Madras fisheries bulletin

BULLETIN No. X
MADRAS FISHERIES

ANNUAL REPORTS,
19€8-191T

I

AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF MADRAS GOVERNMENT

PUBLICATIONS.

IN INDIA.

BuTTERwoRTH & Co. (Ltd.), 6, Hastings Street , Calcutta.

R. CAMnRAV & Co., Calcutta.

E. M. GoPAi.AKRiSMNA KoNE, Puduman tapaiii, Madura.

Hartleys, Mount Road, Madras.

HiGGlNBOTHAMS (Ltd.), Mount Road, Madras.

V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Esplanade, Madras.

G. C. Loganatham Brothers, Madras.

S. MuRTiiY & Co., Madras.

G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras.

The Superintendent, Nazair Kanun Hind Puess, Allaliabad.

P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras.

Ramakrishna & Sons, Lahore.

D. P.. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay.

Thackek & Co. (Ltd.), Bombay.

Thacker, Spink & Cc, 3, Esplanade East, Calcutta.

S. Vas & Co., Madras.

S.P.C.K. Press, Vepery, Madras.

IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

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Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C.

Deighton, Bell & Co. (Ltd.), Cambridge.

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LuzAC & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C.

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ON THE CONTINENT.

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Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland.

MADRAS FISHERIES BUREAU.

-4 »-

ANNUAL REPORTS

OF THE

MADRAS FISHERIES BUREAU

1908—1917.

BULLETIN No. X
(PART II OF BULLETIN No. I).

MADRAS:
PRINTED BV THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS.

I'RICE, I rupee lo autias.-] ' i 9 i 8 . [2 shillings 6 fence.

LIST OF CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS BULLETINS.

BUL.
NO. PAGES

1. Papers from 1899 relating chiefly to the development ok

THE Madras Fisheries Bureau. By Sir F. A. Nicholson, 1915,
Rs. 1-14-0.

2. Note on Fisheries in Japan. By Sir F. A. Nicholson, 1907,

Rs. 1-2-0 —

Deals with Japanese methods of fishing, the condition of the fisher-
folk, the assistance given by Government and by local associa-
tions, the fishery laws and regulations, etc. (Pages 105.)

3. The Preservation and Curing of Fish, (Exhausted ; revised

edition under preparation) —
Describes the difficulties and methods of preserving fish from taint
whether by refrigeration, desiccation, pickling, smoking, can-
ning, etc. (Pages 119.)

4. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1908 (out of print) —

I. Report on the suitability of Pulicat Lake for oyster-culture

(one sketch-plan).

II. Note on an attempt to ascertain the principal determining

factor in oystei-spawning in Madras backwaters (one plate). 25

III. Report on the feasibility of operating deep-sea fishing boats

on the coasts of the Madras Presidency, with special refer-
ence to the selection of fishing centres and harbours of
refuge (illustrated with three plates) ... ... ... 33

IV. The results of a fishery cruise along the Malabar coast and

to the Laccadive Islands in 1908 (illustrated with 27 photo-
graphs and text-figures) ... ... ... ... ... 71

5. The Practice of Oyster-culture at Arcachon and its lessons

for India. By James Hornell, f.l,s., 1910, Rs. 1-6-0—

I. Introduction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i — 4

II. The physical conditions characterising Arcachon basin ... 4 — 7

III. The origin and development of oyster-culture at -Arcachon ... 7 — ig

IV. Present methods and conditions ... ... ... ... ... ig—y^

V. Principal characteristics of other European systems of cultiva-
tion n 75—79

VI. Applicability of French methods to oyster-culture in India ... 79 — 90

6. Marine Fish-farming for India. By James Hornell, f.l.s,,
191 1, Rs. 1--4-0-

(1) Introductory I — 3

(2) French fish-farming at Arcachon ... ... ... ... ... 4 — 20

(3) The communal fish-farms of Comacchio ... ... ... 21 — 62

(4) The scope for marine fish-farming in India ... ... ... 63 — 83

7. The Sacred Chank of India. By James Hornell, f.l.s., 1914,

Rs. 2 —

Introductory ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1-2

I. The chank fisheries of India and Ceylon ... ... ... 3 — 40

II. The chank bangle industry ... ... ... ... ... 41 — [16

HI. The role played by the chank in Indian religion and life ... 117 — 172

IV. Appendix 173 — 181

( iv )

BUL.
NO.

PAGES

8. Marine Fishery Investigations in Madras, 1914-15. By James

HORNELL, F.L.S., I916, Rs. I-I2-0 —

I. A note on the edible oyster ... ... ... ... ... i — 10

II. An explanation of the irregularly cyclic character of the pearl

fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar ... ... ... ... 11 — 22

III. Notes upon two exploring cruises in search of trawl grounds

oft the Indian and Ceylon coasts .. ... .. ... 23 — 41

IV. Report on the pearl fishery held at Tondi, 1914 ... ... 43 — 92

V. Professor Huxley and the Ceylon pearl fishery, with a note

on the forced or cultural production of free spherical pearls. 93 — 104
VI. The utilization of coral and shells for lime-burning in the

Madras Presidency ... ... ... ... ... ... 105 — 126

9. Fishery Statistics and Information, West and East Coasts,

Madras Presidency. Compiled by V. Govindan, b.a., 1916 ;
introduction by Sir F. A. Nicholson, Rs. 1-12-0 —

(i) Introduction ... 1—3

Section I —Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-
holders, markets, etc. ... .. ... 7 — 9

Section II — Number of boats engaged in

fishing ... 10 — 14

Section III — Various kinds of nets, etc., in

use 15—30

Section IV — Methods of curing fish ... ... 31 — 44

Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers ... ... ... ... ... 45 — 62

Section I — Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-
holders, etc ... ... .. 65 — 71

Section II — Boats and catamarans ... ... 72 — 79

Section IIT — Nets, etc., in use ... ... 78 — 104

Section IV — Methods of curing ... ... 105 — 120

Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers ... ... ... 121 — 140

(2) West Coast.

(3)

(4)

(5)
(6)

Do.

Do.

Do.
Do.

(7) East Coast.

(8)

Do.

(9)

Do.

(10)

Do.

(")

Do.

C O N T E N T S .

PAGES

Bulletin No. X —

Report of the work done in the Fisheries Department from

January 1908 to end of March 1909 ... ... ... i — 7

Report of the work done in the Fisheries Department for the

ofificial year 1909-10 ... ... ... ... ... 8 — 30

Report of the work done in the Fisheries Department for the

year 191 o- 11 ... ... ... ... ... ... 31 — 52

Report of the work done in the Fisheries Department for the

year 1911-12 ... 53—65

Report of the work done in the Fisheries Department for the

year 1912-13 ... ... ... ... ... ... 66 — 80

Report of the work done in the Fisheries Department for the

year 1913-14 ... ... 81 — 96

Report of the work done in the Fisheries Department for the

year 1914-15 ■■• ... ... ••• 97—121

Report of the work done in the Fisheries Department for the

year 1915-16 ... 122 — 157

Government Order thereon No. 2764, Revenue, dated 5th

December 1916 ... ... ... ... ... ... 158-159

Report of the work done in the Fisheries Department for the

year 1916-17 ... 160—176

Government Order thereon No. 285, Revenue, dated 21st

January 1918 177 — 17,^

MADRAS FISHERIES BUREAU,

BULLETIN No. X

BEING

PART II OF BULLETIN No. I.

Letter — from Sir F. A. Nicholson, k.c.i.e., Honorary

Director, Madras Fisheries.
Dated — the 29th March 1909.

I have the honour to submit a brief report of work
done in the Fisheries office from January 1908 to the
end of March 1909

I remained in charge throughout the period ; Mr. H.
C. Wilson, appointed from 1907 as Piscicultural Expert,
was also on continuous duty ; in July Mr. James Hornell,
F.L.S., came in as Marine Assistant on an engagement
for one year, and Mr. V. Govindan, b.a., was appointed
Personal and General Assistant. A small staff (two) has
been appointed to the Ennore Experimental Station,
where a West Coast Volunteer, without pay, has joined,
at his own request, to study our m.ethods.

Ennore Experimental Station. — The first important
work was the planning of an experimental Marine
Station for economic work as suggested in paragraphs
186 to 194 of my Note on Japanese F'isheries and in
paragraph 16 of my letter No. 230 of 31st December
1907. This was drawn up at length in my No. 55, dated
5th May 1908, and was sanctioned in G.O. No. 1635,
Revenue, dated 12th June 1908, the location selected
being Ennore for reasons given. The building and
compound — the Public Works Rest House — were handed
over on the 5th July 1908 and I appointed a Superintend-
ent and Head Curer. The objects were the establish-
ment of improved catching methods by large boats and
more powerful nets, etc., and the production of absolutely
sound and wholesome food, firstly, by keeping fish alive

up to shore in live-wells, chests, or cars, secondly, by
properly treating dead fish (a) on the boat, {/?) on the
way to market, (c) in the curing factory, proper curing,
viz., by perfect cleanliness, rapidity, thoroughness, and
by novel methods such as smoking, pickling, etc., being
especially aimed at.

Little could be done to the end of 1908 beyond
repairs and the starting of salting and smoking arrange-
ments, since everything was novel and the place of
course a blank ; also the north-east monsoon and the two
months' tour with the " Margarita" on the West Coast
intervened. Advance has, however, been made in
various directions.

A beginning has been made in investigating the
proper treatment of fresh (not cured) fish on the way to
market or to the consumer, so as to ensure (i) that it
shall arrive at its present market, especially inland, in
good condition, (2) that the markets or areas served shall
be considerably extended. This is perhaps the most
difficult of problems in a country possessing a fully
tropical climate ranging roughly from yo° F. to 100° F.
with slight variations on either side, and yet poor both
in the material assets which simplify the question in the
West, such as wealth and high prices, cheap ice and coal,
short journeys and rapid transport, and a^so in the
possession of moral assets such as business enterprise,
technical knowledge, educated public tastes and opinions,
sanitary regulations, and so forth. The problem is how
to get wholesome, untainted, fresh fish to market, even in
Madras but more particularly inland, without ice as a
rule, at low cost, and in large quantity.

As regards sea-coast markets it is merely a question
(a) of keeping the fish alive to shore, (S) of cleaning and
treating dead fish at sea ; this has been adverted to above
as waiting the large boat and live-car. As regards
inland markets it is the above//;/.? further conditions. In
the matter of refrigeration it means better packing and
better arrangements on the railway ; without refrigeration
it means thorough cleanliness and careful packing, and,
for distant markets, the slight use of simple, innocuous
preservatives. The investigation of this problem has
just begun at Ennore ; thoroughly cleaned fish are being
packed in various ways and kept in a closed chest as they
ought to be in a railway van, and compared with others

packed in the way now usual ; experiments are, however,
insufficiently advanced for record and await the coming
hot weather.

It has, however, been proved by numerous ex-
periments that fish, well cleaned and soaked for a few
minutes in weak brine with a slight admixture of a
boric preservative will keep perfectly up to at least 24
hours without the ttse of ice even in March, especially if
wrapped in special paper ; Soiling's paper has been
tried but vegetable parchment has proved better, and
ordinary " butter paper " was practically as good as the
latter and much cheaper. The boric preservatives
(Keeps and Arcticanus) are absolutely innocuous even
when taken into the system in considerable doses ; the
recent British Departmental Committee on Preservatives
expressly suggest 0*5 per cent of boric acid as permissible
even in such foods, e.g., butter, potted meats, etc., as are
taken bodily into the system, whereas in the case offish
less than this percentage is used and then only as a mere
detergent and antiseptic bath, little of which penetrates
the tissues and the whole of which is extracted in the
usual course of soaking and cooking. If, as shown, the
use of these harmless preservatives, even in such minute
quantities, entirely prevents taint for 24 hours, then the
up-country consumer can obtain fresh fish at cheap rates
at all events for much of the year, and above all, free from
the deadly ptomaines and toxins of incipient decomposi-
tion, a stage in which much of the " fresh " fish at present
arrives a few miles from the coast. Even when sent in
ice the fish is frequently uneatable — experto crede — and
a slight antiseptic wash will greatly improve its travelling
powers. The precise details and methods are being
separately reported, but I may say that in some cases in
March, fish caught during the day were treated at 4 r.M.,
packed in simple parcel papers, taken without ice by rail
throughout the night, and eaten, e.g., at Yercaud, abso-
lutely fresh and good, at noon next, and were also good
on the following day, if cooked soon after arrival. In
the curing yard they were kept for more than 24 hours
without the slightest sign of taint appearing.

The "Hislaire" process of preserving fish by
" Sterilisation" has also been tried, probably for the first
time in India. This was well spoken of in 1907 when.
I was in England and I then obtained useful results,

I -A

4

as mentioned in my No. 55 of 1908, and in my Pamphlet
on Fish Preservation ; the Ceylon and Indian News-
papers also recently discussed it. As I had bought a
steriliser and pastilles I have been experimenting it at
Ennore with remarkable results ; the fresh fish treated
have been hung in the open air and have continued
without taint up to complete dryness though they have
received no salt, ice, or pj'eservative whatsoever; flies
entirely abstain from touching them ; when wrapped
in "butter paper" or other good quality of air proof
paper, such as vegetable parchment, the fish kept
perfectly good for days. The fish are quite indis-
tinguishable from untreated fish in appearance, taste, or
digestibility and can be — have been — sent up-country
without ice and without fear of taint en route ; this has
been proved by actual experiment in March. The
experiments are now proceeding and will continue
through the hot weather and I am of opinion that the
process will be found successful ; the sterilised fish has
been subsequently smoked with much success.

The chlorine process, viz., that of steeping fish
in electrolysed sea water, is also under successful ex-
periments ; by the courtesy of Messrs. Binny & Co., I
am being supplied gratis with the fluid, the preserving
power of which per se so long as chlorine is evolved,
has been completely demonstrated ; it has also been
proved that the smell of chlorine is evanescent and
entirely disappears in curing, though in fresh fish a
slight smell occasionally remains. If completely suc-
cessful the process will be very valuable, since absolut-
ely nothing is added to the fish which can be brought
from sea to shore in a weak bath of the solution in a
perfectly fresh state, and can then be treated as desired.
In curing the process enables us to use light salting by
keeping the fish good while the fish is in this light
pickle and until it can be taken out, dried, and smoked ;
such fish must, however, be consumed at an early
date. The process will probably be applicable not
only as above but in transporting fresh fish inland,
since experiment has shown that fish even when cooked
and eaten fresh, practically loses the smell of chlorine.
The fluid used for electrolysis is a solution of our ordi-
nary sea salt in water. This and the Hislaire process,
and the preservative effect of a slight addition to the

5

salt of a boric preservative, are important demonstra-
tions, but the experiments will be continued throughout
the hot weather for further testing.

In the matter of curing fish advances have been
made by observing absolute cleanliness especially in the
gutting shed and in the thorough washing of the fish ;
plain salted fish are obtained without the least degree of
taint, and which only require more manipulative skill
to become a product that would be considered first-
class in foreiofn markets. The discoloured salt which
alone is procurable is one stumbling block, and I am
compelled to dissolve, decant, and evaporate if I wish
for fairly white salt ; from one yard the yellow mud
obtained amounted to lo per cent of the salt dissolved.
The amount of salt required, the period in salt, and the
best method of drying are all matters under investi-
gation, as also the method of salting by immersion
in strong brine instead of the method of dry salting.
Proper scaffolds and "flakes" for drying are of course
in use and are very efficacious and cleanly, as compared
with the indigenous method of laying on mats on the
ground. Very few blow-flies attack properly treated
fish and even these can be and are being entirely kept
away either by using gauze coverings over the flakes
or by a sprinkling of preservative ; naturally I favour
the former.

Most of the salted fish has received an additional
antiseptic treatment by being smoked ; the kilns in use
are simple and cheap, the cost of fuel is negligible in
a kilnfull of fish, and the product has found general
acceptance and favour. Mackerel, ribbon fish (Tri-
chiurus), Seriolichthys vipinnulatus (a horse mackerel),
small seer, large seer in slices, pomfret, and kora
(Sciaena), have been the chief fish smoked, and have all
been successful ; there is already a considerable demand
and it is now within any one's power to take up the pro-
cess as an industrial business and to fill the demand.
The British and Indian soldiers are strongly in favour of
the products which supply a tasty and appetising food,
and high Madras households have by no means disdained
the locally-produced substitute for the kipper, the
bloater, and the haddock ; to consumers up-country this
substitute for the almost unattainable fresh fish, for the
expensive tinned goods, or for the indigenous product,

6

has already proved acceptable and will be still more so
as the processes develop in the direction of a more
lightly cured article. I may add that actual demonstra-
tions with kilns and fish and lasting about a fortnight
each, were given on the West Coast (Cannanore and
Tellicherry) and at Waltair ; at Cannanore the British
troops and the Jail have taken up the manufacture, and
various Companies and persons have followed suit,
especially one Company to whose Principal I showed
my first smoked fish (mackerel) in October and whose
agents have since inspected the Cannanore and Ennore
smoking places. Demands have reached me from
Bombay, the United Provinces, the Punjab, etc., and I
am now trying to increase my output so as to increase
the knowledge of, and demand for, the product and thus
prove to private capital that there is a demand which is
not only already great but may easily develop up-country
to an enormous business. I shall, of course, be only too
ready to give up the business if private capital will take
it up, as the work of the station is purely experimental,
demonstrational, and educational. Experiments are
proceeding in the way of providing lightly salted and
smoked goods for early consumption, the present goods
are intended to keep for some time.

As sanctioned by G.O. Mis. No. 2980, Revenue,
dated 26th October 1908, a small area, perhaps half an
acre, of the backwater alongside of the station sheds
has been enclosed by post and wire, and a very success-
ful first attempt has been made to ascertain the period,
cause, duration, and abundance of the fall of oyster
spat, to receive it on "collectors," and to ascertain
the rate of growth, which, in other countries, would be
considered phenomenal ; the best grown young oyster
was 5 inches in breadth at less than 2 months old.
This gives an idea of the possibilities of oyster culture
in our warm and shallow backwaters, and, as already
suggested pass i?n (e.g., paras. 42 and 65 of my No. 55
of 1908), of supplying countries such as China with their
dried flesh, or other countries with oyster extract as
prepared in the United States ; this latter product is
most nutritious and digestible, and can be put up in
tins, jars, etc., and readily exported ; in this way the
valuable constituents of hundreds of millions of oysters
could be secured as food and a large industry started.

The matter has been reported on in Mr. HornelTs
reports sent with my covering letter No. 1 15, dated 5th
March 1909, and the experiment will be developed next
autumn when a spat-fall is due.

In G.O. No. 2267, Revenue, dated 17th August
1908, Government sanctioned afresh the opening of an
Experimental Station on the West Coast in special view
of canning and of otherwise treating the abundance of
fish there found ; in letter No. 1180B-108-1, dated 26th
August 1908, they approved of my obtaining a small oil
and fertiliser plant such as would be suitable for very
small capitalists or even fisher folk, as a demonstration
of what might be done in every coastal village to pro-
vide good fish oil and good fish guano free from oil from
the fresh or dried sardine, a subject on which I
wrote newspaper articles which have excited interest.
This station has not yet been started as I hope to
examine suitable plant in England. Meanwhile I was
interviewed on the West Coast by several persons — one
a large Mangalore firm — on the oil and fertiliser busi-
ness, and inspected a small wooden press erected by
Mr. M. C. Choyi of Cannanore on the direct sugges-
tion of my Personal Assistant, Mr. V. Govindan, who
has long been interested in such matters, and specimens
of his oil and fish residue. Mr. Choyi has, I hear,
since erected three wooden presses, but is in doubt
about a market ; I have advised him to sell his pro-
ducts to one of the local firms who deal in such oroods.
Mr. Govindan is interestincr himself in desiornino; and
gettmg made cheap but effective presses for the purpose,
so that any small capitalist can take up the business,
and I hope to second his efforts by enquiries at home,
as there are numerous effective presses which have
passed the test of experience, as well as economical
boiling plant.

Letter — from Sir F. A. Nicholson, k.c.i.e., Honorary

Director, Madras Fisheries.
Dated — Madras, the 21st July 1910.

Submitting report of the work done in the Fishery Department for
the year ending 31st March 1910.

* * *

3. Personnel. — I remained in charge throughout the
period ; Mr. H. C. Wilson was also continuously on duty
as Piscicultural Expert ; Mr. James Hornell who was
temporarily appointed for a year in July 1908, came in
from I St July 1909 on a new contract as Marine Assistant
and Superintendent of the Pearl and Chank Fisheries :
Mr. V. Govindan, b.a., remained on duty as Personal
Assistant, but acted for six months as Superintendent of
Pearl and Chank Fisheries durino- Mr. Hornell's absence
on leave in Europe. The staft remained practically as
in 1 908-1 909.

4. The work respectively done by the departmental
officers is abstracted as follows, it being premised that
merely salient items are mentioned and those only in
outline ; the bulk of the work cannot be put on paper in
a department dealing mainly with investigation and
experiment. During the year Mr. Wilson completed
arrangements at Avalanche for the rearing of trout,
obtained through Government an excellent consignment
of irideus trout ova from New Zealand, very successfully
hatched out the eofors and stocked all suitable streams on
the Nilgiris with fry, besides stocking the Avalanche and
Emerald Valley rivers with mature trout ; he also
continued his supervision of the upper waters of the
Bhavani and Moyar rivers. He inspected the larger
tanks of the Periyar system and the Periyar Lake in view
to fish culture ; also the larger tanks (Barur, etc.) of the
Salem district, and the great tanks of Daroji and
Cumbum with a similar view ; the reports embodying
his proposals have been laid before Government. He
completed a scheme for the annual propagation of hilsa
in the Coleroon which was sanctioned by Government
and put into execution, and the possibilities of transferring
hilsa to the West Coast were also experimentally
examined. The upper reaches of the Cauvery were
examined, and especially the Hoginkal area where an
annual and very destructive fish drive is said to take

place with the use of dynamite and other illegal methods,
A most important experiment was devised in all details
and sanctioned by Government, viz., the Sunkesula fish
farm at the anient of the Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal, in
view to stock the 200 miles of this canal with good fish ;
work will be begun this year,

Mr. Hornell took charge from the ist April 1909 of
the Pearl and Chank Fisheries transferred to this depart-
ment by G.O, Press No. 601, Revenue, dated 4th March
1909, and completed his inspection, in company with the
Port Officer who was till then in charge, of the Pearl
Banks ; he also examined questions such as the supply
of sea weed for industrial purposes, a point raised by a
large Madras firm. In May he obtained leave on medi-
cal certificate and proceeded to Europe where, however, at
my request, he devoted rather more than half his time to
various important investigations, viz., the best class of
motor-engine for Indian fishery work, the best designs
compatible with cheapness for an inspection schooner,
the great Arcachon oyster fish culture and sardine indus-
tries, certain methods of fish curing in Scotland and
Cornwall, the celebrated fish culture systems of the
Comacchio lagoons, etc. On these enquiries he visited
Scotland, Ireland, France, and Italy, his journeys includ-
ing short voyages on fishing boats and the Irish
Scientific Cruiser " Helga," and he got into touch with
the several Fishery departments and their officials. On
returning to India in October, he inspected as per G.O.
Mis, No. 2822, Revenue, dated 14th October 1909, the
oyster beds near Karachi on behalf of the Bombay
Government and reported on the same. From Novem-
ber he was in charoe of the Pearl and Chank Fisheries
as mentioned below and in the regular report, and has
sent in reports on most of the matters examined in
Europe, together with proposals for oyster culture based
partly on his enquiry at Arcachon and partly on results
obtained in oyster growth at the Ennore Experimental
station. He has also, as Marine Assistant, supervised
the building at Tuticorin of the motor fishing boat
" Turbinella." negotiated the sale of the " Margarita,"
etc.

Mr. V. Govindan, Personal Assistant, was in charge
of the Pearl and Chank Fisheries branch during Mr,
Hornell's absence in Europe, carried chank operations

lO

to a successful close in July, and initiated work in
September and October for the season just expired,
besides keeping me in touch with all current work during
my own absence ; he also materially assisted me for
several months in starting the Cannanore Experimental
station, since which he has begun a very important
enquiry into the commercial aspect of fishery work as
mentioned below. He continued also throughout to
supervise work in general as my Assistant.

Personally I continued my general work as Honorary
Director ; while at Home I visited Scotland — with Mr.
Hornell — and Ireland, partly to acquaint myself with the
work done by the several departments, partly further to
study methods of fish-curing, especially those of making
kippers and Finnon haddocks, and partly to examine the
various motor-eno^ines established in actual fishino-
boats. I settled with Mr. Hornell and certain ship-
builders, the design, etc., of the proposed inspection
schooner and her engine ; I was also approached and
interviewed by several persons or firms desirous of
starting either fisheries or fishing industries, e.g., fish oil
and guano, in India. All important papers were sent to
me from India for disposal and orders, and having drawn
up a full curriculum for Ennore I was able to supervise
operations through fortnightly reports. I examined
plant for can-making, canning, and other fishery opera-
tions, and purchased small plants for beginning work on
these lines. On arrival in Madras in September I
continued work at Ennore ; but for reasons elsewhere
explained, obtained Government sanction to open a large
station at Cannanore where, from 20th October to 31st
March, I personally carried on continuous work as men-
tioned below.

The above details have been given as they show, in
bare outline, the character of the work done by the
department during the year under report.

5. Marine — Exper-iiucntal stations, Ennoix. — Para-
graph 3 of my report for 1908-09 read in G.O. No.
1 2 15, dated 4th May 1909, mentioned the starting of
this station and the objects aimed at, while paragraphs
6 to 18 gave details of work done in the few months of
its existence, viz., the keeping of fish fresh on the way
to market and consumer, the curing of fish by salting
and drying, by smoking, the starting of an experiment

It

in oyster growth, etc. Work was continued there
from I St April to 20th October but under many un-
foreseen difficulties, chiefly (i) very poor supply and
dearness of fish owing to the proximity of Madras and
the inefficiency, etc., of the fishermen ; (2) impossibility
of exact experiment owing to the uncertainty as to
freshness, or, rather, to the possibility of taint ; (3)
inefficiency of labour and want of interest due to the
poverty of the local men and absence of any local curing
industry. Certain successes in operation required that
the experiments should be conducted on a larger or
commercial scale ; other experiments were impossible in
the absence of cheap and abundant fish, especially shoal-
ing fish such as sardines (for food, oil, guano, etc.) and
mackerel. Hence a new station was opened at Canna-
nore under the sanction of Government contained in G.O.
No. 2267, Revenue, dated 17th August 1908 (see also
G.O. No. 3488, Revenue, dated i8th December 1909) ; a
good site for canning, etc., operations was obtained from
the Military authorities but not till February 19 10, too
late for work ; a small piece of land was, however, leased
for general work in November, shedding was put up,
and operations carried on for the rest of the year.

6. Cannanoi'e station. — This locality is well suited
for large experimental work : it has numerous fishermen
and abundance of fish, a large fish-curing yard, and a
number not only of intelligent curers, but of fish
merchants and master curers who cure for Ceylon and
other parts, many possessing capital and much business
capacity and experience. For about four and a half
months numerous experiments were made in catching :
in keeping fish untainted without ice {a) to shore, {b) for
one or two days on shore : in ordinary salting and drying ;
in smoking, especially of the lighter classes similar to
kippers, bloaters, and haddocks ; in the cure of sardines
as pilchards ; in the preparation of fish oil and guano
from sardines ; in preliminary work on fish paste making.
A young man of some means, from Travancore, was also
trained in the various operations.

7. Catching. — The two sanctioned fishing boats
mentioned in paragraph 4 of my last year's report, were
both built during the year, one, a sailer on Scotch lines,
of about 12 tons, named the "Sutherland" — after the
Chairman of the Scottish Board by whose courtesy I

12

obtained the design— was completed and put in commis-
sion at Cannanore in February ; as it was then late in
the year and alterations and larger nets were required,
she did not do much fishing but has already proved
herself a useful boat, and has caught considerable hauls
of seer and mackerel in 8 fathoms when the inshore
boats caught nothing of the sort. The second boat of
about 25 tons, built on Arklow designs with a 15
horse-power " Dan " motor and called the " Turbinella "
— after the chanks which she will help to fish — was
launched during the year, but completed only in the
current year ; she is a very strong and fine boat, built
by the " Madura Co.," Tuticorin, and is much admired.
But the catching work at Cannanore was principally
effected during October- December by two Ratnagiri
boats engaged for the purpose : these are 6 to 8 ton
boats, simple drifters, fishing with their own drift nets,
measuring above half a mile when shot, in 8 to 1 2
fathoms, outside the usual limit of the Malabar canoes ;
they brought in large quantities of medium seer, small
seer (varian), pomfret, Chirocentrus dorab (valei), small
sharks, etc. ; 1,500 lb. for one night's work was the
largest catch. These boats enabled me to ascertain (i)
the character of the fish available in the above zone,
(2) the ability of existing boats to catch such fish with
existing appliances,- (3) the quantities, value, and profits
of t:he catches of such boats, (4) the possibility of keep-
ing fish fresh to shore. The character of the fish (seer,
etc.) has been mentioned, and the ability of the Bombay
— not Malabar or South Kanara — boats to catch them.
The quantities were as follows ; in 48 nights of the two
months — they did not fish when the moon is near the full
— the two boats caught and delivered about 38,000 lb.
offish, by far the larger part being prime ; this excludes
fish taken by the crews for food and fish rejected as
tainted : one boat moreover only fished for 38 nights.
Hence each boat cauoht on an averaoe at the rate of 10
tons for the two months : the value, as paid by a local
fish curer and continued by me, was about Rs. 1,600 or
Rs. 800 per boat with six men, plus the fish used as
food, etc. No hire was paid for the boats, but I agreed
to take and they to give their catches at the settled
rates which were some 20 to 25 per cent below beach
rates.

13

But it was soon found that the catches were often
soft, pasty, or tainted, since the fish, being caught in
drift nets, had been slowly suffocated, and had often
been dead some 12 hours on arrival at shore; as the
crew refused to gut the fish I sent out a gutter on each
boat who gutted and washed the fish and applied salt to
the cavity ; latterly a very small quantity of boric
preservative was added to the salt ; this precaution
entirely preserved the fish and I seldom had pasty fish
thereafter. The contrast between the fish of the first
and last weeks was remarkable. It has, then, been
proved that at almost no expense — since, ordinarily, a
boat's crew would do the gutting, etc., themselves — a
large amount of good fish can be kept good, whereas I
have often seen large fish on the beach quite unfit for
food even though caught in near waters.

I conclude that Ratnagiri boats are, for West Coast
waters and weather, well adapted for deep sea fishing all
through the fishing season ; they are cheap, good sailers,
and manage a large fleet of drift nets ; those on trial
had, however, insufficient room for gutting operations,
still less for storing, so that they cannot keep the sea
for several days ; the larger ones which stay out for a
week, should suit better and will subsequently be tried.
Until motor boats are introduced these lareer Ratnagiri
boats should serve our purposes, especially with a motor
carrier.

8. Keeping fish zintainted withoiit ice. — This has
been mentioned in the preceding paragraph so far as
regards the boats. Keeping fish fresh on shore, e.g.,
during a journey, is equally possible ; the experiments
at Ennore during the hot weather and Cannanore more
lately, show this. The experiments mentioned in para-
graphs 9 and 10 of my previous report were continued,
and summing them up I would say that, so far as
ascertained, (i) the fish ?;^ 7/5/ be fresh on arrival at the
factory ; I cannot sterilise a tainted or even soft fish ; (2)
they must be gutted, split, and washed ; I have not
succeeded in sterilising or preserving good-sized whole
fish when merely gutted, except for a short period ;
splitting is required so as to open out the tissues for
the action of the preservative ; (3) that a very few, 5 or
10, minutes in strong brine makes sterilisation by the
Hislaire process a certain success, whilst a very small

H

addition (o'5 per cent of the weight of the fish) of a
boric preservative to the salt or brine insures preserva-
tion for several days ; (4) that one may not count on more
than 48 hours' preservation if the fish are packed in a
parcel ; longer if the fish are hung up in an airy place ;
(5) that the very slight saline fiavour noticed when the
brined fish is tasted raw, disappears on cooking. The
o*5 per cent boric preservative, innocuous in itself,
is well within the limit (o'5 per cent of pure boric acid)
allowed by the British Departmental Committee for
mixing with butter, etc., whereas this amount of pre-
servative which, as sold, is a mixture of boric acid,
borax, and salt, is merely added as an external
application of which the greater part remains in the
brine and wholly disappears in cooking. All working
details will be given in my new edition of the
" Preservation and Curing of Fish ". The experiments
enable fish under the above conditions to be sent up-
country without curing, and in a better and less
dangerous condition than if badly packed in insufficient
ice. Ice is an excellent preservative if the fish is fresh,
if the ice is pure, if it is sufficient, if the fish and ice are
properly packed in proper receptacles so that the fish is
kept continuously below 32° F. ; otherwise I prefer the
above safe process for brief preservation. The methods
will be more closely studied next season.

9. Ordinary salting and drying. — The fish from the
Ratnagiri boats and, later, from the " Sutherland "
provided material for ordinary curing work. This was
successful and the products generally — mere experiments
excluded — were found not only commercially acceptable
for Ceylon, but realized in several cases, e.g., mackerel,
considerably higher prices than ordinary goods ; e.g.,
I sold 30,000 mackerel at Rs. 4-14-0 per 1,000 when
local wholesale prices were only Rs. 4-2-0. Prices,
however, are not, at present, fair tests for various
reasons ; (i) we do not know the fancies of the particular
markets, e.g., Madras does not care for good fish dry-
cured and highly salted as for Ceylon ; it desires moister
goods of a high flavour, and so on ; Ceylon demands
dry goods but they must be split down the back, and
have the back- bone cut under and turned over; if
split down the belly, as is required by gutting at sea,
they fetch a lower price ; (2) the present salt-fish eating

15

public is mostly acquainted with goods of a high
and even strongly tainted flavour and considers that
goods perfectly cured and without a suspicion of
taint are "not up to the mark", an expression used
in an East Coast market where sardines and mackerel
"cured" (!) by simple drying without salt and of the
rankest flavour and cheapest price, were alone in demand ;
we have to seek and to reach that vast and respectable
class of the public which at present eats no fish because
the ordinary salt fish (karuvad) is unpleasant ; these can
usually aftbrd slightly higher prices for good goods, and
this will gradually effect a change in curing methods and
consequently in the goods supplied and accepted. Our
fish are rather too good, in the way of absence of taint,
for present demands ; it is the potential demand of a
better class market that such groods must find. Hence
the enquiry which my Personal Assistant has begun, as
further mentioned below, s.v. " Organization."

A parcel of dry salt fish — cod, haddock, ling, etc.,
was obtained as a specimen from England, and was a
revelation to curers in its appearance, flavour, etc. I
have experimentally adopted the Western method of
splitting the fish by the belly and removing the head and
most of the backbone ; this greatly improves appearance
and decreases weight for transport but is, at present,
objected to by purchasers ; I have also adopted slow
drying under shade, e.g., in a shed, to avoid the
discoloration from oil found in all native-cured fish, and
have recently obtained considerable success.

lo. Smoking. — The ordinary and easy method of hard
salting and smoking, found quite successful at Ennore.
has been more or less discontinued partly from press of
other work, partly because private persons had taken it
up ; it will, however, ha-ve to be recommenced and
developed. In its place light smoking was begun, a
much more delicate operation ; the products, similar in
character to the bloater, kipper, and haddock of Great
Britain, are much more desirable as food, from flavour,
digestibility, ease of cooking, etc., than hard-salted goods,
but without proper trade organ'zation cannot be put
commercially on the market. For fish so treated will
only keep good for a few days or up to a fortnight at
most, so that unless there is a certain, regular market
and fixed demand for the goods, they may easily spoil

i6

on the vendor's hands, while, on the other hand, if he
does not keep a good stock he will be unable to meet
calls and will disappoint would-be customers. A market
like Madras might be easily supplied, but those of
provincial towns would be risky unless a set of customers
or a regular trade connection has been obtained.

The experiments have been quite successful so far as
they have gone but will be carried on next season ; the
split fish are either salted or placed in saturated brine
for a short period, drained, and smoked ; the product is
quite excellent and has delighted customers, to whom the
method supplies fish not indeed fresh but only slightly
cured. Full details will be published in my manual.

II. Sardines as pilchards. — In a letter read in G.O.
No. 2267, Revenue, dated 17th August 1908, and
elsewhere, e.g., in my book on the '' Preservation and
Cure of Fish ", I mentioned the great wastefulness
shown by the improper or defective utilisation of the
immense catches of sardine on the West Coast, viz., by
drying the fish on the beach and sending them away as
very imperfect manure — largely consisting of coagulated
oil and sand — to Ceylon, etc., and I proposed to try and
utilize them more fully as food. I have since ascertained
that the catches are much larger than I thought, perhaps
100,000 tons in an ordinary season between September
and April ; a single supplier at a single port supplied
last year to a single merchant 600 tons of dried sardine,
representing perhaps 1,500 tons of fresh fish, to be sent
as manure to coffee estates. This manure, as prepared
by the common fisherman, is generally of the poorest
quality, frequently so devoured by maggots, weevils, etc.,
that little but scales and bone are left ; the smell of the
beaches shows how much nitrogen is wasted. Only a
fraction of the fish is turned into food, and much of this
is simply dried without salt and sent away in tainted
masses as food to our East Coast. That which is gutted
is, in order to save time, so wastefully treated that 1,000
lb. of round ungutted fish yield just 500 lb. of gutted
fish, the heads and guts being frequently thrown away,
though sometimes used as manure.

The chief reason why this excellent fish is thus
misused is the necessity for great haste if cured.
The fish when caught are thrown into the boat which
waits till it has a full load, perhaps for some hours in

the hot sun, for it is usually a daylight fishery ; the
heat and the bruising caused by the weight of the
piles offish, induce rapid decomposition. Hence when
the fish get to shore they are often in a poor or even an
advanced condition, and since a ton may contain above
50,000 fish and labour is scarce, it is impossible to gut
many fish before complete taint sets in, so that the bulk
of large catches has, perforce, to be spread on the
beaches to dry into manure. Hence it became necessary
to try and cure without gutting ; this is not unusual, for
in America herring are practically always cured
'' round," i.e., ungutted ; so also bloaters in England,
and pilchards which are practically large sardines. The
pilchard cure was mentioned in all essentials in paragraph
138 of my book on the curing offish, and Mr. Hornell
has recently supplied certain details. Accordingly I
experimented with much success on this mode of cure,
larore modifications in the Cornish method being neces-
sary. I find that the sardines can be brought straight
from the boat, " roused " at once with salt in a large
trough, and put into the salting tubs, wholly ungutted,
without any fear of decomposition ; the proportion of
salt first used was one of salt to three or four of fish,
but this has been successfully decreased to one to six and
even one to seven. Fish so treated in December,
January and February were — w-ith exceptions — perfectly
good in April; in some cases they were left in their
brine, in which case a quantity of the oil usually rose to
the surface and formed an air proof protection unless
skimmed off as a valuable product ; or they were
drained of their brine and perhaps repacked in wooden
cases or kerosine tins with a sprinkling of fresh salt ;
fish treated in this latter way in December and January
remained good for months and are attractive in appear-
ance. Consequently I can now take a ton — canoe
load — of sardine and make them safe from all danger
for months at least, by a single hour's work occupied
in washing, rousing with salt, and placing in the tubs.
The method is entirely novel in this country and
successful, but much further practice is required to
ascertain complete data and the best methods ; these will
be published hereafter. The fish thus prepared smoke
excellently, and keep good and savoury for several
months.

i8

As compared with gutted and dried sardine they
have disadvantages ; they require more salt ; they
are moist — though not in brine — and consequently
above twice as heavy, and they require better packing ;
hence both packing and transport charges are compara-
tively heavy. Per contra, they provide more and more
digestible nutriment, while the cost of salt is balanced
by the absence of the cost and heavy loss of gutting.
The advantaoe, however, which outweighs all else is
that by the rapidity and ease of curing any desired
quantity of sardines may now be turned into good food ;
under this method it is even possible to take out a large
boat to the sardine grounds, if at all distant, and place
the fish at once in salt while at sea. Moreover, they
can be taken from the tubs at any time and smoked or
otherwise dealt with.

On the large scale these pilchard-cured fish can be
landed in Madras at Rs. 45 to Rs. 50 per ton of cured
fish, all costs, curers' profit, packing and rail charges
included, or 50 to 45 lb. per rupee ; hence they can
there be sold retail at 2 lb. per anna. The cost may
eventually be somewhat decreased.

But the method of saltinor unofutted sardine enables
us to deal with the fish in another way ; by putting the
fish into salt at 1 to 7 (i lb. salt to 7 lb. fish) any quan-
tity of fish can be made safe for some days and can be
taken out at leisure and dried or smoked ; in this way
while the delay and cost of gutting is avoided, the
fish, being dried, can be very cheaply packed and
transported ; this is a middle way between the pilchard
cure and the present dry cure of gutted fish.

12. Fish-oil and guano. — But for some years, in the
absence of rapid curing, sardines will be made into
fertiliser, and it has been therefore necessary to introduce
better methods by which the valuable oil should not be
wasted while the nitrogen and phosphoric acid should be
fully conserved. The matter was mentioned in para-
graph 23 of my previous annual report and has now
been carried a stage further both by Mr. U. Choyi and
myself. Mr. Choyi has now three presses and has
succeeded in placing marketable crude brown oil, and
good guano of 8"3 per cent nitrogen and 7*95 per cent
phosphoric acid, on the market at remunerative rates.
My own work was preliminary only, intended to devise

19

methods of obtaining better qualities of oil and guano,
to avoid waste of material and labour, and to utilise waste
matter. The matter will have to be carried further
before publication of results, but it may be said at once
that instead of coarse brown oil I have produced by the
simplest methods and plant fine yellow oil of the best
quality, never before obtained on the coast and quite fit for
use as an edible ; that the largest yield of oil — so large
that I will \\ait for further experiments before giving
percentages — was obtained from the guts now mostly
wasted and which the local curers derided as oil
producers ; and that I have ascertained the causes of
considerable waste.

It may be said from experience that during the
ordinary season lo tons of fresh sardine at present
produce 2 tons of dry guano of the constituents given
above, and i ton, i.e., 10 per cent, of oil on an average
of fat and moderately fat fish ; the outturn of oil can be
improved in quality and quantity, but the guano only, if
at all, in quality. Plant has now been or is being-
prepared for the thorough examination of this important
industrial work.

13. Miscellaneous. — Preliminary experiments in fish
pastes were begun, and the results warrant developments
with plant already obtained for the purpose. The use
for a second and third time of b7^me derived from heavy
salting has been very successful and effects a notable
economy ; this is possible because the fish in salt are
perfectly clean and untainted and the tubs sanitary, so
that the resultino" brine is gfood ; it is also filtered
through clean sand, and sometimes wood charcoal, and
may then be used several times ; such brine has been
kept quite sweet for a month. Brining with saturated
brine is found, for some purposes, superior to salt, the
strength being kept up by loose salt ; a better surface is
thus given to lightly smoked fish ; a few minutes in brine
will preserve fish fresh — with a slight saline tiavour
when raw which disappears in cooking — for a day or two,
especially if 0*5 per cent of the weight of the fish, i.e.,
I lb. per 200 lb., be added of boric preservative. The
dirty salt received from the salt pans has been greatly
improved for fish-curing by a washing with saturated
brine, and fish cured with this salt are clean from the
grit and dirty surface which are apt to characterize fish

2-A

20

cured with unwashed salt ; the magnesium and calcium
salts however are, of course, unaffected by washing, and
I have had to experiment largely with English salt. It
has been found that in a tropical climate salt "strikes"
much harder and more quickly than in temperate
regions ; British practice is consequently apt to be
misleading as to the quantity and period of salting. It
has also been proved by numerous experiments that
ungutted sardines roused with salt in such small quanti-
ties as I to 12, I to 1 6, and even i to 20, wmII keep good
for many hours ; in one case salt at i to 16 preserved the
fish perfectly for above 36 hours ; hence fish can be kept
from putrefaction while awaiting gutting, etc.

14. Utilisation of waste. — Pits were dug at one end
of the yard and lined with wood, mats, etc. These were
gradually filled with offal from gutted fish, failed
experiments, etc., with a modicum of ash from the
municipal cinerator and of quicklime. The result after
several months has been a quantity of manure which has
been dried and bagged ; its analysis has not yet been
obtained. Except on rare and very temporary occasions
the presence of such pits in the yard was absolutely
unnoticeable by the senses, so that we got rid of our
offal — and much more — not only without nuisance but
with considerable gain. The quantity of offal available
in the vicinity is shown by the fact that a wood- lined pit
holding about 130 cubic feet was filled to the brim in
one afternoon of large catches with sardine offal from the
neighbouring gutting places, and much more was avail-
able. As shown above, however, sardine offal should
first be boiled for oil before consignment to the manure
pit, and this has been effected in the Experimental
Station with very notable results. By the common
methods of gutting, 10,000 tons of valuable stuff con-
taining large quantities of oil and fertiliser are available
for every 20,000 tons of sardine caught ; this as per
actuals should yield at least 1,000 tons of oil, worth
Rs. 12 lakhs, besides guano. This at present is almost
entirely wasted, besides the manure contained in immense
quantities of other fish offal, fish bones, etc.

