services of the water-
lUilTalo and of the zebu or humped ox are availed of. Horses
and mules are less rarely found.
M tneiml Weallli. — The mineral wealth of Kiangsu {I H
is not considerable, and so far has been little worked. In the
N., are found coal and iron. In the 8., marble was formerly
quarried near Nanking, and even at the present day some lime-
kilns still exist. In the Central and Southern parts of the Pro-
vince, the extraction of salt is actively carried on along the
seacoast.
PopalatiOD. — The population is very dense throughout the whole of this
Province, especially in the Haim{'n promontory, Oh*ungming Island jft W (locally
pronounced Z*ungming) and around Shanghai. The Island of Ch*ungming alone has
more than one million of inhabitants, or about 500 to the square mile.
The inhabitants of Slichow Fu, in the extreme N., differ vastly both in general
characteristics and in manners from the rest of the Province. The latter are of
gentle disposition, polite, scholarly, and slightly effeminate; the former are rude,
158 SICTION U. TBI CBNTRAL MIOION.
f«turdy and turbnleut. Many of theM.- NorthernerR havo a rather prominent
soTtietinu's even aquiline, while the clieck-hones do not protrude, and the eyes are not
Hhnond-shap<:d, all Avliich eharacteristicK dibtinguish them from the popnlation of
Shanf^hai. The inhabitants of Haimi'ii are also more robust than those to the S. of
the river.
Language. — Two lan^ai;es are used in this Province. In the \V. and N. the
.\//fN(7<fiiii dialect is spok«-n. In th«^ Haiiuen promontory, the Island of Ch'nngmin^,
uimI aloiif,' the S. of the Yanprtze aR far an Chenkianp, the Situgkiang or Shanghai
diaUt't is spoken. Great variations however prevail even in these two langnages.
Cities and Principal Centres.
NANKING ^ Tic (Southern Capital) or KUmgwk^ 1%
fLM M— Population, 300,000 to 400,000 inhabitants. The
city is built on the Southern bank of the Yangtze f^ ^ ^L, and
at a short distance from its waters. It was formerlyjhe Capital
.pf the Empire under the first Emperors of Ihe Ming Jg^jlynaBty.
The tombs of these monarchs are still seen in the vicinity
of the walls. Those walls have a circumference of 24 miles,
thus making the city larger than Peking :||* ^, the Northern
Capital. It is however inhabited only in the Southern and
Western parts. Like the Northern Capital, it has its Tartar
City, occupied by about 4,000 Manchus, and also its Red or
Forbidden City. In 1853, it was taken by the T'aip'ing ^ 2p
rebels, who withstood there a 10 years* siege before it was
retaken by the Imperialists in 1864. For long years afterwards,
the city was but a heap of ruins, from which it rises but slowly.
The Viceroy of the Liang-kiang ||| tC or two Kiangs, resides
there, as well as the Tartar GeneraMn-chief. It has a
military academy. Trade is very backward. The principal
industry is the manufacture of satin and velvet ribbons. The
exports are: silk piece-goods, unmounted fans, raw cotton,
hemp, hides, feathers, groundnuts, medicines and sesamum.
The imports comprise copper (for minting), machinery, cotton
and woollen goods, flour^ umbrellas and opium. HwUHmmm
f gU is the port of Nanking. Steamers stop there, and the
Custom-house imparts a little activity to the place. The total
net value of trade for the year 1905, reached to only Tls,
10,578,545, or one-third that of Wuhugf fj ||[.
CHAPTBR IV. KIANGSU. 159
800CH0W 1^17 H W ^* — Population, 500,000 inhabi-
tants. A vast and populous city renowned for the beauty of its
site and its canals, which have won fot it the title of ** Venice
of the Bast*** The Chinese have a proverb : *^ Heaven ttbove,
and helmo Sooehaw and Hangchow**. It is, 60 miles W^^mL^
Shanghaij^jautb which it is connected by rail, and 40 miles S.
of the Yangtze. It is built in the form of a rectangle, being 5
rnlTes long by 2 1/2 to 3 in breadth. Former Capital of the Wu
^ Kingdom, overthrown A. D. 473, it is at the present the home
of scholars and expectant mandarins, but perhaps it is better
known for ita^ilk-looms (7,000) . brocaded satins and gauzes, which
are in great demand throughout the cities of the Empire. It has
besides, some cotton mills, and carries on an important trade
in rice. Originally it was on the banks of the T'ai-hu ^ ^
or Great lake, but the lake having receded, it is to-day 12 miles
distant from its banks. The Grand Canal passes through it,
and thus affords it all the advantages of easy communications.
At the close of the Chino-Japanese war, 1896, it was opened to
Foreign trade. The Settlements (Japanese and General-Foreign),
are located to the 8. facing the Grand Canal.
To the N. W. of Soochotv :
Wusih listen M % ^. — Population, 200,000 inhabitants.
This city is growing every day more important, both as the
general mart for the country round about, and also as a^centre
for the rearing of silkworms. It has supplanted Soochow, as
a aepoi ana transit piace for goods coming from the W. and
destined for the Shanghai Jt % market. Between these 2
cities, all exchanges are now carried on directly by rail.
To the 8. IL of Sooehow :
Sungkiang ^u jj^f^fff. — Population, 50,000 inhabitants.
Situated about 25 miles S. W. of Shanghai, it is renowned for
its square pagoda and the grave of General Ward (an Ameri-
can who fought against the T'aip'ings,and died in the year 1862).
The HUis, the principal of which are Funghwang-shan gL ^ lU
(hill of the rising phoenix), £^kaoh0iang'ahan JK # ll] (hill
160 SECTION II. THB CBNTEAL KMION.
for burning incense) and Sh^^shmn ^ ||| (locally pronounced
Zdsai), are but a few miles distant, and form an agreeable plea*
sure-resort for Shanghai residents.
At the fuHciUn mf the Grtma Ckmta wiih the Ttmi^t»e :
ChhUeUmg ^^ Mi tL Jfi- — Population, 168,000 inhabi-
tants. A prosperous treaty port and commercial centre, which
owes its importance to its position at the junction of the Grand
Canal with the Yangtze |§ ^ 2C river. It is about 40 miles
from the capital of the Province, ancMbO miles from Shanghai^
The Chinese suburb (between the EngililT Concession and the
city) has been recently lighted by electricity. It has silk fila-
tures, an albumen factory and a flour-mill. It exports : rice,
cattle, groundnuts, beans and peas; and imports : coal, sugar
(in large quantity), petroleum, cotton goods, metals and glass.
The total trade of the port has been in 1903, Hk. TIs. 34,439,
707; in 1904, TIs. 32,323,204; and in 1905, TIs. 33,344,208.
0» the Hwangp^oo H ^ river :
Shanghai ±ill|i|. — Population of native city, 300,000; of
the Settlements, 540,000 inhabitants. The number of Foreign re-
sidents is about 13,000. Situated on the left bank of the Hwang-
p*oo, and 12 miles from the Yangtze, it is the largest port, the
most important trading mart, and in fact the Commercial Cupital
of China. The city is continually extending in both directions
along the river, and has even passed to the opposite side. It
comprises several parts, which, commencing on the S., lie in the
following order : Tungkadoo 1[ j|t H, the Chinese dig still sur-
rounded with its walls and moat, the n^eneh Ctmeeeai^m and the
JniemoHanaiSettlemeni, "Within which is comprised Hongkewjkt
D (Hungk*ow),the so-called American Settlement. The ]SurmpemH
City monopolizes the tea, silk and cotton trade of N. China.
Incessant activity reigns on the wharves which border the river.
In the long streets running far inwards from the river, the same
animation may be observed. Up to comparatively recent time,
there have been but docks and ''godowns*' (from the Malay
gO'dong, a warehouse for the storing of goods) on the right bank;
CHAPTKa IV. KIaMBU.
tei
11
162 SECTION II. THK CSNTRAL MIOION.
of late however, industry has been started there and this attracted
a large number of hands. If the work continues, in a few years
hence, the quarter will be as populous as on the opposite aide.
Commercial activity is exclusively confined to the city on the left
bank. Here are found the consulates, city halls, banks, hotels,
the custom house, markets, churches, hospitals, schools, mills,
factories, warehouses and splendid shops. The streets are
crowded with carriages, jinricshas and native wheel-barrows.
The motorcar has been recently introduced, and an electric
tramway line will be completed this year. The city has also its
public garden, its racecourse, clubs, theatre, library, museum, its
foreign and native newspapers. The weather forecasts are due to
the 8lcawel ^ 4t S (Siikiahwei) Observatory. Shanghai is in
daily communication with the principal cities of China. Steamers
ply continually between the port and Japan, Manchuria, Korea,
Southern Asia, Europe and America. It is the great importing
and distributing centre of the whole Yangtze^ ^ {][ valley, and
even to a large extent of Northern China. The total trade of the
port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 118,812,899; in 1904, Tls.
145,480,170, and in 1905, Tls. 176,979,193 [£ 26,550,600
sterling). (For other details : Woosung bar, shipping and tonnage,
inland navigation, see Section IV. The Coasts. Shanghai).
Jh yarthem Kiimgeu^ near the tnmOh of the Tamgime t
T'umg Ch&w ji jH|. — 100 miles below Chtokiang. The
place has recently made great industrial prdgfessT It has cotton
and silk-spinning and weaving factories, a mill for extracting
oil from cotton-seed, a dyeing factory for cotton and silk fabrics,
a canning factory for meat and fish, a printing establishment
for books and maps, a soap factory, and will soon have a dock-
yard for building and repairing small steamers.
I^riher JV:, td&tig the Gratut CatuU :
n'imgkiatHn^oo ffj f£ ^. — Population, from 50,000 to
80,000 inhabitants. Formerly the Director-General of the Grain'
Transport resided there, but now the General-in-chief of North
Kiangsu fL 4; i^Kiangpeh) takes his place. Ts'ingho hsien Hjif ||,
CHAvna nr. kiakasv. 163
the walled city, is almost deserted, all activity extending along
the Grand Canal, where a brisk commerce is carried on. The
first locks are about a mile from the city, so part of the boats
stop at this port, whence goods are conveyed by waggons to
Northern Kiangsu, Honan and Chihli. Small steamers ply daily
between the place and Ch^nkiang iK {£ jj^*
Tangehaw JPW ^^jj|^. — Population, 100,000 inhabitants.
A^^jnnnfl niri city, former-^apitri of tfar^fang Kingdom, and the
residence of numerous scholars. It is 20miles N. pf Cl^^nk'«>"g
Long rows of junks travelling on the Grand Canal impart to the
place a certain amount of animation. It is however neither an
important industrial or commercial centre.
Hwalnffan JPk& f^ ^ J^- — Chiefly important as a salt-
manufacturing centre. The salt is evaporated from sea-water
and is a government monopoly.
SUelUHv JP^ ^ ji{ Jl^. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants.
This is another ancient city, deriving celebrity from its being
built on a beautiful site, and qn the former banks of the Hwang-
ho^^J^. When the river changed its course, it left behind
only a bed of sand, and so this city is now one of the poorest
Prefectures of North Kiangsu f£ ^fc (Kiangpeh), hence the local
proverb: ^ Vegetables and gold hairpins are scarcer than meat
in Fokien" (Fokien being largely a fish-eating Province).
InduBiry and €)ommeree. — The principal industrial
centres are confined to the following cities : Shanghai Ji ftf,
Soochow 1^ ^, Ch^nkiang ^ i£ and Nanking j^ ;^. Manu-
factures consist chiefly of satins, reeled silk, cotton-yam,
nankeens, oils and household furniture. The general commerce
of the Province differs but little from that of Shanghai, through
which, as well as through the Grand Canal, most business is
carried on.
mgiiinus of €)ominnnleation. — Nearly all communi-
cations are carried on by waterways : the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^
tC, the Hwangp^oo H ^ river, the Grand Canal, lakes and
several canalized streams, and so the land routes or rather
pathways are little kept in good repair, The only ro»d deeervinj;
164 8ICT10M It. THB cimtra'l kfieiON.
mention, is that which coming from Nganhwei ft #(« leads
to Shantung |Ij ]K, vi& Siichow Fu 1^ jll{ )ff.
In the extreme N., near Suchow Fn ^ jHH Hf, there are
no canals, and so carts are employed, but the tracks they foliow'
are scarcely existent. In the E. of this region, faravnnB of fiamris
are sometimes met with, winding their way along the Grand
Canal, as far as Hwaingan Fu f^ ^ Jff. Further Southwards,
the camel is never seen; the ass, horse, mule and water-buffalo
being the only animals used for transport. (For railwatys^ mm
Section V. Oh. VI.).
Open PiMrta. — The Province of Kiangsu fL H has 5
ports open to Foreign trade : Sham^hai J:i|j||, Nmmkim^ Hfff^^
CMmkkmg H fil Kf , 8mchaw M ¥Mlf apd Woommtf ^ }«.
Ifeies. — l"" In former times, Kiangsu f£ H and Nganhwei
^ ^ constituted one Province, but were separated in 1667,
under the reign of the Emperor K^anghsi j^ |R. In the early
part of 1905, Kiangsu 2£ fjUL was divided into two: Southern
and Northern Kiangsu or Kianghwai XL fll, but this step having
proved unpopular, the division, after lasting aboCit 3 motiths,
was revoked. Since then, N. Kiangsu XL 4k (Kiangpeh) has
been administered by a General-in-chief who resides at Ts'lng-
kiangp^oo f| XL idf and fulfils the duties of the short-lived
Governor.
2^ The Grand Canal traverses this Province from N. to S.
It crosses the Yangtze river at ChSnkiang, 160 miles above
Shanghai.
^ 3* The Yangtze delta is steadily growing seawards, and
every year sees new lands reclaimed from the sea and cultivated
in polders. In the neighbourhood of Shanghai, the water-
courses are filling up, and the volume of the Hwangp^oo river
has now diminished by one-third. In the next century, the
place, already distant 45 miles from the sea, will be beyond
tidal influence and thus become relegated to the position of an
inland mart.
GHAFTIR IV. KUNG8U.
165
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>^\
Bavret. — La Province du Ngan-hoei.
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7
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hai, 1902.
f Gordier. ~ Origine de deux Etablisse-
raents Fran^ais : Chang-hai, Ning-po.
Paris, 1896.
Carte du Kiang-nan. (by the R. C. Mission
of Shanghai).
Topography of Kiangsu. (Chinese Reposi-
tory. Vol. XI. p. 210-222).
Williams.— The Middle Kingdom. (Vol.
I. p. 80-89).
Grazier. — General Description of China.
(Vol. I. p. 28-45).
Da Halde. — Description of the Empire
of China. (Vol. I. p. 73-76).
snr la Province de Kiang-sou. (Revue de
Geographic. 1902).
Desctemps. — Shanghai. (Tour du Mon-
de, 1905. p. 265-288).
Raques. — An Pays des Pagodes. Chang-
hai, 1901.
Tschepe A. — Histoire du Royaume de
Ou. Chang-hai, 1S96.
Gandar D. — Le Canal Imperial. Chang-
hai, 1908.
ftfission Lyonnaise. Lyon, 1898. (II* par-
tie. Conclusions : le mouvement com-
mercial du port de Chang-hai. — Dans
Tappendice : Torganisation commercialc
de Chang-hai).
LI fong-pao. ^ Carte du Kiang-sou (In.,
Chinese).
166
SECTION II. THB CBNTRAL RSeiON.
B. ~ Conchyliologie fluvUtile de U
Province dc Kiang-soa et de la Chine
centrale. Paris, 1880.
Heade. — Notes snr les Mollusques ter-
restres de U YalUe da Flenve Bleu.
Ghang-hai, 1882.
GntelafT. — China opened. (Vol. I. p. 71-
84).
pository. (Vol. XVin. p. 18-22).
Description of Shanghai. — Ch. Bepoaito-
ry. (Vol. XVI. p. 529-576).
Notices of Shanghai. — Ch. Bepository.
(Vol. XV. p. 465472).
Sdmldl O. — Extracts from the Hittoiy
of Shanghai. (N. C. B. B. A. Soo. 1873,
, p. 31-44).
Ptorkar K. R— Chinese Bevenue. Kiang-";; i^^lks ahout Shanghai. — Ch. Bepoeitoiy
#«T n t> -D A Oyw. IfiQi; wi 10«.19J«V ^r_i ^tr,w _ liMk Am ^^A KMUHMti
8U. (N. C. B. B. A. Soc. 1895. p. 128125)
Ufttte A. — The Far East. Oxford, 19(^.
(Kiangsn. p. 104-100).
^l\»rlimD. — Wanderings in China. Kiang-
sn. (Ch. Bepository. Vol. XVI. p. 569-^
576).
MIcMe A. — The Englishman in China
London, 1900. (Shanghai. Vol. I. Ch.
IX. p. 124-160).
[foiBMiB H. — The Peoples and Politics of
the Far East. London, 1895. (Outpctots
of Empire, Shanghai, p. 3-36).
jen^aii T. R. — China's Easiness Me-
thods and Policy. Shanghai, 1005. (Shang-
hai, p. 877-406).
' Pryer W. B. —Entomology of Shanghai.
(N. C. B. B. A. Soc. 1867. p. 74-79).
Decherreni M. — The Climate of Shang-
hai. (N. C. ». B. A. Soc. 1881. p. 281-
246).
de Bloidrey J. — Notes on the Climate of
Shanghai. (Oriental Press. Shanghai,
1901).
Hampden da Boae. — Beaatifal Soo.
Shanghai, 1899.
Gandrj R. S. — Excursiou to Nanking.
N. C. Herald Office, 1876.
Historical Sketch of .Shanghai. — Cli. Be-
(Vol. XVII. p. 468-477 and 5»W»6).
/Lang H. — Shanghai considered socially.
1875.
/OUirk J. D.— Shanghai hy Day and Night
Vol. I. (Shanghai Mercnry Office 1898).
Fink O.— The Sicawei OhMrvatoiy. (East
of AsU Magazine. Vol. L p. 350-877).
Trip to the Hills. — Ch. Bepository. (Vol.
XVIII. p. 181-186).
LitUe E. S. — The Saddle Islands. (E. of
Asia Magazine, 1905. p. 183-193).
Darwent O. E. — The Taiha. (E. of Asia
Magazine, 1902. p. 333-349).
China. Imp. Marit. Castoms. Decennial
Beports. Shanghai, 1904. (Trade of Nan-
king, 1892-1901. p. 405-488. — Trade of
Chetikiang, 1892-1901. p. 439-464.— Trade
of Shanghai, 1892-1901. p. 465-542. —
Trade of Soochow, 1896-1901. p. 543-557).
Blackham China Mission, 1896-07. (Trade
of Shanghai. Part I. p. 1-13. Part II. p.
1.14. _ Taxation in the Settlement of
Shanghai, p. 107-112.— Taxation at Ports
supplied by Shanghai, p. 112-124.— Trade
ofChenkiang. Part I. p. 14-18. Partll.
p. 15-20).
China, lletums of Trade,11905. (Shanghai
trade Bcport. p. 235-298).
^
SECTION III.
THE SOUTHERN REGION.
-K-3^
CHAPTER I.
THE SI-KIANG If ft VALLEY, AND THE COAST-
RIVEES OF FOKIEN AND CHt.KIANG.
Oliaraelerlsltes of tlils Beslon. — Compared -with the
regions -which -we have studied so far, this is rather diversified
and more difficult to describe distinctlij. We shall simply dv^ell
upon a few prominent features, leaving each • Province to be
studied more in detail,
1. The region is mountainous, the only exception being the
loM^-lying plain of Canton.
2. It is for the greater part a semi-tropical region.
3. It is a region -where the Chinese race is scantily repre*
sented.
4. It is a region where mineral -wealth abounds, and holds
as much importance as agricultural products,
5. /( IS a region where the Government of the country is
more difficult than anywhere else in China, because of the variety
of races, and the enmity which exists between them. Fokien
H Ife SLnd Chikiang fff f£ are however exceptions.
168 SECTION III. THB SOUTRBRN RBGIOK.
Provlneefii comprised In ililii Rcgton. — Proceeding
from W, to E., then from S. to N., we find Ihcm lo be the
following;: ^.j .; ^o j
Yunnan 1 Iff,) N\ ." ' , .>" ^ ^/'
Kweichow JJl ^/ ( "^
Kwangsi M JSSk,/ " ., ^.V'
Kwanglung M M^ ,v , "
Fokien ff jti
Ch6kiang m fL. ' /^" ^^
Of these Provinces, the three last border on the sea, and
arc the most populous and the richest ; the three first, extending
inland and of difficult access, afford neither the same resources
nor the facilities for subsistence.
All, except the two last, are watered by the Si-kiang "g"
f£\ Yunnan H ^ also by the Yangtze ^ ^ f£, the Red
river^ and the great rivers of Indo-China. Kweichow J| ^ too
is watered by the affluents of the Yangtze. Did these Provin-
ces and the races inhabiting them not enjoy a semi-tropical
climate, they should be comprised rather in the Central than in
the Southern Region.
Geological OonHtitntioii. — In Fokien H jj^ and Gh^-
kiang ^ f£, and also in the Kwangtung J( ^ region, porphyry,
granite, schist and sandstone are predominant. Elsewhere, lArge
tracts of limestone of the secondary period cover the primary
formation, which but rarely emerges veined here and there with
granite and porphyry. The limestone, curiously excavated and
furrowed, imparts to this region a peculiar and characteristie
aspect. There is no yellow land or loess, and few alluvial
deposits except in the Si-kiang "g" f£ delta.
Orosrapliy. — To the W. is a series of table-lands sloping
from W. to E. Along the sea-coast, a well-marked chain of
mountains establishes a definite limit between the tributaries of
the Yangtze ^ ^ fL and of the Si-kiang H it <>" *he one side,
and those of the coast-rivers on the other. In the N., is the
i^ai »-«Aai» Iff l||.pr IkmrUng ^ JH range.
CHAPTBR I. THE SI-KIAN& VAtLBY AND THB COA8T-R1VBRS. 169
GEOLOGICAL SKETCH-MAP
OF THB CHINESE PROVINCES B0RDBRIN6 ON TONGKING.
f^ From Af, A, LecUre,
Fjower Jurassic.
Triassic and
Upper Permiaii.
' Upper Carboniferona Shalo.
I Middle and Lower Terinian.
t Carboniferous.
Dcvouiau.
Silurian and
Cambrian.
Granite.
170 BSenON III. THB SOUTHERN RBGION.
CllBuUe. — The climate, semi-tropical in the low-lying
valleys and the low regions, becomes mild and liable to few
variations upon the high table-lands of Yunnan H ^. In general,
it is damper than in the two other regions, and the Summer
rains are more prominent there. However the variation is great
according to the altitude, and frequently even in the same Pro-
vince, as we shall see when describing Yiinnan.
Hydr^cnvliy. — A large number of rivers are found in
this region, but one only deserves a special study : the iSH-Motia
H it' ^^^ ^^ waters four Provinces of China. We shall study
the others when describing the Provinces which they traverse.
The Min^fckmg ^ f£ belongs so particularly to Fokien H j^,
that its description will naturally have its place there. The
T^Heni^ang-kUmg S^JfUtL belongs likewise to Ch^kiang ^ JQ,
and will be described there. All these rivers have this in
common, that as they traverse woodless tracts, where storms
and sudden rains are frequent, they have a torrential character,
and are rapidly swollen and quickly dried up.
The Birkiang Ji fH or Wmt river rises in the Eastern
part of the Yunnan table*Iand where it bends at first towards the
8., then takes a Northerly direction towards the frontiers of Kwei-
chow jtt W- So far, it is called Fahtah-ho ASM- '^
rext shirts the S. of Kweichow, separating that Province from
Kwangsi jH |f for a distance of nearly 160 miles; it afterwards
Hows towards the S. E., passing through the centre of Kwangsi
JdH and ofKwangtung Jd^. It is called i7ttng-«l^tfi It ;^ or Red
river till about 60 miles from the boundaries of Kwangsi. Hence-
forward, it is called the Sirkiatig fS it- ^ ViMe beyond Chao-
k'ing Fu 1|| Jl^ )|^, it splits into several streams, and traversing
an immense delta, flows through numerous mouths into the
South China Sea. The Northern river of this delta, which passes
through Canton, is called the Chu-Mang ^ f£y or JPeari river.
Its principal a^fl/uenU are
On the right :
The Tuh'kUnig ^ gC, which rises in Yiinnan || ^. It
follows at lirst a course nearly parallel to the Si-kiang Jg 2C,
GHAPTSR I. THI SI-KIANG VALLEY AND THB COA8T-RIVBR8. 171
"^ — rr
172 8ICTI0H III- THB SOUTHBRN AMIO^.
and receives a little beyond Nanning Fu iff ||J)^ the n^kknm
4 JQ, coming from Tongking J|[ ]j[.
OntheU/i:
I"* The LiU'Mana ^ f£, which comes from the E. of Kwei-
chow H ^, and joins it towards the middle of Kwangsi j|| ||.
.2"* The Kwei'Mang 4i jXi which comes from the N. E. of
Kwangsi Jf| |f , and flows into it near Wuchow Fu j|§ ^ j)|f .
3* The Behrhimng 4k Dl« coming from the S. of Ilunan
Hm ^, and joining it near the extremity of the delta.
4"* The Tung-hkmg % {Li which comes from the N. E. and
flows into the delta.
The volume of the Liu-kiang and of the Yuh-kiang is
superior to that of the Hung-shui, and so they are sometimes
taken, one or the other, as the main stream. For the sake of
clearness, we shall call Si-kiang, the river which begins at
the Pahtah-ho, and continues as the Hung-shui and the 8i-
kiang.It is the longest, and extends more to the W. Its total
length is about 1^250 miles.
Its eouTBe is very rapid till it reaches Siinchow Fu JH ^ Jff.
Its voiume is exceedingly variable; thus while during the iry
season it is only 7 feet deep, no sooner have the rains set in,
than it rises to 25 and even 30 feet. It runs hemmed in by long
narrow gorges, till it reaches the delta, and it seldoms widens
out. The tUU is^feflt to a distance of 185 miles from Its mouth.
In the flood-season, the Si-kiang "S j^ is navignhU for
steamers having a draught of 16 feet, but in ordinary circum-
stances, only ships whose draught is G ^/^ feet can navigate it up
to Wuchow Fu tg W Jl^. Beyond this place, the rapids prevent
navigation ; junks or small flat-bottomed boats may however
sail up to the S. of Hingi Fu H JJ ;jj, near the frontier of
Kweichow Jt jH|-
Among its affluents :
The Yuh-kiang % fl S^ navigable for steamers, up to Kwei
hsien jH H (in Sunchow Fu jf f\ Jff) ; for junks, up to Pohseh
or Pehseh T'in^j^^L J|| ; for small craft, up to Pakngai or
CHAPTER I. THB'Sf-KMNG YALLBY AND THB COAST-RIVBRS. 173
I^^Ai M I&* — '^^^ Tso-kiang £ 2)1, its tributary, is navigable
for junks, up to Lungchow T'ing f| ^ j|| ; and for small craft,
up to Caobang, in Tongking ]|t J§r.
The Liu-kiang ^^ 21 is navigable up to Sankioh H V> >"
Kweichow j|( ji\.
The Kwei-kiang ;|^ f£ is navigable up to the N. of Kweilin
Fu Jj^^fff, wliere a canal connects it in the flood-season with
the great river of Hunan jjJH ^.
The Peh-kiang 4l ill is navigable up to the N. of Shaochow
Fu « « ;».
The Tung-kiang ;^ jDC is navigable throughout the greater
part of its course.
References :
\|mbaaIt-Hiiart. — f<e Si-kiang on Flenve
de rOuest. 1898. (bibliographie abon-
dante).
NSc-bainaclier.-'Ber WestfluBs (Si-kiang)
and M'ino Wirtschaft liche Bedeotang.
18£8.
Leeldre. — Geographie ginirale dt-s Pro-
vinctf^s voiHines da Tonkin. (Geographic.
1900. Vol. L p. 267-288).
Leclftre. — Etnde Otologique et roiniire
drg Provinces voisines du Tonkin. Paris,
1902.
ll«ilr»lle. — Guides (Chine du Sad. —
Chine da Nord.— Indo-Chine) Paris, 1902
and 1904.
'^ — MailrOlle. — Sud de la Chine- Hongkong.
— Canton. — .Macao. — Le Si-kiang.
A. lAooay. — Atlas des Missions de la
Society dfs Missions-Etrangftres. Ltille.
( Yun-nan, Kooitcheou, Koang-si, Koang-
tong).
^ Coarse of tho Pearl River. (Chinese Repo-
sitory. Vol. XX. p. 105-110 and 11S-122|.
Tho West River or Si-kiang. — China Re-
view. Hongkong, 1874. (Vol. JII. p. 46-
49).
Kingtmill T. W. — A sketch of the geo-
logy of a portion of Kwangtiing.province.
(N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1865. p. 21-38).
WilllaniM.— The Middle Kingdom. New
York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 127128. The Chn-
kiang or Pearl River. — p. 129. The Si-
kUng delto).
Oolquhoun A. « Across Chrys^. London,
1883. From Canton to Mandalay.
O>lqalioiin A.— Exploration through the
S. China Borderlands, from the mouth
of the Si-kiang to the banks of the Ira-
waddy. (Proceedings of the Geogr. Soo.
1882).
OoIqobOQii A.— The Overland to China.
London, 1900. (Southwest China. Ch.
XVII. and XVIII. p. 369-418!.
China. Imperial Maritime Customs. Decen-
nial ReporU. 18921901. Shanghai, 1905
(Southern Ports. Vol. II.).
CHAPTER 11.
THE REGION OF THE UPPER
SI-KIANG
(YUNNAN S * AND KWEICHOW j| W).
Yfnman and KwHehmv are governed by the same Viceroy,
who bears the title of Viceroy of T4inkwei f| jH, and resides at
YUnnan Fu ^ Ij^ )ff.
These two Provinces have in eammon that they are both
situated on high table^lands, in the basins of the Yangtze ^ ^
f£ and of the Si-kiang fg tLi «^d ^^^^ ^^^ «*"« inhabited partly
by CMnese and partly by nUmt raeeB. Both hold relations with
Szechw'an Q Jl|. Both also partially enjoy a tropical climate.
They have but few navigable rivers^ and in both, communications
are difficult.
If Kweichow 'f^j^ may be styled a sea of numniain^, Yiknnan
^ ^ exhibits the aspect of an imtnetise staircase in the N.E.,
while in the W. and S., it is a vast field fiirrawed wiih l&ng
and deep ravines.
These two Provinces abound in opiufn and minerals^
Kweichow jH j^ however has neither the altitude nor the
varieties of climate and race peculiar to YiXnnan ^ ||f. Neither
has it its lakes, nor its long and deep gorges^ nor its relations
with Burma and Tonghing )K tR. On the other hand, it enjoys
better communications with the rest of China, either through
Szechw'an |S J|| or Hunan ^ '^, or through Kwangsi J( Jg,
and it is not so isolated as YiXnnan ^ ^, wedged in between
Tibet, Burma and Tongking -^ g{(.
Both Provinces have suffered from the Makmne^an rebeJHan
(1856-1872), but YUnnan ||^ the mof^ its population especially
having been considerably reduced, .
CHAPTBR II. YUNNXN. 17S
V. Yunnan M ^
Area. — 146,718 square miles. It is next to Szechw^an 19
J|| the largest Province of China.
Popiilaiioii. — 12,721,500 inhabitants, or 86 to the square
mile. Arter Kiangsi tL^ ^"^ Kansu '^^^ it is the least popu-
lous Province of China.
IVame. — Yunnan |g fj^ signifies **clmidy 8&uth^\ If its
low-lying tract of the North, which is first encountered when
coming from Szechw'an Q j||, is almost continually covered
with clouds and fogs, the air breathed by the inhabitants of its
high table-lands is however very pure.
Bonndarles : — Yunnan is bounded on the
N. — By Szechw*an Q j||,
W. — By Tibet or Sitsang "g ^^ and Burma or
Mientlen ^ ^,
8. — By Burma and Tongking y^ jjc,
E. — By Kiangfli fc |S and Kweichow J| jH|-
Capital. — TCNNAN ruif ^ J^, often called Yunnan
Seng, is situated a little towards the N.E., in the region of the
tablelands.
CHlier Prefisetiires. — These are 13, and are situated as
follows, in the order of distance from the Capital :
TO the N.BLt
2» Timgchw*an Pu He Jll W,
3» ChaotSmg Fa « li ff.
ToiheAJR:
io Ch'togkiang ¥u9iiLJ(f,
Sf Kwangnan Fa H Dlff,
6' K'aihwa Fa R) ft «P.
To the 8.:
70 Linngran Fu K SKIf .
17G
SBCTiON III. TBI sourauw. auiON.
MQQQt^
•nj ui[iajiiX
MOQUtC
^
^
•%} tm'at
•%} flO£*l
•*H«'i mi
'%} wr/f
'%l OOO'o
8»Fii«alFa*m«.
9» ChHiMug Fa S « MP.
ir ShiuudngFaHVURP,
11° Tugch'ang Fa j)c 8 ff .
To the If. W* :
12-TaUFa*a»,
ia» Lildang Fa ■ & JRP.
There are besides in Yiinnan ^ ^ Mree tft*4l«^i
Chmo jH| duet .- JSTiMMifvi CMm; JR Bf M> IFuMiflr f?lii»«i
M, T^mUtkmg Chaw fie {C M; ^nd /Tre independent T*in0i
Kin0§mng TUng f[^ ]|t jg» JttwJbtra 2^lft0r ^ ft Jg, Wungpeh
^1"*^^ 7k 4b JM» CJMiyifeM THfi0r ||;^j|| and Chtnptenfui THn^f
m fm vlk W m-
Aspeel ftBd dMMMlerUitloik — Three dffflnreni regUme
may be distinguished in Yiinnan H ]ff : The /Irei, to the N, E.,
near the Yangtze-kiang fH ^ ft- This tract is low, damp and
unhealthy, interspersed with peaks, gorges and torrents, and is
scarcely inhabited.
.j:^ The second, to the E., has large and verdant plains, now
encircled with boundless horizons, now studded with mounds
and hills, but everywhere abounding in marshes, lakes and rivers.
Its sky is pure, the temperature mild iknd pteeeanty while the
population is concentrated in the valleys and near the lakes.
The thitrdp to the W. and N.W. This is a series of high
but narrow mountatn-ridgfcs, separated by deep gorges, at the
bottom of which the air is heavy and suffocating. The popU"
lation is for the most part savage, and the country difficult of
access, on account of the hostility of the natives and of the lack of
communications .
^••lostcal e^Bfttliailon. *- Strata of the secondary period still cover a large
portion of this Province, leaving however exposed vast tracts of primary formation,
while here and there eruptive rocks (granite, greenstone and porphyry) are apparent.
•^Traces are found of volcanic eruptions, which must have been formerly considerable.
Limestone, wonderfully folded and broken up, predominates. Sheets of rain-water
have wholly or partly filled up the numerous lake-basins of this region. They are the
only traces of recent alluvial formation.
12
178 SBCnON III. THB SOUraSRN BBGION.
r* — Throughout the Eastern part, ar« found
vast table-lands varying in elevation from G,500 to 9,800 feet,
and sloping gradually towards the E. Rocky peaks soar into
the air, covered with fir-trees in the limestone regions, with
splendid forests in those of schist formation, but denuded
and barren in marly districts. To the W. are high ridges,
separated by deep gorges, in which run foaming torrents, white
many passes attain an altitude of 11,000 feet.
iMwer rVniMm f| 'ff^^ towards the N.E., is one great
mountainous mass, rising peak after peak, and exceeding
sometimes an altitude of 6,500 feet.
All these mountains are the prolongation towards the S.E.
of the Tibetan buttress, which expands in the table-lands, and
divides to the W. into chains like the fingers of the hand, while
its spurs extend into the S. of Tongking. "'
Olinyite. ~ lu Lower Yiiuoau there are contiuual fogs, and ntio faUs every day.
At the iMjttom of the valleyR, the eliinate i'h tropical, 8u£Focating and inBalabriooB.
On the high tablelands, the sky is pare, and the temperature mild and agreeable.
If the thermometer goes up to 82**, it seldom falls below 32** or at most 25** Fahrenheit.
The dry season extends from the end of September to the middle of May ; the wind
then blows from the 8. W., increasing after sunrise and decreasing at sonaet. The rainy
season is from the middle of May to the end of September; the dampness however is
not excessive.
At the bottom of the long and deep valleys of the S. and W., the olimite is damp,
scorching and insalubriouH.
Hydrocraplajr. — Several large rivers water Yunnan ^
^. The most of them run from N. W. to S. B. They are,
proceeding from N. to S.:
The YangUt/e-kiang # ^ jtC- The Yangtze makes a great
bend towards the N. and is called the KinMharkiUm9 ^^ XL
(golden sand river]. It receives on the left the Yalung-kiang
A ® 211 1 And constitutes during a long part of its course, the
boundary-line between Szechw*an |S )\\ and Yiinnan ^ ^. In
all this part, the river is but a torrent, hemmed in between
high mountains, which exceed at times 16,000 feet in elevation.
It may be crossed in some reaches, but is unsuitable for navi-
gation. It receives on the right numerous torrents, none
of which seem to be easily navigable. One of these, the
€HAFrBR II. YUNNAN. 179
MiOanr'ho 4^ ^M M) &^ords through its valley the brest road
for a railway-line from Yunnan ^ $ to Szechw'an |S Jl|-
The FeOUah-ho A j8 W ^^ Upper Si-kiang |f it, and
the yUr-kiang ^ f£ rise in the high tablelands of the E. The
first makes numerous bends and waters rich valleys, but neither
the one nor the other is fit for navigation in this part of their
course. ^
The Sungkai or Mung-ho )j£ }p[, called also the .Bed lUver,
is more important. It almost cuts in two the entire Province,
running through it from N. W. to S.E. It is navigable for boats up
to Manhao ^ ^, and for canoes up to Yuenkiang Chow ft iL
^, at certain times of the year. It is the great artery of
communication between Yunnan ^ f^ and Tongking ^ }j(,
and the new railway-line runs partly in its valley. Throughout
nearly the whole of Yunnan, it is but a torrent, running in
deep gorges and intersected with rapids. — A parallel direction
is followed by the Biack river, one of its tributaries on the S.W.
The Mekong or LanU^ang-'kiang JM tft itC Hows in the
same direction, but more to the W., and crosses Yunnan from
N. W. to S.E., intersecting it like an immense ditch. This
channel has a depth of 2,000 to 3,000 feet, while its banks are
at times covered with thick forests and at others denuded. The
river has an average width of 400 to 500 feet, and is very
deep. Its current is rather weak and occasionally obstructed
with violent rapids. Some boats venture to cross it, but none
can traffic on 4ts waters. Its temperature is very high, and the
air breathed on its banks sufTocating.
The Salween or iM'kiang ^ jtt has the same features as
the Mekong, but it is larger. It crosses the Western extremity
of Yiinnan. Two afTluents of the lraw€tdag irrigate also this
region.
Numerous lakes dot the neighbourhood of Yunnan Fu ^^
fff and Tali Fu :k M f^^ ^^^ *hey have not the same importance
as those of the Yangtze ^ ^p valley. Two deserve to be
mentioned :
The Tien-hu }K JUfl, situated to the S. of Yunnan Fu. It is
180 ntcTioir iii. tbb soranm mmmicm
crefcent-shaped, and lies at an elevation of 6,300 feet. Smalt
boata can sail on it, but not in the middle of the day, for the
wind is then too strong. It runs into the Yangtie-kiang f| ^
m through the F^uim km ^ B fl-
The tMkmi {K 4| 9akm, to the E. of Tall Fu. This ib also
crescent-shaped, but its altitude is a little higher, and reaches
about 6,500 feet above the sea-level. Pish abound in it, and
numerous fishing-boats are stationed on its waters. Its overflow
is drained off by a tributary of the MeAmm^.
These two lakes are from 35 to 40 miles long, and from 6
to 10 miles wide across the middle.
Fan— aad Wlmrm. — Yiinnan, owing to the divenity of its jnui^^ And climiil^,
hMM the richest faniiA and flon of China. Whilst the deep vmlleys of the W. and S.
ahoand in Inxuriant~vegelan?ni, and possess the wild animals, panthers especiaUy-, of
Indo-China and Burma, the high momitains display every variety of the NoctliMrn
regions, nntil all traces of vegetation disappear beneath everlaKting snows. The region
of Lover Y&nnan is the poorest and least favoured, except in the valleys hocdering on
the Yangtze river. Here grow trees : the caontchouc, csctns and fan-palms, all of
which are rarely found outside the tropics.
AgHealtima Wetfili. — In Jj&wtr TMrnmn ^ jff, maize
is chiefly cultivated, and also a littU wheat, barley, tea and
tobacco. Rice is an exceptional crop.
Om the high igifs ygwifs, rice and the poppy are principally
raised, also wheat, barley, oats and maize. Fruit and vegetables
abound. There are numerous buffaloes, goats and sheep, which
constitute an additional source of wealth for the eouotry. To
the S.W. is a kind of lea, particularly esteemed and called 1^-
Ml |[p {9 tea, although it is cultivated throughout the whole
region. The sugarcane grows in the neighbourhood of M^ngtze
hsien X g jRi, and the rearing of the silkworm is a fairly
remunerative industry.
MlDeiml Wemlili. — Minerals are abundant and consist
chiefly of eepper, argentiferous lead, zinc, tin and coal. Valuable
salt-mines are also found in several places throughout the
Province.
IH»palatlOii.~The population of Yiinnan is the most migcellaneouB and the moat
dispersed into small groups of all the Provinces of China. This is due to the aitnatioii
. CBAFm II. jVONNAN. 181
ap4 geologioAl .cpnotituiion of the cpnntry, where only the ancient Iftke-beds and valleys
are suitable for coltivation. It is upon the high table-lands that the population,
composed of Chinif$ei Lolos and Miaotze tri^s, is the most numerous. In the S. t^i
W'i seVeral' tribes occupy the country. They come from the Laos States, Burma, and
in the N.W., from Tibet^ Among the N.W. tribes^ the most important is that of the
Mu9us, who formerly occupied a kingdom extending over part of Eastern Tibet and of
actual Ylinnan. Further to the S. is tht; Tjarf trilrti
hmugumge. ~ The language of YUnnan varies with its races, and tribet. Xhe
if afi<2ann dialect is spoken by only a small number, and especially upon the high
table-lands, where a large number of immigrants from Szeohw^an have settled down.
T0WD8 Mid Prtaelpftl deatres. — tDnnan FtJ f| ||
fff. — Population, 45,000 inhabitants Formerly a very populous
city, but ruined ever since the Mahomedan rebellion. Commerce
is carried on in three or four large streets. Its suburbs exten'i^
fai* beyond the city. It owes its importance to its central posi-
tion, communicating with the highways of the Province. It is
situated to Ihe N. of a fertile and thickly inhabited plain.
Tali JFI4 ^ IB JHf. — Population, 6,U00 inhabitatit8.~^A city
formerly very populous, but ruined likewise by the rebellion
above mentioned, and by a plague (1872-1873), during which a
great number of its inhabitants perished. It trades chiefly with
Bhamo, and every year a great fair is held there^ The plain
which bounds it, is very fertile an4 hfts more than 100 villages
inhabited for the greater part by the M^nchUm,^BL tribe jwihose
capital was formerly Tali Fu. . . , ^.
TwHgehw'an rk$ J|[jl|;flp.— Population, 2ft,000 inhabitants.
A town lying iji the midst nf a vgry-jri«k-m»ntiiy-vt*gTAn Hs
almost only industry is carpet-weaving, but it holds a certain
importance as a place of passage.
dfcml'tMi^ 1^ U^i ji Jff* — Population, 35,000 inhabitants.
It is a commercial and administrative centre. Cattle-rearing,
but in small quantity, is carried on in the country around.
To the 8.B. :
Mimgme KHen K g JK- —Population, 12,000 inhabitants.
A great commercial centre. Its trade with Tongking ]|[^,
Canton and Hongkong, is largely in the hands of Szechw'an Q
jilf Canton and Kiangsi fJi |f people.
18? SECTION III. THE 80DTHBBM RiaiON.
Miinhao S j^. — This is but a mere hamlet. Its only
title to special notice is that it is the iemUnms of navigation on
the Red River, and a trading mart. It is situated at the
bottom of a gorge the sides of which reach 6,500 feet in
height. The climate is oppressive and malarious, and one cannot
remain long there without risk of sickness.
Suemao T*ing ^^ ^ M- — Population, 9,000 inhabitants.
A pretty little town in a fertile and well watered plain. Il is
the largest mart of Yunnan for the tea, opium and cotton trade.
To the N.'W:i "^ ' '
Ateniae. — A large village, situated at an elevation of 11,000
feet. It is the centre of trade with Tibet Chinese merchants
exchange woollen goods, skins, wax, honey and musk from Tibet
for blue piece-goods, tea and tabacco, from China. Near to this
are the three peaks of Dokeria, surrounded by a magnificent
circle of glaciers. The mountain attains nearly 19,700 feet in
height, and is considered os sacred by the Tibetans, who crowd
there to perform pilgrimages.
To the 8. W.:
Tengyueh T'ing ffil^ jg H or Jfom^in,— Population, 12,000
inhabitants. It borders on a fertile and populous region, and is
the centre of trade with Burma. Margary was murdered there
in 1875.
Indasiry and Commerce. — The extraction of ores,
tanning, the preparation of tea and opium, working copper,
iron and tin, occupy a large number of hands, though few
indeed if we consider the great riches of Yiinnan ^ ^, Trade
with Szechw'an H j||. Canton, Hongkong, Tongking, Tibet
and Burma consists principally of the following imports: cotton
yarn and cloth, petroleum, timber, matches and furs, while the
exports are : tin, hides^ tca^ Chinese medicines and opium.
Highways of Communication* — Numerous routes radiate
from Yunnan Fu ^ "^ )^, the Capital. Starting from the city,
the following deserve to be mentioned :
1' Thergj^ Kweiehow jt^, via K'uhtsing Fu jjjmtllf.
CBAPTBR 11. VCNNAK. 183
2<' l%e road to Sxeekm^€m (S j||, via Tungchw'an Fu ]|t
;i| J^ and Chaot«ung Fu iQ ji ;^.
3* The road to Burma, via Tali Fu :fc 31 /jff and Yung
ch'ang Fu ^ g Jff. — A road forks off at Tali, and leads to
Tibet, viii Ate'ntze.
4"* The rmad teadit§g io the Tamm eeuniryp via P'ueul Fu
5 W ^!f and Szeraao T'ing B ^ B*
5® The road to T^igMng j^ ^, via Mengtze hsien ^ g
m and Manhao H ^.
G* TAe road to Kwangot jKlf, via Kwangnan Fu JfCffifti^
The fieti; raUway Une, which will bring Yiinnan ^ f^ into
direct and rapid communication with Tongking ||[ ]j(, starts
from Laokai ^ ^ (Laokiai), follows the Namti valley, and has
its terminus at Yiinnan Fu |§|{i j|Sf, via Mengtze hsien fH g jRi,
and Ami Chow R £| M-
<Hl»eit Porto. — In Yiinnan, four cities are open to Foreign
trade : Mhtgtze heien Jt g jRi, in Linngan Fuf^^Jff, Ho-
t^ow 29 a 1 in K'aihwa ^^tHitJff' i^nuw THng JB> tI^ |l> in
P'ueul Fu ^ )9 Jl^, and TetHnn»€h l^tng )K j^ 0 or Momein
in Yungch'ang Fu ^fc S /Af* '^^^ treaties provide also for the
opening of Yungch'tmg FU :^ g /jj^.
Note. — Yiinnan § $ has long been tributary to the Chi-
nese Empire, but was^JBnally^jncpiyfirated to- ii- only, in the
Xyil"^ cf nl"*'y The Musulman rebellion, which lasted 16
years, was well nigh wresting it from its allegiance. This
revolt ended in 1872 by the taking of Tali Fu i^: M flf^ the
last stronghold held by the Musulmans.
184 SECTION lit. THB SOUmMM ■■SION.
2* Kweichow Jl fij.
• V
► — 67,182 square miles.
P^ulaU^n. — 7,650,000 inhabitants, or 114 per square
mile.
Ifaate. — Kweichow j|| ^ means **JVigctew li^»ef #r
JSfl^ion.'' The Province deserves this name on account of its
mineral wealth. History states that the conqueror Hnngm^u
^ f(, who organized the country under the Ming iffl Dynasty,
gave it this name through vexation, exasperated as he was by
the obstinacy of its inhabitants.
B«««dari«s« — Kweichow is bounded on the
N. — By Szechw'an B jH*
W.— By Yunnan # H,
S. — By Kwangsi JH H,
E. — By Hunan M ^.
CApitel. — KWEIIYANO JPXr Jip ;^, In the centre of
the Province.
Oilier Preftctnres. — Th€&e mre eieven in HMinMr.
To the y. of Kweiyan^ JFkt, a little towards the E. :
l°TiimiFu!l«*.
Toihe If. IT. «/ KweHnmg 1% ••
l^TatingFu*a*.
T6 the S. W. ^f Kweliifm^ JPu :
3» Kganshim Fa ft M JtP,
4»HnngiFaf|«MP.
To the 8. RofKwei^aiM^ JPW;
5" Tuyun Fu « ^ »,
a^Iap'ingFulg^Jll.
TothmN. a.ef Kweiiftmg Af :
B^SiechowFae^jRp,
9bSliihttienFa:i?|Ef MP,
lO^rimgjtoFulllt*.
ll^'SsenanFaSMAP.
OHAFRR II. ! KWIICHOW. 14S
There are besides in Kweichow m%€ Ukiei^ma&ni Ck^m
jM : FHmyUA ChmP ^ M ^ ; and three independet9i T^ws
jg : Summfam TUmg tR 4Ni A ^^mgam, THnw # 4tf jg and J^n-
Mmj^m^ Mkl CiMuriMtorifliiw. — This Province has the
eppear&nce of a mmmmiaim^^m eem, as already stated above (p. 174).
Seven^enths of it are mountainous, says the Chinese proverb. These
mountains, though rising from a table-land, are hovfever leM
elevated than those of YUnnan 9 it* »rid the climate is moister
and more unhealthy. On account of this marked mountainous
structure, K'weichovf Jt ^ is probably with Kansu •g' ff, the
Province in which the means of communications are the most
difficult, Kweichow f^ fH is inhabitated for the greater part, per-
haps its three^fourlhs, by an alien population. The same variety
of races however is not found there as in YUnnan ^]lff. Its mtn-
era/« would afford it an abundant source of wealth, were they
properly worked, but Jhey are too much neglected. Its soil
produces scarcely anything except opium and timber. As this
Province is one of the most picturesque in China^ it is on the
other hand, one of the most wretched, owing to its unproductive
soil.
GeolO^ieal coasiiiuUOii. — Kweichow is a vast table-land of primary forma-
tion covered over with layers of the secondary period* more or less folded and disclosing
occasionally to view the primary strata. Limest<me is the predominant rock. Here
and there, it underlies alluvial basins of recent fonnatioD, or Is veined by seams of
porph3rr>' and granite. SchiMt and red sandstone are also frequently encountered.
QwQgrmpUy. — Kweichow jH jH| is a large table«land
covered with mountain masses and peaks, which assume the
characteristic shape of 9Ugar-loaves. The South- Western part
is the highest, even the valleys lie at an elevation of from 5,000
to 6,500 feet, while the summits rise to 8,000 or 9,000 feet.
This table-land has a great number 6f basin-shaped depressions,
and is intersected by rivers, which run in narrow and deep chan-
nels. Towards the 8., the table-land descends abruptly, and it
is through a series of steps that a passage is effected from one
valley to another. The table-land itself, or rather the moun-
tainous group, has a mean altitude of about 4,200 feet («m p. 176).
1^6 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN RBftlON.
OliMUile. — Moisture uid dense fogs prevail throa|;hoat the wbole Proviuoe of
Kweichow, bnt particniarly in the deep valleys of the S. Here, out otS Winter montlis
(from October to February-). ftcarr<ly more than 25 days of fine westlier ean be found.
The climate is also ver>' changeable. This is due to the pecnliar configoration of the
Province, and to the fact of its being wedged iu between Yiinnan and'Kwangttmic. Ill
Summer, the thermometer rarely reaches 86* Fahr. upon the table-land, while in
Winter, it falls to 18" or U* Fahrenheit.
Hjdbra^i'apliy. — The waters of Kwelchow j|| jl\ flow
partly into the Yangi»e ft ^ JCi partly into the iSK-Mmr Ig f£,
which shirts the Province to the S., and bears the name of JAiti^-
^f^^fUL * or Red river.
The following rivers discharge their waters Into the FoNir-
toe ft 7 tt river.
On the N» : the Wtt^kiang $lf j^, Ihe principal river of
Kweichow jft ^, which traverses the Province in a 8.W. — N.E,
direction, then bends to the N., at Szenan Fu JgL ^ J|^. The Wu-
kiang ^ f£ flows through deep and narrow gorges aJt a depth of
2,300 feet, and becomes navigable from Szenan Fu JgL Iff J|^
in the flood-season. It flows into the Yangtze, near Feu Chow
\^ ^, in Szechw'an iS jl|.
On the y* Els the H^h^kianff {^ j^.. It is navigable up to
Tap'ingtu ;fc 2p gf , not far from J^nhwai T*ing fl fl| J(, This
river forms in the upper part of its course the boundary limit
between 8zechw*an Q )\\ and Kweichow JJ j|f|.
On the JSi .• the Tuen-kiathg iTCtL- This is the great water-
way through the Eastern part of the Province. The river Is
navigable for small junks up to Gh^nyuen Fu j|| jg|| Jff. Ligh-
ter craft may however go further up when the water rises, but
rapids are numerous. It empties itself into the Tungt4ng f| fj^
lake, in Hunan jJH) J/^.
The ogjlifente of the Slrkkung f| XL are :
Ofi the 8. W.: the Hwarkian^ (fc iL^ which with its
tributaries, carves through the table-land, narrow and deep chan-
nels. It is navigable from Pehtseng j^ /| for small boats.
On the S. B. : the LMmhkmg ijgf ^, navigable from
Sankioh H IVt where it attains 380 feet in breadth. Soon
aaerwarda, it is contraotedf «A, flows between narrow and
CHAPTBR II. KWEICHOW. 187
steep banks. It joins the Si-kiang ff fL towards the centre of
Kwangsi J[ W-
The Si'Mang ||| jr£, scarcely navigable in this part of its
course, flows ))etween high hills of sandstone, and is obstructed
with rapids and rocks.
Fauna and Flora. — The fanna of Kweichow bears a close resemblance' to that
of Kwangsi M 9 (^^^ Kwangsi : fauna and flora), and varies much with the altitude.
In the low and deep-lying valleys, it is tropical, as evidenced by the palm, orange and
banana-trees which grow there. It is also much varied throughout the rest of the
country, rice and sugar-caije being cultivated in places. The varnish-tree (rhus
vemicifera) grows especially in Kweichow, as well as the tallow (stillingia sebifera),
gum-lac, wood-oU (aleurites cordata), vegetable wax (fraxinus chinensis) and camphor-
trees. The oak and fir are the species the most widely diffused. Among the wUd
animals, suffice it to mention the tiger, panther, bear, wild-boar, wolf, fox and monkey.
Ai^enltural Wealth. — In regard to agricultural wealth,
this Province produces principally the opium-poppy, varnish,
oil, wild silk and timber. The North-Eastern part is relatively
well wooded, as also the South-Eastern portion. In this same
South-Eastern region, excellent tobacco is grown in the neigh-
bourhood of Lipo hsien ^ i$ j||.
The other agricultural products are : wheat, maize, beans,
hemp, buckwheat, rape, barley, indigo, tea, cotton and gall-
nuts. A special breed of ponies is also reared.
As to fruit trees, Kweichow jj ^ possesses the peach,
apricot, plum, cherry, orange and arbutus. Strawberries are
raised in a few parts of the Province.
m
Mineral Wealiii. — Besides qtUehMver^ (which is found
principally at Pehmatung 6 H jg, to the N. of Kweiyang Fu
:S: l§ ^1 i^ the N.E. near Wuchw'an hsien fg jl|||,and in the
8.W. near Hsingi Fu H H /j^); iron, coal, copper, zinc and
argentiferous lead abound throughout the Province. Sulphur
and nitre are very common, and fine marble quarries are also
worked. As there is no salt in the Province, it is imported by
the Northern rivers from Szechw^an IB j||.
Kweichow ^ jHI has also mineral waters, and those of
Sbihts'ien V\x ^ ^ Jff are visited by thousands of bathers.
488 SRCTIOH IW. THE SOUTHBillf HBGION.
• iMp«l«llM. — The N:E. and N.W; of Kwekhow are thinly pppqlftodiM
the reit of the country is even more bo, eepecially the E. and centre. The popol^tto^
is composed of v^ry hetero^neons elementv^The Chinese form but a fourth of this
population, and occupy especially the N. and E! and also the towns thMtagbont the
rest of the Province. Th.ey are acttye and engage^ in trading. Among thepi ||i a luge
number of immigrants from Szechw'an and Hopeh^ v* . i »
The lest of the country is inhabited by tkeaboriginal Miaofee S ^ tribes, tbe
Ikia$%tL (barbarian race) or Chungkiat ifi X (old Chinese race) and the lioidi
K K* The IkiaB are principally confined to the low-lying valleys of tl^a S.W. ; the
Miaotte occupy the W., the centre, and S. E.; and the Iro/os the S.W. (see section V.
eh. n. Population).
The MiaoiM^y having taken advantage of the Mahomedan rebellion in Yfinoan,
rose up against the Cliipese, but were massacred in large numbers by the Imperial
troops, and this considerably diminished the population of the country. They are even
at present largely kept under military rulej especially in the S.B. The insurrection
which they started, lasted from 1860-1869. — The Miaotze are divided into a great
many tribes, numbering it is said, more than 50. They are often called from the
colour of their dress : Peh-miao A ft (white Miaoa), Heh-ndao JK S (black Bfiaos),
and HitOr-miao !p "H (flowery or civilised Miaoa).
The Chungkiaa are the descendants of former soldiers, who settled doini.in the
oountr}' in the X*^ century A.D., when Kweichow was subdued by China. They are
nearly all of high stature and form a sturdy race. Their complexion is darker than ifaal
of the Miaotse. Various -naines have been given to them : T$^ng Chumgkui H 4l jK
(biue-gowns), Tvjen ± X (anns of the tpil), or what they like better Xao JPSnkia
^ 4^ St (the old stock). They style themselves Pudioi or Pu^iei. Like the Miaotse,
they ^ear the queue and Chinese jacket, but discard the long gown. The femalM wear
a dress differejit from that of the Chinese women.
The Chinese themselves are divided into o?cf and modem Chineae, The old
Chinese are sub-divided into many tribes whose customs are similar with one another.
The modem Chinese are of recent immigration and came from KwangBi,H«kwang
(to-day Hupeh and Hunan) and especially from Sxechw'au.
The Miaotze uA Chungkiatze are, generally speaking, suspicious of strangers,
addicted to lying and drunkness, but are good workmen. They live also at ^rariance
with one another, but there is still more antipathy between the Chinese and the Miao-
tze. Tfiose latter have a special administrative oiganization.
hm^nM^e. — Each of the noM-Chinete mee$ speaks its own dialect,- which
varies much according to the tribe. The Chinese speak Mmnidrin, The OkmrngHaiu
speak a dialect resembling that of Siam (Shans), but it Is net fixed by aagr written
characters.
T»w«8 Mkl Prtaelpia Cmirak — KWMirAIfa BV J|
|§ jf • — PopulaUoD, 100,000 inhabitants. All the roadi of the
Province converge, towards this town, which is situated at an
altitude of 3,300 feet, and is built in the largest plain oC Kwei-
chow jl M- "^^^ \\9ixn is about 40 miles In length and 4 la
breadth. nMl||^iorives its importance chiefly from the pre*
CMtfTBB II.. KWBICOHW. 189
sence of the High Provineinl OfBcials. Its commeree i» of little
vslxte.
I Tq the N. of ike Cai^Ual :
'^ ^Mcti< i^ jl H m. — Population, 45,060 inhabitants. A
pretty busy town on account of its trade in wild silk, its manu-
facture of cloth, and its paper industry.
tm the y. W. 9tU^ CapUai : .
FihiHeh heie9i |l gf ||.-. Population, 20,000 inhabitants.
Principal centre of the Western region, but the surroundings
atone are populated. Cloth is manufactured there.
To iheS.W. of the €k^ua t "
yffinkehfm FU ^flfiftf. — Population, 50^000 inhabitants^
Jt lies in a beautiful plain and is t)ie second important_clty_o/'
Kweichow.
JETekHrt FU fj^jjU^Jlf. — Population, 40,Q00 inhabitants.
Before the Mahomedan rebellion, the town was said to contain
over 70,000 souls. It is now rising from its ruins, and enjoys
a certain prosperity, owing to the poppy, which is extensively
cultivated in the neighbourhood. The city stands at an Qltit^de
of 4,250 feet.
To the &Ek /
K^ehmff T*i9iff 1& iW II- — A very small town, but head-
quarters of a military circle. A Tapt^i. resides there and
control^ all relations w|th the native population.
Sanktoh H M* — ^ V^^^^Y l^^^l® ^^wn, at the fgrmjpsM of
navigatioia on the Liu-kiang ijff f£. It is an emporium of
Chinese goods for the Mlaotze "Q ^ tribes. Timber ts floated
from this place down to the 8i-kiang || f£.
^the B.:
CMnyuen Fhi ^ ffi^^/ff.^^ K city which diraws itis impor-
tance from being the principal temUmue of navigation on M^
ITuen fjg river, the centre of a well ik)pulated region, and a
lurge market place for (he distribution 6f goods'. Two-flftfas Off
the exterior commerce of Kweichow J| f^ are catKed oa
through this place »
190 SBCTION Til. m SOUTBCRN BfteiON.
Tn^kmArf ftnd C^Btmeroe. — Besides the extraction of
guMMfoer and coa1« and the worMmg •/ f^veaU^ we may
mention as industries of the Province, the manufactured otetb,
which employs a large numher of hands at Pihtsieh hsien J|l
0 j|[, in Tating Pu ^ )g ;ff, silk-weaving in the N.B., and a
few paperjpiUs.
The principal appwto are : apium and twintM^ raw silk,
pongees, timber, beans, indigo and camphor. The chief inq^rU
are : piece-goods from Hupeh m 4k t cotton -yam, woollen goods,
salt, kerosene and matches.
Highways of Oemmuiiioatlon. — Communications are
difflcult in this mountainous country. Navigable waterways are
not wanting, and we have mentioned them, only they do not
penetrate far into the interior, but rather serve especially for
communications with other Provinces. The country being too
broken up, is ill-suited for carts, though these are used on
^ the high tablelands of Yiinnan S ^. In Kweichow J| ^
however, all transport has to be done by carriers or pack-
animals. The principal ro€ids, UarUng ftfom the OlapUai, are
the following:
I*' The road to Ch*ungk^ing ^^ M M Iff ^^ Szechw'an
m )M via Tsuni Fu ^^ ^ fff.
2^ The rooA to Bihieieh heien ^ ® ||, in the Prefecture
of Tating Fu :k ISS, )ff, which continues Northward towanfs
Szeehw^an S )\\ ; and Westward towards Tjower FlinfMm f| ^.
3® The road to Upper T^nnan^ via Nganshun Fu ^Jf^ifft^
and which branches into several routes: one, the Jbt^^erted
route, passing through Langfai T'ing flf tit H 5 another,
passing through Hsingi Fu H H /jj^.
'i«^ l%e road to Kwanffoi JH f|, via Tuyiin Fu ^ ^ Jff
and Sankioh H Jtl*
5^ The road to Hunan Jgfl ||, via Ch^nyuen Fu f)^ ^ Jff
and Szechow Fu jg. ^ ^. The road to Kwangsi H f| is
connected with this latter at^Kweiting hsien j^ Jfe ||, in the
Prefecture of Kweiyang 1^'u Hf p| ^-
ang ju K» W^
GHAPrm II; XWRICHOW.
191
Note. — The Province of Kweichow jH j^ hafi only been
incorporated with the Chinese Empire for two centuries. The
whole portion to the 8. of the Wu-kiang J^ f£ (Crowriver),
once formed a large kingdom, occupied by the Ikia ^ ^ tribe
in the W., and the MiaotzeK ^ in the E. China having seized
it, added to it a detached strip of Szechw'an |S j|| (the actual
portion of Kweichow lying to the N. of the Wu-kiang), forming
thereby a new Province, with Kweiyang Fu J| m /|( as
Capital. The S. Eastern portion still remained independent
until the late war (1860-1869), at the close of which, it too
was obliged to submit. Its petty princes continue to govern it
under the supervision of Chinese otTicials.
Beferences :
PROVINCE OF YUNNAN.
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^
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13»
CHAPTliR III.
THE UFXaON OF THE MIDDLE AND
LOWER SI-KTANG
(KWANGSI H B AND KWANGTUNG j|| )([).
KwangH and Kwangtung Provinces are gor^emed by one
and the same Viceroy, "whose residence is at Kwangchov; Fu Jl
jfi[ fff or Canton, They form the Viceroyalty of LUmt^ kwmmg
lH Jl or two Kfvana^.
Both Provinces are irrigated by the Sirkiang ffjl, and offer
partially the characteristics of the tropical regions. They are in-
habited for the greater part by different races hostile to one another.
The Provinces differ yvidely however one from the other,
Kwangst JH H ts a mountainous and quite inland region, while
Kwanatung H )K has its vast plain, and an extensive seaboard
indented with numerous bays. Kwati^H jK |f is wild, barren,
and almost a desert, while Kwangtung Jl )|[ is well culti%>ated,
rich and populous. Trade is scarcely possible in KwamgH JH B;
JKwoiigtung Jt )|[, on the contrary, is one of the most commercial
and enterprising Provinces of China.
CHAPTBR III. KWAMOSI. 195
l"" . Kwangsi M M
Area. — 77,220 square miles.
Popnlaiton. — 5,142,000 inhabitants, or 66 per square
mile. It is the least populous Province of the Empire.
Ifame. — Kwangsi Jjjf |f means **Weal of the Kwang/^f a
denomination which refers to Kwangnan )> ^^ the old Annam
Kingdom.^ Others would have it mean the **Broad Wesl^.
lloiiiidarle«. — Kwangsi is bounded on the
N. — By Hunan ^ ^ and Kweichow ff Jfl,
W. — By Yiinnan ^ ^ and Tongking 3|[ #, *
8. — By Tongking )K ^ and Kwangtung ^ 3|[,
E. — By Kwangtung JMf %.
€}m.p\UA. — KWBlTsINjm1^ 1^ fl^, situated to the N.E.,
on the Kwei-kiang j|^ fx^.
atber Preftetares. — These are lO in number.
On the KweMeUmg i^ft-
loFinglohPu^giW,
2» Wnchow Pu ff ffl *.
lb the y. of the Sirfciang, proceeding Westwards :
3» Liuchow Pu flU ^ ff,
4'> K'ingyiien Pu » « «.
To the A of the Si-kiang, ascending the basin of the Tuhr-
hiang ff f^, from R to W.:
6* Stinchow Pu ?« « «P,
e^ Wanning Pu WT Jt *,
?• Szengto Pu g A «P,
»» T*aip*ing ¥xLic^»y
V Chdnngan Pu f| !ic ff ,
lO^Szech'ingPuJHttW.
There are besides in Kwangsi JH ^ two independent
Chows ^ ; Kweishun Chow ^ M Wf Yuhiin Chouj {g # ;H|/
and two independent Things J||.* Tehseh THng "g* 'g, J||, and
Sha$HfS9e Ting J: jQL ||.
198 SECTION III. 'THB SOUTHBRN RBGION.
& tt» formed by the confluence of two rivers, which come from
Tongking )|[ j^, and unite at Lungchow T'ing ft ^ H, in the Pre-
fecture of T'aipMngFu •j^2ff(f. Both are navigable down into Tong-
king, large junks ascending as far as Lungchow TMng H {HI jM*
Another but less important tributary, the Ywig-kiang § JL»
which joins the Sikiang ^ fL abov.e Wuchow Fu ;|§ ^ ;fl^,
establishes easy communication with Pakhoi :|t % (Pch-hai).
Goods coming by the Lien-kiang ff^ JH, as far as Foisien (ijg ^
^ Fohweik*u, to the S.W. of Yuhlin Chow % i^ jt|), are trans-
ported thence upon the backs of carriers to the Yung-kiang ^ Jq,
which is navigable from Pehliu hsien :|b j(t JK and beyond.
Fauna and Flora. — On account of the dcvaBtation prevailing in Kwangsi, a
great nnmber of wild animals are fonnd there : the tiger, rhinoceroH, panther, tapii*,
wolf, bear and fox. Deer are also encountered, as well as stags, nronkeys, scaly ant-
eaters, and a large variety of serpents (the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, green serpent,
adder and aspic). Besides the birds common to the rest of China, there are some that
bear a close resemblance to those of Hindustan.
The flora is luxuriant and largely tropical. Suffice it to mention the sugar-cane,
cinnamon and aniseed-trees, this latter growing profusedly in certain parts. Ground-
nuts are also found, as well as the papaw-tree, the shaddock, the palm-tree, tlje pine-
apple and orange, the lichee or persimmon, the mange-tree, arbutus, pomegrauitc;, guava
and betel-nut... The maple, ebony, teak- wood and mahogany-trees furnish excellent
timber.
Ainricnltiiral Wealtli. — Besides fruit-trees and timber,
Kwangsi produces the sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and almost
everywhere maize. The poppy and the mulberry are scarce.
Potatoes are grown nowadays especially in the N. W. The
fruit-trees of the N. : peach, plum, pear and walnut, are also
easily grown. There are scarcely any forests, except In the
N., but a great number of trees are found in the W. There also,
buffaloes and ponies are extensively reared.
Mineral Wealtb. — The mineral wealth of Kwangsi is
little worked, though it is considerable, and consists chiefly of
gold, silver, coal and antimony.
Popalation.— The population of Kwangsi, as we have seen, is very scanty, and
is centred especially in the neighbourhood of the principal towns, where it finds greater
protection against brigands and evil-doers. It is composed of 3 principal racei :
the aborigines or Ikiaa % jC (bairbariaus), the Canioneae, and the Uakka* ffi ^
or K*ohkias (alien or guoat families, squatters). ; "^ "^ — —
• :CHAt»l«R III. ^-KWANttSI. 1^
valleys, and being obstructed with rocks and rapids, it is little
available for navigation. Henceforward, widening from 240 id
320 feet, it abandons its direction W.E., and follows a S.E.
course. It is not navigable till a little above Ts^eifikiang hsien
IS 2ll d* ^^ becomes a large and fine river after receiving
the ^ters of the Yub-^^ip"ff y ff.^ which come in from the 8.
Numerous boats then ply on its waters, and it is navigable for
steamers.
The iwo tributaries on the ieft aide are :
The lAu-kiang ijf^ {[, which comes from Kweichow jH ^,
where it is navigable for small boats from Sankioh ^ |||. It is
navigable for large junks from Ch^angngan-sze ftft ^« a little
to the 8. of. Hwaiyuen hsien HI ^ )||l* The Liu-kiang flaws
through rather fertile plains, but its usefulness is diminished on
account of its rapids. It is especially availed of for the transport
of timber, floated down from Hunan iM A ^^^ Kweichow jjt jfi|.
The Kweirkiang ^ J^. This river comes from the N.,
and is connected by a canal with the Siang-kiang jfg {t, which
rises in Hunan iM ^* ^^ ^^ navigable despite its many rapids.
It joins the 8i-kiang f| 2C ^^ Wuchow Fu i@ ^ ;|Ep, and attains
there a width of 330 yards.
The tributary of4 the right is :
The Tuh'k4an0 |^ {Hi which issues from Yunnan ^ ^,
close by KwangnUn Fu ;^ ^ ;((. It is navigable for smttll
boats from Pakngai or Pohai jg^ |^, and for large junks
from Pehseh T'ing "g* ^ ||, whence it flows with a conside-
rable descent through very low-lying plains, where however it
is easily navigated. After receiving the Tso-kiang ^ fx^^ Mh
bed winds successively through long, narrow gorges, and vast
plains. In low-water season, a rapid obstructs steam-navigation',
below Kwei hsien jK J||. Two landing places, one above the
rapid, the other below it, render navigation possible during the
whole year, up to Nanning Fu ;^ ||[ JjSp, and even up to Pehseh
TSng "S "£ jR* ^^ ^^^ flood-season. The Yuh-kiang ^ {L ^^'
ceives on its right, above Nanning Fu ^ K j|^, the Teo^kkmg
198 SECTION III. -THB SOUTHERN REGION.
& tt» formed by the confluence of two rivers, which come from
Tongking )|[ jfr, and unite at Lungchow T*ing ft ^ J||« in the Pre-
fecture of T'aip*ingFu -jl^Z^fff. Both are navigable down into Tong-
king, large junks ascending as far as Lungchow TSng H {HI JS-
Another but less important tributary, the TutHj^'kiaiw § it,
which joins the Si-kiang f| JH abov.e Wuchow Fu ;|§ ^ ^j^,
establishes easy communication with Pakhoi :|t M (Peh-hai).
Goods coming by the Lien-kiang jjj^ f£^ as far as FoiiSien (|g ^
^ Fohweik*u, to the S.W. of Yuhlin Chow ^ ^ jt|), are trans-
ported thence upon the bs^cks of carriers to the Yung-kiang ^ f£,
which is navigable from Pehliu hsien :|b j(t JR and beyond.
Fauna and Flora. — On acconnt of the devastation prevailing in Kwangsi, a
great number of wild animals are found there : the tiger, rhinoceron, panther, tapir,
wolf, bear and fox. Deer are also encountered, as well as stags, nronkcys, scaly ant-
eaters, and a large variety of serpents (the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, green serpent,
adder and aspic). Besides the birds common to the rest of China, there are some that
bear a close resemblance to those of Hindustan.
The flora is luxuriant and largely tropical. Suffice it to mention the sugar-cane,
cinnamon and aniseed-trees, this latter growing profuscdly in curtain parts. Ground-
nuts are also found, as well as the papaw-tree, the shaddock, the palm-tree, the pine-
apple and orange, the lichee or persimmon, the mango-tree, arbutus, pomegranite, guava
and betel-nut... The maple, ebony, teak-wood and mahogany-trees furnish excellent
timber.
Ainricnltiiral Wealtli. — Besides fruit-trees and timber,
Kwangsi produces the sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and almost
everywhere maize. The poppy and the mulberry are scarce.
Potatoes are grown nowadays especially in the N. W. The
fruit-trees of the N. : peach, plum, pear and walnut, are also
easily grown. There are scarcely any forests, except In the
N., but a great number of trees are found in the W. There also,
buffaloes and ponies are extensively reared.
Mineral Wealtb. — The mineral wealth of Kwangsi is
little worked, though it is considerable, and consists chiefly of
gold, silver, coal and antimony.
Popalation.— The population of Kwangsi, as we have seen, is very scanty, and
is centred especially in the neighbourhood of the principal towns, where it finds greater
protection against brigands and evil-doers. It is composed of 3 principal races :
the aborigines or Ikias % SC (bairbarians), the CajUgtiesef and the Uakkaslg^
or K'ohkias (alien or guesl families, squatters). ^. "^"^^
CHAPTBll III. KWANG8I. 201
Hote* — Kwangsi $1 f| and Kwangtung JH >|[ formerly
made but one Province. Kwangsi was separated from the^latter
by the Emperor Hjai)igwu^^ft.XU68-1399), of thl^Ming jg
dyn"asly^| andits administration entrusted to a Provincial
Treasurer.
The present system of governing the Province offers this
peculiarity, that some of its district towns or sub-prefectures
are still administered by hereditary chieftains. These officials
are the descendants of sofdiers who received this charge in
return for former services.
ZOQ SECTION III. THB SOUTHBBN REGION.
It is situated within a bend of the river. Numerous junks come
up to the place, and a small trade is carried on, chiefly in
wood, 1)rought from Kweichow J| j^.
JP^heO^ T'ing "g* ^ jR. — Population, 20,000 inhabitants.
A commercial centre trading with Yiinnan ^ 1^ and Kwei-
chow -^ ^, whence it imports opium in large quantities, and
with which it exchanges cotton piece-goods, woollens, kerosene
oil and matches.
Industry and Commerce. — The country is too agitated
to favour the development of industrial pursuits. Formerly the
silk industry was important, but it exists no longer, and the
manufacture of sugaj^ has supplanted it. Staj-amse«d oil is
also found; grouQdput oil and indigo are likewise sources of
industry for the country.
Trade is chiefly carried on with Ganton, Pakhoi, Tongking
A ^' Yunnan ^ J^ and Kweichow •$[ ^. The impmts are :
cotton and woollen cloths, cotton-yarn, kerosene oil, opium
and clocks. The eaoparis are: sugar, star-aniseed oil, false
gambir, timber, cinnamon and indigo. Traffic with the
neighbouring regions is extensive.
Hlsbways of Commnnleallon. — The principal means
of communication are the navigtMe nmies, which comprise a
j/ast network of waterways, and establish easy communications :
with^nton by ihr*ftt"=10fang {| jJq; with Hunan iM ^ ^y ^h®
Kwei-kiang i^ fl^ ; with Kweichow jjt M by the Liu-kiang ijff
j^ ; with Yunnan K ^ by the Yuh-kiang ff f[^; with Tongking
)|[ ^ by the Tso-kiang ^ i£; with Pakhoi ;|b % (Peh-hai) by
the Yung-kiang § {£ and the Lien-kiang JH ^.
The tonci rpiilei are hadly kept up, and are nothing more
than unbeaten tracks, darts travet'^on their more level
parts.
Open Porto. — Kwangsi has three ports open to Foreign
trade: Tjungchmv T'ing % ^ J||, in T'aip'ing Fu ic^^t ^^~
cfUM -FW ;© « ;fif and jronnincr Fu H^ % fff.
CHAPTBR m. KWANGSI. 199
The Ikias aloue form */3 of the population, but their name varies much with the
rcgioQ which they occupy. Their dress, customs, manners, and the dialects they speak,
closely resemble those of the Siamese (Shans).
JThe HakkaB are a cross betvven Chinese soldi^jm^d^Ikia^womeUj^ and. have
adopted most of the Chinese customs. They mingle with the natives, and being bold
and eill(»ryjllliliig, succeed often in supplanting them.
T*^^ ^ -'*Tffrnpfi' fl^t*''?V'*°t *^""^''^^i)fl, ivni1n^mryr*^''^T*^"y '^^'^^ ^ ^nd S,.E.
They are nearly all traders.
Lnn^ua^e. — Besides the Cantonese language, whicli differs very much from |
Mandarin, each of tho Ikia tribes speaks its own peculiar dialect.
Oitles and Principal Centres. — KWBILIN FV 1^1^
Jff (Cassia grove). — Population, 80,000 inhabitants. The town
is situated at an altitude of 650 feet, and stands in the midst of
an amphitheatre crowned with madreporite peaks, which give
to the scenery a most peculiar aspect. The Southern quarters,
which are the finest of the town, possess numerous fur and silk-
stores, and clocks are manufactured. Almost all commercial
relations are carried on with Canton, by the Kwei-kiang ;g j^.
Of I the Si-kiang ff f£ :
Wuehaw Fki^ff{Jff. — ^o^jjjution, 65,flflfl inhaWtanttsr.
The most important city in Kwangsi JH "g, and the centre
of all trade in this Province, owing to its excellent position.
Steamers reach it from Canton in two and a half days.
On the Yuh'kiang ^ ^ :
Xannina Fu^%)ff. — Population, 25,000 inhabitants.
A town noteworthy because of its trade, and its position as a
transit centre. Numerous junks proceeding Westward, or des-
cending the river, pass through the place. Western Kwangsi Jl
If being inadequate for its own supply, is compelled to import
rice and other commodities from Canton, and from the country
round Kweilin Fu ;g| i^ ;j^.
On the Teo-Mang ^ JI •
lAinffchaw Ting ^ ^ j|||. — Population, 12,000 inhabitants.
This city owes its importance to its custom-house and its trade
with Tongking % -ff^.
On tiie lAvr-Mang ;gj| ^L *
lAuchmo JPki igf f/K Jif. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants.
202 SBCTIOII HI. THB SOUTHBRN RB6I0N.
2^ . Kwangtung
Area. — 100,000 square miles.
Popalation. — 31,865,200, or 318 per square mile. This
region is the most populous of the whole Si-kiang "g ^ basin.
IVame* — Kwangtung J{ ^ signifies **East of the Kwang**,
Kwangnan gl f^ being the old Empire of Annam $^. Others
render it by the ** Broad BaaP\
Boandarles. — Kwangtung is bounded on the
N. — By Fokien jg^, Kiangsi fllH ^^^ Hunan jJjQ ^,
W. — By Kwangsi J(| g and Tongking ^ jjr,
S. — By the Gulf of Tongking and the South-China
Sea ^ %,
E. — By the South-China Sea.
Capital. — KWANQCHOW rv M 9I{ lH ^^ Canton, si-
tuated to the N. of the Si-kiang "g f£ delta, and on the Chu-
kiang 3^ fiC or Pearl River.
Otber PreftetareiBi. — TheBe are 8 in nufnber.
To the N. of tlie Si-kiang, proceeding from W, to E. :
1« Chaok'ing Pu 81 R ;fip, on the Si-kiang H ft,
2° Shaochow Pu ffl W fflp, on the PehJ:iang ^ ft, to the A'.,
3" Hweichow Pu 3K ^ W, on the Tung-kiang Jg f£, in its lower
part,
4" Ch'aochow Pu il! ^ rtP, on the Han-kiang ft jx, not far from
the sea.
To the 8. of the 8i-Mangy proceeding likewise from W.
to E. :
fp Lienchow Pu IS ^ )(p, on thegtUfof Tongking )K jj[,
6" Leichow Pu S ^ jfif» in the peninsula of the same name,
T Kaochow Pu K « ff , « mile to the N, of the Leichow
peninsula,
8° K'inngchow Pu jl ^ W» ^'« ^^'^ A', of the island of Hainan
There arc besides in Kwangtung Jf| ]^ ^ independmU
Chow ^ cUies: lAeti Chow ^ ;Hi# Nanheiung Chow '^ tfj^ )ti.
GHAPTBR III. KWANGTUNa. 203
Kiaying Chew ^ ^ift ^, K*in Ch&w j^ ^, LaHftg Ounv Ji ^
ji\; and :i itidependent Things f^: lAenshan T'ing ^ llj JH*
TmvffMung THng |^ ^ ||, and ChHhk'i THng # ;Ei ||-
Aspect and Cliaracteristlca. — Kvpangtung is for the !
most part a mountainous region^ except in the delta tract; it is |
however well watered, and provided with means of communications, *
by its canals, rivers and coast. Along the latter, we find nume^
rous islands, of which the largest is Hainan fH ^, and the most
commercial, Hongkong ^ p^. As in Kwangsi Jjl '^, several
races are intermingled in Kwangtung Jjl ^. Enterprising^ com^
mercial and industrious^ brought into contact for long years with
foreign traders, the Cantonese have exerted great influence over
the neighbouring countries, and even as far as America, Although
situated partly in the tropical zone, the Province, owing to the
monsoon^ enjoys in Winter a dry and almost cold climate. These
conditions preserve the inhabitants from that excessive exhaustion
resulting from moist and prolonged heat, and at the same time,
favour the growth of many tropical products, which constitute its
chief wealth. If the Province enjoys no longer, as in former times, !,
the monopoly of trade with foreigners, nor the privilege of con^
veying ambassadors to Peking ^fc ;^ {see p. 145), it remains
however the great distributing centre of the Si-kiang ff ^
valley, and exchanges its wares with remote regions, and chiefly
with Szechw^an |S )\\.
Ctoolo^ioal constitution. — More than half of Kwangtung, the W. and N.W.
especially, is of the same formation as Kwangsi, and is composed of sandstone and
limestone intorspersed with porphyry and granite. As the coast is approached, granite
predominates. The delta is of alluvial formation, and is broken by hills of red sand-
stone overlying a granite basis. The I^eichow peninsula is of red clay-grit formation,
while the island of Hainan is granitic and schistous.
Oroi^rapliy. — Almost wholly mountainous, this Pro- \
vince has however a large plain, extending over the delta of the '
8i-kiang fliHi ^^^ ^^® lower part of the Peh-kiang ^t tL- All
its mountains run in the general direction S.W. — N.E., and are
continued in the sea along the coast, where they attain in some
islands an elevation of 3,000 feet. On the continent, they rise
to a height of 5,000 feet, and even in the N., to 6,500 feet. The
204 SBCnOM 111, TUB SOUTHBRH RBOION.
principal peak of Hainan f^ ||f, atlains an altitude of 4,900
feet^ It is part of the large mountain mass, which stretches ^
out into ridges and forms a large portion of the island.
Cliaiate. — The climate of Kwrnogkaag is very changeable and depends on the
dry N. E. wind, or the moistore-laden one which blows from the S. W. From October
to April, the former prevails, and in the neighbonrhood of Canton, seldom causes the
temperatore to fall below 32* Fahrenheit, bat the high ridges do not fare so well, and
are at times covered with snow. The rainy moQ^oon, which oocors in Summer, oocasibns
often dangerous epidemics. Macao is famed for its excellent climate, due to its site,
whereby the town is protected from the cold, and from the moist heat of the delta. It
does not escape however the plague and the cholera. Hongkong, less well situated,
is subject to fogs. Both Macao and Hongkong are often visited by tjrphoons which
cause such terrible ravages on the coast.
My&r^grmpiiy. — The atrhkmg ^ £[, with its two large
affluents on the left : the F^h^Mang $^ 2t and the Tun^^-tdang
% fLi drains the greater part of the Province. The Hdn^'Mamg
Ij^tL and its affluents water the N.W. The S.W., less favoured,
has but a few short rivers, which flow directly into the 8ea«.
The Sirkiang f| f£. When this stream enters Kwangtung
M ya^ ^^ ^^ already a fine, large river. At Chaok'ing Fu HJI ^,
it is over a mile wide. Further on, it flows through a narrow
gorge, and is only 270 yards in width. Its course here becomes
very impetuous and its depth increases. This gorge, the last
through which the Sikiang f| fL flows, is three miles long.
After issuing from it, it widens anew to a breadth of one. mile.
It subsequently runs, now through vast and well cuUivated
plains, now between parallel ranges of barren mountains. In the
flood-season, it discharges its overflow into the Peh kiang ^fe ^,
through a canal nearly half a mile in length. At Sanshui hsien
^ ^ JH, it divides into several branches. At this place, the
delta begins. Its Northern branch, called the Chwkiang ||( {t
or Teari Siver, flows past Fatshan Hi |Ij (Fohshan) and Canton
M i^ Jffy ^"^ empties its waters into the sea through the Boeea
Tigris or Bggue, called also the Gate of the Tiger^m Head
gt gi n (Huteu-m^n), between Hongkong and Macao. The
Southern branch, less frequented, goes by the name of the Si-
kiang, and terminates S. of Macao. Between these two branches,
and in the environs, is a network of canals and rivers, and: a
CHAPTBR Illi KWANOTUKO'. 805
countless number of boats ply on their waters at the rise and
fall of the tide. Depths are extremely variable, and the sand-
banks shift frequently from one position to another. A number
of embankments have been constructed to protect the low-lying
lands from the floods caused by the rise of the waters. These
contrivances sometimes give way, and then the flood rushes on,
devasting all before it, until it is stopped by a new embankment.
The vast sheet of water is not drained off until the low-water
season sets in.
The JPeh-kkmg 4f; {T* an affluent of the 8i-kiang H fi,
rises in the South of the Meiling i^ {jf range, which separates
Kwangtung Jt )K from Kwangsi |K ig. It is called at first by
the name of Tahig'Shui |j( :^, and becomes navigable for small
craft at Nanhsiung Chow ^ Kl ^, but navigation on its
waters is rather difficult, on account of the rapids and the lack
of depth, down to Shaochow Fu f^ j^ Jff. Here it receives
on the right the Wn^shui f^ tJc, which comes from the 8. of
Hunan ^ $, and is also partly navigable. It then abandons
its first direction N. E. — S.W., and takes a Southern course,
which it maintains to the end. It passes through wild and
picturesque gorges, of which the last is that of Ts'ingyuen
91 M' Henceforward it flows in the plains, and reaches the
drita near Sanshui hsien ^ :^ JH, dependent on Kwangchow Pu
M W Jff' ^^ ^^ navigable for large boats from ' Shaochow Fu
H IH iflf « ^^ ^^^ Summer freshets render its current very violent
and hard to ascend ; even the down-trip is not unattended
with danger. — Its principal tributary on the right is the lAeu'
dkow^kiattg jft #1 {C* which is navigable from Lien Chow
M fH' — The Peh-kiang, formerly very important, as the great
water route not only to Kiangsi j^ ^ and Hunan ^ ^, but
also to Nanking j^ t^ and Peking :|t Tjr, is now but bf secondary
importance^
The TmtmHclang ]|C tL ^^^^^ in Kiangsi fL H« and makes
several bends Westward, the last being near Hweichow Fu X
^ Jif. Here it flows through a small delta into the large
delta of the 8i-kiang f| gC- The Tung-kiang Jfji it receives
206 SBcnoN HI. the sodthbbic mi»i<m.
several aflluents, and affords an excellent network of navigable
streams.
The Htm-kiattg t^ iL- — ^s regards its navigation, this
river has neither the same importance nor the same interest as
the preceding ones. Its affluents however, the principal of
which is the MH'-hkm^ #2llt open communications with Fokien
JH 9^9 while its delta, covered with sugar-canes, possesses at
a distance of five miles from the sea an excellent harbour :
Shant'eu }il| |g or Swat^ow.
iii the S.W^ the rirerm 0/ lAemOtmtf J^ tk ¥\ Jti «"€! of
KHh Chaw Jk j^, although verj- short, have a certain impor-
tance on account of the large boatj^pulatipn that lives on their
waters. (For other details on the coast and islands, «ee Section IV.).
Fauna and Flora. — The fauiie and flora of Knangtimg are identical with
tho.<^ of KvAii^f^if but the wild animals are less nnmerous, and tLr coontiy is nearly
ever>-u'here ucdcr cultivation. The N. is pretty well wooded, especially with fii^treea.
litraides the &pei-;i::t:ns aln-ady named, suffice it to mention in regard to the &a-
r.a : dy-cat^Lers, [^arroi:!. the mandarin duck and ^or^geocs butterflies : and in regard
10 '.'ue flora : the 6^^ and olive-trees, thujas and magnolias.
In the island of Hainan, the fauna and flora have a closer resemblance to those
r.l the tropical ref.'ion. In the island are found large deer and stags, monkeys and very
-.'.sli::.i.> i::.akt:>. It has also its cocoa*nnt groves, arecas, nut-palms and pine-
aH/......
Af^rlcmltiirml Wemltli. — The mountainous tract is rocky
and unproductive, but that of the plains, of the delta and valleys,
is exc'llent and well irrigated, and even produces three crops
annually. The principal products are : rice, sugar-cane, wheat,
cassia, tea. tobacco, groundnuts, ginger and' oranges. The silk-
worm is also reared in the Si-kiang ff jQQ delta. The grasscloth
plant is cultivated principally in the N., as well as hemp and
indigo. .\ species of rush, growing in the recent alluvial soil, is
employed in making mats, which arc in great demand.
Cattle are extensively reared in the Province, as also poultry
and bees, while the fish of the rivers and coast provide the
inhabitants with a valuable food-supply.
Mineral Wealtli. — Extensive coal mines are found in
the Prefecture of .Shaochow Fu gg ^ JjfJ^. in the district of Hwa
a
■1
CHAPTER III. KWANGTUNfi. 207
hsien {g ||, in Kwangchow Fu JH ;^ /j^, and near the gulf of
Tongking ^ Tjf. Iron-ore mines are worked in several places,
and salt is extracted from sea-water. The Province possesses
also in various localities important mines of silver, copper, lead
and tin.
Popnlation. — The popalatiou is especially crowded in the Si-kiang delta and
on the coast, and offers the same diversity of races already noticed in Kwangsi. The
principal of these races are : 1" the Cjjiiitpneaej called also the Pu7iti or PSnti JIfi ^
(original or native stock) ; — 2® the Hakkas or Klohkiat^ ^ (squatters, aliens) ; 8» ^
ihejiokloa or Hsiolaos fjf- ^ (^people from Fok, or as it is locally pronounced Hok^
Province, i.e Fokien Province) ; — 4° the Ikiasi/^ j^ (barbarians) ; — 5" the Yao or Tu '
tribe ff (jackals) ; ~ 6° the TunqkoiOT Tungkias ^ 9|c (cave-dwellers). — The^Cawfo-
nMc form more than half pfj^^*^ population, and occupy especially the centre of the
rrovmce and the delta. They are active, industrious, and consider themselves the
rightful owners of the soil. — ^Qie^aAArrM descend from the same stock as those of
Kwangsi. They came very likely from Fokien, and mhTrtrtt chiefly the N.E., hut are /
also found throughout the whole iProviricelntermingled with the Cantonese. They are /
excellent cultivators, and being of strong build are also employed as coolies or carriers. /
They furnish the largest number of Fokien emigrants. — The Uokloa^ who come also
from Fokien, are confined to the N.E. and the coast, but arc less numerous than the
other races. — The Z!UiJflilf*.W<'i-<^( short stature and are dark-featured. They are
especially given to petty trades, aud^e on their boats in the neighbourhood of Canton,
where they form floating villages. They seem to be near akin to the Hakkas, but are
much despised by the other inhabitants of Kwangtnng. — The Ikias or Miaotee arc
but semi-civilised, and inhabit especially the N.W. — The Yao tribes, who number about
90,000, are located in the S.W. They seem to be of Burmese origin, and are much
coQtidered among the other races for their knowledge of medicine. Their jvengeance
is nmch dreaded, as it is transmitted from father to son through several generations.
In the island of Hainan, the population is composed of Sain or Sin, who number 1 1 ^
about 100,000. In the centre are found 5,000 Meus, The remainder is occupied by 2 V
million Ch%ne$e who have settled especially along the coast.
Lan^aa^e. — Each race clings to its own dialect. Cantonese however, on ac-
count of its importance, is spreading more and more. It constitutes the Peh-hwa ^ J^,
or fashionable language, differs much from Mandarin^ and has its own litrrntnm. "
The JJakka dialect is near akin to Mandarin ^ being a transition phase between Canto-
nese and the latter. It is spoken by -I millions of inhabitants. — The l^af*oiv region
has its own peculiar dialect, which resembles the Fokienese, and is spoken by 3 million
people.
Besides the j^^t and Meu dialects, Hahian has a Chinese dialect of its own, called \^
the dialect of KHungchow Fu.
Towns and Principal Cehlres. — KWANGCHOW JFU
9( jVi fff or Canton. — Population, 900,000. Capital of Kwang-
tung, from J^664, at which period it secured this privilege from
Gbaok^ng Fu ||| J| j|^. It is a large city, as its name signifies
?08
aBcnoM III. THi soDTHamf umiom.
GHAPTIR III. KWANGTUlia'. 209
(kwang meaning broad) ^ and very ancient. It is built on the
left bank of the Chu-kiang l^tL or Pearl River, and its suburbs
extend along the river far beyond its walls, above and below
the ^ity ^ ^"hJng nhp'ilfition nf y(^]] nigh 20^000, form on the
river a peculiarly interesting portion of the city. Well situated
for facility of communications, it became the most populous
centre of the delta. Several times the Capital of an independent
state, it enjoyed, up to 50 years ago, the monopoly of commerce
with foreigners. • The rapid rise of Hongkong, and the opening
of other ports have since diminished its importance. It is
nevertheless a great jmamifacturing an^ poninn#>ro^^i /»Hy Its
principal industries are : silk-spinning, factories of cotton and
woollen cloths, satins and paper. Its articles of household
furniture, tortoise-shell, lacquer and stoneware, its fans and
pottery Cfnjoy a world-wide reputation and are sold far and wide.
Its eeoi^aH& are chiefly silk, tea and matting, while it imparts
cotton-yiim and piece goods, woollen-cloth, rice, sugar, beans,
kerosene oil, flour, coal, cutlery, opium, tobacco and matches. The
total trade of the port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 110,559,826;
in 1904, Tls. 96,247,076: and in 1905, Tls. 92,243,650.
Opposite the town is FaH Ifl^ % (Hwa-ti), famous for its
gardens, and near by is the island of Shameen j^^ (Shamien, i.e.
sand-flat), upon which are established the Foreign Settlements.
- Large steamers are unable to reach Canton, but anchor at
i>jtiii|isii fl ill (Hwangpu), 10 miles further down, where
ihey find sufBciently deep water and a safe anchorage. Here
also aire repairing-docks and vast warehouses for the storage of
cargo. Whampoa itself is a rather large place, extending 2^
miles along an island of the same name, which lies on the right
bank of the Cbu-kiang |^ f]^.
On th€ air-hUmg ^ ft :
ChaokHmg jPU JDI JH Jff. — Former Provincial Capital^ now
a decadent city but not without some importance. It has splen-
did houses, well-stocked shops, and its streets are paved. Con-
siderable trade is carried on in tea, porcelain and marble slabs,
which are quarried in the vicinity.
U
210 8BCTI0N III. THB SOUTHBlUf BSeiON.
On the Behrhkmg JlciL-
Nanhsiunff JFu '^ |{| Jff. — An ancient city well situated,
formerly famous, and even still a large transit-place for goods
entering from Kiangsi {[ f|, or forwarded through the Meiling
# ^8 pass.
Shaoehow Fu ^j^THf- — A large town, and a much fre-
quented port, at the confluence of the Wu-shul f^ ij/s, with the
Peh-kiang fl: tC-
8an»hwi hsien H 4C H (Samshui). — Population, 5,000
inhabitants. It is separated from the Peh-kiang :f|: 2C by a large
suburb, which is used as its port. This town is agreeably
situated at the foot of beautiful! hills, and owes its activity to
its position. Samshui is a port open to foreign trade.
Abone Canton:
FaUhan ^ ll] 4| (Fohshan ch6n). — Population, 500,000
inhabitants. A large town, 12 miles in length, renowned for
its vast silk manufactures, cloth-making, embroidery, cutlery,
matting, paper and porcelain. The town is divided into two
parts by the river, and is not fortified.
€)n the Tung-kiang }K tt, at the head of the delta :
SMMung ;& H- — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A large
sugar and food-stuff emporium.
To the H.IL, at the mouth of the Han-kiang |§: JjQ :
Swaiow Jill M (Shant*eu). — Population, 60,000 inhabitants.
A port situated five miles from the sea, and exporting chiefly
sugar, groundnuts and camphor. Among its imports are bean-
oil cake from Manchuria, employed in large quantity for manu-
ring the fields; also rice, kerosene oil, cotton and woollen cloths.
Numerous emigrants start every year from this place.
To the 8. W. :
Fakhoi it m (Pehhai). — ^Eppulation. 20,000 inhah»tAnt«
A port situated on the gulf of Tongking. It is the commercial
outleT, and the mart7or a large pOriion Of Kwangtung JH j^,
Kwangsi J(J f|, and even of Yunnan ^ ^ and Kweichow f^ ^.
Its chief exports are star-anjseed and star-aniseed oil| hides.
CHAPTBR III. KWANGTUNa^^. 21 1
Indigo, opium and tin, while its imports are cotton-cloths and
kerosene oil.
In the JaUmA of Hainan ft^ "^ :
K*4ungehaw Fu 3|^/|^. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants. — ^
Hoihmv % D_(Itaik^^i>^s its port, and trades principally with (
Hongkong. It exports pigs, sugar, betel-nuts, leather and /
poultry. Its imports consist of cotton-cloths, rice, kerosene oil '
and India opium.
Note.^ On HoB^kooff '^ t/^ (Hsiangkiang) and Kowlooa % ■ (Kiulang),
both British possessions ; Mac^io ft P^ (Ngaom^n) belonging to Portngal, and Lapiia
IK 4 (Kungpeh), an island opposite Macao ; K'wan^cho'w^raii JR M IVi belonging
to Pranc<^, see Section IV. Coasts.
Indastry and C)iMMmer<>e> — f:aipiinn and. Jinrfiftflw are the
two principal industrial centres. We have seen the principal
articles, . and may add thereto the manufacture of matches,
jewellery and glass-ware, sugar-refining and iron-works.
Trade is carried on through SufaUno and PiakhM^ but
Gonial holds the first place as a commercial centre, its exports 1/
going as far as Yiinnan H ](f and Szechw'an Q ^l^j We have
stated their nature when describing the principal ports of this
Province.
Higbmrnym of CoinmanlcalAoii. — Communications are
carried on principally by waier routeB, The Si-Mang ff f£
delta offers an excellent network of navigable streams. The
river itself is a convenient outlet towards Kwangsi J| ig and
the adjoining Provinces.
The Teh'leiang :|t 2C ^^^ long been the water route towards
the N. The river forks into two at Shaochow Fu fg ^ ^, one
stream leading to Kiangsi f£ f|, v'\k Nanhsiung Chow '^i^j^;
the olher on the W., leading to Hunan ^^, viH Wushui ;JC;JC.
From Nanhsiung Chow, a land route continues through Kiangsi.
This road is paved, and as it issues from the immense plain of rice-
fields, it winds through quaint and picturesque hills. All along, at
regular intervals, are built sheds to afford shelter to the carriers.
These number about 50,000, and travel unceasingly to and fro,
in two nearly endless files, The boundary-limit of the two
212 SBCTION III. THB SOUTHERN RSaiON.
Provinces is at the Meikwan 4^ JB o^* plum-tree barrier, situated
at an elevation of 1,000 feet above the sea level. Between that
place and Nanngan Fu '^ ^ Jff, the journey is still made by
land and then by water. The same process is repeated onJHe
route through Hunan Jtfl ^. At Ichang hsien ^ ^T^ (^^~
pending on Ch'6ng Chow ^ ^), the Wu-shui S ?K ^^ abandoned
for a paved road, which leads via the ChehHnff JS {^ pasB to
Ch*6ng Chow on the Lei-ho ^ fjj. This road is 30 miles long,
and is bordered throughout with inns and warehouses. The
Chehling pass attains an elevation of about 1,000 feet, and like
the land route is situated in Hunan ^ '^.
The Tung-kiang ]^ f£ supplies an excellent way North-
Eastwards.
The Lienchow Fu {H ^ /j^ and K'in Chow 0c jf\ rivers
open easy commnications between Pakhoi 4t M (Peh-hai) and
Kwangsi jft g.
A raUway connects Samshui ^ ifC (Sanshui) and Fatshan
^ ill with Canton, and will subsequently be continued to Kowloon
3^||. Another is to run between Canton and Macao.
The Peh-kiang fl; JI valley is the natural course which the
CantonHank*ow line will follow.
Carts, though occasionally met with, are little employed.
A regular steamship service brings the principal ports
:into constant communication with one another.
€>peii Porto. — Kwangtung has six ports open to Foreign
trade : Ctmtan or Kwangchow Fu J^ ^ J(Sf , Swaiow or Shan-
t*eu ;ilj ^ (in the Prefecture of Ch^aochow Fu ^ ^ /fif), Haihow
or Haik*ow ff^ fj (in the Prefecture of K'iungchow Fu 3^
^ ;i^, Hainan fft |j| Island), Fakhoi or Peh hai ^fc ^ (in the
Prefecture of Leichow Fu ^ jtj /j|^], SammH or Sanshui
hsien H ?K K i^^ *h® Prefecture of Kwangchow Fu Jf| 4i)
}pf), and Kiangmhh fx. R (>n the Prefecture of Chaok^ing Fu
91 M fff)' '^^^^^ Ai'c besides three parte of oaU: Kanchuh -^
f}- (in the Prefecture of Chaok^ng Fu ^jjt gi )ff), Chaok^ing Fu
9^ tt M ^"^ TehkHng Fu ^ $t Jff, and three euetom etatiotie:
Whampoa or Hwangpu )| J^ (in the Prefecture of Kwang-
GHiO^TBR III. KWANGTUNC.
213
chow Fu JH ^ )(f)^ Kawioan or Kiulung ;fL fH 0^ ^^^ Prefec-
ture of Hweichow Fu jg ^ /fif), and Lappa or Kungpeh ^gt :|{j
(in the Prefecture of Kwangchow Fu JH ;^ ;i^).
Three ports have been eeded to Foreign Powers : Macao
or Ngaom^n |J|P^, occupied by the Portuguese from 1^553, and
ceded oflicially to Portugal in 1887 ; Hongkong or Hsian^kiang
# tS« ceded to England in 1842 (to which must be added the
Kawloon exiension on the majinland, leased in 1898); and
Ktvangchounvan JH ;H1 J9« ^" ^^^' Prefecture of Leichow Fu ^ ;^
fffy leased to France in 1898.
References :
PliOVINCE OF KWANGSI.
. lAunay. — Missiou da Koang-si. Paris,
' Mcr C^houxy. — 400 lieues k travers le
Koang-si et le Koei-tcheou. Missions Oa-
tholiques, 1S85.
Notice sur la Province du Koang-si.— (An-
nales des Missions- fitrang&res. N<* 23-24.
1901. — Mars, 1904. Koei-lin).
Beaovais. — Le Koacg-si (T*eang-pao,
1902).
Schroeter. — Bench t iiber eine Keise
uach Kwang-si. Hongkong, 1887.
£ut-major des troapes de I'lndo-Cbine. —
Notice sur le Koang-si. HanoK.
Mission Lyonnaise. — Lyon, 1898. (lire
Partie. liv. III. Ch. 6-7. Rapport sur la
Province du Koang-si).
StkCignet. — t*^tudes sur le Koang-si et le
Koang-tong (Echo de Chine. Nov. D6c.
1804).
LI6lieri. — Notice sur les Voies commer-
ciales da Koang-tong et da Koang-si.
Madrolle. — Guides (Chine du Sud et
Indo-Chine). Paris.
Oolquhoon A. R. — Across Chrys^. Lon-
don, 1883. (Description of Kwaiigsi. Ch.
22, 23 and 24. — The Miaoise tribes. Ch.
29-aO. — Routes to Yunnan. Ch. 30. —
From Aunam to S.W. Kwangsi. ibid).
Williams. » The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1801. (Vol. I. p. 145-14S).
Grosier. — General Description of China.
London, 1795. (Vol. 1. p. 111-114).
Winterbotham. — Historical and Geogr.
View of the Chinese Empire. London,
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214
SBCnON III. THB SOOTHBBlf BieiON.
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Dsi^is Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London.
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GHAPTBB III. KWANOTDNO.
215
Descripiiou of the City of Cautou. Chiue(>e
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Vol. XIX. p. 369-376 and Vol. XX. p.
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The Aborigines of Hainan. — China Be*
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Th Miaotse of Canton. — Chinese Repof^i-
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Pakfaoi. p. 505-514. — Samghni. p. 470-
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4 The \a Aborigines of Kiangchow, HaTnnn.
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Svrifllioe R.— The Aborigines of HainAti.
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Mayers W. F. — Historical and StatiFi^
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SchselTer K. L. — The Lois or Abori^neR
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Little M" A. — Hanoi and Kwangchow-
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The Peninsula of Leichow. — China Re-
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Ethnographical Sketches of the Hakka ^
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?63-267).
Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn,
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Ch. VII. p. 133-UL Part II. p. 62^ 72).
Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
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Miohie A. — The Englishman in China.
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first China War. 1839-1842.— Vol. I. Ch.
XVII. p. 308-350. The An-ow War.— Vol.
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Norman H. — The Peoples and Politics
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Oolqahoun A.— China in Transformation.
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Collins vrood C. — Naturalist's Rambles
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Norman F. M.— Martello Tower in China.
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Kitel E. J. — Select Chapters from an
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Review. Vol. XX. p. 173201 etc).
Eitel E. J. — The History of Hongkong. <
China Review. (Vol. XX. and XXI.
passim).
Eitel E. J. — Supplementary' Notes on the >
History' of Hongkong, with tables showing
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(Vol. XXII. passim^
Notices of Hongkong.— Chinese Repository.
(VoL XIV. p. 291-298).
Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn,
1896-97. (Import trade in Hongkong.
Part I. Ch. VII. p. 143-144. — Communi-
cation in S. W. Cliina by the West River.
JPart II. p. 78-&3. —Freight and tranship-
ment to Wuchow and Tiinnan.p. 100-107
and 167-177).
216
BBCnON in. THK 80UTHBII BBftlOM.
Hongkong Chronicle and Directory. —
(Pablished anniuJly : contains List of.
Foreign Besidento in the Far East, des-
cription and statistics of the principal
Treaty Ports).
-^Tomer J. A.~Kwangtiuig or Five years
in Sooth China. London, 18M.(Honf^ng
described. Ch. VIII. p. 97-110).
The Colony of Hongkong.— China Beview^.
(VoL I. p. 163-176).
Wawmei. — A tnnvers-l^ Chise. Farisi
1878. (Typhon k Hongkong, p. 415 119).
Eariy Portngnese Interconrse with China.
China Review. (Vol. XXHI. p. 318-
321).
- — 'Origin of the Colony of Macao. — China
B«view. (VoL XXIV. 137-142).
^.^-'ICaoao in the eariy Days. — China Riview.
(VoL XXV. p. 183-188).
Macao's Deeds of Arms. — China Review.
(Vol. XXI. p. 140-159).
^^Marray's Ohiiui. — Edinburgh, 1843.
Arrival of the Portuguese in China (Vol.
I. Ch. VI. p. 182).
^ The Portuguese in China. — Chinese
Repoutoiy. (Vol HI. p. 289-303).
-Historical Sketch of Macao. — Chinese
Repoutory. (VoL I. p. 396-406, and 425-
446. -*> Assassinafcion of Governor Ama-
raL Vol. XVIH. p. 513-544. — Camoens*
Cave. VoL VHL p. 563-560).
Qatslair. — China opened. London, 1838.
(Macao. VoL L p. 144-148).
A. The Kngl«***"*^" in China,
London, 1900. (Macao. VoL I. Ch. XV.
p. 287-196).
NonoMill.— The Peoples and Politics of
the Kast. London, 1895. (Macao, the
Lnsitanian Thole. <^. XD. p. 183-194).
MofllAlto «D JemM. — Hisiorio Macao.
Hongkong. .1908.
WilMMML^The Bliddle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Settlement of Macao. Vol. I.
Ch. nL p. 140-141);
Tamer J. A. — Kwangtong or Five
years in S. China. London, 1891. (Macao
described. Ch. XI. p. 137-139).
FflvesnaB-HIUbrd A. B. — The Attach^
at Peking. London, 1900. (Hongkong and
Canton, p. 1-32).
CHAPTER IV.
THE COAST REGION
(FOKIEN IB ft AND CH^KIANG ffi tt)-
FkOeien fJH H^ forms v?ith Chikkmg ^ 2l <^^ Min^M gQ ^
Viceroyalty. The Viceroy resides at Foochov; fJH ^. Formosa
Island or T'aiwan ^ fif, was formerly a pari of this Viceroyalty,
The two Provinces, both separated from Kiangsi iL IS ^V
high chains of mountains, both having a coast^line abounding in
bays and ports, both irrigated by short rivers, both principally
composed of porphyry and granite, remain considerably isolated
from the rest of China, and have a race and dialect proper to
each: Both have a large agricultural population. In the East,
their climate is tropical in Summer, and is without severe cold in
Winter. Towards the W., it becomes more continental, and the
mountains are covered with snow during .the Winter.
JFMiem IJUMi has few plains; iJhUcUmg ^{t in its Northern
part has a very large one, the continuation of that of Kiangsu
iL fle* CMMang ^ fL being more industrial, has larger towns
and easier communications with the neighbouring regions,
f. Tea is cultivated in both Provinces. Moreover, J^hikiang
produces silk in large quantity, v^le _^Mm seems to possess
abundant^ minerai wealth.
The Northern part of Chikiang ^ f£ has greatly suffered
from the T'aip'ing ^ ^ rebellion. Fokien HHH, more isolated,
has seldom suffered from the revolts which have afflicted the rest
of China.
218 SIGTION III. TBI SOOTHBRH aBOION.
r. Fokien 0 jj
j^irea. — 46^332 square miles. It is after Gh^kiang ^ 2ll,
and Kiangsu JI J^, the smallest of the Provinces.
Popolmtlon. — 22,870,000 inhabitants, or 493 to the
square mile. It is one of the most populated Provinces, and
occupies the fourth place, coming successively after Shantung
llj %. Kiangsu fL H and Hupeh JM ft.
IVame. — The name Fokien comes from two of its principal
towns : Jbochow Fu JH ^ /j^f and JiTienning Fu ^ Hf /j^f, and
means **happw e&iabiishmeni^.
Boiindmrlee. — Fokien is bounded on the
N. — By Ch^kiang ffi j^,
W. — By Kiangsi f£ |g,
8. — By Kwangtung g^ )|[,
E. — By the Formosa Channel and the EastOhina Sea.
Capital. — FOOCHOW jg Jfl /jj, on the Min-kiang BQ f£.
Oilier Prefectares. — Thme are 8 <f» tmmber.
T9 the N. JEL, on the coast :
!• Puhning Pu « « Iff .
To the N.W., ascending the Min-kiang f^ f£^ and iim
trihaiariee:
2r Ycnp'ing Pu ii ^ «p,
3" Kienning Pu a « «p,
4» ShaownFaSg^Jflf.
On the coast^ to the & of the MSnr-kiang :
Se Hsinghwa Fa H il: MP,
&* Ts'tLenchow Fa Jft ^ HT,
T* Changchow Fa j» « *.
T4 the 8.W.:
8» T*iiigchow Fa fr « Ifr.
There are besides in Fokien two independent Chow ^
dues: Tungeh'un Chow ;^ ^ ^ and lj%mggen Chow K j|KM-
CHAPTBH lY. FOKIBN. 219
Aspeet and Cluuraeterlstics. — Fokien is a mountainous
countty, with the special characteristic that its chains are
almost parallel, and run S. W. to N. E. These chains hinder
the development of rivers. These latter either run into the sea
after a short course, or flowing between two chains, join the
largest river, the Minrhiang g^ fl[, which with great difficulty
has forced its way through the mountain ridges. Enjoying an
extensive coast-line with numerous bays and fine harbours, the
Province is well fitted for producing a sturdy race of fishermen.
It has also furnished the largest number of emigrants. Its
well cultivated soil produces good crops, especially tea, which
is in great demand. On account of its isolation, Fokien JH j^
has, perhaps better than any other Province, maintained its
dialects, which differ greatly from those of Ch^kiang ^ fx.
and Kwangtung Jfl ;^, and still more from the Mandarin lan-
guage. These dialects are spoken by those who have emigrated
to America, to the Straits Settlements and to South Africa.
Geological constitution. — The mountains which run through Fokien, as
well as through part of Ch(^kiang, are probably of less ancient formation than those of
the rest of China, and bear a close resemblance to the geological formations of Japan.
They are the outcome of^a mighty upheaval, interspersed in the centre with pcrphyry
and granite. Sandstone, as well as schist and limestone, are also found there, but
these do not form the principal formation. Volcanic strata are met with in some
places, especially in the islands.
Orosrapliy. — Fokien JS ^ is covered with a series of
mountain-chains running parallel to the sea. The most Wes-
tern of these, the TayiMing "^^ ^ ^^ forms the limit between
Fokien jjg ^ and Kiangsi JH H* "^^^ summits of these chains
generally exceed 3,000 feet, and attain near Gh^kiang ff^ f£^
even an elevation of 9,000 feet. The surface rises in ge-
neral from B. to W. Thus Yenp'ing Fu Jg ^ ;j^ is ^.00
to 600 feet higher than Foochow JM jHI /fiF* ^^t even along
the coast, there are a few summits which reach over 3,000
feet.
Climate. — The climate of Fokien is semi-tropical in the Eastern portion of
the Province, and the thermometer rarely falls there below 33^ Fahrenheit. In thu
Western part, the climate is temperate and even very cold during Winter.
220
SBcnoir in. ths southibii Bi^nm.
— A large river, the JHst-Mmt^ BQ 2Ci
with its tributaries, drains the greater part of Fokien jjg J^.
Several coast-riveta irrigate the N. E. and S. B. The affluents
of the Ilan-kiangfini water the S. Western part of the Provinee.
FOOCHOW JB M MP AND THE M1N RIVER ^ {£.
The Jfii» kioMW ^ iL or Snake river. This river is for-
med by three principal tributaries which unite near Yenp'ing
J^o M ¥ iff • Tfe^se are : 1* the KietOsH jg gg, which comes
from the X. E., and passes through Kienning Fu j$ ^ J|f ; 2*
the ShmmtmM^ V ft S« which comes from the W., and runs
through the Prefecture of the same name : 3* the TWwrfciimii'f
K ft dl^ coming in from the S. W., running near the
district city of the same name, and after a bend towards the
S., taking again a Northeriy direcUon. The largest of these
tributaries is the JnenitS, which, almost from its source near
Ch^kiang ^ JCt »» navigable for small boats, despite the rapids
and rocks that obstruct it. Fairly large-sized craft, called
frm lafs,can go as far up as Kienning Fu ft Hf j(|p, in the flood-
season. Those three rivers, like their tributaries, swell rapidly
in the flood-season, and in the heavy Summer rains. Their
level then rises considerably above the ordinary, and their current
becomes exceedin^y rapid and impossible to ascend.
GHAPTBR IV. FOKIBN.
221
From Yenp'ing Fu j^ ^ ^, the Min-kiang |Q {C is com-
pletely formed, its current becomes slower, but shoals, rocks
and rapids render it of liltle use till Shuik'ow tK D is reached.
Here navigation on the river begins in reality, arid fair-sized
junks find enough water in every season, and the shoals are
no longer to be feared. After a bend below Fdochow |g ^ jj^,
the river flows into Ihe Eastern China Soa by two branches,
between which lies an island. The Northern Channel is the
deepest. At low-water, the depth on the bar is 12 feet, and
large ships cannot enter the river, but are compelled to await
the rise of the tide, when the depth of the water reaches 27,
and sometimes 30 feet. Steamers have again to stop, and this
time finally, at Pagoda Anchoraae. 9 miles below Foochj)w,
which is itself 35 miles distant from the mouth of the river.
Kocks lying across the bed of the river above Pagoda Anchorage,
with the alluvial deposits thus formed, have created a second
bar, which only boats of light draught can cross. Throughout
all its last part, between Foochow and the sea, the Min-kiang
BQ iL ruiis through a deep valley, and widens out occasionally
from half a mile to 2 miles. The Min-kiang ^ ^, with its
tributary the Kienk*i j^ ]g|, is about 350 miles in length.
To the S.E., is the Zung-kiang ]K jt, a river scarcely
navigable even for local craft, on account of its little depth and
its numerous rapids. It flows into the sea, near Amoy ^ p^
(Hsiam^n).
(For the coast-line see Section IV).
Fauna and Flora. — The fanna and flora of Fokien are those of the tropical
sone, in the Western part, and those of the temperate zone in the Eastern portion of
the Province. Even in this latter part, the valleys offer specimens, although in small
quantity, of the flora of the tropics. Suffice it to mention OEly the species the most
widely diffased : the tea, orange and banana-trees, the lichee or persimmon, splendid
i)r-trees, maples and camphor-trees. The sugarcane is cultivated in the region aroqnd
Amoy.
Asricaltaral Wealtb. — This consists principally of tea.
Rice, wheat, the sugar-cane, the opium pot)py, as well as ginger
are also cultivated. The inhabitants, by a skilful system of
222 8BCTION III. THB SODTHBBM EBaiOir.
terraces, have succeeded in cultivating every patch of ground,
even to the summit of steep hills.
To this wealth must be added the fishing industry, which
supports a large number of people, especially along the coast.
Mineral Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of Fokien is most
important, but so far it has not been worked. It consists of
gold, silver, lead, tin and coal.
Salt is extracted from sea-water.
Fopalation. — Fokion, owing to its itoUtion, has better preserved its primitive
race than any other of the Provinces. The people are proud, enen^tie and Tentnresome,
and fumistli excellent fishermen, as well as good cultivators and colonists. They have
their dialects, customs and drt'ss, and like the population of Kwangtung, hold aloof from
and despise the boat people or Titngkia* }| DC, who are scattered throughout the oonn-
tr}*. In the N .£., the Siakas or Siik'ias fjg ^Siik*ohs) have their own peculiar dress and
customs. Their hair is of a brownish colour. They intermingle with the Chinese, and
seem to be of the same race. — It is stated that the opium habit has caused more
ravages in this Provinct' than anywhere else.
Lon^ua^e. — Fokien has its o\^'n peculiar language, which comprises several
dialects. The principal of these dialects are : !• the Fokienese dialect properly so-called.
It is harsh and guttural, and spoken by about 5 millions of the population. It is used
throuKhout the Prefectures of Fokien, Yenp'ing and Hwahsing; 2* the Amof ^^j^ImM
It has its peculiar nasal sounds,and is spoken by 10 mUlions and more oi the population,
both in the Province and in the island of Formosa. The greater part of Ohinese emi-
Krauts speak this dialiH?t, which has also numerous variations.
Towns and Princlpul Centrea FOOCHOW ff JM JSF-
— Population, 6'24,000 inhabitants. — A large city situated in
a wellcultivaled region, on the left bank of the Min-kiang PQ ft,
and about 35 miles from its mouth. The walled town, including
a Tartar-jjuarler, is 2 miles from the water's edge. A numerous
population swarms also on the banks of the river. Opposite the
town JH ih« Foreign Sotllement, on Nant'ai ^ -^ Island. A
brhl/^r, \\\:y yards in length, made ofVpTfilrttm-TIag^^tones and
known aH lh«' Fmio BrUMge, or Bridge €f ten thaueana ogeBjS
# *| (WanHhowkiao), unites Nant'ai with the left bank of the
MIn-lilanK,anil the populous JMand of Chungeh^ ^ %. Poo-
<^»'ow, Ihoutrh the homo of expectant ofTicials, and a literary
""•> inililary r.ntre, has also considerable industries and trade.
H«lk and woolU-n ntuITH, paper and household furniture are
CHiSTTBR IV. FOKIEN. 223
manufactured there, while timber, canes, paper umbrellas, silk,
tea, camphor, paper and oranges are exported, in exchange for
-cotton and woollen goods, kerosene oil, sugar, flour and matches.
Formerly the tea-trade was extensive, but it has of late declined,
Ceylon tea having supplanted it on the English market. The
total trade of the port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 16,738,718;
in 1904, Tls. 17,265,968; and in 1905, Tls. 17,724,198. As at
Canton^ a large boat-population has established itself a little
above Chungshow t|* ||.
Nine miles down the river, at the place where the two
streams meet, and bolow Nant'ai island, is JPagoda Anchorage
or IJoHngtfaii JS M ^« ^"^ Mamoy arsenal. This arsenal,
situated on the left bank of the river, opposite a small island
where docks are established, employs 1,700 workmen, and
constructs large ships. The establishment is administered by
French experts, in the employ of the Chinese Government.
Along the coast, proceeding from the mouth of the Min-
kiang ^ H io Kwangtung J| ^ :
T9^1&enchow ^Pu ^ f^ J^- — Formerly a celebrated port,
but at the present day obstructed by sand-banks which have
caused it to be supplanted by Amoy. It still remains a large
and populous town. Several consider it to be the ancient SUMun
mentioned by Marco Polo, and then one of the most populated
cities of the world. Trade is carried on through the port of
Nganhai ^J*.
Amoy or Hsiamhi M PI- — Population, 11.4,000 inha-
bitants. The harbour, situated to the W. of an island at the
mouth of the Lung-kiang t| 2L» >» excellent, and one of the finest
on the coast. It has very good anchorage and docks, where
large steamers may be repaired. BmigruHon is extensive, and
^has at times reached 90,000 in a year. Its exports are princi-
pally : bricks and tiles, hemp bags, paper umbrellas, tea, sugar
and tobacco. It imports cotton and woollen goods, kerosene oil,
rice, mats, flour and matches. Trade is chiefly carried on with
Formosa and Japan. The total value of the port has been in
1905, Hk. Tls. 18,654,610. A Japanese Settlement was marked
224
8BCTI0N III. THE SOUTHBRM EMIOlf.
out in 1899, and its occupants are extremely enterprising. —
Amoy is connected by submarine cable (French-owned) with
Tongking. — The Japanese line from Formosa, lands at Sharp-
Peak H >S lU (Sanshth-shan, i.e. three stone mountain).
Opposite Amoy is
the little island of
Kmkma-M «[ iR Ift
(Drum-wave island).
In the midst of the fo-
liage and around the
foreign houses, rises
a new Chinese city,
with more elegant
and better buitt dwell-
ings than those of
Amoy.
Chan/ffehow Fk* ^
ffl Iff. — Population,
500,000 inhabitants.
A large town, with
broad paved streets,
situated on the Lung-
ki^ng 11 fill 2^ miles
from the sea.
S$JK- —A rather
frequented port, lying
at the extremity of
a bay, to the N. of
Amoy. The surround-
ing country, like that
of Changchow Fu, is
rich and well cultivated,
now started there.
o
<
X
o
<
Vast plantations of sugarncane are
A9eema4nQ ike Jfto-Mongr g| Jq and the Kienk'i j^ g| :
CHAPm IV. FOKIIK. 325
YmtpHng JFu JjE 3^ Jff. — Population, 200,000 inhabitants.
A town situated at the confluence of the principal tributaries of
the Min-kiang.
Kimming JFU ^ fff, Jff. — A town built at the junction of
two rivers, in the principal tea growing country, at a place to
which large boats can ascend, and on the road leading from
the N. to Foochow, to which facts it owes its activity. It is better
constructed and more populated than Yenp'ing Fu. Its trade
consists chiefly in tea and salt.
Ch^unanpan hsien ^ ^ fgf,. — Population, 100,000 inha-
bitants. A district town situated at the foot of the Wui -^ ^
hUi. This hill rises to aboiit 1,000 feet over the level of the
plain, and is composed of schist, sandstone and granite. The best
tea of Fokfen j^ ^ grows in the neighbourhood. English people
call it the ''Holrea hiU^^^ and the tea grown there ^tBohaaLUail^
Ch*ungngan hsicn is the principal market for the article, and it
is forwarded in large quantities through Kiangsi 2l W*
On the N» of the ARnrkiangi upon the coast, proceeding
Northwards :
TAmUeUma hHen ^ jX JR* — Population, 250,000 inhabi-
tants. A frequented port.
Inning -FIc H 1)$ jj|Sf . — A port formerly of considerable
importance, and still a thriving and busy town. The best opium
of Fokien is cultivated in the neighbourhood.
Industry and Commeren. -7 We have seen, when des-
cribing the principal towns, the chief articles of industry and
trade. In regard to eotporitf the most important arc timber,
bricks, pottery, silk, tea, sugar, paper, camphor and oranges.
HiifliwayB of CSommnnlcatlon. — Besides a very brisk
service of boats along the coast, especially to Foochow |B ^
JfJ, there are only 2 land routes which deserve to be particularly
mentioned :
1® The road which starts from Whiehaw FU ^ jf^ Jf^, in
Ch^kiang fjfi ^, and leads to Foochow jji M JSF-
15
226 SBGTIOlf III. THE SOUTHBHlf REGION.
2® The road which starts from Foochow, and passes through
Yenp'ing Fu J^ Zf^ Jff and Kienning Fu ^Jjjg, Jff. It then forks
into several branches, running some into Ch^kiang ^ f£, and
one into Kiangsi fL Hi ^i^ Gh'ungngan hsien ^ $ fgf^.
Open l*ortB. — Three ports of this Province are open to
Foreign trade : Amop or HHam&ft ^ P^ (in the Prefecture of
Ts'uenchow Fu ^ H\ //}), Foochow j^ ^H |A^, at Pagoda Ancho-
rage, and Sanittnffao H % ]ft ^^ Santiuaio (in the Prefecture of
Puhning Fu jji K ;ff).
Iffeie. — In tlie Amoy dialect the Chineoe eharacier 1^
ch*a (tea-plant), is pronounced ieh^ and it is from this source
that the French word tMy the German thee, the Italian i^ (also
da) and the Spanish t^ are all derived, as well as the English
word lea. It may be also remarked here that the word J^mk,
French fonque, Spanish and Portuguese junco, comes from the
Chinese word ehu/^anfH^ (boat or ship), pronounced in the Amoy
and Foochow dialects respectively, eh*un and cti^ion^^ and in
Javanese fuftff.
CHAPTBR IV. CHtelANG. 227
2". ChekiangmU.
Area. — 36,680 square miles. It is the smallest of the
eighteen Provinces.
PopnlaHon. — 11,580,000 inhabitants, or 310 to the
square mile.
Name. — Ch^kiang ^ f£ signifies **crooked river^^ Pro-
vince. This name has been given it on account of the bore or
tidal wave of its Northern river, which drives back, and as it
were bends its waters. This is the meaning of the character
fjff eM i.e. lo bend ar break.
Boundaries. — Ch^kiang is bounded on the
N. — By Kiangsu JQ jj|^,
W. — By Nganhwei ^^^ Kiangsi f£ f|, and Fokien IS^,
S. — By Fokien jji jf,
E. — By the Eastern China Sea.
CmpiiBl. — HANGCHOW FV iia ji\ Jff^—U is built at the
Southern terminus of the Grand Canal, and on the left bank of
the TsMent'ang-kiang ^ ^ fL*
Otber Prefectures. — These are lO im number.
To the N. of Hangchow Fu tS; ffl ^, on the Grand Canal :
V Huchow Yumm w,
2^ Kiahsing Fn S XJKp.
A9cend4ng the Tafientfang-kUmff ^^fL aaul its affluetUs:
3" Ynenchow TuKt^M^
4° Kinhwa Fn * ^ #,
6" K*1ichow Pn « ^ «p.
Not far from the coast, proceeding from the mouth of the
Ts'ient^ang-kiang ^ ^ fL towards Fokien || ^ :
6" Shaohsing Fn $S X A",
7** Ningpo Pn JK ft «P,
8» T'aichow Pn -ft ^ ».
Ascending the Ngeu-kiang ^ 2t '
9" Wfinchow Fu ia ^ *,
10" Ch'uchow Pn tf « *.
228 SECTION III. THB SOUTHERN RBOION.
There is besides in Chdkiang one independetU T*ing f^:
TinghiH T*ing % U B^
Aspect and dliaraeterteilcs. — Situated between Ngan-
hv;ei ^l/fi and KiangsuXLjSk ^^ '^^ ^'' ^^^^' Folt ten jjg jH on the
S. , CMkiang ^ f£ has some /eaiures of these three Pravineem in
the tracts -which border on each of them. The Toy Haling ^ ^
^ or great etaek fnountaine terminate in the Province, After
crossing its centre from S.W. to N.E., they continue in the sea,
and form the Chusan jif \jj (Cheushan) archipelago. This range of
mountains divides the Province into two nirongig eonira^
ttmg regions. Jn the &, the soil^ climate, fauna, flora, resources,
language^ people, the deeply-indented coasts^ everything bears a
strong resemblance to Fokien jjg j^. Jn the Nsrthem region,
the contrary is the case, and the country resembles rather its two
neighbouring Provinces : vast plains, canals, embankments, rice^
fields^ the culture of the silkv;orm in the E,, tea-grox^ing,
ys;ooded hills, rivers navigable in the flood-season, tracts laid
waste by the T'aip'ing ^ 2^ rebellion, but rising from their
ruins in the Western part. The poverty of Ch^kiang ^ fL in
regard to minerals , is largely counterbalanced by its agricultural
products, the prosperous state of its industry, its excellent harbours,
and a highly developed networwk of navigable streams. The
Province is fast recovering the prosperity and dense population
it enjoyed previous to the T'aip^ing -jj^ Zp rebellion,
Geolo^cal cotMSiitotioo. — In the Western part of the Province, to the N. of
the TsHent^ang-kiang^ schist, sandstone and limestone are the predominant rocks. In
the E. of the Province, the Great Plain is of alluvial formation.
To the S. of the T»'ienVang-kiang, porphyry and granite are the principal rocks,
with limestone and sandstone here and there, while traces of volcanic eruptions are
found in the Chusan Islands.
Oroi^rapby. — The T0y€tHing :fc ^ jj| or great stack
mountains terminate in this Province by t%vo partOiH hrunches
running S.W.-N.B. The Souihern branch reaches an elevation
of nearly 4,000 feet in the T*ientfai-shan 5^ -^ lij, S. W. of
Ningpo ^ iS, and running into the sea, ends at the Chusan
^ ill (Cheushan) archipelago.
CHAPTER IV. CHlftKIANG. 229
The whole country lying S. of the Tayu-ling ^ J$ 'M is
mountainous.
Between Ningpo ^ jg and Hangchow jg^ )^, and also to
the W., as well as to the N. and N. E. of Hangchow, extends
a iarge plain.
Further to the W., throughout the central and upper region
of the Ts*ient'ang-kiang ^ ^ iLi the country is again moun-
tainous, and resembles much by its broken and picturesque hills
the S. of Nganhwei ^ l/fi. The T'ienmuh'Shan ?c B lU ^^
Heavenly Eye mountain, to Ihe W. of Hangchow 1^ f^, Is
nearly 5,000 feet high. Another range more to the W., connected
with the T^ienmuh-shan, and called Lungtanrshan H M [Ij
(dragon-gall mountain), constitutes the boundary-line between
Nganhwei ^ ^ and Ch^kiang 5^ f£.
Climate. — To the S. of the Tayii-lin^, tho climate is Bemi -tropical as in Fokien,
but the heat is less intense. To the N. of the Tayii-lin^, the climate is much more
temperate, less warm in the Summer and colder ia the Winter. Throughout the Great
Plain, the climate is tho same as that of Shanghai, though a little warmer on account of
the difference of latitude.
Hydn^i^rapliy. — The watershed of the Province is establi-
shed by the Tayu-ling :M J§i ^ mountains. Tfie T^ien^ang-
kiang IH jlf jli a large and beautiful river, runs Northward,
while to the S. flow others of lesser importance.
The Tt^ient^mig-kiang ^ ^ iL is formed by iwo streams,
which run between the two parallel branches of the Tayii-ling,
as mentioned above. These two streams flow in opposite direc-
tions, one from the W., passing through K'uchow Fu ^ ;H1
)ff, the other from the E., passing through Kinhwa Fu ^ H ;j|^.
Both unite at Lank*i hsien M % M^ ^"^ ^^^^^ ^ passage through
the porphyry in the Southern branch of the Tayii-ling :k j^ ^
range. At Yenchow Fu j|||| j^ Jff, the river receives an important
tributary from Nganhwei 5g %, after which it flows into the
sea at Hangchow |j5; ^. The estuary widens out into a large
bay, at the entrance of which lie tl;e Chusan -fjj^ llj (Cheushan)
Islands.
The Ts*ient'ang-kiang fii^tt. '» too shallow at its mouth,
230 SECTION III. THE SOUTHBRN REGION.
and too obstructed by shoals, to allow vessels of heavy tonnage
to reach Hangchow jgi jf\. Small steam-boats run toYenchowFu
Sk iW Jff^ notwithstanding a few rapids. At the flood-season,
fairly large junks go far up the river and its affluents. At the
same period, several of these latter are navigable almost up to
their source, although at times boats have to be carried over
difficult places. Numerous rafts are also floated down on the
river and its aflluents.
The tide is very strong at the mouth of the TsMent'ang-kiang
flm^ZCf ^"^ rushing against the current of the river, occasions
a violent bare or eaffre^ which rises to a height of 15 feet, and
is dangerous for small boats when taken unawares.
Among the other pritusipal waterways are :
The Yung-hiang ^^ or Ningpo ^ j$ river, formed by the
junction of two streams which meet at this city. It is navigable
up to Ningpo for steamers of considerable tonnage. The two
rivers however can be navigated for some distance further.
The Tsiao^kianff ^tft ?1 or T'aichow Fu -fj j^\ Jff river.
The Ngeu-Mang || ^, also called the Wu-Mang, A fine
river, the banks of which are rather steep, and resemble those
of the Min-kiang ^ JQ, save that they are less cultivated. Des-
pite its rapids, it is navigable for fairly large boats as far as Ch'u*
chow Fu iK W M' Several of its tributaries can also be utilised.
It rises near the Northern border of Fokien |g ^ Province, and
flows into the sra a little beyond W^nchow Fu jg ^ Jff,
Numerous canals intersect the North-Eastern plain. The
principal of these is the Orand CatuMl ^ fpf (Yun-ho or Transport
river), which terminates at Hangchow 101 ^, but its waters are
not connected with those of the Ts'ient*ang-kiang ^ ^ f£,
A canal connects also this town with Ningpo % ^ Jfi- It
passes by Shaohsing Fu |g H jj^, but terminates on the right
bank of the Ts'ient'ang-kiang. The dilTcrence of water-level
in the rivers and the canals prevents their inter-communication,
and this is a great obstacle to navigation in these parts. Tra-
vellers must either change from their boats or have them
transported overland ironi one waterway to another.
CUAPTBR IV. CHiKIANG. 231
A canal, more to the S., connects W^nchow Fu jg ^ ||^
and P'ingyang hsien ^ |^ J||.
(For the T^ai-hu -js: M ^^ Great take, the Southern part
of which borders on Northern Ch^kiang, tee Section II. Ch. IV.
p. 156).
To protect the country from the violent lidcs, n sirong sea-
wall has been constructed from the Yung-kiang ^ ft to a point
opposite Hangchow (t/t ^}.
(For the coast-line, see Section IV).
Fauiia and Flora. — To the S. of the Tayii-liug, the fauna and flora are those
of Fokieu, but less luxuriant and less abundant. The banana becomes rare, but many
orange and palm-trees are found and especially splendid bamboos.
To the N. of the Tayii-ling, the fauna and flora are identical with those of
Kiangsu and Southern Nganhwei ; the tea -plant grows there, and aUo rice and mul-
berry-trees.
Among the principal species of animals found in the Province, suffice it to
mention the panther, tiger, wild-boar, wolf, deer, and several kinds of monkeys ; among
the trees: the tallow and varnish-trees, the pine, fir and camphor- trees, the bamboo,
mulberry, chestnut, azalea, camellia, kidney-bean tree and rhododenron or rose-bay.
The coast and also the rivers abound with fish. On the coast are found oysters
of extraordinary size, and in the rivers, turtles measuring 3 feet in length.
Asricaltuiml Wealtb. — This consists chiefly in tea, rijce^
silk, coUon and indigo, together with fruU, especially oranges.
Wheat, maize, the sugarcane, hemp and the opium-poppy are
also cultivated.
Some parts of the Western region are fairly well wooded,
and this is a source of revenue for the country. Vegetable
tallow and beeswax are also important articles of trade.
Mineral WealtlL — The mineral wealth of Ch^kiang is of
little importance. Some coal-mines arc worked at Ch*uchow Fu
M i^ JH' Building-stone, lime, gypsum and alum are the only
articles which are lound to any extent.
Salt is extracted from sea-water.
Populatton. — This Province has much suffered and been almost depopulated
by the T'aip*ing rebellion ; it has had however little recourse to the other Provinces to
recuperate itself. The population, active and indnstrions, fQnli^hes excellent seamen,
who have succeeded in monopolizing a large part of the coast-trade of the neighbouring
regions, especially of the lower Yangtze-kiaug. They do not differ in features and
23? SECTION III. THE SOUTHBBN RBGION.
customs from the population of this latter tract. S. of theTayii-ling, are found dipsrsed
hero and there, remnants of a former race, the Zikaa or SUkias 4jg HC called
also the Yaos K (jackals), probably on acconnt of their resemblance with the tribes of
the same name, who occupy the upper leach of the Si-kiang or West river.
iMWi^uakgB.'^ Mandarin is spoken in all the towns, and even in many places
outside them. Two dialecU however, are spoken by the people of the country : the
Winchow dialect^ which prevails to the S. of the Tayft-lin^. It is near akin to the
dialecM of Pokien, and is not understood by a mandarin-speaking Chinaman. It is
spoken by a million of individuals; — (^ Ningpo di^lectf which is used to the N. of the
TayA-liiig. It resembles the Sangkiang or Shanghai dialect, and is more easily under-
stood by a Chinaman of the N. It is spoken by the great majority of the population
throughout N. Chokiang. Xli^ T*aichow Fu and Shaohting Fu dialect* are two varieties
of the Niugpo dialect; the latter is harder to be understood by a native of Ningpo.
CiUes mad PrlndiMa Centres. — HANGCHOW ru f^t
; jVi )ff' — Population, 350,000 inhabitants. Situated 150 miles
1 8.W. of Shanghai, and 80 from Ningpo, it is a treaty port and
' one of the Gnest and most famous cities of China. ^Ab^ve is
Heavem^, says the Chinese proverb, ^and be^w, Sooeh^w amd
Mmm0€k0w^» It is built on the left bank of the Ts'ieni'ang-
kiang H jf jH, and at the Southern terminus of the Grand
Canal. Its site is most beautiful, beside the river with its
great tidal wave, while to the rear of the city rises a grmefal hill
crowned with pagodas and kiosks, and in the distance is a
range of mountains furrowed with deep valleys. One of the
sights of Hangchow is the famous Si-hu 5 9| oi* ^^^^^ Mk«»
celebrated by poets, covered with elegant boats, dotted with
islets upon which are numerous kiosks and villas, while in
Summer the surface of its water is decked with thousands of
water-lilies. Hangchow is sUH noted as a pleasure-resort. It is
also a silk manufacturing centre, but it no longer enjoys its former
celebrity, for praclically speaking, it has but one long street
bordered with rich warehouses, the rest of the city being a vast
desert since its devasUtion by the T'aip'ings. It itHparis kerosene
oil, soap, sugar, iron and copper: and eacponm green tea, piece-
goods, medicines and paper fans. The total net value of the port has
been in 190.1. Ilk TIs. 15,607,133: in 190i, TIs. 17,747.662;
and in 1905, lis. 17,496,980.
About 30 miles to the N. of the city is the ii lafuKym eT
CHAPTBR IV. CHlftRlANG. 233
^ M^kkanrshan H -p (Ij, resorted to in Bummer by foreigners.
To the N. of Hangehow :
Kiahoing Fu^f^Jlf, — A town intersected with numerous
canals, and ruined also formerly by the T'aipMngs -j^ ip. It is
famous for its gauzes and silk neckties.
Huehow FU^ j^ J(f. — Population, 100,000 inhabitants.
A town situated like the preceding one, in a plain abounding
in mulberry-trees and rice-fields. It was the last place where
the T*aip*lng8 ^^ held out in Gh^kiang fjfif£. Here their leader
at the head of 60,000 men had to surrender after a desperate
battle. The Province henceforth enjoyed peace (1865).
Along the oen-ooaoif a little distance inland :
Shaokoing Fnfgif^}^. — Population, 500,000 inhabitants.
A large city styled sometimes like Soochow jjgf j^ the '^Venice
of China^\ It is situated in the centre of a fertile plain inter-
sected by large canals. Excellent rice*spirit is manufactured
there. It supplies a large part of the secretaries to the various
Provincial Government offices of the Empire.
Ningpo F^^^fff (tranquil wave). — Population, 260,000
inhabitants. One of the five ports opened by the Ranking treaty
of 1842. It is built in a plain, on the left bank of the Yung-
kiang ^ {£, and is 15 miles from the sea. The town is walled
in and surrounded by a moat. The streets are fine and spanned
by memorial arches. It possesses a valuable library of Ghinese
works, and manufactures household furniture, matting and
carpets. The principal imporis are kerosene oil, cotton piece*
goods, matches, sugar, coaU opium, tin, iron, soap and candles.
Its exports are rush-hats, matting, paper fans and umbrellas,
green tea, carpets, raw cotton, medicines, groundnut oil and
joss-paper (tinfoil paper in the form of shoes of sycee, burnt by
the Chinese before the shrine of thl^god of wealth, and at the
burial of the dead). Ice-preserved nsh is a considerable article
of commerce. The total net value of the port has been in 1903,
Hk. Tls. 22,240,093; in 1904, Tls. 21,297,412; and in 1905,
Tls. 19,163,630.
234 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.
ffhuOkmc Fu ^ j^ J(f. — Population, 80,000 inhahitanls.
A treaty port situated on the right bank of the Ngeu-kiangQ^j^t,
a few miles from the sea. It formerly monopolized the tea
trade, but this has much declined of late, owing to careless
cultivation and selection. The principal imparis are kerosene
oil, palm-leaf fans, cotton yarn and piece-goods, aniline dyes,
sugar and matches. The exports are limber and soft wood in
large quantity, paper umbrellas (kiltysols), medicines, orangrs
(33,385 piculs in 1905, or 39,744 cwt weight), otter skins and
tobacco leaf. The total net value of the port has been in 1903,
Ilk. Tls. 2,589,333; in 1904, Tls. 2,388,699; and in i905,
Tls. 2,257,02i.
Jh the C/MfMin ;^ ilj (Cheu-shan) JsUmdB :
Tinghai T*ina % % 0. — Population, 30,000 inhabitants.
Capital of the Ghusan (Cheushan) ;^ }\\ archipelago, and a com-
mercial town, exporting matting, ropes and fruit. It is a strategic
point of great importance, but its harbour is difficult of access.
Ascending the Tti'tentfanff-kimig and its affluents :
YSnehaw Fu iSt f^ )(f' -- Population, 15,000 inhabitants.
A town well situated at the confluence of the Ts^ient^angkiang
and a tributary flowing into it from Nganhwei $ ^. The place
does a good trade, and exports indigo, paper, timber, tea and
beeswax.
Jjunk^i hMet^ M % %* — Population, 200,000 inhabitants.
A large mart at the junction of the two rivers which form
the Ts*ient'ang-kiang. Devastated by the T*aip*ing rebellion,
it has rapidly risen from its ruins. The pawnshops and banks
are in the hands of Nganhwei people $ flt A 5 1*^^ foreign
goods and native cloth stores are conducted by Shaohsing Fu
|g H jj^ merchants, while the Fokienese |@ ® A- monopolize
the sugar, date, fruit and general-merchandise trade. The
Chinaware business is carried on by natives of Kiangsi f^ f|.
Kinhwa JFIi ^^Jfi- — A town well situated, and celebrated
for its hams, its preserved eggs and its ginseng.
K*iichow /^# ^ ^ Jj^. — A commercial city, up to which
large junks can ascend, as to Kinhwa Fu. Excellent fruit grow
CHAPTER lY. CH&KIANG^
235
in the surrounding country. It exports to Lank'i hsien |j| ^
JH large quantities of paper, cereals, bamboo and timber.
Industry mad Comiuerce. — Tiic chief products of Ch^-
kiang comprise silk piece-goods, carpets, matting and household
furniture.
Its principal eopparis are silk and satins, tea, rice and oranges;
its ImparU are cotton piece-goods, kerosene oil and opium.
Half the trade of the Province is carried pxK through Shanghai
±»'
Hiffliways of Cominnnlcailon. — Nearly all the commu-
nications are made hy jjggierw^fs, the sea route, rivers and
canals. IHtches connect the water courses beyond the places
where they are no longer navigable. It is thus that through
communication is established with Nganhwei $ ||j[, Kiangsi f£
jS and Fokien ^ ^, as well as between the tributaries of the
Ts*ient'ang^^Eiang ^ ^ fL and of the Ngeu-kiang B[ i£.
The important viaduct which reaches from the mouth of the
Yung-kiang ^ f£ till opposite Hangchow Fu ;^ ^ ^ deserves
special mention. Constructed formerly on a swamp, it is about 5
feet wide and 95 miles in length, and is still used both as a road
and as a tow-path for boats travelling on the canal, which it
skirts, now on one side now on the other.
Open Ports. — Chekiang ^ Ql has three ports open to
foreign trade : Ninffpo Fu ff ^ )ff, WSnchaw ^^ ^& j^ f^ and
Hanachaw l^* fgi )l\ M-
Note. — Hangchow Fu ^ ;Hi ^^^ the capital, of the Empire
during the laat half uf tnTSuT^ dyi^sty A.D. 1127-1280.
References :
PROVINCE OF FOKIEN.
- A travers la Chiue. Paris,
1878. (Ch. I. p. 24-18. Le Fleuve Min. —
Ch. II. p. 44-66 et Ch. III. p. 07-^5. La
Ville et lea environs de Fou-tcheou).
^>iloclier. — Notes de Voyage en Chine
oeutrale. (le Fo-kien).
Ooihonay. — Lo Fokien. (Missions Catho-
liqaes 1901).
Dovid. — Journal de Voyage. Paris. 1875.
(Vol. II. Ch. 28 a la fin).
STobOda. — Futschau Fou am MiniluBse.
1888.
236
SECTION III. THI SOUTHBRN RBOION.
Williams.- The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 107-119).
Grosler. — General Description of China.
London, 1705. (Vol. I. p. 52-64).
Wlnlerboiliani. — Historical and Geogr.
View of the Chinese Empire. London,
1795. p. 70-79.
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Notices of Amoy and its Inhabitants. —
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Notices of Foochow — Chinese Repository.
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Navigation of the Min River. — Chinese
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Visit to Changchow Fu. — Chinese Repo-
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Expedition to the Bohea Hills. — Chinese
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Description of the Tea-plant. ~ Chinese
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PhilipK G. — Early Portuguese Trado in
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Piiilips C. — Early Spanish Trade with
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Episodes in the History of Amoy. — China
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A Trip on Fokien Waterways. — China
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General Geographical Description of Amoy.
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Amoy Immigration to the Straits. ^ China
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The small Knife Rebels at Amoy. — China
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Amoy. p. 495-524, with plan of Port).
Imperial Marit. Customs. Returns of Trade.
1905. (Foochow trade Report, p. 855-368.
— Amoy trade Report, p. 369-382).
PROVINCE OF CHtKIANG.
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Fteuvel. — L'ltalie an Tchd-kiang. 1899.
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CHAPTER IV. CH&KIANG.
237
La France an Tohd-kiang, par nn Fran^ais.
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Gutsiair. — China opened. London, 183S.
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Parker E. H. — Chinese Revenue, Ch^-
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^ .barker E. H. — A Journey in Ch(^kiang.
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Lyall L. A. — A trip from Hangchow
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Uttle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.
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Camming O. F. — Wanderings in China.
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Milne W. C. — Seven Months in Ningpo.
/-■
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Moale A. E. — Ningpo Ancient and Mo-
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Moule A. E. — Ningpo under the T'ai- v/
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The Tablet of YH. — China Review. (Vol.
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Inveen E. — The Tomb of Tajii, at Shao-
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Hadson B. — Mokanshan. (East of Asia
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Green J. «— A trip to the Hangchow Bore. \
(East of Asia Magazine. 1903. Vol. II. p.
43-58).
Cloud F. D. — Hangchow, the City of \
Heaven, with a brief historical sketch of
Soochow the beautiful. Shanghai, 1900.
FoM^ler. — Hangchow, the new Treaty
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The Chusan Archipelago. — Chinese Repo-
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Occupation of Chusan. — Chinese Reposi-
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Davis ?Ir J. F. — Chusan in British
Occupation. (Chinese Miscellanies. Lon-
don, 1865. n» 7. p. 127-102).
Gundry R. S. — Sketches of Excursions
to Chusan and Pootoo. Shanghai, 1876.
Kupfer C. F. — Pootoo, China's sacred
Island. (East of Asia Magazine. 1904. Vol.
III. p. 264-281, and p. 357-362).
Fortune R. — Tea Countries of Cbiiia. "^
London, 1853. (Ningpo Vol. I. Ch. VI. p.
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Vol. ill. Ch. L p. 12-27. - Chusan. Vol.
I. Ch. IV. p. 42 60, and Ch. X. p. 163-178.
Ch. XV. p. 244-261).
China. Imperial Marit. Customs. Decennial
Reports. 1882-1891. Shanghai, 1893 TNing-
po. p. 313-386, with map of ChAkiang
and plan of Ningpo. — Weuchow. p. 387-
407, with plan of city).
Imperial Marit. Customs. Returns of Trade.
1905. (Ningpo trade Report, p. 319-330. —
Wenchow trade Report, p. 331-340. —
Hangchow trade Report, p. 309-318).
SECTION IV.
THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.
PrellmiiBary Otoervaiion.
