EX LIBRIS
JOHANNIS FLETCHER
PER DUO ET VIGINTI
ANNOS LINGUAE LATINAE IN COLLEGIO
UNI VE RSI TAXIS
PROFESSORIS: QUI MENSE JULIO
A.D. MDCCCCXVII MORTUUS EST:
LIBROS QUOS ILLE PENITUS AMAVERAT
UXOR ET FILII EJUS COLLEGIO AMATO
DO NAVE RUNT.
DULCES EXUVIAE DUM FATA DEUS-QUE SINEBANT.
Virg:Mn: IV.
MACMILLAN'S LATIN COURSE
THIRD PAKT
MACMILLAN'S
LATIN COUKSE
THIRD PART
EASY EXERCISES IN CONTINUOUS PROSE
BY
W. E. P. PANTIN, M.A.
ASSISTANT MASTER AT ST. PAUL'S SCHOOL I ^ < ~_- -
ILontion
MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1901
PREFACE
BEFORE using this book the student should at least
have had some practice in putting into Latin easy
sentences illustrating the use of the accusative and
infinitive, gerund and gerundive, id and ne, cum, si,
etc. Some of these subjects are treated afresh, but
the sentences will be found too hard for the beginner,
at any rate for the young beginner.
An acquaintance with the earlier volumes of this
Course is not necessary.
My object has been to produce a set of easy
exercises in continuous prose, to give practice in those
words, constructions and idioms, which occur on every
page of Cicero and Caesar, and so to enable the student
to read these authors with some ease.
When I had finished my continuous pieces, I found
that there were certain difficulties which recurred in
most of them. The principal difficulties were con-
nected with the use of the participles, of the infinitive
and subjunctive in Oratio obliqua, of some of the
pronouns, of the gerund and gerundive, of the tenses
vi LATIN COURSE
iii subordinate clauses, of si, cum, and a few other
conjunctions. Most of these subjects had been treated
in a very elementary way in Part II. of this Course,
but the student had not been carried far enough to
enable him to deal with the continuous exercises. 1
therefore wrote some thirty exercises of detached
sentences, which are intended to lead up to the con-
tinuous exercises. These earlier exercises are more
difficult, and at the same time, I hope, more interesting,
than exercises of detached sentences generally are. I
venture to suggest that it may be worth while to take
a pupil through them two or three times, so that he
may become quite familiar with the rules and able to
apply them without any considerable effort.
I hope that the book may prove useful not only
for younger boys, but also for those elder boys and
girls who begin Latin rather late and cannot give
much time to the study of the language. For them
the important thing is that they should acquire as
rapidly as possible the power to read ordinary Latin
prose without great difficulty. I think that something
may be done to help them by excluding everything
that is not quite common, and by giving plenty of
practice in dealing with all those difficulties which are
of frequent occurrence. It is waste of time to give
them an exercise on Made mrtnte, for example, or the
use of the infinitive in rhetorical questions in Oratio
obliqua, for they will very likely never come across
PREFACE vii
an instance of either. What they need is such
familiarity with common constructions as will make
a sentence like the following easy and pleasant to
read : Cuius sermone ita turn cupide fruebar, quasi
iam divinarem, id quod evenit, illo exstincto fore, uncle
discereni, neminem.
I owe a great deal to the Latin Grammar of
Gildersleeve and Lodge. For explaining grammatical
subtleties in clear and forcible language this book is,
it seems to me, unrivalled. I have found the numerous
examples in Drager, and in Kiihner, useful. I have
also used constantly Merguet's Lexicons, (1) to the
Speeches, and (2) to the Philosophical Writings, of
Cicero.
I should like to express my gratitude to my
colleague, Mr. A. M. Cook, who has kindly looked
through my work from time to time and helped me
by his encouragement and advice.
CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
1-30. Miscellaneous ...... 1
31-32. The connecting relative . . .22
33-35. se and eum ...... 24
EXERCISE 1 . . . . .27
36-51. Pronouns and the adverbs connected with them . 29
(Qui, quis, cur, quando, etc., 36-40: quisquam
and ullus, 41 ; quivis, 42 ; aliquis, quidam,
quondam, 43, 44 ; quisquis, quicumque, 45 ;
quisque, 46 ; ipse, 47 ; idem, 48)
EXERCISE 2 . . . . . .38
52-58. The tenses ...... 41
(The tenses classified, 52 ; general rule for tenses
in subordinate sentences, 53 : general rule
applied to iterative sentences, 54 ; general
rule applied to conditional sentences with the
indicative, 55 ; general rule applied to cunt,
sentences with the indicative, 56 ; iam dlio
with the present, 58)
EXERCISE 3 . . . . .49
59-64. Temporal sentences (ubi, simid ac, postquam, prius-
quam, dum) . . . . .51
EXERCISE 4 . . . . .55
65-72. The conjunction cum ..... 57
EXERCISE 5 . . . . . .62
73-79. The participles (examples in 77; . . 65
EXERCISES 6-8 . " 73
LATIN COURSE
SECTION
80-82.
83-89.
90 95.
100.
101-02.
103.
104.
105.
106-13.
114.
115-19.
120-23.
124-25.
126-28.
129-30.
131-52.
The infinitive, gerund, and gerundive. (The English
verbal substantive in -ing : ars scribendi, the art
of writing) . . . . .79
EXERCISE 9 ... 83
The gerund and gerundive used as predicates (scri-
bendum est, I must write) . . . .85
EXERCISES 10, 11 . . .90
The infinitive as subject (Predicative genitive) . 94
EXERCISE 12 . ' . . . . .98
The infinitive as subject (Impersonal verbs : decet,
oportet, iiUerest, etc.) . . . .100
EXERCISE 13 . . . . . . 103
The infinitive as subject (Impersonal verbs with
dative : licet, etc.) . . . .105
EXERCISE 14 . . . . . .107
The infinitive as object .... 109
Verbs with which the nominative and infinitive may
be used (nolo ire solus] . . . .110
lubeo, veto, etc. . . . . .111
Some verbs which admit of various constructions
(scio, wlo, timeo, dubito, constituo, disco) . 112
EXERCISE 15 . . . . . .115
The infinitive with verbs of saying and thinking . 117
The future infinitive active and passive . . 122
EXERCISE 16 . . . . . . 124
Conditional sentences . . . . .127
EXERCISE 17 . . . . . .130
The potential subjunctive (scire velim) . 132
EXERCISE 18 .... . 135
Commands and prohibitions . . . .137
Exhortations (eamus, let us go) . . .139
Wishes (Utinam venial) . . . 140
EXERCISE 19 . . . . . .142
Oratio obliqua ...... 144
EXERCISES 20-26 . . . .157
CONTENTS xi
SECTION PAt;K
153-58. The subjunctive in relative clauses (Nihil cst cur
doleas, Dignus est quern imiter is, etc.) . . 171
EXERCISE 27 . . . .174
159-62. Causal sentences Quod meaning "as to the fact
that" . . . . . .176
EXERCISE 28 . . . .179
163-67. The Calendar . . 181
EXERCISE 29 ... . 184
168. Hints on the connection of sentences . . 185
EXERCISES IN CONTINUOUS PROSE . .186
ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY . . . 277
IRREGULAR VERBS ... . 304
NUMERALS 308
TO THE STUDENT
FIRST look through Sections 1-30. Sections 1-13 contain information
on some elementary matters, with which you will be more or less
familiar. Sections 14-30 contain short notes on some of the subjects
which are treated more fully later on in the book. These short notes
will help you to find your way about the book. You will also find the
Table of Contents useful.
Then read carefully Sections 31-35, study the examples with a view
to imitating them, and begin Exercise 1. The dictionary at the end
of the book contains all the words which are really necessary. Try to
think of the words for yourself: do not become dependent on the
dictionary, or you will be helpless without it. A good deal is left to
your intelligence, especially in the later exercises. For example, if
you look up ' peril ' you will not find it, but if you think what it means,
the words ' danger ' and ' periculum ' will occur to you. If you do not
find ' accompanied by, ' you may supply its place by using the pre-
position cum ; and so on.
Do not be satisfied when you have found out the correct words and
given them correct terminations. Consider whether the sentence
sounds like a Latin sentence, and go through it again and again till
you are satisfied that it does. The words may be right and the sen-
tence intelligible, and yet it may be a sentence which no Latin writer
could have written. Study the order of words, the connection of
sentences, etc., in the exainples and in your reading.
After the dictionary you will find a list of irregular verbs, and the
numerals. Read the note on p. 276 on the marking of the quantities
in the dictionary.
The reference is always by sections (unless otherwise stated) : for
instance, ' see 77 ' means see section 77, which is on p. 68.
1. WHEN ? WITHIN WHAT TIME ? FOR HOW LONG ?
(a) The ablative answers the questions When ? On
what day ? At what hour ? In what year or month ?
Eodem die, The same day.
superioribus diebus, in earlier days.
quarta hora, at the fourth hour.
illo anno, in that year.
hac ipsa nocte, this very night.
(b) The ablative answers the question Within what
time ?
Faucis diebus aderit, He will be here in a few
days.
Quattuor diebus capietur, It will be taken within
four days.
(c) The accusative answers the question For how
long?
Duo annos in careers erat, He was two years in
prison.
2 LATIN COURSE
2. WHERE FROM ? WHERE TO ? WHERE ?
Use a preposition with all common nouns and with
the names of countries :
ab urbe venio in agros ibo in templo est;
e Gallia venio in Italian! ibo in Britannia est.
Use no preposition with the name of a town or
small island :
Eoma venio Eomam ibo Eomae est;
Ehodo (from Rhodes) Ehodum (to Rhodes)
Ehodi (at Rhodes).
The town at which is put in the ablative unless it
is a singular word of the first or second declension,
when it is put in the genitive : Corinthi, Athenis,
Carthagine.
Use no preposition with domus and rus.
The name of a town is often used in apposition to
urbs or oppidum :
Ab urbe Eoma, from the city of Rome in oppidum
Puteolos, to the town Puteoli in urbe Eoma,
in the city of Rome.
The Latin idiom differs from the English in such
sentences as the following :
He came to me in the city, Ad me in urbem (into
the city) venit.
He came to me at Rome, Ad me Eomam venit.
Use quo for 'where ?' eo for 'there/ hue for 'here,' if
motion to the place is meant :
Quo vadis ? Where are you going ?
Eo rediit, He returned there.
Hue veni, Come here.
MISCELLANEOUS
3. INTRANSITIVE VERBS HAVE IMPERSONAL PASSIVE
A verb is used transitively when it governs an
accusative of the direct object : vinco hostem, I conquer
my enemy.
A verb is used intransitively when the action does
not go beyond the subject : dormio, I sleep.
A verb used transitively in the active voice has a
personal passive ; the object of the active verb is the
subject of the passive : (a) active, vinco hostem : (b)
passive, hostis vincitur : in (a) hostem is object, in (b)
hostis is subject.
A verb used intransitively in the active voice has
an impersonal passive in Latin : dormio, I sleep ;
dormitur, sleep is going on ; dormitum est, sleep is
done. As we have no impersonal passive in English,
we cannot translate dormitur, etc. literally : we cannot
say ' it is being slept.'
Many intransitive verbs govern a dative of the
indirect object. Like other intransitive verbs they are
used impersonally in the passive ; the dative remains
unchanged :
Parco tibi, / am lenient to you, / spare you.
Parcitur tibi, Leniency is shown to you, You are
spared.
Many of these verbs are transitive in English :
hence the very common mistake of supposing they are
transitive in Latin. This is the more natural because
the impersonal use of the passive is not found in
English, and it requires a considerable effort to make
4 LATIN COURSE
the mind familiar with it. A few more examples may
help you to avoid blunders :
Credit ur milii, / am believed.
Ignoscetur tibi, You will be forgiven.
Persuasum est rnihi, / have been persuaded, I am
convinced.
Note especially the use of the gerund : credendum
est Caesari a nobis. The agent must be expressed by
a, ab and the ablative ; for two datives would be
ambiguous. (See 87.)
4. COPULATIVE VERBS
The following verbs among others may be used
with two nominatives, one of the subject, the other of
the predicate : sum, I am ; videor, I seem ; nascor, I
am born ; evado, I turn out ; creor, nominor, I am
appointed ; putor, existimor, habeor, I am considered ;
appellor, dicor, I am called ; flo, I am made.
Cicero creatus est consul, Cicero was appointed
consul.
Ille putatur bonus vir, He is considered a good man.
Imperator certior factus est, The general was
informed.
When the copulative verb is in the infinitive with
possum, volo and similar verbs (see 103) the predicate
remains in the nominative :
Malet existimari bonus vir, He will prefer to be
considered a good man.
MISCELLANEOUS 5
Socrates parens philosophiae lure dici potest,
Socrates may with justice be called the father of
philosophy.
Dionysius fortis esse didicerat, Dionysius had been
taught to be courageous, or, had learned to be
courageous.
5. QUESTIONS. I. Direct
1. Simple Questions with num, -ne, nonne :
Num. fecisti ? Did you really do it ? [Surely
you didn't ?~\. Nonne fecisti ? Didn't you do it ?