15. Prices of fish f^'esh and czired as ascertained by
practice at the Experimental Station, etc. — Fish, mostly
prime, were, according to contract, brought in by the
Ratnagiri boats at rates w^hich were usually 20 to 25

2t

per cent below beach prices ; seer cost just i anna per lb.;
varian (small seer), valei (Chirocentrus dorab) and
pomfret (usually black) which formed the bulk of the fish,
cost Rs. lo, Rs. lo, and Rs. 7 per hundred round fish
respectively, or about 9^, 7, and 8 pies per lb. Varian
and pomfret when cured for Colombo sold at the yard
wholesale at Rs. 16 and Rs. 12 per 100 respectively or, at
their cured weights, 2 and 2| annas per pound ; valei also
sold at Rs. 16 or about 1*4 anna per lb., being a larger
coarser, and more bony fish. Since salt — at fish-curing
yard prices, viz., 10 annas per maund — and labour charged
at local rates, cost less than Rs. 2 per 100, there was a
fair profit ; had the fish been bought on the beach the
profit would have been small. The additional cost
of smoking is trifiing, since the labour of placing- fish
in and removing them from the kiln is about equal to or
less than that involved in drying the fish during several
days, while the cost of the chips and sawdust used in
smoking, is, per pound, infinitesimal.

16. The cost of mackerel and sardines is very
different. Mackei-el are sold per 1,000 usually at from
Rs. 2 to Rs. 3, and ordinarily vveigh round slightly over
2 cwt,, or 200 lb. when gutted ; dried or smoked they
weigh 120 to 125 lb., and moist (salted and drained)
about 165 lb. The usual wholesale price of cured
(salted and dried) gutted mackerel is about Rs. 4 when
bought fresh at about Rs. 2 ; the local allowance by
merchants to curers for salt, at fish-curing- yard rates, is
4 annas, and labour 4 to 5 annas, per 1,000 ; salt is,
however, allowed at 8 annas when fish are cured for
Colombo ; labour includes all operations from the boat
to the godown, viz., carriage, gutting, application of, but
not cost of, salt, drying, etc. Hence the cured fish may
cost Rs. 3 per 1,000, and are sold at Rs. 4 including
merchants' profit. The Station mackerel however sold
at Rs. 4-15-0 and Rs. 4-14-0 per 1,000 when fish-curing
yard mackerel sold at Rs. 4-2-0, so that on nearly
40,000 a good profit was made ; this was due to their
soundness and good appearance. Hence 1,000 well
salted and dried mackerel, weighing full 120 lb., of good
appearance, absolutely free from taint, and warranted to
keep for several months, can be sold t',v-yard at Rs. 5, or
packed in gunny and f.o.r. Cannanore al Rs. 5-8-0,
these prices giving a good profit, ii salt and labour be

22

taken at the rates paid in the fish-curing yards ; at
ordinary rates for duty-paid salt 8 annas more covers the
extra cost. A wooden one-dozen case contains just 340
of such fish, and weighing gross about 52 lb. (40 to 42 lb.
of fish) can be sold f.o.r. Cannanore for Rs. 2. Salted
mackerel not sun-dried but simply drained and slightly
moist, can be similarly sold, but the box averages about
64 lb. with 54 lb. of fish ; this product will not keep so
long as sun-dried fish but is otherwise desirable ; the
charo-e is similar thoucrh labour is less, because more
salt is used and the fish may be in salt for some days
till a demand arises. Smoked mackerel, a very good
product, packs at 300 to the box which, with 34 lb. of
fish, averages 44 lb. ; the cost is similar ; these fish keep
a long time, and February cured fish are now (July) in
good order.

1 7. Sardines cost, when sufficiently abundant for large
work, about Rs. 12 or a little less, per ton, taking a large
canoe load of 5 kallis of between 5 and 6 maunds each,
as I ton. By the pilchard cure the cost of salt and all
labour does not exceed Rs. 4 to Rs. 5 per ton of fish (at
Rs. 2-12-0 for salt at 10 annas per maund, and Rs. 2 per
ton forlabour) so that the ton of fresh fish costs, when
cured, Rs. 16 to Rs. 17 in all, and taking i^tons of fresh
fish to make one ton of cured fish the latter costs Rs. 21
per ton, or nearly 7 lb. per anna. To this must be added
the cost of packing cases, usually cheap wooden boxes
or, for small quantities, kerosine tins with covers. A
one dozen case costing 4 annas holds 48 to 54 lb. of
moist, pilchard-cured sardine, so that the fish cost about
8 annas. If the case be sold f.o.r. Cannanore at Re. i, the
fish will be sold at 12 annas, giving a profit of about 50
per cent. A kerosine tin of such sardine weighs 40 lb.
gross and contains ^']\ lb. of fish ; this can be sold for
about 12 annas if the tin can be got for 4 annas.

If, however, these pilchard-cured fish are either
dried or smoked, the packing charges can be greatly
reduced ; I hold smoked ungutted sardines, now above
four months old, which have travelled hundreds of miles
in a common package, and have been left loose in a box ;
they are still (July) in excellent condition and flavour,
and quite unbroken ; these can be sold with a good profit
at about Rs. 50 to Rs. 55 per ton (equal to nearly 2 tons
of fresh fish) or 2 J lb. per anna packed in mats, etc., and

^3

f.o.r. Cannanore. The pronounced flavour of these
smoked ungutted sardines is absolutely free from taint,
and arises solely from the character of the fish and from
the salt and smoke, combined with the natural oil. The
Indian consumer should approve of these goods as a
substitute for tainted fish.

The above figures assume salt at hsh-curing yard
rates, viz., lo annas per maund of 82 lb., not at the
Cannanore Bazaar rates of Rs. i-io-o per maund ;
also labour at local rates.

Dried sardines gutted in local fashion were sold at
the Station at Rs. 3-4-0 to Rs. 3-13-8 per 10,000
which, in the smaller sizes, represent about one maund.
Hence the ton of such fish represents 270,000 fish worth
Rs. 88 to Rs. 103, averaging Rs. 95. But 270,000
small sardines represent about 5 tons of fresh fish of
which a full half is lost in oruttinQ- and the resulting 2i
tons dry into about i ton ; these 5 tons cost about Rs. 60,
so that after adding about Rs. 5-8-0 being the cost
of salt on 2^ tons of gutted fish, viz., 8J maunds at annas
10, and labour, etc., Rs. 12-8-0 for gutting and hand-
ling 270,000 fish weighing 5 tons when ungutted, or
Rs. 78 in all, there is a fair profit. The waste of material
in gutting is here apparent ; it is slightly less with
larger fish of which 28,000 sometimes go to the ton
instead of 50,000 or more of small ones. Fish placed
ung'utted in salt, as now practised at the Station, and
then dried, were found to weigh 180 lb. per 10, coo and
36,500 weighing 655 lb. were sold for nearly Rs. 15, or
Rs. 50 per ton. In this method the ton of dry fish
represents about 2j tons of fresh fish — dryage being
the only source of waste — costing Rs. 27 ; salt at i to 6
on the gross weight cost, at annas 10 per maund, Rs.
6-8-0, and labour not more than Rs. 4-8-0 at Rs. 2
per ton since there was no gutting and a less gross
weight was handled ; hence the cost per ton of dried
fish was not above Rs. 39, which gives a profit of Rs. 1 1.
Under the Station system of utilising old brine the
cost has been decreased and profits improved, whether
for gutted or ungutted fish. As mentioned above, the
real profit from the Station method of salting and dry-
ing without gutting is the ability to save, as tintainted
food, as many tons of sardines as can be brought
to shore, whereas the slow and laborious process of

24

o'Litting prevents the use of more than a fraction of
the catches when abundant.

1 8. Orgaiii%ation of a trade. — The experience of the
past year enforces the commonplace that if the industry
and trade are to be seriously developed business know-
ledge and business organization are necessary prelimi-
naries ; good products are useless if on the one hand
they are not acceptable or on the other are not known
or introduced to the public.

As regards acceptability , my Personal Assistant,
Mr. V. Govindan, made a tour of special enquiry
and has obtained valuable first-hand information and
facts. He found that existing markets are somewhat
particular ; the fish-eaters of Madras City seem to
demand moist fish with light salt, and consequently, a
certain amount of taint or high flavour ; fish cured as
for Colombo, viz., well salted, dry, and absolutely free
from such flavour, are not desired ; apparently it is not
merely a question of cheap price, but of custom. Not
only so but in the Tamil districts of the East Coast
most of the fish seems to be consumed when tainted
either because of necessity or from preference, more
probably the former; a large proportion of the supply
is West Coast fish not good enough for Ceylon, or it
consists of mackerel and sardines cured absolutely with-
out salt and undistinsfuishable — sardines — from the fish
dried on the beaches as manure ; the moist fish has
little salt and is consequently tainted and maggotty ; the
fish of the so-called " Madura cure " is soft and pasty.
Much of this is due to the demand for excessive cheap-
ness, part to originally defective curing ; the two reasons
act and react on one another ; the cheapest goods are
required and these can only be supplied of bad quality ;
being of bad quality no respectable persons purchase it.
As an example, the saltless sardines, containing a mini-
mum of nourishment, are kept on the market until they
are absolutely unfit for anything except manure ;
mackerel bought fresh on the West Coast at Rs. 2 per
1,000 are required to be sold at Rs. 3 per 1,000 in South
Arcot ; I have been told that Tamil coolies in Ceylon
used to filch for food portions of the dried sardines used
on the estates as manure, being so similar to the stuff
they were accustomed to in India. My Assistant also
found that the public was quite unaware that " karuvad "

^5

(salt fish) could be anythino- but the stufT usually found
on the market, and actually considered well cured
untainted fish as "not up to the mark " because it had
not the accustomed appearance and smell. It is, of
course, obvious that men who for ages have accepted
and have come to approve of " high " or rotten goods
as their only fish supply, will not readily change to
other and less highly flavoured products. Neverthe-
less Mr. Govindan considers that the mass are ouided
largely by cheapness and that if we can supply good pro-
ducts at equally cheap or cheaper rates, the market will
readily accept them ; this I think is obvious ; the poorer
classes will buy in the cheapest market even if the
products are good.

19. But there is a far larger and better market to be
considered, viz., the potential market consisting of the
immense number of fairly well-to-do persons who would
eat fish if it were provided of good quality and appear-
ance even at a slightly increased price. For such per-
sons I consider that it remains for us to create both the
supply and the specific taste ; as in Ceylon good dried
fish have taken the place of bad stuff in the better class
markets, so we can create a demand for good products
by supplying good products whether they be dry or moist,
heavily or lightly salted, plain or smoked, and so on ; the
prime requisites are good appearance, good natural
flavour, wholesome food, and reasonable price. Now I
can provide all these requisites with ease ; as shown in
paragraph 15 to 17, I can provide fishery products of
good and even excellent quality at the most moderate
prices, and even for the poorer classes at rates as low as
can be desired but without the tainted flavour they seem
to need, though I can substitute an excellent and pro-
nounced flavour by good salting and smoking. But
unless I can put these goods on the market not as casual
parcels at irregular intervals and in small quantities but
persistently, habitually, visibly, and in bulk so that all
may buy, it is impossible to create such market for the
new goods, and a main lesson of the past year, from my
own experience and, regrettably, that of others, is that
it is necessary to take one or two particular localities,
open a shop at each such locality and keep it supplied
with really good products ; a locality, for instance, such
as a large inland town where all social strata are well

26

represented. Various enquiries, especially that of my Per-
sonal Assistant, show that the conditions of the fish trade
are not at all satisfactory ; as might be inferred from the
status of the fishing- and curing classes, there is no such
organization or business power as would enable them to
hold their own with the up-country wholesale merchants
who consequently have too much power in their hands
as reoards both the consiornors from the coast and the
retailers in the markets ; goods sent from the coast are, on
receipt, often said to be damaged, or unsuitable for the
market, etc. etc., and the consignors have to take what
they can get ; retailers and consumers similarly have to
buy what the wholesale men choose and at their prices
which are kept up in various ways ; one merchant in a
large town suggested the fable that prices were high
because Europeans have come and swept the West Coast
with vast copper wire nets many miles long, and sent off
the fish to Europe so that none were available for inland,
and so forth. Even when no tricks are played the com-
mission demanded or the profit expected as wholesalers
is ruinously large, simply because there is either a mono-
poly or a ring. Now just as Government is alone able
to step in and experiment on new methods, so it rests with
Government to introduce untainted, good, but — on that
account — novel products to a market hitherto undeve-
loped ; the wholesale merchants will not risk new products
or attempt a new market with untried goods, and though
several agreed to do so, none has actually come forward.
Hence the necessity for temporary trade, in which
Government are, as in new catching and curing methods,
simply pioneers, actually developing a trade and markets
which do not at present exist and will not exist till so
developed ; when developed, Government operations
will cease, and the fish trade obtain the whole benefit of
the Government pioneer operations. As pointed out
above, moreover, organization is specially needed in the
transport and disposal of fish either fresh or lightly
cured.

20. Oyster culture. — This experiment, at Ennore,
alluded to in paragraph 17 of last year's report, was
again tried in September- December 1909 by the placing
of fresh tile collectors in reserved area of the backwater ;
the result was precisely similar to that of 1908 as to the
time and occasion of the deposit of spat and the growth

27

of the young oyster. More than that, on examination In
March 1910 it was found that the young oysters deposited
as spat in October 1908 were mature measuring up to
4^X35- inches, and i| inches in thickness, while the
flavour was excellent. Hence it is now a demonstrated
fact that oyster spat can be obtained in abundance by the
simplest of processes and that the oysters are fully
marketable in 18 months from spat fall. This matter
has been fully reported on in Mr. Hornell's two papers,
on oyster culture at Arcachon and on a proposed oyster
farm at Pulicat, submitted with my letter No. 233, dated
the ist July 1910 ; the beginnings of an oyster industry
are now in sight, and ten years may see it well established
as a profitable business both in Madras and elsewhere.

2 I . Pearl and Chank Fisheries. — These were taken
over from the Collector of Tinnevelly and Port Officer
of Tuticorin from ist April 1909, and have been worked
by ** Fisheries " throughout the year. The pearl bank
inspection begun in March 1909 was concluded in April ;
no pearl oysters were found. The chank fishery
continued till May with good results as reported in the
Superintendent's letter read in G.O., No. 3076, Revenue,
dated 13th November 1909 ; the proceeds of the fishery
were 272,841 first sort shells sold at Rs. 99 odd per
1,000 for a sum of Rs. 27,536 including undersized and
wormed shells at Rs. 6 per 1,000; deducting the sums
paid to the divers and cost of management, the net
proceeds were Rs. 18,397. Mr. V. Govindan, Personal
Assistant, was in charge from May to November during
Mr. Hornell's absence in Europe and did good work
throughout ; from November Mr. Hornell was in charge.
During the season 1909-10 various concessions
sanctioned by Government were made to the divers, such
as the promise of 8 pies per shell instead of 6 for all
full-sized shells obtained above 3 lakhs ; bad weather
prevented this concession from coming into operation ;
a small bonus per canoe was however granted to the
divers ; a channel was also re-opened so that the boats
could get close to the chank godown. By the purchase
of the motor whale-boat " Pearl " received at the end of
January, considerable aid was given to the divers by
towing their canoes when calms would otherwise have
caused entire inability to go to sea ; this happened on
15 days and she thus enabled the divers to obtain 17,000

28

shells, of which the net value to Govet'nmetit was
Rs. 1,530, which would otherwise have remained
unfished ; hence she paid half her capital cost in three
months and greatly assisted as well as profited the
divers. As a result of circulars, etc., by Mr. Hornell,
issued to the trade in Calcutta, etc., during the year,
greatly enhanced prices were obtained at the recent sale
of the shells, viz., Rs. 121 odd per i.ooo shells above 2^
inches in diameter, so that the gross proceeds for 338,661
shells of all sizes were Rs. 37,217, and net Rs. 26,924,
being the best for many years ; these figures are given
here as being the result of the work of the year under
report, for which full details will be found in the special
report which accompanies this general one.

22. Inland. — The work of Mr. Wilson, Piscicultural
Expert, has been mentioned above, but apart from the
trout hatchery which is under ihe Collector of the
Nilgiris, the first piscicultural work placed in operation
in inland waters was begun during the year, viz., the
hilsa hatchery at the Lower Anicut leased fishery on the
Coleroon. This was mentioned as a suggestion in
paragraph 25 of my last year's report, and was sanctioned
by Government in G.Os. No. 12 19, Revenue, dated 5th
May 1909, and No. 2231, Revenue, dated 13th August
1909 ; work was completed in August, the hatchery
being placed at the Public Works bungalow at the Lower
Anicut ; the plant consisted of the usual water tanks, a
battery of Macdonald hatching jars obtained from
America by the courtesy of the United States of America
Fishery Commission, and accessories. Mr. Wilson
arranged with fishermen for a supply of ripe ova, which
were fertilised, hatched out in the jars, and passed thence
into the reception tanks. The high temperature (80° F.)
of the water at the hatching point, which was a verandah
of the bungalow, proved a difficulty, so that it was
necessary to put the fry out into a sheltered and reedy
spot in the river almost as soon as they were hatched.
Being the first of a series of hatchino's and conducted
under previously unknown conditions, nothing can yet
be predicted as to results in increasing the hilsa supply ;
it is however now ascertained (i) that hilsa can be
successfully hatched artificially in large quantities, (2)
that the period of incubation is on and from the third
day at a temperature of about 80° F". ; probably this is

29

the maximum temperature advisable. Much difficulty
was found in inducing the fishermen to supply ova,
especially of a suitable and uninjured character ; this and
the temperature question will have to be arranged for,

Mr. Wilson also successfully carried fertilised hilsa
ova to the West Coast where he deposited many
thousands of eggs in a part of the Ponnani river in good
positions such as the fish would select if running up the
river to spawn ; it will be remembered that at present
there are no hilsa on the West Coast.

General. — Much oeneral work, the results of which
cannot be reported on paper, was done during the
year, such as the study by Mr. Hornell and myself in
Europe of motors, boats, fish and oyster culture, fish-
curing, curing and canning plant, etc., to which may be
added numerous interviews with business men either for
obtaininof or for oivino- information. Mr. Wilson's
chief work has also been that of investigation and the
preparation of plans as noted above. Correspondence
has been considerable, and includes enquiries during
the year from officials in Bengal, Eastern Bengal, the
Punjab, Bombay, Gwalior, etc., on the matter of fishery
operations. The stations have been visited by quite
a number of persons interested, of whom some spent
several days in studying operations in view to imitation ;
several persons have started fish-curing as a direct
consequence of such studies and were at work, though
not perhaps in a large way, at the end of the year ; the
representative of a Karachi firm came specially to
Cannanore, studied the work there going on, and made
business proposals regarding a supply of cured fish ;
several firms and individuals of this Presidency have
also made enquiries, especially as regards the fish-oil
and guano industry which is likely to develop this
current year along the lines which I have suggested —
that of numerous very small factories scattered along
the coast line — and which Mr, Choyi of Cannanorc has
been the first to adopt with, I am glad to say, good
success which I hope to see increased. Several persons
proposed to come or to send delegates to work as
regular students in the stations ; two of these actually
came, one of whom is a young man from Travancore
with some capital who shaped well during several
months at Cannanore and will be with me next season.

30

My book on the " Preservation and Cure of Fish "
(G.O. Mis. No, 351, Revenue, dated loth February
1909) met with some approval, so that the edition was
exhausted during the year and a further one, embodying
the resuhs of Madras experience, is called for.

A large amount of energy, time, and some material
has been spent on experiment, much of which was only
useful as showing what not to do ; it requires much
patience, time, and some money to work out to success
experiments which often cannot be immediately repeated
or which last only for a brief season, and which are not
only wholly novel to the country but have to be carried
out by inexperienced hands and under conditions
absolutely different from those of the countries where
they originally developed ; the results, moreover, though
often successful, may be found to be unacceptable to the
existing markets. In a recent American Fishery
Bulletin it is remarked that " the most valuable branch
" of the American herring industry is the canning of
"small herrinsf under the name of sardines. The busi-
" ness began in 1875, pi-e ceded by six or seven years of
" experimental worki" etc. So in the middle of the 19th
century it took the French Government twelve years of
experimental work at Arcachon merely to revive and
to place on a new footing the ancient but decadent
oyster industry. I need hardly say that if in the energetic,
businesslike States and in the temperate climate of
Maine, a single branch of fishery work, and that a more
or less mechanical and well-known one, had to be
preceded by " six or seven years of experiment," we can
hardly expect to be more fortunate, more skilful in
attempting to develop in ways suited to this tropical
climate and amongst and with these tropical people a
whole series of fishery operations and products developed
amidst other conditions and other folk, beginning with
the fishing net and ending only with the consumer.

31

Letter — from Sir F. A. Nicholson, k.c.i.e., Honorary
Director — Madras Fisheries.

Dated — Madras, the loth August 19 14.

I have the honour to submit my general report for
the year 1910-1 1.

2. Staff. — This remained as in 1909-19 10, viz.,
myself, Messrs. Wilson, Hornell and W Govindan as
assistants, two sub-assistants, and subordinates.

3. U^ork done. — This consisted of operations at the
Cannanore experimental station with demonstrations on
the West Coast, the preparation and execution of various
piscicultural projects, a certain amount of investigation,
and a considerable amount of educative and stimulative
work amongst the public and individuals ; these will all
be detailed below. The chank fisherv, thouoh mentioned
briefly, is the subject of the usual separate report.

4. Work done individually. — I continued as Honor-
ary Director in general charge of operations with special
charge of the Cannanore experimental station, which,
this year, took up more particularly the manufactures
of oil and guano from sardines, continuing, however,
curing experiments.

Mr. H. C. Wilson, Piscicultural expert, continued
his trout work on the Nilgiris, including the successful
importation at his own expense of a batch of " wild
trout" late in the year; also the conservation of the
upper waters of the Moyar and Bhavani. The Sunke-
sula fish farm scheme was under construction, several
large tanks were stocked, and other projects, notably the
Kanigiri reservoir (Nellore) project, have been worked
out and either sanctioned or sent up to Government.
Mr. Wilson's advice has also been sought from other
provinces by various people and associations — see below
s.v. " Pisciculture."

Mr. J. Hornell, f.l.s., continued as Superintendent
of the Pearl and Chank Fisheries and as Marine Assist-
ant, the dual service giving" abundance of work. His
report (Bulletin No. 5) on oyster culture at Arcachon
and its lessons for India was characterized by Government
as " a very valuable and practical piece of work." This
report was based on a long personal visit to Arcachon
when on furlough in 1909, and has resulted in a practi-
cal scheme for oyster culture now in actual operation at

32

Pulicat. A second report (Bulletin No. 6) on " Marine
Fish Farming," also based on his tour in France and
Italy, is before Government. He visited Bengal and
Eastern Bengal on chank service and has reported
results and made suggestions now before Government,
while a further report on the technical and artistic aspects
of the industry has been in active preparation. His
advice on many practical matters especially regarding
the proposed Inspection .Schooner, fishing possibilities,
etc., has been of great value to myself and to enquirers.

Mr. V. Govindan, b.a., f.z.s., continued as my Personal
Assistant and rendered extremely valuable service of a
character which, perhaps, only himself, as an Indian
thoroughly acquainted with the fisher-folk, their work,
and their needs, and deeply interested therein, could fully
render, viz., in conversing and arguing familiarly with
the various classes, informing and persuading them
regarding new methods of fishing, curing, manufactur-
ing, and co-operating, as well as in ascertaining and
reporting their needs, ideas, objections and difficulties ;
he has also carried out demonstrations of a practical
character in the fish-oil and guano business, and much
of the success which is attending the development of
this new industry is due to him. He has also directly
assisted me in the numerous details of my work as
Director.

Cannanore Experimental Station.

5. The main operations carried on here were —

(i) the preparation of dried salt fish of superior
quality ;

(2) the treatment offish, large and small, by pick-
ling ;

(3) the preparation of lightly cured fish ;

(4) miscellaneous ;

(5) the manufacture offish-oil and guano from the
oil-sardine {C/npea longiceps).

6. Dried salt fish. — The fish was mostly obtained,
as in 1909-10, by hiring two Ratnagiri boats. The
season, October to Decen^ber, was extremely bad for
driftnet fishing owing to the protraction of the south-west
monsoon ; the two boats fished for only 49 and 42 days
respectively and obtained only 22,307 lb. (10 tons) of

33

clean (gutted) fish, whereas in 1909, they fished for
about 20 days for a local merchant and 43 days for the
station, catching during the latter 43 days, 38,000 lb. of
round fish (besides their food and other fish) or nearly
33,000 lb. of clean fish of which the prime portion was
larger than in the present year, and the total value of
the catches was Rs. 1,600. The total amount paid this
year for 22,307 lb. clean fish was Rs. 866 which works
out at about 7*4 pies per lb. or practically 6*5 pies per
lb. for round (ungutted) fish, allowing about 15 per cent
for gutting. Only 55 per cent was prime fish (seer,
medium and small seer and pomfret) and the rest was
coarse fish including catfish and small shark. The
boats also retained enough of their catches for their own
consumption and some — a little — for carrying home at
the end of the season. The largest catch in one day by
the two boats was 2,101 lb. of gutted fish valued at
Rs. 71.

7. Pickling. — Pickling, i.e., salting in barrels for sale
as wet fish, is a method new to this country ; it was not
fully carried out owing to the impossibility of obtaining
proper barrels, absurd prices being asked for unsuitable
articles. The matter will again be taken up. But a
quantity of varian, pomfret, and mackerel were placed in
open, roughly lidded boxes and tubs, in one to three salt
(1 lb. salt to 3 lb. offish) as in western countries, and are
perfectly good at the time of writing (June) though laid
down in January and February ; some of the surface fish
had become slightly pink, but the fish are all good and
are available for sale, and are being used successfully
for freshening and smoking, etc., during the monsoon
when dried fish is hardly procurable.

8. Light or mild cured fish. — This highly important
experiment was developed,; the object is to place on the
inland market an article so lightly cured as to be a sub-
stitute for fresh fish which is, at present, unattainable
except in a few places where a high-price demand is so
considerable {e.g., Ootacamund, Bangalore, etc.) that it
pays to ice fish ; the light cured article is for general
consumption. By a new method wholly free from the
use of preservatives, fish can be sufficiently cured to be
a fair substitute for fresh fish, only slightly saline, and
good for a week ; if smoked the fish is an excellent sub-
stitute for smoked haddock, Parcels of such fish both

34

unsmoked and smoked, have been repeatedly consumed
by myself and friends with satisfaction more than a
week after despatch from the station and frequently four
days en route. By the end of next season the experi-
ment will be developed sufficiently for publication ; at
present the mode of packing, almost as important
in this country as the curing, requires study and ex-
periment. But, as stated last year, the sale of such
fish requires thorough organization, since the supply and
demand must be so adjusted that there shall never be a
stock long on hand ; it must be sold almost immediately.
If my experiments prove as successful as they promise,
a very wide market and large demand should follow.

9. Miseellaneotis. — This includes further experi-
ments in Tuashing salt ; the ordinary salt, as supplied to
the fish-curing yards, has so large a proportion of dust,
mud, sand, small shells, etc., that it is useless to attempt
first class curing with it ; the cleanest fish eat gritty. By
washing the salt in a sieve in a tub of semi-saturated brine,
an operation which a girl can carry out alone at the rate of
a maund per 20 minutes, and draining and drying the
washed salt, a very good and clean article is obtained with
a loss of something like 10 per cent of which about half
is mud and rubbish. This raises the price of a maund
from 10 to about 11 annas. The salt is then almost as
good as British duty-paid salt as regards cleanness, but
seems inferior as regards contents of sodium chloride.

Old brine obtained in salting superior fish such as
varian, seer, pomfret, mackerel, etc., has been largely used
in brining sardines and other thin and small fish. Our fish
is so clean that the brine is perfectly good ; it has been
used either filtered — through sand and charcoal, etc. — or,
latterly, boiled ; it is found that an addition of about one-
third further salt brings the brine back to saturation and
keeps up its strength during brining. This, therefore,
represents a gain of two-thirds of the salt used in salting
sardines, etc., while the sardines gain a flavour which is
distinctly appreciated by purchasers. But the method
can only be practised safely when all the conditions of
cleanliness are observed.

Attempts have been made to lessen the dangers
irom Jlies. In Virginia (United States of America) and
probably in other States, no factory dealing in fish is
allowed to carry on business in the fly season unless all

36

operations are conducted within fly-proof rooms. My
drying- scafYolds and flakes readily admit of being covered
with mosquito net and this is found to protect the fish
during the moist stage. The method will be developed
next season.

Canning was not begun ; a suitable building has,
however, been rented, and the plant has been set up ;
by the courtesy of Messrs. T. Stanes & Co. of Coimba-
tore, to whom thanks are due, two artisans (both now
qualified as engine drivers) were trained at their Coffee
Works in the making of cans ; they have been practising
with our plant, and as a large quantity of tin plate, oil,
etc., is now on hand, I hope to start next September.

lo. Fish-oil and fish gnano. — Amain object pursued
at the station during the seasonwas the preparation offish-
oil and fish-guano from the oil-sardine \Clupea longiceps).
A detailed paper is being drawn up on the subject and
only salient points will here be mentioned. Above 30
tons of fresh sardine and sardine offal were used in the
experiments; all parcels offish, fuel, etc., were weighed,
as also the resulting products, and the various weigh-
ments reoistered, so that accurate data were obtained.

The object of the experimental work was as follows :
sardines in many thousands of tons have long been dried
whole on the beach for manure ; by this rude process
not only is the whole of the oil dried up and utterly
wasted and lost, but, as it coagulates, it firmly aggluti-
nates to the fish a large quantity of sand, so that the
article frequently shows 30 per cent and more of sand,
and moreover much of the nitrogen is lost by putrefaction,
while occasionally, as during this last season, immense
quantities drying on the beach are wholly lost by inoppor-
tune rain. Hence the planter buys a quantity of coagu-
lated oil which is worse than useless, and twice the
quantity of sand ; as expressed in a report from Ceylon,
enough sand is sent to restore Adam's Bridge. In some
few cases there has been a small manufacture of oil, by
boiling in ordinary earthen chatties, in which case the
residue is thrown away ; or the fish was allowed to
putrefy in vessels and the oil skimmed off and the foul
residue thrown away or buried as a nuisance ; in some
places and months the guts obtained in gutting the fish
for food have been used as manure, in which case the
valuable oil is lost, Hence in every way the gravest

3-A

loss and waste, while the process of putrefying or of
beach-drying is sanitarily offensive. If only 50,000 tons
— a low estimate — are annually dried on the beach, the
oil thus totally lost is something like 6,000 tons, worth
about 10 lakhs of rupees, and if only 2 per cent of the
nitrogen is lost by putrefaction and the ravages of
maggots and insects, there is a further loss of about 2
lakhs. Hence it has been sought to minimize this loss,
improve the products, and remove a sanitary nuisance
by devising new methods of dealing with the sardine.

Under the new system the fish (or guts) are boiled
in open pans over a fire, and the boiling stuff is then
pressed for oil ; the pressed scrap is dried in the sun and
forms guano ; in this way, the w^hole of the oil is obtained
as a very valuable marketable product, while the fish
(tissues and bone) are reduced to a friable mass one-fifth
of the weight of the green fish and readily assimilable as
manure, w^hile the process is absolutely inoffensive and
free from sanitary objection. This process was devised
in 1908 by "Fisheries" from the example of the
American farmers, etc., and urged upon the public ; it
was first taken up in 190S by Mr. U. Choyi of Cannanore,
and during the past season was the subject of much
experiment in the station, and of commercial work by a
number of interested persons. The season began with
one and ended with about nine small factories in
operation ; moreover, quite a large number of persons
have ordered boilers and presses, and it is expected that
many more than the above nine works will be opened
by the beginning of next season in September. As
mentioned above, much of this is due to the propagandist
work of my Assistant, Mr. V. Govindan, who rested not
in pushing a knowledge of the process, and in demon-
strating and in aiding people to obtain plant ; meanwhile
useful work also went on at the experimental station.

II. As produced in the minute factories, consisting
of, perhaps, a couple of open boiling pans each holding-
half or two-thirds of a ton of fish, and three or four
simple screw presses, the oil is dark brown in colour, of
strong but not unpleasant smell, and containing a large
percentage of stearine or fish tallow. No attempt is
made to secure a finer oil ; the boiling mass is scooped
out into baskets, allowed to drain for a few minutes, then
placed in coarse coir bags and pressed ; the oil and water

^7

run into a pit where they separate, when the oil is
dipped out, placed in an open pan and boiled to drive
oft' any remaining water ; the product is then barrelled.
The pressed cakes are broken up and placed on mats in
the sun, where the stuft" dries ; when dry it contains
below 5 per cent of moisture and is then bagged. The
price obtained at the factory for oil is about Rs. i6o per
ton of about 250 gallons [6^^ kerosene tins), at which
price the middleman — usually a European firm —
supplies casks and takes the cost of transport ; this is
for the crude oil with its stearine. The o-uano fetches
at the factory about Rs. jo per ton and should have
about 8'5 per cent of nitrogen and something higher in
phosphoric acid.

12. In the experimental station efforts have been
made to separate the oil into two qualities, viz., fine
yellow and ordinary brown. It was found that when the
mass is heated in the boiling pan most of the oil speedily
rises to the surface and can be skimmed off; this product
is of a fine light or bright yellow, with very slight smell.
After skimming, which produces about two-thirds of the
whole oil obtained, the mass runs into draining boxes
and thence is taken to the presses. Enquiries from
Europe, of which I have had about 40, show an enormous
demand for fish oil, and many of the enquiries, as well
as specimens sent to me, show a large demand for the
fine yellow oil of which the price is much higher than
the brown oil ; a single leather factory has specially
asked me to supply several thousand gallons of this fine
oil, observing that the leather produced by the use of a
sample was particularly good ; firms in Hamburg,
Australia, etc., also specially enquire after this oil. The
experiments will be renewed next season on a better
scale and with better method ; fo?' the present, the
simplest and most remunerative plan for the small
factories is to produce the ordinary brown oil without
troubling about the finer qualities ; the method is
cheap, very simple, and free from all technicalities, and
there is so Q^reat a demand for this crude brown oil that
it may be called unlimited and cannot be in any way
satisfied even by the whole potential produce of the
West Coast. Among other experiments tried at the
station was an attempt to devise a method for cottage
operations, acting on a hint derived from Mangalore

3S

where a few people boil the fish for the oil in earthen
chatties but throw azvay the soHd materials ; a small
battery of chatties was tried with considerable success,
but the chatties not infrequently break, resulting in some
loss. Next season experiments will be tried with small
metal chatties and a cheap lever press, so that persons
v«ith only Rs. lo or Rs. 20 may utilize surplus sardines to
advantage.

13. From work at the station, I am able now to give
accurate data — for the late season only — as to outturn
and cost, and to show the big profits obtained. The
register kept shows the weight and cost of each parcel of
fish or guts, the amount of labour spent in producing
therefrom the oil and guano, the weight and cost of fuel
used, and the outturn in oil and guano. What is true,
however, of one season is not necessarily so of another ;
the fish dift^er largely in fat contents in different seasons,
and while in 1909 the very fattest were obtained in
March, those of March 19 10 were almost useless as
oil producers. Roughly speaking, 15 per cent of the
weioht of the raw fish can be obtained as crude oil from
September to February inclusive, and 20 per cent as
dry guano. This is for whole fish ; if only " guts,"
which includes head, intestines, and a small part of the
tissues, are used, the oil is about or above 15 per cent
and the guano 18 or 19 percent.

The figures for whole fish work out somethino- as
follows : —

Expefises.

RS.

Ten tons green fish at Rs. 11 per ton ... ... no

Labour in boiling and pressing ... ... ... 8

Labour in drying guano, etc. ... ... ... 6

Fuel at 160 lb. wood por ton of fish ... ... 6

Depreciation at 5 per cent on Rs. 300 ... ... 15

Etceteras (interest, leakage, labour in filling and
transporting casks, bagging, wages of maistries,

etc.) ... ... 15

160

Receipts.

Oil at 15 per cent = i| tons at Rs. 160 per ton ... 240
Guano, two tons at Rs. 70 ... ... ... 140

Total ... 3S0

Deduct expenses ... 160

Net profit ... 220

.-3

-1

9

The cost of fish is often less than Rs. 1 1 per ton ;
depreciation at 5 per cent, is a high allowance on three
or four days' use of the simple plant. But if the ex-
penses for labour and fuel are 50 per cent higher than
as above, which, however, are abstracts in round figures
from my register, the rate of profit is surprising. If
the outturn in oil be taken as low as 12^ per cent or i^
tons, value Rs. 200, the profit is still remarkable. It
will be seen that in any case the oil, hitherto lost, far
more than pays all expenses, leaving the guano, at least,
as clear profit.

Fish are, of course, not always procurable as the
shoals are very mobile, and the little factories are there-
fore partly idle for many days in each month of the
season ; this — apart from the socio-economic question —
is the reason why small factories, worked by small folk,
are preferable to large central factories, the success of
which is highly problematical especially in a tropical
climate where fish cannot be brought from even moder-
ate distances to a central factory without putrefaction
setting in. Moreover, in these petty factories, the bulk
of the labour is only engaged as needed, so that the
running expenses on non-working days are inconsider-
able. As repeatedly stated from 1908 onwards, the
method advocated is that of hundreds of petty factories,
each costing a few hundred rupees, scattered along the
coast, producing oil and guano whenever possible, and —
until co-operative societies are formed, which is our
aim — selling their produce to middlemen who will lump
the several parcels, and sell to the consumer practically
uniform products under a guarantee of intrinsic value.
This postulates middlemen — firms employing agents and
dubashes, or well-to-do individuals, etc. — who will take
the trouble to perambulate the coast, stimulating the
small producer by advice and, if necessary, advances,
controllinof their methods and the character of their
produce, and concentrating such produce in their own
godowns.

14. In the experimental station the manufacture of
oil and guano was also combined with that of edible
food from the same individual sardines. The local
method of gutting is to push the sardine slantwise
against the edge of a knife held in the toes of the
operating woman seated on the ground (in our station

46

this is a clean cement floor), so that slightly over half
the fish, Including the head and all intestines from the
vent upwards, is removed at one stroke leaving solid
flesh as the other half; it is possible — as frequently
timed — to gut 40 fish per minute in this way. The guts
contain more fat than the tissues, layers of white fat
being readily visible. In 1,000 lb. of fish the guts
portion may weigh 520 lb., and the tissue portion 450,
the remainder being wastage (blood, fluid from guts,
etc.). The guts thus separated were boiled and pressed
in the usual way ; a good deal more oil, sometimes
reaching about 20 per cent of the gross weight of the
guts, was usually obtained, but the percentage of guano
was less since much of the p^uts is useless veo-etable
matter combined with mud. The oil w^as generally of
very fine quality, since it separates easily and rapidly in
the boiling pan and can be skimmed off as a pale yellow
product ; the guano is somewhat less rich in nitrogen
than whole-fish guano, but more so in phosphoric acid.

The tissue half of the fish was treated as usual, viz.,
by placing in salt at i to 8 or in saturated brine from
other fish.

Hence the balance sheet is something as follows, as
ascertained from my registers : — •

Expenses for oil and guano.

Ten tons at Rs. 11 per ton

Labour for gutting at Rs. \\ per ton

Do. for boiling and pressing 517 tons of guts

Do. for drying, etc.
Fuel at 160 lb. per ton for 5^ tons
Depreciation and repairs at 4 per cent on

Rs. 300 ...
Etceteras ...

RS.

1 10

15
5
4
4

12
10

160

Expenses for edible portion.

Salt for 4i tons fish at i to 8, say 16 maunds at

10 annas
Labour in salting, drying, etc., 4! tons wet fish ...

10
10

20

Total of all expenses

180

41

Receipts for oil and guano.

Oil at 1 6 per cent on 5^ tons, nearly f of a ton at ks.

Rs. 160, say ... ... ... ... ... 135

Guano at 18 per cent on 5^ tons, nearly i ton at,

say, Rs. 65 55

Total ... I go

Receipts for edible portion.
Two and a quarter tons dry sardine at Rs. 90, say 200

Grand total of receipts ... 390
Z'^i//^/ expenses ... 180

Net profit ... 210

Hence the profit is practically the same as when whole
sardines are boiled, with the advantage that nearly half
the weight of fish is retained as direct food. The profit
depends largely on the rate at which the edible portion
is sold as food, here entered as only Rs. 90 per ton ;
since most of the inedible parts are removed and about
two-thirds of the useless moisture, the somewhat oily
dried fish are nearly solid food, and this food, if sold at
8 pies per lb., would fetch Rs. 93 per ton ; much of the
station sardine has been sold at prices about Rs. 90.
Moreover, in one way our expenses for salt were
less than stated, since boiled or filtered brine from other
fish was used , per contra the salt was either washed or
was English salt ; the rate charged in the above table is
what it would cost an ordinary fish-curing yard curer.
It will be seen that all expenses are paid by the oil and
guano, so that the proceeds of the edible fish are solid
gain. Allowing that 10 tons of fish dry on the beach
into 4 tons of sand-free manure (I have seen quantities
which are mere shells), these dried fish, if costing when
fresh Rs. 100, would, at an average of Rs. 30 per ton,
fetch only Rs. 120 ; even 5 tons would fetch only Rs. 150.
The real profits are made out of the i^ tons of sand
which adhere to the 5 tons of fish, so that the gross
return is Rs. 195 or a profit of Rs. C55. Hence not only
is the profit far smaller, but the wastage of oil and
nitrogen and the addition of sand are almost criminal.
For further details my paper must be referred to.

4^

15. Towards the end of the year Government
sanctioned further experiments in a somewhat enlarged
and improved factory which, Hke the present one, will
serve as an example and place of research and instruc-
tion for those who seek to operate on a slightly larger
scale and by more rapid methods, especially for the
production of fine oil.

16. Assuming the total present annual catches of oil
sardine on the West Coast to be 100,000 tons, which is
probable enough from data in my possession, the
obtainable oil at only 10 per cent of the green weight
(allowing for food consumption and for months in which
oil is small and very small in quantity) would be
10,000 tons, value Rs. 16 lakhs, now practically thrown
away except that portion which is consumed as food in
the fresh fish; add, say, 15,000 tons of guano worth
10 lakhs, and it will be seen that a considerable business
is developing and one well worth the attention of
middlemen who will promote small factories and buy up
their produce. A single Ceylon merchant states that
he will take 5,000 tons of guano per annum, and the
market for oil is unlimited and clamorous for oil, for the
paint and colour trade, for jute batching, leather working,
soap making, steel tempering, and other industries.
The receipt of above 40 letters from the trade in Great
Britain and Europe in general, following on a small
paragraph in the Board of Trade Journal, shows the
readiness of the market for oil. It is to be remembered
that the catches can be largely increased if there is an
effective demand for the fish.

17. Fishing boats. — The fishing boat "Sutherland,"
built for work on the East Coast, was tried at Cannanore
during the season, but proved much too slow for the
light winds of the West Coast fishing season ; the
experience of this season confirms that of last, viz., that
the Ratna^iri boats are the best for the West Coast.
There were also difficulties as regards crew, over whom
supervision could not be maintained in the absence of a
reliable master who would skipper the boat ; this is
impossible on so small a boat. The boat is too big for
small work and not nearly big enough for large work.
She was accordingly sent to Tuticorin for other work.

18. The "Turbinella," motor fishing boat, nearly
twice the tonnage of the "Sutherland" and having a

43

15 horse-power Dan engine, was lent to the Pearl and
Chank Department at Tuticorin for use in the absence
of a survey and dredging boat. She occasionally fished,
however, and though her nets were very small and
insufficient, she attracted attention by catching seer in
fair quantities in her nets, a result never before seen at
Tuticorin, insomuch that the fishermen borrowed her
nets on a quarter-share basis, and attempted to use
them ; owing, however, to the feebleness of their boats
the result was disappointing.