On account of its extent, and also of its importance, the coast-line of China
cIof;orve8 special attention. It might have been studied in portions, in connection with
each of the 6 Maritime Provinoes; the knowledge of these Provinces would thereby
have been more complete. This coast however forms a whole, being washed by the
same ocean, visited by the same ships which trade in its numerous harbours, and so
I it seemed preferable to make it the object of a special study.
It would have been likewise necessary to refer constantly to general notionn,
which could not be repeated each time over. A collective study would moreover
contribute to give prominence to the differences that exist between such and such
a part of the coast. Besides, it will be easy to connect, should the reader desire
it, the study of the Maritime Provinces and their coast-line. The division here
adopted, and references to the Provinces in which the towns are situated, will faci-
litate this work. After some general notions, the coast of each of the Maritime
ProvinceB will be studied separately, commencing at the N. and proceeding Southwards,
thus: OhUiU flt Vk, Sbantunff |1| X, Klanssa tC S* OMkianff fH jl, T^klen
a It and Kwamgtenff JR %.
GBNBRAL NOTIONS. 239
1". General notions.
The study of the coast naturally comprises: the nature of its formation, its level
anil configuration, the seas bordering on it, the winds, currents and tides which prevail
throughout it, its harbours and ports, lighthouses, buoys and beacons for navigation
purposes, with an account of the shipping that is carried on along it. All these details
are necessary indeed for the navigator and the merchant, but we cannot but touch
upon them briefly in this work.
Extent of the eeaftt-line. — The coast-line of China is
extensive, being up^vards of 2,150 miles in length, or if we in-
clude the minor indentations and inlets, from 4,500 to 5,000
miles, which gives one mile of coast to every 306 miles of surface.
Conflsar^^on of the Coast. — The coast of China has
the form of ^ immense semicircle. The most advanced point is
situated in the islands opposite CMhiang ^ ££» longitude 123*
E. of Greenwich, At both extremities are a gulf, and a promontory
or peninsula : the gulf of ChihU ^^ or Boh-hai j^ ^, and the
ShmUuntf lU % pranumtory on the N., the guff of Tengking %
TSC iH 9S (Tongking-haiku), ottri the J^eichaw f| j^ petUneuia on
the 8. If the latter is less important than Shantung [Ij ^ pro-
montory, the island of Hainan ff^ '^, -which is its extension into
the sea, makes both nearly equal in length.
Seas. — The coast of China, like the rest of Eastern Asia,
is washed by the JPaeWc Ocean*
The Paet^ Ocean or T^alp^ing^ifang ^^f^ (great peaceful
sea), lies between Eastern Asia, Australia, N. and S. America.
Expanding largely to the S. between Tasmania and Cape Horn,
it narrows in towards the N., where it is separated from the
AfrUefksean or JPiehpi'ing'Uemg^^fli, by Bd^Hngai^
(mehling-hsiah, i.e. dark pass). Its area is about 62,000,000 square
miles. Bordered on the W. by archipelagoes and shoals, it attains
on the E. great depths up to the coast of America, along which
run lofty mountains. It is surrounded by a circle of volcanoes,
several of which are still in activity. Its depth is very great,
and varies from 900 to 4,000 fathoms, which it reaches to the
vy'
240
SECTION IV. THB C0A8T-L1NB OF CHINA.
America.
Hainan I.
Gulf of Tongking.
Tongking.
E. of Japan, in the J^^tmearoru
fiepremaimi; in the S., near the
Tmtga or Friendiy Iwimrndw, it at-
tains in one place as much as
5,000 fathoms in depth. Two
principal eurre»UB traverse it on
the N. of Ihe Equator : 1* a
warm ane^ called the Kuro miwo
or biack sea, which comes from
the E., and after meeting the
Philippine coast, takes a N. E.
direction, running along the E.
of Formosa, the Liuk'iu j§t ^
Islands and Japan, and finally
warming the coast of North Ame-
rica; 2® a eoid^eurreni eireutn,
which descending from Behring
Strait, divides into several bran-
ches, and runs along the coasts
of Kamchatka and Alaska. The
latter is of much less importance
than the former.
In its Western part, the Paci-
fic Ocean forms on the Asiatic
coast several seas, separated from
the deep waters by a chain of
volcanic islands (the Philippines, Formosa, Liuk^iu, Japan and
the Kurile Islands). These shallow and less saline seas are
scarcely influenced by the kuro-siwo. They are the South
China Sea or Nan-hoi ^ ^, and the Baatern China Sea or
TunO'hai % j||, the Teiiew Sea or Hwang-hai ^ ftf^ the Sea
of Japan or Jshph^hai B ^C JH, and the Sea of Okhotsk ^
^ * jft iH (Ngohhohts'ekoh-haS). Of these only the three first
mentioned, border on the coast of China, and so we shall des-
cribe only them.
6BNIRAL NOTIONS. 2*41
• ^ ' Geaeml remarks on the eeas ef Chiaa. ^ 1^ They are far less saline
ibaa the Pacific Ocean .
2° They are much less deep, never reaching over 1,000 fathoms, except in the
depression which lies between Hainan Island and the Philippines/
8* The height of the tides is exceedingly variable. It is hardly noticeable in
the gulf of Chihli and at Hongkong, where it scarcely exceeds 6 .^ feet ; it is much
more marked between Amoy and the Min-kiang or Foochow river, where it rises to 10
feet and even more.
4^ The variation in the temperature of the water is much less than on the main-
land. It has been calculated that in February, when the temperature of the sea
attained 78^ Fahrenheit opposite Hainan, it reached from 68° to 59* opposite Hong-
kong, and was respectively 50°, and from 41° to 32° opposite Ch6kiang and Shantung.
In August, when the temperature of the sea ranged from 82* to 8(>°Fahrenheit opposite
Hainan, it attained from 77" to 66', between Hongkong and Shantung Point, and
reached from G9^ to 59° further to the N. The difference therefore between extreme
heat and cold is found to be but 86° in those seas, while on the Continent, it reaches
ta and exceeds 140° Fahrenheit. It is thus easy to see the great influence which
the proximity of the sea has upon the coast regions, either in raising their colder
atmosphere, or cooling it in the hot season.
XheTMow Sea or Hwang-hai )([ ifi|. — This is situated
between the Western coast of Korea, and the coast of China, from
the Miaoiao j||f % islands to the mouth of the Yangtze-kiang
% ^ iL' ^^ i^ BO called, because of the colour of its waters,
which are yellow, being mixed with the silt of the Hwang-ho
]^ fpf. It formerly flowed directly into the sea, but since 1854
reaches it through the Poh-hai j|ft j^. — The Poh-hai itself is
situated between the Eastern coast of Manchuria, the coast of
Ghihli ]t H and the N. W. coast of Shantung |lj ]|[. It
comprises two guifs: the ffulf of Chihii {![ |Qt to the W., and
the gulf ef Leaotung jjt "M Vi (Leaotung-wan) to the N.
^^ Baetem China 8ea or Tung-hai ]|[ j||, lies to the S. of
the Yellow Sea, between the strait of Korea, the South Japanese
islands, the Liuk'iu ^ ^ group, Formosa island, Formosa
strait, and the coast of China, from the Min-kiang ^ fL to
the Yangtze-kiang ft ip it-
The J^^^ffnnMaC^ is situated to the S. of this sea, between
Formosa island, and that part of the coast of China, which extends
between the Han-kiang |{t XL and the Min-kiang PQ JQ rivers.
Tj^tL.aouih'^Chima ^leaw-Nmnhai |^ %, lies to the S. of
Formosa channel, between the Philippines, Borneo, the Malacca
16
243 MBCTION IV. THB COA8T-LINB OF CHINA.
peninsula, Indo-China and the coast of Kwangtung JK ^. It
forms to the S. of Kwangtung the important if^ «/ TwngMng
(Tungking-haiku) %%%W'
Naimre of the Coast. — The coast of China is of a tv?ofold
character : alluvial and granitic.
The first exhibits straight lines or regular curves, the neigh-
bouring country is flat and covered with marshes or lakes^
the sea is shallow and interspersed with shoals, there are few good
harbours, and these are accessible only to boats of light draught.
Large rivers cutting a channel through the sand can alone enable
vessels of heavy tonnage to enter; a bar is moreover sometimes
formed at their mouths, and thereby lessens the depth of the water.
Chihli g[ ^, the N. and N. W. of Shantung llj ]^ and Kiangsu
j£ jH have a coast-line of this kind.
All the other parts of the coast are granitic These offer an
uninterrupted series of indentations, the coastal region is hilly,
the sea pretty deep, and almost free from shoals. Instead of these
latlef'are countless islands and islets, which generally form deep
and well sheltered havens. All along this coast^line, harbours
are to be found, either beside a bay or an island, or near the banks
of a river, and afford excellent anchorage. This latter coast may
be further subdivided according as the mountain chains are paraUet
or perpendiekkir to the seaboard.
In the former case, long chains of islands generally border
the coast. These islands abound in excellent havens, but the
currents that pass through them are at times dangerotis, and the
water between them is of little depth.
In the latter case, the chain of islands prolongs into the
sea the coast of the mainland. They have lengthy and deep bays,
which are closed at their extremities. Long excursions must be
often made to find through these islands a safe anchorage.
Shantung [[j jK and ChSkiang offer a coast-line especially of
the second kind ; both kinds are found in Fokien jJB |$ ; as
to Kwangtung J| J^, its coast^line belongs rather to the first
type.
OBNBRAL NOTIONS. 243
Coast Winds. — The prevailing system in the China seas
is that called monsoona. ManMum^ are periodical Avinds of con-
siderable steadiness, blowing in one direction during part of the
year, and from another, during the remaining part. At the time
when the winds change, there is an intermediate stage during
which they are variable.
In the China seas, the wind blows as a general rule during
Winter, from the N.E., and during Summer, from the S.W.
This system is however liable to numerous exceptions
according to localities and to latitude. It is also necessary to
remark that this wind is subject to both a diurnal as well as an
antwuMl variatiofu
The Winter numaaon begins to be felt in the N. of the East-
ern China sea, about September, but in the S. scarcely before
November. It sets in at times by a sudden and violent gale,
which lasts from 10 to 12 days. It attains its maximum force
in December, January and February. It lessens in March,
April being considered in the N. as the finest Month. May is
an intermediate season, during which the wind blows at times
from the N.E., and at others from the S.W.
The Summer monsoon commences to be felt earlier in the
S., towards the middle or end of April, as a general rule. It fol-
lows at first the Southern coast, and then reaches the high sea
and the Philippines. It lasts also longer in the S. than in the
N. ; thus it is felt at Singapore till the middle of October, and
at the mouth of the Yangtze till the beginning of September. It
blows regularly during June, July and August. This is the sea-
son of torrential rain and cloudy weather.
The Summer monsoon is much less constant and less violent than the Winter
one, and so offers less hindrance; to navigation when proceeding in a direction contrary
to it. In the South-China Sea, the wind during this monsoon blows frequently from S.
or S.S.E. In the Formosa channel, at the same period, July- August- September, a
violent wind blows at times from the N.E. during the tjrphoons.
At Shan^rhai, according to the Sicawei Observatory, the direction of the wind is
as follows :
"l^ DiamAl variation. During the Winter monsoon, September-March,
the wind tends to blow from W. in the morning, then from N., and from E, in the
evening, as if the atmosphere were attracted sunwise. From 6 p. m. to 6 a. m., the
breeze does not complete the circle, but backs to W.
'^During the Summer monsoon, June-July-Augnst, the \\'ind blows from S.
towards midnight, shifting to tbe K. at Buurisc. It then h^\iR to the S. fibout 10 ». m.,
244:
BBCTION IV. THB COA8T-L1NB OF CHIMA.
veen agun towards the B. until soiiBet, and backs once more to the S. in the night.
"During the inMsHioo perioil, March to May, the direcUon passes progres-
sively from one system to the other.
Tbc^ letters J. F. M... indi-
cate tbi? months of the y^ar:
Jannfl.r3% February, March
etc.
SuRiitter ]
DireeiioD of the Wind.
"2^ Annnal Taiiatlon. From November to January, the wind blows from
N.N.W., the greatest sally to the W. being in December; in November and January,
the wind blows from the same direction, bearing closely on the N. In February, it
blows from N.N.E., and in March, from N.E.; from April to August, it comes from
S.E., July giving the most Southerly resultant; in September and October, it blows
from N.R., bearing closer and closer on the N., which it crosses again in November.
**In the annexed diagram, as given by the same Observatory, the length of
the lines connecting each apex of the polygon with the centre (c) of the mariner's
card, is proportional, not to the force of the resultant (which may be very small), but
to the aggregate of the wind for the month. The lines ON and CD, give at the same
time the set direction of the resultant.
"It may be seen hereby that the sum total of the wind is the least in October,
and the greatest in July".
The following is, according to the above Observatory, the cause of these monsoons
and the direction from which they blow.
"The Summer moasooa, or that which blows from S. W., is caused by the
tiigb temperature and low atmospheric pressure which prevail over the continent.
OBNBRAL NOTIONS. 245
'*Tbe wind rashes landwise from the sea, but is deviated to the right on account
of the earth's rotatory motion. It is thus that the monsoon blows /
from S. or S.W. in Kwangtung^ I
from S.W. in the Formosa Channel y j
from S.E. at Shanghai^
from S.W. in Shantung.
"The monsoon sets in progressively, the change beginning in March and April,
in the N.; and in May, in the Formoaa Channel. In June, the Summer system prevails
along the whole coast. At Shanghai, it lasts from April to August, i.e. about 4 months.
"The Winler monsoon, or that which blows from N. E., is caused by the low ^
temperature and high atmospheric pressure prevalent on the Asiatic continent. The wind /
blows seaward from the land, always deviating to the rights and thus it turns around /
the continent in the direction of the hands of a watch, or forming a clqckwise system.
The direction is N. in Shantung, —
N.W. at SJuinghai,
N. E. in the Formoaa Clumnel^
£. at Hongkong,
"Contrary to what happens in India, the Winter monsoon is steadier and stronger
than the Summer one, at least in the Formoaa Channel. A N. K. gale may be said to
blow with short interruptions at the Pescadores, during the whole season.
"The Winter monsoon sets in towards the first half of September, or even at the
end of August. At Shanghai, it lasts nearly 7 months".
Oyclones U Hi (Stien-fung i.e. revolving winds). ~ The China seas are often
visited by oyclones, which cause immense ravages on the coasts.
Cyclonea are whiriinfc storms, and originate as follows. The barometric pressure
is abnormally low over a more or less restricted area. All around this depreaaion or
centre, the wind blows sometimes with extreme violence, moving from right to left
contrariwise to the movement of the hands of a watch (thus in the Northern hemis-
phere ; in the Southern one, they move in an opposite direction). These winds blow
spirally inwards towards the centre.
The whole vortex of the cyclone has a movement of translation, of variable dire-
ction and velocity. The area covered by the storm is sometimes very considerable, and
may extend (as on the 3^ of August, 1901) from Nagasaki to Ma?ao, a distance of
1360 miles. ,\
•^^ Two distinct classes of cyclones may be distinguished: continental lanilUtormg
knaifj^hoqnH. The former are experienced ia the N. of the China seas, the latter
in the S.
l*" OonUnenlal landstorms. — These originate in Siberia or Western China,
and travel towards the sea, with a marked curve to the N. £. After crossing the coast-
line, they generally gain more strength, and become very violent in reaching Japan or
the sea of Japan.
They are principally to be feared in Winter. Their passage is generally followed
by a N. or N.W. gale, on the Northern part of the China coast; in the S., by a sometimes
very severe increase of the N. E. monsoon.
Their velocity of translation may reach 60 miles an hour or fall to 8. It averages
from 25 to 80.
2* TypbooiM K S (Paofnng i.e. violent or devastating winds). — These are
formed over the Pacific, S. of the 20*'» parallel, N. I^at. After travelling first to N. W.,
\
246 8ICTI0N IV. THB COA8T-LINI OF CHINA.
some of them cross the China Ses, towards Indo-China and the golf of Tongldng, whilst
others hend to N. E., to visit the China coast or Japan.
It is especially in Summer that they are dreaded. They are announced on the
coast of China by a fall of the glass with N. E. winds, which veer round in accordance
with the laws of cyclonic storms.
Their velocity of translation, low whilst recurving, increases rapidly when they
move away from the China coast. Typhoons scarcely approach Shanghai, except from
July to September. They may travel at the rate of 50 miles an hour.
PigH K (Wu, i.e. mist or vapour). — Fogs, so dreaded by seamen, are common
at the mouth of the Tangtse, in Spring, and quite exceptional in Autumn. The same
fact is verified along the coast, down to the S. of the Formosa channel.
On the N. etxut of China^ the maximum takes place in July; and the minimum,
from August to November.
At Hongkong, the densest fogs prevail in Blarch and April.
UahthmumB^ bmops tmd beaemms. — To guide seamen in
the darkness of the night, and through fogs, reefs and shoals,
jarcely anything had been done up to 1854. A few smoky
lanterns easily exUiiguished, some "bamBoo poles stuck into the
mud, a bell tolled in foggy weather, were all that existed.
Since that time, thanks to the energy of Sir R. Hart. In-
spector-general of the Imperial Maritime Customs, numerous
Jighthouses have been erected at the most important points of
the coast. Lightships have been placed at the most frequented
places, and buoys and beacons fixed in the passages rendered
most dangerous by reefs, currents or shoals. In 1905^ there were
to be counted no less than 102 lighthouses, 25 lightships, 113
buoys and 109 beacons, along the coast of China _and on its
principal rivers. We shall mention the most important light-
houses when describing each part of the coast. Two of them
are connected with the Chinese telegraph system, and give timely
warning of approaching cyclones to the Sicawei Observatory, near
Shanghai Jii(|. In foggy weather, gongs, sirens, and the firing
of cannon constantly warn ships and junks of impending danger.
The flrmi HghMhomae •» <^ CMtma tmui^ properly speaking,
was erected inJ.SS'?, near Chefoo J^ jg, in Shantung jlj ]|[, on
Kfurngfumg IgiWi A (K^tmgl'ung-tao) iaUmO. As early as4$S^
however, a light had been placed on the TSmgrrt ti 4||^^ bmUt
at the mouth of the Yangtze #-?^{C river. TheTatest constructed
lighthouse is that of Tungyung ||[|| island, at the mouth of the
Min-kiang ffi fll, in Fokien. It is 325 feet above the sea-level,
and is visible to a distance of 25 miles.
OBHBa&L NOTtOftS. .-.
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LIGHTHOUSES ON THE N. COAST OP CHINA.
J
248
SECTION IT. THB COAST^IMI OP CRINA.
eSNERAt NOTIONS. 249
The lighthouse of our Lady of Ouia, has existed for long
years at Macao*
^one of these lighthouses yet employ electric light. All
use vegetablfe 01l^6kcept those of the N. which burn kerosene,
as the severe cold would freeze vegetable oil. ' "
One of the most famous is the Fthy^-Bhan 4l jft llj light-
house, on Shasho island, S. of the Ningpo ^ j$ river, in Gh^-
kiang fg^ f£ Province. It is 345 feet above the level of the sea,
and flashes its light to a distance of 26 miles.
Tides H m (Haich'ao, i.e. sea-flow). — The sea rises and falls twioe daily aloog
the coast. This phenomenon is dne to the united action of the sun and moon, which
attract, and as it were heap up the waters of the glohe. The moon however being
nearer to the earth, exerts a predominating influence in the ratio of 2i to 1. It is shortly
after the new and full moons that the tides are highest. In proportion as the moon is
nearer, and its influence more combined with that of the sun, the more is its action
felt. With the two bodies acting in concert, we have the spring or high tides, but
when they act in opposition, we have the neap or low tides.
Tides are locally affected by the son figuration of the coasts, variation in the depth
of the ocean, winds, and also to a slight extent by the changes of atmospheric pressure,
hence the impulse is not felt everywhere at the same time. This retardation is a matter
of observation peculiar to each locality, and known technically as the eatabliahnient
of the port. It is thus that at Hongkong, the impulse is felt an hour earlier than at
the Chusan -jH" U| (Cheushan) islands.
Between the Southern coast of Korea and the extremity of the gulf of Chihli,
the diflerence is much more marked. It is only 8 hours after being felt in Korea, that
the tides reach Shantung Point, 14 hours afterwards they reach the Miaotao IR K
islands, and 20 hours later penetrate to the extremity of the Gulf of Chihli.
Islands and promontories, around which the tides have to turn, greatly retard
their progress.
Tides are of great importance for navigation. Owing to them many rivers become
navigable to a considerable distance from their mouth, shoals and bars can be crossed,
and large boats may enter ports, which would otherwise be inaccessible.
It is on the coast of Fokien, as stated above, that the tides of the China seas
attain their greatest height, reaching about 17 i feet ; South of the Formosa channel,
they reach even 28 feet, helped by favourable winds in certain extraordinary circums-
tances.
A rather remarkable phenomenon occurs on the coast of Tongking, where there
is but one tide daily. A dissimilar curious modification is noticed in England, at South-
ampton, Poole and Weymouth, where 2 tides occur in twelve hours.
250
ncnoN nr. tbb goa8th«iiii op cmnuL.
O
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THE COAST OF CHIHLI. 251
2"" , The coast of Chihli tit ^
The coast of Chihli jf; ^ is washed by the Poh^hai {gj ^.
Low and frozen during part of the Winter, it v^ould have little
importance but for Us proximity to Peking 4b A* ^^^i A>^ the
Peh'-ho iQ fpf, which flows into the gulf of Chihli.
TUe Poli-lial 2^ ^. — Poh-hai signifies ^armofihe Bea^\
It forms in fact a kind of small sea to the W. of the Leaotung
^ ^ promontory (called also Laot'ieh-shan -^ K jlj), and of
the Miaotao |^ j^ islands. The strait of Chihli separates the
Leaotung promontory from the Miaotao archipelago. Its greatest
depth is 40 fathoms. The Poh-hai is not so deep, and attains
at most 24 fathoms. Along the low coast, it is necessary to
keep at a distance of 10 miles, to find a depth of from 16 to 20
feet, unless a river running into the sea opens up a deeper
channel through the sands. The principal rivers which thus
enable large ships to approach the coast are the Leaa-'ho ^
JSJ, the Behrho j^ jp[ and the Hwang-ho ^ Jpj. The first flows
through Mancliuria, the secof^d through Chihli, and the third
through Shantung [I| ^.
The Poh-hai washes the Western coast of Leaotung, the
Chihli coast, and the North- Western coast of Shantung,
GnlffeL — Two gulfs are formed by the Poh-hai : the gtOf
of €JhihU^ and the gulf of Leaotung. The latter is but the
continuation into the sea of the great Manchurian valley.
Islands. — There are no islands of importance along the
coast of Chihli, but there are several long sand-banks. The largest
of these is the Tt^tiofeUien "^ jfi fl], called also Shaliutien ^
jilt %, situated to the N. E. of the mouth of the Peh-ho. It is
very low, and is distant from the coast about 10 miles. It
measures from 20 to 25 miles in length. A lighthouse, 50 feet
above the sea-level, has been erected on it, and is visible to a
distance of 10 miles.
Ice. — From the month of November, the ice begins to form on the rivers and
over the coast of Chihli. It extends aU along the shore and seldom disappears until
March. The Peh-ho remains however navigable at times until the month of January-.
Navigation then stops, and ships may find good shelter near Ts'aofeitien, where the
sea is not icebound. The ice forms on the sand-banks at low-water, and is carried by
the rising tide upon the coast, where it develops into a thick mass. The buoys are taken
out of the river during the period while it remains frozen.
252 8BGTI0N IV. THE C0il8T-LINB OF CHINA.
At this Reason, neamen should beware of floating ice, which attains sometimes
about one yanl in thickness.
In tlie N. of the gulf of Leaotung, the ice lasts much longer, 4} months on the
average, i.e. from the end of November to the middle of April.
WliMli.^Fi*om October to March, the wind blows from the N., and from April to
Sfptoinbor, from the S. When it comes from the W., it is laden with dust, as in the
iiitt*rior of Chihli, and obscures the atmosphere to a distance of about 5 miles ont from
the coast.
IViUiire of tbe coast. — The coast of Chihli is low,
sandy, and scantily inhabited by an impoverished popuUition.
As the coast'line is but slightly above the sea-level, the smallest
objects viewed from the sea assume gigantic proportions.
Towards the N., near the Great Wall, the coast'-line rises a
little, and offers a few good harbours in which the water is deeper.
Ports. — Three only deserve to be mentioned :
lyimwwir t«> li 3E A* — Population, 5,000 inhabitants.
AiUCXCoHtftt -haibuurr SHuated near Shanhai-kwan |b HI ■
and the Great Wall. It is free from ice and has deep water,
thereby enabling large steamers to enter it at all seasons of the
year. Ships with a draught of 17 feet can anchor at its pier.
Iron and coal abound in the neighbourhood, and so it is destined
to become, especially for coal, a large export station.
IVAlStNir 4k H* — A. small port on the banks of a river
bearing the same name. The water is shallow, and boats with
a draught of (^ feet can alone enter it, and only at high water.
Formerly its entrance was protected by two forts.
'^•^•* "^C Jft* — A >;^."*S<' situated at the moolh of the Peh-
ho |g ^. The forts which protected its entrance have been
de»tn>\ed since the lV>xer revolt in 1900. The mouth of llie
IVh^ho IS about 3:^0 yards wide. Three .miles ftuther up stands
.l);«,;i^tfc« ,^' »NW ^iiAJt tVkj |i(^ cma V.ar>% Mks^ iv A^ V>* w«ter g<
ai W>a*l J J >ry^ >Ni >*TfcW<r v-^wc rt-
THE COAST OF SHANTUNa. 253
3"" The coast of Shantung lU '^
The coast of Shantung is watered by the Poh-hai ^ f(^, and
the Hwang-hai j| jt| or Yellow Sea. In the upper part of the
Province^ that is as far as TSngchow Fu ^ j^ Jff and the Miao-
<ao jj^ ]^ islands, the coast-line is low, and offers the same
characteristics as that of Chihli jjl ^. J&t the Southern part,
except in the vicinity of Kiangsu ^C 1t^> ^^^ coast is rocky and
indented^ and abounds in bays among which are found some good
harbours. We may call it the coast-Hne of the promontory, in
order to distinguish it from the other. We shall say but a few
words about the former; the second requires more details. While
dealing with this subject, we shall give a brief account of the
Miaotao islands, which are of considerable importance.
A. The N. W. coast of Shantung.
This commences at the Miaotao J^ ft islands, and forms an
arc of a circle, somewhat irregular and broken up on the W., by
the mouth of the Hwang-ho j| iPj* M first, some 10 or 12
miles inland, hills run along the shores and throw out a few spurs
into the sea. After bending Northwards, this part offers but low
plains intersected by turbid rivers, and quite resembles the coast of
Chihli. Long sand-banks extend along the shore, and allow only
flat'bottomed junks to approach the shore.
The HuHMUtfho ^ fpf itself can be entered only by small
junks. A bar situated at three miles from its mouth obstructs
the entrance, so that the depth at high^tide is but 7 J feet, and
at slack water only 4 ^. The river is moreover constantly dimi-
nishing the depth of the Poh-hai ^ ^, by the alluvial deposits
which it brings down, and so the gulf seems doomed to become
one day an immense plain, continuing that of Chihli jj ^.
B. The Miaotao Jti A Islands.
Between Tingehow F^ ^, )^ fff P^^int and TMotieh-shan
jg H (il or BegenPs Sword, the distance is about 60 miles.
A great part of this space lying between the Poh-hai ^ ^ and
the Hwang-hai f|[ ^ or Yellow sea, is occupied by the Miaotao
254 SECTION lY. THE G0A8T-LINB OF CHINA.
ffi 1^ archipelago, a remnant of the mountainous chain that
formerly connected Leaotung jj^ jK with Shantung ilj ^. This
archipelago comprises about 15 islands, forming two groups,
the Northern and Southern.
Ch'angshan :g [I], the largest, is 7 miles long, while its
highest summit attains 470 feet in height.
HeuM ^ ^, more to the N., is smaller, and reaches an
elevation of 325 feet above the sea-level. It has a lighthouse
of the 1"« order, 329 feet above the sea-level, and visible to a
distance of 24 miles.
The surest route for ships passing through the Miaotao group is to the S. of this
ishind, and hence adopted hy steamers going to Taku ;fc {jjp.
To the N. of the archipelago, the passage is easy, and is rendered moro so by
the Laot'iehshan lighthouse, 316 feet above sea-level, and visible to a distance of 25
miles.
The archipelago has good anchorage where ships are quite safe. The best is on
the S. of Ch'angshan Jl |1].
C. The coast of the Shantung promontory.
The coast of the promontory is washed by the Hwang-'ha.i H
jtf or Yellow Sea. High, broken and indented, it offers a series
of hays and promontories, these latter often running out into the
sea in the shape of dangerous reefs and sometimes of islands.
There are however much less islands along this part of the coast
than opposite the three Southern Provinces, but none of them
is considerable. There are some good harbours, but these are
more numerous on the N, On the S.E., as well as on the N, W.,
the hills diverge from the coast, while this latter becomes straight
and low, and abounds in long sand-banfes.
Bays. — The bays of this part of Shantung open wider,
and run less inland in the N. than in the 8. The principal
are : ati the North: Chefao ^ ^ or Tenl^ai jtQ H hay, and
the hay of WeihaiwH ]^%1^\ — on the JEiast, Tungch'Sng
0k M ^<^ ^"^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^f Sangheurhfofv ^ Ht Xi\ — on the
South, the baye of Shihiaa-k'ow :^ j^ H* Shuhshan Tjjfi ]}\,
Laoshan ^ (Ij and Kiaochow (^ jfl^.
Capes. — The principal capes are: Chefoo cape, the Narih"
Vaetern and S^uth-JEattem capes of ShafUung, cape Adk4n§ or
THE COAST OF BHANTUNO. 255
Chfanshan if^ ^J, and the two headlands which enclose Kiao-
chow bay, the Southern, called CkipeJaeschke, Hnd the Northern,
Timnithan ^ ifi ]Jil^
Islands. — On the IT., KSmatung 1$ Ji ft Mand, in Che-
foo bay, and Aloetie isUmd or Hallii-lao jt| Ml ^) ^'^ ^^^ N.W.
of the promontory.
On the 8; Siauntan Mand or Sushan-tao H llj ft, the
Ceniral ialandB and the iOandB in Laoshan §^ |1| bay.
Ice. — Ice is more rarely found, and lasts less long in the Yellow Sea than in
the Poh-hai. It often however obstructs some bays, hinders navigation, and as in 1877,
blocks measuring from 4 to 5 feet in thickness have been seen floating opposite Cht^foo.
Kven in the S., in the Bay of Kiaochow, the water is partially frozen over during Win-
ter, and one may walk on the ice without danger.
Wind. — There is nothing to add to what has been said above (p. 243).
Tide. — The tide is first felt at Staunton island^ and extends rapidly thence to
the whole coast of the promontory, attaining in the vicinity of Alceste island (HailU-
tao) its greatest velocity, 3 to 8 ^ knots at high tides. The tide, which rises to only
5 4 feet on the E. of the promontory, reaches 11 i feet (8.) feet at slack water) in
Kiaochow Bay.
Ifatiire of tbe coast. — Composed of gneiss and granite, and
of a volcanic nature near TSngchow Fu ^ ji{ )ff, it is for the
greater part broken and often skirted on the mainland by chains
of hills. At times^ it rises abruptly, and at others, it is low and
sandy. In several places, it runs out into the sea and rises in
dangerous reefs, w/iic/i compel ships to keep at a great distance
in sailing round it. Among the ships wrecked in these regions,
mention must be made of the German gunboat **Iltis'\ which in
July 1896, sank at Flat Rocky Point, a little to the N. of the light-
house erected on the South-Eastern promontory, and at the entrance
to Sangheu-k'ow |^ ff| P bay.
IJi^litlioases. — Seven lighthouses are erected along the
Shantung coast: l"", the Chefoo light on K'ungt'ung 1$ |||g ft
island. It stands at 242 feet above the sea-level, and is visible
to a distance of 22 miles. During the year 1905, this light was
removed to the top of the old stone beacon or Tower Hill ;
2«, the 2"<* and 3'^, at the entrance to Weihaiwei J|Jc ^ Itl ^^Y'^
3% the 4***, at tbe extremity of the N.E. promontory; 4*, the 5'^,
256
SBCnOir IT. THB COAST-Lllfl OP CHINA.
at the point of the S.E. promontory. It is 96 feet above sea-level,
and visible to a distance of 16 miles ; 5*, the 6^, on Ckalien
m % A island (ChaoUen-tao), to the S.E. of Kiaochow bay;
and 6*, the 7^ and last, at the entrance to Kiaochow bay.
wwmm. — IjhH^chmc .Fte S jf| Jj^f. — Formerly an
important port, but at the present day invaded by sands, and
accessible only to junks, which carry on there a fairly good
trade in wheat and peas.
Ckif^o S 5|^t or more properly Yent'ai jg| H (the Chinese
name of the place called Chefoo by foreigners, is Yent^ai, Chefoo
being but a large village on the opposite side of the bay). —
Population, 82,000 inhabitants. An excellent port-town, on the
W. of the bay of the same name. The harbour, protected by a
headland, except from the N.E. wind, affords excellent anchorage,
with a depth of from 20 to 40 feet, and even 45 at the entrance.
On the E. of the bay is a chain of islets, among which the most
important, K'ungt'ung fg^ jjg, was ceded to France in 1860. A
lighthouse, 242 feet above sea-level and visible to a distance
of 22 miles, has been erected upon it. The place enjoys a dry
and salubrious climate, and a beautiful shore, which makes it an
Towet Poipl
CHEFOO BAY ^ ^.
T9B COAST OF BHANTHlie.
257
attractive health-resort for foreigners. The principal eocpori^ are
firesh eggs, beancake and bean oil, straw braid, rush mats, silk,
felt capSf vermicelli, groundnuts and dried fish. The impm^ are
cotton and woollen goods, kerosene oil, hemp bags, straw mats,
aniline dyes, ginseng, sugar, iron, coal and matches. The total
net trade of the port was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 38,183,912 ; in 1904,
Tls. 34,255,175; and in 1905, Tls. 39,131,384. [9ee Section I. Ch.
IV. p. 84. Shantung).
WelhmlwH iril Hi ^- — A port leased to Great Britain by
China, on July 1"^ 1898, '4n order to provide Great Britain with
a suitable naval harbour in North-China, and for the better pro-
tection of British commerce in the neighbouring seas'*. The
leased territory comprises the island of lAmkmmg 9| & A (Liu-
kung-tao], all the islands in the bay, and a belt of land 10 English
^^Copt. Co^ « T^PS^if f«»^
lUKONa TAO
WBIHAIWBI Jrit » #.
17
258 SECTION IV. THB COHeT-LINB OF CBDU.
miles along the coast-line. Its area is about 285 square miles,
and the population 150,000. In addition to the leased ter-
ritory, there is a sphere of influence extending over an
area of 1,500 square miles. The climate is excellent. The
chief port of the dependency is Port Edward, which has good
anchorage, with a depth of 45 feet. The Government is adminis-
tered by a Commissioner. In 1905, the revenue amounted to
$ 105,930, while the expenditure was $ 146,000. The grant
from the Home Government amounted to £ 3,000. Mining and
the planting of fruit-trees have been of late much developed, and
progress would be improved were the place connected by rail
with the interior. Weihaiwei is a port of call for steamers
running to and from the N. of China, and there is regular
steam communication with Shanghai, (fee Sect. I. ch. IV. p. 85).
'ItHnotao |^ % (Green island). — A port at the entrance of
Kiaochow JP ^ bay, and leased to Germany by China, in 1898,
for a period of 99 years. The leased territory comprises the bay
up to high-water mark, its islands, and the N. and 8. tongues of
land at the mouth of the harbour. Its area is 193 square miles,
but if we include the sphere of influence, or a zone 30 miles
from all points of the leased territory, the total is about 2,750
square miles. The interior of the bay is not very deep, but its
entrance has 16 to 24 fathoms of water. It affords good shelter
to ships, and is not icebound. TsMngtao has a foreign population
of 1,110 persons, and 120,000 Chinese.
The entrance to the bay is } of a mile across. A lighthouse,
108 feet above high-water level, stands on the S. W. end of the
headland, and is visible to a distance of 10 miles. Another,
92 feot high, and visible 4 miles, is erected within the bay.
The harbour is rapidly developing. A pier, 4 miles in length,
encloses the inner wharf. The area of the latter is about 1 \
square miles, and it has been dredged to a depth of 6 fathoms.
A second wharf will be soon completed. A floating dock, capable
of taking in vessels of 16,000 tons capacity, commenced work
towards the close of 1905. From January 1906, the free-port
area has been reduced to the harbour. Henceforward all mer-
TBB..G0A8T OT aBAMTVKft.
25td
KIAOCHOW BAY
W'
pSa s-„j 10.20.30. Dopth in metres (1 metre « 1,093 yard).
^^ ' 100.500. Height in metreti (100 metres s 328 feet)«
260 8BCTI(m !▼. THB COA8T*LINI OF CHINA.
chandise pays import duty according to the general treaty tarifT,
and then travels to the hinterland without further restriction.
The Burroanding towns and villages are rapidly developing, and iheir population
is also increasing. They enjoy like Ts*ingtao the great advantage of being connected
with the interior by railway.
The port of T«4ngtao can be easily fortified, owing to hills which snrround H
on the W. and E., and rise respectively to 1,000 and 5,000 feet. In the vicinity are
important coal-beds, and the ooal extracted will soon become the staple export article
of the port.
Trade increases every year, bnt is still however far behind that of Ohefoo. The
Imperial Maritime Onstoms report the total net value of Kiaochow to be for 1905, Hk.
Tls. 22,882,680.
A weekly service oonnecta the port with Shanghai. There is besides a steamer
running every 5 days between Shanghai, Ts^ingtao, Ohefoo and THentsin.
THE COAST OF KIANaSU. 261
4"" The coast of KiangsuVi iSk
The coast of Kiangsu is washed, partly by the Tettaw Sea or
HwmHt'hai H ^, partly by the BaMem China Sea or Tung-
^^^ )K %' ^^^ A^^ bordered by sand-banks, it is of little
importance, except at the mouth of the Yangtze ^ ^ fL, not
far from which, stands the great commercial pOrt of Shanghai^
built upon the Hwangp'oo ^^ river. For the sake of clearness,
we will study : 1"^, The coast N. of the Yangtze; ^% The mouth of
the Yangtze and the port of Shanghai; 3^, The coast to the S.
of the Yangtze,
A. The coast to the N. of the Yangtze.
Long^ low and flat, this coast is bordered by immense sand-
bankSj between which are found only shallow channels.
The most important of these banks is situated to the S.E,
of Hai Chow fH ^, and is called the ToMha ^ j^ or Great
mmdr^anh. It is more than 90 milm' kmg by 30 wide. It has
been formed^ like the other shoals, by sands and alluvial detritus
deposited there in former times by the muddy waters of the
Hwang-ho H ff.
The coasts are protected by long embankments, provided with
numerous sluices, whereby the overflow of the water escapes into
the sea in the flood'Season.
A single island deserves to be mentioned, the Yuh 5E A or Pearl itdand, to the
N.B. of Hai Chow d ^ headland. This headland, situated to the S.B. of Hai Chow,
reaches an altitude of from 800 to about 1,000 feet. Some 16 miles further to the N.,
lies the port of Ts'ingk'ow # P* It is situated at the extremity of a canal cla|^ on
the W., and is the only port on this long coast. It is an important fishing station, and
sends its catch down to the Shanghai J: (| market.
B. The mouth of the Yangtze and the port of Shanghai.
The great river called the Yangtze ^ ^ discharges its
waters into the sea, through a large mouth, which measures no
less than 60 miles from the extremity of Haimtn j^ ^ to Tang-
iMS cape or P'aoiung ^ ^ point. Though obstructed with
262 SECTION lY. THB G0A8T-LINB OF CHINA.
• *
islands and sand'hanks, this mouth has ^wo good channels, one
of w/iic/i, the Southern^ is highly valuable for navigation. The
sand-'banks shift constantly, but owing to lighthouses, buoys and
beacons, ships can easily enter, and ascend either to Shanghai
Jt, fi$ or to the numerous ports situated up the river. We can
give but a brief account of the main characteristics of the mouth
of the Yangtze and of the port of Shanghai,
UlaadM and Hand-liaiiluu — Among the islands which
lie at the mouth of the Yangtze, Ch^ungminff ^ |^ is by far
the most important. It is about 40 miles long, and from 5 to 8
broad. Its area is 270 square miles, and its population a
little over 1,000,000, or about 3,500 to the square mile. It has
been formed by constant alluvial deposits from the Yangtze fjj^
•F it river. It is low and flat, and protected by embankments
from sea-action. It is being constantly eaten away at its North-
western extremity, whife it is gradually increasing at the other.
The island is highly cultivated, and produces rice, maize, cotton,
yams and excellent sugar-cane. The soil, especially in the N.,
is considerably impregnated with salt. It possesses no harbour
of importance, nor any town of considerable size, except the
district city of the same name.
Further to the 8., in the same direction N.W.-S.E., is a
chain of islets, among which Hwangsha :|K {^ or Hau^ iskmd
is the most important. These islets are continued on the E. by
a large sand-bank called THntgmhfu^jf^ jj^ shoaL
E. of the mouth of the Yangtze, 40 miles from the 8. E.
extremity of Ch*ungming, is a sand-bank by far much larger
than T'ungsha bank, and called the Cfreaimina'btMnkofihe Yamg-
tme fiangtze-tasha) % ^% r>. It is over 125 miles in length, and
from 30 to 40 miles in breadth. It is composed of grayish or
dark-coloured sand. As there are from 10 to 22 fathoms of water
over it, it is no hindrance to navigation, and moreover the
water on both sides attains a great depth.
CbMtnels. — The mouth of the Yangtze j|§ -^ tl has
The l^^y or tifffMr ^toimI^. This is situated between
Ch'ungming ^ ^ and Haim6n % f^. Small junks alone can
THB COAST OF KIANGSU. 263
**
sail through it, for it is very shallow, and ii^ constantly invaded
by the sand. A new island is actually in process of formation.
It may totally emerge one day, and thus connect Ch'ungming
with the adjoining promontory of Haim^n.
The 2*^^^ or Norih channel, called also Shaweishan fjf jg
ll], is situated to the S. of Ch'ungming, between that island
and the series of islets and sand-banks which terminate at the
T'ungsha ^ fp bank. It extends from E. to W., but narrows
in and diminishes in depth. Towards the E., it is about 2 miles
wide, and has a depth of 46 feet, whilst in the W., its width is
only a little over a mile, and its depth from 16^ to 20 feet.
The S''^^ or SatUh channel, lies between the right bank
of the Yangtze and the islets just mentioned. It is the best
and the most frequented route.. It is from 17 to 20 feet deep at
low-water of spring tides, and from 13 to 19 ^ opposite the
mouth of the Hwangp'oo j| t§ or Shanghai river.
lilglitlioiMies. — Several lighthouses are erected at the
entrance to the last two channels. Two are situated on the
Northern aide of the N. channel: one at Ch'ungming Point,
called Drinkwaier Ughihouee or Ch^ungminglao-tungkioh Sj( fj^
ft X ^ ! the other, more to the E., called ShaweUhan UgHt--
hmtee. Two are on the Northern aide of the 8. channel: one,
on Hwtmgsha ieland, near the Kiutoan ^ ^ light-vessel ; the
other, more to the S. E., is called the T^ungeUta $^ fp liffhU
Five others are erected at Woosung 1^ }|i, where vessels enter
the Hwangp'oo JJ HH rivei^
S. of the Southern channel, opposite P^ootung Point, is Quiz-'
U^ielund^ called in Chinese Tach4h ::^ ^ or Tats'ihshan -f^
Jllllj. It has a lighthouse, 283 feet above high-water level, and
visible to a distance of 24 miles. It is besides an imj^rUnU
ieHegraph siaHon, 6 cables landing there.
Tides. — The tidal corrent at the mouth of the Yangtze commenceB to the
Southward. The water rises 14 i feet at OatzlafF in high tides, and nearly the same
at the mouth of the Hwangp'oo. It reaches at the S. of GutzlafF its maximum velocity
of 3 knots at springs, and 2 knots at neaps on a flood ; 4 to 5 knots at springs, and 3 ^
knots at neaps during ebb. At the latter place, and below Woosung, the tides take on
the average 5 hours to rise and 7 to fall, or the ebb is longer than the flood.
264
SECTION IT; TBS COAAT^IMt OF CHINA.
As the tide rises and falls, a rather peculiar swirl or rotatory movement is pro-
duced at the month of the Yangtze. Its different phases may he seen in the annexed
diagram.
N
I
!
Yf
f
Last
of
First
of
1
Flood
Sbb
T7
\
First
Last
)
111
\
\
A
of
Flood
of
Ebb
^\
•-^
A
The tide is felt at Shanghai 2 hours after it has passed Gutzlaff. IT M subject
to diurnal inequality, which causes the day tid6s to be the highes't in Winter, the mor-
ning tides in Spring, the night tides in Summer, and the evening tides in Autumn.
Wootfon^ Imer and
Outer Bars. — Two bars .
prevent large steamers ascen-
ding as far as Shanghai. The
firti or Outer Bar, a little
below the mouth of the Hwang-
p*oo, is rapidly silting up, and
had in 1897, 20 feet of water
over it at low- water of springs,
but at the present, it has scar-
cely more thaKi 13. The second
or Inner Bar lies within and a
little up the river itself. It un-
dergoes less change and tends
rather to improve. A periodical
silt of Ipom 2 to 4 feet generally
sets in upon it in May and
ends in October, after which
it again scours away. Attempts
at dredging having proved
ineffective, the river aband-
oned to itself has formed a
new island, caUed Gough
island. The Junk channel
to the B. of it, has bnt a depth
of from 10 to l.'f feet at
low-water of springs. SHANGHAI and the Hwangp'oo River.
THB COAtr OF «AM«80.
215
HEIGHT OP WATER
on the Onter and Inner Wj— uwg Bars
al low water of the syzygies.
(According to W, P. Tyler, Cooit Inspector I. M. C).
Ifl fi
s
G*
V
\^
\a H
V
ft"
1i ft
\-
"\
4m
19 ft
A
/\
A
f
1™
|\
/\
r^
j
1 \
f^
1A ik.
1
\
1 .
l/
\i
1/
8"!
xU I*.
\^
\,
V
V
1/
8 ft.
\
\\
1897
1896 1899 1900 1901 1902
The lower tracing exhibits the changes on the Inner Bar;
the upper tracing thoae on the Outer Bar.
266 SBCTIOlf IT. THX COAST-LIMI OP CHDU.
± fff. -^ (mee also Sect. II. Ch. IV. Kiangsu.
p. 160-162). JBMoHml ^keieh. — If we believe old records,
Shanghai, as its name means ^otci; &r%q^im ike eem^, was formerly
nearer the sea than it is at present, but little by little, sands and
alluvial deposits accumulated to the E. of the port, and formed
there the low flat plain nowadays called P^ootung ^ )K, or East
of the Hwangp^oo. Through this plain the Hwangp^oo )| ^
river opened a way to the Yangtze ^ •^. According to native
annals, a custom-house was first established at Shanghai in the
XI*** century, and^jtwasonly in the XIV«*» that it -wits raised
to the dignity of a walled city ^8 I miles in circuit) with
sub-prefectural or district rank. In the XVI*'* century, it was
attacked by Japanese pirates, who extended at the same time
thair incursions to Ningpo $( ^ and Hangchow ^ ^. Up to 1842,
it:WyM{^|t a port of call, for sea-going junks. At the above
mentiojftM date, it was taken (19(*> June) by British troops under
Sir HMKjQpiigh, and formally opened to foreign trade, 17th
November, VMt. _ Captain Baltour, the british Consul, established
there the limits of the English Settlement. The site originally
selected, lay half a mile N. of the native city, between the Yang-
kingpang ffi 3 fH^^^d Soochow f| jf| Creeks, and extended
backwards from the river to Defence Creek. Other extensions
were subsequently granted, the last being that of 1901. The
French were in 1849 granted the ground between the city walls
and the British Settlement on the same terms. In 1860, this
Concession was extended to the S., between the city walls and
the river, and further to the W., in 1902. In 1862, Americans
rented land immediately N. of Soochow Creek, in the place
called HoDgkew Jbl P (Hungk'ow). In 1863, the so-called
American Settlement was incorporated with the British, into one
municipality, styled the ^JbUemaHanai SeUiemenP'. The Muni-
cipal Council administering the Foreign Settlement, N. of Yang-
kingpatig, began in 1855. A separate administration and council
for the French Settlement were appointed in 1862. At Shanghai,
and at all the other open Ports, Foreigners are in judicial matters
subject to the immediate control of their respective Consuls.
THB COAST or KlAMOStT.
267
In local affairs, Foreigners within the Settlements govern them-
selves by means of the Municipal CauncUs, under the authority of
the ^land reffutoiUm^\ Chinese residents in the SettleVnents
are amenable to their own laws, administered by what is called
a ^nUxed eaurPf, established in 1864. It is presided over by a
Chin^Uif URl^ial and is watched by Foreign Assessors from the
principal Consulates. The working of this institution, despite
some recent reforms, has never been satisfactory, as the judge
has not sufficient authority and rank to enforce his decisions,
which are besides frequently fraught with great vagaries. The
Council in the International Settlement consists of 9 members,
and in the French Concession, of 8. The resolutions of the latter
are inoperative, until sanctioned by the Consul-General. The
Council divides itself into Defence, Finance, Watch and ^Wpriu
Committee. In cases of contest or infringement of pi14|ple tlf|fiB,
it can be sued before the **OMirf 0fyO»n0uU^ •• ^^-^
JPiopuiaUatu — The cen
gave
number of Joreign residents in the International Settlement
as 11,497 persons, while in the French Concession on the same
date, there were 831 persons, aggregatii\g a total of 12,328
Foreigners, composed as follows :
cr
Intematioiial Settlement.
French Concession.
Total.
British
3,713
109
3,822
Japanese
2,157
73
2,230
Portuguese
1,331
51
1.382
American
991
21
1,012
German
785
47
832
Indian
568
—
568
French
393
274
677
Russian
354
60
414
Austro-Hungarian
158
5
163
Itelian
148
14
142
Spanish
146
5
151
Danish
121
3
124
Other Nationalities
632
169
801
(LIu-s^jl J
'- ' ■ b
^f.?'^ ^
-17. r
/■"^^Jl^f-' ^J«.<_v
v..-/'.
268 8BGT10M IV. THB GOA8T<-LINB OF CHINA.
The Chinese population was also found to be in the Inter-
national Settlement 452,716 inhabitants, and in the French Conces-
sion 84,792 inhabitants, aggregating a total of 537,508 persons.
The population of the native walled city is estimated at 300,000.
IhdMi&trim and Matntfmehires. — Shanghai J;^ ^ has
several large docks, the^ principal of which are on the right banK
of the Hwangp^oo river or P*ootung gjdfi^ The Chinese Govern-
ment has an arsenal, dock and shipbuilding establishment, a
short distance above the native city. Several manufactories,
both foreign and native, have sprung up since 1895, consequent
upon the Japanese treaty allowing henceforth the importation
of machinery.^ At the prfiaspt jay, there are ^ cotton-spinning
. and weaving mills in operation ; there are also a number of
ginning factories, native and foreign owned. Of silk filatures,
Shanghai has 25. which give employment to 20,000 natives.
There are besides, paper mills, flour mills, mills for extracting
oil from cotton-seed and beans, several printing establishments,
soap and match factories.
2ViMl0 mmd OMMifMrve. — Shanghai is the great emporium
for the trade of the Yangtze river, for the Northern ports of the
China coast, and to some extent for Japan. The prine^pai
eoppmn oriMes are silk (97,800 bales, or 150,000 piculs in
1905), tea (black, 104,323 piculs; green, 263,900 piculs; brick,
98,389 piculs; leaf-dust and tablet, 19,574 piculs in 1905), raw
cotton, cotton-yarn and cloth, beans and beancake, groundnuts,
sesamum seed, wood-oil, rice, wheat, flour, straw and rush-
hats, chinagrass, hides and goatHikins, bristles, wool, carpets
and fresh eggs. The imparis are cotton and woollen goods,
machinery and engine oil, timber and soft wood^ kerosene oil,
opium, cement, palm-leaf fai|J|, rush and straw-mats, gunny
cloth and bags, aniline dyes, printing paper, stationery^ photo-
graphic materials, clocks and watches, glass, millinery and
perfumery, shoes and boots, lamps and lampware, coal, iron-
bars and nails, copper slabs and spelter, beer, wines and 8)>irits,
edible birds' nests, sugar, condensed milk, butter, cheese,
THB COAST OF KIANOSU;
m
soap; cigarettes and matches. The total gross and net values
of the trade of the port from 1900-1905 were as follows :
Gross and Net Value9 of Trade, 1900-1905.
YKAB.
Gross VaIims.
Net Values.
1900
Hk. Tls.
248,606,777
Hk. Tls.
97,729,169
1901
296,454,790
118,425,776^
1902
S46,t22364
188,7751^86
190S
851,200,609
118,812,899
19(M
405,064,260
1-15.480,170
1905
448,954,262
176,979,193
\f
During the same period, the following duties were collected
by the Imperial Maritime Oustoms :
Hk. Tls.
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
7,117,387
8,152,69«
10,814,077
9,924,890
10,323,433
12,080,185
Of this sum, Great Britain contributed in 1905, Tls. 7,650,462
Germany
America
France
Japan
Austria
Sweden
Russia
Denmark
Tls. 1,371,325
Tls. 751,890
382,500
152,326
122,078
20,530
11,052
8,253
Tls.
Tls.
Tls.
Tls.
Tls.
Tls.
— The port of Shanghai J: f$
extends along the left bank of the Hwangp'oo j|||, to a distance
of over 8 miles. The water frontage is lined throughout with
landing places, jetties, wharves and warehouses ("godowns"). The
270 sEcruM IT. TBI GOAn^m or emu,
river opposite the Foreign Settlements was formerly 1,800 feet
broad at low-water, but it is to-day only 1,200. Ships with a
draught of 16 feet can come up to the wharves, yhwig***' '"(j^
miles from the seiiHOoas{| and 12 mUes from Woosong ^ ^1* ^^
outer port, with which it is connected by rail since the 1"* Sop-
t^niber. ISM.
The windings of the Hwangp^oo j| ||, and the two bars whidi
are developing at its mouth, will perhaps one day necessitate
extensive works. It has already been proposed to rectify the
course of the river, and dig a canal to the W. , but the immense
alluvial deposits brought down by the Yangtze render every
attempt of this kind rather ineffectual. The Woosung bars are a
great drawback to the prosperity of the port, and the cause of
heavy loss to shipowners, through the impossibility of large
draught steamers crossing them, and coming up to Shanghai.
The average depth of water on the outer bar, at high-water
springs, is 19 feet, the greatest being 23 feet. The Chinese\
Government has recently consented to the establishment of a
^Cmwerffmu^^ Boards, and this will, it is hoped, do much to for-
ward the interests of commerce, and maintain the preponderance
of Shanghai as the great commercial metropolis of China. Large
men-of-war and huge liners, as the Manchuria, Minnesota and
Mongolia^ are compelled to anchor in the Woosung roadstead,
beyond the outer bar, but middle-sized cruisers, and ordinary
sea-going and river steamers trading on the Yangtze, can easily
come up to Shanghai, and this amply imparts to the place an
activity and bustle which are unequalled by any other port in
the Far East.
Shanghai is in constant communication with Japan,
Manchuria, Korea, Southern Asia, Europe and America. Several
steamship companies (see Sect II. Ch. I. p. 101) carry on regular
services with the Yangtze ports and the coast. The number of
vessels which entered and cleared at the port, as well as their
tonnage, from 1900-1905, is as follows.
THB COAST OF KIAIIG80.
SHAHGHAL Table of Shipping. 1900-1905.
271
TBAB
Steanierh
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905*"
3,273
8,698
3,978
4,093
4,059
1,811
Entered Inwards.
Total.
Sailing
Vessels
894
484
448
584
652
15,506
No.
Tons.
3,667
4,726,441
4,182
5,395,9-J5
4,427
6,025,317
4,677
6,179,554
4,711
6,076,279
27,316
7,692,207
Stt'amers
Cleared Outwards.
Total.
Ko. Tons.
3,269
3,692
3,965
4,079
4,057
11,589
Sailing
Vessels
386
487
438
574
666
24,176
3,655
4,179
4,403
4,653
4,723
35,765
4,705,978
5,335,260
6,015,849
6,162,981
6,105,519
7,887,103
^^Inclading towed passenger boats and cargo junks.
It can be seen from this table that the total tonnage of the
port is about 15 ^ million tons.
J^iloml naviffaOan. — Numerous small steamers ply on the
Ilwangp'oo ^ ^ and the large canals, throughout the whole
region around Shanghai, thus connecting it, some with Ch^ung^
ming island ^ ^ and Haim^n j^ f^ promontory, others with
Soochow HM, Ningpo ff^ and Hangchow j^^. The number of
these small craft registered at the close of 1905, amounted to 275,
of which 205 were native, and 70 foreign owned. All trade under
inland steam navigation rules. The total of these small steamers
and passenger boats, entered and cleared for the year 1905, was
6,870, transporting 94,102 tons. The total, which entered and
cleared between Shanghai, Soochow and Hangchow, reached
16,789, while the tonnage transported, amounted to 1,141,046
tons.
C. The Coast to the S. of the Yangtze.
From the mouth of the Hwangp^oo )(j^ or Shanghai river, to
Ch6kiang^2li^x^^i^^B the low-lying region of P^ootung|§j|[. It
is protected by several embankments from the inroads of the sea.
Beyond the sea-wall, vast alluvial tracts are in process of forma-
tion, and the delta is constantly growing seawards. Scarcely a
few islets lie along this part of the coast. As soon as found
inhabitable, they are occupied by immigrants from the overpeopled
neighbourhood of Ch.^ungming and Haim^n, communications
being kept up with the mainland through small sea-going junks.
iX
272 SECTION IV. THB COABT-LINt OP CHINA.
5*. The coast of Chekiang tjf it
ChAkiang marks the transition from a low and flat coast, to the indented aM
rocky coast-line of the South. The former in represented by the large bay of HaniQBboir
iti M* down to which extends the Southern part of Pootung Mb the latter begina ai
the Ningpo % |k river.
P The hay of Hang chow tt fH and its barrier qf islands.
Hangohow bay is as broad at its entrance as the Yangtze
^ ^ XL estuary, and is obstructed by a cluster of rocky
islets, known as the ChMmn -jff;^ il| (iJhmuihmn) grafc^psiwiPe
It forms the mouth of the Ts'ient'ang-kiang g| jf {Lt ^ut affords
few facilities for navigation, especially on account oi its bore
or tidal wave, the strength of the current, and the shallowneee
of the water. Hangchow bay is funnel-shaped. It is 60 miles
wide at the outer extremity, and contracts gradually to 12 at
the other. When the tide rises, the waters rash in with great
force, and finding little depth, 6 or 7 feet at meet, fhey are
suddenly confh>nted by the current of the river, and more and
nu>re concentrated as they advance. These circumstances
make them assume a wall-like formation, and growing to a height
' of several feet, they overflow the banks and are most dangeions
for boast taken unawares. The immense pressure firon^ liehiiid,
and the great height of the tides, which rise to 26 or even 30 feet,
impart an extraordinary strength to the current, which rushes
forward with a roar like thunder, and at a rate somettmes
exceeding 6 knots. On this account, large boats prefer anchoring
at Chap'oo ^ H or Tsop'oo, 50 miles up the coast, and the
outer port of Hangchow. Here they find water to a depth of
23 feet. Boats with a draught of 2 ^ feet can go up to Hang-
chow only by sUges. They come down, availing tkeaaselves
of a few hours of ebb tide. On both sides of the bay, a sea-
wall protects the vast adjoining plain. On the 8. side, a little
to the E. of 8haohsing Fu IR J| J|f, sands are accumulating
and' forming an alluvial land, upon which already several
houses have been erected.
THE COAST OF GHftKlANO. 273
The CSktMon^ |[| (Cheushan, i.e. boat island) ttrehipelaffm*
•-^Pmn Ningpo or Kitao m $^ Point, as far as Yangtze Cape,
extend several groups of islands and rocky islets, of which the
principal are the Chusan ^ ilj isUMnds^ the VoUsano istande or
^ ill, the Bugged UUmOs or Tangehan ^ |lj, Bencher
or rtMhhohUfthrtao j\ ;|^ ^J ftt ^^^ <^ Saddlee <n
The total number of islands in the archipelago is over a
hundred. Chusan ^ llj or boat island is the largest, and im-
parts its name to the v^hole archipelago. It is nearly 25 miles
long, and from 6 to 10 broad. Its highest peak attains 1,300
feet. The population of Chusan is about 70,000. T$nghaiTHng^
^JH is the capital of the island, and has a population reckoned
at 30,000. It exports salt fish, raw cotton, sweet potatoes and
salt. The harbour is one of the best on the coast, and accessible
fey three or four passages. Ships find there good shelter and
excellent anchorage at a depth varying ftrom 23 to 50 feet.
Navigation is difficult thronghout all this archipelago, on account of the very'
•Iroiig onmiit which runs at 7 or 8 knots, and is extremely variable because of the
Bfunerons windings it has to make. Fogs, which are frequent from March to July, '
render navigation still more dangerous.
— Several important lighthouses are placed
Aeiar the difficult channels. We have already (p. 263) mentioned
€Hmddff'0T T€U3hHh :k # iighihauee. Six others are erected : the
l«t/ at the Saddtee (Mangan-tao) ||]@[ JH ; the 2""], on Banhmn
(Pehtsiehshan) ^ tjf llj Mand; the 3'<\ on Voiamo (Siishan) f^
ill ielandf the 4^^ on Steep (Siaokweishan) >J> H ij[| UUmd;
the 5^^ at JMMaehan ^ti\U^ and the 6^1% on Tiger (Hushan)
jj^ ill island, at the entrance to the Ningpo ^ j$ river.
2^ The coast of (Mkiang, South of Hangehow Bay.
• • -
Below the Ningpo river,, the coast becomes indentedj but still
remains lov^, and is bordered with shoals^ which emerge at low-
water, and extend to a distance of 2'h to S miles. Some good sea-
ports and excellent bays give it a certain importance, but Shanghai
18
374 SECTION IV. THB G0A8T-LINB OT CHINA.
J^^ IS too near, and its position too central, to allow the develop^
ment of another large port on the coast of CMkiang }|f ft- -^ naval
port alone -would perhaps be advantageoxisly sittiated in these parts.
Bays. — Numerous and deep bays or estuaries open along
the coast, below the Ningpo ^ J^ river, and down to the frontier
of Fokien |g ^. The principal are :
7%e eMduary of the Yuna-hiang % iL ^^ Ningpo river
(«00 Ningpo. p. 275).
y^mrod half or BUmg9hmnf4ekmg |^ |ll it- — This ba^r
penetrates deeply inland to a distance of more than 25 miles,
and seldom exceeds 4 miles in breadth. Numerous islets render
the entrance to it rather difficult. It has good anchorage and
well sheltered inlets, but no sea-port of importance. It ia
separated from Sanm^n 3 P^ ^^7 ^Y * ^^^S headland.
SanmSn H P^ ^off. — This bay is accessible by 3 passages,
hence called Sanm^n, or *'the three gateways". Larger and
enjoying a wider opening than the preceding one, it is also dotted
with islands and islets. The N. channel forms the roadsteoA
of Shihip^oo T*ing ^ ti JN* ^^ called from the town situated
beside it. Depths vary from 16 to 28 fathoms, but there are
also some dangerous shoals. The 8. channel is 16 miles wide,
and has a maximum depth of 12 fathoms. It g^ves access to
excellent anchoring ground with depths varying from 23 to 30
feet. Further on, the depth diminishes, but anchorage varying
from 36 to 42 feet may be found down almost to the extremity
of the bay. Too exposed to winds from the high sea and to
typhoons, frequently also shallow, this bay lies moreover in an
impoverished region, and the islands in it are the rendezvous
for pirates. It thus does not deserve the reputation formerly
bestowed upon it.
T^aichow -^ ji[ )ff hag. — Wide and shallow, a bar renders
the entrance to it still more difficult. Ships with a draught of
more than 11 \ feet cannot cross it, except at high tides. At
high-water of springs, vessels with a draught of 19 \ feet can
ascend as far as T^aichow Fu ^ ^ J^-
WhicKow 2J ^ b€ig9 or the estuary of the Ngeu-kiang
K in- — This bay has fairly good anchorage. The best is in
Buttock harbour, situated in the midst of a group of islands.
THB COAST OF QBtKlAXB. 275
laimn4»> — The islands in this part are numerous and
generally of granitic formation. None of them have any great
importance, either in regard to extent or position. Those to be
chiefly remembered are the groups in Nimrod or Siangshan-
^^^e H [Ij 2L» ^^^ SmmUn ^ p^ ha^s. Further Southward
are the T^hkUhan ;||: f|- [Ij and Ntmkiahan ^ H* llj praups.
A good harbour is found in the latter.
IdgMliMMML — The reh^HBhan g ^ [Ij Ughih4mm is
the only one of this coast. Erected on Shasho island, a little
outside the bay, it is 345 feet above high-v^ater level, and visible
to a distance of 26 miles.
B«. — Mngpmfffg[ alone deserves special mention.
The others : iSM^M THnp :^ ^ jM, T'aieh^w I^ -^ f^ Jif,
Whusk^w Ai S M /HP ^"^ Nanki |fj f|*, have scarcely any
commercial importance.
mnapo JPk$ ff fg(^ Iff (tranquil wave). — Population,
260,000 inhabitants. One of the five ports opened by the Nan-
king treaty of 1842. It is situated on the Yung^kiang ^ 2llf
12 miles from its mouth and 15 from the sea. Ships with a
draught of 16 feet can reach the port at high-water of spring
tides. The bar at the entranc to the river has but a depth of
12 feet over it at low-water of springs. The trade of Ningpo
is principally carried on with Shanghai. Three steamers, one
Chinese, one British, and one French, carry on a daily service
between the two ports. The itnporU are cotton goods, iron,
lead and tin, kerosene oil, sugar, coal, opium, flour, medi-
cines, soap and matches. The eui^aris are rush-hats (3,413,940
in 1905), matting, paper fans and umbrellas, silk, green tea,
carpets, raw cotton, medicines, fi^undnut oil, ^^samshu" or rice-
spirit, joss-paper (9,596 picu)s in 1905), and cuttle-fish. The
total net value of the port was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 22,240,093;
in 1904, Tls. 21,297,412 ; and in 1905, Tls. 19,163,630.
Large steamers anchor at the outer port, Chenhat JMen fH
f$ Hi A small district town with a population of 35,000 inhabi-
tanlv, and situated at the mouth of the river. (See Section III.
Oh. IV. Oh^kiang. p. 233).
J7fr SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OP CHINA.
& . The coast of Fokien jB ^.
The coast'line of Fokien tins no large bay like that of Hang"
chow j^ j^, nor any archipelago comparable \<nth that of Chusan
^ llj. The coast is indented and broken^ and forms a seHea </
tay^^ several of which penetrate far inland. They afford good
shelter and anchorage for ships. There are also several excellent
ports, two of which, Amay or HMamin ]g P^, and JPboehmv
H ^, are of great importance.
These parts are generally rocky and abrupt. They become
however sometimes low and sandy, and are bordered by shoals and
reefs. They are then dangerous, especially on account of the
currents which run there with great violence, and the services
of a pilot are necessary to approach them with safety.
They are washed on the N. by the waters of the BaaUm CMna
MO or Tianwhai ]^ jf|, and further down by those of the JFkHr^
Bajoi. — The principal are, proceeding from N. to S. :
Nankwan )|| H ^^^ — '^^■^ ^^y ^^ about 16 miles long,
but is shallow, except at its entrance.
Sa$nsa or Sansha ^ fp half. — This bay lies between the
island of the same name and the coast. It is very deep and
affords good shelter. It is said to be on a small scale like the
inland sea of Japan.
The half or eeittarp ef the Min-hUiug fl^ j^. — [eee below :
Poochow. p. 278).
SMtoH ji| jy[ hay and pass. — Lying between the Island of
the same name and the coast, thjs inlet may be entered by ships
with a draught of 21 feet. Excellent anchorage is found there,
with depths of from 30 to 50 feet. The tidal stream is very strong,
and is to be guarded against when vessels enter and depart.
The current attains a velocity of 5 knots at high-water of spring
tides.
HMnghwa fH ffc hay* — This is a fine bay, but the entrance
t9 it is ditlicult.
THE COAST OF FOKIBN.
277
SAMSA or SANSHA H fS^ BAY.
Tg/^Uenchaw Fu ^ )i\ fff baiif. — The entrance to this bay is
shallow, but good anchorage and shelter are found in the
vicinity.
Tiger^a he€id or Hui^eu J^ ^ doy.
Amoy or Hsiamen ^ f^ inty. — {nee below : Amoy. p. 279).
TAingihan^ffi [Ij bap* — This bay has deep anchorage,
and is one of the best of this coast.
Islands. — Rocky and bare, they are nearly all inhabited
by fishermen whose boats go far out to sea. The most important
is the isUma of Amoy, though it is not the largest. The^SSflrm-
Ms or Sanaha H ^ or^up, including thp upper Ji H IP
278 SECTION IT. THE COAST-LINE OF GHDfA..
(shangsantu) and iower IF H ^ (hsiasantu) Ui€is, MmU^m^ m
iK istand, Quenunf or KioMnJhk ^ f^ (golden harbour) UUmA^
T^wnoBhan m il^ and WhUe dog iOamd^ are the largest.
TJi^gMSbmfomfm. — Several lighthouses are erected on the
coast of Fokien, especially at the entrance to the Min 0 river,
and to Amoy harbour. Four are in the lower reaches of the Min
river : 1^ Tunimfufng ]|[ ^ UghXhouae^ on Tungyung island ;
2* the Middte dag or Tungk'iien-shan }K :^ ll| U^MteMM/
S"" Twtnabgwl or Niushan-tao ^ }^ % UghUhouae. The two
latter are 257 feet above high-water level, and visible to a dis-
tance of 23 miles; 4'' Oekseu or Taokweisii i^ fi ||| UghMhrnu^e.
It is 286 feet above high-water level, and visible to a distance
of 24 miles. Four others are at the entrance to Amoy harbour:
one, on nodd or Pehling ;||^ || Mand, a second, on T^mUan ^
Ig Ukmd, and two others, respectively on 2Mm^«6 ^ |||, and
Chapei or Tungting j|[ ^ Mands.
Csurt-towa. — Only three are of importance at the present
day, from a commercial standpoint : JFooehow, Ammg and San"
HIKiH* ^ Population, 8,000 inhabitants. It is
situated on Saniu inlet and is the port of Fuhning Fu H )|f ^.
It is the best and safest port on this coast, and exports principally
tea, camphor, paper and pottery. The total net value of its trade
was in 1905, Hk. Tls. 2,220,032. In 1900, a jetty, 160 yards
long, was constructed there. The harbour however has so far
realized but little the hopes entertained of its future success.
Fo9€how JS jHi ^* — We have spoken above (Section
III. Ch. IV. p. 222) of the city, here we will describe only the
entrance to the river.
About G miles outside the Min-kiang PQ 2Ct llicre is an
outer bar which is exposed at low-water, and then becomes a
large sand-bank. At high-water of spring tides, there is but
one channel which is navigable for ships drawing up 19 19 feet.
The inner bar has a depth of 6 J^ feet over it at low-water,
but as the tide rises to a height of 18 feet, it is easily crossed.
Between the two bars, there is excellent anchorage in
moderate depths.
THE COAST OF FOKIBN. 279
Two Other difficult passages have to be crossed before
reaching Tag^^du anehorage: ihe Kimpai or K^p^aimSn ^ fff^
n IM>^ ^^^ <^ JkOnnffonmSn 1^ ^ f^ p€Ms. The first, lying
to the N. of Wuhu £ ^ island, is narrow and dangerous at
high-water of spring tides, as the stream then runs with great
velocity and develops a considerable eddy. The second, longer,
is less dangerous, although the current, at high-water of springs,
attains there a velocity of from 4 to 5 knots.
The channel at the S. of Wuhu island cannot be crossed on
account of the sand-banks that have formed there.
JPtiffoda anehorage or Ix^elingtah Ml £ :^ is excellent,
but ships must anchor carefully, as the force of the current is
very strong.
This anchorage lies to the S. of Bagoda Mand. The sand-
banks which are found there shift constantly from one place to
another, and so a pilot is necessary when vessels require to
anchor there.
Boats drawing less than 1 \ feet of water can alone proceed
further up the river, and reach Foochow, where considerable
trade is carried on.
Amgg or HMamin ^P^. — Population, 114,000 inhabitants.
It is situated upon the island of HaimSn j(| P^, at the N. of
a fine bay, and has consequently rapidly developed. The island
is about 40 miles in circumference, and contains large vil-
lages besides the city. It is hilly and rugged in its Southern
part, and has a sandy beach at the extreme S. Rocks extend to
more than ^ of a mile from the shore. Opposite the island, on
the W., and about ^ of a mile from it, is KuiangM "f^ ^ f^
(drum- wave island). It is a mile and a half in length by one
in breadth, and contains the residences of nearly all the forei-
gners. The population is 3,500. Between these two islands lies
U^ iwner port of Amay, one of the best harbours and most easy
of access on the coast of China. It is two miles long, and from
400 to 600 yards broad. The entrance is at the S., but is
difficult, as the passage is obstructed by dangerous shoals.
There is good anchorage and deep water, but the place is visited
280 8BCTI0N IT. THB C0A8T-LtNB OF GHDfA.
occasionally by typhoons. Hke mUer hmrb&mr is at the B. of
Haim^n and Kulangsii islands. It has good depth and holding
ground like the inner harbour, and so can be entered without
assistance from a pilot.
Springs rise 17 ^ feet at Amoy. In March and September,
the rise is scarcely perceptible.
Amoy has excellent dockyards, where large ships can be
easily repaired [see Section III. Ch. IV. p. 223).
THB GOikST OF KWANOTUNa. 281
T . The coast of Kwangtung Wk %
The coast of Kwangtung is rocky like thai of Fokien jJB j^,
at least to a great extent, and indented like it. It has also good
bays and possesses the largest island of China, Hainan ^ J^, the
long peninsula of Leichow ^ f^, and the vast delta of the
Si-kiang Ig jH- Of all the Provinces of China, Kwangtung is
the best provided with excellent ports. It can boast of Hongkong
(Hsiangkiang) § p^. Canton (Kwangchow Fu) M i^ M* Swatow
(Shant'eu) }|Ii ^, Haihow (Haik'ow) % P, Macao (Ngaom^n)
jH P^, Pakhoi (Peh'hai) ;|k %, and Kwangchov^-wan J| ^ j^-
Its coast is washed by the South-'China sea or Nan-hai y^
fj^, and borders on the S. W. upon the gulf of Tongking j|[ jjf.
BajTA. — The principal bays are :
Swaiaw or Shan/Ufeu }|I| H tey, at the estuary of the Han-
kiang 4| jtL ip^ Swatow. p. 284).
H%^hai or Hwanghai % f^ baif* — This bay is large
but shallow, and exposed to the winds which blow from the
high sea.
Mirs or Tap^inghai :kWift^ ^og. — This bay affords good
shelter and anchorage in depths of 54 feet.
M&ngkang (Hsiangkiang) ^ fj^ bay [see Hongkong, p.
284-286).
Lappa or Kungpeh ^ ifa btay, opposite Macao (NgaomSn)
*«•
Kwttnffchaw J| ^ bay {see below, p. 290).
Island*. — We shall mention only those more generally
known:
Namoa or Nannyao "j^ j||. — This island is 12 miles long and
is well populated. Some peaks rise from 1,600 to 1,900 feet.
The inhabitants live principally by fishing.
n^ubieManaoTMoMjBI g|. — ^This is a small island lying
to the S. E. of Swatow. It offers the phenomenon of appearing
double when approached from the S.E., hence its name.
(«00 below, p. 284-286).
282 sicnoN it. thb C0AgT-4.iifB or chima.
1^0dr9 Bkmeo, also called T^aitsMng-chen :i: 1|F if*, or
T'aising^tsan -jk: M, W' — '^^^^ '^ ^"* ^ mere rock, well known
on account of its prominent position, and its affording a land-
mark for seamen. It is a little more than one degree to the E.
of Hongkong, and has almost the same latitude.
Idmiao or TaMshan ^ ff^ [Ij. — This island is situated to
the W. of Hongkong, and opposite the Northern branch of the
Si-kiang || fL delta. It is 13 miles long by 6 broad. Some
of its peaks attain an elevation of 2,900 feet.
The Lamma oreMpelaao or Nanifa % Y* ^ ^^^ ^- ^- of
Hongkong. Lantao and Lamma islands belong to Hong-
kong.
The Ladrane Uiands or l4t»waM8han ^ || ^J. — This
group of islands lies to the 8. W. of Lantao, and helps to
guide seamen who enter from the S. towards Hongkong or
Canton. One of them especially has a very peculiar dome-
shaped peak which rises to a height of 1,300 feet.
The aiream or Chiu^an }\\ islands^ situated some 60 miles
to the S.W. of the Si-kiang delta, and not far from the coast. On
the largest of these islands, Sfuingtik/ufan Ji )\\ or 8anokm^ also
called 8t Jchn^B^ S' Francis Xavier, the great apostle of India,
died in 1552, at the time that he intended to preach the
gospel in China, as he had already done in Japan.
BMnan % ff| (South of the sea). — A large island between
the China sea and the gulf of Tongking. It is 185 miles long by
120 broad, and contains an area of 13,900 square miles. It is
very mountainous. The central and Southern mass is called the
V^ive finger mountain**, and has peaks rising to an elevation of
i 4,900 feet. Its mountains contain gold, silver, copper and iron;
-the lowlands are extremely fertile. The coast is indented and
broken^ and occupied chiefly by Chinese, while the abori-
ginal and barbarian tribes are confined to the interior. The
capital of the island is K^iungchow Fu ]|| ^ ^, on the N. W.
coast. Hoihow or Haik|owjftp is its port, and is open to
foreign trade since 1876 (see SecUon III. Ch. III. p. 211).
JEUmnd ieUmd or Weiehmo H )!H* — ^ small island of
volcanic formation lying to the N. E. of the gulf of Tongking
jKjSC* It is 4^ miles long by 3 broad, and has a populatibn of
G0A8T or KWAManma. 283
6,000 inhabitants. In the S., is a good port, which is a very
busy fishing centre during three months of the Winter.
The Bmrwmis or TtHhehmo ^ §\ (seven islets). — These
lie to the 8. E. of Hainan, and seem attached rather to Annam
than to China.
■. — The tide is much less felt along the coast of Kwangtung than upon
the coast of Fokien. At Swatoto or Shant'eu, the tides reach from 5 ^ to 8 ^ feet at high-
water of springs, hut from April to October, they seldom rise beyond 2 i feet. At Hong-
kongj the maximum is 7 1 feet. The tide is here more than elsewhere extremely com-
plicated, as the lowest ebb does not coincide with high-water of springs, and besides
there is but one tide daily. At Canton^ the height of the tide varies from 2 J to 5 J feet.
Oarrenta. — On accoimt of the weakness of the tidal-steam the currents here
have not the velocity of those that prevail along the other parts of the coast.
They scarcely reach 2 or 3 knots at the most. Swatow is however an exception, and
has currents which attain a velocity of 4 knots.
— The lighthouses on the coast of Kwang-
tung form 3 groups : those of Swatow or Shant'eu ]'ilj ^ ; those
at the entrance to the Canton river ; and those of the strait of
Hainan j^ ^.
l%e Swatow tn'owp comprises 4 lighthouses : 1"^ The Xom^eto
or Tungp^hHMao }|tS^ A it^hihouBe, It is 241 feet above high-
water level, and visible to a distance of 22 miles ; 2^" Suffar
Ijoaf or Tehehaw HM Uahihaute. It is 200 feet high and visible
to only 8 miles; 3"* Cape Good Hope or JPiaoMoh $t A ^M-
houee» It is 171 feet above high-water level, and visible 15 miles.
These 3 lighthouses are all erected upon islets ; 4® Breaker
JBNM or Shdhpetehan ^ 9| [Ij UgMhouee. It is 153 feet above
high-water level, and visible to a distance of 19 miles.
Jhe gro^ap at the entranoe to the ikmton rivor comprises
3 principal lighthouses : 1"^ one, on WagUtn or JEhm^rlan 1ff( H
MteMi. It is 225 feet above high-water level, and visible 22
miles ; 2'> Gap Bock or Maweiehow % % jl'^ ttt^hthouee. It is
140 feet above high-water level, and visible 18 miles ; 3® Guia
or Macao (Ngaom^n) ^ f^ UghUiOuee. It is 332 feet above
high-water level, and visible to a distance of 20 miles.
l%o group of the 8§rmU of EMnan j|| ^ comprises also 3
lighthouses, but of less importance : l"" that of Bktihow or Ai<-
k^ow f^ p harbour. It is 93 feet above high-water level, and is
visible 10 miles; 2^ Cape CanUorKwrnMrnowetMigg,. It is 67
284
81CT10M IV. TBS COAST-LIMB OF CHINA.
feet above high-water level, and visible 14 miles; 3® Tmmkm oi §0
t^^ff^fuMO Ijl H U^hihtmse. It is 63 ^ feet above high-water level,
and visible to a distance of 13 i miles. _,
Sei^-porto. — The principal are : ^
Swaima or ShatUfeu {ill m. — Population, 00,000 inhabitants. ^
This port is situated at the mouth of the Han j^ river. J^luitt k
with a draught of 20 feet can easily enter the bay. The rows i
oPpostslalTby fishermen between Double isiand and the ancho- t
rage are alone to be guarded against, especially at night. Trading | 1
vessels can find good holding ground with a depth of 30 to 36
feet opposite the town. The bay is in constant communication
with Amoy, Foochow, Hongkong and Shanghai [see Section HI.
Ch. HI. p. 210).
Hongkong or EManghiang ^^' (fragrant lagoon). — Hong-
kong is an island at the Eastern entrance of the Canton river, and
HONGKONG f= }§
including Kowloou and ihe New Territory.
TH9 COAST OF KWANOTUNac 285
a Grown Colony of Great Britain. It is a mass of granite, schist
and basalt, varied with hill and dale, woods, rocky creeks and
sandy beaches. The Teah upon which stands the signal-stafT
is 1,825 feet high. The island is 11 miles long and from to 2
to 5 broad. The colony has been increased in 1898, by the
lease for 99 years, of a tract of territory on the mainland. The
whole of the Colony, now including Kowloon ^ H (acquired by
the Peking Convention of 1860), has an area of 400 square miles.
The population, according to the census of November 20^^, 1906,
is 305,400 inhabitants, of whom 294,426 are Chinese. The white
residents, exclusive of the army and navy, number 10,981. The
chief town is Victoria (population, 182,000), on the N. coast of
the island, facing the mainland.
When the island was first taken possession of by Great
Britain, in January 1841, it had a population of only 2,000
inhabitants, mostly fishermen. Since its cession by the Treaty of
Nanking, in 1842, and its erection into a British Colony, April
5**^, 1843, it has uniformly prospered. The harbour, which lies
between Kowloon and the N. coast of the island, has a water-area
of 10 square miles, is well sheltered, and is one of the finest in
the world. It is unfbrtunately situated within the cyclonic limits,
and in 1874, as many as 33 large vessels, several hundred junks,
over 1,000 houses, and many thousand lives were lost. Another
disastrous and terrific typhoon, the incidence of which was
aggravated by the absence of warning from the local observatory,
swept over it oh September 18^^\ 1906. During the tornado,
9 vessels were sunk; 23 went ashore, including H. M. sloop of
war "Phoenix", and two French torpedo boats; 21 were damaged,
among them being 11. M. gunboats ''Moorhen'* and *'Robin*',
and several large liners. Great destruction took place also
among small craft, buildings collapsed, and trees were torn up
by the roots. Over 1,000 dead bodies were recovered. The
loss of property is estimated at over £ 1,000,000 sterling.
Hongkong is the centre of a vast trade in many kinds of
produce, chiefly opium, sugar, flour, cotton, ivory, betel-nuts,
sandalwood, rice, tea, silks, woollens and salt. The €aoi^mHs
286 SBcnoif iv. tbi CO40T-Lnfi or china.
to the United Kingdom are principally silk and hemp; and the
impmrist cottons, metals and woollen stuffs. In the year 1903,
the aggregate tonnage of the port was 21,710,000; in 1904, it
reached 22,405,000.
jlongkong is a free port. It is calculated that the traffic,
which merely passes through the harbour without breaking
bulk, amounts to over £ 20,000,000, and the total trade to
£ 50,000,000 sterling per annum.
Industry is also prosperous, cotton-mills and sugar refineries
being particularly developed. Much encouragement has been
given by the government to education. In 1902, there were 91
schools subject to government supervision, attended by 5,754
pupils, mostly Chinese. There are besides many private schools,
attended by 2,983 pupils, and special schools for European
children.
There are excellent naval yards and docks, capable of
holding the largest vessels. These give employment to 30,000
workmen.
Hongkong is the chief British naval station in the Far East.
It also maintains a strong garrison for the protection of British
commerce.
As a Crmim CbtoiHfy it is administered by a Governor, aided
by an Executive Council of 8 members, together with a Legislative
Council of 14 members, including the Governor and a repre-
sentative from the Chamber of Commerce. The Kowloon territory
has also its special administration, partly Chinese and partly
English.
Cani&m j9| ^ ^ and the dmUen river or Chm jrfgiig {^ f£^
also called the Feari river.
We have described above (Section III. Ch. I. p. 170; and
Ch. III. p. 207-209), the City of Canton and the Si-kiang delta;
we shall therefore deal here only with navigation.
The Feari river is entered through the Boeea Tigris (Hu-
mAn) J^ n or Bo^tte. This name was given to it on account of
Tiger ieiands or Hushan J^ [[j , which lie above the entrance.
This latter is situated between TaikokiaH or Tiakiehteu ^
^ 9g and Anunghet^ or Ttmiangheiai 3S lift Hi-
Once passed, the Bienheitn <Jkmmei or Sintsaoshui fg( ^
;^^ is the best course for navigation, but two bars oppose an
TRB COAST 9F KWAlf6Tim0.
287
obstacle to ocean-going vessels. Ships with a draught of 22
feet can reach Whampoa or Mweanpu j| i^^ 9 miles below
Canton. Vessels drawing 10 feet can alone go up to Canton,
where the safest anchorage is within 150 yards of the river
wall, at Shameen j^ fS (Shamien, i.e. sand-flat).
Gsffttoti was at an early date, the great port of European c(mi-
merce. The Arabs traded there in the X*^ century, the Portuguese
reached it in 1516, and later on the Dutch and English. The
East-India Company established a factory there in 1684, but
its monopoly ceased in 1834. Since 1842, the proximity of
Hongkong, and the opening of Foreign ports, especially in
the N., have much limited its former trade, which of late years
has exceedingly declined. Its eooporis are chiefly silk, tea and
matting. The imp^ris are cotton-yam and piece goods, woollen
cloths, rice, sugar, beans, kerosene oil, flour, coal, cutlery,
opium, tobacco and matches. ,X/anton is 95 pr^flfla frnm Hppg.
kong, and steamers ply daily between the two places. From
1901 to 19037Tts^ommerce nearly doubled, but it fell again in
1904, and still further in 1905. The total gross and net values
of the trade of the port from 1900 to 1905, were as follows:
aro88 and Net Values of Trade, 1900-1905.
YEAK.
Gross Values.
Net Values.
1900
Hk. Tls.
58,036,553
Hk. Tls.
52,405,172
1901
60,845,410
59,990,274
1902
80,727,948
79,744,707
1903
111,268,748
110,559,826
1904
96,858,478
• 96,247,076
1905
92,793,830
92,243,650
99^hampoa or JSwangpu ^ j^ enjoys no longer the activity
of former days, especially since Canton has been open to trade.
Its dockyards have been purchased by the Chinese Government.
Macao ^ ijg^ or Nga&mM 91 n* — A Portuguese colony
situated at the Southern extremity of the Si-kiang f| 2L delta.
288
SECTION lY. THB COABT-LINB OF GHlilA.
The Portuguese first settled there in 1557, and during several
centuries, especially during the eighteenth, it was the groA
itrading centre between China and the West. Since the cession
of Hongkong to Great Britain, its trade has constantly deolinefd^
MACAO or NGAOMfiN ^ f^
with its dtipendencios of Taipa and Colowaii.
It was held at a rental to the Emperor of China of Tls.
500 a year till 1848, when Governor Ferreira do Amaral
refused to pay any longer, and forcibly drove out the Chinese
Custom-house, and with it the last vestige of Chinese authority.
He was treacherously murdered in August, 1849, near the
barrier of Porta do Cerco, and his head taken to Canton. . The
sovereignty of Portugal over the peninsula was oCIicially recog-
nised by China in the treaty signed with Portugal in 1887.
Macfto has an area of 11 square miles, and with its depen-
dencies, a population of 78,000 inhabitants, of whom 5,000 are
Portuguese and 30,000 Chinese in the city alone. Macao is
88 miles distant Cram Canton and 40 from Hongkong. It has
■ ^ « ..i. TBB €04BT OT KWANGTUNG. i%t
8#¥eral churches and possesses the Orotto of Gamoens, the
. ^ebrated Portuguese poet. The town is built in amphitheatre
shape on the sides of a hill. It is very picturesque, and has a
beautiful and well-shaded promenade, the Praya-grande, run-
ning along the East sea-wall. Numerous visitors and invalids
throng there on account of its salubrious and braciog climate.
This however does not preserve it from ^epfde^lie diseases,
which frequently break out there. Of its fornieT'Commercial
activity, it still retains a few manufactures, and carries on a
small trade in tea (8,129 piculs imported from Lappa in
1905), silk, opium, essential oils, tobacco, bricks i^d cement,
fire-crackers and preserves. The harbour however is fast silting
up, and will seriously injure trade unless efficient dredging
operations are resorted to. Ships drawing more tha»i 9J feet of
water cannot enter the inner section of the port. Thjs consists of
a canal, running between the W^^coast, and Lappa or Kungpeh
^ jf^ island. Large sea-going vessel#are compelled to anchor 5
miles off, where they are exposed to the N. E. monsoon and to
typhoons. During the year 1905, the number of junks which
entered from Hongkong reached 518, while those that cleared
for the same destination amounted to 368, transporting 115,986
tons. The total value of the junk trade between Hongkong and
Macao from 1900-1905 was as follows:
1900 Hk. Tls. 4,314,397 '
1901
■ —
3,923,534
1902
—
4,293,060
1903
—
3,321,752
1904
—
2,979,779
1905
—
2,253,254
Lappa or Kunffpeh ^ ^t. — Lappa is an island lying
opposite Macao. A Chinese custom station is established there.
The total net value of the trade was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 16,756,562;
in 1904, Tls. 17,735,132; and in 1905, Tls. 16,858,584.
Kwangchawwan fj W If • — The bay of Kwangchow is
situated ii> Kwangtung Province, to the E. of the Leiqhow H ^
19
290
SECTION lY. THB G0A8T-LINB OF CHINA.
peninsula, and was leased to France by China on April the 22nd
1898, for 99 years, together with the adjoining islands and
territory. The Chinese population of the territory is about
190,000 inhabitants, and its area 84,244 hectares or 325 square
miles.
KWANGCHOW-WAN H ^ ||.
The two islands of Nanchow '^jt{ and Tunghai ^ fl^, lying
at the entrance of the bay, make an excellent land-bound port, into
which ships can enter by two narrow passes, the N. one being
the deepest. The bay is from 18 to 22 miles in length, and from
6 to 7 broad, and has depths ranging from 3 to 11 fathoms. It
is formed by the mouth of a river, and by several islands, the
largest of which are Amphitriie or J^unghai jK ^ island and
la Rigaudiire. A new town is being built at NiveiJPaimL Several
steamboats connect it on the S. with Pakhoi and Haiphong
(Tongking), and on the N. with Hongkong. .JKwan^chow-wan
is a free port. The territory is divided into 3 circumscriptions*
THB GOA8T OF KWANOTUN^. 291
The superior administration is performed by a first-class adminis-
trator, under the control of the Govemor-Oeneral of Indo-China.
The tidal stream is very strong at the mouth of the bay.
The entrance from the high sea is effected through a narrow
and shallow channel, which runs through a line of breakers
parallel to the coast.
JffolftMf or JliDM'ofcr fH p. — Population, 12,000 inhabi-
tants. A port situated on the N.W. of the island of Hainan fHf^.
The water is shallow, and consequently ships have to anchor 2
miles off. Its tides are moreover very variable, and typhoons are to
be feared, Hainan being the playground of these destructive storms.
Trade is however brisk, as the town is the only sea-port of the
large island. The principal e^porto are straw mats, gunny
bags, hemp, cattle and pigs, poultry, medicines, brown sugar,
groundnut-cake, fresh eggs and betel-nuts. The in^^rts are
cotton and woollen goods, opium, kerosene oil, rice, beans and
peas, flour, aniline dyes and matches. Communications are
chiefly carried on with Hongkong, Pakhoi and Swatow. (see Sec-
tion HI. Oh. in. p. 211).
Faklk0i or JP^h^hai J/t ^.— Population, 20,000 inhabitants.
This port is situated on the N. of the gulf of Tongking )|[4Ci ^^^
was opened to foreign trade in 187*7 . It was till lately a great depot
and import channel for large tracts of Kwangtung, Kwangsi,
Kweichow and Yunnan. It reached its greatest prosperity in
1888. Then the decline commenced, and has continued ever
since, the reasons being the proximity of Haiphong, the opening
of treaty ports on the West river, and lately the French lease of
Kwangchow-wan. The area of trade is at present restricted to
the neighbouring regions. The e^porto are liquid indigo, brown
sugar, groundnut-cake and oil, star-aniseed, pigs, duck feathers,
hides, and leather. The imports are cotton goods, kerosene oil,
opium, manufactured iron, lamps, rice, flour and matches. The
total net value of the port was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 3,431,418; in
1904, Tls. 3,013,416; and in 1905, Tls. 2,830,938.
The town is badly located, being deprived in Summer of
the S.W. breeze, and exposed in Winter to the full force of the
2»t
8BCTI0N IV. THE C0A8T-L1NS OF CHINA.
N. E. monsoon. The harbour ie good and easily approached*
The entrance is effected through a large and deep channel^ which
ships have no difficulty in crossing at high-water, but at ebb
tide only small craft can enter. During the year 1905, the (kirt
was visited by 119 steamers and 886 sea-going junks, while the
number of clearances reached respectively 119 and 616. The
total net value alone of the junk trade was Hk. Tls. 880,383.
•f llie OoasI of CXiiHi. — The time-zone syetem wm ikdopted i^t
Shanghai, on January the 1"* ISOS, at Ts^ingtao on January the 15^, and BubsequenUy
at other t>laoes. It has become officii^ for aU stations of the Imperial Maritime Ouatoms
lying within the coast lone, as well as for the telegraph and railway adminiatration.
In the 7^ hour zone, it is optional.
IMe. — The globe is supposed to be divided into 21 zones or sections, extending
7* 30^ on each side of the central meridians, and the local mean time is us^ for aU
places within that zone. The 9tandard meridian passes through the centre of each
zone, and in each of them, aU docks indicate the same time. In each zone, the
maximum difference between the local mean time and standard time is 30 minutes.
As one of the standard meridians is that of Greenwich, standard time is often called
Greenwich time. The zone of the China coast, whose standard meridian is 120^ B.
from Greenwich, differs by 8 hours from that of Greenwich. That of Central and W.
China, which has its standard meridian 105^ E. from Greenwich, is 7 hourtf ahead of
Greenwich time. Hoihow and Pakhoi lie both within the latter time-zone.
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Phares en Chine. (Questions diplomati-
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Vnn^FBl. — Les bases navales en Chine.
(Bevue politique et parlementaire. Juin,
1899).
Dolaaniy. — La Chine : ses chemins de
fer et ses ports maHtimes. (Annales des
travaux publics de Belgique. IMo. 1897).
WenrloBBC.^ Chine ancienne et nouvel-
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cao, Fou-tcheou, Chang-hat, Tsin-tau).
HeoeUe. — Chine et Japon. Paris, 1881.
Instructions nautiques sur les mcrs de
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Instructions nautiques sur les mers de
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Fau^el. — Le nouveau port de San-tou-
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Die Wichtigten Hafen China. Berlin, 190L
Dentsohrift betreffend die Entwickelung
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de la Gravldre. — Voyage de la Bajroti-
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1872.
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Miscellaneous Series, N* 10. Names of
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THB COAST Of KWANGTUNa.
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— ibid. N* 20. Typhoon anchorages. 1803.
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Gundry G. — The China Coaster's tide-
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the China coant).
DeclieTrens At. — The typhoons of the
China Seas in the years 1880, 1881 and
1885. Zikawei. 1881-85. — The typhoons
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and October. Zikawei , 188 4 .
Chevalier S. — Etude sur I'^tablissement
de la mousson d'6t^ et d'hiver sur la cote
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Winter storms on the coast of China.
Zikawei. 1895.
Froo L. — Tjrphoon highways in the Far
Bast. Zikawei, 1896. — The typhoons of
September 9*»' and 29* 1897. Zikawei,
1398. —The atmosphere in the Far East
during the six cold and the six warm
months. Hints to Navigators. Zikawei,
1900-1901.
de Moidrey J. — Notes on the Climate of
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Bulletin de I'Observatoire de Zi-ka-wei, by
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by the same. 1908-1907).
--<^l9ii6 J. — The Cyclones of the Far
East. Manila, 190t.
Berghol9 P. — • The Hurricanes of the
Far East. Bremen and Shanghai, 1900.
Dolierck W. — The Law of Storms in the
Eastern Seas. Hongkong, 1896.
PalHwr. — The typhoons of the Eastern
Seas. 1882.
Deutsche Seewarte Die wichtigsten Hafen
Chinas. Berlin, 1901.
Darwin Pr. G. H. — The Tides and kin-
dred phenomena in the Solar System.
(Bores, p. 50-71).
Gatelair O. -- Journal of three Voyiges
along the Coast of China. 1881^,88.
London, 1834.
Chinese Repository. — Coast ' of China.
(Vol V. p. 337.35L VoL VL p. 8-16).
Forbes F. K.— Five years in China. Lon-
don, 1848 (Nautical surveys. Ch. XV. p.
243-262).
Norman F. M.— Martello Tower in China.
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p. 81-98. Ch. V. p. 162-188. - Canton. Ch.
* VI. p. 184-204. — Whampoa. Ch. VII.
p. 205-221).
Collinffwood O. — Naturalist's Kambles
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p. 380-881).
OammlM^ G. F.— Wanderings in China.
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Ch. il. p. 18-41. — From Hongkong to
' Amoy. Ch. V. p. 78-86. — Shanghai. Ch.
' XXI. p. 265-275. — City of Ningpo. Ch.
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Fortune R. ^- Visit to the Tea Countries.
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p. 1-14. - Canton. Ch. VIII. p. 115-184.
Chusan. Vol. II. Ch. IV. X. and XV. —
Ningpo. Ch. VI. and IX. — Shanghai.
Ch. VII, XI and XII).
Fortune R. — Residence among the Chi-
nese. London, 1857. (Several coast-towns
described).
Davis Sir F. — Chusan in British Occu-
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1865. no 7. p. 127-162).
Gundry R. S. — Sketches of excarsions
to Chusan and Pootoo. Shanghai, 1876.
M« Lead J. — Voyage of H. M. S. Aloeste
to China. London, 1818.
Halloran A. L. — Eight months' journal \
during visits to Liukiu, Pootoo, Shanghai
and Ningpo. London, 1856.
Bernard W. D.— Narrative of the voyage
of the Nemesis. London, 1844.
Oolqnlioun A. — China in Transforma-
tion. London, 1898. (Hongkong. Ch. XII.
p. 304 820).
Biemian H. — The Peoples and Politics
of the Far East. London, 1895. (Outposts
of Empire. Hongkong. Ch. I. p. 22-36. —
Shanghai, p. 3-36. — Macao. Ch. XII. p.
183-194).
294
8ICTION lY. THB COAflT-LIKB OP CHIMA.
MIcMe A. — The Bngliflhinan in China.
London, 1900. (The new Treaty Ports :
Foochow, Anioy,Ningpo. Vol. I. Ch. VIII.
p. 112-12$. — Hongkong. Ch. XIV. p.
271-286. — Shanghai. Ch. IX. p. 124-160.
— Macao. Ch. XV. p. 287-398. — Piracy.
Ch. XVI. p. 299-307).
OarvMi G. — Problems of the Far East.
(Great Britain in the Far Kast. Ch. XIV.
p. 41S-42B).
Fitiiiiiw Miii^rd A. B. — The Attach^
at Peking. London, 1900. (Hongkong, p.
1-18. — Canton, p. 14-32. — Shanghai, p.
S3-42. — Chefoo and Tientsin, p. 4S-54).
fiknUli G. — Visit to each of the Consular
Cities of China. London, 1847.
The Colony of Hongkong. — China Re\'iew.
Vol. I. p. 163176.
Bnglish Trade with China A. D. 10251834.
— China Review. Vol. XX. p. 178-201
and 311-845.
Origin of the Colony of Bfacao. — China
Keview. Vol. XXIV. p. 137442.
Macao in the early days. — China Review.
Vol. XXV. p. 188-188.
GmrmbK. J. — - Sanchoan, the Holy Land
of the Far East. Hongkong, 1906.
Brace-mifMtL — The Territory of Wei^
haiwei. Shanghai, 1902.
MaoldUui J. W. — The Story of Shang-
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reign Trade. Shanghai, 1889.
MaMel B.— Physico-Geographioal Sketch
of the China and Yellow Seas. S* Petem-
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Admiralty Charts. — China.
Map of Hongkong. — London, 1905. (topo-
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China. Imperial Maritime Customs. De-
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1898. — I>eoennial Reports. 189t-1901.
Shanghai, 1904. Vol. I. and H.
China. Imperial Maritime Oostoms. Trade
Reports for 1905.
SECTION V.
POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL
GEOGRAPHY^
CHAPTER I.
Gk>yeniment and Administration. — Bevenne and Expenditure.
Imperial Maritime Customs. — Army and Navy.
/^ Gavemment and AdmiimtraUon.
The government of China is, theoretically speaking, an
absolute monarchy. The Bmperor is the only and absolute
master. His will is law, and is manifested by Imperial decrees.
All State officials hold their authority from him. He appoints,
removes, degrades, and punishes them as he pleases. Nothing
restricts his power. He has indeed a CmmoU^ but is not bound
to follow its advice.
The Emperor is expected to act for the general welfare of
his people. He is the refresehiaUve of heaven, and if he fails
to govern in accordance with its dictates, heaven will withdraw
its mandate, and send calamities and misfortunes upon the people.
Such is the belief prevalent throughout the Empire.
— The Emperor is styled the Supreme
BuOer (Hwangti ^^), the August Tjeflg One (Hwangshang
^ Jl), or simply the Ijofig One (Shang Jt). The title, San of
Heaven or T4entze Ji ^, is given to him as a mark of respect.
His popular appellation is : the Buddha of the preeeni dap or
296 SBcnoN v. political and BCONOMICAL GIOaiUPHT.
Tangkin Fohy6 |F "^ H )S* He is also called the Jfaatgr or
Aord (Ghutze ^ 7], and in adulatory addresses : the JAHl mf
Ten Th&ummd yeare (Wansuiy^ % M fS) y ^^ JMfer One
(Sh^ng H) ; the OeieMal Buler (T'ienwang Ji 5E); ^^ aeweteH^n
Ruier (Yuenheu X J^) i ^^ ^^^^ Venerabie (Ghitsun £ d|L).
Besides his permmai name, which is never used, the Emperor
has also a «%|0 er tlUe of reign (Nienhao ^ H). The personal
name of the reigning Emperor is Tsait'ien fl*^, and his style of
reign Kwangsii % Vt (Brilliant Success). The style of reign
may change, and is not always taken on the day of accession to
the throne.
The heir or imeeesner to the throne is chosen by the Emperor.
If he i§ not the natural issue of the reigning Sovereign, he must
be adopted by him, on account of the requirements of ancestor
worship. After his death, an Emperor receives a new or Temple
nmne called Miaohao JfH H, and he is henceforth designated
by this name alone.
The Eiprc— . — 211a Bbnpreea is styled the Jbnpertai
Oeneert or Hwangheu £ jgf ; <^ B^npreee nowaaer is called
llwangt^aiheu £ :Jc J& (Grand Queen); and the Bmperer^e
€Fnm<imo#J^«r,T'aihwang T'aiheu jc£ jfciB^vOreat Grand Queen).
In Hterurp nfifle^ the Empress is called the One who oeomptBa
the Omtmi Baiaee or Chungkung rf $• ^^8 ^ mark of respect,
tho title of Mother of the State or Kwohmu ■ # is also given
her. When thoro are two Consorts of equal rank, one is called
Sikung H ff^ or Empress occupying the West Palace ; the other,
Tungkung ]|[ ^, or Empress occupying the East Palace.
CIdmeae A^mtatetimUen. — The Manchu dynasty, which
has ruled the country since 1614, introduced hut few modifications
into the Government system. In some instances. Boards received
two incumbents, Manchu otVicials being placed side by side with
native ones. Some few new pieces were added to the governmental
machinery', as necessity required it, among ottiers : the Ommd
C^imcil or Kiiinki C*hu ||[ (■ |t established in 1732; and the
Bonrtt e^ Foreign AgmtrtL^ formerly the Tsungli Vam^n H 3
K P|. established in t861.
CMikJfmR I. eOTBRNlfSNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 297
The administration comprises two prineipai MviMons: the
CeMrai or MeirepoHian, and the Provinekd,
CeBtral GoTemmeiit. — According to a decree issued
November the 6th 1906, the Metropolitan or Central Admi-
nistration, hitherto carried on through the Grand CouneU tmd
the Mao Boards, was remodelled. Of the former Boards, only
the following remained : the Grand Council of State Affairs, the
Grand Secretariat, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Board of
Civil Appointments, the Board of Rites, and the recently estab-
lished Board of Education. The official administration will be
subsequently reformed in the Provinces, and the country thus
prepared for a Constitutional Government, and the new order of
things. The Central AdminiatraHon is carried on at present
through the agency of the foUouring (Jouneiis and Boards :
l^ The Hweiri CMngwu Ch'u H* M $Sc ilF JK« Grand
€J(mncU of State Affa/^e or Brivy Coutidt. — This was formerly
called the Kiiinki Ch'u 9MlK (^la<^^ ^^ Military Plans), estab-
lished for the first time in 1732. In the late reorganization, it
was maintained with its designation modified as above. It has no
special function, but deals with all matters of general adminis-
tration. It is presided over by the Emperor. The number of its
members is not fixed. At present it is 5. They are called High
Ministers of State or Hwei-i Tach'^n #Mt :^ £• Meetings are
held every morning at dawn. Numerous Secretaries, called
Siaokiiinki iJ>9Mi perform the clerical work of the Council.
2^ The Seikoh ff\ ^ (Inner Cabinet), Grand Secretariat
or Imperial Chaneery. — This department has lost much of
its importance since the organization of the Grand Council of
State Affairs. It is composed of 4 members (styled at present
Tahsiohshi :^ ^9^ dbt Crr^nd Secretaries; but formerly called
Kohlao ^ ^, or Cabinet Elders, under the Ming ^ dynasty),
two of whom are Manchus and two Chinese. They are all
chosen from among the most distinguished officers of the State,
usually Governors-General. Their functions are almost purely
nominal, and the members sometimes do not even reside in.
one ChitMsOj*- attend
298 8BCTI9K..¥< POLITICAL AND BGONQMIML M(
Peking. ■ Two Assistant Grand 8ec!
Tahsiohshi H^'jc^'il^ ^"^ Mane!
to the departmental work of the Gabii
3^". The mmimmru^.i/fill^MigUsmpM'Fimei^n.
This was formerly the Vwrntltk Tamh^^fUi give its
Tsungli Ko))kwohBhiwu YkaaMj/H M^M^BW I
the Bureau generally msfkmging each Kingdom's
was establishe^j^'tt^i, after the capture of V^f^ by the allied
forces of Oreat Britain and France. The fi^Bent Ministry was
instituted by '*d«eree of July the 21" 4^01. It is generally
composed of 10 'members, all of whpfh are Presidents or Vice-
Pcesidents of other Boards, includfng a majority of the members
ofjln Grand Council. They, aire spoken of collectively as Wang
Trnttkiin I ::fc El or th^^rince and Ministers. There are four
^ Eirtments.,^r the afifairs of Great Britain, France,
[id the Jkfnited^l^liifeiB'; The clerical work of each section
IL con^^ict^d^ by 'Secretaries, styled Ghangking jft }9Ci ^"^
" called Szeyuen ^ g, or Szekwan ^ l§f.
hina is represented near Foreign Courts by ato Amttaa'
One for England, Italy and Belgium ;
One for France ;
One for Knssia ;
One for Germany and HoUaiid ;
One for the United-States and Peru ;
One for .Tapan.
the institution of the Tsungli Yam6n, Foreign affairs
e control of the Lifan Yuen 3 iK iSi Board for
on of vassal countries.
4^ The l«g*r<ieHg|||^|^, Board farthe aOmfUUairaikm
of woBsal 0CiiiiiM|^ — This Board controls all the affairs of
Mongolia, Turkest^and Tibet, and has on this account been
sometimes called th^^ongolian Superintendency. It has to-day
one President styled ^^angshu fSf ^ (literally, Controller of the
Records), and two Vice-Presidents, styled Shilang^ £p (literal-
ly, Gentlemen in waiting.
1. WYEBKumm AND AjmtkimMif^^i^' i99
5*. The 8MhBu -j- K, Tm Bomrds or JHnliiHM — Pre-
vious to the decree of November the 6^ 1906, there were but
six Boards : Civil Appointments or Li Pu jg K, Revenue or Hu
Pu Ji |(, Rites or Li Pu j^ ^^ War or Ping Pu Jj^ |(, Justice
or Hsing Pu ^|(, and Public Works or Kung Pu XM' As stated
above, all were remodelled and their number inereaeed to lO,
as follows:
L Li Fn X IBi Board of Civil Appointments.
2. Minchdng Pu K Hir IB, Board or Ministry of Home Affairs.
3. Tnchi Pa A[ A IB, Board of Finance and Paymaster-General's
Department.
L Hsioh Pu 41 jis, Ministry of Education.
5. Fah Pu & K, Board of Judicature or Ministry of Justice.
6. Luhkitin Pu ■ V K, Land Army Office or Ministry of War.
7. Nungkungshang Pu A X 9IIB» Ministry of Agriculture, ^Works
and Commerce. Besides its President and two Vice-Presidents, this
Board has also two Councillors.
& Ttlchw*an Pu M ft IB, Ministry of Posts and Communications.
a Li Pu A S, Board of Bites.
10. Sinking Pu jB V IB, Ministry of Public Safety or Board of Gene-
ral Constabulary.
A Beard ef Adm^krcMy or BtMMmBu fl^% will be also .
soon organized. ^^^,
In regard to the incumbents of all Boards, there is t(^l>e
no further distinction, at least theoretically^ between pinchus
and Chinese. Bach Board is also to have but one JPreMlMi^
styled Shangshu f| fj^, and tme V^ee-'Fifeeidemts^ stgHed Shilang
^ JK) distinguished respectively in each class as senior and
junior Vice-Presidents.
6"*. The mauMtk FtMM )| ^ K (Hterally, Forest of pencils),
liHiiai'liig Aeadminy er Supreme Cettege ef lAteroMmre* — It is
composed of all the Literati who have successfully passed the
Palace Examination or Tienshi ^ ||K, and obta]ne(i[^lhi5 title of
or Jmperiai Aeademiet. It has two Ohancellors, one
\
n
300 8BGTr5N Y^ POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL OBOMAMY.
Manchu and one Chinese. They are styled Shangyuen Hsiohshi
4C 1^ 9 dr* ^t has also several Readers and Expositors. Adibis-
sion to its ranks is the highest literary honour obtainable by a
Chinese scholar. Its functions are of a purely literary character.
It is entrusted with the compilation of dynastic history, imperial
decrees, and literary works in general. Its members also draw
up prayers and sacrificial addresses, write eulogiums of deceased
Emperors, and make offerings at the tomb of Confucius. They
are besides required to attend on the Emperor as readers,
instructors, and sometimes as advisers.
V. The Tueh'ah Tuen # ||t ^, CmsatYtie or CMtri ef
Cen9ors. — The Censorate is composed of Manchus and Chinese
recruited in equal proportion from the different official depart-
ments. It has 2 Presidents, one Chinese and the other Manchu.
They are styled Tsotu YUshi 2^ # Hi ^- There are besides
4 Vice-Presidents, 24 Supervising Censors and 38 Censors.
The Censors are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even
of the Emperor himself, for any act which they consider unjust,
illegal or extravagant, and they do so at times with boldness
and courage, though they are occasionally degraded for their
unpalatable advice. They also censure the manner in which
all other officials perform or neglect their duties, and if there
are any shortcomings, they may denounce them to the Throne.
They receive appeals made to the Emperor, either by the people
against their ofQcials, or by subordinate officials themselves
against their Superiors. In accord with the Ministry of Justice,
they exercise an oversight over all criminal cases, and give their
opinion whenever the death-penalty is to be pronounced. They
superintend likewise the working of the different Boards, and
are sometimes sent to various parts of the Empire as Imperial
Inspectors, hence they are called the *'ears and eyes" of the
Emperor, Eulmuh Kwan "^ S '^.
8». The TaH &e ;*; 8 ^» Grand Cmuri of BevieUn. — This
department, together with the Ministry of Justice and the Cen-
CBAPTBII I. OOVXRNMBNT AND ADM 1NI8TBAT10N. 301
Borate, exercises a general supervision over the administration
of criminal law.
All three are styled collectively Scmfah Sue H ji ^ » or the
S High JuMees. ^
9^ The KUtWiei^ Kiet$ gC 75 ft, ImpeHal Board of Asiro-
namg. — This department compiles the Imperial calendar,
proclaims the days in which the Emperor is to ofYer sacrifice,
and predicts the eclipses of the sun and moon.
lO'. The T*aich*ang Am -j; ^ ^, Court of SacH/Mal
Worship. — This department is charged with all arrangements
when the Emperor offers sacrifice.
ll^". The Hunffiu Sge y^Jjj^^, Court of State Cerenumtat.—
This department superintends everything connected with State
meetings, and conducts the ceremonies.
12^. Several other Departments are connected with the private service of the
Cmperor and the Imperial Palace. The principal are :
The Tsungjdn TniHAHfor Imperial Clan Court.
The Neiwu Fu A S^ iff or Imperial Household.
The Lwani Wei IS fl Hf or Imperial Eqtdpage Department.
The T'aipnh Sze 4c H # or Court of the Imperial Stud.
The Ewanglnh Sze 3t^ tl ^ or Court of Imperial Entertainments.
The T*ai-i Yuen * W K or College of Imperial Physicians.
ProTlnclml admlntotnUlon.
China Proper is divided into 18 JProvinees, called Shhkg 4t«
These are not all governed in the same manner. Some are
under a Oovemor^Geiierca or Viceroy^ called Teungtuh f/^ ff,
and commonly styled Chiifat ^ ^ ; others have no Viceroy but
only a Cfovemor or SUnfu ^ ||[(, commonly called JP'utfai ^^.
A Viceroy administers one or several Provinces, has under
him Governors, and in some cases fulfils this function himself.
302 SMTION ▼. POLITICAL AND BCONOMICAL MCMMUUmT.
There are 8 Vieereyaitiee:
l"". Ch4hH S H. — The official residence of the Viceroy is
at Paoting Fu ^ J^ ^, though he resides in fact during the
greater part of the year at Tientsin Fu Jiff^Jff. This Province
has no Governor.
2''. Leangkitmg {H f£y comprising the Provinces of
jt JlK, Nttmnhwei $ % and Kkmgei jl 9. — The Viceroy
resides at Nanking Hi iJL or Kiangning Fu fLf(lf.Jff. There
are 3 Governors, residing respectively: one at Soochow Fu j||^
fti Jtf^ o^^ ^^ Ngank^ing Fu ^ ttHf^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ Nanch^ang Fu
3*. Sk^mktm }ffl "Q*, comprising the Provinces of 8kem§i }ffl
If and Kmmwm "H* Jt*. — The Viceroy resides at Lanchow Fu
m ^ J)^, in Kansu, and a Governor for Shensi |||[B, at Singan Fu
4*. Mlmek^ PlIKf comprising the Provinces of JWrfsw H f^
and CMkiam^ ]K {L- — The Viceroy resides at Foochow Fu ff
^ fff^ in Fokien, and a Governor for Ch^kiang ^ {t, at Hang-
chow Fu «; « ;».
5^. Lemmgkm M M or Hmkwam0 m ||, comprising the
Provinces of liM|ia» IR 4b ^^^ Mmmm HI llf, or expanse to the
N. and S. of the Tm%a1fH%g JiW ^p] Ji f^ or Tungt4ng lake. —
The Viceroy resides at Wuch'ang Fu f( g J)^, and a Governor
for Hunan f| Jif, at Gh'angsha Fu J| t^ j|^.
6^ Seeehm^im ^ Jl\. — The Viceroy resides at the capitel,
Ch'^ngtu Fu jg^ ^ Iff . This Province has no Governor.
V. Leanghwane Hi H, comprising the Provinces of Km
«^«^ H HL and Kw(m0ei || ||. — The Viceroy resides at
Canton or Kwangchow Fu H jt| J|^, and a Governor for Kwangsi
H fi, at Kweilin Ful^ ^ fff.
GHAFima I. aOVBRNMBMT AND ADMINI8TBATI0N. 303
S"". YunkwM H jjt, comprising the Provinces of Tumum
H fg and Kweteh&w f^ j^, — The Viceroy resides at Yunnan
Fu H lIK HGf , and a Governor for Kweichow Jl ji\, at Kweiyang
Fu « » iff.
Three Provinces : Shanihmg |I| ]|[, 8hanH [I| |f , and JBEmmm
i9 llf , i>^«e no GcvemmrB Oeneral over them. Their €favemmr»
reside respectively at Tsinan Fu Dl|p ^ J||f in Shantung, T'aiyiien
^^ :k JSi )ff ^^ Shansi, and K^aifung Fu |B §) J||f in Honan.
Seven Provinces : ChihU jt f|, KtMum* -g* J||, SMoMc^ait
B jll, HmimI^ JM *, riifiium H « , AMm fj^ ^ and Kwm^ghmg
J( ]|[, ftore no €Sfov0rfiar, the Viceroy officiating as such.
There are thus in all, 8 Viceroys or Oovemors-Oeneral,
and 11 Governors.
The Vioev^ or IViiMigtwh tfft <^d the Governor or SlhiTii JKUli i^ both
invesied with supreme authority in their Province. When they govern the same
Province, they act in accord. There are however special departments which are
administered hy the one rather than hy the other. The Viceroy controls the military
forces within his jurisdiction, and so to him belong the inspection, promotion and
changes of military officials, the repression of revolts, and the supervision of the salt
administration.... To the Oovemor belong the inspection, promotion and changes of
civil officials, the supervisorate of criminal cases, the collecting of the land-tax, of
duties on certain manufactures, and transit-duties on native produce. This latter is
collected at the numerous Custom barriers established throughout all the Provinces.
Viceroys and Oovemors are almott independent in their Provincea^ and have full
control over the finances, army and the administration of justice. If their adminis-
tration is bad, they are summoned to Peking, where they have to answer the charges
brought against them.
The Viceroy of ChihU is also Superintendent of Commerce for the Northern
ports, and the Leangkiang or Nanking Viceroy^ Superintendent of Commerce for the
Southern ports.
For the 18 Provinces, there are besides : 18 Literary Ohancellors or Prorin-
cIaI Bdncatiooal BxamlnenB, styled hsiohchSng j^ flt ; H Salt Oomptrollers,
called YenyHn Shiaee^HH^^tOr Commissioners of tne revenue derived from the Pro-
vincial salt monopoly; 8 Grain IntciMlanto or Leangtao C jK (previous to 1905, the
latter were subordinate to the Director-General of the grain transport or Ta'aotuh JK,
whose function was then abolished); 3 Direcstors-General of tlie Tellovr River
or HwangJio X A*, and Grand €3anal or YUn-ho fjg H*
304
8BCTIOM V. . POLITICAL AMD BCOMOMICAL
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306 SECTION V. POLITICAL AMD BCOKOMIC «OmAPHT.
Pr^Ttectal AiMlMlfltrattoB. — Besides the Viceroy or
Governor, or both, there are in each Province the 8mtia» fj JH,
or 4L mgh offiekOB immediately below the rank of Gk)vemor,
and constituting in each Province a Oommittee or Board of
Provincial Administration. These are :
Ths ruehMHir S9e;t^jgcri,JP^bugneka Conwmisalm^er or MK^h
TrovineUU Treamairer^ commonly called the TamJtai |§ (.
ThB TfgamMah Si» ^%%, JwHUAaH Onrntm/kBtlUmfT or
Wgh Tr^vineUa J^tdge^ colloquially styled fhe JHthtaH J||^)|.
Ths Ten ChJhng H |^, 8aU tknnpirotUr. — Ohief Commis-
sioner of the revenue derived from the salt monopoly. This
function is sometimes fulfilled by the Viceroy or by the (Jovemor.
The T^eang Toe H ^^ Grain IhtendanL — Ohief Ck>mptroI-
ler of the Provincial revenue derived from the grain tax. The
Viceroy or Governor performs the same functions respecting
the grain supplied to the troops in each Province,
Territorial SobdlTlslons or the PreTiaeeM.
The Provinces are divided into CiretMe or
called Tao j^. Officials in charge of a Circuit superintend
either the mere civil administration of their subordinates, and
are styled Fhteun Tao ^ ^ ^ ; or add to these duties the
control of the military forces within their jurisdiction, and are
styled JPhkehew 2Vio ^ ^ ^*
IfUendaneies or Tao ^ comprise :
!•. JFirei^elass Brefedures or JPus jg- ;
2®. Seeand-^iaea JPrefedures or independetU Chews jHli
styled in Chinese Ohihii Chews g| H jHI- These
are called Depariments by some vsrriters. They
are subject to no Prefectural control, but depend
directly on the Viceroy or Governor ;
3®. Third-eiass Trefeetures or independent TUnffs JH, styled
in Chinese ChihH T'ings jS H j||. Like the inde-
pendent Chows, they report immediately to the high
Provincial authorities.
CHAPTBR I. eOYBRNMBNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 307
FlTB^'dass BrtfeehtreB or JP%m, and indtpendmU Chmos
and TUi9HfBf have subordinate to their control :
l"". Sub-prefectures of the first order, called Hgiens JH or
JDUtHcis.
2^. Sub-prefectures of the second order, called Shuh Ohmvs
JH jVi or dependent Chaws.
3^. Sub-prefectures of the third order, called 8huh iHnge
A JH or dependent THngs. •
4**. Sub-prefectures of the fourth order, called Ifwngf^an
T'inffs jft ^ JK o^ dependent euXnT^ings.
(There are but 4 T*ungp*an T*ings or dependent sub-TMngs
in the 18 Provinces ; 3 in Sjsechw'an |S /l|» and 1 in Shensi
BemI^ drenU is administered by an Iniendant or T^aei^ai
^ 2. T'ai 2 is a title of respect for officials, and may be
rendered by His Excellency. Taot^ai means therefore ''His
Excellency the Intendanf*. This functionary has the control of
a certain number of Prefectures or Fus, independent Ghows or
Ghihli Ohows, and independent Things or Ghihli TMngs. He
attends to matters of general vsrelfare, and controls all the
officials of his Gircuit or Intendancy.
Bvery Frefeeiure of the flrgi order or Fki Jff' is governed
by a Frefeei, called Chi JPte ^ ^ (literally, he who knows or
manages the Fu). The authority of the Prefect extends over
all subordinate officials within his jurisdiction, and the people
may appeal to his bench from decisions given by the lower
courts or Sub-prefects. Part of his duty is also to preside over
the 2^^ examination preparatory to the competition for the
B. A. degree.
GontroUingeaefo Brefeeiure of the 2^^'^ order or independent
Chew is a Chi Chow ^^ (literally, he who manages the Ghow),
or Ghihli Ghow g| H ^i Magistrate of an independent Depart-
ment, reporting direct to the Provincial Governor or Viceroy. Ik
He is distinguished from the Prefect by his having a fixed or ^
well-defined territory over which he rules as local magistrate,
v
308 8BCT10N y. POLITICAL AND IGONOMIG GEOORAPBY.
while the Prefect is only at the head of, and controls the subor-
dinate Sub-prefectures within hits jurisdiction. In this ultimate
capacity, he is obliged to refer certain matters to his Taot^ai or
Siintao jg^ j|t-
At the head of each Prefedure of the S^'^ order or indepen'
dmu 7Hn0 is a CM T^ing ^ j||| (literally, he who manages the
Ting) or ChihiUHnff T*ungchi It || jK ^ ft) Magistrate of an
independent Ting. His functions do not differ from those of
the magistrate of an independent Chow. Like him, he also
controls a Sub-prefecture, ihoug^h regularly speaking, there
should be no such Sub-prefectures.
Bnery Suh-^prefedure of the 1"^ order or Heien JH, is
governed by a Suh-ftrefeet or Disiriet Ma^fUHrate called Chi
MeieH 40 fl (literally, he who governs the Hsien). It is he who
rules directly over and is ih* immediate contact with the people.
His principal functions are the following : l"* to collect the land-
tax either in bullion (Titingyin j|| T fti there being no gold
currency in China), or in kind, principally in rice or grain
(Ts^apleang (f )^, literally grain-tax). He has also to collect
the dues levied on trading establishments, and registration
fees for the sale of land and house property ; 2^ to judge
criminal and civil suits ; 3^ to seize and punish robbers and
evil-doers ; 4® to provide couriers for the government postal
service ; 5® to inspect the establishments of benevolent societies
and appoint their administrators ; 6® to preside over the entrance
examination preparatory to the competition for the B. A. degree.
He must besides report every ten days to his superiors on the
weather, the market price of food-stuffs, the cash or copper
equivalent of the dollar and tael, and the general state of the
crops. He has also to render a monthly account of the cases
brought before his bench.
At the head of each Sub-prefeeture of the 2"^^ order or
Dependent ChoWy called SIkuh Chow j^ ^, is an official styled
Chi Shuhchow ^ M iWi or Magistrate of a dependent Chow.
He discharges the same duties as the Chi Hsien, but has
superior rank.
CHiUrrBA I. GOVERNMINT AND ADMINISTRATION. 309
At the head of each Sub-^prefecture of the 3'^*^ order or
dej^endent T-inff, is an ofUcial styled SFiuhf*i$iO J^jg^ or Fumin-
titng T'ungchi |k J^ JN ^^f JMb-prefed controiUng a depethdent
T^intf, He fulfils the same functions as the Chi Hsien but has
superior rank.
Below and of lower rank than the above named officials is
the AsHHant of the Brefect, called Fut^ungchi ^ p| ^ (literally,
assisting with him who manages) or also Fenfut'ing ^ J^ j|||.
He does not control the affairs of the people, but is entrusted
with some special function, as the defence of the sea-coast, in
which case he is distinguished by the title of HaifangtMng
T^ungchi f$ ^ Jfk^ i^^ or Maritime Sub-prefect; he may also
control the police of a city, and is then styled, Tsungput^ing
T'ungchi K| ^ jR ^ ^« Police Sub-prefect; or he may be in
charge of water communications, and as such is called Shuili
T^ungchi ;)C 4^ iPi ^i Sub-prefect of waterways.
In several Provinces, there is at present a special Board
called Yangwu Kuh ^^ ^ (literally, Foreign Affairs' Super-
visorate), entrusted with the management of affairs connected
with Foreigners, Commercial and Missionary.
The JSMr-prefeeture or IMstrid, as it is commonly called,
is itself divided wholly or partially into TounisiUp^ or SMe ^.
Each of these is controlled by a petty official who fulfils almost
the same functions as a Sub prefect. He is specially entrusted
with the pursuit of robbers, gamblers, swindlers and ruffians,
and practically judges all local cases brought before his bench.
He is styled JP^i Sxe ^^, Jfhi Msieti ^ JR or ^M Chaw ^ f\
(literally. Deputy official), according as he controls with subor-
dinate authority a township, a district or a department.
The towthship is further subdivided into Wards, called Bovo
% or T^u |g, in each of which an Btder or one of the local
gentry (sometimes two or three), fulfils almost the same functions
as a country squire in England, while an agent, called Tipa^
Jft ^, Baoch*ang ^ -ft or BaoclihHf % jEi discharges the
duties, of haMff and rural oo^istable*
The ViUage Eider or Squire is called by the various names
of Tufngaa H Tflk (literally, discerning things wisely, or local
310 8BCTI0N V. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIC 0BO«RAFHT.
Don), Sheniung |^ H (sash-wearing Don), Shemhi ||l ^
(sash-wearing scholar or gentleman), and IAei%tmm0 H ^
(silk-clad controller). The wishes of the people being previously
consulted, the local officials select him from among the influen-'
tial families of the township. The approval of the same families
ratifies the choice made^ and the elect acts henceforward as
Justice of the Peace in all local petty suits and squabbles.
The baUijr or rurai eangiabie, Tipao ^ ^Pj^, generally
a man of low standing, is much more under the control of
the local official, and is held responsible for all misdemean-
ours committed within the ward. In most parts of the country,
he must witness all deeds of sale, and attend the marriage
ceremony of widows.... He is the first to whom runners apply
when sent to arrest a culprit. He is also the first witness sum-
moned by local magistrates in every judicial inquiry. All
matters of local importance are known to him, and generally
speaking, nothing can be done without his connivance.
Some Elders, called Taunatung ||( H (collective Elders) or
OPufonUung ^ K| (body of Elders), administer several townships.
On account of their ability, their literary degrees, and their
family influence, these acquire at times such authority that they
must be practically considered as the sole rulers of the locality,
and the officials themselves have to reckon with them.
Members of the local gentry, in charge of city wards, are
styled Kiaitunff ^ ^ (street wardens), those in charge of market
towns THhchu ^ ^ (market wardens)^ while those of trans-
port-stations or Wei ^ and of Ghai ^ or military posts, are
styled respectively WeUhu Kg ^ and Chaichu ^ ;^.
To the above must be added the heads 0/ famUiee who
assemble in their a$ice8tral hali or Tz^et^ang |g ^, in order to
decide family questions. These impose sometimes very severe
punishments (Kiafah |gc fflf domestic punishments), and decree
even the death-penalty against one of their members, guilty or
simply accused of having impaired the honour of the clan.
The inhabitants of one or of several neighbouring villages
assemble also at times for the same purpose, and to avoid the
CHAPTBK I. GOVBRNMBNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 311
heavy expenses of a lawsuit, commit downright acts of lynching.
Such conduct is undoubtedly unlawful, but superior authority
seldom visits it with condign punishment, and rarely to uphold
the cause of violated justice.
In these cases as in many others, it must be admitted that
the state of Chinese society is still in an uncivilized condition, ^
and that the office of Attorney-General or Prosecutor for the
Crown is unknown.
In the last place comes pcOemtU tMuth&rlty, much less res-
tricted in China than in Western countries. The father or head
of the family is absolute master in his home, and is responsible,
at least in regard to damages, for misdemeanours committed
by any member of his household, or anywhere on his property.
Besides the officials above mentioned, there is an army of expectant mandarins
and underlings, whose functions vary according to the importance and special require-
ments of each district. We will mention here only the principal :
1« Tlie Enlfa H iff and Sanlii H MF» or AsBistanl Magistrates to the
Prefect. — These sometimes take the place of the Prefect in matters of minor impor-
tance. They can be delegated by him to guard the seal (Huyin ff^) of an official whose
vacant post has not been yet filled. They are also commissioned to administer
Departments which depend directly on the Prefect. They are then styled Finfu ^ fH
or Deputy Maffiatrates.
2° The Pat*ins H ■ (PoUce Sub-prefect) or Saeya B ff, Police Aaaiatant to
tlie Sub-prefect. — This magistrate is a sort of Justice of the Peace, and sits espe-
cially in the police court, where he tries all cases brought before his bench, as the
F^nsze ^ fli or Deputy Sub-prefect does in a Department.
3° Tbe Sliiyd tf Mtj Secretaries to the Sub-prefect. — These cannot on
principle try oases with authority, but they sit in the court as Assessors of tbe Sub-
prefect, and of the Police Magistrate or Put'ing.
Other petty officers invested with administrative power are frequently stationed
in the more important Sub-prefectures, and take at times the place of the Sub-prefect
as Depnty-assistaiit Judges (Pangpan fff IK).
Tlie administrative Bureau of a Sub-prefect is generally divided into 6
departments, after the model of the 6 principal Boards of the Metropolitan Govern-
ment, and comprises on a small scale a bureau of Civil Appointmenta (Lifang )|^|9),of
Finarhce (Tuchifang S.'%Hi formerly Hufang JI9 g}-), of Bites (Lifang fj^ J5|), of
Military OrgantMation (Pingfang f^ ]^), of Punishment or Justice (Fahfang ft JJJ,
formerly Hnngfang Jfi ^), and of Public Works {Kungfang X JB|). As stated above
(p. 297) this organization will be soon remodelled.
A
Oouit Underlines, called Oh*aJdn j| A (official messengers), or
%itt (venerable Controllers). -— They are divided into four groups with distinct funoi-
iions, but of these they generally keep but the title for themselves. Practically they
312 8BCTJ0N V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC WOORAPBY.
are engaged in drawing up warrants of arrest, which is a more paying bosiuesa, and for
the serving or execution of which, they have at hand a large number of subordinate
agents unattached to the Court, and hence of no official standing. The latter, like
the proper incumbents of the office, receive no salary, nay more, are obliged tp pay a
fee for each arrest entrusted to them. They natiurally indemnify themselves at the
expense of the accused and prisoners, a necessity undoubtedly, but which affords
ample opportunity for continual acts of extortion, commonly known in China under
the euphemistic name of ^^squeeze**.
In every Sub-prefecture, a military officer, variously styled and ranked, is entros-
ted with the police of the district, under the orders and control of the Sub-prefect.
In department towns or in some large villages of the Sub-prefecture, there are
also other military officers who perform similar duties. They are called Tiinf,ji
It 9 (controllers) or Fuj^ M H (petty deputy officers), and oommand only 4 or
even 2 soldiers, but they sometimes display the greatest ingenuity to expand and
outstep when possible the limits of their petty jurisdiction.
It is needless to add that the military division^ as in other countries, eorreapondt
in nowi$e with the civil divi9ion (See further on : Army). This is the reason why we
cannot assign with ^'reater accuracy the functions of these military officers entrusted
with police duties. Moreover, they are regularly attached to the ranks of the Provincial
Army, although on account of their special functions, and during their tenure of ofBoe,
they are distinguished from those who fulfil camp or garrison duties. They may be
withdrawn at the call of their superior officers, at least when regularly enrolled in the
ranks of the army.
Number #rterrllorlal dlvlslens In Uie 18 Pr»TiBce«« —
The following table exhibits the aggregate of territorial divisions
in China Proper:
Intendancies or Circuits, called Tao j^ 95
Prefectures of the first Order or Fus Jff 184
Prefectures of the second Order, also called Depart-
ments, independent Chows or Chihli Chows ||[
H « 71
Prefectures of the third Order, also called indepen-
dent Things or Chihli Things Wi 9i M - ^^
Sub-prefectures of the first Order, also called Districts
or Hsiens H 1,277
Sub-prefectures of the second Order, also called
dependent Chows, dependent Departments or
Shuh Chows Jl ji\ 154
Sub-prefectures of the third Order, also called
dependent Things or Shuh Things jR j|| 32
Sub-prefecture^ of the fourth Order, also called
dependent Sub-T*ings or T*ungp'an T'ings jftfl
GHArrSR I. GOVlRMMSNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 313
The aboriginal tribes of Szechw'*n, YUnoAD, Kweiohow And Kwbd^ : MiaotMe
B ^, Lolos IK S ^^^ others, have in some places a peculiar administration of their
own. Authority is transmlHed from father to son (or near relatives), and the local
administrators or chieftains ikte called T*ukwan J: 1^ or T*UBze J: 8] (local chieftains).
Some tribes are even under |k ifliini-military administration (see pp. 188,191 and 201),
especially in the S.E. of Kw^i^Uow.
General appelltfUion of Officials. Appalntment to
Office. — In the Chinese language, officials are collectively called
Kwan ^ (rulers, magistrates). In Foreign countries, they are
styled Officials, Magistrateg or MttndtMrins, this latler word
being derived from the Portuguese mandar (to command).
Metropolitan High Officials have various titles {see p. 297-
299). Provincial Officials, appertaining to ranks down to that of
Taot'ai inclusively, are addressed as TaJr^-^ A or your
BooeeUeney. Those beneath the above-mentioned ranks (Prefect,
Department and District Magistrates) are addressed as Tala^y^
>^^)S (S^^A^ ^^^ m2iTi) or your Honour, and in the lowest ranks
simply as lAJMyk ^ ^, which is equivalent to Skr in English.
Competitive examination is the stepping-stone to official
employment. A large percentage however of incumbents, espe-
cially of late, obtain office by purchase, though the Throne
has at times attempted to supress the evil.
Tlie Tam^n :^ f^. — The official and private residence of
any mandarin holding a seal is called a Yam6n. Offices of man-
darins who have no seals are called Kungeu ^ 0f, or public
places. An OoloMon waU called YingpU% ^ g| (shadow or
screen-wall) is placed before the entrance to counteract all evil
influences, and a huge scaly animal called T*aot4eh fBH (glut-
tonous ogre), the symbol of avarice, is painted on the inside to
warn the official every time he leaves his residence, to be on his
guard against this degrading vice. Sometimes an enormous sun
is painted on the screen-wall. The native legend explains that
the ogre having attempted one day to devour the mighty orb
unfortunately came to grief. It is also tyjpical of the pure or
Yang IQf principle, and suggests that official administration
should be upright and pure in a similar manner.
314 SBCTION V. POLITICAL AND BGO^MIC eBOORAPHT.
RaalK and degrees ef mileials. — Officials are classed
in 9 ranks called Kiup^in )l ^, distinguished by a coloured
knob worn on the cap or head-dress, a square embroidered
badge on the breast and back of their official robes, and a clasp
on their girdle. Each rank is further divided into two grades :
chtog jE or principal, and ts^ung fj^ or subordinate, the knobs
of the latter being engraved with the character **show" H or
longevity. The annexed table will exhibit distinctly these ranks.
Insignia of Official Rank.
M
Knobs.
BaD»E8.
GmnLE CiAAfiPfi.
«
Colour.
Material.
Civil.
Militabt.
Xiff MM9M^mmm9 ^^MS^k^mOm
1
Red— pUin.
Ruhy.
Manchurian
Unicom of Chi-
Jade set in Rn-
Crane.
nese Fahle.
bies.
2
Red-chased.
Coral.
Golden Pheas-
ant.
Lion of India.
Gold set in Ru-
bies.
S
Blu^— clear.
Sapphire.
Peaoock.
Leopard.
GhaaedGold.
4
Lapis lazuli.
Wild Goose.
Tiger of Man-
churia.
Chased Gold with
silver button.
5
White— clear.
Rock Crystal.
Silver Pheas-
Black Bear of
Chased Gold with
ant.
Tibet.
plain silver button.
6
White— opa-
que.
Adnlaria.
Lesser Efnret.
Tiger Gat.
Mother of PftarL
7
Gold- pUin.
Gold.
Mandarin Duck.
Mottled Bear.
Silver.
8
Gold— chased.
Gold.
Quail.
Seal.
Clear horn.
9
SUver— plain.
SUver.
LoMgtailed Jay.
Rhinoceros.
Buffaloes horn.
It can be seen from this table that the distinguishing badges
of civilians are birds of gay plumage, while those of military
officers are wild animals. The Chinese oriole is worn by the
lowest grade of underlings and unclassed officials. The wives
of officials wear the same embroidery as their husbands, but
no knobs.
Heredltery vewMNto fto MeHi or T^iohpin KK. — ^There
are 9 ranks of hereditary reward for merit. They do not confer
X
CHAPTBR I. GOVBRNMBNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 315
aristocratic position as in Foreign countries, and last only
for a fixed number of lives. The five first are called high ranks,
while the four latter are inferior, and conferred mostly on
military officers of the Imperial Equipage. These ranks are as
follows :
I. Kung ^ Duke. 6. K4ngch»e Tuyii ^ (L 19 || Kquery of the
Imperial Equipage.
7. K*ituyu M 19 II Imperial Equery.
8. Yunk4yu mm Standardbearing Equery.
9. Ng6nk*iyu A lltt Kquery by privilege.
2. Heu ^ Marquis.
3. Peh la Earl.
4. Tze ^ Viscount.
5. Nan J§ Baron.
Titles #r lioiiMir for Merit or rktngtshHf ^ ||. — The
Throne grants also titles of honour to functionaries or their near
relatives, as a reward for merit or service. These titles are
set forth in all historical papers, family records, mortuary cards,
ancestral tablets and tombstones. They are also displayed on
ornamental boards near the entrance to dwelling houses. They
may be conferred posthumously on officers killed in battle, or
lost at sea, in the service of the State.
I^eeerattons rer MeHi or Shanghmng K ]^. — The
principal decorations for merit are four :
V. The YeUow BiMna cJocJto^ called Munrngnuikwa )( JE5 #^
or HMnffkwa ff ^' — This is bestowed for military service.
It has been awarded to two Foreigners, General (Gordon and
M^ Giquel. To this distinction may be attached that conferred
upon high public officials, of riding on horseback within the
precincts of the Red Forbidden City, and called Tzekinch^^ngnei
k'ima nnm^MJS^i^ Peking p. 71).
2''. The JPiume or Feather, called I^ngehih ffi HE- — This
is bestowed for public service, civil and militaryi and may also
be obtained by purchase. It comprises three degrees, each
marked respectively by the bestowal of a three-eyed, double-eyed,
and simple-eyed peacock feather, while a very inferior degree is
marked by a dark-blue or crow feather, called Lanling |g ^.
Note. — The riding jacket and feather are sometimeo
withdrawn as a mark of Imperial disapprobation.
316 8BGTI0N V. . '^LITICAL AND KGONOMIG 9B0aiiAPHY.
S^*. TheBoifuru Q H| ZX«MncMon. — Bat^uru is a Manchu
word meaning **brave*\ This distinction is conferred for active
service in the field. It has no outward mark, but entitles tp
wear the one-eyed peacock feather. Among Foreigners, it has
been conferred upon General W. Mesny, for service in Kweichow
Province.
4"*. 17^ Soldier^B Medal or Kungf^ai T^ Itf^- — This is
conferred upon soldiers at reviews and inspections, and has the
character **shang*' Jf or reward in relief upon it.
2^ Revenue and Expenditure.
€lilne«e Ciirrencjr. — The Chinese unit of currertcy is
the iaei or Tjeang ^f . It is not a coin, but represents a Chinese
ounce-weight of pure silver, and is equivalent to 583.3 griail^s,
or 1 ^ ounces avoirdupois (437.5 grains being the standard
avoirdupois oz). Its French equivalent is 37.783 grammes.
The tael is divided as follows :
1 Tael or Leang jjg, equal to 10 Mace or Ts*ien ft.
1 Mace ,, 10 Candareens or F^n ^.
1 Candareen ,, 10 Cash or Li ]||.
Hence a tael contains 10 mace or 100 candareenB, and is
worth theoretically 1000 cash. Practically however the rate of
exchange varies, and then 800 or even 1,800 copper cash are
given in exchange for one silver tael.
The word tael comes from the Hindu "tola'' through the
Malayan word 'HahiV\ The word tticvce comes from the Hindu
word "mas/ia" through the Malayan word "mas". The word
oafidareeti comes from the Malayan word "kondrin". The
word criHii comes from the Portuguese "caioca'^ which was th«
name of a small tin coin found at Malacca in 1511, and brought
there from Malabar.
€)mmU {vulgo Ts'ien ^). — The mace and candareen are
but decimal divisions of the tael. The cash is a small coin
CHAPTER I. RBTJCNUB AND .BXBBHDITURB. 317
with a square hole in the middle for -the purpose of stringing
large quantities of them together. It should weigh 58 grains
Troy or 3.78 grammes, and contain the following alloy :
copper 50
zinc 41 I
lead 6 ^
tin 2
It has a variable value of from -g to -^ of an English
penny according to degree of debasement and scarcity. If we
take the average of 35 cash to the penny, and the silver dollar
at 2 shillings, a cash is —- of a dollar. It is used Tor all retail
transactions, and hence is the universal money of the people.
In the interior, large and small cash are in circulation, and as
the larger ones are less debased and contain more copper, they
are. generally much preferred. In some cities, both kinds are
current, and this creates endless confusion, trouble, and not
unfrequently ends in disputes.
Historically, the origin of the cash seems to go back to the
Emperors of the Ts'in ^ dynasty, 246 B.C., previous to which
time, cowrie shells, called Pel ^, were used as a medium of
exchange.
Sjreee. — Ingots or lumps of uncoined silver are called
*'Sycee*\ from the Chinese 8Uze fjgi ^ (fine silk, because if the
silver is pure, it may be drawn out, when heated, into fine
threads). An ingot of about 10 taels or ounces is called a ping
f,^, while one from 40 to 50 taels is called a shoe or Tuenpao
it W) ^^^'^ ^^^ resemblance to a native shoe^ It is through
this medium that all large payments are made in the interior,
the percentages for fineness and scale being added or deducted,
when the silver is tendered in another district or Province, where
a different fineness and scale obtain. In the large cities sycee
is appraised, and the fineness determined by a Kunffku ^ ^ or
asmiy office, generally in the hands of the leading guilds and
banks.
Tartovn kinds of Taels. — The tael or ounce of silver
varies in weight and purity according to places, and has no
318 SBCnOif T. POLITICAL AMD ICmfOMIC ttlOeBAFBT.
fixed ratio with the cash or copper coinage of tfie coDntry.
Even in the treaty ports different tael weights are in ase. We
will mention bat the principal :
1*. The JkmUomtaA — This is equivalent in wei^t to 579,84
grains Troy. It is used in Canton, Hongkong and in Shanghai
for weighing bar silver. In this latter case 82,78 Canton taels
or ounces are equal to 100 ounces Troy.
2*. The T^€wt^mg }ff If, or Skcmghmi taei. — This is
equivalent in weight to 565,69 grains Troy of a Oneness of
916 $. It is used in Shanghai for weighing silver and gold
sycee, but not for bar silver. It is practically the local money
of account, and that which is meant when speaking of exchange
on London, the rate being fixed by telegraphic transfer for each
day. Shan^ai not being a large credit centre draws on London
for the cost of her exports, and remits to London the cost of her
imports. One Ts'aop^ng tael of silver was worth 700 copper
cash in 1736, 900 in 1780, 1,400 in 1796, 2,000 in 1853, and
is worth at present from 1,500 to 1,700 cash.
3*. The K*uf^i(ng J|[ ^ or Treuemry TkgeL — This is the
official tael in which taxes are paid to the Government, an
allowance of 2 being made for every 100. Its weight is from
575.5 to 580 grains Troy with a fineness varying from 916 to
1000. Eight K^up4ng taels have a market value equal to jff 1 gold.
4''. The Ha4kwan/p^ing j^ || ^ or {Justeme TaH, — This tael
has been adopted by the Imperial Mantime Customs at all treaty
ports for the payment of customs duties, and to measure the
value of foreign imports and exports. Its weight is 581.77
grains Troy. Its par value is 6 s. 8 d., but since 1872, owing
to the great fall in silver, its exchange value has gone steadily
down. Its annual sterling exchange is fixed by the customs
authorities. Thus, in 1903, its value was 2 s. 7 § d.; in 1904,
2 s. 10 t d.; in 1905, 3 s. 0 i^ d.; and in 1906, 3 s. 3 4 d.
The following table exhibits its fluctuations in regard to
sterling from 1870-1906.
CHAPTBR I. HBYBKUB AND SXPBNDITURB.
Ck)ld EqniYalent of the Haikwan Tael from 1870-1906.
YEAK
YEAR
8
1870
6
1871
6
1872
6
1873
6
1874
G
1875
6
1876
5
1877
o
1878
5
1879
5
1880
5
1881
5
1882
5
1883
5
1884
5
1885
5
1S86
5
1887
4
6i
64
7i
5i
4i
2.i
Hi
oj
118
7i
6fi
8-1
7i
7i
3i
0*
10 4
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
8
d
4
Si
4
8«
5
24
4
11
4
44
3
114
3
2il
3
34
3
4
2
IM
2
10 i
3
Ok
3
14
2
114
2
7\
2
7i
2
ion
3
o,V
3
34
A large quantity of silver dollars are imported into China.
From the XV1'*» century and downwards, the most widely
circulated was the Spanish dcUar^ called also the CoroltM or
TUkur doOar. The former name was given it because it bore
the effigies of the two Spanish monarchs Charles III and Charles
IV ; and the latter, on account of its having on the reverse the
fabled pillars of Hercules. For a long number of years, this
dollar, on account of its purity and uniformity, became almost
the current coin of the land. The accounts of foreign mercantile
houses were kept in it down to 1856, and it is still in use at
Ningpo and Hangchow in Ch^kiang Province, and at Wuhu, in
Nganhwei Province. With the loss of her S. American colonies,
Spain ceased to export Carolus dollars to China. They thus
became scarce, and their market value attained finally the rate
of the Shanghai tael.
320 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OEOOEAPBT.
Hereupon, the banks and foreign merchants changed the
headings of all accounts from dollars to taels, the figures
remaining the same, and this alteration has continued down to
the present day. Accounts are kept in dollars and taels, and in
exchange quotations, the dollar is quoted in terms of the tael.
The Spanish dollar having almost disappeared, is at present
superseded by the MeMean Mver d^Uar^ which bears as its
device on one side, the cap of liberty, and on the other, an
eagle strangling a serpent. This dollar is divided into 100
Cenim called Fh^ ^^^ or 10 iemree$U j^ieoM, which the Chinese
call Kioh Pi in Mandarin, and Koh in the Shanghai vernacular.
In 1905, the Haikwan tael was equivalent to about one dollar
and a half, or exactly $ 1.55 ; in 1906 it was worth $ 1.57
^exican^dgilars.
The Provincial minis of China have lately introduced new copper coins of ten
cash ^face valae) called T'ongldohtze Wlfi'f'* i"^ ^t is estimated that there are some
10,000,000,000 of them now in circulation. They are rapidly spreading and displaeiiig
the old coins (vulgo cash), hut on account of their enormous output, they are at
present much depreciated.
Oralis and bills mt eirlMisgfi have also been in use in China for a vexy
long time.
Several attempts were made to have the Government adopt the Aierirsa
inide dsllar, the dmaon or OasUwi dollar, and the ■apeh dollar, but so far
all have ended in failure. At Hongkong and Canton, the Boa^kans .dollar and the
Siraita dollar are current, but in no'other places.
Up to present, China has aa gsld carreaey.
If ecemltjr •f a nnlTonn diirrenejr. — The confusion of
the national monetary system, due principally to the absence of
control of the Central Government, the banking system of the
country, and the cupidity of high officials, has of late engaged
the attention of the Foreign Powers, and it has been mutually
agreed to establish a uniform currency. The basis of the new
standard as proposed by Sir Robert Hart (''Suggestions concerning
a uniform currency, presented to the Waiwu Pu by Sir Robert
Hart, Bart., Inspector-General of I. M. Customs, China"), and
Professor J. W. Jenks, is to be as follows :
, : t /GSbMP^R J. lUiySNUB AND RXPBNDITURE. 321
1^. China to maintain a national silver currency.
2®. To establish a uniform exchange value between this silver
currency and that of countries having a gold Standard.