[Surely you did .?] Fecistine ? Did you do it ? [Tell
me : I want to know.]
Num expects the answer 'No.' Nonne expects the
answer 'Yes.' -ne is appended to the most emphatic
word in a question asked for information ; the answer
is not implied. The most emphatic word is generally
placed first :
Interfecisti-ne omnes ? Did you kill them all ?
Omnes-ne interfecisti ? Did you kill them all ?
2. Double Questions: utrum and an:
Utrum vicisti an victus es ?
Utrum vicisti annon ?
3. Questions may also be introduced by such words
as Quis ? Cur ? Unde ? See 37.
LATIN COURSE
The Mood in a Direct Question
4. Direct questions have the verb in the indicative
if the expected answer would have the verb in the
indicative, as is the case with all the above sentences.
The subjunctive is used where the answer would be
in the subjunctive or imperative :
Si ad te venissem, quid fecisses ? Tecum profectus
essem, If I had come to you, what would you
have done ? I should have started with you.
Quid faciam ? Eedi, What am I to do ? Go lack.
Utrum hostibus resistamus an nos dedamus ?
Resistamus, Must (Shall) we resist or surrender ?
Let us resist.
6. QUESTIONS. II. Indirect
The verb in an indirect question is in the subjunctive.
In a simple indirect question ' whether ' may be trans-
lated by num or -ne: num does not imply that the
answer to the question must be 'No.'
Scire velim num redierit, / should like to know
whether he has come lack.
Ex me quaesivit posset-ne fieri, He asked me whether
(or, if) it was possible.
Note. The word ' if ' introducing a question ( =
' whether ') must not be translated by si.
Just as the future infinitive is made up of the
future participle with esse, so the future subjunctive
MISCELLANEOUS 7
in indirect questions is made up of the future participle
with sim or essem :
Quaesivi num moriturus esset, / asked ivliether he
would die.
Considerabimus quid fecerit, quid faciat, quid
facturus sit, We will consider ivhat he has done,
what he is doing, what he is going to do (will do).
In a double indirect question ' whether ' may be
translated by utrum or -ne ; * or ' by an ; * or not '
by nec-ne :
Scire velim utrum vicerit an victus sit (Scire velim
vicerit-ne an victus sit), / should like to know
whether he has won or lost.
Nihil interest utrum rescribas necne, It doesn't
matter whether you write hack or not.
7. HOW TO EXPRESS A CONSEQUENCE
To express a result or consequence use ut, id . . .
non, ut . . . nemo, ut . . . nihil, ut . . . numquam (not
ne, nequis, nequid, nequando etc.).
Tanta erat tempestas ut nemo posset solvere, The
storm was so violent that no one could set sail.
Tarn paucae erant naves ut redire non possent, There
were so few ships that they could not return.
Contrast the next example.
8 LATIN COURSE
8. HOW TO EXPRESS A PURPOSE
To express a purpose use (1) ut, ne, nequis, etc.
(not ut . . . non, ut nemo, ut nihil etc.).
Ne in patriam redire possent, naves incendit, He
burned the ships that they might not be able to
return to their country.
In final clauses (i.e. clauses expressing a purpose)
ne-ve, not neque, is used for ' and not.'
Id ut efficerent ne-ve desperarent, metum dissimu-
lavit, that they might effect this and not lose
hope, he concealed his fear.
Ne = ' lest'; you can introduce ' lest ' in final clauses
in English, but not in consequence-clauses.
(2) The relative pronoun (qui) may also be used
to express a purpose : qui is then equivalent to ut is.
Misimus qui quaererent, We sent some men to find
out ( We sent men who might find out).
Use qui instead of ut when the sense allows (i.e.
when ut is makes sense) ; for instance
He sent two ships to protect the city, Duas naves misit
quae (not ut) urbi praesidio essent.
See 156 for further examples.
(3) Quo (the ablative of qui) is used with compara-
tives :
Quo facilius intellegatis, epistulam legam, That you
may understand the more easily, I will read the
letter.
Quo is equivalent to ut eo, ' in order that/ ' by this
means.'
MISCELLANEOUS 9
(4) A purpose is also sometimes expressed by the
gerund or gerundive followed by causa (the abl. of
causa, ' cause,' ' reason') :
In Asiam venit negotiandi causa, He came to Asia
in pursuit of his business (lit. for the sake of
carrying on his business}.
Navium reficiendarum causa, In order to repair his
(5) The supine in -um is also sometimes used, but
only with verbs of motion :
Venerunt oratum regem ut sibi subveniret, They
came to beg the king to help them.
9. THE RELATIVE EXPRESSING A TENDENCY OR EESULT
Qui with the subjunctive may be equivalent to
ut is or talis ut is :
Nemo tarn sapiens est qui sciat omnia, No one is so
wise as to know everything,
or simply
Nemo est qui sciat omnia, There is no one who
knoivs (i.e. such that he knows) everything.
This use of the relative is 'specially common after
Sunt qui, Nemo est qui:
Sunt qui dicant, Some people say (There are some
who say).
See further examples in 157-58.
10 LATIN COURSE
10. VERBS FOLLOWED BY UT
The following verbs among others may be followed
by ut.
(a) ut final ; negative ne : in English we use the
infinitive with the corresponding verbs : I urge (order,
beg etc.) you to come, HOT tor (impero, oro) ut venias,
I urge (order etc.) you not to come, Hortor (impero
etc.) ne venias.
peto a te persuadeo tibi
oro te impero tibi
hortor te praecipio tibi
moneo te edico tibi
suadeo tibi
All these verbs mean to try to induce a man to
do or to avoid doing so and so. Some of them may
take other constructions with different meaning, for
example :
i. Moneo te ut audias, / advise you to listen.
ii. Moneo te eum iam ad oceanum pervenisse, /
warn you that he has already reached the ocean.
In i. moneo takes ut because it means ' I try to
make you listen/ in ii. it takes the accusative
and infinitive because it means ' I inform you
that he has reached the ocean.' In i. the
ut clause expresses my purpose in speaking
(my object is to make you listen). In ii. the
accusative and infinitive reports what I say
(I say iam ad oceanum pervenit}.
MISCELLANEOUS 1 1
Note that where we use our infinitive with these
verbs the Latin has ut (as in i.) : where we use ' that '
the Latin has the infinitive (as in ii.).
(b) ut consecutive or explanatory : negative non.
Accidit, it happens, it chances.
fieri potest, factuni est etc., it is possible that, the
result was that etc,.
I happened to see him, Accidit ut eum viderein.
11. QUIN
The following expressions among others are followed
by quin. They are all negative statements or questions
implying a negative answer :
Nemo est. Non recuso.
Quis est? Non obsto.
Non dubito. Me retinere non possum.
Quis est quin sciat ? Who is there 'who does not
know ?
Eecusare non possum quin venias, / cannot object to
your coming.
Non dubito quin venturus sit, / have no doubt that
he will come.
12 LATIN COURSE
12. QUOMINUS
Quominus follows impedio, deterreo and some other
verbs of hindering :
Eeges impediendi sunt quominus Parthis sub-
veniant, The kings must be prevented from
helping the Parthians.
Quominus = quo minus : quo, l by which means ' is
equivalent to ut eo, ' that by this means ' : minus, ' to a
less extent, not at all.'
Quid obstat quominus sit beatus, What prevents
his being happy (what stands in the way so that
in consequence thereof he should the less be
happy ?).
13. SEQUENCE OF TENSES
The rule of sequence is : Primary tenses of the
subjunctive follow primary tenses of the indicative,
historic tenses of the subjunctive follow historic tenses
of the indicative.
The Primary Tenses are
in the Indicative in the Subjunctive
Present. Present.
Future and Future Perfect. Perfect.
The Historic Tenses are
in the Indicative in the Subjunctive
Imperfect. Imperfect.
Perfect. Pluperfect.
Pluperfect.
MISCELLANEOUS 13
Note that the historic tenses correspond to the
Greek augmented tenses.
The primary tenses have to do with the present
and the future, the historic tenses with the past.
Hence the imperative mood is, of course, primary.
14. Tense in subordinate clause
1. Latin is more exact than English in the use of
the tenses in subordinate clauses :
Si quid iussisti, efficimus, If you give (i.e. have
given} any order, we carry it out.
Si quid iusseras efficiebamus, If you gave (i.e. had
given} any order, we used to carry it out.
As a practical rule, if you can introduce the more
exact expression (such as ' if you have given/ ' if you
had given,' ' if you shall have given ') in the English
without altering the sense, you must use one of the
tenses of completion (perfect, pluperfect or future
perfect) in the Latin.
2. If a subordinate clause refers to the future, a
future tense must be used in Latin :
Veniet, si valebit, He will come if lie is well (i.e.
if he shall be well).
Veniet si iussero, He will come if I bid him to
(i.e. if I shall have bidden him).
See 52-57.
14 LATIN COURSE
15. lam diu etc. with Present
The present is used of an action commenced long
ago and still continuing, especially with iam and iam
diu.
Iam diu exspecto litteras, / have long been expecting
a letter (and am still expecting).
See 58.
16. Postquam etc. with the Perfect
Note the common use of the perfect tense (where
in accordance with the rule given in 14 we should
expect the pluperfect) with ubi, ut, postquam, priusquam,
simul ac :
Postquam a nobis discessit, interfectus est, After
he (had) left us he was murdered.
See 60.
17. Dum with the Present Indicative
Dum takes the present indicative when it means
' during the time that/ ' in the course of the time
that ' :
Dum haec geruntur, (interea) nuntiatum est,
While this was going on (In the course of these
proceedings), a message was brought.
See 62.
MISCELLANEOUS 15
18. Dum, ' until,' with Subjunctive
Dum, ' until/ takes the subjunctive if there is any
reference to the future, or any sense of purpose or
expectation. Hence very often with exspecto and
similar verbs :
Exspectandura est dum redeat, We must wait till he
returns, or, for him to return.
See 64.
19. The Conjunction Cum
Cum, 'when/ takes the future or future perfect
indicative.
Cum, ' when/ takes the imperfect and pluperfect
subjunctive.
Cum, meaning 'since/ 'as/ 'seeing that/ 'although/
takes the subjunctive. See 65-72.
20. The English Present Participle
The present participle can only be used in Latin
of an action contemporaneous with that of the leading
verb. It is correct to write :
Flens oravit auxilium for ' Shedding tears he legged
for help,'
for he was shedding tears while he was speaking. But
it would not be correct to write :
Surgens discessit for ' Rising up he went away'
for he did not go while he was rising, but after he had
risen. We should therefore write :
Cum surrexisset discessit.
16 LATIN COURSE
21. We use our present participle in a causal sense :
Being hungry (i.e. as he was hungry) he asked for food.
The participle thus used should be translated into
Latin by (1) cum with the subjunctive, Cum esuriret,
As he was hungry, or (2) by the past participle of a
deponent verb, Veritus, Being afraid. See 74, 78, 79.
22. The English Past Participle
There is no past participle active in Latin. Its
place is supplied (1) sometimes by the use of the
passive participle, (2) sometimes by using cum with
the subjunctive, sometimes in other ways.
(1) a. Having conquered his enemy he departed.
Hoste victo discessit (His enemy having been
conquered).
b. Having conquered his enemy he killed him.
Hostem victum interfecit (He killed his
conquered enemy}.
Beware of writing the ablative absolute when, as in
(b), the participle may be brought into the sentence in
some other way.
(2) a. Having conquered his enemy he departed, Cum
hostem vicisset, discessit.
b. Having arrived there he had dinner, Quo
cum venisset cenavit.
Beware of using victus for ' having conquered/ or
ventus ( ' the wind ') for ' having come.'
See 77 for examples of the use of the participles.
MISCELLANEOUS 17
23. The Gerund and Gerundive
I. The gerund and gerundive are used to translate
our verbal substantive in -ing, in the accusative after
a preposition, in the genitive, dative, and ablative.
The gerund is used as the intransitive form, and as the
transitive form when the object is a neuter adjective or
pronoun; the gerund is not used to govern a substantive
in the accusative : it is replaced by the gerundive, which
attracts the substantive into its own case.
ace. ad scribendum (multa, aliquid), With
a view to writing.
ad scribendam epistulam.
gen. ars scribendi.
ars scribendarum epistularum.
dat. and abl. scribendo.
scribendis epistulis.
The nominative and the accusative without a pre-
position are supplied by the infinitive :
nom. scribere est molestum, Writing is troublesome.
ace. nolo scribere, / dont want to write, I don't
like writing.
See 80-82.
II. They are used as predicates to express obliga-
tion or necessity or some similar idea. The nominative
and accusative are the only possible cases :
Moriendum est omnibus, We must all die.
Exspectandae sunt naves (tibi), You must wait for
the ships.
Versus mihi dedit rescribendos, He gave me my
verses to write out again.
See 83-89.
c
18 LATIN COURSE
24. The Infinitive with the Accusative
The infinitive, or the accusative and infinitive, may
be the subject to est and some other verbs :
Manere est optimum, It is best to stay.