19. The prices obtained by auction for the station
fish were higher than those of ordinary cures ; for fish
supplied to the jails and for the few outside parcels, I
found that after charging for salt, labour, etc., at con-
siderably higher rates than those obtaining in the local
trade, a charge of 50 per cent on the cost of fresh fish
gave, as a rule, a 20 per cent profit, e.g., I paid the
Ratnagiri boats on contract Rs. 10 per 100 for fresh fish
and charged Rs. 15 for the cured fish, this was con-
siderably higher than local rates which were about
Rs. 13-8-0. I found, in fact, that by fixing Rs. 15 as
my reserve price at auctions, I was unable to sell any
except prime parcels. Since 20 per cent is the profit
on a transaction in which capital was turned over in a
few days or so and not once in a year, it is a high
rate ; probably the local trade is content with 10 per
cent on the transaction which, with them, lasts but a
week; Rs. 13 to Rs, 13-8-0 cannot give much more
than a ten per cent profit. I note, from recent trade
journals, that the wholesale fish merchants in the United
States of America are content with or obtain profits
cut very fine ; " fish, for instance, are handled by the
big New York fishermen at a profit of one-quarter
cent (i-| pies or a half farthing) a pound," or 4 per cent
if the wholesale price is only 6 cents per pound.

Dried and gutted sardines were sold at about Rs. 85
to 90 per ton, or less than 8 pies per lb. of dry food.
As explained in paragraph 14 supra the whole of this
was clear gain in cases where the expenses were paid
by the oil and guano derived from the guts of the same
individual fish. But even putting aside oil and guano,
a rate of Rs. 93 (8 pies per lb. of dry gutted fish)
gives good profit, e.g., five tons of small sardine, when

44

oil is In small quantity, gut and dry into something* over-
one ton of marketable fish, or 270,000 at 54,000 per
ton. These five tons cost at most Rs. 55, gutting
(Rs. 7--8-0), salt (for 2^ tons, at i to 8, Rs. 6-8-0) and
labour for drying and storing (Rs. 5), cost Rs. 19, cost of
packing 21 or 22 cwt. in date-mat parcels of one hundred
weight each, is Rs. 6 ; total cost Rs. 80. This weight will
readily sell for Rs. 96, giving a profit of Rs. 16, or 20
per cent on Rs. 80. If a rate of nine pies (three-fourths
anna) per lb. is charged or Rs. 105 per ton, the profit is
very heavy, especially as the whole transaction, from
catch to sale, need occupy only a week or less. At this
moment (July) ordinary native- cured dried sardines are
selling at Cannanore at Rs. 125 per ton, so that curers
who can hold over a stock and keep it in good order,
earn large profits. To the price obtained for the fish
must be added the value of something over 2^ tons of
guts, available as manure ; these will dry into something
less than one ton, worth Rs. 25 per ton at only 2 per
cent nitrogen and 10 per cent, phosphoric acid. These
guts, with or without oil, have been generally neglected
hitherto in considering profits ; in the villages they are,
or till lately have been, mostly thrown away ; at certain
seasons they are used, to some extent, for tobacco,
cocoanut trees and cucumber crops, but as a rule they
are largely wasted, and always contain at least 30 per
cent of sand ; when sold they fetch, at most, one anna
per basket containing about an Indian maund. The
proper utilisation of offal has already been the subject
of experiment, but required much more attention both, as
an item of immediate profit to the curers, and a general
economic benefit.

20. Reading the above with the report of last year,
it is clear that there is good profit in the fish trade if
properly organized so as to sell really superior products
at a price very slightly above the price of the ordinary
cured fish to the immense potential market of people
willing to pay such slightly higher price for a good
article. Such fish cannot compete in piHce with the
native-cured fish in which, for instance, in mackerel
Rs. 3 per 1,000 when fresh, they are sold cured at Rs. 4
to Rs. 4-2-0 which includes the cost of all labour, salt,
and profit, while a superior article cannot be sold under
Rs. 4-8-0, though at Rs. 4-120 to Rs. 5 there is'a good

45

profit ; at Rs. 4-8-0 per 1,000 fresh fish, Rs. 0-8-0 for
dried fish should be a full, and Rs. 7 a high price. But
native-cured fish is apt to be tainted, is certainly produced
under less sanitary and cleanly conditions than station
fish, and. in any case, the salt used is the unwashed
Government salt containing a good deal of sand and
mud, so that the article is necessarily somewhat gritty.
In the supply to jails where the consumers live in
abnormal conditions, it is well to be certain that the fish
supplied is thoroughly wholesome and prepared under
the best conditions.

21. The experience of the year confirms the views
indicated in paragraphs 18 and 19 of my last year's
report, viz., the necessity for exploiting the potential
better-class market if the fishery industry and trade as a
whole are to be developed and faulty methods and goods
eliminated. The difterence between the cost of ordinary
karuvad (dried salt fish) and of similar fish cured in afar
better and more sanitary manner, is much less than one
pie per pound ; e.g., mackerel costing ordinarily Rupees
4-20 or Rs. 4-4-0 per 1,000 dried fish weighing 120 lb.
may cost Rs. 4-8-0 when cured by better methods, viz.,
one anna extra for clean and pure salt, two annas for
extra labour, one anna for interest, etc., on respectable,
sanitary plant ; this extra four annas means only the
difference between 6'8 and 7*2 pies (o"4 pies per lb.) ; 100
varian (small seer) weighing dry, say, 130 lb., cost, say,
Rs. 12 and Rs. 12-8-0, respectively, the extra cost
meaning a difference of three-quarters of a pie on about
As. 1-6 per lb. But this extra half or three-quarters pie
means a very great difterence in the class of goods, and
if the difterence is made up to one pie by attractive
packing, there can be no doubt but that such goods
would find an immense market in tens of thousands
of respectable households where ordinary karuvad is
taboo because of its bad appearance, " high " flavour,
and faulty food character. Since, by a wellknown rule,
the additional cost would be more than recouped by
the sellers, the extra profit, in addition to the greatly
increased market, would induce the curers to follow the
improved rather than the traditional methods ; without
such market, ready and anxious to pay a slightly higher
price for a much better article, the ancient methods,
sufficing the ancient markets, will continue. In other

46

words the development of the market must synchronize
with the development of method.

22. Nothing much was done this year in ascertain-
ing the conditions and tastes of the various markets,
except that, as above stated, three jails were supplied
with the specific purposes of ascertaining the character
of the supply required, and of popularizing, e.g., amongst
the warders and others, articles somewhat superior to
the ordinary beach of fish-curing yard article. This
small branch of the trade has now been actually created,
and it is open for others to take it up. Correspondence
was opened by a firm in Hongkong in view to purchase
for the Chinese market, and a large sample was sent ;
the result was not very satisfactory as the station produce
had not the stronof hig-h flavour of the articles demanded
by Chinese taste as witnessed by specimens received from
Hongkong. Parcels were also bought by a Rangoon
merchant, but without a proper business organization
it is not desirable to enter distant markets especially
when the Indian market is at our doors. Rangoon
prices, however, are good and are well worth the atten-
tion of the reo-ular trade.

In the matter of oil and guano a good deal has been
done not merely in fostering the new methods, but in
ascertaining markets. But while the output is so small,
it is difficult to get hold of really good markets at good
prices ; e.g., a large British firm will not look at a parcel
of oil of less than, perhaps, 250 tons (as per letters
actually received), and it is difficult for producers of 10,
20, or even 50 tons pcj' animm to get into touch with
such a demand. The shortsighted and jealous idea of
the few present manufacturers is to keep others from
entering the business, whereas it is only when a hundred
small factories are at work that the business will be
worth the attention of the large dealers ; without plenty
of produce there will be little or no competition by
buyers, and manufacturers will have to take low prices.
When the total coast produce is too tons, it is hardly
worth the consideration or time of respectable firms ;
when it gets to 1,000 tons there will be competition by
purchasers, and the manufacturers will get full market
prices. It is to be remembered that the world market,
and even that of India, is practically unlimited owing to
the vast demands of the numerous industries, so that

47

prices cannot be in the least affected by the addition of
one or two thousand tons per annttm, or even of five
thousand ; hence the entry of even a hundred small
manufacturers into the business cannot lower prices but
must improve them for the local manufacturer by bring-
ing in tne purchasing competition of larger markets and
buyers. Hence the department has worked to induce
(i) an extended manufacture, (2) the entry of reputable
firms as promoters of these small factories and as buyers ;
also to foster the idea of co-operation rather than of
jealousy amongst the manufacturers, so that they may be
able to combine their several outputs and place on the
market large parcels of uniform and steady quality worth
the attention of the big purchasing firms. The Agricul-
tural department has also approved highly of the new fish
guano and is likely to push its use, by example and
precept, among our ryots. It may here be usefully
mentioned that specimens were obtained of the fish oil
used by 11 jute mills in Calcutta; the oil appears very
similar to our ordinary brown oil, but while the latter
costs Rs. 6 per Indian maund or about Rs. 8 free of
stearine, the prices for the oil in use were Rs. 8-8-0
to Rs. 14 per maund ; hence there appears to be a huge
market in Calcutta for our oils. The demand of a
leather factory for fine oil has been mentioned in para-
graph 1 3.

Pisciculture.

23. Marine pisciculture. — A notable experiment was
begun during the year in oyster-culture based upon
Mr: Hornell's encfuiry in 1909 at Arcachon. In the
two previous years' reports the extraordinarily rapid
development of the oyster in the experimental bed at
Ennore was noticed. Hence a small culture farm, on the
Arcachon pattern, was laid down at Pulicat which, in
1908, was ascertained to have suitable localities. Several
thousand limed tiles were laid down in October and
November in a duly prepared area and a good spat fall
obtained ; the growth was as phenomenal as at Ennore,
the largest specimens having attained a size of 2 ^-^ by
2'^-^ inches in eight to ten weeks (!) with an approximate
mean of i^ by i^ inches. Mr. Hornell considered that
the oysters will be fully mature and marketable by June
1912 when he estimates that, if nothing unusually

48

untoward happens, 15,000 dozen, allowing for ordinary-
wastage, may be ready for consumption. Not only so,
but he is inclined to believe in two spat falls in the year ;
this seems to be correct since a fresh set of tiles laid
down this June have already (July) a quantity of young
oysters ; hence the oyster industry should become a
most profitable and successful one both for the fresh
oyster trade and, more especially, for the canning, dried
oyster, and oyster-extract business. Quantities of
brood mussels also settled on the tiles so that the
development of an industry in this edible may also be
expected.

Mr. Hornell also drew up during the year a report
on marine fish-farming in France and Italy, with sugges-
tions for Madras practice ; this report has since been
submitted to Government.

24. Inland pisciciiltuTe and conservancy. — The intro-
duction of New Zealand trout to Nilgiri waters was
successfully accomplished by Mr. Wilson in November
of the previous year, but the growth during the year
under report was so considerable and successful
that fishing is to begin in the current year 191 1.
Mr. Wilson reports extraordinary trout growth, e.g.,
a 15 months old trout (S. irideus) 15 inches long
and 8J inches round the broadest part ; it was also
sexually mature ; many others were of nearly similar
size. In November 19 10, moreover, Mr. W^ilson
introduced ova of wild brown trout (Salmo fario) at his
own charge from his hatchery in England, and these
were successfully hatched and planted out ; these trout
operations however will be reported on by the Collector
of the Niigiris. Low country operations were confined
{a) to pushing on the construction of the Sunkesula
(Kurnool canal) fish farm; ib) the stocking of the
Daroji and Barur tanks with carp, etc. ; (<:) the planning
of a scheme for stockino- the new reservoir or lake under
construction for the Salem town water-supply, and the
preparation of items of plant for the same ; the reservoir
is not yet ready ; id) the investigation of and drawing
up a complete scheme and plans for a fish farm to
supply the Kanigiri and other Nellore tanks, or rather
storage reservoirs, with good fish ; this was a matter of
much labour, but the project is now ready for submission
to Government. The project for hatching hilsa has, for

49

the present, been held in abeyance ; it presents great
practical difficulties, and it was deemed advisable to
concentrate eftbrt on the fish farms. Mr. Wilson also
inspected pisciculturally a variety of large tanks and
canals, and is assisting the Darjiling municipality by his
advice and plans in the matter of trout hatching and
culture.

The conservancy of the upper waters of the Moyar
and Bhavani was maintained ; this also is under the
Collector of the Nilgiris, but Mr. Wilson reports his
opinion that much has already resulted in the increase
of the head offish. Mr. Wilson also succeeded in 1910
in preventing the hot weather drive and dynamiting of
the fish in the Cauvery below Hogenkal — a practice
which was wasteful and destructive, as well as illegal so
far as the use of dynamite is concerned.

Pearl and Chank Fisheries.

25, These will, as usual, be reported on separately.
The current season was fairly good, and the shells
fished closely approximated to last year's catch ; the sale
of the shells has been effected at a rate somewhat lower
than last year, but much higher than in previous years.
The motor-boat "Pearl" again did excellent work in
towing canoes in periods of calm (thirty days) to and
from the several diving grounds, and 43,375 shells,
which should yield a net profit to Government of from
Rs. 2,500 to Rs. 3,000, were in consequence fished
which would otherwise not have been taken ; since the
total cost of the boat, when at work, for crew, fuel,
stores, etc., is less than Rs. 100 per month, her employ-
ment has yielded a large net profit to Government.
Experience shows, however, that the boat is not quite
powerful or large enough for her work and a fresh
arrangement is in contemplation. The motor fishing-
boat " Turbinella" was used in this service, and by her
aid Mr. Hornell examined 34 of the pearl banks, with
entirely negative results ; the boat is, hovA'ever, much
too small for continuous work and a vast area remains
to be inspected both of the ordinary banks and of
ground hitherto neglected but potentially oyster bearing.
New plans and estimates were worked out during the
year for the proposed auxiliary inspection schooner
intended to take the place of the old " Margarita" which

4

50

was sold last year, and to serve also for general work by
" Fisheries." These were sent to Government and
thence to the Indian Marine Department where the
matter at present rests ; the want of a good vessel is
much felt.

Mr. Hornell made a very important visit to Calcutta,
Dacca, etc., to enquire into the conditions and methods
of the chank trade and industry ; he has embodied the
results in a trade report on which action has been based,
while a second, dealing- with the shell-cutting industry,
has been prepared.

Co-operation.

26. During the lengthy tour of my Assistant,
Mr. Govindan, up and down the West Coast he paid
attention, inter alia, to the important question of
co-operation among the fishermen and curers. He
found the germs of such co-operation in an existing
society in Mangalore started in 1907 and working on
rules more or less of their own but apparently on true
co-operative lines, while in other places he found a
ready acquiescence in the idea on which he frequently
spoke and lectured ; at Tanur, where, as I mentioned in
my very first report (1906), the fishermen and curers are
a series of independent and isolated units, — but, for that
very reason, subject to heavy usury on their necessary
loans — there appears to be an excellent field for co-
operative work ; this will be specially attended to next
season as there will be a branch station at Tanur.

The Mangalore society resulted in 1907 from the
perusal by a District Press clerk of the rules, etc., for
co-operative societies published in the District Gazette ;
at present the society is not registered, and worked
solely on the monthly subscriptions, etc., of its 51 mem-
bers ; the loans, however, are granted by the committee —
not by auction as in the nidhis — and the committee
members are reported to satisfy themselves of the neces-
sity for each loan, e.g., by examining the fishing boat to
be repaired, etc., before granting it. So far the society
is working satisfactorily. Another interesting society is
an indigenous temperance society ; the besetting vice of
the fishing classes is drink, partly by reason of their
onerous and exposed calling, partly because they have
hitherto had no opportunities for thrift or for the

51

productive use of their money or credit, and therefore
readily got rid of any surplus cash. The temperance
society is one oi young men, and strange and sad to say,
the most bitter opponents of their resolution are said to
be the parents, including the mothers ; temperance is a
departure from hereditary custom and all departures
from custom are, in their eyes, bad.

Apart from general economic, social, and moral
considerations, there is peculiar need on the West Coast
for co-operation, since the development of the fishing
industry in general depends upon the syndication of men
and capital, while, as the season under report has shown,
in the new guano and oil industry it is of the greatest
importance to unite co-operatively a number of small
manufacturers w^ho will combine their small parcels of
produce and place them on the market in large parcels ;
this will be for the benefit of both manufacturer, middle-
men, and consumer.

I hope to see much propagandist work done during
the next few years, especially by the aid of my Assistant
Mr. V. Govindan, who, himself a West Coast man, adds
devotion to knowledge and experience, and enjoys the
confidence of the people.

General.

27. A notable visit of enquiry was that of an official
deputation from Eastern Bengal and Assam to study
our methods. The student from Travancore mentioned
last year again spent the season at the station and has
now returned to Travancore intending to take up the
business, especially that of oil and guano. An exhibit
of the experimental station products, viz., dried salt fish,
smoked fish, and oil and guano, was sent to the Allaha-
bad Exhibition and earned a gold medal. The bulletins
of the department were issued to about 150 of the
scientific societies and fishery institutions of the world,
and in exchange the department is receiving numerous
valuable publications. Mr. Hornell has also issued
biological specimens to various institutions and persons
such as the British Museum and Indian Museum, but
his ability to do so is very limited owing to the entire
want of a biological station or laboratory.

In repeating the second part of paragraph 24 of the
report for 1909-19 10 I may call special attention to the

4-A

52

nitial success of the new oil and guano industry, the
development of which in the immediate future, seems
assured ; here success seems to be due to several factors,
such as,, (i) the obvious profit, (2) the visible ease and
simplicity of the process, (3) the occasional existence of
a rudimentary process of oil extraction, especially in
South Malabar and as a cottage industry near Manga-
lore, (4) the assured market, which depends upon an
existing and effective external demand and not upon
internal questions of custom, taste, and organization of
retail trade as is the case with edible goods of a quality
or preparation novel to the country.

In this latter case it is just the organization that is
the difficult matter, and this is precisely where a Gov-
ernment department can help but little — however altru-
istically anxious — without running up against opposition
often more sentimental or Groundless than valid. As
regards oil and guano it is wholly the action of Govern-
ment that has initiated the new industry of which the
propaganda began in 1907 but more particularly in 1908
and it is gratifying to remember that the industry means,
at its lowest, the conservation and utilization of oil,
hitherto wasted or, rather, destroyed in beach drying the
oil-sardine for manure, and that this conservation means
an economic benefi.t in the early future amounting in
mere money to many lakhs of rupees, in addition to
many collateral benefits, such as the industrial and
commercial stimulation afforded by the trade, and the
readiness and ease with which the new light weight
guano, unadulterated with sand, can be transported to
and assimilated by the crops of the country.

S3

Letter — from Sir F. A. Nichol: c N, k.c.i.e., Honorary Director

of Fisheries.
Daied — the 25th June 191 2.

I have the honour to submit my annual report on the
operations of the Fishery office from ist April 191 1 to
31st March 191 2.

2. Experiniental stations. — These were at work in
Calicut and Tanur. As proposed in my letter No. Ref.
34, dated 27th January 191 1, I moved the work of
preparing" sardine oil and guano from Cannanore, where
fish were not very abundant and private work in the oil
and guano business is well started, to Tanur where fish
are ordinarily far more abundant ; this necessitated
moving other curing operations also as it was impossible
for me to supervise work at two distant points. Tanur,
near Calicut, has more fishing boats than any other
fishery centre in Malabar and lands a much greater
weight of fish ; 8 acres of sandy beach were secured by
the courtesy of the Revenue Department, and a good
fishery station is gradually being formed there ; several
hundred cocoanuts have been planted and are thriving,
and when fully planted, the income from the trees should
pay for the subordinate staff of the station.

3. Light citring was advanced ; fish can now be
brought into the yard between 7 and 8 a.m., cleaned,
brined or salted for 20 to 30 minutes (or even less),
sufficiently dried, packed, and despatched by noon on
rail and such fish will keep good for several days ; the
fish is but slightly saline and when soaked is practically
fresh ; parcels were repeatedly sent to Kodaikanal —
three or four days in transit — and arrived in good
condition. Such fish is, of course, not fresh fish, but is
a very fair substitute for it, and, being only slightly
salted, has the advantage's of having lost but little of its
nutritive value and of its digestibility. When such fish
are smoked for a few hours their keeping capacity is much
enhanced and, to Europeans at all events, the flavour
greatly improved ; these smoked fish are, by many
consumers, much preferred to anything of this class that
can be imported, since imported fish may become insipid
by canning or by the voyage.

4. Light salted fish were also fully dried ; it was found
that, using perfect cleanliness, fish need be kept in salt
for much less than one hour, and can then be dried, by

54

solar or artificial heat, without the slio-htest appearance
of taint ; this not only saves the time usually spent in
salting, but keeps the product far more nutritious and
digestible.

5. By a similar method curing of sardines for food
was greatly improved ; the whole, ungutted sardine, just
as it comes from the sea, is washed, thrown into satura-
ted brine — kept saturated by additions of salt — or mixed
with dry salt at the rate of i lb. salt to six or seven of
fish ; the fish are kept in salt or brine only for one to two
hours {according to size and fatness) and are then sun-
dried ; the product is thoroughly good, well-fiavoured,
and keeps for months ; it is the quickest, easiest, and most
productive of good food of any process yet adopted, and
enables these fish to be dealt with by tons per hour, and
turned rapidly into sound but cheap food instead of being
dried on the beach into very inferior manure. When
such fish are salted dry, that is by rousing with one to
six salt as above, it is found that three-fifths of the salt is
recovered, being undissolved, when the fish is washed
out of the salt ; this surplus salt is used for the next batch.
Hence the salt actually expended is only about one to
twelve or less, a low rate ; excess of salt is necessary for
each batch so that the action may be prompt and that
each fish be in thorough contact with the salt.

6. Successful experiments were made in artificial
drying by using a low combustion stove and a hand-
driven fan in order to secure drying when weather
conditions are unfavourable or to ensure rapidity or
control. They will be continued this year with better
plant as the method gives much promise especially for
cloudy and rainy weather.

7. Experiments in drying fish by means of a
vacuum plant have temporarily failed owing to a defect
which prevented my obtaining a sufficiently high
vacuum for evaporation at a low temperature, but the
method promises success with advantages which will be
detailed when success has been obtained ; present
enquiries at home will probably solve the difficulty.

8. For light cured fish, which are more readily
attacked by fiies than heavily salted fish, a fly proof
shed was put up ; such sheds are not costly, and as the
fish are hung in many tiers, the method is very econo-
mical of space — so often deficient in crowded yards —

55

while they are wholly protected from the dangers of fly-
infection.

9. Pickling. — Both mackerel and sardines have
been very successfully pickled, that is, packed wet in
air-tight barrels with plenty of salt, and kept moist ;
this pickled fish may either be sent out in the original
barrels, or removed from the barrels, drained but not
dried, and packed moist with a little extra salt in boxes
or kerosine tins. Instead of barrels, kerosine tins have
been successfully used. The advantages of fish cured
by this method as compared with dried fish are its
greater digestibility, its ready preservation for many
months if the containers are kept air-tight, the compara-
tive ease with which the salt may be removed, by soaking,
from wet fish, and a greater range of culinary possibi-
lities ; such fish can also at any time be de-salted and
cured by smoking. Moreover, there is much saving
in labour since the fish are packed away in their
containers as fast as they are cleaned and, if necessary,
split ; the two days' labour of spreading and drying in
the sun is obviated ; the fish, too, are removed from all
danger of taint as soon as they are in the barrels, and are
not liable to the attacks of insects, mildew, etc., which
trouble dried fish especially when stored in bulk, and
which necessitate constant re-drying and re-storing.
Sardines, moreover, may be at once packed whole,
without gutting, with a minimum, therefore, of delay.
Finally, wet curing is independent of weather, and can
as readily be conducted in cloudy and rainy weather as
in the dry season. All the above points have been
demonstrated by frequent experiments ; the disadvant-
ages, as compared with sun-dried fish, are the need for
somewhat expensive containers, expensive that is for
poor people even if only kerosine tins, the larger
quantity of salt required, and the weight of the packages
of wet fish and consequent cost of transport.

10. Canning. — This branch was opened at Calicut
during the season with plant obtained some time
previously. The small can-niaking plant was supple-
mented by several small items needed for practical work
and very good sardine tins of the usual " quarter " and
"half" sizes are now readily made ; also round tins of
any depth, but of one diameter only. Our tins usually
contain a somewhat greater — sometimes a considerably

^56

greater — weight of fish than those sold as quarters or
halves in the European trade.

The canning plant in use consists entirely of locally-
made articles except the processing (cooking or sterilis-
ing) kettles which are small autoclaves obtained from
Europe, that is strong vessels in which the cans are
heated by pressure steam — usually about 12-lb. steam —
generated within the vessels themselves by powerful
lamps or fire applied externally ; this gives a tempera-
ture of over 240" F. sufficient to sterilise all fish produce.

11. Mackerel, sardines and prawns have chiefly been
canned, and with encouraging success for a first season ;
in some experiments the success has been marked and
even complete but in others only partial ; the goods
have continuously been examined, tested and tasted.
Insuccess has chiefly been due to {a) the inferior oils
obtainable in India ; inferior, that is, for canning
purposes ; {b) to inexperience in condimental additions ;
\c) to inappropriate methods or periods of salting, drying,
or cooking ; {d) to the inexperience of the soldering
staff in hermetically and rapidly sealing tins full of oil,
brine, etc. Many of the difficulties will probably be sur-
mounted by the enquiries now being made in Great
Britain, etc. ; all will gradually yield to experience.
But general success has already been sufficient to warrant
the expectation of teaching students and the publication
of methods and recipes, by the end of next season, even
though the products do not attain the excellence begotten
of many years' experience. In a former report allusion
was made to the fact that even in the United States several
years of experiment by the experts of that inventive and
highly-educated country were admittedly needed before
the canning of their "sardines" was successful; the
present advertisement of a well-known British brand
states that ten years were given to the perfecting of that
sino-le brand, hence success in o-eneral canningr cannot at
once be obtained in India with many new conditions to
face. The last season's experience has both trained the
staff and indicated our probable methods and recipes,
our mistakes and difficulties ; it only remains to win
through.

12. It has, so far, been found impossible to procure
a trained canning expert, none is available at Mahe and
M. Josselin, the French canning expert of that place,

57

died last October ; enquiries at Goa were equally
unsuccessful. But the services of men who have worked
in the Mahe Factory and are acquainted with the
mechanical part of the business, were secured, and my
personal knowledge and attention have been mainly
devoted to this part of our season's experimental work.
After all, little but experience and close attention to
details are needed, provided one is thoroughly acquainted
with the principles, necessities, and general methods of
canning, nor would any expert, even from Europe, that
we could possibly afford, be likely to succeed without
much experiment in details, owing to the difference in
material and conditions ; indeed, a highly-educated
European expert, versed equally in the principles of
canning and its technique, and able from those reasons,
to adapt his methods to new materials and conditions,
would hardly be attainable at any pay, while a mere
foreman would, by himself, be of little value under
circumstances wholly opposed to his rule-of-thumb
knowledge. In every country, even in Japan, men have
had in such matters to win through by intelligent,
continuous experiment, and we can do and are doing the
same at Calicut.

13. Fish pastes. — Another item of work at the cannery
has been the preparation and canning of pure, unadultera-
ted fish pastes, chiefly mackerel and prawn. Here there
has been marked success, and the future experiments
relate mainly to market questions such as the provision
of good materials at moderate rates, the flavourings
most suited to Indian tastes, the obtaining of suitable tins
and other containers (e.g., earthenware) properly
decorated, etc. The method enables a manufacturer to
place most wholesome, nutritious, and palatable food on
the markets in a concentrated form ; though seemingly
expensive the goods are really cheap since every particle
is pure, nutritious food, of which a two-ounce tin contains
as much as a fish of considerable size ; transport charges
are reduced to a minimum, and the product, when
canned will keep good for years. Eftbrt has chiefly been
directed to the production of plain but palatable paste,
i.e., concentrated fish, intended for general consumption
at low prices, and not to " Delikatessen " for luxurious
tables, though these have not been neglected. By the
end of next season the station will be prepared to train
students and publish its recipes.

58

14- Sardine oil and giLano. — These products formed
the main feature in last year's report ; this year there is
httle to record from the Tanur Experimental Station
owing mainly to the absence of shoals, but partly to
delay in the arrival and setting up of new, and in the
transfer of old, plant. A powerful English press capable
of taking charges of half a ton has been set up, and also
a steam-driven centrifugal ; the latter was used but once
and proved very successful in separating fluids from the
solid. Steam has also been applied to boiling the mass
in the boiling vats, so as to obtain a prime, light-
coloured oil, and to reduce the boiling period ; the
preliminary experiments promise complete success. A
small steam oil-boiling pan for sterilising the oil
and driving off any suspended water has also been
set up. The whole of the above can be run by a
single boiler of 4 N.H.P., but two are available, since
the boiler eventually intended for the cannery is on hand.
A small oil filter press, and a steam oil refining pan,
workino- with an air blast, are also on hand for future
experiments, while a large filter press was obtained
second hand from the Medical Stores Department,
Madras. Next season will be devoted to experiments,
with the above plant.

Mr. Govindan continued his lectures and practical
demonstrations — with a small portable plant — on the coast
and has frequently had to tour in order to advise
persons who had set up or intended to set up the small
plant which we advocate. We have also reported on
several occasions to the Collectors of the two West
Coast districts, on applications made to them for land
for factories.

15. Meanwhile the industry has got on in unusual
fashion. In 1909 there were but two little factories, viz.,
that of the experimental station, Cannanore, and that of
Mr. Ooni Choyi also of Cannanore, our first convert to
the new method. In the season 1910-11, nine small
factories were running and many more were being
prepared or projected ; the season 1911-12 opened with
no less than forty-five small factories in Malabar and
South Kanara, and European firms are taking interest
in the business and in the products. Moreover, other
factories are probable in Cochin and Travancore. The
business has come to stay, and should be highly profit-
able to producers and of great economic advantage.

59

These small factories at present wisely limit them-
selves to — and indeed the plant in use is only calculated
for — the production of crude brown oil ; in fact, the
nearest large market, viz., the jute industry in Calcutta,
prefers this class of oil and does not desire the removal
of the stearine. Hence owing- to the development of
the local industry, the experimental station has nothing
further to do in the matter of the crude brown oil. But
there is an immense and better-priced market for finer
oils, especially if refined and deodorized, and the station
has consequently adapted its plant, as mentioned above,
to secure only light-coloured oil, to separate the oil and
stearine by means of a filter press, and to refine the oil ;
a special laboratory plant for experiments in deodorizing
has also been personally obtained, while enquiries now
being made in England are expected to give material
help. Some of the best oil has been supplied gratis to
local medical men, who have used it internally in various
cases and who consider it probably a useful substitute for
other oils, but this is a matter on which the station can
give no opinion, save that the oil is far less unpalatable
than some country oils. The better class oil is in
demand for leather factories, e.g., in Cawnpore, and for
paint and colour works : medicinally there may be a
field for its use, and, if thorougn deodorizatiori is
possible, it will be edibly useful.

1 6. Pisciciilttire — Fresh water. — This is the special
province of our piscicultural expert, Mr. H.C.Wilson.
His skilful work on the Nilgiris has resulted in the
complete establishment of trout (chiefly S. Irideus but
partly S. fario) in the higher waters ; the fisheries were
opened to anglers about the end of August 191 1 and
many fish, the largest weighing 5^ lb., were taken. The
head of fish now in the ^waters is large and valuable,
while the license fees were considerable although the
fishing was opened near the end of the season.

17. The conservation of the upper waters of the
Moyar and Bhavani was continued and Mr. Wilson
reports very perceptible improvement in the stock of fish
since illegal practices (use of fixed engines, dynamiting,
etc.) were checked. These illegalities were largely the
work of gangs of men who come up for the purpose,
not of the local tribes. This work and that of stocking
the Nilgiri waters with trout are under the Collector of

6o

the Nilgiris, who reports thereon, but are mentioned
here since they were carried out by Mr. Wilson of this
department.

1 8. On the plains valuable and hitherto unique work
was done by Mr. Wilson ; the Sunkesula (Kurnool) fish-
farm was brought to practical completion as the breed-
ing- arrangements, stock and fry ponds were in regular
use ; it now contains a fine stock of thousands of fish,
carp of all species being chiefly represented, and murrel
(ophiocephalids) which grow well and are greatly in
demand. It will now be possible to begin stocking the
canal and other waters which was the primary object of
the farm. But the stock is so large and grows so rapidly
that it is necessary to thin out the big fish, and since the
neighbouring town of Kurnool itself provides a large and
exigent market, to say nothing of the district, Mr. Wilson
has, in communication with the municipal authorities,
drawn up plans for marketing his surplus fish. This is
a very important development of the work ; no such idea
as that of breeding and nurturing fish for the urban
market had been dreamed of, and Mr. Wilson's work now
shows that there is an open and easily-worked field for a
new industry. Since a single large murrel, easily bred,
very nutritious, and with proper attention to desirable
flavour, can be sold for a rupee, there is obviously an
opening for the commercial breeding of fish wherever
there is water and market ; and since murrel of all
fish are most easily transported, and live a long time
out of water, they are specially excellent for market
purposes.

19. The farm gives complete opportunities for study-
ing the bionomics of our Madras fresh-water fish, so
that the fish yielding the best class of food, the most
rapid growers, etc., can be selected for propagation and
distribution. The methods of hatching, rearing, and
transport suitable to tropical conditions and the nature
of the various species of fish are being devised, and
piscicultural science on both its pure and practical sides
is being studied. One interesting study was that of the
murrel (Ophioceph. punctatus) the eggs of which are now
known to be floating and not demersal as hitherto stated;
these .fish nest and protect their young in broods till of
the fingerling size ; hence it is easy to capture them for
farm purposes.

6i

20. One result of the study of the murrel is the
scheme which, during" the year, Mr. Wilson developed
for a second fish farm in the Colair lake, in which the
breeding- of murrel will be an important item. The
second fish farm is equally designed to breed hilsa in
view {a) to increasing the numbers of this excellent fish
in the Kistna and Godavari rivers both of which will be
served by a floating establishment in the Colair lake, (d)
to provide ova for stocking the West Coast rivers which
appear admirably adapted for this anadromous fish, being
uninterrupted by anicuts, full of fish food, and having
excellent breeding grounds. In this connection may be
mentioned the fact that two years ago a trial consignment
of hilsa ova was placed by Mr. Wilson in the Ponnani
river, and that in November last a two year old hilsa was
caught in the estuary of that river, the first hilsa known
to have been caught on the Malabar coast ; this Q-ives
support to the belief that the rivers on that coast are
suitable for the development of this fine and commercially
valuable fish.

The Colair hilsa breeding scheme replaces that
originally proposed on the Coleroon which Mr. Wilson
has found a quite unsuitable locality for the artificial
propagation of hilsa, partly by reason of the ignorant
hostility of the fishermen, partly because of the unsuit-
ableness of the locality for unhampered experiment,
partly because of the impracticability of obtaining a
nursery area or growing ground. The Colair lake seems
to provide all necessary advantages.

21. Other important piscicultural work carried out by
Mr. Wilson was the stocking of several large tanks, the
preparation of plant for the Salem Waterworks Reservoir,
etc. On the visit of Mr. Howell of the Punjab to
Sunkesula and by subsequent correspondence Mr.
Wilson was able to place at Mr. Howell's disposal such
of the information, methods, plant, etc., which had been
accumulated or developed in Mr. Wilson's four years'
work in Madras, as appeared likely to be of service in
the Punjab. Mr. Wilson made numerous tours and part
of his time was occupied in selecting a new site for the
proposed Kanigiri (Nellore) fish farm, a very promising
project, the originally proposed site for which had to be
disallowed by the Public Works Department for depart-
mental reasons ; a new site is now under report.

62

2 2. Marine pisciculture. — This is necessarily of
newer date than inland work, and is entirely due
to and was carried out by Mr. James Hornell, as
Marine Assistant. The experiment in oyster culture at
Pulicat, mentioned in last year's report and based on
small experiments at Ennore and Mr. Hornell's visit to
Arcachon, was successfully continued ; Mr. Hornell
has been able greatly to simplify and economise on the
methods, etc., used at first starting-, and notwithstanding
vicissitudes, due mainly to the excessively low water of
the lake by reason of drought, he expects this midsummer,
a fine batch of mature cultivated oysters, that is within
2 1 months from spat-fall to maturity; thenceforward
increasing quantities will be periodically available. The
experience gained already has been found useful in
connection with the scheme for oyster conservation and
replenishment at Karachi about which Mr. Hornell was
originally, and continues from time to time to be, consult-
ed ; it will of course immensely help ourselves in future
experiments and in educational work. The further
difficulties are those of marketing the produce either raw
or otherwise.

23. Fish-farming was also taken up : Mr. Hornell
made several tours of general enquiry and found many
places on both coasts suitable for fish-farming, especially
in Ganjam where, in fact, a respectable person was
induced to take up on a very promising site and on lines
indicated by Mr. Hornell, a small experiment. A capital
site for the departmental fish farm was, however, selected
at Tuticorin close to the chank o-odowns since this
is Mr. Hornell's head-quarters as Superintendent of Pearl
and Chank Fisheries, and we have there a staff capable
of working on Mr. Hornell's instructions ; the detailed
scheme was drawn up during the year and has been
sanctioned by Government. In this farm fish, oysters,
pearl oysters, chanks, etc., will be grown and their biono-
mics and suitability for growth in captivity, carefully
studied, to the probable great advantage of commercial
piscicultural work ; the proximity of the Tuticorin market
will also demonstrate the business value of lagoon fish-
farming. Certain very important and probably lucrative
researches will also now be possible as regards the breed-
ing of chanks and the development of pearls in the pearl
oyster.

63

24- Pearl and Chank Fisheries. — These will, as usual,
be separately reported on in detail ; only an abstract
follows. Mr. Hornell continued as Superintendent of
these fisheries with J. A. Fernandez as his Sub- Assistant.

Nothing was possible in the matter of pearl fisheries
except such inspections, chiefiy by means of dredging, as
were possible with the " Turbinella " ; no pearl oysters
are yet visible, but Mr. Hornell believes that the condi
tions are favourable for a spat-fall, and he obtained the
sanction of Government for a small and new experiment
in protecting a batch of oysters should they appear, in
view not only to provide a breeding reserve but to test
the possibility of doing this on a large scale.

Mr. Hornell also carried out investigations upon the
anatomy and identity of certain fish-parasites, a subject
intimately connected with the problem of pearl produc-
tion ; an account of three new species which were found
and of a new genus which had to be created for one of
these, has been published under the title of New
Cestodes from Indian Fishes in the " Records of the
Indian Museum" for 1912.

25. The chank fisheries of the previous season were
sold during the year on a novel method, viz., a three-year
contract. For one reason or other the regular contractors
declined to make any bids for the shells though of very
good quality and ready-sorted by the department into
the nine grades recognised by the trade, so that buyers
know exactly what was on offer. Eventually the
Superintendent negotiated a three-year lease on favour-
able terms with a new contractor from Dacca who faith-
fully redeemed his contract and will accordingly take all
the shells for the current and next year's fishery ; this
relieves us of much annual worry and is good business
for the contractor.

The current season's catches have been unusually
deficient, chiefiy owing to a long period of disturbed
weather which discouraged or debarred men already
only too ready to seek other less difficult work, as for
instance, in Tuticorin harbour or on the Pamban railway.
In view of the probable decrease of divers, whose sons
do not seem likely to follow their ancestral business, the
Superintendent proposed and Government sanctioned
the hiring of a couple of crews of Arabs from the Persian
Gulf, but it was not possible to get them for the current

64

season. Mr. Hornell also considers that mechanical
dredging" will shortly have to be relied on to keep up our
takes, for which purpose the new schooner will be
invaluable. The neglected fishery of South Arcot is now
proving profitable and the lease has been sold for three
years at a rate more than double that of the first year ;
the new fishery at Idinthakarai in the south of the Tinne-
velly district opened only last year, also doubled its
small output, and gives promise of development.

26. The Superintendent as a result of the visit to
Dacca, etc., has already submitted a practical report on
the chank business ; during the year he collected much
information for a further report on the chank industry in
its technical, economic and ethnological aspects. It is
most interesting to hear that in visiting the sites of the
ancient cities of Korkai and Kayal in Tinnevelly district,
he found in the old rubbish heaps which mark their long
deserted sites, many specimens of chank iiwrkshop waste
(not broken bangles but actual w^orkshop waste), showing
that the chank cutting industry is indigenous to Tinnevelly
and was largely practised there in long past centuries.
Hence the proposed introduction of the industry will be
a revival and not the intrusion of an exotic novelty.
Enquiries are being made in England for small experi-
mental plant suitable for chank cutting.

27. It was mentioned last year that the " Pearl
whale boat was rather small for her work ; with Govern-
ment sanction we have now taken the " Dan " engine
from the 25-ton " Turbinella " for which it was hardly
powerful enough, and transferred it to the fully decked
14-ton " Sutherland " which is now a useful boat with
a 15-horse j)ower engine and tows the whole fieet of
eight laden canoes at fair speed ; she thus enabled fishing
on days when the canoes could not otherwise have
reached the fishing grounds, and thus accounted for
catches of about 35,000 shells, value to Government
about Rs. 2,240, which would otherwise have remained
unfished. The " Pearl " is now attached to the Experi-
mental Stations in Malabar.

28. Miscellaneous. — At the instance of Government,
the Fisheries department submitted to Government a
scheme and plan, drawn up by Mr. Hornell as an Aquarium
expert, for the erection at Madras of a suitable Ma?-ine
Aquarium (to replace the present very small but very

65

popular one), and Marine Biological Institution ; a special
committee was appointed to consider the question and
reported to Government strongly in favour of the scheme
including not only an aquarium worthy of the country
and of its position as the only one between Naples and
the Philippines, but a place of biological research and
instruction, a source of supply of biological specimens
for use in educational institutions and for study by savants
all over the world, and a su'table home for the Fisheries
department which would, in turn, greatly strengthen its
position and enhance its usefulness. Mr. Hornell also
suggested the foundation of a research fellowship in
fishery investio^ations tenable bv Graduates of the Madras
Universitv in connection with the economic work of the
proposed institution, a suggestion which was warmly
supported by the Committee.

Biological tc search and supplies. — Mr. Hornell has
attempted work in this direction so far as the pressure
of other duties and want of provision for such work per-
mitted ; he has been able, though, not departmentally.
to supply specimens to research workers at Oxford, the
British Museum, and Calcutta, but could do little for the
reasons given.

Exchange of publications has been carried out with
about 1 20 other institutions all over the world, and a
considerable body of books and papers is being received.

Deep sea fishing was not carried out ; the " Suther-
land " was transferred to the Pearl and Chank Fisheries
department, and the " Turbinella " whose engine was
placed in the " Sutherland," was also on pearl inspection
duty in the absence of a regular inspection vessel. More-
over it has been found, in practice, impossible to obtain
a crew which, on their own initiative and without expert
supervision, will work and modify their work as occasion
requires, in unknown and hitherto untried conditions^ in
purely experimental methods, and with nets, etc., neces-
sarily somewhat different to their own ; this is markedly
the case in Ireland and even in Japan, and is a practical
stumbling block in Madras. Hence it was proposed,
and Government sanctioned the proposal, to obtain a
practical instructor from the East of Scotland who would
experiment, mainly in drift net and line fishing, in the
exploitation of our coastal fisheries in areas hitherto
untouched y^t probably well within the 100 fathom limit.

5

66

Letter — from Sir F. A. Nicholson, k.c.i e., Honorary Direc-
tor of Fisheries.
Dated— \li\\ July 1913-

1. I have the honour to submit my annual report for

1912-13.

2. The principal operations in hand were —

(i) the West Coast experimental station for ex-
perimental curing, canning, and the production of fish
oil and guano ;

(2) the oyster farm at Pulicat ;

(3) the Suhkesula fresh-water farm ;

(4) the stocking of certain tanks ;

('5) the preparation of important piscicultural pro-
jects including the Tuticorin marine fish-farm, the
Nellore carp and murrel farm, the Colair lake hilsa
hatchery and murrel farm, the acclimatisation of tench
on the plains, etc. ;

(6) the usual pearl and chank fishery ;

(7) experiments by Mr. Wilson on a large scale at
Sunkesula in the destruction of mosquito larvae by
certain fishes ; followed by a practical paper and demon-
strations ;

(8) the conservation of the upper waters of the
Bhavani and Moyar on the lower slopes of the Nilgiris ;

(9') the conservation and development of the trout
in the upper Nilgiris ;

(10) miscellaneous, which includes minor enquiries,
operations, correspondence, etc., too numerous to detail,
including, however, the investigations made in Europe
by myself and Personal Assistant.

3. Expeidmental Station i7t Malabar. — This is located
at Tanur and Calicut ; the former is an area of 8 acres of
recent sandy accretion from the sea, and all ordinary
curing, oil and guano work is carried on there ; the latter
is the newly established cannery which however is only
temporarily placed in a rented work-shed belonging to
the ice factory. Tanur has been wire-fenced and planted
with 500 cocoanuts, all flourishing ; these should in a
few years pay the working expenses of the yard, apart
from profits due to operations. The yard contains two
large store sheds, a good iron shed for oil and guano
operations, two curing sheds, besides dryers, smoking
boxes, a fly-] roof shed for hanging lightly cured fish,
various other curing plant, and manure pits for oftal.