3^. Uniformity in exchange to be secured by mtp^i^j^ silver
and copper coins of fixed weight, purity and value
throughout the Empire, and maintaining them at parity
with a standard unit of value, not necessarily coined,
but containing a fixed number of grains of gold
approximating to the monetary unit of countries with
which China holds large commercial relations.
The complicated details of this problem must be left to
the economist and. the statesman. If the scheme is
realized, it is hoped it will secure honesty in internal
administration, benefit domestic trade, remove eco-
nomic losses and develop international trade.
Hk. Tls.
Land Ux in silver
26,500,000
lAnd tax in grain
3,100,000
Salt tax
13,500,000
Imperial Maritime GustomB
211300,000
Likin
16,000,000
Native Customs
2,700,000
Native Opium
2,200,000
Provincial Income
2,600,000
;
SI and Bxpendiiare of the Empire. — According to Sir Robert Hart,
the principal Bonrces of revenue of the Chinese Empire for the year 1901, were the
following with approximate annual values :
Total. Tls. 90,400,000
(The exchange value of the tael for 1901 was 2 s. 11 ^ d.).
liMid-tex in frtlTer. — The tax in money upon good
rice-producing land is on the basis of 200 cash per mtow y^ (ope
acre is equal to 6 mows) or f of a tael an acre. In 1712,
Jhe amount of this taxwM deflnitely fixed, wid the pc^l-tax
upon adult males abolished.
liMid-tex in gimin.— > This tax is paid by the Provinces
of Kiangsu tH || and Ch^kiang ff( XL* They are to send every
21
322 8BCTI0N y. POLITICAL AKD BCOMOMIC aiOeaAPHT.
year to Peking a little over 100,060 tons of rice. Formerly, i
of this was carried through the Grand Canal, while the rest
went by sea. The cost of transportation is fixed at 30 per cent
extra, and is paid by the taxpayer in addition to the proper tax.
■alt-teau -* This tax is exclusively a Oovemment
monopoly. The salt is produced in certain specific districts
along the coast, by evaporation or boiling from sea-water, or it
is obtained from brine-wells, especially in Szechw^an. All the
salt produced must be sold either to Oovemment officials or to
licenced salt-merchants, who have purchased the right to supply
certain areas of consumption. By treaty, the importation of
foreign salt is prohibited. For the collection of the tax, China
is divided into 11 circuits. Each of these has its specific means
of production, and it is forbidden to transport salt from one
circuit to another. The cost price varies, and is generally from
1 ^ to 4 cash per catty, or weight of 1 ^ lbs avoirdupois. The
retail price varies also from one district to another, and averages
from 25 to 60 cash per catty. The total annual consumption
of salt throughout the 18 Provinces is estimated at 25 million
piculs or 1,488,000 tons.
Salt is largely smuggled, and when seized, is liable to
confiscation.
Impertel MarttiHe Cvstoins. — {8ee further on. p. 325).
^ UidB jK ^- — '^^^^ is ^ recent fiscal regulation, and is
levied upon goods while in transit from one Province to another,
or from one district to another within the same Province. It was
originally imposed to defray the expenses of the MaMomeden^
and T'aifHme reMUmms, and was not in force before 1853,
nor extended to the whole country till 1861. Stations are placed
at all large towns, and along the main routes of commerce
whether by land or water. These barriers are very numerous
in some places, as along the lower parts of the Grand Canal,
where they follow one another at intervals of 20 miles or so.
In places where trade is scanty, barriers are few and can
' CSAPTER I. RBYUfVB AND KXraNDirUBB. 323
Bometiines be avoided by detours. A tariff is published for the
information of officials and traders, but practically it is ignored.
Nearly all merchants and boats make a bid, and haggle until
they come to terms. Guilds and regular traders pay lump sums.
The tax collected iis generally 3 per cent at the departure station,
and 2 per cent at each inspection station. The amount collected
within the Province, seldom exceeds 10 per cent, but when
goods travel through several Provinces, it easily reaches 15 and
20 per cent. The general amount to be collected and the number /
of toll-barriers in each Province are fixed by the Oovemor. I
As stipulated by treaty, goods imported and exported by\ ,
Foreigners are exempt from likin taxation at native barriers, on I
payment to the Imperial Maritime Customs of half the import \
duty, plus the usual ad valorem tariff. 1
The likin regulations are a serious hindrance to native as,
well as foreign trade, and according to the recent treaties concluded
with Great Britain, the United-States and Japan, they are to be
permanently abolished. To compensate for this abolition, '^foreign
goods are to pay, in addition to the effective 5 per cent import
duty, a special surtax equivalent to 1 ^ times die said duty,
whereupon they shall be immune from all other taxation,
examination or delay" (British Treaty, 1902. Article VIII. Section
I. and Appendix B (1) and (2). — Commercial Treaty between
the United-States and China, 1903. Article IV).
Hattve ClMiteiiis. -— The organization of the Imperial \
Maritime Customs has not abolished native custom houses. At
the open ports and at important stations on the coast and inland,
Government has native custom houses, which control the trade
carried on in native junks. These custom houses are farmed
out, and each collector is bound to pay a fixed miimimmm mmtm
If he returns more, he can claim a reward for his extra diligence.
— Of late, several native custom houses have been transferred
to the Imperial Maritime Customs.
I. — Up to recent years, the growth and j
manufacture of opium were prohibited in China. They were/
324 SECTION y. political ami) sconomic oeo«rapht.
finally allowed on condition of paying a tax. The collectioh
of this tax is entrusted to the Provincial authorities. They
are to keep a separate account of it, and hand over the sum
collected to the Board of Revenue.
The total amount of native-grown opium is estimated at
about 400,000 chests per year.
MUieellane«Mi mad and«flned taxes. — Under this
title are comprised various items, as land transfer fees, pawn-
brokers* and other licences, sale of official titles or brevet rank,
duties on reed flats, exemption from forced labour and purvey-
ances.
■xpendltare of the ttnplre (In tBOl). — The (expenditure of the Empire for
the year 1901 was divide 1 as foUows : J
Hk. Tls.
Imperial Honsehold and Central Government
12,480,000
Navy
5,000,000
Army
90,000,000
1,000,000
Interest and Repayment of Foreign Loans
24,000,000
Railway Gonstraction
aoo,ooo
River Conservancy Works
940,000
Customs, Lighthouses and Revenue Cruisers
3,000,000
Provincial Administration
20,1100,000
Reserve Funds
3,000,000
Total 101,120,000
Vorel^a DeM. — China had no foreign deht till the end of 1874, when a loan of
\M 627,C7S, hearing 8 per cent interest, was contracted through the Hongkong and
Jshanghai Bank, and secured hy the customs revenue. Afterwards, a number of other
loans were contracted through the same bank. Up to the war with Japan in 1894, the
! total foreign debt was inconsiderable, but since then extensive borrowings were made
j to meet the expenses of the war and the large indemnity demanded by Japan, which was
; Tls. 200,000,000 (at exchange of 3 s. 3 i d), with a further sum of Tls. 20,000,000 for
the retrocession of the Leaotung Peninsula. The last instalment of this debt was
paid in 189S, and the total indebtedness of the country up to 1900 was £ 55,755 000
, the principal loans being the Russian of 1895, the Anglo-German of 1896, and another
I Anglo-German in 1898, each of £ 16,000,000, and bearing interest at from 4 to 7 per
' cent. Recently, several minor loans, amounting in all to about £ i,000,COO, have been
contracted for the purposes of railway construction. In January 1907, a further small
loan of £ 650,000 at 5 per cent has been contracted for the completion of the railway
from Shanghai to Nanking. In 1901, the country's obligations were increased
consequent upon the Boxer uprising by a sum of Hk. Tls. 450,000,000, the amount
of the indemnity to be paid to the Powers, to meet the expenses of their expedi-
tionary forces, and compensation for losses to oommercial societies, miasiona and
. . CHAPTSR 1. IMPBRIAI. MA^lTiMB CUBTOMS. 32.5
individuals. This Bum conslitutes a gold debt calculated at the rate of the Haikwan
Tftel to the gold currency of each country (3 s. for Great Britain), and bearing interest
at 4 per cent. The capital is to be reimbursed by China in 8(^ years. The amortiza-
tions are to be paid annually, and began January 1"* 1902. The revenues assigned
as security are the following : the Imperial Maritime Customs, the revenues of the
native customs, administered in the open ports by the Imperial Maritime Customs, and
the total salt revenue, except a fraction already set aside for other foreign loans.
(Imperial Edict. May 29^ 1901, and Final Protocol ■ signed at Peking, September
7"» 1901).
The total foreign debt of Chiua amounts at the close of 1906 to £ 54,500,000, upon \
which the interest due is £ 2,500,000.
3^ Imperial Maritime Customs.
Origin and Devetopment. — The Imperial Maritime
Customs, or Sinhaikwan iUr JK H, commenced in 1854. The work
started in Shanghai, the first Inspector-General being M' H. N.
Lay. Owing to the T^alpMng rebels capturing the native city,
the collection of custom dues, especially on foreign ships, was
placed in the hands of Foreigners, and this developed into a
permanent institution, with a large and efficient staff recruited
from most of the European nations, though the English are in
the majority.
At the head of the service is an In^pedm^Oenermi, Sir
Robert Hart since 1863, assisted by a Deputy Inspector*General
and about 40 Commissioners, one of whom is generally in charge
of a custom house.
By an Imperial decree of May, 1906, the Maritime Customs
Department was transferred from the control of the Waiwu Pu
to that of the Board of Revenue, and two Administrators-General
were appointed.
Oivuiisi^ittn. — The administration is divided into 3
departments : 1^ Bevenue or the collecting of dues ; 2® CoasUng
mnd Harbour duHes; 3^ JPosiai service*
The first of these departments is that which is generally
styled Imperial Maritime Customs.
The Indoor, Outdoor, Lighthouse and postal staff, totalled
(l8t July 1906) 1,345 Foreigners and 10,636 Chinese.
The Maritime Customs are entrusted with the care of
326
8IGTION T. POLITICAL AND ICONOMIC MCMHUPHT.
buoys, beacons and lighthoases on the coast of China, the police
of rivers and harbours in the open ports, and principally with
the collecting of custom dues at the treaty ports. The duty is 5
per cent ad valorem, and is levied on all imports and exports.
Custom houses are principally stationed in the ports which
were opened to foreign trade.
The following is a complete list of these ports. It has been
made out according to the chronological order in which it is pro-
vided for their opening. The first five treaty ports were opened
in accordance with the treaty of Nanking, August 29^^ 1842.
The name of the Prefecture on which the port depends, is
omitted, when the port itself is a Prefectural city.
Ports and Marts open to Foreign Trade. 1842-1906.
Number of
Port.
Foreign
Settlementi
Prbfectxtbx.
Pbotince.
I
Canton
2
m^m
Kwangtung.
2
Amoy or Hsiam^n
2
K n
Ts'iienchow Fu.
Fokien.
3
Foochow or Pagoda
I
mm»
4
Ningpo [Island
mkMF
Ch^kiang.
5
Shanghai
2
±mm
Sungkiang Pu.
Kiangsu.
6
Chefoo or Ycnt'ai
2 5!
T^ngchow Pu.
Shantung.
7
Swatow or Shant'eu
an n
Ch'aochow Fu.
Kwangtung.
8
Hoihow or Haik'ow
m n
K*iungchow Pu.
Hainan I,
9
Ncwchwang Szc
2
♦ttsi
Pungt'ien Fu.
Manchuria,
lo
Ch§nkiang
I
muM
Kiangsu.
II
Nanking
m A
Kiangsu.
12
Tientsin
8
??ffw
Chihli.
13
Kiukiang
I
Att*
Kiangsi
14
Hank'ow
5
m p
Wuch'ang Fu.
Hupeh.
^5
Ich'ang
KA«
Hupeh.
i6
Wuhu
WMM
T*aip*ing Fu.
Nganhwei.
17
WInchow
ft««
Ch^kiang.
i8
Pakhoi or Peh-hai
« m
Lienchow Fu.
Kwangtung.
19
Lungchow
K«B
T'aip'ing Fu.
KwangsL
20
Mangtze
■SK
Linngan Fu.
Yunnan.
21
Ch'ungk'ing
I
■»ff
Szechw'an.
22
Yatung
Tibet.
23
Hangchow
I
tt^W
Ch^kiang.
24
Soochow
2
wmm
Kiangsu.
I. QIPBBUL 1CABIT»S CUSTOMS. 327
Ports and Karts open to Foreign Trade, 1842-1906. (continued).
Number of
Port.
Foreign
SettlementB
Pbefectuke.
Province.
25
Shashi
I
» *
Kingchow Fu.
Hupeh.
26
Hok'ow
Jf P
K'aihwa Pu.
YUnnan.
27
Szemao
ssm
P*ueul Fu.
Yunnan.
28
Samshui or Sanshui
H4cR
Kwangchow Fu.
Kwangtung.
29
Wuchow
m^jff
Kwangsi.
30
T€ngyueh or Momein
mm
Yungch'ang Fu.
YUnnan.
31
Yohchow
mm»
Hunan.
32
Santungao or Santuao
HMI
Fuhning Fu.
Fokien.
33
Ts*inwang-tao
«£A
Yungp«ing Fu.
Chihli.
34
Woosung
ft m
Sungkiang Fu.
Kiangsu.
35
Nanning
WHUf
Kwangsi.
36
Kongmoon or Kiaiig-
u n
Chaok'ing Fu.
Kwangtung.
37
Ch'angsha [n^^n
*»m
Hunan.
38
Wan hsien
X m
Kw'eichow Fu.
Szechw'an.
39
Ngank'ing or Ank'ing
^tm
NganhweL
40
Hwdchow
mmm
Kwangtung.
41
Tsinan
***
Shantung.
42
Wei hsien
m m
Leichow Fu.
Shantung.
43
Chowts'un or Cheuts'nn
m n
Tsinan Fu.
Shantung.
44
C'hangteh
««»
Hunan.
45
Gyantze
Tihet.
46
Gartok
Tibet.
47
Ngantung or Antung
«1R»
Funghwang T.
Manchuria,
48
Mnkden or Fungt4en
mxm
Manchuria,
49
Dalny or Tairen
Manchuria,
In the YIII'^ Article, Section 12 of the British Commercial Treaty with Ohina,
signed at Shanghai, September 5^ 190J, it has been agreed to open to foreign trade 5
ports : Kongmoon, Gh'angsba, Wan hsien, Ngank'ing and Waichow (Hweichow), but
up to present, the 8 latter have not yet been effectively opened.
The Bevtenue collected l»y the Imperial Maritine Onatonwi has cons-
tantly increased, as can be seen by the following table :
Cnstoms Berenue 1900-1905.
YBAB.
Hk. Tls.
1900
22,873,986
1901
25,587,574
1902
80,007,044
1903
30,580,688
1904
81,498,156
1905
85,111,004
Sf% 8BCTI0M Y. FOLirrCAL- AMD BCONOMfC eBOGRAPHT.
These duties are apportioned between the Foreign and Home Trades as follows :
YEAR.
Foreign Trade.
Home Trade.
Total.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
1900
18,182,815
4,091,171
22,878,986
1901
19,800,900
5,676,674
25,587,574
1902
24,180,574
5326,470
80,007,044
1908
24,054,785
6,475,903
30,580,688
1901
24,788,688
6,704,518
31,493,156
1905
27,544,295
7,566,709
35,111,004
The porUi where trade Is iimmi( Important are the following :
IMS
1901
1905
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Shanghai
118,812,899
145,480,170
176,979,193
Canton
110,559,826
96,247,076
92,248,650
Hank'ow
99,129,500
107,449,374
111,048,046
T'ientsin
68,729,061
68,951,694
96.565,672
Newchwang
47,682,059
41,517,878
61,752,905
Swatow
43,792,227
49,280,786
48,006,806
Kowloon
42,501,795
48,771,666
42,946,800
Chefoo
38,188,912
34,265,175
89,131,884
Chfenkiang
84,489,707
82,323,204
33,344,906
Ch'ungk'ing
29,222,120
29,403,966
27,781,627
Wuhu
24,542,788
28,223,383
30,628,800
Riukiang
22,985,794
24,347,560
23,228,644
Ningpo
22,240,093
21,297,412
19,163,630
Amoy
16,985,898
17,204,571
18,654,610
Foochow
16,738,718
17,265,968
17,724,198
Hangchow
15,607,138
17,747,662
17,496,980
4" Army and Naoy.
Army. — China has two independent sets of military
organizations : the Mkunehu or Ifnperiai Arm^p and the JEVoriti^
ekU JPi&rem. Important changes however, as stated further on,
will soon completely alter the above organization.
1 or Imperial Army, called also the BIghiBmnmerB
(Pahk*i A Jll)- — This army is composed mainly of Manchus,
CHAPm I. ARMY AMD NAYT.. . 329
Mongols, and the descendants of those Chinese who first joined
the.Manchu dynasty in the early part of the XVIP** century.
The Banners are distinguished by 4 colours : yellow, white,
red and blue, and are further divided into 3 superior (Shangsan-
k'i'Jt H K)i and 5 inferior (Hsiawuk'i "F 31 JJ) Banners.
Each adult Manchu is by birth entitled to be enrolled in
the Eight Banners, and as such to receive his allowance of
tribute-rice, whether in active service or not.
All these soldiers, Manchus, Mongols and Chinese, are called
JSHiSn ;K A or Bannermen. Those stationed in the Tartar or
Interior City (Nei-ch*^ng ^i)K), in Peking, occupy the garrisons
set apart for each Banner.
BandservmUs or Pno-i @ ^ (from the Manchu Bo-i, a
slave), recruited from the three upper Banners (Shangsank'i
Pao-i J: H ill "Q <k)i are garrisoned in the Forbidden City
(Tzekin ch'^ng ff^ $^ j^), and do service in the Imperial House-
hold. Their principal duty is to keep guard over the Imperial
Palaces. Those of the Ave inferior Banners are attached to the
various Princely houses or Wang Fu ^ jjf (Palaces of Princes
of the Imperial Lineage).
The JB€mners have also branch garrisons in twrrfotM Pro^
vindai CMes. As in the Capital, the men are entitled to draw
a pittance from the provincial taxes as rations. These ffarrimmsp
or dni/bft^ m (1^, are stationed in the following places :
Singan Fu
mum^
in Shensi
»n
Ninghsia Fu
«3i;».
in Kansu
*ir
Kiangning Fu
itHfff
or Nanking
^ ]!5ti
in Kiangsu
itm
Hangcbow Fu
fit W W'
in Ch^kiang
ffifL
Foochow Fu
M /M /ff '
in Fokien
mm
Ch'^ngtu Fu
m 9 /n »
in Szechw'an
IS )\\
Kingchow Fu
^ n m^
in Hupeh
««
Kwangchow Fu H ^ jjjf,
in Kwangtung MM
At the head of these 8 Garrisons is a Mane
It is computed
that the total number of
Manchu troops
330 sicnoK V. politigal and BCONOICIC eBOeiUPHT.
amounts from 200,000 to 220,000 men, of whom 15,000 are
stationed near Peking :[[; -fji, and 20,000 within the city itself.
Pv^Tlnetel Faroes or Amty •r the Green
(Luhying Ht ^). — The Provincial Forces are divided into .the
JUand Army or IMUm |g [^, and the Aavy or Shuishi ^ f/f
(for this latter, see below, p. 333).
The nominal strength of the Land Army is from 20,000 to
30,000 men in each Province, thus aggregating from 400,000
to 500,000 men all told. The actual strength, however, does
not exceed 150,000 or 200,000 men. They are enrolled for the
purpose of maintaining peace and order throughout the Provinces,
and are in fact more like a local constabulary force than a
national army.
They are distributed in small camps or garrisons in the
principal towns. They are miserably paid, ill fed, badly drilled,
and as a fighting force are practically of little value.
Each BravinckU Army Ceri^ is under the command of a
Bravineka Generair^nrChief or THtuh H fp, vulgo THteA H
H. The bulk of the troops which he commands is called P^pioo
H Ht ^^ TMtuh*6 brigade.
A MMtfl 6M|r o/froo|M is specially enrolled to do duty in the
Tr^vlmdM Cbfiital. It is called the ¥uipkto j|| fl| or Governor's
brigade, and is under the control of the Provincial Gk>vemor.
The FiMray has also his epeeua hriyade, called Ikthpimo
««.
The forcee under the etnmnand of Ube TrevkMilka Get%erai-
inreMef are divided into CMnptao H H or hHgadee, and those
again into reyimenU or JBMefc j^. The Hsieh are divided
into haUtMons or Yimg ft, and the Ying is further divided
into mmiary paste or Shais Hg, and the posts into pair^ts or
9m %.
The €h%as^ Transpert Adm4$^istraMan, for the conveyance
of tribute-rice to Peking (now principally despatched by the
''China Merchants Steamship Oompany**), had a special military
organization under its control, designated by the name of
P*^"^ Iff tti or grain-transport brigade.
GHAPm I. ARMT AND NATT. 331
or ^limfMi**. — To the regular army must be
added the socMed^Bravet^ or Tuna ^^eAso styled V^imUeer^.
They are called "Braves" from the character Tung H (meaning
brave) being written on the back and front of their jackets. They
arc better paid and armed than the regulars, and are now
drilled in foreign style.
Since the Japanese war, they have been quartered near
Peking ^ jjf and Tientsin ^ ^, and arc generally spoken of
as the **Army of the North".
They are grouped in 5 divisions, under the command of a
Generalissimo, and number about 70,000 or 80,000 men.
Army ff^fcc— c. — An Imperial deoreei issued in 1901,
ordered the reorganization of the military forces of the Bmpire. The scheme comprised
the 8 following divisions : campaign, reserve and police corps.
Another and more recent decree suggested to the Bmperor by the Board of
Army Beorganization (Lienpingch'a K f^ J(), appeared in 1905. This decree laid down
the following regulations (On the old military examinationt^ now obsolete, see Gh. II.
Rdncation).
1® TrainiTiff Schools for Officers of the land forces shall be of four kinds :
a) A Lower or Preparatory School, called I^u^A^n Siaoheioht^ang ■ 9^ ^ S S
(Military lower school).
b) A Middle^grade or Secondary School, called LuhkUn Ohwnghsioht*ang ■ Ifi
4^ 9 JK (Military middle school).
o) A Training OoUege for Officers, called LuhkUn Pinghwan Hsioht^ang B W
a^ 9M (Military officers* college).
d) A MiUtary High Academy, called Luhhan Tahsioht'cmg MWiC^M*
In this latter, the higher branches of military science will be tanght.
The first coarse will comprise 8 years of instmction, and the second 2. When these
5 years are over, cadets will pass four months in the army, to learn the dnties of
offioen. They will then enter the Training College for Officers, where they are to remain
for a year and a half. They will subsequently go back again to the ranks, for a period
of 6 months, with the title of Instructor. At the close of this stage, they will return
to the College for Officers, and undergo there an examination. Those who obtain good
marks will be definitely classed as officers. After two years, the most distinguished
among them will be admitted to the Biilitary High Academy, to study for a further
course of two years. They will then graduate with the title of Military Staf -Officer.
2* A lower or preparatory school will be opened in each of the 18 Provinces, as
well as in each of the military divisions of Manchuria.
3* There will be 4 middle-grade schools for the whole Bmpire, one in each of
the following Provinces : Ghihli (St, Hupeh H Jh, Shensi K K ^^^ Kiangsu {£ J||.
4* The training college for Officers, and the Military High Academy will be
ettobliBhed at Peking i^M*
333 8BCTI0N y. POLITICAL >|fD BCONQMIG GBO0RAPaT.
5" A short trainififf-course school or LuhkUn Suhch*ing HnohVang WtW^Wk
ffk S (miliUry hasty-formatiou school), for the expeditious training of Officers, will be
opened at Peking, with accomodation for 800 applicants.
G** A special short-training school for Instructors, or LuhkUn 8uheh*im§
Shi/an Hsioht'ang BI9^9tttlViEVft> ^'^ ^ likewise opened in the Gi^tftl.
•f Ulte Armjr. — The new army • is to be
organized on the following lines :
Army CmtneU and General Siaff. — This Department wHI
have : l^ A War Office with 6 bureaux ; 2". A Oeneral Staff
divided into 3 sections, and entrusted with the drawing up of
plans of campaign ; 3^. A Directorate of Military Education for
the instruction and efficient training of Officers.
AcHiM Army. — The active army is to be distributed into
20 territorial sections, that is, one to each of the 18 Provinces,
one in Chinese Turkestan, and one near Peking.
Bkieh secHan will have two fuU divMonB forming together
one army corps.
Baeh Mviaion will comprise : 12 Infantry battalions,
1 Cavalry regiment,
3 Batteries of artillery,
1 Company of engineers.
A division will number 12,000 or 12,500 men, and so the 40
divisions will make a total effective force of 480,000, or 500,000
fighting units.
Beserve JP^oroo. — All soldiers after their time of active
service will pass 9 years in the First, and 3 years in the Second
Reserve Corps.
The men of the First Reserve Corps will drill every year
during a month, in Autumn, and another month, in the
Spring.
The Second Reserve Corps will be called in annually for a
few days service.
The above scheme of reorganization will be fully carried out
in 1910.
Artny Ifisirudors and Equipment. — Instructors for the
Chinese Army are engaged especially in , Germany and Japan^
CHAPTIR I. ARMY AND NAVY.
333
Some measures have already been taken to effect uniformity in
artillery (heavy guns and rifles), in the pay of officers and men,
m regimental uniforms, manoeuvring and drill. Of the present
Provincial troops, the best organized are those of Chihli jj|[ ^
and Hukwang ^ J| (combined Provinces of Hupeh 0| ;||;
and Hunan |ti IH)- '^^^ Generalissimo of the former is Yuen
Shik'ai $i jgi 9L^ Viceroy of Chihli. At the close of 1906, this
army numbered 80,000 men. The Hukwang troops are under
the control of Chang Chitung M il M^ Viceroy of Hupeh and
Hunan Provinces, and number from 30,000 to 50,000 men.
EfflMrUiFeBOf the Pravliicbil Army do^-n to 1904 (at learst as returned on
paper). — We append here the units of the Provincial Army, or Green Standard, down
to 1901. The figures given, are those published in 1904, by the War Office of China
The accompanying dates indicate when the returns were made.
Province.
Effectives.
Year.
Province.
Effectives.
Year.
Chdkiapg
17>9»5
1903
KwangtuAg
69,000
Chihli
18,490
1904
Kweichow
7,670
1902
Fokien
34,906
1902
Nganhwei
8,451
1903
1,287
1902
Shansi
26,500
Hunan and Hu-
7.112
1903
Shantung
20,200
Kansu [peh
55,800
Shensi
42,300
Kiangsu
50,000
Szeohw'an
21,796
1902
Kwangsi
2S^W)
Ylinnan
17,996
1902
Ifmry or SliidMlil yf^ $$- — At the outbreak of the. war
with Japan in 1895, the Ohinese Navy consisted of 2 divisions,
the N^rihern (Pehyang ig^ #) and S^^tiherm (Nanyang |fi )^),
each under the control respectively of the Viceroy of Chihli and
the Viceroy of Nanking or Leangkiang, with the title of Shuishi
T^ungling ;i!K SI It fl« ^^ High Admiral. During the war, 10
important war vessels of the Northern squadron were sunk or
captured by Japan. The Southern division remained in the
waters of the Yangtze, and took no part in the conflict. In 1900,
the Allied Forces further captured and appropriated 4 destroyers
built In 1898-99. Various attempts have since been made to
restore the fleet. China (including a flotilla under the control
334
of the VicerojB of Foochow and Canton, for the Wippwion of
piracy) DOW possewes i seoond-cUM (4,300 tons), and 11 tkird-
claM cmiaen ;875-2,500 tons}, 3 torpedo gnnboata (350-l«000
tons), 4 river gnnboats \i\b^i2 tons'. 32 first-claas and 12
second-class torpedo boats. Of the torpedo boats, about half
only are fit for action, the others being allowed to Ul into the
ordinary decay common to Chinese administration. The fUl
compliment of men is about 2,500.
The combined divisions of the North and Sooth were lately
placed under the control of a Commander-in-chief (Admiral 8ah)
with the task of reorganizing the navy. A naval school will
be established at Shanghai, near the Arsenal dock. The r^n-
lations and cnrriculnm will correspond with those issued for
the reorganisation of the army.
iiBMrta mm^ ^^cksravda. — There are military areenals
at T'ientsin ^ ^, Shanghai J: f| (this now competes with
private dockyards), Nanking |f| ]|[, Wuch'ang g( 0, Ch^togta
ift 41 and Canton (Kwangchow Fn J| j|| Jff)^ besides smaller
establishments in other principal centres of the Empire. Several
can turn out heavy guns, and also rifles and ammonition (inida-
ding smokeless powder) in large quantities.
There is an important naval arsenal and sliipbuilding yard
at Fkg^mda, 9 miles below Foochow, in Fokien JH K Province.
It is in the hands of French engineers in the employ of the
fiovemment (ass p. 223).
— A great number of forts and batteries have been
erected at the entrance to the principal rivers. The most impor-
tant are the Kiangpin 2L f^ /orfs commanding the entrance to
the Yangtze H ^, the JffifJWcmy J^ fL /^^ commanding the
approaches to Foochow in Fokien, and the Bsyws or Bocca
Tigris (Hu-m^n J^ f^) f^ru at the entrance to the Canton or
I 'carl River. These forts and batteries are armed with powerftil
guns of European manufacture.
The Taku -^ fb ^"^ T'ientsin ^ ||t forts have been demo-
lished as a sequel to the Boxer revolt of 1900.
CHAPTER I. eoyiaNMBOT AND ADMINISTRATION.
335
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G. — Encyclopedia Britannica.
London, 1902. (Article on China : Consti-
tution and Govemment.-^Central Admi-
nistration. — The Six Boards. — Pro-
vincial Administration).
Boalser D.O.— A Short History of China.
London, 1893. (How China is governed.
— The Boards.— Provincial Government.
Ch. XXII. p. 856-373).
OftlqalMNin A.— China in Transformation.
London,1898. (Government and Adminis-
tration. Ch. VII. p. 167-198).
Mlohie A. — The Englishman in China.
London, 1900. (China and her Rulers.
Vol. II. Ch. 29. p. 368-402).
Playfair G. M. — The Cities and Towns ^
of China. Hongkong, 1879.
Chinese Repository. ^ The Chinese
Government and Constitution. (Vol. IV.
p. 11-17* — > Structure of the Chinese
Government.— The Six Boards. Vol. IV.
p. 185-151; 181189; 276-289).
China Review. — Chinese Official Ranks.
(Vol. III. p. 377-379; Vol. IV. p. 125-
190. — Constitutional Law of China. VoL
VI. p. 13-29. — Table of High Officials.
Vol. VII. p. 314-320).
Dyer BallJ.* Things Chinese. 4<^ Edi-
tion. Shanghai, 1908. (Government, p.
318-322. — Laws. p. 378-388. — NobiUty.
p. 482-484. — Decorations, p. 195-199.—
Chinese Cities, p. 17M72).
Parker B. H.— The Bmperor of China.
(Recorder. October, 1898).
Plarker E. H. — China, her History,
Diplomacy and Commerce. London 1901.
(The Government. Ch. VIII. p. 161-181).
336
SECTION y. POLITICAL AMD ECONOMIC aBOORAPBT.
Pmw%aBr B. ■. — ChinA Past aud Preseui.
London, 1903. (The ImperuJ Power.
Book IV. p. I»-l». — The Trance
Yamen p. 207-222. — The Way China is
f^remtd. — The Life of a Chinese Man-
darin. Book VL p. 223-252).
Murker B. ■. — John Chinaman. Lon-
don. 1001. (Viceroys and Governors. Ch.
VIIL p. 16M79).
rnwitli S. p. — China from Within. Lon-
don, 1901. iThe Emperor Kwanghsu
and the Reform Movement. Ch. II. p.
7-16. — The Grand Council in the
Palace. Ch. VI. p. 45-W).
- B— litflr J. — Social Life of the Chinese.
New- York, 1867. (Mandarins and their
Sabofdinates. Vol. I. Ch. 12 and 13'.
janriSMi T. B. — China's Business Me-
thods and Policy. Shanghai, 1901. (The
Emperor. — ^Power and Restraints, p. S44-
357. — The Imperial Hooaehold. p. 190-
US. ' AdministratiTC System. Ch. I. p.
1-26. ~ Law-coorU. p. 60-76. * Family
Uw. p. 1S9-1S0).
JenrigSB T. B.— </hina in Law and Com-
moroe. New-York, 1905. (Government.
Ch. n.p.3S49. Uw. Ch. in. p. 70-100.
— Courts. Ch. VII. p. 176-198.— F^nHy
Law. Cli. IV. p. 111-131).
H»nMM B. — The Peoples and PbUtiet
of the East. London, 1895. (PtekinK and
iu InhabiUnti;. Ch. XIII. p. 195-210).
Bji— BuiW — The Office of Diatrict
Magistrate in China. (N. C. B. R. A. Soe.
1897-98. p. 36-6.5;.
Vurmj-WemmJUmm P. ^The AwakMiii^
of the East. London, 1900. (The Litanuy
and Mandarin Class. Part IIL Ch. IV.
p. 301-211).
Free«— MBfcrd A. B. — The Atteoh*
at Peking. London, 1900. (How Maada-
rins are made. Appendix, p. 357-^75).
■isltey J. — The Chinese Mandarin.
(East of Asia Magazine. VoL m. p. 314-
356).
OalqulMi A. B. — China in Transfor-
mation. London, 1898. (Chinese Demo-
cracy. Ch. XI. p. 283-303. ~The Chinase
People. Ch. X. p. 218-282).
Dyer Bali J. ^ Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Associations and Secret Soo^
ties in China, p. 632-658. — Slavery, p.
REVENUE AND BKPENDITUBE :
Tlllat H. — Notes sur la Monnaie et les
MMaux prfeieux en Chine. Chang-hai,
1898.
TtllOi H. — Notes Commerciales sur la
Chine. Chang-hai, 1901. (La Monnaie
en Chine, p. 36-41. — Impots. p. 42-60).
Sealfari. — Rapport sur la Circulation
mon^taire en Chine. (Mission Ly
1898. 2>partie).
Sealfari. — Notes sur les Operations des
Banques Chinoises de Tchongking. (ibid.).
Bmmss p. — Notions Techniques sur la
Propri^t^ en Chine. Chang-hai, 1897.
BoMig p. — Expose du Commerce public
du Sel. Changhai, 1898.
Terrien de Laceaperle. — Catalogue
of Chinese Coins from the VI1**« Centur>'
B. G. to A. D. 62L London, 1893.
WiillaiiMi.^ The Middle Kixigdom. New-
York, 1801. (Revenue of the Empire. —
Sources and Amount of Revenue. -~ Sa-
laries of Officials. — Taxation. Vol. I.
Ch. V. p. 235-239).
Marae B. B. — Currency and Measures
in China. Shanghai, 1800. (Contains
valuable notes on Gold, Sflver and Cop-
per Currency, Paper Money, Weights
etc. — In Appendix : Origin of Fiper
Currency. — ^Paper and Silver CfDrrenpy.—
Want of Control over Circulating Me-
dium.— Silver in China.— Copper Cash).
J. — The Revenue and Taxation
of the Chinese Empire. Shanghai, 1903.
Bfflri— J. » Chinese Currency. Shanghai,
1901.
JaarieflMiCl. — Bndyclopndia Britanai-
ca. London, 1902. (Article on China :
Finanoe and Souroea of Revenue. —
Expenditure and Eztanal Debt).
JnilBBaM J. W. — The Revenue and Ex-
penditure of the Chinese Empire.
Parker B. M. — Chinese Bevenoe. (N. C.
B. R. A. Soc. 1895. p. 103-141).
Parker B. M. — China, her History,
Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(Revenue. Ch. X. p. 195.208.— The Salt
GabeUe. Ch. XI. p. 209-226. — Likin. Ch.
XII. p. 227-843).
CHAPTBR I. RBVBNUB AND BXPBNDITURB.
337
I^Tker K. H. — The Financial Capacity
of Ohina. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1895. p.
74-102).
Pftrker B. H. — China Past and Present.
London, 1903. (The Population and
Revenue of China. Book I. Ch. II. p.
25-41).
Ciandry B. S. — China Present and Past.
London, 1895. (Currency. Ch. VII. p.
151-158. In Appendix : Mining and Cur-
rency Decree, 1884. p. 404).
Opium Statistics, Foreign and Native,
^anghai Mercury Office.
Bsaer A. H. — Sources of Revenue of
China* (China Review. Vol. XVII. p.
376-292).
China Review. — Coins of China in pres-
ent Circulation. (Vol. XXIII. p. 105-114).
China Review. — Land Tenure in China.
(Vol. XVIII. p. 561-573).
AadenHNi F. — Memorandum on Chinese
Currency. Sbang^iai, 1903.
Addis O. S. —The Daily Exchange (Ro-
tations. Shanghai, 1903.
Ferdval W. S. — The Land of the
Dragon. London, 1889. (CTonsumption
and Revenue. — Likin Stations. Ch. X.
p. 286-304).
Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1908. (Currency, p. 189192. -- Banks
and Bank-notes, p. 78-80. — Mints, p.
431. — Opium, p. 488-41)7. — Likin and
some other Taxes, p. 896-399. — Tenure
of Land. p. 699-703).
IHnigliiB Sir B. — Society in China.
London, 1895. (Coins and Art. Ch. XXV.
p.38&'393).
Jeml^B T. R — China's Business
Methods and Policy. Shanghai, 1904.
(Sources of Revenue, p. 42-59. ^- Money,
p. 77-91.— Banks and Guilds, p. 92-119.—
Land Tenure, p. 27-41).
Jernl^n T. B. — China in Iaw and
Commerce. New- York, 1905. (Taxation.
Ch. VI. p. 154-175. — Guilds. Ch. IX. p.
205-221. — Banks. Ch. XI. p. 275-290. —
Weights, Measures and Currency. Ch.
xn. p. 291-306. — Tenure and Transfer
of Property. Ch. V. p. 132-153).
Hart Sir B. — Suggestions concerning
Uniform Currency (N. China Herald.
July 3. 1908. p. 51).
UUle E.S.— A Plea for Immediate Action
with a View to an Establishment of a
Gold Currency in China. (N. China
Herald. Jan. 21. 1903. p. 126-28).
l^lmer G.B.— The Currency (^estion.^
Points against a Gold Standard. — China
not civilised up to Gfold. (N. China
Herald. Jan. 27. 1903).
Blackburn China Mission. — Blaokbom,
1896-97. (Currency in China. Part II. Ch.
V. p. 177-185. — NaUve Banks and
Guilds, p. 240-253t — Despotic Power of
Bankers. — Trading and Exchange./^
Guilds and Exchange. — The Boycott,
p. 307-319. — The Compradore and the
Compradore System. Part II. ^. 328>di0.
— Depreciation of Silver. — Scarcity of
Copper. — Revision of System, p. 344-
858j.
JamletMNi J. W. — Foreign Trade of
China for the Year 1908. Foreign Office,
1904. (Diplomatic and Consular Reports.
China. N* 8280. — Change of Stited«d.
p. 8).
Hoale A. — Foreign Trade of China for
the Years 1904-1905. Foreign Office. 1906.
(Diplomatic and Consular Reports. N**
3725. Exchange Fluctuations, p. 6 and
58. — Depreciation through excessive
Minting, p. 13 and 59. — Abortive
Currency Reform, p. 13).
British Commercial Treaty with China.
1902. (Article II. Currency Reform. —
Abolition of Likin agreed to. Art VIII).
Commercial Treaty between the United-
States and China. 1903. (Likin to be
abolished. Art. IV. — China agrees to a
Uniform National Coinage. Art. XIII. —
Reform of Judicial System; U. States
willing to assist. Art. XIV).
Commercial Treaty between Japan and
China. 1908. (Uniform National Curraocy
agreed to. Art. VI. — Also Uniform
Standard Weights and Measures. Art.
VII.— Reform of Judicial System; Japan
agrees to give assistance. Art. XI).
338
raGnoN ▼• wdLmcAL and iconomic moabapht.
IMPBBIAL MABITIMB CUSTOMS :
Obvdter ■. — Lm Dounefl ImpMales
Ifftriiimes OhinoiiM. (Poang-pao, 1902.
p. 228-3M0).
0»rdtor H. — Lm Doiumefl ImpArudes
HuitiinM Ohinoiiei. (Bulletin du Comitd
de I'Ade Fran^aiM. F«y. 1905. p. 72-78).
OnHfn ■. ~ Lea Donanes Imp^riales
Maiiiimefl Chinoiaes. Lea Originea et le
Diyeloppement. — Gage das Empronts.
(T'oang-pao. Ootobre, 1906. p. 515-585).
Oanthier. ^ Lea Doaanea Mariiiines de
la Chine. (Bulletin de la Soo. G^ogr. de
Paria, 1800-91. p. 380-430).
Ifoi MMIH H. — The Peoples and Politics
of the Bast. London, 1895. (The Imperial
ICaritime Customs. Ch. XYI. p. 231-248).
Qillij R. S. — China Present and Past.
London, 1895. (The Imperial Maritime
Customs. Ch. DC. p. 188-200).
A. — The Englishman in China.
London, 1900. (Chinese Maritime Cus-
toms. — Creation of Foreign Customs.
Vol. I. Ch. IX. p. 148-166.— The Foreign
Customs under the Peking Convention.
Vol. II. Ch. XX. p. 156-167).
Dyer Ball J.— Things Chinese. Shanghai,
1903. (The Imperial Maritime Customs,
p. 192-194. * Lighting of the Coast and
open Ports, p. 395-396.. — Chinese Im-
perial Post Office Duties, p. 578).
Report on the Working of the Chinese
Imperial Post Office for the Year 1905.—
(I. M. C. Abstract of SUtistics. Shanghai,
1906.p.XXXI-LXXin).
China. — Trade Reports (Annual and
Decennial) of the Imperial Maritime
Customs. Statistical Department. Shang-
hai.
ABMT AND NAVY :
CMiifcmlFfej.-L'ArmfeChinoise. 1908.
Dabry. — Organisation Militaire des Chi-
nois. Paris, 1859.
Mimoires sur les Chlnois. Tome VII. (Art
militaire des Chinois).
L*Armde Chinoise. — (Echo de Chine. 19
et 20 Avril, 1905).
D6crets sur les £ooles Bfilitaires. (ibid. 12
F6vrier, 1905).
D. PlanlL — Die Chinesische Armee. (In
Schorer S. Familienblatt. 1892).
de Greedprey. — Les Armies de la Chine
en 1903.
Jamileeoii G.-— Army and Navy of China.
—Arsenals and Dockyards.— Forts. (En-
cyclopedia Britannioa. London, 1902.
Article on China).
Mayens F. W. -— The Chinese Govern-
ment. Shanghai, 1886. (The Manchu
Bfilitary Organization. Part VI. — The
Chinese Army. Part VII).
Weeiig P. — Melanges sur I'Administra-
tion. Vari6tto Sinologiques. N*21. Chang-
hai, 1908. (Des Mandarins des Banniires.
p. 186. — Des Mandarins Militaires. p.
187. —Mandarins Militaires. Expose 11.
p. 48-51. — Des huit Banniires. Expose
vra. p. 107-114).
Chinese Repository. — Military Skill of
the Chineae. (Vol. V. p. 165-178). — The
Soldier's Manual. (VoL XI. p. 487-li6).
— Important Instructions for Soldiers.
(Vol. Xn. p. 69-75).
OneninyhiiMi. —The Chinese Soldier and
other Sketches.
Wade 8b> T. — The Army of the Chinese
Empire. (Chinese Repository. Vol. XX.
May, June and July. 1851).
Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (The Chinese Army. p. 45-54.
— Navy. p. 478-477).
Slefliy W.— Chinese Ifisoellany (pasaim).
Parker B. H. — The Chinese Army. 1903.
Parker E. H. — China, her History, Di-
plomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(The Army.— The Banner System.— Pro-
vincial Tartar Troops. — Braves. Ch.
XIII. p. 244-259).
Parker E. H.— John Chinaman. London,
1901. (Army and Navy. p. 229-262).
Bealser D. B.— A Short History of Chi-
na. London, 1893. (Army and Navy.
Ch. XXU. p. 369-371.— M' Lay's abortive
Scheme of a Chinese Navy. p. 311-18).
Kraoeee A. — The Far East. London,
190S. (The Chinese Army. p. 161-62. —
Navy. p. 159-161).
lyOllone. — La Chine Novatrice et Ouei>-
rihre. Paris. 1906.
CHAPTER II.
Population. — Languages. ~- Religions. — Education.
P. POfJUlatiofL
The population throughout the greater part of the Empire
is made up of the Chinese race, except in the Southern Provinces^
where the aborigines or alien element predominate. In the
Provinces bordering on Tibet, Turkestan and Mongolia, elements
belonging to the different peoples of these countries are mixed
with the Chinese, the latter being however in the majority.
The Chinese race is very ancient. According to the oldest
records, it first occupied the valley of the Yellow River in Kansu
"H* JVy Sl^ensi ^ JS and Honan iff ^. If we wish to solve the
problem as to where it came from, indications seem to point
that it was from Ghaldsea or Assyria. These first Chinese settlers
are called in thftjiatiye annala thft n^tMA^^a ^mtuffimi (rffftniuiji
Jgjjr). or the biadh-haired gaogle l^min.^ J^. l^ihM jft gl
is credited with having been their first chief. Among the ancient
Emperors, OoangU )| f^, 7a* ^ and Amm H, are those more
widely known.
Confined in the beginning to the Northern Provinces, this pri-/
mitive race did not begin really to expand until under the 2Mm||B
dynasty, 249 B.C. Under the JBtat ^ dynasty, 206 B.O.-203 A.D.,l
it occupied a large portion of the present Eighteen Provinces,!
except the coast-region of Ch^kiang ff^ 2C, Fokien jR |^, and]
Kwangtung J| j|[. The native tribes were also numerous and \
inhabited the S. and S. W. They were called XMm H 3|E
(barbarians), and have several branches still extant : the SWans
15 H in the W. of Szechw'an Q jl| ; the Mm^hm fl^ '^ or
340 tmcnasf t. political and Bcoofomc
r ijlf ijlf io the S. W. of the same Province and In Tonnan J|
IB; and the mmUm H ^ inbabiting Kweichow j[|^ Kwangm
Jl fl and Kwaogtong || ]|[ (aee p. 4, and below, p. 342).
These aborigines are sometimes called the jprscfciaaas wmimm^
because they occupied the country previous to the coming of the
Chinese. The prechinese races, thoroaghly lM>mogeneoa8 and
{vosperoos, om^ formed powerful states along the Yangtze |[|
^ valley. Among them, we may mention the P% ^ Mm^Omm
(1 122-473 B.C.)f which comprised in the days of its splendour the
present Provinces of Kiangsu fl ||, Nganhwei ^ % and Nordi
K>Mgn {CS; the €»% f^ Unworn (112^323 B.C.), which
occupied Hukwang fjg J( (actual Hupeh and Hunan), and parts
of Honan jpf jg and Kiangsu fL 0, ^nd attempted oonataatly
to annex North Kiangsi f£ |g, which owed allegiance to the W«
kingdom; the akmh % kim^dmrn (A.D. 302347), which lay in
Central and Southern SzechVan B ji|t ^nd in Southern Hnpeh
in Jt; the jr«M* H kimwdmm (2057?- 334 B.C.), which comprised
actual Ch^kiang ^ f£, Fokien JH J^ and Kwangtung jm ]|[.
This last completely overthrew JtacMii ^ ^, Prince of the Wu
^ state, and annexed his territory, 473 B. C.
Somewhat less than a century afterwards, the King of Tueh
|g, whose name was Wukiang ^ §|, declared himself vassal
of the feudal Prince of Ch^u ^g, 356 B. C. , and the state thus
became extinct, 334 B.C. The Ch*u kingdom, conquered in its
turn, lost its independence, and was annexed by the Emperor
gVtortil* Hwmn&U mUs.^ ^» 223 B.C.
Fluraical ebWMleriflttcn ^Ttke Odscne mm«.— With
regard to physical characteristics, the inhabitants of the 18
Provinces differ widely from one another, and the same may be
said sometimes even of the inhabitants of the same Province.
There are however certain features which are common to the
race. The stature is below the average, and seldom exceeds 5
ft. 4 inches, except in the North. The head is normally brachy-
cephalic or round horizontally, and the forehead low and
narrow. The face is round, the mouth large, and the chin small
and receding. The cheek-bones are prominent, the eyes almond-
CHAPTBR II. POPULATION. 341
shaped, oblique upwards and outwards^ and the hair coarse,'
lank and invariably black. The beard appears late in life, and
remains generally scanty. The eyebrows are straight, and the
iris of the eye is black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat.
The hands and feet are disproportionately small, and the body
early inclines to obesity. The complexion varies from an almost
pale-yellow to a dark-brown, without any red or ruddy tinge;
Yellow however predominates, as with the Japanese, Manchu
and Mongolian races, and so the appellation of '^pettow rat^* is .
generally applied to these people collectively.
M^iml ebaracteristles of tbe CUnelie race. — To sum
up briefly the character of the Chinese is a complex and difficult
problem, and perhaps as hard to decipher as the language. By
some, it has been over-estimated, and by others undervalued.
Considering that truth is fairly in the mean, we shall deal with
it on broad lines.
With regard to the intellectual qualities of the race, it is
admitted that the Chinese mind is rather of a practical and matter-
of-fact kind than of speculative or abstract. The educational
system of the country develops wonderfully the memory, but
cramps the reasoning powers, hence there is generally but super-
ficial knowledge, lack of precison and order in ideas (called by
some intellectual turbidity, by others topsyturvyism), and a total
absence of the critical spirit. There is also to be noticed a pre-
vailing lack of foresight, of consideration of cause and effect, in-
capacity of taking a general view of things, and in the individual
and social acts of life a great amount of credulity and silliness.
The general temperament of the people is morose and leth-
argic, but when excited, they are fitfully vehement.
With regard to moral qualities of the humbler kind, the
Chinaman is patient, frugal, laborious, peaceable, law-abiding and
respectful of authority. He is polite and ceremonious, and displays
great veneration for parents and elders. He has a wonderful
aptitude for agriculture and commerce. The honesty of the
merchant-class is proverbial and deserves all praise. On ^e other
hand, he is not over nice or particular about truth, and will
342 acnosf t. folithul Am ecomnoc cbimbapbt.
eanly lie to ooooeal neglect, or secure some personml advantage.
Id mao j cases he considers it impolite to plainly contradict or
giTe a direct refusal, and in general does not see the claims of
troth and sincerity as clearly as Westerners. He is also said to
be proad and conceited with his own superiority; he is aTaricioos,
and can seldom handle money witii honesty ; he is cmel and
rindieatiTe, calloas to the sufferings of others, and backward in
showing gratitude for benefits. He likes gambling and litigation,
and will be profligate whenever opportunity offers. He has an
otter disregard for time and punctoality. He hates Foreigiiers,
becaose their excellence is conspicuous, and he fears ttkeir in-
fluence. He is not particularly clean, either in his person, haUts
or sorroundings, and is rather indifferent about nnells and
noises. He has no lofty ideal of life, and is deflcient especially
in the higher moral qualities : sense of duty, trustwoithinees, ^
sacrifice for the general welfare, public spirit, entfaoaiaam and
active courage in danger.
The IsImPBp Abo written ^^(LMlao) and KB (Lboliao). ^Md himteny.
-- llie Loloi stftte thftt they eune from the icgkui situated betwecu Tibet and Bmna.
At the origin of their history, they place 12 patriarehs, vho are aatd to have taught
them the oae of clothing and to vork for their living.
They are divided into two classes: the Wl^ie and Blaek Lolos, being diatiiigiii*
shed from each other by the ooloor of their head-drces.
The LoloB are of the Indo-Bnropean or Aryan race. The skin is white, the nose
hooked, the hair brown, the iris blue or grey,and the eye not afanond-shaped. Therooli
of the booses are flat. The dead are buried in caves or dilb. Wcmmn is the aqiial of
man, and infantiride is unknown. TheLdlo is a waRi^aiid4uaii^,sometimeBapaator,
but seldom a tiller of the ground. As to his reCgMn, he worships Nature wSHiu %
great fear of evil genii.
The Lolos have no affinity with the Chinese, either in language, wni^^iMff or
charaeter.
The Chinese treat them with the greatest contempt, and consider that *Hfaoagfa
they have a human form, they are little removed from the brute crmtion'*.
The liolos are found chiefly in Kweiohow jjt 9k And Tfinnan H K. The Sae-
chVan Lolos are called MamUe S ^ (barbarous tribes of the South).
The Lolos have their own language, which is very simple. AH the words ai«
formed by a single consonant and vowel. There is no diphthong and no final oonaoii*
ant. Each ol these monosyllabic words has its special and distinct meaning.
The language is the same everywhere, though it is divided into a grsftt i*iiinfr<M'
of flialfifils
CHAPTia II. POPULATION. 03
The written Uuigoage wm originaUy ideographic, but like that of the Chinese, it
underwent transformation during the course of ages, and so it is difficult in its present
state to retrace the objects which the ideographs primitively portrayed. The Lolo
iMiguage is represented by about 3000 written characters. (On the Lolos, see p. 112).
The Miaotoe f •=p (shoots, children of the soil). — In their language, the
Miaotze call themselves Mdng (Burmese equivalent, Mong; in Siamese, Muang). —
They state they came from the East. They are divided into a great many tribes,
numbering it is said more than 50. They are often called, from the colour of their
dress, wMie Miaos (Peh-miao ft ■)« hl^^ck Miaos (Heh-miao B ff )i *nd flowery or
embroidered liiaos (Hwa-miao Ifl S- The women of this tribe engage in embioidery-
weaving, and wear beautiful dress-sleeves, hence the name).
Like the Lolos, their language, customs and habits differ widely from those of
the Chinese. They are ^j^plft «^"^ ^^ifrpftnFit pfiftplf
In Tiinnan S IHi the Miaotze are nomads or pastors, and hence are seldom
found in large numbers together.
Miaotze and Lolos are great wine-drinkers, and celebrate annually the arrival of
Spring by music and dancing.
It is considered by some that the Japanese are descendants of the Miao tribes,
who migrated from South China to the islands of the North. (On the Miaotze, see also
above, p. 112, 181, 188).
The IkUui f^ fH (barbarians). — This is the name given by the Chinese to allj
the tribes of the S. and S. W., and especially to certain tribes inhabiting Kweichow
H M and Kwangsi JK ■. It was also formerly employed by Officials to designate'
Foreigners, but is now forbidden by treaty to be used in official documents.
The Ikias differ little from the Miaotze, and are often confounded under the same
name, or under that of Shane, tribes inhabiting the border-land of Burma and Siam.
The word **Shan*' comes from the Siamese **8ajfam" (brown-red, alluding to the colour
of the people). The Shans are called by the Chinese Pot-t fl X or P'ohri H f^ but
style themselves Luk-iai, or children of Tai. (On the Ikias, see above, p. 188, 196,
190,207).
The Makkag or E'rtilrtaB 1^ X (ftlien or guest families, squatters). * The
Hakkas aro located principally in Kwangtung and Kwangsi, but are found also in
Fokien, Kiangsi, Chdkiang, Formosa and Hainan.
They live in small and scattered groups, but in the Prefecture of Kiaying S JB,
in the N. B. of Kwangtung Province, they are almost the sole occupants.
Their language holds an intermediate position between the Mandarin and
Cantonese. It is spoken by about 4 millions of people in the Kwangtung Province
Generally speaking, they are poor, although there are rich men among them, as ,
well as literary graduates.
The sexes are not so separated in domestic life as with the Chinese. The women
do not bind their feet, and their dress diffen somewhat from that of the Cantonese^
their jackels reaching down nearly to the knees, while their heads are covered with
broad-brimmed hats, through which protrudes a top-knot of hair.
The Hakka children often have a ring of silver round their neck, though this is
not the custom with the Cantonese children.
The Hakkas are generally a simple people, but very contentious, and hence '
oonstantly engaged in lawsuits.
344 mcncm v. polrical amd bcomomic
A gnmi number of them work at Hongkong m barbers and stone-cottars.
They are rather numeroas in the Straits, where they are known as ig>gtoor
Kehtf this being the Swatow and Amoy pronunciation of the word Hak.
As to their origin, we have indicated it above, when describing Kwrnogsi aad
Kwaogtong (p. 19d and 207), wheie they are mingled with the Ikias. With ragazd to
those of Kwangtong, the following is the sUny gathered from their family traditkiBs,
They were located formeriy, some in Shantung and Shansi, and othon in N9UI-
hwei. A &ni persecution, under the Tt^n |K dynasty (B.C. 219-200), drove them firom
Shantung, and compeUed them to settle down in Nganhwei, Honan and KiangsL —A
second persecution, under another Tsin ff dynasty (AD. 419), scattered them into the
mountainous regions in the S. E. of Kiangsi, and to the borders of Fokien. — A third
persecution, under the Tang jK dynasty (A. D. 890), compdled them again to take
refuge in the mountains of Fokien, and the high chains which separate Kiaogii from
Kwangtung. — Under the Svn^flS dynasties (A.D. 960-1280), many became adldien,
and thousands of them perished uith the last Chinese Prince of the Southern Song,
in A.D. 1279, West of Macao. — At the beginning of the Ming 9| dynasty (A.D. 1208),
when they were driven from Fokien by disturbances which agitated that Province,
tkey Anally settled down in large numbers in the N. of Kwangtnng. Henoe they
spread over the W. and S. W. of Kwangtnng, and over different parts of Kwangsi.
An implacable strife, in which about 150,000 perished, took place between the
Hakkas and P(*nti (original or native stock), in the 8. W. of Kwangtnng, from A. D.
] 864-1886. The Chinese Government was then obliged to take vigorous measores and
remove a large number of them to Kwangsi, the Island of Hainan and other parts of
the country. (On the Hakkas, aee above, p. 199 and 207)*
The ItolLUMi or Uttolmmm 9^ ^ (peoj^ from Fok, or, as it is locally pronounced*
^A Province, i.e. Fokien Provmee). * The Hokloe or Foklos are found principally in
the N. E. of Kwangtnng Provinee.
Their language, which is akin to that of Fokien, is spoken by 3 wiWinwa of these
immigrants in Kwangtnng.
They migrated to this latter Province from Fokien a few centuries ago. They
are a rougher, wilder, and also stronger set of men than the Southern Cantonese.
There are a great number of them in Hongkong, where they ue ca«||pgped aa chair-
bearers. Many Hokloe emigrate, and are to be found in the «li#r«p|iii^ leglMis of the N.
In the Straits, they are known as Tmo-chewB, an appellation derived fram the
Prefectural city of Ch'aochow M M (pronounced Tewchew in the local dialect), from
which place many of them come.
The Tao ff (jackals) or Tu tribe. — The Yao tribes inhabit principally the
S.W. of Kwangtuug, and are also found in the S.W. of Hunau. The Hunan tribe is
litUe known. The Kwangtnng Yaos number about 80,000, and are located in the Prefec-
ture of lienchow K ^, near tlie gulf of Tongking. They seem to be of Burmese origin,
and migrated from Kwangsi to Kwangtnng in the XI1*»» century. Their hair is wbm
long, they are of short sUture and have scanty beards. They are at present confined
by the advancing Chinese to the high and inaooessible mountain regions. They are
much considered by the other races for their knowledge of medicine, but their vengeance
is feared, and the more as it is transmitted from father to son through several genera-
tions. They have no written language, and their speech is quite different from that of
the Chinese (see above, p. 207).
The Sal, SI or LI tribe. — This tribe is located in the Island of Hainan, where it
has maintained its independence against the Chinese, for neiurlylSOOOyeiRrwithdrawing
CBAPTBRII. POPOLATION. ^45
from the coast into the motintiuns of the interior. They number about 100,000. There
are also some Miaotze among them. They are divided into civilised and uncivilised
Lis, and are a strong and well-built race. Their writing is most curious, and there
is such great difference in their tribal dialects that the}' converse sometimes with one
other in Chinese. The women are tattooed.
In the N.W. of TUnnan S Kf are found the MoMMi ]tt $ (Mo%uh) or Mmtm.
They are a branch of the Miaotze, and live near Likiang Fu. Their houses are huts built
of planks and branches. They live mostly on barley, but many hunt for musk, deer and
other animals. The prevailing religion i? Buddhism. The Mosos constituted formerly
a powerful state, which extended over part of Eastern Tibet and of actual YUnnan.
Further to the S., are the Lisas fj % (Lihsuh). They live in the mountain
recesses of the Likiang valley. Their clothes are made of grass and plants, and their
hair is worn twisted into a knot. They hunt birds and beasts for food, and never lay
their arms aside even at night (see p. 181).
The Minkias or Mlncliias R Sjt (MinkiaJ live along the shores of the Eulhai
lake to the E. of Tali Fu, which was formerly the capital of their tribe. They are the
descendants of the White Prince or Peh Wang j^ 3E, who ruled about the time of the
christian era. They have no written character, but many of them study Chinese, and
some have taken degrees in the civil or military examinations (see Tali Fu. p. 181).
The W. and K.W. of Szechw'an, and the Western border of Kansu are inhabited
by SIfansfl 1( r^<^^<^'^ a^<>^^Vi^<^< &^ ^^^^aria/i«^. Most of them have recognized
the supremacy of China, and are governed by Chinese Officials.
Dlfltrltaiiimi m€ the Papulation. — The density of the
population of China differs greatly in different parts of the country.
The great plain of N. China, the Yangtze ^ ^ basin, the 8ze-
chw'an |5 )\\ table-land, the coast-region and the Si-kiang f| jx
delta, are the parts the most densely populated of the country.
The Provinces which have the largest population are 8ze-
chw'an. Shantung, Hupeh, Kwangtung, Kiangsi, Kiangsu, Ngan-
hwei and Fokien. In each of these 8 Provinces, the number of
inhabitants ranges from 60 to 20 millions. The Provinces which
are least populated are Yiinnan, Chdkiang, Kansu, Shensi and
Kweichow. Here the number of inhabitants in each Province
dwindles from 12 down to 7 millions {see p. 8).
The Mussulman revolts, which broke out in the Provinces of
Yiinnan ^ ^ and Kweichow jH jHli and also in those of
Kansu ||* jf and Shensi £([ W ; ^he T'aip'ing ^ 2fi rebellion
likewise, chiefly in the Yangtze ^ ^ valley, have exerted a
most depopulating effect on large tracts of the Empire in the
second part of the XIX^^» century.
It is well nigh impossible to calculate at the present day the exact number of
the inhabitants of China. The country has no census taken on European principles,
but an attempt is made to ascertain the number of households for the purpose
of collecting revenue, and from these a return of the total inhabitants is made out.
The official census therefore which we have followed in this work (see p. 5 and 8),
must be considered only as approximative. The different censuses taken by the
Chinese in the past are however worthy in many instances of a considerable amount
of credence, and in fact, form the only retoms available for the entire Empire. Compared
34*
8ICTI0N y. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIC MOGBAPHT.
with some estimates made by foreigners, they may be said to be tolerably trastworthy.
From these censuses, it will be found that the population has considerably
increased during the preceding centuries. The following table will exhibit some statis-
tics showing this increase.
YEAR
NUITBBB OF FAMILIK8.
Population.
609
8.700,000
?
755
9,619,000
58,000,000
1014
9,055,000
22,000,000
1097
19.435,000
38,000.000
1196
7,228,000
48,000,000
1^98
16,000,000
60,000,000
1578
10,621,486
61,000,000
1786
125,000,000
1741
144,000,000
1792
383,000,000
1812
860,000,000 ,
1897
410,000,000
(If these statistics are reliable, and taking into account the increase of land
under tillage, it must be admitted that they show a really great increase in the
population of the Empire).
ypid^tt PopnlalloB In CMoa. — According to statistics published by the
Imperial Maritime Customs, the total foreign population of China, and the number
of foreign commercial houses, for the years 1904 and 1905, were as follows :
CoMMSBciAL Houses.
Pebsons. 1
Nationality.
-mT-
'1906
190ft
"^SoP
Japanese
C50
729
9,139
16,910
British
436
434
6,981
8,493
American
106
105
3,220
3,880
German
173
197
1,871
1360
French
67
77
1,374
2,148
Dutch
15
9
•209
181
Danish
11
13
198
201
Spanish
32
7
278
249
Norwegian
8
10
186
166
Swedish
1
1
122
187
Russian
21
19
808
682
Austrian
16
17
205
250
Belgian
G
8
286
273
Italian
22
22
866
412
Peruvian
2
Brazilian
8
8
Portuguese
36
44
3,387
2,462
Korean
22
49
Non-Treaty Powers
3
1
70
155
Total
1,602
1,603
27,227
88,001
CHAFTIR II. LANMAUS. 947
2". Languages.
The Cnhlnese Idutgaage. — Chinese is spoken throughout
the length and breadth of the land, but with widely different
pronunciation, constituting thereby an obstacle to its being
understood by those who come from different regions within
the Empire. It may be divided into 2 kinds : the Ptrrfr flUytef
and the {MUpqmkU or spoken language.
The various forms «/ the Book Styie are as follows :
!<". The Aneimi 8iyie or Kuwh^ -j^ -jjq, — This is simple
and concise in its construction, obscure and unintelligible with-
out explanation, even for Chinese scholars themselves. The
Classics and the early dynastic Annals of the Empire are written
in this style.
2*. The LUerarp Styie or JfhM $ S- — This is a little
more diffuse, but nevertheless stilted and filled with allusions
and word-particles, either difficult or impossible to translate
into English. The essays of candidates who compete at the
public examinations are composed in this style.
3*. The omeitU or BuMmess S^yie^ called 9lmo WhM ^^^ $
31 • — This is good prose with few particles. It is generally
used in government and official documents, legal and statistical
works, history and business correspondence.
The Sfpoken Lanattage. — This is divided into numerous
dialects with their local pronunciation, intelligible to the people
of the places where they prevail, but unintelligible to outsiders.
The higher ranks and the learned also use them, adding a few
book phrases, which are pronounced as in the dialect. Books
are generally not written in the colloquial. It is considered to
be beneath the dignity of a scholar to write books in the local
dialects, and abandon the style of the Classics.
The Mandarin ianguaffe or Kwtmhwa ^ S^. — This is the
common or public language spoken in the Chinese Empire, as
opposed to the various local dialects. Though not universal, it is
the most widespread, being spoken in 14 or 15 of the 18 Provin-
ces, or by about 250 millions of people. It resembles the written
348
SECTION ▼. rOLITieAL AND BCSOMOIffC OBOIIIUPHT.
language more than any other dialect, but is more diffuse,
and contains synonyms and particles to render the sense clear.
Mandarin has S marked varieties t the Neriherth or Pekingese,
the aeuihem or Nankingese, and the Weeiem.
In the Eastern (8. Kiangsn, ChMdang, Fokien and Kwangiung) and Scmtirarii
ProSdnoes (Kwangsi and Kweichow), other dialects are spoken hy the people. These
are more or less akin to Mandarin, but nevertheless sufficiently different to be
unintelligible to a mandarin-speaking Chinese coming from other Provinces. The
following is a list of those dialects with the approximate number of people who con-
verse in them :
Dialects op the E. an© S.
Spoken by.
1* The Cantonet DialecU^ comprising :
I — The Cantonese proper.
15,000,000
2 - The Hakka.
5,000,000
i* The Min H or Fokien Dialeci*^ comprising:
1- The Amoy dialect.
10,000/NW
2 — The Swatow (Hoklo) dialect.
^.OOlMttO
S — The Foochow dialect.
5^)00,000
1 ^ The W^nehow dialect.
1,000,000
2 — The Ningpo dialect
25,000,000
3 - The Sun^^iang or Shanghai dialect.
is,m,ooo
A sub-dialect of this latter is spoken at Hweichow C IH in Southern Nfpanhmei
«e.
Tht" number of syllables in some of these dialects varies considerably. Thai
(generally assigned for the principal dialects, including also several varieliee of Man-
darin, b as folIoiR-s :
Dialect.
Dialect. ! Nr«»ar 1
SVLLABLXS. 1
1. Amoy.
' SIS
7. Feidngeae tmaDdariii).
«»
2. CMiti>u«*^.
ISO
a ShanghaL
«0
3. Foochow,
' 7S«
S. Swatow.
Cfl
4. Hakka.
TOO
10- W»iich«yw.
4ai
5k Haak\>w (Bsandarin).
316
11. Taii«chew(>MiidariDV
415
«. .\ingpOk
\H
Hainan has a dialect d ito own. called the dialect of Kiungchow Pu^ which is
the most wid«>Iy sprvad in the island. It is near akin to the Aaaoy ^M $watow dmlects^
I by 3 3
CHAPTBR II. LAMUAGB0. 349
CauuractortaUcs •T ilie CHhlnese I^lnciimge. -^ The
principal characteristics of the Chinese language may be reduc-
ed to the 4 following:
l"*. It is tH^nmgyiiab^ This must however le restricted to
the book style, for the spoken language has several dissyllabic
expressions, formed either by a combination of two symbols, or
by the addition of an auxiliary particle joined to the primitive
ideograph.
2''. It is t<ii<ft>Z0elecl, which gives it a simplicity and terseness
unparalleled in any other language. The relations of words to
one other are determined by position and the use of auxiliary
particles. These latter precede or follow the symbol, and thus
perform the duty of affixes, prefixes, noun and adjective termi-
nations, tenses, prepositions, conjunctions, and all that is called
grammar in Western languages. This terseness and economic
simplicity constitute the great difiioulty of the language.
3®. The ideographs or symbols express neither letters nor
words, but things or noHans.
4®. It has no alphabet but a system of initials and finals
called ^'fantsMeh*' ^ ^ (fan, meaning to turn back ; and ts'ieh, to
cut), and introduced by Buddhist monks from India. This helps
to give the sounds of the ideographs, the tone or sh6ng Jjf being
indicated by the word used as final. In this system, the initifBil
of one sound is joined to the final of another, to form a third
which expresses the sound of the given character, as f-ang 'Jj-
and w-dn ^ make f^n ^. (On the Mongolian language, see
below. Book II. Ch. I. and II.).
Clitaese Clomieier-wHtlng. — The early Chinese charac-
ters seem to have been pictorial representations, or rough symbols
of natural objects and phenomena, each symbol representing a
single object, as <{< (chw'an) running water or stream, il] (shan)
a mountain, \ (j6n) a man, [] (k'ow) the mouth etc.... These
symbols however, gradually underwent modifications, and it is
difficult to make out in the present characters the objects which
were originally represented. The number of written symbols
or characters is considerable. K^amghsl^s /jj^ ^ dictionary
350 SBCnOlf T. TCLHieAL AMD BGOMNaC MOMAPBT.
contains 44,449 of them. No soholar knows them all thovou^ilj,
and practically there are but 7 or 8,000 of them employed. Bach
character comprises two parts : a radical or key, indicatiiig the
general meaning, and a phonetic part indicating the proniincia-
tion. The number of radicals varied, some lexicographers giving
500, others 300, and under the Ming fj^ dynasty 214. The
authors of K^anghsi's dictionary adopted this last number, and
this method has been followed down lo the present day.
The written symbols are the same throughout the whole
empire. The inhabitants of Pokien, Kwangtung, Kwangsi, Oh^
kiang and 8. Kiangsu pronounce them differently, and even add
some other characters, to express sounds and idioms peculiar
to their own dialects.
liB—sg IMaliirta. — The Miaotze, Ikias, Lolos, Ifosoe and
other tribes, have their own dialects and manner of writing,
which are completely different from those of the Chinese. Some
tribes employ symbols or ideographs, while others have rudi-
mentary alphabets.
Cnhlneae Utomtare. — The literature of China is very
voluminous. The Emperor KUmUum^ (^ |g| (1736-1796) divided
all these works into famr etaaaes : 1*. Ciaasiea or JCfH# fi;
2: HUHmrioalwmrks or Shi ^; 3^ FlUimeophUwa wmHts or ne ^;
4*. LUerary emmfiiaiimne or T9ih ||. This last category com-
prises especially collections of celebrated authors.
y. Rdigions.
Religion is taken here in the sense of doctrine or system.
Thus there are in China ^^ree primcipai reU0imHs, called by
the name of the S dmOtimss or SatUbimo H Hc - CsmAiekmsimn,
the only orthodox doctrine ; Taoiem and JDtMliXMam. Of these
3 sjTstems, the two former are indigenous, Buddhism being
introduced from India in the early part of the christian era.
Taoism and Buddhism have received at times official patronage,
and a large amount of toleration, because it was thought that
their doctrines agreed with Confucianism, but they were also
often persecuted, one or the other, by the Qovemment.
CHAPTIB II. BKLWHHIS. 351
or MMam {§ j|f[ (doctrine of the literati). —
CSonfuoianism is chiefly the system of the literary class. It is
not so much a religion as a poiMeo-tfCIMcol coda of state-govern-
ment, and social etiquette, gathered from the writings of Confucius
(K*ung Putze ^ ^ :f . B.C. 551-479) and his disciples. There
is no place in it for a primary cause, and no relation between man
and this cause. Man is said to know good, but fails to perform
it. Instruction and example are set forth as remedies against
this weakness. The Sage insists on the fulfilment of social
duties — obedience to authority, filial piety, kindness, friendship,
concord with neighbours, moderation and economy, propriety
and courtesy— because they lead to temporal happiness and fame,
and will be rewarded in man's posterity. He had a poor idea of
man's happiness. The whole system is incomplete, and proposes
a commonplace ideal, which pervades all Chinese life and
conduct.
Though he died in 479, it was not until B.C. 49 that his
doctrine obtained favour at Court. It reached its acme under
the Sung Jff dynasty (A. D. 420-478), and was subsequently
expounded by Chuhsi ^|Jf (A.D. 1130-1200), as a great political
means for paternal government and social order.
Confucius received the titles of ^Htmoher and exampie /br
ten ih&umjmd peart^, and ^equai with heaven and earths
(these two latter are the supreme object of state worship).
His temples abound throughout the land, and are placed in
large areas ornamented with trees and water, and in close
connection with the government examination-halls. Sacrifices
are offered to him by the Emperor, at the vernal and autumnal
equinoxes. Oxen and sheep are slain, and silk, wine and fruit
offered. The mandarins are present. No prayers are used, but
prostrations are made before the tablet of the Sage. Children
on entering school make the same reverences, and also literati,
after taking their degrees.
Ta^lsiii or Taekiao ^ j|f[ (doctrine of the right way). —
Taoism is a more abstruse philosophical system than Confucian-
ism, and is filled with misty and enigmatic ideas. It may be
352
cmlled a crude atlempl to explain, how all thiags erohred out of
chaos, or the Tagoe onknown. The sjitem is chiefly cxpoaed in
the Hisit* JTiiv JHH (f or Ihiiig rinsrfr The work was written
bj Mjamme ^ ^ (Grand old man. or venerable philosopher. Bom
B.C. 604; time and place of death onknown), and cootiiias
5,320 characters. The return to Am, whatever that mxj mean
(the right and correct coarse, or the simplicitj of natere),
is held to be the key to homan happiness.
Taoism as a religion nowise represents the abotractiona of
Laotze, hot was ioTented by the disciples of the philosopher.
These also borrowed mnch from Conlncian and especially from
Boddhist literatnre. At the present day, this so-ealled religion
is a medley of grotesque polytheism, in which gods, goddeases
and genii are numerous. It also panders much to the rhinaaian^n
dread of spirits, and dispenses magic swords, incantataoos and
charms to ward off evil influences.
mm§miimm or ^fctlsi ^ f|; ;doctrine of Foh or Foh). —
Chinese Buddhism is of more recent date than Confucianism or
Taoism. Confucius and Laotze lived both in the VI*^ century B.C.
The oflBcial introduction of Buddhism into China dates only
from the first century of the christian era. In the year A. D. 61,
the Bmperor Mingti i^ ^ had a dream, in which a mysterious
person told him to go to the W. and seek his law. Hereupon,
the Emperor's brother went to India, and brought back Buddhism,
instead of the true religion of Christ, which was then being
preached in the country. Buddhist literature thus entered China,
and subsequently penetrated into Korea and Japan. BudAism,
through often peraecuted by the Bmperors 6L China, and obnox-
ious to the literati, was easily accepted by the people. It
somewhat degenerated in the XIII**^ century, but there was a
revival in the XV<^. .\t ihe present day, Buddhisas oonaste in
inviting priests for burials, making prostrations beioR Buddha
or OmitS>fuh |9 S Pl£ ft* «im1 Us disciples, and burning joss-
sticks ^sticks of incense made from the dust of TUiious Ooented
woods, mixed with a little clay, and used in temples for wonhip)
before their statues. Buddhist monks or homes (fhsai the Japanese
Botiflo, a Buddhist priest, and in Chinese, Hpshang %i fH), are
generally very ignorant and little considerecjl, though there are
found among them a few scholars. They are despised by the
people, and he)d up to contejnpt and ridicule. The nuns like-
wise hold a very low position in the public estimation.
These three reUgionB are practically blended into mme
in the eyes of the great bulk of the people, who practise
indiscriminately one or the other, as occasion requires. They
add to them the warOUi^ e/^naasHi >» who have also their temples
or tz^et^ang |g ^, and tablets or p^aiwei Ml |9[ (a board with
the name of the deceased on it). They worship also atrll &fiiHU
or mokwei H Jl, believe in the ttwnmn^graHan cfemUs/in merU
aequired by sparing animal life, and numerous other eupereHU&us
Besides these three religions, the most widely diffused in
China are 8ha$nan4sm, €fhH9UamUw and MahotnedmUenu
ShminrnttiBm prevails chiefly among the tribes of Yiinnan
and Kweichow, in S.W. China. They fear spirits, worship
natural objects (the sun, wind, mountains, rivers etc.) and have
wizard-priests, who propitiate with offerings the malevolent
spirits.
ClurtaiteBHjr is spread throughout the whtile df China, in
two different forms, the CaiihMe and the BreUitkmM*
CMlMlleism is called in China THeitd^u-iUM ^ ^ fi:, or
HaMrlOft «/ ihe Ijord «/ Jfesrefs this name having been adopted
to signify that the proper object of its worship is the true and
living Cod, Creator of Heaven and Barlh, and not the material
heavens, which together with the earth, are the object of Imperial
worship in China. Catholicism is the ancient religion revealed
by Ood to man, at the origin of the world, and which Christ,
Son of Ood and God himself, perfected 1900 years ago. It
teaches that there is but one personal and supreme Ood, whd
is the Creator of heaven and earth, and to whom alone is diie
divine honour. It acknowledges but one true and universal
23
l^
354 8BGTION y. POLITICAL AKJb BCCHfOMIC ftBO0RAFHT.
Church, to which all men are called. The power and mission
of this Church do not come from man, but directly from Ood,
and its object is to help all men to be good, to save their souls
imd lead them in accordance with Cod's will to eternal hap-
piness in heaven.
The Catholic Church reckons at present in China about one
million believers.
Whether S* ThomM, one of the twelve Apostles of Christ, carried the light of
the Gospel to the Chinese Empire, is not sufficiently goAranteed, but certain it is
that some of his disciples early announced the new faith to the country.
The first historical monument attesting the introduction of Christianity into
China dates from the YIII*^ century. It is a stone slab discovered in AJ>. 1625, near
the oity of Singan Fu, in Shensi. It bears the dAte of A J>. 781, and was erected by the
Nestorians, a Christian sect separated from th^ main body of Catholics, and whopro>
bably came from Syria or Persia. According to this slab, the Nestorians then poppeaocd
several churches and monasteries, and enjoyed liberty to preach the Oospel. They mfty
\ . even have erected their first church as early as 686. The Nestorians were banished in
*' • y J A.D. 845, by an edict of the Emperor Wntstmg t^ffj^oi the T*ang Jlf dynasty.
Scattered groups however continued to live in China during the following
centuries, and the Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, found several Nestorian oongregations
at Kashgar, Samaroand, and even at Peking, towards the close of the XIII^ century.
\n the second half of the same century, and during the XIV***, several Ctetholio
Missionaries were sent to China by the Boman Pontiffs and by Catholic Soverojgi^s^
The best known are the Dominican Andrew of Longjumsau^ and the Franciscans John
de Piano Carpini^ William of Bubruquitf and John of Montecortnno. In 1807, this last
reached Khanbalig (Peking), the capital of China, and was appointed Archbishop,
with seven suffragans, by Pope Clement V^^. He retained his bishopric until his death,
which occurred in 1330. His successor in the see of Peking was NiehoUta Bonnet.
The Mongol invasion of Tamerlnne closed the land-route to China, and so the
Missionaries had henceforth to reach the country by sea.
( Dominicans and Franciscans attempted at various times to found churches in
. the S. They set out from Manila and Macao. The Portuguese occupied this latter place
; towards the middle of the XVI^ century, and a bishopric was erected there in 1557.
St Franols Xavler was the first Jesuit who attempted to enter China. He
started from Malacca, but died in 1552, at the island of Sbangohw*an or Sanoian, off
the Canton coast. Shortly afterwards, a missionary of the same Order, Matthew Bicei
(called in Chinese Li Matow ^ 41 V)> succeeded in entering the country. In 1583,
Bicci settled at Chaoking Fn fli glJRf, then the official capital of the Two Kwang Pro-
vinces. In 1588, he removed his residence to Nanoh'ang Fu Kf B MP) >ii Kiangsi Pro-
vince. He subsequently extended his labours to Nanking M £l) which he reached in
15!^. Here, observing that the success of his mission was at the mercy of local
mandarin caprice, he set out for Peking, and after two unsuccessful journeys (1595 and
1598), finally settled in the capital of the Empire, in the year 1601. He there secured
GHAFTIK II. RBLieiONS. 355
the esteem and good-will of the Emperor, and of the learned class, and was thus enabled
to open China to other Missionaries. One of his principal converts in the capital was
the HanUn Doctor Sii Kwangk'i 49^ A JK« a native of Shanghai. The tomb of this
famous man is at Siikiahwei Ik X H (locally pronounced Sicawei), and the Jesnit
Observatory is so called from its being in the vicinity of the monument. When Ricci
died in 1610, the Emperor himself offered a burial ground for his mortal remains, and
a great concourse of the literary class attended his funeral.
After Ricci, several Catholic Missionaries : Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans,
and Augustinians, came to preach the Gospel in China.
It was owing to his scientific knowledge that Ricci won the favour and esteem
of the Chinese, flis successors retained them by the same means. Among them, two
are especially famous : Schall and Verbiest.
Adaai SdMill wmt Bell (1591-1660), known in China under the name of Tang \
Johwang 9 ^ S* reached the country in 1622. I
Schall settled at first in Singan Fu, in Shensi Province. Summoned to the Court, to I
reform together with Fr. James Rho the imperial calendar, he was appointed President /
of the Board of Astronomy and Mathematics. The Emperor Ch'ungchdn mm held him in /
great e8teem,and when this prince succumbed in the catastrophe of the Ming QQ dynasty,
the new Emperor of the Tats'ing /C ffi or present reigning house, maintained the
Missionary in the same honourable position. Schall obtained an imperial decree
securing the preaching of the Gospel throughout the Empire, and guaranteeing pro-
tection for converts. Thanks to this favour, 100,000 Christians were received into the |
Church in the short space of 14 years.
Verbieal (1628-1688), known in China under the name of Nan HwaijSn R#|t:. t
entered the country in 1659. Schall ordered him to come to Peking to assist him in his \
astronomical labours. He too became President of the Board of Mathematics, and the
Emperor K'anghsi JH |K showed him the most sincere friendship. When he died, the
Board of Rites prescribed the honours to be paid him, and his funeral was carried out
at the expense of the State. The Emperor wrote his eulogium, and had it engraved
upon his tombstone.
Notwithstanding the Imperial favour in Peking, the native converts had neverthe-
less to suffer many persecutions throughout the Provinces. They did not cease however
to increase in number. The first pioneers of the Gospel were soon followed by the
French Foreign Missions, and when the Society of Jesus was suppressed in Europe, the
Vinoentians or Lazarists took up and continued its labours in China.
The propagation of the Gospel, which experienced a set-back at the close of the '•
XVIII^ century and the opening of the XIX**>, started with renewed vigour in the latter |
half of the present century. Its progress was frequently Hindered by persecutions, the i
, last of which was in 1900, when the blood of thousands of martyrs flowed at the hands of ^
the Boxers. The preaching of the Gospel is now officially authorized by treaty. The divi-
sion of the country into Apostolic Vicariates, and the apportionment of the field between
the various religious Orders and Congregations, thus preventing overlapping and fric-
tion, have further facilitated the task. The annexed table will exhibit in detail the
present divisions, the number of vicariates, churches and chapels, convertp and appli-
cants for baptism, or in other words, the pratiral result of Catholic Missionary work.
3S6
SBCnON T. POLITiiSAt' AMD BCOMOatC aKMBAVHT.
CATH0U6 MISSIONS nr CHnrA. ues.
ApfMtollC
To Whom
Entranled
Beside I ice
1^
1
For- Ni
eiRO tivt
Bap^
ti£ed
Coti
veria
A HP
licnnti
for
Bftp-
tiim
cbei»
or
Chap-
elt
mrm RetfkNi 1
N. Ohfhll
n
l'«king
Yiiri|:p*iiig
6
1<)
8
4?
1
90,fil?
5.270
80,000
],orD
4^1
2$
w.
n
ChOtktinif
I!
17
Jl
11,880
6,<K»6
344
S.E, „
Inniu
iRsianbaien
|(Iidbi«ti)
C
4**
20
M»,616
9J79
m
N. H€»llAli
Mil^ n Foiwiyn Minniana
Weiliwei
4i
12
a
5,:boo
7,000
70
S. MjimibariB
Pari*FarmgnMi*nom
Mukden
0
m
7
1S3I3
4,500
to
K.
II
Kinu
il
n
8
14,984
a,725
08
]Si]iigobow-
1 Isiqil^c
Siwviise
37
41
21
15.715
22,300
8,100
s,soo
47
125
w. „
II
SatilAo-ho
6
44
I
0.7SS
4,76«
31*
Sec«i«l ne^iott.
1
Hi (MO
Btt^an Foreiffti Mk-
in
IS
0
5«»0
3
N. Kmiiu
[tiona
if
Leaugctiuw
a
1
2.S70
230
23
S, „ (P.A.)
»»
Tslncbow
u
n
i,oai
fiOO
13
N. ShiUii
K«oUei
a
SG
24,100 '
5.000
ao3
s.
Forfffyii Mimom of
iQb'eiiRku
5
3
11,100
0,100
61
H. dhftntl
FmnHscam
T'ttly*fi?«
5
13
10,500
B,m
in
s.
ir
Laug»u
e
22
e
]3;«n
7.52S
113
K, Sbftiilun^
PI
Tstuau
i>
23
If
20,7li|
17.30&
187
B-
iBimn
Cbefoo
B
23
3
10,400
13,560
1B3
a^
German FojTJ^n Mia-
Yl^nchow
fi
411
12
35^)1
^m
147
THinI RfiftlM. 1
W, Honan (PA.)
[Parttm
Sianift^b'f'iig
(H8« Chow;
6
S
0
BOS '
800
8
s.
Mit^ ft Foreign MimiortJi
Kftnyang
rt
12
10
11.300
0,000
S3
E. Hup^b
Franri»riinn
Wucb'ftMir
5
St
17
»3,:i04
20,000
105
N.W. .,
If 1
jL»olio-k*<>w
KSijwig>'»Tjg)
6
12
1$
um
7,000
75 1
S.W. ,
i»
Ich**fjg
6
1?
6
9,626
6,67i
75
N. Hunsti
Spanish A nifttittininni
Li Chow
6
U
f
2,184
3.968
as
B.
Frantiat^a ft 9
H«'^n(?chovv
U
10
6
0.116
l,SO0
22
H. Kiaiigii
Vinfjmiiam
Kiukbrig
(}
U
5
11,000
8j000;
110
K>
M
Fuchow
0
SO
@
15,S00
4,a00
56
s.
n
Eibuf^u
@
17
B
7300
2»400
43
CliftkiAng
M
ISiugpo
«
30
17
^,018
10.020
153
hwt-i(KiAti|rTianl
^JrmitM
Shiin^Ii&i
B
127
01
152,873
87,500
9BI
CiUfTMl It. aiLMIOMS.
357
CATHOUC MISSIONS nr CHIHA. 190& (continued).
Vipariates
. Apostolic
To Whom
Entrusted
Head-
quarters
and Principal
Residence
1
Priests
For- Na-
eigii tive
Bap-
tized
Con-
verts
A|.p.
licants
for
Bap.
tism
ThS?
ohes
or
Chap-
els
VvllVMI ~ He^MB.
Kweichow
N.W. Szechw'an
E.
s.
YUnnan
Tibet
Paris Ftxreign Mia-
[aiona
II
11
II
i»
II
Kweiyang
Ch»<^ngtn
Ch*ungk4ng
Suifu
YUnnan
Tatsienlu
6^
0
6
0
5
5
48
39
48
45
30
17
17
48
37
13
14
1
24,018 22,825
40,000 11,078
34,100 17,761
24,000 10,000
9,«M)
2,050
112
105
103
40
71
14
FlfMi meglmm.
Foochow
|4moy
Uongkoug
Kwangtung(P.A.)
Kwangsi (P.A.)
Macao
Spaniah Dominicana
II
Milan Foreign Miaaiona
Paria Foreit/n Mia-
[aiona
Foochow
Amoy
Hongkong
Canton
Nanning
6
6
G
5
G
87
13
11
09
26
?
16
1
10
15
4
?
44,799
4,225
18,295
54,(100
8,431
?
26,806
5,80#
2/WO
6,546
?
116
57
78
490
47
?
Blission Agencies
Trappists
28
6
4
8
Total
1218
555
952,985
t29^l
5,681
Summary
Vicariates ApostoUc 38
PrefecturesApostolic 4
Diocese of Macao and
Mission of Hi 2
Priests
Foreign i
Native 1
1218
5o5
1773
Baptized
Converts
Churches
and
Chapels
Grand Total
for China
-^2
»
953,935
5»68l
The Abbreviations P.A., mean Pcelectures Apostolic, and M., means Mission. In
indicating the year of report, we have given but the last figure, thus 5 means 1905, and
6, the year 1906. The number of Priests comprises the Bishops. The other helpers,
Foreign and Chinese, are not mentioned in this list. It may be also gathered from
these statistics that there is but one priest to attend to evezy 587 baptized converts ;
that out of every 1,717 such converts, one native priest is famished for the ministry ;
and finally, that for one native convert who has entered the Church, there are still 430
pagans outside th« fold, or in other words, that the number of catholic converts is but
the ^^ pArt of the total population of the Chinese Empire.
358
SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OBOeiUPHT.
Korea and Japan. 1906.
Mid 1 lo^^hom
Apo«lo|ic '
— IKd-" ^
iluarterB
FlindpAl
RpBidetioe
T
1
6
For \m-
Chur-
ches
qr
Cli»p
Kon*» (V.A ) PiuhFvnifuMi^fHi^
Seoul
42
Id
61,290 le,430
6S
Tofcio (Areh l)j
Tokio
$
35
»,4ftS 1
39
V*mU (D,
Ouka
6
30
a.9ou j
32
N«ir«Biil^i iiu
Nii|!«««kt
0
3S
2G
43,810 1
01 j
ijAkmtjiit^ m.i 1
Sendni
6
«l
4.2S5I
31
Shtkciliii iP.A.t iiptfUi^h tktmiiiirumit \
KtfLhi
1)
7
300 80
S
on Aiiioyi ^'
Ani^y
e
13
m ,
2,na 200
IS
« Qr»nd TotmJ .
1 Kor^a »«d Jftp«ii 1
290
131,167 |«.7lO
«1
Tli«r altbruvialioiib Arch. D., luvan Archdiocfbi- ; D., dioc«i>«.> : V.A., VicariaU;
Apa«»to]ic, ami P. A. Pn'fwturv Apostolic.
is generally called in China
mt 9fc or JMifiwt ^ «r«tiMu The Protestant form of Christianity
originated in the XVT^^ rpntury. Tt rejected the headship and
aattiority of the Catholic Chorch, and set itself up as a free and
self-governing Church, based on the Bible interpreted by private
judgment. It is divided into numerous sects and denominatioiis,
and has in China about 150,000 full adherents.
Prolestaiilism entered China only in |fee befginning of the XDC^ eentofy. Tbe
ftnl Protestant Xissionanr to the connlry was the Rev. Robert XoniMn, who anivcd
in A.D. I9(C- On accoont of opposition to foce%a>is enterinfr the conntnr, he vas then
unable to eaj;a|ee in dirert eTanfr^Ucal work. He thetefote directed his eneifj- to lite>
nury iind<»Ttakin^ and pablished a lar|ce dictionaiy. and a Chinese traMdatioti of the
New TKtament Tliis latter appeared in 1811. Tlie tame 5«ar, he TiaptiMil the fint
Protectant <x>n\-ert in China. In 1818. he be^an, tofeether with I^ Milne, 1
of the Old T^vtament into Chinese. It was printed firoin wtJod-blodEs* aad
in It^SS^ About the same time, an .\q^lio-Chinese coDsfce was opened at 1
the newly arrired Piote^tant 3li«cioaiarie8 wttled, and wne trained in tbe
lancna^ and cnttomss till more faTorable ctrnunstancws alhmvd tlMM to rntii the
conntrr. Sleanwhik foonU of moveable types w^ere cast* ill Him J to iiptoee the ^
bkclEi which D» Movrison had first employed.
.CHApm ii. ULiaiOMB... 3S9
In addition to the English Missionaries, others came from America to Macao in
1880.
After the Nanking treaty of 1842, opening the five {wrts of Canton, Amoy, Foochow,
Ningpo and Sttianghai, the Missionaries proceeded from Malacca to China, and others
soon arrived from home. Twelve Missionary Societies immediately estahlished them-
selves in these ports, and there opened schools, hospitals and dispensaries. Since then,
more treaty ports have been opened, and numerous other Missionary Societies followed
the first, the principal being the "American Methodist Bpisoopalians" (South), ^'Baptists"
(of the Southern Convention, Missionary Union, Independent Movement, and Seventh-
day), "Presbyterians" (North, South and Reformed), and the "China Inland Missicm",
which started work in 1853.
Besides the distribution of Tracts and Bibles, and the establishing of Churches,
they have opened colleges and schools, and translated numerous works, religious and
scientific, into Chinese. They publish also several periodicals, and have hospitals and
dispensaries in the principal cities where they work.
It is now one hundred years since they commenced work in China. We append
here the state of their Missions for the year 1902, as published by the Rev. Timothy
Richard, no complete statistics having appeared since that date :
OrdainedMen 610
Unordained Men (including Physicians) 578
Missionaries' Wives 772
Other Missionary Women (including Physicians) 825
Native Workers (both Sexes) 6,888
Ifissionary Stations or Residences 653
Missionary Out-stations 2,476
Communicants 112,808
Adherents, not Communicants 91,864
Day-schools 1,819
Pupils in same 85,412
Higher Institutions 170
Students in same 5,150
Foreign Male Physicians 162
Foreign Women Physicians 79
Hospitals or Dispensaries 257
Patients during year reported 691,782
The following is a full list of Protestant Missions in all China, alphabetically
arranged. The table gives the date of their starting work in China, the number
of foreign Missionaries, male and female, including physicians, the number of native
helpers of both sexes, and the total native constituency, comprising communicants
and adherents, not communicants. The results tabulated are those supplied by the
various Societies themselves.
I t
li".
t
SECTION T. )kfLmijas amb fecMokic aioasAPHT.
Statiitics of Proteftaat Wiiions in all China, IMS.
NAMES OP SOCIETIES.
oo2
AXXUCAM SOCKTIEH.
American Advent Miesion Sodeiy 1897
American Baptist Missionary Union 1843
American Bible Society 1876
American Board of Fon>ign Missions 1830
American Friends' Board of Foreign Missions ... 1890
American Norwegian (Lutheran) China Mission ... 1899
Board of Foreign Missions, Presb. Church, North 1814
■Board of Foreign Mission, Iteforraed Church in
America 1842
Board of Mission & Church Erection, Cumb. Presb. 1898
Board of Missions of the M. E. Church, South ... 1S48
Christian and Missionary Alliance 1890
Pom. and For. M. S., Protestant Episcopal Church 1835
Exec. Com. of Foreign Missions, Presbyterian
. Church, South 1867
Foreign Christian Missionary Society 1886
Foreign Department, Y. M. C. A. North America 1P9.5
Foreign Mission Board, Southern Baptist Convention 18 15
Foreign Mission Committee, Presbj'terian Church,
Canada 1888
Gospel Mission (Independent Baptist Missionary
Movement) 1892
Hauges Synod's China Mission 1892
Home and Foreign Missionarj' Society, United
Kvang. Church 1900
Missionary Society of the Methodist Church, Canada 1891
Missionary- Society of the Methodist EpiscopalChurch 1847
Mission Board of Seventh-day Adventists 1888
Scandinavian Alliance Mission of North America 1891
Scandinavian American Christian Free Blission ... 1888
Seventh-day Baptist Missionary Soci<'ty 1847
Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant of America 1890
Synod of Reformed Presbyterian Church in North
America 1897
Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, M.E. Church,
South 1878
Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, Blethodiat
Prot. Church 1000
Woman's Missionary Association, United Brethren
in Christ 1889
Woman's Missionary Society, Methodist Church,
Canada 1893
AVoman's Union Mibbic)nary Society 1881
4
77
7
95
10
7
188
24
5
31
49
52
68
25
12
49
21
18
10
2
14
159
1
55
6
6
6
5
143
ISI
405
16
7
502
?
135
31
14
12
1,065
15
16
5
2
4.3
19
20
Communi-I'
canta.
Natiy OonatitoeBcy.
AdlMrBBt^
not com;
nmnicftniU
25
2,887
6,017
77
30
1,874
1,180
?
1,294
392
365
2,410
180
20
18
25
25,244
44
100
51
87
58
5,40S
790
?
70
4,285
61
00
2^18
CBAPTBA II. aiLieiONB.
StatifticB of Frptertant Hiisions ii| •!! Chilli^, W/SL (contiimed).
961
NAMES OF SOCIETIES.
Native Constitaenoy.
British Societies.
Baptist Missionary Society
Baptist Zenan* Mission
Bible Christian Home and Foreign Missionary
Society ... ...
l^ritish and Foreign Bible Society
Christian Missions (oommonly called "Brethren*')
Church Missionary Society
Church of England Zenana Missionary Society ...
Church of Scotland Foreign Mission Committ«>e
dburch of Scotland Women's Association for F. M.
Foreign Mission of the Presbyterian Church, Ireland
Foreign Missions Committee, Presb. Church,
England
Friends* Foreign Mission A ssociation
London Missionary Society
Methodist New Connexion Missionary Society ...
Missions to Seamen ...
Mission to Lepers in India and the East ... ...
Mission to the Chinese Blind
National Bible Society of Scotland
Society for Propag. of the Gospel (North China
Mission)
United Free Church of Scotland Foreign Missions
United Methodist Fren Churches, H.and F. Missions
Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society
1S59
1885
4,652
6.;(58
206
1,589
4,795
16
7,CU0
2,640
IU,185
9,212
12,600
96
4,059
2,000
49d
10,015
2,500
2,6li7
445
2,»55
:%400
8,215
Continental Societies.-
AUg. evangelisch'protestantischer Missionsverein
Berliner Frauenverein fClr China ,
Danske Missionsselskabs
Deutsche Blindenmission in China, in Hildesheim
Deutsche Ohina-Allianz-Mission
Svangelische MiFsions-Gesellschaft, Basel
Frauen Verein fiir christliche Bildung des weibli-
chen C«eschlechteR in Morgenlande ...
Oes. z. Beforderung d. ev. Missionen unter d. Heiden
Norsk Luthersk Kinamissionsforbund
Rheinische Missionsgesellschaft
Sallskapet Svonska Baptist Missionin
Svenska Blissionsforbundet
Intehnational Society.
China Inland Mission
Grand ToUl, 66 Societies.
1885
1896
1889
1852
1900
1882
1894
18»7
1891
1890
1P58
7
4
13
' 1
16
41
1
27
18
22
6
14
779
2,785
1
8
2
15
144
65
23
581
6,888
4.141
1,486
20
100
8.553
112306
11
180
6,197
2,169
?
91,864
The Foreign Missionaries comprise ordained and unordftined men. Missionaries'
wives and physicians. The native helpers comprise workers of both sexes.
362 SECTION ▼. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIC eSOeRAPHT.
known in China as Mweihwei Mtm B
g jft (returning religion, because they turn to Mecca in prayer),
was founded in Arabia by Mahomet, in the VII^^ century of the
christian era. Part of its doctrine is borrowed from the Jewish
religion or from Catholicism, while other parts are due to the *
founder himself. Mahomedans came to China for the first time
in the IX^^ century, as traders. Some entered the country from
central Asia, while others arrived through the seaport towns of
Canton and Hangchow. Much of the science and arts of the
West was brought to China by them. In 1272, a Mussulman
observatory was established in Peking. In 1311, it is again
mentioned in Chinese annals, and lasted till 1622, when tiie
Jesuit, Adam Schall, was appointed President of the Board of
Mathematics. In 1645, the Mussulmans of Kashgar, Yarkand,
and Khotan, sent tribute to Peking. Mussulmans are found a4
present especially in the N.W. and 8.W. of China. In Shensi
Kl[ If, there are 4 millions, and in Kansu '^ Jfl, about 6
millions of them. In Yiinnan ^ ||f, they number from S to
4 millions. These three Provinces contain four-fifths of the whole
Moslem population of the country, which according to official
censuses reaches from 15 to 20 millions. Peking has 200,000
Mussulmans, who monopolize the inn and cart trade of fhe N.
Socially, they keep aloof from the Chinese, and do not intermarry
with pagans. In regard to religion, they have been treated by
China with the broadest toleration, and are eligible to all posts
in the State open to ordinary Chinese. The principal mosques
are found at Singan Fu, Nanking, Hangchow and Canton.
There have been several rebelljons of considerable impor-
tance by the Mahomedans against the Chinese government. AH
these troubles have grown out of the occupation of Kashgar by
China in 1760. The two principal uprisings are known as the
Tungan and Panttiay revolts.
) the TmtHHm rev9H broke out in Kansu in 1861. and was
I. '
'. caused by the Moslem aspiration to restore the Khoja dynasty.
The rebellion spread Westward, and extended to Hi and Eastern
Turkestan or Kashgaria. In 1871, Russia occupied Hi, and
CHAPTiR II. RiLieiora. 363
held it till 1881, when it was restored to China. In 1872, the
Chinese General Tso Tsungt*ang 2lc ^ ^) at the head of the
Imperialists, attacked the rebels, and took successively their
strongholds, at Hami, Urumtsi, Yarkand and Kashgar. The
revolt was finally crushed by the taking of Khotan, 3^^ Janvary,
1878. This Northern rebellion lasted 17 years, and exerted a
most depopulating effect upon the Empire. The number of those |
who were killed is estimated to be about 10,000,000. (a&e p. 31).
The BmtUhai^ rev9H originated in Yiinnan in 1856. The \
Lolos also joined in it. It was caused by local tyranny, the
success of the Mahomedans in gold-mining, and the ill-will and
treachery of the Chinese officials. The Mussulmans seized Tali
Fu« and in 1858, held the whole of Yiinnan, except the Capital.
In 1872, the Viceroy Ts6ng Kwohfan ^ 0 |§ and the Chinese
general, Yang Yuhk^o ;|| ^ ^, attacked and recovered Tali.
Relentless cruelty and wholesale massacres marked the victory.
Seventeen chieftains were beheaded^ 20,000 of the defenceless
people of the city put to the sword, and 24 large baskets full of
human ears sent to Yiinnan Fu. The Sultan's head was severed
from his body, and sent preserved in a jar of honey to Peking.
The Panthay rebellion lasted 16 years, and was well nigh
wresting Yiinnan from its allegiance to Peking. Like the North-
ern rebellion, it resulted in largely depopulating the Province
and ruining local industry. {8&e p. 174, 181 and 183).
¥■<■!■■■ — The Jewish religion is represented at present
in China, by a colony of about 400 Israelites, who are found at
K'aifung Fu f^ ^ Jif, capital of Honan fif |f| Province. They
are in a state of ignorance and poverty, and their creed has
almost died out in the midst of their heathen surroundings.
Their religion seems to have been introduced into China
at the close of the X^^ century, or even as late as the XII^^, if
we credit some stone tablets and inscriptions. The oral tradi-
tion of the colony states however, that their ancestors came to J
China under the »n|ier>r M4mgU ^ f^, of the Mmn g| dynasty, J
between A.D. 58 and A.D. 76, or perhaps even before the \
christian era.
4\ Educatim.
— In former times, Ohina properly speakiiig
had no educational system. Two principal forms of instructiotr
could however be distinguished, elementary and secondary.
MiemetUmrif Mm^rucNmu — This was imparted to childrm
within their families, by private pedagogues^ or by teachers in
small schools. These schools were seldom frequented by more
than 20 pupils. Parents and guardians were free to send their
children to school. There were no schools for girls, and their
education was generally neglected. Masters received lio salary
from the State, but the families of the pupils paid them a small
remuneration. No certificate or grade was required for teaching,
and no book or curriculum was compulsory. There was however
a selection of books and a programme imposed by tradition.
The child began by memorizing the Classics for 4 or 5 years.
During all this time the meaning of the characters was not
explained. There was no class-system, but each boy made a
class by himself. Play was unknown, and was considered a
waste of time. At the end of the 4 or 6 years' memorizing, an
explanation or translation of the book style was given in easy
language (m0 above, p. 347. n"" 1). This explains how a good
many Chinese can read the characters, but do n<^ understand
them, and are in fact illiterate. If the boy wished to proceed
a stage further, he was taught letter-writing and easy tempoei-
tion. This latter required little intelligence, being largely made up
of quotations, allusions, antithetical phrases and word-particles.
The whole system laboured under serious disadvantages,
resulted in a considerable waste of time and had no educational
value. The memory and imitative power were marvellously
develop'ped, but the mind was not stored with valuable ideas,
nor trained to precision or accuracy, and there was an otter
lack of originality.
Secondary JbuirueUmn. — This comprised beyond the pri-
mary stage a short course of Chinese literature, a smattering of
'..V. . GHAvrm ^ir. . . BauCATiw 365
history gleaned principally from the annals of ancient times, the
writing of literary essays, and some artificial verse making.
The curriculum being completed, the student could test his
proficiency, and compete at the Civil Examinations. These were
three in number, and in each of them a degree corresponding
to our B. A., M. A., L.^.D., was conferred upon successful
candidates.
The pTtH wmpHM^ eBoam4fnaN»n took place in the Prefec-
tunfd city. , The degree conferred was that of aiMU^mi H ^
(budding talent) or B.A.
The 99e9nd eoeamlfnaHon took place at the Provincial capital.
Successful candidates were styled J(ll#l» ^ \ (promoted scho-
lars) or M.A., also called Provincial graduates.
The IMr« MmHiMrflm was held at Peking ^ Hf,. The
degree obtained was that of XMimM |K db (entered scholar) or
L.L.p., also called Metropolitan graduate.
A large number of candidates competed at each of these
examinations, but only a small percentage was received. Thus
out of 12,000 or 20,000, who competed at the second examina-
tion held in each Provincial capital, the number received was
between 110 and 100. Again, out of 6,000, who underwent the
third examination in Peking, about 320 were received, or a
little over 5 per cent.
Before undergoing a superior examination, it was necessary
to hfive passed the preceding inferior one. There were however
spine exceptions through privilege. Several inferior degrees
coald be secured by purchase.
The second and third examinations were held but once
every tiiree years. Through privilege, or on the occasion of
Imperial rejoicing, they sometimes took place more frequently.
The exercises proposed at these examinations comprised
original poems and literary essays or WPntJummg ^ j|^ upon
texts selected from the Glassies. Each examination lasted
thnmgh several sessions or days, three for the B. A. and M. A.
degrees, and one for the L.L.D. degree.
Bach Province had a fixed number of admissions for the
S66 SICTiaif T. POLITICAL AMD BGONOIflC MOMAFHT.
M.A. and L.L.D. degrees. Those for the M.A. were as follows :
Ch^kUng
104
Kansn 40
Nganhwei
55
Chihli
280
Kumgsi 104
70
Fokien
100
KiAngBU 87
BhADtung
71
79
Kwftngsi 51
Shensi
50
HUBAD
56
Kwangtung 86
Ssecbw*ftn
80
Hapeh
57
Kweiohow 50
YUnnan
64
The number of those who effectively received the M.A.
degree in 1903, was however as follows:
Name
Chinese
M.A. Graduates.
M.A. Graduates.
Approx-
of the Provinces.
characters.
Chinese.
Manchus,
imated.
Chdkiang
mu
104
3
18
Chihli (Shunt*ien)
mmmic)
230
27
Pokien
«i
93
3
18
Honan
tm
?
Hunan
mm
57
9
Hupeh
«*
57
3
9
t«
42
6
Kiangsi
am
104
18
Kiangsu
am
92
3
14
Kwangsi
mn
51
9
Kwangtuog
mm
86
2
14
Kweichow
mm
50
8
Nganhwei
*m
50
8
Shansi
aim
70
12
Shantung
Ul»
74
13
Shensi
K«
53
8
Szechw'an
mn
94
II
Yfinnan
•m
'
Under the name of Manchn Ki*(^nAtes are comprised all Manchns, Mongols, and
Chinese Bannermen, or descendants of those Chinese who joined the Manchn dynasty
in the early part of the XVI1"» centary (aee above : Army. p. 329).
It may be seen from thin table that the number of admissions for each Province
does not always tally with that which has been previoofdy fixed. — An appro»iwatiMt
confers on the recipient no privilege for subsequent examinations.
The number of those who effectively secured the L.L.D.
degree in 1904, was as follows :
CHAHU II. BMMUTMN.
S67
ChAldang
20
Kiangsi
20
Shantnng 20
GhihU
22
KiangBU
25
Shensi 10
Pokien
18
Kwangsi
10
Szeohw*au 18
HoDan
17
Kwangtung
16
YUnnan 10
Hunan
13
Kweiohow
10
Manohn Bannermen 8
Hupeh
IS
Nganhwei
15
Manohoria 2
Kansu
7
Shansi
10
The session for obtaining this degree lasted from 15 to 20 days.
It is from the ranks of M.A. and L.L.D. graduates that
officials are generally recruited. The grade however confers
no substantive office or appointment, but paves the way to sub-
sequent official preferment.
Most of the Prefectural cities have two IHteetPrB €f JUmtm
$km, styled UwM^^M # ff or Ktoaiwwwi |f[ H.
The Trovinolai Bmmmltt^BrB are generally officials of high
literary rank, who are appointed from IVMnir to serve for 3
years in this capacity. They are called Wittlmhthh^ # 0[,
vulgo M&lmhtmi 4^ ]|[, or Provincial Literary Chancellors.
Each Province has one Provincial Examiner, who resides gene-
rally in the Capital of that Province.
Sj«tom •TlMfaMttttoB. — In the year 1902, new
regulations were sanctioned by the Emperor, with the purpose
of reforming the old system of public instruction avowedly
insufficient, and inadequate to the requirements of the present
day. In accordance with the same regulations, Betltntf ift Hf.
was to have a Owiwiislly teaching the following branches : civil
administration, law, literature, science, agriculture, industry,
commerce and medicine. To the University were also to be
attached a TeekmAtal CMegm for teaching superior branches,
JftwuWes^ a rr^fmwwMry Cowrae^ and a ^Meioi Diporimaia/br
Uke traHmMng ^ ^ffieUUs amd ^ ieaehers for government schools.
Subsequently another Imperial decree, dated September 2^^
1905, abolished, beginning from the year 1906, the old-style
programme and method of examinations, as well as the annual
competitions in the Provinces for the obtaining of degrees.
The great power and wealth enjoyed by Western countries, the
ma
TV IctdfMrji^ '» » iiuirt 4fe«ea. if a* ^
Grm^f^ liirUm^
jtc—
i — rii—ij ■rEliMifij SAc
4^HlghSeft«»A»
4
3
: Sflr4
ElMMMtefJ Sti«M4ft «« to l« 4
Hi«rli#*T PnaMXT in Uac- District t4i«ikft or 8«b fgkciim».
Miidlfr fklM^i ia tW Pfrftctwal ritiML
Hafiai 4cbo«lt in rrcrr Pfv\innal cafiiAL
nta Vmrenitj mod TeHuucal Ccilktw ar^ to bf r|w«f4 id P«ti^.
Tl^c- ftodj erf f*/rmgn loRgmmpt* v e^^ttmllj Dot Allcm-«>d in e^rtDftttory vrbooln,
lArt It ^oKifinH V> tJMr Middk- Mid Hi|!b Sr booU. Efi^^th and Jap*imrw aiv to be piin-
«!rf«ll): «todifid, vbilc Fnmcii, G^rvun and Basnan an- optkmaL
Tbe Vuirenaty it to ka\«' ci^t Famltif^ divided iiito 16 brandtea.
candidaUfi arr* aa folkmii.
• Tbe di«reM to be eonfeiv^d «poQ joewarful
i^hi complKini^ tbe Higbcr Piimafy Coorae
tbe Middle Ooorae
„ the Hif^ Goarae
„ the Univenity Gonrae
„ the Technical CoIU^ Courae
B.A.
Piatif^niahed B Jk
L-LD.
i T.C.LLJ>. or
{ IXKlorofibe
f Technical Colli«i
CBAiriK II. IDUCATION. 369
I and Special Sclioola. -^ Besides the ftbove-mentioned Schools, there
are Also Lower And Higher Normal Schcgola ; ^ IttdusiricU SchoOl$ (agricultnx^ and
manufactures) ; — and Commercial SchooU. The Industrial Schools are divided into
three grades, lower, middle and higher.' The Normal Schools are devoted to the
training of teachers for the Industrial and Commercial Schools.
.£^^ ( . Koseover, there is to be at Peking a special course for th» new LX.!). graduates,
. , a. preparatory department for the University ^during the first years)^ and a special
school for translating foreign works,
• '''-' '' In future, OfElcials will be selected .from amongst those who have I'eceived a
:. modem education. In Kaval and Military Schools, Foreign Instructors are generally
employed. In the Government Schools of Chihli and Hupeh, the Foreign Teachers are
mostly Japanese.
The Government sends a large number of students abroad, especially to Great
Britain, the United-States, France, Germany and Belgium. Of late, many have found
their way to Japan. In July 1906, the number of them studying in the Universities
of this latter country attained 18,000, half of whom were maintained at Government
expense.
During the year 1906, the new system has been carried out with praiseworthy
efforts. Officials^and geiftry vied with each other in establishing Schools, elementary
and technical, but the pratical results are comparatively small. Lack of funds, and
especially of competent teachers, proves a great hindrance to real progress.
Adminiiitration of tbe Sclioolm — The administration of these Schools is to
be conducted as follows :
1** A Board of Education in Peking. This will be composed of High Literary
Officials.
'T A Provincial Bureau^ with a special Staff for each Province.
8^ A Local Educational Bureau, to which will be admitted leading members of
the gentry of the place.
• 4^ A Provincial Examination Bureau, for examining and conferring degrees on
candidates from the Middle and High Schools.
5^ A Metropolitan Examination Bureau, for examining and conferring degrees
on University candidates.
Primary education is granted free of cost, and is not compulsory. A tuition, fee
itf td be paid for all other grades, except in Normal Sshools, where the expenses are
defrayed by the Government, but students must engage to teach during a period of six
years in the State Schools.
The programme and moral tone of the Government Schools are exclusively Con-
:. 'fueianiBt^ and the teacbing of foreign religions is prohibited.^
Prhraie and lllBflioii Schools. — Numerous private Schools have been ,
opened in the large towns and other important centres, by the local gentry, and by
leading merchants. Mission schools and colleges are also nuTnerous throughout the coun-
try, Roman Catholic predominating. The Shanghai Catholic Mission has a University,
a College and Industrial School at Sicawei, 5 miles from Shanghai, and maintains, in and
around Shanghai, 50 other schools, with an attendance of .S,750 pupils. The Protestants
have Universities at Peking, Nanking, Shanghai and Soochow, and several Colleges
and Schools throughout the Empire. — All these Schools offer opportunities for
general CQlture, and tend to develop an enlightened and useful citizen. Their aim is to
370 8ICTI0N T. MLinCAI. AND BGOMOillG MOftBAPBT.
bring up "Young China** at home, and give a thorough Uterary, scientific and practical
wluoation. Instruction ia given in both Western and Chinese languages.
OMMltyle Mlltlarj ITiaMhiatli— — These examinations oompriaed IHdb
th« civil ones thrve sessions. The first was awarded the title of MiUia/rff B.A. at
Wu SiuU'ai K 9 1*. the second that otJrilitoryjr.il. or Wu KUjin tt9A»
and the third, that of JTili/ary X. X. i>. or IFm Ttintki A S ±. little knowledge of
if^tt^^rs however was required of the candidate. T6 pass successfully, he waa to be
above all a man of muscle, and show it in the lifting of heavy weights, swctdmanahip
and skiU in archery.
The number of graduates was fixed for each Province. The aggregiate lor the
whole Kmpirv was 99S military B JL. s. and 128 mHitaiy L.Ti.D. s.
It was fr>>m the ranks of successful candidates that mHilaiy ofBcera wen neatly
recruited. Having scarcely any knowledge of letleim, of tactioB, gnnneiy, engiiiecKiDg
or foriifk-ationsi they w«iv generally little esteemed by the people.
The abov>» old-style of examinaiion is now abolished, and the New Anny is
drilled^ armed and disciplined in foreign style. Soldiering is bemming mora rriwsiiBUhl,
and eveiy endeavour madeto organise a national aimy {wmm above; Ansy. pu 3B-38).
O^' THE CmSBSB PEOPLE,
osi<?iy, Fx^rvutTios. social life xxd csjleactemistics.
li» C^isrcy — L ^r:^ ire Jh£ yCisec Fsrs^
Wve^'^iMivlteei F <— La Kf«eo>ra3d.*c:
Iisei>in T m. - i^ti::=A rz Lnw aai
v>atatti<cw. N*w-\jck. ISI^ P^ysacal
FVMkS%:M«» ss»i \.V^;3z». CH I ^. :>3S.
L.*»d»u :>«fl^ r^h^aLasKy EssucF I?' I&aacy. Ch. IL U>4i^: ]
«*• EL fw ^-94.
»«T 50vk : Oh. I ?. :^. 3*.wi» T^ IXp. :
•^ C%e«wae«imm — I*s OuLaHn Mmfiute Oux^ie Sii^usiita^. ~ Fq,
Wto^^r Ik-^TiA'Sr* i.sjojr?nii«;. S^litta *r.
?r(itli«eMn{qH« ;f« 2iaSLm{inMi. H^^ ]
'CHAVTBR n. ' POPULATION.
371
y SmiUi A. — Bstimftting the Pepulfttion
of Ghinft. Recorder. Shanghai, 1893. (Vol.
XXIV. p. 2980).
-^ Parker E. H — Population and Bevenne
of China. (Otia Mersiana. 1899).
Chinese Bepository. — Virtues and Vioes
of the Chinese. (Vol. IX. p. 284-288).
81 r H. O. ~ China and the Chinese.
London, 1849. (National Character and
Vioes. Vol. n. Ch. XV. p. 419^25).
1¥llliaBaMi.»The Middle Kingdom. New-
Tork, 18ei. (Lights and Shades of Chinese
Character. Vol. U. Ch. XIV. p. 95-99>.
Ije^enclre IK A. F. — Deux Ann^s au
Setchonen. Paris, 1906. (L'Ame Chi-
noise. Ch. XUV. p. 433-474).
Hoolittle J. — Social Life of the Chinese.
New- York, 1867.
SmiUi A. — Chinese Characteristics. New-
Tork. S>« edition. 1908.
Smtth A. — Village Life in China. New-
York, 1903.
Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Characteristics of the Chinese
People, p. 157-167).
PartLer B. H. — China : Her History, Di-
plomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(Personal Characteristics. Ch. XIV. p.
260-279).
Kraoflse A. — The Far East. London,
1903. (Character of the Chinese, p. Vyjn
109; 185-137).
Parker E.H. — John Chinaman. London,
1901.
Doaclaa Sir R. — Society in China.
London, 1895. (Village Communities. —
Mechanics and Merchants.— Filial Piety
and the Position of Women. — Marriage.
-!- Food and Dress. — Amusements).
M" J. -> Chinese Scenes an4
People. London, 1863.
Winterliothn m. — View of the Chinese
Empire. London, 1795. (Manners and
Customs of the Chinese. Ch. VIII. p.
864-398).
Holcomb. — The Beal Chinaman.
Lay T. — The Chinese as they are. Lon-
don, 1841.
OheDS Kiianff. — The Chinese painted
by Themselves. Eng. Edition by J. Mi|-'
lington. London, 1885.
Bard E. — Les Chinois chez qux, Paris,
1900.
Coamiit M. — En Chine : MoBurs et Ins-
titutions, Hommes et Faits. Paris, 1901.
Leboocq. — Lev Associations en Chine.
Paris, 1880.
Pol Hori^an. — Chinois e# Chin^iiseries.-
Paris, 1902.
EionB* — Politesse Chinoise. Chang-hai,
1906.
Boaa^ P. ~ Le Mariage Chinois. Chang-
hai, 1898.
Oobbold R. H. — Pictures of the Chinee^
drawn by Themselves. Ix)ndon, 1880.
Marilna R. F. — Manners and Customs
of the Chinese at Macao. Shanghai, 1877.
Le CVmipte L. — Memoirs and Observa-
tions made in a Journey through th%
Empire of China. London, 1697. (Of the
peculiar Character of the Chinese Na-
tion, its Manners, its good and bad
Qualities. Letter V. p. 119-149. — Of the
particular Character of the "Wit and
Temper of the Chinese. Letter VIII. p.
209-240).
Jonea A.G.— Desultory Notes on Chinese
Etiquette. (Recorder. Shanghai, 1906).
ABORIGINAL BA0E8 OF CHINA.
Da Halde. — Description of the Empire
of China. London, 1738. (Sifans, Lolos,
Hiaotse. Vol. I. p. 2S-34).
Oroatof . — General Description of China.
London, 1795. (Sifans, Lolos, Miaotze.
Vol. L Oh. V. p. 208-222).
IVInlerliollMUB. ~ View of the Chinese
Empire. London, 1795. (Tribes subjected
to the Chinese. Ch. UI. p. 144-148).
Vial P. — Les Lolos : Histoire, Beligion,-
MoBurs, Langue, Ecriture. Chang-hai,
1896.
Vial P. — L*Esprit et le CoDor chez les
Lolos. (Annales des Missions-Etrang^res.
Paris, 1905. p. 129 sq.).
Deblenne. — Baces de la Chine Mdridlo-
nale. (Mission Lyonnaise. Lyon, 1888.
p. 347-386).
Les Pan-y, les I-jen, lesTou-jen. (Missions
Cathdiques, 1877-1878).
OralMMilllel.— Les Lolos du Setch*ouan.'
(Missions Oath. 1873. p. 71-72; 95-98;
105-107).
372
SECTION y. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC eSOaBAPHT.
Be Harto^ — L'Bthnognphie dn Midi
de la Chine.
Oftvalerie. ^ Chez les Choay-kia. (An-
Dales dee Misdona-Etrangires. 1899. p.
101107).
Les Miaotse et les Tohong-kia. — ( Annales
des MissionB-Etraiig^res. 1904. p. SS^
S57).
Mom tf'Afliy. — - Bxounion dans le Pays
Chan Chlnois. Chang-hai, 1900.
UfitaWL — Les A-D}h et les Lon-Oo.
(Annales des Missions Etrangfcres. 1901.
p. 74 sq.).
Mtooires oonoemant les Chinois. — (Tome
XIV. p. 127. Les Si-fan).
The Non-Chine?e Races of Chinese. —
(Natoie. 1888. VoL XXXVni. p. 845-
846).
Opcfmfl W. ■. — The Wild men of Sse-
chw'an. (Recorder, Shanghai. Vol. XXni-
475-478).
fflnifi^ni T. W. — The Aboriginal Tri-
bes on the S.W. Frontier of China.
(China Review. Vol. XXV. p. 108-109).
Parker B. M. ~ China : Her History,
Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(Mantle : Marco Polo's Manxi. Ch. DL
p. 187. — Shans of Tfinnan. Ch. VI. p.
129).
Ferker K. ■. ~ Lolos. (China Review.
Vol. XVIII. p. 56).
PlayCalr G. M. — The Miaotse of Kwei-
chow and Ttinnan. (China Review. Vol.
V. p. 92-108. This notice contains the
names of 42 Sab-tribes. The Chinese
writer states they are in all aboat 70).
OI*rk G. W. — Kweichow and Y&nnan
Provinces. Shanghai, 1891. (Aborigtital
Tribes of Kweichow : Miaotse. p. i:^
156. — The Minkia vocabnlary. p. ZifZ).
Oiark G. W. — The Aboriginal Tribes
of W. Yunnan. Shanghai, 1885.
Oi»rk & S. — The Miao and Chnngkia
Tribes of Kweichow. (East of Asia Maga-
aine. Shanghai, 1901. p. 193-207).
BridCnaaB- C ^ Sketches of the Miao-
tse. (N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1859. p. 257-
286).
WlUiMue S. W.* Notices of the Miaotse.
(Chinese Repository. XIV. p. 105-115).
Lecskhari W. - On the Miaotse or Abori-
gines of China. (Transact, of the Ethno-
graphical Soc. of London. 1861. p. 177-
185).
GniveeS.S.— The Miaotse. (Recorder.
Vol. UI. p. 265-267).
Irtlii— J. — History of the Miaotso TM-
bes. (Recorder. VoL m. p. 88-96 ; 74-76.
— Vocabnlary of the Miao Dialects, ibid,
p. 96^99; 131-137; 147-149).
The Miaotse. — Recorder. VoL X. p. 385-
387.
The Miaotse of Szeohw'an. — Racorder.
Vol. XXni. p. 475-478.
Henry A.~ The Lolos of Western China.
Part I. p. 96-107).
Beber B. C — A Joomey of Kzploimiion
in W. Ssechw'an. London, 1882. (Loloa,
Sifans, lisns, Moens. p. 58-102. — Voca-
bnlary of SUun and Lolo languages, p.
73-78. — Lolo writing and charaoters. p.
126-127. — Ijen and Mantse. p. 1UM23).
■eeie A.— Three Tears in W. China. Lon-
don, 1890. (Miaotse Houses and Women.
Ch. III. 88-40. — In the coontxy of the
Lolos. Ch. VI. p.l02-lll.~Lolo and Sifim
languages. Ch. VI. p. 104-106. — The Pho
or Black Miaoe — Bxerdses in the Pho
language. Ch. XIH. p. 224-238).
W&Um G. B. — Social Life of the Miaotze.
(N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1900. VoL XXXHI.
p. 84-104).
The Miaotse of Canton. — Chinese Repo-
sitory. VoL XIV. p. 1<».117.
MsK^SewMi J. ^ Notes on the Ch^ldang
Miaotze. (N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1869. p. 123-
128).
The Aboriginal Ti-ibes ot 3. W. China, in
the time of the Han Dynasty. B. C. 140-
186. — China Review. (Vol XXV. p. 103-
109).
CUiide. ~ Notice Ethnogn^hique snr 1
principales races indigtoes de la (Sii. o
m^dionale. 1902.
The old Thai or Shan Empire of Western
Yannan. — China Review. Vol. XX. p.
337-^6.
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SBCnON y. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIC GBO0RAPHT.
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CHAPTBR II. RBLiaiONS.
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De^Ha G. — Musulmans et Manichdens
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London, 1848. Bdncation. (Ch. VI. p. 108-
114).
Oimwihl^ O. — Wanderings in China.
London4900XCompetitive Examinations,
Literary Degrees. Oh. XXXIV. p. 408-
413).
Jeml^aD T. It — China's Business Me-
thods. Shanghai, 1904. (Educational Sys-
tem of China, p. 201-218).
EncyclopoBdia Britannica. — Education in
China, p. 23.
Maoklin W.E.— The Triennial Examin*
ations in China. East of Asia Magazine.
(Vol. n. p. 372-375).
Smith A. ^ The School System of China.
East of Asia Magazine. (Vol. HI. p. MO).
Education among the Chinese. — Chinese
Repository. (Vol. IV. p. 1-10).
Literary Examinations in China. — Chinese
Repository. (Vol. IV. p. 118-185).
History of Instruction in China.— Chinese
Repository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 67-86).
Parker E. H. — Educational Curriculum
of the Chinese. China Review. (Vol. IX.
p. 1-13).
Adfttfl O. S. — Education in China. China
Review. (Vol. XVm. p. 205-212).
Chinese School-books. — China Review.
(Vol. XX. p. 35-41 ; 101-108).
Mateer O. W. — Chinese Education. Re-
corder. (Vol. XIV. p. 463-469).
Eltel E. J. — Address on Education 1895.
Recorder. (Vol. XXVI. p. 324-330).
Fer^iMKNi J. O. — Chinese Education,
Past, Present and Future. Recorder.
(Vol. XXVin. p. 329-335).
sues M. L. — A Study in Pedagogy. Re-
corder. (Vol. XXXV. p. 245-256).
Chang CSilioii^ (Viceroy of Hunan and
Hupeh).— "Learn" (translated by Wood-
bridge). Recorder. (Vol. XXIX and XXX).
Pitcher L. W. — The New Education in
China. Recorder. 1850. (Vol. XX. p. 305-
310; 345-348; 403-410).
Tenney O. D. — English in Chinese Edu-
cation. Recorder. (Vol. XX. p. 469-471).
Fer^awm J. O. — Higher Education in
China. Recorder. (Vol. XXIII. p. 149-
157 ; 556-563. Vol. XXIV. 7-12).
Present Educational Needs of China. —
Recorder. (Vol. XXVII. p. 242-248).
Educational Reconstruction in Peking. —
Recorder. (Vol. XXXn. p. 619-628).
192
Bicnaii y. politicai. and BccmoMic gboorafht.
Japanese Edaoational Inflaenoe in China.
— Recorder, 1905. (Vol. XXXYI. p. 857-
861. — idem. p. 628).
Ten W. W. ^Chinese Students in Japan.
East of AsU Magazine. (Vol. IV. p. 194-
196).
Ten W. W. — The Retnmed Student.
East of Asia Magazine. (V<d. UI. p. 8:^
45).
I^ron W.^A Phase of the New Education.
(Development of the military spirit).
Bast of Asia Magazine. (Vol. IV. p. 818-
aao).
Lewis. — The Educational Conquest of
the Far East. New- York, 1908.
Gee N. 6. — The Educational Directory
for China. Shanghai, 1905. I
The Recent Imperial Metropolitan Examin- 1
ations held on the H^ and 16^ October
1906. - Recorder 1907. (Vol. XXXVUI.
p. 34-89. Themes proposed, Examiners,
Successful Candidates).
The Recent Imperial Bfdtepolitan Examin-
ations for Returned SWents.— (World*s
Chinese Students' Journal. December,
1906. p. 2-4).
Education in Chihli (Schools and Curricu-
lum). — The World's Chinese Students'
Journal. Shanghai. September 1906. —
Prominent Foreign Educated Chinese,
(ibid. p. 15-28, and December, p. 18-21).
Lee S. K. — The Educational Problem
and the Adoption of Kuan-hua as the
National Language of China. (The World's
Chinese Students' Journal. September
1906. p. 7-lS).
CHAPTER III.
AGBICULTUBE.
China is essentially an agricultural country. More than tv^o
thirds of the inhabitants are cultivators of the soil.
Ohinase acrleulimre. — A striking feature of Chinese
agriculture is that cattle-breeding and the planting of trees are
almost entirely neglected. There are no large herds of cattle or
flocks of sheep, as are found in other countries, no natural or arti-
fical meadov^s, and the v^oods or forests are not thinned. The only
pasture'lands are the slopes of mountains, which cannot be used
for any other purpose; the only forests, those which have grown
spontaneously in high and uncultivated places. Even these latter,
which are seldom met with, except in Hummn jMlR^ Fi>kien Hit
and KweUkaw jH f^, are disappearing rapidly. The consequence of
this lack of foresight is that China is almost destitute of firewood^
and has to import timber at heavy cost from distant countries.
The only fmlUvaied viaeea are the hnttnms of na/,/fi|tf . and
the plains. In the richer and more thickly populated districts,
mountains are however utilized, and the slopes are sometimes
terraced even to the top of lofty hills.
Cultivation voHes with the nature of the soil, the altitude,
irrigation^ and climate. Biee for instance, thrives in the N* of
Kmmm "g* jfl, but does not grow in KUmgpeh iL^ or Nmrthem
Klangeu {t ft* Some plants cannot be raised beyond a certain
latitude. 2\m does not grow in the valley of the Hwang^ho % fif,
and the sugar-cane is rarely found beyond the Southern bank of
the Yangtze H f. The bananOf paim and Uchi ^ j^ trees bear
fruit only in the South.
The f&mmber of ermps also varies with different regions. In
I iff there is generally but one crop; 4n the Cernire^ two or three.
394 ncTum t. political akd iconoinG eioeftAFHT.
while 4mthe &, especially in the (ow plain of the Si-kiang |f tt
or West River, three are generally raised.
The meUkmdB applied have not yet got beyond the moai ruOi-
meniarp Mmge^ and improvements arrived at in oiker countries
are but little knovm. Jriiploiwawfj are rough and imperfect, the
manuring is insufficient, and the rotation of crops scarcely ever
carried out. There are no machines for thrashing the com, and the
rice^leaning and cotton'-ginning instruments are most primitive.
There are nm roads on w/itc/i horses or buffaloes can bring home
the crops. The small, vfeak plough does its vtfork but superficially.
If the soil produces an abundant harvest^ this is entirely owing
to its fertility and the patient labour of the husbandman.
In the great N&riherm piain, the thmngecMe dhairaibUir of
the weaiher renders the harvest verp uHeeriain* Drought, rain
or floods, often destroy the fruit of long and toilsome labour. In
the Central tmd Southern regiono, the harvest is ieoa
IMairffltattoai •C ermpm. — In the great Northern
wheat, barley, millet^ buckwheat and maize are the siapie
In the Fropltncea ef the Vpi^er Bwamg^ho JK ^, rice (but
only in some districts), rhubarb, the poppy, tobacco and fruit"
trees are chiefly cultivated.
In the Central Brovinees are found rice, tea, cotton, the
Chinagrass plant or ramie fibre, the poppy, mulberry, varnish,
lacquer and tallow trees. The silkworm is also reared in this
region.
In the Souih'Baetem FroHneet are found the sugar-cane,
rice, the groundnut and cinnamon. The silkworm also abounds.
In the SmUhrWeetem Trovtneeo, the poppy is cultivated,
and also tea, tobacco, rice, wheat, maize and barley.
Tartoas asHewlteiml protfneto •r CUn a.
Fkmts euMwMted /or food. — By these are meant all those
products which man uses for his food. In CMnoy the following
are principally found : riee, wheat, btuieg, mUlet, poiatoee, peas,
bea/ns^ and a great variety of leguminous and aquatic plants.
Btee, called in Chinese taomi fg ^» is the staple product
and food of the country. Two Mnde of it are chiefly cultivated :
CHAPTBE III. AmiGULTURB. 395
one which grows only in water, and the other, or rtd Hm^
cultivated on the uplands. It generally requires 4 months before
a crop of rice can be harvested.
JPtonto uMitfecl i&k indusiri^m — By these are meant all those
that must first undergo some process of transformation before
they are fit for use by man. Some of these, he uses to supply
him with drink. Among them, we may mention wine* In China,
this is made from the fuiee of the grape^ but in small quantity.
A special kind of spirit is obtained from rice and nUOei* TeooMe
ptaeUe are transformed into cloths. These plants abound in
China, the principal being the eoUonrpUnUf hemp, the CMimi-
ttraee-piatU or ramie fibre (Boehmeria nivea). 8Uk is also used
for clothing, but mostly by the richer classes. Fkiper is made
from the puip of the bamboo, and cords from its fibres, as well
as from those of the palm-tree. The aii of the country is obtained
from rape, coOon'eeed and groundnute. The most extensively
cultivated of all these plants are the tea and eoUan shrubs, the
the bamboo and the poppy plant. The leaves of the
are much esteemed, and are used throughout the
country for feeding the silkworm.
Tea is the general beverage of the Chinese people. The
iea^piant or ctH'a Iff^ {see above : p. 226), is chiefly cultivated in
the following Provinces : .FMWan |B |t, Nt^nhwei ^ ^^
Kianaei fL H, Hupeh ffH ft, Hunan ^ ^, Seeeh^an |S J\\
and Yunnan ^ ^. A highly esteemed kind, called F'ueui ^
19 iea, is cultivated in this latter Province [eee p. 180). The
tea crop is gathered 3 times a year. The first, which consists
of the tender sprouts of the shrub, furnishes the best and most
delicate teas. The greater part of the crops is consumed in the
country, while part is exported to foreign countries. The chief
export towns are Bdnl^ow ^ P in Hupeh m 4t i St^onghai J:
m in Kiangsu flQ fl, Hangchow i$i % \n Ch^kiang fH it, Fmh
chow |g ;H| in Fokien |B |^, and Oanion or Kwangchow Fu J|
^ Jj^ in the Province of Kwangtung JJ ||[. Of late years, Chinese
tea has not been so well prepared as €fegian and Indian teas,
hence its export has much decreased. The leaves when gathered
396 SSGTibN y. political and SG0N<Hf1C OBOORAPHY.
are prepared in four difTerent ways, thus producing the following
kinds : btackf green^ brick and dugt teas. Brick tea is mostly
forwarded to Siberktf MongoHa and Bncsia, vi& Kiakhta and
Tientsin ^|^, and to Tibet, via Hank*ow ^ P . The other kinds of
leaf-tea are exported principally to Gfr«ol BHfaIn and the VhitcdF'
aUMicsp the Continental, countries being largely coffee-drinkers.
The piypy pimU or yingsuh ^ m (jar-seed, so called
from the jar-like shape of the capsules) was grown in China
at an early date for ornamental purposes. Its medicinal pro-
perties became known by Mahomedan merchants {see p. 36?)^
who entered the country through Central Asia, and through
\ Canton. Opium'sm^Mng was introduced from Java and For-
1 mosa in the early part of the XVIII*^ century. The first edict
against the habit was issued in 1729. The cuMvitHign of the
poppy, for the sake of its extract, began in China about 1830,
^and developed rapidly. It is chiefly grown in the following
Provinces : inkmum H ^, Kweichmv J| ^, SKeehu^an Q j||,
Kaneu -^ H, 8kenei (^ H, SkauM [Ij If, SkaHtuNg ii| ]K,
HonoH PI ^, Nortk Kimngeu {L ^. and CkiMmtg ^ fL. It is
less extensively cultivated in the other Provinces. It has been
estimated that there are 25 or 30,000,000 opium smokers in
China. Its abuse by rich and poor has injured and beggared
the country. To remedy the evil. His Majesty Kwanghsii has
issued September 20^^, 1906, an edict, directing that the growth,
sale and consumption of opium cease within 10 years, and
ordering that the Government prepare measures for carr3ring
out the Imperial Will. These measures have been subsequently
drawn up and sanctioned by the Throne. They may be summed
up as follows : 1® the cultivation of the poppy to be restricted
annually by one-tenth of its present area; 2* all persons using
it to be registered; 3® all shops selling opium to be closed
gradually, and all places where opium is smoked will have to dis-
continue this practice within six months; A® anti-opium societies
will be officially encouraged. Moreover, all officials are requested
to set an example to the people. Those over sixty will be
treated leniently, but all under this age must abandon the habit
CHAPTBA III. AGRlCULTUaS. 397
within six months, and if they cannot do so, they must withdraw
from the service of the State. Some Viceroys have already
enforced these regulations within their respective juridictions.
Great Britain has been approached by China, in regard to the
gradual importation of Indian opium, while the other Powers
have been requested to co-operate in the solution of this whole-
some reform.
The Mfpor-oirtitf^ called in Chinese kaneht '^ J|[, is prin-
cipally cultivated in the Provinces of Kwangtung H j)[, jPMien
IB tt and a^eehu/an |E] j||. The methods employed for the
manufacture of sugar are still very primitive. Several foreign
sugar refineries have also been established, and are doing good
business. The greater part of the sugar is despatched to
Himgkimg^^^ (m0 p. 286), whence it is re-exported into China.
The cHUmrpUinif or mietiMta-tlhu % '/^ ||f, is chiefly
grown in Kiangtu {t jH, NffmhhwH ^ ]|||, and Hupeh fgH ;f^
Provinces. The seed is sown in May, and the crop gathered in
September. The down or floss is of two colours, icrMto and yM^w.
The white kind is the more widely cultivated, and also the more
lasting, while the yellow is shorter, and much less esteemed.
IJaefU trees. — China abounds in useful trees sought
after for their timber, or prized for their industrial properties.
The principal of these are the g%amr4ac tree or ts'ihtzc-shu ^
^tf« ^h® vttrnUh'tree or t'ungtze-shu #|^i[|f, the iaU9w<ree
or kiientze-shu ^g ^ flj*, the waoD-tree or pehlah-shu j^ Ml W«
the eamph^r^iree or chang-shu ^ Hf , the •ooy-irgg or tsao-
kioh-chu J^ H tf « and the palm-tree or tsung-shu f^ Hf .
The imiiiiirry-<rgg» or mmg-shu ff^ |^, is cultivated for its
leaveSt which serve for rearing the silkworm. It is found prin-
oipally ia the Provinces of Kiamgmu XL H, ChHOamg ^ {£, and
amBchmfam R jl|.
A special kind of silkworm feeds on the leaves of the wild
oak in the Provinces of Kweichow j|; f\^ Honan ^ |f|, and
Shantung |Ij %.
(China is one of the principal silk-producing countries. Its
produce alone attains 27*/, of the total amount consumed by
398 SECTION T. POLITICAL AMD ECONOMIC eEOGEAPHT.
foreign countries. Of this, 18 7« comes from the N., and 7*/^^ from
the 8. of China. As to the remainder of the world's silk, Italy
furnishes 25*/o, Japan 28 7^, and the other countries 20 ^o)*
Here, we may also add the tetntoo or chuhtze fj* ^, which
embellishes the Chinese landscape and homestead, and may be
called the naUonaipUmi. Native botanists reckon sixty varieties
of it« all applied to numerous domestic and industrial purposes.
Its tender shoots are used for food, its roots are transformed
into canes, its tapering culms supply poles and masts, or are
made into tables, stools, chopsticks, pipes, umbrellas, fans,
and even musical instruments.
— The principal fruit-bearing trees are : the
peach (t'ao-shu i|^ W) ^"^ pear-trees (li-shu ^ j^), the aprieoi
(hsing-shu :^ W)t the appie (p4nkwo-shu ;|j| || f^) and phtm^
treee (litze-shu ^ ^ 10*), the orfttcfiM-iree (wumei-shu ^ fjl^
^), the m^mae (kOhtze-shu ;|R ^ m), J^fMe (tsao-shu |K W)
and btmana (patsiao-shu |F H 91), the Ueh4 (^ ig[), the
pine'€fppie (polo-shu ^ H Hf), the mango'^ree (mangku-shu
^ 1& tlf)i the vine (p'ut'ao-shu ^ 1$ Ig^), eheetmU (lihtze-shu
H 7 91) and walkmMfreee (hoht'ao-shu ^ tl 9f), the per-
Hmmen (shitze j^ ^. Diospyrus kaki), the medlar or iegguai
(lukiih Ift ;R, pronounced in Cantonese lukwat, i.e. rush-orange).
This fruit is also called p^a (i|;]£ i[C pronounced bibo in the
Shanghai dialect), or Mwa {aee p. 18).
]>»iiie8tlc anlmala. — The principal domestic animals
are : the horse, ass, mule, water-buffalo, dog, cat, rabbit, pig,
goat, sheep, hen, duck, goose and pigeon. In the N., the camel
is also employed as a beast of burden {eee p. 17).
Szechw'an Q J\\ and Kweichow j|; ^ produce the best
breed of ponies. They are also imported in great numbers from
Mongolia.
Plflcloultare. ^ In some parts of China, principally in the low valley of the
Yangtze t| f, the spawn and fry of fish are gathered, and oast into the rivers and
lakes. A little yolk of egg, bean-grael, or ohopped grass, afford at first sufficient food.
The fish grow rapidly, and form a considerahle extra to the diet of the people.
Fishing is extensively carried on in the rivers, and along the coast, and for-
niflhea millions with a means of subsistence (see p. 17)*
CHAPTIR III. AeaiCULTUAB.
399
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plantes, fleurs et arbres de la Chine. Vol.
XI. p. 188-268).
Parker B. fl. — Chinese Account of the
Opium War. Shanghai, 1888.
MoirtBoaaerjMarlfeiB.— China.London,
1847. (Opium : Progress and extent of
consumption.— Individual and National
effects. — Denounced by the Chinese
Government. « Unchristian conduct of
England. Vol. II. Ch. IV. p. I7^2C2).
l^lrr H. O. — China and the Chinese.
London, 1849. (Opium : consumption
and cultivation in China. — Religious
and Moral obligation of England. Ch.
Xn. p. 251-280).
MecBraral W. fl.^The Foreigner in Far
Cathay. London, 1872. (Opium-smoking.
Ch. IX. p. 84-88).
TkoDMmi J. — The Land and the People
of China. London, 1876. (Evil effects of
Opium. Ch. VI. p. 145-150).
Turner F. S.— British Opinm Policy and
its Results to India and China. London,
1876.
IHMlBeofi J. — The Evils of the use of
Opium. (Annual Reports of the Peking
Hospital).
Bdkliia J.— Historical Note on the Poppy
in China. Shanghai, 1898.
Ballbar F. fl. — Waifs and Strays from
the Far East. London, 1876. (Opium.
Ch. xn. p. 109-112).
CHAPTER III. AaaiGULTORB.
401
Thelwttll A. S.^Iniquities of the Opium
trade with China. London, 1S39.
Williams.— The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Opium trade. —Mode of
cultivating the Poppy. — Preparation of
Opium. — Prohibited by China. Vol. II.
Ch. XX. p. 381-396).
Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Opium. — Evil results from
Opium- smoking, p. 488-497).
Park W. U. — Opinion of over 100 Phy-
sicians on the use of Opium in China.
Shanghai, 1899.
Day H. — The Opium Habit. New- York,
1872.
Hart E. — On the Use of Opium in India.
London, 1894.
Ouraon 6. N. — Problems of the Far East.
London, 1896. (The Opium i)nostion.
Ch. IX. p. 283).
Martin IK E. — L'Opium : ses Abus ;
Mangeurs et Fnmeurs d^Opium. Paris,
1898. (L'Opium en Chine. Ch. IIMV).
lilieniiaiBi D' H.— Les Fnmeurs d*Opium
en Chine. Paris, 1862.
The Customs Opium-smoking Returns. —
Recorder. (Vol. XIII. and XIV. passim).
The Spread of Morphia in China. — Recor-
der. (Vol. XXXI. p. 266).
Opium imported into Shanghai. — Recor-
der, 1906. (Vol. XXXVII. p. 432).
Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs. —
Opium, 1864-1881. (Special Series).
Dabry de Thlersant. — La Pisciculture
et la Pf^chc en Chine. Paris, 1872.
Williams. -The Middle Kingdom. New-
York 1861. Modes of catching Fish. (Vol.
IL Ch. XV. p. 109-112).
Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. Cormorant fishing, p. 181-182.
Cormorant fishing. — East of Asia Maga-
zine. (Vol. II. p. 95-97).
Carp Culture in ChOkiang Province. —
Recorder. (Vol. XVI. p. 201-207).
Chinese Imperial Maritime Cnstoms. —
Pisciculture in China. (Miscellaneous
Series. N«« 9 and 11).
26
n..
CHAPTER IV.
lOKINO AND INDUSTBT.
- Mines are numerous and rich throughout the
18 Provinces. In the past, they were almost unknown, but in
recent times, their exploitation has become more and more
important. When worked they will certainly prove a great
source of wealth for the country. «
The chief minerals are 000!; iron and emm^erm
The loiyMf ^T^fflf** ^f 1""^^ ^Te found in Shansi |I| |5,
Hunan m f||, Kweichow j|| fH and Szechw'an B /U- There
are also important coal-fields in Ohihli ^ f|, Shantung |I| ^,
Shensi ^ Hi Honan fgf J^, Yiinnan f| Iff, Hupeh H 4fc and
Kwangtung JH ]K Provinces. The amount of coal in Yunnan,
Kweichow, and Kwangsi seems to reach 30,000,000,000 tons,
and it is estimated that the vast coal measures of South-
Shansi would amply supply the world with coal, at the present
rate of consumption, for thousands of years to come.
C&ai mtines are principally worked in the Province of
Chihli git H, at K'aip'ing || Zp, and also to the W. of Peking
4fc]gE; in Shansi ilj ff Province, near T*aiyuen Fu ^j; JS( J|^; in
Hupeh fl 4k Province, to the S. of Wuch'ang Fu ^ g J|^; and
also in the Provinces of Hunan f| ||f, Kwangtung J| ]|[ and
Shantung ^| % (see each of these Provinces : Mineral Wealth).
^JronjMaa is found throughout all China. The best known,
and also the richest and most actively exploited beds, are those
of Tsehchow Fu J^ ^ ^ and P'ingting Chow 9 £ M ^n
Southern Shansi [I] Hf; those likewise of Szechw'an Q j||,
Hunan H ||f, Honan flf iff and Shantung \Jn ^.
Oi^PPiBrjB extracted in Yunnan f| ^ and Kweichow j||
j^. The mines are the property of the Chinese Government,
CHAIPTIR IT. MININft AND INDUSTRY. 403
which has monopolized the output for its own benefit. The
copper extracted in those places is inadequate for the needs of
the country, and about 30,000 tons are imported annually.
2SlHe and Un are extracted in Yiinnan ^ ]|f, and 911Mb*
Mlmer in Kweichow jH jl\.
€Mdp jUmt, and arywtH/hronj tmtd mtmeB are little
worked. They are mostly found in the Western and South-
western Provinces. Gold is found in grains in the beds of
several rivers of the West, especially those of the Htinrtkmi ]g|
jijC and of the Upper Yangtze ^ ^p. This latter river owes to
this particularity its name of Kinsha-kiang §t H^ iLy or golden-
sand river. The amount of the precious metal thus obtained is
very small.
Km^mmme is found in small quantities in Szechw'an (9 j||
and Kansu "^ jlf.
SaU is obtained from brine-wells in Shansi |lj f| and Sze-
chw^an B j||, and from evaporated sea-water along the coast.
WinHig regiilaitoiis. — According to mining regulations
established in March 1904, the Chinese Government reserves for
itself 25% of the profit of all mines. A further charge of 20%
18 to be levied on the output of diamonds and precious stones ;
10% upon gold, silver and mercury; and 5% upon coal and
iron. All minerals are moreover to pay an export duty of 5%
and likin to the amount of 2^%.
latAMtey. — Industry on a large scale is represented only
by a few hundred manufacturing firms in the large cities. The
crafts and small trades on the contrary are extensively developed,
and comprise various branches but make little progress. Their
methods being rudimentary, and their instruments so inadequate,
they turn out only inferior articles despite long and tedious labour.
We shall mention among these articles .^ulkm jtO^jnanu-
factured in Nganhwei ^ ^ and Szechw^an B jl| Provinces;
oglim iioih in^ Hupeh m ^ ; fmn0,h0umh^Ud furnJi^r^Jlagammr
wmrm and wmiWiigr in Kwangtung ]f^ jK ; wtmUhed Mies in Hu-
>^^ HMf? <iy^>P Chihli Jtffi and Oh^kiang iT&^I^nd almost
everywhere jN^er, emrih^mpmre, ftricte and eeJkiA
404
SBCTION V. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIG 0BOaRAPHT.
Two manufactures deserve to be especially mentioned :
an^^^v both of which were formerly in a flourishing
condition. The poropy^i^^ ftf Kinnpsi |J2 Hf obtained world-wide
celebrity, and was in great demand on account of its brilliant
colours, its exquisite finish and its quaint designs. In 1850,
the T^aipMng ^ 2p, rebels destroyed the kilns, which have
since been rebuilt, but the articles turned out are far from
equalling in colour and finish those of former times. (See Kiang-
si. p. 144). Th^Mks and fftgumcB of Soochow g jH and Nan-
^^ng ^ ]9C in Kiangsu 01 Sl« ^"^ ^^ Hangchow ;^ ^ in Ch6-
kiang ^ {t, are highly valued throughout China, but are in
little demand by foreigners, as they have neither the lustre,
variety or finish of the French, Italian or Japanese silks.