Me manere est optimum, It is best that I should
stay.
Manere solum est optimum, It is best to stay alone.
The words in italics form the subject to est. See 91-100.
25. The Infinitive with the Nominative
The infinitive, or the nominative and infinitive,
may be used with possum, debeo, volo, nolo, malo, cupio,
statuo ( = ' I resolve '), coepi, desino, and soms other
verbs :
Cupit manere solus, He desires to remain alone.
See 101-105.
The nominative and infinitive may also be used
with passive verbs of saying and thinking :
Dicitur manere solus, It is said that he remains
alone.
See 110.
26. The Accusative with the Infinitive Tense of the
Infinitive
The accusative and infinitive are used with active
verbs of saying and thinking ; to some extent also
with passive verbs of the same class. See 106-14.
MISCELLANEOUS 9 19
A common mistake is to put the wrong tense of
the infinitive. Observe the tense in the following :
They say he was king (i,e. They say Eex erat or
fuit, He was king), Dicunt eum regem fuisse.
They said he ivas king (i.e. They said Eex est, He
is king), Dixerunt eum regem esse.
They said he was king (i.e. They said Eex erat or
fuit, He was king), Dixerunt eum regem fuisse.
To avoid mistakes go back to the direct form, i.e.
ask yourself what they did say : if the direct form
has the present indicative, the indirect form will have
the present infinitive ; if the direct form has the
imperfect or perfect indicative, the indirect form will
have the perfect infinitive. See 113.
27. ORATIO OBLIQUA
The principal rules for Oratio Obliqua are :
The indicative mood is not used.
Statements are put in the accusative and infinitive.
Questions and commands have the verb in the
subjunctive.
Subordinate clauses have the verb in the sub-
junctive.
With regard to the tenses, keep as close as possible
to the Oratio Eecta and observe the rule of the sequence
of tenses. See 131-52.
20 LATIN COURSE
28. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN ORATIO KECTA AND
OBLIQUA
See 115-19 on conditional sentences ; 131-52 on
oratio obliqua, and especially 151.
A. 1. Si loquatur, audiam, If he were to speak, I
ivould listen.
Dixi me eum, si loqueretur, auditurum esse.
2. Si locutus esset, audissem, If he had spoken,
I should have listened (it is implied that
he did not speak).
Dixi me eum, si locutus esset, auditurum fuisse.
3. Si loqueretur audirem, If he were speaking, I
should listen (it is implied that he is not
speaking).
Dixi me eum, si loqueretur, auditurum
fuisse.
B. 1. Si id dices, mentieris, If you (shall) say it,
you will lie.
Dixi ilium, si id diceret, mentiturum esse.
2. Si id dixero, me caedet, If I say it (shall have
said it), he will flog me.
Dixi eum me, si id dixissem, caesurum esse.
3. Si id dixisti, mentitus es, If you said it, you lied.
Dixi eum, si id dixisset, mentitum esse.
4. Si quid dixeram, irascebatur, If I (had) said
anything, he used to get angry.
Dixi eum, si quid dixissem, iratum esse or
irasci solitum esse.
MISCELLANEOUS 21
5. Si quid dicit, mentitur, If he says anything, he
Dixi eum, si quid diceret, mentiri.
6. Si timebat, mentiebatur, If he was frightened,
he used to lie.
Dixi eum, si timeret, mentitum esse or mentiri
solitum esse.
29. THE POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE
Scire velim, / should like to know.
Dixerit quispiam, Some one may say.
See 120-23.
30. COMMANDS, PROHIBITIONS, AND EXHORTATIONS
In the second person the following are the common
forms :
Commands
Singular. Veni. Fac venias. Cura ut venias.
Plural. Venite.
Prohibitions
Singular. Noli putare. Cave (ne) putes.
Plural. Nolite putare.
In the first and third person the subjunctive is
used :
Faciamus, Let us do it. Ne quis dicat, Let no one
say.
See 124-28.
II
THE CONNECTING EELATIVE
31. The connection between one sentence and another
is often more fully expressed in Latin than in English.
The relative pronoun and its adverb quo are very
largely used after full stops, colons and semicolons to
bind one sentence to another:
Quae cum audisset Eomam profectus est. Quam
ad urbem cum pervenisset ad fratris domum properavit.
Quern cum in Galliam iam profectum esse cognovisset
Massiliam navigare statuit. Itaque ad-portum currit,
or ad portum igitur currit.
' When he heard this (or, on hearing this), he
started for Eome. And when he reached the city he
hastened to his brother's house. Finding that he had
already set off for Gaul he determined to sail to
Marseilles. So he hurries off to the harbour.'
32. We cannot imitate this use of the relative in
English. We cannot say 'which when he had heard'
or ' to which city when he had come ' ; we change
the relative into a demonstrative, and say ' when he
had heard this,' ' when he had reached this city or
PRONOUNS 23
the city.' Sometimes we put in an ' and ' or ' but '
or ' now ' to express the connection with the preceding
sentence. This use of the relative is especially
common with cum, ' when.' Observe the order of the
words : the relative comes first ; only a preposition
can precede it :
Ex quo intellexi, From this I gathered.
Quibus de rebus certiores facti putavimus, Now
when we were informed of this we thought.
[Compare the two examples just given: the relative
tends to come first ; it precedes the preposition when
it has a substantive in agreement with it.]
Quo facto, This done.
Quod si fecero, In that case ; more literally, If I
do so.
Qua re or Quare, Wherefore, Accordingly, For this
reason.
Quorum ad fines ut venit, When he reached their
territory.
Quorum uno interfecto, And when one of them was
slain.
Quo cum venissem, On my arrival, or Arrived
there, When I got there (whither when I had
come).
24 LATIN COURSE
SE AND EUM
33. Se and suus refer to the subject of the sentence :
Se interfecit, he killed himself (A killed A).
Eum interfecit, he killed him (A killed IT).
Eum refers to some person already mentioned
other than the subject of the sentence.
In simple sentences there is no difficulty : but in
sentences which have a subordinate clause, it is not
always easy to decide whether se or eum is to be used ;
for in some subordinate clauses se refers to the subject
of the subordinate clause; in others it refers to the
subject of the principal verb. The general rule is
this: se in a subordinate clause refers to the subject
of the principal verb, when the subordinate clause
expresses the thought or will of that subject:
hence in such sentences as have the verb in the
infinitive, in indirect questions and commands, and
in sentences expressing a purpose :
(a) Dixit se ei ignoscere, He said that he forgave him.
(b) Oravit eum ut sibi parceret, He begged him to
be lenient to him.
(c) Imperavit eis ut se sequerentur, He ordered them
to follow him.
(d) Quaesiverunt num se proficisci vellet, They
asked whether he wanted them to start.
In all these sentences se refers to the subject of
the principal verb, not to the subject of its own clause ;
in all of them the subordinate clause expresses the
, . PRONOUNS 25
thought or the will of the subject of the principal
verb. The Latin is clearer than the English : in (6), (c)
and (d) the words ' him ' and ' them ' translating se and
sibi are ambiguous.
34. But in the following is is used in the subordinate
clause to refer to the subject of the principal verb,
because the subordinate clause does not express the
thought or the will of that subject :
(e) Tarn gratus erat militibus ut laeti eum seque-
rentur (compare (c)), So popular was he with
the soldiers that they gladly followed him.
(/) Ambiorix in Aduatucos, qui erant eius regni
finitimi, proficisci voluit, Ambiorix wanted
to march into the territory of the Aduatuci,
who lived on the lorders of his kingdom.
In (/) the relative clause does not express the thought
of Ambiorix, but it is a note of the historian's.
Ambiorix said to himself ' I will march into the
country of the Aduatuci/ The Aduatuci, observes the
historian, lived close to Ambiorix. See 155.
35. The following sentences * will make the matter
clearer :
Alexander moriens anulum suum dederat Perdiccae,
Alexander when dying had given his ring to
Perdiccas.
Perdiccas acceperat eius anulum, Perdiccas had
received his ring.
1 I borrow these from Gildersleeve and Lodge.
26 LATIN COURSE
Quare Alexander declaraverat se regnum ei com-
mendasse, Thereby [qua re, ' by this act/
namely the gift of the ring] Alexander had
declared that he had committed the kingdom
to him.
Ex quo Perdiccas coniecerat eum regnum sibi com-
mendasse, From this Perdiccas had gathered-
that he had committed the kingdom to him.
Ex quo omnes coniecerant eum regnum ei commen-
dasse, From this all had gathered that he had
committed the kingdom, to him.
Perdiccas postulavit ut se regem haberent cum
Alexander anulum sibi dedisset, Perdiccas de-
manded that they should have him for king, as
Alexander had given the ring to him.
Amici postulaverunt ut omnes eum regem haberent
cum Alexander anulum ei dedisset, His friends
demanded that all should have him for king, as
Alexander had given the ring to him.
Ita se gesserat Perdiccas ut ei regnum ab Alexandro
commendaretur, Perdiccas had so behaved him-
self that the kingdom was intrusted to him by
Alexander.
PRONOUNS 27
EXERCISE 1
The connecting relative is to be used in the first eight sentences.
1. I am besieging a strongly fortified town : when I
have taken it, I shall dismiss the army to
winter-quarters.
2. I promise to poison him this very day : this done,
you will be able to do all you wish.
3. Now when he was informed of this he thought
it best to delay no longer.
4. So we set off for the villa of Bibulus. And when
we reached his door, we were informed that
he was so seriously ill that all the doctors
were in despair.
5. He wrote that he would come to my aid. Touched
by his zeal, I replied that I would never forget
his kindness.
6. You see the villa here, built by my father. Being
in weak health he preferred to live in the
country. Here I was born. That is why
I love this place.
7. And when they asked for peace he replied that
he had not made war on them but they on
him.
2. all you wish, i.e. all the things which you wish. The relative
is often omitted in English, but must be expressed in Latin.
3. best to delay : use the gerund. See 89.
5. Touched, motus or commotus.
6. The villa here, haec villa.
Being in weak health : look out ' health ' ; cum with the suhj. will
often translate the English participle : see 70.
That is why, 'For this reason.'
7. I make war on you, bellum infer o tibi.
28 LATIN COURSE
8. I see that all depends on you. Wherefore, that
we may attain what we hope for, take care
that you keep well.
9. She was so angry that she would not speak to
him.
10. A king wants to know what his subjects think.
11. Metellus begged them to give Jugurtha up to
him. He promised to give them such a large
sum of money that they gave the prisoner
up to him at once.
12. Quintus came to me at Aquinum on the following
morning and told me that his wife would not
speak to him.
13. Ennius expresses the opinion that the gods exist,
but he holds that they do not care what the
human race does.
14. When she saw him starting, she ordered them to
follow him.
15. She is afraid that you will desert her. She begs
you to write to her.
16. He was so fond of me, that I was generally
supposed to be his son.
8. all depends on him, in eo sunt omnia.
attain, consequor.
9. so, adeo.
I speak to her, cum ea loquor.
10. subjects, cives.
11. give up : use trado.
12. at Aquinum. See 2.
13. to express an opinion, censere.
exist, sum.
I hold, oplnor (1).
the human race, humanum genus.
16. I am so fond of him, sic diligo eum.
generally, vulgo (abl. of vulgus, the people).
I am supposed to be, habeor esse.
Ill
36. KELATIVE WORDS
With the relative pronoun Qui, quae, quod are
connected the following adverbs :
ubi, ' where/ ' when '
cum, or quom, ' when '
cur, ' for which reason/ ' why '
quo, ' to which place/ ' whither '
unde, ( whence/ ' from which '
,. ,. (qualis, '(such) as '
and the adjectives \ * v ,
[quantus, ' (as great) as.
37. INTERROGATIVE WORDS
Quis ? Quid ? ask the questions ' Who ? ' ' What ? '
Qui, quae, quod are the adjectival forms, that is to say,
are the forms used in agreement with a substantive :
Quis erat ? Quid diarit ? Quid periculi est 1 Qui miles
erat ? Quae puella ? Quod helium gessisti ?
Uter asks the question ' Which (of two) ? '
Note. Uter-que means 'each (of two)/ 'either/
' both.' Quis-que means ' each of some larger number.'
30 LATIN COUKSE
The following adverbs and adverbial expressions are
connected with Quis?
Quando ? ' when ? '
Ubi ? or Quo in loco ? ( where ? '
Cur ? ' for what reason ? ' ' why ? '
Quo ? ' whither ? ' ' where (to) ? '
Qua ? ' by what road ? '
Unde ? ' where from ? ' ' whence ? '
, , ,. . (Qualis? 'what sort of?'
and the adjectives \^L ,
[ Quantus ? how great ?
All these interrogative words are used in indirect
as well as in direct questions :
Quid ageres, ubi terrarum esses, ne suspicabar
quidem, / hadn't even a suspicion what you
were doing, or where on earth you were.
Beware of using cum to ask the question ' when ? '
instead of quando, or qua for ' where ? ' instead of ubi.