^1

4- Oil and g^iano. — The oil and guano plant includes
two steam boilers with two steam boiling pans of masonry
and several of wood — all heated by open steam — besides
two copper pans for open fire, presses of various sorts
including a centrifugal, two filter presses, and a variety
of other plant, the object being to produce first-class
yellow oil which, according to invoices and tenders,
fetches at least 25 per cent better prices than the com-
mon brown oil ; a small contract has been made to
supply 1,000 gallons of such oil to the Government
leather factory at Cawnpore. The steam vats are
invaluable for this purpose since the action is rapid
and the oil cannot be scorched ; a ton of fish and water
can be thoroughly boiled, with a minimum of stirring, in
45 minutes from cold with steam averaging 40 lb.
Continued experiment since 1908 has led to the precise
method and results laid down in the most recent text-
book (" Chemistry of the Oil Industries," Southcombe,
1913), viz., the "rapid boiling of the fish with live steam
in false-bottom tanks, " using fish absolutely fresh from
the sea, " separating the bulk of the oil as quickly as
possible " by skimming from the surface of the hot mass
in the boiling vats, which gives " an oil fairly pale in
colour and which needs but little refining," and pressing
the residue "when a dark oil is obtained." The whole
process is now entirely differentiated from the old in-
digenous and highly insanitary process of obtaining oil by
the putrefaction of masses of fish in old canoes, etc.,
when the oil, freed from the tissues by putrefactive
rupture of the cells, was " charged with putrefactive
impurities which are impossible to remove on a com-
mercial basis" (Southcombe). The oil made under the
new process cannot be- putrid, nor is it even putrescible
if re-boiled and filtered at once ; the fault found on
inspecting village factories is not that the oil is putrid
but that it is often scorched and therefore unnecessarily
dark, and strong with the smell of burnt oil.

5. Owing to extraordinary local conditions very little
oil was made at Tanur ; sardines were enormously
abundant but on this part of the coast were young, small,
and almost destitute of fat ; oil sardines suitable for oil
making run about 30,000 to 40,000 to the ton, whereas
the generality of sardines in 1912-13 ran at 90,000 to the
ton. These gave good guano, but no oil worth mentioning.

5 -A.

68

Five ions of the guano were sold to the Agricultural
College, Coimbatore, on a very good analysis which gave
a valuation of Rs. 90 per ton ; the rest was sold to a local
firm.

6. Not less than 45 village oil and guano factories
were al work on the coast using the new method of
boiling the fish ; the number indicates part of the advance
made since the first factory was started and profits
demonstrated by " Fisheries " in 1908 at Cannanore. In
a discussion on the ability of Indians to assimilate new
industries of demonstrated method and profit, a British
merchant instanced the rapid growth of this fish-oil and
guano industry as an argument in favour of such ability,
remarking that in three years it had become a matter to
be reckoned with. The rush for the industry — for which
there were many additional applicants during the year —
has led to insufficient care in sanitary matters, and on a
reference bv the Collector of South Canara I examined
a number of small factories of which nine are in one
seaside village. Suggestions have been made for the
(roper conduct of operations, especially in the matter of
leading the efiluent waste water direct to the sea
below high-water mark ; this is essential as the water
is charged with putrescible and fermentible matter, and
becomes very unpleasant if allowed to run into the sand.
All factories will now be carefully inspected on several
occasions during each coming season, and simple but
obvious sanitary needs will be insisted on.

7. The following table shows the West Coast export
by sea offish-guano for the past three years ; that sent
by rail or road cannot be ascertained as the accounts do
not separate this class of manure from other classes ;
hence the destination of a orood deal of gruano is not
recorded : —

1910-11.

1911

-12.

I912-I3.

Quantity.

\'alue.

Quantity.

Value.

I
Quantity. Value.

Fish-guano ..

IONS. RS.

188 13,648

TONS.
267

RS.
17,866

TONS.

1,872

RS.
1. 54.916

The whole of the export was to Ceylon, but it is believed
that part was re-shipped to Japan and elsewhere. The

69

exports of fish-oil are not included, since there is a large
export of country-made fish-oil which is not yet distin-
guished in the accounts. By the courtesy of the Customs
Department export accounts will in future distinguish
"fish-oil, boiled," and "fish-guano" as items separate
from " fish-oil" (which includes a lot of oil prepared by
the old methods in various parts of the coast including
Travancore and Cochin) and " fish-manure," by which is
understood the sardine manure dried on the beach.

The absence of oil in the masses of sardines, especi-
ally on the South Malabar Coast, led to very heavy
operations in drying sardines in the usual fashion on the
beach. The wastefulness of this method in valuable
constituents owing to the putrefactive loss of nitrogen,
etc., has often been mentioned, but may be gauged by
the following printed prices quoted by a large firm dealing
with estates, viz. : —

Rs. per ton
bagged f.o.r.

(i) Fish-guano, guaranteed, 8—9 percent N, and [oo

7 — 8 per cent phosphoric acid,

(2) Milled fish, 5 — 6 per cent N, and 4 — 5 percent 55

phosphoric acid.

(3) Vish-vnaxwxxt (jio giiaranfec) ... ... ... 40

No. (3) is the ordinary manure obtained by drying
fish on the sand and necessarily contains much adhering
sand which partly accounts for its low price. Since five
tons of fresh fish boil and dry into 1 ton of guano or dry
to about i^^ tons of beach-dried fish, the gain both in
money and in nitrogen is obvious, while the whole of the
oil, much or little, is an additional asset.

8. The absence of the oil in the fish and the poor
prices given for beach-dried fish led me on returning to
Tanur to consider methods of drying lean fish without
boiling them. Two methods were adopted, viz. [a) that
of light and brief salting followed by sun-drying, and [d)
that of artificial drying. In both cases the object is to
avoid the loss caused by several days' drying, without
salt on the beach, where putrefaction, loss by soakage,
birds, insects, etc., cause great loss of nitrogen and of
actual material, besides being a nuisance to the public ;
further and great loss is often caused by rain on the
drying material. When the fish are even lightly salted
and then dried not only is putrefaction entirely prevented
but the tissues are hardened so that there is less breakasfe

70

of the fish and loss of debris ; nor are the fish attacked
by insects. Hence salted fish yield larger quantities of
better manure than unsalted fish, and they are not injured
by rain since they can be stored without putrefaction
till the rain ceases. It is found that one hour in salt is a
sufficient protection ; the salt actually used up (by absorp-
tion and wastage) is about one-twentieth of the weight of
the fresh fish or one and one-third maunds per ton and
consequently costs at fish curing yard prices (As, lo per
maund) about Rs. 4-8-0 per five tons of fresh fish or Rs. 3
per ton of dry fish, since five tons of fresh fish thus treated
become about i^ tons dry fish. This fish has been
analysed and showed 678 per cent of nitrogen, so that
it is worth retail at least Rs. 65 as against Rs. 40 per ton
of ordinary beach-dried fish. Hence there is not only
large pecuniary gain but an economic gain to society in
the saving of the nitrogen, etc., which would otherwise
have been lost by putrefaction and other causes.

The cost of artificial drying is much the same, and it
found that the fish when dried by strong heat, say 300"
F., break up and become like guano ; this part of the
experiment will be continued this year in a proper drier
now being built for this purpose and for drying the press
cakes rapidly and without loss,

9, Curing. — The method of lightly salting sardines
just as they come from the beach, without gutt'ng, has
been practised for several years in the station ; the fish
were usually left moist though not in pickle, as fat
sardines do not dry well. But the lean sardines of this
year, lightly salted and dried for manurial purpose (para-
graph 12 supra), were perfectly good for edible purposes
as had been shown in previous years, e,g,, paragraph 9
of the report for 1911-12. Hence we now place our
lean, ungutted sardines in salt for one hour, using up less
than one-sixteenth of their weight of salt, and then dry
them on barbecues, etc., into sound edible fish — experto
credite — with absolutely no trace of taint, while the fish,
shown by analysis to contain about 9 per cent of salt,
remain good indefinitely. I have bought these fish fresh
on the beach at less than Rs. 4 per ton at which price
the 10 tons of dried fish resulting from five tons of fresh
fish cost less than Rs. 30 for fish, salt, and labour ; at
Rs. 10 per ton the cost would be Rs 60; ordinarily,
therefore, one ton of this excellent food may cost from
Rs. 20 to Rs. 40 according to the first cost of the fish.

10. After studying the cure of pilchards in Cornwall
(September 1912), instructions were sent out on which
Mr. Hornell conducted at Tanur a most useful experi-
ment in true pilchardizing as practised in Cornwall,
VIZ., in placing the ungutted fat fish (pilchards) in heavy
salt for a week or two, removing them to barrels with
loose staved bottoms, and subjecting them to pressure ;
the result after two or three days' moderate but increas-
ing pressure, is a firm, solid mass of moist pickled fish,
and a considerable quantity of good and pure oil almost
entirely free from stearine since the fish are pressed
at normal temperature when the stearine remains solid
and cannot be pressed out of the tissues. This was
repeated at Tanur with fat sardines weighing about
36,000 to the ton or 16 to the pound, and resulted in
about 6 per cent of perfectly clear good oil, with but
slight fishy smell, and free from stearine ; the fish,
however, were then dried, and when inspected several
months later were firm and good, and free from broken
bellies owing to the stiffening given by the salt. As fat
fish entirely deserted Tanur the experiment could not
be repeated, but will be closely examined this year,
since it results in good human food, moist or dry, and
yet extracts, without the use of fuel, the best part of
the stearine-free oil ; the fat remaining in the fish
improves it as food.

11. Canning. — The main efforts of the year were
in developing the canning industry of Calicut. Experi-
ments were begun in January 19 12 (see paragraphs 14
to 16 of the report for 1911-12) and continued till my
leaving for England in April ; Mr. Hornell then ably
carrlecl on the work till my return in January. The
plant in use was smaU experimental plant for making-
soldered rectano^ular cans sized as for sardines and for
herrings, and round 4^" cans of any depth. The sets
of experiments, often with several variants to the set,
reached 374 in number, and mainly concerned sardines
in oil, plain sardines without oil, mackerel plain and
marinated, and plain prawns, besides various minor
lines : fish pastes were also worked at. Mr. Hornell and
myself are well content with our technical success and
we have tentatively decided on certain standards for
each class of product ; those of the public to whom
samples have been sent are at least equally satisfied.

72

One result is that Government have permitted me to
obtain a superior can-niakino^ plant of a character
determined by my enquiries at home in 1912, which
with the larger canning plant already in our hands,
will enable us during the current year to turn out
products which may be placed on the market for the
verdict of the public, for ascertaining both the correct
price and value of the several articles, and for the infor-
mation of those who may care to take up the business
either as an industrial or as a trade matter. The factory
will also serve as a place of complete instruction in
canning lines, where those interested may learn all
canning methods and precautions, the class and cost
of plant necessary, and the various recipes which we
have now more or less standardized ; this will open to
capitalists who seriously take the business in hand, all
the so-called " secrets of canning," and will provide a
healthy, instructed competition for the public favour,
and consequently the best classes of goods ; monopoly
in such matters is most undesirable since its very
secretiveness permits it to place goods of unknown and
sometimes undesirable character on the market and
at its own prices ; a public canning institution with
public instructors and inspectors will substitute publicity
for secrecy and mystery. During my enquiries in
Europe certain facts came to my knowledge which
convinced me of the need for perfect publicity, e.g.,
products with — it was said — 90 per cent of sophistica-
tion by means of additions not necessarily unwholesome
or bad but not the genuine article ; this sophistication
is not possible where every detail of an industry may
be learnt by all who wish to compete for public favour,
so that manufacturers will necessarily be circumspect
in the methods and materials of their products.
Moreover, the existing and, still more, the improved
Government station, with its plant, experience, and
skilled instruction, will prevent all those losses of capital
and those risks to the public which would arise from
the intrusion of rash and hasty ignorance into this
seductive enterprise.

12. It is certain that canning, properly conducted,
is a method eminently suited to the tropics, especially
for fish which so readily taints. The enormous develop-
ment of this industry in the United States is little studied

7^0

in England where canning" for home use is not greatly
needed or practised ; but for India it has great lessons.
The only alternatives are refrigeration or curing ; the
former is expensive and temporary in result, the latter
is difficult to carry out in such a v*^ay that the products
are thoroughly digestible and generally acceptable ;
light curing is difficult and risky both for the producer
or retailer, while hard curing produces goods which have
lost much of their savour, digestibility, and nutritive
value ; smoking is not yet acceptable to the general
public. Pickled fish ought to be a universal product
and is a line which " Fisheries '" is taking up as a rival
to canned goods ; the want and cost of barrels or other
containers and the cost of freight are against the popu-
larity of pickled goods which, moreover, will not keep
indefinitely. Canned goods, however, can be produced
at fairly cheap rates (not so cheap of course as ordinary
cured goods) which, having been thoroughly sterilised,
will be absolutely free from the risks attending badly
cured or so-called " fresh " fish, which will contain the
maximum of solid food in a minimum of space and will
therefore transport well and cheaply, will always be
ready for consumption even without cooking, and will
keep indefinitely ; it is not generally known that properly
canned goods improve by keeping and that respectable
French canners will not issue canned sardines till six or
twelve months after manufacture. Canning, as specially
studied in the Govenment station for the production of
plain and cheap goods, is a most useful advance in the
curino- industrv, and partlv from lessons recentlv learnt
in England, certain lines of economical canning have
been adopted and standardized which will provide cans
of -^, I, or more pounds, of solid, sound, and wholesome
food thoroughly sterilized and excellently prepared, and
with much less contents of water than fresh fish, at not
more than the cost of (so-called) fresh fish as packed
in ice and sold upcountry.

13. A bitter controversy was submitted to the
Mao-isterial Courts in England in 19 12 as to whether
any fish except those canned by the French (or Portu-
guese) canners can be labelled and sold as sardines,
it being contended by the French canners that only the
young " Clupea pilchardus " found on their coast, can
lawfully be called a " sardine," and that sprats, brisling,

74

etc., elsewhere canned in oil, cannot be so described for
trade purposes. The matter has again been revived,
owino- to the persistence of the non- French canners. and
is still subjud'ce. This is of much interest to Madras,
since our "sardines" are perhaps not " Clupea pilchar-
dus" but "Clupea longiceps " and " Clupea fimbriata,"
and the same objection might conceivably be raised to
Madras trade labels. But our fish especially " Clupea
longiceps," are sardines in appearance and flavour ; we
have the highest ichthyological authority (e.g., Dr. Day)
for calling them " sardines," and they have in fact been
so called for at least a century, since a Ceylon Ordinance
of 1824 speaks of these fish, as fish well known by that
name ; hence we have both legal and scientific authority
for calling our fish "sardines" which name I have
hitherto placed on my labels ; the words " packed in
India " may, however, be properly added.

14. Fresh fish. — Nothing can ever make " fresh fish "
both cheap and good up country so long as ordinary
refrigeration is the only method available ; it can only
be cheap (or moderately so) if ice is spared, and then it
is not good ; fresh fish as received even on the Nilgiris,
is not cheap, and it is often not good. The necessary
first cost of ice in the tropics (necessary because of the
temperature of both water and air, because of the small
size of the plant in use, because of the cost of skilled
attendance), etc., the large necessary wastage, the large
quantity required on long journeys especially in the
absence of refrigerating cars or compartments, the dis-
tance and consequent cost of transport of bulky ice
parcels, are all against cheapness, while fish in general
cannot be completely trusted, however thoroughly iced,
which are caught, brought to shore, and delivered at the
icing places, by the methods and with the delays now in
vogue. Moreover, since fresh fish contains 75 per cent
of water it must always be an expensive food, especially
to send up-country, when ice and transport have to be
provided for this 75 per cent of water, while the nature
and method of the packing and transport still leave
much to be desired ; direct contact with scanty ice while
on long journeys at tropical temperatures, tends also to
sodden the fish.

As reported in previous years I have sought to
substitute light-cured fish for fresh fish, and have very

75

fairly succeeded ; this class offish, now including" prawns,
will keep good for some days and eat very well. But
when in England in 1912 other methods of keeping fish
fresh v/ere studied, two of which were specially noticed
that year by the trade. One, viz., the method of conserva-
tion by CO^ (carbonic acid gas) is not practicable in this
country, demanding plant and materials which are very
expensive, while the cost of vessels strong enough to
contain gas at a pressure of several atmospheres and,
above all, the cost of transport of fish by road and rail in
such vessels, puts the process — even if successful — out
of court. The other method (Henderson's) was taught
me by the inventor and has great possibilities; he has
generously permitted us to use his process freely in India
" for the good of the people " and has communicated
further improvements ; refrigeration is the method
adopted but the details difter largely from those of
ordinary freezing and packing in ice, should make both
the freezing and the transport cheaper, and should give
far more satisfactory results. The method was tried in
an imperfect way — imperfect for want of the correct
plant - but the results were eminently satisfactory ; the
cost, as carried out, was unduly high since ice at six pies
per pound had to be substituted for mechanical refrigera-
tion, but the result showed that fish could be despatched
zvithoiit ice and yet keep perfectly good, even on the
plains, for three days ; fish sent (without ice) to Tuticorin,
etc., was excellent on the third day. With plant recently
sanctioned by Goverrmient this line of experiment will be
pursued during the current year.

15. Pisciculture '-Marine. — The detailed plan and
estimates for the 160 acre 7 lagoon fish-farm at Tuticorin
mentioned in paragraph 28 of last year's report were not
received from the Public Works Department in time for
execution during the year under report.

The oyster farm at Pulicat was continued by Mr.
Hornell as Marine Assistant, and proved many things ;
conclusively that excellent oysters can be cultivated in
sanitary conditions with much ease and profit and
marketed in the best condition within 20 months from
spat-fall ; in July 191 2 the oysters spawned in November
19 10 were fully mature and in splendid condition for
market. But it is also true that, as in other tropical
enterprises, especially those of the cultivation of the soil,

76

the unexpected occurs ; the PuHcat bar closed during the
year — this happens about once in five years it is said —
and consequently the oysters were, soon after reaching
maturity, troubled by alternate droughts, leading to undue
salinity and high water-temperature, and by floods of fresh
water causing sudden tails in salinity and inundations of
mud. Hence the oysters suffered heavily in numbers
and condition from unforeseen external causes. But
with the re-opening of the bar normal conditions returned,
an abundant spat-fall took place so that the collectors,
cultch, etc., were covered with brood, and there is now a
fine crop of young oysters which should mature in July
1914 ; the older oysters recovered also and were put on
the market about the close of the year under report.
This temporary set-back in no way aflects the results of
the experiment as a matter of successful cultivation ;
conception, method, and results were excellent, but the
locality was subjected to unforeseen adversities ab
extra. The experiments will hereafter be conducted
both at Pulicat, Tuticorin, and probably elsewhere, in
the light of the experience now gained. Pulicat was
originally selected as fairly handy to Madras, but
Mr. Hornell has repeatedly pointed out that it is not an
ideal situation compared with other localities both on the
east and west coast.

Mr. Hornell wrote during the year an informing
pamphlet on oysters as food ; this has recently been
issued to the public.

16. Piscicidtiire — Fresh-ivatcr. — This was continued
by Mr. H, C. Wilson as Piscicultural Expert who
completed his first term of service with Gov^ernment
during the year, and has been re-appointed to the post
whicli has now been made permanent.

As in previous years the Sunkesula fish farm was
the piece de resistance ; a long step was taken towards
the object of its institution, by the stocking of 41 miles
of the Kurnool canal with carp, and Mr. Wilson reports
that the fish rentals have nearly doubled. The murrel
farm was brought to a stage when sale became not only
advisable but necessary, and Government sanctioned
the building of a special market stall in Kurnool where
live fish will be sold ; being air-breathers murrel travel
well for at least 24 hours and can therefore be despatched
to out-stations. The character and work of the farm

11

has been described in some detail in an inspection note
printed in G.O. No. 782, Revenue, dated 15th March
19 1 3, which led to a demand from the Government of
India for copies of the farm plan.

Minor operations consisted in the stocking and
conserving of several large tanks, while conservancy
operations proper were also conducted as usual in the
upper Vv^aters of the Bhavani, Moyar, and Cauvery. The
hilsa-hatching operations on the Coleroon were a failure
in 19 1 2, owing to the difficulty in obtaining ripe females.
Mr. Wilson observes that this difficulty occasionally
happens in America with shad, and technical papers
lately received from the United States of America show
that this has just occurred there on a large scale.

Mr. Wilson's more difficult work lay in working out
certain important projects, viz., that at Allur in Nellore,
to take the place of the Kanigiri project to which the
Public Works Department refused assent for technical
reasons relating to the Kanigiri reservoir, and a new
one at the Colair lake in which floating hatchery is to
provide swarms of hilsa fry which should not only greatly
increase the yields of hilsa in the Godavari and Kistna
rivers, but furnish stock for transport to the west coast
rivers ; in addition to the hilsa hatchery a large murrel
farm will be located in a position whence the fish can be
transported in quantities by rail to various markets.
Both these projects are still in the stage of investigation.
Mr. Wilson is also engaged on a scheme for acclimatising
tench from the Nilgiris for use in our waters on the
plains.

Incidentally in boring for fresh-water at Nellore it
v/as discovered that semi-artesian water was available,
the water rising in a 70-ibot bore to within 3 feet of the
surface after the tools had passed through a thick bed of
clay ; this fact may be of use agriculturally.

The Nilgiri trout prospered during the year and
Mr. Wilson reports that Rs. 1,495 were obtained
from licenses. Poaching by men and otters unfortunately
developed, and the supplies of fish food proved insuffici*
ent for the large head of rapidly grov/ing fish, some
weighing 6 lb. and over, so that Mr. Wilson has had to
introduce shrimps and other live food from lower waters.

A most useful investigation was made at Sunkesula
in the growth and observation of various classes of fish

7S

for the destruction of mosquito larvae ; aquarium experi-
ments were continued in a pond of considerable size and
from the data obtained Mr. Wilson read a very practical
paper at the " All India Malaria Conference" in Madras
city which are now found to be free from larvae ; he also
supplied a number of Municipalities with the necessary
fish carriers for stocking- purposes. His paper shows
that the Chelaeargentea is a most efficient larvicide, and
that his ponds, of considerable size, are kept entirely
free from mosquito larvae, chiefly by their activity ;
besides these the various species of Haplochilus are
very useful and can be transported to long distances ;
for brackish and salt waters and swamps he recommends
the Therapon jdj^biia.

Madras fresh-water pisciculture is a most difficult
subject owing mainly to the non-permanence of its waters
and their use in irrigation ; hence the framing and
execution of practical projects is a matter of great difficulty
which Mr. Wilson is gradually overcoming.

1/ Pearl and chank /iskejy. — The supervision of
operations in this branch is Mr. Hornell's work ; these
are separately and fully reported on as usual. The year
was one of comparatively poor yield owing mainly to
unpropitious weather and the increasing difficulties of
obtaining divers. The net profit was Rs. 10,124 to
which the motor-boat Sutherland contributed largely by
towing canoes out in weather w^hen they could not
otherwise have reached the banks or returned from them.
Mr. Hornell's report deals in detail with the work, past
and prospective, in chanks and pearls, and it is hoped
that a new era will begin this year with the advent of
the new motor inspection vessel and with other ex-
pected advantages, in which the Tuticorin fish farm should
take a prominent part since the cultivation not merely
of the pearl oyster but of pearls will be a feature of the
operations under the skilled experiments of Mr. Hornell.
The South Arcot chank contractor duly paid his rental
and has now tendered for the Tanjore collection.

During the year Mr. Hornell wrote the second and
a valuable part of his monograph on chanks, taking up
the matter from a social, industrial, and artistic point of
view ; this has been printed and is now before Govern-
ment ; also several articles on fish parasites, the cyclic
character of the pearl fisheries, etc.

79

Experiments were made in England by an engineer-
ing firm, skilled in similar matters, in the cutting of the
chank shell by machine tools, but with poor results ;
being porcellaneous in character and of peculiar corpus-
cular structure which results in brittleness in the sections
if roughly sawn, it cannot be dealt with by ordinary
shell-cuttino- machine tools, such as are used in makino-
buttons, etc., from nacreous shells, but apparently
requires either the slow rhythmic motions of a heavy
but finely toothed tool worked by the delicate human
hand, or a wheel similar to a lapidary's slitting wheel,
charo'ed with a first-class cuttino- material such as
diamond dust or possibly carborundum.^

i8. A very important matter, viz., that of net-making
by hand- worked looms was specially investigated by Mr.
Govindan who of his own initiative examined the matter
in Scotland, Ireland, and Cornwall ; on obtaining sanction
for the purchase of a machine an order was placed in
Bridport, and Mr. Govindan spent a month (partly while
on privilege leave) in mastering the setting up and
workino- of the machine. This is intended for instruc-
tional purposes on the west coast where nets, as Mr.
Govindan had found, cannot be made fast enouofh to
supply the demand ; a single machine will do as much
work as a villao-e of fishermen, and better work. The
Cornish method of curing pilchards together with that
of expressing the oil and packing the fish in barrels, and
of making the barrels, was closely studied on the spot,
and the question of the provision of fresh fish by refrigera-
tion was not only closely examined (as in Henderson's
experimental factory ; see supra, paragraph i8) but the
manufacturers of refrigerating machinery were inter-
viewed. Mr. Govindan is submitting a special report
on his tour of duty and his personal share in numerous
investigations.

The project for a marine aquarium and marine
biological station advanced to the production of
architect's plans in the preparation of which Mr.
Hornell's expert assistance was sought and given. Apart
altogether from the need for purely scientific research,

* Later enquiries were made in July 1914 at the Impeiial Institute, London.
The Director, Dr Wyndhani Dunstan, f.r.s., was good enough to take u]i
the matter, and from samples of machine cut sections which he has obtained, it
seems that success is now probable with machines of no great cost.

8o

there are many practical problems presenting- themselves
for enquiry ; such for instance as the life history of food
fishes, of the organisms they feed upon, and of their
enemies, the examination of various marine products,
and so forth. For such purposes, as well as for research
by savants and students, and for the provision of speci-
mens of marine life for scientific and educational pur-
poses, the new institution with its laboratories, library,
aad museum, will be most valuable, while providing in
the aquarium proper a means of popular and most
iiterestino- instruction.

19. Progress. — The work of " Fisheries," having
h'therto been mainly that of enquiry and experiment, has
only been slightly devoted to demonstration ; hence there
has not yet been much positive advance in fishery
matters among the fisherfolk and curers themselves. But
the work of the Government experimental stations, the
attempts in several places to start out on the new lines,
the awakening of public interest in fisheries, the training
of several men, including our own staff, in the stations,
and the visits of enquirers, have already produced a new
public interest in fishery development — a very good
beginning among conservative folk in an industry
hitherto wholly untouched by progress or even by
industrial thought.

8i

Letter — from Sir Frederick Nicholson, k.c.i.e., Honorary

Director of Fisheries.
Dated — Madras, the loth June/ 13th July 19 14.

I have the honour to submit my annual Fisheries
Report for 191 3-14.

2. The staff remained as in 19 12-13 except that
Mr. V. Govindan, b.a., Personal Assistant to the
Honorary Director, was, by G.O. No. 1095, dated 13th
April 1 9 14, made a gazetted officer with the appellation
of Assistant Director and a salary of Rs. 400 per
mensem, the post of Personal Assistant being abolished,
while Mr. A. K. Menon, recently a Government of India
student in England in the oil and soap industries, was
appointed temporarily as Oil Chemist and posted to
this department on a pay of Rs. 250 per mensem (G.O.
^o- 3553' dated 3rd December 1913).

3. The principal operations in hand were —

(i) The West Coast station for experimental
curing, canning and the production of fish oil and
guano ;

(2) the oyster farm at Pulicat ;

(3) the Sunkesula fish farm ;

(4) the stocking of certain tanks ;

(5) the preparation of important piscicultural
projects including the Tuticorin marine fish farm, the
Nellore carp and murrel farm, the Colair Lake hilsa
hatchery and murrel farm, the acclimatisation of tench
on the plains, etc. ;

(6) the usual pearl and chank fishery ;

(7) work by Mr. Wilson in anti-malarial operations
such as the breeding and distribution of larvicidal fish ;

(8) the conservation of the upper waters of the
Bhavani and Moyar on the lower slopes of the Nilgiris ;

(9) the conservation and development of the trout
in the upper Nilgiris ;

(10) work by the Oil Chemist ; and

(11) miscellaneous.

4. Experimental station, Malabar. — This, as in
191 2- 1 3, was located at Tanur and Calicut ; remarks are
the same as in paragraph 6 in the report of that year.

5. Fish-oil and guano. — The work mentioned in
paragraph 7 of last year's report was continued at Tanijr
and improved ; the percentage of first-class yellow oil
now obtained is larger than in 1912-13, and averages

6

82

above 50 per cent of the outturn ; this oil was recently
described by a European buying- firm as " unique," by
reason of its purity, colour and slight odour ; the Oil
Chemist attached to the department has also given it a
hio'h technical value.

The conditions of manufacture were aeain un-
fortunate, as the shoals of fat fish were not only few but
ceased at a very early date ; this was the case all along
the coast and merchants who had made forward contracts
were seriously embarrassed. Most of the best oil was
retained for experimental purposes, but a good profit
was nevertheless realised on this manufacture.

The profits ordinarily obtainable may be gauged by
the fact that as against the single factory of 1908-09
there were at the close of the year no less than 211
private factories in Malabar and South Canara, the
former district having two-thirds of the number. More-
over, the quantity of fish guano (that is, the dried
product obtained from the boiled fish) exported by sea
alone, increased — notwithstanding the shortness, etc., of
the season — to 4,726 tons as against 1,872 in the
previous year ; to this must be added the exports by
road and rail which are not known. The above weioht
of guano represents at least 25,000 tons of raw fish, so
that the new method, due entirely to the work of this
department, is now taking an appreciable share in the
fish manure trade, while the oil represents a gain
hitherto lost. The oil exports by sea were 1,511 tons,
of which above half went to Germany.

6. It may here be well to mention a point of
importance, viz., the apparent economic sin of turning
these fish, so valuable as food, into a soil fertiliser. At
first sight it seems wrong (and the sentiment has been
reflected in previous reports) that good nourishing
human food should be turned into manure. But there
are considerations which, especially in the tropics, put a
different complexion on the matter: (i) that with the
present means at disposal, or, at all events, under
indigenous methods of curing, the masses of sardine
which are sometimes caught in vast quantities within a
few hours, cannot be turned into safe and wholesome
food (especially when the fish is very oily) owing to the
rapidity of tainting and the paucity of labour, so that the
turning of the fish into fertiliser either as guano or as

83

dried fish manure is a necessity ; (2) that when the fish
is not oily it is of inferior value as food ; (3) that when
fish is deprived of its oil (itself a very valuable commodity)
oris non-oily, tiie residue or mass, if skilfully applied as a
soil fertiliser, produces more human nutriment in the
shape of cereals, etc., than if it were consumed directly,
as fish. Hence the method of reducing the fat fish to oil
and guano, or the lean fish to ordinary manure, does
not necessarily deprive the country of food, but increases
the total supply and yields an economic and industrial
o-ain.

7. In this connection it may be conveniently men-
tioned here that enquiries in Great Britain and a perusal
of agricultural reports showed that fish meal or scrap is
very largely used in western countries as food for cattle,
poultry, etc. Correspondence ensued in 191 3 with the
Colleoe of Aorriculture at Coimbatore and a half-ton
parcel of lightly salted and dried lean sardine was sent
to the college in April 19 13. The experiments con-
ducted there are said to have been very successful,
and though no details have been communicated to
this department it is understood that a report is being
drawn up on the matter. The success or otherwise of
the food turns largely on the question of price which
is very variable.

8. Curing, — The year was a bad one for fishermen
in general, and our station being without the aid of any
deep-sea boats such as those from Ratnagiri, no great
advance was made except in two directions, viz., the
treatment of fat sardines like Cornish pilchards and the
curing of prawns.

9. Pile hardi sing fat sardines. — In the previous year
instructions were sent .out from Cornwall to treat fat
sardines as pilchards, viz., to cure and harden the ttn-
giitted fish by several weeks in heavy salt (i lb. salt to 3
of fish) and then to submit them to pressure in barrels
when much of the oil is extracted, and the fish remain as
a hard mass in the barrels ; these are largely exported to
Italy. It was found that the method was successful, and
a very good oil was obtained, but for various reasons
the cured fish did not keep properly. The experiment
was repeated in the year under report, but the pressure
was still insufficient ; the fish, however, kept well for
months. Regular pilchard screws for applying pressure

6-A

84

were obtained during the year from Plymouth, and a
proper pressing battery will be set up and tried in the
current year.

It will be observed that this is one method of satisfy-
ing the demand for fish as human food while obtaining
the valuable oil as a separate product ; since the fish are
not gutted they can be very rapidly placed beyond fear
of taint, for they are simply roused up at once with the
salt just as they are received from the sea, while the
large quantity of salt used keeps the fish good almost
indefinitely if the air is kept away from them ; this is
secured by retaining them airtight in the barrels in
which they were pressed, while the heavy pressure used
consolidates the fish into an indurated yet slightly moist
mass. These fish boiled up with rice and vegetables,
as the pressed pilchards are cooked in Italy, should
prove very good food.

lo. The curing of prawns is a useful advance.
Hitherto the only method known to the general curer
was that of simply strewing the prawns, wholly unsalted,
on the beach to dry, the resulting product is always
badly tainted or of very strong odour. Moreover, as
prawns are mostly caught in large quantities in the mon-
soon period (e.g., prawns worth Rs. 15,000 at low prices
were caught in a single day at Tanur in July) it is often
difficult to dry them at all ; consequently, while the
fishermen get low prices for their catches, the curers run
the risk of losing both their money and their prawns.
Obviously then it is necessary to cure or preserve the
prawns by salting, etc., and to find some mode of drying
them.

The first step now taken at Tanur is to boil the
prawns in salt water and thus to sterilise and partly
cure them, the second is to shell the boiled prawns,
the third to salt or brine them for a few minutes only,
since the shelled flesh rapidly take up salt, the fourth
to semi-dry them. It is found that this method yields
a product which is suitable for the best tables, and keeps
perfectly for months, while, being only semi — instead of
bone — dry, it retains the prawn flavour and with but
slight soaking is an excellent and nutritive article of diet.
Fully-dried prawns are comparatively savourless, and
are both difficult to cook and to digest ; the semi-dried
prawns have none of these disadvantages.

85

1 1. But the shelling process is too slow when dealing
with large masses, and it was subsequently found that the
fish can be equally well salted whole — after boiling — and
can then, if necessary, be shelled more at leisure, or
semi-dried in the shell.

These products have been tried scores of times with
invariable success and great appreciation by consumers ;
instructions have now been drawn up for trying experi-
ments on a considerable scale and with improved
methods during the current season.

12. Drying, — For artificial drying, as mentioned in
previous reports, two driers have been put up ; the
large one, intended for drying manures, has not yet
been used as it requires personal supervision and in-
struction during the first experiments. The small one
intended for drying fish, prawns, etc., has been fre-
quently operated with success, but it is difficult to teach
ignorant men the true method of operating a drier even
when worked with a simple slow combustion stove.
Full instructions have been issued for further work
during the monsoon. No drier can be both cheap and
automatic, and automatic working, i.e., working which
will go on at equal temperatures and without attention,
is essential in a country where inattention, especially at
night, is certain, so that fires either go out or burn too
fiercely and where it is difficult to get men to understand
the principles of drying so that night and day drying, or
drying in hot weather or in the monsoon are treated alike.

13. Canning. — Much of my personal attention was
devoted during the year to continuing and improving
the canning experiments begun in January 191 2. As
the plant available was still only the small experimental
plant of 1912, only a few thousand tins were packed,
chiefly with sardines (plain, i.e., without oil, in curry, or
with oil), mackerel and whole prawns, while prawn and
smoked mackerel paste were also made in some quantity.
Considerable advances have been made in technical
success, especially in the use of the oils obtained from
England ; it was also found that the first-class sardine
oil made in the Government factory is an excellent
packing oil, and this opens out a large additional market
for such oil and a method of cheapening canned
fish ; experiments will be continued next season in oil
packing.

86

The canned products find a very appreciative
market, and the difficulty is not to sell the goods but to
supply the demand, especially as experience has now
taught us that the lean fish of the later season are use-
less for canning plain or in oil, and require some addition
such as curry-powder or tomato or mustard sauce.

14. The new solderless plant from England arrived
during the year, but owing to difficulties about a site the
factory for its accommodation is only now being built,
and will be ready for next season's work, when, if fish
are available, it will be possible to turn out thousands
of cans where we now pack only hundreds. The new
factory is at Beypore where it will have the advantage
of supplies from both sea and estuary, while even the
deep sea boats can come up to the factory gates.

15. Fish paste work was also successful, but requires
a somewhat larger and better plant which, wiiile costing
only a trifle, will enable us to perfect our standard
products.

16. The labelling as "sardines " of canned fish other
than the immature " Clupea pilchardus," alluded to in
paragraph 17 of last year's report, has been magisterially
declared illegal in Great Britain, but the matter is
under appeal. The use of the words " Indian sardines "
for our fish is certainly justifiable.

17. Fresh fish. — The useful process mentioned in
paragraph 18 of last year's report was again experi-
mented on with much success, but was not carried out
in its integrity as the refrigerating plant ordered in the
autumn was only received in March, too late for being-
set up during the season. It is now being placed in
position at Beypore, and will be thoroughly tried next
season.

18. The possession of this small refrigerating plant
will at last render possible the method of fish drying in
vacuo with a vacuum stove of my own which has been
awaiting proper trial for several years. It will also
enable me to experiment in a preservative method of
great promise and cheapness.

The preservative method alluded to at the end of
paragraph 18 of the previous report has also awaited
the receipt of the refrigerating plant, but as it has been
patented in India and apparently demands a chemical
(HgOg) which in the tropics is of great instability and

87

cost, success is doubtful. The matter will be enquired
into ill London, etc., during my present visit to
England.

19. Deep-sea fishing. — This has not yet been prac-
ticable, since the energies of the staff in initiation and
supervision are limited by the natural bounds of human
capacity, and the personnel is insufficient. Moreover,
as decided several years ago, it was thought advisable,
especially with a limited staff and scanty experience and
imperfect boat equipment, to endeavour to deal and to
show the best methods of dealing, with existing catches,
which amount to hundreds of thousands of tons, before
attempting to increase the bulk of the catches, A full-
sized department working upon intelligent, enterprising
material might have attempted both classes of operation
simultaneously, but a small staft, gradually feeling its
way, devising its own methods and gathering its expe-
rience from its own experiments, necessarily limited its
operations and took the line of least resistance and
difficulty. Hence, and for other reasons, the master-
fisherman, sanctioned in G.O. No. 822, dated 21st
March 191 2, has not yet been recruited, but this omis-
sion will, it is expected, be supplied during the current
year and a scheme for his employment has already been
drawn up for submission to Government. The new
curing station at Beypore with the shelter for sea-going
boats provided in the river estuary will enable us to
turn attention to the catching as well as to the curing
branches of our work.

20. Pisciculture — Fresh-water. — Mr. H. C. Wilson
continued to be Piscicultural Expert throughout the
year and, while supervising practical operations on the
Nilgiris and at Sunkesula fish farm, toured extensively
in eight other districts for the preparation of projects
and, very specially, on anti-malarial duty.

21. Sunkesula fish farm. — In this farm the operations
of the previous year were continued and some sixty
miles of the Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal were stocked
with young fish, while the experiments in the breed-
ing and sale of murrel were carried a stage further.
Mr. Wilson reports as follows : —

" 9. General 7vork. — The general work at the Sunkesula fish farm
progressed during the year, the new Superintendent taking more
interest in the detail work, keeping the screens in order, etc.

88

" lo. Experiments were carried out with the eggs and fry of
Ophiocephalus punctatus and O. striatus re hatching and rearing
under artificial conditions.

" 1 1. It was discovered that several minute water-insects play an
important part in the destruction of the ova and fry under natural
conditions. The worst offender in this respect was found to be the
small water-flea Daphnia pulex. These minute insects attack and
destroy the fry in their early stages and the ova throughout the
hatching period. Frogs destroy both ova and fry, but the parents
who guard their eggs and young can deal with this natural enemy,
whereas they are helpless in the former case.

" 12. Fishermen take advantage of this parental afTection for the
capture of the big fish. They locate a nest and bait with a frog which
they dangle in close proximity to the eggs or fry and the parent fish
are easily caught. The eggs or young fry are then left to the mercy
of all enemies and consequently very few, if any, survive out of the
original number in the nest.

" 13. The experiments were to determine the following, viz : —
(i) most suitable hatching appliances ;

(2) periods of hatching at different temperature ;

(3) most suitable water temperature for producing healthy fry ;

(4) best artificial food for rearing fry ; and

(5) rate of growth, etc.

" 14. These experiments are not yet complete, but a lot of useful
information was obtained.

" 15. The most suitable hatching appliances were found to be glass
tanks where the eggs and fry can be kept under constant observation
and the presence of minute enemies detected at once. The water
temperature ranged between 76^ and 84-^ F., an average temperature
of 78-" seemed to be preferable. Various artificial foods were tried,
the most suitable for the very early stages (just after absorption of
the yolk sack) seemed to be the soup of crushed crab.

" 16. Notes on the periods of hatching rate and growth of fry were
taken together with specimen fish carefully preserved at various
stages.

" 17. Before any work can be published on the artificial hatching
and rearing and most suitable appliances for dealing with these
particular fish, it will be necessary to carry out further experiments
and this will be done in due course "

Many thousands of murrel fry were removed from the Sunkesula
farm during the year and turned into Edurur swamp for growing
purposes. Large numbers of the quick-growing varieties of carp from
the farm were distributed over 60 miles of the Kurnool-Cuddapah
Canal. Great difficulty of rapid transport is found and I am afraid
to transport fish below the locks to Nandyal, Ayyavankodur and
Kanala tanks would take too long with the present methods and they
will have to rely for the present on the extra fish from the upper
waters. The motor-boat unfortunately was found not powerful enough
for this work.

* * * *

During the year under review a new and valuable larvicide
Poly acanthus cupanus was transported from the West Coast (Cochin)
to the Sunkesula fish farm for breeding and distribution purposes.

89

Some fresh blood was introduced amongst the other lavicides at the
farm from Cuddapah ( HaplochUui panchax).

* * * *

Live fish viarket. — The construction of the live fish market
sanctioned in G.O. No. 1191, Revenue, dated 23rd April 1913, was
completed and fish will be sold therein soon after the opening of the
canal, i.e., after the 15 th June next.

23. Allur and Ippur. — A great deal of investigatory
work, especially in boring for fresh water, was done at
Allur in the Nellore district where an apparently excel-
lent site had been selected by Mr. Wilson for a farm in
substitution for that originally proposed at Kanigiri
which the Public Works Department were unable, for
irrigational reasons, to sanction. But since an abundant
fresh water-supply was a necessity, and the borings
yielded only salt water, this site also had to be abandoned.
It is interesting to note that the water in the bores was
apparently artesian rising nearly to the surface, and was,
in at least one case, of double the salinity of sea-water ;
it is possible that salt might be more readily made from
this supply than from sea-water. Mr. Wilson subse-
quently found a site at Ippur in the same deltaic tract
which fulfils his wishes and he spent a good deal of time
on the new project which has recently been submitted
to Government.

24. Colair scheme. — This remains in abeyance since
the removal of stake-nets and fixed enoines from the
lake, river and channels is a preliminary condition sine
quel non ; it is understood that the matter is under con-
sideration in the Public Works Department.

25. Acclimatisation of tench. — Mr. Wilson, after
some search, discovered a site near Hosur which will form
the first stage in acclimatising tench from the Nilgiris ;
thence they will be taken to Sunkesula and other farms.

26. Hilsa hatching. — Very little work was done in
this matter as ripe spawners were not obtainable when
Mr. Wilson visited the Lower Anicut.

27. Stocking of tanks Two large tanks were stocked,

viz., Daroji and Markapur. It may be stated here that
the rentals obtained from the canal and tank fisheries
slightly exceeded the compensatory grants paid by
Government to the District Boards.

28. TJic breeding of larvicidal fish. — Much of Mr.
Wilson's time and energy during the year were, by order

90

of Government, turned to anti-malarial work in visiting-
malarial tracts and in the breeding and distribution of
larvicidal fish. He had experimented at Sunkesula on
these larvicides, and had given demonstrations and
instructions to local bodies, and had read a practical
paper at the Anti-malarial Conference in the previous
year ; his success resulted in his deputation to Cuddapah
to examine the town and its surroundings and to stock
its waters with larvicides.

This work is likely to prove of immense value in the
near future and Mr. Wilson is to be congratulated on
his foresight in the experiments made by him in previous
years at Sunkesula on the breeding of these larvicides.

A similar investigation was, by order of Government,
carried out by him in company with Major Ross, I. M.S.,
on the conditions obtaining at Cochin which appeared
to favour elephantiasis ; Mr. Wilson submitted a joint
report on this matter.