Jndusiry on a large eeaie is carried on principally at the
open ports. CaUonrgpiniiiUna and weavhtp miUs (17 in all) are
established in Shanghai J^ jm, Hank'ow ^ P, Wuch*ang gj g,
Ningpo tlf fSi and Foochow |B jl\ -^ Mk^fiiaiurSM^M Shanghai,
Soochow jjll j^ and Canton JH ^; dmckyards in Shanghai, Foo-
chow and Tientsin 3^ ||t; ^jtigttr^fVtymtaHag^ in Canton ; Ueel'
works in Hanyang ^ ^ (Hupeh ^ ^ Province) ;^€iraenaia in
ShangEai, Wuch^ang and Tientsin; n^nts in Peking ^ ]^,
Nanking ifi ]$[) Canton and other Provincial capitals; large
ptJSfff'Hf etUMiahments in Shanghai, Tientsin, Foochow and
Canton.
References
La Mission Lyonnaise, 1808. — (Voir sur-
tout dans la 2« partie : Daclos. Rapport
hxxT les Mines et la MMallurgie an Yun-
nan, an Koei-icheou. — Antolne et
liloiral. Rapport sur la sole. — Riaalt.
liapport sur le Coton et les Cotonnades.
— GroRjean. Rapport sur les corps gras
et leurs dSriv^s).
Lecldre. — Etude gdologiqne et miniere
des Provinces Ohinoises voisines du Ton-
kin. Paris, 1902.
Monod. — Contribution ^ I'^tude g^ologi-
que dc la Chine meridionale. (Bulletin
6conomiquc de I'lndo-Chine).
Lepiince-Rln^uet. — Etude g^ologique
sur le Nord de la Chine. 1901.
WeurleMe. ~ Chine Ancienne et Nou-
velle. Paris, 1902. (surtout 2» partie.
Ch. I).
Grandidier. — La CSramique Chinoise.
Paris, 1894.
Ohavannes. — La Sculpture sur pierre
en Chine au temps des 2 dynasties Han.
Paris, 1893.
Paldolo^ae M. — L'Art Chinois. Paris,
1887.
de Mar^uerye R. — L'Art chez les Chi-
nois. Paris, 1904.
GHAPTBK lY. MINING AND INDUSTRY.
405
Lebouoq. — Vie de Mk' Dubar. 1879. (In-
dustrie. Ch. V.).
Julieii S. — Fabrication de la Porcekine
Chinoise. Paris, 1856.
Jullen S. — Industries Anciennes et Mo-
demes de I'Empire Chioois. Paris, 1860.
Fol Korl^An. — Metiers Chinois. (Dans
I'Echo de Chine, 1904-1905. passim).
Daryl P. — Le Monde Chinois. Paris, 1885.
(Llndostrie. Ch. IV. p. 50 63. Soie, coton,
c^ramiqae, richesses mioieres. — PAche.
— Associations on Quildes dans la vie
indnstrielle).
Bard E. — Les Chinois chez eux. Paris,
1900. (Les principanx produits de la
Chine. Ch. XIX. p. 212-225. - Le Mar-
chand Chinois. Ch. XX. p. 240-249. —
Le P6ril Jaune, on la concurrence du
travail Asiatique. Ch. XX. p. tldZSQ).
Strautm L. ~ La Chine : son Histoire, ses
Ressources. Paris, 1874. (Mines : houille,
pdtrole, fer, cuivre, m^taux pr^cieux.
p. 336-422. ~ Industrie, p. 423-428\
Antoniiii. — An Pays de Chine. Paris.
(L*Industrie. (Ch. IV. p. 196-204).
Bonacofli. — La Chine et les Chinois.
Paris, 1847. (Manufactures ct Industries.
Ch. XIL p. 186-190).
IriMRMi M. — Etudes sur la Chine. Paris,
1866. (I'Industrie. p. 127-136).
De Courcy.— L'Empire du Milieu. Paris,
1867. (Industrie : m^tallurprie, cerami-
que, poterie, laque. Livre V. Ch. II. p.
444-468).
Tlllot M. — Notes Commerciales sur la
Chine. Chang-hai, 1901.
Murray's Ohiiia. — Edinburgh, 1843.
(Geology and Mineralogy of China. Vol.
III. Ch. V. p. 266-282).
Groaler. — General Description of China.
London, 1795. (Mines of China, metals,
atones, clays. Vol. I. Book IV. Ch. IV.
p. 898-422. —Silks and porcelain of China.
Vol. II. Book VIII. Ch. XI. p. 451-479).
'Williains.— The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Industrial Arts of the Chi-
nese : metallurgy and porcelain. Vol. II.
Ch. XV. p. 113-144).
GulslafrC. — On the Mines of the Chi-
nese Empire. (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1847. N«
1. art. 5).
DaTAS Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
1842. (Industrial Arts, metallurgy.— Silk
and porcelain manufacture. Vol. II. Ch.
XVII. p. 216-250).
Mining in China. — N. China Hrrald.
April 2, 1864.
Richthofen. — letters. Shanghai, 1873.
RIohttioren. ~ The Distribution of Coal
in China. (Ocean Highways. Nov. 1873).
Gandry R. R — China Past and Present.
London, 1^95. (Edict in favour of Mining;
Mineral resources. Ch. V. p. 109-119. —
Industries, cotton manufacturing in the
East. Appendix G. — The Hanyang iron
and steel mills. Appendix E.).
Leroy-Beaulieu P. — The Awakening
of the East. London, 1000. (Industries
limited to the open parts. — Salaries in
Shanghai. — Working hours in silk fac-
tories. Ch. VII. p. 237-241).
Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn,
1898.
Encyclopaedia Britannica. X**» Edition.
London, 1902. — China: (Production and
Industry. — Precious Metals.— Manufac-
tures, p. 27-28).
Lamprey. — Notes on the Geology of the
Great Plain. (N.C.B.RA. Soc. Decemb.
1865).
Edkins J. — The Bituminous Coal Mines,
West of Peking. (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. r67.
p. 243-2.50).
Kin^smill T. — Notes on some out-lying
coal-fields in the S. E. Provinces of
China. (N.C.B.K.A. Soc. 1866).
Bickmore A. S. — Notes on the Distri-
bution of Gold in China. (Notes and
Queries on China and Japan. Vol.1, p.22).
Wllllainson A. — Travels in North-
China. London, 1870.
Pumpelly R. — Geological Researches
inrhina.(SmithsonianInstitute.January,
1866. Coal-fields).
Little A. — The Far East. Oxford, 19<»5.
Jemi^an T. R. — China in Law and
Commerce. New-York, 1905. (Physical
Features. Ch. I. p. 1-32).
JamiewNi J. W. — Cotton Mills of China
(Diplomatic and Consular Report. China.
N" 629. Foreign Office, 19u5).
Hlrth. — Ancient Porcelain : a Study in
Chinese Medieeval Industry and Trade.
Hongkong, 18S8.
Bushel 1 S. W.— Chinese Porcelain before
the Present Dynasty.
Hippisley. — A Sketch of the History of
Ceramic Art in China, 1902.
406
BIGTION ▼. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIG eSOGBAPHT.
On the Porcelain Rock of China. — (Ame-
rican Journal of Science. March, 1871).
Hod^flBO. — How to identify old China.
London, 1905.
GUes H. A. — Introduction to the Stady
of Chinese Pictorial Art. London, 1905.
S. W. ~ Chinese Art. London,
1904.
AndenDB W. — The Pictorial Arts of
Japan. London, 1887.
AoMley G. A. — Keramic Art of Japan.
London, 1881.
CHAPTER V.
OOIDEERCE.
0Mna*9 trade has undergone greater modifications than her manofactni^s. Up
to 1842, the whole foreign trade of the country was carried on only through two ports :
Ifotfoo and OanUm, all the others heing closed. Since then, 50 ports have been thrown
open, and every year sees new additions made to the list. China has reaped therefrom
a certain amount of prosperity and well-being, which, although still far inferior to those
of Europe^ are however of no mean importance. She would undoubtedly benefit largely
were she to open her doors much wider. While being bettered by foreign products, the
export of her wealth would bring in gold and silver, and enable her to reach a higher
standard of perfection in her implements, methods and ways of transit.
For greater clearness, we will study her trade under three different headings :
the home trade, that carried on with the outlying dependencies of the Empire, and
finally her foreign or exterior trade.
— The home or inter-provincial trade
consists in the interchange of goods within the 18 Provinces.
It is by far the most important of the country, but impossible
to estimate through lack of efficient control and reliable statistics.
Its special feature is that of being largely a re— ff ircwig. This
characteristic is carried to extremes owing to the currency in use,
the cash. This facilitates the retail sale of articles, which every-
where else would be effected wholesale.
We can however consider separately the retail and wholesale
trade of the country. The reirrfHteg^e is carried on in the shops^
of small towns, or at faiirs Whl6h are held on fixed dates, now
in one place, now in another. A great variety prevails as to
the holding of these fairs in different Provinces, and even in
seveial parts of the same Province. The jcJItiaswIs irads is
? \
\
408 SBCnON ▼. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ftBOORAPHT.
{ C- monopolized by rich merchants or guilds. These sell wholesale
to shopkeepers, who retail the commodities to their customers.
Shopkeepers deal generally in only one kind of merchandise. Thus
\ there are rice, tea, opium, fur and other petty traders. Provin-
j I ces, rich families and guilds engage in special branches. There
are thus in China the tea-merchants of NgamhwH $ K, the rice-
merchants of Kufon^tung JH ]K and of Kiangsm (£ J|, and the
bankers of ShanM |lj H- ^^ regard to families, suffice it to
V I mention the rice spirit of the Im Fikin family in JPeMng :^ ]jc,
and the tea of the Fang family in NgtMnhwH ^%i. Inter-provincial
trade is also extensively carried on. Thus Hunan fjjf^ ^ sends
its coal to Mupeh ^ 4k; •H'^^mA exports its cotton-cloths to 800-
e/ntfan B jl|« Kweiehaw jH ^ and Hnnm^ ^ gf; Kwangtnng
JH % sends its fans, KganhwH ^ |g( its Indian ink, and Kiangsi
{£ Ji its porcelain, to every Province of the Empire.
Trade witti tU» outlying ]>epeiideiiele« ofttie Eaaplre.
(Tibet, Ch4n€8e Tm^kesian, Mangoiia, Manchuria). — The 18
Provinces export to the outlying dependencies of the Empire
the following articles : tea, silk, opium, Ghinaware and foreign-
made piece-goods. They import furs, musk, jade, ponies (from
Mongolia), and beancake (from Manchuria).
Foreign Trade. — Foreign trade is carried on through
the open ports with Japan, Hongkong, JnMa, the ZhMed Siates,
Atrope etc.
Importenee of CTlilna** Foreign Trade. — The impor-
tance of China's foreign trade is annually^jBcreasing. It has
almost trebled since 1891. The following are the statistics
published by the Imperial Maritime Customs since the above
mentioned year. By Net Imports, the Customs understand the
value of the foreign goods imported direct from foreign coun-
tries, less the value of the foreign goods re-exported to foreign
countries during the given year. All values are in JEToMNean
taels {see gold equivalent of the Haikwan tael from 1870-1906.
p. 319)-
GHAPTIR ▼. COMMIRCB.
Annual Yalne of the Foreign Trade of China, 1891-1905.
409
Year.
Net
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
1881
134,003,863
100,947,849
234,951,712
1892
135,101,198
102,583,525
237,684,723
1893
151,362,819
116,632,311
267,995,130
1891
162,102,911
128,104,522
290,207,433
1895
171,696,715
143,293,211
314,989,920
1896
202,589,994
131,081,421
333,671,415
1897
202,828,625
163,501,358
866,329,983
1898
209,579,834
159,037,149
368,616,483
1899
264,748,456
195,784,832
460,533,288
1900
211,070,422
158,996,752
370,067,174
1901
268,302,918
169,656,757
437,959,675
1902
315,363,905
214,181,584
529,545,189
1903
326,739,133
214,352,407
511,091,600
1904
344,060,608
239,486,683
583,541,291
1905
447,100,791
227,888,197
674,988,988
Principal Foreiipn €)oanftries witli wliicli Oliina
trm/detL — The distribution of the trade among the principal
countries of the world is shown in the following table. The
figures given cover the years 1903-1905, and include the sum
total of imports and exports.
Annual Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1903-1906*
Country.
1908
1901
1906
Total, Hk.Taels.
Total,Hk.Tael8.
Total,Hk.Tael8.
Greftt Britain.
60,627,867
72,490,918
104,536,613
Hongkong.
226,716,058
227.9*3,027
229,523,8^1
British India.
35,800,240
34,606,493
37,518,977
Singapore and Straits.
7,301,757
7,729,070
7,864,509
Australia and New Zealand.
472,802
713,146
1,610,675
South Africa (including Mauritius).
52,497
100,522
68,775
Canada.
1,081,828
2,693,735
2,794,019
United States of America.
45,399,391
50,268,921
103,917,010
Philippine Islands.
875,745
1,080,757
906,977
Mexico and Central America.
47,168
410 SEGTION ▼. POLIVIGAL AMD IGOMOIIIC MOMAPHT.
Annnal Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1903-lMK.(oontinaed).
Gountry.
IM
ISOi
IM
Total, Hk. TaeU. Total, Hk. Taels.
Total, Hk.TaeU.
Bonth AmerioA.
4,948
26,088
18,084
Germany.
20,228,724
Fnmoe.
22,688307
Belgium.
11321.020
Italy.
83^5,098
Austria and Hungary.
1328.682
Netherlands.
1,961381
Norway, Sweden, Denmark.
147,261
Spain and Portugal.
70,688
Macao.
7,146,247
7,958,884
7,745,616
Bossia, Bnropean Ports.
6,097,757
7,226,478
5301,044
Bnssia and Siberia by land Frontier.
6,886,509
2,208,129
2,928.478
Russia, Pacifio Ports.
2,648,701
94,286
8,024,607
Korea.
2,684,949
2,270,015
8,989,628
Japan and Formosa.
80,781,778
88,150,914
96,780311
French Indo-China.
8,186388
4,706,468
8,978,264
Siam.
1,225,829
1,556.272
1,506,687
Dutch Indies.
4,167,565
5,557,862
5,086,850
Turkey, Persia, £g3rpt, Aden.
2,672,308
5,538,044
2,145,294
Prteolpal Imports fvom F»velsii Oomitiies. — The principal imports irom
Foreign Countries are set out in the following table. The figures range from 1903*1905,
and the values are given in Haikwan taels.
Principal Net Imports from Foreign Countries, 1903-10(M^
Description of Goods.
1908
1901
1906
Value :Hk.Tl8.
Value :Hk.Tl8.
Value : Hk. Tls.
Opium.
43,830,892
37,094,172
34.070,021
Cotton Goods (Shirtings, DriUs,
T-Cloths).
128320,004
124,083,305
181,452358
Woollen and Cotton Mixtures.
511,053
1,032382
1,198,434
WooUen Goods.
8,965398
4,161,819
4,240,751
Miscellaneous Piece Goods.
1,652,650
1,958,859
2,086,000
Metals.
15316,823
21,284,775
45,428398
Coal and Coke.
8,488,788
7,160,675
7,121353
Cigars and Cigarettes.
2,540,768
8,279,718
4,734,679
Tobacco.
507.789
851,825
1314,883
Dyes, Colours and Paints.
4,809,681
5,173,525
6,452,727
CHAPRH ▼. COIOIBBCB. 411
Principal Het Imports from Foreign CountrieB, 1003-1906. (continued).
Desoription of Goods.
1908
190i
1906
Value :Hk.Tl8.
Value :Hk.Tls.
Value iHk.Tls.
Fish and Fishery Products.
4,742,677
5.510.956
8,828,542
Bags of aU kinds.
1,699.418
961,661
2,032,423
Candles.
644,567
562,705
1,384,054
Flour.
2,869,708
8,591,071
3,706,159
Ginseng.
1,779,418
1,412,384
2,000,283
Glass and Glassware.
1,357,597
1,170,710
1,481,880
Kerosene Oil, American.
6,679,769
13,214,908
11,878,271
Borneo.
89,192
49,897
l,097,3n
„ Burma.
143,745
175,516
„ Russian.
8,332,040
5,535,946
1,700,430
„ Sumatra.
6,925,928
8,963,547
5,985,492
Leather.
1,047,011
1,213.437
1,799,576
Machinery and Fittings.
8,169,500
2,660.089
5,836,927
Matches, Japanese.
3,808,949
4,743,209
5,658,130
Medicines.
1,336,506
1,506,297
1,908,578
Paper.
8,372,463
2,549,082
2,453.039
Kice.
7,650.711
8,879,630
8,554,071
Baflway Plant and Materials.
7,996,325
6,046,459
7,846,739
Soap.
1.167,891
911,051
1,564,461
Stores, Household.
1,372,445
1,491,817
2,384,584
Timber, Hard-wood.
781,643
998,990
809,277
„ Soft-wood.
1,328,468
1.496,991
2,309,130
Sugar, Brown.
4,787,995
5,498,510
7,863,058
„ Candy.
1,292,266
1,887,918
1,578,189
„ Refined.
6,285,546
6388,723
8,248,312
„ White.
3,596,244
4,556,307
5,482,548
Wines.
943,312
903.532
1,016,351
Spirits.
:»5,225
504,004
1,272,204
Beer and Porter.
600,939
669,883
789,862
All these imports come from different countrie$. Thus, cotton yam from
India; cotton goods from Great Britain and the United States of America; opium
from India; kerosene oil from the United States of America, Sumatra and Russia; wine
from France; matches from Japan; rice from Indo-China; aniline dyes and colours
from Germany ; flour from the United States of America and window-glass from Bel-
gium. In thus speaking, we do not mean to state that all the matches are imported
solely from Japan, or all the window-glass from Belgium, but we wish to point out the
supply-source whence such articles are chiefly derived. Likewise, it must not be inferred
from the above table relating to the trade of the various countries, that all the products
come from these countries themselves. Thus Hongkong, and to a large extent Great-
Britain too, are furnishers of imports manufactured in other countries, but shipped in
Boglish bottoms.
412
SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OEOaRAPHT.
Principal Exports lo Foreign OiMiiitries. — The following table shows the
principal exports from China to Foreign Countries for the years 1903, 1901 and 1905.
The values are given in Haikwan taels.
Principal Net Exports to Foreign Countries, 1903-1905.
Dr^cripiioii of Goodfi.
IBOS
1901
1906
ValuoiHk.Tk.
Valui^:Hk.Tls.
Value :Hk.Tl&.
70,393,^33
Stlk.
74,389,703
7H,255.412
Tea.
''lt\2M,bl3
30,031,9^
2&,145,&>2
Raw Cotton.
I3,2£M,61I
24,«n,sa5
12,029,326
SMtis (Fara), SMu ClothidK, Roes.
5,Soa,llS
5,550,544
7^27,543
4,926,^5
9,^l,2a6
IIeaiicak«t«
S,293»406
2,355,918
ri,m,»iT
Straw Braid.
Sheep's Wooi
Bides, Cow *nd Buffalo.
4,127,906
2,475J5S
4,718,100
4,502320
4,602344
7,112,420
2,210,fSgg
6.070,157
4,995J49
Oils (Ik^au, Groumlimt, Ti?a, Wmdj
Paper. lAois««d, Caaaia).
ThXj in Slftbfi.
2,034,717
4,^2,105
aj6e,7oo
;i,S0O,7ft8
4,oijri,oes
5,551,R3|
3,441,547
Mats and Mstling,
Cattle (Shefp, Pigs, Goalii}.
Uristles.
4,H0,45ri
2,671^,755
l,088,26n
a,S89,542
3,120,190
3,197,040
a,iii9,;i?E0
3,21M0fl
2,5-^5.610
Fire- crackers and Firoworks,
Henip.
Uedielnt'S,
2,433,0^ L 1
1, 716,643
!,Ji!ll,910
2,717,90fi 1
1,851,131
1,940,7^
2,972,250
2,ai2,007
2,111,616
Sugar.
Provisions and Vpg^tableB.
Busamum Set'd*
il87,fl77
l,fi77,fm
*2,!?23,73,^»
2,029,9%
1,:I56,179
2,651,860
2,100,802
5;i5,930
2,101,^1*0
2,021,589
2,474,703
2,349,746
Tabaco, Leaf and Prepared.
Cbinawart^
2,0:25,1*23
2,20^^,713
2,5r^,-i00
l,663,mi
2,312,713
1,721,474
Fruits of oM kinds.
1,653.177
l,7a\407
1,671,992
GraBscIoth,
660,349
768,98:1
1,259,5Be
Fish and Fiuhery Products,
002,011
9K7.55a
l,l&l.3i7
Timber and Wood of all kinds.
1,400,^0
1,390,3^
1,1.15,246
Yermicelll and Macaroni.
ijKo,a">.j
l,43*,30n
1,377,9(12
Principal Re-exports. — The value of China's re-exports
is inconsiderable. The total was in 1904, Hk. Tls. 13,384,055;
and in 1905, Hk. Tls. 14,093,741. The following table will
exhibit the most important articles for Ihe years 1904 and 1905»
with their equivalent values in Haikwan taels.
GHAPTBR V. GOMIIBRCB.
413
Principal Re-exports, 1904-1905.
Description of Goods.
1904
1905
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Cotton Goods.
5.017,815
5,020,061
Formo&ft Tea.
8,9-15,815
2,554,609
Metals.
410,785
889,23;?
Coal.
491,875
641,625
Honsebold Stores.
71,331
516,8(i7
Kerosene Oil.
471,445
512,309
Ginseng.
297,820
435,684
Opium.
174,721
219,626
Flour.
5,633
2;V2,118
Condensed Milk.
8,3a>
181,539
Woollen Goods.
171,304
173,962
Bags of all kinds.
333,328
108,^85
Sugar.
33,249
122,410
Ceylon Tea.
44,055
82,795
Spirits.
26,623
225,277
Beer and Porter.
11,762
142,743
Wines.
36,589
106,587
Talne and Importance of Uie principal articles of
trade. — The pi'incipal imparU to China are 6 : Cotton piece
goods, opium, ytettiis, keroeene oii, maehinerp, railway plant
ana tnaieriaiB. The following table shows the details of cotton
goods supplied from 1903-1905.
Importation of Cotton Piece Goods and Tarn.
Description.
1908
190i
1908
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Shirtings and Sheetings, Plain.
31,818,938
30,602,826
05,387,593
Drills, Jeans, T-Cloths.
10,113,635
9,616,902
21,525,938
Fancy Cottons (Italians, Lastings,
Spanish Stripes).
19,311,126
24,348,00<»
27,330,425
Cotton Yarn and Thread in Balls
and Spools.
67,376,305
50,515,568
67,208,997
Cotton fabrics are imported especially from the United
States of America and from England, and in lesser quantity from
Japan, Germany and India.
414
SECTION ▼. POLITICAL AND IGONOVIC OIOORAPHT.
Cotton yam is imported principally from India and Japan.
The following table shows the quantity supplied from 1903-
1905.
Importation of Cotton Tarn.
1908
1901
1906
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Hk.Tls.
Indian.
45,279,099
42,406,135
47,556,302
Japanese.
20,759,664
15.975,»0
17,791,868
EngliBh.
640,568
363,666
815,430
Hongkong.
206,426
118,226
77,727
The sorts of Opiam imported from 1903-1905 were as follows.
Sorts of Opium imported, 1903-1905.
1908
190ft
1906
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Hk.Tls.
Benares.
8,189,056
6,161,962
6,587,092
Malwa.
17,024,215
16,097,055
12,899,966
Patna.
16,884,857
13,160,719
13,748,796
Other kinds (Persian).
2,282,764
1,674,416
889.147
Net ImportatkNi of Opium into the Open Fortm. ~*The following table
shows the exact quantity of opium which passed into consumption at the principal
ports from 1900-1905.
Opium : Net Importation into the Principal Ports, 1900-1908.
Port.
1900
1901
1908
1908
190ft
1905
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Shanghai.
13,173
13,859
14,950
17,492
15,203
14^11
Canton.
6,915
8,013
8,499
9,461
9,453
10,209
Swatow.
5,248
4338
4,921
5,891
4,865
4,129
Foochow.
2,921
2,702
3,418
4,419
33^1
3,801
Amoy.
2,457
2,556
3,486
3,919
3,428
8.899
Ch^nkiang.
3,960
8,866
2,996
8,508
8,462
2,851
Hangchow.
1,797
1,862
1,870
2,227
2,487
2,099
Ningpo.
2,559
2,857
2,025
2,207
2,209
1,814
Lappa.
1,591
1,410
1,406
1,089
1,870
1.788
Kiukiang.
2,223
2,116
1,785
2,240
2,418
1,715
Wuhu.
2,453
1,980
1,325
2,855
2,860
1,685
K4ungchow.
582
:«2
422
100
4A0
ijm
CHAPRH ▼. GOMmBCI.
415
The Picul is equivalent to 133 ^ lbs avoirdupois, or 60,453
kilogrammes.
The principal oajpaili from China are Mk and Ua.
These two articles constituted up to 1880 more than 80% of the
whole export. The following tables show the various kinds,
value and quantity of each of these exports.
Sorts of Silk exported, 1903-1905.
Desoription.
1908
190ft
1006
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Silk, Raw, White.
11,603,374
19,581,790
13,524,010
„ YeUow.
8,649,601
3,857,823
8,866,402
„ wad.
4,673,434
9361,668
8,639,062
„ Steam Filature.
81,284,941
28,526,115
27,395,999
Cocoons.
2,704,268
945,685
1,344,286
Waste SUk.
5,016,637
3,014,202
4,288,525
Coooons, Refuse.
402,503
400,519
555,818
Piece Goods.
12,096,173
10,600,800
8,897,627
Shantung Pongees.
1,688,787
1,162,568
1,041,123
Prodncts, Undassed.
1,170,085
804,742
840,981
Total Export of Silk to Foreign Countries for the past 10 years.
Raw,
Re-
Steam
Raw,
Waste
Refuse
Waste
Year.
White.
Yellow.
Reeled.
Filature.
Total.
Wild.
Cocoons.
SUk.
Cocoons.
Yarn.
Piculs.
Picnls.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
1896
28,547
6,775
9,673
27,041
72,036
16,370
11,020
44,987
6,823
1897
34,691
7,610
13,778
41,485
97,564
19,064
10,969
54,808
8,501
1898
82,738
7,746
10,799
41,050
92,833
16,489
9,058
68,737
9,526
1899
42^93
14,145
10,452
49,434
123,424
24,629
12,656
87,993
9,221
1900
22,204
11,267
9,519
35,277
78,267
18,867
9,148
58,812
9,643
86
1901
29.187
13,669
15,903
49,937
108,696
20,499
8,5a5
66,044
11,710
12
1902
22,280
12,636
15,146
50,557
100,519
19,179
13,436
72,436
11,962
23
1903
12,706
9,375
6,638
43,979
72,695
22,127
19,430
79,822
16,879
207
1904
21,260
10,374
12,964
47,2<>7
91,885
33,527
11,015
66,781
14,719
161
1905
15,418
10,718
8,857
45,347
80,335
25,584
14,207
87,114
20,806
53
Silk is priticipally purchased by France (74,100 piculs in
1904, Mid 70,820 in 1905), which takes alone annually about
416
SECTION V. POLITICAL AND BC(mOMIC ftEOQRAPHT.
250,000,000 francs worth {£ 10,000,000), or 12 % of the total
export. Italy comes next, having taken 22,116 piculs in 1904,
and 21,620 in 1905. The United States of America hold the
third place, having taken 17,800 piculs in 1904, and 16,246 in
1905. The great silk exporting centres are Shanghai and Canton.
China*s silk trade is at present in an unsatisfactory condition.
The eggs of the worms are diseased and nothing is done to
remedy the evil. In the Shanghai district, from 1000 eggs,
400 are failures, 300 arrive at the spinning stage, while the
remainder produce only inferior cocoons. To make a picul of
silk, it took formerly 3 to 4 piculs of cocoons, now it takes 4 to
6, and the article produced is of inferior quality. The total
value of the silk export of 1904 was Hk. Tls. 78,255,412, and
in 1905, Hk. Tls. 70,393,833, a falling off of 7,861,579 taels.
Sorts of Tea exported, isos-isos.
Description.
1903
1901
1905
Hk.Tlfl.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Tea, Black.
13,144,875
16,567,706
12,721,213
„ Green.
8,362.574
9,469,787
8,292,474
„ Brick, Black.
3,983,880
3,576,846
8,366,263
„ „ Green.
1,690,240
406,910
586,750
„ Tablet.
159,569
115,388
128,980
„ Dust.
2,436
65,287
54.967
Total Export of Tea to Foreign Countries for the past 10 years.
Year.
Black.
Green.
Brick.
Tablet.
Dust.
Total.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
1896
912,417
216,999
566,899
16,234
292
1,712341
1897
764,915
201,168
588,298
6,149
1,628
1,582,158
1898
847,133
185,306
498,425
7,117
019
1,538,600
1899
9,15,578
213,798
474,026
6,105
1,288
l,6S0.7a5
1900
863,374
200,425
816,923
3,027
575
1,884,324
1901
665,499
189,430
293,522
8,570
972
1,157,998
1902
087,288
253,757
570,037
7,156
973
1,519,211
1903
749,110
301,620
618,458
7,679
657
1,677,530
1901
749,002
241,146
447,695
4,550
8,856
1,451,249
1905 1
597,045
242,128
518,498
4,859
6,768
1^69,^
CMAraUi T. COMIUaCB.
417
Tea : Exportation Direet to Foreign Conntriet , 1905.
Destination.
Black.
Green.
Brick.
Piculs.
Tablet.
Dust.
Grand
ToUl.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Great Britain.
252,841
31,524
68,3(»
1,185
358,858
Hongkong.
81.976
1,645
7
SI
83,659
Other British Colonies.
U.970
13,416
44
28,430
United SUtes of America.
62,678
116,884
2,566
182.123
Russia (Bnropean Ports).
1,637
59,477
88,781
2.847
152,242
Russia and Siberia (by land
frontier).
67,410
320,225
1,S27
9,836
395,298
Russia (Pacific Ports).
15,927
103
36,958
71
53,059
Continental Europe (Russia
excepted).
51,681
6,829
1,540
15
39,317
Turkey, Persia, Kgypt.
25,298
8,944
29,237
The primeipai nutrU far Oke empmri e/lM are Hamt^^m jt
n in Hupeh IR 4;, Bhtrnghmi ± tH in Kiangsu fn ||, F^^aehow
H ^ in Fokieti fi j^, and GomlM or Kwangchow Fu JH ^
^ in the Province ol Kwangtung JH %. Hank'ow exports its
article principally to Siberia and Russia in the shape of brick
tea. Two-thirds of this tea come from Hunan ^ |ff and Hupeh
fl 4ti ^^^ ^^^ remaining one-third from Kiangsi fa j^. Black
tea is exported chiefly to Great Britain, and green tea to the
United States of America, this latter country taking in 1905
about 15 \ million lbs, or nearly half the total output. Of
late years, China's tea business has degenerated, and now occupies
but a secondary place in the list of exports. The growth and
preparation of the leaf are carelessly attended to, and the packing,
is at times fraudulent. Thus in 1904, the London Customs
rejected 6000 chests of scented capers, as adulterated with iron
filings and sand, and totally unfit for use. In 1905, a Chinese
Commission visited the tea districts of India and Ceylon, but so
far no steps have been taken to improve the produce, and place
on the market a leaf of better quality and purity.
Imparumce of the {Commerce of the varkme Forte (eee
Imperial Maritime Customs, p. 328).
Share taken hy each WereHfH Couairw in the Ftereign Trade
ef China, 1903-1905.
27
418
SICnOH ▼. POLITICAL AND ICOMOMIG eBOaBAPHT.
Shipping
: Vessels entered and cleared, 1903-1906.
Flag.
1908
190ft
1908
1908
190ft
1906
No
No
No
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
British.
25,927
31,298
30,442
28,122,987
32,933,873
85,095,658
Japanese.
7,554
5,755
5,850
7,965,358
4,290,350
6,238,918
German.
6,424
6,841
7,387
7,310,427
7,602,304
8,187,871
French.
2,596
2,647
6,184
1,178,200
1,264,320
1,699,121
Norwegian.
1,184
1,528
3,246
1,136,056
1,349,868
2,922,826
American.
736
716
689
559,6.%
924,809
1,293,416
Russian.
765
81
36
569,903
56,279
82,155
Portuguese.
326
726
926
28,064
83,466
146,290
Danish.
125
70
68
158,692
82,623
72.337
Swedish.
119
68
178
103,798
54,780
156,466
Dutch.
78
101
119
112,811
183,197
227.500
Austrian.
49
50
52
99,616
155,202
195,705
Korean.
50
40
6
33,382
10,176
1,296
Italian.
1
44
65
200
12,286
19.906
Spanish.
s
2
6
84
8,790
Chinese Shipping.
1908
190i
1908
1908
190ft
1906
Vessels of the
Foreign Tjrpe.
Junks.
No
22,697
8,011
No
25,482
121,383
No
35,076
118,679
Tons.
9,510,631
400,578
Tons.
9,779,152
4,988,819
Tons.
11,349,911
5.057.441
All these vessels are owned by Chinese, sail under the
entered and cleared at the Imperial Maritime Customs.
Carrsring Trade between the Treaty Ports,
Share taken by each Nationality.
Chinese Flag, and have
1901-1906.
Flag.
Clearances and Entries
at Treaty Ports.
Total Tonnage
Outwards and Inwards.
190ft
1906
190ft
1906
British.
83,998
21,768
22,897,301
25,369,849
Chinese.
20,601
88,584
9,759,749
12,754,408
Japanese.
8,858
25,222
8,920,988
5.747,393
German.
4,981
5,299
5,169,346
5,543,198
Norwegian.
486
1,476
416,444
1,277,978
French.
1.366
2,807
300,875
898,868
American.
110?
172
172,524
166.097
Swedish.
37
106
28,199
94,201
Dutch.
15
:^
24,998
50,142
Portuguese.
200
274
23,510
46.222
Danish.
28
43
28,250
^.264
Russian.
67
7
39.583
11.747
Italian.
33
86
10,405
11,084
Austrian.
1
2
2,929
6.642
Korean.
29
2
4,089
940
CHAFTBH Y. GOMMBRGB. 419
tianghai : Gross and Net Values of the Trade of the Port, 1903-1905.
ign Goods.
i from Foreign
ries and Hong-
1 from Chinese
Foreign Im-
rted to Foreign
rieB And Hong-
rted to Chinese
(chiefly to
9m and Yang-
rts).^
oreign Re-ex-
i*al Foreign
'O Produce.
ed (chiefly from
Brn and Yang-
rts). .„
rted to Foreign
ries. ^^^^^^
rted to Chinese
Native Re-ex-
al Native Im.
Produce of
irl^inexport-
iorei^^ Count-
Produce of
irl^inezport-
■niorte of
on^lB
Value of tlie
9 of Uie Port.
line of the
3 of the Port,
reign and Nati-
ports, less Re-
tt and Native
bs of local origin.
1908
Gross.
Hk. Tls.
184,192,959
1,028,:W
185,821,856
5,791,949
140,''23,698
146,015,64?
100,937,1M
6:^,365,074
23,006,994
86,372,068
87,885,068
27,156,586
851.200,609
Net.
Hk. Tls.
89,205,714
14,865,081
68,0«,104
U8,818,880
1904
Gross.
Hk. Tls.
195,025,937
1,880,061
196,905,998
0,008,612
142,609,286
151,617,898
187,970,888
78,822,999
29,093,193
107,966,192
81,191,801
88,998,688
Net.
Hk. Tls.
80,004,686
80,187,484
145,480,110
1905
Gross.
Hk. Tls.
258,881,878
1,194,387
850,578,768
10,199,186
157,169,406
167,368,592
118,847,851
69,120,-537
30,485,940
99,606,477
88,841,004
88,868458
448,964,888
Net.
Hk. Tls.
98,807,178
18,607,774
78,104,816
176,979,198
) above : Gross and Net Valaes of the Trade of Shanghai, 1900-1905. p. 269).
420
nCTION Y. POLITICAL AMD BGOMOMIG eiMMAMnr.
Peroentages of Trade and share of each Nationality, together with the total
foreign population of China* and the number of foreign commeroial hoasee for the yean
1904-1905.
NationaUty.
Percentages of Tratle.
' 1901 1 190f
Commercial Houses.
Persons.
' 190S 1 i9Q6
Britiah.
52,89
50,78
436
434
5.981
8.498
Chinese.
27,05
24,96
German.
10,02
9,92
178
197
1.P71
1,850
Norwegian.
2,07
6,24
8
10
186
166
Japanese.
8,92
*.12
650
729
9,139
16,910
French.
2.25
2,06
67
77
1,874
2,148
American.
0.78
1,82
106
105
3.220
8,880
Austrian.
0.39
0.25
15
17
205
250
Dutch.
0,16
0,18
15
9
209
181
Swedish.
0.12
0.37
1
1
122
m
Italian.
0,01
22
22
366
412
Russian.
0,28
0,19
21
19
808
682
Danish.
0,0G
0,07
11
18
198
201
Belgian.
6
8
286
273
Portuguese.
0.01
0.01
86
44
3,887
2,462
Spanish.
0,01
0,01
82
7
278
249
Popnlatton Mid €ommer«e of (be Open
We have given in this work the estimated population of the
large cities of the Chinese Empire. Approximate as it is, it
affords at least valuable information on the relative importance
of the principal centres of population. We now append here
the population and annual value of the trade of each of the open
ports. The list of the Ports is arranged alphabetically, and the
statistics are taken from the returns of the Imperial Maritime
Customs.
Aimnal Net Value of the Whole Trade of each Port, lM3-lfiK.
Port.
1908
190*
190S
PopolAUon.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Hk.Tls.
Amoy (IIsiamAn).
■ n
16,0853i>8
17,204,571
18,654,610
114,000
Canton (KwangchowPu).
MM*
110.r>59,826
96,247,076
92,243,650
900.000
Ch'angsha.
« n^
2,^17,514
5.895,880
600.000
Chefoo.
^ s
38,1^3,912
;M,255,175
80,131381
82,000
Chdnkiang.
m i£
34,439.707
82,323,204
33,344.206
168.000
Ch'ungk'ing.
ffi K
29.222,120
29,403,906
27.731,687
620,000
Foochow.
m M
16,738.718
17,265,968
17,724,198
624,000
GHAma V. COMMUCB.
421
Annnal Net Value of the Whole Trade of each Port, lM3-10tl&(conUiiaed).
Port.
1961
1901
190ft
FopuUtlon.
Hk. Tls,
Hk. Tie.
Hk. Tk.
Hongohow.
tt
M
15ie07,l33
! 17,747,662
17,496,980
350,000
HAnk*ow,
m
p
&0,1£9,5OO
107,419,^4
111,043,046
870,000
Ich»»ng.
ft
m
3,189,560
2,961,227
3,263,670
45,000
B
m
H,5fJ'^,411
18,BC;i,80H
22,322,660
120,OUO
Kmkung.
A
n
^ASS5,^4
21,317,560
23,22^,644
36,000
K'mngcliow*
a
m
4,530,372
5,018,603
6,^76,804
35,000
Koiigmooti (Kifrngm^n).
tt
n
2,57t,l26
3,161,444
55,000
KowIooQ (Kiolaug^).
A
m
42,501,795
43,771,566
42,946,E00
f 9ee
Lappa {Kaogpeh),
1^
«
16,756,5^
17,735,132
16,858,534
(Hongkong
LongcUow,
«
m
132,IH
395,526
230,452
12,000
Mengt^e.
»
m
6,435,578
10,747,290
9,592,945
12,000
Nhnking.
M
«
7,352,525
8,826,048
10,573,545
300,000
Newtthwftng.
'¥
m
47,632,^59
41,517,878
61,T59|90S
74,000
Ningpo.
«
ft
22,3I0,0&3
21,297,412
10,163,630
200,000
Pa^oi (Peh^haj).
*
»
3,341,413
8,013,256
2,^30,938
20,000
SuiLBbal (SADshui)'
H
*
7r30a,S^KI
5,286,405
3,883,259
5,000
SftntuAO {SADtungfto).
B»»
l,95S,06^
1,905,376
2,220,032
8,000
Sh&ngh«i.
^
i«
11M12,8&&
145,m0,l70
17ti.97f?.l93
840,000
Sbftabi.
^
nr
2,4l7,fi79
1.958,371
1,317,514
80,000
Soochow.
«
m
3,0S4,B28
3,131,579
4,240,013
500,000
Swfttow (3h*Dt'euJ.
lii]
Bt
43,792,?27
40,2aO,7B6
48,005,306
60,000
Szemiu>>
m
^
2N,767
266,8!'3
2l6,aia
9,000
Tengyneh,
M
>s
1,715,053
2,^^501
1,679,999
12,000
Tientsin*
^
m
68,729,061
08,954,691
96,565,672
750,000
Ts'iDwatig-Uo.
«£I9
8,111,730
10,l72,66ti
21,851,079
5,000
W&Dcbow,
a
m
2,569,333
2,388,699
2,257,021
80,000
Wachow,
A
m
8,267,124
11,080,037
11,185,513
65,000
Wuhu,
il
«
24,542,783
23,223,383
3^^,^8,809
137,000
Tohohow,
«
ffl
S.47B,?4l
2,162,553
490,053
20,000
eraiMtTotoL
e8i,0OQ,O98
720Aa6,9eS
8&i,0S9,i59
7,768000
ITiluo of Exports abroad *
2l4,llft2,467
239,4«6,683
227,888,197
V*lae qf Home Trade.
l3»,fi47.SlO
132,036,189
131,800,777
The estimated population of each port is that of the Chinese inhabitants of these
cities. In Ta*ingtao V fti a port sitoAted at the entrance to Kiaochow B M bay, in
Shantong |1| JR, and leased to Qermany by China in 1898, the Chinese population is
aboat 40,000, but if we include the sphere of interest, 120,000. The foreign civilian
422
8BCTI0N Y. POLITICAL AMD BGONOMIG eBCHHUPHT.
population is 1,1 10. The German garrison of Kiaochow consists of 102 officers, 3,400
non-commissioned officers and men, and one battalion of the East Asiatic Garrison
brigade.
The share of Hongkong in' the trade of China amounted in 1903 to 81 % of the
imports and 14 % of the exports; in 1904, it reached 40 % of the imports and 30 % of the
exports, while in 1905, the imports attained 43% bat the exports dropped to 34 4 %.
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Oourani M . — Ktudes sur 1* Education et
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Frandon. — Du D6veloppement possible
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DiO<'>''<^~Baainets. — Le Commerce
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KeCelfl M. ' Le H61e du Compradore dans
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181. — Hank'ow au point de vue com-
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Moycns de d6velopi)er les Exportations
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PInon B. — La Chine qui s'ouvre. Paris,
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— Rapport sur le Koei-toheou. — Rap-
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Commerce de Han-k'eou. — Rapport sur
le Coton, III. — Notes diverses : organi-
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CHAPTBR V. GOMMBRCB.
423
Revue of the Trade of ShAnghai in 1850.
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IngHa R. — Influence of Foreign Com-
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Braddel T. — Ancient Trade in the East,
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MartiD B. M. — China, Political, Commer-
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OolqubOon A. B. — Across Chrys6. 2 Vol.
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Oolqataoaii A. B. — The Problem in
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(China's Foreign Trade.— Britain's trad-
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Gandry B. S. — China Present and Past.
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Ch. VII. p. 159-182. — Cotton manufac-
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MIctale A. ^ The Englishman in China.
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Foreign trade with China. Ch. XVIII.
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Patnam Weale. — The Re-shaping of
the Far East. London, 1905.
UUle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.
Temple Sir B. — Progress of India, Japan
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1902.
Jeniisan T. B. — China's Business Met-
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(Commercial Trend and Statistics of
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Jemi^an T.B. — China in Law and
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Business Chistoms. — Banks. -« Weights,
measures and currency. Ch. IX-XII.
p. 205-308).
Ptallips G. — Early Portuguese Trade in
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57).
Phlllpa G. — Early Spanish Trade with
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p. 243255. Vol. XX. p. 25-28).
Eltel E. J. — British Trade with China
A.D. 1625-1824. (China Review. Vol.
XX, XXI and XXII).
Eltel E. J. — Hongkong from 1882-1890.
(China Review. Vol. XXII. p. 532-543).
Russian Trade at Kiakhta. — Chinese Re-
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Olavery E. — Hongkong : le Passd et le
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B^u. — Le BMe ^conomique de Hong-
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Le Commerce Anglo-Chinois et le Com-
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Comit6 de I'Asie Frau^aise, 1905. p. 29-
83).
Boofli d'Aoty. — La Situation ^conomique
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424
8ICTI<m Y. MLIttCAL AKt> BCONOMIC eiOeRAPHT.
Morel M. —Lea Allemands k Kiaotoheoa.
(Bulletin da ComiM de I'Asie Fran^te,
1906. p. 111-114.— Le rayonnement com-
mercial de Kiaoicheon. ibid, 190S. p. 308
and 506. Activity Allemande au Chan-
toang. ibid. p. 156. — Les inUi«i8 AUe-
mands en Chine, ibid. p. 121-122. — Pro-
gr^B de la navigation Allemande en Chine,
ibid. p. 43. — Anglais et Allemands en
Chine, ibid, 266. — La nonvelle Politique
Allemande en Chine, ibid. 1905. p.412-41 8) .
Commerce KusBo-ChinoiB par route de Kia-
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Fran^aise, 1908. p. 489-470. ~ Commerce
aux frontiiresRusso-Chinoises.ibid. 1905.
p. 128,.
Commerce du Yunnan aveo la Birmanie.—
(Bulletin du Comitd de TAsie Fran^ aise,
1906. p. 361).
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Shipping. — Treaty Ports).
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— (Minutes of Annual Meetings, Reports
and Memoranda).
■••Tne. — Trade of Central and Southern
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iB. — British Commercial
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1896-97. (Taxation and Duties on Goods
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177. — Currency in China, ibid. p. 178-
185. — Competition, ibid. p. 185-210. —
Cotton Mills in China, ibid. p. 221-2S3.—
Guilds and their relations to Trade, ibid,
p. 807-319. — Consuls and Commerce,
ibid. p. 819-330. — Compradores and the
Compradore System, ibid. p. 823-880).
Hoflle A . — Foreign Trade of China for the
yt ars 1904-1905. (China. Diplomatic and
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London. October, 1906).
Chronicle and Directory for China and
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statistics of the principal Treaty Ports).
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China: Imperial Maritime Customs. — De-
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— Annual Returns of Trade and Trade
Reports. — Abstract of Statistics and
Reports on the Foreign Trade of China.
(Annually).
CHAPTER VI.
XEANS OF COXmiHICATIOH.
In no civilised country of the world are communications so
difficult as in Chimu Of late, a certain amount of progress has
been made in the Postal and Telegraph services, in railways
and steam-navigation along the coast and on the rivers, but
every thing is still to be done in regard to good roads and the
up^keep of canals.
md Bridc«k — Except the Oovernment courier
roads, China has only fo^ipaihs of variable dimension, some of
which are paved or laid with flag stones, while others are
merely beaten tracks through the fields.
In the N,^ the roads widen out enough in the plains to
allow rough carts to travel on them. In ike Centre and the 8^
where the country is largely mountainous, they seldom exceed
5 feet in breadth. In TOimiom Hlff however they attain 6 feet.
In the N, W; they are generally sunk deep between high walls
of loess or yellow earth.
Bridget Mre generally of stone and Bometimes of wood. In the W.,ib8in Snechw^an
(S JHi there are some iron-chain snspension bridges, but they cannot bear heayy
burdens. In seyeral places, where the river is too wide, bridges of boats are established.
The most famous is that of Lanchow FuUMHt^ KatiMu "H* M Province. Fine stone
bridges with arches are found in several Provinces, especially in SMechw^an |B fU
and Fokien JH ft.
In the Central and Maritime Provinces, no governmental provUion is made for i
the repairing of roads and bridges, and all such public work is carried out at the
expense of the inhabitants of the locality. When traffic becomes actually impossible,
the officials levy a tax in the district to make the necessary repairs. It sometimes
happens, though seldom, that a well-to-do member of the local gentry, or some guilds
take the work in hand, in which case the latter collect themselves subscriptions
and supervise what is done. In the Western Provinces, where the population is scanty,
the officials have to make provisions for occasional repairs. They employ soldiers to do
the work, or impose it upon the population of the adjoining villages.
We have mentioned, when describing the 18 Provinces, the principal roads, and
here refer the reader to each of these Provinces (aee each Province : Highways of
Communication).
426 SECTION y. political and BGONOMIG aBOaRAPHT.
// ^Ctovemmeni Oonrler JSLmmAm or PMtol ISM^^wmsn^ called
in Chinese^fMmffiiiHalii 'g j^ :A: |0r (.Public horse great roads). —
Such is the name applied to the principal roads which connect
BeMng H^ H with the remote regions of the Empire. The
number of these roads is generally stated to be_ t\. Like the
customary tracks of the country, they adopt approximately a
straight line. They are often cut into the steep sides of mountains,
or run through them by means of tunnels. When the plain
expands, they attain ^ width of from 20 tn gfi y^^^i and are
Raved, and SQmelimes bordered with rows of trees. At intervals
of every 3 miles, a signal tower is erected. All along the way
are found inns« relay-posts and stations of soldiers. Taking
JMWfia as the centre or starting point, the following are the
principal of these roads :
1 — BMkng :|(: ]9C to MukOm^ in Manchuria.
2 — Wkkng ^t ^ to Ch^mng^ Ai jj( |K j|^ in Szechw'an H
j||. This road passes through TVi^yiian Ai j; J^ ;|^ in
Shansi (Ij |f , and thence proceeds to Mi^an JPti H ^
^ in Shensi |^ flf. Here it branches into two, one
leading to iMnOww At H ^ ||^ in Kansu -^ J^^ the
other to Oh^engiu JPU J^ ^ fff in Szechw'an B jl|-
3 — reMnff 4: M ^o Tunman J^ 9 Jl^ fff- This road passes
vi& Weihwui Fu ^ ff, JQ, K^aifung tk^ IgU fg^ ^/^
and Nanutmg JPU -^ f^ Jff in Honan fpf f| Province.
It thence proceeds to Stangpang ]Pk$ $t fjf^ Jff in Hupeh
m *, Ch'amgteh JFU IJ « jfif and YwrnOn^w Fu jjt ^
f^ in Hunan fg Kf, Kweigang JPk$ -f^ fjf^ Jff in Kweichow
jl jHli and leads finally to rfiinMin F^ §^ j^ Jff.
4 — IVMfiflr * 3j( to KweUin R* ^ ^ )ff in Kwangsi JH H-
This road, like the preceding one, passes vi& WeiMmmi
1^« » ;flF in Honan ^ jff, EUrnkfrnw jK D in Hupeh f|
4b 1 Ch'angBha JP^ & ip Iff in Hunan ffl |ff, and thence
leads to KweiUn At # # jflf , the Capital of Kwangsi JH H-
5 — J^eking ;|t ^ to GEMilon or Kwtmgehaw JP^ M M Hf-
This road passes through JTcmeAViMtfr JPm |(f g j|^ in
Kiangsi 2C |g, and thence continues to
CHAPTBR VI. MEANS OP COMMUNICATION. 427
6 — IVMfia ft m to Fooehaw JPW fg ^ jg^ in Pokien H jg.
This road passes \\& OMnMang J^ ^ fLj^ in Kiangsu
a: H, Hmgehaw FU ]ffi ji\ Jff in Ch6kiang flff ff, and
thence leads to Foochmo Fu yj^ j^ fff, the Capital of
Fokien ^ ^ Province.
The up-keep of these roads is entirely neglected, and they
are almost impassable^^ especially in the rainy season. //
Modes of Oonveyance.^ In the Northern Provinces the nsual mode of oonvey- ^
ance for passengers is by i^ draw^ hy pnnifiH. mnles or oxen. Some also travel in
_8edan-chairs borne by carriers, or in mole-litters (both are however rare and reserved
for distingnished persons), and in barrows propelled by hand and sail. Others xiiB[sja&
horseback or on mnles and donkejs. For goods, conveyance takes place by QkJ^ff^t
by mules, by camels and by donkeys. Goods are also transported to a large extent on
the shonlderq pf nan^ftra. Tkethree-muU cart is the most comfortable way of travelling
when one starts on a long joomey. Besides the passengers, these carts will carry from 6
to 8 owt weight of Inggage. Beyond the main roads, carts cannot be nsed in Shensi Ml B
and Kansu "tT "Jf^ while in Shanai |1| JH the highways are even in such a bad state
that it is difficult to travel on them.
In the Central and Southern Regions^ carts are seldom found. Passengers d ^ ^
travel on the barrow or sedan-chair. Others ride on ponies, mules or donkeys.
Jinricshas are found only in the large towns an^in the suzTonndings. Carrier$ are
even more numerous than in the North.
Watonrajs. — {Jhtna possesses an excellent network of
waterways, especially in the Central Region. The principal are:
the TangUm |§ ^ and tributaries; the a^hkmg |f f£ and
tributaries; the lower Behrho g ^, the Jfin ^ or F^mehow
rUfer^ the Mwairho fH fpf in Nganhwei 9 4(> ^^® Ta^ienr
tang^h^oeng IS Hf 2C i" GhSkiang, portions of the MMJOfng^ho
y ^ and tributaries, chiefly the IFM-Jlo jg j^ (see these
rivers).
The TofiirfM holds the foremost place with its tributaries :
the JETon ^, the amechn^an Q }\\ rivers, the SUMng^kiamg j|g tl
and Kanrkkmg H fL. Its great lakes, its ever abundant water-
supply, all afford the greatest facilities for navigation.
Many of these water-courses are navigable only in the
flood-season. Others, near the seaboard, are available only when
the tide comes up.
OmaU are numerous, especially in_the deltas^of the Tam^
IM and the a^hkmg* They are carelessly looked after, and
428 SECTION Y. POLITICAL AMD BCONOHIC 0B06BAPHY.
sometimes even quite neglected, the consequence being that they
become more and more filled up with silt.
The most important of these is the €frana Cawf.
The Qrand Canai or JmpeHai €kmmi, called in Chinese
Yii-ho ll ^ (Imperial river), Yiin-ho f§ fjf (Transport river), or
Yiinliang-ho M9i9f (Tribute-bearing river). — The Grand Canal
extends from Hangchow 10L j^ fff it^ Ch6kiang, to Tientsin J^
^ ^ in Chihli jt 8f« a distance of about 1000 miles,
According to the most reliable ftccounlfl.^t iyA« nQpimfttinpH
ip ih^ vitb nfintpyyJB^XL., nfiH finiahpH jn Qiily A, D,. 1283. The
most ancient part is that which lies between the Yangtse ^ ^
and the Hwai-ho fH ^. The Southern part, extending from
Hangchow to Ch^nkiang, was constructed l^m A.D. 6Q5 tp fil?
The upper part, extending from the old bed of the Hwang-ho
Jljii]' to Tientsin, was constructed by the Emperor Shitsu ftM,
of the Yuen Jc dynasty, and completed within a space of 3 years
(A. D. 1280-1283). Shitsu then transferred his capital from
Hangchow 10iif\Jff to Peking 4(; ^, As the Northern Provinces
were not very fertile, and the trade along the seaboard unsafe,
he was forced to get provisions from the Southern Provinces.
He therefore resolved to complete the work left unfinished by
his predecessors.
The Southern jMrO^tiy extending from Hangchow jjf^ jH^Jp
Ch6nkiang jf^ 2t, offers no difficulty as to its water-supply.
The slope is gentle and water is plentiful. Navigation on it is
easy. Boats are sometimes retarded by bridges, but there are
neither rapids nor locks to pass. The floods and tides of the
Hangchow river are the only obstacles to overcome. A strong
embankment has been constructed to maintain apart the water
of the river from that of the canal.
The Cmiral pmtiot^ extending from the Yangtse tK 7 ^
Ts'ingkiangp'oo iH tL )ff« is the most ancient. This part skirts
several large lakes. It was formerly fed by the Yangtze m <7,
and its stream flowed in a S.-W. direction. It is fed at the present
day by the waters of the Hwai-ho fit fff^ as they issue from the
Hungtseh ^ ^ lake, and the stream runs in a N.-S. direction.
CHAIPTBR VI. MBAN8 OF COMMUmCATlON. 429
The current is strong and difficult to ascend when one proceeds on
the upward journey. The level of the country lying to the W.
of the Grand Canal and called the Skaf^^ho J: ff, (above the
river), is higher than the bed of the Canal^ while the country to
the E., or HmUmtHo f M (below the river), is lower. Waste-
weirs constructed on the Eastern embankment, and opening on
the Hsia-ho, discharge the surplus waters in the flood-season,
and thus relieve the banks and hinder injury of the works.
There are few bridges in this portion of the Canal, but
nqmerous (errv-boats facilitate passing at almost every place.
This part of the Canal is far from ofTering the same advantages
for navigation, at least when one proceeds from S.-N., as the
Southern portion. Boats however can easily travel on it.
^The Jr»riJfcg'i»yorii»nf extending from Ts^ingkiangn'oo H ft
jH to Tientsin ^^, is the most recent and also the most difficult
for navigation, and hence the least utilized. Between TsMng-
kiangp^oo and the Hwang*ho )| ii^t the canal is fed from the
Hwai-ho fH ^ and the W6n-ho j$ }i}. The current flows in a
S.-N. direction from the junction of the Taw6n-ho :^ i$ ^
with the Orand Canal at Nanwang |(f IQE. The passage of the
Hwang-ho )| ^ is difficult. If the water fails to rise 7^ feet
beyond the ordinary level, junks are unable to cross it. If it
rises higher, the current becomes too strong, and so travellers
must at times wait a whole month before an opportunity offers
to cross it. At Lints^ing ^ J), the Canal joins the Wei-ho ||[
^, borrows its channel, and is again easily navigated. From
Ts'ingkiangp^oo to Lints'ing, the Canal is navigable with diffi-
culty. Water is often lacking, and the locks or tMah m (such
is the term applied to the narrows that stem the velocity of the
current, and establish a strong difference of level above and
below) constructed to remedy this drawback, are passed with
difficulty. On the up-voyage, the boat must be hoisted by means
of hawsers, while in the downward trip, it must be kept in
check. There are numerous capstans, and hands are not wanting
(about 80 or 100 men are at work at times), nevertheless the
operation is not performed without trouble and risk of danger.
lAl
4 SO 8BCTI0N Y. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIC eBMRAPHT.
! The tribute-fleet, which carried the rice to Peking, formerly
followed this way, and comprised 4,000 to 5,000 boats divided
I into 65 sections. The voyage was performed but once annually.
I Of late years, the grain despatched to Peking is largely forwarded
I by the sea route, through the agency of the **China Merchants*
/ Steamship Company*'.
As a means of communication between N. and S., this part
of the Canal is at present of little value, as it is defectively
constructed, silted up by the mud-laden waters of the Hwang*
ho, and rendered ineffective through official neglect.
In its Southern and Central portions, the Grand Canal,
although badly kept up, is much more utilized, and several
thousands of boats traffic on it. From Ts4ngkiangp*oo to T4en-
^tsin, travellers frequently hire carts which jolt them on to Peking.
Numerous officials were formerly entrusted with the up-keep
of the Grand Canal, under the control of a JHredor-Qemertd «/
the Grain Trantpori^ or Tt^aoifun TmmMmh 1% g jt »t|>-This
official was of equal rank with the Viceroys. He resided at
Ts'ingkiangp^oo, as well as his first Assistant, who bore the title
of Tribute Taot'ai, or Ts'ao-Hot'a£|ff « ||. The office of Director-
General of the Grain Transport was libolished in January, 1905.
Railwajs. — The pioneer railway of China was constructed
by the firm of Jardine, Matheson and C* in 1876, and connected
Shanghai J^ ^ and Woosung J^ }4iy a short distance of 12
-^^ ^ miles. The Chinese Government gave no regular permission,
and official opposition being manifested, the working of the line
was stopped by the British Minister. In 1877, it was sold to the
Chinese Government, the rails and sleepers were torn up and the
entire rolling stock shipped ofT to Formosa. About 20 years elapsed
before the subject was taken up again. The Shanghai -Woosung
line was rebuilt in 1897, by German engineers, in the service of
a Chinese Company, and opened to traffic, Septemb. l^t, 1898.
In 1886, the Imperial Northern Railway Company was
started under Government approbation, and obtained the cons-
truction of a line from T^ientsin 31^ ^ to the K'aip4ng ^ 2p coal
mines in North Chihli JH ]|. This line was further extended to
GHAPTBH YI. 1IBAN8 OP COMifimiCATION.
431
T'angku pj^ f^ ^t the mouth of the Peh-ho ^ ^, and opened to \
traffic in July 1888. In 1897, nine years later, it was completed
as far as Peking.
Several important lines have since been built, others are
in process of construction, or are being contemplated. Railway/
enterprise is of great importance to the success of the Imperial,^
Post Office in China. It will also much facilitate other inland
communications, and develop trade throughout this vast Empire]
which could so far be crossed only with difficulty, and with great!
loss of time. Chinese finance being inadequate to such a vast
scheme, foreign capital was borrowed, and certain lines mort-
gaged to Foreign powers and companies, but the Government
can redeem all concessions under certain specified conditions.
At the close of 1906, there were about 3,500 miles of railway
lines open in China, inclusive of Manchuria.
The following list will record briefly the principal lines now
completed and working, as well as those under construction, or pro-
jected in the near future. It is made out proceeding from N. to S.
I. Railway LineB completed and working, 1907. ^
" i
Length
Name,
^i
in
Designation of Line.
Romanised.
Description.
English
MUes.
754
Peking to Hank^ow.
Kinghan.
mm
Grand Trunk Line of China. —
Open to traffic Noyemb. 14, 1905.
French and Belgian capital.
Imperial RaUways
ofNoHhOUna.
Peking to Tungchow.
Kingt'ung.
mm
Short Branch Line.
12
Pekingtoyink*ow(New.
TnnyU.
mm
Called generally the Shanhaikwan
170
ch wang) yik Tientsin,
Line. The character "Ytt" is the
T*angkii and Shan-
name of a river near the E. end
haikwan.
of the Great WaU.
Kenpangtze H fV 7" to
Sinmin Fu.
msm
Kenpangtze is the junction on the
70
Sinmint*an sK A 4L-
Shanhaikwan-Newchwang Line.
Sinmint'on to Mukden.
Fungnn.
»«r
This section was restored to China
by Japan, April 16, 1907. A De-
canville line joins Mnkden with
Antang (175 miles) on the Yalu.
It will be converted to the stan-
dftrdgai]gein2yew8.
36
432 SICTIOIf T. POLITICAL AND ICONOMIG MOeftATHT.
I. Bailway lanat completed and working, 1907. (oontinned).
Deaignation of Line.
Name,
Romanised.
Description.
LengtEi
in
Bnfflkli
MDfls.
Kinchow Fa to the Nan-
ao
p*iao Coal mines.
Kaopoiien to the West-
ern Tombs.
Kaopotieu is on the Kinghan Line.
so
bllway.
Mancharia SUtion, via
Harbin to Port Arthur
TungUHng.
mm
The Northern Section of this BaU-
way is now controlled by Kassia,
as far South as Ch'angcb'un
(Kw'anch'6ngtze).From Ch'ang-
ch*an to Dal^Plhe line has been
transferredto Japan^and isoalled
the 8. Manohurian Railway.
A short branch (15 miles) runs from
Tashihk'iao to Yink*ow (New-
laoo
and DaJSwr*^
Harbin to East Man-
chwang).
A line connecting Kirin with
aoo
churia Frontier.
Ts'infirtao to Tsinan Fa
(Shantang).
Taok*ow to Ts'inghwa
(Honau).
Kiaotsi.
TfwU^ing.
mm
Ch'angch*an will be jointly con-
structed by China and Japan.
German Direction.
This line crosses the KinghanRail-
way, and connects Weihwui Pa,
Hwaik'ing Fu and Honan Fu.
Constructed by the Peking
Syndicate (BriUsh), and Uken
over by China under Loan
S80
90
Sbangliai to Woosung
(Kiangfiu).
SiinnhH.
mm
Agreement of July 9*, 1905.
Forming part of the Shanghai-
Nanking Railway in course of
construction. "Hu" is the
12
P'inghaiang to Liling
(borders of Kiangsi-
Hunan).
Canton to Samshai
P'ingli.
Sanahui.
literary name of Shanghai.
Conveys coal from the Ping-
hBiang mines to TJling in Hu-
nan.
Branch of the Yuehhan Line.
GO
ao
(Kwangtung).
Swatow to Ch*aochow , Ch*ao8han.
llliill
Constructt^ by Chinese and
32
Fu (Kwangtung).
Japanese Engineers at a cost of
$ 3,000,000. Sand used as bal-
last. No foreign capital invested.
The Swatow terminus is a mile
and a half from the town.
#
I
CHAPTER VI. MBAN8 OF COMMUNICATION.
II. Railway Lilies under Comtrnctioii, 1907.
433
Designation of Line.
Name,
Romanised.
Description.
Length
in
BnffUsh
miles.
Peking to Kalgan.
Kingchang.
AH
Chinese capital and construction.
Open as far as Nank'ow (33 miles).
125
Peking to Jehol.
Jeh-ho.
mn
Ch^ngting to T'aiyiien
ChSngt'ai.
IE*
Shansi line from Ch^nt*ow to T*ai-
150
(Shansi).
ytien Fu. Russian capital.
P'ingyang to Tsehohow
P'ingUeh.
■i^jf
Constructed by the Peking Syndi-
88
Fu (Shansi).
cate. Tsehchow Fu is the centre
of a vast coal-field.
K'aifung to Lohyang
K'aihh.
n a
Belgian capital.
130
(Honan).
Shanghai to Nanking.
Huning.
««
Concession granted to the British
and Chinese Corporation, L<> .,by
Loan Agreement of July 9, 1903.
Completed as far as Wusih, 30
miles beyond Soochow, and
opened July 18, 1906. Whole will
befinishedin 1907. The Shanghai
line will be extended to Hang-
chow and Ningpo; also from
Sinyang (SE. Honan) to P'uk*ow
(N. bank of Yangtze, opposite
Nanking).
160
Shanghai to Kiahsing.
Sukia
mm
Opening ceremony took place
January 21, 1907.
Canton to Hank*ow.
Yuehhan.
««
Concession originally granted to
an American Syndicate, but now
redeemed by China for a sum of
Tls. 3,000,000. Opening ceremony
took place June 28, 1906. So far,
construction little advanced.
The line from Canton to Sam-
shui, already constructed, forms
part of this railway. The char-
acter "Yueh" is the name of
the region South of the Meiling,
and early subdued by the Han
745
/ /■•"
-ft.lt
dynasty.
Canton to Kowloon.
Laokai to Yiinnan Fu.
f^iijle*ti/trtff^
British capital and construction.
This is the Tonkin-Yilnnan rail-
120
280
Timyueh.
Kitt
way, conceded to France. Will
be open to MAngtze in 1907.
The character "Tien" means the
country occupied by the Lolos
and other tribes.
28
434 8BCTION V. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIC MOORAPHT.
m. Projected Railway Lmee, 1907.
Desigation of Line.
Name,
Romanised.
il
Description.
in
Englidi
MDes.
Ealgan to K'nlan.
K^uchang.
«ll
K*nlun or K'urun is the Chinese
(Mongolia).
name for Urga. It is built on
the Tola river, a branch of the
iHelenga.
Lanchow to Ili.
Lani.
■ 0»
Ili Province is a part of ChineseTnr-
(Kanro).
kestan, or the New Dominion.
It Ues to the N. of the T^ien-shan,
and is watered by the Ili river,
which flows into Lake Balkash.
T'ientsin to OhAnkiang.
T8inc7t^n.
mm
This line is to pass through Tai-
seo
(Kiangsu).
nan Fu in Shantung, and SU-
chow Fu in Kiangsu. British
and German capital. China is
now working to have the conces-
sion cancelled.
T'ungkwan to P*uchow
Fu.
Wnhu to Kwangteh
Tungp^u.
»»
Borders of Shansi-Shensi.
Wnhwang.
mm
Construction commenced. Tbeline
Chow. (Nganhwei).
will be extended to W^nohow in
Ohftkiang Province.
Hank'ow to Ch*ftngtu.
Chw*anhan.
mm
The Capitals of Hupeh and Sze-
chw'an, vi& Ch<ungk*ing.
Kiukiang to Nanch'ang
Fu.
Ch*6nchow to Oh'ang-
Kiunan.
AM
Kiangsi Province.
Ch*Snch'anff
Kit
North Hunan.
tehFn.
Soochow to Ningpo, vift
Suhangning
mmm
Kiangsn and Chftkiang Provin-
170
Hangchow.
ces. British capital.
Amoy to Foochow Fn.
Fokien Province. Japanese capital.
150
Foochow to Wuch'ang
Wuch'ang on the right bank
450
Fu. (Hupeh).
of the Yangtze, opposite the
mouth of the Han-ho, is the Ca-
pital of Hupeh. Japanese capital.
Canton to Kanchow Fu.
Kwangkan.
mm
Kanchow Fu is in South Kiangsi,
on the Kan-kiang, which flows
into the P*oyang lake.
Canton to Amoy.
Kwanghsia.
mm
Kwangtung Province.
Macao to Samshui and
Canton.
Sinning to Yungkiang.
Sififiing.
mm
S. E. Kwangtung.
Langson to Nanning,vi&
Southern Kwangsi. The line will
150
Lungcbow.
be further extended to Pakhoi
in Kwangtung. French capital.
Bhamo to Tftngyneh.
Tiefimien
mm
YUnnan. British capital.
146
GHAPTBR YI. MBAN8 OF COMMUNICATION. 435
Many years will elapsp before all these lines are built. The Upper and Lower
Yangtze, the Canton-Hank'ow, the coast lines will no doubt be made, and passing
through the richest and most populous regions of the country, they will decidedly
prove a success.
rt-/
/^
u
<
FiMlal Serrlce. — Till within a few years ago, there was no Post Office Depart-
ment in China similar to what exists in Western countries. The Government had
mounted couriers who carried the Imperial commands enclosed in a sealed casket.'
They could be recognized from afar by a small yellow flag attached to the collar of their
dress. There were relays of horses every 30 miles, and the postal couriers passed from ^ . ^ />*
one horse to another without alighting. Whenever waterways were available^ loxig '"^S^'
barges replaced the mounted service. This couri(?r^^rvice was however only for go- t*. , i^
yemmental purposes, and the common people shared nowise its advantageji. Private '^ {'
^if figpfllStlehce' was entrusted to postal agencies or "letter hongs", who undertook, on '
payment of a small sum, to convey it to its destination.
In 1874, Sir Robert Hart, tlie Insjpiector- General of the Imperial Maritime Cus-
toms, established a postal system between Peking and Shanghai, and subsequently
extended it to the foreign mercantile community. Thus originated the postal system
of China, called the Imperial Post Office^ opened on Feb. 2~* , 1897. It is conducted
by a special branch of the Imperial Maritime Cus^ms (see above": p. 325). Peking,
Shanghai and Canton, have Postal Commissioners, with jurisdiction over inner Pro-
Tinces; Wanhsien(in Szechw*au; the most important port on the upper Yangtze
after Ch'ungking. see p. 115) has a Foreign Inspector, who controls all mails forwarded
to China's Far West. The Imperial Post Office (I. P. O.) deals with all mail matters
ordinarily enumerated in postal tariffs : letters, postcards, newspapers, printed matter, '^-^ V-
gamples, and also with parcels (domestic and international), and a special kind of native ^^ v
mails known as ^^clubbed' letter mails, made up and transmitted on account of Native ^<-
Postal Agencies under certain regulations. Stamps are sold and registration conducted ' V , ' C
under much the same rules as in Union countries. Money Orders are issued and '
cashed within the domestic area only. Conventions passed with Great Britain, Hong- / ^ ' V
kong, Prance, Germany and Japan recognise its postage stamps (4 dollar-cents being /^ N \
equivalent to 1* for postal purposes), and thus enable it to forward mails to Foreign ' \
countries. During the year 1905, the tariff has been recast and better adopted to the
requirements of the people, n letter being now forwarded within a district for 1 cent
{\* ), and for 2 cents (J* ) per .J oz. to any part of the Empire, a wonderfully cheap rate
indeed when we consider the difficulty of communications, the distance covered, and
the necessary staff required for such an arduous undertaking. Means of transport,.
rncrnl^riij nn^H irpTiri^ hn^rt u}irt hrrn imr^r^t"^ Official support has been gained and
prejudices broken down, but the new system has still to compete with native "letter .
^gng«"T and struggle against likin charges on parcels, and smuggling of "clubbed"
mails. Fixed rates and prepayment are much resented, the Chinaman ever wanting
to bargain.
At" tlie close of 1905, Postal Establishments, including Head Post Offices and
Agencies, numbered 1,626, and reached in 1906 to 2,09^1. The bulk of articles dealt
with rose from 66 ^ millions in 1904, to 76 millions in 1905. Parcels also have
advanced from 772,000 to over 1 million.
The following tables will exhibit the work and its progress from 1901-1905.
436
SECTION y. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOORAPHT.
Present Tariff: Imperial Post Office (from Notiflcation No. 41).
r
2* 1
1 1
Ma{] Mailer.
Unit of cbar^.
Doi
PI
T"
Lo-
cal.
aeetio ,
»ces.
Do-
mes'
tio.
Foreign CountFies.
III.
Un-
ion.
^au.
Hongkotig
Macao
Tg'iiigtao
Weihatwei.
Ots.
Cts.
CU.
OiB.
Cts,
Letterg,
Every J o si. or friction thereof.
(Limit of weigbti iJbs.).
1
2
10
S
4
Foitcards,
j Single,
f Double.
1
2
1
2
8
s
1 1
2
Newspapers
Ever}^ 3 oa. (singly or in bulk)*
(Limit of wdght, 4 Iba.),
4
1
2
i
2
Booki and Pnnta ;
Up to 3 £)Z. 1
1
2
2
2
Cora m ere ial Pipers.
(Limit of wctgbt, 32 os.).
Ssmtile^,
Up to 3 oz,
(Limit of weight, 8 OE.).
1
2
2
2
0
Regifttration*
Simple.
5
5
10
7
10
With return Kec^ipt.
10
10
20
10
10
Parcelrt.
Up to I lb.
1 lb. to 3 lbs.
(Limit of i^-oight, 22 lbs. For
inland placea reached hj
overland courier, 6 lbs. J.
10
15
15
20
Money Ordt^r^.
Per Dollar.
El
2
Not iisurd.
(Limit of order, #50. For
inland places not reached
by Ht«&m, $m.
Local. — Tariff I. i.e. Mail matter within delivery radius.
Domestic. — TariflF II. i.e. Mail matter between Imperial Post Offices in China.
Tariff V. franks foreign letters and postcards inland, where an I.P.O. exists, but
foreign heavy mail articles (Newspapers, Books, Commercial Papers, Samples), if carried
to places not reached by steam, have to pay additional Tariff II. (domestic).
All foreign parcels, where and however carried, have also to pay additional tariff
II. (domestic), over and beyond Union postage on parcels.
CHAPTBR YI. MBAN8 OF COMliUNICATlON.
Head and Branch Offices, with articles handled 1901-1905.
«7
1901
1902
1908
19M
1905
Head aud Sub- Offices.
30
30
3i
40
41
Branch Offices.
134
263
3.0
352
396
Agencies.
12
153
609
927
1,189
Articles dealt with.
10,500.000
20,000,000
42,500,000
66,000,000
70,000.000
Parcels: Number.
126,800
260,000
487.000
772,000
1,032,000
Weight (KUos).
250,000
515,000
1.213.000
2.702,000
3,262,000
Letters in native "club-
bed" mails.
7,300,000
8,000,000
7,267,000
8,300,000
8,896,000
fv^f-^
Postal Sections and Work, 1904-1905.
SortH China: Piiktiif^ to Kiaochow.
Central Gbina : OhHiQgk'irig to
KiukiAiig, ■ fchow.
Lower Yangtze ; Wuhn to Hang-
South Cbiuaand Yttnnati Stations
Total,
Ei^tftblish-
mentfe.
1901
1905
341
403
324
381
S24
2C3
427
579
1.319
i,mn
Artlck'fl.
190i
!fl,O0O,0O0
12,000,IMJO
25,000,000
10,000,000
1906
66,000,000
20.000,000
14,000,000
30,000,000
12,000,000
70,000.000
197,000 I 255,Oi>0
2*Ji>.000
115,000
361|000
302,000
772,000 1 1,132,000
Besides the Imperial Post Office, the principal Foreign Powers maintain their
own Post Offices in the Treaty Ports. Thus there are in Shanghai : British, German,
French, American, Russian and Japanese Post Offices. These generally distribute
letters aud parcels by their own letter-carriers, though some (as the United States)
entrust this work to the Imperial Post Office. The tariff of Foreign Post Offices
varies, as the mail matter is internal or external to the country conducting the office.
Thus the British Post Office in Shanghai forwards letters to Great Britain, and some
English Colonies, at a tariff of 4 cents (1<* ), and to Union countries at a tariff of 10
cents ( 2** j ) per ^ oz. If the same letter is despatched through the French, German
and Chinese Post Offices, and franked with their stamps, it must pay Union rates, or 10
cents ( 2^ i ) per ^ oz. weight. From April 1907, all Ittters to Europe may be again
forwarded via the Trans-Siberian route.
Tele^raplui. — Up to 1884, China had no other system of rapid communication
than beacons lighted on towers, which thus quickly flashed important news or orders
to remote regions. These towers however were few in number, and the signals were . s.^
not always comprehensible.
In 1884, the Danish Great J^ttKerik Tcltur^ph Company put up the first line,
^hich connected Peking and Shanghai, and was completed August 22»**, 1881.
Great difficulty was experienced at first to preserve it from wholesale destruc- / r
tion. The villagers in the neighbourhood frequently pulled up the posts \o make '^'
firewood, and cut the wires to make nails. To check this destructiveness, an Imperial
438
sicnoN T. poLincii. amo bcomomic esoMuioT.
K.I
decree was fixed on each post, threatening uith immediate decapitation any one who
would be caught cutting down the posts or wires.
New lines soon followed this first attempt, one linldng Tongldng with Shanghai,
another connecting Shanghai and Hank'ow etc.
In 1887, China requested to connect her telegraph system with that of Siberia,
thus putting Peking in communication overland with 'Europe, but the permission
was not granted till 1892.
;Chetotal length of ^nf in '-■p***-***'^" thrnDfj^^"^*^*' whole Empire at the end
of 1005 was 34,000 miles. A main line connects N. and S., and runs' down alon^the
coast. The S: YiSF sirottier main line. From the Northern and 'Southern main lines
spring three branch lines, one going Westwards, another through the inland Northern
Provinces, and a central one aWiig the Yangtze valley. _A Jine a,nnn m\l^ lon^ runs
across the GoJa^dfts»rt. By means of all these, telegraphic communication is maintain^^
from Peking with every Province, while short branch lines connect the principal towns
within the Province itself. The rate per word for inland messages is veiy high (Shang-
hai to Peking 0^42 cents X \0^ ] ; Shanghai to Hongkong 0,45 cents [ 11<> ] ), and this
/debars the people froip benefiting by its advantages. At the close of 1906, the Im-
I perial Telegraph Company, almost wholly Chinese, had 379 offices, and employed over
I 1,200 workmen together with 8 foreign engineers.
Ohinese writing being not alphabetic but syllabic, there being as many char-
acters as there are words in use, and these words having gieat similarity in sound,
the telegraphic messages are sent in a number cypher. For transcription, a double-
ended type is used ; on one end is the character or ideograph, but only 8,000 are used,
and on the other the corresponding number. When a message is received, it is set up
by the numbers, and then printed from the reverse or character end.
Otiior Telegraph Oompanle* in Ohina. — In 1871 Jbhe Eastern Extension
Telegraph Co. (English), connected at Madras its lines with those of the Eastern Tele-
graph Co., and thus linked Shanghai by cable with Hongkong, Singapore and Europe.
Since then, numerous other lines have been laid by Greai Britain, France,
Russia, Germany, the United States, Japan and by the Northern Telegraph Co (Danish).
The lines connecting the principal ports of China with each other, and with the
outside world, are the following :
Places connected.
Length of cable
in Nautical Miles.
1. (-ape S* Jacques (Indo- China) and Hongkong.
2. Tourane (IndoChina) and Amoy (Fokien).
3. Hongkong and Amoy.
4. Amoy and Woosung (near Shanghai).
Amoy and GutzlafT.
. Gutzlaff and Woosung.
n. Hongkong and Foochow (Fokien).
C. Foochow and Woosung.
7. Woosung and Nagasaki.
WooHuug and Gutzlaff.
Gutzlaff and Nagasaki (2 cables).
8. Nagasaki and Vladivostock. (2 cables).
952
925
330
590
58
475
460
58
428
418
(770
1764
/^
CBAPTBB TI. MRAMB Of COmCMKUTIOM.
439
Places connected.
Length of cable
in Nautical Miles.
9. Woosimg and Chefoo (Shantung).
10. Chefoo and Taku (Chihli). 2 cables.
11. Woosnng and Ts'ingtao (Shantung).
12. Ts'ingtao and Chefoo.
13. Chefoo and Weihaiwei.
14. Chefoo and Port Arthur (Manchuria).
15. Sharp Peak (Foochow) and Tamsui (Formosa).
16. Shanghai and Tap (Caroline Islands).
Shanghai and Guam, vi4 Manila.
Tap and Guam.
Guam and Honolulu, via Midway I.
Honolulu and San Francisco.
Guam and Tokohama, via Bonin I.
516
(212
1218
380
246
42
88
115
1,780
2,900
560
3,800
2,270
1,500
Steamflhip Oompaniefl aailln^ to or from drina. — Several Steamship
Companies have established communication? between China, Europe, America,
Australia and Japan. The principal of these are the following :
Nation-
Number
Name of Line.
aUty.
Pljdng between.
of sailings.
1* Be^ular aeryices.
Peninsular and Oriental Steam
British.
London, Shanghai.
Bi-monthly.
Navigation Co. (P. & 0.).
Canadian PacificRailway(C.P.B.),
»
Vancouver, Hongkong.
))
or Empress Boats.
Messageries Maritimes (MM.).
French.
Marseilles, Tokohama.
))
Norddeutscher Lloyd.
German.
Bremen, Tokohama.
»>
Nippon Tusen Kaisha (N.T.K.).
Japanese.
Tokio, San Francisco,
Marseilles, Anvers.
li
Toyo Risen Kabushiki Kaisha.
»
Tokohama, Hongkong,
San Francisco.
Monthly.
Austrian Lloyd Steam Naviga-
Austrian.
Trieste, Tokohama.
II
tion Co.
Pacific Mail Steamship Co.
American.
San Francisco, Hono-
lulu, Hongkong.
II
Occidental and Oriental Steam-
M
San Francisco, Hono-
II
ship (y (o. & 0.).
lulu, Hongkong, Manila.
r oilier lines oomeottn^
Chftna.
^ith Europe.
•
Glen Line (Cargo and Passeng-
A-ra\
British.
Glasgow, Shanghai.
Ben Line.
}>
Ocean Steamship Co. Ifi , and
»i
Glasgow, Liverpool,
Weekly.
China Mutual Steam Naviga-
' Shanghai.
tion Co.
i»
London, Tokohama.
440
SBCnOII T. POLITICAL AMD BCONOlilC 6B0ftRAPHT.
Name of Line.
Nation-
ality.
Number
of sailings.
Hamburg- America Line.
Compagnie Asiatique.
Chargeors K^unis.
With America.
United States and China-Japan S S. Line.
SUndard Oil Co.
Great Northern S.S. Co. of U.S.
With Auttralia.
Eastern and Aastralian S.S. Co.
Nippon Yosen Kaisba.
With Japan.
Osaka Shosen Kaisba.
The Boats of nearly all Companies plying between
Earope and America.
V Ootmt and RlTerine S.S. Oompanies.
China Merchants' Steam Navigation Co. (C.M.S.N.
Co).
Indo-China Steam Navigation Co.(Jardine,Matbe8on
.feCo.).
China Navigation Co. (Butterfield & Swire).
China and Manila S.S. Co.
Hongkong, Canton and Macao S.B. Co.
Apcar and Co.
Geddcs and Co.
Spitzel and Co.
Douglas S.S. Co.
Shan Stramcrs Co.
China Engineering and Mining Co.
Molchers and Co. Hank'ow-Swatow Line.
Norddeutscher Lloyd Orient Linie.
Hamburg America Linie.
China Coast Navigation Co. (Siemssen and Co).
Taito Steam Navigation Co.
Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Osaka Shosen Kaisba, and
Daito Hunan Kainha (combined Aug* 16, 1906.
— Formerly "Yangtze Shipping Co".).
NiHshin Kisen Kaisba.
MitHui Hussan Kaisha. [Orient.
Compagnie Francaise dea Indes et de I'Extrf'me
Compagnie Asiatique de Navigation (Racine Acker-
mann ct Cie).
Chinese Eastern Railway Steamship Co.
German.
French.
American.
British.
Japanese.
Japanese.
Chinese.
British.
German.
Japanese.
Monthly.
Franco-Chinese.
French.
Russian.
CHAPTBR VI. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.
441
References :
CftleDdrier Annuaire (published annually
by the Jesuit Fathers of the Zika-
wei Observatory, Shanghai. 1903-1907.
Up-to-date information on the Postal,
Telegraph and Railway Systems of
China).
FauTel. — Les T^I^graphes, la Poste et
les Phares en Chine. (Questions diploma-
tiques et coloniales. Paris, 1899).
Fauvel. — Les Chemins des fer en Chine
(ibid. 1P98. — Les Voies navigables de la
Chine, ibid. 1900).
de Marcillac. — Les Chemins de fer
en Chine. (Questions diplomatiques et
coloniales. 1899).
Oordier H. — Relations de la Chine avec
les Puissances Occidentales. Paris, 1903.
(Les T616graphes. Vol. III. Ch. VI. — Les
Chemins de fer. ibid. Ch. XXI).
Oordier H. — Notes sur les Chemins de
fer en Chine. (T'oung-Pao. Octob. 1906.
p. 546-552 .
Les Chemins de fer en Chine. — (Bulletin
du iComitd de I'Asie Frangaise, 1904. p.
535-538.— Chemins de fer Chinois, ibid.,
1905. p. 376-77. — Regime des Chemins
de fer en Chine, ibid., 1905. p. 420-424 ;
468-472).
Projels de Chemin de fer dans la Chine
ra^ridionale. — (Bulletin dn Comit6 de
I'Asie Fran^aise. 1906. p. 391-394).
Le Chemin de fer du Yun-nan (with plan).
— (Bulletin du Comity de TAsie Fran-
9aise. 1903. p. 318- 323 ; 482-F3. — Le Che-
min de fer de Laokay au Yun-nan. ibid.
1906. p. 160).
Le P6kin-Hank*ow. — (Bulletin du Comity
de I'Asie Fran^aise. 1905. p. 421-425).
D6veloppement du service postal en Chi-
ne. — Bulletin du Comite de I'Asie Fran-
9aise. 1905. p. 40).
Pinon R. — La Chine qui s'ouvre. Paris,
1900. (Chemins de fer. Ch. III. p. 151-218.
— Appendix I. p. 219-353).
Gandar O. — Le Canal Imperial. Chang-
hai, 1903.
Cordes. — Handels^rassen and Wasser-
verbindungen von Hankau nach dem
inneren von China. Berlin, 1899.
"Le Oompto L. — Journey through China.
London, 1697. (The Canals and Rivers
fjof China. Letter IV. p. 10M12).
DaTis Srir J.F. — Sketches of China.
London, 1841. (The Grand Canal. Vol. I.
Ch. IX. p. 245-2:9).
Davis Sir J. F. - The Chinese. London,
1844. (The Grand Canal. Vol. I. Ch. V.
p. 139-142. — Crossing the Yellow River,
ibid. p. 143-144).
Du Halde. — Description of the Empire
of China. London, 1738. (The Grand
Canal. Vol. I. p. 17-18).
Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (The Grand Canal. Vol. I. Ch.
I. p. 27-33.— Public roads, ibid. p. 33-34).
Thomson J. — The Land and People of
China. London, 1876. (The Grand Canal.
Ch. I. p. 1012).
Smitii W. L. — China and the Chinese.
New York, 1P63. (Roads and Coolies.
Ch. XIX. p. 100-102).
Williamson A. — Journeys in North ^
China. London, 1870. (Means of Inter-
communication. .^ The Grand Canal.
Vol. I. Ch. VI. p. .55-83).
Williamson A. — Notes of a Journey *
from Peking to Chefoo, viA the Grand
Canal. (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1866. p. 1-25).
Ney Elins F. — Notes on the Water-
supply of the Grand Canal. (N.C.B.R.A.
Soc. 1867. p. 80-86).
Carles W. R. — The Grand Canal of
China. (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1896. p. 102-115).
Oolquiioan A. S. — Across ChrysC.
2 Vol. London, 1883.
Oolqataoan A. R. — China in Transfor-
mation. London, 1F98. (The Question of
Communications. Ch. IV. p. 80-108).
Oolquiioan A. R. — The Overland to .
China. London, 1900.
Oolqutaoan A. R. ~ The Problem in
China and British Policy. London, 1900.
(The North-China Railways, p. 19-21. —
Political value of Railways, p. 22-25. —
Inland Navigation, p. 38-39).
Gandry R. S. — China Present and Past,
l^ndon, 1895. (Memorial in favour of
Railways, 1887. Appendix C. p. 394-398.
— Prospectus of the first Chinese Railway.
Appendix D. p. 399-340).
442
8BCTI0N y. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIC WO0BAPHT.
G. N. — Problems of the Far
EAst. London, 1896. (Railways in China :
Great Trunk Line, Pekiflg-Hankow. —
Manchurian Railways. — Other Com-
munications. Ch. X. p. 311-820).
Michle A. — The Englishman in China.
London, 1900. (Yangtze and Grand Ca-
nal. — Eoads and Waterways between
Tientsin and Peking. — Map of Canton
waters).
Parker E. H. — China : Her History,
Diplomacy and Trade. London, 1901.
(Trade Routes. Ch. IV. p. 57-81).
Len»y-Beaallea P. — The Awakening
of the East. London, 1900. (Means of
Communication in Siberia. —The Trans-
Siberian Railway.— The Railway through
Manchuria. Part I. Ch. VUl-X. p. 56-75).
Uoflto A. — Three Years in Western Chi-
na. London, 1890.
Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Railways in China, p. 590-604).
litUe A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.
Kraufltiie A. — The Far East, its History
and its Question. London, 1903. (Origin
of the Siberian Railway. — Manchurian
Railway Agreement. Ch. VI. p. 114-118.
— Map of Russian Railways in N. China,
p. 175. — Convention between Great
Britain and Russia with regard to their
respective railway interests in China.
Appendix B. p. 355-358i.
-^King^emili T. W.— Various Contributions
to Inland Communications in China.
(N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1898. p. 1-213).
'- Ohiflbolm C*. — The Resources and Means
of Communication of China. (Geogr.
Journal, 1898. Vol. XII. p. 500-519).
jemi^ao T. U. — China's Business
Methods. Shanghai, 1901. (Interior Trade
Routes, p. 184-200).
Jemisan T. U. — China in Law and
Commerce. New York, 1905. (Land and
Water Transit. Ch. XIII-XIV. p. 309-
SiiS. — RaUway Transit. Ch. XV. p. 369-
396).
Eucyclopajdia Britaunica (X**» Edition.
London, 1902). — China : Internal Com-
munications, Railways, Roads and Ca-
nals, Telegraphs, p. 29-30).
Blackburn China Mission, 1896-1897. — ^^
Blackburn, 1898 (Communications, the
Great Highways of Trade. Neville's
Roport. Section II. p. 72-107).
Jamieeon G. — Chinese Railways: A
Guide to Foreign Investors. (Financial
Review of Reviews. London. January,
1907).
Doaslaa SUr B. — China, 1882. (Tra-
velling. Ch. XI. p. 197-212).
Doaslas Sir B. ^ Society in China.
London, 1895. (Manner of Travel. —
Various kinds of conveyances. — Chinese
carts, waggons and wheelbarrows. —
Poetical description of a Chinese inn.
Ch. XXIII. p. 370-374).
Medhuml.— The Foreigner in Far Cathay.
London, 1872. (Travelling and Porterage
in China. Ch. XVII. p. 143-155).
The Woosung Railway. — Hongkong Daily v^
Press. Sept. 27**», 1892.
The Tientsin Railway. — Hongkong \^
Daily Press. Sept. 9»*>, 1891.
The Railway to Soochow and Wusieh. — ^
(North-China Herald. July .O"*, 1906).
Plry T. — Report on the working of the
Imperial Post Office, 1905. (China: Im-
perial Maritime Customs. Statistical
Series 3 and 4. Shanghai, 1906. p. 31-78.
With descriptive Catalogue of stamps and
postcards, 1878-1898, by J. Mencarini).
List of Telegraph Stations in China, ar-\
ranged according to Provinces. Shang-
hai, 1906.
Demys N. B. — Notes for Tourists in the
North of China. Hongkong, 1866.
Hurley B.O.— Tourist's Guide to Canton,
the West River and Macao. Hongkong,
1898.
Darwent C- E. — The Shanghai Guide.
Shanghai, 1905.
Berol's Guide to Shanghai (illustrated, and
with map). Shanghai, 1904.
The Hotel Metropole's Guide to Shanghai
and Environs, by W. E. B. Shanghai,
1903.
CHAPTER VII.
Aise and Progress of the Chinese Empire. — Foreign Relations.
Emigration.
P. Rise and Progress
of the Chinese Empire.
The Chinese nation is the oldest in the world, and its history goes back to the
most remote antiquity, but there isjin absence of anft^epjiic ]-**^/^i-/»a^ in the shape of
either monuments or written documents, whereby a trustworthy account of the early
ages may be sketched. We are therefore compelled, at least for the present, to rely
upon what tradition furnishes us.. As time rolls on, more documents will be available,
and facts will be more substantiated. For the sake of clearness, we shall divide this
study into 3 parts : V the Mythical Period ; IV the Ancient or Legendary Peri^jd;
III** the Historical Period^ or that of the 22 Dynasties. — The first period commences
with P^anku 42 ISTi ftnd is a medley of absurdities and inconsistencies which
deserve no credence. The second period begins with Fahfll flt jH, and contains
some facts which seem better established. The third period commences with the Haia
X dynasty (B.C. 2205). In this period, facts become more and more evident, at
least if they be considered in their collectivity.
I\ - The Muthieal reriod.
This period opens with the "formation of heaven and earth", and covers from /
45,000 to 500,000 years, according to the statements of the ancient Chinese.
The first man nr P^jjilf n |B •ft, fhrf^hirinr Adam, is said to be the archi-
tect of the universe. He is represented with chisel in one hand and hammer in the
other, bringing the rude chaotic mass into shape and form. His labours lasted for
18,000 years. Just as his task is completed, and the earth roughly fitted to receive I
its future inhabitants, he dies. His breath is then changed into wind and clouds, his i
voice into thunder, his blood into rivers, his right eye into the sun, his left into the \
moon, and his hair into plants and trees. His flesh is transformed into fields, his
bones into mountains and minerals, his dropping sweat into rain, while the crawling
insects which stuck to his body become the human race.
The Chinese believe that in the first ages of the world, there were giants upon
the earth, for P'anku was followed by three sovereigns : the heavenly or T'ieu 5?,
the terrestrial or Hwang J| , and ^/m; ^uman or Ti fi, who were of gigantic form.
They reigned on the aggregate during 18,000 years, during which numerous inventions
were made, and men learned to eat, drink and sleep.
444 SECTION y. political and bconomig obographt.
These ages comprise the first 8 2>erio(h of the 10 epoclw or Kl fl^, into which
Chinese writers divide the early history of the country.
11% — The Ancient or Legendary Teriad.
(B.C. 285:-2205).
]"• The Five Sovereigns. — The history of this period oommencea
with Fuliiri (^ JH, the first of the five sovereigns. The four others are ^hglUluii^
p K (<Iivi'ne hushandmau), or Yinti |ft ^ (fiery ruler); Hwim^ j| 'ft (yellow
ruler); $hfiohao ^ fh (waning brightness); and ChwonfuBtt Jg( I^ (conspicuous
rectitude).
Fnhsi (B.C. 2852-27.^7) fixed his capital in Honan Province, near the present
K'affung Fu. He is credited with having invented the art of writing, in the shape of
rough pictorial symbols, from which the present system of Chinese writing has been
developed. Shennung (B.C. 2737-2007) invented the plough, and taught the art of
agriculture, and the medical use of herbs. He is honoured at the present day as the
God of Agriculture and Medicine. Hwanj^ti (B.C. 2697-2597) is looked upon as the
founder of the ICmpire. He invented music and the fine arts, and fixed weights and
measures. He built vessels, constructed roads and made carts, while his wife Leitnu
iV Jfi taught the people to rear silkworms, and to make garments of silk. He divided
hi^ territory according to the ilecimal system^ as follows : 10 towns formed a district; .
10 districts a department; 10 departments a province, and 10 provinces the entire
Empire. The cyclic period of GO yearSy or kiatze ^ ^, owes its origin to him, and
was lienceforth employed in constructing chronological tables.
These three first founders of the Empire are known by the the name of the
three H^«rangs or San Hwon^ (three August Ones).
Shaohao (B.C. 2597-2513), the son of Hwangti, established the 9 degrees of civil
magistrates, and the 9 grades of military officials. The badges of the former were
various birds, while those of the latter were wild animals.
Chwanhsii (B.C. 2513-2435), grandnon of Hwangti, was a pious and religious
prince, and is credited with having invented the calendar.
Under Hwangti , the Empire extended from Slu^usi in the West to the leacoast,
and from modern Chihli in the North, to the Yargtze-kiang in the South. ChwanhsU
is said to have still extended these limits as far as Tongking in the South, and
^[anchuria in the North.
tl\ The Three Great Emperors. — A distance of 78 years, or the
reign of an Kniperor, intervened between the grandson of Hwangti, and the three
Great Sasies : Yao ^ (lofty), *S7/wh f^ (benevolent) and YU ^ (perfect), whom Con-
fucius and Mencius have extolled, as the most perfect models of the Golden Age of
China. "Heaven alone is gnat", says Confucius, "and only Yao imitated it. How
vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it."
X«0 JSI (1^- C. 2:^57-2255). — Yao was a wise and learned prince, humble,
frugal, and of great filial piety. "The hunger of my subjects" said he, "is my hunger,
and their otTences must rest on my person." His rt-ign was peaceful throughout, and only
disturbed by u great fiood (B.C. 2l97), which is considered to be an overflow of the Yellow
Biver possibly changing its chauuel.He fixed his court at P'ingyang ^ ffi iuShansi (ilPf
CHAPTER yil. RI8B AND PROGRESS OP THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 445
Province. He corrected the calendar by the insertion of an intercalary month, thus /
making the seasons recur at the proper time. He appointed Yii the Greats subsequently
his successor on the throne, to regulate the overflow of the waters. Yao hearing of
the great filial piety of Shim, then a youth of twenty, summoned him from the fields,
and made him his associate in the management of the affairs of the Empire. Before
dying he appointed him his successor, and gave him his two daughters in marriage.
Shand, also called TUahun Ht f^ (Shun of the fabulous beast. B. C. 2255-
2205). — Shun succeded Yao, and was not less conspicuous for his brilliant virtues.
He had a board erected in front of his palace, upon which every one could freely
note down the drawbacks remarked in his conduct. He enacted that coffins sliould
be made of wood. Several aboriginal States submitted of their own accord to his sway.
He divided the country into 12 regions, and appointed Yii the Great as his successor.
Y« H, also called TayU ;^ S (Yu the Great. B. C. 2205-2197). — Yao had
formerly appointed Yii his Superintendent of Works, and entrusted him with draining
off the waters of the disastrous flood, and canalising the rivers. The work was com-
pleted in 13 years. Shim had chosen him as his associate in the government of
the Empire, and had him appointed as his successor. Yii, on learning the honour that
awaited him, fled, but his hiding-place being discovered, he was compelled to rule the
State. Confucius said of him : "I can find no fault in the character of Yii. He used
coarse food and drink, and displayed the utmost filial piety towards the Spirits. His
ordinary dress was poor, but he affected the greatest elegance in his pacrificial cap
and apron. He lived in a low mean house, but expended all his strength in opening
ditches and water-channels. I can find nothing like a flaw in Yii." Like his pre-
decessors, he displayed intelligence and foresight. Seeing the disastrous effects of
drunkenness through excess of wine, he forbade its use throughout the Empire.
Several treatises on agriculture and drainage are attributed to him. He divided the
country into 9 Provinces.
With Yii commences the series of Chinese dynaMies, 22 in all, 9 great,
lesser. The first three arc the most celebrated of all, and lasted during the space
1,957 years.
ed the
. and 3 %tfYi
pace of '/ /
ITI\ — The 22 JDynaMes.
For the sake of clearness, we shall divide these dynasties into 4 periods : V The
three first or primitive dynasties. 2* the ancient dynasties, that is from the 4"* or
T8*in m dynasty, to the 18**» orT'ang H dynasty. 3* the meditpval dynasties, that
is from the T'ang to the Ming QQ, or 21"* dynasty. 4* the inodern dynasties, or those
extending from the time of the Mings down to the present day.
V, The Primitive Dynasties,
(B.C. 2205-249).
Three dynaailes occupy this long period. The Hsia J( dynasty (B. C. 220.5-
1766), the Shang ^ or Yin Jt dynasty (B.C. 1766-1122), and the Choic JQ dynasty
(B.C. 1122-249). The first held sway during 439 years, the second during 644, and the
third daring 873 years.
446 SBCTION ▼. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIG OBOft]
TKE CmBnBSi:\niPERIA£
The Chinese Empire was ruled, from the fouudatiou of the Monarchy (B.C. 2S09
Name of Dynasty. J
Family Name.
V
Began.
SOYKBEIOin.
1
M. H8ia
m
Sze
aC.2205
17
2
ijjB Shaug
/fit Yin
1^
Tze
{
1766
1401
29
3
M Chow
je
Ki
{
1122
770
88
4
^ T84n
0
Ying
249
4
5
|l^ Han (Western)
iM ^ Tung-Han (Eastern Han)
«
Liu
1 206
(A.D. 25
25
6
3 Jll Shuh-Han (Minor Han)
»i
„
221
2
7
|W Tsin (Western)
'^ 9 Tung-Tsin (Eastern Tsin)
{?IJS5
Szema
{
265
317
15
8
9i 5|5 Liu-Sung (House of Liu)
11
Liu
420
8
9
|& If Nan-Ts'i (Southern Ts4)
IF
Siao
479
5
10
flf ffk Nan-Liang (Southern Liang)
11
,t
502
4
11
^ M Nan-Ch*(^n (Southern Ch*^n)
m
Ch*An
557
5
12
IW Sui
m
Yang
590
3
i:<
^ T'ang
^
Li
620
20
M
m JR Hen-Liang (Posterior Liangj
*
Chu
907
2
15
ft ^ Heu-T'ang (Posterior Tang)
*
Li
923
4
16
ft ^ Heu-Tsin (Posterior Tsin)
s
Shih
936
2
17
ft 1§| Heu-Han (Posterior Han)
84
Liu
947
2
18
ft A Heu-Chow (Posterior Chow)
US
Kwoh
951
8
19
J ^ Sung
f ^ ^ Nan-Sung (Southern Sung)
^
Chao
{
960
1157
18
20
TC Yuen
mn
K»ioht*eh
1280
10
21
BJ Ming
*
Chu
{
1868
1416
16
22
Jft Ts'ing
f^
Tung
1644
Hitherto 9
CHAPTBR Til. BI8B AND PRO0RB88 OF TRB. CHINBSB BHPIRB. 447/
DYNASTIES (LXH-CWAO ft $}).
» the present day, by twenty-two dynasties succeeding one another as follows :
DuaATlON.
Capital (Ancient Name).
Capital (Modern Name). \/ 1
489
li X Yanghsia
* HIR T'aik'anghsien
(Honan)
644
$ Poh
i& Hao
ml ro JB Shangk'iu hsien (Honan)
:& >? JR Ch'angngan hsien (Shensi)
873
9 9 tt
iS a Lohyih
»' " '» „ „ „
ft Iw Si Lohyang hsien
It It
(Honan)
43
m H^ Hsienyang
^ R& ^ Hsienyang hsien
(Shensi)
426
•B ^ Ch'angngan
ffi^ H9 Lohyang
S ^ IK Ch'angngan hsien (Shensi)
ft H9 JRi Lohyang hsien (Honan)
44
JA IP Ch'Angtu
JK 9 IK Ch'Angtu hsien
(Szechw'an)
155
JS Hk Lohyang
fli jft Kienk'ang(Nanking)
ft HJ JR Lohyang hsien
TLmm Kiangning Fu
(Honan)
(Kiangsu)
50
»» '» » »
M »1 »» „ „ „
It tt
28
»» »' n n
»'»»'» ti It It
It f
55
'♦ »» »
1» M »» „ „ „
It tt
33
♦» ♦' »
'» M '» ti It It
tt tt
80
S ^ Ch*angngan
ft $ IK Ch'angngan hsien (Shensi)
287
'» »» It »
»» »' " It It It
It It
16
ft 1^ Lohyang
ft RB IB Lohyang hsien
(Honan)
IS
»» »» ,. M
11 M n „ „ „
It It
11
fl* IK Pienliang
M fA Jtf K*aifung Fu
(Honan)
4
»» »» M It
»*»»'♦ It It It
It It
9
«» »» It It
»» 11 11 It tt tt
It It
320
»» '♦ It „
Kg 3C Linngan
11 i» 11 „ „ „
ft jHl ^ Hangchow Fu
It It
(Ch^kiang)
88
M Ydn (Peking)
^ 3? ^ Shunt'ien Fu
(Chihli)
276
jfll ^ Tingt*ien (Nanking)
'4fc ^ Pohp^ing (Peking)
inHlfiF Kiangning Fu
l^mM Shunt'ien Fu
(Kiangsu)
(Chihli)
m. 5^ Shunt'ien (id.)
IB 5^ ^ Shunt'ien Fu
(Chihli)
448 SECTION y. political and economic oeoorapht.
I. Tlie Hsla X dynAil^y* (BC. 2205-176C). — During the Umes of
Yao and Shun, the primitive patriarchal form of Governmeut developed into the
monarchical. The succession to the throne was not however hereditary, but the
fittest and most capable ministers were chosen to govern the State. Thus Yao
appointed Shun, and Shun in turn appointed Yii to succeed him, preferably to his
own children. Generally the ruler, a short time before dying, indicated his successor.
Uudor the Hsia dynasty, the succession becomes hereditary. All the princes who
succeed one another beIong"tcrnieTame fafhlly.""" TEe' whole population of the Empire
then ranged from I to 2 millions, forming, it seems, stations of colonists dispersed
I amongst the aboriginal tribes {sre p. i). The greater part of the country was at that
! time, except in Honan and along the Yellow River, overrun by luxuriant vegetation,
and wild animals abounded. The ^Empire had not the cohesion and unity which it
possesses at the present day, but was divided into several petty states^ whose rulers
frequently engaged in mutual warfare!" TEose who bore the title of Emperors were
but the most powerful among compeers, and it was with no little difficulty that they
asserted their authority.
Some of the first monarchs of this dynasty governed the Empire with con-
summate wisdom. Foremost among them is Ki 0C (B. C. 2197-2188), the worthy tton of
the Great Yii. Of the succeeding 9 sovereigns, little record is found of their doings.
Others were conspicuous for their tyranny and debauchery, and this hastened the
downfall of the d3masty. Kieh ^ or Kiehkwei id 9$, the XVII*** and last reigning
monarch, was so voluptuous and cruel, that he became an object of hatred to his people,
and was compelled to flee (B. 0. 1818) to Nanch'ao ^ ft (in the present Province of
Nganhwei), where he died three years later on.
The Haia dynasty (so-called from a small territory in Honan) reckoned in all
17 sovereigns, and lasted 439 years, thus averaging 26 years to each monarch's reign.
S. Tbe Sbang m or Tin 0 dynasty. (B.C. 1766-1 122).- The Shang
dynasty was founded by Ch*^ngVang JK 3|, a prince who lived in .the principality of
Shang US, situated in the East of the present Province of Honan. Compelled by the
people to avenge their wrongs, he took up arms aganist Kiehkwei^ and being victorious,
supplanted him on the throne. He established his Court at Poh 4^, in the Eastern part
of Honan. The principal occurrence of his reign was a great famine, occasioned by a
drought of seven years. So great was the suffering that it was thought' a human
victim should be offered to appease the wrath of heaven. The prince c«me forward,
and attributing the disaster to his sins, publicly besought heaven to punish him.
Tradition states that in answer to his prayer, copious rain fell immediately, and thereby
relieved the misery of the people. His successors soon gave themselves up to vice
and debauchery. Several were however arrested in their downward career by the
prime Minister lyin 0* ^, and his sou /cM7* ^ |^. During the reigns of 14 other
sovereigns, nothing noteworthy is recorded in histoiy. P'ankdny B flf (B. C.
1401-1373), the XVII*»> Emperor of the dynasty, had a happy and peaceful reign. He
removed his capital to Y/w Jg^ a town in Honan, N. of the Yellow River, hence the
dynasty was henceforward known as Tin instead of Shang. At this period, public
morality deteriorated very much. Staoflin <h 3p, sou of P*ank6ng, was a weak and
dissolute monarch, while Cliowsin D* 3p, the last ruler of the dynasty, was notorious
for his cruelty, extravagance and debauchery. Being defeated in battle by Wutcang
jR i, Prince of the Chow State, he fled to a tower, set it on fire, and perished miser-
ably himself in the midst of the flames.
The Shang dynasty reckoned 28 sovereigns, and lasted 644 years.
GHAPTBA Til. RISE AND FAOaRBSS OF THE CHIIIB8B BMFIRB. 440
S. Tlie Clftow M dynasty. (B. c. 1122-249). — Wu Wan^ ft £>
After defeating Chototin ff $i founded a new dynasty, called Chow JMi. from the
name of a Principality over which he ruled in Shenai Province. This dynasty numbered
3» sovereigns, and lasted for 873 years, the longest time known in history.
Like his father W&n Wang ^ £, and his brother Chow Kung JR ^^Viu Viang
jR 3E, (B. C. 1122-1115) was conspicuous for his erudition, integrity, patriotism and
inventive genius. Win Wang }K X united the principal chieftains against the misrule
of the Shang dynasty, and in dying, left to his son Wu Wang the completion of the
work. This prince, notwithstanding his great ability, committed the blunder of \
dividing the Empire into several petty states, which he parcelled out to those who had ^
helped him in his struggle with Chownn.
Wu Wang ft £ was succeeded by his son di'diic Vfmmg ft X (B. 0. 1115'
1078), who governed the Empire with much integrity, and successfuUy^quelled a
rebellion of the former dynasty.
Yn Wanf ft 3E (B. C. 781-770), Xll^ sovereign of this dynasty, was a most
depraved and voluptuous prince. Having put .away the Empress and her son P*ing
Wang ^ 3E, the father of the dethroned queen attacked him in his capital, defeated
him, and placed the rightful heir on the throne.
P'lpf V/amg 7 X (B.C. 770-719),on ascending the throne,entru8ted to the DmAt^
of TsHn ft the defence of the Western frontier (the present Province of Kansuf llgainat
the Tartars. The standing army maintained for this purpose, and the independent
spirit of the Duke, soon made him the chief rival of the Central Government. P*ing
Wang, fearing much for his own safety, transferred his capital from Hao ft fOrCh'ang-
ngan hnen Jl itc ft in Shensi, to Lohyih H g, or Lohyang h^ien ft ft M in Honan.
This was a fatal mistake, and resulted in the weakening of the Central Autkorky^ and
the growing influence of the Feudal States^ ever engaged in mutual wArfkre for
supremacy, and all belittling the authority of the ruling sovereign. The bumber
of these States varied constantly, being at times 41 and 52, atid at others 125. In the
year B. C. 314, the powerful Duke of TsHn advanced against Btaa Viamg ft X, the
then reigning emperor, and defeated him in battle. Henceforward all real power was
in the hands of 7«*in, and soon after, the Chow dynasty came to an end.
This dynasty is memorable for having given birth to China's three great philo-
$opher$ : IrfMtae ^ ^, OonracliMi or K'ung Futze % A ^t ^^"^1 MeadiMl or
MSngtte ft 7, aU of whom had the greatest influence on the religion, government,
morals, customs and civilization of the country.
lAOtee (B. C. 604) wrote the famous Taoteh King ft ft ft, and was the foun-
der of Taoism.
Ooofiicla* (B. C. 551-479) edited the ancient Classics, and compiled the annals
of the Kingdom of Lu flk, from the year B.C. 922 to 484 (teo p. 351).
MeaeliMi ( B.C. 872-280) is regarded as being second olily to Confucius, and his
works form one of the Four Classics.
The closing years of the dynasty were a period of great confusion, trouble,
intrigues gfuf pfofa.^The'cbiittBmil BtrifB airtTotfmpiJtition in arms were not however
without benefiting the people. The Empire reached a higher level of military ability
and skill, and great material progress was made, principally in the towns, for in the
country places, the effects were but feebly felt.
The Chinese Empire comprised at ^is period : Shansi, Shensi, Honan and
Shantung, and extended at the close of the dynasty in all directions, and South-
wards even beyond the Yangtze river.
29
450 8BCTI0N ▼« POLITICAL AND BCONOMIG aSOaBAPBT.
Ts The Andent Dgnaatiet,
(B.C. 249-A.D. 280).
Nine dynasties occupy this period : the IWin ^ (B.C. 249-206), the Han 8|
(divided into the Western and Eastern Han B.C. 206 — A.D. 221), the BIlBDr Hab or
Shuh Han ^ ft (A.D. 221-265), the Trin § (divided into the Western and Eastern
Tain (A.D. 265-420), the S11119 ^ A.D. 420479), the TW'llff (A.D. 479-502), the lianff
J9k ( A.D. 502-557), the Oh'te M rA.D. 557-590), and the Sui PR (A.D. 590-620) dynasties.
Of those nine dynasties, two only were of long duration^ the Han X* which lasted 426
years, and the Tain 9 > which lasted 155 years. The Han dynasty is the moat widely
known^ while the TsHn dynasty, although it lasted hut 43 years, will remain for ever
memorable on account of_Sbi«Hi»«i«a ftl Ik'itt (B.C. 246-209), connected with the
building of the Great Wall (achieved B.C. 214), and the burning of the books (B.C. 218).
1. Tbe Ts4n ^ dynasty. (B.C. 249-2O6).— Of the many Feudal States
struggling for supremacy, two were foremost, that of TsHn 1|^, and that of TaH ff •
The former, being the more powerful, finally prevailed over its rival. The Prince of
T^Hn having proclaimed himself Lord of the West, the Emperor Nan Waaifr tk BE >
the last but one of the Chow dynasty, fought against him, but was defeated in battle
and compelled to surrender to his captor (B.C. 314). Tungchow KiUn JK JH S* (B.C.
255) succeeded Nan Wang, but reigned only nominally, and despairing of socoess,
abdicated the throne (B.C. 249). The Empire then recognized the Prince of TtHn as
its Sovereign.
I This new dynasty was of short duration. Chwavf Slang'^raiiff S JH 3Et
', its founder, reigne4 but three years (B.C. 249-246). The memory of his son, Prince
I OhSng (Ch(\ng Wang |^ £), better known under the name of Shi H'vraqstl tt Jl #
i (First Heavenly Emperor. B. C. 2*16-209) has come down to posterity as one of the .
! greatest Emperors, but also as one of the most execrated rulers, especially in the eyes
of the literati. Shi Hwangtiy or Ts^in Shihwang fl^ fj^ fk (the first Emperor of
Ts'in) established his capital at Hsienyang JK IB, in Central Shensi, and soon showed
he was a mati of consummate skill and strength of character. Ambitions, cmel and
a cunning despot, ho c-onsolidated the Empire by dividing it into 36 hiHn IK or yro-
mnces, over each of which he appointed 8 High Officials directly I'esponsible to himself.
Owing to the constant incursions of the Tartar tribes on the N.W. frontier, he cogi-
pleted the building of the Qxfat^WaU o/J?j!fina«.. which ertended from I20*4o 100*
East Longitude, and measured 1,500 miles in length. Under the Ming 91 dynasty,
it was repaired (A.D. 1470), and 300 more miles added to the part already existing
(A.D. 1547). Shi Hwangti erected also, numerous palaces an/l pT1^^^^^ hF*^^'"fT*i
opened canals, and built roads leading to all parts of the Empire. His memory how-
', over is imfortunately connected with the destruction of the claMic^_JiiexaiiUDe (aU
: works being ordered to be destroyed, except those on astrology, divination, medicine
and husbandry), and the burying alive of 460 of the literati. (B.C. 218). A literary
nation like the Chinese cannot forget nor forgive this cmel act, bnt it must be
remembered that Shi Hwangti was prompted thereto 1** by the safety of the Empire,
whoso integrity was menaced by the Feudal system from within, and Tartar inonraions
from without ; 2° by the venality and lack of enlip^htened patriotism of the literati ; 3*
by their rigid attachment to antiquity and its supposed superiority, and their opposition
to all his reforms (a case of conservatism against progress) ; 4* by their intemperate
GBAPm TIK RI8B AND PROaRBM OF THB CHniBtB BIIPIRB. 451
lADguAge when the order to bom the books was issned, and which the Emperor held
to be treasonable.
After the death of Shi Hwangti, the dynasty lived but a few years, His two
suocestors were too weak to maintain the unity of the State recently established, and
withstand the factions of the rival Feudal Princes. A civil rebellion broke out, and
g^ye the throna to Liupang H ^ Prince of Han.
%, Tbe Han |R dynasty, divided into the We%t«nm or Farmer Han
(Ts'ien Han || H B.C. 206— A.D. 25), and the EoMtem or Lattr Han (Heu Han fl|R
A.D. 25-221).
TheV»nnerHao(Ts*ienHan M H B.C. 20&-A.D.25).— This dynasty was founded
by liapm^ n ft, Prince of Han K* & Feudal State on the Southern border of Shensi
and Western Honan, near the river Han, hence the name of the dynasty. When Liu-
pang ascended the throne, he took the dynastic title of KaoH ^ ffP* (lofty or august
Emperor).
Kami X IV* or KaolMi fil JH (B.C. 206-194) began his reign by repealing the
decree of Shi Hwangti in regard to the destruction of literature. All the boAks that
escaped were sought out, and the literati appeased. He is the first Emperor who offered
ioerifiee ai the tcmb of Confueiue, He established his capital afClTOlKllgm #"^ (Si-
ngan Fu), in Shensi, an^ connected it by a highroad with Lohyang ft H, in Hooan. !
This road still exists, and its suspension-bridge, its resthonses and post-stations are
marvels of skilful engineering and practical durability. The incureione of the Tartar
tribee (Hsiungnu IQ ft and Tungku jR ijr : QfPt» and Tunguum. — From the former
are descended the JCurks, Onigurs and Modgpls.; and from the latter, tt^^ljy^mfl,
_|fiiii>hus I ml Kontos) became more frequent, and seriously menaced the stability of
the Empire. Kaoti advanced against them, but being defeated, wis dbmpelled to sue
for peace, and give his daughter in marriage to their chief. The remiainder'of his life
was occupied in suppressing internal revolts. He died at the age of 5S, and left the
throne to his son H'weltl ( ^,
■wellt ■ Hf (B.C. 194-179) being but 11 years of age when he succeeded to his
father, his mother LU 8hih S R acted as regent, and after the dealVof the young Em-
peror at 24, managed to keep the government of the State in her own hands. She was
cruel and cunning, and plotted to found a new dynasty, bit failed. After her death,
W4hI1 ^ If* (B. C. 179-156), the illegitimate son of Kaotsu, was summoned to the
throne. He encouraged literature, established able judges and governors, and rendered
the pnnithments of his times less barbarous (commuting the branding of the face,
ezdaion of the nose and mutilation, into flogging). He died after a reign of 2S years. His
■on KlBi;!! j^ IfP* (B.C. 156-140) continued his good work, and was succeeded in turn by
WatiR*.
Watt ft If* (B. C. 14(^86), the younger son of Kingti, ^ddfidJPplden, Kwaog-
timg, Tftnnan, Szechw'an and Liaotung to the Crown. He waged incessant war
•galnirtliu HeimngnUy but afHrst had little success. During his reign, a Tartar tribe
of Kansn, set out for the West, and took up its new abode in the Ozus region, tin
it rabsequently fell upon the Roman Empire in conjunction with the Huns. Further
attacks against those warlike qomads proved at last successful. The Chinese cavalry
pursued the enemy beyond the T'ien-shan (Heavenly mountains), and returned laden
with booty, anu^ng which was a golden statue of Buddha. Wuti was a great ruler,
who added to the stability of the throne, achieved great military conquests, and consi-
derably enlarged the Empire. He died after a reign of 54 years, and left the throne
452 nCTlOM ▼. FOLITIGAL AMD BCOMOmC OBOOHAVUT.
to Chaoti ■ ly*. the yonngest of his sons. Chaoti (B. C. 86-78) and his saooesson
oontinaed the war against the Hans, and wero at times felicitous.
P'la^ jp i|^ (A D. 1-6), who reigned at the h«>ginning of the Christian era,
was a weak monarch, and aUowed Wang Mang 3E % a military official dismissed
nnder the previons reign, to seize the power.
Waaiir MaBfr £ 9 placed a two-year old child, Jntae Tl«r ■ ?" Si on the
throne, hut having poisoned him, he openly usurped the Imperial authority (A.D. 9),
and governed the country during 16 years, amidst the greatest disorder. He was killed
at Ch*angngan by the Princes of Han. The dynasty was then restored, and is sub-
sequently known as the Eastern (Tung Han )R H) or Later Han (Heu Han K ft).
The Later Hm (Heu Han ft i( A. D. 25-221). — KwMifr ^ntl A A fP*
(A. D. 25-671, the first Emperor of the Later fliaw, removed the capital from Ch*ang-
Dgan in Shensi, toj^hyang in Honan. He was a brave and just ruler, and constantly
engaged in hostilities with internal factions and turbulent princes. He reigned 82
years, and left the throne to his son Mingti 9| fP*.
Mli^il n fP* (A.D. 58-76) kept the Huns in check throughout his reign, and
maintained the Imperial authority over them. One of his most important works was the
building of a dyke, 80 miles long, to relieve the overflow of tha Hwang'luk.lZiideUiJm,
Buddhism was offieiaaffi^UfSSaSbd (A.D.61) from Hindustan into China. In conaequenoe
of a dream, MingtTBent envoys to India, and they ifetumed with a copy of a Sutra and
some Buddhist priests. The new religion at first made but little progress, and was not
firmly established in the country till three hundred years later. Though not the official
religion, it is at the present day extensively entwined with the social customs and life
of the people. Mingti was a clement and peaceful prince, and reigned 18 years. His
son dMNi^ 9 Hf (A.D. 76-89) succeeded him.
■etl m at (A.D. 89-106) ascended the throne at the age of 10, and reigned for
17 years. His able generals defeated the Huns, and pursued them to Kashgar,and even
as far as the Caspian Sea. After his reign, rebellions broke out on all sides, and threat-
ened the djmasty with extinction.
Hwaott C ift (A.D. 147-168) was still an able ruler, and defeated the Bastem
Tartars. After his death, several Generals disputed the throne, and the decline of the
dynasty was rapid. HnienU flt # (A.D. 189-221), the last reigning prince, retired into
private life, thus bringing to an end this famous dynasty. The 2 Hana lasted 426 years,
with a total of 25 monarchs.
IThe Hasi dynasty was one of the most famous of China, whether we consider it
from a literary, historical, military, commercial or artistic point of view. Moreover,
I no ruling family was ever more popular with the masses, and this is shown in the pride
! with which the Chinese, especially those of the N., still r**^^.^"! ^''^I?^«**'^ftff "f** Sams
of Han*\ Numerous public works were undertaken, prominent among whioh were
bridges, aqueducts, roads and canals. The wealth and trade of the country developed.
The Classics were restored and engraved on stone ; Buddhist literature was officially
introduced from India, and intercourse opened with the Boman Bmpire. The
competitive examinations for Utemry degrees, lately abolished (Septeinber^2, 1905),
orightated under this djmasty, and a Penal Code was drawn up. Years of peaofl, dnring
which the nation prospered, alternated with incursions by the nomad Tartars. The
modem Fokien, Kwangtung, YUnnan, Ss«chw*an and Liaotung, were incorporated
with the Bmpire. Chinese armies marched as far ^'est as the Caspian Sea, and China
occupied a foremost position among the nations of the East.
GHAFTM Tit. MlSt AMD FRO0RBS8 OF THB CHXMMB BHPIRB. 453
In the beginninK of the dynasty, the Empire was divided into 108 KUln ff or
Feudal PrinciptUHiea. These came more or less under the jarisdiction of the civil
Governors appointed to administer the IS Chows M or Provinces.
The Han dynasty is also remarkable as having given birth to Snema Ts*ien M
S. The Minor HbUI (Shnh-Han S 81) and the Tliree MJngihuiM (San-
Kwoh H H A.D. 221 -265).-* The diificolty of governing the Han Empire was great, and
so the State was divided into 3 separate principalities, called the Saa K^rvli H H <^
Tliree Wugdiomm. The first of these was the Kingdom of Wei M, whicbroompriaed
the Central and Northern Provinces, and had for its capital Lohyang. It lasted SO
years. The second was the Kingdom of Wa H, extending down to the Yangtze river,
and comprising Hunan, Ilupeh, Kiangsu and ChAkiang, with its capital at Nanking.
It lasted 46 years. The third was the Kingdom of Shnk i| in Szechw'an,with its
capital at Ch*6ngta. It lasted 44 years.
A struggle for supremacy soon began between these 8 Kingdoms. OlHie UeMI
0 iOI # (A.D. 221-223), a descendant of the Han dynasty, ruled Shuh. He attacked Wo,
but was defeated. Headra H ^ (A.D. 223-258), his successor, made peaoe with
Wu. Both then combined in a joint attack upon the Wei kingdom, but this latter
vanquished them. Heuehu was taken prisoner, led captive to Lohyang, and thus
brought to a dose the Minor Han dynasty. The supreme authority was now wield[ed
by SMema Chao f| B| 0, General-in chief of the Wei troops. He died A.D. 265, and
his son, Ssttma Yin W| B| jK* founded a new dynasty, that of the Western Tsin^
The period of the Three Kingdoms is one of the most interesting of Chinese
history, and has been immortalized by the famous historical novel called the Sm^
Kw«li H ■, or Hlalerjer Use Tliree $lAtes. The actions recorded abound in
marvellous adventures and thrilling incidents, and it may be compared to the age of
chivalry in Europe. Chinese and Japanese story-tellers draw largely from these
times, while the greater part of Chinese stage-plays reproduce the characters of the
period.
Although governed by different rulers, these three States spoke the same
language, and had a like administration, and so the influence of the Chinese race had
been aMe to extend far Southwards.
4. Thm TbIs ff dysmiljr (A.D. 265-4*J0) was founded by Szema Yin
81 BI K, who took the dynastic title of Watt ft # (A.D. 265-290). He estobUshed
his capital ^^^^hywugt '" WAn^« Internal discord and agitation, combined with the
dread of hostile neighbours, rendered the consolidation and unity of the Empire an \
imperious duty. The main object of Wuti was to add the Wu A principality to his i
dominions. A naval expedition was fitted out, and a battle having taken place in the ,
Tungt'ing Lake (Hunan), Wu was defeated. China was now united again under one
ruler. Wuti however at the close of his reign gave himself up to pleasure, entertained
a company of 5,000 female comedians, and travelled in a car drawn by sheep. He
reigned 35 years, and left the throne to his son Hweiti.
Hweitt S IV* (A. D. 290-907). — During this reign, the Tartar Huns ^ni forth
claims to the throne. Nothing of importance however took place till the next Em-
peYorJBwBllMlt'# <A^^ ;t07-»K)), ««canded the throne. The Tartan then invaded
the N. of the Empire, took Lohyang (A. D. 310), and carried off in succession the
liw and IV^ Emperors of the dynasty. After this reverse, the Tartars reigned
454 aiGTlOlf T. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC MOaAAFHT.
supreme over N. China, while the enfeebled Tsins removed their capital to Nanking,
Ih^KJiXigsVL ProVfnbei hence the name of Eastern Tain given to the dynasty from A. D,
817-420. Of the 11 Emperors who ruled during this latter period, all were weak and
incompetent. LiuyU H Hi, an ambitious General, who formerly supported the
Eastern Tsin, in their struggle with the other rival chieftains, murdered one Emperor,
and compelled the last, Knnctl f^ f (A. D. 419), to abdicate in his favour. He
then establisbed a new dynasty, known as the Sung $|;,wtth himself as first Emperor.
The Empire during the Tsin dynasty was divided into 19 Ohovf ^ oriVvotneei,
controlled by Civil Ck>vemor8. Nmiieroua wan also took place between the chieftains
of the IS principal Feudal States, those of the N. being generally viotorioiis over the
Southerners.
The Wentem snd Eastern T$in ruled for 155 years, under 15 monanshs.
5. Tke iS^IISK SR dynasty, known as the Liusung S| ^ (A. D. 480-
419).-- LiuyU (| Hi, on becoming Emperor, took the dynastic title of Watt ft ffP* (A.D.
4^9-423). At this time, there was a constant struggle between the Ghinese of the S.
and the Tartars of the N., and hence it is called the period of Use dMfltoDbeiweea
tto N. and 8. The N. was in the hands of the Tartars since Hwaiti (A. D. 810), of
the Tsin dynasty, and was divided into several petty principalities : Wei (T'obaTkriars;
Capital Lohyaug), Hsia (Hsiuugnus), Northern Yin (Eastern Tartars), Weetem Liang
and Tein (Tangut Princes). Wati held sway only over the Southern part of the Bmpire,
and had his Capital at Nanking, in Kiangsu. He reigned but 8 years, and left the throne
to his soon SlMOil >> ^ (A. D. 423), who was deposec^ and murdered after a nign
of one year. WteAl (A.D. 424*458) succeeded him, and struggled against the Toha Tar-
tars of Weiy for the conquest of Honan. W^nti finally recovered this Provinoe, bat was
soon after compelled to'relinquish it,- and died murdered by his son, while the latter was
murdered in turn by his own brother. The two next Emperors, llkiytt 9! 1|P'(A.D.
465-478) and T«'Mir«^a Waaiir ^ ft 3E (A. D. 478), were cruel and bloodthirsty,
while the two last, being adopted children, held but nominal sway over the oountry.
The dynasty thus ended miserably, after a series of unwonted crimes. It lasted 59
years, and had 8 sovereigns.
0. Tke Three sliortllTed dynasiles : the a<nuhem ivi H
(A.D. 479-502), Liaof 9^ ( A. D. 502-557) and Ch'te K (AD. 557-500). — During the
whole of this period, as under the previous Sung dynasty, there was m doal
BMpIre In CXrfoA. The Southern Empire or Nanch^ao HI tfl had three short dynas-
ties, while the Northern or Pehch^ao it ff ruled through the three houses of Wei Hi
Chow H, and the Northern Ts*i Dl|. A struggle for supremacy constantly existed
between these houses, and the balance of success finally declared itself in favour of
Wei. We shall deal here only with the 8 Southern dynasties :
The TS^I 9f dynmily (A.D. 479-502) was founded by Siao Taoeh'Sng jR
jK JRt A famous General who rose to prominence by his wars with the Wei Kingdom,
and finally usurped the Imperial power. On ascending the throne, he took the dynastic
title of Kaott |S # (A.D. -179-488), and maintained the capital at Nanking^ He was a
wise, upright and frugal prince, but reigned only 4 years. He was followed by 6 other
short-lived rulers, the last of whom was Hotl fD ff^ (A.D. 501-602). This prince, aged
but sixteen, was cast into prison and strangled by Siaoyen JH ff , another usurper,
who set up a dynasty called the Liang.
CHAPTER Til. aiBB AMD PROORBSS OP THB rCHlNBSE BHPIRB. 455
Thm lilaoK K dynasty (A.D. 502-557). -^This dynasty was established
by SiaoySn ■ ff , who took the dynastic title of WuU ft ^ (A.D. 502-550). His
ambition was to conqaer the Kingdom of Wei, but be was defeated at Siangyang |K
m, in Hupeh. In another campaign, he was more successful. Wei however soon after
recovered its strength. Wuti, at the end of his reign, became a fervent Buddhist, and
abandoning his palace, entered a Buddhist monastery. The affairs of the State being
neglected, a rebellion soon broke out, and resulted in the downfall of the dynasty.
The Clft*6n W dynasty (A. D. 557-590) was founded by Ch'Sn Paaien
ffl m 5bi ^^^ ^' ^^^ Generals of the former dynasty, who compelled Kingti Qc ffP*, the
last ruler of the Liang dynasty, to abdicate in his favour. He took the dynastic title
of Wuti jft #■ (A. D. 557-560), and reigned three years. A new Kingdom, that of
fH^^r JQ, arose at this time in the North. It soon absorbed Wei^ and became the
rival of Ch*^n. At last, Yan^klen IB iS) ft distinguished General, usurped the supreme
power, and marched upon Nanking at the head of 500,000 men. Having taken the
city, he led the last Emperor of the Ch'6n dynasty, Heiicha ft ^, captive to Shen-
si (A« D. 590). The ruler of Chow then established a new dynasty, known as that of
SuiUf-
\
7. The Snl PR dynasty (A. D. 590-620). — Tangkien iB j£, on ascend-
ing the throne, took the title of Wdnli 3$t ^ (A.D. 590-605). He was a wise and able
prince, and had a magnificent court at Ch'angngan A $• He reigned but 15 years,
and was succeeded by his second son Tatigiit who reached the throne through par-
ricide, and through the murder of his elder brother.
Tan^ fli V (A. D. 605-618) was an intelligent ruler, bnt a man of violent
temper, who also g^ve himself up to extravagance and debauchery, and squandered
immense sums in his palaces and pleasure-grounds at Yangchow ^ ^ . He trans-
ferred hia capital from Oh*angngan to Lohyang^ in Honan, and extended a system of
canals from the Hwan^-ho to the Yangtze-kiang. He ordered also several works to be
collected, and instituted the literarydegree ofTfocfor. He engaged in several expedi-
tions against Korea (A.D. 612;6]4), and made th© country. pay tribute to China
(A. D. 6l^). At the close of his reign, Liyiien ^ ^, one of his Generals, leagued
with tHie KHtaft Tunguses, and soon became the virtual ruler of the Empire. Yangti
fled to Yangchow jft ^, in Kiangsu l*rovince, where he was shortly afterwards assas-
sinated. His son and grandson were also both murdered. LiyUen was thus the
undisputed master, and established a new dynasty known as the T*ang J|p.
y. Tht MedUeval Dgnasties.
(A.D. 620-1368).
This period comprises 8 djniasties : the 'Fanff IS {G20-907), the Poaterior
lianff or Heu Utmg ^ 9^ (907-923), the Pnrterior T'an^ or Hen r*ang ft ff
(92a-936), the FMlerlor Tito or Heu Tsln ^ V (936-947), the Fofllerior Han or
Hea Han ft 8t (947-951), the PUMterlor Chow or Heu Oliow ft j^ (951-960), the
Sni^ SK (960-1280), and the TAen yt (1280-1368) dynasties. Of these S dynasties, 8
have been illustrious : the first and the two last. The 5 others were but of short
duration, and are known by the name of the Fhre Dynasties (Wut*ai 3£ fC) or Ten
^^o^ (907-960).
456 SKTIOM ▼. MLITIGAL AMD ICOMOMJG AlOOaAfflT.
]• The T^mmU iff dysasljr (A.D. 620-907). — Under this dynasty, an
en of unity, peace and'prosperity opened for China, with the result that literature,
agriculture and trade were especially developed. In the year 029, the Empire was
divided into 10 Too M or ProvinceB, and later on into 15.
Wmmtmn X jft (AD. 020-087).'— JLty^lm ^^M, the founder of the T<ang dynasty,
hut better known hy the Imperial title of JToo/fii, established his capital at Ch^angngan
(Singan Puj^Jp, Shensl He pacified the warring factions and encouraged leaning,
while his second son, Li Shimin ^ ft St led the army to battle, and was suooessfnl
in all his campaigns. This excited the jealousy of his brothers, especially of the eldest,
who conspired against him, and were subsequently killed by Shimin. Later on, Kao-
tsu abdicated (surviving still 9 years) in favour of Shimin, who succeeded him on the
throne under the dynastic title of Taitaung,
TnHitTj: ik aR (A.D. 027-050). «- Despite his fratricide and the forced abdica-
tion of his father, T'aitsung proved an able and far-sighted ruler, and deserved at the
hands of annalists the name of Oreat. His military courage was tempered by compas-
sion and gentleness. He restored peace and national unity, raised a standing army,
and crushed the power of the Turcomans, but failed in his expeditions against Tibet
and Korea. Embassies came from foreign countries and kingdoms to pay him tribute.
He favoured literature, and was an ardent admirer of Confucius, of whom he said :
"Confucius is for the Chinese what the water is for the fish." It was during his reign
that ihe_N^9toaaJU soUled in Chijia, and the Mahomsdaau jenteved the wuutfy. T*ai-
tsung died in A.D. 050, after a reign of 23 years, and left the throne to his ninth son,
Kaot$ung,
lf«<twing X m (A. D. 050-084) engaged in several wars. A campaign against
the Tibetans proved at first unsuccessful, but finally resulted in expelling them from
the Empire. Korea was subdued, and divided into 5 provinces, over which Chinese
officials were appointed. He took one of the widows of his father for bis consort, the
famous Dowager Tfu R, who later on will ruin the State, and tarnish the ftdr name
of the dynasty. This ambitious and unprincipled woman had the Empress dq>osed
on a false accusation, and displayed the most barbarous cruelty towards all those she
considered her enemies. Kaotsung died in 084, and left the throne to his son Chungisung
1(1 m, but the Dowager Wu confined him to prison, and ruled the country for 21 years.
Tte Dvwaser BBHUg— W» Hea R Jg (A. D. 084-705). — On the death
of Kaotsung, the Dowager Wu usurped the sovereign authority, clad herself in the
Imperial robes, offered the annual sacrifices to heaven, and erected a temple to her
ancestors. She banished or killed the principal Princes of the House of T'ang. During
her government, the Tibetans and K^itans were vanquis)ied. She was at last deposed,
and ChssngUmmg ^ 41 (A. D. 705-710), the rightful heir, proclaimed Emperor, but
he did not reign long, and perished poisoned by his wife. Several weak and unimpor-
tant Emperors succeeded him on the throne, and the dynasty gradually declined.
During the reign of Saf— g Ht IK (A.D. 750-708), the struggle between
N. and S. began anew, while a Hsinngnn invasion compelled Taitmmsg ft m (A. D.
703-780) to abandon his capital at Ch'angngan. 'WoUmhi^ ft 9)( (A. D. 8il-^7)
persecuted Buddhism. At the close of the dynasty, several rebellions broke out, headed
by ambitious Governors and Generals. Hmmsg |B jj^ (A. D. 800-874) had no palace,
and all the great towns of Central China were in mins. Ghno Sttenli ft 1L It
(A. D. 905-007), the last of the T'angs, abdicated and was soon after assassinated. The
dynasty thus collapsed. It lasted for 287 years, and 20 Emperors sat on the throne.
CHAPTSft Til. BI8B AMD PROOAB88 OF THB CHINB8I BMFIRB. 457
Like the Han, the T'an^ dynasty is one of the most iUustrions of China.
It asBored union and peace^ while agricultore and trade were wonderfully developed.
Literature wot patrontMedf ^hA the most celebrated poets of China flonrished. The
Western boundaries of the Empire were extended, and Korea became a Province
governed by Chinese officials. Embassies were received from different States. Maho-
medaniwn was introduced, and the famous Nettorian tablet erected at Ch^angngan
(Singan Fu), by Imperial sanction A. D. 781.
At this period, the people of the South were incorporated with the Empire,
and to mark the event, style themselves Tangjinjfl \ or menofT^ang.
9. Tlie FiTe OynaBtleS or Wntal 2 fC (Five Generations. A.D.
907-960). — After the T'ang came five ephemeral dynasties, called also the Ten
States or Shihkwoh'f' H|. In 53 years, ihey had all disappeared, and the longest of
them lasted only 16 years. These dynasties are the following :
The Fo^^lerlor Umw^ or Hea liai^ ft 9^ (A.D. 907-923) was established by
ChuwSn it X, who took the Imperial title of T*aiUm ik M- He established his
capital at Lohyang, in Hocan. The dynasty was overthrown by Li Ts^untsui ^D^JR*
Tlie PUMterior T*ang or Hen 'Fan^ ft fg (A.D. 923-936). — Li Ts'untsui
on founding this dynasty, adopted the title of Ch^att^mtamg S ^. He was a great
soldier, and gained several victories over the K*itans. During the reign of his successor,
BlinSiaiinir 91 4^ (A.D. 926-934), it is said that|A^ art of printing fromwooden blocks
The mfllerlor Tsln or Hea Tain ft V (A.D. 936-947) was founded by Shih
Kingt*ang ^ {ft ^) one of the Generals of the preceding dynasty. He formed an
alliance with the K*it«ns, and reigned nnder their patronage.
The Aifller&or Han or Hen Has ft It (A.D. 947-951 >. — Established by Liu
ChiyOen SI ^ X, it lasted but 4 years, and was suppressed by Kwohwei ft M) a
General successful in his expedition against the K'itans.
The Aifllerter Chow or Hen Chow ft M (A.D. 961-960) was founded by
Kwohwei. During his brief reign, confusion and trouble prevailed throughout the
Empire. Finally, Chao Kw'angyin S B ill overcame all his rivals, and established
a new dynasty, that of Sung 5{$.
Here ends this long period of disunion and weakness^ which began at the time
of the Three Kingdoms A. D. 214, and lasted for about 750 years.
S. Tbe Snng $H dysasiy (A.D. 9601280), divided into the NoHhern or
Peh-Sung :|; S{?, and the Southern or Nan-Sung M i^. The Northern Sung ruled
from A.D. 960-1127 ; and the Southern, from A.D. 1 127-12^0.
The Noithern Sumg or Peh-Sung ^ ^ (A.D. 9601127). — The Sung dynasty
was founded by Chao Kw*angyin S B JKt ^^o assumed the dynastic title of T*altoa
jt ML (A.D. 960-976). He established his capital at K'aifung Fu Rj #t Jtf, in Honan.
He was a resolute warrior, but of a oompikSsionate and kind disposition. His great aim
was the consolidation of the Empire, but he had to struggle against sevc^ral rival Princes,
and the R'itans, who were then established in the Liaotung B JR peninsula. He
institnted a lioard of Punishments, and thereby curtailed much the power of the
Provincial Governors. He left the throne to his brother Taitsung.
T'aiioun^ ik fj^ fA.D. 976-996) waged an unsuccessful war against the KHtans.
During his reign, a rebellion was quelled in Szechw'an. He bestowed posthumous
458 8BCT10N y. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIG MO&RAFHT.
honours on the descendants of Confucius, and exempted them from taxation.
UMmff K ^ (A J). 998-1023), his successor, had nothing remarkable in his career.
JteUnuiS (^ 0^ (AJD. 10123-1064) patronized literature and education, and
opened schools throughout the Empire. Some of China's greatest historians flourished
in this reign, the most famous being 8gema Kwang ^ JK A (A JD. 1019-1086). At this
time, the Tangut Kingdom of Hsia, in Kansu, rose to prominence, and threatened to en-
croach on the Chinese territory. Peace was however secured, by China paying an annual
tribute of gold, silver and silk. J6ntsuug was succeeded by X^a^lUnB^ K Hk (A.D.
10^-1068), who reigned but 4 years.
At this time, the Empire was divided in 26 Ltu ff or Circuitif a division adopted
to facilitate the administration of the country.
{ Tlgflirtaum: jM> Us (A.D. 1068-1086).~I>uring this reign, a social reformer named
! Wang Nganshih £ ft :{i (AJ>. 1021-1086) attcAnpted to change the method$ of taxation
and the tenure of land. According to him **the poor should not be taxed, and the
Government should take all commerce, industry and agriculture, into its hands, and
thus protect the poor against the rich." The Emperor favoured the new system of
economy. The scheme however met with violent opposition, and finally impoverished
and ruined the State.
In AJD. 1125, the Kin ^ Tartar$, better known under the name of the ^Qoldm
Horde^'* defeated the E4tans, and founded a new kingdom ( A.D.1125),with Liaojrang S M
at first, and then Peking 4b S( m capital. The rising power immediately advanced
against the Sungs. At the approach of the army, HweiiMUiS ft Hi abandoned
K'aif ung Fu, and fled to Nanking. His son capitulated, agreed to pay a large indemnity,
and ceded Shansi and Chihli to the conquerors. Nothing however was paid, and a
new invasion took place, in which the Emperor was carried off into captivity. All the
Northern Provinces fell under the sway of the Kins, and thus closed the period of the
Northern Sung (A.D. 1127). A long struggle, principally centred in Honan, now began
between North and South for the maateiship of the Empire.
The SouUieni Sun^ or Nan Sung JH ^ (A.D. 1127-1280). During this period,
the Chinese Empire was limited to the Provinces S. of the Tangtze.
Kaoteranc IS ^ (A.D. 1127-1168), brother of Hweitsnng, the captive Emperor,
established a new capital at Nanking JH Sf, hence the dynasty was henceforth known
as the Southern Sung. He was a weak and pusillanimous monarch, refused to cross
the river and fight the Kins, but called in the Mongols against them. A struggle ensued.
Mongols and Kins fought desperately, till in A.D. 1284, the Kina were finally eubduedt
and their djmasty overthrown.
UUNmir 9 ni (A. D. 1225-1265), the Y^ Emperor of the Southern Sung, seeing
his enemies defeated, determined to occupy the old capital of the dynasty at K^aifung
Fu. The Mongols protested, and ordered him to retire. He refused, and war broke out.
The conflict was carried on with much energy, and several cities were taken, among
them Siangyang iR R| and Hanyang 8t Nl» in Hupeh;and SoochowWt^t in Kiang-
Bu. Hereupon, the Court withdrew to Hangchow fK Mi in Chftkiang. This city was
also soon afterwards taken, and the young Emperor, KungH H^ ffP*, carried away
prisoner to Peking (A.D. 1276). The Emperor's brother fled to Foochow, in Fokien,
and after to Kwangtung, where he died of exhaustion. Pingti ^ ffP* was now placed
on the throne. The Mongols pursued him, and defeated him to the West of Macao,
where on seeing himself abandoned, he sprang into the sea and perished. Thus ended
the Sung dynasty. It lasted 320 years, and had 18 monarchs.
GHAPTI^a Til. RJ8B AND PftOaaSBS OF THB GHINBtB BMPIEB. 459
is another of the great dyna$U^ of China. Daring its sway of
power, the Empire was consolidated, the authority of the Oovemors restricted, and
peace developed. Literature and the arts were cultivated, and many eminent writers
flooriihed. Its philosophical tendency was rather materialistic, and its economic
scheme a failure. It lacked the military prowess and energy necessary to hold back
the Tartars and Mongols, while its alliance with the latter proved fatal, and sealed the
doom of the dynasty, which fell glorioasly fighting to the last.
4. Tke TiieB it ^jnmmij (A. D. 1280-1368). - The Mongols were
summoned to assist the Sung djmasty against the Kin$. When these latter had been
defeated, the Mongols gradually conquered the whole of China, despite the heroic
resistance of the last supporters of the Sungs. Kublai Khan or Sitehen^ after subduing
China, established the Yiien X dynasty, took the title of Shitsu ft JH, and fixed
his eapiUU at Kambalu (city of the Khan) or Peking. His court was magnificent, and
he divided the country into 10 Shing f or Province:
Skllsa "B: JH (A.D. 1280-1295), on ascending the throne, assumed a conciliatory
attitude towards the Chinese, adopted their customs, and patronized their literature.
Id regard to religion, except to Taoism, he exhibited the widest toleration. In his
reign, trade and industry developed. He reeons^'r^^ <fc^ Ttnfu»t^ni n»m»ni («^ p ^^y
and extendeditto T^ienttin^ in order to carry tribute to the Capital and supply the
Imperial granaries. His expedition against Japan was a failure, though he was a little
moro successful against Cambodia and Burma. It was at this time that Marco Poloj
the great Venitian traveller, visited China (A. D. 1271), and resided there for 17 years.
Kublai died in 1295, and was succeeded by his grandson Temur, who took the dynastic
title of Ch*ingt$ung.
Obf^t^imwag Jit ^ (A. C. 129&-1308). — During this reign^oodBjtnd.faiiiine.
deaolated the country, and rendered the people discontented, and inclined to rebellion
and brigandage.
Under the Emperor JOiKiiBg fl ^ (A. C. 1312-1321), the Hanlin Academy
was rostored, and the highest offices conferred on the best scholars of the Empire.
He ignored however the rites, and sent a eunuch to sacrifice to Confucius.
Daring the latter period of the Tiien dynasty, rebellions wero frequent, and
secret societies numerous, among them that of the White Lily or Pehlien Kiao dj^tk*
Pirates ravaged the Southern coasts. nJniYAftn^l^tf^^ ^^ ^^^l^^^y>,^f*\^i^9^ became
notorious. A native of Nganhwei, he was at first a Buddhist monk^ but throw off the
oowl to roscue the coantry from the Mongols.
SkMia M # (A.D. 1338-1368) was the last of the Tiien Emperors. He was a
weak monaroh, and gave himself up to pleasuro and debauchery. He taxed heavily
the people, and this increased the general discontent. During the latter part of his
reign, Cbu Yiienchang seized Nanking (A.D. 1356), and was soon everywhere victorious.
Peking was afterwards taken^ and the Mongols driven beyond the Great WaU. The
Yiien dynasty thus came to an end, and the popular ex-monk set up a new dynasty,
known as the Ming.
The Monsol* were hospitable to foreigners, but never popular urith the Chinese^
who considered them as barbarians. Some good will was at first displayed, but preju-
dice, and a spirit of veiled rebellion rankled throughout the country. Unsuccessful
expeditions, heavy taxation, official extortion and misgovernment, increased the latent
discontent, and finally caused the downfall of the dynasty. In the last straggle, they
460 8Bcnaif ▼. mlitical and tcaNomc esoeBAMT.
displayed little murtial vigour. The TUens were devout Buddhists. The dyoMty
Usted 88 yeftrg, and reckoned 10 sovereigns.
y. The Modem DgnoMiies.
( A.D. 1906 to the preMot timec).
Two dynasties are found in this last period : one Chime$e, called the IHbC 91
(A.D. 136R-1GU); the other of Manehu origin^ and known as the IV'fal^ j/f.
1. The Mlns m dynasty (AJ>. lS88-164i') was founded hy Cku r««Jt.
cAaft^.hetter known under his style of reign as Hmi^wn |K JK (AJ>. 1388-1999). He
established ^ankinjf his principal, and K*aifnng Fu his secondary eofital. He was an
able general and a wise ruler, and throughout his reign, displayed prudenoe, economy
and moderation. He encouraged literature and education, opened schools and lihrariea
in the cities and large towns, and eodifisd the law9, Mongol raids in the North were
suppressed, and at the close of his reign, peace was established throughout the whole
Empire. He appointed his grandson Kienwin to suooeed him.
KiesivriBi M % (A. D. 13901403) was 16 years of age when he awsended the
throne. His uncle, the Prince of Yin (Y6n Wang [B 3E), rebelled against him, and
proclaimed himself Bmperor, under the title of Yunglok, Klenwto iled to SsechwHm,
and entering a Buddhist monastery, led a secluded life there tor forty years.