38. Beware of confusing the relative with the
indirect interrogative :
Relative. I will do what you tell me, Id quod (or Ea
quae) iusseris faciam (iusseris is fut. perf.).
Interrogative. I dont know what you told us to do,
Quid (or Quae) nos facere iusseris
nescio (iusseris is perf. subj.).
In a relative sentence you can change ' who '
into ' he who,' ' those who ' etc., ' what ' into ' that
which.' You cannot do this in an interrogative
sentence without changing or destroying the sense :
/ know luJw did it, Quis fecerit scio.
/ know the man who did it, Eum qui fecit novi.
PRONOUNS 31
39. The indirect question may depend on a great
variety of expressions ; here are a few examples :
Scribe quid facturus sis utrum, Write and tell me
what you are going to do.
Quam paucis ille copiis prae-esset non eram ignarus,/
was not ignorant how small was the forceunder his
command (lit.howfew troops he was commanding).
Mir or qua de causa gaudeas, / wonder why you are
joyful.
Monendus est quo in loco flumen transiri possit, He
mustbetold (warned) where the river can be crossed.
Quid ego faciam noli laborare, As to what I am
doing don't trouble yourself.
Cur redieris intellego, / see why you have come lack.
40. INDEFINITE. c IF A MAN/ ' IF EVER/ ETC.
' Any/ 'any one/ 'a man/ and the like, are translated
by quis, qua, quid (adjectival forms qui, quae or qua, quod)
after ne, num, si, nisi, or a relative pronoun or adverb :
Si quis id dicit, mentitur, If a man says that, he lies.
Si quis me fefellit, ei non amplius credo, If a man
has deceived me, I trust him no more.
Quando is used in the same way for an unemphatic
'ever/ 'at any time': si quo is used for 'if . . . in any
direction/ 'if . . . any where' 1 [i.e. to any place].
Si quando Romam alio-ve quo mitterent legates, If
ever they sent envoys to Rome or any other place.
Num quando redibit ? Will he ever return ?
1 If there is any sense of motion towards a place, use quo ('whither'),
eo ('thither'): in modern English we have dropped 'whither' and
' thither ' and we use only ' where ' and ' there,' whether we mean ' to
a nlace' or 'in a place.'
32 LATIN COURSE
41. ' ANY ' AND ' EVER ' IN A NEGATIVE SENTENCE :
' AND NO ONE ' = NEC QUISQUAM
Quisquam is used for ' any one ' (substantival) and
ullus for ' any ' (adjectival) in negative sentences :
unquam (' at any time/ ' ever '), usquam ( at or to any
place ') are used in the same way. The negative
sense is often expressed by putting the sentence in an
interrogative form :
Quis dicit ( = Nemo dicit) quemquam nostrum
fugisse ?
Note the difference between the English and the
Latin idiom in :
aiid (or, but) no one came back, nee quisquam rediit,
and there is no hope, neque ulla spes est,
and I have never seen, neque unquam vidi.
Do not write et nemo, et nullus, or et nunquam.
42. 'ANY ONE YOU LIKE'
When ' any ' means ' any you please ' the Latin is
quivis * (qui + vis, ' who you please/ the second person
of volo) or quilibet (qui -f- libet, 'it pleases you'). Compare
Quivis potest id intellegere, Any one can understand it,
with Negat quemquam id intellegere posse, He denies that
any one can understand it, i.e. He says that no one can
understand it :
Quidvis pati potius quam recedere, To endure any
hardship (anything you please) rather than retire.
1 declined quivis quaevis quidvis (substantive) or quodvis (adjective)
quilibet quaelibet quidlibet or quodlibet.
PRONOUNS 33
43. ' SOME ONE,' ' SOME ' 1 (ALIQUIS, QUIDAM, QUONDAM)
Aliquis means ' some one/ and is used chiefly in
affirmative sentences :
vicli aliquem, / saw somebody.
Quispiam is less common :
Dixerit quispiam, Some one may say.
Quidam, ' a certain person/ ' one/ ' a ' :
vidi quemdam, / saw a certain person.
Compare aliquis witli quidam : aliquis means some
one ' wholly indefinite to the speaker as well as to the
hearer': as in * some one told me, but I can't remember
who it was': quidam means a certain person 'definite
or indefinite to the speaker but not definitely designated
to the hearer ' : 2 as in ' a certain person told me ;
perhaps I could give you his name.'
44. Hence the adverb quondam, ' on a certain
occasion/ ' one day/ ' once/ ' once upon a time ' :
id quod ego quondam dixi, as I said one day.
Note the common use of quidam and quondam in
beginning a story : for example, Colloquebar quondam
cum quodam homine, I was talking to a man one day.
Who the man was, and when the thing happened, are
points which make no difference to the story, and so
they are left indefinite :
/ hope to see you some day (aliquando).
/ was with him one day (quondam or quodam die).
1 It is often better to translate ' some ' by sunt qui or nonnulli sunt
qui, e.g.
However, some people trust him, Sunt tamen qui ei credant.
See 157.
2 From Gildersleeve and Lodge.
D
34 LATIN COURSE
45. ' WHOEVER/ ' WHEREVER/ ETC.
Quisquis, quidquid (generally substantival), and
quieumque, quaecumque, quodcumque (generally ad-
jectival), correspond to the English relatives 'whoever/
' whatever/ etc.
Quocumque, Whithersoever, In whatever direction.
/ shall go wherever you go, Quocumque tu ibis, eo
( = thither) ego ibo.
Beware of using quieumque for quivis.
Compare
Any risk whatever must le run, Quodvis periculum
est adeundum
with
Quidquid periculi est (Quodcumque periculum est),
est adeundum, Whatever risk there is we must
run it.
With quisquis or quieumque you must have a verb :
quivis contains its verb in itself.
46. QUISQUE
Quisque must be used with care. It corresponds
to the English word ' each ' only in some of its
meanings. It must never begin a sentence, but must
come immediately after one of the following :
1. se or suus,
2. a superlative,
3. an ordinal number,
PRONOUNS 35
4. a relative or interrogative word, such as those
shown in 36 and 37.
For instance :
1. se quisque amat, sua cuique res est carissima,
2. optimus quisque maxime gloria ducitur, the
better a man is the more ambitious he is (the
more he is led on ~by glory},
3. tertio quoque anno, every third year,
4. causam quaerit cur quidque fiat, he tries to find
out the reason (why each thing happens) of every
occurrence.
47. IPSE
Ipse is the emphasising pronoun :
Ipse fed, I did it myself, with my own hands,
It was I who did it, I did it for myself (i.e. I didn't
send some one else to do it for me).
Si scriberem ipse, longior epistula fuisset, sed
dictavi, If I were writing with my own hand, the
letter would have been longer, but I have dictated it.
It may be used of any of the three persons :
Ipse feci, / did it myself.
Ipse fecisti, You did it yourself.
Ipsi fecimus, We did it ourselves ; and so on.
It may be used as an adjective :
hac ipsa nocte, this very night.
It is often used to contrast the leader with his
followers, the general with his soldiers, etc.
Legiones in hiberna dimisit : ipse Bomam pro-
fectus est.
36 LATIN COURSE
48. IDEM
Idem (is + clem) is a more emphatic is. It is used
to connect two statements with one person or thing.
Sometimes we can translate it by ' the same/ some-
times by ' also/ ' at the same time ' :
Qui fortis est, idem est fidens (The man who is
brave, that man is confident), The man who is
brave is also confident, or, is at the same time . . .
Frustra id iussisset, nisi eadern docuisset quomodo
esset faciendum, In vain would she have
given the order, if she had not at the same
time (or, also) shown how it was to be carried out.
Hence eo-dem, to the same place.
49. ' ONE ANOTHER '
There is no reciprocal pronoun in Latin : ' one
another' is translated inter nos, inter vus, inter se:
We embrace one another, Inter nos complectimur.
You ivere talking to one another, Inter vos loque-
bamini.
They love one another, Inter se amant
50. POSITION OF EELATIVE CLAUSE
Note the position of the relative clause in the
following examples, and arrange any similar sentences
in the same way :
Unde profectus erat, eodem rediit, He returned to the
point from which he started (Latin : from whence
he had started, to that same point he returned).
PRONOUNS 37
Quern ipse capitis damnavit, eundem liberabit, He
will set free the very man whom he has himself
condemned.
You will see that there is a tendency in Latin to
put the relative clause first. In English the
antecedent must come before the relative : we could
not begin the last example ' whom he has himself
condemned/ but we must at least put the antecedent
' the man ' ( = eum) before the relative. Even then
the sentence will be a little awkward : ' the man
whom he has himself condemned he will set free/ It
is generally better to change the position of the two
clauses, as in the examples above.
There is one relative pronoun in English which
may be used like the Latin relative without any
antecedent, viz. ' what ' : with this word the English
and Latin order may correspond :
What they had foretold came true, Quae praedixerant
evenerunt.
51. The usual English equivalent of the Latin (is) qui,
eum qui, eos qui etc. is ' the man who/ ' the men who/
In translating into Latin do not write homo qui or
vir qui. The antecedent is may generally be omitted
if it would be in the same case as the relative.
38 LATIN COURSE
EXERCISE 2
Many of the words required will be found in Sections 36-51, but not in
the Dictionary. You should learn the examples nearly by heart
before you begin to do the exercise.
1. There were in a certain city a king and a queen.
2. Why do they hate one another ? Anybody can
see why they hate one another.
3. Each man ought to look after his own interests.
4. If you want me to go anywhere to-morrow, let
me know to-day when I am to start.
5. Whatever is the issue of the war, both states will
lose many citizens. Can it be doubtful to
any one that the risk is great ?
6. Let us return to the point from which we made
a digression : you say that whatever is honour-
able is also useful.
7. The matter is very difficult to explain, and to me
at the present time any reason for idleness
seems good enough.
3. I look after my own interest, mihi consulo (3) (I consult for
myself).
4. volo with ace. and inf.
let me know, fac sciam (bring it about that I may know).
I am to start : use the gerund ; see 83.
5. issue, eventus (4), the outcome or result, from e-venio.
Whatever is the issue = Whatever shall be the issue. The future
must be used in Latin : see 14.
6. I make a digression, digredior (3). The relative clause will
come first ; see 60.
7. difficult to explain, difficilis ad explicandum.
to be idle, cessare : a reason for being idle, causa cessandi.
good enough, satis iustus.
PRONOUNS 39
8. If a man is hateful to them, they murder him,
and there is no one in .the whole state who
dares bring them to trial.
9. As I wanted to make use of certain books from
the library of Lucullus I went to his villa to
get them out for myself. When I got there
I saw Marcus Cato sitting in the library.
What brings you here ? said he ; if I had
known you were at your villa I would have
corne to see you myself.
10. Whatever the people order we must do.
11. Is it not better to endure anything whatever than
to yield to the Germans ?
12. You ask when he will return? Do you really
think he will ever- return ? Yes, it is the
custom to come back from India every fifth
year.
8. who dares : subj., see 157.
I bring (him) to trial, reum (euiii)facio (I make him the defendant).
9. As, cum with subj.
library, bibliotheca.
to get them out : say ' that I might take them (promo (3)) thence '
(inde).
when I got there : see 32.
What brings you here? say ' Why have you come hither?' Quid
tu hue [venisti] ?
I come to see you, ad te venio.
The English word ' villa ' has acquired a very different meaning
from that which the word bore in Latin and still bears in Italian. To
a Roman the word meant a country-house, often of great size, together
with all the land and buildings belonging to it. A palace like
Hatfield House together with its park might be covered by the
expression villa suburbana, 'a place near town.'
10. See 14.
11. it is better, satius est.
12. yes, etiam.
custom : say 'they are accustomed.'
from India, ab Indis.
40 LATIN COURSE
13. When we have found out how large is the force
under his command, we shall be able to decide
where to take refuge, and where to look for
help.
14. As to the doings of the city I am looking for a
letter from you : I should like to know what
Arrius is saying and how he takes being left
in the lurch, and who are going to be consuls,
and whether there is any news. I wish you
would write and tell me what day you think
you will leave Rome, so that I may inform
you where I shall be.
15. He told me to do it himself.
13. when we have found out : as to the tense, see 14.
Say 'of how great forces he is in command.'
where to take refuge etc. : say ' whither we must fly, whence we
must look for help.' As to the gerund etc., see 89.
14. doings of the city, res urbanae (urbanus is the adjective of
urbs}.
how does he take being deceived ? quo animo ( = with what feelings)
se deceptum fert ? Turn in the same way ' how he takes being left in
the lurch' (to leave in the lurch, destttuere).
I wish you would write and tell mp, velim ad me scribas ; see 122.
TV
THE TENSES
52. A verb represents (i.e. puts before the mind) an
action or a state : currere, the act of running ; valere,
the state of good health.
For our present purpose the distinction between an
action and a state is of no importance. We shall, there-
fore, generally speak of verbs as representing actions, and
leave the reader to understand thereby actions or states.