29. Nilgiri operations. — These under Mr. Wilson,
continued to be most successful ; the stock of trout is
said to be very great both in the number and size of the
fish, and fresh supplies of live fish food had to be intro-
duced.

30. Conservancy operations in the upper waters of
the Bhavani and Moyar continued as in previous years.

31. Pisciciilttu^e — Marine. — Mr. Hornell, f.l.s., as
Marine Assistant, writes as follows; —

Edible oyster-culture. — During the past year the oyster farm at
Pulirat became fully stocked with many hundreds of thousands of
oysters produced from the abundant spatfall of November 191 2. The
growth of these young oysters ha^ been so rapid and satisfactory that
it was decided to begin selling operations in January of this year,
when the oysters were fifteen months old. The season was therefore
opened with these oysters on 23rd January last and between that date
and 31st March 1914, 21,450 oysters were sold. The sales of the
oysters for the year ending 31st March 1914 amounted to 37,400 and
brought in the sum of Rs. 458-12-6.

Fish farm at Tutlcorin. — In spite of all efforts to expedite delivery
the material requisite for the barriers between the lagoon and the sea
was not received till January of this year, when it was too late to begin
operations as the run of fry necessary for the stocking of the farm
was over for the season. All material requisite is now in stock and
as soon as the rains come the farm will be stocked and the barriers
erected. Meanwhile samples of the fish frequenting the lagoon are
obtained at regular intervals whereby much information useful to the
future conduct of the farm, is being accumulated.

91

While on privilege leave during the year Mr. Hor-
nell devoted a considerable period to the study of
practical mussel-culture in the south of France, in view
to work out here in the near future. The controlled
culture of pearl oysters and of pearls is noticed below.

32. Pearl and chunk fishery. — This will, as usual, be
separately reported on in detail ; only salient features
will be mentioned here.

2i'^. Pearl fishery. — There is no prospect for years
of any pearl fishery on the Tinnevelly banks, owing to
the absence of oysters, but an inspection of the Palk
Bay waters near Tondi resulted in the discovery of a
fairly mature bed of oysters estimated at twenty millions
in number, and a fishery will probably be held there in
September next. The fact is remarkable because no
pearl fishery or pearl oyster bed has ever been known
before in Palk Bay which is north of the Pamban chan-
nel, all fisheries having hitherto taken place to the south
in the Gulf of Manaar where alone pearl oyster beds
have been worked from time immemorial. Moreover,
Mr. Hornell reports that the oysters are living on a
bottom much softer and more muddy than he has ever
known them to thrive on elsewhere. It is also note-
worthy that this new discovery in Palk Bay is due
partly to the recent renting of the Ramnad chank fish-
eries from the Raja of Ramnad which led Mr. Hornell
to turn attention to that area, but mainly to the acquisi-
tion in October 19 13 of the inspection schooner Z<3:</^'
Nicholson which enabled Mr. Hornell to survey the area
in question upon hearing reports that pearl oysters had
been picked up on the Tondi shore ; Mr. Hornell's zeal
and perseverance under trying conditions then enabled
him to locate the bed in question. As the first fruits of
the new schooner's work the discovery is very gratifying.

34. Pearl cidtiLre. — Mr. Hornell drew up during the
year a scheme for cultivating the pearl oyster under
controllable conditions in a regular farm, and for induc-
ing the growth of pearls, both attached and free, in
these controlled oysters. He found an excellent site on
Krusadai island close to Pamban, and sketch plans and
estimate for the farm have recently been submitted to
Government. The recent discovery of pearl oyster in
Palk Bay will provide abundant material for the farm

92

where oysters will be grown and treated for the produc-
tion of pearls. From Japanese facts it is almost certain
that the farm will be very lucrative, even if only
"attached" pearls are grown, but Mr. Hornell is
sanguine of success in inducing the growth of the more
valuable " free " pearls and has already forwarded a
paper to the Linnasan Society with specimens of his
first results in this direction.

35. Mr. Hornell has also ascertained facts in the life
history of the pearl oyster which show that its free
swimming stage endures far considerably longer than
was hitherto believed ; this is important in considering
the chances of spatfalls. In this connection may be
mentioned Mr. Hornell's arrangements for ascertaining
the set of the currents in the Gulf of Manaar, by means
of drifting bottles; he is now carrying this out on an
extended scale.

36. Chank fishery. — Mr. Hornell writes as fol-
lows : —

" 3. The chank fisheries. — The past year is notable for the final
consolidation under direct Government control of the whole of the
chank fisheries carried on off the East Coast of this Presidency.
This has been attained partly by leasing the Ramnfid fishery from
the Raja of Ramnad and partly by assertion of immemorial sovereign
privilege. By proclamation in the Fort St. George Gazette, dated
23rd December 1913, Go^'ernment reminded the public that the right
to fish chanks in the sea bordering the various districts of the Presi-
dency is a prerogative vesting from time immemorial in Government.
The position being thus defined, it became possible to extend fishing
leases the whole length of the Coromandel Coast, from Tanjore in
the south to Nellore in the north. Further north it is unnecessary
to go as Nellore district marks the effective northern limit of chank
distribution in the Eastern Coast of India. The rights to farm the
fisheries off {a) Tanjore, (/') South Arcot and (^) Chingleput and
Nellore distiicts, have now been leased out and bring in respectively
Rs. 660, Rs. 516-10-8 and Rs. 336-10-8 per annum, the whole of
the remainder of the East Coast to the south of Tanjore being fished
departmentally.

The control of the Rfimnfid (and Sivaganga) chank fisheries
should react favourably on work on the Tinnevelly beds, since the
two fisheries are at somewhat different seasons, so that it will be
possible, by inducing divers from Tuticorin to fish on the Ramnad
coast and vice versa, not only to get a greater force of divers to
work at each place, but to give comparatively continuous work to
them, and thus remove one main cause of the discontent felt by
divers whose work has hitherto been confined to short periods, which,
moreover, if conditions were unfavourable were sometimes very
unremunerative."

93

The Coromandel fisheries as Mr. Hornell rightly
names those of the Tanjore-Nellore coast, have been
temporarily leased out to contractors pending the con-
solidation of work on the southern area.

2)"]. The net profits from chanks during the year will
be something over Rs. 20,000 plus receipts from the
Ramnad fishery which however, has only just begun.
The arrangement with Messrs. Dutt & Son for the
purchase of all the Tinnevelly and Tanjore chanks was
renewed for five years at somewhat better rates. A con-
tract has also been arranged at satisfactory prices for the
purchase of the Ramnad shells.

38. Oil Chemist. — By G.O. No. 3553, Revenue,
dated 3rd December 19 13, Mr. A. K. Menon was
appointed temporarily as Oil Chemist. My reasons for
supporting this appointment are stated at length in my
letter read in the above Government Order. Mr Menon
beoan work at the Indian Institute for Technical Research
at Bangalore by kind permission of Dr. Morris Travers,
F.R.S., but the institute closed for the vacation at the end
of March before Mr. Menon was able to do more than
begin work.

39. Miscellaneous. — Under this head comes an im-
mense variety of work. Much of it has been done by
Mr. V. Govindan, b.a., late Personal Assistant, but now
Assistant Director. BeinQ- a Malabar man with a ereat
knowledge of the people, their difficulties, wants and
objections, commanding their confidence and with a
philanthropic bent, he is able to undertake various diffi-
cult branches of work in addition to the work done by
him as Personal Assistant. The inculcation of co-opera-
tion and thrift has been undertaken by him with the
beginnings of success, though fisher- folk are very hard
to move ; co-operation is very desirable where the men
are so ignorant, poor, and bound by custom, and especial-
ly where valuable goods, such as oil and guano, are
produced in individually small quantities so that the petty
manufacturer, always in want of money and seldom able
to enter the open market direct with his small parcels of
goods, falls a ready prey to the middlemen and broker,
who is apt to take the bulk of the profits. A combina-
tion of a dozen or score of manufacturers would, of
course, enable the men not only to borrow on easy terms
but to bulk their produce and thus obtain the true market
price. The Assistant Director has also undertaken the

94

work of setting up our school for fisher-folk in a build-
ing erected for the purpose in the Tanur yard, close
to the public road, and which also houses the hand-loom
for net-making obtained during the year from England.
The pupils are both boys and adults and are not merely
taught the usual three " R's," but receive instruction and
suggestions in technical and economic matters such as
those of curing, of co-operation and thrift, etc., and it is
found that the villagers readily come to listen ; the boys
are also available for labour in the yard when additional
hands are needed. The English hand-looru for net-
making was considerably damaged en route, but the
damages have been repaired, and it is hoped to work it
to some purpose during the current year ; this matter has
been placed entirely under the control of the Assistant
Director who initiated the idea from his knowledge of
the needs of the people in net-making and from seeing
these looms when in England in 1912.

40. Considerable correspondence was held with the
Collectors of Malabar and South Canara regarding the
oil and guano factories which have so rapidly sprung up
since there was among manufacturers a natural tendency
to disregard or an ignorance of sanitary rules ; the Assist-
ant Director visited about 45 factories and f also visited
a number, with the result that a set of tentative rules,
liable to alteration on greater experience, were drawn up
and received the assent of one or both Collectors.

A " China " net as at Cochin and live car have just
been put up by the Assistant Director at Beypore, but we
have yet to gain experience as to their working.

41. The disposal of the produce of the TanOr yard
and Calicut cannery gave a great deal of work in the
calculation of costs, in the consideration of the best
methods of marketing, and in ascertaining public tastes.
Four jails wrote for supplies of dried fish, but Vellore
and Salem shortly dropped out ; Trichinopoly and Coim-
batore, however, continue to take supplies. A stall was
opened at Moore Market for the sale of canned and
cured goods, and has made known these products to a
section of the public ; it was found that curried sardines
were preferred by retail purchasers at the Moore Market
while wholesale buyers, usually Europeans, who deal
direct with the cannery, prefer plain (oil-less) sardines,
mackerel and prawns. A notable order for canned goods
was a large one recently made by the contractor of the

95

Wellington canteen. We have the advantage in this
country and with the market that will take our goods, of
not being bound by trade customs or a fixed and hide-
bound public taste ; if the products are good and also
cheap they will be readily bought, even if they are not
in the precise form or with the appearance or flavour —
perhaps the result of adulteration — required by, say,
English customers ; our " sardines " might find a poor
market amongst Europeans who have been accustomed
to French sardines or even to Norwegian " sprats" put
up in particular ways and in the familiar containers, just
as it was found that American '' sardines," though well
packed and of excellent quality, could find no sale in
Europe solely because of the dift'erence in form and
method. Our markets, however, have no " custom " in
this matter, and only demand soundness and cheapness.
But it will, I think, be found, certainly within the current
year, that our goods are attractive in every way, and
they are absolutely without adulteration, being "pure
food " in every detail,

42. Towards the close of the year arrangements
were made with the Travancore and Baroda States
whereby two young men from each State will study
pisciculture and curing work in our stations during the
current year ; one has already arrived from Baroda
to learn ostreiculture, etc., under Mr. Hornell.

43. After the fashion described in one of Esop's
fables, two contradictory criticisms are frequently ad-
dressed to me ; the one supposes that Government is
intending itself to develop a fishing industry by means
of its own trawlers, curing yards, etc., and criticises it on
these hypothetical grounds ; the other animadverts on
the supposed delay in putting departmental products
commercially on the market ; " Does Government intend
to run factories to the injury of an existing trade ? " asks
one ; " Why does not the department market a supply
of tinned goods, smoked fish, etc., to meet the demand ? "
cries the other.

The answer to the first is the often repeated negation ;
there is no intention that Government goods or enter-
prise shall injure any industry or trade either existing or
prospective. On the contrary. Government efforts are
directed to improving the indigenous industry and to
stimulate or even create where for various reasons the
industry in various branches is non-existent ; such, for

96

instance, are its efforts to improve existing preservative
methods, and its actual creation of a canning and an oil
and guano industry.

The Government stations are purely experimental
and instructional ; money, thought and time are freely
expended in experiment, and the results of these
experiments, when successful, are promulgated by all
possible means. Meanwhile an expert staff is growing
up which will supply — as it has begun to supply — men
trained in our methods, and will thus gradually get rid
of a grave difficulty found in introducing new industries,
viz., the absence of skilled artisans. Moreover, a
superior staff is being gradually formed which will be
available to supervise private operations, and the stations
will shortly be centres where instructors, inspectors,
experts, foremen, etc., can be thoroughly trained. The
stations are not commercial except for several reasons
viz., (i) the need to get rid of the products of experiment
which are necessarily numerous and costly ; the canning
experiments already number nearly 700, and each
experiment may involve hundreds of tins, since it is
impossible to test or create an industry by petty
laboratory methods ; (2) the need to ascertain the public
tastes and the true cost of goods by the time they are put
into the consumer's hands. A third reason is to advertise
successes, so that private enterprise may be induced to
enter the field. The last two reasons coupled with the
necessity for exhibiting a rapid up-to-date plant for
imitation, are the warrant for the new departure at
Beypore, which will, it is hoped, be at once a stimulation
and a model to private enterprise. It is, in fact, the
stimulation and education of private enterprise that are
the aim of the department. It may be added that, except
for a small European trade in canned goods, usually
high-priced, there is no existing trade to injure.

The second criticism is answered by pointing out
for the hundredth time that the department is experi-
mental and the plant is experimental and petty but
that, as mentioned above, the department is about to
make a new advance in view to assist private enterprise ;
in working out this new advance the new plant for the
packing, etc., of sanitary, solderless tins will put
considerable quantities of goods on the market.
Meanwhile the cannery has sold during the current year
a fair number of tins priced at several thousand rupees.

97

Letter — from Sir F. A, Nicholson, k.c.i.e., Honorary

Director of Fisheries.
Dated — Madras, the i8th June IQ15.

I have the honour to submit my annual report for

1914-15-

2. The sanctioned and existing staff with their pay
and qualifications are as follows: —

Name.

Designation,

Academical
qualifications.

Director and Staff.

1. Sir F. A. Nicholson,

K.C.I.E.

2. Mr. V. Govindan,

F.z.s.

3. Mr. A. K. Menon,

F.C.S.

4 M. Jayaram Nayudu.

5. M Gulani Kadir

6

7-

Vacant
Do

Honorary Direct-
or.

Assistant tlo.

Oil Chemist ...
Sub-Assistant ...

Do

Do.
Do.

R.S.

400

250

50 (50-4—90)

50 (50-4—90)

50(50-4-90)
50 (50-4-90)

B.A.
B.A.

B.A. (Had training
in Medical College
for three years.)

F.A. (Had training
in Medical College
for two years.)

Not yet appointed.
Do.

I. Mr. H. C.Wilson

Vaccint

C. G. Chakrapani

Ayyangar.
Vacant

Do.
S. A. D'Silva

Piscicitltural Expert and Staff.

Piscicultural 950(800—50

Expert.

Assistant
Sub-Assistant .

1,250)
150-10—250
So (50 -5-100)

Assistant Inspec-
tor.

Do.
Do

30-4—50

30—4- 50
25 (25 — 1—40)

Not yet appointed,
B.A.

Not yet appointed.

Do.

Marine Biologist and Assistant and Staff

iVIr. James Hornell,

F.L.S.

S. T. Moses

K. Narayana Ayyar.

Vacant

Marine Biologist
and Assistant.

Zoological Assist-
ant.

Fish -farm Sul)-
Assistant.

Shell-fish Sub-
Assistant.

950(950-50—
f,25o)
100 (100— 5— (50)

50 (50—4—90)

50-4-90

M.A. (Zoology)

B.A (Zoology).
Has special train-
ing in Microtomy.

Not yet appointed.

Pearl and Chank Fisheries Staff.

I. Mr. James Hornell,

Superintendent,

...

(Vide entries above

■)

F.L.S.

P. and C.

2. J. A. Fernandez ...

Sub- Assistant ...

50 (50—5—100)

Matriculation.

3, S. Ramaswami Ay-

Senior Operator.

50 (50-5-75)

Do.

yangar.

98

3- The work was in general divided up as follows :
Mr. H, C. Wilson as Piscicultural Expert was in charge
of all piscicultural investigations, projects, and operations
in inland waters, and also of the work of breeding and
distributing larvicides ; Mr. James Hornell, f.l.s., was in
charge of all pearl and chank fisheries, of marine fish-
farms including an oyster farm at Pulicat, and of various
sea fishery investigations both practical and scientific ;
Mr. V. Govindan, b.a., as Assistant Director, assisted
the Honorary Director in all west coast station matters,
in office work, and in tours of enquiry and of inspection
of private oil and guano factories while especially work-
ing on the social and economic problems of the fishing
classes. The general work of the directorate and the
detailed work of the west coast experimental stations
formed my own share ; I also visited England on fishery
enquiries.

4. The principal operations in hand were as
follows : —

(i) The work in curing, canning, oil and guano
manufacture, etc., at the west coast experimental station ;

(2) the Sunkesula fresh -water fish-farm ;

(3) the hilsa hatchery ;

(4) the stocking of tanks ;

(5) the Colair lake project ;

(6) the commencement of Ippur fish-farm in the
Nellore district ;

(7) the breeding and distribution of larvicidal fish ;

(8) the acclimatization of tench on the plains ;

(9) the conservation and development of trout in
the upper Nilgiris ;

(10) the conservation of the waters of the Bhavani
and Moyar on the lower slopes of the Nilgiris ;

(11) the building of and early operations on the
Tuticorin marine fish-farm ;

(12) edible oyster cultivation at Pulicat ;

(13) pearl and chank fishery work at Tuticorin and
the Ramnad coast ;

(14) the pearl fishery at Tondi ;

(15) the preparation of plans, etc., for the pearl oyster
farm at Krusadai near Pamban ;

(16) soap-making from fish and other oils by the Oil
Chemist at the west coast station ;

99

(i;) Miscellaneous, including —

(a) enquiries in England in 19 14 for a master fisher-

man and mate, for hardened oils, for chank
cutting- plant, refrigerating plant, additional
canning plant, etc.;

(b) work on the Colair lake fish-farming project ;

(c) the consideration and publication of certain re-

strictive measures in fresh- water areas, streams
and channels ;

(</) investigations in various areas (Coorg, S. Kanara,
the Palnis, etc.) of fresh water conditions and
possibilities ;

(e) the supply of trout ova from the Nilgiris to other
waters ;
(/) preparation of a list of tanks containing perma-
nent waters ;

Qj) tours by all officers of scientific and practical
investigation ;

{/i) scientific researches and the supply of speci-
mens for educational purposes ;

(/') the training of students from Baroda and
Travancore in fishery operations in view to
their appointment as fishery experts in. their
own States ;

(y) the reorganization of the non-gazetted staft
in view to an increase in numbers and
status ;

(>^) bottle drift experiments in connection with
pearl oyster operations ;

(/) preparation of various statistics ;

(w) work in connection with the social and econo-
mic condition of the fishing classes ;

(/O consideration of the plans for a fishery
steamer ;

(o) consideration of the plans for the new Marine
Aquarium^and Biological Station ;

(^) feeding cattle with dried fish ;

((/) correspondence with British canning firms ;

(r) refrigeration ;

(s) issue of bulletins.
These matters are dealt with below.

7 -A

TOO

West Coast Experimental Station.

5. The west coast experimental station was run by
myself and the Assistant Director on the same lines as
in the previous year, but a Sub-Assistant was appointed
late in the year to take charge of the Tanur curing yard,
and another to the cannery ; these young men are under
training. A student from Baroda and another from
Travancore were also admitted to training for official
work in their own States and did very well ; a young
man from a South Kanara curing factory was also
admitted as an unpaid student.

The year was extremely unfavourable, worse than any
recent year ; there were no shoals of catfish from which
such large supplies of food and money are usually
obtained, few large fish, extremely few mackerel, and an
extraordinary shortage of sardines, which, moreover,
contained very little fat and that only for a minimum
period ; the oil and guano operations were practically
confined to November and those only on very few occa-
sions, so that the station was able to supply only 250
gallons of fine oil to the Government Cawnpore Leather
Factory instead of 1 ,000, and a lo-ton guano contract
was, with difficulty, carried out. These unfavourable
conditions were general all along the coast, and oil and
guano factories were either wholly or largely idle and
forward contractors experienced heavy losses ; the sea
beaches were practically devoid of the usual masses of
sardines drying as fish manure.

Some items of the work of the Tanur yard are
shown in Appendix II, but it is to be noted (1) that the
year was very unfavourable, (2) that the yard is experi-
mental and not commercial so that a good deal of money
is necessarily expended without a return in profits, (3)
that the staff, being Government employees, is neces-
sarily kept on throughout the year and for every day in
the year, whether there is work or not.

It was found impossible to induce Ratnagiri fisher-
men to bring their boats to Beypore, so that we were
deprived of the cold weather catches of large fish which
we obtained at Cannanore through these men. No real
deep-sea work was possible.

6. Cu7'ing. — No new departures were made except
in the construction of a new drier and in improving

toi

the cure of prawns by the process described in last
year's report ; these are now well established as an
excellent product for which there is a large demand.
In round figures 5 lb. of prawns straight from the sea
make i lb. of shelled, semi-dried prawns which will keep
for many months and when slightly soaked are an excel-
lent substitute for fresh prawns.

Experimental work in pilchard izing fat sardines, as
mentioned in last year's report, was necessarily impos-
sible, owing to lack of fish. For similar reasons the
pickling of mackerel and other fish either in salt only,
or in salt, vinegar, etc., could not be dealt with ; the
experiments stand over till next season.

Only one Jail (Coimbatore) continued to take dried
fish from the yard, but new terms have now been
arranged and other jails will probably take our fish.

7. Oil and guano. — As stated above, the year was
extremely unfortunate and very little was done. A new
shed with two large boiling pans on a new model (one
worked by steam) were built and arrangements improved
for obtaining fine oil and preventing rancidity ; these
will be tested more completely next season under the
advice and supervision of the oil chemist. Samples of
fine oil were sent to England for examination by hard-
ening experts, and to others for medicinal use, while the
lower grades and stearine were made into soap ; see
paragraph 43 below.

There were 211 private oil and guano factories at
work or in existence on the west coast during the year
under report.

8. Canning. — The manufacture was" considerably
developed in quantity but the recipes used were practi-
cally those adopted last' year as standards and, to judge
by the demand, are highly appreciated. Above 30,000
cans of all sorts were packed during the year, mainly of
sardines (plain, curried, and in oil) 13,020, of mackerel
(plain and marinated) 8,676, whole prawns 2,905,
prawn paste 4,806, and smoked mackerel paste 930. Of
these, together with the balance in hand on ist April
1914, 29,108 cans were sold to the public Tor Rs. 7,298,
being an average of Rs. 3 per dozen. To judge by
repeat orders and other evidence, this experimental
work has been highly successful, while from the numerous

I02

complaints — almost the only ones — that orders were not
complied with (from temporary lack of stock), there is
obviously a large unsatisfied market for pure and cheap
goods manufactured on a commercial and not on an
experimental scale.

During the year the new cannery at Beypore was
put up ; this provides good accommodation for canning,
refrigeration and other preserving processes and for
storage. The new canning plant produces solid-drawn
cans, the bodies of which are struck by a drawing press
from the i\at ; the covers are secured to the body by
" double seaming," the flanges of the body and cover
being jointly turned over with the interpositioti of a
composition band between them ; this makes an air-tight
joint. It will be noticed that this method produces a
can which is not only free from solder, but has only
one seam instead of ttiree as in the ordinary soldered
can hence much less chance of spoilage. Moreover,
the cans can be struck as fast as the press will work,
and 50 perfect bodies have been struck in five minutes ;
this immensely increases the potential output, and the
cannery will no longer be limited by the capacity of its
sclderers who seldom solder more than 150 cans each
per day. The new cannery was not actually at work
during the year.

It has been proved during the year that sardines in
oil are all the better for long storage ; cans of 1913 gave
excellent gustatory results. Moreover, the oil used
matters the less as the age increases, since the blended
flavour of fish, oil and spice covers up any characteristic
flavour of the oil ; refined cotton seed-oil gave as good
results as olive oil, while sardines in fine sardine-oil were
generally preferred to any as being richer in flavour.

Experiments were recently tried with the greatest
success in preventing the slight discoloration of prawns
when canned ; the new method, not yet in practical use,
involves some technical difficulties as regards the con-
tainer and slight extra cost but this can be got over ; the
fish under experiment completely preserved their natural
brilliance of colour.

9. Refr-igeratioii. — Owing to delays in building and
the want of refrigerating experts, the new plant for fish-
freezing after the Henderson method (see previous

to3

report) was not put in action ; it is, however, now in
place and will shortly be worked.

Fresh Water Pisciculture.

lo. Mr. Wilson, Piscicultural Expert, remained in
charge of these operations, which involve an immensity
of touring and planning. The chief operations under-
taken are described by Mr. Wilson in the following"
extract from his report : —

11. Sunkesula fish-farm. — The general work at the farm progressed
satisfactorily and a large head of fish was secured and kept in the
several farm ponds for stocking purposes ; but unfortunately, owing
to the breaching of Tangadencha tank three times, the stocking of
Kurnool-Cuddapah canal was not possible for want of sufficient water
and hence only the first 20 miles was stocked. It may, however, be
remarked that the breaching of the Tangadencha tank will have a
most deleterious effect on the fishery of the canal for a few years
to come. This tank, which never ran dry, contained a lot of good
breeders, and the canal was replenished every year with fish from this
source. To make good this loss will mean the re-stocking of Tanga-
dencha from Sunkesula for many years. Many thousands of murrel,
fry, etc., were however removed from the farm and turned out into
the Edurur swamp for growing purposes.

The new and valuable larvicide Polyacantkus cupanics referred to
in my last year's annual report have since bred in the farm. A
portion of the Hindri river close to the Kurnool Collector's bungalow
and the Markapur tank were stocked with this useful larvicide.

Another interesting item of work done at the farm was the intro-
duction of tench (Tinea vulgaris). A small consignment of tench and
English carp were brought from the Nilgiris and turned out into the
breeding ponds.

Live-fish ?narket. — This was opened in Kurnool and live fish were
sold to the public at three annas per pound fetching a sum of Rs. 371
to this department during the year. The market was supplied with
fish from the fish farm.

12. Hilsa hatchery During the year under report my Sub-
Assistant went to the Lower Anicut to attend to this. He waited for
several days and though almost all female hilsa caught were in a
gravid state not a single ripe one could be had. As the water in the
river went low and there were no further runs of fish, the hatchery
work was closed for the year.

13. Stocking of tanks. — As mentioned in paragraph 11 supra it
was impossible to stock the whole of the Kurnool-Cuddapah canal
owing to the breaching of the Tangadencha tank.

Daroji tank in the Bellary district and the Markapur tank in
the Kurnool district were stocked with fish from the farm in September
and October last respectively ; the latter tank, however, was again
stocked in December with carp and mosquito larvicides.

104

Besides the above two tanks another tank which holds permanent
water, viz., Peddamentrala in Markapur taluk of the Kurnool district
was also stocked.

Barur and Penukondapuram tanks were not stocked during the
year under report, but 1 hope will be stocked during the current
year.

14. The Colair Lake project. — As mentioned in my last year's
report the submission of detailed estimates called for in G.O. No. 61,
Revenue, dated the 6th January 191 3, is still being delayed owing to
the existence of stake nets and fixed engines. When my new Assistant
is appointed he will be put on this work ; after a thorough investiga-
tion, proposals for the removal of these nets under G.O. No, 1905,
Revenue, dated 2nd July 1914, will be drawn up and submitted to
Government for necessary action.

15. T]ie Ippur Fish-farm in Nellore. — The site selected is in the
bed or Ippur tank about 11 miles from Venkatachalam station on the
Madras and Southern Mahratta line. The water is supplied by an
open channel from Survapalli tank and the Public Works Depart-
ment records show that the water-supply in this tank, if carefully
guarded, should not fail to supply the fishery excepting in years of
great drought.

The construction of a well has been provided for and a small
pumping plant to insure against the above danger and for other
necessary work.

The fishing rights of this and Puduparti tank adjoining have been
handed over to this department and the small rentals amounting to
only a few rupees will be paid as compensation to the Nellore District
Board. The plans of the fishery and buildings have been perused by
the Public Works Department and the works sanctioned by Govern-
ment in G.O, No. 2997, dated 14th October 1914.

The work is now in the hands of the Executive Engineer of Nellore
and will be completed this year,

16. Breeding and distrilnLtion of larvicidal fish. — A
good deal of Mr. Wilson's time and energy were spent
on this matter ; not only were further experiments con-
ducted at Sunkesula, but the new Ippur farm is specially
devised to provide a supply of larvicidal fish for distri-
bution to municipalities, etc.

Mr. Wilson reports as follows ; —

" In July I inspected several wells in Tondiyarpet, Madras, with
Captain Hodgson, I. M.S., in connection with the Anti-malarial opera-
tions. Many of the wells visited that had been stocked with larvicides,
were examined and absolutely devoid of mosquito larvee.

The danger of the present method of stocking with fish larvicides
was pointed out to Captain Hodgson, viz., the liability of intro-
ducing eggs of predaceous fish with the larvicides.

The present system of gathering the small fish from surrounding
ponds is an exceedingly bad method and it is almost a certainty that
eggs of predaceous fish, especially the floating eggs of the
Ophioce/>halid(e family, will be accidentally carried.

io5

In some of the wells visited which had been already stocked, we
found the small fish larvicides had all disappeared and it was evident
that some predaceous fish had been introduced.

On completion of the larvicide farm at Nellore the small fish
can be sent for stocking purposes free of all this danger."

17. Acclimatization of tench. — With reference to G.O. No. 1601,
Revenue, dated 3rd June 1914, sanctioning the above scheme, a
consignment of tench was brought from the Nilgiris in February last
and turned out into leejur tank and another small tank close tc
Mattigiri near Hosur ; as mentioned under Sunkesula fish farm a
small consignment of tench was put in one of the ponds of the fish
farm at Sunkesula. The result of the experiment will be reported to
Government in due course.

18. Trout en the Nilgiris. — In May the streams of the Nilgiris
were inspected to decide the opening date of trout fishing and the
same month the following rivers were restocked with large trout from
the reserve stream in Parson's valley, viz., Pykara (upper reaches),
Krurmund, Mekod below falls, Kundah river below Mclver's bund,
and Billithada Halla.

In September a valuable consignment of live fish food was brought
from the Moyar river near Torapalli to the fish ponds and river at
Pykara.

The same month the following new streams were stocked with
trout, viz., Tiah shola stream (Kondas) waterfall streams, Piermade
stream, and Bangi tappal stream.

The supply of eggs at the Avalanche hatchery was fairly good
and trout were kept for transhipment to the Travancore ranges, etc.
The rivers are fully stocked with trout and some very large fish have
been seen,

A consignment of tench was sent to Wellington to restock the
lake.

1 9 . Conservation oj Bh avdn i and Moyar rivers. — T he
usual conservancy precautions were taken. As regards
the Cauvery into which these rivers flow Mr. Wilson
writes as follows : —

" During the year under report the Cauvery and the Coleroon
fisheries have been taken over by Government paying the district
boards concerned a fixed annual compensation. To improve this
fishery it is absolutely necessary to prevent the wholesale indis-
criminate slaughter of fish which takes place during the annual fish
drive in the Cauvery near Hoginkal (Salem district) as well as
dynamiting, etc. With the help of the Collector of the district as
well as the District Forest Officer the annual fish drive has been
put an end to during the last four or five years, besides dynamiting
as well as other illegal methods of capturing fish. Through the co-
operation of the District Forest Ofiicer, Salem, all fishing licenses will
be issued for a nominal fee for capturing fish in the river within the
forest boundary, and the size of mesh of the nets used will also be
regulated."

20. Miscellaiieous — Palni hill streams. — With reference to G.O.
Mis. No. 359, Revenue, dated 3rd February 1914, the Palni hill

ro6

streams and the 'new reservoirs at Kodaikanal and Berijam, etc.,
were examined and reported on as to their suitability for the
introduction of trout. Government have approved of the scheme
and a consignment of trout will be sent in May.

Exammafion of South Kanara wafers. — In G.O. Mis. No. 1543,
Revenue, dated the 28th May 1914, I was requested by Government
to examine the above waters and to suggest the methods to improve
their fisheries.

Large sections of the waters of this most interesting district (from
a piscicultural point of view) have been inspected when at their lowest
levels and a full report will be submitted shortly.

The following rivers were visited during the inspection : Char-
vattur, Payasuvati or Chandragiri, Adkastala, Netravati and its
tributaries.

Most of these splendid rivers were found to be so severely poached
by means of fixed engines, etc., that it will take many years of strict
conservancy and stocking to bring them back to anything like
their full fish-bearing capacity. It will be necessary to construct
a fishery for the restocking of these niost valuable waters, and
possible sites were visited on the upper reaches of the more
important streams. The most promising site for this work was found
on the Ancel river near Neriya which is a tributary of the Netravati.

Full particulars of this proposed fishery will be submitted in a
separate report after reinspection of the selected site during the
monsoon season.

Coorg. — Having inspected all the more important rivers of Coorg
a report is being submitted to the Chief Commissioner with sugges-
tions for conservation and the possibilities of introduction of new
species.

During the year under report correspondence with the Public
\\'orks Department has enabled us to compile a list of all the tanks
in this Presidency which contain more or less permanent water.
These will be inspected as time permits and methods adopted to
improve their fisheries and take them over to our department.

Many municipalities were advised as to the best fish larvicides to
stock their waters with, but the recjuest of some to be supplied with
a stock of larvicides could not be complied with, until the Ippur fish
farm is working.

There were also numerous miscellaneous items such as
correspondence with China and Java relating to the introduction of
gourami, which should have practical results during the current year,
correspondence initiated by the Government of Hongkong on angling
matters, the publication of a note on the treatment of swamps, ponds,
etc., from an anti-malarial point of view, etc.

Marine Pisciculture and Other Work.

21. Tnticorin F ish-faniL — At present we have— for
various reasons — no marine hatcheries ; the present
need for them is not proved, and no staff is as yet avail-
able. But we are attempting to develop the usefulness

io7

of our Immense backwaters all of which open to the sea,
and the Tuticorin fish-farm Is the earliest systematized
attempt to produce free swimming- fish under controlled
conditions. Mr. Hornell, as Marine Assistant, devised
this farm in a lagoon at Tuticorin and built it during- the
year under report ; he writes as follows : —

"The Tuticorin fish-farm was completed in January 1915 and
stocked with mullet, whiting ( Sillago sihama) and other quick growing
backwater fishes. Hardly had this been done when unseasonable
and exceptionally heavy rainfall occurred throughout the Tinnevelly
district entailing in the river valleys very serious losses wherein the
fish-farm unfortunately participated to the full. A considerable
portion of the palisading was damaged and could not be repaired till
the floods subsided. The fish fry were scattered and stocking had to
be undertaken a second time in March; we cannot therefore expect
growth to be so s?.ti?factory or the stock to be so large as it otherwise
would have been had normal conditions prevailed in January. The
work done has, nevertheless, already added largely to our knowledge
of the fauna of the lagoon and of the life histories of several of its
more important constituents. A very satisfactory feature is the great
abundance of two of our most valuable Indian prawns ; not only do
these species grow to a large size and form excellent eating, they also
constitute a valuable bait for the line fishermen. These men for
years past have been handicapped by a shortage of this bait, so when
I found that prawns were thriving greatly in the fish-farm, it appeared
obviously sounder economically to exploit this resource specifically
for the benefit of these men than to dispose of the catches to the
general public as food. Accordingly special store baskets were
devised in v/hich the catches made during each day are stored till
the early morning of the succeeding day when the line fishermen
come for their supply. On most days their demand is greater than
the supply ; this I hope to put right next season when more normal
weather conditions may be expected to prevail than was the case this
year.

" The line fishermen greatly appreciate this boon of bait supply
and storage. Hitherto it has been a common occurrence for them to
be delayed unduly in the mornings as the lack of storage facilities
meant that they had to await the actual daily capture of prawns
before they could go to sea ; I have seen men eitting on the shore
till 9 A.M. waiting for the prawners to catch a sufiiciency of bait.
Now they can usually get to sea by 6 a.m. as all they have to do is
to go to the prawn store and buy what quantity they desire."

22. Edible oyster culture. — Growth of the stock on the beds at
Pulicat proceeded most satisfactorily throughout 19 14, and at the
beginning of January 1 915, the oysters had recovered from the set
back they annually receive during the ordinary rainy season of October
and November. Unfortunately the exceptional and heavy rains which
occurred towards the end of January and which, as already mentioned,
occasioned ill-effects in the Tuticorin fish-farm, were equally well
marked at Pulicat and this second flood of fresh water threw the
oysters back two months in condition so much so that sales had to be

suspended temporarily during February and March. Low salinity
continued for an unduly long period after the floods subsided and
indicates that a backwater with a relatively small area is preferable
for oyster culture to one of much greater extent whenever the sea-
mouth of the latter is restricted in size.

Prospects for the coming year are again good, but pending the
erection of the proposed Biological Station and A(|uarium at Madras
and the provision therein of conditioning tanks for oysters, no great
extension of sales can be hoped for, as recent railway time-table
rearrangements have been retrograde in regard to the Ennore service,
entailing serious distribution difficulties.

23. Othe7^ work. — -This heading comprises a great
deal of work of which the main items are reported on by
Mr. Hornell as follows: —

" Ttcfuiical instruction in fishery science. — Two students sent by the
Baroda and Travancore Governments were given courses of practical
instruction. They are now employed by their respective Govern-
ments as fishery experts and I continue to give them advice unofficially
from time to time.

" The supply of biological specimens to educational and scientific
institutions was commenced ; specimens were sent to the Cochin
Museum, the Oceanographic Museum at Monaco, the Christian
College, Madras, and others. Considerable extension of this section
is expected in 1915-16. The sum of Rs. 56-13-0 was received for
the specimens supplied and was duly paid into the treasury.

" Current and drift investigations were continued ; 2,850 bottles
were liberated ; sufficient results have now been obtained to permit of
deductions being made. A report is in preparation.

" Statistics of the Tuticorin fishing industry have been tabulated
in great detail for the past 3I years. These comparative statistics
exhibit clearly the large monetary value of tlie industry and the fluc-
tuations due to seasonal changes ; they also throw a flood of new
light on the seasonal abundance of the principal food fishes on the
east coast and their relative importance.

" Sardine investigatioti was continued with a view to determine
the factors governing sardine abundance in inshore waters and other
vitally important facts in their habits and life history. Work to this
end was carried on at Tuticorin, Cannanore and Beypore.

" The economic position of tJie fishing population in Tinnevelly
and Ramniid districts received attention and proposals have been
made to assist them by means of loans to buy boats and gear. Fur-
ther information has recently been obtained pointing to the urgent
need for assistance if development is to proceed satisfactorily.

" Mechanical chank fishing. — As experiments in dredging and
trawling chanks have not proved satisfactory, attention was given
during the year to the possibility of designing a simple form of sub-
marine boat to be used in fishing chanks and pearl oysters. Success
depends upon the evolution of a sufficiently simple and inexpensive
design.

" Beche-de-mer fishery, — Several of the species of Holothuria
(Sea-cucumbers) best esteemed by the Chinese in the preparation of

I09

their great delicacy of beche-de-mer or trepang have been found, in
the course of the prosecution of the Rilmnad Chank Fishery, to be
abundant in Palk Ray ; it appears that they can be fished profitably
together with chanks and I am now preparing a proposal whereby this
department may take up the working of this industry, in order, by
experiment, to ascertain the best methods of preparation and thereby
to set this industry, which has potential value, upon a stable footing.
By working this industry in conjunction with the chank industry, the
divers will be able to make better wages and so be rendered more
content and more active in tiie prosecution of the chank fishery.
The divers have difticulty in finding any market whatever for beche-
de-mer and the industry is practically dead at the present moment,
hence this is a favourable time to begin operations ; such action
would be welcomed with gratitude by the divers."

Pearl and Chank Fishery Work.

24. As usual this branch will be reported on in
detail separately. In this matter Mr. Hornell writes
briefly for the present report as follows : —

" A pearl fishery was held at Tondi in August and September
1914 after prolonged inspection of the pearl banks off Tondi and
Karangadu, discovered in the preceding April. This fishery is epoch-
making in that it is the first ever held in Palk Bay. Full details are
given in G.O. No. 633, dated loth March 1915. The net profit made
amounts to Rs. 3,496-11-9 inclusive of the amount to be paid this
year by the lessee of the right to fish the oysters left unfished.

" The life history of the pearl oyster received much attention.
Large larvae already assuming the adult form were taken in the tow-
net in April and it has been thus shown that the dispersal period
may be much more prolonged than we know. The Palk Bay beds
appear to constitute the natural breeding stock whence the Ceylon
and Tuticorin beds are periodically replenished, Palk Bay may be
considered the motherland of the Gulf of Mannar pearl oysters. A
new potential pearl-inducing parasite was found and has been described
in a paper upon the Tondi Pearl Fishery read before the 2nd Indian
Science Congress held at Madras in January 1915.

" No inspection of pearl-, banks in the Gulf of Mannar was
possible last season owing to the Inspection Schooner " Lady
Nicholson " having been requisitioned by the Port authorities at
Madras. So far as can be ascertained, no spat-fall has occurred on
the Tinnevelly banks during the past year.

'''' Fearl-inducemenl. — In anticipation of the early construction
of the Pearl Laboratory at Pamban, a senior operator has been
appointed and is now undergoing preliminary training in technical
methods. The opportunity of a pearl fishery in Palk Bay in 1914,
enabled a number of new experiments in pearl-inducement to be com-
menced; the requisitioning of the inspection schooner for war service
at Madras brought these to an untimely end and for the present they
are necessarily in abeyance."

I lO

Chank fisheiHes. — This department now controls the
chank fisheries along the whole coast between Cape
Comorin and Chingleput, which for convenience' sake
are named the Tuticorin, Ramnad, and Coromandel
fisheries. Mr. Hornell writes as follows : —

" The Tuticorin Chank Fishery for the year ending 30th June

1914 is given in detail in G.O. No. 202, dated 21st January 1915.
The total number of shells paid for was 232,504 and the net proceeds
amounted to Rs. 18,784-3-9. The 1914-15 season just ended will
be less productive owing to the interruption caused by a divers'
strike which lasted from 20th November 1914 to 22nd March 1915,
whereby the best part of the season was lost. The number of full-
sized shells fished now in stock and ready for delivery is 129,437.

"The Coromandel Chank Fisheries brought in Rs. 1,513-5-4
for 1914-15. The South Arcot lease expiring on 31st March 1915,
tenders for a further term were called for and an enhanced rate
was obtained, viz., Rs. 900 per annum for three years from ist April

1 915 as against Rs. 51 6-1 0-8 per annum for the term ended. 'Fhe
revenue from this coast steadily improves. The lessee again com-
plains of loss sustained due to the smuggling of shells into French
territory,

" The Ramnad Chank Fishery proved difficult to organize
during the first year owing partly to lack of sufficient acquaintance
with local conditions and largely to the difficulties put in our way by
the chank merchants of Kilakarai who are jealous of the new depar-
ture. Since July 1914 these difficulties have been largely niode-
r ated as an intimate knowledge of local conditions has been obtained,
a nd the opposition to some extent broken down though this may be
temporary only. As a result a very satisfactory fishery was held at
Kameswaram and thanks largely to the loyal example set by two
boats' crews of divers recruited at Kilakarai and the fair treatment and
good pay given, a considerable number of other divers attended. The
total catch for the current season already amounts to 117,172 at
Rameswaram as against 8,218 last year ; 31,564 at Tirupalakudi,
Vedalai, etc., against 4,978 last year; 17,584 at Kilakarai against
427 last year.

" Excellent relations have been formed and maintained with
the Kilakarai men, and were these divers free from the trammels of
the pernicious advance system wherein the merchants and boatowners
have enmeshed them we should have the whole diving population of
Kilakarai at our call. As it is, many of the men who have worked for
us at Rameswaram fear persecution for so doing and ask for protection
against this if it occur."

25. The Krusadai pearl oyster farm. — The general
proposals for the establishment of a pearl oyster farm and
a subsidiary marine biological station in the island of
Krijsadai close to Pamban and for acquiring the island
for the purpose were sanctioned in January 1915. The
detailed plans and estimates are under preparation in the

TI I

Public Works Department and these will be submitted
to Government shortly.

26. Cliank bangle cutting. — This formed the subject
of enquiry in previous years and in 191 2 when in England
I obtained the aid of a Birminoham firm in cutting" these
hard porcellaneous shells. The experiments, as well as
other enquiries by Mr. Hornell, proved useless, but in
1914 I consulted Dr. Wyndham Dunstan, Director of
the Imperial Institute, London, who at once interested
himself in the matter. The result is mentioned by Mr.
Hornell in the following remarks, and it is now quite
possible that success in rapid machine cutting may be
obtained, and a local industry developed.