YiMSloli j|t M (A. D. 1408-1425). — During this reign, Tongking was anneaied
Of a Chinete Province, but became tribute-bearing again under the next SmpeitM- (A J>.
1426). In the year 1416, he resolved to transport the capital to Peking, but the final
transfer was not effected till 1421. Tungloh encouraged literature, and ordered the
best scholars to compile a vast encyclopedia (^gli Tikts*Uen t£ 9 jfc £) of 23,000
volumes. His 2 successors ruled but 11 yeara. ^— -^_— — ^
Cliteri*n«ff £ It (A. D. 1436-1450). - During this reign the eouH eunmchB
completely controlled the Imperial will. The Mongols invaded the Empire and
defeated the Chinese army. The Bmperor was taken prisoner, but allowed afterwards
to return. His brother Kfais«'nl fl^ t# (A.D. 1450-1458) was now pUced on the throne,
but happening to die soon after, Cli^i84*ang still ruled for another 8 3rears. Daring
the reign of Oh<4B^wa M it (A. D. 1165-1488), territorial grants were made to the
members of the reigning family, who contributed to its elevation. This discontented
much the people, and finally led to the downfall of the dynasty. Important public
works were also completed. The canal between Peking and the Peh-ho was deepened.
and the Great Wall repaired (A.D.'II70).^Hami, an important trading centre, was
captured from the Tartars (A.D. 1477). Ch*Snghwa was succeeded by his son ■■i^elil
5K Hi (A.D. 1488-1.M)6\ who put down an insurrection in Hainan.
Ohte^teli £ tl (A.D. 1506-1522). — In this reign the PoHuguete reached
Canton (A. D. 1516). Acts of piracy having been committed, they were afterwards
massacred in large numbers at Ningpo (A.D. 1545). Those who escaped, fled to
Ts'iienchow A M in Fokien, and subsequently to Macao, where they w^re allowed
to Rettle (A.D. 1557), on payment of an annual rental of 500 Taels.
Klatflinff X Iff (A. D. 15.'2.1567) anoended the throne at the age of 14, and was
rather a poet than a competent administrator. His reign was tronbled by the repeated
incurnionn of thr Mongoh in the N., and of the Japanese on the coast. Those latter
captured Ninfirpo, Hangi^bow, Sungkiaug, Soochow and Shanghai (A.D. 1554). From
this date, the dynasty began to decline.
GHArna tik rise and proarksb ob mi chinbsb bmpirk. 461
WaalUi X ■ (A.D. 1578ie20) ascended the throne at the age of 6 yearo, and
was the only great Emperor at the close of the dynasty. During his reign, the Japanese
invaded Korea^ and were allowed to settle at Fasan (Fushan H UJ). Intercourse was
opened with the Spanmrds^ and the first Jesuit^ Wiutum/iritftt entgred China^ Valignani
and Ruggien fn TS7(^ ahd'Kteet in 1588 {see p. 355).
In 1618, the Manchus under Nurhach^ih (9} |E fl^ #)* invaded Liaotung S( J|[,
defeated the Chinese army and captured Liaoyang. In 1625, the conquerors established
their eopt/a^ a^ Mukden^ and in 16*29 advanced against China, but failed to capture
Peking. The danger was but temporarily averted.
Cli'anffobdii^ jH M (A.D. 1628-16i4) was the last Emperor of the Bling
djmasty. During his reign, rebellions broke out on all sides. Among them, the most
fatal was that led by Li TseeWing if! j^ JK, who after devastating Shensi and Ho-
nan, attacked and took Peking (A.D. 1644), and was for a short time the virtual master
of China. The Emperor, seeing that all was lost, ended his days by committing suicide.
The Chinese General, Wu Sankwei ft H tt* summoned the Manchus against the
usurper. These acquiesced promptly, entered Peking in triumph, and suppressed the
rebellion. They then refused to leave, and set up a new dynasty, called the TsHng fff,
of which Shunehi M jtf was the first Emperor. Thus ended the Ming dynasty, .
amidst rebellion and bloodshed, and China wa? for the second time ruled by the I
Northern Tartars.
The Ming dynasty encouraged literature and codified the laws of the state. The
territorial granting of land to scions of the reigning house was a mistake, discontented
the people, and revived the feudal system. The tyrannical power of the eunuchs, the
unsuccessful wars waged with Japan, the extravagance and improvidence of the last
Emperors, and the growing discontent of the people, caused the downfall of the
dynasty.
Under the Mings, the Empire was divided into 15 ShSng ^ or Provinces. In
the folloufing dynasty^ this number vrhB extended to 18. Three of the old Provinces
were divided into 2, Shensi constituting the new Provinces of Shensi and Kansu
Kiangnan, the Provinces of Kiangsu and Nganhwei ; and Hukwang, those of Hunan
and Hupeh.
S. The TAto^llIK iC fH dysmity (A.D. I644 to the present day). ~ The
Manchus on reaching the throne spared no efforts to conciliate the Chinese, and only
imposed upon them to shave their heads in recognition of Tartar authority. This is
the origin of the queue or plait, which is worn down to the present day.
fSBwchi M ftl (164M6U2) was the first Emperor of the Manchn dynasty.
Wu Sankwei ft H 41, who called in the Manchus, received the title of "P'ingsi Wang"
Y Bf X, or Prince Pacifier of the West, and was requested to continue in the service
of the new dynasty. Numerous uprisings took place in the N., but were soon suppressed.
At Nanking, an attempt was made to maintain the Mings. Chu Yiusung He fb Hkt
grandson of Wanli, was proclaimed Emperor, but the choice was unfortanate, and he
lacked wisdom and energy. The Manchus took Yangchow H M, in Kiangsu, and put to
death 8hih K^ofah jfc IT tt* the defender of the place. They then advanced on .Nanking.
The Emperor fled to Wuhu, and was treacherously drowned in the Yangtze. Nanking
was taken, and henceforth called Kiangning Fu itHi fff^ (Peace restored to Kiangsu).
Sooohow,Hangohow,Ningpoand Canton were subsequently subdued, and peace estab-
lished in the South. A great part of this reign was occupied by these wars. A pirate chief
i62 ticndif ▼. political amo bcomoiiic MoaiAnr.
devoted to the cause of the Mings, and called Koxinga (Kwohnngy^ M MiM),
harassed the coast of Fokien and entered the Yangtze, bat failed to take Nanking.
Another rebellion was suppressed in Szeohw'an. Shunehi died in 1668, at the age of SB,
and appointed his third son K^anghti to be his saocessor.
K*aiisiwf tk K (1662-1728) ascended the throne at the age of 8 yean. Daring
his minority, a regency administered the State, and showed great hoatUity to the
Catholic religion. In 1667, having come of age, he assumed control of the Government,
and allowed ihs Mititmariet to return to their ehurelu$y and minister to their converts.
Daring his reign, eunuchi were forbidden to hold official positions in the State, while
the Chinete were given equal repretentiUion with Manchus in all officiai afqpolDtiiients.
Two embassies came to Peking, one from Bussta, and the other from Holland. In 1674,
Wu Sankwei, the then Governor of Kwangtung and Yttnnan, raised the standard (rf
revolt against the dynasty. Ssechw'an, Fokien, Kiangsi and Hunan soon rallied to the
cause of Wu, but he died in 1678, and thus brought the rebellion to a olooe. KHmghsi
went to Mukden to thank his ancestor^- for the delivery of the dynasty. In 1683,
Formo9a, held by Coxinga, was 9ubdued^ and annexed to the Empire. In 16^, the
trea/ty of Nerehimk was signed with Russia, while in 1696, the BletUhM, a Kalmnoh
tribe of ni, were defeated. In 1790, Russia sent a second embassy to Peking, but little
good oame of it.
K*anghn firmly established the Manchu dynasty in China. To prevent revolts,
Manehu garriuma were ttoHoned in the principal cities of the Empire, and it was
enacted that no official could hold office in his native Province, or govern for more than
8 years. K'anghsi was a wise, courgeous, and magnanimous ruler, and a grsat patron
of literature. During his reign, a standard dictionary, known 9MjK^wnghm?9 dieHanam.
was compiled by a commission of scholars. A laige encyclop«dia of 5,000 volames
was also published, while he himself wrote the 16 famous moral fiuummt, afterwards
annotated by his son Yungohftng, and oaUed the Sacred Bdiot. K'anghsi died In 172S.
He reigned 61 years, and appointed his fourth son TungchSng as his snooessor.
Tonrciiii^ M X (1723-1796) was 44 years of age when he ascended the
throne. He buniahed the Jesuits to Macao, except a few kept in his service as astrono-
mers. Over 300 ch urches were destroyed, and 900,000 christians left without their pastors.
In 1727, Russia opened a school at Peking for the study of Chinese, and the Portoguese
sent an embassy to the court. While a rebellion broke out in Mongolia, the Bmperor
suddenly died. TungchSng had but a short reign of 13 years. He loved literature,
cared little for military glory, persecuted religion, and was a bitter hattnr nf ffimlffntn
K'lenlung: IS tt (17961796) succeeded his father at the age of 25. During his
reign, a rebellion was suppressed in Kwangsi and Honan, as well as an uprising which
broke out in Mongolia. In 1768, he compelled Burma to pay a triennial tribute. In
1775, he reduced the Miaoige tribes of Szechw'an, put to death their leaders, and
banished others to Hi. In 1790, war was declared against the Chirkhas of Nepanl,
whor bad invaded Tibet. In 1798, Lord Macartney*s emhasay reached China. The
ambassador was received and treated as a trihute-hearer. He saw the Bmperor twice
at Jehol, and obtained to trade at Canton, but subject to official caprice and exactions.
K'ienlung made frequent journeys to ascertain the state of the countij. _He ^ftigT*^
60 years. Finding it un filial to surpass his grandfather K*anghsi^ he iMioated in
1796, but lived tiU 1799.
K*ienlung was a ruler of far-seeing policy, and enjoyed a long and glorious reign.
He had a lust for conquest, and wanted peace on the frontiers, hence his wars. like
'■m
CHAPm Til. RI8B AMD PE0MB8S OF Tm CHIiq|pi IMPIRB. 463
his father, he feared the influence of the Jesuit Missionaries, and being surrounded
by hostile advisers, he put restrictions on their work. In 1746, a terrible persecution
broke out, and lasted to the dose of his reign.
Klakin^ S ft (1796-1821) saw the commencement of his i«ign troubled by '
the rebellion of the White Lily Society^ or Pehlien Kiao 6 X ft- Caused by official
exaction and discontent, ifc extended to Hupeh, Honan, Shensi, Kansu and Szechw'an,
and was finally put down at the cost of an immense number of lives, and a large sum
of money. The Emperor's life was frequently imperilled. Pirates infested the coast of
Kwangtung, Fokien and Ch^kiang, and the Portuguese were requested to check their
depredations. In 1805, a RuMian emhcusy refused to perform the k^owVow Vp M
(ceremony of prostration and knocking the forehead on the ground), and was turned back
at the frontier. In the same year, the propagation of the christian reUgion^ either by
word or writing, was anew prohibited. It was also forbidden to enter the church, or
read any books on the foreign religion. Furthermore in 1814, all missionaries, both
foreign and Chinese, were to be killed, and converts who refused to recant, wei«
condemned to exile. In 1816, Lord Amherat's embassy reached Peking. The Vowt^ow
was required and refused, as it marked vassalage and subjection. The ambassador was
treated with the utmost incivility, and dismissed without an interview.
KiakHng was a weak and voluptuous monarch, who delighted in actors and '
theatrical amusements. During his reign, the dynasty declined much, and insurrec-
tions and disorder abounded. He ignored the status and power of foreign countries,
and assumed China's universal sovereignty as an undisputed fact, to which all nations
should bow. Kiak*ing reigned 35 years, and died at Jehol at the age of 61.
Tnokwan^ Ht % (1821>I850) began his reign by dismissing the court actors
of his father. Many local insurrections and disasters took place, among which was
the first war with Oreat Britain (1840-1843]. It was caused by the contempt with
which tbO euibasslm uf Lurds Macartney and Amherst were treated, the assumption of
China's universal sovereignty, the refusal to treat foreign nations on terms of equality,
and grant liberty of commerce, while the confiscation and destruction of the opium
(20,282 chests), were the last straw which broke British patience. It resulted in China
being worsted, and 5 ports (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai) opened to
foreign trade. The Treaty of Nanking stipulated besides, the cession of Hongkong to
Great Britain, and the pasrment of an indemnity of $ 21 ,000,000 (12 for the war, 8 for
debts due, and 6 for the opium destroyed). IXkllSMx^Praneeand the United States signed
also treaUes with China. The Catholic religion began to be tolerated, and churches
could be built in the 5 open ports. After the Treaty of Nanking, various attempts were
made to evade obligations, but they proved unsuccessful. In 1849, the Ngaofei % g
rebellion broke out, and merged subsequently into the T'aip'ing rebellion. In 1850,
"tfieTelldw river abandoned its Southern course, and flowed henceforth into the Oulf
Chihli.
■^ jfaokwang was a more energetic and just ruler than his predecessor. He w<u
opposed to the opium trade morally, and especially commercially, as it drained the
oountiy of silver, but as much cannot he said of his Ministers, who failed to carry out
his purpose. Had the opium incident not existed, war would have taken place on
the principle of universal sovereignty, diplomatic equality, and liberty of commerce,
upon each of which China was unyielding. Taokwang hated foreigners, and styled
them "outer barbarians" ( Wei-i ^ fQ, to whom China had shown great condescension.
He reigned 80 years, and left -the throne to his fourth son Hsienfung.
464 •BCnW ▼• POLITICAL AND BGONOMIG ABOaiUPHT.
[ S (1850-1861) ascended the throne at the age of 19. In his reign
the TaipHng :k V rebellion broke out, and lasted till lS6i. It originated in K'wangsi^
where its chief, Hung IltUU^Hen fjk ft ^t 9k discontented Hakka peasant, assumed
ihvi title of Heavenly King {T^ien Wang ^ J£), and aimed at the overthrow of the
Manchu dynasty. He was (or some time an inquirer of the Baptist Mission (Pro-
testant) in Canton, read the Bible, and fired with enthusiasm, intended also to destroy
idolatry. His followers abandoned the practice of shaving their heads, and hence
were called Ch^angmao J| % (long-haired rebels). The rebellion soon extended to the
Yangtze valley. Nanking was taken in 1858, made the capital, and held till 18G4.
Several other cities fell also into their hands : Hangyang, Wuch'ang, Ngank*ing, Kiu-
kiang, Wuhu, Soocbow and Hangchow. In 1854, a column advanced on Peking, but
failed to capture it. The Imperial troops offered throughout but weak resistance to the
progress of the rebels, and even at times went over to their ranks.
Other important events, which took place in the South, brought on a eeeond
war with Cheat Britain (1856-1860). The causes were the continual outrages on British
subjects (Canton factories burned), the refusal to open Canton as stipulated in the
treaty of Nanking (1843, art. 2), and the seizure of the ** Arrow", a Isroha flying the
British flag. Tbe French joined to seek reparation for the murder of a Missionary in
Kwangsi. Canton was taken (1857), and tbe Chinese fleet destroyed. The allied Forces
then proceeded North, took Taku, and occupied Tienttin. Here a treaty was signed,
June 26, 1858, and its ratification postponed for one year. When the Foreign Ministers
returned in 1859, they were treacherously fired upon at Taku, The allied fleets
returned to Shanghai, and in 1860, left for the North to continue the war. Taku,
Tienttin and Peking were taken in turn. The Emperor fled in haste to Jehol, and left
Prince Kung^ his brother, to negotiate with the conquerors. The war was brought to a
dose by the Convention of Peking, signed in the Capital, October 24, 1860. A Minister
was henceforth to reside in Peking, Tientsin to be opened, Kowloon^oeded to Great
f Britain, and an indemnity of 8 million taels paid to the Allies. France obtained on
' her side important rights for the Catholics : the christian religion was to be tolerated
and christian converts protected; missionaries could live in the interior, erect ohurches
and open schools, rent and purchase property, while religious establishments confis-
cated in former times were to be restored.
In 1861, the Waiwn Pu ^ Jj^ ff, or Chinese Foreign Office {see p. 298), was
instituted, with Prince Kung as Piresident. Hsienfung refused to return to Peking,
and died at Jehol in 1861, at thVuf;! of 30. He reigned but 11 years, and beheld to his
great regret the country further opened to Western nations. He left the throne to his
son T^ungchi.
T'un^elil H Hi (1861-1875). — After the death of Hsienfung, the Court re-
turned to the Capital. The Princes who favoured the Emperor's dissolute life hoped to
govern after his death, as his only son was but a child of 4 years. The mother of this
boy was Tg*ehsi |S jH, secondary wife of Hsienfung (to day tbe Empress-Dowager),
and i.ot the reigning Empress. Prince Kung V, the late Emperor's brother, oame to
an srrangement with the two Empresses-Dowager, and by a coup-d'Stai, arrested and
put to death Prince Tsai, and tbe other leaders of the anti-foreign policy. Kung and
the Empresses-Dowager, especially Tt^^diksi, formed a regency and ruled henceforih the
Empire.
The TaipHng jfc ^ rebellion, commenced under the previous reign, continued
its ravages throughout the country. Li Hungchang ^B M 4^* *t that time Appointed
CHAPm Til. Rin AND PROMB88 OF THB GBIIfltl BMPIIB. 465
Oovemor of Kiangsn Provinoei engaged 2 AmeriouiB, Ward and Btirgwine^ to organise
a force of Foreigners and Manilamen called the "J^oer Victoriout Armyt** to fight the
rebels. ^Ward achieved some sncoess, bat was defeated at Ts'ingp'n If JS, and sub-
sequently killed (September 21, 1862) on the borders of ChAkiang 9f tC- Li Hungchang
had monuments erected to his memory at Ningpo f| it and Sungkiang :£ {£ {see p. 159).
Burgevine was dismissed the service for misconduct, and went over to the rebels.
Major Gordon^ an Englishman, was then entrusted (1863) with the command of the
"Ever Victorious Army". Through his efforts Sooehoto S A was soon recovered^ but the
rebel leaders were put to death by order of Li Hungchang, despite a promise to the
contrary. Hereupon Gordon resigned (though a gift of 10,000 taels was offered him), and
the "Ever Victorious Army" was disbanded. In 1864, Nanking Hi % was retwered by
the Imperial troops, and the Heavenly King ended his life by taking poison. The Tai-
pHng rebellion wa$ thus tuhdued. It lasted 14 years (1850-1864), extended to 12 Pxt>- I
vinces, ruined 600 cities, and reduced the population of Kiangsu and Nganbwei Pro-
vinces by 20,000,000.
During the T*aip*ing rebellion, the Shanghai custom house was deserted by the
Chinese. The Foreign Consuls took charge of collecting the revenue, and this sytem
being extended to the other open ports, gave rise to the Institution known as the
Imperial Maritime Customa (tee p. 325). Jf' H.N. Lay was appointed its/tvt IntpeetoT'
General (1855), and it depended on the Tsungli YamAn till 1906, when it was trans*
ferred to the Board of Bevenue. Prince Kung commissioned Lay to purchase 8 gun-
boats for the service of the Government. When they reached Shanghai, under
Captain Osborne, Li Hungchang wanted to control them exclusively. To avoid oompll-
oations, the British Minister sent the vessels back. Captain Osborne was indemnified,
and Lay dismissed by the Chinese Government.
In 1861, a Mahomedan rebellion broke out in Kamu, and rapidly extended to
ni and Kashgaria. In 1871 * BtiMia, to prevent disorder on her frontiers, occupied Ili,
and held it till 1881, when it was restored to China. This Northern rebellion lasted
17 years, and was finally crushed in 1878. In 1872, another Motlem rebellion was
quelled in TUnnan {see p. 368).— In 1967, China sent the Burlinghame minion to Western
countries, to induce them to believe that she intended to reform, and entertain kindlier
feelings towards Foreigners. Mean'while anti-foreign riots broke out at Yangohow |§ M
(1868) in Kiangsu, and displayed the hoUowness and insincerity of the mission.
The T*ient9in ^ ||t massa^sre, which occurred June 21, 1870, confirmed the
worst apprehensions. It was caused by anonymoue pamphleie, scattered broadcast by
the anti-foreign party in Peking, against the catholic religion, and by Hories that the
aisten of Charity kidnapped children for the purpose of extracting their eyes and
hearts, to make telescopic lenses, medicine, and change lead into silver (sic). The pro-
verbial credulity of the Chinese took all this for granted, and an attempt was made to
examine the premises of the Orphanage. The French Consul refused, perhaps a little
too rudely, whereupon an attack was made on the Consulate, the Catholic Cathedral
and the Orphanage. Twenty-one Foreignere^ and several native christiane were mtu-
sacreii, while the Officials though appealed to, did nothing to quell the mob. The Foreign
Ministers demanded punishment. An Imperial Edict, dated June 80, exonerated the
Missionaries from all the calumnies above mentioned, and added that everything written
in former times against the Catholic Church was henceforth suppressed. After long
' negotiations, it was agreed to pay the sum of 250,000 taels (£ 80,000), as compensation
money; an official was sent to Franee to apologise for the crime, and the Prefect and
district Magistrate of T*ientain were banished.
80
?
466 SECTION T. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIC MOIfrRAPHT.
In 1871, the Chinese Government made a proposed to modify article 13 of
the French treaty signed at T'ientsin, 1858, concerning the Catholic religion. The
'* Memorandum**, as it was called, is remarkable as exhibiting the final goal towards
which the Chinese Government tends in regard to the Catholic Church. Ko Mission-
ary Sisters, and no orphanages are wanted. Chinese women most not go to Church.
The Foreign Missionaries must not condemn the teaching of Confucius. They cannot
purchase property or build thereon without consulting the local Official, who will
judge whether and to what extent, it may interfere with the unseen influences (native
geomancy or FtingMhui tL 4^) of the locality. They must not protect in an3r^ae the
native christians, and must hand to the local Officials the list of all applicants and
baptized members of the Church. If these conditions obtain, peace will be secured
between converts and non-converts throughout the Empire, for China cherishes both
equally. These proposals were rejected, and this holds down to the present day. In the
British Treaty signed at Shanghai, September 5, 1902, China obtained from Ghreat Bri-
tain a promise to join in an international commission, should China and the Treaty
Powers so agree, to investigate the Missionary Question, and if possible, secure the above
mentioned and ever desirable peace between converts and non-converts (article 18).
In 1872, the Emperor was married ^ and having assumed the reins of Government
and dispensed with the Regency of the Empress-Mother, the Foreign Ministers
demanded an audience. It was reluctantly granted, and to show China's real atti-
tude towards Foreign powers, took place June 29, 1873, in the HaMfor receiving tribu-
I tary nations. . The last years of T'ungchi were filled with trouble, and disorder existed
throughout the country. A famine prevailed in Shensi and Kansu, and the Yellow
River, "China's sorrow", overflowed its banks. On September 10, 187^» Prince
Kung was degraded by the Emperor for using unbecoming language to His Majesty,
but on the following day (September 11), another decree appeared from the two Em-
presses reinstating him in his former rank and dignity. The young Emperor thought
he was independent, but the two ex-Regents reasserted their power. Two months
after. His Majesty became seriously ill, and died January 12, 1875, at the early age
of 19. He left no issue, and the young Empress foUowed him a few days afterwards
to the tomb.
KwanSiA "j/t tf (1875, and still gloriously reigning). ~ On the death of
T*ungchi, a four-year old son of Prince Shun (Shun Wang 0 3£» youngest brother
of Hsienfung), was proclaimed Emperor under the title of KwangsA (Brilliant
succession). Tsl^ehsi, T'ungchi's mother, was aunt to the new Emperor, and thus by
placing her nephew on the throne, she could continue to govern the Empire. Prince
Kung was soon after deposed^ and Li Hungchang appointed as chief adviser to the
Oovemmcnt.
In 1875, the first year of Kwangsti's reign, M' Margary, of the British Consular
Service, was treacherously murdered by Chinese soldiers at Manw3me, inTttnnan.
Margary acted as interpreter to the Commission from the Indian Government for
opening trade with Ytinnan, to which China gave her consent. For some time, war
was imminent, as the official inquiry seemed to be a farce. The matter was however
settled on the following terms : China to send an embassy to London to apologize for the
crime; an indemnity of 200,000 taels to be paid; frontier trade to be allowed between
Burma and Yiinnan; 4 new ports (Ich'ang, Wuhu, Pakhoi, and Wdnchow) to be
opened to foreign trade, and guarantees given for the better protection of foreign life
in future. — During the years 1877-78, a terrible famine desolated the Provinoes of
CHAPTBR Til. RI8B AND PRO0aBSS OF THB CMIHBSB UPIRB. 467
HonftD, Shand, Shantung and Chihli, and caused the death of 8,000,000 of the population.
— In 1881, China concluded with Russia the treaty of S* Petenburgh, and recovered IK,
occupied since 1871 {see p. 862). — From 1882-1885, Japanese interference and inroads
in Korea compelled China to intervene and protect her vassal. Both sides sent troops
to uphold their rights, but finally agreed to withdraw. To avoid complications and
maintain peace, neither was to occupy the country permanently, or send troops without
notifying the other. This convention lasted till 1894. — At the close of the Korean
trouble, a conflict broke out loith France on the Southern frontier. In 1864, France
took Annam, and subsequently proceeded to annex Tongking (1884). Both countries
had been for centuries vassals of China, and now appealed to her for protection. By the
Foumier Convention (May, 1884), China consented to withdraw her troops from Tong-
king, and allow France to occupy the town of Langaan. France, in return for this
cession of territory, consented to respect China's Southern frontier. The Chinese Qovem-
ment delayed however to evacuate Langson, and on the advance of the French troops,
repulsed them with great loss. Hereupon war was decla/red. Admiral Courbet captured
the arsenal and fleet of Foochow. He afterwards proceeded to Formosa, took Kelung,
and blockaded the coast. A treaty of pea.ee was signed June 9, 1885. China agreed
to pay an indemnity of 10,000,000 taels, and gave up all claim to Tongking.
Seven! reforms followed the war with France, the principal being the /orma^ion
of a powerful fleet. Prince Shun, the Emperor's father, was placed at the head of the
Board of Admiralty, and Port Arthur and Weihaiwei were completed as naval bases
for the Northern squadron. Captain Lang, of the British navy, was loaned to the Chi-
nese Government. In a few years, he organized the Northern squadron, and retired
in 1890, leaving all to Admiral Ting, the future hero of Weihaiwei.
In 1887, the Emperor came of age^ and married in 1889 (February 26). At
the same time, the Empress Dowager retired from the regency. In March, 1891, tlie
Emperor gave his flrst audience to the Foreign Ministers. The interview proved most
unsatisfactory, as it took place in the Hall of tribute-bearing nations, and showed
that China held obstinately to her fiction of universal sovereignty. — During the same
year, riots broke out in the Yangtze Valley. They were caused by the Kolao Hwei
(society of old comrades), and the scurrilous writings of Ohou Han, one of the rabid
literati of Honan. Several christian churches, residences of European missionaries,
hospitals and schools were wrecked at Yangohow, Wuhu, Wusih, Tanyang, Chdn-
kiang, Kiangyin, Ich'ang and Kiukiang. The Government claimed it was powerless
to punish the real onlprits, but granted monetary compensation for the destruction
that had been wrought, and exhorted the Viceroys to protect foreign life and
property.
In 1894, war broke out with Japan, the bone of contention, being Korea, and
lasted till February, 1895. The causes were, on the side of China : Korea was her
vassal and applied for protection. On the Japanese side : V the frequent attacks on
her legations in Korea, and the murder of her protegee, Kim Okkiun, killed at Shang-
hai, March 28, 1894, at the instigation of China ; 2'' the desire to control the govern-
ment of Korea; 8* to avoid a civil revolution threatening at home, through the restless
activity of the military class. To these reasons must be added the rising of the Tnng-
haks (Tungkiaos Jf, fjc Eastern religionists and conservatives), against the King of
Korea, and the reforms of his Government. The King appealed to China, his
Suzerain, for protection. Two thousand soldiers were sent to help in restoring order,
and Japan warned when they had arrived. Japan dissatisfied with this act, and
suspecting the sinoerity of China, dispatched on her side ten thousand men.
468 SECTION ▼.. POLITICAL AMD BCONOMIC eiOeBAPHT.
Negotiations were commenced to withdraw the troops of both countries. Meanwhile
the Kowhnng, a British steamer, chartered to convey Chinese troops to Chemulpo,
was sunk by the Japanese cruiur Naniwa (July 25). Hereupon wmr was formally
declared, China lost the IxUile of PHngyang (September 15), and the naval battle of
the Tdlu (September 17)t in which 5 vessels were sunk, and the rest put to flight. Soon
afterwards, the Liaotung peninsula was occupied, and Port Arthur taken (November 21)
by the Japanese. Weihmwei^ China's last naval stronghold, was next attacked, and the
forts and fleet captured (Febuary 12, 1895). Japan now proposed to advance on Peking,
but peace overtures were made, and the war brought to a close by the 8himono»eki
treaty, signed April 17, 1F95. The principal clauses of the treaty were : 1* the indepen-
dence of Korea ; 2^ the Liaotung peninsula, Formosa and the Pescadores Islands to be
ceded to Japan; S* an indemnity of 200,000,000 K*up*ing taels; 4" the opening to foreign
trade of Shashi (in Hupeh), Ch*ungk*ing (in Szechw'an), Soochow (in Kiangsu) and
Hangchow (in Chftkiang). 'When the day for the ratification of the treaty arrived
(November 8, 1895), Busna, Oermany and France protested against the oeeupaHon of
South-Bast Manchuria, and compelled Japan to restore it to China, on payment of an
additional sum of 80,000,000 taels. In return for their services, Russia obtained from
China the right to carry her Siberian railway through North Manchuria to Vladivostock,
with branch lines to Mukden and Port Arthur ; France could continue her Tongking
railway to Nanning Fn, in Kwangsi, while (Germany obtained special mining and
railway privileges in Shantung.
The war with Japan revealed China's weakness, and a period of eneroaehments
on the part of the Western Powers set in. Oermany seized Kiaochoto (November 14,
1897)i in reparation for the murder of two Oerman Missionaries. To counteract German
influence, and secure an ice-free port in Manchuria, Russia demanded Port Arthur
(March 27, 1898), and obtaind it on lease (May 1898), while Weihaiwei was leased to
Oreat Britain (July 1, 1898), who could not see Oermany and Russia advancing without
protecting her own interests. Kwangchow-wan t^9^f^ (Kwangtung) was also leased
to France, April 22, 1898. During the year 1898, the policy of spheres of interest culmin-
ating eventually in partition, and the international rivalry for railway concessions
and mining, greatly alarmed China, and signs of a national uprising took place in Shan-
tung. At the same time, a series of reform edicts were issued by the Emperor (i^orga*
nization of the Government, of the army and of education, the right to memorialize the
throne directly, numerous useless offices to be suppressed). The Empress Dowager
and the Conservatives found these edicts too radical, and determined that they should
be frustrated. The plot being matured, Kwangsa was seized, September 22, 1898, and
compelled to abdicate on the following day. The Empress Dowager, Tg*ehsi, resumed
the regency, abandoned since March 4, 1889. The reformers were arrested, 6 of them
put to death, and the recent reform decrees cancelled. Chinese being distrusted,
Manchu Officials were put in all important positions. In 1900 (January 24), P*utsun
K(Kf son of Prince Twan, and grandson to Taokwang, was chosen Emperor, in
succession to KwangsU. This choice met however with violent opposition both from
Chinese and Foreigners, and P'utsun was declared to be only heir-apparent to the
throne. Subsequently he was degraded (November 90, 1901), and sent back to his
father's home. As the reform movement was being crushed out, the uprising started
in Shantung since the close of 1898, assumed great importance, under the name of the
Boxers (KSkenfei fl B, Boxer rebels, called also Ihwok*tten i( fD fl» Patriotic fists).
These fanatics were opposed to the weak policy of the dynasty, and resolved to rid the
country of Foreigners. Countenanced by the Throne and several high Officials,
CHAPTRR VII. RI8B AMD PROORBSS OF THB CHINB8B BMPIRB. 469
they began their work in Shantung by attacking the native christians, whom they
considered as sold to Foreigners, and hence deserving death. They then passed
over to Chihli, destroyed the railway from Paoting Fu to Peking, and finally
snrronnded the Capital. The Legations alarmed, summoned extra guards, and on
June 5, 1900, were out off from all communication with the outside world, the
Boxers having destroyed the telegraph and railway lines to T'ientsin. On June
21, the tiege of the Legations, and of the Peht^ang or Catholic Cathedral, was
commenced. Boxers and Imperial troops poured in shot and shell, during 2 months,
upon the beleagured Foreigners and thousands of christians, but failed to annihi-
late them. TTie Chancellor of tJie Japanese Legation, and the Oerman Ambassador
were murdered in broad daylight, and a secret edict was issued by the Empress
Dowager ordering the extermination of all Foreigners. A relief expedition, under the
conduct of Admiral Seymour, ot the British fleet, attempted to reach Teking,hni failed
through fierce and constant attacks from the Boxers. In the meantime, Taku and
Tientsin were taken by the allied army of the Treaty Powers, and an advance made
to deliver Peking. The Legations were relieved August 14, and the Capital occupied
by the allied Powers of Great Britain, the United States, France, Russia, Germany,
Austria, Italy and Japan. The Court had fled to Singan Fu, in Shensi, and remained
there till peace was established. The Boxers subdued in Peking, continued their
anti-foreign crusade in Shansi, where 45 Missionaries, Catholic and Protestant, were
killed by order of the Governor Yii Hsien, and their churches, schools and hospitals
destroyed. In Manchuria also a great persecution broke out, and several Foreign
Missionaries, and hundreds of converts fell victims to the hatred of their enemies.
Including both Catholics and Protestants, over 800 Missionaries were put to death,
and the Christian converts, who were massacred, numbered several thousands.
On the part of China, a great political blunder had been committed, and the
Powers were compelled to exact full satisfaction for such a crime. Negotiations were
opened with Prince K'ing and Li Hungchang, representing China, and the Peace Com-
missioners delegated by their respective countries. The principal conditions imposed,
and accepted by China were the following : 1° China to erect a monument to the memory
of the German Ambassador, on the spot where he was murdered, and send an Imperial
Prince to apologize to Germany ; 2* two Princes guilty of having ordered the attack
on the Legations, and several high Officials to be put to death, others to be exiled to
Turkestan ; 3^ the suspension of the official examinations during 5 years, in all towns
where Foreigners were murdered ; 4** an expiatory monument to be erected by China
in each of the foreign cemeteries (English, French and Russian) desecrated ; 5* an
indemnity of 450,000,000 taels (£ 67,500,000), to be paid in 40 instalmenU to the Powers,
corporations and individuals, who had suffered from the disturbance. The tael to be
calculated in the gold currency of each country (3 s. for Great Britain; 0.74 for
the gold dollar of the United States, and 8 75 for the French franc), and China to be
allowed to raise the tariff on maritime imports to an effective 5 % ; 6* the Legation
quarters to be exclusively reserved for Foreigners, policed by them, and put in a state
of defence ; 7^ the Taku forts to be razed, and certain points to be occupied by Foreign
troops, in order to maintain free communication between the Capital and the sea;
8® the Tsungli Yam^n (Chinese Foreign Office) to be transformed into a Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, styled the Waiwu Pu, and to rank before the other Ministries of State;
9® the representatives of Foreign Powers to be henceforth received in the Palace Hall
styled K'ients'ing Kung, to proceed thereto in a sedan chair, to enter the Palaoe
through the central or principal gateway, and to have yellow trappings and tasaels
470 8BCTI0N ▼. POLITICAL AMD BCONOIIIC MOamAFHT.
to their sedan, when presenting their oredentials, or a communication of their respeo-
tive sovereigns to the Throne ; credentials to be handed directly to the Bmperor, and
the representatives to be treated by China on a footing of perfect equality, without
assumption of supremacy on either side.
These terms though severe were far better than China expected. Above all,
the integrity of the country was preserved^ and no further demands made for portions
of her territory. The audience question was also satisfactorily settled, and the assum-
ption of universal sovereignty set at last at rest. These results were principally due
to the skilful diplomacy of Li Hungchang. As the great statesman completed his
work, he died November 7, 1901, at the age of 79. Peace being now established, the
Emperor and Empress Dowager left Shenai (October 6, 1901) and re-entered Peking
January 7, 1902, having being absent 1 year and 4 1 months.— Shortly after their zetum,
an Anglo-Japanese Convention guaranteed the integrity of China and Koiva, while
Russia, who had occupied Manchuria during the Boxer crisis, promised she would
evacuate in 18 months. — In the course of 1902, the situation improved, Tientein
was restored (August 15), and the troops of the Allies withdrawn from the North, with
the exception of 2,000 men, who acted as a permanent guard to the legations in the
Capital. On October 9, Southern Manchuria was restored to China by Bustia.
— Subsequent negotiations resulted in 3 commercial treaties being signed, one with
Great Britain (September 5, 1902), and two others successively with the United States
(October 8. 1903) and with Japan (October 9, 1903). In these treaties, China agreed to
suppress "likin** and internal taxation on foreign imports, on payment of 1 } % surtax
to the e£Fective 5 % allowed by the protocol of Peking, September 7, 1901 (100 p. 828).
She also agreed to adopt a uniform national currency (see p. 320), uniform standaid
weights and measures, to protect trade^marks, patents and educational copyright, to
reform her judicial system and her mining regulations, to set apart in Peking a place
for international residence and trade, and to open the following ports, under the British
treaty : Ch'angsha in Hunan, Wan hsien in Szechw'an, Ngank*ing in Nganhwei, Hwei-
chow and Kongmoon in Kwangtung; under the American and Japanese treaties :
Mukden and Antung or Tatungk*ow, in Manchuria (see p. 827).
In 1904, Russia having delayed to evacuate Manchuria, as stipulated with
China, Japan declared war with her (February 8). Port Arthur was attacked and
invested, and finally compelled to capitulate (January 1, 1905). The Baltic fleet was
soon afterwards annihilated in the Tsushima channel (May 27 and 28), and Russian
arms being equally unsuccessful on land, pea^e was concluded and signed at Ports-
mouth (United States) September 5, 1905. Both countries stipulated to restore Man-
churia to China, and to evacuate it completely and simultaneously within a period
of 18 months, except the territory affected by the lease of the Liaotung peninsula
(art 3); moreover, neither was to seek there any exclusive concession in impairment of
Chinese sovereignty, or inconsistent with the principle of equal opportunity for the
development of the commerce and industry of other nations. Russia also agreed to
transfer to Japan, with the consent of China, the railway between Ch*aingeh*un and
Port Arthu/r, together with all rights, privileges and properties attached thereto, as
well as all coal-mines in the said region, belonging to or worked for the benefit of the
railway (art 6). Finally Bussia transferred to Japan the lease of Port Arthur, Talien
(Dalny, now Tairen) and adjacent territory with all rights and concessions connected
^with said lease. Subsequently a treaty and additional agreement were entered into
between Japan and China, and the Chinese Government consented to all the above
transfers and assignments made by Russia to Japan in Manchuria.
GHAPTBR YII. WOBEl&H HBLATIONB. 471
The year 1905 was closed by an important edict abolishing the old style of
literary examinations (September 2). In 1906, a special Commission -was sent to Japan
and to Western countries^ to study their political constitutions and report thereon. On
its return, t?ie Throne promised (September 1) to grant to the country in the near future
a Constitution and a representative form of Government based on Western principles.
A short time after, China dealt with the suppression of ths opium habit {see p. 396),
and directed that the growth, sale and consumption of opium cease within 10 years.
Some Viceroys have already taken measures to carry out the desire of the government.
Great Britain and the other Powers have been also requested to co-operate, and if
China is earnest, it is hoped she will realize ere long this beneficent and much needed
reform.
We have thus briefly traced the rise and progress of the Chinese nation from its
cradle in Shensi, and the valley of the Hwang-ho {see p. 45), down to the present day.
Besides the ancient and legendary Emperors : Yao, Shun and Yii, 22 dynasties have
succeeded one another, some with a glorious record of justice, fame and national
prosperity, the Chow, the Han, the T^ang and the Sung ; others with deeds of crime,
bloodshed, cruelty and disorder. The present dynasty had to cope with a novel difi-
culty : the growing intercourse with the West, strenuously resisted on one side, and as
strenuously insisted upon by the other, through political, racial and economic reasons.
China's assumption of universal sovereignty, her overbearing attitude in treating with
outsiders, her ignorance of the status and strength of foreign nations, and her obstinate
exclusivism have but resulted in crushing defeats, and a series of national blunders /
and misfortunes, for which she can blame only herself. The lesson, it seems, has been
at last taken to heart, and an era of reorganization has now commenced : a new Cons-
titution is promised; administrative, judicial and educational reforms are inaugurated;
mints are turning out coins of copper and silver; the army and navy are being remodelled
after the Western fashion ; railway and mining enterprise, native trade and industry
are being developed ; the opium habit is to be suppressed, and when all these reforms
are effected, and we sincerely wish they will, "New China" will surpass the glory of the
past, and take a place among the foremost nations of the East.
ModlllcatloiMi in the nimiber and names of tlie Pnyrlnces of CXilna. ^
Under the present dynasty, the number of the 18 Provinces was changed during 3
months (Jan.-April, 1905) into 19 {see p. 164). Formosa was detached from Fokien
and Chdkiang (Minchd), after the Chinor^apan war, and ceded to Japan.
Let us also mention here that China was successively divided into Chows flU
(under the Chow dynasty B. C. 1122-249), into Kiilns JRK (under the Ts'in dynasty
B.C. 249-206, and the beginning of the Han dynasty B.C. 206 — A.D. 25), into Taos H
(imder the T'ang dynasty A.D. 620-907), and into Lus g^ (under the Sung dynasty
A.D. 960-1280). The present division into ShSngs if or Provinces, dates back only to
the Mongol or YUen dynasty A.D. 1^80-1368.
2^. Fcmgn Relations.
From early times China must have held relations with the adjoining countries,
especially with those from which its first settlers came._The earliest trustworthy
proofs of its intercourse with Europe date back to the first century of the Christian
472 SBGTION ▼• POLITICAL AMD BGONOMIC MOeBAPHT.
- ff era. At *^^* r^ri*^, ^*^ffTf T^imrlir^ °m^» "^p *p^ fa" ^ ^^^ BonuMi Empire, and
7f > 'v.'(' ^ ^'"'^ trade was carried on between the two nations. Two roates were followed,
r"t\^eoverlaQ^Sipa"e'^^'*'^^^ ^'=^«^m Tlir^'*"*^"r^"'^ *i> JS — nfcf ^^y Hhfi Bftti
Sea, the Indian Ocean and the Strait of Malacca). Persians, Arabians and Turks
took each an active share in the trade between China and the West.
Several travellers, Western and Chinese, have also left us the records of their
peregrinations, bat many others have very likely made similar or more important
voyages. The following ig,JL .||j|^#C thP m— t JamoqiL Umyllerg to or from
China: ^ """ ^
In A. D. ttj^an Envoy was sent by the Emperor of China to inqoire as to what
was Ta<f'm (Syria according to Hirth).
In 226, a Tatsln trader reached the Conrt of the Kingdom of Wn, which then
extended from Honan down to the Yangtze river, and had for its Capital Nanking
(100 p. 458).
In 899, the Buddhist monk Fah Hsien travelled to Western Turkestan, crossing
over the Pamirs, visiting India, and returning along the coast of Java. He reentered
China in^ilJkAnd brought back a collection of Sutras offfeddh^|| if|f ra.i|i«>
In 029 Hi&en Chwang^ another BuddhisTmonk, visited also India, and returned
to China after an absence of 17 years. He brought back 657 volumes, all relating to
Buddhism.
In the VIP^ century, I Tnng (648-718), a Buddhist monk, travelled to Sumatra
and the Malayan Islands, and returned to Henan vii Canton.
In theXm*^ nnntnrn ltoicg..Pgifl»^he celebrated Venetian traveller, visited
China ■Qj71-I29^). He went to^dhina by the overland route, and returned by theCbfaa
Sea and the Indian Ocean. During 8 years of his stay in China, he held high dvil office
in Chdkiang Province^ and was also sent on a mission to the King of Annam.
In the same century, John of Piano Oarpini, a Franciscan monk, visited China
(1845-1247). ^ - "" "
In the year 1854, Carpini was followed by William ofBubruqui$^ a monk of the
same Order.
In 1277-1280, Pope Innocent IV sent an embassy tQ China, composed likewise of
several Franciscan monks.
In 1807, John of Monieeorvino founded an archbishopric at Peking, and died
there in 1330.
In the XIV*'^ century, Andrew of Perouse was Bishop of Zaitun in Fokien (see
p. 228), while Odorie ofPordenone (Friar Odoric 1286-1381) travelled through China,
Tibet and Cabul, and died a missioDary in Peking.
In the same century, John of MarignoU was appointed by the Pope legate to Pe-
king (1842-18I6S while Nichola9 Bonnet succeeded John of Montecorvino as arch-
bishop of the same city (1342).
In 1871, the founder of the Ming dynasty sent an embassy to Eurojgg,
Several oCher travellers might also be mentioned, most of whom were traders.
These went to China to purchase silk, gold brocade, musk, and rhubarb. Others visited
the country for religious purposes. According to the oral traditions of ikfiJmfy a
colony entered the country in the first century of the christian era^ni^r the Han
dynasty [iee p. 363), and possibly Calholic miuionariea at tl^e samep^o^ The
Singan Fu V iC JRP monument, in Shensi H W, erected A.D. 781, shows that the
christian religion was authorixed in China by Imperial edict as early as A. D. 686
(S00P.854).
CHAPTBR VII. FOBBIGN RBLATI0N8. 473
Despite these travels, voyages and commercial interoourse^Jyhina remained
practically isolated, and almost onknow" <^» ^fap *TBt nf thff w^rM It was only in the
XV l'" fi^niUf y lliaV closer relations were developed. Diplomatic intercourse however
did not begin till 1842, when the treaty of Nanking was signed between China and
Great Britain.
Inierconrse of Western Powera wtili China
from the XTI"" eentary to 1842.
The ^ortg^y^aD came to China for the first time in 1514. In 1516, a
certain Raphael Perestrello proceeded in a junk as far as Canton. In 1521. Pirfes^
Ambassador of Portugal, arrived at Peking. Colonies of Portuguese then settled
"in various parts of China : at Ningpo 1R ft in Ch6kiang, whence they were ex-
peilecT in' R4^ 'on account of their arrogance, ill conduct and piratical deeds; at
T8*iienchow Pn JR ffi JBP in Pokien, whence the same reasons caused their expulsion
in 1549. They established at this period factories at Sancian (Shangchw'an) and Lampa,
in Kwangtung M B?, %nd jtettled at Macao^ between 1558 and 1657. A second
Portuguese embassy proceeded to Peking in 1667, and secured the Emperor K'anghsi's
tk M protection over Macao. Two other embassies were subsequently dispatched to
Peking, one in 1727, and the other in 1753. Although established at Macao, the
Portuguese were not in absolute possession of the place. China maintained its
sovereign domain over it, opened a custom house, and received annually from /"
the Colony a rental of 500 taels. "When the English landed for the first time at Macao J^/r L* «> C
17 /
in 1802, they were opposed by the Chinese Officials, and again in 1808, when they
attempted to proceed to Canton. In 1849, after the murder of Oovemor Ferreira do
Amaral, at the instigation of the Viceroy of Canton, the Portuguese forcibly drove out
the Chinese custom house, and refused henceforth to pay the rental. The sovereignty
of Portugal over the peninsula was officially recognized by China in 1887 (««e j». ggg).
Tlie Spaniards were Ithe first,' iffter the Portuguese, to hold intercourse with
China. Towards the close _gLtha^ ^71*** centug, Spanish Dominicans settled in
^ddeu^ The Spm lards h«ld during laog^eitfg t})9JQifinp|»oly of foreign ^»de at Amoy.
In the XYTTT*** ^^"*^"*Ti their ships alone were authorized to trade between China
and Macao.
The Dutch, after unattCCfiaflfuHy attempting to seize Maoao (1622-1624)* settled
at first in the Pescadores Islands, and afterwards at Formosa. They were expelled
in 1661, from both places, by the followers of the Ming 91 dynasty who came from
Fokien, and fled before the Manchn army. The Dutch sent several embassies to Pe-
king (1653; 1656-57; 1666; 1795). The last, under the direction of Isaac Titsingh, has
been described by Van Bra4im. Since that time, the Outchj.who even in the XYIII*^
jpentury enjoyed but little influence in China, ceased almost all further intercourse
with the country.
The relations of Prance with China began only in the XVII^ Century. In 1660,
a Ohiaese Company "Compagnie de la Chine" was formed, but subsequently changed
its name into "Compagnie Jourdan, la Coulange et C*»" (1697-1698). This new com-
pany o^egedaFrench factory at Canton. In 1719, trade had wonderfully developed,
and in 1776. a FrencF GonBuIat€rwas established at Canton. — It is espepially through
itsJKUggisnaries that France entered into relations with China. From theXVIII^i^
century and down to the preieni'day, F^rencb Missionaries have formed the greater part
474 SBGTIOll ▼. POLITICAL AMD BGOMOMIG MOSIAFHT.
of the pioneers of the Gospel. They are foond in almost every Province, and throngfa
their zeal and devotedness have brought thousands of converts into the Ghnroh.
Deoomrk, Auairla, Swedes, and PnuKla, had also interooorse with China
in the y YTith a^r^A YYJjJth centuries, but these relations never attained any great
importance.
The United Slalea of America sent ^^-'t flrnt ^-■"■"^rmift^ expedition to China
in 1784, and from that time relations with the country have constantly developed.
The British flag appeared for the first time in Chinese waters at the commen-
cement of the XyiI*jDaatary. Ji 1684, Captain Weddel reached Macao, and explored
the Canton river. Two other attempts were made in 1661 and 1672, to establish a
IoomBieiuist Intercourse with Canton. Again in the years 1742, 1754, 1762, 1778 and
I 1784, every effort was tried to get an opening for commerce, but all proved fruitiest,
i mainly through Portuguese jealousy, misrepresentations and intrigues. Acting upon
tlie advice of Lord Melville, the Bnglish Government then decided to send an embassy
to Peking. A first was lost at sea. The second, that of Lord Macartney (to which were
attached G. Staunton and J. Barrow), reached Peking in 1793. The ambassador was re-
ceived and treated as a tribute-hearer. He saw the Bmperor twice at Jehol {tee p. 462),
but obtained none of the advantages he expected for the furtherance of British trade.
The embassy of LordArnherH. in 1816« fared no better {9ee p. 468). In 1888, Xont Napier
was sentlo Canton, as the first representative of the British Grown. Upon his airivid
the High Officials refused to have dealings with him, as they were unwilling to enter
into any diplomatic relations with foreign nations. He therefore withdrew to Macao, and
\ died there October 11, 1834. In 1836, Captain Elliot was commissioned to take up the
Work of Lord Napier, but the stoppage of trade, and the seizure and destruction of 80,282
Ichests of opium provoked a war with Great Britain, 1840-1848 {eee p. 468). The Canton
piver was blockaded (June 28, 1840). Hostilities were then carried North, and Amoy
|[Hsiam6n K H)* Tinghai % fl^ (in the Chusan Islands), Ningpo Hf it and Shanghai
.h ft taken in quick succession. The British fleet proceeded up the Yangtse |§ rhf
bombarded Ch^nkiang 9I tC* &i^d advanced on Nanking Hi ]9tt where the expedition
arrived August 9, 1842. The TreaUf^ofJS^mkmg was then signed between China and
Great Britain, August 29, 1^77, and ratified in Hongkong, June 26, 1848. Its principal
provisions were : 1** Five ports (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai) to be
opened to foreign trade; 2* Hongkong ceded to Great Britain; 3^ payment of an
indemnity of $ 21,000,000 ; 4® official correspondence to be carried on on equal terms ;
5^ several places to be held till the indemnity was paid. Sincfi, this txaaty waa.. con-
cluded, British influence and trade have constantly expanded in China.
At the close of the XVII^ century, BoMia sent several embassies to China, that
of Daniel Artchisk in 1670, of Ivan Portchennikof in 1674, and Nicholas Spatar Milescu
in 1675. The death however of Stepanof, massacred by the Chinese together with 270
Bussians, and the treaty of Nerchinsk signed August 27, 1689, ruined Russian influence
on the North Manohurian frontier. The>umerous embassies dispatcKeT'SuHng* the
end of the XY II^i> and XVIII*^ centuries, and at the commencement of the XIX^^^, were
unable to recover the influence of former times. It was secured at last by the tfeaiy
of Kuldja, signed July 25, 1851. Hereby, settlement areas were granted at 111 (Kuldja)
and Tarbagatal, and trade allowed at those two places. Duties were not to be levied on
either side, caravans were to be protected, minor offences to be amicably settled, but
no dealings were to take place on credit. T^ treaty ofAigun, signed May 16, 1858»
extended the advantages already obtained at Kuldja. Muravieff negotiated the treaty
CHAPTER Til. FOaSim aBLATIONB. 475
for BoBsia, and Yihshan for the Empire of China. It fixed the boundaries along the
coarse of the Amur, and allowed trading facilities to the subjects of both Empires on
the banks of the Usuri, Amur and Sungari. The establishment of the Russians in
Siberia, and the extension of the Trans-Siberian railroad, through Chinese territory
and to Vladivostock, have furthermore consolidated Russian influence, and developed
the intercourse and trade of the two nations.
•r China Willi
Fl^wem firWBl 18tt (Treaty of Nanking).
In the preceding pages several events relating to Foreign countries have been
treated in their historical sequence. We will therefore here give but a summary of
them, keeping principally in view their international aspect.
Regular diplomatic relations between China and Foreign Powers commenced
at the Treaiy of Nanking, 1842. From that time, the principal noteworthy occurr-
ences are the following :
The treaty of Nanking was followed by several other treatiee concluded with the
Powers : the treaty of Whampoa (September 24, 1844) with France ; the treaty of
Wanghsia (July 3, 1844) with the United States; the Engagement with Belgium, signed
at Canton (July 25, 1845) ; the treaty of peace, amity and commerce with Sweden and
Norway, concluded also at Canton (March 20, 1847). At this time, OontuUUes were
established in the recently opened ports.
1^1856 (Feb. 29), Fr Chapdelaine, a French Missionary, was murdered in Kwang-
si, and the ^'Anrow", a lorcha flying the British flag, seized by Chinese oflicials, and
12 of the crew arrested. This high-handed action provoked a war with Great Britain, in
which France joined. Canton was taken (1857), and the city occupied during 3 years.
The allied fleet then proceeded to the North, and took Taku ^ {gj^ and Tientsin Ji ^
(1858). At this latter place, China signed treaties with England and France, and both
countries were to have the right to appoint a resident Minister at the Court of Peking,
When the treaties were to be ratified in 1850, the Foreign Ministers were treacherously
fired upon at Taku. A formidable expedition was equipped both by Great Britain and
France to avenge this insult, and in 1860, the war was continued. Tinghai £ f^f
Ohefoo Jt ^ and Talienwan ;fc X 9 (South Manchuria) were taken in turn. The
Plenipotentiaries reached T*ientsin, August 25. The allied army then advanced on
Peking, gaining on the way the battles of Ohangkiawan S X V (September 18) and
Pahlik'iao A M tt (September 21). The Emperor fled in baste to Jehol, and left
Prince Kung, his brother, to negotiate with the conquerors. It being reported that
the Chinese troops rallied at the Imperial Summer Palace, or Yttenmingyiien B 19 H*
to the N.-W. of Peking, the place was occupied and sacked (October 7-8), and sub-
sequently destroyed (October 18). Peking capitulated (October 18), and a Convention
was signed there, October 24, 1860. A Bfinister was henceforth to reside in the Capital,
T'ientsin to be opened to foreign trade, Kowloon ceded to Great Britain, and an
indemnity of 8,000,000 taels paid to the Allies. France obtained important privileges
for the Catholics : the christian religion was tolerated, and religious establishments,
oonflsoated in former times, were to be restored.
The !raip*ing :i; ^ (1850-1864) rebellion broke out about this time and aimed
at the overthrow of the reigning dynasty. The rebels make Nanking their Capital,
and held it from 1853-1864. Peace being established in the North, the foreign troops
476 8BCTI0N ▼. rOLITICAL AMD BCOMOIflC eBOMAFHT.
rendezvouKd at Shanghai, and China appealed to them to help in wmppnamg the
rebellion. Ward and Burgevine^ both American!, organized at first % fane ol
Foreigners and Manilamen, called the ** Ever VicUmout Army*\ to fight the rebek.
Ward achieved some success, bnt was defeated at Tk'ingp*n ftf Ki and sobaeqncntlj
killed (September 21, 1862) on the borders of Ch^kiang. Bugevine was ^i«»wii— w^ the
service for miscoudact, and went over to the rebels. Captain HoUand and liijer
Gordon^ both British officers, succeeded Ward. Through the efforts of Gordon, Soo-
chow H M was recovered, December 1, 1863. The British and French Aiimirmif (Hope
and Protet) agreed also to clear the country of rebels within a 30 mile radios arooiid
Shanghai. Admiral Protet was killed in an attack upon Nank*iao MS (▼^ilgo Nif^dmo),
to the South of Shanghai, May 17, 1862. In the meantime the French troops, under the
command of Lieutenant Giquel, assisted in reducing the rebel forces in ChAkfang. Oon-
mander Tardif ds Moidrey succeeded Giquel, and was killed at Shaohsing Fafl| f| V«
March 18, 1863. Lieutenant d^Aiguebelle now led the troops, and recovered Hang-
chow Fu IS M JflF (March 31, 1864) and Huchow Fu fi M Jjf, both in ChAkiaDg.
In the same year, Nanking Hi M was recovered by the Imperial troops (July 19),
and this brought the T'aip'ing rebellion to an end {wee p. 465).
In 1865, the Foreign troops evacuated Taku and ShangfaaL
Several treaties were also signed at this period with Russia, the United States,
Germany, Denmark, Spain, Holland, Belgium, Italy and Austria.
li^2^l:S^ China sent the Burlinghame miuion to Western Countries. The
embassy proceeded first to the United States, and thenoe to Great Britain, Franee,
Sweden, Denmark, Germany and Russia. The Mission came to an ontimely end by
the death of M' Burlinghame, who expired at & Petersbuigh, Fefaruaiy, 1870. The
Rmperor of China gave 6,000 taels to defray the expenses of the funeral (see p. 465).
In 1870 (June 21), the THentein mauaere took place. Twenty-one Foreigncn
and several native Christians were massacred. The Foreign Ministers demanded
punishment. After long negotiations, it was agreed to pay the sum of 280,000 taels as
compensation money, an official was sent to France to apologise for the crime, and
the Prefect and district Magistrate of Tientsin were banished {iee p. 466).
In 1874, a war was near breaking out with Japan. It was oauaed by the Chinese
putting to death some liak'iu {K ifi sailors, who had been shipwrecked on the coast
of Formosa. At first, compensation was refused for this act of vicdence, on the plea
that the Liuk'iu Islands were the vassals of China, but after the Japaneae had landed
troops in Formosa and threatened hostilities. Great Britain intervened, and an
arrangement was entered into, China agreeing to pay an indemnity of SOOflOO taels.
A Commission from the British Government of India having been attacked
in 1875, on the frontier of Yiinnan, the Chefoo 3^ >^ agreement was signed between
Sir Thomas Wade, Her British Majesty^s Minister Plenipotentiary, and Li Hnngchang
(September 13, 1876). China apologized for the crime, paid an indemnity of 200,000
taels, allowed frontier trade to be carried on between Burma and Yiinnan, and opened
4 new ports (Ich'ang, Wnhu, Pakhoi and Wdnchow) to foreign trade. A separate article
authorized a mission of exploration to Tibet, starting either from Peking or from India.
It was also notified that China intended to establish Missions and Consuiaies abroad.
{see p. 466).
Since 1851, Russia had succeeded in opening trading establishments in Ili
(Kuldja). In 1871, to prevent disorder on her frontiers, she occupied Ili (Kuldja). In
1879, the tretUy ofLivadia was signed. Hereby Russia restored to China only a portion
of the occupied territory, but kept the richer part, the city of Yarkand, and all the
CHAPTER VII. FORBION RILATIOMS. 477
strong passes in the T*ien-8han ^ Uj range. This agreement was repudiated by China.
Marquis Ts^ng negotiated a new treaty, which was signed at S* Petersburgk, February
12, 1881. Bussia hereby restored to China the territory of Hi with the exception of a
Western strip, destined as a place of establishment for those who had abandoned the
lands they possessed there during the time of the occupation. China paid to Bassia
9,000,000 roubles to cover all expenses borne since the occupation of 1871.
The Tongking war and hostilities being over, a treaty was signed in T'ientsin,
April 25, 1886. It agreed to the appointment of a commission for delimitating the
boundary between Tongking and China. The cities of Lungchow K M in Kwangsi,
and M^ngtze ff S in Tiinnan, were also to be opened to foreign trade. An additional
convention was signed at Peking, June 20, 1895, and opened to trade the towns of Hok*ow
ff n and Szemao JS Jf», on the same conditions as Lungchow and M^ngtze.
In 1891, war broke out between China and Japan, on account of the claims which
both set forth to interfere in the affairs of Korea (see pp. 467-<>68).
Two German Missionaries having been murdered in Shantung, Germany seized
Kiaoehow B ^ bay, November 14, 1897. An agreement relative to this occupation
was signed, March 6, 1898, and leased to Germany for a period of 99 years, the bay,
its islands, and the North and South tongues of land at the mouth of the harbour
{tee p. 258).
A similar agreement was concluded with Bussia, relative to Port Arthur and
Talienwan :Ac 31 W* March 27, 1898. Port Arthur was to be a closed port for the
sole use of Bussian and Chinese men-of-war, while part of Talien was to be open to
the merchant vessels of all countries (art. 6). The duration of the lease was to be for
25 years, but could be extended by mutual agreement (art. 3).
Weihaiwei jfi fl^ fR, a port also in Shantung, was leased to Great Britain,
July 1,1898 {see p. 257), and Kwangchow-wan A W JV (Kwangtung) to France, April
22, 1898 {see p. 289-290).
Great Britain secured moreover an important extension of the Kowloon {% H
Kiulung) territory, on the mainland opposite Hongkong {tee p. 285).
In 1898, a series of reform edicts issued by the Emperor of China, compelled
the Empress Dowager to resume tlie regency abandoned since March 4, 1889 {see p. 468).
In 1900, the Boxer, or K^Uenfei (|p K) rebellion, broke out in the North. The
rebels committed various deeds of incendiarism and plunder, massacred numerous
Foreigners and native Christians, and finally entered Peking. The gravity of the situa-
tion being realized, the allied Powers of Great Britain, of the United States, France, Bus-
sia, Germany, Austria, Italy and Japan, dispatched troops to put down the rebellion,
and protect the lives and property of their respective subjects. The allied army captured
successively Taku and Tientsin, and delivered Peking (August 14, 1900). The city
was taken the following day. After long negotiations, a peace protocol was signed
in the Capital, September 7, 1901. Hereby China agreed to inflict the death penalty
upon several princes and officials who instigated the revolt, to pay to the Powers an
indemnity of 450,000,000 taels (£ 67,500,000), to raze to the ground the Taku forts, and
to allow certain points to be occupied by foreign troops, in order to maintain free com-
munication between Peking and the sea {see p. 469).
. In 1902 and 1903^ three commercial ^ffq,fi^ ,^fiye concluded with Great Britain,
the United^ ^^^j^^^ and Japan. In these treaties, China agreed to suppress *Hikin
~(iie0p. 322), and all internal taxation on foreign imports, on payment of 1 i % surtax
to the effective 5 % allowed by the Protocol of Peking, September 7, 1901 {see p. 470).
A treaty was also signed with Portugal in 1904, but has not yet been ratified.
478
BBCnOlf V. POLITICAL AND BCOMOMIC nonAFHT.
3^. Emigratim.
The number of Foreigners who have settled in China is very limited {$ee p. 316
and 285) ; on the other hand, the proportion of Chinese who go abroad is oonsiderable.
Emigration has in fact assumed great importance, and would increase were it not for
the restrictions placed upon it by certain Powers. It is especially in Mongolia
and Msnchuria that large numbers of Chinese emigrants are found, from 10 to
15 millions and perhaps more. According to the last official investigatiops,
abroad (exclusive of studentB)Ts approximately as follows :
314,890
the number of Chinese
Hongkong „
Macao „
Formosa „
Philippine Islands „
French Indo-China „
Annam „
Siam „
Burma „
Straits Settlements and Singapore „
Dutch East Indies, Java „
Russian Asia (Siberia) „
Korea „
Japan „
Sandwich Islands or Hawaii „
Australia and New Zealand „
Society, Fiji and other Islands of the Paoiflo „
Canada „
United States „
Mexico „
Cuba, Jamaica and Porto Rico „
Lesser Antilles, Trinidad, British Guiana „
Peru „
Chile „
Brazil „
Mauritius „
South Africa „
Transvaal „
74,500
2,258,660
tu mm (o' whom about
^»"*' 40,000 in Manila).
1,028,500
197,300
1,500,000
184,000
1,300,000
l,8S»,700
37,000
11,200
17,700
^»"^ 109,000 inhabitanta).
85,400
20,000
12,000
150,000
3,000
90,000
10,000
45,000
7,000
20,000
8,150
5,000
8,200
1 7AA (<>' whom 800 in
^'^^ Great Britain).
Europe „
Tulftl
These emigrants come, for the greater part, from the maritime Provinces of Fo-
kien and Kwangtnng. Several return to their native homes, or provide before dying
that their coffins be brought back to China.
We here append the statistics of Chinese passengers to and from the 5 chief
ports of emigration, during the year 190$,:
Out. In.
112,661 92,704
84,190 38,801
21,994 18,743
1,381 1,401
1,500 1,913
Swatow (Shant'eu) ft R
Amoy (Hsiam^n) flt R
Hoihow (Haik*ow) 4| n
Pakhoi (Pehhai) 4; fl^
Fooohow Fu tkfH Ht
GHAPTBH VII. RI8B AND PRO&RB88 OF THB CHINB8B BMPIRB. 479
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Chinese Relations with Tartar Tribes. —
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WHliawMi — Foreign Intercourse with
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Embassies to Peking (from the Chinese).^
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Audiences granted by the Emperors of
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DoaclJie Sir R. — Society in China.
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Jeml^an T. R.— China's Business Meth-
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Early Portuguese Intercourse with China.
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Origin of the Colony of Macao. — China
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Macao's Deeds of Arms. — China Review.
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Murray's Oblna.— Edinburgh, 1843. Ar-
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Brtd^Baaii E. O. — Relations of Great
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Early Dutch Embassies. (Vol. I. Ch. VU.
p. 183-256. — Recent Dutch Embassies.
(Van Braam's). ibid. Ch. X. p. 335-356).
NewhofPs Embassy to Peking, 1654. —
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1859.
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484
SBCnON V. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIC ftBOemAPBT.
Mamy's CMm. — EdiDbnigb, 1843.
British Embftssies to CliiDa. (Vol. I. Ch.
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Historical Aooonnt of British Interooarse
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ntel E. J. — British Trade with China
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Aodennn A. — A Narrative of the Em-
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Barl of Macartney. ~ Selections from
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Aober P. — British and Foreign Em-
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128-169. — Lord Macartney's Embassy
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p. 251-406).
Ellis H. — Journal of Lord Amherst's
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Olark A. — Narrative of Lord Amherst's
Embassy to China. London, 181 S.
Relations between the United States and
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(Vol. V. p. 218-231).
Wllllanui S. W. — Narrative of the
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Russian Embassies to China. (Vol. I.
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KrauMe A. — The Far East, its History
and its (^estion. London, 1903. (Ti«aty
of Nerchinsk. Appendix B. — Treaty of
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Nov. 14, 1860. Annuls the Treaties con-
cluded at Nerchinsk 1689, and at Kiakta
1727. ibid. p. d0O-.H01. SUtutes of the
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Kraaaae A. » Russia in Asia. A Record
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KrauflBe A. ^ The Far East. London,
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— Early Travellers. — English Trade
with China. ^ Lords Macartney's and
Amherst's Mission. (Ch. U. p. 15-34). —
The Opening up of China. (Ch. III. p.
85-57).
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DiNislas Sir R. — Society in China.
London, 1895. (The China-Japan War in
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Leroy-Beaalleo P. — The Awakening
of the East. London, 190O. (Foreigners
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towards Western Civilisation.—The Posi-
tion and Work of Foreigners in China.
(Part III. Ch. VI. and VII. p. 228-283).
Plnon R. — La Chine qui s'ouvre. Paris,
1900.
La Chine : Expansion des Grandes Puis-
sances, 1895-98. Paris, 1899.
Gampadi J. Von. — The Burlinghame
Mission to Western Countries. Shang-
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Medharfll W. H. — The Foreigner in Far
Cathay. London, 1872.
Jemiffan T. R. ^ China in Law and
Commerce. New York, 19(M$. (Bxtra-ter-
ritoriaUty. Ch. VIII. p. 193-204).
Jemi^an T. R. ^China's Business Meth-
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ity. p. 219-229. ^ Strategical Positions,
p. 230-239. — Consuls and the Consular
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Fergn— on — Juridiction et Exterrito-
rialisation en Chine. Bmxelles, 1890.
CHAPTBR VII. UliaiUTION.
485
DoD^las Sir R. — Europe and the Far
East (Hiatorical Series). Cambridge, 1904.
VigoU F. T. — Exterritoriality : The Law
relating to Consular Jurisdiction and to
Residence in Oriental Countries. London,
1892.
M« Oarlhy. ^ The Coming Power: A
contemporary History of the Far East,
1898-1905. London, 1900.
Balfoar F. H. — Waifs and Strays from
the Far East. London, 1876.
Norman H. — The Peoples and Politics
of the Far East. (Studies in British,
French, Spanish and Portuguese Colonies,
China, Japan and Korea). London, 1895.
Ouraon Sir G. — Problems of the Far
East. London, 1896. (China and the Pow-
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in the Far East. Ch. XIV. p. 413-428).
Temple Sir R.~Progres8 of India, Japan
and China in the Century. London, 1902.
(State of China in 1800, and in 1899).
Oolqohoan A. — China in Transforma-
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Oolqohoan A. * The Problem in China
and British Policy. London, 1900.
Putnam Weale. — The Re-shaping of
the Far East. London, 1905.
Potonm Weale. — The Truce in the
East and its Aftermath. London, 1907.
Blue Books on China (from 1862-1906).
Hertolel Sir E.— Trade Treaties between
Great Britain and China. London, 1877.
Heriolei Sir E.— Treaties between Great
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Mayers W. F. — Treaties between the
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5^ Edition. Shanghai 1906.
EMIGRATION.
Bevue Francaise d'Exploration, 1903. (pp.
709 et seq).
Djrer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Chinese Abroad, p. 14M57).
BOOK II.
OUTER DEPENDENCIES.
CHAPTER I.
MANCHURIA OR THE MANCHU MffH
COUNTRY.
Note. — Owing to the Russo-Jftpan war (1904-1905), Manchuria was till recently
nn^er military occupation. By the Portsmonth Treaty, signed Septembers, 1905,
BuBsia and Japan stipulated to withdraw their troops from the country completely
and simultaneously within a period of 18 months, except the territory a|fecte4by the
lease of the Liaotung Peninsula. Moreover, neither was to seek there any excluaive
concession in impairment of China's sovereignty, or inconsistent with the principle
of equal opportunity for the development of the commerce and industry of other
nations. The evacuation has now been faithfully carried out, and the country restored
to China. On April 20, 1907, an Imperial decree abolished the Tartar- QeneraUhipf
and appointed a Viceroy^ who is also Imperial High Commissioner, and three Gover-
nors^ to rule henceforward over the country, and administer it on the same basis as
the 18 Provinces of the Empire.
Av«a. — The area of Manchuria is 363,700 square miles.
Population. — 8,500,000, or 23 to the square mile.
Name. — Manchuria is so called from the Manchus (Man^
chows #1 ^), or people who actually inhabit it, and have given
to China the present reigning dynasty. The country is more
properly designated by the name of Tuna^anrSMnQ ]|[ H 4t«
or the Three EaHem JPravinees. It is also known as Zia9imm0
jgg ^, or region Easi of the lAate Biwrf as JPieMs^i A||« country
CHAPTIR I. MAMCHUBIA. 487
of the 8 BamntrSf on account of its military division ; and as
Shanhalkwanrwai Manehow SoMMng llj^||^MIMH4tf
that Is ihe 8 Memchurian Frav^nees ftayiid ahanhalkwanf as
in fact they are so situated in regard to the 18 Provinces. It is
also sometimes styled KuHtnMwng H ]|[, or country BbuH of the
Barrier*
Bomidftiiefl. — Manchuria is bounded on the
N. — By Siberia (the Amur and Transbaikal Provinces),
W. — By Siberia (the Transbaikal Province), Mongolia
and the Province of Chihli gg[ ^,
S. — By the Poh-hai JSft ^ or Oulf of Liaotung, and
the Hwang-hai )| ^ or Yellow Sea,
E. — By Korea and the Maritime Province of Siberia
(Primorsk).
OApitel. — MUK1}BN, also called JPkangt'ien Fk* J^JiJff,
or SMnghIng J|| X(i in the Southern Province.
Provtnoes and PreAetana JMvtatouu — Manchuria is
divided into 3 Provinces :
\\ Tlie Pravtnoe #f ShtegUng jj lj(, to the South.
This Province has S Frefechires w FUs Jff :
V FangtHen Fu 91 3>^ Mf or Mufcdm,
a° Kinchow Fn M M JIF,
aoCh'angt'uFuBHMf,
4<»HailimgFuftj||W,
5» Sininin YnlHtkMy
ep T'aonan Fu flk HI ifT.
And 2 THngm j||| :
^ Hsingkiiig T'ing lllR ■,
a" Frmghwang T'ing M K ■.
W. Tftie ProTlnoe tf KIHn (Kihiin) ^ 1^, in the Centre.
This Province has 2 Frt/etiMreB /
rZirinFu^**,
a" Ch'angch'im Fu J| # Iff.
And 4 THtHf /
l«Wuch*angT*ing5«?«,
a^Tdnkihriiigiiwa,
3<»SmflftnT'ingtt9B,
4'^PiiichowT'ingCAB.
488 BOOK II. outer][dbpbndbngib8.
8^ Tlie ProTlnoe of Hehluns-ktans IK H 2l (Black
Dragon River or Amur) to the North. This Province
has 2 Prefectures :
loHulanFuPFH ifiP,
2»SiiihwaFufi{fc«.
And 3 Things :
l<>HailimT'iiig»«ia,
2° Hehshui T^ng Sk^Mj
2P Talai T'ing icHU.
The Viceroy of Manchuria resides at Mukden, but is also
to have a permanent Yam^n in each of the 3 Provinces, and will
sojourn there at stated times, in order to better supervise the
organization and development of the country. A tFapanese Xitt-
perUU Besident will likewise reside at Mukden, and control
all important relations concerning his nationals.
Aftpe<^ and Ctaaraeieristtcs. — Manchuriu is naturally
divided into two distinct reunions : the Northern, -which slopes
towards the Amur River, and is watered by the Sungari and its
tributary the Honni ; the Southern, which inclines towards the
g%at of lAaotung ^ ^, and is irrigated by the JAao-ho ^ ff
and its upper branch the Shara Muren. The former region is
much the larger and better wooded ; the latter is more fertile and
more thickly inhabited. Both are almost entirely fnountainous^
though each has a beautiful and rich plain: the Liao'ho pUtinp
in the Southern Province, 30 miles wide by 900 in length; and
the central Sungari plain in the Northern Province. In the
Souths Manchuria has some good ports. The Amur river, which
skirts it on the North, is navigable, as well as several other large
streams. Manchuria possesses an exceptionally rich soil, and
abounds in minerals and extensive forests. These constitute its
real wealth. The railway, which now runs through it, will afford
it means of developing this wealth.
Geological consUtution. —The greater part of Manchuria is composed of
azoic and primary strata (gneiss, granite and schist), overlapped here and ther« by
sandstone, conglomerate and limestone rocks. These rocks are often interspersed
with eruptive layers. Extinct volcanoes, immense sheets of lava, especially in the
Eastern and Northern regions, indicate the great volcanic activity which prevailed
there in former times. Specimens of alluvial soil are found in the two great plains
of the Liao-ho fjt Vft and of the Sungari.
CHAPTER I. MANCHURIA. 489
Orogrmpliy. — TufO greiU mauniain ranges enclose Man-
churia an the Weei and Baei, both taking the same direction
S.W.-N.E.
The Western range is the prolongation of the JShingisn or
Hingngan-ttng A $ 'Kt* ^"^ slopes gradually to the W., while
to the E., it falls more rapidly to the level of the plain. The
average elevation of this range is 4,200 feet, but some peaks
reach 4,500 and 5,500 feet. Its highest summits and its valleys
are covered with forests.
The Eastern range or Ch'ttngpeh'shan ^ j^ [Ij (long while
mounlain), also called ShanrAUn, runs from the Southern extre-
mity of Liaotung, to the angle formed by the Ussuri and the
Amur rivers. Its highest peak is the Peh-shan j^ [Ij, which
attains an elevation of 8,500 feet.
Between these two mountain masses^ a rather confused range
extends to the North, and is sometimes called the Lesser KM-
ngan. It rises to an inconsiderable hight, slopes abruptly on
the North-East towards the Amur, and on the West towards the
Nonni. To the South, a small chain of hills skirts the right
bank of the Liao-ho ^ ^, and is called Uto Kwangntng-shas^
Ollmate. ~ The climate of Manchuria varies exoeedingly from one extremity of
the country to the other. In the Northern portion^ the winter is very severe, the ther-
mometer then falling as far as 40° Fahrenheit below zero, while the rivers are frozen
over from the end of October to the beginning of May. In the Southern portion, the
climate is milder, the thermometer however falls to 13** F. below zero in Winter, and
rises in Summer to 90*^ and 95*^ in the shade (during the month of July). The daily
variation is at times considerable, ranging for instance from 2^ to 55°.
Part of the sea* coast is covered with ice during several months of the Winter,
except in the Eastern portion of Liaotung.
Hjrdrogrmpbjr. — Manchuria is well watered. Some of
its rivers flow into the Amur, others into the Foh-hai fgj ^,
and the Hwang^hai )| ^.
The North is irrigated by the Amiur and its tributaries, the
principal of which is in this region the SufHiari or MUky Biver.
The Amur or HeMung'htang ^%fL (black'dragon river;
in Manchu, Sakhalin^ula; in Mongol, Kara^Muren), is a large and
490 BOOK II. DBPBlfMMeiBt.
beautiful river, with a plentiful flow of water. It is formed by
the junction of two streams : the 8h4ika or Shihk'ink'oh-ho :Q H
^ ^ coming from Siberia, and the Arttun or NgaikUXn-ho f|
3f[ M^ coming from DaUd-Nmr, a lake which itself receives the
waters of the Kerulun, a river of Mongolia. The Argun and
the Amur rivers, form for a long distance on the North, the
boundary-limit of Manchuria up to the junction of the Ussuri.
The Amur is navigable for 450 miles of its course, for stea-
mers drawing 12 feet of water, and for 1,500 miles, for boats
drawing 4 feet. It has a total length of 2,500 miles, and flows
into the gulf of Tartary at Nicolaievsk. It owes its name of
*' Black river'' to the colour of its waters, which are of a darkish
hoe.
The Smttgari (Sunghwa-kiang jR ^ {c) or Jfilfeir riMr, rises
in the Fieh-ahan j^ ^| mountains. Its copious waters present
a somewhat milky appearance, hence its name. In the flood-
season, it has more water than the Amur, and is navigable up
to Kirin. Its tributary, the NrnmU or Nuen^kiang JH j^, can
be navigated for a still greater distance. It drains the Eastern
slope of the Great Khingan. It abounds with fish, and is navi-
gable during the whole year as far as Tsitsihar, and even further
up in the flood-season. It receives at Sansing ^ j|(, the JEhiriMi
(Mutan-ho ft ^ ji^) or IVMiy riMr.
The VsmMH (WusulUkiang j^ jK fl 2C)« another tributary of
the Amur, rises in the vicinity of Vladivostock, traverses take
Sihanka or HMnghai ^ jH, and runs Northwards, forming the
boundary-line between Manchuria and Siberia. It is 350 miles
long.
The two rivers, which water the South €fM€ttu^uHa, are the
LiaO'ho jjg ^, which flows into the Poh-hai fgj ^, and the ToJ^
tuh-kkma HH^ {t, which flows into the Yellow Sea or Hwang-
hai )| ^. — On account of the hills being denuded of their
forests, the rivers of the South overflow at times their banks ;
they then inundate the country, ruin villages and destroy the
crops.
CHAPTIR I. MAMCHUBIA. 491
The lAofO^hf^ ^ }(if rises to the North-East of Dolo-Nor, in
the Great Khingan, where it is known by the name of Sharm'
Muren or lAaoMrho JK H f9> ^h&^ ^b the West Liao River. It
runs at first from W. to E., and forms the boundary-limit
between Ghihli and Mongolia. A little after entering Manchuria,
it makes a bend and afterwards flows Southward. The Liao-ho
is navigable in the flood-season throughout its whole course
in Manchuria.
In its lower part, its channel is fairly deep, and it can be
approached by steamers as far as Newchwang 4^ ^. In the
flood-season, numerous junks sail on its waters up to Sinmin
The YiMhkih'hUMng f| H^ 2l ^^^^^ '^^ ^^le Long White Moun-
tain, and comes from Korea. It is a large and beautiful river, and
utilized to convey timber, cut on its upper slopes and on the
White Mountain, to the coast. It marks part of the boundary-
limit between Korea and Manchuria. It is navigable in its
lower course, and flows into the Yellow Sea.
Another river, the T^wmin N P^, is less important than
the preceding ones. It comes also from Korea, and forms the
boundary-line on the N. E., between Korea and Manchuria, for
a distance of 60 miles. It then proceeds to Siberia (Province
of Primorsk), and empties its waters into the Sea of Japan.
tMu — Manchuria possesses several beautiful and large
lakes. The principal are, on the North-West : the Jhdoi^ycr^
also called Hul/on or Kulion take, and Bulr^Nmr or JPir take; on
the East, take Khanka and iake JPiUm, to the South-West of
Ninguta.
€oMt liae. — The coast-line of Manchuria is straight and
low along the Gulf of Liaotung jj^ J|[. The Liaotung peninsula
is, on the contrary, largely indented and mountainous, and
possesses several deep bays and numerous islands.
The pHneipai ba^s are : Kinchow ^ ^ bay, the bay of
Port-Arthur or Liishun-k'ow JK |g n« and Dalny bay or Ta-
lienwan :A; H ||.
492 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPINDENCIBS.
The €M/^99Hs are Ifewehwang ^^, or more exactly Ying-
k'ov? ^ Df at the mouth of the Liaoho jg^ ^. It is an impor-
tant port, but is ice-bound for several months of the year. It
carries on a vast trade with Northern and Central China.
F^m^Arih^tr or LUshun-k^ow JK |g D, leased in 1898 to
Russia, and subsequently transferred to Japan, 1905.
JkOnw or oaaienwan :kiAM^ (called in Japanese, Tatren), a
commercial port, leased also to Russia in 1898 for 25 years, and
lately transferred to Japan.
The two last ports being free from ice during the Winter,
are the best in Manchuria.
NfftnUung (Antung) $ A, a small port at the mouth of the
Yahluh-kiang (| |fc flC* opened to foreign trade under the
American and Japanese treaties of 1903. {Bee p. 327, and 470).
Fauna and Flora. — Manchuria, despite its rigorous climate, has quite a rich
fauna and flora. The country is well irrigated and abounds in forests, especially on
the slopes of the Northern mountains, which are covered with trees up to their sum-
mits, the principal being the pine, spruce, oak, birch, elm, walnut and willow-trees.
Wild animals are very numerous, especially in the N., where are found the bear
wolf, tiger, panther, wild-boar, fox, deer, stag, antelope, sable, marten and marmot.
The rivers teem with fish, excellent salmon being caught especially in the
Sungari.
Ai^culinral Wealili. — A great part of Manchuria is
uncultivated. In the plain watered by the central Sungari and
by the Liao-ho ^ j^, the soil is excenent,|and produces com,
sorghum (kaoliang ^ m), millet, maize, tobacco, pulse^ peas,
potatoes, indigo, flax, sesamum, hemp and the opium-poppy. In
the South, rice and cotton are also cultivated. — When oil has
been extracted from the beans, the residuum is used in making
beancake, which is extensively exported to the S. of China and
to Japan, and employed for feeding cattle and manuring the ground.
Gineeng thrives well in the country. It is a medicinal plant
much sought after, and fetches a high price in the market.
Wild silk is produced in the South, by worms that feed on
the leaves of the oak. The produce is known as ''Tu88ah'\ and
is much used in the silk industry of Lyons.
In the rich pasture-lands of the plains, horses, mules, oxen«
CHAFTim I. MANCHURIA. 493
sheep and goats are extensively reared. — The pig, as in China,
is found everywhere throughout the country.
In the N., are found immense pasture-lands, the grass of
which attains a height of 6 feet, compelling travellers to cut a
way through it with the sickle. Forests occupy immense tracts
in the North, but so far they have not been worked. Orchards of
pear-trees, apple and plum-trees are met with almost everywhere.
Vineyards are also found in the 8.
Every year, in April, thousands of labourers come from
Chihli and Shantung Provinces, and help in tilling and cultiva-
ting the fields. They return home in September.
Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of Manchuria
consists in coal-fields, iron, silver, gold, copper and lead. Coal
is extracted in several places, but is of a rather poor quality.
Gold is relatively abundant, and is found in a few dozen places,
the 3 principal centres being : the Russian frontier, the sands
and basin of the Sungari, and the Peh-shan g (i] mountains.
Popolalion. «- The population of Manchuria is almost exolusively confined to
the plains and valleys, especially the valley of the Liao*ho and of the Sungari. The
Southern Province, or Shftngking, is the most densely peopled, the inhabitants being
principally of Chinese stock. The Manchus form at most -j^^^ of the total population
of Manchuria, while the Chinese number about 4 millions. The other races are the
Tunguses, Daours, Solons, Koreans, Duars, Buriats, Goldi (Fish-skin Tartars), Mongols
and Russians. — The greater portion of the population is a cross between all these
races. The unsubdued tribes and nomads are scattered over the steppes and wooded
regions of the North, while the Chinese occupy especially the towns and villages.
The terrible Runghutte ISL^^ (Red>beards) brigands occupy the forest-clad
tracts of the North. They are the descendants of Chinese adventurers, who migrated
during the course of the last century to the country, in the hope of discovering gold-
fields. The speculation having proved a failure, the adventurers became brigands,
and live by terrorizing and plundering the peaceable inhabitants of the plains.
The Manchu9 were formerly a tribe of the Tungusic Tartars, and like them led
at first a nomadic life. They gathered near the upper course of the Sungari, lived prin-
cipally by hunting, and engaged occasionally in agriculture and cattle-rearing. At
present, nearly all have become fixed to the soil, and live by farming. They are a
more robust and sturdier race than the inhabitants of Central China, but differ little
in features and character from those of the North, save that their eyes are horizontally
set and shaped. They are perhaps also more sprightly and more enterprising than
the *'Sons of Han", but less intellectual and less skilful in conducting business affairs.
The Manchu peasant is industrious and frugal, and the family large. The women's
feet are unbound, and they twist their hair round a silver bangle placed cross-wise
on the top of the bead.
494 BOOK II. ounm dipindbngibs.
I«any na^e. — In Manohoria, Chinese is the most widely spoken lanf/tuige of the
country. The ManchuSy when speftking among themselves, employ their own dialeet,
which is very different from the Chinese and Mongol languages. All candidates for
the Metropolitan Offices are bound to know it. It is of Tungusio origin, sonorous and
easily learned. It is composed of dissyllabic roots, the meaning of which is modified
(especially in verbs) by agglutinative suffixes. The alphabet is syllabic, and of Syro-
Uigur origin. The latest form has been borrowed, in the XVI*^ oentury, from the
Mongols. There are 6 to 8 vowels, 18 consonants, and 10 diacritical marks. Like the
Chinese, it is written in vertical columns, but from left to right. The Manchu language
has no indigenous literature.
SPECIMEN OP MANCHU WRITING.
^ Si
?
^ 4 Bahanara
q Nikan 4-^ ^ Wubaliyambuw
4 Balte fi
Niyalma
y Bi
Kai
(To become a Manehu translator, you, Chinese student...).
BeliflriOD. — Nearly all the inhabitants of Manchuria are Buddhist-Lanute, a
phase of religion introduced from the Mongols.
Mahomedanism is widely diffused throughout Manchuria, Chinese Mussulmans
forming at times \^ of the population.
The nomad tribes practice Shamanism, as also the Tunguses, generally speaking.
Many worship the heavens, their ancestors, and the spirits of the mountains and rivers.
Evil spirits (Posinko) are considered to be the source of all misfortunes. Ancestor
worship is an almost daily practice among the Tartars.
Towns and Prinelpttl CentoMi i
In the Fravinee of H^Mm^kiang |R II 2L '•
Aigun or HehlungMang Ch^hfkg M 111 2L jift- — A town
built on the banks of the Amur, with a population of 60,000
inhabitants. Its houses stretch along the banks of the river
to a distance of 6 miles, and extend as far as /SWUtoilfi^ a village
lying opposite the large Russian city of .
CHAPm I. MANCHURIA. 495
Mergen (Meheulken M if tt) ^^ ^^^ Nonni river, has a
population of from 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants.
TsUsUutr {Ts'its'ihaheul ^^f^W)'^^ Hehiungkiang. —
An important commercial town, situated on a river of the same
name. On market days, in September and October, the MangcU
bring their cattle there. The population then rises ito from
30,000 to 70,000 inhabitants.
Tsitsihar comprises two cities, one interior, where the
officials reside, and in which are found the barracks and some
Tartar families; the other exterior, inhabited by Chinese. It is
in this latter that trade is carried on.
Hulan P^ Hf. — An important military station situated on
the Sungari, at the confines of the two Provinces. The popula-
tion reaches from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. It has 50 oil
factories, and a large number of spirit {''vodka'^') distilleries.
MaUar or KhaUarm — A town situated between Dalat-
Nor and the Great-Khingan. It is 250 miles distant from
Tsitsihar. Some^ years ago, only a few MomgM lente were
found there ; it is now a Russian city, supplied with provisions,
hotels and hospitals. Its population is about 2,000 inhabitants.
A distance of 90 miles further on, a great fair is held every
year, in August.
Bayan 9umu — A town situated 9 miles North from the
Sungari. It has a population of 30,000 inhabitants, and pos-
sesses 18 spirit distilleries, and 60 oil-factories.
In the Ftavinee «/ Kirin t
Kirin or KiUn FW^ ^i }ff. — Capital city oi the central
of the 3 Manchurian Provinces. It has a population of 100,000
inhabitants, and is a great industrial and commercial town. The
principal eoeports are lotocoo, cultivated in the neighbourhood
and firtrwarded to Chinas timber and Atrs also abound. It is
the head of steam navigation on the Sungari, and is a great
inland ship-building centre; The town has also an arsenal
and a powder factory, while earthenware is manufactured some
30 miles to the North.
496 BOOK II. ounm dbpbmdbcibs.
HarMn {Haheulpin B|^ Hf )|). — On the right hank of
the Sungari, and in the midst of a rich wheat-growing country.
It has a population of 30,000 inhabitants, and has much developed
of late by railv^ay enterprise. Here the trunk line branches into
two, one proceeding Eastward to Vladivostock, the other running
South to Port Arthur. It has several steam flour-mills, and
numerous small steamboats convey the flour to the Amur portSi
The town comprises three parts : old HarMn^ new Hdrtk^
and the F&rL Oid Harbin is a village of mud-built hovels
clustered round the ancient distillery. New Harbin is situated
upon an elevated plateau, and has already over 300 stone-buUt
houses. An iniemoHonai eetUemeni has been recently opened
by China outside the walls of the city, and is to have a Russian
Municipality and Council controlled by the Railway C^. The
Port is the administrative centre of the North Manchurian railv^ay,
and contains numerous workshops, machine-sheds and stotehous-
es. It abuts on the Sungari, which is here i a.mile wide, and .
covered with steamers and junks.
San&Ing 2 tt* — ^ town situated at the confluence of thp
Mutan-kiang or Peony river, and of the Sungari. It has a
population of 15,000 inhabitants. The town has 2 distilleiriestt
10 oil factories and 3 dye-works. It is an important barter and .
trading centre.
Fehma [Pehtunei fg |K M), also called Sineh^h^ if j^.
— A town built on the banks of the Sungari, at a short distance
from its junction with the Nonni. It has a population of 30,000
inhabitants, manufactures cotton piece-goods and ropes, and
exports furs and oil.
Kwani^^tng Chow. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants. It
is the centre of a great tobacco-growing region, and has also 8
distilleries and 40 oil factories.
NingvMa {Ningkut'ah ^ -^ j^^). — Population, 30,000
inhabitants. It is built on the Mutan-kiang or Peony river,
in a very advantageous position for trade with Japan. It is the
home of the fish-skin Tartars, and its houses are nearly all mud-
built hovels. The railway passes 10 miles to the South.
CHAPTBR I. llANGHUaiA. 497
Jn the Br&vinee cf JSMngkhtg H iff, :
MtikOen^ called in Chinese Fkmaifien F^ J^ J^ Jff or
SMngking H 7^ (abundant Capital). — Population, 180,000
inhabitants. Mukden is the metropolis of Manchuria, the ances-
tral home and the sacred city of the reigning dynasty. It is
built on the Hun-ho ^ fp^, a tributary of the Liao-ho jj^ |if ,
and lies in the midst of a rich but treeless plain. The town is
surrounded by a mud-built wall 10 miles in circuit. An inner
wall, made of bricks, separates the Emperor's residence from the
town. This part of the city is about 3 miles in circumference.
The imperial palace and buildings, the Government ofBces and
courts are arranged on the same plan as those of Peking. Trade
is carried on in the Outer City. The streets are clean and
lined with large shops, where piece-goods, manufactured articles
and furs are sold. The output of the mint, for the year 1906,
was 35,036,000* 10-cash pieces (copper coins). Mukden has
a Foreign Settlementj and is now open to Foreign trade. The
Resident-General of Japan, and a Consul-General for Great
Pritain, will reside there. A railway connects Mukden with
ttnmint^un flf Jg ifi on the West, while another of small gauge
JTuns Eastward to Ngantung ^ % (Antung 175 miles). This
latter will be converted to the standard gauge in 2 years.
To the West, is a Buddhist temple, which receives the
Emperor's efBgy every ten years, since the time that His Majesty
ceased to visit in person the ancestral city. Kiak^ng ^ JH (1796-
1821) was the last Emperor who visited Mukden, in the year 1804.
2%€ iatnbs, or Fuhling fl| B^i c/ the Ma$iehu Sovereigns
lie 3 miles to the N. E. of the walls. Six miles to the N. W.,
are the Pehling 4;Ki ^^ ancestral tombs of the present reigning
dynasty. Ai HsitMgking ^ ?f(| a town 50 miles to the East,
is the family residence of the Manchu Monarchs, and also the
burial-ground of some of their ancestors.
lAaayatkg Chow JK A M* — ^ large Russian town before
the war of 1904-05, expanding beside the old city of the same
name. — Liaoyang was taken by the Japanese after a continuous
498 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPBNDBNCIBS.
and severe fight, in which the Russians were defeated, Septem-
ber 4, 1904.
NeHHaUoa9W 4^ M (cattle depot). — Population, 74,000 inha-
bitants. An important treaty port situated at the mouth of the
Ltao-/io JK M« ^ ^^^ miles from the old town of Newchwang,
now some distance inland, though it was formerly on the sea-
coast. It has a poor harbour, and as the river is silting up,
the port has been shifted 10 miles further down to T4ngk^aw
THng ^ D jRi which can be reached by ships displacing 2,000
tons. Here are found the Settlements, the Foreign residences
and the custom house. The control of the town returned to the
Chinese government, December 6, 1906, having been 6^ years
in alien occupation. The Japanese have established at New-
chwang "i/ie Liao river sailing ship Company^\ which carries
goods between points on the river with the terminus at New-
chwang. During the year 1906, the trade of the port was much
hampered, owing : 1® to its exports and imports being taxed,
while those entering through Dalny and Vladivostock were free ;
2* to railway discrimination, the rate per ton per mile from
Newchwang being double that from Talien ^ j|t, so that when
Kw^anch^^ngtze (Ch^angch^un g^) was reached, the cost from
Talien was 2^ yen (5 s.) less than from Newchwang. These
two causes have now been removed by the establishment of a
custom house at Dalny, and a unified railway fare from M6ng-
kiat^un H |^ 1& (Northern terminus of the South Manchurian
railway) to the sea-coast, both to take effect from July 1, 1907.
The place will however have to struggle against competition,
and against the drawback of being an ice-bound port.
The prineipfU imports of Newchwang are plain and striped
cotton goods (American, English and Japanese), cotton yarn
(Bnglish, Indian and Japanese), kerosene oil (American, Russian
and Sumatra), sugar from Hongkong, foreign flour, coal and
matches. The eaoporis are beancake (1,715,058 piculs in 1905,
and 3,662,824 in 1906), bean-oil, medicines, goat and dog skins,
rugs, mats, wild and refuse silk, ginseng, deer horns, dried
and salt fish, ^^samshu" (sanshao H jH^ thrice fired. A general
GHAPTBR I. MANCHURIA.
499
name for all Chinese fermented and alcoholic liquors), and
indigo. The total gross and net values of the port from 1901-
1906, were as follows :
Gross and Net Values of Trade, 1901-1906.
Year.
Gross Values.
Net Values.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
1901
42,865,680
42,262,209
1902
42,870,569
42,692,135
1903
47,961,251
47,632,059
1604
41,600,696
41,517^78
1905
61,966,054
61,752,905
1906
44,861,087
44,482,001
The market being overstocked in 1905, foreign imports fell from Tls. 31,003,143
in 1905, to Tls. 18,720,743 in 1906.
JVrl AHhmr or LULshun-k^cfw IR JS O* — Population,
14,000 inhabitants. A port of great importance as the terminus
of the Tran^-aiberian ra/Owmy. In 1880^ C/itna began to fortify
it as a naval base for her Northern squadron. In 1894, it had
13 forts and SSO large guns. It was however badly protected
on the land-side. In July, 1894, war broke out between China
and Japan. The Liaotung peninsula was occupied, and Port
Arthur taken (November 21). When the treaty was to be ratified
. November 8, 1895, Russia, Germany and France protested,
and thus compelled Japan to restore it to Ohina. In 1898,
it was leased to Russia by China for 25 years, but the lease
could be extended by mutual agreement (art 3). The port was
for the sole use of Russian and Chinese men-of-war, and was to
be unopened to the naval and mercantile vessels of other na-
tions (art 6). Russia could erect forts and defences within the
leased territory, as she thought fit (art 7). It was in fact im-
mediately fortified, and put in a state of defence awaiting
the final struggle with Japan. It thus became a place of con-
siderable importance. In 1904, Russia having delayed to
500 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPIMDBNCII8.
evacuate Manchuria, as stipulated with China, Japan began
hostilities (February 8). On Feb. '9, Japanese torpedo-boats made
a midnight attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. On Feb.
10, war was declared by the Tsar, and on Feb. 12, by the Mikado.
On March 21, the first bombardment of the port took place. On
August 3, it was completely invested, and finally compelled to
capitulate, January 1, 1905. Peace being concluded at Ports-
mouth (United States), September 5, 1905, Russia transferred to
Japan the lease of Port Arthur, Talien and adjacent territory, with
all rights and concessions connected with said lease (art. 5). A
subsequent treaty and an additional agreement were entered into
by China and Japan, and the Chinese Government consented to
the above transfers and assignments made by Russia to Japan.
Holny or TaUen'Wan :fc S I9i called by the Japanese
TaUFmu — Population, 40,000 inhabitants, of whom 10,000 are
Japanese. A port well situated for commerce, and opening
on a wide bay, sufficiently protected from the sea. During the
Russian occupation, 1898-1904, only part of the port was open
to the merchant vessels of other countries (art. 6). The town
was divided into three parts : a special department for the
civil administration, and 2 commercial quarters ; one for
Foreigners, and the other for Chinese. In the late Russo-
Japan war (1904-1905), Dalny was abandoned by Russia,
March 27, 1904, and occupied by the Japanese troops. May 30.
At the conclusion of the war, Russia ceded Dalny to Japan on
the same conditions as Port Arthur (Portsmouth Treaty, art. 5).
It was thrown open to foreign trade by Japan, September 1 ,
1906, as a free port^ no duties being levied on goods entering
or leaving. This measure of Japan greatly injured the trade of
Newchwang, which was a dutiable port, and China to remedy
the evil has decided to open a custom house at Dalny, July 1,
1907. The agreement signed at Peking, May 30, 1907, between
M' Hayashi, Minister for Japan, and Sir Robert Hart, contains
the following regulations : 1^ the Commissioner and Staff of the
Customs Office at Taircn are to be of Japanese nationality; 2* sea-
borne goods will pay no import duty, but this will be levied
CHAPTBH I. MANGHUniA. 501
according to existing treaties, if or when the goods pass the
frontier of the leased territory ; 3* merchandise brought from
the interior of China into the leased territory, and shipped at
Tairen, will pay export duty according to existing treaties.
Produce raised in, or imported by sea into the leased territory,
and when manufactured may be shipped, shall pay no export
duty; 4* Chinese merchandise, or products from the treaty ports
to Tairen, shall pay no duty so long as they remain in the leased
territory, but if they pass the frontier into the interior of China,
they shall pay according to existing treaties ; 5® the custom
house can issue inland steam-navigation papers, and grant
transit passes for merchandise going into the interior of China,
or coming therefrom to Tairen; 6* the transmission of Chinese
closed mails between Tairen and inland ports shall be free of
charge ; V the Customs tariff in vigour in Chinese treaty ports
shall be applied likewise by the Maritime Customs Office at Tai-
ren. A similar agreement will be also concluded with Russia,
and Chinese Custom Offices established at the frontier. — The
South Manchurian Railway Company carries on a steam service
between Dalny, Shanghai, and Hongkong. Coal is the principal
export article.
Industry and Commerce. — Manchuria has displayed
up to the present but little industrial activity. There are
however a considerable number of sorghum distilleries and
bean-oil factories. Gold mines and collieries are also somewhat
actively worked.
Commerce occupies an important place. The prindpai
eaoporis are beancake, beans, bean-oil, furs, skins and wild silk.
The imparts are cotton piece-goods and yarn, kerosene oil,
sugar, coal and matches.
Hlgliways of Gommnnleallon* — Besides the great
waterways (the Atnur, 9t€figari, Nanni and L4ao-hoJ, Manchuria
has several important land routes. The principal is that which
starts from Peking 4|^ ]J(, and proceeds to Siberia, via Kinchow
JPU H jHi i^i Mukflen, Kirin, Petumt, Tsitsihar and Mergen
(these two last in the Province of Hehlungkiang).
502
BOOK II. ODTIR DIPBNDIMCIB8.
RAILWAY SYSTEM OP MANCHURIA.
CHAPTBH I. lUlfCHnRIA. 508
Hailwajoi in MMtelnarim. — Manchuria has 2 pHneipai
raUwaif tines : the Chinese Eastern railway, and the Shanhai-
kwan-Mukden railway,
1^. l^e CMnese Beuiem raUuHMiy has been financed and
constructed by the Russo-Chinese bank. It traverses Manchuria
from E. to S.E., then from N. to S., from the Siberian frontier
in Hehlungkiang to Port Arthur, at the Southern extremity of
Regent's Sword. Entering from Transbaikalia, on the N.W<,
the line passes vik Hailar, Tsitsihar and Harbin. Here it bran-
ches S., passing via Ch'angch'un g ^ and Muftden^ and finally
ending at Port Arthur, The total length of this line is 1,200
miles. From Harbin, a branch runs Eastwards to Vladivostock,
a distance of 300 miles within Chinese territory, and 100 in
the Russian province of Primorsk. By the treaty of Portsmouth,
signed Sept. 5, 1905, Russia agreed to transfer to Japan, with
the consent of China, the railway line between Ch^angch'un
(Kw'anch'^ngtze) and Port Arthur (465 miles), and this transfer
was effectively carried out July 31, 1906. The Japanese section
is henceforth styled the South Manchurian Railv^ay, From Port
Arthur, a short branch runs to Dalny in the bay of Talien.
Another line (15 miles) runs Westward from Tashihk'iao ;Xc ^
ijgi junction to Yingk'ov; (Newchwang). A short distance N. of
Liaoyang, a third line runs E., to the Yint'ai mines, from
which the railway derives its coal supply. A light military rail--
way, constructed by Japan, joins Mukden with Ngantung ^ J|[
(Antung), at the mouth of the Yalu river (175 miles). It will
be restored to China, and converted to the standard gauge in
2 years.
2^. OChe ShanhcMwanrMukden raOway Hue. — This is the
extra-mural extension of the Imperial North-China railway, or
the Peking-T*ientsin line. At the Keupangtze HI iff ^ junction,
a branch line runs to Newchwang (Peking to Newchwang, 170
miles). The main line continues Northward to Sinmint'un ^
Jl 1^. The section between Sinmint'un and Mukden (36 miles)
was built by Japan during the Russo- Japan, and has been res-
tored to China, June 1, 1907, on payment off 1,660,000. It has
504 BOOK. II. OUTER DIPBNDIMGII8.
the Japanese gauge of 3 ft. 6 in., And yvill he reconstructed
jointly by China and Japan, the latter supplying half the capital,
which will be borrowed from the South Manchurian Railway
C^, and redeemed in 18 years.
The Fiedimtde or Liuch'€ng ;^ jff^ (willow barrier). -« A
palisade, or barrier of stakes, formerly separated Mongolia from
Manchuria. It was constructed to protect the Liao valley, on
the W., from the Mongols; and on the E., from the Koreans
and outlaws of the Long White Mountain. It extended from
the N. of Kirin city to Shanghaikv^an, with a spur running out
into Liaotung peninsula. It is traceable to-day only in a few
tottering gate-ways across the main roads, and still upheld for
purposes of toll-collecting.
AdBiliilBtnUton. — Previous to 1876, Afanc/iurta was
controlled directly by the various Boards at Peking, It was
then decreed that each of the 3 Provinces should have a civil
Governor or Siinfu jS |||. The Southern Province, or Sh6ng-
king j( iJH, was to have a Viceroy called ShSngking Tsungtuh
tf iSC tt llF* ^^ Mukden, there was to be a Tartar-General or
Tsiangkiin Kf SRi with the title of Mayor or Fuyin Jff ^ of
Mukden. In addition to the functionaries of the Provincial
Government enumerated above, Mukden was furthermore to have
a Provincial Literary Chancellor or Hsioht^ai ffi )[, and 6 Boards,
on a reduced scale, corresponding to those at Peking. The
Southern Province was also to have 3 Taot'ais ^ ||, stationed
respectively at Mukden, Yingk'ow ^ p (Newchwang), and Fung-
hwang Ch*6ng j|t jK, ji|. Kirin was to have a Military Gover-
nor or Tsiangkiin, and a Taot'ai.
The military organization was composed of the Army of the
8 Banners or Pahk*i A jKi ^ yellow, 2 white, 2 red and 2 blue.
The nationalities composing the Banner force were Manchus,
Mongols, and descendants of those Chinese who joined the Manchu
troops at the time of the conquest A.D. 1644. Each of these
formed a special division, three to each Banner, thus constituting
24 Banners in all.
The above system of administration was applied during
GBArvm I. MAMCHimiA. 505
the last 30 years. On April 20, 1907, an Imperial decree
abolished the Tariar^Generalship, and appointed a Viceroy and
3 Governors to rule henceforth over the country, and administer
it on the same basis as the 18 Provinces of the Empire. The
Viceroy bears the title of Tungsansh^ng Tsungtuh JKH ^TttH
(Viceroy of the 3 Eastern Provinces), and is to reside at Mukden.
He is to fulfil all the duties of the extinct Tartar-Oeneralship,
and is to have a permanent Yam^n in each of the 3 Provinces.
These he will visit at stated times, in order to supervise the re-
organization and development of the country. He is also /m-
pertal High Commissioner, this title giving him the right to call
to his assistance troops from other Provinces outside his Vioeroy-
alty, and to hold control over them while within his jurisdic-
tion. The 3 Governors of FungtMen, Kirin and Hehlungkiang
have the addta'ona( title of Majors-General, thus enabling them
to control Manchus and Mongols within their respective juris-
dictions. The Viceroy and Governors are allowed to come to
Peking by rail, for Imperial audiences, in matters concerning
foreign intercourse, or other important business relating to the
administration of the country.
A special military Commander is to control the troops of
the Viceroy in the 3 Province^. These troops may not exceed
6 divisions, or 72,000 men (aee p. 332). Schools for military
education are also to be established in each Province, and the
Viceroy will exercise full control over them
The territory leased to Japan has a military Governor-Gen-
eral. He is under the direction of the Minister of Foreign Affairs,
and controls the civil and military administration of the terri-
tory, the courts, and the administration of the South-Manchurian
Railway Company.
Open Porta. — Manchuria has 5 ports open to foreign
trade : Netiehwang ^ ^*, Ngttntung ^ ^ (Antung), JkUmg
(Taircn), Mukden or FungtMen Fu j|^ ^ ^, and HcirMit. In
the treaty and additional agreement relating to Manchuria,
entered into between China and Japan, 1905, it has been
provided to open several other towns as places of international
506 BOOK IK OUTER DBPBIIDBMCIBS.
residence and trade: Liaoyang, Sinmin Fu, Funghwang Ch^^ng,
Tiehling, Tungkiangtze, and Fakum^n in Sh^ngking Province ;
Kirin, Ch'angch*un, Ninguta, Hunch^un and Sansing in the
Kirin Province; and Tsitsihar, Hailar, Aigun, and Manchuli in
Hehlungkiang Province.
Htalorlcal aketebu — It was about the middle of the
XIV^^ century that the Manchus began to play a conspicuous
part among the other Tungusic tribes of the same stock. Their
original home was in the neighbourhood of the Long White
Mountain. The founder of their power was T'ienming ^ {jfj or
T^aitsu Kao Hwangti :;k tt V S ^ (great ancestor and lofty
Emperor, 1616-1627), who organized the Manchu Kingdom,
grouped his warriors into bands of 300 men, and transferred
his capital to Mukden. His son and successor T^ients'ung 3Pc
4[|, or T'aitsung W^n Hwangti :ic ^ jSC £ ^ (great forefather
and literary Emperor, 1627-1644), extended his sway over Liao-
tung jj^ }|[ and Korea, and seized Peking ifj^ ]J(. The Chinese
General, Wu Sankv;ei j^ H 4ii summoned him to the assistance
of the Ming f^ dynasty, against the usurper Li Tzech'ing ^ gf
jA (gee p. 461). He acquiesced promptly, entered Peking at
the head of 60,000 men, suppressed the rebellion and pursued
the usurper into Shensi. Ch'ungcMng ^ j||^ the last Emperor
of the Ming dynasty, strangled himself during the siege, and left
no successor. T4ents^ung refused to leave, but having died in
the midst of his triumph, his infant son of 6 years was brought
to Peking, and proclaimed Emperor under the title of Shunchi
Ig jg, or Shitsu Chang Hwangti -£ jjB JfC Si $ (ancestor and
accomplished Emperor, 1644-1662). He was the first Monarch
of the Manchu or Tats'ing ;Xc fff dynasty, which rules over China
down to the present day.
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Paris, 1904.
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VervollMiL — Notes snr la Mandohoarie.
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ReoIiMi E. — Nouvello Q^ographie Uni-
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CHAPTia I. MAKCHOBU.
507
VeBAolt. — Voyftge dans les Provinces
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PofldnfileT. — Lft Mandchonrie, 1897. (In
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Madrolle. — Chine da Nord. 1904. (p.
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155-166. — ibid. Dte., 1900 : La Mand-
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Laanay A. — Ms' VerroUes et la Mission
de Mandchourie. Paris, 1895.
OrloT. — Les Cosaques de Transbaikalie
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Description de la Mandchourie. '- (Minis-
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H. I. M. K'ieiilaiiff. — Eloge de la Yille
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Paris, 1770).
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des Mi8sions-£trang6res. ( Mai-Juin ;
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PlailL — Geschichte der Mandchurei.
De Calx R. — La Mandchourie et les
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La Guerre Russo- Japonaise.— (Bulletin du
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Les Japonais en Mandchourie. — (Bulletin
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259. — Les Japonais et le Commerce
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Les Japonais et la Porte ouverte en
Mandchourie. ibid. p. 319. — Chemins
de fer Japonais en Mandchourie. ibid. p.
320.--Ohemins de fer de la Mandchourie
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de Mandchourie. ibid. Avril, 1907. p. 144-
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1888. (Manchuria. Vol. I. Ch. YI. p. 169-
201).
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1738.
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1795. (Manchuria. Vol. I. Book II. Ch.
L p. 123-142).
WlnlerlioUiaiii. — View of the Chinese
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12M82).
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River. (Chinese Repository. Vol. XIX.
p. 289-300).
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J. — The Manchus, their Rise and
Progress. Paisley, 1880.
J. — Notes on Manchuria. Chinese
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J. — Some Notes on Liaotung. Chi-
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Parker E. H. — The Progenitors of the
Manchus. Chinese Recorder. (Vol. XXIV.
p. 501-518).
Parker E. H. — A Thousand Years of the
Tartars. Shanghai and Hongkong, 1895.
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Parker E. H. — The Manchus in China.
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1893. Vol. II. n« 5. p. 443451).
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p. 297-300).
Wta^ate A. W. — Some further notes
concerning the Liao-ho. (Geogr. Journal.
1905. n« 4. p. 421-428).
508
BOOK II. OUTBR DIPINDINCII8.
Roflael O. — A Journey from Peking to
Tsitsibar. (Geogr. Journal. London, 1901.
n* 5. p. 613-623).
A^aaals A. R. — Our commercial rela-
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Journal. London, 1891. n* 6. p. 534-550).
Allen H. — Commercial Report: Man-
churia. London, 1879.
Bjmer J. — The Province of Sh(^ngking.
Shanghai, 1880.
Youn^lioiiiaiid F. E. — The Heart of a
Continent, (travels in Manchuria, the
Gobi desert and the Pamirs). Loudon,
1904.
Fleming G.— Travels in Manchu Tartary.
London, 1863.
Oolqntioun A. — Tho Overland to China.
London, 19C0. (Manchuria. Ch. X-XII.
p. 188-251).
HhunaM 6. W. — Manchuria, the coveted
Land. (East of Asia Magazine. 1904. Vol.
in. p 208 217).
Voy de Voya. — Notes of a Voyage
across Bf anchuria. (East of Asia Maga-
zine, 1901. Vol. IIL p. 32C-330. Vol. IV.
p. .57-69).
Edtvards E. H. — Through Siberia to
China. (East of Asia Magazine, 1905.
Vol. IV. p. 175-182).
Browne Colonel. (British Military Atta-
ch^). . Notes on Manchuria. (China
Blue Book. N* 1. London, 1899).
Hoslo A. — Manchuria : its People, Be-
sourccs, and recent History. London,
I9a5.
LiUIe A. — The Far East Oxford, 1905
The Dependencies : Manchuria. Ch. X
p. 155-170.
■anon. — Port Arthur. (East of Asia Ma
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Putnam Wenle. — Manchu and Musco-
vite. London, 1904.
Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang
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Lynch 6. -^ Corea, China and Manchuria
London, 1905.
Wl^hnm. — Manchuria and Corea. Lon-
don, 1904.
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litary organization).
The Russians in Manchuria. — China Re-
view. (Vol. XXIII. p. 143-153).
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of the Upper and Lower Amur. London.
1860.
RaTenctein E. O.— The Russians on the
Amur : its Discovery, Conquest and Col-
onisation. London, 1861.
The Story of Russia in the Far East. Shang-
hai, 1899.
Beverld^e A. — The Russian Advance.
London, 1903.
Krauooe A. — The Far East : its History
and its Question. London, 19.3. (Origin
of the Siberian railway. »- The Liaotong
peninsula. — Cession of Port Arthur.
Ch. VII. p. 147-119.- RussU and Ja-
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Ch. XII, p. 252-250).
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Tokio, 1905.
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Southern Manchuria. ]x>ndon, 1901.
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Peking to S^ Petersburg. London, 1864.
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berian Railway. (Geogr. Journal. London,
J905. n»2. p. 146154).
Leroy-Deaulleu P. — The Awakening
of tbe East. London, 1900. (The railway
through Manchuria. Part I. Ch. X. p.
71-75>.
LeoTenworth O. — The Great Siberian
Thoroughfare. Shanghai, 1902.
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Knulen. ~ Linguae Mandshoricae Insti-
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Von MMlendorf P. G. - A Manchu
Grammar. 1802.
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maire Mandchoue. Altenbourg, 1832.
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Wylle A. — A Chinese Grammar of the
Manchu Language. Shanghai, 18^5.
History of the Manchu Language. — Chi-
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149157).
Dyer BallJ. — Things Chinese. Shang
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413-415).
China : Imperial Maritime Customs. De
cennial Reports, 1892-1901 (Ncwchwang)
CHAPTER 11.
MONGOLIA OR THE MONGKU W *
COUNTRY.
ThA vast plaieAU which lies to the North of China Proper, and 8<*parat(>s it from
Siberia, is called Mongolia. The surface of this plateau is far from being equally level
throughout, but is composed in reality of a basin formed by the depression of the Gobi
desert. The latter is bounded on the N. W. by a still higher region; on the N. E., E. and
S.£. by the Khingan fHsiugngan H $) and Yin-shan K| llj mountains; on the S., by the
Ordos country, and on theS. W., by the Alashan (Holan-shan KM UJ) rang.-^. For
clearness' sake, we shall give, besides some notions on the country in general, a few
details upon each of these regions.
Area. — 1,367,953 square miles.
Pepnlmilon* — 2,580,000, or nearly 2 to the square mile.
HaBie. — Besides its name of Mongolia, derived from the
word Mongku ^ i£f , it is sometimes called Gobi (Kwopih :^ ^)
or the Desert, also Shamo fj^ ^, that is Sandy Waste. The
Chinese call it Han-hai ^ f^ (rainless sea), but this Inst
denomination is applied more particulary to the central part.
Itonndarles* — Mongolia is bounded on the
N. — By Siberia (Provinces of Transbaikalia, Irkutsk,
Yenesei and Tomsk),
W. — By Siberia (Province of Semipalatinsk), and the
New Dominion or Sinkiang gf 9(«
S. — By China (Kansu fl- jf, Shensi |P^ f|, and Chihli
«»,
E. — By Manchuria (Manchow fM iW)-
510 BOOK II. OUTER DBPBNDENCII8.
Aspeei and Chaimeierlatlcs. — Considered from the
Chihli plain, the table-land of Mongolia appears like a serrated
chain of high mountains. Ascending one of these summits, an
immense plateau, ranging from 3,000 to 4,000 feet in height,
discloses itself to the view. To the North and South extends a
verdant zone, pasture^lands prevailing more to the North, and
cultivated fields to the South, An immense mountain chain, the
Great Khingan (Hsingngan H ^), rises boldly to the East. Its
vast mass is covered with forests, while it slopes gently towards
the Gobi desert, but more abruptly towards the low plains of
Manchuria. A considerable mountain mass extends throughout
the whole North-West. Its peaks afford pasturage, when uncovered
with snow, and numerous streams issue from its sides. At high
altitudes, some fine expanses of salt water are still found, remnants
of those vast inland seas, which must have formerly existed there.
To the S. W., are mountains and table-lands higher than the Gobi,
and like it covered with sand. There are few important towns
in this immense tract, and the population is largely nomad.
The Chinese farmers constantly advancing from the S., their hand
on the plough, and the numerotis sedentary Lamas who live by
thousands in the monasteries upon the plateau, are however an
exception. This country is on the whole rather poor, and inha-
bited by cattle-breeders, continually shifting their tents. This
however was not always so. The numerous ruins found in the
desert attest that it was formerly cultivated, and dotted over with
towns,
Geolo^cal coofltiiatloa. — The Mongolian plateau is the extension of the
T'ien-shan ^ |l|t or heavenly mountains. It seems to be composed of metamorphic
and igneous strata : gneiss, granite, cr>*stalline and slaty schist. It was formerly bel-
ieved that it had formed the bed of a dried-up sea during the primary and secondary
periods, but no traces of rock belonging to these periods have been found op the pla-
teau. The name Han-hai J|L i$ (rainless sea) should not therefore be interpreted in
this sense.
On the elevated plains which border the plateau, and on the slope outside Mon-
golia, lie extensive beds of basaltic and other volcanic upheavals, as well as limestone
and carboniferous rocks.
Ked and brown conglomerate, sandstone and clay are found everywhere through-
out the Gobi, but the fossil remains which they contain, attest that these rocks have
been formed at the bottom of fresh-water, and not of salt-water lakes or inland seas.
CHAPTBR II. MOMeOLU. 511
Owofprmphy and BydrogrmpUy ofT ilie Tariens regtons
of Mensolte.
l"". The region N. W. of Kobdo tmd Urga» — This region
forms a high plateau surrounded by four ranges of mountains :
the 8auan (Saiansk) and Busekm AUai to the N. and N.W., the
Ekiagh AUai or Canfrol AUai to the S.W., the Ariaa-Bogdo and
Keniai to the S. E., the Khamar'jDoban and the Btgik^lkmgitk
to the N. E. — This plateau, which is about 110,000 square
miles in extent, never falls below a level of 2,300 feet (at the
Ubsa-Nor lake), and this only over a limited space. All the
rest, even at the bottom of the valleys and in the lowlands, has
an elevation ranging from 3,000 to 4,500 feet. Several moun-
tain chains rise much higher. A good many peaks of the
Southern Altai exceed 10,000 feet, and one of them, the Tasagtu-
Bogdo, seems to attain an elevation of 14,000 feet. Peaks,
reaching 10,000 feet and more, encircle the horizon, except to
the S. E., between the Kentai and Artsa-Bogdo ranges.
The passes, whereby the plateau is approached, are also
exceedingly steep. In the Southern Altai, they are not lower than
9,000, and rise as high as 10,000 feet. One of the principal
of this South Altai range is the Olen-Darha pass, which is 9,240
feet high.
Numerous rivers water this region, and several flow into
salt-lakes with no outlets. The principal are the KeMo river
or KobdOffoif which flows into the KiMrauseurNar, a lake situa-
ted at an altitude of 3,800 feet; the Tes river, running into
the Ubea^Nar, a lake 2,230 feet above sea-level; the Tenieet^
formed by the ITIuJkam, the Beikem and the Kemehik; the
Seieitga with its tributary the OrJkJkm, itself receiving the Toia
or Urga river. These two latter rivers (the Yenisei and the
Selenga), together with their tributaries, water the whole Northern
parts of this vast table-land.
From the outer sides of this mountain-mass only a few small
and short lived streams flow towards the Gobi and Sungaria,
and are soon lost in the sands. The principal of these is the
Urungu^ which waters the depression situated between the
512 BOOK II. OUTER DIPBNDINCIM.
Central Altai and Sungaria, at an altitude of from 1,500 to 3,000
feet.
Besides the lakes already mentioned, numerous others
occupy here and there the depressions of the plateau. The
principal is lake Kom>g^ which is over 60 miles in length. It
is the only one whose waters escape by a river, called the
Egingmi, and flowing into the Selenga. It is situated at an
elevation of 5,300 feet, and lies at the foot of the snow-capped
peak, known by the name of MmOcu'Sftrdwk. -^These lakes vary
in dimension with the years and seasons, and are at times gradu-
ally dried up.
The 8. E., and R. W. parts are covered with gravel, and
are destitute of trees. The wide valleys of the table land are
all in a similar condition. The elevated parts, especially the
slopes towards the N., are covered with larch, pine, cedar and
birch-trees. Wherever the forest disappears, as when the 8.
is approached, excellent pasture-land is found throughout nearly
the whole region. On the N., the two slopes of the Smpmn
mountains are covered with woods. Further Southwards, trees
are found only on the slopes facing the North. The Altai range
is completely destitute of trees.
2®. Beaiati o/ Hie Mongolian Deaert or Oo^ — This is
the lowest part of the Great Mongolian table-land, and is some-
what funnel-shaped. It has its sand^rivers called ska^ho ^ fpf^
and is almost everywhere a stony and sandy waste, in the
midst of which arise, like islands, rocky masses constantly eroded
by sand storms. The Gobi is not, however, entirely a sandless
v^aste. Beyond the sand-rivers, there is good land which yields
shrubs, and a scanty but nutritious kind of grass. Agriculture
is encroaching more and more on the Southern plateau, where
the land is nearly everywhere fertile, and yields splendid crops,
without manure, for years.
Here the climate is too dry, and the sands too permeable
by water, to allow of rivers being formed. The only water
available is drawn from cisterns, fed by the summer storm-
showers.
CBArm II. MONeoLiA. 513
The Gobi Desert has an altitude of from 2,500 to 3,000
feet, and is slightly undulated, its surface being broken by a
series of hills rising from 100 to 1,100 feet above the plateau.
High grass covers in Spring its South-Eastern part, and
imparts to it the aspect of a 6ea of verdure. This is the origin of
the name given to it by the Chinese, "Land of high grass."
3\ BegUm of the Greai Khimgan (Hsingngan ^ ^).— The
Khingan is a long chain of mountains, running in a S.W.-N.B.
direction. It comes from Manchuria, and extends to the N. of
Shansi il| |f , through the YinrslMtn |K (Ij range. It is formed
by a series of two or three parallel chains, ranging in all from
75 to 100 miles wide. The Ortai Khingan itself rises on a
base of from 3,000 to 3,200 feet in height, and attains finally
an elevation of from 4,500 to 6,000 feet.
To the N., between the Great Khingan and the Kentai,
extends a high undulated tahle^land, covered with low and flat
hills, well wooded and irrigated, and marshy in some placNNl.
Two important rivers drain this region : the Keruiem, which
runs into the Dalai^Nor lake in Manchuria, and the On^n river,
which flows into the Shilka, in Siberia.
The Tii^ehan is but a prolongation of the Khingah, and
rises to an elevation of 5,800 feet.
Maei of the Great Khingant the low plain, which extends
into Manchuria, is from 1,500 to 2,000 feet above the sea-level.
It possesses fine pasture-lands, and is watered by rivers which
rise in the Great Khingan. The principal of these are the JioHni
with its affluents, and the Skftrarmuren^ which is known
further on as the Liao-ho jj^ jp}, and forms the boundary line
on the N., between Ghihli ]t H and Mongolia.
4*. The Ordoe pkUeam. called the Ho-t'ao jij If or Ngoh-
eultusze 9|l M 4 )K« ^^ hemmed in on the N., by a bend of the
Hwang-ho H }ij- It slopes gently down from the 8., where its
elevation is over 5,000 feet, to the N., where it falls to 3,200.
It is almost entirely covered with sand, especially in the N.
and W., and has rather large depressions called "tsaidams,"
which are the bottoms of dried-up lakes. Several small expanses
.is
514 BOOK II. OUTBR DBFKNDBNGIB8.
of water are scattered over its surface, and short a£fluent8 of
the Hwang-ho drain its Eastern part. The ArbmMfta mountains,
which are a continuation of the Alashan (Holan-shan )( |0 ll|)
range, rise to an elevation of 3,000 feet above the plateau.
2V> the Nm €/ the Orioe etnnUrp, on the opposite side of the
Hwang-ho, extends a fairly fertile and populous plain, walled
in on the N. by several chains of mountains. It is called the
"Urat country.''
5®. The Alashan Begian (Holan-shan )( g| ilj). — This com-
prises two partfi, one mountainous and the other a plateau, both
situated between the Ordos country, and the New Dominion or
Sinkiang ff 9.
l%e mountains rise at a short distance beyond the Hwang-
ho H jBf, and run in a S.W.-N.E. direction. They extend to
a distance of 150 miles, and have a mean width of 15 miles.
Their peaks tise to from 5,000 to 6,500 feet beyond the plateau,
itself in this place from 3,300 to 5,000 feet above sea-level.
They do not, however, reach the line of perpetual snow. These
peaks are very rocky and of barren aspect.
The piateau is broken up with hills. The altitude of its
lowest parts reaches 4,000 feet, but falls 'to 3,500 towards
the Etsingol, and to 3,300 at lake Sogok. The hills rise to
about 1 ,000 feet beyond the plateau. The principal river found
there is the BMn^ol, which empties itself into 8oaok^N&r. Two
other rivers, coming likewise from the Kansu •g" jfl mountains,
are partly dried up before reaching the lakes towards which
they flow.
Ollmate. — The climate of Mongolia is ver>' dr>-, and offers great variations of
teTnpcrature, not only from one season to another, but even within the same day. The
countr>- is swept constantly by sand-storms, and seems to be ever covered with a clond
of yellow dnst.
The N. W. region ia especially cold on account of its elevation. At Urga, the
in<'an annual temperature is 4'.^ Fahrenheit. The thermometer descends to zero in
January, and rises to 79° F. in July. The dry, cold winds, which bloi^' from the N. W.,
render the Winters even still more severe.
In the (Tobi desert and the Alashan region, the climate becomes still drier and
more rigorous. In Winter, the thermometer falls at times to— 29" F.,aud rises in July
to lOO®. Occasionally, it has reached as high as 113** F.
CHAPTBR II. MONGOLIA. 515
At Siwantze fS Vfi^iin the extreme S. E. of the Gobi desert, the annual mean
toraperature is 37" F., that of January — 1®, and that of July 93* F.
In the N. of the Ordos country, snow begins to fall in October, and does not
melt until April. A temperature of — 22" F. is not uncommon, and the thermometer
registers sometimes during whole weeks even lower readings.
The daily variation is often considerable, ranging in March, from — 18** F. at
daybreak, to 68" in the shade, during the afternoon.
The dryness of the country arises from the encircling mountains which arrest
the rain-clouds. During Summer, no rain falls in Mongolia save during heat-storms.
At Urga, the mean rainfall is 8 inches. At Siwantze, better exposed to the S. £.
monsoon, it is 18 inches.
Fauna and Flora. — The flora of Mongolia varies according to the regions.
In the N.f are found forests, rich in rinPi fJTt ^*^'^^i ftPPf^li ^^^^ ^nd cedar-trees. In
the S., in the Yin-shan mountains, there are also large forests, in which are found the
aspen, birch^willow. alder, dwarf oak-trees and thuyas. In the N. and S.E., there are
tine pasture-lands. In the Gobi deaertt there are scarcely any trees or shrubs except a
few dwarf -elm 8, fragrant artemiaMa^ and willows, and here and there some patches of
stunted grass.
The fauna of the country is richer, without however being copious. The prin-
^al wildjauigals ^pund, ^re the wplf a^"^ ^^-^ i^^^^ numerous), the antelope, argali,
wild horse, onager {dziggetai in Mongol), numlu^tiger (near the borders of Manchuria),
)iSU» ^^^ ^^^^ boar, while t^fl birds are Ihfi eagle, kite and crow. In WiataCr'uuQerous
^patio birds fre(]|uent tJbjB. swamps and lakes. Lizards and reptiles abound in the Gobi
desert. Several of the latter are very dangt^rous, especially the bothropa serpent.
Agricultural Wealth. -^ The agricullural wealth of Mon-
golia consists chiefly in pasture- lands, and the flocks reared
thereon : sheep, goats, horses, camels and yaks.
Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of the country is
up to present little explored, and seems to consist principally of
salt, coal, marble, granite and graphite.
Populalloo. •— The population of Mongolia is scanty. It is especially centred
in the N., the S., and the S. E. The Central region, and that oi the S. are almost unin-
habited.
Mongolia is peopled by three principal races : the Mongols j the Turkis and the
Chinese. The Turkis occupy the W., the Chinese are confined chiefly to the S., where
they are engaged in opening up the country, while the Mongols inhabit the remaining
parts of the country.
The Mongols are divided into numerous tribes. The principal are : in the N.,
the Ealk?ias (the Great Conqueror, Oenghis-khan 1164-1227, belonged to this gi'oup) ; in
the IT., the Kalmucks (divided into Buriats, Turguts and Eleuths), the majority of
whom have crossed over to Tibet, Sungaria and Siberia; in the E.y the Chakhars. —The
name Tartar sometimes given to the Mongols applies only to the Northern group,
but even this must be taken with restriction, the proper appellation being Tatars.
The Mongols are a well-built and sturdy race. They are often of great width
across the shoulders. The chest is, generally speaking, arched; the neck thick-set; the
face large and flat ; the cheek-bones prominent ; the eyelids less oblique than those of
516 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPINDBKCII8.
the Chinese ; the nose broad and flat ; the beard black, short, and scanty ; the voice
deep and sonorous, the features tanned by the smoke of the ^^yourt'' or tent, and exposure
to the sun's rays, while the hands and feet are relatively small. Men and women are
full of vigour and strength. Their character is frank and open, though rather rude.
They are warm-hearted and hospitable, but improvident, lazy, filthy and much addicted
to drunkenness. They are jovial, and fond of physical exercise and athletic sports. They
are splendid horsemen, and as many as 4,000 may be seen at times contesting for the
prize of daring and speed. On foot, they are awkward and walk heavily. Accustomed
to live either in the "yoiirt" (tent) or in the open air, they have become inured to pri-
vations of all kinds.
The majority of the men embrace a life of celibacy, in the Lama monasteries, and
thus thin the population, which is fast advancing towards extinction.
The KirghiSf who inhabit the W., are of Turkish origin. Their cheek-bones
are high like those of the Mongols, but in a lesser degree ; their limbs are strong and
well shaped, their eye is quick, but the nose is convex, the beard black and fairly
abundant, while their bearing is proud and haughty. Their reputation of highway-
men is well deserved. They are, however, hospitable and open-hearted, and like the
Mongols, pass the greater part of their life on horseback.
Reliffloii.— Nearly all the Mongols are Buddhists. Indian Buddhism^ however,
after passing to Tibet, was transformed into Lamaism. Lamas are Buddhist monks
who observe the forms of Tibetan Buddhism, and lead generally a conventual life.
Two principal sects are distinguished, from the colour of their dress and their head-
covering : the red Lamas and the yellow Lamas (Bed Caps and Yellow Caps). The
latter predominate in Mongolia. Of the three High Dignitaries of Lamaism, or Living
Buddhas, 2 reside in Tibet, and 1 at Urga,m Mongolia. This latter bears the name of
HuVukht^u Vf IB % H ( a Mongolian word meaning one who returns again, or an
Avatar). He holds authority over 25,000 Lamas, and maintains 150,000 slaves, who
tend his flocks. Previous to 1664, he resided at Kweihwa Ch*(^ng RE ifc i$E, in Shansi
^J 0 Province. Nearly all Lama monasteries have now their Avatars, or Living
Buddhas. These Lamasaries are very numerous, and reckon some, as many as 20,000
Lamas or more. According to recent statistics, the Lamas form the g of the male
population of Mongolia. They wield great power, and enjoy wealth, owing to the
numerous donations which they receive.
The Lama form of Buddhism is much adulterated in Mongolia with Shamanism
and Idolatry.
hanguAge. — The most widely diffused type of the Mongol language, spoken
throughout the country, belongs to the Ural-Altaic family, as the Turkish and Manohn
dialects. It abounds in dissyllabic roots, and is rich in words and forms. The alphabet
is syllabic, and of Syro-Uigur origin. It has 7 vowels, 17 consonants and 5 diphthongs.
Gutturals and aspirates are largely used. The writing has undergone various trans-
formations. Its latest form, which resembles knotted cords, dates from the XIII***
century. Mongol is written in vertical columns, from top to bottom, but unlike
Chinese, the lines proceed from left to right.
The Mongol language has its conjugations and declinations. Sentences consist
of a number of participial clauses, with the principal verb at the end, and this gives
them at times an indefinite length. In the spoken language, the letter r is frequent,
but the consonant f is non-existent.
The liturgical books, which the Lamas are bound to learn by heart, wiChout
CHAPTER II. MONGOLIA. 517
uuderstandiDg their meaning, are written in Tibetan. For this reason, and also
because the book style differs much from the colloquial, there is very little literature
to be found in the Mongolian language.
SPECIMEN OF MONGOL WRITING.
(Ordos Dialect).
12 8 4 5 6 7
Enguguet satsha Borh'ano oronn tor torog^o boloyo.
(After his demise^ he toill be reihnhodied in the realm of Buddha).
Towns and Principal Oentres. — MongcUa has but few
important towns. This is due to the manner of life of the
inhabitants, who are largely nomads. The principal towns are:
Vrga or K'urun f^ ^. — Population, 13,000 Lama monks,
and 25,000 Chinese and Mongols. It is the Sacred City of the
Mangdsf the Qreat Olig (D&kuren), the Holy City (Bogdokuren).
The name Urga, given to it by the Russians, comes from "Orgo"
(palace of a high official). It is situated on the Selbi, a tribut-
ary^ of the Tola, (T*ohla-ho fg ft Jij), from which it is distant
2 miles. It is built on a hill, opposite the sacred mountain, an
extinct crater 5,200 feet high, and upon which Oenghis-khttn
(the Greatest khan) is said to have been born. At the present
day, it is composed of three parts : 1* the kuren or monastery.
This contains the principal sanctuaries, and the residence of the
living Buddha. The Dalai Lama of Tibet withdrew there before
Ihe British expedition entered Lhassa, August 3, 1904 ; 2® the
Lama city, in which are several monasteries and Lama habita-
tions ; 3® Maimai Ch'§ng X j| JA* '^^^^ ^^ ^^^ commercial
city, where important dealings (in cattle, camels, horses, sheep,
piece-goods, milk etc), are carried on between Russians, Mongols
and Chinese.
China has her Imperiai^jlgent or Ambon (Manchu term for
high officer) at Urga. He is styled K'ulunpanshi Tach*6n ^
1& UJ ♦ ^ E (K^^^run Imperial Agent), and is associated with
518 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPBNDBNCIBS.
a high Mongolian Official (Panshi Tach'^n §/tltt:h&* Imperial
Agent). Both are charged with the superintendence of commerce
between Russia, and the frontier city of Ki&khta (K'iahk'oht^u
K^bdo 1^ >(S %' — A small town situated on the Bayantu,
at the opening of a low plain. It has a fortress, where the
Governor of the city resides, and a small commercial quarter,
occupied principally by Chinese with some Mongols. It is an
important commercial centre for the cattle-breeders of the region.
Uluasui'iU i^ £ lEI K -^. — A town situated to the Bast
of Kobdo, and similar to it in many respects. It is the seat of
the military Governor of the Kalkhas region.
Industry and CTommeroe. — Industry is little developed,
and limited almost entirely to the manufacture of felt tents.
Commerce is important: 25,000 horses, 10,000 horned cattle,
250|000 sheep, 330,000 hides, and a considerable quantity of
furs are exported annually from Eastern Mongolia. From North-
western Mongolia, the annual export is still more considerable,
and comprises : 70,000 horses, 30,000 camels, and from 1,500,000
to 2,000,000 sheep. Mongolia exports also salt, timber and
deer-horns.
The imports firani China are tea, cotton, Chinaware,
cutlery, tobacco and paper. The imports from Busskt are less
considerable, but are however constantly increasing.
The transport of goods occupies a large number of Mongols.
As many as 100,000 camels are employed in conveying tea from
Kalgan (Chihli fg[^) to Siberia. Another 1,200,000 camels and
300,000 bullock-waggons are employed in the inland caravan
trade.
Hlffliways ef Oommunieatten. — The most frequented
thoroughfare is that which leads irom Kalgan to Kiakhta^ via
Urga.
Another road branches off at Sair-Usu, and proceeds to
Uliasut^ai and Kobdo.
During Winter, transport is effected by camels; in Summer,
by bullock- waggons.
CHAPTBR II. MONGOLIA. 519
A reauiarpasial service ^^OTgankized by Russia" connects
Kiakhta and Kalgan, passing via Urga. There are 4 depar-
tures per month in each direction, 3 for the light mail, and 1
for the heavier parcels. The light mail is carried by two horses
mounted by Mongol riders, who travel at full speed. Relays
are established every 20 miles. The light mail takes 8 days
in Summer to make the trip, and 9 ^ in Winter. For the
heavier parcels, from 20 to 25 days are required.
Admlntolimtleii. — Mongolia is under the control of the
Lifan Yuen H ^ Ri or Mongolian Superintendency, whose
head-quarters are at Peking.
A part of the country is now attached to Shansi \ji\ ff and
Chihli gl^. The rest is divided into Inner and Outer Mongolia.
Inner MmigoUa^ or Nei Mongku Pi ft 7^, comprises the
whole country lying between the Gobi desert, China Proper
and Manchuria. It is also called Mongolia of the 49 Banners,
from the military organization adopted there. It is arrayed in
hvo sections, termed the right and left wings, the left occupying
the Eastern, and the right the Western half of the country.
These two sections are divided into 6 chogolgan or Leagues
(M^ng 9 i^ Chinese), which embrace the whole of the 24 tribes
or Pu ||( (in Mongol, Aimaks f| Ijf J^), under which they are
distributed. Each tribe comprises 1 or several banners, that of
the Ordos, for instance, having 7. Each League is ruled by a
petty Prince called the Captain-General (Mingchang 9 ^) ^^
the chogolgan. He is selected from among the leading chieftains
of the tribes, and approved by the Emperor of China, on the
recommendation of the Mongolian . Superintendency. — Two
Bfilitary Governors-General, one residing at Jehol, and the other
at Kalgan (Changkia-k'ow S jjt D 1 the gate-town on the line
of the Great Wall), are appointed for the control of Inner Mon-
golia. In civil matters, they depend on the Viceroy of Chihli.
The Commissaries of this latter reside at Kalgan and Jehol, and
administer the civil affairs of the Chinese population inhabiting
Inner Mongolia.
Oiiler MenffoUOf or Wat Mongku ^ jH l&i comprises all
520
BOOK II. OUTBH DinNDBNCIBS.
the rest of the country. The Mongols who 'inhabit it, especially
the Kalkhas tit W ^^ have maintained their independence
longer than the other tribes, and even now, their allegiance is
rather nominal than real. They constitute 4 great tribes or
aimaks, 3 of whom are still governed by hereditary rulers,
bearing the title of Khan (in Chinese, Han }f ). The number of
banners, distributed among the 4 tribes, is 83. By the addition
of 2 banners of Eleuths, and 1 of Khoits, the number of the ban-
ners of the Kalkhas reaches 86 in all. The Khans of the Kal*
khas testify their allegiance to the Sovereign of China by an
annual presentation of 9 white animals (Kiupah ^ g), consist-
ing of eight horses and a camel, all pure white in colour.
Next in importance to the Kalkhas are the Kalmuks or
Western Mongols. They are divided into 6 tribes : Eleuths,
Turbets, Turguts, Khoshoits, Khoits and Ch^oros. They inhatnl
the region of Kuku-Nor, and the Northern borders of Tibet
(ancient Tangut).
A Chinese Imperial Agent resides at Urga, and maintains
his authority over the Kalkhas chiefs. The Western Kalkhas
are under the rule of the military Governor of Uliasut'ai.
Army. «* The Mongol tribes have to serve in the ranks of the army, but in fact
onl}' Inner Mongolia supplies soldiers. The Mongol army has but cavalry. There are .
1,325 camps numbering 198,000 men, of whom ,\ is armed with rifles. Evry 3 or -I
yearn, a general review is held at Kalgan.
Beferences :
Recliw E. — Nonvelle G^ographie, 1882.
(Vol. VII. p. 176-222).
De Leadaln. — £n Mongolie. Paris, 1903.
De Bala.— La Mongolie. (Tour du Monde,
1901).
De Goianes J. — Histoire Ginerale des
Huns, Turcs, Mogols. 4 Vol. Paris, 1756-58.
lATiMie et RamlMiiiil. - Histoire Gto«-
rale. (Tome II. Cb. 16, et Tome III. Ch.
19).
Onhun. — Introduction k I'Histoire de
I'Asie. Paris, 1896. (Turcs et Mongols,
des origincs a 1605).
D'Ohwwn C. — Histoire des Mongols. 4
Vol. Amsterdam, 1854.
Hoc et Gabet.^ Voyage dans la Tartarie
et le Thibet. Paris, 1850.
So«II6. — Les Tribus Mongols : lear 8i>
tuation actuelle, politique et gtographi-
que. (Kcho de Chine. 19 Mai, 1904).
Kevue illustr^e des Missions en Chine et
au Congo. (Missions Beiges), paadm,
v.g. 1889, p. 97 sq., aperyu du Vioariat de
la Mongolie Centrale. — 1891, p. 488 aq.,
MongoUe S.E. — 1892, p. 1 sq. Etai, ffc-
mille, religion des Mongols etc.
Le Pays des Ortous. — (Missions Catholi-
ques, 1875).
CHAPTBR II. MONGOLIA.
521
WoUr. ^ Gk)8ohichte der Mongolen. Bres-
Ian, 1872.
De ObmvmMtaem. — Conqu^te en Asie par
les Mogols et lea Tartares bous Gengis-
Khan et Tamerlan. Tours, 1876.
Feer Is. — La Poissanoe et la Civilisation
Mongoles an XIII* si^e. Paris, 1887.
Gaabll. ^ Histoire de Qengis-Khan, et de
toute la Dynastie des Mongous, ses sac-
oessetm. Paris, 1739.
R^moflAt. — Mdmoire sur les relations
politiques des Princes ohrdtiens avec les
Emperenrs Mongols. Paris, 1827.
HiBvld. — Voyage en Mougolie. (Bulletin
dela Soc. G6ogr. Paris, 1875. p. 5-45;
181176).
Plan-Oi^rpiii- — Relations des Mongols
ou Tatars. Paris, 1838.
DoaSlas Sir R. — The Life of Jinghiz
Khan, from Chinese Sources. London,
1878.
Da Halde. — Description of the Empire
of China. London, 1738. (Geogr. Obser-
vations on Tartary. Vol. II. p. 285-265.
— Travels of Verbiest and Gerbillon into
Tartary. ibid. Vol. II. p. 270-369).
CiiOMJor — Description of China. London,
1795. (Mongolia. Vol. I. Ch. III. p. 166-
190).
IVlnterlioUiaiii. — View of the Chinese
Empire. London, 1795. (Mongolia, p. 132-
144).
DatIs Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
1844. (MongoUa. Vol. I. Ch. V. p. 158. —
Kalkhas, Ortous, Calmucs or Eleuths.
Ch. VI. p. 187-189).
'WUllanui. — The Middle Kingdom. New
York, 1861. (MongoUa. Vol. I. Ch. IV.
p. 163-170).
Keane A. H. — Asia. London, 1886. (Mon-
golia, p. 581-532; 539-544).
WiUlaiBMHi A. — Journeys in N. China.
London, 1870. (Prom Peking to Kalgan.
Vol. II. Ch. V. p. 92-105).
Gntmlair C — China opened. London,
1838. (MongoUa. Vol. I. Ch. VII. p. 202-
288).
l|itifci«Mi J. — A Visit to the agricultural
Mongols. (N. C. B. B. A. Soc. 1865. p. 99-
112).
PMjevtalAy. ^MongoUa and the Coun-
try of the Tanguts. 2 Vol. St Petersburg,
lg75. — Third and Fourth Journey. 1885.
Obmclieir. — Central Asia, Northern
China and the Nan-shan. 1900-1901.
PyevUntt. — Sketch of a Journey to
Mongolia. 1883.
^Mdneeir. — Towns of North MongoUa.
1880. — MongoUa and the Mongols. 1896-
1899.
Kvopotkin. ^ Mongolia. (Encyolopiedia
Britannica. 1901).
Kasloff P. K. — Mongolia and Tibet.
(Geogr. Journal. 1906 Vol. XXVIII.).
Potanlii. — Sketches of N. W. MongoUa.
1881-1888. — The Tangut-Tibet Border
of China and Central Mongolia. 1893.
De Wiitftl -> From Peking to Calais by
land. London, 1889. (MongoUa. Ch. 2-7).
Parker B. H. — A month in MongoUa.
(The Phoenix, 1870-71. passim).
MongoUa. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. I.
p. 117-121; 170-172).
Topography of Mongolia. — Chinese Repo-
sitory. (Vol. XX. p. 62-67).
The Chinese in MongoUa. — Chinese Re-
corder. (Vol. Vm. p. 273-295).
Gilmoar J. — Among the Mongols, 1883.
— More about the Mongols, 1898.
AtkiiMKNi T. W. — Oriental and Western
Siberia. London, 1858. (MongoUa. Ch.
24-29).
Atkliwon T. W.— Travels in the Regions
of the Upper and Lower Amur. London,
1860.
BDrradalle A. — Notes of a Journey in
Northern MongoUa. (Geogr. Journal,
1895. Vol. V. p. 562-572).
Freenum-Mltford. — The Attach^ at
Peking. London, 1900. (Mongolia.— Our
Mongol hosts. ^ Lama-miao. p. 246-
329).
Ho^VForttl H. H.— History of the Mongols,
from the 9**» to the 19*** century. London,
1876.
Rockliill. — Diary of a Journey through
MongoUa and Tibet in 1891-92. Washing-
ton, 1894.
Gnnipbell O. M.<— Journeys in MongoUa.
(Geogr. Journal. London, 1908. Vol.
XXII. p. 485-521).
YouQghn Aand Sir F. — The Heart of
a Continent. London, 1904. (Travels in
Manchuria, the Gobi Desert and the
Pamirs).
Winsote A. W. — Nine years survey
work in N. China and Mongolia. London,
1906.
522
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Mtohie A.— The Siberian Overland Route,
from Peking to S^ Petersburg. Loudon,
1864. (Mongolia. Ch. (»-14).
Oolquboiin A. —The Overland to China.
London, 1900. (Eastern Mongolia. Ch.
XIII-XIV. p. 255-308).
Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 190;{. (Mongols, p. 44C-449).
Mayers F. W. — The Cliinese Govem-
nient. Shanghai, 1886. (Mongolia and
Turkestan. Part XI. p. 80-96).
UUle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.
(The Dependencies : Mongolia. Ch. XI.
).. 171-185).
lle<lley J. — On Tramp among the Mon-
g(.ls. Shanghai, 1900.
Bowra E. O. — On the words Mongol,
Mogul, Tatar and Tartar. (Notes and
Queries on China and Japan. Vol. I.
p. 57-59).
KoTaievflU. — Diotionnaire llongol-
Busse-Fran^ais. 1814-49.
Soali6. — Elements du Dialecie Mongol.
(Ordos). Paris, 1903.
Vllaie et de Sercey. — Grammairo et
Vocabulaire de la Langne Mougole. (Kal-
khas). Pd-kin, 1897.
HSmutUkt. — Kecherches sur les Langues
Tartares. Paris, 1820.
IMkiiMi J. — Mongol and European com-
mon words. (PhoBnix Vol. II. p. 149...)-
Dyer Bali J. ^ Things Chiuese. Shang-
hai, 1908. (Mongol Language, p. 449-451).
Tole. — Primer in the Mongol Language.
London, 1837.
Denny* N. B. — A short Vocabulary of
the Mongolian Language. (Notcrs and
Queries on China and Japan. Vol. I.
p. 132).
CHAPTER III.
CHINESE TURKESTAN OR THE
NEW DOMINION
ALSO CALLED SINKIANG frii.
Sinkiaug forms, as it were, the 19**» Province of China. Thus considered, we
miglit have described it immediately after the 18 ProvinceH. The region, the climate,
the language, the administration, are however, widely different. Sinkiang itself, is
cotuposcd of such hetorogeneous parts, that we deem it necessary for the sake of clear-
ness, quite in exhibiting a general view of the whole, to give also some details upon
each of its principal divisions.
Area. — 550,579 square miles.