By the use of different tenses a speaker represents
an action, as (1) present at the time at which he speaks ;
or (2) past at the time at which he speaks; or (3)
future, i.e. about to happen at a time subsequent to
the time at which he speaks. The tenses, then,
represent an action as taking place at a time present,
past, or future, relatively to the time of speaking: (1)
scribo, I write (now) ; (2) scripsi, I wrote (at a time
which to me now is past) ; (3) scribam, I shall write
(at some time which to me now is future).
Further, the tenses may show the stage of the
action, i.e. the verb may represent the action either
as in progress or as completed. The following tenses
represent the action as in progress : they are called the
tenses of continuance :
In progress in the present, scribo t I am writing.
- past, scribebam, I was writing.
future, scribam, I shall be writing.
42 LATIN COURSE
The following represent the action as completed ;
they are called the tenses of completion :
Completed in the present, seripsi, I have written.
past, scripseram, I had written.
future, scripsero t I shall have
written.
You will observe that the tenses of continuance begin
with scrib-, and the tenses of completion begin with
scrips-.
The speaker may, however, speak of the action
without reference to the stage reached ; he may
simply state that the action takes, took, or will take
place :
Indefinite present, scribo, I write.
past, seripsi, I wrote.
future, scribam, I shall write.
These are called the indefinite or aorist l tenses,
because they do not define the stage of the action.
The following table will make the matter clearer :
The stage of
the action
not denned
The action
represented as
in progress
The action
represented as
completed
Time present scribo,
to the speaker I write
scribo,
I am writing
seripsi,
I have written
Time past
to the speaker
seripsi,
I wrote
scribebam,
I was writing
scripseram,
I had written
Time future scribam,
to the speaker I shall write
scribam,
I shall be writing I
scripsero,
shall have written
1 Aorist from the Greek dopitrros 'indefinite.'
THE TENSES 43
53. The Latin idiom differs greatly from the English
in the use of the tenses in subordinate clauses. The
two principal points of difference are these.
1. If the subordinate clause represents an action
as prior to (that is, completed before) the com-
mencement of the action represented by the verb
of the principal clause, then, in Latin, one of the
tenses of completion is used in the subordinate
clause. As we have seen above, the perfect is used
of an act completed in the present ; the pluperfect of
one completed in the past ; the future perfect of one
completed in the future :
Present. Quae praedicta sunt,ea non semper eveniunt,
What is predicted, does not ahuays come true.
Past. Qui id fecerant, expulsi sunt, Those who
did it were banished.
Future. Qui prior strinxerit ferrum, eius victoria
erit, He who first draws the sword will
be the victor.
The English idiom sometimes shows by the tense
used that the one act is completed before the other
begins, but more often leaves this to be understood
from the context. We may say if we like, ' Those
who had done it were banished/ but in Latin the plu-
perfect must necessarily be used. In case of difficulty
try whether you can introduce the tense of completion
in the English without altering the sense : if you can
say ' what has been predicted,' for ' what is predicted/
the perfect will be required in Latin. In the same
way in the third example, we do not alter the sense
if we introduce the unidiomatic 'he who shall first
have drawn the sword.'
44 LATIN COURSE
2. If the subordinate clause refers to the future
a future tense is used in Latin : (a) the future
simple to represent an action or state contempora-
neous with the action of the principal verb, (b) the
future perfect when the one action precedes the
other. In English, on the other hand, it is not
idiomatic to use a future tense in a subordinate clause.
(a) Erunt omnia facilia, si valebis, Everything will
be easy, if you are well.
(b) Cum Romam venero, litteras ad te cotidie
scribam, When I get to Home, I icill write you
a letter every day.
54. The rules given in the preceding section apply
to subordinate sentences in general. It is specially
important to note their application to (1) iterative
sentences, (2) conditional sentences, (3) sentences
introduced by cum, ' when ' :
(1) Iterative sentences are sentences which deal
with the repetition of two acts in connection with one
another an indefinite number of times ; for instance
As often as A occurs, B occurs.
Such sentences are introduced by 'if (ever),' si] 'when
(ever),' cum ; ' as often as,' quotiens ; ' who (ever)/ qui-
cumque; 'wherever' ( = whithersoever), quocumque; and
similar expressions.
If the two actions are contemporaneous, the tenses
of continuance are used in both clauses :
Present. Cum can tat, audimus, Whenever he sings,
we listen.
THE TENSES 45
Past. Cum cantabat, audiebamus, Whenever he
sang, we used to listen.
Future. Cum cantabit, audiemus, Whenever he sings,
we shall (always) listen.
But if the one action precedes the other, the tenses
of completion are used in the subordinate clauses :
Present. Cum cantavit, plaudimus, Whenever he
sings, we clap.
Past. Cum cantaverat, plaudebamus, Whenever
he sang, we clapped.
Future. Cum cantaverit, plaudemus, Whenever he
sings, we shall clap.
55. (2) The rules given in Section 53 will guide
you as to the use of the tenses in those conditional
sentences which take the indicative.
Unless you start at once there is no hope of escape,
Nisi confestim profectus eris, nulla spes est
effugiendi.
If we follow nature as our guide, we shall never go
wrong, Naturam si sequemur ducem, numquam
aberrabimus.
The old man used to get angry if I said anything
at all rough, Stomachabatur senex si quid
asperius 1 dixeram.
You will notice that the first two examples come
under the rule given in 53, 2, and the third is an
iterative sentence like those shown in 54. These are
1 This is the comparative of asper. A comparative is often used in
Latin where in English we might say 'rather rough,' 'a hit rough.'
The meaning is 'rougher than one miy a highwayman.
Ut equitatum suum pulsurn vidit, acie excessit, When
he saw his cavalry driven back he left the field. 1
The adverbs post or posted ( = ' after the time '),
prius or ante ( = ' before the time ') may be separated
from the relative adverb quam ( = ' at which time ') :
ISTeque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad flumen
Ehenum pervenerunt, And they did not stop
running IP fore [the time (prius) at which time
(quam)] they reached the Rhine.
61. Priusquam, etc., with Subjunctive
In temporal sentences the mood is regularly the indic-
ative, except in oratio obliqua. (See, however, as to cum.)
If a purpose is implied in the temporal- clause the
mood is the subjunctive ; this is not uncommon with
antequam and priusquam :
Caesar priusquam se hostes ex terrore reciperent
in fines Suessiormm exercitum duxit, Before
the enemy could recover from their panic Caesar
led his army into the territory of the Suessiones.
Here by using the subjunctive the writer tells us that
it was Caesar's purpose to act before the enemy had re-
covered. Contrast priusquam redii discessit, which states
simply that his departure took place before my return.
1 acies means an army drawn up for or engaged in battle : so we
may often translate it ' the fight/ ' the battle-field.'
TEMPORAL SENTENCES 53
62. How to translate ' While' ' Until' and the like
If 'while' means 'during the time that' (eV a>),
it is translated by dum with the present indicative
even in reference to past time :
Dum haec aguntur (or geruntur) interea nuntius
advenit, While this was going on a messenger
arrived, or, In the course of these proceedings etc.
In the principal sentence interea ( ( in the middle
of it/ 'in the meantime') is often added. When
translating into English it will generally be better not
to attempt to render interea by any separate ex-
pression, as its sense is sufficiently expressed by the
word ' while ' or ' in the course of.' But in translating
into Latin interea should as a rule be expressed with
dum, meaning ' during the time that.'
63. If ' while ' means ' so long as/ ' all the time that '
(ea)?) it is translated by dum or (quamdiu) with the
indicative : present, past, or future tenses are used
according to the meaning. Tarn diu ( = ' for so long ')
is often added with the principal verb. The same
tense is generally used in both clauses :
Fuit haec gens fortis dum Lycurgi leges vigebant,
This nation was brave as long as the laws of
Lycurgus were in force.
Tiberius enim Gracchus tarn diu laudabitur, dum
memoria rerum Romanarum manebit, For
Tiberius Gracchus will be praised as long as the
doings of Eome are remembered (lit. as long as
the memory of Roman doings shall remain}.
54 LATIN COURSE
64. 'Till' or 'until' is generally translated by
dum. 1 The verb will be in the subjunctive (present
or imperfect) if there is any sense of purpose or
expectation ; hence very commonly with exspecto :
Exspectandum est dum redeat, We must ivait till
he comes back, or, for him to return.
Dum mini a te litterae veniant in Italia morabor,
1 shall stay in Italy till I get a letter from, you.
But if there is no suggestion of purpose or expectation,
the verb will be in the indicative :
Mansit dum ego redii, He stayed there till I came
back.
This states simply that his stay lasted till the time of
my arrival. Contrast
Mansit dum redirem, He waited for my return.
This implies that his purpose in staying was to
see me.
1 Donee is quite uncommon in classical prose.
TEMPORAL SENTENCES 55
EXERCISE 4
Quern ut vidi, quern ubi vidi, quern cum vidissem give, as nearly as
possible, the same sense.
When possible, do the sentences in more ways than one.
Introduce the connecting relative whenever you can (see 31, 32).
1. After we had carried off the gold we embarked.
2. When this news was brought, Fabius was appointed
dictator.
3. The moment that the enemy caught sight of our
cavalry, they made a rush and quickly threw
our men into confusion.
4. Some time before he died he gave all his property l
to me.
5. As soon as the shouting was heard, the soldiers
deserted their posts and fled to the citadel.
6. All the time that we were talking I was looking
out for the messenger.
7. As soon as I looked at you, before you began to
speak, I felt that you were angry.
8. In the course of our talk your letter was delivered
to me.
3. I catch sight of, conspicio.
I throw into confusion, perturbo (1).
our men, nostri.
Arrange the sentence thus : ' The enemy, the moment that they
. . ., made a rush and ..." 'The enemy,' being the subject of the
principal verb, must not be placed in a subordinate clause. You will
often have to apply this rule. We say ' When Caesar had conquered
the Gauls he returned.' What is the Latin order ?
4. Some time before, aliquanto ante (before by a considerable bit).
5. I desert my post, desero stationem ; statio (from stare), the place
where I ought to stand.
7. I look at you, aspicio te.
1 Words printed in italics need not be translated.
56 LATIN COURSE
9. While the elephants were being taken across the
river, Hannibal sent five hundred horsemen
towards, the Pioman camp to observe the
position and number of our forces.
10. Perhaps you are waiting for me to call on you.
I will come when Atticus has left me. Till
he came to me I did not know you had left
Rome.
11. This being the state of affairs, he nevertheless
refrained from action until envoys and letters
reached him from Cneius Pompeius.
12. As long as you are rich you will have many
friends.
13. He made up his mind to attack the city before
Domitius could come to the aid of the citizens.
Accordingly he did not wait for my return.
14. Before they reached Brundisium Pompeius set
sail.
1 5. While the Eomans were making these preparations,
Saguntum was already being attacked.
16. As long as Pompeius was in Italy I did not
cease to hope.
1*7. We had to start before the enemy could get
information as to our plan.
9. I take the elephants across the river, traicio (fyflumen elephantos.
In the passive, elephanti flumen traiciuntur.
five hundred : the numerals are on p. 308.
I observe (i.e. I spy out, I reconnoitre), specular (1). For the
various ways to express a purpose see 8.
the position and number : say ' where and how great the forces
were. '
10. when Atticus has left : use cum.
11. This being the state of affairs, quae cum ita essent,
I refrain from action, me teneo (I hold myself back).
17. We had to start : use the gerund.
VI
THE CONJUNCTION CUM
65. 1. If 'when' means 'whenever/ 'as often as,'
cum is used, as we have seen, with the indicative :
Gyges cum anulum converterat a nullo videbatur,
When ( = If ever) Gyges turned his ring round
he became invisible.
See 53, 54 as to the tenses.
66. 2. If the clause introduced by ' when ' refers to
the future, cum is used with the future or future perfect
indicative :
Veniam cum potero, / will come when I can.
Cum Karthaginem deleveris, deligeris consul, When
thou hast destroyed Carthage, thou wilt be chosen
consul.
Veniet cum ego iussero, He will come when I lid him.
Compare 53.
67. 3. Cum meaning 'when' (not 'whenever') has
the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive when the
principal verb is in a historic tense.
Care must be taken to use the right tense, as the
English is often misleading : the imperfect is used to
represent an action as contemporaneous with (i.e. going
58 LATIN COURSE
on at the same time as) that of the principal verb ;
the pluperfect represents an action as prior to (i.e.
finished before) that of the leading verb :
Cum in Africam venissem, Masinissam conveni,
When I reached Africa, I went to see Masinissa.
Cum ad me scriberet, negavit se aegrotare, When he
wrote to me, he said he was not ill.
( I reached ' and ' he wrote ' are both the same
tense in English ; but, as we have seen, the Latin
tenses express more exactly than the English the
relation of one action to another. It is clear that the
arrival in Africa precedes the interview with Masinissa,
while the writing of the letter is contemporaneous
with the statement as to the writer's health. This
difference must be expressed in Latin ; it may be
expressed in English : we may say ' when I had
arrived ' and ' when he was writing.'
68. Cum meaning ' since,' ' as,' c seeing that/ ' con-
sidering that/ ' although ' has the subjunctive :
Quae cum ita sint, proficiscendum est, Since this
is the state of affairs (or, This being the case), we
must start.