Enquiries with a view to obtain a satisfactory cheap
and effective machine saw to slice chank shells into
working section for the shell-bangle worker, were con-
tinued during the year and now promise to be successful
at last. Both the Director of the Imperial Institute and
Mr. Pierce, the Superintendent of the Public Works
Workshops have been good enough to give their assist-
ance, and the former recently supplied samples of chank
sections cut by a machine saw which operates under
water. The price of the saw and fittings is quoted at
;^i8 and if the answer to some further queries which have
been transmitted to the Director be satisfactory, it will
then be desirable to obtain a sample machine and carry
out working experiments in Madras or Tuticorin to
ascertain what modifications be necessary to fit it for
employment by small manufacturers who have not
command of steam or electric power.

Miscellaneous.

27. Of the items mentioned under this head in para-
graph 4 supra those marked (/;), (^), (f), (/ ), [g^, {k), (k)
have already been touched on in paragraphs 14, 18, 20,
and 20 ; the others will now be briefly mentioned.

2 8. {a) Master fisherman and mate. — This matter was
alluded to in paragraph 20 of last year's report. The
necessity for a master-fisherman to take vessels into the
deep sea, to use and teach the use of new nets and
methods, to keep the seagoing staff up to their work, to
conduct experimental fishing intelligently, thoroughly
and conscientiously, and to report results accurately, has

I 12

been abundantly proved by the experience of past years.
Accordingly sanction was given by Government in G.O.
No. 822, dated 21st March 19 12, for the appointment of
such a man ; various difficulties, however, prevented his
appointment. But in June 1914 I visited Aberdeen and
several other fishery centres in view to the recruitment
of a master-fisherman together with a mate additionally
sanctioned by Government Memorandum No. 181 i-A
13-15, Revenue, dated 2nd June 1914. By the courtesy
of Messrs. Richard Irvin & Sons (Aberdeen) two excellent
men were selected on the terms sanctioned, but the out-
break of war cut short the negotiations as both men were
trained mine-sweepers and were taken by the Admiralty ;
it seemed useless to negotiate for others under war
circumstances. The matter therefore stands over, but
as the new fishery steamer has not yet been sanctioned,
this is of less account, since a good fishery boat will be
necessary to give the men full scope and obtain true and
complete results.

29. (r) Restrictive measures. — As mentioned in para-
graph 14, large fresh-water projects are delayed or
impossible because of the unrestricted use, or rather
abuse, by fishermen of stake nets and fixed engines.
The matter will require very wide enquiry and very
careful handling, but a beginning was made as per G.O.
No. 1 157, Revenue, dated 15th May 1915. The matter
is also briefiy touched on in the quotations contained
in paragraphs 19 and 20 supra.

yi. (/) Training of students. — During the year two
students from Baroda and two from Travancore arrived
for such training as could be given them, in view to their
subsequent employment in their respective States — one
from each State was to study pisciculture, and one to
learn the principles and art of fish-curing, canning, etc.
The young men selected proved to be capable and
diligent, and all have since been appointed to fishery
posts in their respective States, but they will probably
return next season for further study. The pisciculturists
will also study curing, and the curers will study pisci-
culture so that they may be, more or less, all round men.

This department is, of course, not yet prepared for
regular educational work ; it cannot be till we have the
new Biological Station and Aquarium at Madras and until

1 1

our own researches are more complete, but what could
be done was done, and the additional labour was often a
pleasure because the men were diligent and respective.

In November 19 14, the Director of Public Instruc-
tion enquired whether this department could receive a
few trained teachers in order that they might get a
oeneral knowledge of the aims and methods of the
department in view to their subsequent work in teaching
rural science in Elementary Schools. Although we are
not prepared for such working it has been arranged that
the Assistant Director shall take charge of such
students ; they will also be shown the work of the Pisci-
cultural Expert and Marine Assistant.

31. {J) Reorganization of the non-gazettfd staff . — By
G.O. No. 2348, Revenue, dated the 14th August 19 14,
this was considerably strengthened and improved in
numbers, pay and status. The Piscicultural Expert
received a separate establishment, including an Assistant
who will have to be Mr. Wilson's under-study in fresh
water pisciculture and operations generally ; it has not
yet been possible to find a suitable man on the pay
sanctioned by Government. On the marine side a
Zoological Assistant on Rs. 100 — 5 — 150, two additional
sub-assistants, and a senior operator on Rs. 50 — 5 — 75
were sanctioned ; the first named, who is to work in
connection with the projected Biological Station and
Aquarium at Madras, was appointed in advance so as
to be trained under and to assist Mr. Hornell ; the two
sub-assistants are to take charoe of fish-farm and shell-
fish culture operations, respectively, while the Senior
Operator will work on the Krijsadai pearl oyster farm
and is being trained accordingly. For the Director's
immediate staft four sub-assistants were sanctioned for
the numerous operations in hand or in immediate view,
but only two have, as yet, been appointed, one for the
curing and oil and guano yard at Tanur, and the other
for the cannery. The pay and qualifications of the new
m.en will be found in the list in paragraph 3.

When this whole staff has been properly trained the
department will be on the way to carry out a consider-
able amount of practical and scientific work. The
clerical and account staff was simultaneously improved
in pay and prospects.
8

114

32. (/) Siafi sties, — Under Government Orders the
department began to compile fishery statistics. Mr.
Hornell has for several years done so for his own
station (Tuticorin) as regards fish and fishing, but the
statistics required by Government are more far-reaching.
A beginning has been made in utilizing the statistics
found in the standing note-books of the 119 Govern-
ment fish-curing yards (i.e., bonded yards where duty-
free salt is issued to the curers who are left mainly to
their own curing methods) and these are now being
compiled, supplemented, and commented on by the
Assistant Director and will shortly be submitted to
Government. As the department has absolutely no
staff for collecting statistics, these will necessarily be
imperfect ; but may serve as a basis and should give
some idea of the fishing population, of their boats and
fishing gear, and of the fish obtained at various seasons
and localities. I am also collating the answers to
questionnaires issued to various authorities (Revenue
officers, Medical and Sanitary officers, and Municipal
authorities) some years ago ; these should give some
knowledge of fishery conditions and of fish as popularly
used for food.

T)T). (m) Socio-economic ivork. — This is almost entirely
in the hands of the Assistant Director Mr. V. Govindan,
who was not only deeply interested in such work
(especially among the " depressed " classes) before he
joined the department, but is otherwise well fitted for it,
especially on the west coast. During his work under
me on the west coast he has been not merely collecting
data for a complete paper on the condition of the fisher-
folk on the west coast — which is his own country — but
has constantly discussed economic matters with groups
of people in various localities. He writes as follows : —

*' After four years of constant talk and persuasion I have
succeeded in starting a co-operative society among the fishermen of
Tanur. The society was registered about the end of March and
arrangements are being made to commence business. Fifty of the
leading fishermen who own boats and nets have already joined the
society and paid the first call on their shares. This is a co-operative
nidhi and each shareholder has to pay a sum of Rs. 50 within 25
months by instalments of Rs. 2 per month, and thus the members
have to create a capital by their own contributions. As the maximum
number of shares is 200, this society will have a capital of

115

Rs. 10,000 in two years' time provided the fishing season is good, and
with this large amount it will be easy enough to put a stop to the
sowcar's greedy transactions in the place. Most of these people
will require only short term loans, and it is not unlikely that they
will have money on hand to lend to other societies or banks.

" Fishermen at Quilandi, Tellicherry, and some other places are
being persuaded to organize similar societies, and as soon as the
successful working of the Tanur society comes to their knowledge it
may be presumed that they will also come forward to form societies in
their respective villages.

" A society for the special benefit of the owners of fish-oil and
guano factories has also been suggested and nearly a dozen owners of
such factories in South Canara have been considering the matter,
but owing to the last two fishing seasons being unfavourable nothing
practical has come out of the discussions.

" In a certain fishing village which is situated near the mouth
of a large river there is scope for a co-operative fisheries society.
The right of fishing in this locality is auctioned by Government and is
usually purchased by some one who does not belong to the fishing
community. Last year it was purchased by a man who had also the
license for selling toddy. This man not only collected so much
money from each fisherman who fished in these waters but also made
it a condition that they should patronise only his toddy shop, and in
order to make it doubly secure he made each fisherman to deposit a
sum of Rs. 5 with him. The sum so deposited was more than what
he had to pay as the license fee of his toddy shop. Moreover, such
farmers of the fishing rights give a lot of trouble to the fishermen and
drag them to the courts. It will be a great boon to the fishermen
if the right of fishing in this locality is given to them direct on
condition that they organise a co-operative society and work on co-
operative basis and pay the CTOvernnlent dues in a lump sum collected
from each fisherman. This will not only benefit them pecuniarily
but also Jree them from all petty worries and litigation. I spoke
to some of the men when I visited the village but they could hardly
understand what co-operation was, but some non-fishermen who
overheard our conversation at once understood it and shook their
head. I am sure a few more visits and talks will open their eyes
in this matter. I understand that there are several other villages in
the south where the conditions are similar and there is good scope
for co-operation."'

-7 ,

34. On the subject of intemperance, which is the curse
of the fisherfolk, he makes the following remarks : —

" Besides the above mentioned tours I have inspected a number
of oil and guano factories in Malabar and South Canara and on such
occasions I have spoken to fisherfolk on various topics such as co-
operation, education, improvement of their surroundings, thrift, and
intemperance. In August last on a visit to Malpe, I spoke to several
people about temperance and education of their children. Soon after
I left the place there was a meeting of the elders of the Mogar caste
on the occasion of a temple festival at Mulki and they discussed the

8-A

1x6

subject of temperance of which I had spoken to them at Malpe and
they unanimously came to the conclusion that drinking should be
prohibited among the members of the community. Accordingly all
this caste people living in the two taluks of Udipi and Coondapoor
gave up drink. The result was that the toddy shop vendors in the
fishing villages began to feel the pinch and they sent up petitions to
the district authorities about the fishermen's resolution to abstain
from drink. The authorities could give them no help and they then
got round some of the leaders of the fisher community and by under-
hand means tried to nullify the resolution. In some villages I am
sorry to hear they have succeeded, but in most places the people
have understood the spirit of the resolution and have not taken to
drink again. I am certain that a few more meetings of the elders
will ultimately win the day for temperance. A temperance society
for the benefit of this people has been in existence in Mangalore
during the last four years and branches of this society have been
formed in various other villages and the membership has increased."

It was mentioned in my report of 1910-1 1 that some
of the older lisherfolk themselves opposed the efforts of
younger men to adopt temperance on the ground that
drinking was customary and should be adhered to ; the
obstruction or rather the active efforts of the toddy shop
vendors mentioned in the two paragraphs above can
only be characterized by a word which is theological
but not official. It is, however, of great interest to note
the influence of caste panchayats in guiding special
matters and that such influence can even withstand
opposition.

The whole matter will be discussed and, I hoj)e,
practical recommendations made in the paper mentioned
in paragraph ^2> together with any commentary that
may be necessary. The cognate matter of improving
the financial position of the fishermen and curers,
whether by Government loans or co-operative societies,
etc., which has been under enquiry and discussion for
years, is mentioned by Mr. Hornell (paragraph 26 supra)
and by Mr. Govindan, and will be more fully discussed
in a note now in hand submitting to Government a
programme of future work based on the enquiries and
operations of the past ten years.

35. Primaiy school for fisher boys. — This was men-
tioned in paragraph 39 of last year's report and has been
continued during the year ; the Assistant Director
writes as follows : —

'' There were 23 pupils in the rolls; in addition to elementary
education they are being taught technical subjects such as carpentry,

preparation of twine and cotton for making nets, net mending.
Application has been made to the Educational de-partment to have this
school recognized as a grant-in aid institution. Some of the pupils
have been engaged occasionally in the curing shed to assist in curing
operations, and also sent out in the cance carrier to buy fish in the
sea for our yard. In order to teach them thrift — the want of which
is the cause of everlasting indebtedness of the fishing community all
along the coast, pupils of this school are being persuaded to make
savings bank deposits in the local post office, and several boys above
sixteen years of age have already opened such accounts."

The Government curing yard within which the school
is situated, is often suddenly in need of extra hands
when large quantities of sardines, prawns, etc., have to
be dealt with, and the idea is that the boys shall work
partly in the yard and partly in the school, and thus be
doubly trained. Pictures of fisheries and fishery subjects
are being utilized, and this method of visual instruction
is about to be developed by means of further pictures
and an optical lantern ; this will also attract adults.

T,6. {71) Fishery steamer. — The plans for this vessel
were repeatedly discussed during the year both by a
committee appointed by Government ad hoe and which
included Commander Huddleston (Presidency Port
Officer), and otherwise. The steamer is intended to be
a full power trawler fitted both for trawling, drifting, and
lining, with accommodation forward, possibly after the
fashion of modern " destroyers," for a scientific and
controlling staff and their work. She wmII also have a
refrigerating plant and everything needed for thoroughly
practical work in order that the question, at present
unanswered, as to the fishery possibilities of the deep
sea (that is, for this Presidency, everything outside 10
or 12 fathoms), may be fully examined and answered.
In view of the very large and direct fishery work under-
taken by various Colonial Governments, this is but a
modest proposal. The matter has recently been referred
to by Government to the India Office for consideration
of the best plans and for an estimate of cost.

2,"]. (0) N'ew Marine aqziarinvi and Biological
station. — The plans were under the consideration of
the Government Architect, and it is understood that
they are in temporary abeyance pending the question
of the architecture of future buildings on the Madras
Marina. I need hardly again urge the importance of this

ii8

institution both as Fishery head-quarters and as a place of
biological, educational, and economic research, and as a
delightful resort for instructive recreation to the public.

2,S. (/) Rcsuifs of feeding- cattle with dried fish. —
This was mentioned in paragraph 8 of last year's report.
The results were published in the Pusa Agricultural
Journal ; apparently the experiments were successful but
their commercial success depends on the price of the
dried fish which is very irregular owing to the great
uncertainties of the sardine shoals.

39. {q) Correspondence with British canning firms. —
While in England in 19 14 I circularised several canning
firms at the end of July on the subject of establishing
canning branches in this Presidency. Three replied, ol
whom one — a great firm — was not prepared to adopt
the proposal but most courteously and voluntarily offered
me any information or assistance I might require. Two
firms favourably considered the matter, of whom one,
which has been consistently courteous in admitting me
to its cannery and giving me information, has sent a
long and practical set of questions which have recently
been answered ; its representative will probably visit
Madras next cold weather. My return to India on the
declaration of war prevented visits to the several firms
subsequent to my circular.

The establishment of local factories by great British
firms would not only give an immense impetus to the
business and to subsidiary industries, but would set up a
definite standard of ofoods which would be of enormous
advantage to the public and to the industry.

40. (r) Refrigeration. — Enquiries were also made
while in London reoardino- the French AudiftrenSang-
run refrigerator ; there are machines of this make in
Government House, Madras, and the Pasteur Institute,
Coonoor, etc., and it seems probable that machines
of this type will be very suitable to Madras coastal
requirements. Their great advantage is that they are
absolutely self-contained and hermetically sealed (by
welding), with the result that, on receipt of the machines,
there is absolutely nothing to be done but to connect
motive power to the driving pulley of the machine, and
refrigeration begins. There are no intricate valves or
parts, no charging with ammonia ; the machine seems

119

absolutely fool-proof, and such that any person possessing
an oil-engine or spare power can set one up at once ;
they are not dear and are made in very small sizes.
For refrigerating or hard freezing they seem to be very
desirable where labour is unskilled.

41. [s) Issue of bulletins. — Only one Bulletin, No. 8
was in active preparation during the year, and will
shortly be issued ; 13ulletin No. I — never issued— is also
in the Press, and Bulletin III (" Preservation and Cure
of Fish ") was partly revised for early re-issue.

42. Besides the above miscellaneous items there was
constant ordinary work both experimental, clerical, and
account ; e.g., experiments with a small beam-trawl, live
cages, line fishing, the China net, net making, artificial
drying, smoking, etc., which need not be detailed but
which took up time, energy and money. One interesting
item was a visit to all the department's centres of
work by Mr. T. Southwell, a.r.c.sc, f.l.s., f.z.s.. Deputy
Director of Fisheries, Bengal.

Among the correspondence may be noted letters
from and to the Salt department relative {a) to the
amount of salt that should be issued in the south-west
monsoon, (/;) the amount of salt for particular classes of
cure, (r) the propriety of issued duty free salt for the
Colombo pickle cure.

Other important correspondence related to the
hardening of fish oils by hydrogenation, while a leading
Madras firm enquired as to the supply of fish on the
east coast in view to the possibility of obtaining a regular
supply of fish oil for soap making or edible purposes ; to
this firm 1 was unable to give much hope. Correspond-
ence was also held with the Salt department and with
the Geological Survey of India in hopes of obtaining
potash (for fish-oil soaps, etc.) from the bittern or from
possible potassic deposits, but there appears to be no
present available source in India of the potash so greatly
needed in the soap and other industries ; seaweed (kelp)
is not available on Madras coasts, and potash cannot, at
present, be commercially won from our abundant potash -
felspar (orthoclase, often used as road metal in Frode
and Namakkal taluks, etc.), though I note that the
United States Potash Company with a capital of ^50,000,

120

has just been formed to extract potash from Maryland
felspar by a process said to be commercially profitable.

Oil Chemist's Work.

43. This was practically a new branch and is a very
interesting and important departure, both in itself and
its probable developments. The Oil Chemist was
employed on various analyses and experiments on fish
oils and soaps both at the Indian Research Institute,
Bangalore, and, by the courtesy of the authorities, at the
Agricultural College, Coimbatore ; these need not be
detailed though important to the department and
hereafter to the industry. The work at Tanur from
September was disappointingly cut short by the almost
entire absence of sardines (paragraph 5 supra) so that
the experimental investigation of improvements devised
to improve the oil and prevent rancidity could not be
carried out. The good effect of ordinary caustic lime
on the effluent water, in place of the expensive chlo-
ride of lime, was partly, but as yet insufficiently,
demonstrated ; this is an important result as the effluent
water is apt to be a nuisance.

But the making of fish-oil soap was the main duty
of the oil chemist. At Bangalore he got in touch with
the Agricultural and Military authorities and at their
request experimented in special soap making, using
Tanur fish-oil and stearine as the fatty constituents ; the
Agricultural authorities required the soap for insecticidal
work ; the Military demanded a good harness soap.
Owing to the absence or great costliness of potash by
reason of the war, the chemist was forced to use soda
and succeeded in making a soap which was found
highly insecticidal, both for bug and scale on coffee, for
tea pests such as the bark louse, mildew, etc., and —
very diluted — for mango hoppers ; the solution also kills
larger insects such as ants and grass-hoppers, but though
thus inimical to insect and fungoid pests it is wholly
innocuous to plant life. Experiments are also being
tried on the fungoid pests of the areca nut, etc. Two
soaps are made for planters' requirements, viz., a pure
fish-oil soap, and a fish-oil rosin soap ; the latter merely
requires admixture with water to form a spraying solution,
thus relieving planters of the trouble of dissolving their

I2t

rosin as is usual. Opinions differ as to the formulae to
be used, as some planters prefer alkaline soaps while the
scientists desire it neutral : there is at present much to
learn in the matter since soaps must probably differ con-
siderably according to the insect to be destroyed, its
stage of life, the time of year, the character of the crop
(coffee, tea, etc.), the rapidity of action required, and even
the elevation of the estate ; the chemist has made a
number of enquiries on various estates.

Up to date about i8 tons of soaps have been made
and issued and a very useful profit obtained ; the
demands for next season are likely to be far greater, and
with fish-oil and stearine cheaper we can give even
better terms or take larger profit.

The military authorities have not yet reported on the
soap supplied to thern. Should this be equally suc-
cessful there will be an excellent outlet for fish-oil and
stearine on the coast.

44. Plant was locally obtained for making these
soaps and is now available for considerable experimental
work. Advantage was taken of the technological
knowledge and skill of the chemist and of the results of
analysis when examining the soaps generally used by
planters and for harness and leather, to experiment in
ordinary soaps, and the expert succeeded, even with
small handstirred plant, in making high quality genuine
soaps which have been tested with excellent results for
some months. Sanction was given by Government in
March 1915 for further experimental work.

12 2

Fro7n — Sir Frederick. Nicholson, k.cm.e., Honorary

Director of Fisheries.
Z>rt/^^— Madras, the 26th August 1916.

I have the honour to submit my annual report for

1915-16.
^ * * * * *

2.

3. The staff remahied the same as in the previous
year, except that Mr. B. Sundara Raj, m.a., was
appointed and joined as Assistant to the Piscicultural
Expert on 23rd December 1915. Owino- to unforeseen
circumstances the Honorary Director continued in office
during the year.

4. The following is a resume of main operations in
the various branches : —

Director s branch. — General control of the depart-
ment; Tanur fish-curing yard including curing, smoking,
pickling (salt and vinegar), fish oil and guano, vinegar,
oflue, etc.

Cannery at Chaliyam (Beypore), with cxpermients
in solar heating.

Soap-making at Tanur.

Miscellaneous, including tuition, socio-economic
work, the Madras Exhibition, Bulletin writing, etc.

Piscicultural Expert's branch (Mr. H. G. Wil-
son).— The Sunkesula fish farm, that at Ippur, larvicidal
work, the stocking of tanks, the re-introduction of
gourami, Nilgiri trout culture, the conservancy of
various waters, the detailed examination of the waters
of Coorg and South Kanara and of a variety of large
tanks in the districts for conservancy purposes, Exhi-
bition, project, and miscellaneous work.

The Marine Biologisf-s branch (Mr. James
HornelL F.L.S.). — The Tuticorin fish-farm, the edible
oyster farm at Pulicat, the pearl oyster culture farm at
Krusadai (Pamban), the preparation of specimens for
distribution and for educational work, beche-dc-mcr
cultivation. Exhibition work, investigations for and
writing of Bulletins, research, and miscellaneous.

Pearl and Chank branch (Mr. fames HornelL
F.L.S.). — Chank work over the whole coast between
Madras and Cape Comorin, including the great fisheries
of the Tinnevelly and Ramnad district ; chank cutting
experiments, P^xhibition and miscellaneous work.

123

The above and other matters are dealt with seriatim
and in detail below, the reports of the Piscicultural
Expert and the Marine Biologist being printed almost
in full, and an abstract given of pearl and chank fisheries
operations which are separately reported on.

5. Dwectoi's branch. — This was run directly by the
Honorary Director with the co-operation of the Assist-
ant Director Mr. V. Govindan, b.a., and the Oil Chemist
Mr. A. K. Menon, b.a. It includes the mass of work
connoted by the expression "general supervision and
control of the F'isheries Department " whether adminis-
trative, technical, or financial, and needs no special
mention except that each year necessarily and rightly
increases the volume, diversity, and complexity of the
work. The negotiations for a new expert Director did
not materialize and the present officer has had to carry
on. It also includes the industrial sections worked at
the Tanur fish-curing and oil and guano yard, tlie
Beypore cannery, and the soapery.

6. Tanilr experimental station. — The year was abso-
lutely disastrous ; a year of fish-famine, not merely at
Tanur but along the whole coast. The measure of this
scarcity may be gauged by the fact that only twice, and
in November only, were sardines procurable for oil
and guano at Tanur, while at the cannery sardines for
canning were only obtained on five occasions from ist
November to the end of February while they should
have been obtained ten or twenty times as often ; conse-
quently there was hardly any oil and guano or fish manure
on the coast, and prices for the minute quantity obtain-
able were out of all proportion. Mackerel were almost
equally scarce, and the .early cat-fish shoals for which
large profits are obtained, were very scanty. A further
result was the comparative absence of the larger fish
which feed on the smaller. Hence ordinary operations
were scanty, and only prawns gave fair results. There
is little to record because little could be done.

7. Pickled mackerel. — A new^ departure was made in
picking mackerel, but these were too scarce for serious
treatment. Those pickled with salt, like Scotch and
English pickled herring, and sold moist, were favour-
ably received, but the cost of mackerel this year, the
expense of containers, the difficulty of getting water-tight

124

containers, the weight of moist fish, and the long railway-
journeys entailing heavy freight, make the success of the
experiment doubtful ; it will however be thoroughly tried
next season when mackerel may be cheaper and the
experiments on a larger scale.

A further departure was made in pickling mackerel
with vinegar and spices, the latter being either pepper
only or a variety. The idea is (i) that vinegar, being a
strong antiseptic, will therefore keep the fish in better
condition than when merely salted and will also minimize
the use of salt which is wasteful both of nutriment and
fiavour ; (2) that the product will be both palatable, and
salutary as an internal antiseptic ; (3) that the product
can be used by poor people as a condimentary addition
to cereal foods rather than as a food in itself and thus
provide a wholesome and savoury addition instead of that
too often supplied by putridity or " high " condition ; (4)
that being fairly proof against putrescibility, a keg or tin
can be opened by a retailer and sold in very small quanti-
ties to petty consumers. The method is applicable to
fish other than mackerel, but this fish is usually abundant
and cheap, and a sort of pickled mackerel known as
Colombo-cured mackerel is already made by Colombo
curers on the coast and sent entirely to Ceylon ; this is a
very hard-cured and unacceptable product.

The trouble is with containers since small kegs are
dear and often not water-tight either because of unsuita-
ble (porous) wood or bad coopering, while kerosine tins
are acted upon by the vinegar ; this difficulty is being
got over by employing a good cooper and by double
lacquering the kerosine tins inside. The experiments
will be continued next season as very promising if the
expense can be recouped.

8. Vinegar. — An essential item in the above cure is
cheap and good vinegar. British vinegar can never be
very cheap, since it is an article very bulky for its value
and has to be sent out in expensive casks ; dear at all
times, it is, at present, of prohibitive cost. Local vinegar
made from toddy is only moderately cheap (about 12
annas per gallon) but is so weak as to be almost useless.
Consequently the manufacture of vinegar was begun late
in the year ; the " quick process " was adopted, the
alcoholic base being rectified spirit with various feeding

A25

additions. The small generator was self-devised and
made, and has made some 62 gallons of very pure
aromatic vinegfar at below the cost of local vinegar but
of double the strength. Compared with British vinegar
it is about the price of such vinegar delivered in Madras
in normal times but should easily be made at half such
price. Owing to inexperience, to the imperfections
of the generator, but above all to the great heat of
the climate and of the improvised vinegar room and
consequent undue fermentation-heat in the generator,
the process, so far, has been unduly wasteful, though
successful in result and fairly successful in cost notwith-
standing the abovemenlioned and many other difficulties,
including the great cost of the rectified (though duty-free)
spirit at Tanur, the necessary wastage in petty opera-
tions by want of skill and practice, and the undue retail
cost of the materials added to the alcoholic base.
Perhaps the climate has been the worst trouble, for
with 90"^ to 95° F. as atmospheric temperature there is
little margin for the necessary fermentative increase of
temperature, since the maximum permissible limit in the
generator is 104° F. Consequently much alcohol was
probably wasted as volatile aldehyde, while the acetic
acid produced was possibly further decomposed after
formation.

Experiments in this and in the slow process will be
further conducted during the current year both at Tanur
and Coonoor, but the attention of Messrs. Parry & Co.
has been invited to the matter, since every condition
will be more favourable in a vinegar factory attached
direct to a great distillery with weak spirit, plant, and
skilled supervision abundantly available.

9. Glue. — An attempt was made to make fish-glue
from various waste parts of the fish cured in the yard,
but the quantities available were small — partly owing to
the nature of the season — and sufficient attention could
not be paid to the matter which was (partly) suggested
by an application from a cotton mill for good fish-glue.
This will be carefully considered during the current
year.

Small consignments of shark skin — a by-product —
have been supplied to the Police Department for sword
handles, etc.

1 26

I o. Oil and onano. — Only cibout 2} tons of fish guano
and a proportionate amount of oil were made during- the
year owing to the unprecedented famine of sardines.
A forward contract for 10 tons — subject to the capture
of hsh — had been made with a planter ; early in Febru-
ary it was by consent attempted to make up this small
amount by local purchases, but only half a ton was
available on the whole coast from Tanur to Mangalore
and that was offered at double the normal rates. This
incident demonstrates the character of the scarcity ; the
250 private factories did hardly any work during the
season. There were forward contracts made by parties
on the coast for 400 and 500 tons which were absolutely
unfilled.

New and simple plant intended to promote the
manufacture of the best oil at the lowest cost and in the
simplest manner is in hand.

11. Cannery. — The same scarcity of fish entirely
spoilt canning operations at Beypore ; sardines were
only obtained five times in four months and mackerel
were but moderately available. Hence the number of
tins packed was very small, especially of sardines. The
applications received and declined for want of stock
number hundreds.

For lack of the true oil-sardine (Clupca Longicehs
or " nalla matti ") the chala matti (Clnpea fiuibriata)
was tried, but proved to be fit only for third-class work,
being lean, tasteless, and very bony.

The new plant for making solderless tins was suc-
cessfully brought into operation, but had only scanty
scope for its considerable capacity.

12. Fish frozen after the Henderson method was
very successfully prepared and experimentally distri-
buted. A small refrigerating plant and oil-engine had
been set up, in which the fish, previously cleaned and
slowly cooled to about 35^ F. to get rid of the animal
heat, was plunged into clean brine at a temperature
of from 10° to \^^ F. The frozen fish when removed
were packed in paper and a basket with 2 or 3 inches
of paddy husk as insulation, and in this way travelled
successfully for se\^eral hundred miles and up to two
days in time on many occasions, without a single failure,
even though, as personally seen, the parcels were

127

unnecessarily exposed to the midday sun on an open
railway plattorm. Experimentally the process was quite
successful : commercially two things are requisite, viz.,
( i) an organized and continuous supply of really fresh
hsh of a quality worth the cost of refrigeration and rail
way parcel carriage, (2) a plant sufficiently large to deal
with several hundredweight at a time, since the expense
of engine power and expert attendance cannot be re-
couped on small cpiantities, and the railways can hardly
provide the special accommodation which would still
further assist the process, without considerable and
regular consignments. Point ( i ) will be further ^dealt
with during the current year as two Ratnagiri boats have
been bought for deep-sea work ; it may then be possible
to brinor jn a fair amount of oood fish in o-ood condition,
and the plant can deal with about one hundredweight
at a charoe.

13. The abovementioned boats were bought too late
for work during the year, but will, it is hoj)ed, give
considerable data and useful quantities of fish during
the current year. They were bought very cheaply and
are provided with nets ; our own crews are able to work
them, and this will to some extent solve the difficulty of
getting deep-sea work done now that Ratnagiri boats
find plenty of work on their own Bombay coasts and
have ceased comino- south.

14. The necessity for protecting the inside of tins
from the action of vinegar and of prawn tiesh, etc., led
to various experiments ; up to date, double lacquering,
well stoved to obtain a hard texture and to bind it to the
surface of the tin, has been found fairly successful. This
double stoving was troublesome and somewhat costly in
fuel (kerosene); hence a return was made to old Canna-
nore experiments in sun heating in a " solar oven."
This is simply a stout teakwood box, blackened inside,
provided with a closely fitting, double glass top and in-
sulated by insertion in an outer case with double walls ;
the tins are filled into this and covered with a blackened
tin sheet ; the double glass top being placed in position,
the direct rays of the sun readily traverse the glass
which, however, intercepts the radiated heat. With this
simple apparatus a midday (11 a.m. to 3 p.m.) tempera-
ture of from 240" to 275^^ F. has been readily attained,

128

and 290^.* F with the aid of a single olass mirror. The
stoving' is excellently done, the heat cannot rise too high
(300° F. is the maximum permissible for soldered tins),
and costs absolutely nothing. For all mere oven or
baking (or cooking) purposes this is a very efficient and
cheap application of sun heat available in many occupa-
tions and industries ; it is useless for evaporation but
will be used, with the necessary adaptations now being-
devised, for supplying hot water at boiling point and
perhaps low pressure steam ; this will be most useful in
various cannery, oil and guano, and soap-making opera-
tions. With mirrors far greater heat can of course be
obtained. The subject is being pursued as giving an
almost costless source of baking" or stovinoT heat, but tiie
West Coast is the wrong locality for experiment owing
to a long south-west monsoon, frequent cloud, and a
moist atmosphere which muffles or absorbs and, to that
extent, lowers direct heat.

15. Cannery shortage. — The abovementioned short-
age offish has been a main factor in the production of
complaints against the cannery for deficiency of goods ;
complaints which are as complimentary as unreasonable.
For canning purposes sardines and mackerel are the
permanent mainstays of Indian work and when these fish
are absent the largest, best managed factory must run
short of goods unless it is old enough to have accumu-
lated great reserves. Usually sardine and mackerel in
condition for canning (all sardines are not) are frequent
from September to April ; during the season under
report, viz., 210 days from ist September, sardines were
obtainable only on 15 occasions, of which there were
only 5 from ist November to 31st March, usually the
height of the canning" season ; mackerel on 44 occasions
of which only 13 were in 1916. Hence, since the can-
nery though well fitted, is small and is still young and
experimental, only a few thousand tins could be prepared.
In fact the previous year was also bad, so that July 19 15
found the cannery practically without stock ; this reacted
unfavourably in the year under report since masses of

* With tin plate reflectors attached to the sides and an arrangement for
keeping the glass cover of the nvpn jierpendicular to the sun's ra\s, 310" F. has
easily been attained (March 1917) and iht jieriod of high temperature greatly
lengthened.

129

early orders came In from September 1915 which could
not be filled and cans had to be sent out as soon as they
had passed the observation stage.

Only experts know, moreover, how much fish has to
be rejected as tainted or soft from long detention in the
boats and how short a time — a few hours — is available
from the arrival on shore, even of fresh fish, before the
fish in these tropical regions are useless for canning.
Only when catching is organized as completely as
canning (i.e., when the habits and methods of the fishing
classes and their subservience to local capitalists are
radically altered) will it be possible fully to utilise any
cannery, and even such organization would be useless in
seasons such asi9i5-i6 when fish are totally absent
not merely from the neighbourhood but from the coast
in general. The negotiations for a motor launch which
is a necessity even in ordinary years for the main reason
given above, viz., the necessity for frequent supplies of
absolutely fresh fish, have unfortunately fallen through,
but a cannery launch will be necessary in 191 7 for this
and other purposes.

Moreover the demand is itself largely responsible for
the absence of stock ; hundreds of orders were received
at the beginning of the season when, as mentioned
above, there was no stock in hand, and so many orders
are habitually received, literally from Kashmir to Ceylon,
that it has been necessary to refuse all except Presidency
orders. The public have learnt even in three years,
mainly of experiment, that our cannery goods are both
cheap and good and that it is highly profitable to deal
direct with the factory and not with a middleman or
retailer. A commercial cannery is constituted to turn
out cans by the million and not by the ten thousand ;
moreover factories when old-established and not new,
usually keep an enormous reserve, partly to allow of
goods maturing, partly as the surplus of abundant years ;
hence some of the difficulties of a small and new factory
which moreover is primarily constituted to make goods
as experimental and demonstrational essays, and sells
them partly to get rid of them, partly to advertise the
facts and cost of canned goods in view to the develop-
ment by others of commercial work. But for the war it
is almost certain that one and possibly two firms from

9

I ^o

England would have taken up the matter on data sup-
plied by the department, and in fact a Madras European
firm has now bought up the Mahe cannery and intends,
partly with the aid of our experiments and experience,
to develop a commercial business.

It is also to be remembered that dealing direct with
a single factory is wholly different from dealing with a
store or shop which draws its supplies from perhaps
dozens of factories in many countries so that the abund-
ance of one compensates for the deficiencies of another ;
even so a shop is often " out of stock " but it is not
usually blamed for such deficiency,

1 6. Deep-sea work. — This has never yet been attempt-
ed by the department which has confined itself in its
early life, to the work lying more nearly to hand, such as
curing, fish-farming, etc. ; it was considered better with
very limited staff, funds, and experience, to examine
existing methods, to attempt to improve as food the fish
caught by such methods, to learn the conditions affecting
inshore catching and curing, and to apply our energies
to local improvements, before launching out literally
into the deep. Deep-sea work demands material and
superintendence which we have not got and which are
very costly, and though a beginning was attempted in
the sanctioned recruitment in 191 3-1 4 of a master
fisherman and his mate, the matter fell throuo^h — thouoh
the men had actually been selected in July 19 14 — by
reason of the outbreak of war ; the men selected are now
mine sweeping. The work will be a prominent feature
of the next decade.

17, The boats built some years ago (" Turbinella "
and " Sutherland ") though good in themselves were
unsuited to fishery work in these waters and to the
handling of Indian crews, while they are not big enough
— nor have we the men — -to accommodate British master
fishermen in long deep-sea voyages. For a couple of
years the Ratnagiri deep-sea boats which came after the
monsoon to South Kanara and Malabar coasts, were
utilised, but these have now ceased coming south owing
to improved fishery conditions in Bombay and they
refuse to be hired on any reasonable terms. These
boats with their native crews can stay far out at sea for
some days together, and it is therefore quite possible to

begin deep-sea work with their aid, though it is barely
possible to get fishing data intelligently logged by the
skippers, or the fish sufficiently well treated on board.
Hence with Government sanction two boats with
nets, etc., were bought by the Assistant Director,
too late for use during the past season but now ready
for immediate work when it is hoped with our own
trained crews, (i) to explore to some extent the deeper
waters up to the lOO fathom limit, (2) to obtain a
supply of the larger sorts of fish for the cannery and
curing yard, (3) to pay special attention to the where-
abouts of shoal fish (sardines, mackerel, etc.) when not
found inshore, (4) to experiment in the better treatment,
temporary preservation, etc., of fish on board, (5) to
eno-aee in other miscellaneous duties such as those of
carriers.

18. Work of the Pisci cultural Expert {Mr. H. C.
Wilson). — This was, as usual, entirely on the fresh waters
of the Presidency; the chief items are catalogued in
paragraph 4 supra, and the details will be found in
Appendix I which contains the bulk of a report written
for this annual report. A further summary would be
useless ; moreover where, as in this and in Mr. Hornell's
report, there is so much of interest, even in the details,
it appears useful to publish the whole of the two reports
rather than a summary, it being, however, understood
that where there may be debatable matter rather than
facts, the opinions or expectations expressed are not
necessarily accepted by the Director. It may be men-
tioned (though the result belongs to the current year)
that the considerable consignments of gourami [Ospkro-
menus olfax) both from Mauritius and from Java (see para-
graph 9 of Mr. Wilson's report), were most successfully
transported to Madras and both batches are doing well ;
this introduction should be highly useful in the course of
a few years. The Mauritius consignment was prepared
and despatched entirely by the care and courtesy of the
Government of Mauritius to whom our cordial thanks
are due and have been sent. The other batch was
personally collected and conducted by Mr. Wilson who
went to Java^where the fish are indigenous — for the
purpose, and by the kind assistance of the authorities

9A

132

in Java and of the several shipping companies, was
able to bring the fish to Madras with very moderate
loss.

19. Work of the Superintendent of Pearl and Chank
Fishei'ies and Marine Biologist, Mr. fames Hornell,
F.L.S. — A list of work supervised and done by Mr.
Hornell is mentioned in paragraph 4 supra, and all details
are mentioned in his report, written for this annual report
and for the most part printed as Appendix II. Where so
much is of interest it is difficult to select, but attention may
be specially directed to Mr, Hornell's success in dealing
with the chank diving population especially in the newly
leased fisheries of the Ramnad district, and in the initial
and successful attempt to relieve the divers from undue
thraldom to merchants, money-lenders, and boatowners.
Incidentally the success of his measures led to unprece-
dented success in winning chanks, so that the net profit
— all expenses deducted — from the several chank fish-
eries amounted to Rs. 51,000 for the year (ending 30th
June), a revenue not hitherto approached. It may here
be noted that, given similar and increased success in
subsequent years, this department may, in a few years,
become wholly self-supporting, considering {a^ the above
and increasing net income, and the possibilities from
culture pearls and fish-farms, {b) the increased rentals
obtained for the rivers and tanks under Mr. Wilson's
conservancy operations, and from his fish-farms, (f) the
returns from the Government fish-curing yard at Tanur
with its sales of cured fish, its oil and guano operations,
its vinegar and other miscellaneous sales including the
produce of over 500 cocoanut trees planted by this
department, {d) the sales of the cannery, and {e) of the
soapery which, at least on the side of its fish-oil soaps,
is attached to this department.

20. Work of the Assista7it Director, — This has con-
sisted partly in assisting the Honorary Director in run-
ning the West Coast stations, partly in supervising all
office work including the disposal of routine matters, and
the examination of accounts, vouchers, etc., partly in tours
of enquiry for general purposes and for the preparation
of Bulletin No. 9 which is mainly his work, partly in that
socio-economic work (see paragraph 21 infra) in which

133

he is deeply interested and for which his knowledge and
experience are invaluable. He was also mainly instru-
mental in preparing the West Coast fishery exhibits for
the Madras Exhibition, and was also a member of the
Central Committee.

2 1. Social work. — As will be seen from Mr. Hornell's
report, good work has been done by him in connection
with the chank divers in the way of assisting them to
escape from the thraldom of dependence on boatowners
and other capitalists petty or otherwise ; he has also
further plans for assisting the ordinary fishermen to
obtain boats and gear by Government loans, and this
will be seriously taken up in the current year. On the
West Coast Mr. V. Govindan, Assistant Director, has
especially interested himself in similar matters, but more
from the co-operative and association standpoint, feeling
that the fisherfolk over great areas are " not in touch
with the civilised world " and that they require awaken-
ing and stimulating. Ignorance, superstition, and hide-
bound routine are but one item of backwardness ;
poverty and economic thraldom to the money-lender,
whether merchant, curer, or boatowner, form another ;
intemperance and entire unthrift a third ; while the
uncertainty of mere inshore fishing, the inability to fish
the deep, the long idle period — especially on the West
Coast — of the monsoon, the numerous holidays and off-
days, and the sickness induced by insanitation, are a
fourth. Bulletin No. 9 published during the year and
mainly compiled by the Assistant Director gives a good
deal of first-hand information on the condition of the
fisherfolk, but this is only a basis for much closer enquiry
during the next few year-s.

22. It will be seen, then, that on this socio-economic
side enormous problems lie before the Fisheries Depart-
ment if it is to do its full duty by the fisherfolk. Some-
thing is being attempted, and, best of all symptoms,
partly by the people themselves. This department has,
through the Assistant Director, established a co-operative
society at Tanur, and a second was formed and registered
at Tellicherry with above 100 members, of whom about
30 were female curers and fish hawkers ; another was
in process of formation at Ouilandy. The Tanur society
was greatly hampered by the fish famine which, in fact,

^34

necessitated considerable private charity. The temper-
ance society at Malpe, mentioned in previous reports, is
developing into a co-operative society by the terms of its
formation ; during the two years of its active Hfe its
70 members, chiefly young men, have, as per their rules,
accumulated a fund of Rs. 700 which represent their
savings by abstention from drink, in itself a very notable
fact. This fund is to be utilised in loans to the members ;
hence the development towards co-operation while main-
taining the original object.

23. The Tanur evening school continued to work at
elementary education and appropriate industrial opera-
tions ; additions are to be made shortly to its attractive-
ness, and in South Kanara some of the fisherfolk are
anxious to have a similar night school. But the
Assistant Director reports that in places, especially on
the East Coast where the fishing hamlets are overgrown
with prickly-pear and consequently very insanitary, the
folk would rather have the hamlet swept and garnished
and sanitated than provided with a school, and it is
undeniable that filthy surroundings and bad water have
much to do with intemperance and disease. A combina-
tion of Government loans for the purchase of boats and
nets, of co-operative societies for the general uplift of
the people in the wonderful co-operative way, and of
schools for instruction in general knowledge, in accounts,
in special nature- knowledge, and in the industries by
which they live, will be the potent instruments which
this department will now have to use, under new auspices,
for the development not so much of fisheries as of the
fisherfolk.

24. Soap ivorks. — This, as before, was under Mr.
A. K. Menon, b.a., an officer trained in England both in
the work of an oil chemist and in that of practical soap
manufacture. This series of operations is dealt with
under " Fisheries" though distinct therefrom (1) because
it originally (191 3) sprang from Fisheries, (2) because
the soapery has, for reasons of convenience, been
hitherto placed by Government under the Director of
Fisheries. There are two sides to the soapery which it
is well to define carefully, since the public is apt to sup-
pose that the ordinary soaps, now about to be put on the
market, are made from or with fish oil which, of course,

135

is absolutely incorrect and is an idea merely based on
the fact that the operations are in charge of this depart-
ment. The first side is that where fish-oil and stearine
are worked up into insecticidal soaps for use by planters,
fruit growers, etc. ; this is a derivative industry from the
production of fish-oil by the department. The second
side deals with the production of ordinary soaps for
household and personal use, in which fish-oil finds no
place whatever, its sole connection with fisheries being
in its direction, and, till now, its location at Tanur.