PopolaUon* — 1,200,000 inhabitants, or 2 per square
mile. As in Mongolia, a great part of the country, viz. the
desert and the mountains, is uninhabited. The population is
grouped in isolated oases, or in some of the well irrigated valleys.
name. — The name ShtkUmg fgj; H has been given to it
from the fact of its being recently organized, in 1878, after the
victory gained over the Mussulman insurrection in the North-
West {see p. 363). It is also sometimes called Basiem Twr-
kestan, from the name of its larger portion ; also Chinese Tht-
ketian, in opposition to Russian or Western Turkestan ; finally
KaehgaHa from Kashgar, the name of its principal town.
w — Sinkiang is bounded on the
N. — By Siberia,
W. — By Russian or Western Turkestan, and by Hin-
dustan,
8. — By Tibet,
E. — By Kansu "H* ]f ^^^ Mongolia.
524 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPBNDBNGIB8.
Br^eetural and other JDIvMotitf. — Sinkiang has H JPtefe^
tures or Fkis Jff^ 9 Chaws ff[ and 8 THnga ||.
The ^refechtres are :
1° Tih-hwa Pu jftft * or Urumt9i,
2» Y6nk*i Pu J» • KT or Karaahar,
3° Shuleh Fu flt Ik Mf (Kaskgar or Shuf u hsien fltlWt depeuds ou it),
4° S0Ch*6 PU » » *f or Far^and,
5» Wdnsuh Pu a » * or ^faiM,
e» lu Fu r V ifr.
The ChiOWB are :
1° K'uch*6 Chow » * « or -Ki/rAa,
2» Hwotien Chow 3W IB ^ or iCAo^ew.
Tito Things are :
1« Tingldhshaeal T'ing X $ i^ M ■ or Yujigi-Huaar,
2P WUBhih T'ing ft fr ■ or UchTur/an,
d» K'uenlk'ohlah Wtuto T'ing flLffmHI AlEB or jci/rikara-t/iiu,
4» Chfinsi T'lng A B ■ or ^arAu/,
6» Hahmih T*mg »»& ft ■ or ifawt (Khamil),
&" T^ulnfan T^ing i|t V 3 ■ or Turfauy
T Tsingho T^ing M MT ■,
8» T*ahch*6llg T4ng 9 JA ■ or Tarbagatai.
Amj^eel and CliaraclerlBiiek •*— Sinkiang is an immense
desert, surrounded by lofty mountains, and except for a few cases,
sandy and barren throughout. The melting snows give rise to
few rivers, and hence it well deserves the name of "Chinese
Siberia". The Southern part is a closed in basin, communicating
with the outside only through a few passes. For the sake of
clearness, we shall call all this part Bkutem Tutkeelanp or
T'ienshan Nanlu ^ \U 1^ K (^^^ 9^^^^ ^^^^ South of the T^ien-
shan range). — Its North-Eastem part is a series of mountains,
valleys and plateaux. We shall style it likewise by the name of
Sunaaria or T'ienshan Pehlu 3^ llj 4fc 0$ (^^^ great North road
of the T'ienshan). — The Eastern T'ienshan 5f (Ij range
separates these two regions from one another. — Sinkiang being
largely a piace of passage, is inhabited by a great variety of races
Though impoverished and distressed in general, the country
seems to have been formerly well populated, and the sand'^
buried ruins discovered there, attest that in days gone bj/, it
CHAFTBR III. CHINB8B TURKBSTAN. 525
enjoyed a certain prosperity. The inroads of the sands, however,
seem to threaten with ruin, and hinder the development of all the
new towns which are rising there.
Geological eonolitotkio.— Sinkiang is a series of gravelly and sandy basius,
surronnded by high mouutains of igoeous and primary formation, where granite,
schist and crystalline rocks predominate. It ma> possibly be that the sea filled these
basins during the secondary and tertiary period, but there is, however, no proof of this.
What seems certain is that vast inland lakes formerly covered part, if not all, of these
basins. Some of these lakes remain, even to the present day, especially in Sungaria.
Orograplijr. — Eastern Turkestan forms a basin closed on
all sides, and varying in altitude from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above
sea-level. It is bounded by a circle of mountains, the height
of which diminishes only towards the Bast, as they approach
Kansu 'y']!!^. These mountains incline abruptly in narrow terraces
to the South. They slope also in a series of chains, but less
rapidly, to the West and North. These mountains are the
following :
l"". In the South, the Ntm'shtm jff llj and AUyn-Tagh
mountains, both branches of the K*ueniun % ij^ range. They
reach an altitude of from 21,300 to 25,500 feet, and are capped
with perpetual snow above the line of 18,000 feet.
2®. In the West, the Kardkaraim mountains, the massive
block of the FanUrs, and the n'ons-AUai. Their highest peaks
attain an elevation of 26,000 feet.
3«. In the North, the T'leti-shoii % jlj. This mountain-
range stretches out into a series of parallel chains which slope
to the South. Its base sometimes attains 180 miles in width.
All the summits of the TMen-shan are covered with large gla-
ciers. The most famous peak is that oiKhan-Tengri, the altitude
of which is 22,300 feet. The TMen-shan continues Eastward
by the Bo^d^olOy and more to the South, by the Feh^ahan
jg ill (white mountain), a low range 4,500 feet high, and
intersected by parallel ridges rising to the height of 7,200 feet.
Further to the North lies the tabie^iand of Sungaria^ rising
from 1,600 to 6,000 feet, and the Ili valley which is encircled
by steep mountains.
526 BOOK II. OOTBR DRPnCDmCIM.
JDepresMona. — In certain parts of Sinkiang If Jg, the
surface of the land sinks considerably. At the South-Eastem
foot of the Western T*ien-shan ^ ilj, there is a large depres-
sion of the soil, 50 miles wide by 100 in length, situated at
an elevation of from 2,500 to 3,000 feet above sea-level.
Further to the North-East, between the Eastern T'ien-shan J^ [Ij
and the Shol-iagh, another but much deeper depression is found.
To the West of Hami, it is but 120 feet in altitude, while to the
West of Turfan, it even seems to be below the sea-level. The
depression between the Eastern T^ien-shan and the Shol-tagh is
called the Luk-shun depression^ from the place where it is deepest.
It is very fertile, and appears to have been formerly well inha-
bited.
Fiasaes. — Few passes allow Sinkiang to hold relations with
the neighbouring countries. The following are the principal :
1®. In the K^uenlun J£ J^ range, the Tash-Davan pass (to
the 8. of the ancient Lob-Nor), at an altitude of 13,000 feet above
sea-level ;
2*. In the Karakoram range, the Karakoram pass, at an
altitude of 18,500 feet. The road over this pass is much fre-
quented, and leads from Yarkand to Leh (Ladak in Kashmir) ;
3". In the Pamirs, the Shishiklik pass, at an altitude of
14,200 feet;
4". In the Trans-Altai, the Kyzil-Art pass;
5®. In the Western T^ien-shan range^ there are 2 passes :
the MuZ'Art which is the principal one, and the Terek-Davan^
at an altitude of 12,500 feet:
6®. In the Eastern T'ienshan, one of the passes is situated
at an elevation of 5,300 feet, all the others are at an altitude of
7,000, and reach at times even an elevation of 13,500 feet. The
principal of these passes is that of l]rumtsi\
7". To the N. of the Hi valley, in the Boro-koro range, is the
Talki pass, which reaches an altitude of 4,500 feet above the
lli valley.
Ollmaie. — Althougb the climate of Sinkiang,' varies exceodiiigly from ono extre-
mity (»f thf country ti> tbe other, it may be Bai<l in general that it i8 vtry drj* and
CHAPTER III. CHINB8B TUHKB8TAN. 527
severe. It rains or snows scarcely 20 or 25 days in the year. In January, the ther-
mometer falls to 13* Fahrenheit below freezing point, and rises in Summer to 86°
and 97° F. The nights are often calm, but in the middle of the day, especially in
Spring, terrible sand-storms sweep over the country. The air ever laden with
sand, even when it appears rather clear, forms one of the characteristic features of
this region. The sand penetrates everywhere, and saturates even a person's clothes,
without there being any means of protecting oneself from it.
Mj&rotprmphy. — )n Winter, the rivers and lakes are frozen.
In Spring and Summer, when the snows melt, numerous rivers
are formed at the feet of the mountains, but as they continue
their course, they soon disappear in the sands. Only one large
river, the Tarim, irrigates this region. The principal towns of
Sinkiang are built along its banks, and upon those of its tribu-
taries.
The Tarim (T'ahlimuh-ho ^M/fC^PT) rises in the Karakoram
glaciers. It is at first a foaming torrent, ever increasing in
volume till it leaves the mountains, a short distance to the S. W.
of Yarkand, its bed falling 13,000 feet in 200 miles. After reach-
ing the plain, its current becomes less impetuous, and its bed
falls only 13,000 feet in 300 miles, till the place where it recei-
ves the Khoten-Daria. From this point till its great southward
bend, its bed falls 300 feet, but further on, the incline is only
100 till it finally reaches the Kara-feos/ium lake. The Tarim
is about 1,250 miles in length, and receives numerous affluents.
its bed is sometimes from 12 to 20 feet deep. It is then navi-
gable, but being utilized by the peasantry who divert its waters,
and absorbed by the sand and the dryness of the air, its
volume quickly diminishes, and it is but a mere stream, when
it ends in the Kara-koshum lake. This latter has taken the
place of Lob'Nor^ formerly an immense expanse of water, but
now a marsh.
At the end of its course, the Tarim continually changes its
positions along with the lakes, into which its waters flow. These
variations are due to the low level of the region, and to the
drifting sands which are heaped up by the East wind.
A series of lakes, bordered by sand-hills, from 60 to 320
feet high, extends along the course of the Tarim.
The chief affluents of the Tarim are on the right, the
528 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPINDIMCIIS.
Kholen-Daria and C/ierc/ien-Darta ; and on the left, th^ KashgaV"
Daria and the Tur/an-Daria.
In the E. of Sinkiang 3gf H, in the Peh-shan & |I|, two
small rivers, swollen by the melting of the snow, water the
border-land adjoining Kansu -^ jfl.
In the N., only a few short rivers flow into lakes without
issue. The principal of these lakes are the Bagrac/i-KuZ or
Tenghiz, in the Eastern T*ien-shan region ; lakes Aiar-Nor,
Ehi'Nor, and Sairam-Nor, in Sungaria. This last lake lies at
an altitude of nearly 6,500 feet above sea-level.
An important river, called the Hi ^ ^, rises in the Hi
valley, and flows into lake Balkash, in Russian Turkestan.
FAmia and Flora. — The fanna and flora of SinkiaDg are very meagre, whether
we consider them either in regard to variety of speoies, or to the number of individnal
specimens. -^
The principal wild animals are tho camel, onager, wolf, tiger, yak or baah-tail
ox, gazelle, deer, fox, eagle and serpent.
On the vast sandy deserts, there are but a few tamarisks and reeds. In the
verdant belt encircling Eastern Turkestan, at the foot of the mountains, is a vast forest,
from 50 to 60 miles wide, and containing principally dwarf-poplars or tograks. A little
further to the N., is a belt 6 miles wide, covered with reeds and tamarisks. StiU higher
up, after a sandy tract some 25 to 30 miles wide, are pasture-lands.
In Sungaria, the principal shrubs are the artemina fnigrant^ which reaohcs -
from 6 to 10 feet in height, and grows in clumps ; also a species of wormwood, which '
flffows to a height of 10 or 12 feet, and is utilized as food for camels.
The slopes of the T'ien-shan range, better flavoured, are partially dad with .
forests, and have a greater variety of trees : the birch, pine, and especially the fir.
Affrlcnltaral Wealtli. — The agricultural wealth of Sin:..
kiang consists of wheat, barley, oats, millet, rice, cotton, lucerne
and chiefly fruit (grapes, peaches and apples...).
Horses, camels, oxen, asses, sheep and goats are also
raised.
Wherever irrigation is possible (and this is always very
skilfully carried out), the soil, which is excellent, produces good
crops.
Mineral Wealila. — The minerals of Turkestan are little
worked, but they are nevertheless not wanting: sulphur, saltpetre
and alum, are found extensively in the environs of Uch'Turfan
and Yarkand; jade-stone and gold in the K'uenlun ^ ^ range;
CHAPTIK III. CHmMI TUlUUIBVAll. 529
lead, naphtha, coal and copper to the West of K^shgar; coal at
Kurla and Turfan; rock-salt to the East of Ak6u, and to the
North of Turfan.
Eastern Turkestan is famous throughout China for Ho jade-
stone^ which is much prised all over the 18 Provinces; hence
the name ^^Yuhm6n^ 2 ff^ (|adtf^9tone gate) given to the town
nearest the Great Wall.
Tbe IHfferent Baglons awd tlietr fTbtef Towns.
\\ The reffian of Hami or T^h'shan jg Ul. — This Is the
country first reached when coming from Kansu fl' Hf. A part
of it (Ngansi and Yuhm^n) is at present even attached to the Pro-
vince. It is composed of a plateau 4,000 feet high, connecting
the Eastern T^ien-shan 55 ill with the Nan-shan ff| il| range.
This plateau is intersected by a series of parallel mountain-
ranges, with an altitude of from 5,500 to 7,300 feet, and between
which lie wide lengthy valleys, covered with gravel and red
deposits. Two roada cross it, leading from Kansu '^ ffl to
Sungaria, via Yuhm§n^ Ngansi and Hami. It is an arid and
stony region, especially between Ngansi and Hami.
The towns have little importance, except as post-stages for
officials, soldiers and traders. The principal are :
Tvhmen 3i P^. — A charming little town surrounded by
fine raipparts.
^ Ng€iHH ^f|. — A wretched place, more and more invaded
tiy^the sands.
JXnmi or Hamil (Hamih T'ing B{^ jf|( J(|). — A verdant oasis,
lost in the immensity of a sandy waste. The oasis is about 12
miles wide, and owing to its fertility, produces in abundance :
iM^rley^ oats, wheat, millet, and especially excellent melons famed
throughout the whole of China. Every year, a large quantity
of them is dispatched to the Emperor and to the Court.
2*. The Great Gebi Deaert (Takwopih ^ :JilD, also called
Shamo f^ ^, that is ''candy waste." — The Gobi Desert
occupies the greater part of Eastern Turkestan, and is divided
into two parts by the lower course of the Tarim River. The first,
34
580 BOOK II. oumi raPBUDBiicm.
iitualed to the East, is styled the Hachuri'^obi or Ilkhuma; the
second, to the West, is called Takla^makan,
The Hachun or Gashun-Gobi is composed of 2 regions : the
Northern, a dry and rocky waste, 4,000 feet ahove sea-level;
the Southern, a little lower, is covered with clay and sand, and
falls to an elevation of 2,500 feet near Kara-Nor.
The Takla-mahan desert is larger, and no less arid than the
Hachun-Oobi. Its surface is broken up, and covered over with
clay^ sand and gravel. It attains its highest elevation, 4,600 feet,
to the N.E. of Khoten. Its centre stands at a height of 4,000
feet, and its lowest part at an elevation of 3,300 feet above sea-
level. It is destitute of water and vegetation, and is an utterly
barren waste. Its rolling sand-dunes are even a danger for
the explorer.
3*. Thm regime e/<lba TmrkeeHan mm*. — This region forms
a belt around the Great Gobi desert. It is verdant, fresh and
well irrigated, especially in Spring and Summer. Large towns
have sprung up there, the principal of which are :
mboton or Hvfotien Chow ^ QQ jHi) called also Ilchi. —
Population, 26,000 inhabitants. The town, which is over a mile
long, extends in a W. E. direction, and comprises three parts :
the old town, the new town, and a group of houses connecting
both. It possesses rich bazars, and carries on an extensive
trade in carpets, linen^ cotton-cloth and jade ornaments.
Tttrkand or SochS Fu ^ ^ fff. — Population, 60,000
inhabitants. This town is situated in the largest and most
fertile oasis of Eastern Turkestan. It is a fortified place, and is
surrounded by walls and moats. Its industry and commerce
are also brisk. It has rich palaces, vast bazaars, mosques and
schools. It manufactures carpets and silk fabrics, cotton and
woollen goods. The houses of the town and the small streets
exhibit, however, a rather neglected appearance. The surroun-
ding country is exceedingly fertile, but the climate is unhealthy.
Kiuhifar or Shufu hsien jj% |{^ j||. — Population, from
60,000 to 70,000 inhabitants. — A large commercial town, but
whereas Yarhand trades almost exclusively with India, Kashgar
CHAPTBB III. GHINB8B T0RKB8TAN. 531
carries on business principally with Russian Turkestan. Long
rows of camels, conveying brick-tea from China, impart to it a
certain animation. Its bazaars, streets and shops are clean, and
indicate genuine prosperity. The surrounding country, verdant
and fertile, produces fruit in abundance.
To the N. of the Great Gobi lie several other towns of less
importance than the preceding, but well known however. The
principal ones are : Uch-Turfa/n or Wushih T'ing ,%i\^^, Akau
or W^nsuh Fu ^ f^ J^, and Kucha or K'uch^ Chov^ ^]|[^.
Khoten, Yarkand, Kashgar, Aksu, Uch-Turfan, and Yangi^
hissar or Yingkihshaeul T'ing 51 "§ i^ W JB» this latter to the
8. of Kashgar, form what is called the hexapolis. A 7^^^ town
is often added to them, Kargalyh, to the 8. E. of Yarkand, thus
constituting a group of 7 towns, or heptapolis.
4*. The TSurfan regUnu — This region lies, as we have
seen, in a vast depression, the bottom of a former lake, which
is partly covered over with loess, and would be fertile, were it
better irrigated. The principal towns found there arc the fol-
lowing :
Turfan or T'ulufan THng Pt # # j||* — Population, from
15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, in its two towns, one of which is
Chinese, and the other Turkis.
Karashar or K'ohlahshaeul [^ (Hf ^ ^. — To the 8.W.
of Turfan^ a short distance from lake Bagrach.
5*. SmHHi^ia, — Sungaria is a vast basin, partly dotted over
with lakes. Its altitude above the sea-level varies considerably,
thus it reaches 1,700 feet at Kuchen, 3,000 at Urumtsi, and
5,000 at Barkul. It is walled in on all sides, except on the
East, where it communicates with Mongolia. It is generally
of barren aspect, and the surface slightly undulated, except in
the W. and N. The N. and E. are in a state of chronic poverty ;
the soil is stony, the wells afford but brakish water, and the
country is destitute of trees. The centre is not much better
favoured. The 8., formed by the Northern slope of the T'ien^
shan 5^ ill range, has immense pasture-lands, and game is
found there in abundance.
532 BOOK II. OUTBR DBPBKDBNCIBS.
The West is the most beautiful and the richest part. The
soil is fertile in several places, and numerous rivers irrigate the
country. The principal towns of Sungaria are :
UtunUsi or Wulumuhts'i J% # tK 5Vi ^^^^ called Tih-hwa
•*** ^ fli iff — Population, 50,000 inhabitants. Urumtsi, or
the town of the 7 gates, was the ancient Capital of Sungaria. It
lies at the bottom of a valley, and is inhabited by Turkis,
Chinese, Manchus and a few Mongols ; the Turkis alone form
i of the population. The place has an important garrison, and
the Oovernor, or Fut'ai |k S ^^ Sinkiang, resides there in a
splendid palace. It is a very busy town, and carries on a large
trade especially in skins and furs.
Kueh^Sng IJT jift or K'it'ai hsien ^ '^ fgf>. — An important
commercial town, holding constant communication with the
whole North-East of the Empire, but especially with Kalgan
and the Blue City (Kuku-Khoto, in Shansi (Jj f|). The caravans
bring from China: sugar, tea, porcelain, silks and other fabrics.
They return with skins, raisins, jade and other precious stones.
An important business is also carried on in selling cattle.
6^. The Hi regUnu — The 111 region wedged in between
high mountains^ is less accessible from China, except through
the Talki'Pass. — Besides, it is rather impoverished since the late
Mussulman insurrection (1861-1878), and reckons only about
125,000 inhabitants. The summits of its mountains are covered
with snow and glaciers^ but further down on their slopes, there
are splendid forests, excellent pasture-lands and a great number
of fruit-trees. The valley is irrigated by the Hi River. Its cbief
town is KuMja or Hi Fu ^%fl^, which lies at an elevation of
2,000 feet above sea-level. Old Kuldja is deserted since 1870,
when the Tungani slew all the Chinese of the place. The hou-
ses are but wretched hovels, inhabited principally by Turkis.
Trade is entirely carried on outside the walls, in a suburb
inhabited by Chinese and Turkis. The population, including
that of the suburb, is about 10,000 inhabitants.
There is connexion at Kuldja with the Russian postal and
telegraph service. A line 3,000 miles long runs across the
CHAPTBR 111. CHINB8B TURJLBSTAN. 533
Gobi desert. The road from here proceeds to Jarkent, over an
easy pass, into the Russian Province of Semireckinsk, whence
it continues to Kokand, Samarkand, Bokhara and Persia.
Occupied by Russia in 1871, Hi was subsequently restored
to China in 1881, but Russia witheld a part of it in her posses-
sion {see p. 474 and 477).
'^^^
PopalaUoo. ^ Sinkiang has an extreme-
ly mixed population, oomposed ol Turkia^ Mon-
goUj Chinese^ Manchus, Sarta and Hindoos. .
Sedentary agriculturists, to whom different na- ^ "5 rts
mes have been given, make up the largest part, ^^^ ^rj ^
as well as the most ancient stock of the popula- ^ *^ ^
tion. Features, customs and dress ai'e widely *^^ \2 'v
.n
divergent. In general, the men are of high sta- ^ 3
ture, their skin is tanned, and their beard thick, 8 i^ - ^
its colour being either black or chestnut. Two ;5 ^h \1 §
main elements seem to have contributed towards ^ ^ -^ s
the formation of the present race of Ohinese ;§ a ^ -» •^,
Turkestan : a Turco- Mongol and an Indo-EurO' J ^J^ — ^* §> §
pean element. T -^^ g »«
Beii^ion. * Mahomedani3m is the pre- ^ «^ ^ '1^ ^
vailing religion, even among the Ohinese who g ^^ ^?) B §
have settled in the country. 1:2 7\ i\ S*
La^ff aase. — Turkia is the dialect the ^ ._ O ^^ J
most commonly spoken in Sinkiang. Several ua \^ ^ g
others : Ohineae^ Mongol and Tibetan, are also M \J I g
employed, but to lesser extent. 5 * ^ :! •§
Admlnlirtmioii. — Sinkiang, o ^ ^ I
or the New Dominion, depends on § "^ J
the Viceroy of Kanou -^ ]§ and | *^ |
Shenei ^ ||, who resides at Lan- ^ •^ Z
chow Fu H jMI ifipi in Kansu. He "" -^' g
deputes a Govormor (Fut^ai j|| H), •;> |
who resides at Urumtsi. A Grand tv "^
Treaeurer resides at Tih-hwa Fu ^ |
M ft ^« ^^^ TiKfHmrs^ewerai are .^ I;
stationed, one in Hi, and the other
at Tarbagatai, while TaotaiB ^ j| administer 4 circuits :
Urumtsi, Ningyuen hsien ff 3t H 0^ Hi), Kashgar or Shufu
hsien SK ■# H* and Aksu or W^nfiuh Fu Jft ^g ;jj. The most
important of these is Kashgar with a population of 700,000 or
534 BOOK II. OUTER DBPBNDDfCIBS.
800,000 inhabitants. At Urumtsi, the Provincial High Judge,
or Nieht'ai j|t ^^ performs the functions of Taot'ai,
Indastry and Commeree. — Each oasis has its peculiar
mode of life, and its industries. Khoten manufactures silk-
stufTs, carpets and felt ; silkworms are raised at Hami and
Turfan; this latter city manufactures also cotton-cloth; Kashgar
has cotton d yei ng- works ; Kucha has leather-works; Aksu turns
out copper and articles of metal, while Karashar is chiefly
engaged in saddle-making.
Commerce is important. The chief imporiB from Russia
are cotton, leather, sugar, matches, cloths and silk articles ;
from China : tea, silver, porcelain and opium ; from India :
brocades, dyes, tea and drugs. The chief eooporU to Russia are
silver, cotton, raw silk and carpets; to China : grapes and cotton.
A considerable number of horses are imported from Mong<h
Ha, the pasture-lands of Chinese Turkestan being insufficient to
rear them.
BfgliwayB of Commnnleatloii* — Sinkiang is crossed
by three main roads : the Northern, the Southern, and a road
leading from Kansu H* Hf Province to Turfan.
The rotMd from Kansu to Turfan. — This road starts from
8u Chow Hf ;fj|, in N.W. Kansu, and passes vi& Yuhmto 3E P^
(jade-stone gate), Ngansi Chow ^ |f ^^ and Hami Pl^ j|f.
Here, it bifurcates, one branch running N. to Barkul, Ouchen
and Urumtsi; tlie other, skirting the S. of the Bogdo-ola, leads
to Turfan.
Tfts Northern road. — This road already described as far
as Urumtsi, continues North- Westward, and passes vi& Manas, •
Shilko. Jinkho, and tlnally reaches Kuldja or Hi.
The Southern roa-d^ starting from Turfan, proceeds South-
West^vard on the fringe of tht^ desert, through Karashar, Kurla,
Kucha, Aksu, Chilyan, Maralbachi, and terminates at Kashgar,
at the foot of the^Pamirs. — Prom Kashgar, a caravan route goes
N.W. to Russian territory, over the Terek pass (12^500 feet
high). This was the common land-route which formerly -con-
CBAFffBR ni. CHUIIHB
rAM.
us
nected China with the West, and whereby trade was carried on
with Persia, Syria and the Roman Empire.
A much less important road starts Eastward from Kashgar^
skirts the S. of the Takla^makan desert, and passes viA Yangi-
hissar, Yarkand, Khoten, Keria (from this place the desert may
be explored, several sand-buried cities being in the vicinity)^
Gherchen^ Lob-Nor, Sha Chow, and returns to Ngansi Ohow.
It was this route which the Buddhist monks^ Fa Hsien and
HsiXen Chv?ang, followed when proceeding to India, the former
in A. D. 399 and the laUer in 629. It was through it also that
the celebrated Venitian traveller, Marco Polo, came to Ohina
A.D. 1271 (Me p. 472).
The track, which crosses the Grand Gobi following the lower
Tarim, is little frequented. The inhabitants of the region are,
moreover, but semi-civilized, and live exclusively on fish, which
they eat fresh in Summer, and dried in Winter.
L Note. — Conquered and lost several times by China, Sinkiang was
subdued once more in 1789 by the Emperor K'ienlung $t K (1736-1796). A great
number of Mongol, Manchu and Chinese immigrants, from the Provinces of Kansn ft Wl
and Shensi KB, settled there at that time. * The revolt of Yakub-Beg (1862*1863)
detached this region for some twenty years from the Imperial sway. It was finally
reconquered in 1878, by the army of Tso Tsungt*ang 4^ JJ^ JK, and in 1881 erected into
a Province. — Sungaria, its Northern part, was for long years a great and mighty
kingdom, which extended far beyond the limits which it occupies at the pretent day.
References :
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53&
BOOK II. OOTBA DIPBMDINCIBS.
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WlnterbOttiaBi. — View of the Chinese
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p. 191-195).
Grofller. ^Description of China. London,
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Book ni. Ch. VI. p. 329-336).
Imliaiilt-Haari. — Le Pays de Hami or
Khamil. Paris, 1892.
Amyot. ^ Notices du Royaume de Hami.
(M^moires concernant les Chinois. Vol.
I. p. 399-400).
UStntamat. — Histoire de la ville de Kho-
tan. Paris, 1820.
Waiben V7. H.— Memoir on the Uzbeck
State of Khokend (ancient Ferghana) in
Central Asia. (Journal Asiat. Soc. Bengal.
Vol. III. 1834).
Waiben W. H. — Notices of Chinese
Tartary and Khoten. (Chinese Beposit^
ory. Vol. XII. p. 226-235).
Raverty H. G. — Notes on Khokand,
Kasiigar, Yarkhand and other places in
Central Asia. (Journal A. Soc. Bengal.
Vol. XXVI. 1857).
Jobnaoa W. H. — > Report on a Journey to
Cchi, the Capital of Khoten. (J.B.A.
Soc. Vol. XXXVII. p. 1-7).
Hayward 6. W. — Journey from LeH to
Yarkaud and Kashgar. (J.B. Geog. Soc.
Vol. XL. p. 33-160).
Sbaw R. — Visits to Higb Tartary, Tar-
kand and Kashgar, and return Jonmey
over the Karokoram Pass. London, 187L
Stuottloa O. T. — Narrative of the Ohi-
nese Embassy to the TniKQt Tartars.
London, 1821.
DrataetaBeMer B. — Notices of the Med-
isval Geography and History of Cen-
tral and Western Asia. London, 1876.
Prajeralaky V. — From Kuldja aoroa
the T'ienshan to Lob-Nor. London, 1875.
Prtja^alaky N. ^ Auz sources du
Hoang-ho. 1879-1880. —Fourth Journey.
1^86.
littledale G. R. — A Journey across
Central Asia. (Kashgar, Koko-nor, Ning<
hsia and to Hongkong. — Geogr. Journal.
London, 1^94. Vol. XXIH. p. 445-475).
Bower H.^A Trip to Turkestan. (Geogr.
Journal. 1895. Vol. XXV. p. 240-257).
■untkiBUNi B. — The Mountains of Tur
kestan. (Geogr. Journal, 1905. Vol. XXV.
p. 22-40; 139158).
Oroii»y O. — Turkestan and a comer of
Tibet. (Geogr. Journal, 1904. Vol. XXUI
p. 705-722).
Sehayler B. — Turkistan : Notes of a
Journey in Khokand, Bukhara and Kul-
dja. 2 Vol. London, 1876.
DoalB^r D. — Central Asian Questions.
(China and Central Asia). London, 1885.
BoalB^r D. — England and Russia in
Central Asia. 2 Vol. London, 1879.
BoolBer D. ^ The Life of Yakoob Beg,
Amir of Kashgar. London, 1878.
6v«D Hedin. — A Journey through the
Takla-makan desert. (Geogr. Journal.
Loudon, 1896. Vol. VIII. p. 264-278; 856-
372).
6vien Bedtaa— Three Years' Expedition in
Central Asia: Turkestan, Kashgar, Tibet.
(Geogr. Journal. London, 1903. Vol. XXI.
p. 221-260).
Stein M. A -- A. Journey of Geographical
Expedition in Chinese Turkestan. (Geogr.
Journal. London, 1902. Vol. XX. p. 576-
610).
Stein M. A. — Sand-buried Ruins of Kho-
tan. London, 1908.
Barrett Hamilton 6. — Mammals ob-
tained by Captain Deasy in S. Chinese
Turkestan and W. Tibet. (Proceedingi
of th6 2ool6gical Soc. Londonj 190(^.
CHAPTIR III. CH1NB8B TURKB8TAN.
537
Deasy H. — In Tibet and Chinese Tur-
kestan. London, 1901.
Toun^husband Sir F. — The Heart of
a Continent. (Travels in Manchuria, the
Gobi Desert and the Pamirs). London,
1904.
UUle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 190^.
(The Dependencies : Turkestan. Ch. XII.
p. 186-202).
Parker E. H. ^ China : her History,
Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(Trade Routes. Ch. IV. p. 57-81).
Hlayeni F. W. — The Chinese Govern-
ment. (Mongolia and Turkestan. Shang-
hai, 1886. Part XI. p. 80-96).
DOrlnff H. — Journey in Chinese Ql^irkes-
tan. Shanghai, 1907.
CHAPTER IV.
TIBET OR SITSANG If «
By Tibet is meant the whole gcof^raphical region bearing this name, and not
only the Southern and Western portions, which alone form the Khigdcm of Tibet,
We shall therefore treat also in this chapter of Kiikii-Nor and Tsaidam^ although they
are under special administration, and their population differs racially from that of
Tibet.
— 463,320 square milee. The greatest length of
the country is about 1,240 miles, and its greatest breadth 740
miles.
— 6,430,000 inhabitants, or 14 to the square
mile. But the greater part of the country is desert and the only
places inhabited are the valleys of the South and East. (The
population given above seems to be far superior to what it is in
reality, 2 or 3 millions at most, according to those who are
best acquainted with the country).
BTaaie. — The name Tibet is apparently unknown to the
Tibetans. It is however found in a Chinese author, who writes
it T'upehVeh B| fjgf 4f. The Chinese call it Sitsang ff j|i,
from the name of its largest Province. In Tibet, the inhabitants
call their country Bodgul or the Land of Bod.
BonndArles. — Tibet is bounded on the
N. — By Kansu "tf Jj" and Chinese Turkestan or Sin-
kiang ^ a,
W. — By Hindustan,
S. — By Hindustan, Nepal, Sikhim and Bhutan,
B. — By Yiinnan § |$f , Bzechw'an Q }l\ and Kansu
CHAPfn IT. TIBIT. 589
Aspeet. — Tibet forms a vast mountain-mass, the largest
and the highest in the world. On the N. and N. W.j are immense
table-lands with lakes and rivers having no outlet. Its S. and
E. are traversed by deep and well irrigated valleys, where vegeta-
tion is luxuriant, and the people relatively well-to-do. Difficult
of access, covered with snow and ice almost throughout the whole
year, jealously protected by the Lamas, the country remains, in
spite of all the expeditions undertaken of late years (in Atxgust
1904^ an English expeditionary force entered Lhasa), one of
the most solitary, isolated and unknown regions of the worlds
Tibet is not lacking in wealth especially mineral, but has also
agricultural products. All the great rivers of India, Indo-China
and China, rise in this country, Tibet is an almost insuperable
bulwark which protects China on the S. W. far better than the
strongest defence works would do.
Cto^losleal cooflltlirtloii. — The geologioal constitation of Tibet is known
up to present only to little extent. Strata of the primary period seem to predominate
in the N. In the S., there are sedimentary rocks of more recent formation. Strata of the
secondary period especially are highly developed. The Himalayas themselves seem
to be composed of gneiss and mi^-schist, while the summits are granitic. Towards the
Centre, volcanic action must have been rather powerful. As remnants thereof, hot
springs are still found at an elevation of 17,300 feet, and afford in Winter the extraor-
dinary spectacle of frozen geysers. Many of the numerous lake-beds of the country
owe very likely their origin to an upheaval of now extinct volcanoes.
— Tibet forms in general an immense moun-
tain-mass, which attains an elevation varying from 13,000 to
16,500 feet in height. This mass is divided into two parts. To
the W. and N. lies the region of the table-lands and lakes; to
the S. and E., that of deep valleys and torrents.
l^". l%e tabie-^and regUnu — This is bounded on the N. by
the JKSMfilim % ij^ mountains, a gigantic chain covered with
snow, and rising to an elevation of 20,000 feet in Northern
Tibet, while it falls abruptly in terraces towards Chinese Tur-
kestan. In the West and Centre of Tibet, it is called the AUynr-
Tagh range. As it approaches Kansu "H" JR", it takes the name
of Nm^shan ^ lU towards the N., and is broken up into almost
parallel chains, the best known of which are the Tsmidam,
540
BOOK II. OUTER DBPBNDBMGIBB.
P4
:3
9
CHAPTBR lY. TIBET. 541
Prefevaisky and Baian-karu ranges. With the exception of
the peaks of the AUgn-'Tagh and of the Nawahan, these nume-
rous mountain chains rise but a few thousand feet above the
surrounding region. They run in a W.E. direction, diverging
more and more as they stretch away in the distance from the
Dapsang Peak (28,240 feet high), the principal elevation of
the Karokaram range* Several of these peaks have their
summits covered with immense glaciers, chiefly on the N.
The line of perpetual snow begins at an altitude of from 17,000
to 18,000 feet on the Northern slope, and at 19,500 feet on
the Southern. Between these chains extend in general wide
valleys, and at times, immense swamps and lakes. The vege-
tation of these regions is very scanty, and consists of patches
of stunted grass, while here and there are scarcely found a few
clusters of shrubs.
2"*. The region of the vaUege and torrents. — This lies to
the S. and E. of the preceding tract. On the E., it is compo-
sed of mountain crests, separated by the great rivers of China
and Tongking. These rivers, at first unimportant, shallow and
of little incline, run in deeper beds as they advance to the E.
or S., cutting up and dividing the country into peaks, crests,
gorges and plateaux, which afford to the eye a most beautilul
spectacle. On the S., the country is less broken up, the valleys
less steep, and the rivers less rapid. The valleys attain seldom
there a height of 11,000 feet above sea-level. On the Southern /
frontier, rises the lofty and powerful HimaiiMpa (Himala-shan
It 91 tfit ill) chain, which attains in Southern Tibet its highest
elevation of 29,000 feet in M^ Everest (Ngohfahliehshit^eh-shan
JE JS ?!l dr 4# lU)' The Himalaya mountains form a convex arc
towards the 8. between the Indus and the Brahmaputra, with
but few and difficult passes between Hindustan and Tibet.
OUmate. — In this immense region of such broken surface and of varions
altitudes, the climate differs so widely that it is difficult to give a general idea of it.
In the S. and E., the influence of the S. W. monsoon is experienced. In iho W., this
influence is little felt. In the W. and N., the climate is very dry, and llttlo snow falls
there. During the most severe cold, in December, the thermometer n'Ristcrs on tlic
average 19** F. in the morning, while during the greatest heat, in June, tho average
542
BOOK II. OUTER DSPDIDSIICIBS.
recorded at 1 p. in. is 71* F. The Central region of the lakes has also a very dry
climate in Antumn, in Winter and in Spring, but in Summer rain falls abundantly.
In the S., the country is deluged with rain, hail or snow, thti whole year round. In the
N., there are extremes of heat and cold in Summer and Winter. In March, the snow
lies still very deep in the Tsaidam passes. — The large watercourses are never frozen
over, but the minor streams are covered in Winter with a thin layer of ice.
The climate of Tibet, though rigorous, is nevertheless healthy. The danger
arises from the variations, which are considerable.
Hjrdrogimphjr. — The mountain-system of Tibet shapes
its watercourses. Upon the vast table-lands of the N., N.-W.
and Centre, nothing but lakes are found, and not a single im-
portant river. In the Eastern and Southern regions, the country
has numerous torrents and rivers, and also a few lakes.
SKETCH-MAP OP SOUTHERN TIBET.
CHAPTER IT. TIBBT. 543
The principal lakes of the table-lands are the Iki-Namur
and the Pang-hung, both in the N.W. The latter is especially
important, and very large. It lies at an elevation of 14,000
feet above sea-level.
The Dangra, Zilling-tso and Tengri-Nor, all of much vaster
extent, are situated in the Central region. The TengrirNor lies
at an elevation of 15,190 feet. It is 50 miles long, from 15 to
20 miles wide, and has an area of about 700 square miles.
The greater number of these lakes are salt or brackish.
As the water escapes with difficulty throughout all this
region, the soil is entirely saturated with it, and frozen over
during 8 months of the year, while it is muddy and almost a
quagmire in Summer. The few and meagre rivers which rise
there, flow into the lakes, and even these seem to diminish
constantly both in volume and depth.
The principal lakes of the Eastern and Southern region are:
On the N. E., the Kuku^JSier or Ts'inghai ^ % (azure
sea).
On the South, UOce JPaM^ also called Yamdoh-'iso, or Yum-
tso.
The TtHng^hai lies at an elevation of 9,970 feet, and is 65
miles long by 40 wide. Its waters are brackish, and it is frozen
from November till the end of March. Its depth diminishes from
E. to W. , where the sands invade it. Its greatest depth in the
Southern portion does not seem to exceed 60 feet. It contains
five islets, upon one of which is erected a pagoda. The inha-
bitants living near its banks neither fish in its waters, nor
possess there any boats. Its waters, shallow throughout the
general run of the year, are still more reduced in volume and
depth in Summer. However, at this season, several rivers flow
into it. The most important of these is the Buchain-gol, which
enters it on the West. It is encircled by lofty mountains,
covered in part with pasture-lands. Throughout the whole
region, eagles, antilopes and onagers or wild asses abound.
BalUf or Yamdok lake, is 14,900 feet above sea-level. It
is situated to the S. W. of Lhasa, and its waters are connected
544 BOOK II. OOTBR DKPniDBMCIIS.
with the Brahmaputra or Tsang-po, the great river of Tibet.
The lake is about 160 miles in circumference.
The principal rivers of the South are the Indus (Yintu-ho
PP A M) ^"^ i^B tributary the Sutlej (8ehlich4-ho {!. 9 ^ fif)
in Ngari.
The TmnQ-po or Brahmaputra (son of Brahma), also called
Yarutsangbo (Yalutsangpu-kiang jRI # Jtfc >lt tC)- — The Brah-
maputra rises in the N. of the Himalaya mountains, and is
the great river of Tibet. It traverses from W.-E. the whole
Southern region, and receives numerous affluents. Previous to
its receiving the Kyi or Lhasa river, it has already attained
considerable proportions, is of large volume, and more than 400
yards wide. Further down, it becomes navigable for a distance
of 100 miles, and flows through a region which becomes more
and more wooded. This tract is inhabited by a race of savage
cannibals, of whom but little is known up to present.
The principal rivers of the East are, proceeding from North
to South : the Hwang-ho )( ^ or Machu ; the Guiakio or Fa-
lung-kiang i!fi H jH ; the KinehorMang ^ 1^^ ft or Upper
Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ fL; the Mekong or Lants'ang^kiang ff^ jff
f£ ; and the IrrawadOg or Lutze^kiang JH -^ {t*
All these streams are still but little known in the upper
portion of their courses, but become further down mighty
rivers. When the snow melts, they appear in Tibet as rushing
torrents with falls and rapids.
Faona and Flora.— Throughout the lake and table-land regions, the fauna and
flora are extremely meagre, there being only here and there some pasture-lands covered
with scraggy grass, but buried under snow during a large portion of the year. Travel-
ling to the S. or advancing to the E. or S.£., juniper- trees, tamarisks, willows, pines,
flrs, cedars and elms appear gradually. Then the forests grow denser, and the
varieties become more numerous. The beds of the valleys and their lower slopes yield
wheat, barley, rice, rhubarb, peas, grapes, apricots, jujubes and pomegranites. The
animals increase also in number and are more diversified. Perhaps in no other country
of the world are wild animals so numerous. The principal are the yak, onager (locally
called ghur or khur)^ antelope, gazelle, musk-deer, bear, monkey, tiger, leopard, lynx,
wolf, fox, eagle...
Agrleiiltiiral Wealtli. — The agricultural wealth of Tibet
is abundant, especially in the South, and consists chiefly in
CHAPTBR lY. TIBET. 545*
cattle (tame yaks, asses, horses, goats, sheep) and forests, but
these latter are little worked. Fruit and vegetables are not
lacking, but cereals are insufficient to feed the people, and so
rice has to be imported from India. Furs, skins, musk and
yak-tails are the chief riches of the country.
Mineral Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of Tibet is little
known, but seems considerable, and consists principally in gold,
which is found in almost all the river-beds of the country.
Rock-crystal, iron, borax, mercury and salt are also found.
CtoTentment and admlnlstratlTe dlvlalonB. — For
administrative purposes, Tibet is divided into two principal parts.
1^ the Mngdatn of Tibet, comprising the greater portion of the
country ; 2^ the KuhurNer region, comprising the basin of the
TsMnghai ^ :^, Tsaidam ^ ^^, the basins of the Upper Hwang-
ho jH ^ and of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ JQ. Both are ruled
directly by China, of which they are considered as dependencies.
The former is administered by the Viceroy of Szechw'an Q j||,
while the latter is governed by a special District Governor
residing at Sining Fu |f ^ ^, in Kansu -^ Jfl,
l"". Tlie Kingdom of Tibet. — Tibet is divided into four
parts or Pu flj : 1* Eastern or Anterior Tibet (Ts'ientsang ||}]|K)f
known also as K'ang ^ or Chamdo |^7|C $) ^nd written by some
Geographers Xham (Portuguese transliteration); 2* Central Tibet
(Chungtsang rp ^, called also Wei |j|, being the native sound
of U corrupted by the Chinese; 3® Ulterior Tibet (Heutsang
H SBOf properly called Tsang if^ or Dang; 4** Western Tibet or
Ngari pjf £.
The King, or Giaibo (in Chinese Tsanp'u fif ^), is always
a Lama, chosen alternately in the three great Buddhist monas-
teries of Lhasa (Depung, Sera and Galdan), He has beside him
two High ConMniseianere, one called K*inch*ai ^ H or Ambon
(a Manchu word meaning high officer), and another called
luring ^ ^ (Secretary for Foreign Affairs). The king is
under the control of the first High Commissioner, also styled
Imperial Resident, or Jh'et JLmban (Ngangpai ^jlf ), who ratifies
36
y
546 BOOK II.
or rejects Us election, approves the appointement of his ICiiii»-
ters, of the high Officials and Superiors of the large monasteries,
and invests them with the imperial approbation necessary for the
discharge of their office. The. Imperial Resident is also charged
with the defence of the frontiers, the inspection of the garrisons
and the superintendence of the finances. He alone can conduct
all relations with Foreign Powers.
Several principalities are governed by chieftains, who pay
tribute to China. Others depend directly upon the Hfmn&im^
for FlMFeian Affaiktn or listing. The Ambon and 8eei'eim*9f are
both subject to the control of the Ficeroy «/ 8aeeh9t^an Q j||,
who indorses and adds his own observations to their official
correspondence. The DakU^Lanui^ or Living Buddha of Lhasa,
occupies nominally a position superior to that of the Gialbo or
King, but in reality, although enjoying paramount moral and
religious influence, he is subject to him.
The King is assisted in the civil administration of the
country by 4 Kaians (Kablons, called in Tibetan Shapeh, i.e.
lotus-feet), or CouneUiora ef 8iaMe^ three of whom are laymen and
one a Lama. The Council is advised by two or three members
chosen from each of the 16 or 17 colleges of the Capital and
environs.
Like China, Tibet is divided into Provinces, Prefectures
and Districts (Sub-prefectures). All officials, who are charged
with administrative, judicial, financial and even military func-
tions, are under the control of the Imperial Residents. In the more
serious conjunctures (as when the British Expedition approached
Lhasa in 1904), a national Assembly composed of laymen and
Lamas is convoked. It informs the Councillors of State or
K&lons, of its views and resolutions.
Theoretically speaking, authority lies with the Peking
Government acting through the medium of native Officials, who
are under the jurisdiction of China's Imperial Residents. —
Consequent on the British expedition to Lhasa, the Chinese
Government decided to send to Tibet, besides an Imperial Com-
missioner, a Tartar-General with 5 battalions of infantry, 4
regiments of cavalry, and 2 batteries of artillery.
547
2*. Kiilnr*H«vw — The whole region of Jgtifcti-Jfar is divided
into 29 Banners or tribes, 19 of which are in the basin of the
lake, 5 in the Upper Hwang-ho ^fpjf region, and 5 in the Tsaidam.
Those of the Hwang-ho ^ ^ depend on the Gk>vemor of Sining
^^ W % Jff^ ^" Kansu. The others, divided into two groups of
12, are ruled by princes who have become vassals of China,
PopulatUMi. — The population is composed for the greater part of Tibetans,
M08O8 and Chinese (officials and traders). In the S.E. dwell tribes more or less nncivi-
lized : the LieuSy Lutaee, Lamajen, and MicheftUa. In the N.E., are found Sifane,
Sleuths or KalmukSf and Tanguts. In the W. and S.W., there is a rather considerable
number of Nepalese (traders and mechanics), Bhutanese and Kashmiris. The Nepalese
are nnmerous and influential at Lhasa. — The number of Mongols in Tibet scarcely
attains a thousand.
The Tibetans belong to the Mongolian race. The head is round, the forehead
narrow, the ears large, the nose prominent, the eyes slightly oblique, the cheek-bones
large and protruding, and the beard scanty, while the complexion is of a light brown
inclining to a ruddy tinge. Those inhabiting the N., are largely nomads and generally
known as the Hot (Horpa) tribes. Those of the S. and S.W., are sedentary, and consider
themselves as the genuine Bod race. The Tibetans are weak and cowardly in presence
of superior force, but display an overbearing and cruel attitude when they have to deal
with those feebler than themselves. They are little given to habits of industry, are
deceitful, profoundly ignorant, and highly superstitious. They bear with great endurance
the extremes of cold, fatigue, hunger and thirst, and are of a cheerful disposition.
They are also polite, and every traveller, who has been compelled to quit the country
on their demand, can testify to their civility. The Tibetans are sometimes divided
into 4 classes : the aristocracy, the Kubilhans or the reembodied gentry (Avatars), the
clergy and the peasants.
The M08O8, who occupied a large portion of Tibet {see p. 845) before it was
subdued by China, are deceitful and cunning. The proverb says : it takes 3 Chinese
to deceive a Tibetan, but 3 Tibetans are required to cheat a Moso. Their condition is
but semi-civilized.
The TangutSj like the Eleuths or Kalmuks, resemble much the Mongol type.
They are partly sedentary and partly nomads.
Religion. — Buddhism is the prevailing religion of the Tibetans, and was
introduced into the country A.D. 640, through intermarriage with a Chinese princess.
Indian Buddhism, however, after passing to Tibet, was transformed into Lamnism.
Lamaism adds to pure Buddhism the theory of the successive incarnations of Buddha.
Two principal sects : the red Lamas and the yellow Lamas, are distinguished from the
colour of their dross and their head-covering. The official sect, which is that of the
yellow Lamas or Oeluk-pa (victorious Order which Bnatohed tho temporal power from
the red Caps), has the most numerous followers in Tibet. All others belong to the red
Lamas, sAbo called Karma-pa (Order following the Karma doctrine), Sah/a-pa (followers
of Sakya-Muni) and Nyingmapa (iinrHformed redcaps founded by Padma-Sambhava,
a deified wizard monk known as the "I-otns-bom Ono").
Both sects admit tho succoBsive incarnations of Buddha in the lody of certain
disciples, and render to these Avatars the same honours which they pay to Buddha
548 BOOK II. OUTER DmiflMniCIBS.
' himself. Originally, only one living Buddha was recognized, but at present each
lamasery has its own living Bnddha, and sometimes several of them. The principal
one, officially recognized by the Emperor of China, is the living Buddha of Lhasa,
called the Dalai'Lama (Vast as the Ocean). He is always chosen from the Gelnk-pa
sect. All State matters of importance are transacted in his name. Of late years, China
generally murdered (in official parlance, exiled) all Dalai-Lamas, when they reached
the age of eighteen or twenty, so that her Regent might be all-powerful over the country.
Any who escaped were required to maintain as King or Gialbo the Regent who admin-
istered the country during their minority. The present Dalai-Lama has been rescued
from the tragic fate of his predecessors, by the national party, incensed at the continual
interference of China in the government of the country. When the British expedition
approached Lhasa, in 1904, the Dalai-Lama fled to Vrga (in Mongolia), and is actually
(July 1907) at Sining Fu H tR MT* in N.W. Kansu. The Emperor of China appointed
the Tcuihi or Pamhen-Lamaj who resides at Tashilumbo, to succeed him. In Deo.
1905, the Tashi-Lama visited India and was received by the Prince of Wales. The
Dalai-Lama's residence is at the Potala monastery, a short distance to the W. of Lhasa.
Both sects hold also in common the doctrine of the tranamigraUon oftouU,
With the exception of these two tenets, Lamaiam po$8e$8e8 no unity. Bach sect
and each monastery is completely independent in its doctrine, mode of government
and ritual. The Dalai-Lama has but merely an authority and prestige surpassing that
of the other Lamas.
The BonbOf a quite distinct sect, recognizes as its principal divinity KuniuMongbo,
that is **the Excellent" or "Supreme Good One." It is a pre-Buddhist indigenous
religion, which propitiates man-eating devils with offerings of blood, spirits, poisons
and tobacco. Its priests are the indigenous Black-Capt, who are professional wizards,
soothsayers and devil-worshippers.
The Lamas are very numerous, and are reckoned by some as reaching over
800,000. Lhasa is said to contain 10,000 of them in one of its monasteries, and 7,000 in
another. Several monasteries have 3,(X)0, and those having 800 and 400 are common.
They wield considerable influence, as they are immensely rich, engage in trade, resort
to usury, and carry on banking transactions. With a few exceptions, they are pro-
foundly ignorant, corrapt, and exhibit all the signs of a degrading sensual life.
The religion of the Mosoa, as well as that of the other savage or semi-civilized
tribes, i^fetichism. Mahomedaniem reckons also a few followers.
Lan^oase. — Tibetan is the most widely diffused language of the country, and
is understood everywhere. It is monosyllabic, but employs numerous suf&xes which
help to form nouns. In the VII*** century, a Sanscrit alphabet was introduced from
India. It is composed of 80 letters, which fulfil at the same time the functions of
vowels and consonants. Tibetan is written from left to right, and has various forms.
There are but slight modifications in the pronunciation from one extremity of the
country to the other.f^ Tibetan literature is mainly religious.
SPECIMEN OP TIBETAN WRITING
Om !'raa-ni pafl-mo Hung.
(Hail t Jewel [Grand Lama\ in the Lotm-flowcr).
Buddhist' invocation.
CHAPTBH IT. TIBRT. 549
The Moaos, and the other trihes, speak their own dialects which differ widely from
one another. The Mosos have no written language properly so-called, but make use
of hieroglyphic symbols for their superstitious rites. Their language, which differs
from both Chinese and Tibetan, is very difficult to learn.
TaxaUoo, tribate and currency. — An annual poll-tax is imposed upon
each freeholder.
E very 3 years, tlie Dslai-Lama has to send tribute to the Emperor of China.
This consists of presents in kind, amounting in value to 5,000 taels. The tribute is borne
to Peking on the backs of 300 camels, escorted and protected by 300 horsemen.
Coins bear on one side the superscription of the reigning Emperor of China, and
on the reverse, the characters \S JH Szechw'an.
Army. — The Tibetan army consists nominally of 6,000 regulars with a militia
and levies amounting theoretically to 60,000 infantry and 14,000 cavalry. Of the regu-
lars, 1,000 are stationed at each of the 3 large towns, Lhasa, Shigatse and Gyantse, and
the remainder in fewer numbers at the small forts throughout the country, and along
the frontiers. A strong garrison is maintained at Tengri-Nor to stop foreigners
advancing to the Capital from the N.
Towns and Piinelpal Centres. — A great part of Tibet,
and nearly the whole region of the table-lands and lakes, is
uninhabited. Even in other places, the towns are of little
importance, and the population very scattered. Many of the
habitations are isolated from one another. In the central portion,
between the fertile valleys and the snow-clad table-lands, is found
a nomad population constantly shifting its tents, in accordance
with the needs of the season and the promptings of personal caprice.
The principal Untms of Tibei are t
l^ In Ngari or Western Tibei : Rudok and Gartok.
Budok or Lotoh'oh ch'6ng ff $ j£ jft- — A small town
picturesquely situated on the slopes of a hill isolated in the
midst of a plain, and on the highway from Lhasa to Kashmir.
Its elevation is 13,120 feet. It monopolizes the whole trade of
Tibet with Leh or Ladak (Laht*ahk'oh fj H 3E)i » town of
Kashmir. On the summit of the hill are a vast palace and
several monasteries.
etariok (Kotah'oh). — A hamlet with about a dozen miserable
hovels, and situated at an elevation of 15,200 feet. By the Pe-
king Convention, signed April 27, 1906, it has been opened as a
trading mart. In Winter, little business is done, but in the
Summer season a brisk trade is carried on with India.
550 BOOK II. OUTER OBPBMDBlfGIEB.
2''. In Tmmg ^ or nang, also called UUerior IXbei:
SiUgaime. — Population, 9,000 inhabitants, not reckoning
the monks. The town is one of the most important of Tibet.
It is situated at an altitude of 12,000 feet above sea-level, and
near the junction of the Nyang-ctiu and Tsangpo (Brahmaputra).
To the 8.W., is the famous monastery of l}asiMudnifO {fj ^
a "(b) or the ^'moujiUin of blessings". This monastery, sur-
rounded by a wall one mile in circumference, contains several
richly adorned shrines, it possesses also great treasures, and
shelters 3,300 monks, it is the seat of the Fianhhen |BE H
JLama (from the Indian Pandita, "Precious Teacher''), one of the
joint Pontiffs of Tibet, a personage held in still more veneration
than the Dalai-Lama, as being less contaminated by worldly cares
and influences. It is he who succeeded to the dignities of the
Dalai-Lama, when the latter fled to Urga (in Mongolia), August,
1904, at the approach of the British Expedition to Lhasa. A
fortress, under the control of a Brigadier-General or Depdn, and
garrisoned by 1,000 Chinese regulars and 400 Tibetan soldiers,
defends the place. Between the town and the monastery extends
the great market-place. — The soil in the plain adjoining
Shigatze is rich and fertile.
CSfyonfM. — A flourishing town situated to the 8.E. of
Shigatse, and as large as it. It lies at an elevation of 13,200
feet, and is built on the Nyang^chu. It is 145 miles from
Lhasa, 125 from the Chumbi valley, and 95 from Phari. It has
several famous shrines, and a fortified Lamasery, inhabited by
600 red-capped monks. Its fortress built on a rock, 500 feet above
the river, is garrisoned by 50 Chinese regulars, under a Lieuten-
ant, and 500 Tibetan soldiers, under 2 Majors. Oyantse is the
great distributing trade-centre with Bhutan, its market being
the third largest in Tibet, coming next after Lhasa and Shigatse.
It is famous for its manufactures, especially woollen goods,
carpets, saddle-rugs and its tiny mule-bells. By the Peking
Convention signed April 27, 1906, it has been opened to foreign
trade on the same conditions as Gartok.
5M
Jmtaiaiae. — A small town situated to the 8.W. of Shi-
gatse, and on the road from Lhasa to Rudok. It lies at an
elevation of 13,600 feet, and possesses a fortress and monastery.
KhawAarJwng. — Population, 1,000 inhabitants. A hamlet
situated to the 8. W. of GyBnX&e, It lies at an elevation of
13,800 feet, and is the Tibetan military station nearest to India.
A road connects it with Gyantse, but no care is taken to keep
it in good repair.
To the 8.B. o( Khamba-Jong lies the rich fwBsir n/dbtmiM^
at an elevation of 9,800 feet. It is watered by the Ghumbi
River, which attains here a width of 1,400 yards, and teems
with fish. The valley produces in abundance, com, barley and
fruit, and possesses excellent pasture-lands. It is perhaps the
most fertile portion of Tibet.
Phari or Fhatn*<Fana. — Population, 2,000 inhabitants.
This is the principal town of the Chumbi valley. It is situated
on a table-land, at an elevation of 14,570 feet, and dominates
the great trade route to Darjeeling. The place and inhabitants
are filthy in the extreme. It is defended by a strong fortress
erected on a hillock 60 feet high. Phari is connected with
Gyantse, by a road which leads through the Tangla pass, 14,950
feet high. Another road connects it on the 8. with Darjeeling,
from which it is distant 110 miles. A little beyond Yatung,
this road traverses the Jelep pass at an altitude of 14,390 feet.
Tiiiung or Nadang. — This is but a hamlet situated at the
Southern entrance to the Ghumbi valley. It was opened to
foreign trade in 1897, but owing to Chinese obstruotiveness, did
not realize the anticipations entertained as to its success.
S"". Mn WH ffi or OnUtNa TUbH i
LHASA tt m. — The Capital of Tibet. It is situated at an
elevation of 12,300 feet, and is surrounded by snow-capped
mountain chains. Near by, runs the Kyi River (Kyi-chu), a large
tributary of the Tsangpo, or Upper Brahmaputra, watering a well
cultivated and wooded plain. Embankments and canals protect
the town from inundations. The permanent population is about
J
552 BdOK II. OUTER DBPBNDBMCIBB.
20,000, exclusive of the 3 monasteries of Depung, Sera and
Oaldan. Of this population, 7,000 are Tibetans, 2,000 Chinese,
800 Nepalese, 50 Mongols and 50 Bhutanese. The floating popu-
lation (pilgrims and traders) numbers from 1,000 to 2,000.
Lhasa is an important commercial to-wn, as well as the home
and centre of Lamaism, The houses are built of stone, to two
and three storeys high, whitewashed and with flat roofs. The
streets are narrow, unpaved and filthy. A large road (lingkor)
encircles the town, and is thronged all day with strings of pilgrims
whirling prayer-wheels and counting their beads. A mile to
the W. of the town stands the Dalai-Lama's palace, or Boidia
>tS ^ ^^ called also the Red Palace. It is an imposing mass
of lofty buildings, solidly constructed, and combining at the
same time a monastery, palace, fortress and shrine. The Dalai-
Lama resides there in a four-storied building, 320 feet high,
culminating in a dome entirely covered with plates of gold. It is
said to contain immense treasures, and has accomodation for no
less than 10,000 monks. The Lamas who reside there, and in
the large monasteries of the suburbs, number about 20,000.
After the Potala, the most famous of these monasteries is the
Depung, which has a monastic university and contains more
than 7,000 students.
Friar Odoric visited Lhasa about A.D. 1330, and the Jesuit
Grueber in 1656. The Capuchin Friars, Joseph de Asculi and
Francico de Tour, erected a Church there in 1706. The Jesuits
Desideri and Freyre entered it in 1716, the former sojourning
there 13 years. The Capuchins were expelled in 1790, under
K*ienlung |g g|. In 1846, the Lazarist priests. Hue and Gabet,
visited it, and tarried there a month. Henceforth a policy of
exclusion was adopted by the Dalai-Lama, the Amban and the
Viceroy of Szechw*an, and lasted till the English Expedition
entered the town, August 4, 1904.
4''. Jn Kham ^ or Anterior JMei:
Chamdo 1$^ ;4c $. — Population, 7,000 inhabitants, of
whom 2,000 are Lamas. Nearly all the inhabitants are Tibetans,
500 only being Chinese. The town is governed by a Lama Who
GHAPTBR IT. TIBET. 553
is in the pay of Peking. The Chinese Government maintains
there also a civil functionary and a military official. The trade
of Chamdo reaches £ 80,000 sterling per annum. Silk fabrics,
cotton piece-goods, and household articles are brought there,
and exchanged for deer horns, musk, gold and silver.
The N.EL region of Tibet has no important town.
Indnstry and Commeroe. — The industry of Tibet is
little developed, and consists chiefly in woollen-cloths, shawls,
earthernware, iron articles, copper utensils and Buddhist sta-
tues. The best workmen are the Nepalese, renowned as gold-
smiths and skilful dyers.
TrtMde is carried on with Kashmir, through Rudok ; with y y
India, through the Chumbi valley; with Szec/iw'an B JUi through
Tatsienlu 4T ^ tt* *^^ ^**^ Kansu -^ )|f, through Sining Fu
W HI ifiP- The imparts are cotton piece-goods, silks, woollen
goods, tea, rice, grain, horses, firearms, coral and porcelain.
The eaoports are musk, wool, living animals, furs, rhubarb, salt,
yak-tails, drugs and articles of Buddhist worship. The Indian
trade with Tibet in 1905-06 was about £ 290,000.
BOfl^liwayB of Oommiiiiicatloii. — In Tibet, the roads
are few and generally bad. There are no bridges to cross the
rivers and torrents. There being no other means available,
ropes are used for this purpose, as well as light ferry-boats
made of yak-skins. The principal high-ways are :
1®. The road eiartina A'Ofn Sining JBU fS % J^, in Kansu
-^ Jfl. This road passes vi& Donkyr, runs S. of Kuku-Nor,
crosses the Tsaidam, the Shuga and Odontala plateaux, the
Tangla pass, and nfter reaching Napchu, debouches at Lhasa.
The journey may be performed in 50 or 54 days.
2®. The roctd etariing/ram TatHeniu ^ |f JK, in Western
Szechw'an Q )\\. This is the most important and the most
frequented highway leading from China to Tibet. It passes \ik
Chamdo S ?k ^/ Lit*ang Jf^ ^, and Batang or Pat*ang ^ jf.
3®. ITie ro(Md siarHng from IJikiang Fkt]glf£j^^ in Yunnan.
This road was formerly much more frequented than it is at the
present day.
J
554 BOOK II. OOIBR DBPBWDBMCIBS.
4^ The road from Darfteling to Lhamju The distance
between these 2 places is 330 miles (aee p. 551).
5®. The road frmn Leh or Ladak in Kashmir.
Transport is almost wholly effected by caravans of yaks.
Travellers ride on horseback.
Fosial eotnmunicaHon is rapid. Couriers cover a distance
of 75 miles in a day. They travel night and day, changing
their horses at the Chinese post-stations.
Open Tittde-nuurte* — Tibet has 3 marts open to foreign
trade : ToMung^ QyantBe and Oariok^
Hlfllorioal Note. — Tibet was conqnered by China, between A. D. 1698 and
1708, and was then divided into regions. The tracts bordering on Yiinnan S m
and 8eechw*an Q Jl|, were attached to these Provinces. This explains how there are
found in these two Provinces small Principalities still administered by Tibetan chief-
tains although under the control of the Chinese Viceroys.
Several countries lying to the S. of Tibet were formerly subject to China, thus
Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan.
Nepal was conquered by the Gurkhas in 1767, and paid tribute to China from 1792
to 1866. At this latter date, it came under the sphere of influence of British India. It
has a population of about 3,000,000 inhabitants, 500,000 of whom are Buddhists. The
Tibetans who have settled in the country are few. Nepal is governed by a Maharaja who
is a Sisodiya Rajput (Hindoo). A British political Agent resides at Katmandu, the Capital.
At the same time, Sikkim, a small state situated between Nepal and Bhutan,
severed its connection with China, to which it had been tributary, and acknowledged
in 1890 the British protectorate. It has a population of 12,000 inhabitants, 2,000 of
whom are Tibetans.
Bhutan is Tibetan in race, language and religion. It was organized 300 years
ago by Tibet. Since 186.5, it has been annexed to India. It has a population of 400,000
inhabitants, the majority of whom are Tilx^tauB. The Government is dual in form
vnXh a spiritual chief, the DarmaRaja; and a temporal chief, the Deb Raja. There
is no British resident.
Britiflh Expeditton to Lhasa (1903-11)04). — Under the Anglo-Chinese Sikkim
conventio7i of 1890, a trade-mart was opiiuud at Yatung beyond the Sikkim frontier.
Another commercial convention was signed in 180S. Owing to the failure of the
Tibetans to observe these Conventions, and the continual obstructiveness placed in the
way of trade between Tibet and Hindustan, Great Britain decided to send a political
mission with a military escort to Lhasa. The political mission was entrusted to Sir
Francis Younghusband, who left Kamba-Jong in July, 1003. The military escort
consisted of 2,800 soldiers (Sikh pioneers and Gurkhas with one company of mounted
infantry, and 2 companies of Bengal and Madras Sappers), and was under the control
of General Macdonald. He set out December, 1903, and passed the Jelep pass into the
Chumbi valley. After a very arduous march, and sharp fights at Twna (here 300
Tibetans were killed) and Gyantse, Lhasa was reached August 3, 1904. Before their
arrival at the Capital, the Dalai-Lama had fled to Urga in Mongolia, and having left
his seal with the Regent, appointed him to take his place. A new OonvetMon was*
CHAfm IT. TIBBT.
555
signed^ September 7, with the Regent and bis Council, in the Palace of Potala. The
end of the mission having being thus attained, it left Lhasa, September 23, and returned
to India. The Convention provided for the erection of boundary pillars between Sik-
kini and Tibet (art 1) ; for the establishment of trade-marts at Gyantse and Oartoky as
wtll as at Yatung, and for unrestricted traffic by existing routes according to a tariff to
be agreed upon (art 2); for the appointment of British and Tibetan Agents at the trade-
marts (art 5) ; and for payment of an indemnity of £ 500,000 (reduced to £ 167,000),
pending which the Chumbi valley would be occupied (art. 6 and 7). The Tibetans
pledged themselves not to alienate any territory, or grant concessions to or permit the
intervention of any foreign power without the consent of Great Britain (art. 9). By
the Convention of Peking, signed April 27, 1906, China agreed to the terms of the Con-
ventions of 1890 and 1904, sanctioned telegraph lines to the trade-marts, and declared
that no foreign State should interfere in Tibet, while England also undertook not to
interfere in the administration of Tibet, or annex territory. — The Ohinese Elmperor
appointed the Taahi or Panshen Lama to succeed the Dalai-Lama. In Dec. 1905, the
Tashi-Lama visited India and was received by the Prince of Wales.
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556
BOOK II. OUTBR DBPBMDBMCIBS.
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p. 67-98.
LIST
of the Prefectures and Snb-prefectnres (Departments
and Districts) in tlie 18 Provinces.
INDICATIONS.
F. — Fu m or Prefecture.
G. — Chow M or Department (independent),
c. — Chow ^ ,, (dependent).
T. — T4ng ■ (independent).
t. — Ting ■ (dependent),
h. — Hsien f^ or District.
I. — CHEKIANe m ZC C*Ohe") * ,
I^JH Hangchow F
011 Ts'ienVang h.
^^ J^nhwo 2b'CT h.
jt^JK Haining c,
flrit Fuyang h,
11^;^ Yuhang |FWh.
IS^ Linngan h.
jj^l^ Yiits'ien h.
^S Sinch'^ng h.
gflj Ch*anghwa h.
^9i Kiahsing F.
j^^ Kiahsing h.
^TK Siushui h.
j^ll Kiashan h.
%§[ Haiy6n h.
;5R Shihm^n h,
Z^mH P'inghu h.
^HP T'unghsiang h,
SUM Huchow F.
^ig Wuch*6ng h.
f^^ Kweingan h.
^9 Ch'anghsing h.
^^ Tehts^ng h.
ICR Wuk'ang h.
^S Ngankih h.
^^ Hsiaofung h.
^ffi Ningpo F.
ISM Shihp^u t.
IP Kin h.
MKl Tz'ek'i h.
0^ Funghwa h.
iSiItt Ohtohai h.
^lll Siangshan h.
1k» Tinghai T.
IBH Sbaohsing F.
lil^ Shanyin h.
Ir^ Hwei{kwei)ki h.
^'{ii Siaoshan h.
^)£ Chuki h.
^M Yuyao h.
J:iE Shangyu h.
I» Sh6ng h.
i^g Sinch'ang h.
• Abbreviation adopted by the Imperial Post Uttice, anci the Imperial Telegraph
Administration in China, 1907.
■§H1 T*aichow
F. 9iHI E'flchow
F.
^« Yungkia
h
fi^ Linhai
h.
9$ Singan
h.
iQ^ Shuingan
h
^Jl HwangyAn
h.
H^ Lungyeu
h.
mm Lohts'ing
h
35^ T'ient'ai
h.
i£]ij Kiangshan
h.
^1^ P'ingyang
h
tlO^ Sienku
h.
ff^ll] Gh'angshan
h.
^m T'aishun
h
nm Ninghai
h.
f^it K'aihwa
h.
*2p T'aip'ing
h.
AM Ch'nchow
F.
SSifm Ydnchow
F.
K* Lishui
h.
^H Kinhwa
F
ji|g Kienteh
h.
T^EB Ts'ingt'ien
h
^^ Kinhwa
h.
^-^ Shunngan
h.
flu Tsinyiin
h.
H^ Lank'i
h.
mm T'unglu
h.
feBr Sungyang
h.
%K| Tungyang
h.
^^ Suingan
h.
MIg Suich'ang
h.
liJi Iwu
h.
^g Showch'ang
#;!K FAnshui
h.
tt^ Lungts'uen
h.
*;ft Yungk'ang
h.
h.
JI5C K'ingyuen
h.
««Wui
h.
||%l Yunhwo
h.
IfiL P'ukiang
h.
SM Wtachow
F.
^^ SiienpMng
h.
H^ T'angk'i
h.
538 Yuhkwan
t.
Jtir Kingning
h.
Territorial IiHeiiilaucteg or OlrouiUi administered by a Taoi'al H ](.
Ch6kiang has 5 Territorial IntendancieB or Taot'aiships :
r WAocliow F. SI ^ Jtp. — Civil and Military jnrisdiotion over Wdnohow Pu
and Ch'aohow Fu £ ^ Jfif , and in charge of custom dues collected along the waterways.
2*" K'ttchow F. B ^ ;ff. — Civil jurisdiction over Kinhwa F. ^ 4i JNP, K'tt-
chow F., Y^nchow F. JB ^ J(f; and in charge of custom dues collected along the
waterways.
3^ Nin^po 'P- m HL Jtf— Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ningpo F., Sbao-
hsing F. S A /HP and T'aichow F. ifi ^ Mf> in charge of custom dues collected
along the waterways; keeps watch over the coast-line.
4° Kiahfliii^ P. SUM. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Hangchow F.
tt ^ i(f» Kiahsiug F. and Huchow F. fR ^ !Rp; and in charge of the coasl-line.
5*^ Han^choir F. igl M fft- — ^^ charge of the Provincial rice revenue, and
the transport of the rice-tribute to Peking.
n — CHIHU It H C'Ohi").
m^ Shuntien FI#M
(PEKING ft *)(1) !i^
^m Tahsing h. I^Jpl
^^ Yuenp'ing h..^ift
HIS Lianghsiang h.ff f^
B^ Kungan h. gZp
jJcSI Yungt8'ing h.mM
J|[^ Tungngan h.il^S
Hsiangho
T'ung .
Sanho
WutsMng
h.
c.
h.
h.
«* Hwaijeu
m Ghoh
JJlIj Fangshan
m Pa
h
c
h
c
Paoch'i
Ningho
Ch'angp'ing
Shuni
h.
h.
c.
h.
^5Ef Wftnngan
:k^ Tach'6ng
fX5£ Paoting
Jlf Ki
h
h
h
c
Mihyun
h.
2p# P'ingkuh
h
(1) Peking 4k 1^ ^^ HhunVien Fu Jlf^ ^ fff (city obedient to heaven), being
the metropolitan Pref^ture, ban a particular organisation, with a Governor or Fuyin
560
CHIHLI (cOMTINnBD).
Hfl: Ts^unhwa C
5H Yuht*ien h.
Fungjun h.
ff S Paoting (2)
UliS Ts*ingyuen
jJUJlK Manch^^ng
^M Ngansuh
^ft Tinghsing
adA 8inch*6ng
^ T'ang
if 1^ Pohy6
His Wangtu
^j^ Yungch*6ng
Hwan
Li
Hsiung
K'i
Shuhluh
Ngan
iff Hi Kaoyang
A I c.
|j)lS)fC Laishui h.
jjjl g Kwangch'ang h.
j|(« Ch'dngteb F.
^^ Weich*ang t.
^ip Lwanp'ing h.
2p^ P'ingts*uen c.
|g|^ Lunghwa h.
Jg^ Fungning h.
^.^ Ch^hfung h.
l^lii Ch*aoyang F.
^g Kiench'ang h.
J^^ Kaosin h.
||tZ|i KienpMng h.
tJc^ Tungp*ing F.
jiffi Lulung h.
3S^ T8*ienngan h.
UltK Funing h.
IIR Ch*angli h.
\M Lwan c.
^^ Loht'ing h.
[^^ Linyii h.
fiimi Hokien F.
fi^^ Hokien h.
fHsien h.
M Feuch'^ng h.
Jfli^ Suhning h.
ftflS J6nk*iu h.
^fSf Kiaoho h.
fS^ Ningtsin h.
^ King c.
^i^ WukMao h.
-tiC^ Kuch'^ng h.
yg^% Tungkwang h.
^» Tientsin F.
55j^ T*ientsin h.
l^r Ts'ing h.
{^}fi^ Tsinghai h.
it Ts*ang c.
#J^ Nanp*i h.
glllj Y^nshan h.
JIS K^ingyun h.
JE& Chfingting F.
jES Ch^ngting h.
§|J|£ Hwohluh h.
^@ Tsinghsing h.
fxJS
mm
«
mm
mm
Feup*ing
Lwanch'Ang
Hsingt'ang
Lingshow
P^ingshan
Yuenshi
Tsanhwang
Tsin
Wukih
Kaoch^^ng
Sinloh
Ki
Nankung
Sinho
Tsaok'iang
Wuyih
H^ngshui
Cbao
Sianghsiang
Lungp4ng
Kaoyih
Linch'^ng
Ningtsin
Shdn
Wuk'iang
Jaoyang
Nganp^ng
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
c.
h.
h.
h.
C.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
C.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
C.
h.
h.
h.
mm
Ting C.
K*uyang h.
Sh^ntseh h.
Sbunteh F.
Hsingt'ai h.
J(f ^f who ranks above ordinary Prefects He is assisted by a Governor Adjoint
(Kienyin ^ ^) and a Vice-Governor (Fuch'^ng j(|p 2B)- He is also independent
of the Viceroy of Chihli, and is directly subordinate to the Emperor. His jnrisdiction
extends over 21 Districts (Hsien K)* ^ independent Chow (Chihli Chow KH^), and
5 dependent ones (San Chow tfc ^). The Prefect of Mukden (ancestral home of the
reigning dynasty), or Fungt'ien ^ ^ Jfft holds power and rank similar to those of
the Governor of Peking.
(2) Provincial Capital of Chihli. The Viceroy resides there during part of the
year, and during the remainder at T'ientsin ^ f^.
CHIHLI (gONTIMUBD).
561
j^ffif Shaho h.
^%l Nanhwo h.
^fg^ P'inghsiang h.
M^ Kwangtsung h.
^^ Kiiluh h.
JSllj T*ang8han h.
p^flj Neik*iu h.
ft J6n h.
M^ Kwangp'ing F.
^ip Yungnien h.
^^ K*uhchow h,
flE^ Feihsiang h.
11^ Kitseh h.
J(^ Kwangp'ing h.
4K"# Hantan h.
j^^ Ch*6ngngan h.
JSft Wei h.
jJljPf TsMngho h.
1^ Tz^e c.
±^ Taming P.
^^ Taming h.
TCjft Yiiench'ftig h,
^m Nanloh h.
SlJg Ts^ingfung h.
3^^ Tungming h.
^ _ K*ai c,
^Jto Ch'angyiien h.
^ft Saenhwa F.
^ft Siienhwa h.
^,J| Ch'ihch*6ng h.
11^ Wants* lien h.
ttP^ LungmSn
h
fi|J$£ Hwailai
M Wei
h
c
Wllr Sining
h
y|$ Hwaingan
b
m» Y«nk'ing
c
^$ Paongan
c
mma Cbangkia-
k'ow(Kalgan)T.
m^O Tubshib-
k*ow T.
i^iSlVSm Tolunnob-
eul (Dolonor) T.
Chihli has 10 Intendaocles, each administered by a Taot'ai M tt :
I* T'anfl: Ohow JS ^. — Kcports directly to the Throne. Civil and Blili-
tary control over the Imperial or Grand Canal (Yiin-ho B H") at T*ung Chow. Superin-
tendent of apiculture, controls the rice-tribute f?oing to the Capital and the water\\'aj'R
of Yungp'ing F. jjc ^ W, T^ung Chow, Ki Chow H M and Taunhwa Chow Mlt^-
T Jehol Jft M or Ch'dngpteh F. ;|c KDfip. — Civil and Military control over
the territory beyond Kupeh-k'ow "JT ^ tl and over tb«' town of Jehol, where he has
his residence.
3" €»i'an;Kp'iii9 Chow g ^ ^. — Residence in this town. Intendant of grain
and of agricultiin-, controls the Government postal service and the rice-tribute going to
Peking. Civil jurisdiction over Pa Chow jPt ^ and Ch*angp*ing Chow.
V Paotin^ F. ft ^ jfip. — Controls the Tats'ing River (Tats'ing-ho :A: fflf fl" ).
Civil jurjsfliction over Paoting P., and OhAngting P. IE % flp.
5* T'ientmn F. 3"^ fl^ ifr. — Reports directly to the Throne. Superintendent
of Customs ; controls the mint for new-model coins.
6° T'ientsio F. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over T'ientsin F., Hokien F.
PT Bfl ^ etc., and controls their rivers.
7^ T*lentsiD F. — Intendant of the salt revenue for the Ch*anglu J| K circuit.
8* * tteiihwa F. g ft Ifip (to the S. of Kalgan). — Civil and Military jurisdic-
tion over Suenhw a P., and the 3 T'ings ■ of Changkia-k'ow JK tfC 11 (Kalgan)*, Tuh-
ahih-k'ow I& ^ P, and Dolonor |^ fd fS W- He does not reside permanently at
Siienhwa F., but to the N. of Kalgan.
y Taming F. "^K ^ Hf- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Taming F.,
Shnnteh F. iH 16 ;ff, Kwangp'ing P. JR ^ W and their rivers ; also in charge of
wat«*r communications.
10* Kungrao h. @ 4^ K- — Intendant of the Yungting i|c & "ver.
3»)
562
FOKIBM.
m. — FOEiEN m m cfu").
■M loochow
F.
It^ Yfinp'ing
F.
9M Changchow
F
m Min
h.
|(i^ Nanp'ing
h.
«f| Lungk'i
h
gl-g Heukwan
h.
lull Teiangloh
h.
{|tjj| Changp'u
h
^ffl Kul'ien
h.
1^ Sha
h.
]|[j§ Nantsing
h
mm P'ingnan
h.
am Yiuk'i
h.
£^ Gh'angt'ai
h
eiDft Mintsing
h.
JUg Shuncb'aog
h.
^%1 PMnghwo
h
:g||| Ch'angloh
h.
^^ Yungngan
h.
|B$ Chaongan
h
^^ Lienkiang
Jlig Loyuen
h.
JIHIS Haich'Ang
h
h.
?r« T'ingchow
F.
^m YiMigfuh
h.
^rT Oh'angt'ing
h.
IBtK Fuhning
F
JHJK Fuhts'ing
h.
^(t Ninghwa
h.'SIJI Hsiap'u
h
±igi Shanghang
h iilif Fuhting
h
^M Tsaenchow F.
f^/p Wup'ing
h. «« Fuhngan
h
fPjI. Tsinkiang
h.
Sfjt Ts'ingliu
h. MU Ningteh
h.
^$ Nanngan
h. ^;^ Liench'^ng
h- ftit i^heuning
h
j^^ Hweingan
^- fSilt Kweih-wa
h.'
«f^ Ngank'i
h
^j£ Yungting
hi#:3^ Tungch'iin
c.
^^ T'ungngan
h.
,||iflj Tehhwa
h.
ftfl: Hsinghwa
F :;fcEB Tat'ien
h.
jJitS Kienning
F.
I^EH P'ut'ien
h.
j|^'$ Kienngan
h.
IdliU;^ Sienyiu
h.ttHLungydii
c.
||# Ngeuning
h.
|$4> Ohangp'ing
h.
^1^ Kienyang
h.
^^ Shaowtt
F. W?1f Ningyang
h.
^^ Ch'ungngan
h.
:^0f. Shaowu
h.
^j^ Puch'6ng
h.
j^^ Kwangtseh
h
^^ Ch6nghwo
h.
^% T'aining
h.
^^ Sungk'i
h.
Jitl Kienning
h.
Fokien has 5 Intendaneles, oarh administered by a Ta<ii'al If |Q[ :
r Ydap'in^ i'- ii -T^ )fiP — Civil jurisdi«!tioii over Y^np'ing F., Kienning F.
Hr * W and Shaowu F. fflS g( ^jf
•J" Chan^cho^' ^iStJ^Hf — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Changchow
F., T'in;r(lH)\v F. jfj M Iff, and Lun^'y^n Chow M K ^ ^ ^l^o Maritime Intendant.
:<** Amoy or llidamdn B P^. — Military, Postal and Coast Intendant over
Tlsin^'hwa F H ft |ff, Ts'iionnhow F. Jft ^ W and Yungch'un Chow ijt # #| ; also
PaymaHter to thi- troops and General Maritime Intendant.
A" Fooclio'Vi^ V.Jl^Mfff'- — Intendant of the Rait revenue and of the Foochow
naval-yard
5" Voacho'w F. — Provincial Grain Intendant, Civil iurisdiotion over Poochow
au(i FuhninK F jfi |R H^ ; also in charge of the Government postal Hervioc and of
wattT communication8.
HONAN.
563
IV. — HONAN W in rHo").
Hitraifung F.
jl^ Siangfu h.
Ui^ Ch'^nliu h.
* K*i h.
^11): T'unghsii h.
J^ft Weishi h.
p^)\\ Weichw'an h.
mi^ Yfinling h.
4ii^ Chungmeu h.
im Lani h.
4 Yu c.
Sg Mih h.
^JrUP 8inch6ng h.
INS Chdng C.
^J9 Yungtseh h.
Sifil Yungyang h.
jg^ Szeshui h.
K^ Ch'Anchow F.
f^H Hwaining h.
ISpJC Shangshui h.
f|l|t Sihwa h.
J^H Hsiangch'^ng h.
j^0 Shenk^iu h.
±ak T'aik^ang h.
^lil Fukeu h.
ft" Hsfl C
KIR Linying h.
J|jy( Siangch^^ng h.
Bljrit Y^nch'Sng h.
^M Ch'angkoh h.
em Kweiteb F.
^£R Shangk'iu h.
HR Ningling h.
j0[g Luhyih h.
J|g Hsiayih h.
^Jl Yungch'^ng h.
$^j^ Yiich'^ng h.
m 8ui c.
^JlX K'aoch'^ng h.
IBillll Ch^ch'^Dg h.
3|^l8i Cbangteh F.
^Hf Nganyang h.
jftl^ T'angyin h.
J^^ Linchang h.
44^ Lin h.
^H Neihwang h.
15$ Wungan h.
^ Sheh h.
^IK Weihui F.
JK Kih h.
^^ Sinhsiang h.
Hjft Hwohkia h.
i^ KM h.
]i| Hui h.
^Ht Y^ntsin h.
jg Sun h.
^ Hwah h.
^Jjg Fungk*iu h.
««Hwaik4ng F.
^pj Honei h.
mm Tsiyiien h.
ig|^ Yiienwu h.
^g^ Siuwu h.
^J$ Wuchih h
J£ M6ng h
fi W6n h
^^ Yangwu h
Ml^ Honan F.
»!» Lohyang h.
{110 Y^nshi h.
^ Kung h,
jt,^ M^ngtsin h.
SRI lyang h.
S^ Tfingfung h.
:^^ Yungning h.
ffi^ Sinngan h.
?lift Mingch'i h.
^ Sung h.
mm
mm
SLR
Sben C
Lingpao h.
W^nhsiang h.
Lufihi h.
its
At
^»
mn\
m
JEM
Nanyang
Nanyang
Nanchao
Ch^np'ing
T^ang
Piyang
rungpeh
T^ng
Neihsiang
Sinyd
Is w
Hill
«lU
Juning
Juyang
Chdngyang
Shangts'ai
Sints'ai
Sipping
Suip'ing
K'iohshan
Sinyang
Loshan
F
h.
h-
h.
h.
h.
h
c.
h.
h.
Sihcbw'an T.
Yu c.
Wuyang h.
Sheh h.
F.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
c.
h.
Kwang C
Kwangshan h.
Kushi h.
Sih h.
Shangch*6ngh.
ik
Ju
Lushan
Kiah
Paofung
lyang
C.
h.
h.
h.
h.
564
HONAN (cONTINUBD). — HUNAN.
has 5 InlendaMcies, each administered by a Taot'al jK X •
1* K'aifimjp F. M ^ JMf-— ProviDcial Intcndant of the salt revenue, of the rioo-
tribute and of water communications, in the region S. of the Yellow River. Civil juris-
diction over K'aifung F., Kweiteh F. || tt MP* Ch'Cuchow F. it ^ j^p and ]Isii Chow
2* K'alfun^ F. — Adjoint Civil and Military Intendaut for the region S. of the
Yellow River ; jurisdiction over K*aifung F., Kweiteh F., ChAng Chow ff ^ and Hsii
Chow ; also in charge of the rivers.
S" Wucliili b. jR IP K- — Military jurisdiction over Changteh F. ^ H Jff
Weihui F. ^ IR jHp and Uwaik'ing F. K K jRf, in the region N. of the Yellow Rivec
In charge of the tribute, of lawsuits, of works on the Northern bank of the Yellow
River and of waterways.
•i^ Sinyanff CXww fg JH ^. ^ Civil and Military jurisdiction over Nanyang
F. M S /ff, Juning F. jft fR Mf and Kwang Chow it iHi in charge of water com-
munications, of the tribute and of lawsuits.
5® ShenOtiow K ^. — Adjoint CivU Intendant over Honan F. W M MP>
Shen C, and Ju C. tfc ^ ; in charge of the Government postal service, of water
conimunications and of the mint ; controls lawsuits.
V. — HUNAH JH m ("Hun").
J^tP Ch'angsba F.
tfp Gh'angsha h.
{{2 Shanhwa h.
flflS Siangt'an h.
ffgP^ Siangyin h.
^IQS Ninghsiang h.
Sll^ Liuyang h.
tBM Lining h,
SRI Yihyang h.
|tB|g{ Sianghsiang h.
«C Yiu h,
^it Nganhwa h.
j(i^ Ch'aling c.
^ji{ Yobchow F
BR Paling h,
glJiB Linsiang h.
IH^ Flwayung h.
2pf£ P'ingkiang h.
m Li G.
;Bf^ Shihm^n h.
ftIK Nganhsiang h.
Jglfl T«'eli h.
$IB Nganruh
^3fe Yungting
Paok'ing
Shaoyang
Sinhwa
j^-^ Gh'^ngpu
H^i^ Wukang c.
»W Sinning h.
9jHi Hdngcbow F.
Ilrit H^ngyang h.
j^^ Ts'ingts^iien h.
l^lJj H^ngshan h.
^JfjL Leiyang h.
1^% Ch*angning h.
^t >^ganj^n h.
(5 Ling h.
ft^ Kweiyang C.
[£g^ Linwu h.
£ll] Lanshan h
^^ Kiahwo h.
'^tm Ch'angteh F.
HCR Wuling h.
ttiS T*aoyuen h.
ffifflr Lungyang h.
i^iL Yiienkiang h.
M!H1 Cb'Ancbow F.
2^g|J Yuenling h.
\MM Luk4 h.
m^ Ch'6nk*i h.
mi Sup'u h.
^H Fungbwan£ T.
^Igt Yungsui T.
^M Kiencbow T.
^ji{ HwangcbowT.
^jHi Yflencbow F.
'SOL Ohikiang h.
1^1^ K'ienyang h.
iftlt Mayang h.
HONAM (COMTINOBd).
HDPBH.
565
4(M Yungchow
F.
«f Tsing
C
;|i]K Kweilung
h.
^g| Linglingr
h.
H^ Hweit'ung
h.
urn K'iyang
h.
jij^ T'ungtao
h.
^li Tongshun
F.
«55f Tungngan
h.
ttUr Suining
h.
^IPI Yuiigshun
h.
jt Tao
c.
l^llj Lungshan
h.
"M^ Ningyiien
h.
^tiS Ch'An
c.
^fft Pnotsing
h.
^^ Yungming
h.
^^ Yunghsing
h.
$U Sangchih
h.
^ijl Kianghwa
h.
^jjt Ichang
h.
frS Sint'ien
h.
$(li Hsingning
^m Kweiyang
h
h.
^M Ranchow
T.
Uanao has 5 ItitendMncles, each administered by a Tool'ul '^ fJE :
1° Fiin^h'wao^ T. |^ iH N- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch'^ii-
chow F. Jg ^ Ifip, Yuenchow P. bc ^ #, Yungshun F. * JB J(if,T8iiigChow tfi W»
Funghwang T., Yungsiii T. ^ A ■ c^Q^ K'ienohow T. {l£ ^ N-
2*" lA Ohow vlfl M' — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Yohchow F. £
W )fip, Ch'angteh F. ^ It ^ and Li Chow; also in charge of the Government
postal service at Paling h. Q K K-
3' Ch'an^ha F. -^ ^ Jtf- — Provincial Intendant of the salt revenue; civil
jurisdiction over Ch'angsha F., and Faok'ing F. miH^; in charge of water com-
munications.
4° Ch'an^iAia F. — Provincial Intendant of the grain tribute.
5^ lldn^ehow P- tt? ^ fff- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over HAngchuw
F., Yungchow F. 5^ ^ jfiP, Ch*ftn Chow ^ ^ and Kweiyang Chow « l» W ; also
in charge of the Government postal service at Hdng Chow.
VI. — HUPEH M ft C'Hup").
"War
mm
HH
m
mm
mn\
Wucb*ang
Kianghsia
Wuch*ang
Kiayii
Hsienning
Gh^ungyang h
T*ungch*^ng h
Hsingkwoh c
Tay6 h
T'ungshan h
Hanyang
Hanyang
Hanchw^an
Hfiiaokan
Hwangpei
Mienyang
;$p Nganluh F.
fljj^ Ohungsiang h.
7i(|Ij Kingfihan h.
WiL TsMenkiang h.
?cn T*ienm6n h.
mfi Kingmto C
i»l» Tangyang h.
g^ Yiienngan h.
XRft Siangyang F.
jHH Siangyang h.
±iffi Ich»6ng h.
ffffl^ Nanchang h.
^^ Tsaoyang h.
il«Kuhch*6ng h.
3tffc Kwanghwa h.
^ Kiin c.
mm
m
m
1tiU
Km
HftJA
Yttenyang
Yiien
Fang
Chuhshan
Chuhk'i
Paok^ang
Yiienei
Tebngan
Nganluh
Yiinm^ng
Yingch*6ng
Sui
Yingshan
F.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
b.
F.
h.
h.
h.
c.
h.
Hwangcbow Ii'-
Hwangkang h.
Hwangngan h.
5G0
HUPBH (cONTINUBd). — KANSU.
^HC K'ishui
h.
!M« Kienli
h.
^^ Ch'angloh
h
j{^^ Lot'ion
h-'^felSG^ Sungtze
h.
mi^ Mach'6ng
hitt&lOhikiang
h.
Mf6 Shinan
F
m K'i
dSlfltu
'i- JBM Ngenshi
h
Jfllft KwangtHi
h.
lg,gl Siienngen
h
1^^ Hwangmei
h. £g Ich'ang
F.j*S. Laifung
h
]t(M Tunghu
h. iftJH Hsienfung
h
#iM Kingchow
F. §$ Kwei
c. flJH Lichw'an
h
ill^ Kiangling
h. ^B Ch'angyaiig
h.\»i^ Kienshi
h
^$ Kungngan
h.
#llj Haingshan
h.l
;g^ Shihshcu
h.
e,J|[ Patung
h.
^M Hohfnng
T
llopeh hns <> liHeiidaiicles, each adiiiiniHtert d )>y a Tnal'al IS ^:
l*" Hohfiui^ T'lns St ^ M. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Shinan F.
jtt n Jff »"tl Hohfnng T'ing.
2** ShaBhl ^ ifi. — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in Upper Kingnan, over the
Pn fcctures of Kinj^rliow F. ^ ^ Mf <^ud Ich'ang F. J][ B ifip*. also in charge of water
cofnmunicatioiiH.
3' Sian^ynnff F. H N^ lAP. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ngaiilnh F.
$ PS IfiP, Sian^'yjiiig F.. Yiienyang F. W fl^ fff •""! Kingm^^n C. JH n f^ ; also in
chai*ge of water coniniunicationH.
4" Hank'ow fli H. — Civil jurisdiction over Hanyang F. if ^ fff^ Hwang-
cliow F. H ^ ^ and Tehngan F. ft % ^; also in charge of water communications.
5" Wuch'an^ F- 1^ B Jff- — Intendant of the »ealt revenue for the I'rovince
of Uupt'h ; civil jurisdictioti ov«t Wiich'ang F.
6° IVuoh'anfl: F. |^ g JKP. — Grain Intendant for the Province of Hupeh.
VII.
- KARSU -H- It (
,"Kan").
m¥^ Lanchow
F it^}\\ Hwap'ing
PR Kiai
c.
Mgg Kaolan
h.
chw'an
T.
5 W6n
h.
^ Kin
h.
Ift Ch'6ng
h.
y^^ Tihtao
c.
M King
c.
mm Weiyuen
h.
^iS Ch'ungsin
h.
m Ts'in
C.
jgjgf Tsingyiien
h.
MkW. Chfinyiien
h.
11$ Ts'inngan
h.
sr no
c.
SC Lingt'ai
h.
8|:>K Ts'ingshui
m. Li
h.
h.
^/^, P*ingliang
F.
j|:g Enngch'ang
F.
m Hwei
h.
^j§l, P'ingliang
1).
ntil Lungsi
h.
pj'^ Liangtang
h.
$^ Hwat'ing
h.
!Sc3fe Nganting
h.
m^ Tsingning
c.
fl% Hweining
h.
Hit K'ingyang
F.
gllgi Lungteh
h.
jin'i T'ungwei
h.
$(k Nganhwa
h.
m^ Ningyuen
h.
^^ Hohshui
b.
m^. Kayaen
c
t^H FuhkMang
h.
^ flwan
h.
^jjj P'ingyiien
h.
•Wfo Sihwo
h.
jEtl Chfingning
h.
mi^ Haich'^ng
h.
«K Min
^iHi T'aochow
c.
1.
if Ning
0.
KANSn (CONTINnBD).
KIANOSI.
567
Hr;g Ninghsia
F.
:k)^ Tat'ung
h- ■fl'W Kanchow
F
l^'g Ninghsia
h.
mS Changyih
h
«f^ Ningshoh
h.
i^JH Liangchow
F'illj^ Shan tan
h
^JB P'inglo
h.
ICflJt Wuwei
h.i
il Ling
c.
^# Chenfan
hilt Suh
C
tf«|||^ Ghungwei
h.
;^g Yungch'ang
%^ Kulang
h ]KS Kaot'ai
h.
h
eW Sitting
F.
£|^^ P^ingfan
hi $11 Ngansi
C
HW Sining
h.
i^jIS Tunhwang
h
mi^ Chanpeh
h.
'iP^ Yuhmfin
h
Kansu has 7 Ifitondancles, each ad ministered by a TiioCai JH ^ :
l°T«'liichow H^ ^. — Civil jurisdiction over Kunfrch'ang F. 5K ^ K^P^ Tfi'in
Chow, Kiai Chow PB ^ etc.. lutendant of the tea revenue, of the Imperial pasture
lands (horse-roarinp) and of ajrriculture.
2P Nin^tlflia F. ^ X 'fiP- — '""ivil and Military jurisdiction over Xinj^hsia; in
charge of water communicatioiiR on the E. and W. banks of the Hwang-ho; controls the
revenue of the brine wells and the salt trade.
3" Pln^lian^ F. -'p Jjt Hf— Intendant of th.> salt revenue. Civil and Military
jurisdiction over P'inf(lia»if,' F , K'inpyanp F R S| ^, King Chow g ^, ICuyiiin
ChowH JR ^ w«i Hwap'ingrhw'an T ffc ^ jl| B
4° LfincbO'vr F. SR ^ Iff. — Civil jurisdiction over lianchow F. Intendant of
the tea revenue, of the Imperial pasture lands and of agriculture.
5*^ Stnlagr F. f? % f(f. — Civil and Military juriwdiction over SininpF. Intenrlant
of the Board of Pacification.
6* SahOliD'ir JH' ^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ngansi Chow3c??^»
Suh Chow etc.. Intendant of agriculture and of the Board of Pacificaticm for border
tribes.
7^ Lian^oho'w^ F. 7g ^ K^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Kanchow F.
"ff jHI KP and Liangchow F. Intendant of the Board of Reorganization for P'ingliang F.
ap ijr ;flP, Yungch'ang h. ^ B B, ChAnfan h. S| # R and Fuhk'iang h. -R ^ R.
YIII. — KIAN6SI a: If ( Ki")
mg Nanch^ang
llfg Nanch'ang
||^|§ Sinkien
Jfjd Fungch'^ng
HH Tsinhsien
** Pungsin
tifi Tsingngan
RH Waning
nil Ining
F teW Jaochow
h. IBKI P'oyang
h. |{^=f Yukan
h. ^^ Lohp'ing
h. ^SS Feuliang
h. llll Tehhsing
hv. fft Nganj^n
h. K^ Wannien
F.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
3ElD
h. ^
Kwangsin
Shangjao
Yiihshan
Yihyang
Kweik*i
KMenshan
Kwangfung
Hsingngan
568
^Jt Nank*ang
g^^ Singtze
^g Tuch'ang
jj^g Kiench^ang
$4t Ngani
JLiL Kiukiang
11^ Tehhwa
leift Tehngan
]y|g Shuich'ang
jj^D Huk'ow
^^ P'ungtseh
KIANOSI (CONTINUID). — KIANeSU.
f [M^ Tunghsiang h
hJ
h.
h.
h.
h.
Linkiang F
Ts'ingkiang h.
Sinkan h.
Sinyii h.
Hsiahkiang h.
Shuichow F
Kaongan h.
Sinch'ang h.
Shangkao h.
j^g Kiench'ang F.
^jdt Nanch'^ng h.
^j^ Sinch^^ng h.
^9 Nanfung h.
J(g Kwangch^angh.
ftiH LukM h.
HlHl Fuchow F.
gljlj Linchw^an h.
^f^ Kink^i h.
jjlt Ch*ungj6n h.
J[)| Ihwang h.
^^ Lohngan h.
#W Yflenchow F.
j£# Ich'un h.
^J[ F^ni h.
^IgS P'inghsiang h.
lilfi Wantsai h.
#$ Kihngan F.
jg|;^ Lienhwa t.
JtiJ^ Luling h.
^^ T^aihwo h.
$;4C Kihshui h.
Ikfi Yungfung h,
^jjg Nganfuh h.
m^ Lungts'iien h.
H^ Wanngan h.
|<*f Yungsin h.
^iS Yungning h.
$g(jH Kanchow F.
jH Kan h.
Has Yutu h.
jia Sinfung h.
90 Hsingkwoh h.
'^g Hweich^ang h.
$)S Nganyiien h.
^m Ch*angning h.
m* Lungnan h.
^^ Tingnan t.
mm Ningtu C.
^^ Shuikin h.
;gi^ Shihch'^ng h.
^« Nanngan F.
:kM Tayii h.
^j^ Nank^ang h.
J:|8 Shangyiu h.
^m Ch*ung.i h.
^p^ K'iennan t.
Klan^fli has 4 Inleiidaiicies, each administered by a TaoCai jt, tk •
r Kanchow F. H ^ /HP. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Kihngan F.
"» £ ff » Nanngan F. |9| fSc #t Kanchow F., and Ningtu Chow |R 9 ^ ; also in
charge of the Govemraent postal service and of water communications.
2^ Kiaklan^ F- A tl ^- — Oivil and Military jurisdiction over Kwangsin F.
II IS ^» Jaochow F. M ^ MFi Kiukiang F., and Nank'ang F. |9| jK # : also in
charge of water communications. Customs Superintendent for the port of Kiukiang.
3** Nanch'anip P. |9| g ^. — Provincial Intendant of the salt revenue for
Kiangsi. Civil jurisdiction over Shuichow F. 41 ^ /ff, Yiienchow P- ft ^ ^ and
Linkiang F. tt tC ff-
4° Naneh'an^ F. |9| H ;Rp. — Provincial Grain Intendant. Civil jurisdiction
over Nanch'ang F., Fuchow F. fl| ^ j|^ and Kiench'aug F. ]£ B MP ^ a^^o iii charge
of water communications.
IX. — KIAN6SU fL m (**Ku' ).
1L% KiangningF.(l)!fl:W Kiangning h.
(NANKING Iff 3{() |^$ Kuyung h.
JlX: Shangyiien h.lj^pfc Lihshui h.
f£^ Kiangp'u
Z;^ Luhhoh
Tli^ Kaoahun
h.
h.
h.
(1) Capital of Kiangnan (Kiangsu and Nganhwei).
KIANftSU (CONTINUBD).
569
mM Soochow F.
(<)
nm Ch'angchow F.
^fVi Yangchow
F
*JJB T'aihu
t.
^ji Wutsin
h.
ft^ Kiangtu
h
^ Wu
h.
I^JM Yanghu
h.
■jt;^ Kants'uen
h
^jfH Gh'angchow
' h.
M» Wusih
h.
mm Ich^ng
h
5cft Yiienhwo
h.
^2 Kinkwei
h.
iU^ Kaoyiu
c
J^lJj K'uenshan
h.
ttl^ Kiangyin
h.
^ft Hsinghwa
h
frU Sinyang
h.
"^^ Ihsing
h.
MM Paoying
h
-^^ Gh'angshuh
h.
mm Kingk'i
h.
^ T'ai
c.
Bai ChaowSn
h.
jgj^l Tsingkiang
h
XIE Tungt'ai
h
^a Wukiang
h.
H^ Ch^ntseh
h.
MiL Chenkiang
fi^ Tant'u
F.
h.
Mf^ Haimfin
T
■kUt T'aits'ang
c
nm Tanyang
h.
m T'ung
C.
HJ^ Ch6nyang
h.
^« Kint'an
h.
ia^ Jukao
h.
^(fi Ch'ungming
h.
\tM Lihyang
h.
^^ T'aihsing
h
^^ Kiating
h.
^li] Paoshan
h.
fH* Hwaingan
F.
^^ Sachow
F
lljl^ Shanyang
h.
iHllj T'ungshan
h.
^iL Sungkiang
F.
J^iS Feuning
h.
M Siao
h.
)\\^ Chw^ansha
t.
gllog Y«nch'6ng
h.
l^lU T'angshan
h
^^ Hwat'ing
h.
PfiJTs'ingho
h.
g Fung
h
J|&|f Funghsien
h.
^■jt Ngantung
h.
m P'ei
h.
* Leu
h.
;|^jg T'aoyuen
h.
^ P'i
c.
^llj Kinshan
h.
:^jl Suhts'ien
h.
±fft Shanghai
h.
« Hai
c.
Btit Suining
h.
^If Nanhwei
h.
tt«l Kanyu
h.
Wit TB'ingp'u
h.
\^m Shuhyang
h.
Klan^au has 7 Intendandes, each administered by a Taot'al Jt ^ '
1® Mlchow F. 4Ji ^ flf- — Civil and Militar>' jurisdiction over P'i Chow S5 ^»
Suhts'ien h. ^ S K, T'ungshan h. M Ul IK> F"nK h. g U andT'aoyiien h. ^ jg
H ; also in charge of waterways.
2' Hwaingan F- S 3c ff • — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Hwaingan F.,
Yangchow F. IK ^ /flP a-i^d Hai Chow ^ ^; in charge of waterways; controls the
transport of the Imperial rice tribute; salt and maritime Intendant.
3"* Oh'angshah h. K IRt ft. — Grain Intendant for Soochow F. JK ^ J^P, Sung-
kiang F. « tt J(p, Gh'angchow F. flj ^ flf , Cht'^nkiang F.^U Hf and T'aits'ang
Chow jk A* /H- Civil jurisdiction over Soochow F.; controls water communications.
4* Kian^nin^ I''- tl YR Kf (Nanking). — Grain Intendant over the 10 Prefec-
tures of Kiangning F., Ngank'ing F. $ R jflp, Hweichow F.ft M ftfj Ningkwoh F.
« B ^. Ch'ichow F. yft^ iff, T'aip'ing F. * ^ jfiP, Luchow F. K^ jfif, Fungyang
F. J» |» jfiP, Hwaingan F. fi 3c * and Yangchow F. Jft ^ Jff .
5^ Kiangning F. (Nanking). — Intendant and Reorganizator of the salt reve-
nue for the Kiangnan (RiangBU and Nganhwei) circuit. Civil jurisdiction over Kiang-
ning F. (Nanking) ; controls water communications.
(1) Provincial Capital of Kiangsu.
570
KIAN&8U (CONTimJID). — KWANQSI.
i}° 9lhang%mi h. |: H^ fSi. —Civil and Military jurinflirUon otit Soochow F.H
^ JKP, Suuf^kiang F. ft tt MP &"<! Taits'ang Ohow jk M ^ Snperintendent of
Customfi.
7° Ohdnkiaiig F.Jt^ it ftf— Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch'angchow
F. * ^ W, ChAnkianff F , T'ling Chow S ^. Haim/^n T'in^ M^ H Mete; Mntrols
rivers and waten^ays.
I -
- KWAieSI m K ("
8i").
4i^ KweiUn
F. l-fi Pehseh
T.
* Kwei
h
eg;|i Linkwei
h.
-Wtt Ngenlung
h.
f^S Wusiien
h
^$ Hsingngan
h.
JBIft^ Ngenyang
1
JBJH Lingchw'an
h.
f«n
c iifll Manning
F
|tl9] Yangshoh
h.
Sft Suenhwa
h
*1B Yungning
c.
mU Siech'tog
F.
ffW Sinning
c
^ff Yungfuh
h.
Elfl Lingyiin
h.
IS4F Lungngan
h
mfS Ining
h.
H# Silin
h.
iK Hung
c
^ Ts'iien
c.
Hft Silung
c.
:^jg Yungahun
h
f$ff^ Kwanyang
h.
mU Kweiteh
c.
^m P'ingloh
F.
Hft Kwohwa
c,
^M Liuchow
F.
qifH P'ingloh
h.
J^ Chung
c
JHzp Map'ing
h.
^M Kungch'Sng
h.
fl^*^ Lohyung
h.
^jfll Fuchw'an
h.
*5p T*aip*ing
F
I^JH Loch'«ng
h.
« Ho
h.
IliHl Lungohow
t
i^AI Liuch'^ng
h.
UM Lip'u
h.
^Ijf Ch'ungshan
h
ttfS Hwaiyiien
*f| Laipin
h
nil Siuj«n
h.
«« Yangli
c
h.
H3^ Chaop'ing
h.
« Teo
c
m Yung
h.
^^ Yungngan
c.
:i}c|f Yungk'ang
c
1^ Siang
c.
:@^ Wuchow
F.
±SS. Shangsze
T
MjS. K'mgyllen
F.
K^ Ts'angwu
h.
mVk Loyang
h
5IC1I1 Ishan
h.
m T'fing
h.
ISifi Wanch'Ang
c
3^13 TMenho
h.
Jfit Yung
h.
UK Sseling
c
MUb Hoch'i
c.
}^^ Ch'ink'i
h.
191^ Nlngming
HH Pingsiang
c
J^JB Szengen
h.
#[^ HwaitBih
h.
c
HCM Tunglan
c.
;k^ T'alpHng
c
•tirjlll Hsinch'«ng
h.
## Tohlin
C
^^ Nganp'Ing
c.
f&^ Nantan
c.
If 6 Pohpeh
h.
^S Mingying
c
^fft Na (no) ti
c.l*ft Pehliu
h.
|$« Kiehngan
c
|^)|| Luhchw'an
h.
f^H Kihiun
c
SS.9 Szengen
F. mm Hsingyeh
h.
fill Lungying
c
g,m Wuyiien
h.
ntt Tukleh
c
K Pin
c.i^jHI Sflnchow
F.
aC Kiang
c
^tL Ts'ienkiang
h.i^i^ Kweip'ing
h.1
jg; Sze
•e.
±^i Sbanglin
h.
£pl|f P'ingnan
h.
±T{k Shanghsia*
tung
KWAN&8I (CONTINTJId). RWANOTUNa.
S$|g Kweishun C
^j§ Gh^npien h.
H* Chfinngan
^ftt T*icnpao
"Pl^ Hflialei
F.|4^g| Fungi
hi |n||^ Hsiangwu
cl^HTuk'ang
571
c.
K^vrnngwk has 4 Inleiidabclea, each administered by a Taoi'iii jt 9 '
1* hnngch^'w F. K ^ ^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over T'aiping F.
:k -^ jfip, ahangSEe T'inpr fc ffi. ■, Kweishun Chow ■ JK ^ and Cb*nn(<an F. 9|
«*.
2° liartio'vr P. (IP ^ Jff — Civil and Military jurisdiction over the Profecturoa
of Liuchow P., K*ingy\ien ¥. tt SL fff^ Szenpen P. S Bl ^< Pehseh T'infr W fe iS.
Szech'feng F- fH Jtj( ^Rf, and the Departments of Pin Chow Jf ^ and Silung Chow
mmm.
3" Naimin^ I'*- A ffi ff ■ — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Nauning F.,
Siiiichow F. jf ^ Iff, Yiihlin Chow B ;|k Jfip and Shangsze T'ing ± jgL ■.
4° K^vv-ellin F. 4$ ;Hl ^. — Civil jurisdiction over Kweilin F., P'ingloli F.
^ ^ )ff and Wuchow F. fS ^ Af- Provincial lutendant of the salt revenue for
Kwangsi.
XI.-
- KWANGTUNG M « (-Tung-).
JUjHi Kwangchow P.
t^llj Hohshan
h.
iTid Hanhsiung
C
(Canton).
mm Tehk'ing
c.
jl&ft Shihsing
h
J^m Nanhai
h.
^)\\ Fungchw'ar
1 h.
#1% P^anyii
h.
PRjt K'aikien
h.
Mf^ Hweichow
F
JgH 3hunteh
h.
1$^ Kweishan
h
3*^ Tungkwan
h.
a^Loting
c.
mm pohio
^m Ch'angning
h
^flj Ts*unghwa
h.
]ft^ Tungngan
h.
h
fllP^ Lungmfin
h.
ISHr Sining
h.
jj£^ Yungngan
h
^m Sinning
h.
f(|9 Haifung
h
i§l^ Tsengch'fing
rh.
^m Fuhkang
T
1^9 Luhfung
h
:g^|l| Hsiangshan
h.
ffijH Lungchw«ai
) h
i^# Sinhwei
h.
#g5 Chihk'i
T.
M^ Lienp'ing
c
— .;jC Shanshui
h.
JPTiK Hoyiien
h.
Jl^ T8*ingyuen
h.
M Lien
c.
fti^ Hwop'ing
h
10i^ Sinngan
h.
Ullj Yangshan
h.
« Hwa
h.
)||^ Ch'aochow
F
fSifii Lienshan
T.
ft$VI^ Haiyang
h
Vtm Chaoking
19(11 Kaoyao
F.
>BJg Fungshun
h
h.
|g^ Shaochow
F
mm Ch'aoyang
h.
B# Szehwei
h.
ftiL K'uhklang
h.
^H^ Kiehyang
h
ftll Sinhsing
h.
^g Lohch'ang
h.
Slip Jaop'ing
h.
Hi^ Yangch*un
l|q^ Kaoming
h.
tlft J^nhwa
h.
Jg^JH Hweilai
h.
h.
9l2i Juyuen
h.
*ffiTapu
h.
JB^ Ngcnp'ing
h.
^^ Wungyuen
h.
llfll Oh'^nghai
b.
** Kwangning
h.
||{i( Yingteh
h.
^ P'uning
b.
11^ K'aip'ing
b.
572
KWANGTUNa (CONTINUED). KWBIGHOW.
S!i Kiaying
^^ Ch'angloh
H% Hsingning
/[^^ P'ingyiien
^zp Oh6np*ing
flIW Lienchow
>^m Hohp'u
(ill Lingshan
B)^J!* Fangch*eng
^:Hi Kaochow
j5Jjg Meuming
C.|1t& Tienpeh
h.
h
h
ffc Hwa
^/|| Wuchw*an
:gj!lt Shihch'dng
F. S'Hi Leichow
h.lfH^ Haik^ang
h.m^ Suik'i
I eg fa suw^n
h. I^a Yangkiang T.
h.
h.
c.
h.
h.
F.
h.
h,
h.
||4H Kiungchow F.
]^l|[] K'iungshan h.
f^jg Ch*^ngmai h.
5£5Sc Tingngan h.
35t^ W^nch^ang h.
%|6) Hweit*ung h.
^"^t Lohhwei h.
l^jK Linkao h.
if Tan c.
M Tai C
iRJB Kanngen h.
gffc Ch*anghwa h.
g|7K Lingshui h.
£ Wan h.
Kiivan^iing }ias 0 InleiKianclea, each administered by a Taoi'ai jt jf^
1^ Otinok'ing F. t^ ft ^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in the region VV.
of the hi^'h ridges, over the Prefectures of Chaok'iiig F., and Loting Chow St ^ f^*
2*^ ll^veichow P. ]|[ *H1 )R. —Civil and Military jurisdiction over HweichowF.,
Ch'aochow F.^ m fff" and Kiaying Chow X tf ^•
8 Kwangrdiow F. jR ^ ^ (OaoCoii)- — Provincial Grain Intendant for
Kwangtung ; in charge of taxes on land cultivated by the people and by soldiers ; con-
trols water communications.
4** Shaocboiv F. M ^ MP-— Civil and Military jurisdiction over Nanhsiung
Chow M M ^, Shaochow F., and Lien Chow §S ^ ; controls water communications.
5® K^ian^dio^v F. 41 /H #.— Civil and military jurisdiction over K'iungchow
F., and Yai Chow Ml ^.
G*^ Kaoeboiv F. K ^ Iff. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Kaochow F.i
Lienchow F. fll ^ Jff, Leichow F. ^ ^ flf and Kin Chow 0: ^.
III. — KWEICHOW jl ^ (**Kwei")
J|:li Kweiyang F.
-^^ Kweichuh h.
IIM Lungli h.
jll^ Kweiting h.
m^ Siuwfin h.
11 K'ai c.
^# Tingfan c.
;KJI|| Kwangshun c.
S^ Szechow F.
5^ Yuhp'ing h.
Ifa Ts^ingk'i h.
EPtt
mm
Szenan F.
Nganhwa h.
Wuchw'an h,
Yinkiang h.
Chdnyflen F.
ChSnyiien h.
Shiping h.
T'ienchu h.
Hwangp'ing c.
«fcT'ungjto
IBtT'ungj^n
P.
h.
i&m Sungt'ao T.
m^ Lip'ing F.
IS^ Kait'ai h.
f^^ Kinp'ing
hsiang.
^^ Yungts'ung h.
KWBICHOW (CONTINUBd). NOANHWBI.
573
"SM Nganshun
F.
m^ Tuyfln
F.
:k^ Tating
F
:f ^ P'uting
h.
All Pahchai
t.
jJCJSlI Shuich'fing
t
HW Chinning
c.
^^ Tuyun
h.
^jS F'ingyiien
c
tKIB Yungning
||gt TB*ingch6n
c.
Jftn^ Mahoh
c.
l^fl K'ienBi
c
h.
mill Tuhshan
c.
JAW Weining
c
^ip. Nganp'ing
h.
ip}^ Ts'ingp'ing
h.
HDi Pihtsieh
h
HJtif Langtai
t.
IS%Lipo
h.
iSH Tsuni
F
AH Hsing-i
F.
^M P'ingyueh
c.
fUm Tsuni
b
mm Hsing-i
h.
g^ Meit'an
h.
^1$ T'ungtze
h
^$ P'ungan
h.
2^ Wungngan
h.
^m Suiyang
h
^lif Ngannan
h.
4^« Yiik'ing
h.
jE^ Chd'ngngan
c
jH^ Ch^ngfung
c.
SPf Shihts'ien
F
flfll Jdnhwai
h
tifft P'ungan
T.
ft^ Lungts'iien
h.
t:ft Jdnhwai
T
Kiveicliow has 3 Intendancie*, each administered by a Taol'al JH $ :
1° Lip'ln^ F. 3R 2|i ^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in the Kastem portion
of Kweichow, over the Prefectures of Lip'ing F., Tiiyiin F.^ffi^ J/f^ (JhAnyuen F. 0|
a jfiP, Szechow F. JB ^ #, T'ungjAn P. Jg t: * and Sungt'ao T'ing ^ ilk^t.
2* K'welyaDff F« JR A ^' — Intt ndant of rice tribute for Chinest* soMiers.
Military jurisdiction over Kweiyang P., P'ingyueh Chow ^ tK ^t Shihts'ien F. S" Pf
^ and Jdnhwai T'iug <1 flj ■.
3** Plhlsleh hflieii 4^ ff M- — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in the Western
portion of Kwoichow, over Kweiyang F. jR M ^, Nganshun F. jc )® flf, Szeuan F.
JB IB fl¥^, Tating F. iz&^, Tsuni P. iff ft W, Hsing-i F. H ft W. Whining Chow
j£ 1R ^ and P'ungan Ting # % ■.
XIII. — MGANHWEI ^ « (-An ^
$a Nganking F.
fill Hwaining h.
jfj^^ T*ungch*6ng h.
j^lll Ts'ienshan h.
±fgi T^aihu h.
|gj^ Suhsung h.
MiL Wangkiang h.
mfVi Hweichow F.
IK Hih h.
fIcW Hsiuning h.
fl^ Wuyiien h.
fRf^ K'im6n
h.
fUm Ch'ichow
F
Wi I
h.
Hflli Kwoich'i
h
j^fl TsihkM
h.
^(^ Ts'ingyang
h
l^il T'ungling.
li
iRiSI Hingkwoh
F.
5Jb!t Shihl'ai
h
^Mt Siiench'6ng
h.
j^^ Kientch
ii
WH Ningkwoh
h.
y^tfi Tungliu
h
ffi King
h.
i;^ T'aip'ing
h.
i:^ T'aip'ing
F
ji^ Tsingteh
h.
^^ Tangt'u
h
r||@^ Nanling
h.
mm Wuhu
9(g Panch'ang
h
h
574
NftAMHWBI (COMTINaBD). — SHA.NSI.
m)V[ Lachow
r.
SM Tingchow
F.
ft Hwo
c
>g.JC Hohfei
h.
#1* Feuyang
h.
'^llj Hanshan
h.
ttiL Liikiang
h.
^J: Yingshang
h.
^JA Shuch'«ng
h.
SfK Hwohk'iu
h.
7^$ Luhngan
c.
^Si Wuwei
c.
% Poh
c.
^ll] Yingshan
h
M ^^'^°
h.
(llsil* Koyang
i:*I Taihwo
h.
h.
^\}i Hwohshan
b
MJ% Fungyang
P. MiA M«ngch'6ng
h.
m Sze
c
El^ Fungyang
hJ
gf iir Hsu-i
h
ttiS Hwaiyu<;n
hi IK Kwangteh
c.
H^ T'iench'ang
h
'S.UL Tingyiien
h.lj^^ Kienp'ing
h.
S.m Wuho
h
% Sheu
c.j
%,m Fungl'ai
h.
n Chn
C
« Suh
c.
|^;||l Ts'uentfliao
h.
^H Lingpih
h.
j(i^ Laingan
h.
N^anh'wei hap 3 Intendaneiea, each a-lminiRt<*Terl by a T.iOl*al )■ ( :
1** Fun^yan^ A 1% ^.~ Civil and Military jurisdiction over Fnnf?yaiig P.
and Yinff'^how F. £ ^ ^, extended also to Luhngan Chow ::^; 4c ^ ^nd Sze Cbow
2** NipanVinff F. 3? JK ff —Civil jurisdiction ovit Npauk'inp F , Liichow F.
K ^ ;^,Ch'u(^how||| ^ and Hwo Chow #0 ^.
3° Wuhu holen 3K M 0- — Civil and Militar>' jurisdiction over Hweichow F.
m m *,NingkwohF. tR ■ V. Ch'ichow F. m M J(f. T'aip*ing F. * ^ jfr and
Kwanp^teh Chow jR || ^- Superintendent of Customs.
XIV. — SHANSI Oj W ("Sha").
±M T'aiyflen
16
F.
Yangk'iih h.
T^aiyiien h.
Yulz'e h.
T^aikuh h.
K*i h.
^^ Biikeu h.
^jffi Kiaoch'^ng h.
jJCtJC Wenshui h.
^£ K'olan c.
Mi ^^" ^'
^ Hsing h.
¥3fe P'ingting C
S Yu h.
^1^ Sheuyang h.
1$
mm
Hsin
Tingsiang
Tsingloh
Tai
Wufal
Kwoh
Fanchi
Paoteh
Hok'iih
F'ingyang
Linfdn
Hungtung
Feushan
c.
h.
h.
c.
h.
h.
h.
C.
h.
F.
h.
h.
h.
mn
Aft
Hsiangning
Yohyang
K'iihwoh
Yihch*6ng
T*aip'ing
Siangling
F6n8i
Kih
ig Hwoh
jgi^ Ghaoch'^ng
41 ;5 Lingshih
filHl P uchow
tJcW Yungtsi
Qjl^ Lintsin
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
c.
c.
h.
h.
F.
h.
h.
SHAN8I (CONTINUBd).
575
tmS Yiihsiang h.
f^ Yungho h.
Mik Wants ^iien h.
«ft Ishi h.
M Hsiai C.
4St^ Nganyih h.
3 Hsia h.
^Bl P*ingluh h.
^j)fi Juich'^ng h.
n Kiang C.
H^ Yuenk'uh h.
SlF W^nhsi h.
H Kiang h.
iftllj Tsihshan h.
i^H^ Hotsin h.
m sih c.
:kn Taning h.
« P'u h.
^fO Yunghwo h.
m9 Lungan F.
^ffy Ch'angchi h.
^4F Ch*^ftngtze h.
lg^ T'unliu h.
0jg Siangyiien h.
jlljil Luch'«ng h.
^^ Hukwan h.
IgjA Lich'^Dg h.
26 ii
mm
mm
mm
All:
«t
III It
FAnchow
F^nyang
Hsiao-i
P*ingyao
Kiaihsiu
Shihleu
Lin
Yungning
Ninghsiang
Tsin
TsMnyiien
Wuhsiang
Tsehchow
Fungt'ai
Kaop'ing
Yangch*6ng
Lingchw^an
Ts'inshui
Liao
Hwoshun
Yush6
Tatung
Tat*ung
Hwaij^n
Hwunyiien
Ying
Shanyin
Rllft Yangkao h.
55H T4ench6n h.
IK Kwangling h.
S0 LingkMu h.
WS Ningwu p.
%^ Ningwu h.
ttiBR P'icnkwan h.
Ifftb Shench'i h.
Hii Wuseh h.
M^ Shohp ing F.
^3E Yiuyiih h.
jfy Shoh c.
4^ Tsoyun h.
/j^H P'ingiu h.
Stit Kweihwa T.
ft«*Ji HwoUn-
koheul T.
litit^ Sahlahtsi T.
9iiiim Tsingshui-
ho T
JEJKft T'ohk'oh
t'oh
%fti Ningyflen
H^ Hsinghwo
m^ T'aolin
ICJII Wuchw'an
at« Wuyflen
8hanal has 4 bitendandes, each administered by a Tftot'ni jS K '
1® Flalyiten ch'dii^ i^SM (ft town snbonlinate to Sbohp'ing P. JflTj(p).— Civil
and Military jurisdiction over Kweihwa ch'^ng B| ffc iJj and Suiyuen ch'Anj^. Military
Superintendent controlling the affairs of Chinese Bannermen and of Mongols; in charge
of the Government postal service.
2** Tal OliDW f^ ^. — Military jurisdiction over Tat'ung F. ;A: H flf , Shoh-
p*ing F. JBfl 2|l fl^, Ningwu F. Hf R W, Hsin Chow W fH. Tai Chow ft ^ and
Paoteh Chow file tt ^ ; in charge of water communications.
Keeps watch over 3 important passes : YAnm^nkwan H I*] M (wild-goose gate-
barrier), Lungcb'i-k'ow IE ilfh P (dragon-pool pass), and Shahhu-k'ow JlSf jft P (tigcr-
alaying pass).
3* T'^iytten F. ^k S #• — Civil jurisdiction over Taijmen F., FAnchow F.
nM Hf. Lungan F. flj tIc W, Tsehebow F. 19 M /HP, Liao Chow ig ^, Ts'in Chow
f^ ^ and P*ingting Chow ^ JS£, f^; in charge of water communications. Controls
also the Government postal service and the tribute.
576 SHANSI (continued). SHANTUNG.
4° Ytin ch'Ang: 2 Jl^. ~ Military jurindiction, iu the rof^ion K. of the Yellow
River, over P'ingyang F. 2p P| ^, P'uchow F. JBf ^ *. Hniai Chow (I ^, Kiang
Chow M^ ^,HwohChow|K fH and Sih Chow fiR^; in charge of the Qovfniment
postal Hervice and of water communicatioiiR. Inteiidaiit of the salt revenue for the
Provinces of Shansi, Shensi and Honan.
IV. — SHANTUNG lU 3|C ("Sung").
HF^ Tsinan
F.
if^ Ts'ingch'^ng h
AJ« Lihch'6ng
h.
fSi^ Shangho
h
4^ Changk'iu
h.
1(5% Cheup'ing
h.
^M Tdnchow
F
i^jH Tzechw'an
h.
mt Tzeyang
h
^lU Gh'angshan
h.
^^ K'uhfeu
h
«ij« Sinch'6ng
h.
Wl* Ningyang
h
IRfpf Ts'iho
h.
1^ Cheu (Tseu)
h
^yg, Ts'itung
h.
JB;!K Szeshui
h
Wlif Tsiyang
h.
m T'6ng
h
H Teh
c.
m Yih
h
;{g2p Tehp'ing
h.
^tR Yangkuh
h
^Jlft Yuch'6ng
h.
^'JH Sheuchang
h
($g Linyih
h.
gt_t Wfinshang
h
^IK P'ingyiien
h.
K Ling
h.
Sin Tsining
c
^^ Ch'angts'lngh.
^IgS Kinhsiang
h
^^ Kiasiang
h
^^ T'aingan
P
«l* Yiit'ai
ii
^^ T'aingan
h.
j^i^ Tungp-ing
h.
i»f« Ichow
F
HCM Tungho
h.
iSllj Lanshan
h
^1^ P'ingyin
h.
$1^** T'anch'eng
h
*?* Sint'ai
h.
« P'i
h
MM Laiwu
h.
ft Ku
c
fl»^ Feich'eng
h.
W* Ishui
h
^1^ Mengyin
h
m. Wuting
F.
Q Bg Jihchao
h
^K Hweimin
h.
Rg^ Yangsin
h.
WW Ts'aochow
F
flIS Haifung
h.
#)S Hotseh
h
^m Lohling
h. 1|f Ts-ao
h
d[ I'in
c.jj^ Puh
c
^^ Litsin
h.,|£ Fan
h
glflj Chanhwa
h!ili£ Kwanch'6ng
h
^S P'ut'ai
h.
igilJt Ghaoch'^ng
h
PJI* Yiinch'fing h.
J|l Shan h.
JMIIC Ch'fingwu h.
^|l)g Tingl'ao h.
^ff Kuy6 h.
Xg Tungch'ang
F
9PjA Liaoch'Ang
h
^a T'angyih
h
tlj^ Pohp'ing
h
^^ Ship'ing
h
Jil^P Ts'ingp'ing
h
^ Sin
h
S Kwan
h
ItpH Kwant'ao
h
JB Ngen
h
}S5^ Kaot*ang
c
E&^ Lints'ing
c.
St** Wuch'Cng
h
Sft Hsiatsin
h
jrR K'iu
h
WW
#5t
Tsingchow
Yihtu
Pohshan
Lintze
Pohhsing
Kaoyuen
Lohngan
Sheukwang
Ch'angloh
Linkii
Ngank*iu
Chuch*^ng
BHANTnNO (continued). SHBNSI.
577
S^ Tdngchow
P.
Hfffl Ninghai
c.
zp.^ P'ingtu
c.
ai^ P'6nglai
h.
is WfinMng
h.
m Wei
b.
% Hwang
h.
^^ Yungch'^ng
h.
gg, Ch'angyih
h.
H^ Fuhshan
h.
ft$^ Haiyang
h.
^^ Sihsia
h.
m Kiao
c
^jg Chaoyiien
b.
M^ Laichow
F.
KKijj^ Kaomih
h.
^^ Laiyang
h.
m Yih
h.
IPH Tsihmeh
h.
Shanluns has 4 lotendaiiclMi, each administered by a Taot'al jt S '
1° Lalebo'W' F ^ ^ j^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over TAngohow F.
g ^ jff, Laichow F., Ts'ingcliow F. ft #1 ^ and Kiao Chow S ^Hi ; in charge of water
communications, controls the Maritime Heorganizatiou Board.
2" Tiiinan F. Sf fff #. — Civil jurisdiction over Tsinan F., Tungch'ang F. K
g Kf, T'aingan F. <fc 3J fl^p, Wuting F. gt ife # and Lints'ing F. ffi ff Jjf ; in char-
ge of the Government postal service and of water communications within his circuit.
Controls also the affairs of Kaot'ang Chow ^^ jjf ^, Puh Chow )R ^ and Tungp*ing
Chow JR^#|.
3^ Teh Oboiv H ^. — Grain Intendant, Overseer of the granaries, controls the
payment of the tribute in the Department of Teh Chow and the districts of Ch*ang-
ts'ing h. II if B, Linyih h. ES S K and Ts'ingp'ing h. jf ^p ||[.
4* Ydncho^w F. jgj #1 iff. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Yenchow F.
55 #1 Iff , Ichow F. iJt ^ #, Ts'aochow P. W ^ Jflp and Tsining Chow S Hf #| ;
in charge of water communications, of the Government postal service and of the con-
servancy of the Yellow River etc.
XVI.
— SHENSI 19! H ("She").
WH Singan
F.
IS Shang
c.
n K'ien
C
^H Hsiao-f
t.
11$ Chdnngan
h.
fClJf Wukung
h
^1^ Ningshen
t.
^flf Lohnan
h.
^% Yungsheu
h
^$ Ch'angngan
h.
lljl^ Shanyang
h.
jgli Hsienning
h.
ffi^ Bhangnan
h.
m Pin
C
J^l^ Hsienyang
h.
H?K Sanshui
h.
$^2p. Hsingp'ing
h.
liW T'ungchow
F.
fgfl: Shunhwa
h
eg^ Lint'ung
h.
:kM Tali
h.
^^ Ch'angwu
h
ll^m Kaoling
h.
'MM T'ungkwan
t.
m Hu
h.
^g Ohaoyih
h.
MM Fungsiang
F
;Kffl Lant'ien
h.
g|5|^ Hohyang
h.
HISH Fungsiang
h
ffifil Kingyang
h.
@JS^Ch'6ngoh'6ngh.
l^lll K'ishan
h.
HJK Sanyiien
h.
^j^ Hanch'«ng
h.
)m Paoki
h
IKM Chcuchih
h.
I^tK Pehshui
h.
^M, Fufung
h.
!iit Weinan
h.
m Hwa
c.
f|! Mei
h.
"S ^ Fup'ing
h.
1^1^ Hwayin
h.
f^^ Linyiu
h.
MM Lits'iien
h.
Bli P*uch'6ng
h.
{fflU K'ienyang
h.
IgJ'g' T'ungkwan
h.
Rg Lung
c.
9 Yaochow
0.
87
578
8HBNSI (cOirrilfUBD). — BZBCHW^AN.
i)|(t> Hanchung
flfc^f FuhpMng
^^ Tingyiien
9JS Liupa
$)|P Nanch^ng
ilk^ Paoch'6ng
ilB Ch*6ngku
» Yang
Hip Sihsiang
JK Fung
H^ NingkMang
)^ Mien
iqpH^ Liobyang
^$ Hsingngan
^1^ Hanyin
$ji Ngank^ang
F.
mm P'ingli
h.
m fd
c
t.
illi Siinyang
h.
f^)\\ LohchWan
h.
t.
6M Pehho
h.
i^lJS Ohangpu
h.
t.
«|» Tzeyang
h.
ft;e Ikiin
h.
h.
;6Si Shihts'uen
h.
h.
»«Saiteh
c.
h.
«* Tfiiing9n
P.
b.
h.
ftm pushi
h.
iHiH Ts'ingkien
h.
h.
$2 Nganseh
h.
^^ Wupao
b.
h.
-f jg Kants'iien
h.
c.
^^ Paongan
h.
mvumi
F.
b
iijj^ Nganling
h.
Mk'^ Yiilin
h.
h.
^;ii Ivhw'an
h.
|^:iC Shenmuh
h.
fg^ Y6nch'ang
h.
fffi^ Fukah
h.
f.
&;i| Y6nchw'an
h.
it Kiai
c.
t.
2ft Tingpien
h.
{|% Hwaiyfien
h.
h.
ISH Tsingpien
h.
I has 5 iBteadaiicIeK, each ftdministered by a TaOi'ai jt ( :
l** Sing^n F. fS it flf- — Intf^ndant of the rice tribute, with civil jorisdiotion
overSingaii F., K'ien Chow fg ^, Fu Chow K ^, T*nngchow F. H ^ MP etc. ;
also in charge of water commmiications.
2° T^un^kwan T'in^ 'tt HI M. — Civil and Military jnrisdiction over T*iuig-
kwan T., and Shang Chow JSi ^•
3** FuD^fllaii^ F. A m f^p.— Intendant of the salt revenue, with civil jorisdio-
tion over Fungsiang F., and Pin Chow j^ ^; also in charge of water commnnioatioiiB.
4*^ Yttlln F. itl^^ — Oivil and Military jurisdiction over Y^nngan F.f^^
iAp, Yiilin F., Huiteh Chow tf H ^ etc. Intendant of the salt and tea revenues.
5*^ HanclMiii^ F. SI 4> iA"- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Hanohang F.
and Hsingngan F. 9k 9 ^ '" ^^^^ ^^ charge of water communications.
XVII
. -
- SZECHW'AN 0 Jil
("Sze").
0,iS[i Ch'fingtu
F- mW Sintsin h.
mt Tzet'ong
h
^^ Ch'^nglu
h.
g| Han c.
fifL Lokiang
h
4E|§ Hwayang
h.
fr^li Shihfang h.
SE$E Shwangliu
h.
M Men
C
flit Wfinkiang
h.
Hf Tze C.
iSC)l\ W«nchWan
h
jg|g Sinfan
h.
t;# Jfinsheu h.
m Tseyang h.
%# Lifan
t
■^^ Kint'ang
h.
«r« Sintu
h.
## TsingyAn h.
Wa Ningyflen
F
m P'i
h.
n2C Neikiang h.
6g Sich'ang
h
^ Kwan
h.
WIS Mienning
9f 3^ Ydnyuen
b
J^ P'Ang
h.
m Mien C.
m Tehyang h.
h
^fS Ch'ungning
h.
t^l Hweili
c.
fV Kien
c.
* Ngan h.
^H Yuehtsuen
t.
^H Ch'ungkMng
c.
Iltjr Mienohuh h.
ssbchw'an (continobo).
579
fl^Hr Paoning F
Ijijif* Langchung h,
liH Ts'angk'l h,
f6t5 Nanpu h.
g^jC Kwangyiien h.
VRit Ghaohwa h.
G Pa c.
MiL T*ungkiang h.
if it Nankiang h,
il Kien c,
m» Shanking P.
1^% Nanch'ung h.
iS% Sich'ung h.
M P'^ng c.
SlU Yingshan h.
UK Hung h,
)J|$ Kwangngan c.
ff^Hi Linshui h.
#^ Yohch^ h.
^m SOchow F.
J^Hf Mapien t.
±^ Ipin h,
jK^ K'ingfu h.
tSf^ Fushun h.
^€1 NankM h.
-j^li Ch'angning h.
JK Kao h.
jft^ Yiinlien h.
m Kung h,
lljSC Hsingw^n h.
Big Lungch'ang h.
^lll P'ingBhan h.
ftTjc Sflyung T.
^It Yungning h.
Sift Leipo t.
mat Ch^ungking F.
ii::|t Kiangpeh t.
G Pa h.
f£^ Kiangtsin h.
^H Ch'angsheu h.
j^)l\ Yungchw'an h.
§g Yungch'ang h.
tt K*ikiang h.
^jll Nanchw^an h.
^ Hoh c.
tS Feu c.
IBIR T'ungliang h.
:fcJE Tatsuh h.
HlJj Pihshan h.
5£S Tingyuen h.
Wn Tiuyang C
Hill Siushan h.
if JC K*ienkiang h.
^:i|lC P'^ngshui h.
^ Chung C.
P^ Fungtu h.
SIJQ Tiehkiang h.
1)6 [Ij Liangshan h.
^ji\ Kw^eichow F.
j^ljf Fungtsieh h.
Sill Wushan h.
#19^ Yiinyang h.
H Wan h.
A K'ai h.
:k1l[ Taning h.
^ft Shihchu T.
tt^ Suiting p.
ji Tah h.
SUP Tunghsiang h.
jgflj Sinning h.
1 K*u h.
;*:t1r Tachuh h.
ic^ T*aip*ing h.
^U Oh^6ngk*ow t.
H^ Lungngan F.
2pgti PMngwu h.
il^ Kiangyiu h.
5^ Shihts^uen h.
ij^^ Changoiing h.
fe» Sungp'an T.
?lJI|T*ungchw*anF.
HS S^nt'fti h.
1^^ Sh^hung h.
il^ Y^ntMng h.
i^JiL Chungkiang h.
^Hf Suining h.
^^ P'^ngk^i h.
IJSS Lohchi h.
^•& Nganyoh h.
m Mei C.
^^t Tanleng h.
jf^lll P*6ng8han h.
ifijtif Ts'ingshen h.
*J£ Eating
F.
ttjft Ngopien
t.
mili Yohshan
h.
lit>€ Ngomei
h.
#t|| Hungya
h.
^tt Kiahkiang
h.
fji;Q Kienwei
h.
^ Yung
h.
MUt Weiyuen
h.
^ Kiong
:*:& Tayih
JBtC P'ukiang
c.
h.
h.
!i Lu G.
Aitti"^ Kiusing
T*usze
#j5g| NahkM h.
>(^fl. Hohkiang h,
tC$ Kiangngan h.
%W Tachow F.
ti:$ Yangan h.
%^ T*ient8*uen c.
^lU Mingshan h.
^<ffi Yungking h.
3[lU Lushan h.
g|8| Ts'ingk^i h.
trffStt Tatsienlu T.
JtSBR Tsingsi-
kwan t.
580
SZBCHW'AN (continued). tBnNAN.
Saechiv'aii has 6 InteBdanoies, each administered by a Taot'al M M '
VVn OtaO'w ( ^. — Civil jurisdiction, in S. Szeohw^an, over Siiohow P. iK
M Jtt, I'U Chow, part of Tze Chow K #| and Suyung T'ing ft ^ ■•
2*" Oh'imffk*li^ P. S K ^- ~ ^ charge of the Government postal servioa, in
Eastern Szechw'an, with Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch*ungk*ing F., Kw*el-
chow F. fl #1 fff, Suiting F. ft ft #1, Chung Chow A ¥^, Yinyang Chow fl M M
and Shihchu T'ing ^ tt ■•
8** Paonin^ P. 'ft tR ^.— Civil and Military jurisdiction, in N. Szech*wan, over
PaoningF., partof T'ungchw'an F. S )\\ jfip and Shunk*ing F. M$k M*
4" Taohow P. fft ¥\ ^. — In charge of the Government postal service in the
extreme S., with Civil and Military jurisdiction over Yachow F., Ningyiken F. tHKff '
KiatiDg F. X S ;AP, Mei Chow jg ¥\ and K'inng Chow ^ ^.
5^ Oh'dn^iu P. A 49 W- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch*6ngfca F.
Mien Chow M #1, T'ungchw^an F. ^ }\\ fff, Lungngan F. M % ff i Men Chow S
fH, part of Tze Chow J( #1 and Sungp'an T'ing Ift 9 Ml ftlso in charge of water
communications.
6"" Oh'dn^u P. — Provincial Intendant of the salt and tea revenues of SzeohVan;
aleo in charge of the Government postal service.
XVlll.
— YUNNAN 9 ffir ("Yun").
miH Tflnnan
F.
im^ 0ml (Ami) c.
*
ftHC Kingtung
T.
HBQ K'uenming
h.
W Ning 0.
a^ T'unghai h.
^|S Fumin
h.
Hit Kwangnan
r.
h.
WW H08i h.
If tt Sihngo h.
WW Paoning
h.
jlJBQ Sungming
c.
#^ Tsinning
c.
iH^ Mdngtze h.
HW Kvangsi
c.
gJt Ch'«ngkung
h.
mfH Shitsung
h.
^W Nganning
c.
mak Ch'uhsiung F.
flJit K'lupeh
h.
m^ Lotz'e
jpH Luhfung
h.
^M Ch'uhsiung h.
«8« Mileh
h.
h.
^2| Tingyiien h.
jm K'uenyang
c.
i^H Shihkao h.
mis Shunning
F.
Jin Imdn
h.
j^Sl# Hehy^nlsing
MH Shunning
h.
m Yao c.
i Yiin
c.
*9TaU
F.
&9# Pehyfintsing
:^fb T'aihwo
h.
^ $ Nanngan c.
ibm K'fihtsing
F.
m Chao
^'tf YOnnan
0.
li^ Ch^nnan c.
^iH Nanning
h.
h.
JUi Kwangt'ung h.
^g Chanyih
c.
! ;' I Tfingohw'an
c.
*« Tayao h.
^J*^ Luhliang
c.
, ■'•';■■ 1. >:i*k'lung
h.
J|i?n LopMng
c.
'i'i'':l l*P' .liv'fin
0.
atit Ch'togkiang F.
.^jJl Malung
c.
-Jy'l Vii-i'M.'u'
c.
Wli Hoyang h.
fjilU Siinticn
c.
itiH Kiangohw'anh.
'T'# P'ing-i
h.
r'i tc Linnsaii
F
',T?tl. Sinhsing c.
3i[ljg Siienwei
c.
^ 4C Kicnsluii
h.
Sft !( Lnnan c.
;j5^ Shihp'ing
c.
tCnnan (continued).
581
g* Wuting
xH Yiienraeu
Luhk'iien
MiL Likiang
MfL Likiang
tin Hohk^ing
jUJII Kienchw'an
TClL YQenkiang
gr^ Sinp'ing
HW Ningeul
J^^ Szemao
c.
h.
h.
F.
h.
c.
c.
c.
h.
F.
h.
t.
lijcfi
T'alang t.
Weiyiien t.
M{t HAnghwa T.
7kg
Tungch'ang F.
Paoshan h.
Yungp*ing h,
T*6ngyueh t.
^* Tungpeh T.
^{t K'aihwa
^lil Wtoshan
yH}\\ Tungchw'an F.
^^ Hweitseh h.
X^JK K'iaokia t.
miK Chftnyflen T.
Ugji Chaofung F.
JS.it Ngenngan h.
^H Yungshan h.
^|{| Gh^nhsiung c.
mmm$^ Chdnplen-
fu-i T.
I has 6 Intendiiiieiea, each administered by a Taai*al jt M -
V Tall F. ;Ac S ^. — Military iDtendant of the Government post stations in
W. Tiinnan, with Civil and Military jurisdiction over Tali F., Ch*uhsiung F. JK tt ^*
Yungch'angP. j|c B fl^. Likiang F. ■ tL flf , Mfinghwa T*ing tHitU and Ynng-
peh T4ng j)c 4: ■•
2" 'VoBan F. S TR ff • — Provincial Intendant of the salt revenue for the pay
of Chinese soldiers.
3° StlnUen OMw 9 4^-— Military Intendant of the Government post sta-
stions in K. Yunnan, with Civil and Military jurisdiction over K'iihtsing F. ft ^ ^,
Tungchw'an P. JR ;ii Jflp, Chaofung P. K g !fr, Ch*6ngkiang F. fgi U ^ and
Kwaugsi Chow JK S ^.
4" Pineal F. ^ 29 fl?p.- Civil and Military jurisdiction in the S., over P*ueul F.,
Gh^nyiien T*ing ft }jc My Yiienkiang Chow yttL ^^ Kingtung T*ing Jt H M* Shun-
ning F. H W ^ and Ch^npienfu-i T'ing ft )1 tk # ■*
5* M^DStoe bfllea S 3 R- -- Civil jurisdiction over Linngan F. HE ^ Hft
K'aihwa F. K It ^ and Kwangnan F. jR lH Jj^. Superintendent of Customs.
6** Yttmaii F. S IS ^- -~ Provincial Grain Intendant for Yiinnan. Military
Intendant of the Government post stations, with Civil jurisdiction over Yiinnan F., and
Wuting Chow ^ £ #|*; also in charge of agriculture and water communications.
LIST
of the
Prefectures and Sub- prefectures
of Manchuria ("Man").
I. — SHENGKIWG jft » ("King").
i$^ Fungt'ien
p.
M^S! Kwangning
h.
^Jg Liaoyiien
c
^t: Hsingj6n
h.
mm I
c.
^^ Ch'i^ngteh
h.
JIA Funghvang T.
jgfil Liaoyang
c.
UB Hailung
F.
WlJR SiuyAn
c.
^D Yingk'ow
t.
:^2p Tungp'ing
h.
^j|[ Ngantung
h
(Newchwang).
|gg Sifung
h.
(Antung).
mat Haich'6ng
h.
g^ Singan
h.
%tSi} Kw'antien
b
g^ Kaip'ing
h.
^fif Liuho
h.
tS F"h
0.
^^ Hsingking
T.
§#| Kinchow
t.
frK Sinming
F.
',f(jfl: T'unghwa
h.
ffiJS K'aiyuen
h.
1^^ Ch^nngan
h.
^t. Hwaij6n
h.
ii^ T'iehling
h.
!^5^ Changwu
h.
g^a: Lingkiang
1^^ Tsihngan
h.
h
1^^ Kinchow
F.
^H Ch'angt'u
F.
n Kin
h.
fK« Hwaiteh
h.
MUr T'aonan
F.
WjS Ningyiien
j^i^ Suichung
c.
^ft Funghwa
h.
Jg^ Tsingngan
h.
h.
Jg|2p K'angp'ing
h.
mii K'ait'ung
h.
Slidn^kui^ ))a8 .'{ Intendancies, each adminiBterod by a Tao(*ai M H-
V* Fun^i'ien P. $ ^ 1^ (Mukden).— Civil jurisdiction over Mukden; inchar^^e
of the Government postal service in the Central and Northern portions of Sh(^ngkiDg
Province.
2^ Pim^h^veaii^ Ch'^ag A HL M- — ^i^i^ <^nd Military jurisdiction oyer the
Eastern portion of Shengking Province.
3*^ Tln^k'o^nr T'in^ '^ P ■ (Ne'vrchwanir). —Military jurisdiotion over
Mukden, Kinchow F. M 4i Ij^ and Shanhaikwan UJ 51 II (this latter within Chihli
Province), etc. Superintendent of Customs.
MANCHimiA : Knot. — BIHI.UNOKIAMS.
583
n. — HWH tf # ('•Kir").
l$>Nc Kirin f.
J(|| Oh'angsheu
h.
HM Pinchow
T
§t% It'ung c.
j|jlftShwangoh'«Dgt.
«tt Smch*«llg
P.
ttMnan
F
TllSf Wuch'ang t.
(Petuna).
^ii Tat«ung
h
^^ Tunhwa h.
«« Yushu
h.
Hjg rangyiien
h
SW Y6nkih t.
fgf£ Linkiang
0
Ig^lgi Suif^n t.
g# Ch'angch'an
F.
I
HSl^ P'anshih h.
J|$ Nungngan
h.
1
Klrlnhas 1 laieiidaiioy administered by a Taot'al (t ft who has jnrisdic-
tion over Kirin F., Ch*angch'an F. J| # jflp, Wuch'anp: T'ing 3i Kf^ Mt Y6nkihT4ng
ffi S ■, Suiffen T'ing «( 33^ ■ and Pinchow T*ing 9 ^ ■•
III. — HEHLUN6KIANG (AMUR) m n iL (^^Hei ').
flilftt*! Hehlung-
mit Suihwa
F
;f:ir Muhlan h
kiang ch'tag
#« Yuk'ing
h.
(Aigan).
MHt Hailun T
m:^ Hehshui t.
If W Halan
P.
#ia| Ts'ingkang h
*« Talai t.
Bit Pay«n
•H Lansi
c.
h.
HeMan^kiaiiff has 2 Intendancles, each administfred by a Taot'oi \£ ^ :
1® Sailiwa F. K ft 1^. — Military jurisdiction over Hulan F. If (Jl Pfip, Sui-
hwa F., and Hailun T'ing jl| Ij^ ■•
2** TslUAlMir V |if •ft' •• — Civil jurisdiction over Tsitsihar, Talai TMng iz 9
M and Hehshui T'ing ^ ^ JB ; fulftls the office of Provincial High Judge.
584
BlNKIAMa.
Prefectures and Sub-prefectures
of Chinese Turkestan
or Sinkiang ("Sin").
mm
mit Tih-hwa
(Urumtsi).
j^'ft Tihhwa
■j^-^ K'it'ai
g^ Gh'angkih
^$t Peuk'ang
^^ Peuyuen
igt^ Suilai
mis Tdnk'i
(Karashar).
Jf^ Sinp'ing
i^^ Shikwang
S^ Lunt'ai
9 Shanshan
mi& Shuleh
mm shufuh
(Kashgar).
^t$ K'iashi
e,56 Pach'u
F. ]^4[ Soch'd F
(Yarkand).