Cum dubitaret, ex deo quaesivit, As he was in
doubt (or, Being in doult}, he asked the god.
Nihil me adiuvit, cum posset, He gave me no
help although lie had the power to do so, or, at
a time when Tie had the power to do so.
69. Cum with the subjunctive may often be best
translated into English by the use of a participle, as in
some of the examples above.
THE CONJUNCTION CUM 59
A Latin verb has no past participle active : cum
with the pluperfect subjunctive is often used to supply
its place :
Having arrived, Cum pervenisset.
Having taken the city, Cum urbem cepisset, or Urbe
capta.
70. Cum with the imperfect subjunctive often takes
the place of our present participle. We use our present
participle very freely in agreement with the subject
of the sentence to represent the cause of the action
represented by the principal verb: for instance, 'Feeling
thirsty he asked for water/ 'Thinking I was mistaken
I turned back.' These participles are represented
by cum and the subjunctive in Latin : Cum sitiret
aquam poposcit, Cum putarem me errare reverti.
71. Study the moods and tenses in the following
examples :
1. Cum anulum convertit (perfect), a nullo videtur,
Whenever he turns his ring he is seen by no one.
2.. Cum anulum converterit (fut. perf), a nullo
videbitur, When he has turned his ring, he
will be seen ~by no one.
3. Cum anulum convertisset, a nullo visus est,
When he had turned his ring (or, Having
turned his ring), he was seen by no one.
4. Cum anulum converterit (perf. subj.), eum videre
non potes, As he has turned the ring you
cannot see him.
Cum anulum convertisset, tamen ab omnibus
visus est, Though he had turned the ring, still
he was seen by every one.
60 LATIN COURSE
72. If you look at the examples in 65, 66 you will see that
cum with the indicative is a purely temporal conjunction, that
is to say it is used to tell us only how one action is related to
another with regard to the time of its occurrence. We might
therefore represent the force of cum with the indicative by such
formulae as
As often as A occurs, so often does B occur,
or, At the time at which A shall (have) happen(ed), at that time
will B happen.
Now if you look at the examples of cwm-sentences in 67, 68
you will see that when cum has the subjunctive it may be
translated by 'when,' 'since,' 'as,' 'although.' One naturally
asks, What is the meaning of cum with the subjunctive which
lies at the bottom of all these different translations'? Cum
with a subjunctive puts before us the circumstances in which
the action represented by the principal verb takes place. For
example, Quae cum facto, essent discessit does not mean ' At the
time at which this had happened he went away,' but 'This
having happened (This being the state of affairs), he went away.'
The participle is often used in English in much the same way
to put the circumstances before us, and therefore often provides, as
we have seen, the nearest equivalent of a cwm-clause. Cum may be
translated ' when,' ' since,' ' as,' ' although,' because the circum-
stances may be regarded as simply the occasion of the action
('when'), or as its cause ('since,' 'as'), or even, but less
commonly, as the cause which was insufficient to produce it
('although'); in this last-named, case tamen is often added to
make the sense clearer : quae cum facta essent, tamen discessit,
1 This having happened, all the same he went away,' ' Although
this had happened he went away.
Hence these are all possible translations of the one sentence
Cum rex mortuus esset fugit :
(1) The king being dead, he ran away ;
(2) On the death of the king, he ran away ;
(3) When the king was dead, he ran away ;
(4) Since (as) the king was dead, he ran away ;
(5) Although the king was dead, he ran away.
In (1) and (2) the English puts the circumstances before us
THE CONJUNCTION CUM 61
without indicating how they are to be regarded ; (3), (4), (5) are
more explicit.
The more advanced student will do well to note that in the
strictly temporal sense cum may be used with any tense of the
indicative (not only in iterative sentences as shown in section 65
and not only in reference to the future as shown in section 66).
For example Cicero writes ' Atque his libris adnumerandi sunt
sex de re publica, quos turn scripsimus, cum gubernacula rei
publicae tenebamus, 'And to these books (just mentioned) must
be added the six books Concerning the State which I wrote
at the time when I held the helm of the state.' When
cum is so used it is often preceded by turn or some other word
which directs the attention specially to the time of the occurrence.
Cum with the indicative is used just like a relative 1 clause with
the indicative : eo anno cum consul eram=-eo anno quo anno
consul eram, 'in the year in which I was consul.' On the other
hand when the subjunctive is used the meaning of the cum-
clause is less definite : the temporal sense is often the most
prominent but other meanings are not excluded. No instances
of cum with the past tenses of the indicative except in the sense
of ' as often as ' will be found in the exercises, but it must not
be supposed that it is uncommon or incorrect. Contrast the
following sentence with the examples given above :
Turn fugit cum rex moriebatur, He ran away at the time when
the king lay dying.
1 Of course cum or quom is connected with qui.
62 LATIN COURSE
HINTS FOII EXERCISE 5
The connecting relative is very common with cum ; see 31, 32 ;
Quo cum in loco manere slatuisset, As he had made up his mind to stay
there. Remember that cum (' when ') and qua ('where ') are relative not
interrogative ; see 37. Be careful to use the interrogative words in
the indirect questions in this ex. : 'I don't know when he went away
or where he is, ' Quando discesserit, ubi sit nescio.
Quaero means 'to try to find' ; hence 'to look for,' 'search for' ;
also ' to try to find out,' hence ' to ask.'
Quaero librum, I am looking for my book ; Quaero ex te u,bi sit, I
ask you where it is. Note that Quaero ex te, not JKogo te, is the usual
Latin for 'I ask you (a question)' : the impersonal passive seems at first
a little awkward, ex te guaeritur, ex te quaesitum est, cum ex te
quaesitum esset (when you were asked, being asked).
Remember to use the accusative in Latin when motion is implied :
he came to me in the garden, ad me in Jwrtum venit.
EXERCISE 5
Cum is to be used in every sentence, in some sentences more than once.
1. When you write to your father you will say that
you are now getting better. Ask him when
he is coming to see us.
2. Being uncertain where you were, I did not care to
write a long letter lest our intimate conversa-
tion might come into the hands of other people.
3. When he heard this, he saw that prompt measures
were necessary.
1. dico is used for ' I say ' in writing,
get better : see ' recover. '
2. I did not care to : use nolo.
intimate, familidris.
alius = other ; alienus, belonging to others ; res alienae, the affairs
of other people.
3. audio means I hear with my ears ; cognosce means I hear in the
sense I get to know, I receive information, as in the sentence ' I heard
that you were in town ' ; video means I see with my eyes ; intellego, I
see with my mind, perceive. In this sentence intellego must obviously
be used, and cognosce will give better sense than audio.
prompt measures : say ' he saw that they must act promptly. '
THE CONJUNCTION CUM 63
4. Seeing that he is two days' march away, what
reason is there why you should feel afraid ?
5. Though he might easily have escaped from prison,
Socrates would not do so.
6. It was said that the shrine was not far from
Antioch. When they were searching for it,
they found a Greek statue of marvellous
beauty. When they found this, they brought
it to the Governor in the city.
7. Being asked why he had made a plot against the
Governor, he would not answer.
8. As he would not answer he was thrown into
prison.
9. When I get to my country-house, I do nothing
and am absolutely idle.
10. As we have no soldiers we must carry on the
struggle by craft.
11. Being out of health I decided to go to my country-
house : when I got there I found that the
weather was not good for fishing. So I
amused myself with my books.
12. Being doubtful which had done it, he condemned
them both to death.
1 3. When you have collected the soldiers in one place,
you will be able to start.
4. to be two days' march away, bidui iter abesse (biduum, a period
of two days).
6. it is not far distant from Antioch, non longe abest ab AntiocJiea.
shrine, aedtcula, diminutive of aedes, temple,
of marvellous beauty : abl. of quality.
Governor, Praetor, -oris.
9. to be absolutely idle, plane cessare.
10. I struggle, carry on a struggle, contendo (3).
craft, dolus (2).
11. 1 iish, pisces caplo (1).
64 LATIN COURSE
14. When you write to me write in Latin. I used
to write in Latin when I wrote to my teacher
when I was a boy.
15. Considering that she is more concerned about the
safety of the state than about her own safety,
it is not seemly that we should feel afraid.
16. He said this and then withdrew.
17. Being hungry I returned as quickly as I could.
14. I used to do it when I was a boy, (ego) puer faciebam. pucr is
in apposition to the subject : I, a boy, used to do it. So, He did the
same when consul, eadcm consul fecit.
15. 'she ' is emphatic and must be expressed,
to be concerned, perturbari.
16. I withdraw, discedo (3).
VII
THE PARTICIPLES
73. It is not easy to use the participles correctly
and idiomatically. It will save you trouble if you
can get a clear notion as to what participles there are
and what they mean.
1. Transitive Verb. Vinco (hostem), / conquer
(my enemy).
Active Voice.
Present Participle. Vincens hostem, (While) con-
quering my enemy.
Perfect Participle. None. [' Having conquered
the enemy ' must be translated by turning it round
into the passive and saying, hoste victo, ' the enemy
having been conquered/ or hostem victum or some other
case as may be necessary to suit the rest of the
sentence, or by a subordinate clause such as cum
hostem mcisset. Beware of writing victus hostem.]
Future Participle. Victurus hostem, Being about
to conquer the enemy.
66 LATIN COURSE
Passive Voice.
Present Participle. None. [You will not feel the
need of one : ' While being led in he asked ' will be
easily turned by a subordinate clause : cum adduceretur
quaesivit.]
Perfect Participle. Victus, Having been conquered.
Future Participle. None.
2. Intransitive Verb. Venio, / come.
Active Voice.
Present Participle. Veniens, (While) coming.
Perfect Participle. None. [As an intransitive
verb has no passive, except in the impersonal usage,
ventum est, etc., we cannot imitate hoste victo : we
must therefore use a subordinate clause to express the
English 'having come/ cum venisset. Beware of
writing ventus for ' having come.']
Deponent verbs, whether transitive like sequor, or
intransitive like morior, have all three participles and
are therefore the easiest to use :
Present Participle. Sequens, (while) following.
Past Participle. Secutus, having followed.
Future Participle. Secuturus, about to follow.
74. The present participle in Latin represents an
action as contemporaneous with the action of the
principal verb : for instance the sentence flens oravit
auxilium, ' shedding tears he begged for help/ tells us
that the weeping and the begging for help went on at
the same time. The English participle in -ing some-
times represents, like the Latin present participle,
contemporaneous action, sometimes prior action : we
THE PARTICIPLES 67
say, for instance, ' Hearing this he went away '
meaning that he went away after he had heard it :
in Latin audiens discessit would mean ' he went off
listening.' Again, ' Being defeated he was put to
death' evidently means 'he was defeated and then
put to death,' Victus interfectus est. As a practical
rule, do not use the present participle in Latin
unless you can express the English with ' while.'
75. There are one or two verbs which form an
apparent exception to this rule : it is quite correct to
write Mihi quaerenti respondit, ' On my asking this he
answered/ though obviously the asking precedes the
answering, and one would expect Quod cum quaesivissem
respondit. The reason appears to be that quaero does
not correspond exactly to / ask but means rather /
try to find out so that MM quaerenti respondit means
' When I was trying to find out he answered.' Peto,
1 1 ask for, I try to get,' is used in the same way.
76. The above hints may help you to answer the
question, What participle, if any, ought I to use ?
Present or past ? Active or passive ? We now pass
on to another difficulty : What case is the participle
to be put in ? The ablative absolute occurs so
frequently that many students fall into the mistake
of putting the ablative where some other case ought
to be used. ' When I was walking in he stepped out '
must be Me ingrediente egressus est. With this
ablative absolute contrast the five following sentences,
and see if you understand why the ablative absolute
would be impossible in any of them: note that the
wording of the English will not help you.
68 LATIN COURSE
Nom. When I was walking in I saw him,
Ingrediens vidi eum. [Here the participle
agrees with ego implied in vidiJ]
Ace. When I was walking in he saw me, Ingredi-
entem me vidit. [ Here the participle agrees
with me which is the object of vidit. ~\
Gen. When he was walking in I caught sight of
his head, Ingredientis vidi caput.
Dat. When he was 'walking in I gave him the
letter, Ingredienti epistulam dedi.
Abl. (but not abl. abs.) He was seen fry his daughter
as she came in, Ab ingrediente filia visus est.
Only use the ablative absolute when you cannot
work the participle into the construction of the
sentence. The ablative absolute is a parenthesis, put
into the sentence, never making a part of the con-
struction : it may be shut off by commas : Ille, me
ingrediente, egressus est. In the other five sentences it
is impossible to put a comma anywhere.
77. The participle is used in Latin in many
sentences in which it would not be correct, or at
any rate not idiomatic, to use a participle in English.
Some of the more common ways of rendering the
Latin participle are collected here :
(a) Sometimes, of course, we use a participle in
English :
The envoys sent ~by Antonius Iring word, Legati ab
Antonio missi nuntiant.