25. During the year fish-oil insecticidal soaps were
made to the amount of about 28 tons (including balance)
and nearly 25 tons were sold. Of these the greater
proportion was a soap containing rosin which the
planters prefer to plain soap ; as stated last year, this
rosin soap readily dissolves in water, so that an emulsion
is formed by simply stirring a small quantity of the pasty
substance in a pail or barrel of water. The plain soap
continued to be sold with profit at Rs. 12 and the rosin
soap at Rs. 16 per hundredweight, notwithstanding the
rise in prices of fish-oil, alkali, and rosin.

A larger demand was anticipated, but the year proved
less pestiferous than usual ; moreover it was reported
from some estates that areas treated last year with
this soap were less infested than before. The soaps
were very favourably reported on by the Government
Entomologist as against " mango hopper," a 75 per cent
crop being considered probable where such means are
adopted ; if this is so, there should be a wider future
for these insecticidal soaps. Enquiries were received
about this soap from the Punjab to the Federated Malay
States.

26. The soapery for ordinary soaps is, however, far
more important, and its small scale operations very
sucessful. With a small i-ton locally made pan and
some frames, excellent soap has been made of various
classes, samples of which were exhibited at the Madras
Exhibition ; subsequently sales have been frequent —
about 3 tons — though, owing to the smallness of opera-
tions, to the work on the fish-oil soaps, and to the
heavy work of opening a new factory on a larger scale,
the soap has not yet been placed in bulk on the open
market but will be by the time that this report is issued.

136

The cost has been most carefully calculated and the
registers, drawn up on regular factory lines, will show
the precise cost and profits not only of each class but
of each batch of soap so that reliable data will be available.
The prices have recently been settled and though gly-
cerine has not yet been recovered, the proposed prices
give reasonable profit as will be demonstrated in the
next report.

27. Owing to the demonstrated success of the soaps.
Government were pleased, towards the end of the finan-
cial year, to allot Rs. 75,000 for soap experiments during
igiG-^iy, and special instruction was given that opera-
tions should include glycerine recovery. Orders and
offers were consequently sent to England to one of the
chief makers of soap machinery, and a toilet soap plant
and other machines were fortunately obtained from stock
and are now (August) on their way out. The larger and
less complicated plant has been made out here, but,
owing to the war, there has been grievous delay and
extra cost in obtaining the plant which includes a 5 -ton
soap pan, boiler, etc., all now in place ; it is difficult at
present to obtain even common iron tanks. The vacuum
glycerine plant will probably not be available for many
months, but an ordinary evaporation plant is being
erected, to be steamed from our new boiler. The new
plant at Calicut should be making soap by ist September
and the toilet soap plant may be in operation by ist
October.*

28. The soap made is solely genuine soap without
any adulteration or even filling ; it has excellent lathering
qualities, and can be sold at a good profit more cheaply
than Western soaps of equal character. As mentioned in
a lecture on " Soap " at the Madras Exhibition, oils are
available out here at cheap rates which are unknown —
in practice at all events — to the Western soap maker;
e.g., Mr. Menon re-discovered an oil which, prior to the
entry of kerosine oil, was a general illuminant on the
West Coast, but has now largely fallen into disfavour
and is proportionately cheap ; this is an excellent soap
oil and will be largely used. Other oils and fats than
those commonly known are and will be tried. Owing

* Owing to unavoidable (1ela\s work did nul fairly begin till January.

137

partly to the high price or total absence of synthetic
perfumes and colours but mainly to a desire to use
indigenous products only, experiments have been made
in using these latter, and quasi-toilet (cold process) soaps
of a very pleasing character have been made with very
low charges for perfume.

It may be mentioned that samples of our soap sent
home were reported to be " too good for the price " ; it
will be gratifying if both quality and price suit both
consumer and manufacturer.

29. Mr, Menon made several tours and accumulated
considerable information not onlv as regards the sources
and prices of raw materials of all kinds, including
indigenous perfumes, but of the Western soaps most in
favour in this Presidency. He also prepared a capital
exhibit for the Madras Industrial Exhibition which, how-
ever, would have been more useful if it could atoiue have
been followed up by commercial operations. He also
attended the United Planters' Association where he read
a paper on "The Uses of Soap as an Insecticide," and
discussed the question with the assembled planters.

Altogether the work done, considering the delays
caused by the war and the necessary difficulties attending
the start of a new industry, was satisfactory

30. Notable features in fisheries industrial work were
the display of products, from all branches of the depart-
ment, at the Madras Exhibition, and the visit o/a Member
of Council (the Hon'ble Sir Alexander Cardew) to the
West Coast in October 1915. Both events proved to be
of importance and assistance, and Sir Alexander's visit
gave very desirable encouragement to those supervising
this set of infant industries.

31. A great British firm consulted this department
regarding the opening of oil and guano works on the
Departmental system and this, it is believed, is in process
of initiation ; also as regards the preparation and use of
certain oils in another direction.

32. Owing to the extraordinarily bad season little
work was done during the year by the 244 small private
oil and ouano factories which have been established,
more or less on this department's system.

TjT^. Miscellaneous. — The usual amount of correspond-
ence was carried on with other departments, with

purveyors of material and plant and consumers of goods,
with enquirers, etc., many miscellaneous experiments
were conducted, both successful and the reverse. The
Madras Industrial Exhibition eave considerable work to
the department but the results were worth the trouble.
The following Bulletins were published during the year,
viz. : —

(i) Bulletin No. i consisting of papers from 1899
relating chiefly to the development of the Madras
Fisheries Bureau ;

(2) No. 8 dealing with marine fishery investigations
in Madras, 19 14-15 ;

(3) No. 9 being a first attempt to display with some
degree of accuracy certain statistics relating to the
fishing population of the Madras Presidency.

34. As required by Government the receipts of the
department and the expenditure relating to certain of
the items are shown in an Appendix (III).

APPENDIX I.

Report by H. C. Wilson, Esq., Piscicultural Expert,

Madras P^isheries.

I was in charge of the piscicultural operations during the year
under report as Piscicultural Expert and was engaged in tours of
inspection and special investigations. Most of my time was therefore
spent in touring and the following districts were visited during the
year : —

South Kanara was visited twice in April and January to examine
its rivers, as instructed in G.O. Mis. No. 1543, Revenue, dated 28th
May 1 914.

The Nilgiris were visited in connection with the hatchery work,
stocking of streams, etc., in the months of May, June and November.

I toured in the Kurnool district in the months of July, February
and March in connection with the Sunkesula fish farm, stocking of
the Kurnool-Cuddapah canal, examination of permanent water-tanks,
inspection of the Kistna Gorge, investigation of the Nallamalais to
draw up an anti-malarial scheme, etc.

September, October, and March were spent in ^■isiting Hyderabad,
Vizagapatam, and the permanent waters near ^Nfadras and in the
districts of Chingleput, North Arcot, etc.

Coorg rivers were again inspected agreeably to the orders of Gov-
ernment to decide the suitability for re-stocking with non-indigenous
fish and suggest for the improvement of their fisheries.

J39

2. Staff. — The several posts sanctioned for my branch during the
re-organization of the Fishery Department were all filled up during
the year.

Mr. B. Sundara Raj, .m.a., who was the Zoological Assistant in
the Madras Museum, was appointed as my Assistant in December
last. He was specially deputed to investigate the more or less
permanent waters of the Presidency and report on their suitability
or otherwise for the improvement of their fisheries. Most of the
important tanks in the Presidency excepting those in the districts of
Cuddapah and Northern Circars were inspected and reported on.
He has also made a preliminary investigation of the fisheries of the
several branches of the Godfivari river from the anicut to the sea, in
connection with our scheme for conservancy and re-stocking of the
upper waters of the Godavari and its perennial tributaries, Sileru
Sabari and Machkand rivers, which 1 hope to complete this year.
Several tanks have been selected and steps are being taken to improve
their fisheries, by introducing valuable non-indigenous species of
fish.

3. Sunkesiila fish farm . , . The farm work progressed well
during the year. A large head of quick growing non-predaceous
carp were maintained at the farm for stocking purposes and these
were mostly turned out into the Tangadencha tank with a view to
counteract the deleterious effect due to the breaching of the tank the
year before last. To give the introduced fish a good chance of
breeding, the fishery of this section of the canal will not be auctioned
for a few years, until the tank has again become fully stocked by our
operations. Many thousands of murrel fry bred at the Sunkesula
fish farm were turned out into the Edurur swamp for growing.

One of the breeding ponds was set aside and specially prepared
for the breeding of Osphromenus olfax. The acclimatisation of
Tench (Tinea vulgaris) bids fair to be a success, but of course takes
considerable time.

4. Hiha hatchery. — I am sorry to say that there were no opera-
tions at the hatchery owing to the absence of ripe fish. I deputed my
Sub-Assistant to wait at the Lower Anicut during the most likely
time for obtaining ripe fish, but to no purpose. I have found it is
only in exceptional years "that those fish can be obtained in this
condition.

5. Stocking of tanks and canals. — As mentioned in paragraph 3
supra most of the fish from the farm were turned out at Tangadencha
tank, which is a natural distributing centre for the whole of the
Kurnool-Cuddapah canal. The following tanks were also stocked : —

T- ■', ' ■'■ , ■■■ ■" "'\ Bellary district.

Kamalapuram tank ... ... ...J ■'

Markapur tank ... ... ...\

Venkatapuram tank ... ... ... ! ^^ 1 j- ^ • .

T3 1 1: 1 f-lvurnool district.

Belegal tank ... ... |

. Badai Khan tank ... ... ... J

140

The tanks of Barur and Penukondapuram, Salem district, were
stocked with E. Suratensis a species which is non-indigenous to
these tanks.

6. Collair scheme. — This work is at present being held up owing to
the existence of stake nets and basket cruives, the removal of which
is absolutely necessary for working out the scheme successfully and it
will be taken up later.

7. Ippur fish farm. — This is still under construction and from the
recent report I had from the Executive Engineer, Nellore, the farm
will not be ready for another three months. All the heavy fishery
utensils were, however, removed to the farm and kept in the store
room and some of the ponds have also been planted with lilies. The
farm will, it is hoped, be brought into working order before the
close of the current financial year.

8. Acclimatisation of tinea vulgaris. — As stated in paragraph 3
supra, the small consignment of these fish which was introduced
into the Sunkesula fish farm in February 191 4, was again supple-
mented by a further consignment during the year under report. The
result will be reported in due course,

9. Foivder factory scheme. —The ponds in the late gunpowder factory
at Vyasarpady were handed over to this department on application
from us, to utilize them for piscicultural purposes. My scheme to
use these most valuable ponds for growing larvicides and other
valuable fish was sanctioned by Government in G.O. Mis. No. 1854,
Revenue, dated 9th /August 19 15. The several ponds were cleaned
and provided with suitable shutters, screens, etc., and stocked with
the following fish, viz., Etroptus suratensis, Megalops cyprinoides
and a large number of larvicidal fish. E. Suratensis are being kept
specially for introducing into many of the permanent water tanks
— vide my letter Ref. No, 167, dated i6th June 191 6. where they are
at present non-indigenous. These fish which are highly prized by the
Indian population, will be bred on a large scale at our farms for
stocking districts where they are at present non-indigenous.

One of the ponds is set aside for O. olfax (gourami) as a resting
place (after their long journey) for the consignments which we hope
to get (since obtained) from Java and Mauritius. These will be
distributed to the fish farms where careful selections will be made for
breeding purposes. The flesh value of these fish is exceedingly great
and they should eventually prove a most valuable addition to the food
supply of the country. They are non-predaceous and live mostly on
pond weed and lilies.

10. Nallamalais scheme. — As per my report,; dated the 15th Sep-
tember 1915, approved by the Surgeon-General and sanctioned by
Government in their Order No. 2689, Revenue, dated 3rd December
1915, this scheme is to try and improve the notorious fever zone in
the Nallamalais, Kurnool district, by the use of fish larvicides.
Arrangements are being made for breeding these fish in large numbers
in the hills at a site chosen as near as possible to the scene of opera-
tions, for the purpose of stocking all the isolated permanent water-
holes existing in these jungles. During the dry weather the above
mentioned holes form the only possible mosquito-breeding and

I4T

collecting places over an exceedingly large malarial infected area.
Owing to the dryness of the atmosphere in this district and during
this period, mosquitoes can only exist in close proximity to moisture ;
otherwise, from observations made, I have noticed that their bodies
soon become shrivelled and the mosquito dies. It is also highly
probable that long before all moisture has left the bodies, their net-
work of breathing tubes (tracheae) become dry and useless and the
mosquito suffocates ; at all events, it will not survive long in a dry
climate without uioisture.

It is natural when the dry weather sets in, for mosquitoes to collect
at these permanent water-holes, and here large numbers of anophelenes
can be found where they breed and their offspring are enabled to
survive the dry period by remaining near the water. During this
trying period all animal life concentrates round these water-holes, and
the necessary blood without which the female mosquito cannot deposit
fertile eggs, is always obtainable. The quiet undisturbed surfaces of
these water-holes heavily charged with vegetable matter, form ideal
breeding places for mosquitoes.

A large percentage of the Chenchus (the jungle tribe inhabiting
these hills) are heavily infected with malaria, judging from the number
of enlarged spleens noticeable, and as their camps at this period are
of necessity in close proximity to permanent waters, it is not necessary
to look further afield to find the source where the mosquitoes (the
survivors of this dry period) become infected each year. This scheme
is to attack all these permanent breeding ponds by the introduction
of larvicidal fish. The site for the operations has been selected and
the work will presently be put in hand.

II. Red Hills ta?ik scheme. — During the year under report, a
scheme was drawn up for utilising the permanent waters of Red Hills
and Cholavaram tanks near Madras for the eventual distribution of
valuable fish to other parts of the Presidency. The method of opera-
tions consists of constructing ponds for breeding and conditioning
valuable non-indigenous fish where there is permanent water for
stocking the tanks over a number of years. Dealing with these
extensive permanent water areas which form the drinking supply
reservoirs of Madras is slightly complicated owing to the prohibitions
necessary to prevent pollution. This scheme avoids all danger from
this point of view which is explained as follows : —

The site for breeding ^nd conditioning operations has been
selected remote from the Red Hills tank (the main drinking supply
reservoir) near Cholavaram tank. As netting operations in Red
Hills are objectionable from a possible pollution and health point
of view, it is necessary to devise other means of procuring the result-
ant fry of these stocking operations or, in other words, of winning
the harvest for further distribution throughout the Presidency. To
enable us to carry this out successfully, we have of necessity to continue
the stocking operations over several years with valuable non-preda-
ceous species of fish, i.e., to overcome quickly all natural loss (from
predaceous fish, etc.) and thoroughly establish the non-indigenous
stock. It is the nature of these fish to breed in the reedy places of
tanks and for their progeny after a certain growth to migrate up-stream

142

and they will in time naturally spread themselves throughout the
entire system of Red Hills supply which includes an exceedingly large
number of tanks and streams.

As soon as this takes place there will be a constant supply of fry
running up-stream, i.e., up the supplying or feed channels, each year
during the freshes and it is this supply we mean to tap in the main
channel at Cholavaram and all other feeders, so that no netting need
take place in the main reservoir of Red Hills.

That they will be established is an absolute certainty, as out of
one large stocking alone there will be many survivors ; but to facilitate
this, where we are dealing with such an enormous water area and to
enable us to obtain a large supply in a quicker time, it becomes
necessary to re-stock successively for a number of years.

The scheme was sanctioned by Government in (t.O. Mis. No.
1 1 26, Revenue, dated i8th May 191 6, and the work will be put under
way at an early date.

12. Inspectiofi of Cooi-g and South Kanara rivers. — The above
rivers were again inspected during the year agreeably to the orders
contained in G.O. Mis. No. 1543, Revenue, dated 28th May 1914,
and G.O. Mis. No. 2586, Revenue, dated 22nd November 1915.
The Coorg rivers were inspected to ascertain the water temperatures
and natural feeding, etc., so as to determine the most valuable
non-indigenous fish to introduce. A final report was drawn up and
submitted with my letter Ref. No. 87, dated 31st March 1916,
embodying therein proposals for the improvement of the fisheries.

Some of the South Kanara rivers which had yet to be examined,
were investigated during the year, and a detailed proposal is now
being drawn up to improve the rivers pisciculturally by the establish-
ment of a fish farm at Neriya in the Beltangadi taluk of the South
Kanara district.

To put an end to some of the destructive methods of fishing, such
as fixing stake nets, basket traps, etc., all the important rivers of the
district were brought under section 6 of the Fishery Act for a period
of two years from July last. This will enable the district officials to
remove the fixed engines and prosecute the offenders, a necessary
preliminary start for our future work of stocking.

13. Fishery legisJn/ion. — A small step was taken during the year
in the way of fishery legislation. Fishery Act IV of 1897 is powerless
for punishing poachers, because the removal of fish from public
waters does not, under the existing law, constitute theft. This state
of affairs gave immense opportunity for outsiders to fish with impunity
even in the tanks and canals which were stocked by Government. On
a strong representation, Government were pleased to bring all the
tanks and canals that are operated on by this department under
section 6 of the above Act for a period of two years. So also in the
case of rivers, it was found absolutely necessary to remove or prohibit
all destructive methods of fishing, such as basket traps, stake nets,
poisoning, etc., by which means the rivers have for many years been
denuded of fish including the merest fry. All the important rivers of
the Presidency together with their tributaries were also brought under
the above section of the Act temporarily for a period of two years.

14

'>

14- Inspection of tanks. — Through the kindness of the Departmen
of Public Works a list of tanks in the Presidency containing more or
less permanent water was drawn up for inspection. As stated in
paragraph 2 supra, my Assistant inspected and reported on all the
tanks in the districts of South Arcot. Tinnevelly, North Arcot,
Chittoor, Nellore, and Anantapur, while I inspected the tanks in the
districts of Kurnool, Chingleput and the tanks near Madras. A
proposal for dealing with these tanks has lately been drawn up and
submitted in my letter Ref. No. 167, dated i6th June 1916

The fisheries of the following tanks were also taken up, viz.,
Belegal and Badaikhan, Venkatapuram and Kocheruvu tanks in the
Kurnool district ; in the case of the first two tanks the District Board
concerned had to be paid compensation, while the fisheries of the
latter two were assumed by us under G.O. No. 100 I., dated 20th
February 191 4. A proposal to take over the fisheries of the Kamala-
puram tank in the Bellary district was submitted with my letter
No. 794, dated 14th December 191 5, and no orders have as yet been
received.

15. The Can very and Cokroon fisheries. — The above fisheries
which were taken up by Government were auctioned out last year in
the districts of South Arcot, Tanjore and Trichinopoly. As stated
elsewhere, these auctions were invariably attended by my Sub-Assistant
to assist or advise in the matter. There is every tendency for the
rentals to increase annually, due to the increased fishery harvest and
consequent gain to the contractor. The conservation of the upper
waters of the Cauvery at Hoginka! and that of the Bhavani and
Moyar have undoubtedly improved these fisheries considerably.
Proposals were also submitted for taking over the Cauvery fisheries
in the district of Coimbatore, but no orders have as yet been received
on the matter.

16. llie IV ilgiris fisheries. -T\\Q con?,er\2iX\cy of the Bhavani and
Moyar rivers is still being carried out in a satisfactory way ; the upper
waters of these rivers having a marked increase of fish and the
fisheries of lower reaches far below these operations, are being vastly
improved. The streams on the plateau are fully stocked with trout
which are breeding so rapidly that re-stocking with live fish food has
been increased. The fish have become so prolific that I will advise
the removal of all restriction regarding minimum size to be retained
by anglers and increase the Irmit of the number that can be killed
under a single license during next season. My Inspector, Lakshmana
Ayyar, has carried out his work in a satisfactory way.

At the request of the Chairman, Municipal Council, Cannanore,
I visited Cannanore and its surroundings and advised him as to the
best anti-malarial methods to adopt ; see my letter No. 68, dated 29th
February 19 16.

The Chairman, Municipal Council, Bellary, was supplied with
2,000 mosquito larvicides for stocking purposes.

The Director of Industries, Banganapalli State, was also advised
about the best method of stocking the wells and tanks in the State,
and he is also being supplied with a small consignment of murrel fry
for growing purposes.

• i

144

As a result of the Exhibition held in December last, many enqui-
ries were made about the use of the fish tin carriers, etc., and some
of the enquirers were supplied with carriers and instructed how to use

them.

The President, Taluk Board, Mannargudi, requested this depart-
ment to inspect one of the tanks in the Mannargudi town and suggest
the best means of improving its fishery. The tank was inspected by
my Sub-Assistant and the President was advised about the methods
to be adopted for che same.

17. Remarks. — All the more important waters of the Presidency
are gradually being taken over by this department and are temporarily
being stocked with the best kinds of fish indigenous to India. Later
when large stocks are available at the different fish farms, I hope to
introduce to all these waters non-indigenous fish, such as ' Osphro-
menus olfax and Tinea vulgaris, which will be of very much greater
value as a food supply to the people and also to the fish revenues of
the Presidency.

APPENDIX II.

Report h;^ J. Hornell, Esq., F.L.S., Government Marine Biologist
and Superinte?ident of Pearl and Chank Fislieries, Tiiticorin.

I have the honour to submit the following summary of work done
in my section of the Fisheries Department during the financial year
1915-16.

2. The operations under review may be grouped in five separate
categories, namely {a) those dealing with the exploitation of the
Government monopolies of the pearl and chank fisheries, (/') those
concerned directly with the commercial development of marine indus-
tries, {c) those having for their object the economic improvement of
the fishing population, {d) educational work, comprising fishery pro-
paganda, the training of fishery students, and the provision of
teaching collections for schools and colleges ; and lastly (e) the all
important investigation of the life histories of food fishes and their
enemies, together with those physical and biological problems which
affect their abundance or their scarcity, and which in consequence
control the prosperity of our fisheries.

3. Financial results. — I am pleased to be able to state that the
working of this section has been phenomenally successful from the
revenue standpoint, more particularly in respect of the chank fisheries.
A far higher total of shells has been fished than in any previous
similar period and as expenses have been normal, the result is that
this section of fisheries will have a net profit to pass to the credit of
revenue much higher than in any year since Government undertook
the departmental conduct of this fishery. As the chank fishing year
does not terminate till 30th June I am unable to give the exact figures
of gross value of the produce and net profits thereon ; the former will,
however, certainly exceed Rs. 92,000, and the latter Rs. 49,000, as
against Rs. 40,014 and Rs. 16,759, respectively, obtained during the

H5

year ending 30th June 1915. The net profit of over Rs. 49,000
constitutes a remarkable record, for the nearest figures are those for
1881-S2, when Rs. 28,690 was obtained from the Tinnevelly and
Tanjore fisheries. The pearl fishery contributed in addition a net
sum of Rs. 2,000 as rental for the Tondi beds for the period from
ist June 1915 till 31st December 1916, while the following minor
sources produced the sums noted against each : —

RS.

Experimental fish farm, sale-proceeds ... 414

Oyster farm, Pulicat, sale-proceeds ... ... 315

Museum specimens and school collections,
sale-proceeds ... ... ... ... 360

Miscellaneous items of revenue (net) ... 203

4. Increase in office work. — It goes without saying that these
favourable results and the general extension of the scope of work, as
shown in detail in the succeeding paragraphs, have been attained
only by much sustained effort and hard work ; one phase of this is
shown strikingly in the great increase in the volume of correspondence
dealt with. The following statistics of the papers registered inwards
and outwards show some part of the increase in routine work falling
upon the office staft' at Tuticorin. Every one of these papers has to
be considered or approved of by myself, so it can be well imagined
from this how difficult it is for me to spare time for research work —
the special duty, I take it, of my original appointment.

Official year, i.e.,
1st April to
31st .Varch.

1913— 14

1914-15 •••

1915-16

5. Progress of the chank fisheries. — During the past 3'ear the chank
fisheries have developed most satisfactorily. Both the Tinnevelly
and Ramnad fisheries have more than doubled in production, and
this, in view of the bitter competition for labour which exists between
Government and the Ceylon chank merchants, is particularly
gratifying. It means that the divers of Kilakarai, who are the men
concerned, have come to appreciate and respond to the fair and just
treatment and good wages received at the hands of this department.
Last year these men were full of suspicion and distrust — the result of
malicious stories spread with a view to dissuade them from entering
(jovernment service. These men know now from their personal
experience how utterly false these stories were and as a body have
expressed themselves as anxious and willing to work regularly for
Government at future fisheries. They have been enabled by th's
department to emancipate themselves, so far as Indian waters are
concerned, from the system of pledging their services to boat-owners
in exchange for cash advances. They now work as free men receiving

10

Number of

Number of

references

references

sent out as

received

per the

as per the

outward

inward

register.

register.

861

912

1,281

1,532

1,832

2,094

s 146

their full earnings daily and their ambition is to see the end of the
old indebtedness and thus to obtain their freedom in the Ceylon
fishery as they have now attained it in the Indian one. This result
is one for congratulation as "Well from the narrow view of Government
revenue as from the broader one which takes account of the economic
advancement of the fishing community.

Out of some 600 divers belonging to Kilakarai, some 350
attended this year's fishery ; next year I believe the number will be
further increased, provided the men be not deterred by unfair means.
With such increase in the labour force the produce of the fishery will
advance concurrently.

7. During the fishery season now ending a considerable amount
of prospecting for new beds was carried out, and I was fortunate in
being able to locate some rich chank ground north of Adam's Bridge,
i.e., between Danushkodi and Talaimannar. This new bed I hope
to exploit next season ; in addition, I have arranged with a number
of the more energetic Kilakarai divers to attempt the opening up
of the beds which, we believe, lie outside of the islands off the
Kilakarai coast and which have never been fished within living
memory. The prospects for a largely increased production of chanks
in the coming season are very good and I have every hope that we
may then harvest from the Ramnad beds over half a million chanks
as against the 3I lakhs obtained this year. What will further help
the great financial success I expect next season is the circumstance
that the sale price of this quality of shell has appieciated fully 25 per
cent during the current year and that next season we shall benefit to
this extent from this rise.

8. The success already attained is particularly gratifying to me
personally as it amply justifies the arguments I set before Government
when I recommended the acquisition of the Ramnad chank fishery.
The difficulties experienced and small profits obtained during the
first two years of working caused, I fear, some doubt to arise in the
mind of Government as to the wisdom of my advice, but the great
advance in the present year's gains demonstrate that my recommen-
dations were sound, and that the undertaking is and should continue
to be eminently profitable to Government.

9. The Tinnevelly chank fishery showed equal progress. It will
yield not less than Rs. 24,901 of net profit this year, which compares
notably with Rs. 10,305 of the preceding year. This good result
has been attained principally through the success that has attended
my efforts to recruit additional labour from other districts. Owing to
the feeling among the Tuticorin divers that the pay given is too low
to be remunerative, the diving force has suffered steady diminution
year by year for several years past, and the salvation of this fishery
appears to have been found in the willingness of a section of the
Kilakarai men to join the fisherv now that their distrust of Govern-
ment service has been allayed. Till the present season Kilakarai
men never fished at Tuticorin and the fact that I was able to induce
25 Kilakarai men and 5 Arabs to join the fishery has been the means
of making good, in great part, t'he defection of the Tuticorin men ; it
marks, I believe, the beginning of an era of increased prosperity,

147

provided so?7ie increase in pay he given ^ for although these recruits
have found the work sufficiently profitable, and express themselves
particularly well satisfied with the treatQient meted out to them, there
is some doubt if they will return if the pay be not raised, as they get
double the Tuticorin rate when they work in their home waters
(Kilakarai), and also because, from their newly acquired experience of
the Tuticorin fishery, they have good hopes of finding the hitherto
unworked deep-water beds off their own coast as profitable in the
numbers of shells available for fishing as the beds oft' Tuticorin. I
doubt, however, if the quantity fishable in the former place is so great
as they expect, but as the pay is so much better, this will compensate
for smaller catches. Hence to retain, as is necessary, their services
in part for the Tuticorin fishery, and to bring back the local men who
have drifted to other occupations, I am strongly of opinion that
the time has now come for a reasonable increase in the rate paid, if
the prosperity of the fishery is to increase as it ought. If this be done
we shall also be enabled to recruit larger numbers of the Kilakarai
divers, in which case (and it is only a question of a small increase in
the rate of remuneration) there is no reason why instead of the present
2f lakhs produced by the Tinnevelly beds, these should not yield
double this quantity.

10. Demand from the Calcutta chank market at present is good
and competition keen for any contracts that are open. I'he Tanjore
chank fishery, formerly let on a three years' lease ending 29th Febru-
ary 1916, for a payment in kind of 12, coo shells annually, has been
re-let for another three years' term for a rent of 42,000 shells per
annum ; the bulk of these rental shells have in turn been sold forward
for a term of three years, at the rate of Rs. 141 per 1,000 as against
Rs. 55 per 1,000 formerly paid. On this basis the Tanjore fishery
will eventually produce a net revenue of Rs. 5,922 per annum.
Here again we have attained at last a satisfactory return to the old
era of prosperity which closed in 1826 when the fishery was sold
for Rs. 5,444 per annum. Between 1826 and the present time only
once did the fishery bring in Rs. 2,500 while from 1866 onwards
till now never did it rise beyond Rs. 750 per annum.

11. The firmness of the Calcutta market makes it certain that the
Ramnad contract now under negotiation will be concluded at a
greatly enhanced rate, as off'ers much higher than the present contract,
shortly to end, have already been received.

12. The chank fisheries belonging to or leased by this Government
have now been brought to a condition of prosperity never before
equalled, and if the present generous policy in development be con-
tinued and extended, the net profit to Government will certainly be
very greatly enhanced. As showing the growing importance of this
branch of fishery work I may point out that the sum of Rs. 60,691
was paid into the Treasury on account of chanks during 191 5-16,
and that this sum will in turn be exceeded in 1916-17, is already
assured by the stock now ready for delivery in the Government
god owns at Tuticorin and Ramesvaram. I am quite satisfied that
within three years a return of a full lakh of rupees will be produced
by these fisheries.

lO-A

148

13- The Pearl Fishery brought in the modest sum of Rs. 2,000
net revenue, the amount at which the Tondi Pearl Banks were leased
to a Nagore merchant. So far I fear his venture has not been a
success, as the inducements he offered to divers proved inadequate to
attract their attendance at his fishery. Very few divers attended and
I am informed that the fishery lasted for eight or nine days only (April
1 91 6) and produced barely 5,000 oysters. The lessee hopes to have
better fortune in September. It appears that a considerable propor-
tion of the younger oysters left upon the ground fished in 1914 have
survived — a gratifying fact, as it confirms my belief that Palks Bay
is the nursery of the pearl oysters which from time to time re-populate
with their spawn the more profitable banks located in the Gulf of
Mannar.

14. Pearl oysters were also found in 5 1 to 6 fathoms off
Rameswaram during the chank fishery, and this source I hope to draw
upon for material when the Krusadai Pearl Farm be completed.

15. Inspection of the pearl banks off the Tinnevelly coast was
again hampered by the absence of the Inspection Schooner " Lady
Nicholson ", which was on War Service at Madras till November
1915. Overhaul and repairs detained the vessel in Madras till the
end of March, and when she arrived at Tuticorin the inspection season
was ending. However by the utilization of the motor launch
" Sutherland ", the principal banks off Tuticorin were inspected ; the
result was as last year — an absolute dearth of pearl oysters thereon.

16. On one occasion, however, when a bamboo buoy placed on
Rolikunjutavu chank bed (near the Tholayiram Par) on 17th Decem-
ber 1915 was removed on 22nd February 1916, great numbers of
undoubted pearl oyster spat were found, showing the first favourable
sign of a pending re-population of the banks seen for several years.

17. Krusadai pearl-ailhire station. — During the past year the
revenue authorities placed this department in possession of Krusadai
island. The acquisition value assessed as compensation to the
former owner (the Raja of Ramnad) was Rs. 4,882, but against this I
understand that he has appealed. The island when surveyed was
found to measure 107*7 acres in area ; two cocoanut topes comprising
972 trees in or near bearing and 287 young ones form the only
cultivation. These plantations were in a very neglected condition
when taken over and will cost considerable expense and much
trouble to bring into a satisfactory state. The undergrowth is now
being cleared away, the trees earthed, paths made, wells dug, and
efficient watering organized. With attention and care the trees should
yield a remunerative return in the course of a few years.

The final plans and estimates of the buildings have not yet been
received from the Executive Engineer.

18. Sea fisheries other than those fvr pearls and chunks. — Consider-
able increase in our knowledge of the methods and requirements of
cur local fisheries was gained during the year, together with some
valuable data, yet to be worked up, in regard to the life-histories and
parasites of our food-fishes, edible crustaceans and shellfish. The
latter will be referred to further under the heading " Research "
Work was Qontinued upon the surface circulation of water in the local

149

seas, and valuable facts are beginning to emerge from the data already
collected.

19. Fishery Legislation. — With the intimate acquaintance now-
being acquired with the conditions under which sea-fishing is carried
on upon our coasts, it becomes possible to single out here and there
those methods which are pre-eminently destructive or otherwise
objectionable ; it is however impossible as yet to frame any general
fishery regulations governing in detail the sizes and forms of fishery
apparatus throughout the Presidency ; as Government wisely desire
to do nothing to limit or restrict sea-fishing except upon evidence the
most direct and irrefutable, the procedure thus necessitated is to intro-
duce from time to time regulations touching particular methods or
practices. The first of these to be framed is one published under the
Indian Fisheries Act, 1897, in the Fort St. George Gazette of 31st
March, 191 6, whereby the practice of placing trees and bushes in the
sea for the purpose of attracting fishes is placed under the supervision
and control of the Superintendent of Pearl and Chank Fisheries ; this
fishing device is prevalent throughout the Indian waters of Palk Bay
and is objectionable in several ways — as an infringement of the
general fishery freedom of the sea, as dangerous to navigation, and as
interfering in certain places with the proper prosecution of the chank
fishery. In future, licenses for the placing of these fixed engines must
be obtained and by this means this method will be regulated and
limited to those places where its employment is not objectionable.
Other regulations are under consideration, but in a country so conser-
vative as India progress in regulative legislation is particularly slow
and difficult.

20. Steam traivling. — Evidence based upon experiments instituted
by the writer some years ago was published during the year, showing the
great potentialities possessed by the vast area within the loo-fathom
line (approximately 4,000 square miles) lying oft" Cape Comorin, for
profitable steam trawling when once certain difficulties connected with
transport to inland markets can be overcome. Practical progress is
however held up at present owing to the financial stringency entailed
by the war ; meanwhile plans are being elaborated while designs and
specifications have been obtained from home for a vessel constructed
with a view to subserve extensive and prolonged experiments upon a
commercial scale as well as to serve other urgent fishery requirements.
We shall thus be in a position to proceed with this investigation,
which is, I believe, the most urgent and by far the most important of
all present fishery problems, as soon as circumstances again become
normal. India is crying aloud for the inception of new industries and
here is one which if successful — and the omens are all favourable — •
should open up a new and almost inexhaustible source of food supply.

21. The deep-sea fisheries off Negapatam and the migrations of the
Sardine, together with the causes of the deplorable failure of this
fishery on the Malabar coast in 1915-16, still remain uninvestigated,
owing to the inadequacy of the marine biological staff" to find
time for these investigations. The enquiry into the causes of wide-
spread local mortality of fishes has been however advanced to some
extent, and its cause found to be, in the instances investigated, che

I50

presence of immense myriads of excessively small protozoans belonging
to the family of ijeridinaans, associated in certain localities with
multitudes of infusorians allied to the well-known Paramcecium. These
latter appear to feed upon the peridineans and to emit an intolerable
odour, indistinguishable from that emitted by the putrid refuse of ill-
kept sardine-oil factories. The peridineans when occurring unmixed
give a bright pink-red tint to the sea-water and patches of this "red
water " — wholly different in tint from the brown-red of water dis-
coloured by the presence of the pelagic alga Trichodesmium erythraea —
were observed several acres in extent, and had a vertical extension of
several fast. The predatory infusorian on the contrary, as it grows in
size, tends to rise to the surface, where it forms a pale pea-green scum.
Local fishermen believe it to be pearl oyster spawn, as the individuals
when massed are distinguishable to the naked eye, so comparatively
large are they.

2 2. Fishery statistics. — -A four years' investigation of the Tuticorin
fish supply was completed last year. The tabulation of the results has
proved most illuminative and it became possible for the first time to
trace with exactitude a fishery curve for each of the local food-fishes
and to assess their relative importance in the food supply of the
district. By far the most important ^\t valai ( Ctiiroccntrus dorah)^
sardines, and rockfishes, taken in the order named. If similar
statistical enquiries were to be conducted at a number of selected ports
in other districts, we should obtain a mass of exact information that
would be of the greatest possible value in the future development of
our fisheries. The Tuticorin results have been tabulated in a series
of graphic diagrams and will be ready for publication at an early date.

23. Fish-farming. — -The fish-farm at Tuticorin referred to in last
year's report was completed at the beginning of the last financial year,
and we have had therefore a full year's experience of the value of the
Italian system of fish-farming under Indian conditions as exhibited on
the East Coast of this Presidency. The results have proved insuffi-
ciently promising to justify a continuance of the experiment on these
lines, in spite of the fact that the initial year's sales offish and prawns
grown in the farm have totalled Rs. 4 r 3-9-7 as against running
charges of Rs. 541-10-4. I have no doubt that with the experience
gained the farm can be run profitably, but the margin cannot be made
sufficiently large to commend the system. Hence a reversion to the
French system (with modifications) has been proposed, as our knowl-
edge now points to this as being likely to prove more suitable to local
conditions. New plans and estimates have been drawn up and have
now been sanctioned by Government. In such a departure as this,
empirical methods have perforce to be employed, and only by repeated
effort and refusal to be discouraged by initial failure can the unsuitable
be eliminated and a satisfactory system evolved. The existence of the
farm and of the methods employed, although not the complete success
hoped for, have been of great benefit to the local line fishermen, who
have been enabled thereby to obtain regular daily supplies of bait,
-which previously they could never depend upon getting. The farm
has also been able to put on the local market regular supplies of
prawns from an uncontaminated source and this has been greatly

appreciated by the local European community, who previously refused
(and wisely) to buy bazar prawns seeing that these supplies are liable
to be obtained from sewage contaminated localities.

24. Prawn-farming. — As the Government cannery at Beypore
often suffers during the south-west monsoon from a dearth of prawns
suitable for canning, owing to the interruption of sea-fishing during
the prevalence of bad weather, I suggested to the Honorary Director
of Fisheries the desirability of forming a prawn-farm in the vicinity of
the cannery. By this means an emergent supply would be at hand
to make good any default in ordinary supplies. I was able to point
to the suitability of several foreshore ponds adjoining the village of
Chaliyam and within a few hundred yards of the cannery as suitable
for conversion into enclosed ponds where prawns may be cultivated
under satisfactory conditions. The proposal being approved, a survey
has been made and working plans drawn up for the conversion of
these ponds into a cultural area extending to about 25 acres, divided
into two sections by a sluice way. A second sluice will control
communication with the sea. It is hoped to put the work in hand
immediately after the close of the current monsoon.

25. The Pulicat oyster park has pursued a normal course ; the
demand for the oysters grown there has increased appreciably, but
even yet a large proportion of the public have not realized the
advantage of obtaining supplies from a source which can be guaranteed
as free from sewage pollution, in preference to buying from dealers
over whose operations no control is exercised. As I stated in a public
lecture given at the Madras Exhibition last December, I have evidence
that large quantities of oysters are regularly put on the Madras market
as coming from Covelong, whereas scarcely any oysters are now
derived from that place ; it appears certain that these so-called
" Covelong " oysters come from highly contaminated waters adjacent
to Madras, The danger of eating uncooked oysters grown in water
chari^ed with sewage is a very grave one and it is high time that
safeguards were imposed in the interest of the public health.

26. Beche-de-mer. — The trade in cured holothurians ("sea-
cucumbers "), known commercially as beche-de-mer and trepang, some
years ago was of considerable importance on the shores of Palk
Bay. Various causes have conduced to the practical extinction of
the trade, and at present the export of this delicacy (as considered
by the Chinese) is almost nil. This decline has caused an
appreciable loss of earnings to a considerable section of the fishing
population, so, as I cannot see any sound reason why the trade should
not be profitable to curers and exporters if it be carried on honestly
and efficiently, I asked for and received sanction from Government
to open an experimental curing factory at Tirupalagudi, a village on
the Ramnad coast of Palk Bay, where the problems of successful
treatment may be investigated upon a practical scale. So far
difficulties incident to the acquisition of the necessary site have
prevented a commencement of the work, but as the necessary apparatus
has been collected a beginning will be possible as soon as I am put
in possession of the land. I am glad to say that samples cured in a
rough and ready fashion and probably considerably inferior to the

152

results obtainable when the new factory be available have been
valued by a first-class Singapore firm at from 24 to 25 dollars per
picul. As the latter weighs 133^ lb., and taking the Straits dollar as
worth Rs. I -1 2-0, the product as submitted is worth Rs. 32 net per
cwt., a rate that should admit of fair profit to the curer and a good
wage to the fisherman who collects the raw material. A difficulty
exists in the fact that the market for beche-de-mer is subject to
considerable fluctuation, but with a product of reliable and even
quality this difficulty is likely to be lessened once the brand becomes
known.

27. Chank-cuttmg fnachinery. — The search for a suitable power-
saw suited to the shell-bangle trade has been referred to in previous
reports. Through the assistance of the Imperial Institute, a machine
saw has now been obtained and will shortly be fitted up and tested.
The supplying firm have large experience in the pearl button industry
and express their confidence in the suitability of the machine for the
purpose indicated. As it is of handy size and can be driven by a
small electric motor, it should have, if successful, a great future as
these facts, combined with its low prime cost, make it suitable to the
small manufacturer who cannot afford large premises and an expensive
engine requiring skilled attention. Incidently its introduction should
reduce greatly the cost of the production of shell-bangles and thus
enable manufacturers to pay a higher price for the raw material without
entailing a rise in price of the finished product.

28. Pearl button manufacture and inlay work. — Although this
department is not directly concerned with these trades, I am
frequently asked to give expert advice to Indian manufacturers.
During the past year assistance of this sort has been given to button
manufacturers in Bengal as well as to the Superintendent of the
Chamarajendra Technical Institute in Mysore. In the latter instance
it was the question of the matching of the material employed in some
old pearl inlay work. I was able to identify the pearl flakes as
fragments of a Pacific Ocean Earshell (Haliotis) and to indicate
where the material could probably be obtained.

29. Except our local pearl-oyster { Margarltlfera vulgaris) there
appears to be no suitable source of mother-of-pearl supply in this
Presidency, and extensive pearl fisheries are so few and far between
and the quality of the shell so poor, that no local industry can be
based upon this supply. Neither have we the great perennial rivers
needful for the growth in commercial quantities of any of the fresh
water mussels that contribute vast supplies to the American button^
factories. Without rivers of this description, the introduction of
species of mussels of superior shell value to that of the indigenous
species will, I fear, be unprofitable.

30. T/ie s/iell-lime industry. — During the past year I gave attention
to the various shells used in the manufacture of fine lime in the
Presidency. The results have been published in a report included in
Bulletin No. 8 of this department. The outstanding conclusions of
practical importance are that there is no uniformity in the regulation
of the industry in different districts and that some of the more
important sources are either unexploited or are worked without

153

regularity and in a wasteful manner. Particularly is the latter abuse
the case in regard to the sub-fossil shell deposits of Ganjam district.
For details reference should be made to the bulletin in question.

31. Edible shellfish. — An enquiry is in progress as to (a) the value
of the existing shellfish industry of this Presidency, (/') the means of
increasing the supph'es of the more valuable species, and {c) the
possibility of introducing improved varieties from other tropical
countries, particularly the Malay Archipelago and Southern China ;
in both these countries shellfish are much more extensively eaten than
in India and great attention is given to their collection and even
cultivation. This last enquiry is probably the most important and
the most promising of the three, although it is beset with great initial
difficulties.

32. The economic improvement of the fishing population. — To do
anything to better materially the economic position of the fishing
population is a problem so vast, varied and intricate that infinite
patience is required in its treatment ; it cannot be attacked along the
whole line at once ; only here and there, where circumstances happen
to be exceptional, can beginnings be made. If they prove successful
the knowledge of this fact will prove a force of the utmost possible
assistance in speeding up further progress. The difficulties usually
are initial and due chiefly to the prejudice of the fishermen themselves
reinforced by the under-ground opposition of middlemen who dread
the enlightenment of the men over whom they have hitherto had
great power.