H^ Yehch'6ng h.
jKiIj P'ishan h.
b.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
F.
h.
h.
h.
h.
F.
h.
h.
c.
ait
Wfinsuh r
(Aksu).
W^nsuh h.
P*aich*6ng h.
K'uch'fi
(Kucha).
Shaya
Hwotien
(Khoten).
Yiitien
Lohp^u
5£*i^W Yingkih-
shaeul T.
(Yangi-Hissar).
afr Wushih T.
(Uch-Turfan).
ilW Chfinsi T.
R^g^ Hohmih T.
(Hami).
iy:## T'ulufan T.
(Turfan).
eulk'ohlah WusuT.
(Kurkara-Usu).
^m lu F.
jft^ Suiting h.
%^ Ningyiien h.
^ip! Tsingho T.
jffjifi T'ahch'fing T.
(Tarbagatai).
sinkiang has 4 Inlendaiiclea, each adminlBterod by a Taoi^ai jt, ft :
1*^ Wdnsuh F. fi, 8 ^ (Aksu or Oksu). — Military jurisdiotion over Aksu ; in
charge of waterways, agriculture, tribute and lawsuits. lutendaut of the Board of
Pacification for Mongol tribes ; checks the invasions of the liourouths ^ tt tt (a
vagrant Mahomedan tribe bordering on Kashgar). Inspector of Customs.
2* Shufu h. $k 1^ n (Kashgar). -- Military jurisdiction over Kashgar ; in
charge of waterways, agriculture, tribute and lawsuits ; political and commercial Agent
oontzx)lliDg foreign trade ; admiuisters the Bourouth territory ; Inspector of Customs.
BDOUANa (comtinubd). 585
3* lfk|^y€e« h. tK S S- ~ Military jurisdiction over III F. |^ {( ff i^d
T'ahch'^Dg T'ing 41 ]jt B (Tkrbmgatai); in charge of waterways, agricnltnre, tribate
and law8ait« ; political and commercial Agent controlling foreign trade ; Inspector of
Customs.
4* TIMiwaP. itH^ (Vrumtsi). — Reorganizator of Palik*uen B £ ^>
Grain Intendant ; fulfils the office of Prorincial High Judge. Blilitary jurisdiction
over Ch^nsi T'ing ft 9 ■, Tih-hwa F., Hami T. 1^ tt ■, Turfan T. |fc ft S Bt
Kurkara-Usu T. CamiHASBand Muhlei->ing ;|c A ••
Alphabetical List
of
the Cities and Towns of China.
DIBECnONS
On the maimer of using and finding a name in this Alphabetical Lift
First Case, — The reader knows the name of the city or
town but wants fuller details, thus ''Shanghai. On referring
to the ''Alphabetical List/* he will find in the first column the
rank of the town, a hsien (h) or district town; in the second
column the equivalent Chinese characters for the same place ; in
the third column the Province in which it is situated, and in the
fourth or last column the Prefecture to which the town is
subordinate, Sungkiang F.
Second Case. — The reader is acquainted with the Chinese
characters or ideographs, but wants to find in the list the names
which correspond to them, thus J: ji|* Each Chinese character
contains a certain number of strokes, and these must be first
counted, thus J: ^^^ 3, and then on referring to the character
list of 3 strokes, its pronunciation "Shang'* may be easily found,
and so on for all the other ideographs. This method entails a
great deal of drudgery and loss of time, but the Chinese
language having no alphabet, it is the system generally adopted
throughout the Empire.
Many cities and towns have, besides their ordinary names,
literary and archaic appellations ; in this list, we shall give only
the ordinary names.
STLLABAftT OA EST.
587
containing the first character of Chinese towns
with their corresponding phonetic equivalents. The classification
is based on the number of strokes in each character.
II strokes
iE Chtog
«Ming
IttShuh
^ Kin
■t Kan
«Ngan
ItTih
]ft King
*,Kiu
^ K«iao
S Peh
«fK'o
A Pah
6 Peh
HSi
W Tsih
BKu
*Peh
JBSze
&\ Ts'in
J£ K'uen
III strokes
* P'i
1^ T'ung
fit W6n
fr Kwan
2f. P'ing
qt T'u
*Wu
«Kwo
)\\ OhVan
:6 Shih
^ Ts'uen
«Wu
* Lai
-f Hsia
fl Sien
9 Yin
a Wu
m Liang
= San
llj Shan
fl-Ta
ifcT'a
VU strokes
IfcYiu
S Yiu
tt Lin
ae M«ng
J: Shang
^Tai
JjC Yuen
«Min
* Ta
^ T'ai
# Oh'ih
HO (A)
-tYih
ft T'ing
;g Oh>«n
VIII strokes
«P'el
^ Yu
S T80
Jl«l Oh'6ng
K^Pi
*f Yiu
S Oh'«ng
K Ch'ang
^ Shao
lY strokes
* Yung
I^Fang
g Gh'ang
*&8hi
S Yuh
»P«n
4B Ohao
!$ Shuh
4* Ohung
*JePu
» Gh'Ang
MSiu
4 F6n
YI strokes
ftPuh
Sow
¥i Sung
{k Hwa
^Han
ttOhi
feTing
B Jeh
JA Oh'6ng
^ Hsiao
fl Chow
W Ts'ing
^ Kiai
flftCh'i
^ff Hsin
ift Chung
* Tung
^ Kung
1t Chuh
JUS Hsing
Jl Fang
liYAn
y^ Luh
ft Fuh
^ Hwan
JCPei
IS Yoh
ft Nel
^ Hoh
WI
^Feu
SYii
4iNiu
1^ Hsiang
IRKih
* Fung
m^Yii
(New)
# Hsing
«KM
«Fu
^ Yiien
BPa
^ Hsiu
ttK'i
tt; Hang
'fl- Shih
#1
^ Kiah
WHO
IZ strokes
*8hul
ft Jfin
ftlK'ia
Rf Hsu
*T»ai
«rJ"
m Kiun
^Hu
JBObao
#^Tan
fcJu
SHLi
:t6Hwa
IBOh«
5R T'len
^K'ao
ft Liang
^ Hwo
JK Ch6ng
# TBing
«Klh
ffMien
«I
lie Oh«ng
Id T»un
iL Kiang
iiNa
«I
M Oh'*ng
3SCW«n
*Kiao
«Peh
*Ju
H Oh'ung
flFan
5 Wu
3|S K'iung
»P'ei
^Jui
*Yiu
di) K'uh
JW wpg
^K'i
»Fung
5c Yuen
* Kwang
2^ Sha
IK K'i
ftHeu
*Lei
{111 Shan
liKih
R^ Hoh
Y strokes
*Mi
{t Shen
SK«iu
^Hoh
588
STLLABART OR EST.
# Hsiang
BlE Hsiah
m Hsiah
9 Chang
!fy Suh
iSKwoh
ji Hsien
4t Chang
ftliT'an
iLan
ik Hung
^ Hwang
•$ Ch'ang
M Gh'ao
^ T'ang
ftKien
HH Kao
MF Taiang
ft Lung
l^ K'ien
*Kao
m Ch'6n
Ii Tsing
iS Mei
gKu
*|King
Ik Ch'6n
« Ts'ing
illMei
S^Kung
S King
Oc Choh
tK Ts'ung
llNing
^ Kwan
*K'u
jlCh'u
a T'ung
1^ P'tog
*P^'"
J* Kung
JK Ch'ung
ttTze
tSTze
# P*ing
ft Loh
^iKwei
Hf Feu
11 Poh
gMei
m Lang
llFHsu
a Wang
#P'u
# Shan
SMeu
JiB Lang
« Hwai
#Wei
m Nan
HI Li
»!
l&Wu
ft Shan
gPai
MLien
a K'ang
^ Yai
IBShao
ffiPao
ULing
tK K«i
ft Y«n
«Yih
i»8ha
Sp«>i
3 Liu
fi; K'ien
»8hu
i(f$)Shan
B Ping
UMa
SKii
AYu
ff Shi
#Ming
a K'uen
iKung
#Yu
Jll Shun
JlShi
nNei
ft Stang
^ Sin
JRNgen
|$Kwoh
Xn strokes
M Siang
a Sing
ttNgo
^Lai
9 S&n
m Siu
$ Poh
S Leu
IS Chao
ft T'ang
S I'^ng
§ Sii
0t Sang
31 Li
8S Chao
g Siien
HtShfe
m Liang
M Cb'ao
ft Tsao
f Ts'ao
ifil Suen
{$ Sheh
i« Liang
« Pel (P'O
» T<ao
I4f Shen
VPLiao
m Heh
ft Tsin
jiTih
1^ Shen
RLing
«Ho
ftTu
gp Tsih
fli Shi
tt Lioh
iLuh
]f Hsiang
UtTun
^ Ts'uen
^ Shoh
M Hsiung
Ihu
ft Tse
It Wei
»Su
«Luh
ft1'2«
SWan
flftWei
$ T'ai
JdcMa
H Hwa
#Yang
jH T'ang
UMien
jl Hwang
IB Wei
^Yao
jftT'ao
^ Mih
KHwei
■ Wei
^Yfin
9 Tsin
i^Ngo
M Hwun
ft W«n
« Ying
H Ts'in
ft Pih
HK'ai
«Wu
« Yii
« T'ung
^ P'i
Pt Kiai
ftWu
ig Yiien
«Wung
m P'ien
H Shang
H Kiang
II Ya
jig Y6n
H Kieh
ft Yang
Z strokes
^ Yih
jgH Shen
A Kieh
ft Yang
JR Yiien
acOa)Shun
«CK'in
K Y«n
^Ch'a
It Yuen
JUfSih
JRKing
ftYfin
j^Chi
«Yung
)B^ Siang
^Ko
ft Yiieh
^ Feu
M Sin
ll&Ko
ft Yun
»Hai
XI strokes
$So
IK'ii
SPpYiin
j Hsia
«8ii
*Kwei
8TLLABABY OR KBT.
589
XIU strokes
HYeh
«Tze
«T8ih
H Chung
(Sheh)
jgTz'e
fg Ts'ien
Ht Pan
15 Cheu
«Yii
BS W«n
It T'ung
g| Hsia
m Ch'oh
|r Yii
HWu
#Wei
JS Hwan
% Ch'u
IS Yii
llYin
M Wei
m Hwei
i^Oh'u
m Yuen
®Yin
JSJYfin
91 Hwoh
« Pu
^ Yuen
^ Yiien
«|Yoh
Hi Ki
m H8i«i
H Yung
BSLin
UK Hsiang
ZIY strokes
^ Yung
XVI strokes
iiMi
JtHwah
jBIPoh
•t Hwei
1^ Chang
XV strokes
^ Chan
HSih
«I
{j|^ Chang
IKChu
m Siang
4t Jui
jfiChao
9k Chao
IK Chan
|&H6ng
W ^''*<>
*Ka.i
tfl Chao
iC Hsih
« Siun
l[Kiai
aiJPu
S Ch«n
$ Ch«ng
II Hsing
m Tsi
gKien
JH Fuh
«f Hung
ilt Tsih
|& K'ien
SLFung
it Ch'fing
ll Hwoh
«|Wei
ffiKu
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f&L Ch6ng
JiKi
JlYih
tC Kw'an
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!^ KMen
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# Kwei
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ft Kin
» Ying
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m Hui
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WLu
JtLlen
£Kien
JUKiao
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XVIII
^ Ling
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strokes
ffLu
SLih
m K'ing
ffi Ming
IS Ma
i|Loh
W Luh
H K'ioh
JKung
S Pih
«Ch6n
WNing
9 P'ing
S Pung
9k Nung
ill Man
M Kwang
KSui
7$ I
# P'an
M M6ng
BH Min
f^ Lang
^ Tseh
^ Kao
M Sheh
IS Li
Si Ts'ien
• Ki
(Yeh)
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JS Ts'ien
ff Kien
Ml 8h6ng
V l»'o
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ttTsih
19 Kwei
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m Tain
£ Lan
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ffi Shao
m Lun
Wf Tsing
II Li
liSui
% Sheu
Id Mien
^ Tsun
M Liu
»8ui
(Show)
RNgeu
IS Tuh
aisah
HSui
ISSih
fPao
^W6n
Jl fihwang
JH Sung
iftSii
Ji P'6ng
il Wu
is Yih
J&T'ah
STah
i|i Shan
XIX strokes
§Tang
Si T'ang
;#8un
IfeYii
STao
UTieh
a Tan
KYung
JS Hwai
% Tien
Hf Ts'ang
aiTch
Wi K'iung
it Ts'ang
#Ts'i
f$ T'6ng
XVll strokes
KLi
m Tsing
ild Tsing
mi T'6ng
«Lo
ff Tze
m T'ung
41 Tsdng
^Cheu
JlLii
590
STLLABAar <M K>T.
■ Lung:
XSu
flP*
m Lwan
XXVI strokes
■ T'6ng
m T'ftng
m T««ng
1 T'ieh
■ Y«n
9 Tean
«Y«>
CK'ii
a! Lwan
il Y6n
XXIV strokes
XX strokes
XZI strokes
XXII strokes
ff Kan
xxm
lit Hsien
mu
9 Ling
strokes
l«Hoh
H Jao
JLXUl
XXV strokes
xxvin
8 Ling
«Ki
strokes
strokes
ILu
JiKwan
KKwan
«Pao
«Lan
• Lin
IT Yiih
Alphabetical List
of
the Cities, Towns and open Ports
of China (*).
INDICATIONS.
P.
— Fu ti or Prtfeehire.
0.
0.
— Chow )H „ (dependent)
T.
— T*ing ■ (independent).
t.
— Ting ■ (dependent).
h.
— Hsien M or DitMei.
oh.
— Ghdn ft Market town.
h8.
^ nuBngm yiOage.
t8.
-Tring ^BHneweU.
Namk, Boxanibxd.
Nave, Chinsbe.
PROVINCB.
Subordinate to.
Aksu Bee WAn-
A
»uh P.
M.
1
Sinkiang
Ami {Bee Omi c).
m
Yunnan
Linngan
F.
Amoy (Bee Hsia-
mto).
m
n
Fokien
Ts'iienchow
F.
Antung(see Ngan-
tuiig).
«
M
Sh^ngking
Funghwang
T.
(*) This list is made out prinoipally from the " fliWFgi ■ —i f ■! »ed lli<k " or
TnruhSn Luh )f|$ JUi April, 1907, and also from the Tatting Hweitien (collected
Inttitatet of the Tat8*ing or present reigning dynasty), approved by the Bmperor
592
GITIB8, TOWNS AMD OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.
Namk, R0MANI8ED.
Name, Chinehe.
Province.
SUROIIDINATE TO.
Canton (see
c
KwangchowF.)
m
m
Kwangtung
Ch*aling
c.
ei
Hunan
Cli^angsha
P.
Chanhwa
h.
fS
ft
Shantung
Wuting
P.
Chanpeh
h.
m
fa
Kansu
Sining
P.
Ghanyih
c.
fS
s
Yunnan
K'uhtsing
P.
Changyih
h.
w
m
Kansu
Kanchow
P.
Changchow
F.
»
m
Fokien
Changkla-k*owT.
mma
Chihli
(Kalgan).
Changk*iu
h.
m
SB
Shantung
Tsinan
P.
Changming
h.
1
m
Szechw^an
Lungngan
P.
Changp'ing
h.
^
Fokien
Lungy^n
C.
Changp*u
h.
»
m
Fokien
Ghangchow
P.
Changteh
F.
f^
m
Honan
Changwu
h.
f^
«
Sh^ngking
Sinmin
P.
Ch'angchow
F.
%
m
Kiangsu
Ch'angchow
h.
^
m
Kiangsu
Soochow
P.
Gh'angchi
h.
^
m
Shansi
Lungan
P.
Ch'angch'un
F.
%
m
Kirin
Ch'anghsing
h.
m
Ch^kiang .
Huchow
P.
Oh*anghwa
h.
g
ft
Ch^kiang
Hangchow
P.
Ch'anghwa
h.
s
ft
Kwangtung
Yai
0.
Ch'angkih
h.
g
$
Sinkiang
Tih-hwa
P.
Ch'angkoh
h.
«
M
Honan
Hsu
C.
Oh*angli
h.
s
^
Chihli
YungpMng
P.
Oh'angloh
h.
m
m
Shantung
Ts*ingchow
P.
Ch'angloh
h.
^
m
Kwangtung
Kiaying
C.
Ch*angloh
h.
^
m
Fokien
Foochow
P.
Ch^angloh
h.
^
m
Hupeh
Ich^ang
P.
Ch'angngan
h.
^
*
Shensi
Singan
P.
Ch'angning
h.
t
m
Hunan
Hangchow
P.
Ch'angning
h.
%
m
Kiangsi
Kanchow
P.
Ch'angning
h.
m
Szechw*an
Siichow
P.
Ch*angning
h.
s
m
Kwangtung
Hweichow
P.
Ch'angp*ing
c.
g
¥
Chihli
Shunt^ien
F.
Ch'angsha
F.
^
nf
Hunan
Oh'angsha
h.
*.
ip
Hunan
Ch^angsha
P.
Ch'angshan
h.
%
lU
Ch^kiang
K'iichow
P.
Gh^angshan
h.
s
lU
Shantung
Tsinan
F.
Gh^angsheu
h.
ft
»
Szechw'an
Gh'ungk'ing
P.
CITIB8, TOWNS AND OPBN POHTS OF CHINA.
593
NaHZi KOMAiflgXI?.
MaMK, ClttSfEBE.
PfiOVtKCE.
SUBOBDINATE TO.
Gh'angsheu
h.
^
#
Kirin
Kirin
F.
Ch*angshuh
h.
n
it
Kiangsu
Soochow
F.
Ch*angt*ai
h-;
g
m
Fokien
Change how
P.
Ch'angteh
F,
n
m
Hunan
Oh'angt'ing
h.
&
n
Fokien
T*ingchow
P.
Ch'angtB^ing
h.
^
m
Shantung
Teinan
P.
Ch*angt*a
P,
m
m
Shengking
Oh'anglze
h.
g
^
Shanaj
Lungan
f»a
Ch^angwu
h.
M
^
8hensi
Pin
0.
Ch'aBgyang
h.
u
m
Hupeh
Ich'ang
P.
Ch'angyih
h.
g
g,
Shantung
Laichow
F.
Ch*angyueii
h.
&
M
Ghihll
Taming
F.
Chao
0.
m
Ghihli
Chap
c.
Yiinnan
Tali
F,
Chaoch'^ng
h.
m
m
Shan si
Hwoh
0,
Chaoch'^ng
h.
m
m
Shantung
Ts'aochow
P.
Chaohwa
h.
m
ft
Szechw'an
Paoning
F.
Ghaok'ing
F.
m
»
Kwangtung
Chaongan
h.
m
«
Fokien
Changchow
P.
ChaopSng
h.
m
*
Kwangsi
P^ngloh
F.
Chaot'ung
F.
m
m
Yunnan
ChaowSn
h.
m
%
Kiangsu
Soochow
P.
Chaoyih
h.
m
g
8hensi
T'ungchow
F.
Ghaoyiien
h.
«
it
Shantung
Tfingohow
P,
Ch'ao
h.
M
Nganhwei
Liichow
F.
Ch^'aochow
F,
m
n
Kwangtung
Ch*aoyang
h.
m
^
Kwangtung
Gh*aochow
F.
Ch'aoyaDg
F.
m
m
Ghihli
' Chefoo (Ghifu)
2
^
Shantung
T^ngchow
P.
Chfich*fing
h.
m
M
Honan
Kwejteh
PJ
Chdnfan
h.
m
»
Kansu
Liangchow
F*
Ghdnhai
h.
m
m
Gh^kiang
Ni ngpo
P.
Ch^nhfliung
c.
m
m
Yunnan
Ghaot'ung
P.
ChSnkiang
F.
m
iL
Kiangsu
Gh^nnan
c*
m
iS
Yunnan
Gh'uhsiung
P.
Gh^nngan
F,
m
«
Kwangsi
GhSnngan
h.
m
«
ShenBi
Shang
C.
Ch6nngan
h.
m
«
Sh^ngking
Sinming
F.
Chinning
c.
m
It
Kwejchow
Nganshun
P.
Gh^npien
h.
m
m
Kwangsi
Kweishun
0.
Chdnpienfu-j
T.
ift^ftft
Yiinnan
Cheiijj'ing
h.
Aft
^
Hoiiau
Niitiyang
F.
Gh^np'ing
h.
m
*
Kwangtung
Kiaying
G.
• Treaty Poi-ts and Open Marts und.-rlined.
38
594
CITIBS, TOWNS AMD OPEN POBT8 OF GHIIU.
Name, Roman isei
i.
Nave, Chinese.
PBo\-nccE.
SUBOBDINATE TO.
Gh«nsi(Barkul)T.
m,
B
Sinkiang
Oh^ntseh
h.
m
m
Kiangsu
Soochow
P.
Ch6nyang
h.
^
#
Kiangsu
T^aits'ang
0.
Ch6nyuen
h.
m
s.
Kansu
King
c.
Oh^nyiien
P.
m
^
Kweichow
Oh^nyiien
h.
u,
m
Kweichow
Ch^nyiien
F.
(^Jh^nyiien
T.
«
1K
Yunnan
Ch'ta
C.
m
Hunan
Ch*6nchow
P.
w
n
Honan
Ch*6nchow
P.
m
m
Hunan
Oh'6nk*i
h.
M
«g=
Hunan
Oh*«nobow
F.
Oh'^nk'i
h.
I
^
Kwangsi
Wuchow
F.
Ch'6nliu
h.
19
Honan
K'aifung
F.
Chtag
C.
%
Honan
Ch^ngfung
c.
A
S
Kweichow
Hsing-i
P.
Ch6nghwo
h.
«
*
Fokien
Kienning
P.
Ch^ngngan
c.
JE
«
Kweichow
TsunI
F.
Ohfingning
h.
JE
m
Kansu
K'ingyang
P.
Ch^ngting
F.
JE
&
Chihli
Ch6ngting
h.
iE
%
Chihli
ChftngUng
F.
GhSngyant?
h.
iE
li
Honan
Juning
P.
Ch'fing
h.
J^
Kansu
Kiai
C.
Ch*6ngch'6ng
h.
S
«£
Shensi
T'ungchow
P.
Ch'6nghai
h.
1
%
Kwangtung
Ch'aocho'w
P.
Oh'6ngkiang
P.
m
fl:
Yunnan
Ch*engk'ow
t.
M
D
Szechw*an
Suiting
P.
Ch*6ngku
h.
M
(a
Shensi
Hanchung
P.
Ch*6ngkung
h.
S
K.
Yunnan
Yiinnan
P.
Gh'^ngmai
h.
m
%
Kwangtung
K'iungchow
P.
Ch^^ngngan
h.
A
$
Chihli
Kwangp'ing
F.
Ch-6ngpu
h.
M
^
Hunan
Paok'ing
P.
Oh'6ngteh
P.
*
^
Chihli
(Jehol)
Ch'6ngieh
h.
i
IS
Sh^ngking
FungtMen
F.
Ch'^nglu
P.
A
%
Szechw'an
Ch*6ngtu
h.
A
n
Szechw'an
Ch'6ngtu
P.
Ch*6ngwu
h.
ifH
jt
Shantung
Ts'aochow
F.
Cheu (Tseu)
h.
W
Shantung
Y^nohow
P.
Cheuchih
h.
IS
m
Shensi
Singan
P.
Gheup'ing
h.
m
^
Shantung
Tainan
F.
Cheuts'un (Ch
ow)
»
#
Shantung
Tsinan
P.
Chifu (Chefoo)
tt
%
Shantung
Tdngchow
P.
Chikiang
h.
i£
tt
Hunan
Yuenohow
P.
CimS, TOWNS AND OPSM POKTS OF CBIHA.
595
M^ME, KOMAMIHXI},
?Came^ Chikese.
Pboviwci.
SiTBOlVIlINAT* TO
Chikiang
h.
Hk
iL
Hupeh
Kingchow
F.
Chichow
F.
Hb
m
Nganhwei
Ch'ihch*6ng
h.
#
i&
Chihti
Siienhwa
F
Ch*ihfiin^
h.
#
m
Chihii
Ch'fingteh
F.
Ch*ihk4
T.
m
m
Kwangtung
Choh
c.
|9i
Chihii
Shunt'ien
F.
Ch*ohk*iang
h.
W
M
8inkiang
Y6nk'i
F.
Ghuch'^Dg
h.
U
M
Shantung
Ts'ingchow
F.
Chuki
h.
m
ft
Oh^kiang
Shaohsing
F.
Chuhk*i
h.
n
m
Hupeh
Yiienyang
F.
Chuhshan
h.
w
lU
Hupeh
Yiienyang
F.
Ch*u
C.
«c
Nganhwei
Ch'uchow
F.
^
m
Oh^kiang
Ch'uhslung
F.
m
f
Yunnan
Ch*uhBiung
b.
m
^
Yunnan
Ch'uhaiung
F.
Chang
C.
A
Szechw'an
Chung
c.
^
Kwangsi
Nanning
F.
Chungkiang
h.
^
tt
8zechw*an
T'uDgchw'an
F.
ChuDgmeu
h.
>¥
*
Honan
K'aifung
F.
Chungpu
h.
+
S
Bhcnsi
Fu
C.
Ctiungiiang
h.
m
m
Hupeh
Ngantuh
F.
Chungwei
h.
4"
^
Kansu
Ninghsia
F.
Cb'iing'i
h.
377
Hk
Kiangsi
Nanngan
F.
Ch'ungjfin
h.
^
t
KiangBi
Fuchow
F.
Ch'ungk'ing
F;
ft
m
Szechw'an
Sz<^chw^aii
Oh'fingtu
P.
Ch^ungk'jng
Gh'ungmtng
b.
m
i«
Kiangsu
T'aits'ang
C.
Ch*ungngan
b.
m
*
Fokien
Kienning
P
Ch*«ngning
h.
m.
«
8zechw*an
Ch'fingtu
F.
Ch'tingihan
h.
i
»
Kwangsi
T'aip'ing
P.
Gh*ungsln
h.
It
Kansu
King
0.
Ch'ungyafig
h.
m
Hupeh
.Wuch'ang
P.
Chw'aEsha
%.
;ii
»
Kiangsu
Sh^ngking
Sungkiang
F.
Fak*umfin
mm^
fan
h.
m
Shantung
Ts'aochow
P.
Fanch'ang
h.
s
1
Nganhwei
T'aip'ing
P.
Fanehi
h.
ii#
Shansj
Tai
0.
Fang
h.
m
Hupeh
Yuenyang
P,
Fangch'dng
b.
m
»
Kwangtung
K'in
0.
Fangshan
b.
M
OJ
Chihii
Shunt*ien
p.
596
CITIB8, vovna and opbn pobts or cimu.
Name, Romaniszo.
Name, Ghimesis.
PnoviNcs.
SUBOBDIMATS TO. 1
Feioh'^ng
h.
C
s
Shantung
T^aingmn
P.
Feihsiang
h.
JE
Ghihli
Kwangp'ing
P.
FAnchow
F.
»
M
Shansi
P6n-i
h.
»
£
Kiangsi
Yiienchow
P.
F^nshui
h.
»
4c
Gh^kiang
Y6nchow
F.
F^nsi
h.
»
V
Shansi
P'inyang
P.
F6nyang
h.
»
H
Shansi
F6nchow
P.
Feu
c.
n
Szechw*an
Gh'ungk'ing
P.
Feuch*6ng
h.
n
Ghihli
Hokien
P.
Feuk^ang
h.
m
Sinkiang
Tih-hwa
P.
Feuliang
h.
ffL
m
Kiangsi
Jaoohow
P.
Feuning
h.
*
n
Kiangsu
Hwaingan
P.
Feup'ing
h.
J|
t
Ghihli
Ch^agt'ing
F.
Feushan
h.
ff
Shansi
P'ingyang
F.
Feusin
h.
1
m
Ghihli
Gh'aoyang
P.
Feuyang
h.
m
Nganhwei
Yingchow
P.
Feuyiien
h.
^
tt
Sinkiang
Tih-hwa
P.
Foochow
F.
IB
m
Fokien
(Fuhchow)
Fa
C.
«S
Shensi
Fuchow
P.
m
m
Kiangsi
Fuchw'an
h.
t
ill
Kwangsi
P*ingloh
P.
Fufung
h.
^
A
Shensi
Fungsiang
P.
Fukeu
h.
m
Honan
Gh'tochow
P.
Fukuh
h.
s
^
Shensi
Yulin
P.
Fumin
h.
R
Yunnan
Yiinnan
F.
Funing
h.
m
n
Ghihli
Yungp'ing
F.
Fup*ing
h.
t
¥
Shensi
Singan
F.
Fushi
h.
f
m
Shensi
Y^nngan
F.
Fushun
h.
t
m
Szechw'an
Siichow
F.
Fuyang
h.
t
%
Ch^kiang
Hangchow
F.
Fuh
c.
m
Sh^ngking
Fungt4en
P.
Fuhchow
F.
m
M
Fokien
(Foochow)
Fuhkang
T.
ft
m
Kwangtung
Fuhk'iang
h.
ft
%
Kansu
Kungch'ang
P.
Fuhngan
h.
m
«
Fokien
Fuhning
P.
Fuhning
F.
m
%
Fokien
FuhpMng
t.
ft
^
Shensi
Hanchung
F.
Fuhshan
h.
«a
lU
Shantung
TAngchow
P.
Fuhshan
ch.
ftiUHt
Kwangtung
(Fatshan)
Fuhting
h.
IB
m
Fokien
Fuhning
P.
CITIIS, TOWm AMD OPBM PORTS OW CBIMA.
597
Nakb, BoxAinsBj).
Namb, Chimebi.
Province.
Subordinate to.
Fuhts'ing
h.
jil
m
Fokien
Poochow
F.
Fung (P6ng)
h.
m
Shensi
Hanchung
F.
Fung
h.
m
Kiangsu
Suchow
F.
Fungch'^ng
h.
9
iA
Kiangsi
Nanch'ang
F.
FuDgchw'an
h.
•«
}\\
Kwangtung
Ghaok'ing
F.
Funghsien
h.
*
If
Kiangsu
Sungkiang
F.
Funghwa
h.
m
it
Sh^ngking
Gh*angt'u
F.
Funghwa
h.
m
ft
Gh^kiang
Ningpo
F.
Funghwang
T.
M.
m
Hunan
Funghwang
T.
m
m
Sh^ngking
Fung-i
c.
m
m
Kwangsi
Gh^nngan
F.
Fungjun
h.
9
m
Ghihli
Ts'unhwa
G.
Fungk'iu
h.
M
B
Honan
Weihui
F.
Fungning
h.
9
m
Ghihli
Gh^ngteh
F.
Fungshun
h.
9
m
Kwangtung
Ch'aochow
F.
FungBiang
P.
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m
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li
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41
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crriBS, TOWNS and opbn pohtb or china..
605
NaXS, BoXAlnRBD.
Namx, Crinisb.
Pbovihcb.
SUBOBDINATE TO.
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h.
m
m
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Kiangsu
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Capital of the
two Kiangs.
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h.
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41:
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606
CITIBS, TOWNS AMD OPEN PORTS Of CHINA.
Namk, Bomaniheo.
Namk, Chinkse.
Province.
Subordinate to.
Kiench'ang
h.
m
g
Kiangsi
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h.
m
g
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ciriBB, vowm and opbm pobtb or china.
607
Name, Romanised.
Name, Chinebe.
Province.
Subordinate to.
Kingman
0.
« P^
Hupeh
Kingning
h.
^ Hf
Gh^kiang
Gh'uchow
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h.
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ch.
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Western Tibet
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CITIES, TOWNS AND OPBN PORTS Of CHINA.
NilHK, RuJtANItiKD.
NuiE.C
nvHhm.
THOVlNtK.
SttAUimiXAtK TO.
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h.
&
m
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CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN POUTS OK CHINA.
609
Naxe, Romanised.
Name, Chinese.
Province.
Subordinate to.
Kwangsi
C.
m
w
Yiinnan
Kwangsin
P.
m
m
Kiangsi
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C.
m
«
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it
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610
CITIB8, TOWNS AND OPEN POin« Ot CHINA.
Name, Romanised.
Name, Chinese.
Province.
Subordinate to.
Lan-i
h.
m
m
Hon an
K'aifung
F,
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h.
m
m
Ch^Skiang
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h.
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Shantung
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h.
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lU
Hunan
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LansI
h.
m
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m
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n
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#
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Hupeh
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Lappa (Kungpeh)
m
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F.
n
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m
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CITIBS, TOWNS AMB OTSN P0BT8 Ot CHINA.
6H
Nabee, Romaniked.
Nake, Chinese.
Province.
Subordinate to.
Liench'Sng
h.
m
«
Pokien
T'ingchow
F.
Lienchow
P.
m
m
Kwangtung
Lienhwa
t.
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612
CITIB8, T0WM8 AND OPEN P0HT8 Ot CHINA.
Name, Romas ihki>.
XAME.CmNESK.
PROVINCE*
SUDi^RDINATF, TO.
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m
*
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CITIB8, rOWm AMD OPEN POSTS OP CHINA.
613
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Namk, Chinese.
Pbovince.
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CltlBS, tOWNB AND OPEN l>0Rt8 Of CHIllA.
Name, Roxanihed.
Namk, Chikebe.
Province.
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CitiBS, ro^tniB AMD ontN MMrts or cttiMA.
«1&
N4M£, HOMAmSKlS.
Name, Chinei^k.
PROVINCE*
SUBOKDINATI; TO.
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m
g
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eiTIBS, TOWNS AMD OntN POMB 09 CHINA.
Name, Romanihed.
Same.C
IIINEKE
Province.
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«
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cinn, Towm amd opim posts or camk.
617
NA^ri!:, Eo^dANiHKii,
NAMS^CwiNJiSK.
Provincb.
SUBORDINATI: TO,
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c.
n
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KMngyang
P.
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c.'
n
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h.
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m
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c»
m
m
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n
ier
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w
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c.
n
m
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m
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' ffi
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^
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m
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#
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m
1 Chihii
Hokien
F,
Ningtu
C,
nr
n
Kiangsi
Ninguta
msm
Kirin
Ningwu
P.
m
St
Shansj
Ningwu
h.
%
St
Shansl
Ningwu
F.
Ningyang
h.
m
m
8hantung
Yd n chow
p
Ningyang
It.
1
^
Fokien
Lungydn
C.
Ningyuen
F.
iir
^
8zechw*an
Ningyiien
T.
1
it
Bhansi
Ningyuen
h.
1 ^
it
Hunan
Yungchow
F*
Ningyiien
h.
n
m
Kansu
Kungch*ang
P.
Ningyiien
h.
«
m
Sinkiang
Hi
P.
Ningyiien
c*
vr
m
ShSngking
Kinchow
F.
Niuchwang
^
W£.
Sh^ngking
(Newchwang)
Nungngan
h.
n
«
Kirin
•
Szechw'an
Ch*angch*un
P„
Omei (Ngomei) h.
m
m
Kiating
V.
Omi (Ami)
c.
FBI
m
Yiinnan
Linngan
P.
Opien (Ngopii
en] t.
IS
m
Szechw'an
Kiating
F.
618
CITIBS, TOWNS AMD OPBN PORTS OP CHINA.
Name, Romanised.
Name, Chinese.
PBO\nNCE.
Subordinate to.
Pa
h.
E
Szechw'an
Ch'ungkMng
F.
Pa
c.
Szechw'an
Paoning
F.
Pa
c.
Chihli
Shunt'ien
F.
Pach*u
c.
a
m
Sinkiang
Shuleh
F.
Paling
h.
B
m
Hunan
Yohchow
F.
Patung
h.
B
JR
Hupeh
Ich'ang
P.
Pay6n
c.
a
^
Hehlungkiang
Hulan
F.
Pahchai
t.
A
1^
Kweichow
Tuyiin
F.
Pakhoi (Pehhai)
*
^
Kwangtung
Leichow
F.
P*aich*6ng
h.
m
m
Sinkiang
W^nsuh
P.
Panshih
h.
m
5
Kirin
Kirin
F,
P*anyu
h.
»
Kwangtung
Kwangchow
F.
Paoch'^ng
h.
«
^
Shensi
Hanchung
F.
Paoch*i
h.
«
i&
Chihli
Shunt*ien
F.
Paofung
h.
t
m
Honan
Ju
0,
Paok*ang
h.
%
Hupeh
Yiienyang
F.
Paoki
h.
t
M
Shensi
Fungsiang
F.
Paok'ing
F.
*
m
Hunan
Paongan
h.
^
*
Shensi
Y^nngan
F.
Paongan
c.
ft
ft
Chihli
Siienhwa
F.
Paoning
h.
«
w
Yunnan
Kwangnan
F.
Paoning
F.
i«
nr
Szechw'an
Paoshan
h.
«
(II
Kiangsu
T*aits*ang
C.
Paoshan
h.
ft
iii
Yiinnan
Yungch'ang
F.
Paoting
F.
ft
«
Chihli
Paoting
h.
ft
%
Chihli
Shunt4en
F.
Paotsing
h.
ft
m
Hunan
Yungshun
P.
Paoying
h.
«
m
Kiangsu
Yangchow
F.
Peking (Pehking)
«
l¥.
Chihli
(Shunt^en
F.)
Pehhai (Pakhoi)
«
m
Kwangtung
Lienchow
P.
Pehho
h.
^
m
Shensi
Hsingngan
P.
Peh-hsiang
h.
m
m
Chihli
Chao
C.
Pehliu
h.
*
Kwangsi
Yuhlin
C.
Pehseh
T.
w
'fi
Kwangsi
Pehshui
h.
^
*
Shensi
T*ungchow
P.
Pehtaiho
^mm
Chihli
Pehtuna
musM
Kirin
Kirin
P.
(Sinch'^ng F.)
Pehy^n
ts.
6a#
Yiinnan
Ch'uhsiung
P.
Fei
h.
w
Kiangsu
Siichow
P.
GitlBS, TOWNS AND OPSN PORTS O^ CHtMA.
619
Nam^:^ EoUANmKU.
Name, Chinxie^e.
PKOVlNiK.
SL'BOia>lNATE Jii,
P^fing
h.
B
S^echw^an
Ch'ftngtu
p.
P6ng
c.
m
Szechw'an
ShunkMng
F.
P*^ngk*i
h.
s
%
Szechw^an
T*ungchw*an
F.
P^6nglai
h.
m
n
Shantung
T^ngchow
F.
P*6ngshan
h.
%
Ul
Szechw'an
Mei
C.
P^6ngshui
b.
n
*
Szechw*an
Yiuyang
0.
P^^DgtS€h
h.
m
m
Kianggi
Kiukiang
F.
Phari (Phagri-
Jong)
Ulterior Tibet
Piyang
h.
m
^
Honan
Nanyang
F.
Pjhslian
h.
m
lU
Szechw*an
Ch*ungk*ing
F.
Pihtsieh
h
m
u
Kwetchow
Tating
F.
P1 (P ci)
c.
m
Kiangsu
Siiohow
F.
P4 (Pi)
h.
m
Shantung
Ichow
F.
P4
h.
m
Sz€chw*an
Ch*^ngtu
F.
PMshan
h.
s
[II
Sinkiang
8och'&
F.
P'ienkwan
h.
i&
m
Shansi
Ningwu
F.
Pin
C.
n
Shensi
Pin
c.
m.
Kwangsi
Szengen
F.
Pin
C-
^
Shantung
Wuting
F.
Pinchow
T.
It
i^
Kirin
PinchWan
C-
IT
jii
Yiinnan
Tali
P»
PHngfan
h.
^
#
KanBu
Lfangchow
P.
P*inghsiaiig
h.
^¥
Hi
KiangBi
Yuenchow
F.
P^inghsiang
h.
^
«
Chihli
Shungteh
P.
P^inghu
h.
¥
n
Ch^kiang
Kiahsing
P.
P'inghwo
h.
¥
«r
Foklen
Changchow
F.
P^ing.i
h.
^
#
Yunnan
K^iihtsing
F.
P*ingkiang
K
2P
&
Hunan
Yohchow
F.
PMngkuh
h.
¥
«
Chihli
Shunt*ien
F.
P'ingli
h.
2P
m
Shensi
Hsingngan
F.
P'jngliang
F.
^
m
Kansu
P'ingliang
h.
^
m
Kansu
PMngliang
P.
P^inglo
h.
^-
m
Kansu
Ninghsia
F.
P*ingloh
F,
^
m
Kwangsi
PMngloh
h.
^
m
Kwangsi
P4ngloh
P.
PUnglu
h.
¥
«
3han8i
Shaop'ing
P.
PMngluh
h.
¥
1^
Shansi
Heiai
C.
P4ngnan
h.
m
$
Fokien
Foochow
F.
P^ingnan
h.
^
rfj
Kwangsi
Siinchow
P,
P*ingshan
h.
n
lU
Szechw^an
Siichow
P.
P'ingshan
h.
^
Ui
Chihli
Ch^^ngting
V.
P^ingsiang
c.
ff
m
Kwangsi
ShangBze
T.
620
CITIBS, TOWNS AMD OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.
Name, Romanised.
Name, Chinese.
Province.
SUBOBDINATE TO.
PMngting
C.
^
%
Shansi
P4ngts*uen
c.
2p
^
Chihii
Ch'^ngteh
P.
P*ingtu
c.
¥
at
Shantung
Laichow
P.
P'ingwu
h.
¥
«
Szechw'an
Lungngan
P.
P^ngyang
F.
^
Shansi
P4ngyang
h.
¥
1%
Ch^kiang
W^nchow
P.
P'ingyao
h.
¥
^
Shansi
P6nchow
P.
P*ingyin
h.
¥
m
Shantung
T'aingan
P.
PMngyueh
C.
^
m
Kweichow
PMngyiien
h.
¥
m
Shantung
Tsinan
P.
PMngyiien
h.
¥
^
Kansu
Kuyiien
0.
Pingyiien
h.
¥
jg
Kwangtung
Kiaying
C.
P^ingyiien
c.
ep
m.
Kweichow
Tating
P.
Poh
c.
^
Nganhwei
Yingchow
F.
Poh
c.
1^
Shantung
Ts'aochow
P.
Poh-hsing
h.
n
m
Shantung
Ts'ingchow
P.
Pohlo
h.
m
m
Kwangtung
Hweichow
P.
Pohpeh
h.
I
6
Kwangsi
Yiihlin
0.
Pohp'ing
h.
¥
Shantung
Tungch*ang
P.
Pohshan
h.
19
Oj
Shantung
Ts'ingchow
P,
Pohy6
h.
t«
»
Chihii
Paoting
P.
P*oyang
h.
n^
m
Kiangsi
Jaochow
P.
Pu
h.
^
Shansi
Sih
0.
P'uch*6ng
h.
m
^
Shensi
T*ungchow
p.
P'uch'^ng
h.
m
m
Fokien
Kienning
p.
P'uchow
P.
m
*H
Shansi
P^ueul
F.
#
?5
Yiinnan
P'uk4
h.
m
m
Hupeh
Wuch*ang
p.
P'ukiang
h.
m
iL
Szechw'an
K'iung
c.
P^ukiang
h.
m
iL
Ch^kiang
Kinhwa
p.
P*ungan
T.
^
*
Kweichow
P^ungan
h.
«
Kweichow
Hsing-i
p.
Pruning
h.
^
W
Kwangtung
Ch*aochow
p.
P^ut^ai
h.
^
^
Shantung
Wuting
p.
P*ut*icn
h.
m
m
Fokien
Hsinghwa
p.
Pouting
h.
#
%
Kweichow
Shansi
Nganshun
p.
Sahlahts'i
T.
mm
Sanho
h.
m
Chihii
ShuntWen
p.
Sanshui
h.
^
*
Shensi
Pin
c.
Sanshui
h.
z^
*
Kwangtung
Kwangchow
p.
(Samshui)
CITIBS, TOWNS AND OPBN PORTS Of CHINA.
621
Name, Romanised.
Name, Ciunese.
Province.
Subordinate T(
Sant'ai h.
—
m
Szechw*an
T*ungchw*an
F.
Santuao
Inm
Fokien
Fuhning
F.
(Santungao)
Sanyiicn h.
^^
m
Shcnsi
Singan
F.
Sangchih h.
^
m
Hunan
Yungshun
F.
Sha h.
fp
Fokien
Ydnp»ing
F.
Shaho h.
Hf
M
Chihli
Shunteh
F.
Shasi (Shashi)
tp
Iff
Hupch
Kingcliow
F.
Shaya h.
fp
m
Sinkiang
K*uch*6
C.
Shan h.
m
Shantung
Ts'aochow
F.
Shanhaikwan
III funs
Chihli
Shanhwa h.
#
$
Hunan
Ch*ansha
F.
Shanshan h.
Sinkiang
Y^nk^i
F.
Shantan h.
Oj
n
Kansu
Kanchow
F.
Shant'eu(8walow)
iili
m
Kwangtung
Shensi
Ch'aochow
Shang
F.
C.
Shanyang h.
Shanyang h.
111
m
Kiangsu
Hwaingan
F.
Shanyin h.
111
m
Shansi
Tat*ung
F.
Shanyin h.
lU
m
Ch6kiang
Shaohsing
F.
Shang C.
IS
Shensi
Shangch*6ng h.
IS
m
Honan
Kwang
' C.
Shanghai h.
±
m
Kiangsu
Sungkiang
F.
Shanghang h.
±
«i
Fokien
Ts*ingchow
F.
Shangho h.
m
m
Shantung
Wuting
F.
Shanghsiatung c.
±-fm
Kwangsi
Shangsze
T.
Shangjao h.
±
m
Kiangsi
Kwangsin
F.
Shangkao h.
±
«
Kiangsi
Shuichow
F.
Shangk'iu h.
IS
fi^
Honan
Kweiteh
F.
Shanglin h.
.h
*lc
Kwangsi
Szengen
F.
Shangnan h.
m
«
Shensi
Shang
0.
Shangshui h.
18!
*
Honan
Ch*6nchow
F.
Shangsze T.
±
Kwangsi
Shangts^ai h.
±
w
Honan
Juning
F.
Shangyiu h.
±
m
Kiangsi
Nanngan
F.
Shangyii h.
±
m
Ch^kiang
Shaohsing
F.
Shangyiien h.
±
7C
Kiangsu
Kiangning
F.
Shaochow F.
m
W
Kwangtung
Shaohsing F.
m
A
Ch6kiang
Shaowu F.
^
Fokien
Shaowu h.
fC
Fokien
Shaowu
F.
Shaoyang h.
T^
»
Hunan
Paok*ing
F.
Sheh h.
{$
Honan
Changteh
F.
Sheh h.
m
Honan
Sihchw*an
T.
622
CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.
Name, Komanihed.
Naice, Chinehe.
Province.
SUBOBOIMATE TO.
Shfihung
h.
»
m
Szechw^an
T^ungchw'an
P-
Shen
C.
m
Honan
Shen
0.
m
Chihli
Shench'i
h.
m
fH
Shansi
Ningwu
P.
Shenk'iu
h.
i*
j$
Honan
Ch'^nchow
P.
Shenmuh
h.
m
:^
Shensi
Yulin
P.
Shentseh
h.
m
m
Chihli
Ting
0.
Shdng
h.
m
Ch^kiang
Shaohsing
P.
Shea (Show)
c.
m
Nganhwei
Fungyang
P.
Sheuchang
h.
m
s
Shantung
Y^nchow
P.
Sheuch'ang
h.
m
g
Gh^kiang
Y^nchow
P.
Sheukwang
h.
m
5fc
Kwangtung
Ts'ingchow
P.
Sheuning
h.
#
n
Fokien
Fuhning
P.
Sheuyang
h.
«
m
Shensi
P'ingting
c.
Shihsing
h.
Jd
m
Shantung
Nanhsiung
0.
Shigatse
Ulterior Tibet
Shinan
F.
m
«
Hupeh
Shiping
h.
m
m
Kweichow
Ch^nyiien
p.
Ship'ing
h.
«
^
Shantung
Tungeh'ang
p.
Shitsung
h.
m
^
Yiinnan
Kwangsi
0.
Shihch'^ng
h.
^
m
Kiangsi
Ningtu
c.
Shihch'fing
h.
5
m
Kwangtung
Kaochow
p.
Shihchu
T.
s
tt
Szechw'an
Shihfang
h.
ff
u
Szechw*an
Ch*Angtu
p.
Shihkao
h.
«
«
Yunnan
Ch^uhsiung
p.
Shihieu
h.
IS
m
Shansi
F^nchow
p.
Shihmfin
h.
^
P!
Hunan
Li
c.
Shihmfin
h.
15
PI
Ch^kiang
Kiahsing
F.
Shihp'ing
c.
«
m
Yunnan
Linngan
P.
Shihp'u
t.
15
m
Ch6kiang
Ningpo
p.
Shihsheu
h.
^
#
Hupeh
Kingchow
P.
Shihtai
h.
^
J*
Nganhwei
Ch*ichow
P.
Shihts'ien
h.
S
n
Kweichow
Shihts'uen
h.
:s
M
Shensi
Hsingngan
P.
Shihts'uen
h.
^
M
Szechw'an
Lungngan
P.
Shoh
c.
m
Shansi
Shohp'ing
F.
Shohp'ing
P.
m
^
Shansi
Shuch'6ng
h.
1?
»
Nganhwei
Liichow
P.
Shufu(Ka8hgar)h.
m
It
Sinkiang
Shuleh
P.
Shuleh
F.
m
»
Sinkiang
Shuhluh
h.
^
m
Chihli
Paoting
P.
Shuhyang
h.
?*
li
Kiangsu
Hai
0.
Sboich'aDg
h.
m
a
Kiangsi
Kiukiang
F-
CITIBS, TOWNS AND OPBN PORTS OP CHINA.
623
Name, Romanised.
Name, Chinese.
Pbovince.
SUBOBDDJATE TO.
Shuich'6ng
t.
*
»
Kweichow
Tating
P.
Shuichow
P.
m
m
Kiangsi
Shuikin
h.
«
^
Kiangsi
Ningtu
G.
Shuingan
h.
m
n
Ch^kiang
W6nchow
F.
Shonch'ang
h.
m
3
Fokien
Y^np'ing
F.
Shunhwa
h.
It
Shensi
Pin
G.
Shun-i
h.
M
m
Ghihli
8hunt*ien
F.
Shunk'ing
P.
M
m
Szechw'an
Shunngan
h.
m
^
Gh^kiang
Y^nchow
F.
Shunning
P.
m
n
Yunnan
Shunning
h.
s
w
Yunnan
Shunning
F.
Shunteh
h.
m
Kwangtung
Kwangchow
F.
Shunteh
F.
m
m
Chihli
Shunt'ien
P.
m
35
Ghihli
(Peking)
Capital of China
Shwangch'«ng t.
n
M
Kirin
Kirin
F.
Shwangliu
h.
»
fk
Szechw'an
Gh*6ngtu
F.
Sich'ang
h.
w
s
Szechw^an
Ningyuen
F.
Sich'ung
h.
s
1
Szechw^an
Shunk'ing
F.
Sifung
h.
w
M
Sh^ngking
Hailung
F.
Sihsia
h.
m
m
Shantung
T^ngchow
F.
Sihsiang
h.
n
m
Shensi
Hanchung
F.
Sihwa
h.
w
m
Honan
Gh*6nchow
F.
Sihwo
h.
H
%
Kansu
Kungch*ang
F.
Silin
h.
H
#
Kwangsi
Szech*6ng
F.
Silung
c.
w
it
Kwangsi
Szech*6ng .
F.
Singan
P.
w
«
Shensi
Singan
h.
w
^
Gh^kiang
K'uchow
F.
Singan
h.
w
«
Sh^ngking
Hailung
F.
Sining
P.
w
w
Kansu
Sining
h.
w
ff
Kansu
Sining
F.
Sining
h.
w
nr
Kwangtung
Loting
G.
Sining
h.
w
ff
Ghihli
Suenhwa
F.
Sip'ing
h.
H
^
Honan
Juning
F.
Sih
h.
S
Honan
Kwang
C.
Sih
0.
m
Shansi
Sihchw'an
T.
m
jii
Honan
Sihngo
h.
m
m
Yunnan
Linngan
P.
Siang
c.
Kwangsi
Liuchow
F.
Siangch'^ng
h.
m
M
Honan
Hsii
G.
Siangfu
h.
n
«=
Honan
K*aifung
F.
Sianghsiang
h.
M
m
Hunan
Gh^angsha
F.
SiangUng
b.
m
»
Shansi
P*ingyang
F.
624
CITIBS, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.
Name, Komaniskd.
Name, Chinehe.
Province.
Subordinate to.
Siangshan
h.
m
m
Ch^kiang
Ningpo
F.
Siangt'an
h.
m
»
Hunan
Ch'angsha
F.
Siangyang
F.
m
m
Hupch
Siangyang
h.
M
m
Hupeh
Siangyang
F.
Siangyin
h.
ffg
^
Hunan
Ch*angsha
P,
Siangyiien
h.
IS
m.
Shansi
Lungan
F.
Siao
h.
m
Kiangsu
Siichow
F.
Siaoshan
h.
m
lij
Ch^kiang
Shaohsing*
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C.
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h.
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Tsining
C.
638
CITIBB, lOVnm AMD OPBM PORTS Of CBIMA.
1
Namk, Bohamibed.
Name, Chinese.
P»0>1NCE.
SUBORDDIATB TO.
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h.
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CITIB8, TOWNS AMD OPBN POATS OF CBIMA.
639
Name, Roiianibed.
Name, Chinese.
Province.
Subordinate to
F.
Yungch*6ng
h.
m
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h.
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C.
APPENDIX I.
Signification of the principal Chinese (Geographical Terms.
H- Cha, a palisade, a fence.
PI Chah, a flood-gate.
^ Ch'a, the tea-plant.
g^ Ch'a, a place where the road
forks.
SI Chat, a stockade for def-
( ence, a fortress, a pass.
fjl^ Chang, a freshet.
j^ Ch'ang, an area of level
ground.
^ Ch'ao, the tide.
lit Ch6n, a market-town.
E Ch'6n, a minister^ a court-
ier.
g Ch'in, a Chinese hour.
:|||t Ch'ing, a citadel, a walled
place.
JfH Cheu(Chovo), an islet, a con-
tinent.
^ C/ieti, a boat, a vessel.
fj^ C/ii, to govern, to rule.
^ Chi, a small islet.
Kb Ch'i, a pool, a pond.
/5 C/i'i7i, a Chinese foot (14
inches).
^ Chov^, a territorial division.
^ Chu, an islet.
tjr C/iu/i, the bamboo-plant.
^ Ch'u, a place, a spot.
rf> Chung, the middle.
cfi H C/iungi^wo/i, the Middle
Kingdom (China).
ff^ Chung, the end.
^ Chung, a mound, a tumulus.
j|| C/iw'an, a stream.
j|^ C/iw'an, a ship.
$ C/iw'an, to string together.
]|^ Chwang, a farmstead.
n Eul, two.
ife Fa/i, a law, a rule.
j^ H Fahkwoh, France.
$ Fan, aborigines, barbarians.
^ Fan, boundary, frontier.
I^X Fan,an embankment, a dyke.
ifi Fan, a field.
jljji Fan, a hillside^ a terrace.
•^ Fang, a hamlet, a ward.
^ Fang, a dyke.
^ Fangf, a house.
^ F^n, a part, a division.
^ F§n, a mom^d, a grave.
j^ Feu, a port, a mart.
J|l Feu, a mound.
}ff Fu, a prefecture.
1^ Fuh, a return flow.
JB, Fung, the wind.
0^ Fung, the summit.
f|( Hai, the sea.
^ //an, dry.
i^ Han, embankment.
If Hang, a store, a mercantile
establishment,
j^ Hao, city moat.
JR //e/i, black.
Jgp //eu, a ruler, a sovereign.
^ Ho, a river.
APPENDIX I.
641
'j: Hsia, below, underneath.
0 Hstangr^the country, a village.
f^ Hsien, a district (a territorial
division).
Hg Hsien, limit, boundary.
^ HsiXeh, a cave.
p Hu, a door, a houshold.
^ Hu, a lake.
^ Hu, a slope to the water
side.
^ Hu/i, a measure, half a picul.
1^ Hung, crosswise, athwart.
s|| Hwa, flowery, elegant.
1^ Hv;a, a flower, ornamented.
^ Hwang, a dry moat.
Jg Hwang, wild, barren.
^ Hwang, high, supreme, the
Emperor.
^ Hwan(;, yellow.
Jl Hwo^ goods, merchandise.
^ Hwoh, lofty.
1^ /, barbarian.
g Je/i ^Jih^, the sun, a day.
^ J^n, iEi man, the human race.
>U J€n, an office, a duty.
JH Jwan^ vacant space near a
city wall.
|g Kan, dry.
j^ Kan, a pit, a hole.
1^ Kang, a summit.
^ K'ang, the neck.
Jjj[ X'angf, a stove^bed.
]^ Kao, high.
j^ K'^ng, a ditch, a trench.
^ Xeu, a water-course.
p K'eu, the mouth.
^ Kt^ season, period.
ill Ki, shallows, an eddy.
jjl^ K% a banner.
1^^ KH, to diverge, a fork in a
road.
^ KH, a mountain streamlet.
JK Kta^ a family.
-^ Kta, a guard-house at a pass.
'^ Kiah, a mountain-pass.
^ Xtat, a street.
^ Kiai, a boundary.
JQ Kiang, a large river.
i|g Kiang, the frontier,
fg Kiang, a port.
Kiao, waste-land.
Ktao, a sedan-chair.
12 Ktao, ridge, watershed of a
high peak.
ij^ K'iao, a bridge,
jg Kieh, blue clay.
JBB Kien, a stream.
^ Kien, documents, official pa-
pers.
-^ Kin, metal, gold.
J^ Kin, a Chinese pound or
catty (l^lbs. avoirdupois).
j£ Kin, near.
j|^ King, classical works,
gjf King, the capital or metro-
polis,
jp King, the neck, an isthmus,
m Kto/i, a foot.
^ Kiu, nine.
^ K'iu, a hillock.
]^ K'lu, a tumulus.
1^ Ku/i, grain, cereals.
Jff^ K'u, the treasury, revenue,
jg K'u, a cave, a hut.
j^ Ku, an embankment.
^ K'lih, crooked, tortuous,
^g KiXen, a brook,
g- Kiln, a prince, a sovereign.
^ Kiln, a principality, a pre-
fecture.
j^ Kung, work, skill.
;^ Kung, a duke, a term of res-
pect,
g Kung, a mansion, a palace,
jjp K'uen, the earth.
g% Kwa, divining marks.
^ Kwan, an official.
|g Kwan, a custom-house,
fg Kwan, an Inn.
^ Kwan, a crest, a summit.
^ Kwan, large.
Jl Kwangf, broad.
^ K'wangr, vacant, waste.
jj^ Kwei, ihc cassia-tree.
41
642
APPENDIX I.
g Kwoh, a kingdom.
ijfH Lan, a railing.
Jft LsLug, a wave.
^ L&o, great rain, a stream.
^ Let^ a rampart.
J[ Li, a Chinese mile (1,800 ft.
or J of an Eng. mile).
^ Li^ a deputy-officer.
^ Li, the nephelium-tree (its
fruit is the lichi).
J^ Liang, to measure.
jH Liang, grain, provisions.
H^ Lian{7, a foot-bridge.
f^ Liang, two.
5II Lien, the lotus, the Water-lily
^9|c Lin, a forest.
^ Lin^, a fraction.
1^ Ling, imperial mausolea.
1^ Ling, ice.
^ Ltngr^ a pass on a mountain-
ridge.
jhP^ Liu, water flowing.
^ Liu, a fountain.
^ Liu, lapis-lazuli.
dju Lu, the water-rush.
ig^ Lu, a road, a circuit (a territ-
orial division).
M Lu, a stove, a fireplace.
J- Lu/i, six.
^ Lung, a dragon.
1^ Lung, a dyke.
^ Lunj;, a mound.
^ Mai, to buy.
0 Afai, to sell.
H^ Man, barbarous, fierce.
^ Mao, hair, pelage.
^ Mao, high grass, thatch.
;^ Mei, a prune,
pq Men, a gate, an outer door.
'^ Meu (Mow), a Chinese land
measure (6 equal to an
English acre).
^ Mi, hulled rice,
"jgf Miao, sprouts.
J^ Miao, a pagoda.
^ Mien, soft, cottony, floss.
ig Mien, the face, the surface.
J5 ^in, the people.
^ Mingf, a name.
^ Mo, a sandy plain.
'f^ Mu, a mother.
TJC Muh, wood, timber.
^ Nan, the south.
^ Nei, within, inside.
J^ Ngan, the shore, the beach.
^ Ngan, a monastery.
jll Ngao^ a high shore.
ffj^ Ni, mud, slush.
^ Nien, a year.
4^ Niu, a cow, an ox.
^ iVil, a woman.
jII Nung, to cultivate the soil.
]fg Pa, an embankment.
/\ Pah, eight.
jJI P'ai, a tablet.
^ Pan, half, to divide.
^ Pan, to revolt, to rebel.
^ Pang, a country, a region.
^ P'angJheslde,bythe8ideof.
^ Pao, a fortified outpost, a
ward.
1^ Peh, white.
•gf Peh, a hundred.
;^ Peh, the cypress-tree.
4t Pc/i, the north.
^ Pei, a pillar, a grave-stone.
^ Pei, a cowrie shell.
^ Pei, a generation.
1^* Pei, an embankment, a dam.
^ P§n, the root, the origin.
^ Pih, a Chinese writing-brush.
^ P'iao, a ticket, a bank-bill.
JSH Pieh, to separate.
^ Pien, border, side.
iS P'in, rank, order.
^ Ping, a soldier.
f7)c Pingf, ice.
2p P'ing, level, equable.
j^ P'ing, a flat, level plain.
^ Po, a wave.
^ P'o, a slope, a declivity.
% Pu, cotton-cloth.
^ Pu, a step, a pace (62 \
inches Eng).
APPENDIX I.
643
1$
m
i
111
W
m
m
m
It
ft
SI
A
Pu, a port, a mart.
Pu, to divine.
P'u, the bank of a river.
P^u, the cat-tail rush.
P'u, vast, extensive.
P'u, a shop.
San, three.
Sang, the mulberry-tree.
Sha, sand.
Shan^ a mountain.
SMng, a province.
S/ii/i, a picul (1 33 ^ lbs avoir-
Si, the west. [dupois).
Siao, small.
SU, a little.
Sien, first, before.
Sin, the heart.
Sin, new, fresh.
Sin, a guard-house.
Sing, a clan or family name.
Siu, a cavernous cliff, a
ravine.
Six, an islet.
Su, a place, a spot.
Suh, a halting place.
Sile/i, snow.
Sil?i, to examine, to patrol.
SiXen, a whirlwind.
Sut, a year of one's age.
Sung, to dwell.
Sung, the pine-tree.
Sze a township.
TsL, great.
T'ah, a pagoda tower.
Tai, a generation.
T'ai, excessive.
T'ai, a terrace, an altar.
Tan, a load of 2 piculs.
T'an, a sandbank.
T'an, a high terrace for
worship.
T'an, a plain.
T'an, a deep pool in a river.
T'an, charcoal, embers.
T^ang, a hall, a church.
T'ang, a dyke, a reservoir.
Tao, an island out at sea.
^ Tao, a way, a road, a circuit
(territorial division).
jg T'ao, a torrent.
^ T'ao, bend of a river.
^ Tseh, a marsh, a pool.
ij* Teu, a bushel, the tenth of a
shih or picul.
^ T'eu, the head.
Jg Ti, the base, the foot of.
^ Ti, a sovereign.
^ Ti, the earth.
J^ TiTi, Northern barbarians.
In T'ieh, iron.
^ Tien, a shop, an inn.
fg Tien, to till the ground.
Jg Tien, a palace.
5f T'ien, the sky, heaven.
0 T'len, a field.
IJ ring^ a piece of waste-land.
"J* Tingf, a nail, a full-grown
person.
Ig Ting, a peak, a summit.
jjl T'ing, a court, a territorial
division.
j^ To, a crenelated battlement.
^ Ta'ang, a government gran-
ary.
if 78 'ao, a canal.
ff ^ rs'ao-mi, tribute rice.
^ Ts'ao, herbs, plants.
42 Ts^ih, seven.
■=f' rs'ien, a thousand.
fjf Ts'ien, before.
^ TsHen, a copper, a cash.
^ Tfi'ten, a ford.
^ Tsin, a ford, a ferry.
^ Tsing, a well, a deep pit.
^ Ts'ing, dark-green, azure.
i^ Ts'iu, the autumn.
^ Tso, the left hand.
2$& Tsu/i, lictors, soldiers.
]g| Tnuh, a clan, a tribe.
JE Tsi£/i, the leg, the foot.
n$ Tsui, a headland.
ifi[ Ts'un, a village, a hamlet.
•^ Ts'un, a Chinese inch (^ of
the Chinese foot).
644
APPENDIX I.
.-t
m
m
m
m
w
w
m
A
Ts'ilen, a fountain, a spring.
Tu, a ferry-boat.
T'M, a plan, a map.
T'w, the soil.
Tui, a heap, a pile.
Tun, a hillock.
T'un, military colonials.
Tung, the east.
Tung, the winter.
Tung, a cave.
Tung, copper.
Tze, a Chinese written sym-
bol or pictograph, a
name.
Wa, a hollow, a puddle.
Wan, a winding bank, a
bay.
Wan, ten thousand.
Wang, a king, a ruler.
Wang, a deep and wide ex-
panse of water.
VVei^a military station(under
the present dynasty).
Wo, the country of dwarfs
(Japan).
Wu, five.
Wu, military.
Wuh, a house, a room.
Ya, a tribunal, a court.
P^ Yamen, a Chinese official
establishment, a public
court.
Yai, the sheer side of a hill.
Yang, the middle.
1^ Yang, the superior of the
dual powers, the sun.
f^ Yang, the ocean.
Jjf Yi, a waste, wild.
"^ Yi, night, darkness.
^ Y^n, steep mountains.
^ Y^n, salt.
IjS F^n, an embankment.
g yih, a city, a principality.
^ yiTi, a government post-sta-
tion.
— Yih, one.
1^ Yin, dark, obscure, the in-
ferior of the dual pow-
ers, the moon.
%, Yin, silver.
51 Ying, flourishing, brave.
^ H Yingkv^oh, England.
^ Ying, an entrenched camp.
;g yfu, the right hand.
•g- Fo/i, a lofty summit.
J5|^ Yii, in, at.
,ffi Fii, a fish.
pi Y\L, rain.
tf Fu, a bank, a dyke.
^ Ftt/i, a gem.
^ yue/i, the moon, a month.
7C Fiien, the first.
^ yiien, a source.
il^, Fucn, a fountain, a spring.
^ yiien, a garden.
jg Fuen, distant, far off.
^ Fuen, a hall, a college.
g Fan, clouds.
APPENDIX II.
China's Foreign Trade in 1906*.
We are indebted for all statistics on the Foreign Trade of China to ths reports
of the Imperial Maritime Customs published by order of the Inspector General of
Customs, and kindly placed at our disposal by the Statistical Secretary, M"" H.B. Morse.
The value of the Haikwan Tael for the year 1900 was 3 s. o ^ d.
Annual Valne of the Foreign Trade of China, 1905-1806.
Year.
Net
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
1905
1900
Hk. Tls.
447,100,791
410,270,082
Hk. Tls.
227,888,197
23C,4o6,7;l9
Hk. Tls.
674,988,988
640,720,821
There was a decrease of Hk. Tls. 2S,202,1C7, or i per Ci nt from the value in 190"»,
the loss falling especially on the imports.
Annual Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1905-1903.
Country.
1905
1906
Total, Hk. Taels.
Total, Hk. Taels.
Great Britain.
104,536,613
92,0:«;,607
Hongkong.
229,523,841
227,677,384
British India.
37,518,977
34.068,752
Singapore and Straits.
7,804,569
7,398,502
Australia and New Zealand.
l,C10,67o
1,014,409
South Africa (including Mauritius).
68,775
58,136
Canada.
Total with Brilish CouniHes.
2,794,049
5,192,127
888,917,i£9
867,416,027
• See for previous years : Commerce, pp. 407-424.
646 APPENDIX II.
Annual Valne of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1905-1906 (continued).
Country.
1905
1900
Total, Hk. Taels.
Total, Hk. Taela.
United States of America.
103,947,610
70,107,037
Philippine Islands.
Total with United Stntes.
966,977
2,586,704
10*,914,687
72,eM,8M
Mexico and Central America.
47,168
54,142
South America.
13,0S4
27,909
German}'.
20,223,724
23,105,154
France.
22,683,867
29,640,638
Belgium.
11,821,020
15,396,712
Italy.
8,595,098
8,722,941
Austria and Hungary.
1,828,622
3,605,481
Netherlands.
1,961,331
1,947,096
Norway, Sweden, Denmark.
147,261
102,849
Spain and Portugal.
Total {Continental Trade.
70,688
48,628
07,881,611
72,509,100
Macao.
7,745,616
10,894,983
Russia, European Ports.
5,501,041
5,757,036
Russia and Siberia (by land frontier).
2,923,478
2,565,904
Russia, Pacific Ports.
Total with Russin.
3,024,607
11,018,087
11,4^,129
19,841,027
Korea.
3,939,628
1,811,037
Japan and Formosa.
96,780,211
94,357,287
French Indo-China.
3,978,264
5,554,719
Siam.
1,506,637
1,981,820
Dutch Indies.
5,036,850
5,919,293
Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Aden.
2,145,294
2,537,205
Principal Net Imports from Foreig^i Countries, 1905-1906.
Description of Goods.
1908
1906
Opium.
Cotton Goods (Shirtings, Drills, T. Cloths.)
Woollen and Cotton Mixtures.
Woollen Goods.
Value : Hk. Tls.
34,070,021
181,452,053
1,193,434
4,240,751
Value : Hk. Tls.
32,285,377
152,727,845
2,269,812
4,332,958
APPENDIX II.
China's Foreign Trade in 1806*.
We are indebted for all statistics on the Foreign Trade of China to the reports
of the Imperial Maritime Customs published by order of the Inspector General of
Customs, and kindly placed at our disposal by the Statistical Secretary, M"" H.B. Morse.
The value of the Haikwan Tael for the year 1906 was 3 s. 3 .j d.
Annual Value of the Foreign Trade of China, 1905-1806.
Year.
Net
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
1905
1900
Hk. Tls.
447,100,791
410,270,082
Hk. Tls.
227,888,197
230,456,739
Hk. Tls.
674,988,988
646,726,821
There was a decrease of Hk. Tls. 2S,262,1C7, or 4 per ccut from the value in 1905,
the loss falling especially on the imports.
Annual Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1905-1903.
Country.
1905
1906
Total, Hk. Taels.
Total, Hk. Taels.
Great Britain.
101,536,613
92,036,607
Hongkong.
229,523,841
227,677,384
British India.
37,518,977
34,068,752
Singapore and Straits.
7,864,569
7,398,502
Australia and New Zealand.
1,010,075
1,014,409
South Africa (including Mauritius).
68,775
58,136
Canada.
Total with BHliAli CouniHes.
2,794,049
5,192,127
888,917,^89
867,«6,0S7
• See for previous years : Commerce, pp. 407-424.
648
^
,*^-
APPENDIX If.
Principal Exports to Foreign Countries, 1905-1006.
Description of Goods.
1905
1906
Value : Hk. Tls.
Value : Ak. Tls.
. Silk.
70,833,833
71,295,625
Tea.
25,445,652
26,629,630
Kaw Cotton.
12,029,326
11,631,638
Skins (Furs), Skin Clothing, Rugs.
9,684,286
8,207,100
Beans
6,931,876
3,158,394
Beancake.
6,188,317
7,064,108
Straw Braid.
6,210,688
8,650,861
Sheep's Wool.
6,070,157
4,847,015
Hides, Cow and Buffalo.
4,995,749
5,491,908
OUs (Bean), Groundnut, Tea, Wood, Aniseed,
Cassia).
4,095,085
5,627.821
Paper.
3,551,634
3,259,435
Tin, in slabs.
3,441,.'>47
8,478,834
Mats and Matting.
3,129,330
4,078,721
Cattle (Sheep, Pigs, Goats).
3,210,100
8,357,924
Bristles.
2,555,610
2,756,262
Fire-crackers and Fireworks.
2,972,256
3,585,733
Hemp.
2,352,007
2.964,289
Medicines.
2,111,616
2,480,322
Sugar.
2,194,490
1,010,939
Eggs.
2,021,589
2,956,400
Provisions and Vegetables.
2,474,703
2,701,027
Sesamura Seed.
2,319,746
4,512,602
Tobacco, Leaf and Prepared.
. 2,312,718
2,216,918
Chinaware.
1,721,474
1,579,204
Fruits of all kinds.
1,671,992
1,903,978
Grasscloth.
1,259,586
1,079,131
Fish and Fishery Products.
1,164,337
964,719
Timber nud Wood of all kinds.
1,185,246
982,510
Vermicelli and Macaroni.
1,377,962
1,378,400
On the whole, the exports show little development. There was a falling-ofif in
raw cotton, beans, skins, sheep^s wool, sugar, fish and fishery products, timber and
wood. A slight increase took place in silk (which contributed 30 per cent of the
total export), tea, beancake, straw-braid, oils, mats and matting, fire- crackers, eggs
and sesamnm seed.
Al»PBNDIX II.
649
Principal Be-exports, 19
Description of Goods.
m
1906
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Cotton Goods.
5,020,064
4,665,251
Formosa Tea.
2,554,(509
2,277,365
Metals.
889,233
3,541,029
Coal.
611,625
736,654
Household Stores.
516,867
796,868
Kerosene Oil.
512,809
399,137
Ginseng.
435,684
345,336
Opium.
219,620
292,890
Flour.
232,118
03,816
Condensed Milk.
184,539
81,112
Woollen Goods.
173,962
401,957
Bags of all kinds.
168,485
68,301
Sugar.
122,410
198,214
Ceylon Tea.
82,795
6,048
Spirits.
225,277
150,195
Beer^and Porter.
142,713
80,856
Wines.
106,587
229,768
The total value of foreign products re-exported in 1905 was Hk. Tls. 14,093,741,
and in 1906 Hk. Tls. 18,020,205, of which cotton manufactures, Formosa tea, and
metals contributed one half.
Importatioii of Cotton Piece Goods and Tarn, 1905-1906.
Description of Goods.
1905
19C6
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Shirtings and Sheetings, Plain.
65,887,593
45,734,293
Drills, Jeans, T. Cloths.
21,525,988
19,697,708
Fancy Cottons (Italians, Lastings, Spanish
Stripes).
27,330,425
22,420,790
Cotton Yarn and Thread in Balls and Spools.
67,208,997
65,110,467
Importation of Cotton Tarn, 1905-19C6.
Description.
1905
1906
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Indian.
47,556,392
46,109,724
Japanese.
17,791,368
16,649,172
English.
815,430
1,005,013
Hongkong.
77,727
148,443
^>-
650
APPENDIX II.
Sorts of Opium imported, 1903-1906.
Description.
1908
19M
1905
1906
Benares.
Malwa.
Patna.
Other kinds (Persian).
Total Value.
Hk. Tls.
8,139,066
17,024,215
16,384,857
2,282,764
Hk. Tls.
6,161,982
16,097,055
13,160,719
1,674,416
Hk. Tls.
6,537,092
12,899 986
13,743,796
889,147
Hk. Tls.
7,481,899
9,329,927
15,005,645
467,906
«8,880,892
87,094,172
84,070,021
82,286,877
In regard to quantity, the consumption of Benares and Fatna opiam increased
from 34,195 piouls in 1905, to 38,953 piculs in 1906; while Malwa and Persian fell
from 17,725 piculs in 1905, to 15,164 piculs in 1906, the cause being the low price of
the Bengal drug and the still lower one of native opium. In June, 1906, a uniform
tax of Tls. 155 per picul was imposed on the drug throughout the 18 Provinces. At
the end of the year, upon the issue of the anti-opium regulations, prices fell all round
about 5 per cent for Malwa and 8 per cent for Bengal.
Opium ' Net Importation into the Principal Ports, 1904-1906.
Potts.
1904
1905
1906
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs,
Shanghai.
15,203
14,811
15,937
Canton.
9,453
10,209
11,146
Swatow.
4,865
1,129
4,381
Foochow.
3,851
3,301
3,362
Araoy.
3,422
3,299
3,645
Chr*nkiang.
8,462
2,351
2,497
Hangchow.
2,487
•J,099
1,603
Ningpo.
2,209
1,814
1,408
Lappa.
1,276
1,783
1,650
Kiukiang.
2,418
1,715
1,4.59
Wuhu.
2,360
1,625
1,633
K'iungchow.
450
1,075
1,051
The total net import of opium into all the ports amounted in 1900 to 49,279
piculs; in 1901 to 49,484; in 1902 to 50,764; in 1908 to 58,457; in 1904 to 51,725; in 1905
to 51,920, and in 1906 to 54,117 piculs. Except in the Provinces of Kiangsi and Ch(^-
kiang, there has been in 1906 a general increase in the consumption of foreign opium,
the total quantity having been exceeded in only two of the last 10 years, viz : in 1899
when the amount reached 59,161 piculs; and in 1903, when it attained 58,457 piculs.
APPENDIX II.
651
Special Exports : Silk, Tea.
The total net value of all exports, during the year 190{;, was Hk. Tls. 236,456,739,
\Aich gives Hk. Tls. 8,568,542, or 3.6 per cent more than in 1905, but 3 million taela
less than in 1904.
The principal exports are silk and tea.
Sorts of Silk exported, 1905-1006.
Description.
1906
1906
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Silk, Raw, White.
13,524,010
16,485,481
„ Yellow.
3,866,402
3,214,873
„ Wild.
8,639,062
6,372,970
„ Steam Filature.
27,895,999
29,614,449
Cocoons.
1,344,286
1,089,872
Waste Sak.
4,288,525
3,208,162
Cocoons, Refuse.
555,818
450,254
Piece Goods.
8,897,627
8,474,750
Shantung Pongees.
1,041,123
1,279,104
Ihroducts, Unclassed.
840,981
1,105,610
Silk and its products contributed to the total export trade of 1906 a sum of
Hk. Tls. 71,295,525 (a million more than iu 1905), being 30 % of all exports. Yellow
silk gained 10 %, wild silk was unaltered, and waste silk lost 15 %.
In the export of all kinds of silk and its products, China compares with Japan
as follows :
1904
1905
1906
China.
Japan.
Hk. Tls.
78,255,412
95,300,000
Hk. Tls.
70,393,833
77,180,000
Hk. Tls.
71,295,525
98,722,000
Sorts of Tea exported, 1904-1906.
Description.
190*
1905
1906
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Tea, Black.
16,567,796
12,721,213
12,252,518
„ Green.
9,469,737
8,292,474
7,645,421
,, Brick, Black.
3,576,846
3,366,26S
4,392,064
„ „ Green.
406,910
586,750
2,083,641
„ Tablet.
115,388
123,980
254,958
„ Dust.
65,287
54,967
1,028
Total Value.
80,201,96ft
25,4ft6,652
26,689,680
652 APPENDIX II.
Tea : Exportation Direct to Foreign Conntries, 1906.
Destiuaiion.
Black.
Green.
Brick.
Tablet.
Dust.
Grand.
ToUl.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Great Britain.
57,966
29,304
87,270
Hongkong.
89,009
2,360
3
1
91.373
Other British Colonies.
16,177
10,417
8
12
26,014
United States of America.
70,315
81,307
407
152,029
Russia (European Ports).
122,6-12
57,937
77,354
1,098
..
259,031
Russia and Siberia (by land
frontier).
53,037
166,711
108
2l9,a56
Russia (Pacific Ports).
109,850
2,035
340,320
8,089
...
460,294
Continental Europe (Russia
excepted).
55,-200
..
...
55,296
Turkey, Persia, Egypt.
272
272
During the year 1906, tea shipments increased in value over a million taels
to Hk. Tls 20,629,630. The export of leaf, 808,094 piculs, was less than in 1905 by
37,847 piculs in weight, and Hk. Tls. 1,169,687 in value ; brick and Ublet, 596,aM piculs,
were more by 72,677 piculs in weight, and Hk. Tls. 2,853,665 in value. Hence it may
be remarked that the exports of leaf for the consumption of Western peoples are less
in quantity year by year, while supplies of brick tea, for the consumption of Russia
and Central Asia, steadily increase in quantity and to a still greater degree in value.
Shipments of leaf originating in Hank'ow were less than in 1905 by 30,701 piculs,
and those originating in Kinkiang were Ifss by 9,956 piculs, both crops being reduced
by the cold wet Spring. Green teas shipped at Shanghai (and coming from Ningpo
and Hangchow) were less by 31,103 piculs, and the demands for America considerably
decreased. Teas from Foochow were more by 23,172 piculs than in 1905.
The proportion supplied by China of the consumption in Great Britain and the
United States is as follows : •—
190i
1905
1906
Piculs.
Piculs.
Piculs.
Great Britain :
From all sources.
1,924,950
1,943,165
2,025,750
From China.
82,800
49,942
42,533
Per cent.
4.3
2.5
2.1
T United States:
From all sources.
800,931
735,843
070,781
From China.
315,572
291,106
247,162
Per cent.
43.1
40.1
37.0
APPENDIX II. 653
Shipping : Vesselfl entered and cleared, 1905-1906.
Flaff.
1905
1906
19C5
19C6
No.
No.
Tons.
Tons.
British.
80,442
28,192
35,095,658
33,150,560
Japanese.
25,850
25,188
6,23.S,018
11,3715,430
Germ.in.
7,337
0,315
8,187,871
7,477,518
French.
0,181
5.51 i
1,699,121
3,125,749
Norwegian.
3,240
1,978
2,922,826
1,010,460
American.
689
582
1,293,416
1,351,200
Rusi^ian.
36
153
82,155
289,405
Portuguese.
920
970
140,290
183,908
Danish.
08
108
72,337
172,P26
Swedish.
17=5
75
150,400
05,092
Dutch.
119
168
227,500
329,477
Austrian.
52
44
195,705
170,104
Korean.
0
23
l,29G
22,310
Italian.
65
2
19,9'G
1,108
Spanish.
6
?
8,730
?
Chinese Shipping, 1905-1906.
1905
1906
1905
19C6
Vessels
of the Foreign Type.
Junks.
No.
35,070
113,679
No.
45,847
93,457
Tons.
11,349,911
5,0:7,441
Tons.
12,?12,373
3,974,378
All these Vessels are owned by Chinese, sail under the Chinese flag, and are
entered and cleared at the Imperial Maritime Customs.
Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports, 1905-1906.
Share taken by each Nationality.
FhM?.
Clearances and Entries
at Treaty Ports.
Total Tonnage
Outwards and Inwards.
1905
1906
1905
1906
British.
21,768
20,237
25,369,319
24,005.271
Chinese.
88,584
80,318
12,751,408
12,738,365
Japanese.
25,222
22,202
5,747,393
7,977,608
German.
5,299
4,531
5,543,198
4,995,252
Norwegian.
1,476
943
1,277,978
708,679
French.
2,807
4,482
393,808
1,7J*8,675
American.
172
2.S0
100,0'»8
1^8,115
654
APPENDIX II.
Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports, 1905-1906.
Share taken by each Nationality (continued).
Flag.
Clearances and Entries
at Treaty Ports.
Total Tonnage
outwards and Inwards.
1905
1906
1905
1906
Swedish.
lOG
36
94,201
32,212
Dutch.
33
3i
50,142
55,078
Portuguese.
274
367
46,222
82,415
Danish.
43
57
80,264
47,646
Russian.
7
32
11,747
41,299
Italian.
36
9
11,034
J
Austrian.
2
?
6,642
»
Korean.
2
3
240
2,414
Percentages of Trade, Commercial Honses and Foreign
commercial population of China, 1905-1906.
Nationality.
Percentages of Trade.
1906 1906
Commercial Houses.
lOoT 1906
Persons.
1906 1906
British.
50,78
47,55
434
492
8,493
9,256
Chinese.
24,98
24,83
...
...
... •
...
German.
9,92
9,19
197
199
1,850
1,939
Norwegian.
5,24
2,86
10
9
166
185
Japanese.
4,12
9,73
729
739
16,910
15,548
French.
2,06
3,24
77
94
2,148
2,189
American.
1,82
1,50
105
112
3,.TR0
3,447
Austrian.
0.25
0,33
17
19
250
236
Dutch.
0,18
0,32
9
19
181
225
Swedish.
0,37
0,12
1
1
137
135
Italian.
0,01
0,00
22
21
412
786
Russian.
0,19
0,50
19
20
082
273
DaniBh.
0,07
0,23
13
14
201
209
Belgian.
V
V
8
6
273
297
Portuguese.
0,01
0,09
44
51
2,463
3,184
Spanish.
0,01
»
7
40?
249
889
Annual Net Value of the whole Trade of each Port or Open Kart,
1905-1906.
Port or Mart.
1905
1906
Estimated Native
Population.
Amoy (Hsiam«*n).
Canton.
Ch'angsha.
Hk. Tls.
18,654,610
92,243,650
5,895,880
Ilk. Tls.
17,368,562
94,108,690
5,291,809
114,000
900,000
500,000
APPENDIX II.
655
Annual Net Value of the whole Trade of each Fort or Open Mart,
1905-1906 (continued).
Port or 3Iart.
1908
19C6
Estimated Native
Population.
Hk. TIr.
Hk. Tls.
Chefoo.
39,131,381
34,740,267
100,000
Chr-nkianp.
3.3,344,208
35,825,857
170,000
Ch*ungk*ing.
27,731,627
28,996,200
702,000
Pooohow.
17,724,198
16,790,480
624,000
Hangchow.
17,496,980
16,299,185
350,000
Hank*ow
111,048,046
97,142,377
870,000
Ich'ang.
3,203,670
4,741,747
50,000
Kiaochow.
22,322,680
30,512,381
120,000
Kiukiaufr.
23,228,044
22,731,011
36,000
K'iungchow.
6,876,804
6,787,000
38,000
Kongmoon (Kiangm^n).
3,461,444
8,732,207
55,000
Kowloon (Kiiilung).
42,946,800
41,971,859
see Hongkong
Lappa (Kungpeh).
16,858,581
15,388,943
Lungchow.
230,452
186,274
12,000
M^ngtze.
9,592,945
10,824,864
15,000
Nanking.
10,573,545
9,668,934
300,000
Newchwang.
61,752,905
44,482,001
74,000
Ningpo.
19,163,630
19,142,434
260,000
Pakhoi (Peh-hai).
2,830,938
2,478,862
20,000
Samshol ISauftliui).
3,883^9
3,378,940
5,000
SanCuao (t^aiititngao).
2,220,032
2,290,183
8,000
ShaughaJ
176,979,193
168,736,329
840,000
Sba«ii (Sb»»hi).
1,817,544
1,497,134
85,000
Soochow.
4,240,013
5,729,980
500,000
Swatow (Shant'ou).
4^,005,306
43,198,688
65,000
Szemao.
246,848
226,082
1.5,000
Tengj'uch.
1,079,999
1,397,877
12,000
Tientsin.
93,565,672
112,86-1 ,.555
750,000
T8*iuwangtao.
21,851,079
8,470,788
5,000
W^nchow.
2,257,021
2,384,569
80,000
Wuchow.
11,185,513
10,554,816
65,000
Wnhu.
30,623,>'00
21,998,201
137,000
Yochow (Yohchow).
490,058
717,088
20,000
Grand Total.
821,089,469
784,856,057
7,897,000
Value of Expoi-ts abroad.
227,888,197
236,4.56,739
Value of Home Trade.
184,800,777
133,715,257
656
APPENDIX II.
* These tables show that Newchwang has suffered in the competition with Talien
and the preferential rates on the South Manchurian railway. The year was prosperous
for Tientsin. The 2 Shantung ports : Chefoo and Kiaochow, show a tendency to
chauge positions, the total trade of the former having fallen Hk. Tls. 4,301,117 (imports
being less), and the latter having gained Hk. Tls. 8,189,701 (the most marked increase
being in foreign imports). Both share at present in the whole trade of Shantung in
the following proportions : Chefoo 53 % and Kiaochow 47 %. In the West, Ch'ungk'ing
improved as well as Ich'ang and Shasi (Shashi). The Hank'ow trade fell both in
imports and exports, net foreign imports being less by 11 million taels, and the total
trade less by 14 million. The imports of Wuhu were little altered but exports were less
in value by 40 %, reducing the value of the whole trade of the port from 30 ^ to 22
million taels. The imports to Nanking were less than in 1005, but those of Chftnkiang
increased by 10 %. Shanghai closed the year 1005 with large stocks unsold. Imports
fell from Hk. Tls. 02,207,173 in 1005, to 74,072,150, a decrease of over 17 million toels.
Exports of Chinese produce recovered lost ground from 72 million in 1005 to 79 million
in 190G. The Chf'kiang ports : Ningpo, Haugchow, \V6nchow, have maintained th^iir
values almost unaltered. Foochow, Amoy and Swatow have fallen slightly. Canton
has advanced (the increase being in exports) by almost 2 million taels. Of tho Soatbem
frontier marts, M^ngtze alone shows an increase in its trade, 4,012 piculs of native
opium liAving been exported to Tongking.
Customs Revenne, 1900-1906.
Year.
Foreign Trade.
Home Trade.
Total.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
1000
18,182,815
4,6i»l,17l
22,873,980
1001
10,800,000
5,670,074
25,537,574
1902
24,180,574
5,820,470
30,007,044
1003
24,054,785
0,475,903
30,530,688
1004
24,788,038
0,704,518
31,403,156
1005
27,544,205
7,506,700
35,111,004
lOOG
20,272,481
0,700,114
30,068,505
ts^^jOr^-^X^-
APPENDIX III.
Statifltics of Frot68tant Missions in China for the year ending^, 1005.
By Bet. Nelson Bitton. L. M. 8.
At pp. 359-361 of this work, we ^ve the statistics of Protestant Missionary work
in China down to the close of 1902, having at that time no more recent ones at hand.
We have since applied for later statistics, and the Rev. N. Bitton, of the London
Missionary Society, has kindly famished ns with the following official totals for the
year ending, 1905. We supplement them by the comparative table of China Missions
from Broomhall's **Chine$e Empire^ a Oeneral and MUrionary 8urvey*\ published in
Tx>ndon, 1907.
Foreign Missionaries.
Baptized Christians. •
178,251
Men (Clerical and lay).
1.443
78,528
Wives of Missionaries.
1,038
Native contributions for
Single women.
964
Church work. $ (Mex.) 301,263
TMal Foreign Skiff.
M«
Schools (Day or Primary).
2,196
Chinese Workers.
Ordained Pastors.
345
Pupils in same.
Higher Institutions (Intermpdiate
and Collegiate).
Students in same.
42,546
389
Unordained Helpers.
5,722
15,137
School Teachers.
2,583
Hospital Assistants.
867
Medical SUfiF.
Bible-women (Colportenrs).
897
Men.
207
Total Native Staff.
9,9li
Women.
94
Total Medical StalT.
801
Missionary Residences (with residing
Hospitals.
166
Foreign MisRionary).
632
Dispensaries.
241
Missionary Out-stations.
4,470
In-patients during year reported.
35,301
Tdtal Number of Stations. 5,101
Out-patients. * ]
1,044,948
* BroomhcUl states the number of communicants to bo 154,142, but adds that with
the Methodist Episcopal Mission, communicants include probationers or adherent?.
Moreover, the Quakers or Friends, who admit no baptismal rite, cannot reckon but
adherents, of whom there are 809. (W. N. Bitton. Recorder, June, 1907).
42
658
APPENDIX III
Comparatiye Table of China Missions
Showing progress of Missions as reported at Conferences of
1877, 1890 and 1907.*
1877
1880
190T
ProteRtant Missionaries.
473
1,296
3,719
Chinese HelfRTS.
750
1.657
9,998
Ck>mmanicants.
13,035
37,287
154,142
SUtions.
91
?
706
Oat-Btationa.
511
?
8,793
Organised Churches.
312
522
?
Hospitals.
16
61
1 366
Dispensaries.
24
44
Contributions of Native Church.
SlMex.) 9,271
$(Mex.) 36,884
?
Day Schools.
15
?
2.139
Pupils in do.
280
42,738
Boarding and Higher Schools.
7
Total Pupils
16,P36
255
Students in do.
290
10,227
• From Broomhall's "Chinese Empire^ a General and Missionary Survey." p. 40.
tmo^t
APPENDIX IV.
The Woosung Bar, Hwangp'u Consenrancy Work
and Approaches to Shanghai.
HEIGHT OF WATBR.
on the Outer ftnd Inner Wooflan^ Bars ftt low water of the fTsygies.
(Corrected up to-d€Ue by W, A. OarUon, Harbour Master^ Shanghai).
1903-1906.
18 f c.
IG ft.
^
"^
14 ft.
r^
-^
V
/
12 ft.
M
\
X
A
A
\
\
1
f\
A
/I
J\
1/
JO ft.
/
J
1
. J
V
f ^
V
V
V
\y
V
8 ft.
...
6'"
4-
1902
1903
1904
190n
1906
The X^wfv tracing Qi^ibits the changes on the Inner B»r; the upprr traeivg
those on the bnter Bar, which has improred s^hce 10D3.
660
APraifDIX IT.
The HwangpSi ConBenrancy Work.
In the XI«» Article of the flniJ Protocol siRned ftt Peking September 7,
1901, it was provided to establish a Ooiuervancy Board tot the purpoM of
controlling, straightening and im-
proving the course of the Hwang-
p^Q river, by which access is
gained to Shanghai. In 1905, an
agreement was made between the
Powers and China, whereby she
undertook herself to carry ont the
work, and supply the funds required
for the purpose. These amount to
Tls. 400,000 per annum, during 20
years, and are derived from a tax
on the native opium of Szeohw'an,
and of SUohow Fu in ELiangsu Pro-
vince. The limits, within which
work is to be controlled, extend
from the Government Arsenal, a
little above Shanghai, to the mouth
of the Hwangp'u (the red buoy
in the Yangtze). In the early part
of 1906, M' J. de Bijke, a Dutch
Engineer, arrived at Shanghai, and
started work in Feb. 1907, under
the Directors, the Taot*ai of Shang-
hai and the Ck>nmii88ioner of the
Imperial Maritime Customs. The
mmn fetUurea of M' de Rijke's
plan are :
1* to close the ship-channel stream, on the Northern or Footimg side of Oough
Island, and divert it to the junk-channel, on the Southern or Shanghai side, thereby
avoiding the right-angle turn over the Inner Bar into ship-channel, so much com-
plained of by navigators.
2* to construct a large training jetty at Woosung, nearly a mile in length, from
Prince's Pier to the Spit Buoy on the Outer Bar.
3* to establish other training works where needed, and especially near Gough
Island ; to bring the river to an easy curve and normal width from above the Chinese
City to Woosung, and cut away Pheasant Point and other places where widening is
necessary.
The training works are now proceeding, and extend from Kaok'iao Creek to the
Inner Bar. A dyke has been completed from end to end of Gough Island. Large
layers of brushwood and reeds (called nnkstuka), and bamboo cylinders (gahhioni) are
lowered into ship-channel. It will thus be gradually shoaled up, while junk-channel
will become tJie main channel. *
SHANGHAI and the Hwangp'u Biver.
• Imp. Marit. Customs : Returns of Trade, 1906. Vol. III. (Whangpoo River
Conservancy, by the Commissioner of Customs.)
APPBNDIZ IT.
APPBOAOflBS TO SHANGHAI. •
661
The Bftr of the Tangise is gradually growing larger. Important changes
are taking place in the South Channel, the main waterway to Shanghai. An
immense flat extends from the Fairy Wreck Buoy to the Fairway Bell Buoy, a distance
of about 17 miles. A new channel, named the Tung$ha Channel (between Tungsha
Bank and the S. E. Spit), began in 1904. It has now cut through the S. E. Spit, is
steadily improving, and may finally become the main channel.
* Imp. Marit Customs : Returns of Trade, 1906. VoL HI. (Notes on Navigation
during 1906).
APPENDIX V.
Work and ProgresB of the Imperial Post Office in 1006. ^
The development of the Imperial Post Office (I. P. O.), in China was particularly
accentuated in 1906. To the 1,626 localities open to postal business at the end of 1905,
#70 have been added, making a total for the year ending, 1906, of 8,096 Postal Est-
ablishments. Articles dealt with rose from 76 to 113 millions. Parcels, which were a
little over 1 million in 1905, reached 1,883,000, being 351,000 in excess of the previous
year. Money-order transactions (issued within the domestic area only) rose from a
total sum of Tls. 821,000 to Tls. 1,540,000. The number of letters in "dubbed" mails,
carried for native postal agencies, has fallen by a million, this being due to the cess-
ation of business on the part of the Canton native letter agencies, who refused during
3 months (Jnly-Sept.) to pay the increased tax of 4 cents (1 d) per | oz., instead of the
former 2 cents (} d), on all "dubbed" mails to and from Hongkong.
The annexed table will exhibit the whole work and progress for the yearf
1905-1906. I
Head and Branch Offices, with articles handled, 1005.100a \
1905
xso. ^
Head and Sub-Offices.
41
38
Branch Offices.
396
484
Agencies.
1,189
1,574
Artides dealt with.
76,000,000
113,000,000
Parcels : Number.
1,032,000
1.383,000
Weight (KUos).
3,262,000
4,310,000
Letters in native "dubbed" maUs.
8,896,000
7,892,000
* Report on the Working of the Post-Office, 1906, by T. Piry, Postal Secretary.
662 A9PBNDIZ T.
During the year, a Postal Oommissioner was stationed at Hank'ow, the Emporium
of Central China; Foreign Inspectors at Mukden (Manchuria), Kweiyang (Kweichow
Province) and Yunnan Fu (Tiinnan Province) respectively, and a Deputy Postmaster
at Lanchow Fn, the Capital of Kansu. At Foochow (Fokien Province), postal adminis-
tration has been separated from the Customs, and placed under the direct supervision
of a Postmaster. Means of transport have been further increased and speed accelerated,
especially in the environs of Peking and of Shanghai, in the Southern Provinces and in
Manchuria. The general public accept more and more the regulations. Native agencies
are losing ground, but still hold out and are opposed to the new system especially in
Hupeh and Szechw'an. Henceforth, all private agencies at the Treaty ports and
inland must rogister at the 1. P. O. *'Clubbcd" mails are also to pay half the full tariff
on gross weight. A penal law has been enacted to check fraud in stamps and punish
the suppression of mail matter. A great drawback is still experienced in getting
reliable men for the money-order branches; the transfer and keeping of the funds are
also attended with special difficulties and risks. The Chinese staff of the Post Office
counted at the close of 190C, 360 linguist Clerks, of whom 34 do inspecting duties
exclusively; 725 non-lioguists and about 1,600 Agents.
Two special features call for particular mention : 1* A new Ministry of Posts
and Communications (Tiuchw'an Pu K f| K) was established at Peking, Nov. 6, 1906,
but so far, has not interiered with the postal organisation under the auspices of the
Customs. The Ministry, however, resents much the presence and increase of foreign
post-offices (in 1906, Hongkong opened an agency at T'ientsin, and Japan at Canton.
All these agencies now number 59) within the Empire, as this deprives the (Govern-
ment of a large revenue, and facilitates cheaper rates for home correspondence (all
Briti&h post-offices at Treaty ports have instituted the penny postage, and the American
agency at Shanghai the 2 gold-cents rate for home correspondence). 2* Although not
in the Union, China was represented at the Universal Postal Congress, which
opened at Rome, April 7, 1906. The Delegate expressed the desire that his Govern-
ment would adhere to the Union at the next Postal Congress.
In the early part of 1907, the Administration issued a conventional system of
romanisation for Chinese names of places. This list fixed the foreign spelling of some
2,000 postal localities, and will be subsequently made authoritative in the Customs,
Posts and Tel* ^rraphs. A Postal Atlas is now published (Oct. 1907), and has been
kindly forwarded to us by M^ H. B. Morse, Statistical Secretary. It includes 21 maps
(21 X 12 i inches), one for each Province. The 2,000 places, already open to postal
business, are in black, while places not yet exploited are in red. The results of all
this work augur prosperity to the Young Service, and bespeak amply its increasing
value and progress (see for previous years pp. 435-438).
I
INDEX, n
Abeel £)., 387.
Aboriginal Races of China, 4, 313,
342-345, 371, 373, 448.
Academy, Imperial, 299-300.
Adam L., 508.
Addis C. S., 337, 391.
Administration of China Proper :
,, Central, 295-301.
,, Provincial, 301-816.
Administration of Manchuria, 488,
504-505.
, , of Mongolia, 510-520.
,, of Chinese Turkestan
533-534.
of Tibet, 545-547.
Admiralty Charts, 294.
Agassiz A. R., 215, 508.
Agriculture, 393-401.
,, of each Province (see
Ch^kiang, Chihli, etc.)
Agricultural Products, 304-307.
Aiar-Nor Lake, 528.
Aiffuebelle (d'), 476.
Aigun (Hehlungkiang ch*6ng), 494.
Aksu, 524, 531.
Alabaster, Sir C. 335.
Alashan Mts. (Holan-shnn), II, 25,
35, 514.
Alceste I. (Haila-tao), 255.
Alcock, Sir Rutherford, 102.
Alexander G., 380.
Algui J., 293.
Allan C. W., 138.
Allen H. J., 482, 508.
Allen F. R., 375.
Allom, 400.
Alluvial Formations, 22-23,
Alps, Szechw*an, 94, 95, 98.
Altai Mts., 511.
Altyn-Tagh Mts., 525, 539, 541.
Am ban or K'inch*ai, 517, 545-546.
Ambassadors, Chinese, to Foreign
Courts, 298.
Ambassadors' Route, 145, 203.
Amherst, Lord, 145, 403, 474.
Ami (Omi) Chow, 183.
Amnemachin Mts., 25.
Amoy or Hsiam^n, 221, 223-224, 226,
270, 280, 420, 654.
Amphitrite or Tunghai I., 290.
Amur River or Hehlung-kiang, 475,
480-400.
Amyot, 379, 479, 508, 536.
Ancestor Worship, 353, 378-379.
Anderson A., 484.
Anderson F., 337.
Anderson W., 406.
Andr4-Marie R. P., 386.
Andrew of Perouse, 472.
Anhui or Anhwei, («ee Nganhwei).
Animals of China, Wild, Domestic,
17, 308 (see each Province).
Annales de la SociM des Missions-
iStrangeres, 193, 213.
Annam, 202, 467.
Anthouard, (d'J, 481.
Anthracite coal, 135.
Antnine et Mitral, 404.
Antonini P., 378, 399, 405.
Antung (Ngantung), 492, 505.
Anunghoy or Yanianghsiai, 286.
Anz W., 89.
Apple, 18, 398.
Approaches to Ccoiton (sketch-map \
171.
,, to Peking (sketch-map).
68.
Apricot, 18, 398, 544.
Arabs at Canton, 287.
Arbutus-tree, 398.
(*) The names of Authors and the Titles of books arc priated in italica. The
figures which follow the nAmes refer to the pages of the work. Fifnires in heavy
type indicate the places where the subject is principally treated.
The following contractions are used : — B. (Bay), C. (Cape), Ch. (Channel),
O. (Gulf), /. (Island), Is. (Islands), L. (Lake), Mt. (Mountain), Mts. (Mountains),
R, (River), Str. (Strait).
664
INDEX.
Arbuz-ola Mts., 514.
Area of the Chinese Empire, 5.
,, of China Proper, 8.
Argun R. or NgaikOn-ho, 490.
Armstrong. 88.
Army. 328-335, 338.
Manchu, 328; Provincial, 330.
,, Mongol, 520; Tibetan, 549.
Reorganisation of, 331-333.
Arrow War, 464, 475.
Arsenals and Docks, 53, 334, 404.
Artchisck, Daniel. 474.
Artsa-Bogdo Mts., 511.
Asculi (Joseph de), 552.
Ashmore W., 376.
Atkinson T. W.. 508, 522.
At^ntze, 182, 183.
Aubazac, 376.
Auber P.. 215, 423, 483, 484.
Aubry, 102.
Audience, to Foreign Ministers, 466.
,, question settled, 470.
Audaley G. A., 406.
Augustinians, Spanish, 356.
Aurora University (Sicawei), 369.
Austria, Relations with China, 474.
Baber E. C, 118, 192, 372.
Backer (de), 481.
Bagrach-Kul or Tenghiz L., 528, 531.
Baiankara Mts., 94, 541.
Bailiff or rural Constable, 309-310.
Balfour, Captain, 266.
Balfour F. H., 380, 381 , 385, 389, 391 ,
400, 485.
Ball (Dyer), see Dyer.
Bailer F. W., 375, 376.
Bamboo, its various uses, 18, 395,
308.
Banana, 18, 393, 398.
Bankers, Shansi, 42, 408.
,, Influence on Currency, 320.
Banners, The Eight, 329.
Bannister S.. 483.
Bars on the Coast of China :
Canton, 286-287 ; Foochow, 278 :
Ningpo, 275; T'aichow, 274;
Taku, 252; Woosung, 264-205,
270, 659.
Barclay Parsons W., 138.
Bard E., 335, 371, 399, 405, 422.
Barkul, 29, 524. 531.
Barley, found in the Northern Pro-
vinces, 394.
Barrd P., 507.
Barrett Hamilton G., 530.
Barrow J., 474.
Barton J. L., 390.
Bat'ang or Pat'ang, 94, 107, 112, 116.
Batz (de), 520.
Bayan Susu iHelungkiang), 495.
Bayantu River, 518.
Bays and Harbours of the China
Coast :
Amoy or Hsiam^n Bay, 276, 277.
Bullock Harbour, 274.
Chefoo Bay, 254 (with sketch-
map), 256.
Dalny Bay or Talienwan, 491,
500.
Hait'an Bay, 276.
Hangchow Bay, 98, 272.
Heut'eu or Tiger's Head Bay,
277.
Hongkong Harbour, 281 (with
sketch-map), 284.
Hsinghwa Bay, 281.
Hunghai or Hwanghai Bay, 281.
Kiaochow Bay, 254 (with sketch-
map), 259.
Kinchow Bay, 491.
Kwangchow Bay, 281 (with ske-
tch-map), 290.
Laoshan Bay, 254.
Lappa (Kungpeh) Bay, 281.
Min-kiang, Estuary of the, 276.
Mirs Bay or Tap'^nghai, 281.
Nankwan Bay, 276.
Nimrod Bay ^Siangshan-kiang),
274.
Port-Arthur or LQshun-k*ow
Bay, 491.
Samsa (Sansha) Bay (with ske-
tch-map), 276-277.
Sangkeu-k*ow Bay, 274.
Sanm^n Bay, 274.
Ship'u Roadstead, 274.
Shihtaok*ow Bay, 254.
Shuhahan Bay, 254.
Swatow (Shant*eu) Bay, 281.
T'aichow Bay, 274.
Ts'iienchow Bay, 277.
T*ungshan Bay, 277.
Weihaiwei Bay (with sketch-
map i, 254, 257.
W^nchow Bay, 274.
Yungch'^ng Bay, 254.
Bazin M. A., 375.
Beacons on the China Coast, 246.
Beal S., 382.
Beancake, principal export from Man-
churia, 408. 412. 501, 648.
Beans, 394, 501.
Beauvais, 191, 213.
Beecher H. M., 87.
Behme und Krieger, 88.
Behring Strait, 239-240.
Bergholz P.. 293.
INDBZ.
665
Bernard \V. D., 293.
Betts G. E., 372.
Beveridge A., 508.
Bezaure (de), 102.
Bhamo (Burma, Trade with Tali F.,
181.
Bianconi, 20.
Bickmore A. S., 405.
Bills of Kxchange, 320.
Biot E., 335, 390.
Birds of China, 17 (see each Province).
Bishop, xMrs J., 102, 118.
Bizeul S.. 387.
Black-Caps, 548.
Black River, 179.
Blackburn China Mission. 119, 192,
193, 213, 215, 335, 442.
Blagovestchensk (Siberia^, 494.
Blenheim Channel, 286.
Blodget H., 380, 390.
Blue Books on China, 485.
Blue City (Kweihwa ch'^ng, Shansi),
53.
Blue River (Hwang-ho), 94.
Boards or Ministries, 74, 820.
the 10 Boards (formerly 6^ 220.
Bock, 237.
Bod or Tibet, 547.
Boehmeria nivea (Ramie fibre), 395.
Bogdo-ola Mts., 525.
Bogue or Bocca Tigris, 204, 280.
Bohea Hills (Fokien), 225.
Bohea tea, 225.
Bonacosi A., 378, 399, 405.
Bonbo (Indigenous religion of Tibet),
548.
Bondservants, Manchu, 329.
Bone C. 215.
Bonham Island (Pehtsieh-shan), 273.
Bonin, 191.
Bonnet, Nicholas (Bishop), 354, 472.
Bona d'Anty, 89, 191, 372, 423.
Bonvalot G., 535, 555.
Bonze or Buddhist monk, 352.
Boone W. J., 390.
Borradaile A., 521.
Borax (found in Tibet), 545.
Boro-koro Mts., 526.
Botany, (see Flora).
Boucher H.. 375.
Boulger D. C, 6, 335, 338, 383.
Bourne F. S., 88, 103, 192, 193, 213.
BouvetJ., 479.
Bower H., 536.
Bowra E., 480, 556.
Box E., 388.
Boxers and the Boxer uprising in
China, 43, 75, 252, 355, 468-460,
477.
Braam (Van ), Story of the Dutch
Embassy to Peking, 473, 482.
Braddel T., 423.
Brahmaputra River (Tsangpo), 544.
Braves, Chinese, 331.
Bray {de). 422.
Breaker Point or Shihpeishan, 283.
Bret8chneider F., 20, 86, 385, 482, 536.
Brick-tea (exported to Russia), 416,
531, 652.
Brickmore A. S., 213, 214.
Bridges in China, 425.
Bridgman E. C, 372, 374, 384, 388,
400, 480, 483.
Brine-wells (Szechw'an), 114.
British Expedition to Lhasa, 539,
546, 548, 550, 554-555.
British Flag in China, first appear-
ance of, 474.
Broomhall M., 390, 657, 658.
Broullion R. P., 165, 386.
Broion, 387.
Browne. Colonel, 508.
Bruce C. D., 556.
Bruce-Mitford, 294.
Buckwheat, 18, 70, 394.
Buddha, Statues of, 61, 451.
Living, 516, 548.
Buddhism 352-353, 381, 582.
,, officially introduced into
China, 452.
,, practised by the Emperor
Wuti, 455.
,, persecuted by the Empe-
ror Wutsung, 456.
,, Tibetan or Lamaism, 516,
547-548.
Buddhist Sutras brought from India,
352, 452.
,, Monks visit India, 472.
,, Invocation, 548.
Pilgrimages, 109, 117, 237,
552.
Buir-Nor or Pir Lake, 491.
Bullock T. /.., 192, 383, 480.
Bullock Harbour, 274.
Buoys and Beacons, 246.
Burden J. S.. 389.
Bureau et Franchet, 20.
Burgevine, 465, 475.
Burials, 493.
Burlinghame Mission, 465, 476.
Burma or Mientien, 112, 174, 181-183,
459, 462, 466.
Burmese **wild men" or Kachyns,
112.
Burning of the Books, 451.
Bushell S. W., 405, 406, 479.
Byron Brenan, 424.
666
INDEX.
Cabinet, Inner or Ncikoh, 297.
Cactus, 180.
Cahun. 479, 520.
Caix R. de. 507.
Calendar, Chinese, 301, 355, 444-445.
Calendrier-Annuaire (published by
the Jesuit Fathers of the Sicawei
Observatory), 293, 441.
Callery J. M., 374.
Callery and Ivan, 480.
Cambodia, 459.
Camel, 17. 54, 55, 70. 77, 83. 101, 164,
398, 518, 528. 531.
Campbell A.. 555.
Campbell C. A/., 521.
Camphor-troo, 397. ^
Canals in China^,jia?c4^.
Canal, Imperial or Yun-ho. 29, 59,
r>9, 78, 82, 102, 154, 15(i, 227, 230,
428-430, 459.
Candareen or F^n, 316.
Candidates for Literary Decrees, 3(»5.
Candler E., 556.
Canton, 115, 129, 145, 181, 807-209
with sketch-map), 212. 287, 460.
Canton-Hank'ow Railway, 433.
Cantonese race and language, 207,
343, 344, 348.
Caoutchouc, 180.
Capes and Headlands on the ("hina
Coast :
('ape Adk ins or Ch'angshan, 254.
Breaker Point or Shihpeishan,
283.
Cape Cami or Kwankiaowei,
283.
Chefoo Cape, 254.
Flat Rocky Point. 255.
Good Hope or Piaokioh, 283.
Jaeschke, Cape, 255.
X.E. and S.E. Capes 'Shantung;,
254.
P'ootung Point, 261, 273.
Yangtze Cape, 261, 273.
Yiunishan Headland. 255.
Capitals of the Provinces, List of,
304-305.
Capuchin Friars in Tibet, 552.
Carexf F. W.. 192, 372, 556.
Carles \V. B.. 103, 138, 4'il.
Carli, Dr Mario, 237.
Carolus Dollar, 319.
Caron P., 379.
Carpentier, Jean le, 482.
Cfirpini, John of TMano. 472.
Carrez, 88.
CarstairS'Douglas. 377.
Carton C, 385.
Casartelli L. (Bishop), .387.
Cash or Li (native coin, vulgo Ts*ien),
3I0-.3I7, 404.
Castaing. 194.
Cathay (name given to China), 7.
Catholicism (T'ienchu-kiao) in Chi-
na, 353-358.
Catholic Missions in China, 355-358,
384.
Cavalerie. 193, 372.
Celestial Mts., or T'ien-shan, 33.
Censorate or Court of Censors (Tu-
ch'ah Yuen), 300.
Censuses of the Population, 346.
Cent or F^n (division of the Mexican
Dollar^ 320.
Chakhars, 515.
Chalmers J.. 370, 374, 376, 379, 380.
Chaloner Alabaster, 380.
Chamdo (Anterior Tibet, 552-553.
Chang Chitung ( Viceroy of Hu-
kwang;, 333. 391.
Changchow Fu. 224.
Changkia-k'ow or Kalgan, 67, 77.
Changkiavvan, Battle of, 475.
Changming hsien. 110, 113.
Changshui River, 142.
Changteh Fu, 56, 63.
Channels at the mouth of the Yang-
tze-kiang, 2(>2, 661.
Changti, Emperor 'Han , 452.
Cij'aj^n or Court Underlings, 311-
312.
Ch'ang River (Kiangsi), 144.
Ch'angchow Fu, 153.
Ch*angch'un Fu, 470, 487, 498.
Ch'ang-kiang (Yangtze-kiang), 94.
Ch'angmao Rebels, 464.
Ch'angngan (Singan Fu . 447, 451,
456, 457.
Ch'angngan-sze, 197.
Ch'angpeh-shan or Long White Mt.,
489.
Ch'angsha Fu, 131. 133, 135,137, 470.
Ch'angshan 1., 254.
Ch'ang.shan hsien, 84.
Ch'angteh Fu, 130, 131, 133, 136.
Ch'angt'u Fu, 487.
Chao Chow, 67.
Chao Kw'angyin ( Founder of the
N. Sung dynasty), 457.
Chao Liehti, 453.
Chao Suenti, Kmperor /r'ang),456.
Chaok4ng Fu, 170, 202, 204, 207,
200, 212, 354.
Chaoti, Emperor (Han), 452.
Chaot'ung Fu, 175, 181, 183.
Chaoyang Lake, 82.
Ch'aochow Fu, 202, 212.
Ch'aohu Lake, 91, 142.
INDEX.
667
Chapdelaine Fr., Massacre of, 475.
Chapel Island or Tungting, 278.
Chap*u or Tsop'u, 272.
Characteristics of the Chinese race :
,, physical, 340.
moral, 341-348, 370,
371.
Chavannes. 404, 479, 481.
Chavannes {de), 370, 399, 479, 521.
Chefoo or Yent^ai, 8, 80, 84,87, 256,
260, 420, 655, 656.
Chefoo Agreement, 476.
Chehling Pass, 12, 137, 212.
Ch^kiang Province, 8, 217, 219, 237-
237.
,, Area and Population, 227.
,, Aspect and Characteris-
tics, 228 ; Climate, 229.
(ieology, 228.
,, Orography, 228.
Hydrography, 229-231.
,, Industry and Commerce,
235.
,, Fauna and Flora, 231.
Agricultural Wealth, 231.
Mineral Wealth, 231.
,, People and Language, 231-
232.
Cities and Principal Cen-
tres, 232-234.
,, Highways of Communi-
cation, 235.
,, Open Ports, 235.
,, Coast-line of, 272-275.
Chemulpo, .468.
Ch*dn Dynasty (short-lived), 454.
Ch^nchow Fu, 56, 62.
Ch^nhai hsien, 275.
Ch^nkiang Fu, 91, 153, 160, 163,
164, 420, 655.
Ch^nngan Fu, 195.
Cht^npienfu-i T'ing, 177.
Ch^nsi Ting or Bfirkul, 524.
Ch^ntsung, Emperor (N. Sung], 458.
Ch^nyQen Fu, 184, 186, 189.
Ch^nyuen T'ing, 177.
Ch^nchow Fu, 56.
Ch'^n Pasien, 455.
Ch^ng Chow, 56, 63.
Cheng Kitung, 371.
Chengteh, Emperor (Ming), 460.
Ch^ngting Fu (Chihli;, 54, 55, 66.
Ch4ngt*ung, Emperor (Ming), 460.
Ch^ngyang-kwan, 151.
Ch*^ng Wang or Shi Hwangti, 450.
Ch*6ng Chow, 131, 137, 212.
Ch**ngkiang Fu (Ytinnan), 175.
Ch'^ngteh Fu or Jehol, 66, 77, 78.
Ch'^ngtsung, Emperor (YOen), 459.
Ch'^ngtu Fu, 105, 112, 117.
Ch*engtu Plain, 107, 109, 113.
Ch**ng Wang, Emperor (Chow), 449.
Ch'^nghwa, Emperor (Ming), 460.
Cherchen-Daria, 528.
Chestnut, 398.
Cheukia-k'ow, 59, 62.
Cheuts'un, 84, 87.
Chevalier S.. 20, 102, 293.
Chihli Province, 8, 05-78.
,, Area and Population, 8, 66.
Aspect and Characteristics, 67.
,, Climate, 69; Geology, 67.
,, Orography, 67-68.
,, Hydrography, 69-70.
,, Fauna and Flora, 70.
,, Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 70.
,, Industry and Commerce, 78.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,
71-78.
,, Highways of Communication,
78.
Open Ports, 78.
,, Coast-line of, 251-252.
China, Aboriginal Races of, 4, 342-
345.
,, First Settlers, 4.
,, In the different geological
periods, 3.
,, Area and Population, 5.
,, Distribution of Inhabitants, 5.
,, Divisions, 5.
,, Names applied to the country
and people, 7, 339.
Foreign Relations, 471-473,
475, 478.
,, F)migration ^Chinese abroad-,
478.
China Proper :
,, Boundaries, .\rea and Popu-
lation, 7-8.
,, Present Divisions, 3 Regions
or Basins, 19.
Geological Constitution, 10.
,, Orography or Mountain Sys-
tems, 11-13.
Plains, 13.
,, Rivers and Lakes 15-16.
Coast-line, 16, 238-294.
Fauna and Flora, 17-18.
,, Government and Administra-
tion, 295-316.
,, Revenue and Expenditure, 316-
324, 327, 656.
Imperial Maritime Customs,
325-328.
,, Army and Navy, 328-334.
,, Various Races, 339-345.
668
INDBZ.
,, Languages, 347-350.
,, Religions, 350-3<>5.
Educational System. 364-370.
., Agriculture, 302-3(m.
Mining and Industn*. 402-404.
Foreign Trade. 407-422; 645-
656.
,, Means of Communication, 425-
431.
,, Railways (completed, pro-
jected,, 431-434.
Imperial Post Office, 435-437,
661-662.
,, Telegraphic Lines and Com-
panies, 437-439.
., Steamship Lines and Com-
panies to and from, 439-440.
Chinese Imperial Dynasties. Synopsis
of, 446-447.
Chinese Empire, Historical Sketch
of, 443-47 L
Chinese character-writing. 349-350.
Chinese Race, Antiquity of, '<iSQ.
Chinese Foreign Office or Waiwu
Pu, 298, 4()4, 4<)9.
Ckine»e Repository ^passim).
Chinagrass plant (Ramie fibre), 111,
20(). 395.
China Revieir (passim .
Ch'ichow Fu. 146, 152.
Ch'ihshui (Shensi), 44.
Chihshui R., 96, 110.
Ch'ihk'i T'ing, 203.
("hisholni (i., 442.
Chou Han. 'i67.
Choxizxi Myr . \\)2. 213.
ChowDynMsty, 87, W\, 449.
Chow Kingdom, Rise of, 'i55.
Chow Kun^, 4 v.).
Chows or Provinces, '453.
Chowsin, Emperor (Yin , 448, 449.
Ch'oro.s tribes Kalmuks), 520.
Christianity in China :
Catholicism, 353-358.
Protestantism, 358-361.
Chu-kiang or IVarl river, 202, 204,
209, 280.
Chu Yiusung, Emperor ^Ming), 461.
Chu Yuenchang(Founderof the Ming
dynasty), 459-460.
Ch'u Kingdom, 340.
Ch'u Chow, 146, 151.
Ch'uchow Fu, 227, 230, 231.
Chuhsi (Commentator of Confucius),
145, 351.
Ch'uhsiung Fu, 177.
Chungkias (a cross with Aboriginal
tribes), 188.
Chung-kwoh or Middle Kingdom
(China), 7. 57.
Chungpa, 110, 113.
Chungchow I. 'near Foochow), 222,
223.
Chungt*iao-shan (Mt.\ 51.
Chungt*ien, 95.
Chungtsung, Emperor iT*ang), 456.
Chungwei hsien, 38.
Ch^ungchdng, Emperor iMing*, 355.
461, 506.
Ch'ung-kiang, (R.), 105, 109, 114.
Ch'ungk'ing Fu, 91, 96, 100, 106, 110,
114, 115, 117, 420, 655.
Ch'ungnoing I., 157, 262, 271.
Ch'ungming Point, 263.
Ch'ungngan hsien, 225, 226.
Churches and Chapels in China :
,, Catholic. 357.
,, Protestant, 359.
Chusan (Cheushan) Archipelago, 228,
229, 234, 249, 272. 273.
Cinnamon, 200, 394.
Circuits or Lus (old divisions^, 458.
Circuits or Intendancies (modern
divisions), 306-307.
Clark A., 484.
Clark G. \\\, 193, 372.
Clark S. R.. 193, 372.
Classics, Chinese, 350, 364, 365, 374.
,, destruction of, 450.
,, restored, 451.
Clavery E., 422, 423.
Clement V. (Pope), 354.
Climate of China, 14-15.
,, of Manchuria, 489.
of Mongolia, 515-516.
,, of Turkestan, 526-527.
of Tibet, 541-542.
Cloud F. D , 237.
Clubbed letter mails, 535, 661, 662.
Coal-fields and mines, 52, 53, 54, 70,
83. 86. 91, 107, 112, 115, 120, 134-
135, 141. 143. 206, 402, 408. 493,
529.
Coast-line of China. 238-250.
Ch^kiang, 272-275.
Chihli, 251-252.
Fokien, 276-280.
Kiangsu, 261-271.
Kwangtung, 281-292.
Shantung, 252-260.
Coast Winds and Monsoons, 243-
246.
Cobbold R. H., 371.
Colleges and Schools in China :
,, (Government, 367-^^69.
,, Prirate, 369.
\;:olUhgu^oDd C, 215, 293.
Covins t'. D., 400.
INBU.
669
Colowan I., 288.
Colquhoun A. R., 103, 173, 192, 213-
215, 293, 325, 336, 372-373, 391,
423, 441, 481, 485, 508, 522.
Commerce and Trade, 407-424.
Commerce of the Open Ports, 420-
421, 654-656.
Commercial Treaties with China
(1902-1903), 470, 477.
Communications in China, 425-440.
Compte P. L. Le, 371, 374, 441.
Confucius or K*ung Futze, 65, 80,
87, 351, 352, 444, 449, 456, 458.
Confucianism, 350-351, 379-380.
Conservancy Board (Hwangp'u), 270,
660.
Constitution promised by the Throne,
471.
Consulates, Establishment of, 475.
Consuls, Court of, 267.
Conveyance, Modes of, 427.
Conway Sir W., 556.
Copper, 83, 84, 112, 135, 136, 149, 180,
182, 187, 207, 402, 493, 529, 534,
553.
Cordes, 441.
Cordier H. E., 165, 214, 237, 338,
384, 385. 441, 480.
Comaby W- A., 138, 378, 380, 381,
389.
Cothonay R. P., 235.
Cotton plant, 394, 395, 397.
Cotton Piece-goods and yam (im-
ported), 413-414,649.
Cotton-spinning and weaving mills,
404.
Council, Grand, 74, 297.
Coup d'Etat (of Prince Kung), 464.
Courant M., 20, 371, 390, 422.
Courbet, Admiral, 467.
Courcy (dt), 370, 374, 378, 391, 399,
405, 422.
Court of Censors, 74, 300.
,, of Consuls, 267.
,, of Sacrificial Worship, 301.
,, of State Ceremonial, 301.
Court, Mixed (Shanghai), 267.
Underiings, 311.
Courtelltmonty 191.
Couvreur F. S., 375.
Coxinga. 462.
CrabouiUet. 371.
Crops (see Agriculture), 18, 60, 393-
394.
Crosby O. T., 536. 556.
Culbertson M. S., 378.
Cumfrey (Ti-hwang), 61.
Cummings C. F., 236, 237, 291, 293.
Cunningham, 338, 555.
Currency, Chinese, 316.
,, Necessity of uniformity in,
320-321.
Currents on the China Coast, 240,
249, 255, 263, 273, 276, 279, 283,
291.
Curzon, Sir G. N., 294, 379, 389,
401, 442.
Customs, Imperial Maritime, 325-
328.
,, Revenue collected by, 327,
656.
Customs, Native, 323.
Cyclic Period, Origin of, 444.
Cyclones (SQenfung), 245.
Dabry, 338.
Dabry de Thiersant, 382, 383, 401,
481.
Dahlman R. P., 382.
Dalai Lama, The, 517, 546, 548, 554,
555.
Dalai-Nor, Lake, 491.
Dalny or Talienwan, 492, 500-501,
505.
Daours, (in Manchuria), 493.
Darjeeling, 451.
Darwenl C. E., 166, 442.
Daryl P., 378, 390, 399, 405.
Dautremer, 191.
Da Old, Pkre Armand, 20, 46, 64,
137, 235, 521.
David et Oustalet 20.
Davis, Sir J. F., 88, 103, 214, 215,
237, 243, 380, 381, 399, 405, 441,
479, 483, 521.
Darwin Prince G. //.. 293.
Day H., 401.
Dean VV.. 387.
Deasy, Captain H., 556.
Debesse, Pere A., 375.
Deblenne, 371.
Dechevrens, Pere >/.. 166, 293.
Decken (de), 555.
Deep Bay, 284.
Deer, Grotto of the White, 145.
Deer horns, 113, 498, 553.
Degrees, Literary, 365, 455.
in the New System, 368.
Delamarre, 479.
Delaroche-Vernet. 88.
Delta, Si-kiang or Canton, 202, 203,
205, 206, 211.
Denby Cli.. 389.
Denham J. E., 237.
Denmark, Relations with China, 474.
Dennis J. S., 387.
Dennis N. B., 342, 522, 376.
Depung Monastery (Lhasa), 552.
670
INDBZ.
Deschampn. 165.
Desert, Gobi, 529, 535.
Takla-makan, 530, 535.
Desgodins C. H., 555.
Deshaines, 385.
Dev^ria G.. 382. 481.
Dialects, Multiplicity of. 347, 348.
Dictionaries for the study of the
Chinese Language and Dialects,
347-377.
Dikes (see Embankments).
Diospyrus-kaki or Persimmon, 398.
Divisions of China, Regional, 19.
Provincial, 5, 8.304-305,471.
,, Territorial, 306-310.
Djaghing-gol, River, 25.
Doberck W.. 293.
Docks and Dockyards, 223, 334, 404.
Dodd or Pehting Island, 278.
Dog in China, 17,398.
Dokerla. The Three Peaks of, 13, 182.
Dollars, Spanish or Carolus, 319.
Mexican, 320.
,, Canton, Hupeh, Hongkong,
320.
Dolon-Nor, 70, 77, 491.
Domestic Animals of China, 17, 398.
Doolittle J., 336, 371, 375, 379, 388,
391.
Double Island or MasQ, 281. 284.
Douglas Sir R., 335, :^7, 370-371,
374, 378-379, 384, :«9, 391, 399,
442, 479, 4^3-485, 521.
Dowager Wu, Empress, 456.
Duck. Mandarin, 206.
Duclos, 404.
Dudgeon J., 400.
Duffus W.. 376.
Dufourny. 292.
Dujardin-Daumetz. 422.
Duke, Hereditarv title of, 315.
of Ts'in, 449.
Durand, 386.
Dust-storms in North-China, 23, 59,
69.
Dutch in China, 473.
,, settle in Formosa. 473.
,, Embassies to Peking. 473.
Dyer Ball J.. 3,35-:H38, 370-373, 376-
377, 379, 380-383, 386-388, 391, 401,
423, 4'i2, 479. 483-485. 508, 522.
Dynasties, Synopsis of the Chinese
Imperial. 446.
Dvnastv. I'he Chow, 449; Han, 451-
"^453 : Hsia. 448 : Ming, 460 : Shang
or Yin, 448 ; Sung, 454-457 ; 'l''ang,
456; Tats'ing or Manchu, 461-4"?!;
Tsin, 453-454: Ts'in. 450; YQen
or Mongol, 459.
Earthquakes, 51, 154.
East-India Company trades with
Canton, 287.
,, Its monopoly ceases, 287.
Eastern China Sea or Tung-hai, 241.
Eastern Chinese Railway, 432, 503.
Eastern Turkestan {see Chinese Tur-
kestan-, 523-537.
Ebi-Nor I^ke, 528.
Eden G. H.. 374, 378.
Fxiible birds' ne.sts, 268.
Fxiict, the Sacred. 'i62.
,, abolishing opium, 396-397.
,, regulating the Educational
System, 367, 471.
,, promising a Constitution and
a represent! ve Form of Gov-
ernment, 471.
Fdkins J., 88, 103, 336, 372, 378, 381,
386, 388, 400, 405, 482, 521-522.
Edkins Mr* J., 371.
Education, 364-370 ; 390-392.
,, Old system of, its draw-
backs, 364-365.
,, Modem system of, 367-
368.
,, in Government Schools
exclusivelv Confucian,
369.
,, in Mission Schools, 369.
Students sent abroad for
modem, 369.
,, Praiseworthy efforts to
promote, 'S69.
,, Obstacles to success in,
:^9.
Edwards E. J^.. 390, 508.
F^gs, Large export of, to Japan, 150,
160, 412, 648.
Preser\ed, 136,234.
Egingol River, 512.
Egmont Hake H., 480.
Eitel E. J.. 215, 373, 376, 380-382,
388, 391, 423, 484.
Ektagh Altai or Central Altai Mts.,
511.
Elders, Village, 309-310.
,. chosen from the local Gentry,
309.
,, their functions, 310.
Eleuths, 462, 515, 520.
Elliot, Captain, 474.
^Uis H., 484.
Embankments, to restrain the
Hwang-ho, 27,2^,61.
,, on the Coast of Kicing-
sii, i55, 27l.
,, at tlie motith of thf
Yangtze Ft., 26i.
INDIZ.
671
,, along the Grand Canal
(Kiangsu\ 155, 228,
429.
Embassies to China, from the Popes,
472 ; the Portuguese, 473 ; the
Dutch, 473;
Great Britain (Lord Macartney),
462, (Lord Amherst), 463, 474.
Russia, 474.
Emigration, Statistical tables of, 478.
Emperor of China, Names given to,
295-296 ; resides in Peking, 74 ;
has private hunting grounds
near Peking, 74 ; country-seat
at Jehol, 77, 4()4 ;
his position in the Government,
295 ; chooses Successor to the
Throne, 296 ;
Censors may animadvert on his
conduct, 300 ;
receives directly credentials of
Foreign Ambassadors, 470.
Empress of China, Names given to,
296.
Empress-Dowager Wu Heu, 456.
Km press-Dowager Tz *eh si .
forms with Prince Rung a Re-
gency during minority of the
Emperor T*ungchi, 464 :
becomes again Regent during
minority of Kwangsu, 466;
withdraws from Regency after
marriage of KwangsQ, 467 ;
resumes for the thini time the
Regency to stay hastv reforms,
468;
during the Boxer crisis, orders
extermination of all Forei-
gners, 469 ;
flees to Singan Fu till peace res-
tored, 469 :
returns and re-enters Peking, 470;
begins Era of reorganization, 471.
Encyclopaedia, Chinese :
compiled under the Mings, 460.
under Kanghsi, 462.
English, appear for the first time in
China, 474.
, , Portuguese jealousy of, 474 .
send embassies to Peking
(considered as tribute-
bearers), 462, 463, 474.
,, Trade stopped at Canton,
474.
Wars with China, 463, 464,
469, 474.
Trade with China, 269, 409,
411, 413, 414, iil7, 420, 422,
645,649, 650, 652, 653, 654.
,, Trading Houses and Traders
in China, 346, 420, 654.
,, Share in China's Commerce,
418, 654.
Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
654.
,, Steamship Lines to and
from China, 43*)-440.
,, Population at Shanghai,
267.
,, Railwav enterprise in Chi-
na, 430-433.
,, Treaties with China, 463,
464, 474, 475, 477, 555.
Enselme H. 507.
Envoys, Chinese, to Foreign Courts,
298 (see Ambassadors).
Ergik-Tangak Mts., 511.
Ess^yric, 102.
Etsingol River, 36, 514.
Estuary of the Min-kiang (Min R.),
276, 278.
ofthe Yung-kiang, 274-275.
of the Yangtze, 261, 263.
ofthe Han-kiang, 281, 284.
^tat-major de Vlndo-Chine, 191,213,
214.
Eulfu or Assistant Magistrate, 311.
Eulhai Lake (YQnnan), 180, 345.
Eunuchs, 459, 460, 461.
Eurasia, 2.
Europeans, Early Relations with
China, 471-472,
Ever-victorious Army, 465, 476.
Examinations, Literary, 365-367.
Military, 370.
Exner A. H., 337.
Expenditure of the Chinese Empire,
324.
Exports from China, Value of, 409,
412, 415,416, 417, 645, 648, 651-652.
Ezra E. J., 383.
Faber E., 375, 378, 380, 381, 479.
Factories at Canton, 209, 473 :
burned by the Chinese, 464 ;
established at Sancian and Lam-
pa by the Portuguese, 473.
Fagg J. J., :^9.
Fah Hsien, Buddhist Monk, 472.
Fakum^n, 506.
Famine, Depopulation caused by,
21, 467.
Fan, Dike of Duke, 15^.
Fanch*^ng (Hupeh), 12?.
Fang Family (tea-merchants), 408.
Fans, Manufacture and Export of,
115, 144, 158, 209, 232, 233, 234,408.
Fan-palm, 180.
672
INDB2^.
Fan-tze or Tanguts, 38.
Fati (Hwangti), 209.
Fatshan or Fohshan, 204, 210, 211,
212.
Fauna of China, Generalities, 16-17.
,, Chekiang, 231 ; Chihli, 70.
Fokien, 221 ; Honan, 60.
,, Hunan, 134; Hupeh, 124.
,, Kansu, 36; Kiangsi, 142.
,, Kiangsu, 156-157; Kwang-
tung, 206.
,, Kwangsi, 11)8; Kweichow,187.
,, Manchuria, 492; Mongolia,
515.
,, Nganhwei, 149; Shansi, 52.
Shantung, 83 ; Shensi, 42.
,, Sinkiang, 528; Szechw'an,lll.
,, Tibet, 544; YQnnan, 180.
Fauvel A.. 88, 165, 236, 292, 386,
400, 441.
Favier (Mgn, 87, 386.
Feer L., 521.
Fei-ho R., 148.
F^nchow Fu, 48, 53.
F^nfu or Deputy Magistrate, 311.
F^n-ho R., 26, 41, 45, 48, 51, 55.
Ferguson J. C, 391.
Fergu88on, 484.
Ferreira do Amaral, 288, 473.
Ferry-boats, 27, 429.
Feu Chow, 115, 186.
Feu-kiang, 110, 113.
Fielde A. A/., 376.
Filature silk establishments, 268,
404.
Finances of China, 321, 324, 431.
Fink C, 166, 385.
Finn J., 383.
Fire-crackers, 412, 648.
Firewood, Scarcity of in China, 393.
Fish, Various kinds in China, 17.
,, extensively reared and eaten,
163, 222, 398.
,, scarce in Chihli, 70.
Fish-skin Tartars or Goldi, 493, 496.
Fisher C. B., 480.
Five Sovereigns, Period of, 444.
Flag, British, appears for the first ;
time in China, 474. i
,, Chinese, 418, 653. |
Flat Rocky Point, "litis" wrecked
at, 252.
Fleet, Chinese, 333-334. |
,, destroyed at Canton, 464. ,
,, at Foochow, 467.
,, at W'eihaivvei, 468. '
Fleming (i., 508.
nora of China, 16, 18.
,, of each Province (see Fauna).
Flour, American, 411, 413, 647,649.
Fogs on the China Coast, 246.
,, in YQnnan, 175, 178.
Fohshan or Fatshan, 204, 210, 211,
212.
Fokien Province, 8, 121, 202, 207,
217-226, 276-280.
Area and Population, 218.
Aspect and Characteristics.
219; Climate, 219.
Geology, 219 ; Orography,
219.
Hydrography, 220-221.
Fauna and Flora, 221.
Agricultural and Mineral
AVealth, 221-222.
People and Language, 222.
Cities and Principal Centres,
222-225.
Industry and Commerce,225.
Highways of Communica-
tion, 225-226.
Coast-line and Ports, 276-280.
Fomien or Fohweik'Q, 198.
Foochow, 217, 218, 219, 222-223, 226.
,, Sketch-map of and app-
roaches to, 220, 278.
,, Description of, 222-223.
Dialect, 348.
Foreign trade of, 223, 420,
656; Arsenal, 223.
,, Fleet captured by Admiral
Courbet, 467.
Food of the Chinese, in the North,
18, 71, 394.
Centre and South, 18,
394,
Forbes R. B., 423.
Forbes F. E.. 293, 380, 391, 399, 480.
Forbes and Hamsley. 20.
Force P., 400.
Foreign Concessrons, 16.
,, Relations with China, 471-
477.
,, Trade of China, 407-424 ;
645-656.
,, Ports open to Trade, 326,
463, 654.
Foreign Debt of China, 324.
Foreigners in China :
,, opposition to their entering
the country, 358.
,, hatred of by Chinese, 462,
463, 465.
,, refusal to treat them on
terms of equality, 463.
,, assieged in Peking, 469.
,, massacred, 465, 466, 469,
475, 476.
INOBX.
673
Foreign Population in China, 325,
346, 357, 359, 420, 422,
654, 657.
„ at Hank*ow, 128.
,, in Hongkong, 285.
„ at Shanghai, 267.
„ at T8*ingtao, 258, 422.
Forests, scanty in China Proper, 157,
198, 393.
,, abundant in Manchuria,
492, 493, 494; in Mongolia,
515; in Turkestan, 528;
in Tibet, 544.
Forke A., 375, 376.
Formosa or T*aiwan, 217, 223, 224,
410, 413, 646, 649.
„ Dutch in, 473.
,, occupied by Cozinga, 462.
, , annexed by China, 462, 471 .
„ blockaded by the French,
467.
,, ceded to Japan, 468, 471.
Formosa Channel, 218, 240, 241, 243,
245, 249, 276.
Forts, Taku, 252, 464, 469.
Fortune H., 166, 236, 237, 293, 400.
Foster Mr* A., 376.
Foumier Convention, 467.
Fowler, 237.
France, Relations with China, 473-
474.
joins England against China,
464, 475.
negotiates Treaties with Chi-
na, 463, 467, 475.
obtains important rights for
Catholic Religion, 464, 475.
expels T'aip*ing rebels from
Ch^kiang, 476.
K'ungt'ung 1. ceded to, 256.
in Annam and Tongking, 467.
conflict with China, 467.
leases Kwangchow-wan, 213,
290, 291, 408, 477.
protests against occupation
of Manchuria by Japan, 468.
occupies Peking with Allies,
469, 477.
Trade with China, 410, 418,
646.
exports wine to China, 411 ;
imports silk, 415-416.
Trading Houses and Traders
in China, 346, 420, 654.
Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
420, 653-654.
Steamship Lines to and from
China, 439-440.
Franchet, 20.
Francis Xavier, St., 282, 354.
Franciscan Friars visit China, 472.
,, labour in the China Mission,
354, 355, 356.
FrangoiSj 214.
Frandon, 422.
Franke O., 88, 373.
Freeman-Mitford A. B., 216, 294,
336, 521.
French Missionaries to China, 355,
356, 357, 473-474, 475.
,, Consul massacred at Tien-
tsin, 465.
,, Cemeteries desecrated by
Boxers, 469.
,, Concession (Shanghai), 266,
267.
,, Population at Shanghai, 267.
,, Railway enterprise in China,
431, 433.
,, Telegraphic connection with
China, 438.
,, Postal Establishments in
China, 435, 437.
Frey, G4n4ral 338, 481.
Froc, Pere L., (Sicawei Observatory),
20, 293.
Fruit-trees of China, 18, 36, 37, 53,
60, 83, 187, 198, 231, 394, 398.
Fu or Prefecture (territorial divis-
ion including chief- town), 306-307.
I Fuchow Fu (Kiangsi), 140.
I Fuhk'ai, 196.
I Fuhling or Imperial Mausolea (near
I Mukden), 497.
Fuhning Fu, 218, 225.
I Fuhsi, Founder of the Chinese Em-
' pire, 63, 443, 444.
I Funghwang ch'^ng, 487, 504, 506.
Funghwang-shan (one of the Hills
near Sungkiang Fu), 159.
I Fungning hsien, 78.
I Fungshui (native Geomancy), 466.
I Fungsiang Fu. 39, 44.
Fungt'ien or Mukden, 487, 488,497.
I Fungyang Fu (Nganhwei), 63, 146,
, 150-151.
' Funiu-shari Mt.j, 57, 59, 00. 92, 122.
Furs, 44, 53, 54, 75, 78, 114, 150,
182, 199, 412, 495, 496, 501. 532,
545, 648.
Fusan (Fushan), 461.
Fu-yin or Governor of Peking, 74.
Gabelentz, G, (Von derj, 380, 381,
508.
Gabet M. (Lazarist) visits Lhasa, 552.
Gadoffre, 165.
Gaide, 372.
43
674
INDBX.
Gaillard, Pert L., 1(55.
GaineU 378, 379, 390, 399, 422.
Galdan Monastery (Lhasa), 552.
Gall, Pert S. U. 379.
Gall-nuts, 187.
Gallois L,, 20.
Gambir, false, 200.
Gandar, Pere D., 165, 441.
Gap Rock or Maweichow, 283.
Garaix J.. 294.
Gardner C. T., 389.
Garrisons, Manchu, 329.
Gartok (Kotak'oh), 549, 554, 555.
Gauhil, Pere A., 479, 521.
Gauthier, 338.
Gauzes, Soochow, in little demand
by Foreigners, 404.
Gaztelu, 375.
Gee N. G., 392.
Genaehr J., 389.
Genghis-Khan (the Greatest Khan),
origin of, 515, 517.
Gennevoise F., 378, 379.
Geographical Terms, Signification
of, 640^44.
Geology of China, Generalities :
China In the different Geological
Periods, 3: Geological Consti-
tution of the soil, 10 ; Predom-
inant rocks of the Chinese soil,
3 ; Present Geological action, 3 ;
Geological Map of North China,
9 ; Geological Sketch-map of the
Chinese Provinces bordering on
Tongking, 169 ; Valleys of the
Peh-ho and of the Hwang-ho,
22-23; Valleys of the Yangtze
and of the Hwai-ho, 91-92 ; Si-
kiang valley, 168.
Geology of each Province :
„ Ch^kiang,228,231; Chihli,67, 70.
„ Fokien, 219, 222; Honan, 67, 60.
„ Hunan, 132, 135; Hupeh, 122, 125.
,, Kansu, 31,33; Kiangsi, 141, 143.
,, Kiangsu, 154, 157; Kwangsi, 196.
,, Kwangtung, 203, 206, 207.
,, Kweichow, 185, 187; Nganhwei,
147, 149.
,, Shansi, 50, 55: Shantung, 80
(with Geological Map), 83.
,, Shensi, 31, 40, 42.
,, .Szechw'an, 106-107, 111-112.
,, Yunnan. 177, 180.
Geology of the Dependencies ;
,, Manchuria, 488, 493.
,, Mongolia, 510, 515; Sinkiang,
525; Tibet, 539.
Geological Works on China, 6.
Geomancy or Fungshui, 466.
German Missionaries killed in Shan-
tung, 477.
,, Ambassador massacred in Pe-
king, 469; China erects
monument in expiation, 469.
,, Population at Shanghai, 267;
at Hank*ow, 128 ; at Ts'ing-
tao, 422.
,, Railway enterprise in China,
432, 434.
, , Postal Establishments in China,
435.
Germany, Relations with China, 474.
,, protests against occupation of
Manchuria by Japan, 468.
„ Kiaochow leased to, 85, 87, 258-
260, 468, 477.
,, obtains mining and railway
privileges in Shantung, 468.
,, occupies Peking with Allies,
469, 477,
,, Imperial Prince sent by China
to apologise to, 469.
„ Trade with China, 410, 646.
,, exports dyes and colours, 411;
cotton goods, 413.
,, Trading Houses and Traders
in China, 346, 420, 654.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
653-654.
,, Steamship Lines to and from
China, 439, 440.
Gervay Mission, 191.
Gialbo or King (Tibet), 545.
Giants, believed to exist in the first
Ages, 443.
Giles H. A.. 0, 370, 374,376,381,
382, 406, 479.
Gill W., 103, 118, 138, 192.
Gilman F. G., 372.
Gilmour J., 521.
Ginger, 206, 221.
Ginseng, 114, 234,411,413,492,498.
Giquel, 470.
Gobi Desert, of Mongolia, 509, 512-
513.
of Turkestan, 529-530.
Godard, 377.
Godown or ^Varehouse, 160.
Gcedertz, 88.
Gold in China, 42, 54, 83, 112, 114,
125, 135, 149, 198, 222.
,, in Manchuria, 493, 501.
,, in Turkestan, 528.
,, in Tibet, 545, 553.
Golden Horde or Kin Tartars, 71.
Goldi or Fish-skin Tartars, 493.
Goodrich G., 376.
Gordon, General, 465, 476.
IffDBZ^
675
Government and Administration :
,, Central, 296-301.
*,, Provincial, 301-316.
of Manchuria, 488, 504-505.
,, of Mongolia, 519-520.
,, of Chinese Turkestan, 533-
534.
of Tibet, 545-547.
Governors of Provinces, 301, 302,
303, 305 ; duties of, 303.
,, responsible to Central Gov-
ernment, 303.
Gough, Sir Hugh, takes Shanghai, 266.
Gough Island, 264, f>60.
Grain cultivated in China, 18, 36, 42,
60.70,71,83,111,124,134,142,149,
157, 180, 187, 1118, 206, 221, 231,394.
Grain Intendant, 303, 306.
Grain Tax and Revenue, 321, 322.
Grain Transport Administration, 303,
330.
Grammars for Chinese Language,375.
,, for Manchu, 508.
,, for Mongol, 522.
for Tibetan, 557.
Grand Council, 74, 297.
,, Court of Revision, 300.
,, Secretariat, 74, 297.
Grand Canal {see Canal).
Grandidier, 404.
Grandprey (de), 338.
Grapes, 52, 77,83,493, 544.
Graphite (found in Mongolia), 515.
Grasscloth plant, 111, 206. 395, 412,
648.
Graves H. H., 372.
Gravikre J. (de la), 292.
Great Britain in China (see English).
Great Khingan or Hsingngan), 513.
Great Wall, 28-29, 33, 39, 69.
,, construction and length of, 29,
450.
,. erected against Huns and
Funguses, 29, 451.
,, repaired under the Mings, 450,
460.
., of little value to-day, 29.
,, Passes through it, 29, 55.
„ Region within and without, 29.
Grten G. H., 399.
Grten J., 237.
Green Standard Army, 330.
Grenard, 46, 63, 555.
Grealon A., 479.
Grillikres, 191.
Groot (de), J. M.J., 378, 379.
Groaier, 6. 64, 88, 118, 138, 165, 191,
193. 213. 214, 236, 237, 371, 391,
d99, 405, 422, 507. 521.
Groajean, 404.
Grotto of the White Deer, 145.
Groundnut, 158, 160, 198, 200, 206,
210, 233, 394, 395, 412, 648.
Grueber Fr. (Jesuit), visits Lhasa, 552.
Guam, Telegraphic line to, 439.
Guava, 198.
Gueluyy 535.
(ruia Lighthouse (Macao), 249, 283.
Guiakio or Yalung River, 544.
Guignes (de), 374, 482, 520;
Guinness M., 388.
Guiot L., 386.
Gulfs {see Bays).
Gum, 44, 187, 397.
Gumpach J. (Von), 484.
Gunboats, Chinese, 334.
Gtindry G., 293.
Gundry R, S., 30, 166, 214, 237, 293,
337, '338, 379, 382, 387, 391, 405,
423, 441, 483.
Guppy H. n., 103.
Gurkhas invade Tibet, 462.
,, conquer Nepal, 554.
,, enter Tibet with British
Expedition, 555.
Gutzlaff G., 88, 89, 118, 137, 138, 165,
166, 192-193, 213-216, 236, 237.
293, 374, 377, 379, 388, 399, 405,
423, 479, 480, 507, 521, 536.
Gutzlaff 1. or TachMh, 263, 273.
,, Tides at, 263.
,. Telegraph station at. 438.
Gyantse (Tibet). 550, 554.
Gymnastics in modern Chinese
schools. 368.
Gypsum, 86, 231.
Hachun-Gobi Desert, 530.
Hackmann H., 382.
Hager J., 374.
Hai Chow, 154, 261.
Haikwan or Customs Tael. 318, 408,
410.
,, weight of. 318.
., par value of, 318.
.. fluctuation through fall in
silver, 318.
,, Gold equivalent of (1870-1906),
319.
Hailar or Khailar. 495.
HailQ-tao or Alceste 1., 255.
Hailun T*ing. 488.
Hailung Fu, 487.
Haim^n (in Kiangsu, near mouth of
Yangtze R.), 97, 154, 157,
261, 262, 263, 271.
,. its inhabitants, 157, 158, 271.
,. language spoken, 158.
676
INMX.
„ communications by steam-
boat with Shanghai, 271.
Hainan I., 203, 282.
Capital of, 202, 212, 282.
,, Area and population, 282.
,, Geological formation, 203.
Fauna and Flora, 206.
„ Aboriginal tribes of, 207,282,
343, 344-345.
dialect spoken, 207, 348.
„ exports, 211, 291.
„ Lighthouses of, 283-284.
Haiphong, 290-291.
Haitian Bay (Fokien), 276.
Haitian !.. 278.
Haitian Pass, 276.
Hakkas or K'ohkias (aliens, sqnat-
ters\ 198, 199, 207, 343.
,, original home of, 207, 344.
,, actual race, 199; character of,
343, 344.
„ principal habitat of, 199, 343.
,, furnish many emigrants, 207.
„ part transported to Kwangsi
and Hainan 1.. 344.
„ dialect of, 207, 343.
„ books for learning, 377.
Halde (du), 88, 118. 137, 165, 192,
193, 213, 214, 236, 271, 378, 381,
385, 441, 479, 507, 521.
Hall W. /f.. 480.
Halloran A, L„ 293.
Hami or Hahmih T*ing, 363. 460,
524, 526, 529. 534.
Hamilton A. B., 236.