They approach him legging and imploring . . .,
Adeunt orantes atque obsecrantes.
THE PARTICIPLES 69
77 (continued)
(b) Sometimes we add ' while ' or ' when ' or ' if to
the English participle :
While watching over the king he was also a protection
to us, Regem tuens et nobis praesidio erat.
When caught (or, If caught) he will not be dangerous
to you, Captus periculo vobis non erit.
(c) We often translate a Latin participle by a
subordinate clause :
1. A relative clause.
The envoys who had been sent by Pompeius brought
word, Legati a Pompeio missi nuntiaverunt.
/ obey a voice which never urges me on, but often calls
me back, Pareo divinae cuidam voci nunquam
impellenti, saepe revocanti.
2. A clause introduced by ' when/ ' while/ ' now
that/ ' after/ ' as ' ( = ' when ') etc. :
When I was questioning him he made no answer,
Quaerenti mini nihil respondit.
Now that the ships are burned they cannot go back,
Navibus incensis redire non possunt.
Now the king is dead, Eege mortuo.
When he was on his way lack I saw him, Eedeuntem
vidi.
The city was founded by Aeneas as he was flying
from Troy, Urbs ab Aenea a Troia fugiente
condita est.
As I was returning he told me, Mihi redeunti
nuntiavit.
70 LATIN" COURSE
77 (continued)
3. A clause introduced by ' as ' ( = ' because ' ) :
As he IOOLS driven lack from Antioch he lost hope,
Ab Antiochea reiectus desperavit.
As I heard no voice I began to feel afraid, Nulla
voce audita pertimescebam.
4. A clause introduced by ' though ' :
Though she tried to speak she could not, Conata
loqui non potuit.
Though he was driven lack he did not lose hope,
Keiectus non desperavit.
5. A clause introduced by 'if ' :
If you are beaten you will not be allowed to enter the
city, Victo in urbem redire non licebit.
Many of these sentences might be expressed as well
by subordinate sentences in Latin. We may say for
instance
Si victus eris in urbern tibi redire non licebit.
This is very much like
Victo in urbem redire non licebit.
but, obviously, there is a difference. We cannot say
which is the better way of translating the sentence
into Latin without seeing the context from which it
is taken. No rules can be given to guide you as to
whether you should translate by a participle or a
subordinate clause ; the participle is generally to be
preferred, provided that it makes the meaning quite clear.
(d) We often translate the participle by a co-
ordinate clause :
He took the city and burned it, Urbem captam
incendit.
THE PAETICIPLES 71
77 (continued)
I tried but was not successful, Conatus nihil effeci.
So they brought him the book and he read it, or, So
the book was brought and lie read it, Itaque
librum ad-latum legit.
Here the English construction cannot be imitated
in Latin : urbem cepit et incendit is not good Latin ;
et is not used to connect verbs in this way. If a
participle cannot be used in a sentence of this type
you should turn it by a subordinate clause :
He arrived there and ordered . . ., Quo cum venisset
iinperavit . . .
(e) An abstract substantive is often the best
English equivalent :
After the capture of the city he dismissed his men
to their winter -quarters, Urbe capta milites in
hiberna dimisit.
The news of the victory reassured the citizens, Nuntiata
victoria firmiores fecit civium animos.
With the help of his mother, Adiuvante matre.
Since the foundation of the city, Post conditam urbem.
(/) Miscellaneous translations :
With tears he begged for help, Flens oravit auxilium.
They fled in terror, Perterriti fugerunt.
In my sleep he appeared to me, Dormienti mihi
visus est.
Without success, or, Unsuccessful, Re infecta (the
thing not being accomplished: from in, not
and facio).
72 LATIN COURSE
78. We often use a present participle in English
agreeing with the subject of the sentence to represent
the cause of the action ; we say, for instance, ' Being
unable to go out I sent a note/ ' Being doubtful who
had done it he acquitted them all.' In sentences of
this type the usual Latin equivalent of our present
participle is cum with the subjunctive : Cum ipse exire
non possem epistulam misi, Cum dubitaret quis fecisset
alsolvit omnes. In the same way
Seeing, cum vidisset (i.e. when he had seen with his
eyes), or cum intellexisset (i.e. when he had
understood).
Thinking, cum putaret (i.e. because he was thinking).
Contrast the following sentences in which the
present participle is rightly used : notice that it does
not represent the cause :
Dixit ridens, He said with a smile.
Per Graeciam iter faciens Athenas venit, While
marching through Greece he came to Athens.
79. The perfect participles of many deponent verbs
are used where we might expect the present :
arbitratus, thinking (having come to the conclusion),
veritus, fearing (having got into a fright),
admiratus, wondering (having been startled).
These are often used to represent the cause :
Thinking it undesirable to linger he set off, Non
morandum esse arbitratus profectus est.
THE PARTICIPLES 73
EXERCISE 6
A participle is to be used in each sentence.
1. He had his dinner and went away to bed.
2. When I was asleep my mother appeared to me.
3. Terrified by the dream I fled.
4. We attacked the enemy and beat them.
5. With tears they begged me to protect them.
6. The news of the arrival of Pompeius will reassure
every one.
7. So the prisoner was brought in and said that the
enemy had no hope of victory.
8. When the letter was brought in no one could read
it.
9. We delivered the letter and at once left the
house.
10. He kissed his mother and begged her to give him
some money : he had, he said, been away from
home three months, but he had let no day
pass without writing to her.
11. Touched by his prayers she ordered money to be
brought.
I. The verb ceno (1), 'I have dinner,' has a deponent participle,
cenatus, ' having dined.'
I go away to bed, cubltum discedo : cubitum is the supine of cubare,
' to lie down,' so the phrase means literally ' I go away in order to lie
down. '
5. to protect them : see note on se and eum (33-35).
7. to bring a man in, adducZre (to lead).
8. to bring a thing in, ad-ferre (to carry).
10. Omit 'he said,' which is implied in 'begged' : use the accusative
and infinitive as you would if dixit were expressed.
I let no day pass without thinking, nullum diem esse patior quin
putem.
II. Touched: say 'moved,
prayers, preces (3).
74 LATIN COURSE
12. When the money was brought by the servant she
gave it to the boy.
13. Since the expulsion of the kings, since the libera-
tion of the state by Brutus, no one has been
called king.
14. If he is beaten he will not be willing to return.
15. They said that he had been murdered and thrown
into a cart.
16. In answer to my questions the servant said she
was not at home.
17. Such was his influence that even in his absence
we could not resist him.
18. When he reached Ehodes on his way back from
Syria he heard that Clodius had been killed
by Milo.
19. After killing the traveller he robbed him of his
clothes.
20. Though acquitted of the capital offence he was
kept five years in prison.
13. Use expello and libero (1).
15. cart, plaustrum.
17. influence, audoritas.
18. Rhodes, Jthddus, a small island ; see 2.
Milo, Milo, -onis.
THE PARTICIPLES 75
EXERCISE 7
A participle is to be used in each sentence.
1. When I warned you not to give him anything you
did not believe me.
2. He would not listen to me when I was warning
him that plots were being made against the
king.
3. Being warned of these dangers I thought it best
to go away as quickly as possible.
4. When the plot was disclosed they begged the king
to pardon them : if he would spare them they
would go away and never return.
5. Moved by fear of the danger hanging over him
he summoned the leading men of the state to
his presence.
6. I was warned by a traveller who was passing that
my house was on fire. I do not know who
set it on fire.
7. He advanced to the river and pitched his camp.
Moneo te de periculo, I warn you of the danger.
Moneo te eumfugisse, I warn you that he has fled.
Moneo te ne eas, I warn you not to go.
Moneo te quid sit faciendum, I warn you what to do.
Insidias fado tibi, I make a plot against you.
Pate-facio, I disclose (from patere, ' to lie open ' ; hence, ' I cause
it to lie open, I make it clear ').
to be on fire, flagrare.
to set on fire, incend%re.
to put in chains, vinclre.
to flog, virgis caedZre (to beat with rods).
3. it is best to go : use the gerund.
4. if he would . . . : this is oratio obliqua depending on ' they
said ' which is implied in ' they begged. ' See 27.
and never : not et numquam ; see 41.
76 LATIN COURSE
8. In the month of November he finished the war
and dismissed his army to their winter-
quarters: he himself started for Italy without
delay.
9. As we disembarked he came to meet us.
10. He concealed his hatred and pretended that he
was friendly to us.
11. Considering that an inquiry is being held as to
the murder of a fellow -creature it is not
seemly to laugh.
12. What shall I say of Socrates, over whose death I
am wont to shed tears as I read Plato ?
13. When I was at Tusculum, a boy sent from Kome
by your sister handed me a letter which had
been brought to her from you, and gave me
a message that the courier would set off from
Eome to you that very day. Hence I was
compelled to write a very short letter.
14. If you go in you won't be allowed to come out.
15. Orders were given that he should be put in chains
and flogged.
8. For the names of the months see 163.
11. I hold an inquiry as to, quaero de . . .
fellow- creature, homo.
12. I shed tears over the death, tnorti illacrimor.
13. at Tusculum, in Tusculano (more literally, on my Tusculan
estate).
handed = ' gave. '
courier, tabellarius (letter-carrier).
Hence : say 'Thus it resulted,' eofactum est.
14. Use ingredior and egredior, compounds of gradior (3), ' to step.'
The English sentence contains eleven words : the Latin will have four.
THE PARTICIPLES 77
EXERCISE 8
In this exercise use a participle whenever you can. Do not suppose
that an English participle can always be represented by a Latin
participle. For instance, if you want to translate ' Having reached
his home he gave the message ' you may feel that a participle ought to
be used to translate ' Having reached ' ; but as pervenire has no past
participle you must write Cum domum pervenisset.
1. Rising from my bed I ran to the window.
2. When the theft was discovered we hurried to the
city to inform the praetor. Arrived there
we heard that the thief had already been
arrested and flogged.
3. He replied with a smile that the king on receipt
of this message had shut himself up in prison.
4. The next day having reached Paris we received
your letter.
5. We seized the bridge and sent horsemen to look
for the Britons. And they when they saw
the number of our soldiers were panic-stricken
and gave themselves up.
6. Why did you not listen to my advice ? When
you were going out I told you some trouble
was impending.
thief, fur.
theft, furtum.
discover, cognosco (3).
arrest, capio (3).
I shut him up in, indudo (3) eum in (ace.).
5. look for, quaero.
6. Say ' why didn't you obey me when I gave you advice ? For
when you were going out . . .' The connecting link enim (which is
placed after the first word) is necessary in Latin.
78 LATIN COURSE
7. And so though he summoned them all to his
presence, he could not find out how large the
island was nor what kind of men inhabited it.
8. Wishing to provide for the safety of his wife and
children he retired. The result was that the
whole province revolted.
9. Having recovered from this illness he sailed to
Italy. Arrived there he spent many days
in visiting the most beautiful cities of that
country.
10. Being unable to find out where he was lingering,
I decided it was my duty to act without
delay and not to wait for his return.
11. Caesar gave orders that he should encamp near
Eavenna, repair his ships and follow him to
Greece.
12. Finding they could do nothing they retired, and
none of them could be persuaded to make a
second attempt.
13. Thinking that it would be impossible to finish the
war before the winter, he arranged terms of
peace.
7. Arrange thus : ' neither how great was the size of the island, nor
what kind of (quails) men inhabited it could he find out.'
9. Say ' in visiting (gerundive) the cities which that country has
most beautiful.'
10. duty : express by the gerund ; see 89.
12. find : use intellego.
do, efficio.
be persuaded to : see 3 and 10.
I make a second attempt,! try again, itemm experior (4).
VIII
THE INFINITIVE, GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
80. lucundum est legere, Reading is pleasant.
Hie sedet legens, Here he sits reading.
If you compare these two sentences you will see
that the word ' reading ' is used in two different senses.
In the first it is a substantive, meaning the act of
reading ; in the second it is an adjective, meaning
engaged in reading. It is not difficult to distinguish
these two uses of the English words ending in -ing ;
if you feel at all doubtful as to whether you have
a verbal substantive or a participle before you, you
should try whether you can put before the word
ending in -ing such an expression as ' the act of/ ' the
habit of,' ' the pursuit of ' : if any such expression can
be added, without altering the sense, you have clearly
the substantive not the adjective ; for example [' the
pursuit of] learning is difficult,' [' the habit of] lying
is disgraceful.' The words added in brackets clearly
do not alter the meaning, so you may conclude that
' learning ' and ' lying ' are here used as substantives
and translate discere est difficile, turpe est mentiri.
If the word ending in -ing is a participle you cannot
add such an expression as ' the act of ' without alter-
ing or destroying the meaning ; for instance, ' He sits
here [the act of] reading ' is clearly not sense.
If you have understood the above you will see why the
following argument is false : ' Riding is pleasant. I am
riding. Therefore I am pleasant.' Of course this is ridi-
culous, but do you see exactly where the argument fails?
80 LATIN COURSE
81. In Latin the infinitive is used as a substantive
in the nominative or accusative case, but it cannot
be used with prepositions :
Nom. Discere est difficile, Learning is difficult.