33. The organization of the Ramnad chank fishery has brought
me during the past two years into intimate personal relations with
the large fishing population of Kilakarai (Ramnad district) who are
professional chank divers. They number some 600 and till recently
worked in the Ramnad and Ceylon chank fisheries on what may be
called the Sammatti system. Under this system, the boatowners or
Sammattis received large cash advances from the Muhammadan
chank merchants who are engaged in the Ceylon chank fisheries, and
also formerly in the Ramnad fishery before Government took up the
lease. In return, the Sammattis agreed to bring specified numbers
of divers in their boats to the fishery. To do this, they in turn made
similar agreements with individual divers, advancing them varying
sums of money. The divers^ so recruited followed the Sammattis to
the different fishing rendezvous in Ceylon and Ramnad and fished as
directed, changing camp from time to time according to the progress
of the season. For the shells fished, the divers received settled rates
which usually appear satisfactory in amount. Unfortunately in the
settlement of accounts many abuses are said to take place. To begin
with, the Sammattis deduct 10 per cent of the total catch as a per-
quisite or bonus and 15 per cent as boat hire. The value of the
remaining 75 per cent of shells is, however, not paid to the men but
is booked to their credit, while on the debit side is entered a host of
items for food supplied, fines, interest on the advanced money, and a
proportion of all charges incurred by the Sammattis. The divers
never see the Sammatti 's books, and they allege that the system is
worked so to their detriment that they remain hopelessly in debt

t54

however good be the season's fishery. Particularly harsh is the
deduction of 25 per cent for boat hire and " bonus ". The absence
of written agreements and of receip'is for moneys paid, etc., play into
the hands of unscrupulous Sammattis and there is no doubt whatever
that the divers were (and still are in large degree) the debt-bound
slaves of the boatowners.

34. This system seemed so pernicious that, as soon as I under-
stood it, I resolved to break it up so far as India is concerned in the
interest of the divers themselves. Hence my negotiations, so far as
possible, were with the individual divers, and when their confidence
was at last gained, they have been eager to co-operate. At the last
Rameswaram fishery, the Sammatti system has been almost entirely
eliminated ; the Sammatti has had to content himself with reasonable
hire for his boat and now he gets no perquisites of any sort. As the
divers require money-advances for the support of their families when
leaving home, these have to be given, but a small pass-book is handed
to each man in which the original advance is entered and in which
all subsequent repayments have to be noted. No further advance is
given except a small weekly sum of As. 14, per head, till the total
sum is recouped. When this is done, the diver at once receives
daily payment in full for all his catch. He is left to settle independ-
ently with the boatowner whose boat he uses for its daily hire. As
a consequence, local boats are largely employed as these can usually
be had at a cheaper rate than those belonging to the Kilakarai
Sammattis.

35. So beneficial has this reform been that the divers would like
to see it extended to their Ceylon work, and many have been their
requests that Government would take up chank-fishing in Ceylon
waters, in order that the pernicious Sammatti system may be extin-
guished in its entirety. Unfortunately a considerable number of
divers are so deeply indebted to the Sammattis, that they were
prevented by the latter from working for Government this year, and
it will be difficult to devise methods to liberate those men from their
bondage.

36. Even more hard is the position of many net fishermen on the
Ramnad coast. These men are almost entirely in the hands of fish-
dealers who by this pernicious system of cash advances hold the men
in practical slavery and impose such exceedingly hard terms upon
them that their life is mere existence and a continual struggle to keep
from starvation. For the advances given, the fish-dealers take 25 per
cent of the men's total catches zvitkouf afiy payment or credit wliatever,
and purchase the remaining 75 per cent at low prices fixed by them-
selves (the dealers). Even for this balance only a little cash passes,
as the bulk of the value is booked against the debt and interest thereon.
Frequently too, the dealer requires the fisherman to buy his rice and
salt from him at prices considerably above those ruling in the bazar.
To the problem of how to ameliorate the hard lot of these fishermen
I am now paying attention and I have hopes that it may be possible
to render them assistance by means of local co-operative credit
societies. I have already selected a fishing village on the Rames-
waram coast where the conditions are somewhat favourable and

155

during the coming year, I hope to be able to effect a beginning
with the aid of the local Roman Catholic parish priest who promises
his aid and is keen upon the betterment of this section of his
parishioners. The chief difficulty in introducing the co-operative
credit system among fishermen is their lack of landed property ; in the
case named, the men have small holdings and this I count upon to
help on the scheme.

37. Advances for the purchase of boats. — During the past year a
number of divers, who wished to be rendered independent of their old
Sammattis by possessing boats of their own, were assisted by money
contributions. The sums advanced were restricted to amounts not
exceeding two-thirds of the value of the boats purchased ; to prevent
loss and fraud the latter have been formally transferred to the Superin-
tendent of Pearl and Chank Fisheries as acting for Government and
registered in his name. In all, five boats were purchased in this way
and I am glad to report that the monthly instalments due thereon
have generally been satisfactorily met. In one case, the whole
amount advanced has already been refunded. The interest charged
is 6^ per cent per annum. This assistance has been greatly
appreciated and many applications have had to be refused as Govern-
ment do not see their way at present to extend the system to men who
are not actually engaged in the Government Chank Fisheries. Were
the system extended to net fishermen, I consider that a great stimulus
to the fishing industry would result and I hope that means may yet
be found to overcome the difficulties which Government see to such
extension.

38. Chank fishery panchayats. — During the course of the chank
fishing season irregularities and disputes occur from time to time. As
these are usually intricate and involve local customs with which the
Superintendent of Pearl and Chank Fisheries cannot hope to be an
coiirant, I induced last year both the Rameswaram and Tuticorin
divers to institute a panchayat or council of elders, to decide such
matters and to make rules for the sanitation of the fishery camps. The
results exceeded my expectations and the verdicts were duly accepted
by the parties concerned.

39. Educational work. — This section of work has had little opportu-
nity for expression during the past year and there can be little hope of
any increase of such usefulness till a central headquarters for the
department be provided in Madras. Something however has been
achieved, as the following paragraphs will show.

40. The Madras Exhibition, 1915 -16. — For the Fisheries Exhibit,
the Marine section prepared and provided a large number of items,
inclusive of water colour sketches of local fishes painted from life,
photographs of fishery methods, models of boats, nets and fish-sluices,
a collection of chanks illustrative of the different trade varieties and
local races, collections of chank bangles, etc. A large series of
biological preparations suitable for teaching purposes in colleges
were also exhibited ; these included type collections of {a) the edible
crabs of Madras, {b) typical Brachyura (crabs) of the Presidency, {c)
Madras crawfishes, {d) Mollusca of Madras. Edible shellfish and
those used in lime-making were also shown. For the excellence of

156

the exhibit, the judges awarded the Marine section a certificate of
merit.

41. Two lectures upon the development of Madras fisheries were
delivered by the writer in the Exhibition Hall, and at the Science
Congress at Lahore, held in January 1916, a paper was read upon
the races and varieties of the Indian chank. The last-named is now
in the press and will be issued as one of the Memoirs of the Indian
Museum.

42. Biological and museum specimens. — Many of the specimens
exhibited at the Madras Exhibition were sold to various colleges, and
others have been sold subsequently. The most popular seem to be
the type collections of Madras Crustaceans of which five sets have been
sold at average prices of Rs. 45 each. One of my sub-assistants has
been trained to prepare these in first class museum style and as they
are coloured after nature, they are admirably adapted to the use of
those schools where intelligent endeavour is made to give pupils
some slight acquaintance with the fauna of our seas. Similar collec-
tions of shellfish have been prepared and it is hoped to add others
of sponges and echinoderms before long. The cramped accommoda-
tion available at Tuticorin is however a great handicap to progress.

43. Specimens for dissection have also been provided to several
teaching institutions and in this direction I foresee great develop-
ments. All the Zoological teachers whom I met at the Lahore
Science Congress welcomed the prospect of an Indian source of
biological supply, and when once sufficient stock can be accumulated —
which I fear cannot be till the Krusadai Island Biological station be
in being — a regular demand will assuredly be created. For the past
year sale? of museum and dissecting specimens amounted to the sum
of Rs. 360.

44. Technical instruction was continued during the past year to
three fishery students from Baroda and Travancore, and I continue to
afford them assistance by correspondence. In addition, a general
insight into local fishery problems as they now stand, was given to
Mr. V. R. Duraiswami Sastri, m.a., l.t., at the request of the Director
of Public Instruction, in order that this gentleman may impart an
elementary knowledge of the subject to the teachers who study under
him.

45. Research. — As already noted practical work and executive
routine have bulked so largely in my duties during the past year, that
research has perforce been given far too little time and attention.
Several important investigations have however been kept going and
two of these were completed, namely, an enquiry into the species
and occurrence of shells capable of use in lime burning, and an
investigation of varieties and races of Indian chanks. The latter
research has revealed many interesting facts in the distribution of the
chank, and shows that the two main varieties arose between the period
of the upheavel which at one time united India and Ceylon by means
of a solid land barrier and that of the subsequent depression which
caused gaps to appear in this barrier at the points we now name
Pamban Pass and Adam's bridge.

^57

46. Other investigations on hand are those connected with (a) the
surface drift of Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar, {^) the migrations
of the sardine, {c) the causes of wide-spread local mortality among
fishes, (d) the food of marine fishes and prawns, (e) the parasites of
fishes, (/) the edible shellfish resources of the Presidency, (^) fishery
statistics of Tuticorin and some others of more abstruse nature.

Regarding the causes of fish mortality I have already made
reference (paragraph 21), while a summary of the Tuticorin statistics
is now under preparation. Many valuable isolated faunistic observa-
tions which some day will become useful, have also been made and
duly recorded.

47. BiiUelin No. 8. — During the year the following three papers,
forming the conclusion of this bulletin, have passed through the press,
viz. : —

(<i) " Professor Huxley and the Ceylon Pearl Fishery, with a
note on the forced or cultural production of free spherical pearls."
i^b) " Report on the Pearl Fishery held at Tondi, 19 14."
{c) " I'he utilization of coral and shell for lime burning in the
Madras Presidency."

The bulletin is now complete and on the point of issue from the
Government Press.

The first paper of another bulletin has also been written and is
ready for the printer ; its subject is The Edible MoUusca of the Madras
Presidency. In it is brought together all the available information
upon the local shellfish which have present or potential economic
value. It is illustrated with original sketches of all the important
species and when printed might with advantage be widely distributed

to schools situated on the sea coast in order to awaken interest in a

subject of growing importance.

48. Superior staff. — Difficulty continues to be felt in getting
satisfactory men to fill the posts of Sub-Assistants, as suit-
able graduates with the necessary Zoological training find the pay,
Rs. 50 — 4 — 90, too low.

15^^

Order — No. 2764, Revenue, dated 5TH
December 19 16.

The report of the Honorary Director of Fisheries is
an interesting record of much useful work accomplished
in spite of difficulties arising- from the continuance of the
war and from an adverse season.

2. The great scarcity of fish which marked the two
previous years on the West Coast was even more
severely felt in the year under report and seriously ham-
pered operations at the experimental stations in Malabar.
Valuable experiments were however carried out in con-
nection with pickling, the manufacture of vinegar and
fish glue, the refrigeration of fish and the employment
of " solar ovens ". The Government are glad to see that
the utilization of by-products, an important factor in all
commercial enterprises, is receiving due attention.

3. The financial results of the Beypore cannery, the
Tanur fish-curing yard and the Soapery were satis-
factory and give reason to hope that it will be found
possible to develop the industries which they are
intended to promote profitably on a commercial scale.
The Pulicat Oyster farm was run at a loss and it is a
question for consideration whether steps could not be
taken to make its products more widely known.

4. The gross receipts of the Bureau (exclusive of the
pearl and chank fisheries) amounted to Rs. 78,588, of
which Rs. 57,874 was realized from the fishery rentals of
waters stocked by the department. This figure repre-
sents an increase of Rs. 19,463 or nearly 60 per cent on
the rentals realized before stocking operations were
undertaken. The most important item is the fisheries
of the Cauvery and the Coleroon.

5. The Director will be requested to append to his
reports in future a statement showing the total expendi-
ture, as well as the total receipts, of the department.

6. The Piscicultural Expert, in addition to the stock-
ing and other operations already in his charge, carried
out much useful investigation work. The Government
have read with much interest his suggestions for the
suppression of malarial fever in the Nallamalai hills in
the Kurnool district.

159

7- The results of the chank fisheries and the con-
nected problems have already been reviewed in G.O.
No. 2648, dated the 23rd November 19 16. The Govern-
ment desire the Director to consider whether the annual
report on the chank fisheries might not more conveniently
be treated as an enclosure to the Director's administra-
tion report instead of beingr submitted separately and
whether anything could be done to relieve Mr. Hornell
of routine work so as to enable him to devote more
attention to research work.

8. A promising feature of the year's record is the
establishment of co-operative societies among the fisher-
men of Tanur and Tellicherry, and the Government hope
that this educative and economic aspect of the work of
the department will continue to develop.

i6o

Letter — from Sri Frederick Nicholson, k.c.i.e.,

Honorary Director of Fisheries.
J Q — the Secretary to Government, Revenue Department.
Dated — the loth August 191 7.

I have the honour to submit my annual report for
1916-17.

# # * «

3. The staff remained throughout the year as in
1915-16. Though the event belongs strictly to 1917-18,
I record with deep regret the death, on the i ith
April 191 7, of Mr. H. C. Wilson, Piscicultural Expert,
who had been in the department since November 1907
and to whose skill and energy the whole of the fresh
water piscicultural work in the Presidency is due. The
report for that branch has consequently been drawn up
by the Piscicultural Assistant Mr. B. Sundara Raj, m.a.

4. The following is an abstract of the main opera-
tions in the several branches.

Dh^ectors Branch. — General control of the depart-
ment ; Tanur fish-curing yard including curing, smoking,
pickling (salt and vinegar), fish oil and guano, etc.

Cannery at Chaliyam (Beypore), with experiments
in solar heating^.

Soap-making at Calicut and Tanur.
Miscellaneous, including tuition, socio-economic
work, Bulletin writing, etc.

Pisciciiltttral Expert' s branch (Mr. H. C. Wilson). —
The Sunkesula fish farm, that at Ippur, larvicidal work,
the stocking of tanks, the re-introduction of Gourami,
Nilgiri trout culture, the conservancy of various waters,
the detailed examination of the waters of Coorg and
South Kanara and of a variety of large tanks in the dis-
tricts for conservancy purposes, project and miscel-
laneous work.

The Marine Biologists branch (Mr. Hornell, F.L.S,).
— The Tuticorin fish farm, the edible oyster farm at PuH-
cat, the pearl oyster culture farm at Krusadai (Pamban),
the preparation of specimens for distribution and for edu-
cational work, beche-de-mer cultivation, investigations
for and writing of bulletins, research, and miscellaneous.

i6i

Pearl and Chank branch (Mr. James Ho7nell,
F.L.S.^. — Cbank work over the whole coast between
Madras and Cape Comorin, including the great fisheries
of the Tinnevelly and Ramnad districts ; chank cutting
experiments, and miscellaneous work.

The above and other matters are dealt with in detail
below,* the reports of the Piscicultural Assistant and the
Marine Biologist being printed almost in full. The
chank fishery report for the season 1916-17 drawn by the
Superintendent of Pearl and Chank Fisheries, Mr, James
Hornell, is submitted herewith as an enclosure to this
report as desired by Government in paragraph 7 of CO.
No. 2764, Revenue, dated 5th December 1916. The
accounts of the chank fisheries for the season 1916-17
have been audited by the Accountant-General and found
correct.

5. Director s branch. — This was run directly by myself
with the co-operation of the Assistant Director Mr. V.
Govindan, b.a., and the Oil Chemist Mr. A. K. Menon,
B.A. It includes the mass of work connoted by the expres-
sion "general supervision and control of the Fisheries
Department " whether administrative, technical, or finan-
cial, and needs no special mention except that each year
necessarily and rightly increases the volume, diversity,
and complexity of the work. The negotiations for a new
Director did not materialize and the present officer has
had to carry on. It also includes the industrial sections
worked at the Tanur fish-curring and oil and guano yard,
the Beypore cannery, and the soapery.

6. Tannr Experinienial station. — The year was better
than in 1915-16 but not altogether favourable; the sar-
dines were mostly small and lean as compared with
ordinary years; the mackerel were unusually small, and
large fish scarce. The experiments in mackerel pickled
moist with ordinary salt and pickled with condiments,
were developed and a considerable number of barrels and
kerosine tins are in stock, partly for observation as to
their keeping power, partly for sale especially during the
monsoon. They are quite successful as products and are
excellent when properly prepared and cooked, but, like

* Not priated in this Bulletin ; the original reports may be perused ia G. O.
No, 285, Revenue, dated 21st January 1918.

II

l62

all salt fish, as much depends upon the cooks as on
the curer ; salt mackerel prepared in my own house were
excellent whether plain boiled, broiled, as fish balls, or
in curry, but the soldiers' cooks did not approve of
them. The condimented mackerel are excellent for
those, especially the poor, who only require a small
portion as a relish with rice or other cereals.

7. The experiments in vinegar and glue were not
continued, partly because the demands of the directorate,
of the soap factory, and of the Industrial Commission
gave less opportunity than ever for personal attention
and for improvement of plant and methods, partly because
the climate of the plains does not lend itself to either
manufacture ; unless artificially cooled rooms are avail-
able the evaporation of spirit, the formation of volatile
aldehyde and the inefficiency of the bacteria, render vine-
gar making too wasteful for ordinary profit. The matter
is worth attention in the breweries of Ootacamund or
the distilleries on the coast where spirit is cheap and
refrigeration possible. Experiments will, however, now
be continued at Coonoor where the climate is favour-
able, being fairly equable. Fish glue, for which several
enquiries were addressed by business firms to the Direc-
tor, is never likely to be a serious product since almost
every part of every fish is used for food ; materials like
cat-fish heads which would yield glue are particularly
sought as food, and fish skins are not stripped from fish
before sale, but are eaten with the fish. Certain products
may however be yet availed of. But here again, the
cHmate, and especially the moist heat of the coast, is
aoainst the manufacture of hard o-lue which will not set
on the drying- nets at our normal temperatures.

The oil and guano (fish scrap, obtained after boiling
and pressing the fish for oil) continued to be of first-class
quality, and there is now little difference between skim-
med and pressed oil, while the guano on one occasion
gave above 9 per cent of nitrogen.

8. Cannery. — This did better than in the previous
year and 55,500 tins were packed as against slightly
above half that number in the previous year ; moreover
several thousand were of double or more than double
the ordinary size.

i63

9. The chief points worth mentioning are as
follows : —

Cans of larger size than usual were frequently
used, viz., cans holding from 24 up to 48 oz. nett of fish,
as well as double-sized sardine tins ; this was partly to
save tin plate, partly to provide cans more suitable than
small ones for hotels, clubs, refreshment rooms, troops,
etc., partly to cheapen the price of the contents. Since
the contents of a can are doubled, trebled, etc., by merely
deepening it (tops and bottoms remaining the same),
it is evident that the cost, and therefore the price of the
larger cans is relatively less than that of two or three,
etc., smaller cans ; it is possible to give 24 oz. nett of
fish at a price only about 50 per cent more than that of
12 oz., and consumers who require the larger quantities
are thus greatly benefited.

Other fish (seer, pomfret, etc.) were canned in
some quantity and have proved successful.

Many demands for our canned fish were received
from all over India, Burma and Ceylon, but these, when
outside of this Presidency, have been regretfully declined
(except from Military and Red Cross authorities) on the
necessary ground that the demands of this Presidency
more than absorb the output of our experimental factory.

10. Refrigerating fish. — The Henderson method of
freezing fish was successfully operated till the hot-pot of
the engine cracked, and notwithstanding efforts, could
not be replaced within the year. It is, however, to be
understood that the operations are not and were never
intended to be, on a commercial basis or scale ; it is a
very small experimental plant intended to ascertain
technical y^zf/^, not to make a business profit for which
plant and organization on a large scale are necessary ;
large plant to deal with masses offish, and large organi-
zation first to get the quantities required and secondly
to obtain and keep the circle of continuous custom
necessary in dealing with such delicate material as
fresh fish.

1 1 . Fishing boats. — Two Ratnagiri boats were ob-
tained and, with our canoes, brought in considerable
quantities of fish. One of the boats was manned by a
Ratnagiri crew, and the other by a partly local crew who
were to work it as a business proposition. During some

1 64

bad weather this latter boat was seriously damaged, delay
was experienced in repairing it, the crew got discouraged
and abandoned the enterprise ; so far this part of the
idea has not worked successfully and the methods will
have to be reorganized.

A motor launch was sanctioned for the cannery and
station work and will probably be built during 191 7-18.

12. Certain other experiments in the better preserva-
tion of canned prawns and in canning methods are in
hand and will be further possible with the greater leisure
shortly, it is hoped, to be available to myself.

13. From want of leisure, the solar oven experiments
were not developed as intended. But the simple
addition (i) of tin plate reflectors fixed on the sides of
the oven at an angle of 45° so as to throw the Sun's rays
into the box, (2) of a turn table and mounting which
enables the glass surface of the oven to be kept per-
pendicular to the rays at all hours, has frequently
produced an internal temperature up to 310° F. which is
ample for my purpose, viz., that of stoving my lacquered
tins, while it gives promise of much greater results
presently in other directions ; the method gives not only
a higher temperature but a much longer period than
formerly of the higher temperatures.

14. Deep sea work. — Except for the Ratnagiri boats
mentioned above, which stayed out several days at a
time, no real deep sea work was possible owing to the
war and consequent inability to obtain ship or men.

15. Work of the Pisciciilttiral Expert (Mr. H. C.
Wilson). — Owing to the lamented death by cholera of
Mr. Wilson at Kurnool on the nth April 1917, the
report for the year has been drawn up by Mr. B.
Sundara Raj, m.a., Piscicultural Assistant. The chief
operations were the Sunkesula fish farm with an addition
known as the Pudur scheme sanctioned during the year,
the hilsa hatchery on the Coleroon, the stocking of an
increased number of tanks, the starting of the Ippur fish
farm (Nellore district) mainly for larvicides and for the
breeding of gourami and other valuable fish, the accli-
matization of tench, the breeding offish, chiefly Etroplus
and larvicides, in a series of ponds at the old Powder
Factory, Madras, where gourami are also placed, the

1 65

putting in hand of the Nallamalai scheme for the growth
of larvicides in view to combat local malaria, and other
anti-malarial work, and the continuance of trout opera-
tions on the Nilgiris. A considerable area was brought
under the restrictive operation of section 6 of the
Fisheries Act (lY of 1897). Apparently the fishermen
have it their own way in the Colair lake and Upputeru
rivers for which Mr. Wilson had a promising scheme
which, however, is useless if the fishermen cannot be
controlled in the matter of stake nets and fixed engines.
Mr. Wilson and his staff did a great deal of inspection
and work not easily recorded ; among Mr. Wilson's
inspections were detailed and lengthy tours in South
Kanara and Malabar in view to schemes for stocking
and conserving the West Coast rivers ; this is mainly
lost labour by reason of his death. He also visited Java
and successfully brought back a consignment of gourami
which are of Qrreat value.

The Piscicultural Assistant was busily engaged
throughout the year in inspection and supervision, and
in making himself acquainted with the work of his
branch, the conditions of the country, and the operations
in progress ; he was also in charge during Mr. Wilson's
absence in Java.

Sub- Assistant C. G. Chakrapani Ayyangar, b.a., is
reported to have done useful work throughout the year
both in actual piscicultural operations, in attending the
numerous fishery rental auctions, and in supervising
ofiice work. The bulk of the report is printed in the
Appendix.*

16. Pearl and Chank Fisheides and, Marine Biologi-
cal work (Mr. James Hornell, F.L.S.). — f Pearl and
chank work was carried on as usual but witli a larger
net profit (Rs. 46,400) — entirely from chanks — than has
ever yet been attained except when a regular pearl
fishery has happened ; nothing was received from pearls
during the year, for not a pearl oyster was ever in sight.
Mr. Hornell's exertions in chank fishery matters brought
about the increased yield from chanks, which, however,
would have been far higher had a larger diving force

♦Not reprinted in this Bulletin; see G.O. No. 285, Revenue, dated 2lst
January 1918.

t For the full report see G.O. No. 285, Revenue, dated 2lst Ja,nuary 1918.

12

i66

been available for the Ramiiad fisheries and had the
weather been more favourable for those of Tuticorin.
Mr. Hornell's lagoon fish-farm at Tuticorin, his biologi-
cal specimens sold to various colleges, and his revived
beche-de-mer industry all yielded substantial profit, but
the Pulicat oyster farm showed a small loss, partly for
reasons given by Mr. Hornell, partly because it is only
on an experimental and not on a commercial scale ; it is
an experiment intended primarily to obtain piscicultural
data and only secondarily to market the products. For
real commercial work the farm would have to be on a
far larger scale and probably in a different locality, with
an outlet for surplus products by way of canning or
preparing oyster (and mussel) extracts.

The plans and estimates for the projected Krusadai
pearl oyster farm off Pamban were laid before Govern-
ment ; though costly (Rs. 50,500) at start, it should prove
a most lucrative investment; apart from Mr. Hornell's
special aims we know from Japanese experience the
possibilities of the methods to be adopted at Krusadai ;
to repeat what I have said elsewhere, we are likely to
obtain continuous annual returns on a considerable scale
from a controlled mass of pearl oysters in our fenced farm
instead of very occasional (now very rare indeed) returns
from chance deep-sea natural fisheries where conditions
are absolutely beyond human control.

17. In accordance with paragraph 7 of G.O.
No. 2764, Revenue, dated 5th December 19 16, reviewing
my last year's report, proposals have been sent up to
Government for reducing Mr. Hornell's routine work
so as to give him more time to apply his scientific
knowledge in various directions.

18. Socio-economic zvoj'k. — (Mainly by Assistant Direc-
tor, Mr. V. Govindan, b.a., f.z.s.) The formation of
co-operative societies took up a good deal of the
Assistant Director's time and energy, this work being of
extraordinary difficulty among fisherfolk, so much so that
]\Ir. Hornell is not sanguine of present results in his
locality, as shown in his report printed below. Three
societies were in existence at the beginning of the year
on the West Coast and four more were started during
the year, with preparation for several others of which
four have since been formed. One of these was at

167

Mangalore and resulted partly from the work of the
jnanodaya Samaj, as suggested by Government when
sanctioning a grant-in-aid to the building of a meeting-
hall for the society, but the co-operative society is a
separate entity from the Samaj and includes outsiders.
On the East Coast the Assistant Director laid the
foundations, as he hoped, at Uppada for a society, but
the Assistant Registrar has subsequently stated that the
people, especially the younger men, entirely refused to
take up the idea. I suppose that there is no class in the
world who would be more benefited by co-operation in
its various forms, productive and distributive, than the
Indian fisherfolk, and no class which presents greater
difficulties to the reformer. It is not merely a question
of education but of habits and customs resulting from
heredity and environment and the conditions of their
life and livelihood. Hence we are going to take this up
far more intensely than before.

{d) The fate of the Temperance Society at Malpe
mentioned last year, is a case in point ; of purely local
origin, it had a membership, mostly of very young men,
of 70 with a fund of Rs. 700, which led to suggestions
for its development as a co-operative society. But owing
to the youth of members it became necessary under the
Act for their natural guardians to become members, and
these, seduced by the existence of the deposited funds,
compelled their sons to withdraw from the temperance
society, taking their money with them. Hence the
society has been (temporarily) wrecked, but it is hoped
to restart it. In a previous year I reported that the
parents of members of a temperance society were its
chief opponents, owing to the existence of ancestral drink-
ing habits ; the present case displays another rock of
stumbling. Pe7^ contra, it is pleasing to note that the
young Tellicherry Co-operative Society, which now has
about Rs. 1,500 in hand, was able to assist some of its
poor members by small loans to tide over the monsoon
season when, owing to the previous bad fishing season,
they had no funds ; most of these loans were repaid as
soon as the new fishing season began. This incident is
an excellent object lesson in one of the direct benefits
of co-operation. A co-operative fish-curing society is
in process of formation at Thalayi near Tellicherry, and
12-A

i68

the papers have gone up to Government for a grant
of funds.

19. Education is, Hke co-operation, assumino" a larger
position in our work ; the school attached to the yard at
Tanur had 3o boys and earned a grant of Rs. 1 16 during
the year ; it is run by our yard staff who also teach
carpentry and smith work. Two evening schools were
started by the fisherfolk at Thalayi and Kuriyadi, and by
courtesy of the Collector of South Kanara, we secured a
site and an old building at Mangalore where a school is
about to be opened. The Jnanodaya Samaj at Mangalore
is also doing educational work in addition to its social
reform work, and on this department's recommendation,
Government o-ave a half-cjrant towards the buildino- of a
hall for their use. In G.O. No. 16, Education, dated 3rd
January 19 17, disposing of correspondence relating to
the starting of schools for fisherfolk at Mangalore and
Malpe, Government requested the Director of Public
Instruction to consider, in consultation with this depart-
ment, the question of the extension of elementary educa-
tion among the fisherfolk ; the Director accordingly
wrote to me on ist June 19 17, making certain proposals
which are now (July) under consideration ; this should
lead to systematic work. Pending disposal of this
matter it may be said, at once, that while on the one
hand as already stated in my letters read in G.O. No, 16,
Education, dated 3rd January 19 17, Fishery Educa-
tional Institutes (as understood in Great Britain, Belgium,
France, the United States of America, Japan, etc.),
are not within measurable distance, yet on the other
hand fishery schools, as foreshadowed in my letters and
quite different in methods and teaching from ordinary
elementary schools, are an immediate desideratum.

The Assistant Director also conferred with the
trustees of a large endowment for education at an East
Coast port and is hopeful of special seeing schools
started.

20. General. — Two unusual and important events
marked work on the West Coast, viz., H is Excellency the
Governor's visit to Calicut, Beypore (cannery) and Tanur
fish-curing yard, and the visit of the Indian Industrial
Commission to Calicut when they also inspected the
cannery and soap works, His Excellency's visit was

169

most encouraging both to the department and to the
fisherfolk who were not only able to interview their
Governor but to note his personal interest and that of
his Government in the welfare of these poor and seldom
visited folk -

(a) The war unfortunately affected these folk in
that though the saradine season was not unfavourable in
North Malabar and South Kanara for the manufacture
of oil and guano, yet the absence of freight so de-
stroyed the demand for their products that they fell to
a very low price and have largely remained, especially
oil, on the hand. At the low price of the fish guano, it
should be taken up entirely for the agricultural needs
of the Presidency.

[d) The number of private oil and guano factories
was 253 ; two large European firms entered on the
business of manufacture, and this should produce im-
provements. The season was bad for this manufacture
in South Malabar but o-ood elsewhere.

(c) An important proposal was made to Govern-
m.ent by this department to take over all the Government
fish-curing yards (so-called) from the Salt Department
and work them more or less after Tanur methods ; the
matter is pending disposal since other difficult questions
are bound up with it.

21. Bng'znn'e's. —Apa.vt from the ordinary business
demands, a considerable number of serious enquiries
were made as to products and processes. Two related
to fish glue and the preparation of '' fish maws " for
market ; several to the canning and curing of prawns ;
others as to oil and guano manufacture and the use of
fish guano as manure. A large order has been placed
by the Cawnpore Harness and Saddlery factory as the
result of our samples of fine oil. During the year a
circular was sent to various Agricultural bodies and
mercantile firms pointing out the value of fish guano ;
one result was an order through the Deputy Director
of Agriculture, Trichinopoly, for four tons for a Co-oper-
ative Manure Society in Tanjore (Nidamangalam) ;
many other agricultural inquiries were also received and
the addresses of local firms supplying the manure (and
oil) were furnished. It is absurd that it should pay
Ceylon and even Japan to import our fish guano when

i;o

we ourselves grow in abundance rich products such as
tea, tobacco, etc., for which fish manure is pre-eminently
suitable. It seems, however, that a good deal is going
from South Kanara to the Bombay Presidency which
is a hopeful sign. Enquiries were also received and
answered from various authorities (Salt, Jail, etc.), and
private persons as to the cure and preservation and also
the supply of fish, both salted and fresh. Two firms
from other Presidencies also enquired about the solar
oven and requested drawing, etc., these will be fur-
nished when the matter is more developed and time
permits. Enquiries were also made for leaflets or other
literature on fish-curing, etc. ; this indicates a want
which I propose to meet by the frequent issue of brief
papers as distinct from the more complete papers
hitherto drawn up or contemplated ; such papers would
deal with the treatment of fish from capture to beach,
market or curing yard ; with certain curing methods ;
with drying ; with cleanliness and sanitation ; with the
proper preparation of oil and guano ; with fish culture
on the pond system, and so forth ; apart altogether
from socio-economic tractates which are much needed.

References were also made as to the improvement of
oils for export and local use ; the Industrial Commission
spent considerable time in its enquiries into the work
of the department including also the soap works, and
examined myself and the Assistant Director at length.

An important reference on the possibility of com-
mercially manufacturing " Meat extracts " in India was
received from the Military authorities and answered, the
reply being decidedly in the negative. It may be
possible to produce, on a small scale, extracts from
oysters and mussels which are not very general articles
of food in this country, but not meat extracts.

Another reference was connected with the extraction
of a certain vegetable fat — by chemicals as opposed to
mechanical expression — and this also was answered in
the neo^ative.

A great variety of miscellaneous references were
received including some of a tenor much as follows : —

" I desire to start a soap factory (or cannery, or
fresh fish trade) and wish to be informed of details of
the various processes, the materials used and where

171

procured, the best locality for a factory, and what profit
may be expected." Such letters are important not so
much as showing enterprise but as displaying the extra-
ordinary and light-hearted ignorance of enquirers who,
quite genuinely, think that they could be instructed off-
hand by letter in a complicated manufacturing industry,
involving a large knowledge of applied chemistry, tech-
nology, and trade. Such inquiries, as well as facts
relating to the stagnation of industrial enterprise, show
the necessity for Government experimental and demon-
strational factories like those of this department where,
on behalf of such genuine inquirers, Government may, on
approved industries, legitimately spend State money
without expectation of commercial profit as a necessary
primary result, first in ascertaining facts, processes, mar-
kets, etc., and then in orivinor thorouoh instruction to
men prepared to spend capital and energy in starting
private factories with real knowledge of the work. This
is the basis of my reply to the Industrial Commission
who have asked whether Government factories should
be handed over to private enterprise when they had
" made their proofs"; I reply in the negative because
the first duty of the Government factories is experiment ;
the second is general demonstration, and the third
advice and full instruction. Even in the presence of
great factories, should such be established. Government
factories may long be needed in order to teach and
advise the smaller folk, to promote small enterprise
alongside of large, to prevent monopoly and secret ex-
clusiveness, and to provide skilled artizans and foremen,
instructors and inspectors.

22. Soap works.* — Soap manufacture is reported on
here because it has been placed personally under myself,
and because in one br mch it uses the fish oil made
in our Tanur station and elsewhere. As explained in
last year's report, fish oil is only used for insecticidal
soaps used on plantations and estates, and forms no
part whatsoever of soaps used for household or toilet
purposes.

23. jFis/i oil soaps. — Only 12 tons of this Tanur
product were made and sold in the year as against 25

* From 1918 the report on this branch will be separate.

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being specially developed. Finally, it is to be noted
that the soaps are wholly genuine, unadulterated soap
without any fillings or excess of moisture ; they are
intended as experiments in genuine goods and as object
lessons for future local manufacturers.

It will be seen that we are satisfying the objects on
which we started, viz., pure, cheap soaps, suited in every
respect to the various classes of Indian consumers,
especially those who desire soaps of purely vegetable
origin, and suited to the waters in which they will be
used.

26. During the period of work about 32 tons
'Washweir and 12 tons 'Vegetol' were made; more
was not then possible as the manager was occupied
in fitting up the toilet plant, experimenting, buying raw
material, training the staff, getting business together,
etc., so that actual manufacturing work was at first halt-
ing. Sales of these soaps to the 31st March aggregated
14 tons leaving about 33 tons in stock. Some of the
Washwell soap in stock on 31st March 19 17 formed part
of a parcel of 40 tons delivered to the Military autho-
rities by June ; the rest of the stock of all soaps was
readily sold out. Vegetol has obtained a great vogue
and is sold as fast as it can be made, owing to its composi-
tion, lathering qualities, etc. The milled toilet soap is
also growing in favour. " Coaltar " soap is much in
demand owing to its purity, cheapness and disinfectant
qualities; considerable sales, with constant repeat orders,
are being received, especially from the Military autho-
rities, Red Cross Associations, and others.

27. Glycerine. — As the recovery plant from England
could not be obtained, though partly paid for and the
order accepted, glycerine could not be properly dealt
with, a serious misfortune since this article may easily
enable us to sell soap at cost price and yet obtain a sub-
stantial profit. Use was made of solar evaporation and
with some success, a few hundred rupees worth of crude
glycerine being now in hand, but the matter requires
much further examination and better apparatus which
will now be provided.

28. His Excellency the Governor visited the fac-
tory in October, but the toilet soap plant and other
machines had not then been received. The Industrial

175

Commission visited the works in January. Opportunity
was taken to exhibit side by side with our genuine soaps
certain filled soaps from other countries, and soaps
specially faked in our own factory, containing less than
20 per cent of fatty acids instead of 60 or more as in our
genuine soaps, yet in appearance, smell, etc., of a charac-
ter which would entirely deceive ignorant purchasers ; it
is perfectly easy to make soaps of fairly good appearance
which are not soaps in the proper acceptation of the word
and are not worth even the cheap price which might be
put on them.

29. Laboratoiy. — It was not found possible to form
a laboratory on account of war disabilities, but small
quantities of apparatus and re-agents were, by courtesy
of the Indian Institute of Science, lent to us, and these
have been of value. With a fairly good laboratory we
could satisfactorily answer references made to us, as in
the year, by business firms and others, deal with our
daily problems in testing the oils and materials which
we use, and, above all, test the adulterated oils and fats,
incliiding ghee, now used as edibles, and the soaps now
supplied to the public.

30. Several applications, some well supported, for
admission to the soap works as students were received ;
but for the present it was impossible to accede to the
requests as we are still in a very experimental stage,
and, moreover, have no facilities for teaching. This must
stand over for the present. There have been many
visits, however, by the public such as bodies of students
from the Agricultural and Forest Colleges at Coimba-
tore ; from various Arts Colleges outside of the district,
and from all local educational institutions includino"
girls' schools. Various Government officials also visited
the works, including the soap expert and an engineer
from the Department of Industries, Mysore, who were
permitted to spend several days taking drawino-s of
the various items of plant, especially the toilet soap
machines.

31. The soap is readily saleable, and many applica-
tions have been received for sole agencies, and even for
our whole output. But I have, in general, adhered
hitherto to the plan of selling direct to consumers,
generally on the value-payable parcel system, for which

176

both the South Indian Railway and Madras and
Southern Mahratta Railway have given concessional
parcel rates. To regular firms and in larger parcels
soap is sold on favourable terms, and the demand is now
greater than the output which we are trying to increase.
We have been gravely hampered by the absence of
caustic soda, and have been forced to obtain a parcel of
30 tons from America ; pending arrival we were enabled
to carry on sparingly by a loan of two tons most courte-
ously lent to us by Messrs. Binny & Co. from the
Buckinorham Mills.

32. Accounts. — Both as regards fisheries and soap
works the accounts have been systematized. By the
courtesy of Messrs. Binny & Co. and Messrs. Parry &
Co., my office head clerk M.R.Ry. C. R. Natesa Pillai,
who is a careful and experienced hand, was permitted to
inspect their forms of accounts and to establish a good
system ; for the soap works these have been improved
by recruiting a book-keeper experienced in trading
accounts ; these exhibit every detail, and the profit and
loss accounts may therefore be relied on as business
statements. As the accounts are now being profes-
sionally audited in view not only to ascertain their
correctness in form and fact, but also to obtain any
suggestions for their improvement, a supplementary
report* dealing with the financial position of the depart-
ment and of its several branches, will be submitted
shortly, in time for the usual review by Government.

•Not reprinted in this Bulletin ; it may he perused in full in G.O. No. 2S5,
Revenue, dated the 21st January 1918.

177

Order — No. 285, Revenue, dated 2Ist
January 19 18.

Miscellaneous. Recorded.

2, Directoi' s branch. — The fishing season was on the
whole more favourable than that of the preceding year.
The outturn of the Beypore cannery more than doubled
that of 1915-16. Several useful experiments were suc-
cessfully carried out at the Tanur experimental station,
one of the most noteworthy being the preservation of
fish by freezing. The progress made in the manufacture
of soap reflects credit on Mr. A. Kesava Menon ; the
carefully prepared accounts of the soapery show that
the factory is established on a sound footing in spite of
the difficulties created by the war, in particular the
impossibility of obtaining a plant for the separation of
glycerine.

3, Marine fisheries. — Owing to unfavourable weather
and difficulties in obtaining divers, the number ofchanks
fished fell much below the record of the previous year.
The falling-off was particularly noticeable in the Tinne-
velly, Ramnad and Sivaganga fisheries. The increase
in prices realized, however, yielded a net profit (exclusive
of supervision charges and taking into account the
receipts up to 30th June 1917) of Rs. 52,700, a higher
figure than any yet recorded. The Government have
read with interest Mr. Hornell's account of the revived
beche-de-mer industry and they hope that he will be
able to expand its scope. The monographs compiled
by Mr. Hornell in the course of the year are a welcome
addition to the information alreadv slathered. The
attention of the Sanitary Commissioner is invited to the
possibilities of contamination of the oyster beds from
which Madras City is supplied.

4, Inland fisheries. — Good progress was made in the
development of inland fisheries. Tank-stocking and
conservancy have already resulted in increased rentals
which are indirectly an index of the increase in food
supply. A comprehensive scheme for the improvement
of tank fisheries for the whole Presidency is in course
of investigation. The effect of larvicidal species in
reducing the incidence of malaria is difficult to gauge ;

178

the experiments are however being watched by the Sani-
tary authorities. The success attained in hatching
hilsa reflects credit on the Piscicultural Assistant
Mr. B. Sundraraj. The successful importation of live
gourami from Java is a noteworthy feature of the year's
work. The department has suffered a regrettable loss
in the untimely death of Mr. H. C. Wilson to whose
experience and practical skill the Government owe the
inception and successful execution of many schemes of
utility.

5. Sodo-econo7nic zvork. — The efforts made to improve
the social and economic condition of the fisher-folk have
not met with unqualified success, but valuable experience
has been gained in dealing with this difficult problem
and eleven new societies were formed by the end of
June ; the work done by the Tellicherry Co-operative
Society and the Jnanodaya Samaj promises well for
future developments. The Government await the report
of the Director of Public Instruction on the proposals
formulated by the Honorary Director in his letter
No. 565, dated 19th September 1917.

6. Finance. — The Honorary Director has supple-
mented his report with detailed statements of the
receipts and charges in the several branches of the work
of his department. The results are abstracted in the
subjoined statement : —

/. Director's branch.

Expenditure.

Receipts.

Difference

RS. A. P.

RS. A.

p.

RS. A.

p.

(i) Beypore

14,312 9 10

19,902 2

4

5.589 8

6

cannery.

(2) Tanur yard.

5,167 14 0

5.^15 II

10

747 13

10

(3) Soapery ...

55,990 2 2
75,170 ID 0

57,759 13

3

5

1,769 II

I

Total ...

83.577 II
fisheries.

8,107 I

5

//, Marine

(i) Chank and

34,608 13 0

8?,547 4

4

53.938 7

4

beche-

de-mer

fisheries

up to

30th June

1917.

-

179

//.

Marine

fisht

:ries

• — cont.

Expenditure.

Receipts.

Difference.

RS. A.

p.

RS. A. P.

RS. A. P.

(2)

Pearl fishe-
ries.

...

655 0 4

655 0 4

(3)

Tutcorin
fish farm.

552 15

8

897 I 0

344 I 4

(4)

Pulicat
oyster
farm.

Total ...

805 10

0

459 9 6

346 0 6

3i

5,967 6

8

90,55*^ 15 2

54,591 8 6

///. Inland fisheries.

(i) Piscicultur- 10,446 12 9 148 i 3—10,298 11 6

al works.
(2) Tank-stock- 42,044 14 o 61,503 13 o 19,458 15 o

ing.

Total ... 52,491 10 9 61,651 14 3 9,160 3 6

Grand total ...1,63,929 11 5 2,35,788 8 10 71,858 13 5

To the charges must be added —
(i) Establishment charges ... ... ... 81,612 9 9

(2) Public Works Department charges ... ... 4,748 o o

Thus the gross charges amounted to Rs, 2,50,290-5-2
and, if the season receipts under chank fisheries up
to the end of June 1917, as given by Mr. Hornell, be
taken into account, the net cost of the department was
Rs. 14,501-12-4.

In view of the fact that most of the work done is
purely experimental, the financial aspect of the work of
the department is satisfactory.

7. General. — The Government consider that the
report of the Marine Biologist and that on the chank
fisheries should in future be combined into a single
' Report on Marine Fisheries.' In view of Mr. Hornell's
remarks as to the duration of the chank season beyond
31st March the Government direct that for the purposes
of future reports the fisheries year will terminate on
30th June.

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MBL/WHOI LIBRARY

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