Hampden du Bone h. C, 166, 378.
Han Dynasty, 446, 451-453.
its Founder, Liupang. 451.
Former or Western, 451.
Emperors of, 451.
waged war against Huns, 45i.
,, Later or Kastem. i52.
,, introduced Buddhism. 452.
held intercourse with Roman
Empire, 452.
,, last Emperors of. 452.
,, general character of, 452.
Han Dynasty. Posterior, 457.
Han J^n or **Men of Han** .'name
taken bv the Chinese , 7. 452.
Han River, 120, 122, 123. 124.
„ Valley, 124, 125.
HanchnngFu Shensi. 39, 44, 123.
Han-hai or rainless sea Gobi Desert',
509-510.
Hankow. 93, 97, 122, 125-127, 130,
326, 421, 655.
Sketch-map of, 126.
,, distance from sea-ooast, 98.
from Shanghai, 100-101.
,, flow of Yangtze at, 99.
,, Population of, 125; Foreign
trading Houses at, 128.
Shipping and Trade. 127-128,
421, 655.
., exports brick>tea to Russia,
417, 652; Railway to Peking,
102, 431.
Hanlin or Imperial Academy, 299-
300, 459.
Hansa, 508.
iianyang Fu (Hupeh), 121, 124, 125.
126, 127-128, 458.
Hangchow Fn, 159, 227, 229, 230,
232, 235, 458.
,, terminus of Grand Canal, 230,
235.
, , Bay of, 272, 273; Bore or eagre,
230, 272.
,, Capital of the Empire under
the Southern Sungs, 235,
458.
famous for its beautiful site,
159, 232.
devastated by the T'aip'ings,
282.
„ Trade of, 232, 421, 655.
Steamship communication
with Shanghai, 271.
Hao or Ch'angngan hsien, 447, 449.
Happer A.P.. 370,385.
Harbin, 96, 503, 505.
HarUz C. (de\ 372, 377, 379.
Hart. Sir Robert, 320. ,321. 325. 337,
42,3.435,481, 500.
Hart V.C, 118.380.
Hart E.. 401.
Hassenstein. 88.
Havrtt Pert H., 46, 165, 383.
Hawks-Pott F. L.. 377. 479. 481.
Uayashi, Baron, 500.
Hay ward G. W., 536.
Heaven together with the Earth,
object of Imperial wor-
ship, 353. 378-379.
Dowager Empress Wu Heu
offers the .\nnual sacri-
fices to, 456.
alone great. 444 : Yao imit-
ated it, 444.
sends calamities and misfor-
tunes. 295.
punishes unworthv Rulers.
448.
withdraws mandate from
Princes. 295.
Emperor is its Vicegerent
;T'ientze\ 295.
INDIX.
677
,, Temple of, in Peking, 73,74.
Hedde J., 399.
Hedley J., 88, 336, 522.
Heh-ho or Hei-ho (R.), 35.
Hehlung-kiang or Amur R., 475, 489-
490.
Hehlungkiang cbdng or Aigun, 494.
Hehshui T'ing, 488.
Heir to the Throne :
,, under the Hsia dynasty, 448.
,, actually chosen by the reigning
Emperor, 296.
Hemp, 42, 83, 111, 158, 187, 207, 223,
231, 412, 492, 648.
Hemsleyf 557.
H^ngchow Fu, 131, 132, 135-136.
H^ng-shan (Hunan), 13, 132.
Henrion, 384.
Henry A., 20, 372.
Hertslet, Sir E., 485.
Heude. Pert P., 20, 166.
Heu Chow or Posterior Chow, 457.
Heuchu, last Emperor of the Minor
Han, 453, 455.
Heu Han or Posterior Han, 457.
Heuki I. and Lighthouse (Miaotao
Islands), 254.
Heu Liang or Posterior Liang, 457.
Heu T'ang or Posterior T'ang, 457.
Heu Ts'in or Posterior Ts*in, 457.
Hexapolis or six Towns (Chinese
Turkestan), 531.
Hides, Export of, 412, 648.
High Commissioners (Tibet), 545.
High Justices, Three, 301.
High Ministers of State or Hwei-i
Tach'^n, 297.
Highways of Communication :
Ch^kiang, 235 ; Chihii, 78.
,, Fokien, 225-226 ; Honan,
62-63.
Hunan, 137; Hupeh, 129-
130.
Kansu, 38; Kiangsi, 145.
Kiangsu, 163-164.
,, Kwangsi, 200; Kwang-
tung, 211-212.
Kweichow, 190.
,, Nganhwei, 151-152; Shan-
si, 54-55.
,, Shantung, 86; Shensi, 45.
Szechw*an, 117-118.
Yannan, 182-183.
,, Manchuria, 501.
Mongolia, 518-519.
,, Sinkiang or Chinese Tur-
kestan, 534-535.
Tibet, 553-554.
HiUiard Atteridge A., 387.
Hills, The (near Sungkiang Fu), 159.
,, the hundred thousand, 196.
Himalaya Mts., 539, 541, 544.
Hindoo race, 112, 533.
Hindustan, 523, 538, 554.
Hinnam G. W., 508.
Hippisley, 405.
Hirth f\ 405, 472.
Historians in the Sung Dynasty,
458.
Historical Works or Shi, 350.
History of the Chinese Empire, 443-
471.
,, of the Three States or San
Kwoh, 453.
Hoang P., 335, 336, 338, 371.
Hobson H. E., 483.
Hodgson M., 406, 557.
Hoh Chow, 50, 110.
Hohfei hsien, 150.
Hoh-kiang R. or Ch*ih-shui,96, 110;
186.
Hoh-shan (Mt.), 50, 147, 149.
Hoihow or Haik'ow (Hainan L) :
„ Harbour of, 283.
„ Trade of, 211, 212, 291.
,, Communications with Hong-
kong, Pakhoi, Swatow, 291.
,, its time-zone, 292 ; great typ-
honic centre, 291.
Hokien Fu, 66, 78.
Hoklos or Foklos (people from Fo-
kien), 207, 344.
Hok'ow, 183, 477.
Holan-shan or Alashan Mts., 11,25,
35, 514.
Holcomb, 371.
Holdich and Rockhill, 556.
Holland, Relations with China, 473.
,, sends embassies to Peking,
462, 473.
Trade with China, 410, 646.
,, Trading Houses and Traders
in China, 346, 420, 654.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
653-654 {see Dutch, Dutch
Indies).
Holland, Capt., 476.
Home Trade of China, .328, 407-408.
,, most important, but impos-
sible to estimate, 407.
,, largely a retail trade, 407.
,, wholesale trade monopolised
by Guilds, 408.
,, duties levied on at Open
Ports, 328.
Honan Province, 8, 46, 48, 51, 52, 56-
64.
,, Area and Population, 8, 56.
678
TNDBX.
Aspect and Characteristics, I
56-57. !
Climate, 59; Geology, 57. '
Orography , with Sketch-map: \
Section of Mts. in \V. Ho- :
nan^, 57. 58.
Hydrography, 51M)0.
Fauna and Klora, (\0.
Agricultnml and Mineral
Wealth, IW.
., People and Ijingnage, tiO.
Cities and Principal Centres,
Industry and Commerce, 62.
High wavs of Communication,
62-H3.'
Railway Lines, i,12.
Historical notcrs on. 63, 44 V,
447. 448, 449- 451. i53. 454,
455,458, 48*\
Honan Fu. 56, SI.
HoQgkew or Hunsk'ow Shanghai ,
160. 266.
Hongkong or Hsian^kian?. 181.203,
211,213,281.284.186, with
Sketch-m'ip', 42T.
oeded to Great Britain. 285,
463, 474.
Arex^ and popaUtion. 2^.
Kowioon added. 4^4. 475.
Trade of, 2^-286. 4«S, 411.
414. 417, 422. 64S, 649. 652.
Indmstnes. 286: GoTemmeiit,
2S«.
eTpH.-k<ed to trphonic disasters.
285
Hoackoa^ Bay. 2Sl.
♦/f '»tjt.>-<jp C'tr>^ici< aad Dirrct&ry, '
214, iH-
Hv^pe ».rA-.t. Vdrsin^L. 475. 476.
//.>cA;t5 /-- C - 3'*5.
H.>r - HcrpvA tnS^ T^He: . >47.
H->n. V Ape, rtb*
H.^-T^ C- S ^>8.
H.^i^ A Sc- tlS^ 19rr 193,337.372.
423. 442. >><
Hv^t'AO r^ t.Vrio* Pijt**ivi. 513.
Hv>ti. Fnr^r-, r Ljkier Haa . 452.
Uoti. F:30«erjr r>*t . 454.
Hocse Isi^xi :*" Hw:iB«skau S52.
2!a.
Hfx-^t^ H H . 521.
Hssa Dm-^stT R C, 22^:^ . 443. 44S.
446,
seat X F>-«p:r^ it Hsi*! CWw,
55. *t YA:ii'*sc*. 4-*"*.
ssca Wr o* SoTvfifi^fms^ 444. 44S.
Hsia or Tangut Kingdom (Kansn^
rise of, 458.
China pays tribute to it, 458.
Hsia-ho, 156.
Hsia-kwan, 158.
Hsiai Chow. 50, 51, 55.
Hsiamen or .\moy (see Amoy).
Hsienfung. Fmperor ;Tats'ing), 464.
events of his reign, 464.
Hsienti, last Emperor of the Later
Han, 452.
Hsientsung or Ch'^nghwa, Emperor
(Ming . 29. 460.
Hsienyang :Shensi\ 43, 450.
Hsin Chow Shansi^^. 50.
Hsinghwa Bay Pokien\ 276.
Hsinghwa Fu, 218.
Hsing-i Fu, 172.
Hsingking Manchuria-, fomilj re-
sidence of the Manchas, 487, 497.
Hsini^ngan Mts.. 309, 489, 533.
Hsingngan Fu Shensi , 123.
Hsiogp'ing hsien Shensi-, 41.
Hsiungnu .«ee Huns .
Hsu Chow Honan , 56. 63.
Hsuchow Fu Kiangsu-. ^tee Suchow
Fu.
Hsuchow Fu Szechw*an . jce Sft-
chow Fu ^r Suifu.
Hsuen Chwang. Bnddkist 34oBk:
visits India, returning bT CaBtcNt,
472, 335.
Hsdjung-ho see Sayung-te'.
Hs&Tung "Ping aee'saroMg T*mgL
Hmbrr E., 4«2.
Hue M. Laiarrst . ». 384. 399, 555.
visits Liiasa. 552.
Huchow Fu. 227.
Hxtds<^n B . 237.
Hui-ho R . 14^
Huili Chow. •»
Huk-ow Ciaii j:!i2-ct> P' 3»r^!ig
Like with Yaaftj* R .142-
Huk'ow hs>ea P^in jf Ca.*, Kiia^
SI . 145.
Hikw^n^ Hoa^n i»i H«9e^ . 1M,
X^. »^. v^l-
HuUa Miac^ari^ . 485$. 4S5.
H^ikva .»- KjlIos L-ike. 4S^t
ii%ym^*M^ if . 3r3-
Holts. A soaijki CeflLtriL^~As:Ax trib* :
sacestars <rf tie «>c%c«f&.
Mcotir:^ A»d rxrks^ 451.
ie^i*t kic-ti. 451 ; wcrs*»i< W
W^iti. 451
«-«K la cWc^L fy Mtiictt. V\?
T^ec^^-^eii t%> t^ C^sa^kr^ Vr
Hoc:. 45L
INDEX.
679
,, claim Throne under Hweiti
(Tsin), 453.
,, take Lohyang (A. D. 310), and
occupy N. China under
Hwaiti, 454.
,, establish the Wei Kingdom
(Honan;, 454, 455.
,, defeat ^Vuti (Liang) 455, and
Taitsung ('r*ang), 45G.
», cause struggle between N. and
S., 456.
Hunan Province, 8, 120, 121, 131-138.
,, Area and Population, 131.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,
132 ; Climate, 132.
Geology, 132: Orography, 132.
,, Hydrography, 132-133.
,, Fauna and Flora, 134.
,, Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 134-135.
,, People and Language, 135.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,
135-136.
,, Industry and Commerce, 136.
,, Highways of Communication,
137.
Open Ports, 137.
Hunch* un, 506.
Hundred Families or Pehsing, 339.
Hungchi, Emperor (Ming), 460.
Hunghai or Hwanghai Bay, 281.
Hung Hsdts'Oen (T'aip*ing Chief),
464.
Hung-kiang (R.), 110,
Hunglan or Waglan Island, 283.
Hung-shan (Mt.), 67.
Hungshui or Red River, 170, 172,
186, 196.
Hungtington E., 536.
Hungtseh Lake, 59, 91, 148, 156.
Hung Wu, Founder of the Ming
Dynasty, 150-151, 184, 201, 460.
Hupeh Province, 8, 120, 121-130.
Area and Population, 121.
Aspect and Characteristics,
121-122: Climate, 123.
Geology, 122; Orography, 123.
Hydrography, 123.
Fauna and Flora, 124.
Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 124-125.
People and Language, 125.
Cities and Principal Centres,
125-129.
Industry and Commerce, 129.
Highways of Communication,
129.
Railway Lines, 431.
Open Ports, 130.
Hurka or Peony River, 490.
Hurley R. C, 442.
HushanorTigerL (near Ningpo), 273.
Hut'eu or Tiger Head Bay (Fokien),
277.
Hut'o-ho (R.), 70.
Hut'ukht'u or Avatar, 516.
Hwa hsien (Kwangtung\ 206-207.
Hwa-kiang (R.), 186.
Hwap'ingchw'an T'ing, 32.
Hwa-shan one of the Five Sacred
mountains , 26, 44, 51, 57.
Hwaying-miao famous for its straw
shoes , 44.
Hwai-ho, 23, 57, 59, 146, 148, 156.
Hwaiking Fu, 51, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63.
Hwailung-shan (Mt.), 57, 122.
Hwaingan Fu (salt manufacturing
centre), 153, 154, 163.
Hwaiti, Emperor (Tsin), 453.
Hwaiyang-shan (Mt.), 57, 92, 122,
123, 147.
Hwaiyuen hsien, 151.
Hwang ch'eng or Imperial City (Pe-
king), 71, 72.
Hwangchow Fu, 121,125, 128, 130.
Hwangchow T'ing, 132.
Hwang-hai or Yellow Sea, 240, 241.
Hwang-ho or Yellow River, 23, 24,
28, 41, 55, 60,69,82,84.
154,163, 251,452.
,, sources of (with Sketch-
map}, 24.
length of, 24 ; flow of, 29.
,, various names given to, 28.
,, embankments of, 27, 28,
61, 82.
Inundations of, 28, 37, 61,
82.
Upper Course of, 24-25.
Middle Course of, 25-26.
,, Lower Course of, 26-27.
,, variations in its Course,
27-28, 154.
,, high level of its bed in
i Shantung, 82.
navigable, 38, 41 . 55, 60, 82.
; Hwangp'oo or Shanghai River, 98,
155, 160, 261, 266, 268,
269, 271.
I ,. inundations of. 155.
., volume diminishing. 16'!.
' ,, Bar at its mouth, 264, 270.
,, Conservancy Work of,(>60.
' Hwangsha or House Island. 262, 26.'^.
' Hwang-shan Mt.), 147.
Hwangti, Founder of thi* Km pi re,
339, 444.
, Hwangyang-shan (Mt.), 67.
680
INDBX.
Hweichow Ku (Kwangtung), 202,470. |
Hweichow Fu (Nffanhwei), 146, 150. i
Hweiti, Kmperor (Former Han), 451. \
Hweiti, Emperor (Tain), 453. !
Hweitsung, Emperor (N. Sung), 458. j
,, fled before the Kin Tar- '
tars, 458. ;
Hwohluh hsien, 75. |
Hwotien Fu or Khoten, 524, 530. *
Hydrography of China Proper, 15, I
16. !
,, Valleys of the Feh-ho and i
oftheHwang-ho, 23-28. |
,, Valleys of the Yangtze and
of the Hwai-ho, 93-100. ,
Valley of the Si-kiang, 170- !
173. ;
Hydrography of each Province : I
Chdkiang, 229-231 ; Chihli, 1
69-70; Fokien, 220-221. j
Honan, 59-60; Hunan, 132-
134; Hupeh, 123-124. '
Kansu, 35-36; Kiangsi, 141- |
142.
Kiangsu, 155-156.
Kwangsi, 196-198; Kwang-
tung, 204-206; Kwei-
chow, 186-187.
,. xNgunhwei, 148-149; Shan-
si, 51 ; Shantung, 82.
Shensi, 41-42; Szechw'an,
109-111.
Yunnan, I78-Ti80.
Hydrography of the Dependencies :
of Manchuria, 489-41M.
of Mongolia, 511-512.
., of Chinese Turkestan, 527-
528.
of Tibet, 542-54/«.
I (Barbarian) formerly applied to
Foreigners, now officially forbid-
den, 343.
1 Chow (Chihli), 67.
I-ho (R.), 82.
I Tsing, Buddhist Monk visits Su-
matra, 472.
Ice on the coast of Chihli, 251.
,, of Shantung, 255.
Ich'ang Fa (Hupeh), 95, 96, 99, 117,
121, 128, 130.
Ich'ang hsien, 137, 212.
Ichih(Shang;, 448.
Ichow Fu Shantung;, 79, S3.
Idolatry, 516.
Igneous rocks, 2.
Ikias 1. Aborigines of the S. and S.AV.;
a pre-chinese race), 188, 198,
199, 207, 339, 343.
,, inhabit Kweichow,188;Kwaiig>
si, 198-199 ; Kwangtung, 207.
Hi, 362, 462, 465, 524, 532-533.
,, occupied, by Russia (1871), 476.
„ restored (1881), 467, 476, 533.
Hi Fu (see Kuldja)
„ River, 528, 532.
„ Valley, 525, 526.
litis, German gunboat, loss of, 255.
Imbauit-Huart, 535, 536.
Imperial City or Hwang ch*dng (Pe-
king), 71, 72, (with plan).
,, Clan Court and Household,
301.
,, Tombs at Mukden, 497.
,, Academy or Hanlin, 299.
„ Army, 328-329.
., Board of Astronomy, 901.
,, Canal {see Canal).
., Maritime Customs, 325-328.
Post Office, 435-437; 661-662.
,, Telegraph Company, 438.
,, Agent or Amban (Urga\ 517.
„ Resident (Tibet), 545-546.
,, Japanese Resident(Mukden},
488.
Imports into China, Value of, 409-
411, 646-650.
Incense sticks. 44.
Indemnities, to Great Britain, 463,
464, 466, 474.
to France, 465, 467.
,, to Russia, 477.
to Japan, 324, 468, 476.
Boxer, 324, 325, 46§, 477.
India, British, 523, 535, 538, 548, 549.
558, 554.
,, trade with China, 409, 414, 439,
645, 646, 649.
,, with Tibet, 553.
Indian ink, 91, 150, 151, 403.
,, opium, 411, 414, 650.
,, tea, 395.
., yarn, 414, 649.
,, Population at Shanghai, 267.
Indies, Dutch, trade of, 410, 646.
Indigo, 114, ll«), 187, 190, 200, 207.
211, 234, 'j92.
Indo-China, French, 291, 467, 477.
trade with China, 410, 646.
., exports principally rice, 411.
Indus, River, 541, 544.
Industrial Schools, 369.
Industry of China, 91, 163, 403-404,
408.
., of each Province :
Chekiang, 235 ; Chihli, 78.
Fokien, 225; Honan, 62.
Hunan, 136; Hupeh, 129.
INDBX,
681
Kansu, 38; Kiangsi, 144.
Kiangsu, 168: Kwangsi,200.
,, Kwangtung,211; Kweichow,
190.
,, Nganhwoi, 151 ; Shansi, 54.
Shantung, 86; Shensi, 44.
,, Szechw'an,116; Y0nnan,182.
Industry of the Dependencies :
,, of Manchuria, 501.
,, of Mongolia, 518.
,", of Turkestan, 534.
,, of Tibet, 553.
Inglis R., 423.
Inner Cabinet or Neikoh, 297.
Inner Mongolia, Extent of, 519.
,, Administration of, 519.
Innocent IV (Pope), 472.
Insignia of Civil and Military Bank,
314, 444.
Inspector-General of Customs, 246,
325.
Instruction in Chinese Schools, 364-
367.
Intendancies or Circuits, 306, 312,
559, 561, 562, 564, 565, 566, 567,
568, 569, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575,
577, 578, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584-
585.
Intendant or Taot*ai, 303, 307.
Intercalary month inserted by the
Emperor Yao, 445.
Intercourse of Western Powers with
China, 473-475.
Inneen E., 237, 556.
Irawaddy River, 179, 544.
frisson M., 399, 405.
Irkutsk, 509.
Iron-ore in China, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62,
78, 125, 151, 157, 211, 402, 493.
Irrigation of the Ch'^ngtu Plain, 113..
Islands, 242,^46, 251, 253-254, 255,
261-262, 263, 264, 272, 273, 275,
277-278, 281-283, 289, 290.
Italy, Relations with China, 477.
,, Trade with China, 41 0,41 6,646.
,, Trading Houses and Traders
in China, 346, 420, 646.
,, Population at Shanghai, 267.
Itsung, Emperor ^T*ang), 456.
lyin. Prime Minister (Shang dyna-
sty), 448.
Jacquet, 213.
Jade or YQh, 408, 528, 529, 530, 532.
Jade-stone Gate or YOhmdn, 529.
James H. F., 381, 507.
Jametel. 88.
Jamieson G.. 335, 336, 338, 399, 424,
442.
Jamieson J. W ., 335, 336, 337, 405.
Janglalse (Western Tibet), 551.
Jaochow Fu, 140, 144.
Japan, 223, 240, 269, 270, 461,651.
,, Emperor Shitsu (YQen) fails in
expedition against, 459.
,, invades Korea and settles at
Fusan (Fushan), 461.
,, receives Buddhism from China,
352.
,, wars with China, 467, 468,
476, 477.
,, Formosa ceded to, 468.
,, war with Russia, 470.
,, Port Arthur and Dalny(Tairen)
transferred to, 470, 492.
,, leases territory in S. Manchu-
na, 470, 500.
,, Customs Agreement (Dalny)
with China, 500-501.
,, Trade with China, 223, 410,
411, 413, 414, 646, 649, 651.
,, Trading Houses and Traders
in China, 128,346,420,654.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
653, 654.
,, Steamship Lines to and from
China, 439-440.
,, Railway enterprise in China,
431, 432, 434, 503-504.
,, Telegraph Lines to China, 224,
438.
,, Treaties with China, 470, 477.
,, Chinese students in, 369.
,, Catholics iii, 358.
Japanese incursions on the coast of
China, 460.
pirates attack Shanghai, 266,
466.
Settlements in China, 75,127,
159, 223, 224.
Population at Shanghai, 267;
at Hank'ow, 128.
Post Offices in China, 435.
Chancellor of Legation mur-
dered at Peking, 469.
troops occupy Peking, 469,
477.
Imperial Resident at Muk-
den, 488.
at Newchwang, 498, 500.
Jarkent (Chinese Turkestan), 533.
Jarme R.. 400.
Jehol or Ch'^ngteh Fu, 66, 69, 70,
77-78.
,, Lord Macartney at, 462.
,, Kiaking dies at, 463.
,, Hsienfung Hees to, 464.
Jdnhwai T'ing, 185, 186.
44
682
INDEX.
Jenkt J. W.. 320.
Jennings W.. 375.
J^ntsang, Emperor (N. Sung), 458.
J^ntsung. Emperor Yflen), 459.
„ restored the Hanlin Acad- j
emy, 459. i
ignored the rites, 459. i
Jeremiassen C. C. 373.
Jemigan T. R., 166, 336, 337, 370,
387. 391, 405, 423, 442, 483, 484.
Jesuits first enter China (under
Wanlih), 354, 355, 461.
, . secure by their science esteem
of the learned class, 355.
,. reform the Imperial Calendar,
355.
., their relations with K*ang-
hsi, 355, 462.
,. their influence feared by
KMenlung, 463.
,, labour in the China Mission,
356.
,, have Observatory at Sicawei
(near Shanghai,, 355.
Jenus de Montalto. 216, 385, 483.
Jews (Judaism) in China, 60, 363,
383, 472.
Jinricksha, 102, 162, 427.
John of Marignoli, 472.
,, Montecorvino, 354, 472.
Piano Carpini, 354, 472.
Johnson W. H., 536.
Jones A. G.. 371.
Joss-paper, 233, 275.
Ju Chow, 56, 60, 61, 63.
Judge, Provincial or Xieht'ai, 306.
Jujube, 37, 83, 398, 544.
JuHen S.. 381, 400, 405, 481.
Junk, origin of the word, 226.
Junk-trade. Chinese, 116, 144. 18<>,
289, 323. 418, 653.
Juning Fu (Honan), 5t>, 59.
Justice, speedy form of village. 310-
311.
paternal, 310-311.
Jutze Ying, Emperor ^Former Han),
452.
Kachyns or Burmese "wild men",
112.
K'aifung Fu (Honan), 26, 56, 60-61,
63, 426, 444, 457, 458, 460.
Jews at, 363.
Kaihwa Fu {YOnnan , 175, 183.
K'aip'ing coal-mines, 70, 402, 430.
Kalgan or Cbangkia-k*ow. 67, 77,
78, 518, 519.
Kalgan Pass, 29, 78.
Kalkhas (Mongol tribe . 515, 518,520.
Kalmucks (Mongol tribe), 462. 515,
520.
Kalons or Shapeh (Tibetan Council-
lors of State), 546.
Kambalu ;Khanbalig) or Peking, 71,
354. 459.
Kan-kiang or Kan R.. 97, 140, 141-
142, 145.
Kanchow Fu (Ransu), 32, 37, 38.
Kanchow Fu Riangsi). 140. 142.
Kanchuh (Kwangtung), 212.
K*ang or Stove-bed, 23, 91.
K*ang or Chamdo (Eastern Tibet),
545.
K*anghsi, Emperor ^Tats^ing;,' 120,
164. 355. 462.
,, events of his reign. 462.
,, relations with the Jesuits,
355, 462.
,. Dictionary of, 349, 350, 462.
Kannengeiser A., 386.
Kansu Province. 8, 11, 22, 24, 25, 28,
30, 31-38, 104, 105, 465, 523,
525, 529, 434, 553.
,, Area and Population, 32.
,, Aspect and Characteristics, 33.
,, Climate, 35; Geology, 33.
„ Orography, 33-34.
„ Hydrography, 35-36.
,. Fauna and Flora, 36.
,, Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 36.
People and language, 36.
Cities and Principal Centres,
37-38,
,. Industrv* and Commerce, 38.
,, Highways of Communication,
38.
Kaoliang or Sorghum, 83, 142, 149,
492.
Kaolin ;Kaoling , 70, 143.
Kaoti. Emperor (Former Han), 451.
,, first sacrificed to Con^cius,
451.
,, defeated by the Huns, 451.
Kaoti, Emperor (Ts*i), 454.
Kaotsu, Emperor (T*ang), 456.
Kaotsung, Emperor {T*ang), 456.
Kaotsung, Emperor (S. Sung), 458.
his character, 458.
summoned the Mongols
against the Kin Tar-
tars, 458.
Kaoyiu I^ke (Kiangsu), 156.
Karakoram Mts., 525, 526, 527, 541.
Pass to Ladak), 526.
Kara-koshum Lake, 527.
Kara-muren R. vHwang-ho), 28.
Amur R.), 489.
INDEX.
683
Kara-Nor Lake), 530.
Karashar or Y^nk'i Fu, 524, 531 , 534.
Karaussu-Nor (Lake . 511.
Kargalyk (Chinese Turkestan), 531.
Kashgar or Shufu hsien, 362. 363,
523, 524, 530-531, 533, 534.
Kashgar Daria, 528.
Kashgaria or Chinese Turkestan,
523-537.
., Mahomednn revolt in,
362-363, 465.
Kauffman K. E., 236.
Kaulen, 508.
Keane A. //,, 521.
Kelung( Formosa) bombarded by the
French, 467.
Kemchik River, 511.
Rental Mts., 511, 513.
Kerosene oil, found in Szechw'an,
403.
,, imported into China,
411, 413, 647.
Kerulen River, 490, 513.
Kerval 64.
Kesson^ 387.
Ketels M ., 422.
Keupangtze Junction { Shanhai-
kwan-Newchwang Line , 431, 503.
Khailar or Hailar, 495, 503.
Khamar-Doban Mts., 511.
Khamba-Jong (Tibet), 651, 554.
Khamil (see Hami).
Khanka or Hsinghai R., 490.
Lake. 491.
Khan-Tengri Peak, 525.
Khchara or Charing Nor (Lake), 25.
Khingnan (see Hsingngan).
Khnora or Oring Nor (Lake \ 25.
Khoits (Kalmuck tribe), 520.
Khoja Dynasty (Kashgar), 362.
Khoshoits (Kalmucks), 520.
Khoten or Hwotien, 37, 363, 524, 530.
Khoten Daria, 527, 528.
Ki or Epochs (divisions of early
Chinese history), 444.
Kihngan Fu, 140, 142.
K'i hsien iShansi), 54.
Kiahsing Fu, 227, 233.
Kiak'ing. Emperor (Tats*ing), 463.
refuses to receive Russian
Ambassador, 463.
reception of I .ord Am herst,
463; K'owt'ow refused,
463.
prohibits propagation of
Catholic religion, 463.
,, character of, 463.
Kiakhta or Maimai ch'dng, 517, 518,
519.
Kialing-kiang iR.), 35, 96, 105, 109-
110.
Kialu-ho (R., 59.
Kiating Fu. 106, 109, 112, 114.
Kiatsing, Emperor (Ming), 460.
,, character of. 460.
Kiatze or Cyclic characters, 4Vi.
Kiaving Chow, 203.
Kiayu Pass (Great Wall!. 29.
Kiai Chow, 32.
Kiang Chow, 50, 54.
Kiangm^n {see Koiigmoon).
Kiangnan, 140, 305, 461.
,, Viceroyalty of, 305.
Kiangning Fu or Nanking, 153, 158.
,, origin of name, 461.
Kiangpeh or N. Kiangsu, 23, 56, 60,
101, 162.
Kiangsi Province, 8, 16, 93, 121, 131,
135,139-145,146,175,218.
226, 227, 234, 235.
,, Area and Population, 140.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,
141; Climate, 141.
,, Geology, 141 ; Orography,
141.
Hydrography, 141-142.
,. Fauna and Flora, 142.
Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 142-143.
People and Language, 143.
Cities and Principal Centres,
143-144.
,, Industry and Commerce, 144.
Highways of Communic-
ation, 145.
Open Ports, 145.
Kiangsu Province, 8, 9, 13, 16, 79,
86, 91, 93, 99, 139. 140,
146, 153-166, 227.
,, Area and Population, 153.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,
154 ; Climate, 155.
,, Geology, 154; Orographv. 154-
155.
,, Hydrography, 155-156.
,, Fauna and Flora, 156.
,. Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 157.
,, People and Language, 157-
158.
,. Cities and Principal Centres,
158-163.
,, Industry and Commerce, 163.
,, Highways of Communication,
163-164.
,, Open Ports, 164.
,, Coast-line of, 261-271.
,, Great Plain of, 13, 147, 154.
68 i
INDSX.
Kiaochow, 80, 85, 87, 258-MO, 422,
468, 477 {see Ts'ingtao^.
Kiaochow Bay, 80, 85, 254, 255, 256,
258-259 with-sketch^map ), 421,
477.
Kieh or Kiehkwei, last Kmperor of
the Hsia Dynasty, 448.
,, character of, 449.
Kiench'ang \*«llfy, inhabited by
Mantze or Lolos, 112.
K.iench*ang Ku (Kiangsi), 140.
K*ien Chow (ShensiK MK
Kien Chow iSzt»chw*an'<. 101>.
Kienchow T'ing (Hunan;, 1.'42.
Kienk i R., 220, 221.
K'ienliing, Kmprror v'lHt.s'ing) :
,. reduces the Miaotze tribt»»,
4^2.
wtirs with Burma; with the
(iurkhas, 4(>2.
,, subdues Kashgaria, 535.
., n»ceives Lord Macartnev,
402.
,, his policv towards Catholics,
403.
,, his literary works, 350, 507.
,, abdicates through filinl
piety, 402.
., his policy and cha meter,
402-403.
Kieiining Ku, 21ft. 220, 225.
K'icnts'ing Kuiig or I'alace Hall :
Ministers of Foreign l*owerstob«*
received there. 409.
Kieiiwen, Kmperor (Ming , 4<iO.
dethroned by his uncle,
400.
enters Buddhist monas-
tery, 4r)().
Kilborn, 390.
Kin Tartars or fiolden Horde. 71.458.
,, defeat the K'itaiis, 458.
,, occupy Chihli and .Shansi under
Hweitsung ^N. Sung , 458.
,, defeat the N. Sungs, 458.
,, were subdued in turn by the
,. Mongols, 71, 458.
K'in Chow Kwanglung , 203, 206,
212.
Kinchow Biiy Liaolung , 491.
Kinchow Ku (Shengkingy, 487,501.
Kinhwa Ku. 227, 229, 234.
Kinm(^n I. {see Quemoy;.
Kinniu-tao or Road of the (jolden
(ix, 45, 117.
Kinsha-kiang or Golden-sand R.
(Yangtze;, 15, 93, 178, 541.
King Chow (Kansu), 32.
Kingchow Ku (Hupeh), 121. 122, 128.
King-fu or Governor of Peking. 74.
King-ho (R.), 38, 42, 44.
Kingman Chow Hupeh^ 121.
Kingamill T. W.. 17.3,214.372.405,
442, 479, 482.
Kingti. Kmperor ^Korroer Han , 451.
vl^iang), 455.
Kingt^ai, Kmperor (Ming), 460.
Kingteh chen Kiangsi . famous for
its porcelain, 144.
Kingtung T'ing :YQnnan . 177.
Kingtze-kwan, 59.
K*ingyang Ku, 32, 37.
K'ingyuen Ku. 195.
Kioh (Shanghai vernacular koh or
ten-cent piece .Mexican currency),
320.
A'ion^ Pere S.. 371.
Kircher A.. 385.
Kirghis tribes, origin of, 516.
,. habitat and character of, 510.
Kirin Province ^Central Manchuria),
487, 495-496, 504, 505.
Kirin Ku. '187, 495, 504, 500.
K^itans or Eiistern 'i'artars :
,, Tungusic origin of, 451.
,, cause downfall of Sui dyn-
asty, 'i55.
,, defeated under Kmpress VVu
Hfu ( r*ang), 450: under
Chwangtsung ( Posterior
T'ang), 457: under Kwoh-
wfi (Posterior Han,., 457.
.. successful under T'aitsu (N.
.Sung-, 457: under T*ai-
tsung i.N. Sung), 457.
settle in Liaotung, 457-458.
,, finally vanquished by the Kin
Tartars, 458.
Kitao or Ningpo Point, 273.
Kittysols or Paper umbrellas, 2.34.
Kiukiang Ku (Kiangsi i, 101, 140, 143,
145. 414, 421 , 407, 050, 655.
,, distance from Shanghai, 101.
,, trade of. 143, 414, 421, 050,
655.
Kiuling (Kiangsi '.Sanatorium of, 144.
Kiulung or Min-shan ^Mts.;, 11. 40-
41, 107.
Kiun or Provinces, 453.
,, or Keudal Principalities, 'i53.
K'iung Chow \Szechw'an), 100.
K*iungchow Ku (Hainan), 202, 207,
211, 212, 282, 421, 655.
trade of, 421,655.
,, dialect spoken, 207.
{see Hainan and Hoihowj.
KiOnki Ch'u or Grand Council, 296-
297.
INDEX.
685
Kiut'iao-shan (Mt.), 107, 122.
KnolJys H., 480.
Kobdo River or Kobdo-gol, 511.
Kobdo I'own, 518.
Koeroes (de) C 557.
K*ohkias [see Hakkns).
Ko-ho (R.), 148.
Kolao Hwei or Old Fellows' Society,
467.
Kohlao or Cabinet Kiders, 297.
Kongmoon or Kiangm^n, 212, 327,
421, 655.
Korea, compelled to pay tribute to
China, '<55.
,, subdued and divided into 5
Provinces ('I'ang dynastv),
'i50.
,, Chinese oflicials appointed to
govern, 'i2<).
,, Japanese invade it under
Wanlih, and settle at V\i-
san (Fushan), 4<)1.
,, China-Japan war for supre-
nnacy over, 467-468, 477.
,, independence of, demanded
by Japan, 4<)8.
,, Anglo-Japanese Convention
guarantees integrity of, 470.
,, Catholic Church in, 358.
,, Chinese in, 478.
,, Trade of, 410, 646.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
653-654.
Koreans, I'ungusic origin of, 451,4*J8.
Kosogol, Lake, 511.
Kovalevski, 522.
Kovvhsing, British transport, incid-
ent of, 468.
Kowloon (Kiulung) extension acquir-
ed, 285, 464, 477.
,, added to Hongkong, 213.
,, administration of, 286.
trade of, 421, 655.
K'owt'ow ceremony, refused by
Russia, 463; by Lord
Amherst, 463.
,, finally suppressed, 469-470.
K'ow-wai or Region beyond the Great
Wall, 29.
Kozloff P. A'.. 521, 536, 556.
Krariz P., 380.
J\rau8se A., 338, 371, 423, 442, 481,
484, 508.
Kreitner ( Von^, 46.
Kropotkin, Priyice, 6, 521.
Kubilhans or reem bodied gentry
(Tibet), 547.
Kublai-Khan or Sitchen (Shitsu) :
,, founds the Yflen dynasty, 459.
,, fixes Capital at Peking, 459.
,, extends Imperial Canal to
T'ientsin, 459.
,, fails in expedition against
Japan, 459.
,, intolerant towards 'Taoism,
459.
Kucha or K'uch'e Chow (Chinese
Turkestan), 524, 531, 534.
Kuch'dng or K'it'ai hsien, 531, 532.
Kuchow T'ing (Kweichow), 189.
K'uchow Fu (Ch^kiang), 227, 229,
234-235.
K'ufeu hsien (Shantung) birth-place
of Confucius, 87.
K'u-ho (R.), 110.
KQjen or M. A. graduate, 355, 368.
Kuku-Khoto or Kweihwa ch'eng
(Shansi), 52, 53, 532.
Kuku-Nor or 'Ts'inghai, 25, 543.
,, Region of, 520, 538, 543.
Kulangsu Island (Fokien), 224, 279.
Kuldja or Hi Fu, 474, 52'i, 532, 534.
,. Treaty of, 474.
,, Russiim postal-station at,
532.
Kulon or Hulon Lake, 491.
Kulu-shan (Mt.), 67.
K'uenfei or Boxers, 468.
,, also called Ihwok'uen (Pat-
riotic Fists I, 468.
K'uenlun Mts., 11, 33, 40, 57, 80, 92,
107, 525, 528, 539-541.
Kumbum Lamasery (Kansu), 38.
Kung. Prince, brother t(» Hsienfung :
,. negotiates with England and
France, 464, 475.
,, President of the Waiwu Pu
or Foreign Office, 4T>4, 4T>5.
,, helps Km presses- Regent, 464.
,, degraded and restored, 46().
,, finally deposed, 466.
Kungch'ang Fu, 32, 38, 41.
Kungpeh (.see I^ppa).
Kungshui or Kan R., 142.
Kungsu or Residence of Chinese
Official not holding seal, 313.
Kungt'an, 111.
Kungti, Kmperor (S. Sung), 458.
,, carried prisoner to Peking
by the Mongols. 458.
Kungti, last Emperor of the Tsin
dynasty, 454.
K'ungt'ung Island (near Chefoo), 246,
255, 256.
,, first lighthouse erected
on, 246, 255.
,, ceded to France, 256.
Kupei-k'ow Pass, 78.
686
INDEX.
Kupfer C. F., 237, 382.
Kuren or Monastery (Ilrga), 517.
Kurile Islands. 240.
Kurkara-usu, 524.
Kurla, 529, 534.
Kuropatkin, General. 508, 536.
Kurosiwo Current (on the coast of
Japan). 240.
K'urun or Trga {see I'rga).
Kuyuen Chow (Kansu). 32.
Kwanch'eng Chow, 4*.M3.
Kwan-nei f within Great Wall), 29.
Kw'anch'engtze. 432, 498, 503.
(see Ch'angchun Fu).
Kwangchow Fu or Canton [see
Canton).
Kw^angchow-wan or Kwangchow
Bay, 211. 213, 281, 289-290,
468. 477.
leased to France, 213, 290,
468, 477.
description of (with sketch-
map), 290-291.
,, administration of, 291.
Kwangnan (old Empire of Annam),
202.
Kwangnan Fu, 175, 197.
Kwangning-shan (Mt.), 489.
Kwangp'ing Fu (Chihli). 67.
Kwangsi Province, 8, 9, 12, 17, 18,
19, 131, 135, 137. 168, 170,
172, 184, 190, 194-201, 203,
206,348,475.
,, Area and Population, 195.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,
196 ; Climate, 196.
, , Geology , 1 96 ; Orogra phy , 1 96 .
Hydrography, 196-198.
Fauna and Flora, 198.
,, Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 198.
,, People and Language, 198-
199.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,
199-200.
,, Industry and Commerce, 200.
,, Highways of Communication,
200.
Open Ports, 200-201.
Kwangsi Chow (Yunnan), 177.-
Kwangsin Fu (Kiangsi), 140.
Kwangsu, Kmperor (Tats'ing) glor-
iously reigning, 396, 466-
471.
,, meaning of name, 4()6.
,, Rmpress- Dowager Tz'ehsi,
Regent during minority
of, 467.
,, conflict with France, 467.
,, w^ar with Japan, 467-468.
,, marriage of, 467.
first audience granted to
Foreign Ministers, 467.
,, reform period, 468.
., compelled to abdicate, 468.
,, Empress-Dowager resumes
regency, 468.
Boxer uprising, 4118-409.
,, period of reorganisation
(administrative, military,
judicial, educational), 471 .
old style examinations ab-
olished, 471.
Opium Edict. 471.
,, Constitutional Government
promised, 461.
Kwangteh Chow, 146.
Kwangtung Province, 8, 10, 19, 80,
131,133,135,137,140,168,
170,186,194, 195, 202-S16,
218,2lJ9,222, 223, 281-292,
302, 303, 304,329,340,343,
402, 408, 417, 457, 473.
,, Area and Population, 202.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,
203 ; Climate, 204.
Geology, 203; Orography,
203-204.
Hydrography, 204-206.
Fauna and Flora, 206.
,, Agricultural and Mineral
I Wealth, 206.
I ,, People and Language, 207.
I ,, Cities and Principal Cen-
tres, 207-211.
Plan of Canton, 208.
Industry and Commerce,
211.
,, Highways of Communica-
tion, 211-212.
Railway Lines, 212, 432,
433.
,, Open Ports, 212, 213.
Coast-line of, 281-292.
Kwang W'uti, first Emperor of Later
Han, 452.
character of, 452.
Kwangyuen hsien, 110.
I Kwei hsien (Kwangsi), 197.
I Kweichow Province, 8, 12, 17, 18,
19, 99, 110, 111, ia3, 136,
168, 170, 174, 175, 182,
I 184-103, 195, 196, 200, 345.
,, Area and Population, 184.
Aspect and Characteristics,
185; Climate, 186.
,, Geology, 185 : Orography,
185.
INDBZ.
687
Hydrography, 186-187.
Fauna and Flora, 187.
Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 187.
People and Language, 188.
Cities and Principal Cen-
tres, 188-189.
Industry and Commerce,
190.
Highways of Communica-
tion, 190.
Historical Note. 191.
Rw'eichow Fu or Kw'ei Fu < Sze-
chw'an), 95, 116.
Kweihwa ch'eng or the Blue City,
52, 53, 55, 516 (see Kuku Khoto).
Kwei-kiang (R.), 172, 173, 195, 197,
200.
Kweilin Fu (Kwangsi), 195, 199.
Kweiling Pass, 12.
Kweishun Chow, 195.
Kweiteh Fu (Honan), 50, (iS.
Kweiting hsien, 190.
Kweiyang Fu (Kweichow), 184, 187,
188, 189, 190.
Kwohwei, Founder of the Posterior
Chow dynasty, 457.
Kwolos (monkey-nosed savages) or
Lolos {see Lolos, Mantze).
Kyi or Lhasa River, 544, 551.
Kyzil Art (Pass). 526.
Lahb^ P., 506.
Lacquer ware, 209.
Ladak, 526, 549, 554.
Ladrone Islands or Laowanshan
(S.W. of Lantao), 282.
I^giobo Pass, 34.
Laichow Fu (Shantung), 79, 84, 80.
Lakes of China Proper, 1«, 36, 59,
70, 82, 97, 98, 124, 133-134,
142, 148-149, 159, 179-180,
231 {see Hydrography).
of Manchuria, 491.
,, of Mongolia, 511, 512, 513,
514.
,, of Turkestan, 527-528.
,, of Tibet, 543.
Lama or Tibetan Buddhist Monk,
53, 112, 116, 516, 517, 539.
,, numerous at Lhasa, 548.
,, divided into Red and Yellow
Caps, 519, 547.
Lama, Dalai, of Tibet, 517,548,552.
,, resides at the Potala Monas-
tery (Lhasa), 548, 552.
,, flees to Urga (Mongolia) at ap-
proach of British Expedition
to Lhasa, 548, 554.
Lama, Panshen or Tashi, 548, 550.
,, resides at the Tashilumbo Mon-
astery (Shigatze), 548, 550.
,, visits India, 548.
,, appointed by Peking to succeed
the Dalai Lama, 555.
Lamaism or Tibetan Buddhism, 516,
547-548, 552.
Lama-miao or Dolon-Xor, 77.
Lamaseries, 52, 53, 516, 550-551.
Lamairesse, 381.
Lamko or Linkao Lighthouse, 284.
Lamma Archipelago or Nanya, 282.
Lamocks or Tungp'^ng-tao, 283.
l^mpa (Kwangtung), 473.
Lamprey, 405.
Lanchow Fu (Kansu), 32, 33, 36, 37,
533.
iMixdon P., 556.
Lank'i hsien, 229. 2S4.
Lanoye (de-, 507.
Lantao I. or Tasushan, 282.
Lants'ang-kiang or Mekong. 94. 179.
Landstorms, Continental, in the
North of the China seas, 245.
r^nd-tax, in grain, 308, 321-322.
in silver, 308, 321.
iMne-Pool S.. 481.
Lang. Captain, organiz€»d Chinese
navy, 467.
Lang" If.. 166.
Langson, French repulse at, 467.
Langt'ai T*ing, 190.
Language, Chinese, :i47-350.
,, pictorial origin of, 349.
,, structure of, 349.
,, characteristics and peculia-
rities of. 349.
,, written, various forms of,
347.
spoken, divided into nu-
merous dialects, 347,348,
360.
,, Kwanhwa or Mandarin
dialect, 347-348.
Books for learning, 373-377.
Laoho-kow (Hupeh), 123, 124, 128-
129.
Laokai, 10, 183.
[^o-ling, Mt. (Kansu), 34.
Lao-shan Mt. (Shantung), 80.
Laoshan Bay, 254.
Laos States, 181.
J^otze, Founder of Taoism , 352, 449.
I^jppa I. or Kungpeh, 211.213, 281,
289.
Lapparent fde . 6.
Laughans, 20.
Launay A., 173, 213, 352,386,507.
688
INDEX.
I^xiur, 481.
Lavisse et Rambault. 520.
Laws of China, codified by Hungwu,
>l«0, 4t)l.
,, Will of the Emperor is hiw,
2\i\.
,, Ministry of Justice recently
establised, 2ini.
,, Ministry of Justice, Censorate
and Grand Court of Revi-
sion, exercise general super-
vision over the adminis-
tration of Criminal I.aw,;iOO-
;ioi.
,, X'iceroys and Governors con-
trol administration of in the
Provinces, 303.
,, Sub-prefect or District Magis-
trate administers the laws
within his jurisdiction, 308.
,, Put'ing or Police Sub-prefect
tries all cases brought before
his bench, 311.
,, paternal and domestic, 310,311.
Lay G. T., 371, 373.
Lay H. N., first Inspector-General of
Customs, 326» 465.
Lazarists or Vincentian Missionaries
in China, 355, 856, 552.
Lead, 60, 83, 149, 180, 187,207,222,
493, 529.
Leaman C, 374.
l^avenworth C. S.. 480, 483, 508.
Lehoucq, 87, 371, 405.
LecVere, 6, 169, 171, 191, 404.
Le Compte, /... 371, 374, 385, '441.
Lee S. A'.. 392.
Legations, Siege of the, in Peking,
469.
Legendary Historv, 442. 444-445.
Legendre Dr A . F.. 103, 118, 271, 399.
Legge Dr J., 375, 379, 384, 390, 482.
Leh, Capital of Ladak, 526, 549,
554.
Lei-ho (R.), 133, 136, 137, 212.
Lcichow Fu, 202. 212.
Leitsu taught to rear silkworms, 444.
Leiyang hsien, 132, 136.
Leprince-Ringuet. <i. 46, 63, 404.
Leroy, Pere H.. 87, 38().
Leroy-Beaulieu P.. 20. 336. .370, V'i2,
484, 508.
Lesdain ^de). 520.
Lesserteur. 193.
Lewis B. /:.. 392.
Lhasa. Capital of Tibet, 517. 539.
5'i3, 54^1, 5'»6, 548, 5/i9, 550,
551-552. 553. 554.
,, description of, 551-552.
residence of Dalai Lama, 548,
552.
., monasteries of, 548, 552.
,, British P'.xpedition to, 546,
552, 554.
Dalai Lama withdraws to
Crga (Mongolia), 548, 550,
554, 555.
,, Anglo-Tibetan convention
of, 555.
,, visited by Friar Odoric; the
Jesuits (irueber, Desideri
and Freyre ; the Lazarists
Hue and Gabet, 552.
Li or Chinese mile, 642.
rJ, the j^ part of a tael, 316.
Li, Si or Sai tribe (Hainan), 207, .144,
345.
Li Fongpao, 165.
Li-ho (R.), 135.
Li Hungchang, 150, 464-406, 460, 470,
476.
,, appointed Governor of
Kiangsu, 465.
,, dismisses Burgevine; enga-
ges General Gordon, 465.
,, executes T'aip*ing chiefs,
despite promise to the
contrary, 465.
,, erects monument to mem-
ory of Ward, 465.
,, chief adviser to the Regen-
cy under Kwangsu, 466.
,, signs the Chefoo Agree-
ment, 476.
negotiates with the Powers
after the Boxer uprising,
469.
death of, 470,
Li Matow (Chinese name of the Jesuit
Missionary, Matthew Ricci), 354.
Lichi or Persimmon(Diospyruskaki),
18, 198, 221, 393, 398.
Lifan YQen or Board for the Admin-
istration of Vassal countries, 298.
Likiang Fu (Yunnan), 177.
Likin or inland transit dues, 115.
322, 323, 470.
,, serious hindrance to trade,
323.
China agrees to suppress it on
compensation of 1 i surtax
to the 5;/ import duty. 323,
470.
Liling hsien, 145.
Limin or Black-haired race ( name
of the Chinese ), 3,38.
Lip'ing Fu iKweichow), 184.
Lipo hsien, 187.
INDEX.
G8y
I.i Pu or Board of Civil Appoint-
ments, 21111.
or Board of Rites, 299.
Lishimin, General, 456 (.see T'ai-
tsung, Kmperor).
Li-shui (R.\ 133.
Lisu tribe or Lisus (Yunnan), 181,
345.
Li T'aipeh; famous Poet of the 'I''ang
dynasty, 117.
Lit'ang Szechwan), 110, 117.
Litsung, Emperor (S. Sung), 458.
Li Tzech'cng rebel), captures Pe-
king I Ming), 461, 506.
,, virtual ruler of China, 461.
,, causes downfall of Ming dyn-
asty. 461.
his overthrow, 461, 506.
Liyuen or Kaotsu Emperor, T'ang
dynasty], 455,456.
Liang or Tael \ see Tael ;.
Liangchow Fu Kansu), 32, 37, 38.
Liang dynasty (short-lived), 455.
,, Posterior or Heu-Liang, 457.
Lianghu .two-lake region : Hunan
and Hupeh), 120.
Liang-kiang or two Kiangs ; Kiangsi,
Kiangnan}, 139, 153. 158,302,305.
Liang-k wang or two Kwangs(K wang-
si, Kwangtung), 194, 302, :^5.
Liang-'l'ao or Provincial Grain Inten-
dant, 303, 30().
Liao Chow (Shansi), 50.
Liao-ho or Liao R., 251, 488, 4tt0-
4»l, 497, 4»8, 501.
,. Plain. 488.
Liao Kingdom 'Capital first at Liao-
yang, afterwards at Peking :
,, founded bv the Kin Tartars.
458.
,, defeats the N. Sungs. 458.
.see Kin or (lolden Horde..
Liausi-ho West-Liao R. or Shara-
muren. 491.
Liaotung Peninsula, 468, 470, 486,
489.
Liaovung Chow, 458,461, 407-i08,506.
Liebert, 213.
lAetard. 372.
Lien Chow, 202. 205.
Lienchovv Fu, 202, 20r,.
Lienchow-kiang (R.;, 212.
Lien-kiang (R.;. 198, 200.
Lienkiang hsien, 225.
Lienshan 'l'*ing, 203.
Liu ChiyQen, Founder of the Posterior
Han dynasty. 457.
Liuchow Fu. 195, 190-200.
Liu-kiang(R.;, 172, 173, 186, 189,197.
Liuk'iu Islands, 240, 2'il.
Liukung 1. : Weihaiwei , 257,
Liupang. Founder of the Former
Han, 451 .see Kaoti .
Liusung dynasty (see Sung \
Liuyu, Founder of the Liusung dvn-
asty, 454.
Lighthouses on the Coast of China,
246-249, 251, 254, 255-256, 258,
263, 273, 275, 278, 28:).
Urn, 376.
Lindesay Urine. 480.
Linkao or Lamko Lighthouse, 284.
Linkiang Fu, 140, 141.
Linngan Fu, 175, 183.
Lints'ing, 429.
Lints^ing Chow. 80, 84.
Lingwang, Emperor iChow), 87.
Literary Chancellors or Provincial
Examiners. 303, 367, 504.
Literary Doctor, institution of. 455.
Literati. 145, 351. 355, 450.
,, doctrine of, 351.
rigid attachment to antiquitv.
450.
oppose reforms of Shi Hwang-
ti, 450.
,, attend funeral of Ricci, 355.
Literature of the Chinese, 350, 36 'i.
368, 450, 451, 456, 459, 4()0.
461, 462.
,, divisions of. 350.
its character, 347, 349.
Little A., 64, 88. 89. 103. 119, 165.
166, 192, 214, 236, 237, 405, 423,
442, 508, 522, 537, 556.
Littledale G. B., 536, 556.
Li«o?i. 118.
Living Buddha s or Avatars, 38, 516,
546, 547, 548.
LJungstedt. Sir A.. 386.
Lob-Nor Lake, 527, 535.
Lobscheid \V.. 37(i.
Lobsters, not found in China. 17.
Loch (L 6'.. 480.
Loddmrt W.. 372, 390.
Lockman J., 385.
Locks Chah ; on the Grand Canal, 129,
Loess lands or Hwangfu ; Yellow
earth), 10, 22, 26, 28^31, 33.
34, 40, 41-42, 47, 49, 50, 51.
67, 69, 80, 91, 147, 151, 535.
,, found especially in the X.
region, 91.
,, formation of, 22, 69.
,, extent of, 31, 50.
,, depth of in Shansi. 50.
sketch-map of loess plateau
(Shansi], 49.
45
690
INDBX.
r.ngan Jock /?., 118. 1U2.
Loh-ho R.l, 27. U. 43. 59.
., Valley. r»0. (il. M.
I.ohkiashan UghthouiM' (^ht'kiang .
273.
Lohping hsiiMi 'Kiangsi . 143.
r^ohyang Honnn , 447, 44^1, 'i5J. 452.
453, 455.
Lolos or Kwolos aboriginal tribes ,
10(), IIS, iir>. 181, 183. 188.
313, 340, 34s-t4:i, :mya.
.\rvan origin of. 342.
,, habitat of. 10«>. lir>, 181. 188.
Szechw'an Lolos called Man-
tzc. 342.
,, language of, 342-343.
,. joined in the Panthay rebel-
lion, 363.
despised by the Chinese, 342.
l.ong-haired rebels Ch'angmao or
T'aip'ings, 404 {nee T'aip'ings).
Longjumeau (Andrew of . 354.
I.ong White Mountain or Ch'ang-
peh-shan, 489, 491, 506.
Loquat or Medlar, 35, 398.
,, Cantonese origin of word, 398.
,, called in Chinese p'ip'a (Shang-
hai dialect, bibo\ 398.
Losingt^ah or Pagoda Anchorage,
223.
Loting Chow, 203.
Lotus-born One 'I'ibet . 5'47.
l.ouvet, 38(>.
Lovett. 388,
Lu Chow. 10(i. 10«l, 110. 114.
Lu-kiang or Salwern R.. 10. 179.
I.ungan Fii Shnnsi , 48.
Lu Pikin familv dealers in rico-
spint , 408.
Lu-shan Mt. . l'»3.
Lushan hsien. 00, 03.
Luts'ufi (salt lake , 52.
Luhk'i-kow (Hupeh-. 130.
Luhngan Chow. 140. 149.
Luhying or Army of the (ireen Stan-
dard, 330.
LQchow p'u Nganhwei;. 140, 148. 151.
LQ Shih. Queen-Regent during mino-
rity of Hweiti Later Han). 451.
LOshuh-kow or Port Arthur. V,)l.
499-500.
Lukshun depression (Chinese Tur-
kestan . 520.
Lungchow T'ing Kwangsi . 173. 1*18.
199, 200. 477.
Lung-kiang R. . 221.
Lungkin (Hupeh . 129.
Lungm(>n defile (Honan), Til.
Lungngan Fu. 105. 113.
Lungtan Szechwan;. ill.
Lungtan-shan Dragon-gall Mt.;, 229.
Lungv^n Chow^ Fokien . 218.
Lwan-ho R. , 09, 70.
I.yall L. A.. 237.
Lynch (,.. 508.
Lyon \V.. 392.
Lyiiter 7'.. 'i80.
Macao or Ngaonien. 204. 211, 213,
249, 287-289, with sketch-
map 460, 402. 473.
first settlement of, 288. 460,
473.
Area and population of, 288.
salubrious climate, 289.
Trade with China, 289, 410,
646.
,, final sovereignty of Portugal
over, 288, 473*.
Macartney. Lord, Embassy of, 145,
462, 474.
tn*ated as tribute-bearer, 462.
474.
Mac Clatchie T., 375, 380.
Mac Donald. Sir €.. 481.
Mac Gillivray, 376.
Macgowan j\ 237, 372, 377, 400. 479.
Mac Intosh G., 377.
Mac Iver D.. 377.
Mackenzie K. S., 480.
Macklin W. K., 391.
Maclay B. iL, 374.
Maclay and Baldwin, 377.
Macleilan J. W.. 25>4.
Mac Mahon A. B.. 373.
Mace or 'Ts'ien -^{7 of 'Tael , 310.
Machu or Hwang-ho R., 25.
Madrolle. 482, 507.
Magaillans (i.. 479.
Magpie, 17.
Mahomedans in China, 31, 174, 181,
188. 189, 322, 362-363, 362-
383, 456-457, 465.
f(mnd in N. W.. and S. \V.
Provinces, 362.
aggregate of. 362.
traded with China, 3(i2.
introduced Western arts and
.science into China. 362.
rebellions of, in Kansu. 31.
37, 362, 405: in Kashgaria.
362-363, 405; in YQnnan,
174, 181. 183. 188. 189,363,
405.
Mahomedanism or Hweihwei-kiao,
362, 494. 533.
China tolerant towards, ^^62.
,. principal Mosques, 362.
INDEX.
691
Maidel E., 294.
MaiUa dej A. M., 479.
Maimni ch'eng, 517 [see IJrga .
Maize or Indian corn, 18, 42. 198, 492.
Mamoy Arsenal Foochow), 223.
Manchii or 'I'ats'ing dynasty. Km-
perors of. 4t)l-471.
,, Army. 328-330.
Language, 494, 508.
Manchuria. 5. 75. 251.270.327,486-
508.
various names given to. ■\%^\-
487.
Area, population and divisions
of. 486-488.
Administration of, 486, 488.
504-505.
Aspect .'ind Characteristics.
488
., Climate. 't89: (Jeology. '188.
Orography. 489: Hvdrographv,
'i89-V.Hr r,akes.'^491.
Fauna and Flora, 492.
Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth. 'i92-493.
People and Language. 49'i-V9 4.
Cities and Principal Centres.
49'«-500
Industry and Commerce. ,501.
Highways of Communication,
501.
Raihvays, 431-4,32. 503-504
with sketch-map!.
Coast-line, 49J-492.
Open Ports, 505-50(i.
,, Catholics in, 35().
Immigration to, 478.
Historical Note, 500.
Manchus. 7J, 297, 300, 30J>. 461,493.
Tungusic origin of. 451, 493.
invade Liaotung fA.D. 1618 ,
'»01.
establish Capital at Mukden
A.D. 1025), 401.
attempt to soi/.e Peking (A.I).
1029), 401.
called to expel usurper Li
Tzech'eng, 40 L
,, refuse to leave, 401.
establish Ts'ing dynasty. 461-
471.
Mandarin Language, 347-348, 375-
370.
,, Varieties of. 348.
Books for learning, 375-376.
Mandarins or Officials, 313.
Mango-tree, 198, 398.
Manhao (Yunnan), 179, 182, 183.
Manifold C. C. 103, 108, 192.
Ma ntze or Szechw'an Lolos. 112,339,
342 see Lolos .
Manwvne or Manwein (Yunnan;,
466."
Maple-tree, 221.
Maralbashi (Turkestan), 534.
Marble. Marble quarries, 42, 84, 86,
157, 187, 209, 515.
Marcillac del, 441.
Marco Polo, his Travels to China. 71.
223, 459, 472, 536.
Margarv. murdered at Man\vyne,182,
466, 470.
.X/arguerye ;de) /?.. 404.
Marignoli. John of. Papal Legate to
Peking, 472.
Maritime Customs, Imperial. 325-
328.
Markham J., 89,
Markka m (\ R., 555.
Marshall T. W., 384.
Marsham J.. 374.
Martw A.. 30. :^5.
Martin Dr E., 401.
Martin H. M.. 335.
Martin W., 378. 379. 381. 383, 389.
391. 480, 481.
Marti7is /?. /•'.. 371.
Marts open to Foreign Trade, 326-
327, 5,54.
,\fas de S.. 482.
Masfi or Double Island. 281.
Matches. 182, 190. 200. 209, 223, 41 1,
501. 647.
Mateer C. VV.. 375. 391.
Mats and Matting. 200. 209, 210, 223.
2;^^. 234, 235. 412, 498, 648.
,, export of, 412, 648.
Mayers F. W., 215, ,3,35, 338. 485,
508. 522, 537.
Meadows 7'.. 214. 374.
Mears \\\ P.. 381.
Mecca, 362.
Medicines. 61, 113. 114, 158, 182, 232,
233, 234, 412, 648.
export of. 412, 648.
Medhurst \V. //.. 38(>. 390, 400, 442.
484.
Me jo v. 536.
Mekong R. or Lants'ang-kiang, 16.
94, 179, 180, 182, 183. 544.
Melons. 30, 37, 529.
M^moires concernant ies Chinois. 6,
338, 373, .375, 379.
Memorandum o?i the Missionary
Question. 466.
Mencius or M(>ngtze, Writings of,
65, 444, 449.
Mergen, 495, 501.
690
INDEX.
Logan Jack B.. 118, 192.
Loh-ho fR.), 27, 41, 43, 59.
,, Valley. 50, 01, «3.
F.ohkiashan Lighthouse (Chekiang ,
273.
Lohp*ing hsien (Kiangsi), 143.
Lohyang Honan;, 447,449,451,452,
453, 455.
Lolos or Kwolos aboriginal tribes.,
100, IIS, 110, 181, 183, 188,
313, 340, 342-143, 303.
,, Aryan origin of, 342.
„ habitat of, 100, 110, 181, 188.
,, Szechw'an Lolos called Man-
tze, 342.
,, language of, 342-343.
,. joined in the Panthay rebel-
lion, 303.
,, despised by the Chinese, 342.
Long-haired rebels (Ch'angmao) or
T'aip*ings, 404 {see T'aip'ings).
Longjumeau (Andrew of), 354.
Long White Mountain or Ch'ang-
peh-shan, 489, 491, 506.
Loquat or Medlar, 35, 398.
,, Cantonese origin of word, 398.
,, called in Chinese p'ip*a (Shang-
hai dialect, bibo), 398.
Losingt'ah or Pagoda Anchorage,
223.
Loting Chow, 203.
Lotus-born One Tibet), 547.
Louvet, 380.
Lovett, 388.
Lu Chow, 100, 109, 110. 114.
Lu-kiang or Salweon R.. 10. 179.
Lungan Fu (Shansi> 48.
Lu Pikin family dealers in rico-
spirit;, 408.
Lu-shan (Mt.), 143.
Lushan hsien. 00, 03.
Luts'un (salt lake). 52.
Luhk'i-kow (Hupeh^ 130.
Luhngan Chow, 140. 149.
Luhying or Army of the Green Stan-
dard, 330.
Luchow Fu Xganhwei), 140. 148, 151.
LO Shih, Queen-Regent during mino-
rity of Hweiti Later Han), 451.
Lushuh-k'ow or Port Arthur, 491.
499-500.
Lukshun Depression (Chinese Tur-
kestan), 520.
LungchowT'ing ;Kvvangsi , 173. 198,
199, 200. 477.
Lung-kiang R.;. 221.
Lungkin (Hupeh). 129.
Lungm^n defile (Honan), 01.
Lungngan Fu, 105, 113.
Lungfan (Szechw'an), 111.
Lungtan-shan (Dragon-gall Mt.), 229.
Lungy^n Chow (Fokienl, 218.
Lwan-ho R.), 09, 70.
!.yall L. A.. 237.
Lynch G., 508.
Lyon W.. 392.
Lyster 7'.. 480.
Macao or Ngaomen. 204, 211, 213,
249, 287-289, (with sketch-
map) 460, 402. 473.
first settlement of, 288, 460,
473.
Area and population of. 288.
,, .salubrious climate, 289.
Trade with China, 289, 410,
646.
,, final sovereignty of Portugal
over, 288, 473.
Macartney, Lord, Embassy of, 145,
462, 474.
,, treated as tribute-bearer. 462.
474.
Mac Clatchie T.. 375, 380.
Mac Donald, Sir C. 481.
Mac Gillivray, 376.
Macgowan J., 237, 372, 377, 400, 479.
Mac Intosh G., 377.
Mac Iver D., 377.
Mackenzie K. S., 480.
Macklin W. E., 391.
Maclay R. //., 374.
Maclay and Baldwin, 377.
Macleilan J. W.. 294.
Mac Mahon A. H., 373.
Mace or Ts'ien i-~ of Tael , 316.
Machu or Hwang-ho R., 25.
Madrolle, 482, 507.
y/agaillans G., 479.
Magpie. 17.
Mahomedans in China. 31, 174, 181,
188, 189, 322, 362-363, 382-
383, 456-457, 405.
found in N. W., and S. \V.
Provinces, 362.
aggregate of. 302.
,, traded with China, 302.
introduced Western arts and
science into China, 362.
rebellions of. in Kansu, 31.
37, 362, 405; in Kashgaria.
362-363, 405: in YOnnan.
174, 181. 183. 188, 189,363,
405.
Mnhomedanism or Hweihwei-kiao,
362, 494. 533.
China tolerant towards, 302.
,, principal Mosques, 302.
INDBX.
691
Maidel E., 294.
MaiUa fde) A. A/.. 479.
Maimai ch'^ng, 517 [see L'rga .
Maize or Indian corn. 18, 42. 198. 492.
Mamoy Arsenal Foochow], 22H.
Manchu or TatsMng dynasty, Km-
perors of, 401-'*71.
„ Army, 328-330.
Language. 494. 508.
Manchuria, 5, 75. 251.270,327.486-
508.
various names given to. \Si\-
487.
Area, population and divi.siims
of, 486-488.
Administration of, 486, 488,
504-505.
Aspect and Characteristics.
488.
Climate, 489: Geology, 488.
Orography. 489: Hvdrographv,
489-491:* l.akes.'491.
Fauna and Flora. 'i92.
Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 492-493.
People and Language. 49:^ 'i94.
Cities and Principal Centres.
494-500
Industry and Commerce. 50L
Highways ofConiinunication.
501.
Railways, 431-432. 503-504
with sketch-map'.
Coast-line. 49I-4U2.
Open Ports, 505-5(M».
„ Catholics in, 35r».
,, Immigration to, 478.
Historical Note. r>Or>.
Manchus. 71. 297, 300, .3()r.. 461,493.
Tungusic origin of. 451, 493.
invade Liaotung '.\.D. H>18 ,
461.
establish Capital at Mukden
A.D. 1025). 401.
,, attempt to seize Peking i A.I).
1029.. 40 L
called to expel usurper Li
Tzech'eng, 4r»L
,, refuse to leave. 4*»L
establish l\*ing dynasty. 461-
47L
Mandarin I^inguage. 347-348. 375-
370.
Varieties of. .348.
Books for learning. 375-376.
Mandarins or Officials. 313.
Mango-tree, 198. 39K.
Manhao ; YQnnan . 179. 182, 183.
Manifold C. C\. 103, 108. 192.
MantzeorSzechw'an Lolos. 112.339.
342 .see Lolos .
Manwyne or Manwein .Yunnan ,
460.'
Maple-tree. 221.
Maralbashi Turkestan;, 534.
Marble. Marble quarries, 42. 84, 86,
157, 187, 209. 515.
Marcillac de , 441.
Marco Polo, his Travels to China. 71 .
223, 459, 472. 535.
.Margnrv, murdered at .Manwvne,l82
466, 47r>.
Marguerye de' /?.. 404.
Marignoli. ,Iohn of. Papal Legate to
Peking. 472.
Maritime Customs, Imperial. 325-
328.
Mark ham ,/.. 89,
yiarh'hani (\ /?.. 555.
Marshall T. \V.. .384.
Marsha m ,/.. 374.
Martin A., 30. .385.
Martin J)r H.. 401.
,\rartin H. M.. :«5.
Martin W'.. 378. 370. .381. 3S3. ,3S',».
391, 480, 481.
Martins /?. /•'.. 371.
Marts open to Foreign Trade . 326-
327, 554.
Mas de S., 482.
Masii or Double Island. 2SI
Matches. 182. P»0. 200. 20»». 223. 4n.
501. 647.
Mateer C. W'.. .375. 3'.il.
.Mats and .Mattinj-. 200. 20*>. 210. 22,^.
2^3. 23',. 235, 412. ;*.»S. 648.
export (»f, 412. 648.
Mayers /•'. \A'.. 215. :U5. ^t^S. >>>.
508. 522. 537.
Meadows T.. 214. 37 1.
Mears \V. P., :<8L
Mecca, :^i2.
Medicines. 61. 1 13. 11"., i:»^. IS2. 232.
233. 234. 412. 648.
export ot. 412. 648.
Medhurst W . li.. :i8«l. :^.K». ivH*. \\1.
484.
Mejov. 530.
Mrkung K. or I^ints*anK-ki,tn^. l'>-
*»4. I7«l. 180. 182. 183. 54;.
.Melons. :Vi. 37. 529.
M^tnoires concernant U^ Chinois, 6.
.^38. 373. 375. .379.
I Memorandum on the Miasionarj^
Question. 4»W.
Mencius or Mengtze. Writings of,
65. 444, 449.
Mergen. 495, 501.
694
INPSZ.
Nan-hai or South-China Sea, 241.
Nanhaitze or Imperial hunting
ground, 74.
Nanhsiung Chow, 202, 205, 211.
Nan Hwaijen (Chinese name of F.
Verbiest), 355.
Xank'ang Fu, 140, 144.
Nank'ishan Is.. 275.
Nank'iao (vulgo Neghiao), 47«).
Nanking or Kiangning Fu, 101, 139,
151, 153, 154. iol, 158.163,
1G4. 302, 305. 324, 32(>, 329,
:J33, 334. 354, 458, 459, 460,
461, 462, 4(i3. 464. 474, 475,
r)55.
,, Capital of China under the
Ming dynasty, 158, 460.
,, residence of the TJangkiang
Viceroy. 139, 153, 302.
,, description of, 158.
taken bv the f'aip'ings. 158,
464.
„ Treaty of, 463, 474, 475.
Trade of. 158. 421, 655.
Railway toShanghai,324,432-
433.
Nankishan Is., 275.
Nank'ow Pass. 433.
Nankwan Itey 'Fokien . 276.
Nanling or Nan-shan Mts.). 92, 168.
Nanngan Fu, 140, 142. 212.
Nanngao 1. see .Xaniao).
Nanning Fu, 172, 195, 197. 199,200.
434, 468.
Nan-shan. Hnnge Kaiisu , 33, 525.
529, 539.
Nant'ai I. Fokien , 222. 223.
.Nanwang. '»29,
Nanya or Laninia Is., 282.
Nanyang Fu, .56, 59. 60, 62, 63.
Napier, Lord, appointed Superinten-
dent of Trade, 474.
,, China refuses to receive him,47'i.
,, dies at Macao. 474.
Xarzimtwf, 555.
Naval Schools, 334, 339.
Navigation on the Yangtse. 99-100.
on other large rivers, 427.
Navy, Chinese, .333-334.
Nei-ch'eng or Tartar City Peking),
71-72 ^with plan .
Neikoh or Imperial Chancery, 297.
Nei Mongku or Inner Mongolia, 519,
Nepal (Nepaul;, 4(»2, 553, 554.
Nerchinsk, Treaty of, 462, 474.
Nestorian Missionaries enter China.
43, ,354, 456, 457.
,, Tablet at Si ngan Fu A.D.781),
354, 457.
Xeviufi J. L.. 378, 379, 382, 388.
New China, Forecast of, 471.
Newchwang or Yingk'ow, 326, 421,
491, 492, 498, 499, 500, 503,
504, 505.
Trade of, 421, 492, 498-499.
655, 656.
Railways to, 431, 432, 503.
Xey Elias. 30, 441.
Ngaikiun-ho or Argun R., 490.
Nganhai (Fokien;, 223.
Nganhwa hsien, 134.
Nganhwei F»rovince, 8, 16, 19, 90, 91,
93, 99, 121, 139, 140, 146-
152, 153, 156, 234, 459.
,, Area and Population, 146.
., Aspect and Characteristics,
146-147 : Climate, 147.
., (ieology, 1'47 : Orography, 147.
Hydrography, 148-149.*
., Fauna and Flora, 149.
,, Agricultural and Mineral
VVealth, 149.
,, People and Language, 149-150.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,
150-151.
,. Industry and Commerce, 151.
Highways of Communication,
151-152.
Open Ports, 152.
Ngank'ing Fu. 101, 146, 150. 151,
152 252.
Nganluh Fu, 121. 124, 1.30.
Nganpien, J 10.
Nganshun Fu, 184, 189, 190.
Ngansi Chow (Kansu), 32, 529.
NgantungfAntung;, 327,470,492,505.
Ngaofei rebellion. 463.
Ngaomen [see Macao;.
Ngari or Western Tibet, 545, 549.
,, principal towns of. 549.
Ngeu-kiang or VVu-kiang R.. 230,
234. 235.
Ngomei or Omei-shan (Mt.i, 109,
117-118.
Nickel (found in Shensi), 42.
Nicolaievsk, 490.
Nienhao or Reign 'Title. 296.
Nimrod l^iy or Siangshan-kiang, 274.
Ninghsia Fu. 25, 32. 33, 36, 37, 38.
Ninghwak-i R., 220.
Ningkwoh Fu, 146.
Ningpo Fu, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232,
233, 235,271,275,326,421.
460, 655; dialect of, 232.
,, Portuguese at, 460.
Trade of, 233, 275. 421, 655.
Ningpo Point or Kitao, 273.
Ningtu Chow, 140.
INDBX.
695
Ninguta (Kirin;, 491, 496, 50r,.
Ningwu Fu, 48.
NingyOen Fu, 100. 116.
Xiulan-ho (R.), 178.
Niushan-tau or Turnabout Light-
house, 278.
Niut'u-shan (Mt.), 34.
Nivet Point, 290.
Nonni or \uen-l<iang H., 488, 490,
- 496.
\orman F. M.. 214, 29;^.
Xorman H.. 166, 193, 215, 216, 293,
336, 338, 485.
North-China Herald. 380, 383, 422.
Norway, Treaty with China, 475,
,, Trade with China, 410, 646.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
653.
,, Traders and Trading Houses,
420, 654.
Nuns, Buddhist, 353.
Nurhach'ih, settles in Liaotung, 461.
,, captures Mukden, 461.
,, defeats the Chinese Army, 461.
Nyang-chu River, 550.
Oak-tree, leaves of, eaten by wild silk-
worm, 83, 397, 492.
Oases (in Turkestan), 529, 534.
Obruchtff, 521, 536.
Ob.servatory, Hongkong, 285.
,, Sicawci, 162, 355.
Ockseu or Taokweisu Lighthouse,
278.
Odontius L.. 380.
Odoric, Friar, 472, 552.
Officials, nine degrees of established,
444.
,, insignia of, 314.
Ogawa, 508.
Ohsson (d'J C, 520.
Oil, native, how obtained. 395.
Okhotsk, Sea of, 240.
Oksu or Aksu, 524, 531.
Oldenberg, 381.
Olen-Darba Pass (S. Altai), 511.
Oliphant L.. 480.
OUphant X., 481.
Omei Mt. or Ngomei-shan, 109, 117-
118.
Onager or VVild-ass, 17, 515, 544.
Onon River, 513.
Opium, Cultivation of native, 36, 37,
38, 42, 44, 52, 60. 62, 83, 1 1 1,
113, 114, 115, 149, 182, 187,
189, 190, 198, 221, 225, 231.
323-324, 395, 396, 492. i
,, estimated amount produced, '
234. i
,. number smoking, 396.
,, Revenue derived from, 321.
,. Foreign Trade in, 410, 411, 414,
646, 650.
., Various kinds imported, 'il4.
650.
,. Importation into the principal
Ports, 414, 650.
,. VA'iL'X suppressing. 396-397, '471.
Oranges, 18, 111, 134, 234. 235, 398.
Ordos Country, 26, 509, 514.
,, Plateau, 25, 26, 40, 513. 514.
Orgo {see Trgai.
Origin of the Chinese people, 4, 338.
Books on, 370-371.
Oring-nor Lake, 25.
Orkhon River, 511.
OrUans (d'J. Prince Henri, 191, 192,
535.
OUone (d'}, 338, 378, 382, 383, 391.
Orlov. 507.
Orphanage (T'ientsin} destroyed, 465.
Osborne, Captain, 465.
Ouchterlony, Sir J., 480.
Ouigurs, (Huns), 450.
Oustalet, 20.
Oioen G.. 378.
Oxen ham, 20.
Oysters, 83, 231.
Pacific Ocean, or T'aip'ing-yang, 239,
241.
Pagoda Anchorage or Losingt'ah,
221, 223, 226, 279.
,, Island, 279.
Pahk'i or Country of the Fight Ban-
ners Manchuria), 486-487.
Pahlik'iao, Battle of, 475.
Pahshdng or Council of the Gentry
(Ch'ungk'ing), 112.
Pahtah-ho (R.), 170, 172, 179.
P'aiwei or Ancestral tablet, 353.
Pakhoi or Peh-hai, 198, 210-211,212.
291-292, 421, 655.
Trade of,21 0, 291-292, 421 , 655.
Pakngai or Pohai, 172-173. 197.
Palaces at Peking, 74, 329.
Palatre. PereG.. 165,386.
PalMogue, 404.
Palisade, 'The, or Liucheng. 504.
Palladius, 384.
Palm-tree, 18, 180, 187, 198, 20(». 393.
397.
Palmer. 293.
Palmer. G. H.. 337.
Palti Lake or Yamdok-tso, Yum-tso.
543. 544.
Pamirs, 472, 525,
P'ank^ng, Kmperor (Yin . 448.
694
Nan-hai or S..-
Nanhaitri'
ground.
Xonhsiui-
Nan Hv
VoTh
Nnnk
Nanl'
Xnn
i/-/'
jv""* ^, • ■rJ-
-'■■-■■-.>-.. ' '■-* •■'■
■■'■■^ '\,. 'v. *sci u>. l»«'. l»i'». lil-^.
-' 7 ' -; iki. iS«», iS'i, :»n7.
"'*' -^ * • •* ■■■ l\»l»kohlirli-t«n,
K-.»\*- .*■*• Kwoilmfj. 12.
!•>. - M *
N.nix.nu I u. »•;». Slijiiijuhai-
sun,«n*. K huw , I-'-
> »^txiii.n '"». lilS; ^ iiliiiy. IM.
|\,^H, s t»» ilir ».ii-.«l NN all. 'J«».
|\i^Hi H in I Ml K.'.l.m ."•*.?<•
r.»l .»n«; •' H. it .till-. s,-r It.d'aii;; .
r.itiiii.il N(Uh«<nl\ .III.
/\ .. M \ If*
/«. »■. . . (. 1.1 .». '1, .".Ts. ;usi. :<s;i.
/• \
\\ «, ii I.'. I N I. 1:1/. i.n;. M«f<. :vM.
r> il. Mi>M. I.. in. •'s,^
W w I', u II. . |M .ll..;». MH.;V.KS,.l93.
I-I III I ... \ Ikh IMII '.'(.I
r. Ill ■■ w . I ni«i I M'.' NN .-si i(. .
I'. .Ill' hi HI. I nl' ili.i^ Ivan. L»8l!.
I'. Il li.> h III t hilih . IS I'.). '2'A, .M.
Ill, .1 iS \'2\K 250.
• .1 • ■ '
'I • I. Il liiii|i mI I ii\\ i-l , 'JitO.
h.ii .ii iiMKiiii ••!, '.':>'J
^f iflHonan;, 59, 124.
' •'*'', „r rolioquial rantoncse.
tS'l^--^'^ **■ *<wuiigtunK s 172. 173.
'/>». 2iW. 204-205, 210, 211. 212.
;vr.*>^'<" Is., 275.
-V.r :en-k'iao or White Lily Sociciv.
fVaiiii hsien, 198.
tVhluh-tung or (Iroiio of tht? While
Deer, 145.
IVhmatung Kweichow , 187.
Pehmeh Lake, 82.
I*ehp*ing-yang or Arctic Ocean. 23ti.
Pchsch Ting. 172, 195. 197. 200.
Heh-shan Mt., 189. 'j 90, 525. 529.
Peh-shui Yangtze R. , 9.'^, 119.
Fehtaiho Chihii;, 77.
I'eht'ang, Port of, 252.
Peht'ang Cathedral Peking), '!'^. 469.
Pehting or Dodd I., 278.
Pehtseng Kweichow , 180.
Pehtsienshaii or l^)nham L. 27M.
Peh Wang or White Prince. Hi5.
Pehvashan Lighthou.se, 249, 275.
Pei-('hihli Peh-Chihli . Oli.
Pei-liii «»»• Forest of .Slah^ Singaii
I'll . 'iM.
/Vi.Nso» Z .. .'<81.
Peking or Shunl'ien Fu. Oli, {\t^. TI-
TS. 77, 7H. 80, 129. 20H. ',V1\K
w'M). AM, :<5'i, :<)5. '^\\'^. m\o.
Mr,. MWK 458-459, 4r,0. 461.
402. \i\\\. 464. 'Hi8, 469, 'i72.
'i7:^. 'i7'i. 'i75. '177. 506, 5i9.
550, 555. :>.v.»-.^r.n.
Approaches to sketch-map .
Dcsiiiption and Plan ot. 71-75.
Minisiries and l^oards. "^4,279-
301.
KailwaN In Hanknw . i(»2. 431.
.. assiemd hv Hoxers. 469.
l*cllint /».. iSi. :).T».
/\'nihvrtnn Ji.. 557.
IN-nal Cciilf. mitinaled bv Wenti.
i.M.
iiiinpl. ted under the Han
d\ nasty. 452 : the Ming
d\ nasty. 'iiiU.
/N/ic Sicj'vrt. :r(i.
Pi'»»n\ K. II r Hurka .sec Hurka .
i\-ri'iral. h«2.
PinslrilUi. Raphael. 'i7:H.
Persia. Prrsian. i72. 414-650.
Persimruori ur Lichi, 18, 198, 221,
'A\K\, 398.
Piscadons Islands. 2i5, 468.
INDBX.
697
P^tillon. Pere C. 377.
PetunaorSinch't^ng(Kirin Province),
496, 501.
Pfister, Pere I... 38().
Phari or Phari-jimg Tibet", 551.
Pheasant, 17.
Philip. 42'k
Philip /?.. 387.
Philips (r.. 23ti, /j23. /i82, 483.
Phonetic, 350.
Physical Characteristics of the
Chinese, 340-341.'
Piaokioh or Cape nood Hope Light-
house, 283.
Pichon, PJl.
Picui or Shih, 234, 414, 415, 416, 417,
643, 650, 652.
Piece-goods, Import of, 410, 413,
647, 649.
Pieper, 88.
Pierre, Pere A.. 165.
Pigott F. T.. 485.
Pihtsieh hsien, 189, 190.
Pila, 88.
PilcherL. W., 391.
Pilten Lake, 491.
Pine-apple, 6, 198, 206, 398.
Ping Chow, 39, 44.
P'inghsiang hsien (Hunan), 135.
P*ingliang Fu, 32, 45.
Pingloh Fu, 195.
P'ingshan hsien, 94, 95, 100, 113.
P'ingsi Wang (title given to Wu
Sankwei;, 461.
Pingti, last Emperor of S. Sung, 458.
P'ingting Chow, 50, 54.
P'ingyang Fu, (Shansi), 48, 51, 53,
55i 444.
P'ingyang hsien (Chekiang), 231.
P'ingyao hsien, 54.
P'ingyueh Chow. 185.
Pinon R.. 20, 165, 214, 422, 441, 448.
Piolet. Pere J. B.. 386.
P'ip'a or Biwa (vulgo bibo , 35, 398
[see Loquat .
Pir or Huir Lake, 491.
Piracy, Pirates on Coast of China,
266, 459, 460, 461-462, 463.
Piry A. 7'., 375, 442. 661.
Pisani. 386, 387.
Pisciculture in China, 17, 398.
PiUm C. 215, 373, 387.
Plains of China, 13-14, 25, 113.
Plan-Carpin, 521.
Plants of China see Flora).
,, cultivated for food, 394-395.
,, utilized in industry, 395-397.
Plateaux or Tablelands of China,
11-12, 13, 21,40,41,49,50,
92, 98, 174, 178, 181, 185,
186, 190, 196.
,, of the Dependencies, 509, 511,
512, 513, 514,525, 539-541.
PlatH. 507.
Play fair G. M., 335, 372, 482.
Plum-tree, Plums, 18, 36, 83, 187,
198, 398, 493.
Poh (Honan , 447, 448.
Poh Chow, 151.
Poh-hai, 239, 241, 251, 253, 489.
Pohseh [see Pehseh T'ing).
Pohshan hsien (Shantung), 83, 84,86.
Poletti P., 376.
Police, 299, 311, 312.
Pol Korigan. 371, 405.
Pollard .S., 192.
Pongee or wild-silk tissue, 83, 190,
415, 651.
Ponies, Kweichow, 187, 398.
,, Mongolian, 77, 518, 534.
,, Szechw'an, 111,398.
Pontevks (de), 481.
P'ook*ow (P^uk'ow), 151.
P'ootung (East of the Hwangp'oo),
266, 271.
,, Point, 97, 261, 263.
Poppy-plant or Opium poppv, '^^\,
37, 42, 60, 83, 113, 149, 187*^, 189,
198, 221, 231, 395, 396-397, 492,
[see Opium).
Population of China, Statistics of,
5, 8, 345-346. [see each Pro-
vince),
of the Open Ports, 420-421,
646-647.
Porcelain, manufacture of, 43, 91,
141, 144, 209. 210, 404.
export of, 412, 532, 648.
Port, Establishment of, 249.
Port Arthur or Lushun-k'ow, 467,
468, 470, 477. 492, 499-500, 503.
Ports of Call, 130, 152, 212.
Ports, Treaty or Open, List of, 326-
327, 420-421, 654-655.
Portugal, relations with China, 460,
473, 475.
,. Macao ceded to, 213, 287-289.
(.see Macao).
,, Population at Shanghai, 267.
,. Trade with China, 410, 646.
"Post-Office. Imperial Chinese, 325,
435-437, 661-552.
,, Statistics of Establishments
and Work, 435, 437, 661.
Pdstal Highways or Government
Courier Roads, 426-427.
Postal Service via Kalgan .Russian),
• 519.
46
^98
iNMk.
Potala or Dalai Lama^s Palace (Lha-
sa), 652.
Potanin, 46, 512, 536.
Pouriaa, Mgr., 191, 386.
P*oyang Lake (Kiangsi), 16, 91, 97,
141, 142, 143, 145.
Pozdneef, 521.
Pratt A. E.. 507, 556.
Prandi, 385.
Praya-Grande (Macao), 289.
Pre-HThinese Races, 339, 340, 342-345.
Prefect, Authority and Duties of, 307.
Prefectures or Fus, 306-309.
List of, 558-639.
Prejevalski N., 46, 521, 536, 555.
Prejevalski Mts., 541.
Priniare (de). Fere J. >/.. 385.
Preston T. J., 138.
Primorsk, Province of, 487.
Prinsep H. T., 555.
Printing from blocks invented under
Mingtsung (A. D. 932.), 457.
Protestant Missions to China, 358-
361.
,, Statistics of, 359, 360-361 , 657-
658.
Protet. Admiral, 476.
Provinces of China, Names of, 8, 904.
,, Territorial divisions of, 306-
309.
Provincial Government, 301-303, 305-
313.
Army or Luhying, 330-331,
333.
,, Examiners or Hsiohch^ng,
367.
Pryer W. B., 166.
P'uchow Fu, fShansi), 48, 55.
P'ueul Fu (YQnnan), 177, 183.
Tea, 180, 395.
Puini, Carlo, 556.
Pumpelly R., 6, 9, 405.
P'ungan T^ing (Kweichow), 185.
Putting or Police Sub-prefect, 311.
Putnam Weale, 423, 485, 508.
P*ulsun, Prince, chosen as Heir-
apparent, 468: degraded, 468.
P*utu-ho (R.), 180.
Pyevtaoff, 521.
Quemoy or Kinm6n Island, 278.
Queue, origin of, 461.
Quicksilver, 187, 190, 403, 545.
Rabot C 555.
Rabouin, Pere P.. 377.
Race, Chinese, origin of, 3i^9.
Races, Aboriginal, inhabiting China,
313, 339-340, 342-345, 371-373. |
Radicals or Key-^ords in the Chiiifese
Ift^guage, 350.
Railways in China, 29, 55, 61, ^, 63,
70, 73, 75, 84, 86, 117, 127,
15^, 179, 183, 212, 430^435.
,, completed, projected, 431»4M.
,, in Manchuria(with pHiin), 1102*
504.
Raisins, 52, 83, 532.
Raja, Darma, (Bhutan , 554.
,, Deb, 554.
Ramie fibre (Boehmeria nivea), 111,
206, 395.
Rank, Insignia of Official, 314.
Rapids, Han-ho, 41, 123.
,, Hwang4io,24;Kan-kiang,142.
Peh-kiang, 205; Si-kiaftg, 197.
Tze-kiang, 138; Wu-kianfj,
111.
,, Yangtze, 95, 96, 99, 100, 117,
128.
,, Yuh-kiang, 197; YQen*ki»ng,
186.
Raquez. 165, 193, 214.
RathouU, Pere C, 400.
Ratzel, 20.
Raulin, 20.
Ravenstein E. G., 508.
Rai^rty H. G., 536.
Rowling C. G., 556.
Riau, 423.
Reclus E., 20, 506, 520, 535.
Recorder. Chine9€, 370, 879, 380, 381,
388, 390, 392, and passim.
Red Basin, 106, 107, 109.
Re-exports, 412-413, 649.
Reform Edicts, 466, 477.
Regent's Sword or Laotieh-shan, 253.
Reid G., 481.
Reid J. iV/., 388.
Religions in China, 350-363.
,. Books on, 377-390.
Remusat, 375, 536.
Rennie D. F., 480.
Repository, Chinese, 371, and passim.
Reptiles found in China, 17, 142, 188,
206, 515.
Retail Trade of China, 407.
Revenue of China, Extent of, 321.
,, Sources of, 321-324.
Review, China, 2ib, 216, 380, 383,
385, and passim.
R^ville A., 377.
Revolt, T'aip'ing [see T'aip'ing).
Mahomedan, 362-363.
Revue Frangaise d'Exploration. 192.
Rey, 377.
Reynaud, Mgr., 385.
Rhinoceros, 198.
INQll.
•99
Rhins fde) et Grenard, 555.
Rho, Fr. James, 355.
FUiododendron, 111, 231.
Rhubarb, 36, III, 113,394,544,553.
Rhys Davids T. W., 382.
Riault, 404.
Ricci, Fr. Matthew, enters China,
:^4: settles in Peking, 355.
,, wins by science favour of the
Learned, 355.
,, converts Su Kwangk'i. 355.
Rice, 37, 42, 52, 75, 78, 83, 125, 127,
141, 149, 150, 100, 198, 20«>,
210, 221, 223, 231, 233, 393,
394-395.
Import of, 411, ^47.
Rice-spirit or Samshu, 233, 408, 498.
Richard T., 359, 38?, 389, 390.
Rickthoftn, i),9, 40, 49, 64, 81,88, 118,
138, 165, 405.
Rigaudi^re .La) or Nanchow 1., 290.
Rijnhart S. C, 556.
Rise and Progress of the Chinese
Empire, 443«^78.
„ Qpoks on, 479-485.
Rit#s, Board of, or Li Pu, 299.
Rivers of China {see Hydrography).
Road of the Qolden Ox, 45, 117.
Roads, Character of Chinese, 425, 427.
,, Government Postal. 426-427.
Robertson B. B„ 400.
Roberovski, 536.
Rochecho%iart (de), 88.
Rochsr L., 138, 191, 235, 375.
Hock-crystal, 126, 545.
Rockhill W. W., 46, 63, 483, 521, 556.
Rock-salt, 529.
Rohrbi^cher, 384, 386.
Roman Catholic Missions, Statistics
of, 356^357, a94.387.
Roman Empire, Trade of China
with, 472.
Rondot iV., 432.
Rasny (de) L., 381, 481.
Ross J., 507.
Rostkom (von), 400.
Rouen (de), R. P. Victor Bernardin,
386.
Rouffart. 30.
Round I. or Weichow, 282.
Rousset, 46, 63, 137, 216, 235.
Rouvier, 191.
Roux, 191.
Roy J. J.. 386.
Royal Asiatic Society, North-China
Branch, 213, 214, and passim.
Rubruquis, William of, 354.
Rudock or Lotok'ph (W. Tibet;, 549.
Rugged Is. or Ycun^^an, 273.
Ruggieri P>., enters China, 461.
Russel C. 508.
Russia, Relations with China, 462,
403, 405, 474-475, 476-477.
,, occupies andretrocedes Hi, 465,
476, 477, 533.
,, protests against occupation of
Manchuria by Japan. 408,
499.
,, carries Siberian railway through
N. Manchuria. 468.
! ,, leases Port Arthur, 468,477,499.
' ,, occupies Manchuria during
I Boxer crisis, 470.
I ,, war with Japan. 470,486,500.
1 ,, transfers Port Arthur and ad-
I joining territory to Japan,
470.
I ,, Trade with China, 410, 646.
I ,, Consumption of tea, 417,652.
I ,, Trading Houses and Traders in
i China, 420, 654.
I ,, Population at Shanghai, 260.
I ,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,653.
I ,. Postal Service via Kiakhta, 519.
I Ryder C. H.. 192, 550.
Sacred Edict of Yungcheng, 402.
,, Mountains, 13.
Sacrifice at the tomb of Confucius,
451.
Sacrificial Court or T'aich'ang Sze
(Peking), 301.
Saddle Is. or Mangan-tao, 273.
Sai, Si or Li tribe, 344-345.
Sainte Foi {de) C. 385.
Sairam-Nor Lake, 528.
Sair-Usu (Mongolia), 518.
Sakhalin-ula or Amur R., 489.
,, Village, 494.
Sakya-Muni, 547.
Salle (de la) G., 507.
Salmon, excellent caught in Sungari
R.. 492.
Salt, 42, 62, 75, 91, 111, 112, 1 14, 115,
157, 163, 180, 207, 222, 231, 322,
403, 515, 518, 545, 553.
,, Mines, 180; Wells, 112, 114,115.
,, extracted from sea -water, 157,
163, 207, 222, 231.
,, Comptroller, 303, 306.
,, Government monopoly of, 75,
163, 322.
,, Tax, 321, 322.
Salt Lake or Luts'un, 52.
Salween R. or Lu-kiang, 10, 179.
Samsa (Sansha) Bav with plan),
27^, 277.
„ Islands, 277-278,
GOO
INDEX.
Lngan Jarh /?.. 118. Iil2.
f/»h-ho R ,. 27. 'il. 43. 5».
Viillry. <K), ♦•,!. ||9.
Lohkianhan Ijghtlioii*M' Chrkiang .
273.
f^hp'ing hniiMi ^Kiangni . 143.
f^ohyarig Honan . 447. 44il, 'i51. 452.
4r>3, 4&5.
I,oloH or KwoloH aboriginal tribes ,
\m, fia, 110, 181, 183. 188.
313, 340. 342-14:1, 'MVA.
,, .\ryan origin of. 342.
,, habitat of, 100, 110, 181. 188.
S/.rchw*an Lolos called Man-
tze, 342.
,. language of, 342-343.
,. joined in the I'anthay rebel-
lion, 303.
,, deHpi.ned by the (*hinese, 342.
Long-haired rebeU ;(*h'angmao or
'f'aip'ingH, 404 (nee T'aip'ings).
I.ongjumeau (Andrew of). 354.
Long White Mountain or Ch'ang-
peh-Hhan, 489, 491, 506.
Loquat or Medlar, 35, 31)8.
,, ('antone.se origin of word, 3U8.
,, called in Chinese p*ip*a (Shang-
hai dialect, bibo\ 398.
f.osingt'ah or Pagoda Anchorage.
Loling rhow. 203.
l.otuH-horn One Tibet, 5'i7.
LoHvti, 38(».
Lovttt. 388.
I.u Chow. 100, 100, no. 114.
I.u kiang or Salween R.. 10. 179.
I.ungan V\\ Shansi , 'i8.
I.u Pikin family dealers in rice-
npirit . 408.
I.u-!*han Mt. . I »3.
l.ushan hsion, r>0, 0,'<.
l.utH'un salt lake . 52.
I.uhk i Wow Hupeh , 130.
l.uhngan Chow. 140, 149.
l.uhving or Army of the Cmvn Stan-
da iti, 330.
I .Uchow Ku .N^anhw ei . I »0, 1 18. 1 51 .
1 .0 Shih, (^>uiM»n-Re»:ent during mino-
rity of Hxveiti l.alor Han . \51.
I.Ushu^ kow .».* Port Arthur. VM.
499<^00.
l.ukshun IVpre^sion Chinese Tur-
kestan . yjlti
I un»;vhv^>\ r inj; K\v.»nj;si . 173. P.»8.
199. 2iH>. 47?;
I unjt kt<u\4i R .^21
I uuj^km Hupeh . I2^»
I uivjcwi^n defile Honan » »»l
I uuj^niCxtu Ku. h^. 113.
I.ungt'an Szechwan,. 111.
Lungtan-shan Dragon-gall Mt. , . 229.
Lungv^n Chow Fokien . 218.
Lwan-ho R. , 09. 70.
Lyall L. A., 237.
f,ynch G.. 508.
I. yon W.. 392.
l.'yHter 7\. 480.
Macao or Ngacmien. 204. 211, 213,
249, 287-289, iwith sketch-
map: 460, 462. 473.
first settlement of, 288, 460,
473.
Area and population of, 288.
., salubrious climate, 289.
Trade with China,289, 410,
646.
,, final sovereignty of Portugal
over, 288, 473.
Macartney, Lord, Embassy of, 145,
462, 474.
,, treated as tribute- bearer, 462,
474.
Mac Clatchie 7\, 375, 380.
Mac Donald, Sir C, 481.
Mac GiUivray. 376.
Macgowan J., 237, 372, 377, 400, 479.
Mac Jntosh C. 377.
Mac Iver D.. 377.
Mackenzie K. S.. 480.
Macklin W. K.. 391.
Maclay R. if., 374.
Ma clay and Baldwin, 377.
Macleilan J. VV., 294.
Mac Mahou A. /?.. 373.
Mace or 'Ts'ien -j;;- of Tael , 310.
Machu or Hwang-ho R., 25.
MadroUe, 482. 507.
^fagaillans G.. 479.
Magpie. 17.
Mahomedans in China, 31. 174. 181,
188. 189. 322. 362>363. 382-
383. 456-457, 465.
found in N. W.. and S. W*.
Provinces, 362.
aggregate of. 362.
tradixi with China, ;^2.
introduced Western arts and
science into China. 3^2.
rt»bellions of. in Kansu. HI.
37, 362. U*5: in Kashgaria.
362-363. *Oo; in Yunnan.
ITh. ISI, 18;^ |8<i. I8r*. 163.
MahomtNlanism >r Hweih^ei-kiao.
362. VV*;. :v«.
China tolerant towards. :^2.
principal Mosques. ;*i2.
INDEX.
691
yfaidel E.. 294.
MaiUa <dej A, .U.. 479.
Maimni ch'eng, 517 (see L'rga .
Maize or Indian corn, 18, 42, 198, 492.
Mamoy Arsenal (Foochow), 228.
Manchii or 'I'ats'ing dynasty, Km-
perors of, 40 1-471.
Army, 328-.330.
Language, 494, 508.
Manchuria. 5, 75. 251,270,327,486-
508.
various names given to, 48«>-
487.
Area, population and divisions
of, 486-488.
Administration of. 486, 488,
504-505.
Aspect and Characteristics,
488.
Climate. '#89; Geology, 'i88.
^>rographv, 489: Hydrography,
489- V.U:' r,akes,"491.
Fauna and Flora, 492.
Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth. 'i92-493.
People and I^» nguage. 493-49 'i.
Cities and Principal Ontres.
494-500
Industry and Commerce. 501,
Highways ofCommunicatlon.
501.
Railways, 431-432. 503-504
with sketch-map\
., Coast-line, 491-492.
Open Ports, 505-500.
,, Catholics in, 35r».
Immigration to, 478.
Historical Note, 50r».
Manchus, 71, 297, ,300, 300,461,493.
,. Tungusic origin of, 451, 493.
invade I^iaotung f A. D. 1018;,
401.
,, establish Capital at Mukden
A.D. 1025), 401.
,, attempt to seize Peking (A.I).
1029), 401.
,, called to expel usurper Li
Tzech'eng, 401.
,, refuse to leave, 4<il.
establish Ts'ing dynasty, 461-
471.
Mandarin l^mguage. 347-348, 375-
370.
,, Varieties of, 348.
,, Books for learning, 375-376.
Mandarins or Officials. 313.
Mango-tree, 198, 398.
Manhao (YQnnan), 179, 182, 183.
Manifold C. C, 103, 108. 192.
Mantze or Szech w'an Lolos, 1 1 2, 339.
342 [see Lolos .
Manw^yne or Manwein (Yunnan ,
400.'
Maple-tree. 221.
Maralbashi (Turkestan), 534.
Marble, Marble quarries, 42, 84, 86,
157, 187, 209, 515.
Marcillac 'de), 441.
Marco Polo, his Travels to China, 71,
223, 459, 472, 535.
Margarv. murdered at .Man^vyne,182.
466, 47(i.
yiarguerye 'de) R.. 404.
Marignoli. John of. Papal Legate to
Peking, 472.
Maritime Customs, Imperial. 325-
328.
Markham J.. 89,
yfarkham (\ /?., 555.
Marshall T. W.. .384.
Marsha ^)^ J.. 374.
MaHin A.. 30. .385.
Martin I)r E.. 401.
Martin H. M.. 335.
Martin W.. 378. 379. 381, 383, 389.
,391. 480. 481.
Martins H. F.. 371.
Marts open to Foreign Trade, 326-
327, 554.
Mas dei S., 482.
Masu or Double Island. 281.
Matches. 182. 190. 200. 209, 223. 411,
501. 647.
Mateer C. W.. 375. 391.
Mats and Matting, 200, 209. 210. 223.
233, 234, 235. 412, 498, 648.
export of, 412, 648.
Mayers F. W.. 215. 335. 338, 485.
508.522.5.37.
Meadows 7'.. 214. 374.
Mears VV. P.. 381.
Mecca. .302.
Medicines, 61, 113, ll'i, 158, 182. 232,
233. 234. 412, 648.
export of, 412, 648.
Medhurst VV. //.. 380, .390, 400. 442,
484.
MeJoi\ 530.
Mekong H. or Lants'ang-kiang. 10,
94, 179. 180, 182, 183. 544.
Melons. 30. 37, 529.
M^moires concernant les Chinois, V>,
338, 373, 375, 379.
Memora7idum on the Missionary
Question, 400.
Mcncius or M^ngtze, Writings of,
05, 444, 449.
Mergen, 495, 501.
702
noiBx.
Siakas (Sak*ias) or Sak^ohs, 222.
Siam, trade with China, 419, 646.
,, Chinese in. 478.
Siang-kiang (R.l, 97, 120, IHl, 132-
133, 135, 197.
Siangshan-kiang or Nimrod Bav,
274<-275.
Siangt'an hsien, 133, 134, 135, 136,
137.
Siangyang Fii Hupeh), 59, 121, 123,
124, 129» 130, 455, 458.
Siangyin hsien, 133. 136.
Siaokweishan or Steep I., 273.
Siaosin, Emperor Yin), 448.
Siao Taoch'eng or Kaoti, 454.
Siaots'ing-ho vR.). 82.
Siaowut'ai-shan, 07.
Siaoyen or VVuti :Kmperor), 454-455.
Siberia, 187, 490.
Siberian Railway, 468.
Sicawei College, Industrial School,
369.
Observatory, 162, 243, 246,
355.
Sifans (Aboriginal tribes , 100, 112,
339, 345.
Sih Chow (Shansi), 50.
Sihsiang hsien (Shensii, 44.
Sihu or West Lake, 232.
Si-kiang or West R., 15, 170, 196-
197, 204-205, 209.
Siking-shan (Mt.), 34, 35, 92.
Singan Fu, 34, 39 43, 44, 45, 01, 451,
456, 469.
Monument, 43, 354, 457, 472,
Sining Fu (Kansu), 32, 37, 38, 547,
548.
Sining-ho (R.), 25. 35.
Sip4ng hsien, 63.
Siwantze, 515.
Silk, where found. 42, 43, 54. 60, 62,
83, 84, 91, HI, 114, 116, 127,
129, 141, 144, 151, 158, 159,
162, 163, 189, 190, 208, 210,
222, 223, 225, 397-398, 498, 530,
534.
,, Export of, 127, 160, 209, 415-416,
651 ; Filatures, 404.
Silkworm, 18, 159, 180, 206, 207, 394,
397, 416, 444, 534 {see Mulberry i.
SiJsby J. A.. 377.
Silver, 36, 60, 83, 111, 135, 136, 149,
180, 198, 206, 222, 303, 493.
Sinhsiang hsien, 63,
Sinkiang or Chinese Turkestan {see
Turkestan).
Sinrain Fu (Shengking), 487, 491.
Sint'an or Sinlungt'an, 96.
Sinyang Chow, 59, 62, 63, 122, 148.
Sirr H, C 371, 373, 377, 385, 390,
400.
Sis or Sais (Hainan). 207.
Sites M. L., 391.
Siuwu hsien, 59.
Skins, 44,53, 54, 75,78, 113,114,498,
501, 532, 545.
.. Export of, 412, 648.
Smith A. //., 371, 390,391,399,481.
Smith G., 3a3, .387.
Smith S. P.. XMi.
Smith W. L.. 441.
Soap Factory, 144, 163.
Soapstone, 84.
Sodium Carbonate, 53.
Songkoi or Red R., 1»8, 179.
Sonnerat M.. 482.
Soochow Creek or Woosung R.. 98,
266.
Soochow Fu I Kiangsu), 153, 156, 159,
164, 271, 458, 465.
Trade of, 421, 655.
Soothill W. E.. 376.
Sorghum or Kaoliang, (U), 71, 83, 149,
492.
,, Distilleries of, 495, 49Ci, 5Q1.
Soulii. 520, 522.
Spain, Relations with China, 461,
473, 476.
,, Trade with Amoy, 473.
,, Population at Shanghai, 267.
,, Trade with China, 41 0» 649*
,, Traders and Trading Houses
in China, 346, 4)0, ^54,
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 41 9tS&^
Spanish Dollar or Carolus, 310.
Specht, 535.
Speer W., 482.
Spence Hardy R.. 382.
Spheres of Interest, Policy of, 469*
Spirits, AVorship of, 353» 494.
Star-aniseed, 198, 200, 210.
Staunton, Sir G. T., 335, 484, 536.
Staunton 1. or Sushan-tao, 1}55.
Steamship Companies trading on the
Yangtze, 100-101, 440i.
I ,, Sailing to or from China, 439-
1 440.
I Steel-works, 91, 127, 404.
Steep I. or Siaokweishan, 273.
Stein M. A., 536.
Stent G.. 376.
Stepanof, massacre of, 474.
Stewart-Lockhart. 373.
Stock E., 'ASS.
Stoneware, 75, 209, 495, 553.
Stooke G, E.. 103.
Stove-beds or K'angs, 23, 91,
Strachey H., 555.
INDBX.
693
Missions. Illustrated ('athnlic F.on-
don \ :^87.
Moerman 7'.. 'lOO.
Moges de . 'i80.
Mohkan-shan, Sanatorium of (Chr-
kiang), 23,S.
Moidrey (de' Pere J.. KWi, 21K<.
Moidrcy (de) Tardif, 'iTO.
Mokwt'i or Kvil Spirits. Worship of,
353,
MoUendorf ; Von P. (i., 88, 37'i, 508.
Momein or T'engvQeh (Yunnan',
183.
Mongolia or the Mongku Country. 5,
7, 11, 14, 2IJ. 30, 31, 32,35,
3(>. 39, 48, 53. (>«, 487, 41K>.
491, 509-S22, 523, 531, 548.
Area and Population. 509.
Administration, 519.
Aspect and Characteristics,
510.
Climate, 514-515: Geology, 510.
,, Orography and Hydrography.
511-514*
,, Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 515.
People and I.anguage, 515-
51(i.
., Cities and Principal Centres,
517-518.
Industry and Commerce. 518.
Highways of Communication,
518-319; Army, 520.
Mongols, 42, 52, 71, 7^i, 77, 451, 458,
459-460, V.)3, 495, 515-516,
517, 518, 519, 520, 532.
,, descend from Huns, 451.
various Iribi^s of, 515-516.
defeat the Kin Tartars, 'i58.
., refuse to withdraw from X.
China, 458.
'^, establish the Yuen dynasty,
459.
,. dethroned by Chu Yuenchang
(Ming , 459.
,, character of. 459-4r.O.
,, language of, 42, 516-517.
,, religion, 5H>.
Mnnier Williams Sir. 382.
Monkeys in China, 17, 111. I'i9, 187,
198, 20<>, 231, 515, 544.
Mpnnier. 20, 88, 102, 481.
Mnnod, 404.
Monsoons, 15, 82, 243-245.
Montercorvino, John of, 354, 472.
Montgomery /*.. 377.
Montgomery Martin li.. .378, 389,
399, 400. '
Montigny (de) M. C 422.
Moral Characteristics of the Chinese,
341-342.
Moriak, 555.
.\/orrwon «.. 3.58. 373. 37**., ,377, 387,
V82, 555.
Morse //. li.. 33<1, <>45, r,iJ2.
Morsely W.. 387.
Morser. 535.
Moslem. Moslems see Mahomedan).
Mosos or Musus i branch of the Miao-
tze tribe), 181, 345.
Moule A.E., 237, 380, 387.
Mountain, Long \Vhite or Ch'ang-
peh-shan, 489, 504, 506.
Mountains of China ..s^e Orography •.
Mourey C. 555.
Muhliiig Mt., 122.
Muirhead W.. 387.
Mukden or Fungt'ien Fu, 461, 402,
470, 487, 488, 497, 501, 503,
504, 505.
home of the Manchu or Ta-
ts'ing dynasty, 461, 497.
,, description of, 497.
,, Imperial tombs at, 497.
Mulberry-tree, 18, 42, 157, 394, 395.
397.
Municipal Councils at Treaty Ports.
266-267.
Muravieff, negotiated treaty of Algun,
47'i-475.
Mnret M.. 42'i.
Murray A.. 480.
.Murra'if's China. 04. 88. 1 18, 138, l<i5,
192, 193. 213.214. 21<»,23r.,237. 3.35.
37'«. 378. 38r,. 405, '«22, 'i83, '»84.
Murui-usu Yangtze R. , 93.
Mushrooms found in Hupeh), 125.
Music, invi'nted by Hwangti, 'i44.
.Musk, 38, 1 14, 127*, 182, 408. 5'ir), 553.
Mussels, 83.
Mussulman Hevolts, 31, 183, 362-
363, 523, 532.
Mussulmans, 302-303 sec Mahome-
dansi.
Mutan-ho nr Peony R., 'i9(K
Muz- Art Pass (T'ien-shan > 52i>.
Mythological Period, 4V2-44'i.
Nahk'i hsien, 110.
Xamao or .Nanngao I., 281.
Names given to China, 7, 57, 3.39.
.Namti N'alley ;Yiinnan'. 183.
Nan-Chihli or Southern Chihli, <»(>
^see Kiangnan .
Nanch'ang Fu, 140. ri2, 143, 43'*.
Nanch'ao (Nganhwei . V'»8.
Nanchow 1., 290.
Nanchow T'ing, 132.
704
IN0KZ.
,, Trade of, 421, 655.
Szenan Fu (Kweichow), 184, 186.
Szengen Fu (Kwangsi), 195.
Szeshui hsien (Honan), liO.
Sze-Tao or P'our High (Officials, 306.
Tablelands {see Plateaux).
Tablet, Xestoriari, 43, 354.
Tach'ih or Gutzlaff 1., 263.
Tael or Chinese ounce-weight, 316.
,, Various kinds of, 317-318.
,, Gold equivalent of Haikvyan
(1870-11>06), 319.
T'ahch^^ng T'ing or Tarbagatai, 524.
T'ai Chow (Shansi), 50.
T'aichow Bay, 274.
T'aichow Fu (Ch^kiang), 227, 230,
275.
T*aihang-shdn (Mt.), 57.
T'aihu or Great Lake, 91, 97, 98, 155,
156, 159, 231.
T'aihu hsien, 151.
T*aingan Fu (Shantung), 79, 86.
Taipa Island, 288. ^
T*aip'ing Canal (connecting P'oyang
Lake with Yangtze-kiang), 134.
T'aip*ing Fu (Kwangsi), 195.
,, (Nganhwei), 146, 150.
T*aip*iiig Rebellion, 30, 47, 84, 139,
143, 144, 149, 158, 159, 217, 228,
231 , 232, 322, 345, 404, 408, 404-405,
475-470.
T'aip'ing-yan^ jor Pacific Ocean, 239.
Tairen QrDalny, 47)0, 492,500-501,505.
T'ai-shan (Shantung), 13, 79,80, 87.
T'aitan I. (F'okien), 278.
T*aits'ang Chow, 154.
T*aits'ing-chen or Pedro Blanco, 282.
T'aitsu, Emperor (Posterior Liang),
457.
T'aitsu, Kao Hwangti or T'ienniing
(Liao Tartars], 506,
T'aitsu, \Ven Hwangti or T'ientsung
(Liao Tartars:, r»0«.
T'aitsung, Kmperor (T'ang), 456.
,, crushed Turcomans, 456.
,, failed againstTibet, Korea, 456.
,, admired Confucius, 450.
,, Nestoriansseltle in China, 450-
457.
,, Mahomedaiis enter China, 456-
457.
Taitsuug, Kmperor ( 'F'ang). 456.
T'aitsung, Kmperor (N. Sung), 457-
458; unsuccessful aganst K'itans,
'i57: honoured descendants of Con-
fucius, 458.
'I'aiwan or Formosa, ceded to Japan,
468.
Fu (Shansi), 48, 51, 52-53,
Issionaries massacred at, 409;
Railway to, 433.
Ta-kiang (Yangtze-kiang), 93.
Takioht'eu ( Takiohtau), 286.
Takla-makan Desert, 530.
Taku, Taku Forts, 78, 252, 404, 409,
477.
Talai T'ing (Manchuria), 488.
Talien, Ta lien wan, 470, 477, 491,500-
501 (.see Dalny, Tairen).
Tali Fu (YQnnan), 177, 179, 181, 183,
345, 303; Massacre of 308.
Talki Pass (Hi), 520.
Tallow-tree or Kuentze-shu, 18, 111,
187, 231, 394, 397.
Taming Fu (Chihli), 67.
T'ang dynasty, 344, 354, 455, 450-457.
,, founded by LiyOen, 455.
,, Emperors of, 456.
,, general character of, 457.
T*ang-j6n(MenofT'ang=Caiitonese),
457.
T^ang Johwang (Chinese name of
Fr. Adam Schall), 355.
Tangut, Tanguts or Fantze (N. E.
Tibet), 30, 458, 520, 547 (see Hsia
Kingdom).
T*an-kiang (H.)» 59, 124, 129.
T*ang-ho (R.), 59, 02, 124.
Tangla Pass, 551.
T'angku (at mouth of Peh-ho), 431.
Tanyang hsien, 467.
Tao or Province (T'ang dynasty),
450, 471.
Tao divisions or Circuits, 300.
Taot'ai, 307.
T'ao-ho (R.), 25, 35.
Taoism (doctrine of the Right Way),
350, 351, 352, 459.
Taok'ow chdn, 59, 03, 432.
Taokwang, Emperor (Tats'ing), 403.
,, hated Foreigners, 463.
,, first war with England, 463.
., character of, 463.
T'aonan Fu (Shengking), 487.
I Tapa-shan or K'iut'iao-shan (Mt.),
95, 106, 107, 122.
I Tapeh-shan Mt.), 40.
I Tap'^nghai or Mirs Bay, 281,284.
I Tap'ingtu Kweichow), 110, 186.
Tarbagatai or T'ahch'^*ng T'ing, 474,
524.
Tarchendo (see Tatsienlu).
Tarim River, .'iX?, 528, 529.
' Tartar, Tartars, 450, 451, 453, 454,
I 459, 461, 515.
I „ Fish-skin, 493, 496.
I ,, Kin, 71, 458,
^
705
-•*. .,451,455,456,4? ^,
'oba ( Wei Kingdon 453,
454, 455.
,, Northern Mongols so called,
515.
Tartar City (Peking), 71.
Tartar-General or Tsiangkan, 329,
504, 505, 533.
,, abolished in Manchuria, 486,
505.
,, Garrisons, 329, 330.
Tasagtu-Bogdo (S. Altai), 511.
Tasha or Grand sand-bank at mouth
of Yangtze R.), 262.
Tash-Davan Pass (K'uenlun), 526.
Tashik'iao Junction, 503.
Tashi Lama {see Lama).
Tashilumbo Monastery, 550.
Tasmania, 239.
Tasashan or Lantao L, 282.
Tating Fu, 184, 190.
Tatsienlu or Tarchendo, 107, 113-114,
117.
Tats'in (Syria), 472.
TatsMng or Manchu dynasty, 355,
461-471, 506.
,, Events and^^ulers of, 461-471.
Tatsung Lake (Kiangsu), 156.
Tatu-ho iR.) 109.
Tat'ung (Nganhwei), 152.
Tat'ung Fu (Shansi), 48, 51, 53.
Tat'ung-ho, 25, 34, 35.
Tat'ung Mountains, 34, 35.
Taw^n-ho (R.), 82, 429.
Tax, Taxes, various kinds of, 321-
324.
., Inland on Foreign imports or
Likin, 470 (sec Likin).
Taxation, attempts to change method
of, 458.
Taylor G ., 373.
TayQ-ling (Mts . 92, 219, 228, 232.
Tchang (Chang), Pere M.. 479.
Tchang Tche-tong (Chang Chitung,
Viceroy of Hukwang), 390, 391.
cultivation of, 91, ill, 113. 120.
'*127, 132, 134, 141, 143, 144,
14r>. 149, 180, 182, 187, 206,
,, general kHMCl?m|(e of Chinese.
395.
,, Various kinds of, 396,416,651.
,, chief export places, 395, 417.
,, Value of export, 412, 416, 648,
651.
,, Quantity of export, 416, 417,
652.
Tea-merchants (Fang family), 408.
r '' Chow (Shantun 86.
Tehrhow or Sugar-lo«i ' Lighthouse,
283.
Tehk*ing Chow (Kwangtung), 212.
Tehngan Fu (Hupeh), 121.
Telegraphs, Imperial, of China, 437-
438.
,, other Lines and Companies,
438-439.
Temple of Heaven, 73, 74.
,, of Ancestors or Tz*et'ang, 353.
,, of Agriculture, 73, 74.
Temple. Sir R., 423, 485.
Temur or Ch'^njftsung, Bmperor,
(Yaen), 459. i T I
T^ngchow Fu (Shfen)[ung), ^9, 83, 84,
86, 87, 255, 256*. /
Tenghiz Lake or Btfgrach-Kul, 528.
Tengri-nor Lake, 543.
T*^ngyaeh T'ing or Momein, 182;
183: Trade of, 421, 655.
Tenney C. 2)., 391.
Terek-Davan (Pass), 526, 534.
Terrien de Lacouperie, 336, ,370, 479.
Territorial divisions of China, Statis-
tics of, 312.
Tes River (Mongolia), 511.
Tewchews (Hoklos so, called in the
Straits), 344.
Textile Plants, 395. '
Thelwall A. S., 401.
Thomas St., 354.
Thomson J., 399, 400.
Thomson and Johnson. 388.
Thornton 7'., 479.
Tibet, Bodgul or Sitsang, 93, 104,
105, 182, 117, 456, 462, 523,
538-55'7. a
,, Area and Population, 538.
,, General Aspect, 539; (^limate^
541-542; Geology, 539^ .
,, Orography, 539-541 (with
sketch-plan'.
., Hydrography, 542-544 (with
sk^ch-map); Lakes, 543.
,. Faurfa and Flora, 54V
.. Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 544-545.
,. People and Races, 547.
^-w,, ^;>wns and Principal Centres,
.?f ^40,553.
,, Industry and Commerce, 553.
Higlywavs of Communication,
55ft-55>4.
,, Open Trade-marts, 554.
,, Government and Administra* .
tive divisions, 545-547. *
,. ,, Kingdom of Tibet, 5'ir)-5'ir>.
,, '., Kuku-Nor, 547. *
/
47
706
iNDn.
Roman ^atholic
,, Religion, 547-548; Language,
548-549.
,, Taxation, tribute, currency, 549.
,, Army, 549; British Expedition
to Lhasa, 539, 554-555.
,, Anglo-Tibetan Convention, 555.
Tibetan, Tibetans, lOG, 112, 182,456,
547, 548, 550, 551, 552.
Tibetan Plateau, 94.
Tides or Haich'ao (sea-flow), 249,
252, 255, 263-264, 272, 273,
278-280, 283, 291.
,, importance of for navigation,
249.
where highest, 249.
peculiarities of on coast of
Tongking, 249.
at Taku Bar, 252.
at Staunton I. (Shantung), 255.
at mouth of Yangtze and at
Shanghai, 263-264.
in Hangchow Bay, 272.
on coast of Ch^kiang, 273.
at Foochow (Pagoda Anchor-
age), 278-280.
on coast of Kwangtung, 283.
at K.wangchow-wan, 291.
Tiehling (Manchuria), 506
T*ienchu-kiao or
Religion, 353-354,
Tienhu Lake (Ytinnan), 179-180.
T'ienming or T*aitsu Kao Hwangti
(Liao Tartars), 506.
T*ienmuh-shan (Heaven's Eve Mt.),
229.
T*iensha-ling Pass, 45.
T'ien-shan or Celestial Mts., 33, 477,
510, 524-525, 526, 528, 531.
,, Nanlu or Circuit S. of the
T'ien-shan, 521.
,, PehluorCircuitN.of theT'ien-
shun, 524.
T4ent*ai-shan (Mt.), 228.
Tientsin Fu, 02, 60, 69, 70, 75, 76,
78, 86, 252, 260, 4#l,465, 469,
475, 477.
,, Description and sketch-map
of, 75-76.
,, Massacre of, 465, 476,
,, Treaties of, 464, 466.
,, Railway to Peking, 430-431;
Shanhaikwan, 431 ; Ch^n-
kiang, 434.
,, Trade of, 421, 655.
T'ientsung or T'aitsung W^dn
Hwangti (Liao Tartars), 506.
Tiei<sen, 6, 20.
Tiger L or Hushan (Ningpo), 273.
,, (at mouth of Pearl R.), 286.
Tiger Head Bay or Hut'eu, 277.-
Titsingh, Isaac, 473.
Tih-hwa Fu or ITrumtsi, 524.
Ti-hwang or cumfrey (Honan-, 61.
Tillot M., 336, 405, 422.
Timber, 111, 129, 134, 150, 182, 189,
190, 200, 223, 225, 234, 235, 491,
518.
Time-zones of the China Coast, 292.
Tin, 60, 180, 182, 207, 211, 233, 403,
412, 648.
Tin-ware, 44, 233.
Ting, Admiral, 467.
Ting Chow (Chihli), 67.
T'ingchow Fu (Fokien), 218.
Tinghai T'ing (Chusan Is.), 228, 234,
273, 474.
Tipao (Chinese Bailiflf or Rural Cons-
table), 309.
,, character and duties of, 310.
Title of Reign or Nienhao, 296.
Titles of Honour for Merit or Fung-
ts^ng, 315.
T*oba Tartars, 454 (see W^'ei King-
dom).
Tobacco, cultivation of, 37, 38, 42, 52,
86, 113, 1 14, 1 1 6, 127, 1 34, 144,
180, 182, 1 87, 206, 209, 223, 394,
492, 495, 496.
,, Export of, 412, 648.
Tobar, Pere J.. 64, 383, ,390.
Tola or Urga River, 511, 817.
Toleration, Edict of, 463, 464, 475.
Tomsk, Province of, 509.
Tonga or Friendly Is., 240.
Tongking, 172, 174, 181, 460, 407.
,, Vassal of China (Ming), 460.
,, annexed by France, 467, 477.
,, boundarv delimited. 477.
Tongking, Guif of, 16, 249.
Tour (de), Francisco, 552.
Tower Hill, Beacon of, 255.
Townships or Sze, 309.
Trade of China, domestic, 407-408.
{see Industry and Commerce
for each Province;.
,, Foreign, 408-422, 645-656.
,, Statistical Tables of Exports
and lmports,41 0-41 7,646-652.
,, Books and Publications on,
422-424.
Trade-routes to Western countries,
534-535.
Trans-Alta! Mts., 525.
Transbaikal Province, Transbaikalia,
487, 509.
Transit Dues [see Likin).
Transmigration of Souls, 353.
Trappists in China, 357.
INDXt.
707
Travellers. Famous, to and from
China, 472.
Treasurer, Provincial or Fant'ai,306.
Treaties with China, 463, 404, 468,
470, 474, 475, 476.
,, Algun, 474; Kuldja, 460, 474.
,, Livadia and St. Petersburgh,
467, 476-477 ; Nerchinsk, 474.
, , Nanking, 359, 463, 464, 474, 475.
,, T'icntsin, 464, 466.
,, Shimonoseki, 468, 499.
,, Commercial with G. Britain,
the U. States and Japan, 470,
477; with Portugal, 477-478.
Treaty or Open Ports, List of, 326-
327.
Trees of China, 18, 397-398 (see Flora),
'i'ribes (.see Aboriginal Races).
,, Manchu, 493.
., Mongol, 519-520.
,, Tibetan, 547.
Tribute (.see Tax, Taxation',
,, Fleet, 430.
,, Rice, 330 ; Taot'ai, 430.
,, from Tibet, 549.
Tsaidam, 513, 538, 542, 553.
Tsangpo or Brahmaputra R., 544.
Ts'angwu Wang, Emperor (Liu-
sung), 454.
Ts'aochow Fu Shantung), 79.
Ts'aofeitien or Shalutien I., 251.
Ts'aoyun Tsungtuh or Director-
General of Grain Transport, 430.
Tschepe, Pere A.. 89, 165, 479.
Tsehchow Fu (Shansi), 48, 51, 54, 55.
Tseng Kwohfan, subdues Mussulman
revolt, 363.
Ts^ng, Marquis, 477.
Ts(>ng-shui or Peh-kiang (R.), 205.
Ts'i dynasty (short-lived), 454.
Ts'i, Feudal State, conquered by
Ts'in, 450.
Tsitsihar, 495.
Tsiao-kiang or T'aichow R., 230.
Ts'ien ^Mace^ or ^, ofTael, 316 {see
Cash).
Ts'ienkieng hsien (Rwangsi), 197.
Ts'ient'ang-kiang or Hangchow R.,
170,227, 229-230,232, 234, 235, 272.
Ts'in Chow (Kansu;, 32. 38.
Ts'in Chow Shansi), 50.
'I's'in dynasty (B. C. 249-206), 339,
344, 450-451.
Tsin dynasty (A.D. 265-420), 463-454.
Ts'in-ho (R.), 27, 51, 59.
Ts^inlin Mts, 26, 40, 41, 42, 45, 92.
Ts'in State (Feudal), 117, 450.
., Name given to China, 7. ,
Tsinshi or L. L. D. Graduate, 365.
Ts'in Shi Hwangti, 340, 450,461.
Ts'inwang-tao, 78, 252.
,, Trade of, 421, 666.
Ts'ingchow Fu (Shantung), 79, 84.
Ts'inghai or Kuku-Nor Lake, 25, 543.
Ts'ingho hsien, 162-163.
Tsingho T'ing (Sinkiang), 524.
Ts'inghwa ch^n (Honan), 61.
Ts'ingkiangp*oo, 162, 164,428,429.
Ts'ingk'ow, Port of, 261.
Ts'ingp'u hsien, 465.
Ts'ingshui (R.), 133.
i's'ingshui Lake, 82.
Ts'ingsu Island, 279.
Ts'ingftao (Green 1), 85 (with sketch-
plan ofPort),86, 87, 258-260 (with
plan of Kiao Chow Bay), 421-422,
468, 477 {see Kiao Chow).
Ts'ingyuen-ho (R.), 70.
Tso-kiang (R.), 172, 173, 197,198.
Tsop'oo (Tsop'u) or Chap'u, 272.
Tso Tsungt'ang, 31, 45, 363, 535.
Ts'Cienchow Fu (Fokien), 218, 223,
226, 460, 473.
,, Bay of, 277.
Tsungli Yam^n, 296, 298, 469.
Ts'ungming (Ch'ungming) I., 97,
157-158, 262, 263, 271.
Tsunhwa Chow (Chihli), 67.
Tsuni Ru (Kweichow), 184, 189,190.
Tsushima Channel, 470.
T'uhai-ho (R.), 82.
T'um^n River, 491.
Tungan, Tungani revolt, 362-363.
Tungch*ang Fu (Shantung), 79.
T'ungch'^ng hsien, 151.
T'ungchi, Emperor fTats*ing), 464-
466.
T'ung Chow (Chihli), 69, 74, 78.
T'ung Chow (Kiangsu), 154, 162.
T'ungchow Fu (Shensi), 39, 43, 55.
Tungchow Kiun, abdication of, 450.
T*ungchw*an Fu (Szechw'an), 106,
110, 116.
Tungchw'an Fu (Yunnan), 175, 181,
183.
Tunghaks or Tungkiaos, 467.
Tung-hai or Eastern China Sea, 241.
Tunghai or Amphitrite L, 290.
Tunghw^ui-ho (R.), 71.
Tungkas or Tungkias : boat-popul-
ation. Canton), 207, 222.
Tungkadoo (Sul3urb of native city,
Shanghai), 760.
Tung-kiang (R.), 172, 173, 204, 205-
206.
Tungkiangtze (Sh^ngking), 506.
T*ungkiohtze or Ten-cash piece, 320.
Tiingku, 78, 252.
708
INDEX.
Tungk^uenshan or Middle Dog Light-
house, 278.
T'ungkwan hsien, 43, 45, 55.
,, Pass, 26, 27, 39.
T'ungngan hsien. 224.
Tungsan Sheng or the Three Eastern
Provinces (Manchuria, 480.
Tungshi or Village Elder, 309.
,, Duties of, 310.
. Tungting or Chapel 1., 278.
Tungt'ing Lake, 91, 'J4, 97,121,131,
133-134.
Tunguses :Tartars),451 , 493,494, 506.
,, Ancestorsof theManchus. 451,
493, 506.
Tungyung L and Lighthouse, 278.
Turbets (Mongol tribe), 520.
Turcomans, 450.
Turfan, 524, 531, 534.
Turfan-Daria or Turfan R., 528.
Turguts (Mongol tribe), 515, 520.
Turkestan, Chinese, or the New
Dominion (Sinkiang), 4, 5,
32, 38, 338, 362, 465, 472,
474, 509, 523-537.
,, Various names given to, 522.
,, Area and Population, 5, 523.
,, Administration of, 533-534.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,
524-525.
,, Climate, 520-527; Geology,525.
,, Orography, 525; Depressions,
Passes, 520.
,, Hydrography, 527-528.
,, Fauna and Flora, 528.
,, Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 528-529.
,, Regions and Chief Towns, 529-
533.
,, Industry and Commerce, 534.
,, Highways of Communication,
534-535.
., People and Races, 533.
,, Religion, 533; Language (with
specimen of writing), 533.
., Historical Note, 535.
Turkis, 30, 515.
Turks, Hunnish origin of, 451.
Turley B. T.. 507, 508.
Turnabout or Niushan-tao Light-
house, 278.
Turner J. A., 210, ,389.
Turner F. S.. 400.
Turner S., 555.
Tuscarora Depression (East of Ja-
pan), 239-240.
Tussah or wild silk, 492.
Tuyun Fu (Kweichow), 184, 190.
Typhoons (Paofung), 245-246,285, 291.
,, Hongkong often visited by, 285.
Tze Chow (Szechw'an), 100.
Tze-ho (R.), 70.
Tze-kiang (R.), 133.
Tzekin ch'eng or Red Forbidden
City (Peking), 71. .
Tzeliu-tsing (salt-well), 112, 114.
Tz'ehsi, Empress-Dowager, 464,466,
468 [sec T*ungchi, KwangsO).
rbsa-Nor Lake, 511.
Uch-Turfan or Wushih T'ing, 524,
528, 531.
rian-Muren or Tat'ung-ho, 25, 35.
Uliasut'ai (Mongolia), 518.
Ulukem River, 511.
Umbrellas, Paper, or Kittysols, 158.
223, 234.
United-States, Relations with China,
470, 474, 477.
,, Trade with China. 409, 411,
646; Kerosene, 411, 047.
,, Tea, 417, 052.
,, Trading Houses and Traders
in China, 420, 646.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 41 8,653.
,, Population at Shanghai, 267.
University, Aurora (Sicawei), 369.
„ Peking, 367, 369.
,, conducted by Protestants, 369.
Ural-Altai language, 516.
Urat country, 514.
Urga or K*urun (Mongolia), 53, 78,
514, 515, 510, 517, 548, 550,
554.
,, River or Tola, 511.
Urumtsi or Tih-hwa Fu, 303, 524.
526, 531, 532, 533, 534.
Ussuri River, 475, 489, 490.
Uyfalvy, 530.
Vale J., 118.
N'alignani, Fr. A., enters China, 401.
ValUe-Poussin (de la), 381.
Valley, Chumbi, 551.
,, Han-ho, 104, 125; Hwai-ho, 90.
,, Kan-kiang, 140, 145; Lei-ho,
137, Namti, 183.
,, Songkoi, 98: Yangtze, 57, 90-
92, 99.
Van Braam, 473.
Vannutelli, 237.
VarUt^s Sinologiques, 335, 338.
Varnish, varnish -tree (T'ungtzeshu),
45, 111, 187, 190, 231, 394, 397.
Vaulserre (de), 102, 191.
Vay de Vaya, 508.
yenault, 507.
Venioukov, 500.
INDBX.
709
Verbiest Fr. or Nan Hwaij^n (Jesuit |
Astronomer at Peking), 355.
Verrolles. 50G.
Vial Pere, 191.
Viceroys in China, 301, 303, 305.
Vigneron, 118, 386.
Village or hsiang, 641.
„ Elder, 309-310 {see Tungshi).
Villard (de) A., 102.
Vincentians {see Lazarists).
Vine-tree or P*ut'ao-shu, 398.
Vineyards, 493.
Vitale et de Sercey, 522.
Vladimir, 481.
Vladivostock, 468, 475, 490.
*' Vodka" or millet-spirit, 495, 496.
{see Sorghum).
Voisin M., 399.
Volcanic action, 3, 53, 154.
Volcano I. or SQshan (Ch^kiang),
273.
Voyron, General, 481.
Waddel L. A., 382, 556.
Wade, Sir T.. 375, 476.
Waglan or Hunglan I., 283.
Waiwu Pu or Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, 298, 464, 469.
Wai-ch'^ng or Chinese City (Peking),
72.
Wall, Great, 28-29, 55, 69, 450, 459,
460.
Walnut, 18, 36, 398, 492.
Wan hsien (Szechw*an),95, 115,435,
470.
Wanlih, Emperor (Ming), 461.
Wang Chungyu, 390.
Wang Mang (Usurper at close of
Later Han), 452.
Wang Nganshih (Social reformer),
458.
Wanghsin , Treaty of (United States) ,
475.
Wanshow-k'iao (Bridge of ten thou-
sand years, Foochow), 222.
War, Wars, first with England, 463.
, , second with England, 464, 476-
476.
,, with France, 467, 477.
,, with Japan, 467-468, 477.
Ward, military leader, 159, 465, 476.
Ware J., 380.
Wameck G., 387.
Water-buffalo, 17, 111, 114, 167, 198, I
394, 398. !
Water-lily, 232.
Waterways, 427-430 {see Hydrogra- I
phy). i
Wathen W. H., 536.
Watter,s T.. 380.
Wax-insect, wax-tree. vegetable-wax,
45, 111, 114, 116, 182, 187.
Weale, Putnam, 423, 485, 508.
Webster J., 390.
Weddel, Capitain. 474.
W^eihaiwei, 86, 87, 257-268 (with
plan), 468, 477.
,. leased to Great Britain, 87, 468,
477.
description of, 257-258.
Wei-ho (Shensi). 26, 35, 39, 41-42, 44.
(Honan), 59,61. 62,63,69,82.
Wei hsien (Shantung), 83, 86-86,87.
W^eihwui Fu (Honan), 56. 59, 63.
W'ei-i or Outer Barbarians (Forei-
gners thus called by Emperor
Taokwang), 463.
Wei Kingdom (T'oba Tartars), 453,
454.
"Weinan hsien (Shensi), 44.
Wei-shan (Mt.), 68-69.
,, Lake (Shantung), 82.
Welhy M. S., 566.
Wells, Salt {see Salt).
Wenchang or Literary Essay, 365.
Wen Ching, 389.
Wenchow Fu (Chdkiang), 225, 227,
230, 232, 234, 235, 275, 476.
,, Trade of, 234,421, 655.
, , Dialect, books for learning, 232,
348, 377.
Wenchow Bay, 274.
W^n-ho (R.), 429.
Wensuh Fu or Aksu, 524.
W^nti, Emperor (Former Han), 451.
,, Emperor (Liusung), 454.
,, Emperor (Sui), 455.
Wen Wang (Chow), 449.
Werner, 387.
West River or Si-kiang, 15, 186-187,
196-197, 204-205, 206.
Weurles,He G., 292, 404, 481.
W'hangpoa or Hwampu (Hwangpu),
209, 212, 213, 287.
., Treaty of, with France, 475.
W^heat, 37, 180, 187, 206, 221, 231,
394, 528, 529, 544.
Wheelbarrow for travelling. 102, 527.
White Dog 1., 278.
White Lily Society or Pehlien-kiao,
459, 463.
Wholesale Trade of China, carried
on by Guilds, 407-408.
Wieger. Pcre L., 6, 479.
Wigham. 508.
Wilcox M. C. 23().
\V'i7/tVi»i.s, Wells, 6, r,4. 88, 118, 138,
165, 173, and passim.
710
IKDBX.
Williamson A., 30, 03, 88, 'lOb, 441,
507, 521.
WilHon A., 481, 556.
^\''ine, 395, 445 : its use forbidden
in early times, 445.
Windt (del 521.
Wingate A. W., 138, 507, 521.
Winterbothaw. 88, 118,138,165,192
213, 236, and passim.
Wolff, 521.
Wolseley <}. J., 480.
Wood, Lieutenant, 389.
Woodbridge S. /.. 138.
Wood-oil, 187, 268.
Wool, sheep, 38, 75, 78, 113, 114,
268, 412, 648.
,, camel, 75, 78.
Woollen Goods, 54, 136, 158, 182, 190,
200, 209, 210, 222, 223, 268, 285-286,
287, 410, 413, 530, 550,553, 646.
Woosung Railway, 430, 432.
„ Bars, 264-265, 270, 659-660.
Worship of Ancestors, 353, 494.
,, of Heaven and Earth, 353, 378,
379.
,, of Evil spirits, 353, 548.
,, of Mountains and Rivers, 353,
494.
Wuch*ang Fu (Hupeh), 120, 121, 125
(with sketch-plan).
Wuch*ang T*ing Manchuria), 487.
Wxichow Fu (Kwangsi), 172, 195,197,
200, 327.
„ Trade of, 421, 655.
Wuchw*an hsien (Kweichow), 187.
WuhsCeh (Hupeh), 130.
Wuhu hsien (Nganhwei), 91, 101,
150, 151, 151, 461.
„ Trade of, 150, 421, 655,656.
Wu-kiang (Crow River), 186, 191.
Wu Kingdom, 159, 340, 453.
Wu Sankwei called in Manchus),
461, 462, 506.
Wushih T'ing {see I'ch-Tiirfan).
W^usih hsien (Kiangsu), 159, 467.
Wutai or the Five Ephemeral Dy-
nasties, 457.
Wut'ai-shan Ml.), 50, 52.
Wutang-shan (Mt.;, 122.
W'uti. Emperor ^Former Hanj, 451.
,, defeats Huns, 451.
,, added Fokirn,Kwa ngtung,Sze-
chw'an and Liaotung to
Crown, 451.
Wuti, Emperor ( Tsin), 453.
,, defi'als Wu Kingdom, 453.
,, his end, 453.
Wuti, Emperor iT.iusung , 'ib\.
Wuti, Emperor (Liang), 455.
,, defeated at Siangyang, 455.
,, enters Buddhist monastery,
455.
Wuti, Emperor (Ch'^n), 455.
Wuting Chow (Yunnan), 177.
,, Fu (Shantung\ 79.
Wuting Pass, 41, 45, 107.
Wutsung, Emperor (T*ang), 354,456.
,, persecuted Buddhism, 456.
,, banished Nestorians, 354.
Wu Wang, Founder of Chow dy-
nasty, 448, 449.
M^ylie A., 383, 388, 507.
Xavier, St. Francis, dies at Sancian,
282, 354.
YachowFu(Szechw'an), 105,109,1 14.
Ya-ho (R.), 109.
Yahluh-kiang(YaluR.), 490,491,503.
,, Naval battle of, 468.
Yalung-kiang (R.), 95, 105, 109, 178.
Yak or grunting ox of Tibet, 17,
111, 114, 528, 544, 553, 554.
Yakub Beg, 535.
Yamdok Tso or Yumtso (Lake Palti),
543.
Yam^n, 75, 313.
Yangch^ng-shan, 57.
Yangchow Fu (Kiangsu), 94, 153,
155, 163, 455.
Yangi-hissar or YingkihshaeulT*ing,
524, 531.
Yangkiang T*ing, 203.
Yangkien, Founder of the Sui
dynasty, 455.
Yang Kingdom, 94.
Yangkingpang Creek (Shanghai),266.
Yangti, Emperor (Sui), 455.
Yangtze-kiang, 15, 92, 93-100, 101-
103,120,123,154,155,262-263.
rise and course of, 15, 93-99.
various names of, 93-94.
rapids, 05. 96, 99, 100, 128.
drainage area of, 99.
channels at mouth of, 262-263.
Na^ngation of, 99-100.
Steamboat Companies trading
on, 110, 440.
Yangtze Cape, 261.
,, Sand-bank or Tasha, 262.
,, Valley, 57, 90, 93, 99, 101.
Yang Yuhk'o (General), 363.
Yanianghsiai or Anunghoy, 286.
Yao, Emperor, 53, 55, 339, 444-445,
448.
Yao tribe or Yaohus (Jackals), 135,
207, 232, 344.
Yap (Caroline Is.), 439.
INDSX.
711
Yarkand or Soch*6 Fu, 362, 476, 524,
527, 528, 530, 531, 535.
Yarn, Foreign, import of, 413, 444,
649.
Yatung or Nadong (Tibet), 551.
Yellow Caps (Tibet), 547.
,, earth {see Loes lands).
,, River or Hwang-ho (sec Hwang-
ho); Race, 341.
,, Sea or Hwang-hai, 240, 241.
Yench'^ng hsien, 63.
Yenchow Fu, 79, 86, 87.
Yenesei R., 511.
Yen-ho (Yungting-ho, Sangkan-ho)
River, 70.
Y^nki Fu [see Karashar).
Yanking or Peking, 71.
Yenmdn Kwan or Pass, 29, 55.
Y^nngan Fu (Shensi), 39.
Yent*ai or Chefoo, 84, 85, 256.
Y^nt'ai mines (Sh^ngking), 503.
Y^nti, one of the Five Sovereigns,
444.
Yen W. W., 392.
Y^n Wang or Prince of Y^n (see
Yungloh).
Yin dynasty, 448.
Ying Chow Fu, 146, 149, 151.
Yingkihshaeul T'ing [see Yangi-
hissar).
Yingk'ow T'ing [see Newchwang).
Yin-shan (Mt.), 509, 513,
Yingtsung, Emperor (N. Sung), 458.
Yiuyang Chow, 106.
Yohchow Fu (Hunan), 131, 132, 136,
137 : Trade of, 421, 655.
Young, 387.
Young China, Education of, 370.
Younghusband, Sir F., 508, 537, 557.
YQ, Emperor, the Great, 445.
Yu-ho (R.), 59.
YQh or Pearl Island, 261.
Yu-Hsien, 469.
YOh-kiang (R.), 170-172, 197.
Yuhlin Chow (Kwangsi), 195, 198.
YQlin Fu (Shensi), 39, 44.
YCihm^n or Jadestone Gate, 529.
Yu Wang, Emperor (Chow), 449.
Yueh Kingdom, 340.
YOenchow Fu, 131, 135, 137.
Yuen-kiang (R.), 97, 111, 133.
Yuenming-yOen or Summer Palace,
74, 475.
Yaen or Mongol dynasty, 428, 459-
460 ; Emperors of, 459.
,. general character of. 459-460.
YQen Shik'ai, 333.
Yaenyang Fu (Hupeh), 121, 124.
Yule, 522.
Yule H.. 384, 482.
Yan-ho [see Grand Canal).
YQnkwei ( YQnnan, Kweichow), Vice-
royalty of, 1 74, 303.
YOnnan Province, 4, 8,9, 13, 14, 15,
16, 98, 99, 101, 105, 174-183,
184, 190, 195, 200, 313, 340,
345, 362-363, 465.
,, Arefe and Population, 175. ,
,, Aspect and Characteristics, 177.
,, Climate, 178; Geology, 177.
,, Orography, 178 (with sketch-
plan); Hydrography, 178-179.
Lakes, 179-180.
,, Fauna and Flora, 180.
,, Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 180.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,
181-182.
,, Industry and Commerce, 182.
,, Highways of Communication,
182-183 : Open Marts, 183.
,, Historical Note, 183.
YQnnan Fu, 175, 181.
Yungch*ang Fu, 177, 183.
Yungch*^ng, Emperor (TatsMng),
462.
,, hostile to Christianity, 462.
,, hated Foreigners, 462.
Yungch'^ng Bay (Shantung), 254.
Yungchow Fu (Hunan), 131.
Yungch*un Chow (Fokien), 218.
Yung-kiang or Ningpo R., 198, 230.
Yungloh, Emperor (Ming), 71, 460.
Yungpeh T'ing, 95, 177.
Yungp'ing Fu, 66, 70, 77, 78.
Yungshun Fu, 131.
Yungsui T'ing, 132.
Yungting-ho (R.), 70.
Yungtseh hsien, 63.
Zaitun, 223, 472 {see Ts'uenchow Fu,
Fokien).
Zebu or humped ox, 17, 143, 157.
Zi (Sa), Pere E.. 390.
Zikas or SQkias (savage tribe of Ch^-
kiang), 232.
Zikawei {see Sicawei).
Zilling-tso Lake, 543.
Zinc, 125, 135, 180, 187, 403.
Zoology {see Fauna).
Zosai (Sh^-shan), 160.
ZottoU, Pere A., 375.
CORRIGENDA.
age 4
line 14
for way i
read away.
? « * '
,, 22
,, inhabitants of China
,, Chinese[Settlers.
t » » »
,, 28
,, the first Chinese in-
,, Aboriginal races
habitants
of China.
^ 8
,, 20
,, 25,317,820
,, 25,316,820.
9
.. 11
,, alluvion
,, alluvium.
,, 10
„ 7
,, whith
,, with.
,, 13
,. 27
,, ihe
,, the
„ 17
,, 15
,, bear
,, boar
» » , ,
,, 21
, , gerboa
, , jerboa
,, 30
,, 10
, , pit-coat
,, pit-coal.
„ 3U
,, 20
,, 1830
,, 1850
,, 32
„ 20
,, Lean gc how
,, Liangchow.
,, , ,
„ 27
,, PMngleang
,, P*ingliang.
,, 36
„ 3
,, Estingol
,, Etsingol.
,. 38
,, 33
,, Minchow
,, Min Chow.
,, 39
„ 32
, , Soeiteh
,, Suiteh.
„ 45
„ 26
, , Chang Chow
,, Shang Chow.
,, 62
„ 19
,, ChenchowFu
,, Ch'^nchow Fu
„ 63
,, 19
, , Shenchow Fu
,, Shen Chow
,, 71
.. 17
,, Leao dynasty
,, Liao Tartars or
K4tans
» » 1 >
,, 23
,, 1341
,, 1368.
,. 27
, . removed
, , resolved to remove
,, H'A
,. 22
,, Pushan
,, Pohshan
,, 91
,, 20
,, Hsiichow
• ,, Siichow.
,, 95
,, 26
,, K'weichow Fu
,, Kw*eichow Fu
,, 100
,, 9
,, Timere quired
,, Time required
,, 124
,, 23
,, Aseries
,, A series.
,, 157
,, 36
,, 500
,, 3,500
,, 172
,, 30
,, Hingi Fu
,, Hsing-i Fu
,, 182
,, 14
, , tabacco
,, tobacco.
,, 183
,, 19
, , Tengyuch
,, T^engyueh.
, , ^ ,
,, 24
,. Musulman
,, Mussulman.
,, 186
,, 21
,, N. E..
,, N. W.
,, 189
., 1
,, Kweicohw
, , Kweichow
,, 204
,, 17
,, N. W.
,, N. E.
,, 222
,, 21
,, Hvvahsing
,, Hsinghwa
,, 241
,, 30
,, Leaotvmg
, , Liaotung
,, 251
,, 15
,, Leao-ho
,, Liao-ho.
,, 264
„ 31
,, E
,, w.
,, 275
„ 21
,, entranc
,, entrance.
>.%••
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