Ace. Cupimus discere, We desire to learn.
With the latter sentence compare Cupiinus pecuniam,
' we desire money/ and observe that discere is the
object of cupimus, just as pecuniam is.
The infinitive though used as a substantive is still
a verb and may govern a case :
Aurum habere praeclarum mihi videtur, The pos-
session of gold (the having gold) seems a fine thing
to me. [Habere is the subject of the sentence.]
Cupit habere auruin, He desires the possession of
gold. [Habere is the object of cupit.]
In both sentences aurum is the object of habere ;
in both habere is used as a substantive, in the first in
the nominative, in the second in the accusative case.
The infinitive is used as a substantive only in the
nominative and accusative cases ; the other cases are
supplied by the gerund, and the gerund is used with
prepositions ; we say ad discendum, ' with a view to
learning/ not ad discere.
We may, therefore, show the declension of the
verbal substantive thus :
Nom. Mentiri est inhonestum, Lying is dishonour -
able.
Ace. Cupit mentiri, He wants to lie.
Propensus est ad mentiendum, He has pro-
pensities towards lying, He has a tendency to
tell lies.
THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 81
Gen. Cupidus est mentiendi, He is desirous of lying,
He is longing to lie.
Dat. Operam dat mentiendo, He gives his attention
to lying, He takes trouble about it.
Abl. Patrein mentiendo decipit, He deceives his
father by lying.
The dative is very uncommon. Ad with the
accusative, in with the ablative, and causa with the
genitive are very common. Some prepositions are not
used with the gerund : you cannot say Sine rogando
for ' without asking.'
82. The gerund may be used intransitively, i.e.
without an accusative object, or it may have such
an object, provided that it is a neuter pronoun or
adjective : aliquid rescribendi causa, l for the sake of
sending you some answer/ ad plum scribendum, ' with
a view to writing more.'
If the object is not a neuter adjective or pronoun,
the gerundive generally * takes the place of the gerund
and attracts the substantive or pronoun into agree-
ment with it. So instead of
epistulam scribendi causa
write
epistulae scribendae causa, with a view to writing
a letter.
The meaning is the same ; the gerund is the sub-
stantival, the gerundive the adjectival form.
Examples :
Vincendi causa, For the sake of winning the victory.
1 After a preposition invariably
G
82 LATIN COURSE
Potestatem mihi facit adeundi ad filiam, He grants
me permission to go to see my daughter (more
literally, he gives me the power of going etc.).
Beate vivendi cupiditate incensi omnes sumus, Every
one of us burns with the longing for a happy life.
Eeginae vinceudae causa, In order to conquer the queen.
Occasio defendendae urbis, An opportunity of (or,
for) defending the city.
In agris vastandis decem dies consumpsit, He spent
ten days in devastating the country.
Ad se conservandam, With a view to securing her
own safety.
Sui conservandi causa, With a view to securing his
(or, her) own safety}
Only the direct (i.e. accusative) object of a verb
can be attracted. We write navium parandarum causa,
' with a view to getting the vessels ready,' instead of
naves parandi causa. But we could not imitate this
attraction with such a verb as pareo, which has an
indirect (i.e. dative) object ; we must write Deis parendi
causa, 'with a view to obeying the gods.' In fact a
verb used intransitively has no gerundive form?
1 Mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri were originally neuter forms, the
genitives of meum, tuum etc. Hence the gerundive in agreement with
them is always in the neuter singular. Therefore write Tui mdendi
occasio, 'an opportunity of seeing you,' whether the person referred
to as ' you ' be masculine or feminine, and nostri mdendi occasio, not
nostri videndorum occasio, in spite of the plural meaning of nostri.
2 The more advanced student should note that there are a few
exceptions to this rule : utor, fruor, fungor, potior, rescor, though
they govern the ablative, have gerundives like transitive verbs ; for
instance, Tenendus est voluptatis fruendae modus ; In span venerant
potiundorum castrorum. But these gerundives are not used as
predicates with the verb 'to be ' : utendum est delate, not utenda
est aetas.
THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
EXERCISE 9
1 . Not the possession of gold, but the holding sway over
those who possess gold, seems a fine thing to me.
2. Teaching is difficult, learning is easy.
3. "We learn by teaching. By teaching boys we
ourselves learn.
4. We spent ten days in making the bridge.
5. To err is human, to forgive divine.
6. We were compelled to wait several days in order
to repair the ships.
7. While I was in prison I was not granted per-
mission to write a letter.
8. They hoped by the murder of Caesar to set their
country free.
9. When I saw him setting off, I thought it was an
excellent opportunity for escape.
10. When all preparations had been made for setting
off the weather was not suitable for a voyage.
11. Do we not all long for a good and happy life ?
12. Everything is ready for an attack on the city.
13. I am longing to see you, my dear Tulliola.
Many of the words for this exercise will be found in 80-82, but not
in the dictionary. Use the gerund or gerundive when possible.
1. I hold sway over, impero (dative).
5. ' It is the way of men to err, of the gods to pardon those who
have erred.'
6. wait, morari.
several : ' not a few. '
in order to repair : ' for the sake (causa) of repairing.'
8. the murder of Caesar : use the verb interficio. You will often
find that Latin uses the gerund or gerundive or past participle where
we use a substantive. Bear this in mind in doing the following
sentences.
13. I am longing : use cupidus sum with genitive
my dear Tulliola, Tulliola mm.
84 LATIN COURSE
14. When he asked whether we had come to hear
Antonius, we replied, " We have come with
the object of hearing, not Antonius, but you."
15. Is not the mind of man nourished by learning
and thought ? Is not the greatest pleasure
got from learning ?
16. He seems to have a bent, not only for learning,
but also for teaching.
17. On being asked why lie had learned nothing, he
replied that he had had no opportunity for
reading.
18. Does the art of living seem difficult to you?
To kill one's self, what is it but to leave one's
post without the orders of the General ?
19. If an opportunity were offered me for setting
my country free, I would eagerly seize it.
14. with the object, causa or gratia.
15. thought, i.e. reflection: use cogito (I).
I get the greatest pleasure from, capio summam voluptatem ex . . .
16. propensus ad, inclined towards, having a bent for, or prone to :
participle from propendere.
17. for reading : genitive.
18. what is it but . . ., quid aliud est nisi . . .
I leave my post . . ., cle statione decedo (3).
19. offer, dare.
eagerly, avlde.
seize, arripio (3).
THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 85
THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE USED AS PREDICATES
83. We have seen that the gerund and gerundive
are used in the accusative with prepositions, and in
the genitive, dative, and ablative to supply those cases
of the verbal substantive.
We shall now see that the nominative case and
the . accusative without a preposition are used in a
different way.
The nominative. The gerund and gerundive are
used in the nominative with the verb ( to be ' to
signify obligation, necessity, duty, and similar ideas.
For instance
(a) Proficiscendum est, A start must be made.
(b) Epistula scribenda est, A letter should be written.
84. If the verb is used intransitively 1 the gerund is
used as in (a) ; if the verb is used transitively (as
scribo epistulam ; passive, epistula scribitur), the gerun-
dive is used as in (b). Eemeinber that the same verb
may be used either transitively or intransitively : for
instance if I say scribo, ' I am writing/ I use scribo
intransitively (just like morior, ( I am dying ') and so I
should say scribendum est, ( I must write ' : but it would
not be good Latin to say scribendicm est epistulas.
It will save trouble if you realise that no intransi-
tive verb has a gerundive (for our present purpose we
may ignore the exceptions mentioned in the note on
p. 82, n. 2), and that the gerundive belonging to a transi-
tive verb can only be used when the verb is used in a
transitive sense.
1 Compare 3.
86 LATIN COURSE
Intransitive Verb
Active. Ambulo, / am walking.
Passive (impersonal). Ambulatur, A walk is going on.
Gerund (impersonal). Ambulandum est (mihi), A
walk is necessary (for me}.
Transitive Verb
Active. Scribo epistulam, / am writing a letter.
Passive (personal). Epistula scribitur, A letter is
being written.
Gerundive (personal). Epistula scribenda est, A letter
ought to be written.
The same verb used intransitively
Active. Scribo, / am writing.
Gerund (impersonal). Scribendum est (mihi), Writing
is necessary (for me), I must
write.
85. The accusative. After a verb of saying or
thinking the verb 'to be ' will, of course, be in the
infinitive, and the gerund or gerundive in the
accusative.
Dixit proficiscendum esse, He said a start should
be made.
Putavit epistulam esse scribendain, He thought that
a letter ought to be written.
86. In this kind of sentence the gerund and
gerundive are used as predicates : in epistula scribenda
est, for instance, epistula is the subject and scribenda est
the predicate, i.e. that which is said about the subject.
The gerundive is most commonly used as a pre-
THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 87
dicate with the verb 'to be ' : it is also so used with
some other verbs, such as dare, ' to give,' curare, ' to take
care that . . .'
Epistulam mihi legendam dedit, He gave me the
letter to read (He gave me the letter : it was to
be read).
Epistulam mittendam curavit, He had the letter sent.
Curo is of course connected with the substantive cura :
compare the phrase Id mihi curae est, ' It is to me an object of
care, I am anxious about it.' Curo may be followed by the
gerundive or by ut. With the gerundive curare corresponds to
the English * have,' in such a sentence as
He had the dinner prepared (i.e. caused it to be prepared), Cenam
parandam curavit.
87. With the gerund and gerundive the agent is
generally put in the dative :
Eundum est mihi, I must go.
Eundum est tibi, You must go.
Eundum est ei, He must go.
Eundum est nobis, etc.
Urbs mihi capienda est, / must take the city,
Urbs tibi capienda est, You must take the city ;
and so on.
But if the verb is accompanied by another dative,
the agent is expressed by a, db with the ablative in order
to avoid ambiguity. You must not write Pecunia
danda est tibi mihi, for it will not be clear whether
you mean ' You ought to give the money to me ' or ' I
ought to give the money to you.' Write, therefore,
if you mean the latter, Pecunia tibi a me danda est.
In the same way do not write Parcendum est ei nobis
for ' We must spare him/ but Parcendum est ei a nobis.
88 LATIN COURSE
88. Beware of writing eundus sum for ' I ought to
go/ or vincendus sum for ' I ought to conquer.' Eundum
est mihi really means ' there's a journey for me ' ; hence
conies the sense a journey is for me a necessity or
a duty, but you will find it convenient to regard the
form as a passive and to translate it to yourself as
' A journey ought to be made by me ' : by paraphrasing
thus you will make it impossible to fall into the
blunder eundus sum. The gerundive used as a
predicate is passive, even from deponents : so, of course,
' I ought to conquer the Gauls ' must be rendered
vincendi sunt Galli mihi, ' The Gauls ought to be con-
quered by me ' (more exactly, ' For me the Gauls are
meet to be conquered'). The mistake referred to is
common because the gerund and gerundive, when used
in the way shown in 80-82, are translated by the
active in English : for instance, Causa eundi erat, ' The
reason for going was . . . ' : Spes vincendi Caesaris, ' The
hope of conquering Caesar.'
89. A few examples will make the matter clearer :
note in what various ways the gerund and gerundive
are rendered in English : ' I had better,' ' I ought,' ' it
is my duty,' 'it is necessary,' etc.
Redeundum esse putavi, / thought it my duty to
return.
Intellexi proficiscendum esse, / saw that I ought to
start.
Statui exspectandum esse, / decided that I had
letter wait.
Non diutius morandum esse arbitratus, Thinking it
right to delay no longer.
THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 89
Hostium audaciam comprimendam esse dixit, He
said that the audacity of the enemy must be
crushed.
Nihil temere agendum est, We must not act rashly.
Non credendum est homini, The fellow is not to be
trusted.
90 LATIN COURSE
EXERCISE 10
1. We must either win or die.
2. If I forgive you, you must spare him.
3. When I heard this I decided that it was my duty
to wait for Bibulus to arrive. In the mean-
time I thought it right to send you this
information.
4. I will have your books returned to you. Don't
you think I am to be trusted ?
5. Each man should use his own judgment.
6. He teaches us that we should forget wrongs done
to us.
7. He should be encouraged not to let the oppor-
tunity slip away.
8. Do we not all think fame preferable to wealth ?
9. If he wins he will give the soldiers the city to
plunder : do you really think that it is for us
to help him ?
10. Have we not learned from our fathers that we
must not act treacherously, that we must
conquer our foes by valour not by wickedness ?
2. ' must ' is here future, ' you will have to spare. '
3. send information, scribo. In this exercise use the gerund or
gerundive whenever it is possible. Many of the sentences could, of
course, be done in other ways.
5. Each man, quisque. Note the position of quisque in this
sentence : Suum quisque noscat ingenium, Let each man know his own
nature ; see 46.
6. say ' wrongs received ' (accipio).
7. I let ... slip away, dimitto. Mitto means 'to let go' as well as
' to send ' : hence the sense of amitto, to lose.
8. Use prae-pono for ' I prefer.'
10. treacherously: abl. 
